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Glavna stran Naučite se urejati Izbrani članki V novicah Naključna stran Zadnje spremembe Pomoč Pod lipo Portal skupnosti Stik z nami Denarni prispevki Ustvari račun Prijava Denarni prispevki Ustvari račun Prijava Vsebina Uvod 1 Ozadje vojne Vklopi podrazdelek Ozadje vojne 1.1 Evropa 1.2 Azija 1.1 Evropa 1.2 Azija 2 Dogodki pred vojno Vklopi podrazdelek Dogodki pred vojno 2.1 Italijanski napad na Etiopijo 2.2 Španska državljanska vojna 2.3 Druga kitajsko-japonska vojna 2.4 Sovjetsko-japonski obmejni konflikt 2.5 Okupacije in sporazumi v Evropi 2.1 Italijanski napad na Etiopijo 2.2 Španska državljanska vojna 2.3 Druga kitajsko-japonska vojna 2.4 Sovjetsko-japonski obmejni konflikt 2.5 Okupacije in sporazumi v Evropi 3 Časovni pregled 4 Vojaško dogajanje Vklopi podrazdelek Vojaško dogajanje 4.1 Bliskovita vojna (Blietzkrieg) 4.2 Bitka za Atlantik 4.3 Vojna v severni Afriki 4.4 Vojna na Tihem oceanu in v Aziji 4.5 Vojna v Sredozemlju 4.6 Vzhodna fronta in Balkan 4.7 Zahodna fronta 4.8 Stranska bojišča 4.1 Bliskovita vojna (Blietzkrieg) 4.2 Bitka za Atlantik 4.3 Vojna v severni Afriki 4.4 Vojna na Tihem oceanu in v Aziji 4.5 Vojna v Sredozemlju 4.6 Vzhodna fronta in Balkan 4.7 Zahodna fronta 4.8 Stranska bojišča 5 Druga svetovna vojna na Slovenskem 6 Politično dogajanje 7 Vojaška tehnologija 8 Posledice 9 Žrtve in škoda 10 Glej tudi 11 Sklici 12 Viri 13 Zunanje povezave Druga svetovna vojna Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Aragonés Ænglisc العربية الدارجة مصرى অসমীয়া Asturianu Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Башҡортса Basa Bali Boarisch Žemaitėška Bikol Central Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български भोजपुरी Bislama ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ বাংলা བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Batak Mandailing Буряад Català Chavacano de Zamboanga 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Нохчийн Cebuano کوردی Corsu Qırımtatarca Čeština Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ Чӑвашла Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Thuɔŋjäŋ Zazaki Dolnoserbski डोटेली ދިވެހިބަސް Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Võro Føroyskt Français Arpetan Nordfriisk Furlan Frysk Gaeilge 贛語 Kriyòl gwiyannen Gàidhlig Galego گیلکی Avañe'ẽ ગુજરાતી Gaelg Hausa 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Hornjoserbsce Kreyòl ayisyen Magyar Հայերեն Արեւմտահայերէն Interlingua Jaku Iban Bahasa Indonesia Interlingue Igbo Ilokano Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Patois La .lojban. 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Z vrha levo v smeri urinega kazalca: britanski vojaki v severni Afriki ; japonski vojaki zakopavajo žive kitajske civiliste; napad na nemško podmornico; Stalingrad po sovjetski osvoboditvi; sovjetski vojaki po bitki za Berlin ; japonska letala se pripravljajo na vzlet z letalonosilke. Datum 1. september 1939 – 2. september 1945 Prizorišče Evropa , Tihi ocean , Jugovzhodna Azija , Bližnji vzhod , Sredozemlje in Afrika Izid Zavezniki zmagajo. Ustanovitev Združenih narodov . ZDA in SZ postaneta supersili. Razdelitev med blokoma in posledično hladna vojna . Udeleženci Zavezniki : Sovjetska zveza ZDA Združeno kraljestvo Kitajska Francija Kanada Poljska Avstralija Belgija Nova Zelandija Norveška Češkoslovaška Filipini Grčija Indija Kraljevina Jugoslavija Južnoafriška unija Luksemburg Nizozemska Brazilija ... in drugi Sile osi : Tretji rajh Japonski imperij Italija Romunija Madžarska Finska Bolgarija ND Hrvaška Tajska Slovaška Mandžukuo ... in drugi Poveljniki in vodje Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Winston Churchill Čankajšek Charles de Gaulle Josip Broz Tito ... in drugi Adolf Hitler Hirohito Benito Mussolini ... in drugi Žrtve in izgube Vojakov mrtvih : > 14.000.000 Civilistov mrtvih : > 36.000.000 Skupaj mrtvih : > 50.000.000 Vojakov mrtvih : > 8.000.000 Civilistov mrtvih : > 4.000.000 Skupaj mrtvih > 12.000.000 Druga svetovna vojna je bila najobsežnejši in najdražji oborožen spopad v zgodovini človeštva. Potekal je v letih od 1939 do 1945, v njem pa je sodelovala večina svetovnih držav z več kot 100 milijonov pripadnikov oboroženih sil . Boj je potekal večinoma med Združenim Kraljestvom , Francijo , Sovjetsko zvezo , Kitajsko in Združenimi državami Amerike proti Nemčiji , Italiji in Japonski , oziroma med zavezniki in silami osi . Odvijal se je hkrati po celem svetu, zahteval pa je približno 60 milijonov človeških življenj. Zaradi slednjega ter zaradi visokega deleža mrtvih civilistov , pri čemer izstopata holokavst ter jedrsko bombardiranje Hirošime in Nagasakija , se drugo svetovno vojno označuje kot najbolj krvav spopad v človeški zgodovini. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] Tem žrtvam je treba dodati še približno 271 tisoč pobitih v povojnih pobojih, ki so prav tako posledica fašizma kot vzroka 2. svetovne vojne. V povprečju je bilo po vojni usmrčenih 10 % na število žrtev med vojno. V splošnem je sprejeto, da se je vojna začela 1. septembra 1939 z nemško invazijo na Poljsko in posledično z napovedjo vojne Nemčiji s strani Združenega Kraljestva , Francije in večino držav Britanskega imperija ter Commonwealtha . Kitajska in Japonski imperij sta bila ob začetku že v vojni , [ 3 ] medtem ko so se druge države, ki sprva niso bile vključene v vojno, pridružile kasneje zaradi določenih dogodkov, kot sta nemška invazija na Sovjetsko zvezo ter japonski napad na ameriško pomorsko oporišče Pearl Harbor , kar je sprožilo vojno napoved Japonski s strani ZDA, Commonwealtha [ 4 ] ter Nizozemske . [ 5 ] Vojna se je končala z zmago zaveznikov nad Nemčijo in Japonsko leta 1945. Kot posledica vojne sta se politično prepričanje ter družbena struktura močno spremenila. Medtem ko je bila ustanovljena Organizacija združenih narodov (OZN) za krepitev mednarodnega sodelovanja ter preprečevanje nadaljnjih spopadov, se je zaradi ideoloških razlik med takratnima supersilama , tj. med ZDA in Sovjetsko zvezo, začelo obdobje hladne vojne . V tem času je OZN-ovo zagovarjanje pravice narodov do samoodločbe pospešilo dekolonizacijska gibanja v Aziji in Afriki , v Zahodni Evropi pa sta se gospodarstvo ter proces Evropska integracije okrepila. Druga svetovna vojna Prizori iz druge svetovne vojne. Z vrha levo v smeri urinega kazalca: britanski vojaki v severni Afriki ; japonski vojaki zakopavajo žive kitajske civiliste; napad na nemško podmornico; Stalingrad po sovjetski osvoboditvi; sovjetski vojaki po bitki za Berlin ; japonska letala se pripravljajo na vzlet z letalonosilke. Datum 1. september 1939 – 2. september 1945 Prizorišče Evropa , Tihi ocean , Jugovzhodna Azija , Bližnji vzhod , Sredozemlje in Afrika Izid Zavezniki zmagajo. Ustanovitev Združenih narodov . ZDA in SZ postaneta supersili. Razdelitev med blokoma in posledično hladna vojna . Datum 1. september 1939 – 2. september 1945 Prizorišče Evropa , Tihi ocean , Jugovzhodna Azija , Bližnji vzhod , Sredozemlje in Afrika Izid Zavezniki zmagajo. Ustanovitev Združenih narodov . ZDA in SZ postaneta supersili. Razdelitev med blokoma in posledično hladna vojna . Udeleženci Zavezniki : Sovjetska zveza ZDA Združeno kraljestvo Kitajska Francija Kanada Poljska Avstralija Belgija Nova Zelandija Norveška Češkoslovaška Filipini Grčija Indija Kraljevina Jugoslavija Južnoafriška unija Luksemburg Nizozemska Brazilija ... in drugi Zavezniki : Sovjetska zveza ZDA Združeno kraljestvo Kitajska Francija Kanada Poljska Avstralija Belgija Nova Zelandija Norveška Češkoslovaška Filipini Grčija Indija Kraljevina Jugoslavija Južnoafriška unija Luksemburg Nizozemska Brazilija Sile osi : Tretji rajh Japonski imperij Italija Romunija Madžarska Finska Bolgarija ND Hrvaška Tajska Slovaška Mandžukuo ... in drugi Sile osi : Tretji rajh Japonski imperij Italija Romunija Madžarska Finska Bolgarija ND Hrvaška Tajska Slovaška Mandžukuo Poveljniki in vodje Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Winston Churchill Čankajšek Charles de Gaulle Josip Broz Tito ... in drugi Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Winston Churchill Čankajšek Charles de Gaulle Josip Broz Tito Adolf Hitler Hirohito Benito Mussolini ... in drugi Adolf Hitler Hirohito Benito Mussolini Žrtve in izgube Vojakov mrtvih : > 14.000.000 Civilistov mrtvih : > 36.000.000 Skupaj mrtvih : > 50.000.000 Vojakov mrtvih : > 14.000.000 Civilistov mrtvih : > 36.000.000 Vojakov mrtvih : > 8.000.000 Civilistov mrtvih : > 4.000.000 Skupaj mrtvih > 12.000.000 Vojakov mrtvih : > 8.000.000 Civilistov mrtvih : > 4.000.000 Druga svetovna vojna je bila najobsežnejši in najdražji oborožen spopad v zgodovini človeštva. Potekal je v letih od 1939 do 1945, v njem pa je sodelovala večina svetovnih držav z več kot 100 milijonov pripadnikov oboroženih sil . Boj je potekal večinoma med Združenim Kraljestvom , Francijo , Sovjetsko zvezo , Kitajsko in Združenimi državami Amerike proti Nemčiji , Italiji in Japonski , oziroma med zavezniki in silami osi . Odvijal se je hkrati po celem svetu, zahteval pa je približno 60 milijonov človeških življenj. Zaradi slednjega ter zaradi visokega deleža mrtvih civilistov , pri čemer izstopata holokavst ter jedrsko bombardiranje Hirošime in Nagasakija , se drugo svetovno vojno označuje kot najbolj krvav spopad v človeški zgodovini. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] Tem žrtvam je treba dodati še približno 271 tisoč pobitih v povojnih pobojih, ki so prav tako posledica fašizma kot vzroka 2. svetovne vojne. V povprečju je bilo po vojni usmrčenih 10 % na število žrtev med vojno. V splošnem je sprejeto, da se je vojna začela 1. septembra 1939 z nemško invazijo na Poljsko in posledično z napovedjo vojne Nemčiji s strani Združenega Kraljestva , Francije in večino držav Britanskega imperija ter Commonwealtha . Kitajska in Japonski imperij sta bila ob začetku že v vojni , [ 3 ] medtem ko so se druge države, ki sprva niso bile vključene v vojno, pridružile kasneje zaradi določenih dogodkov, kot sta nemška invazija na Sovjetsko zvezo ter japonski napad na ameriško pomorsko oporišče Pearl Harbor , kar je sprožilo vojno napoved Japonski s strani ZDA, Commonwealtha [ 4 ] ter Nizozemske . [ 5 ] Vojna se je končala z zmago zaveznikov nad Nemčijo in Japonsko leta 1945. Kot posledica vojne sta se politično prepričanje ter družbena struktura močno spremenila. Medtem ko je bila ustanovljena Organizacija združenih narodov (OZN) za krepitev mednarodnega sodelovanja ter preprečevanje nadaljnjih spopadov, se je zaradi ideoloških razlik med takratnima supersilama , tj. med ZDA in Sovjetsko zvezo, začelo obdobje hladne vojne . V tem času je OZN-ovo zagovarjanje pravice narodov do samoodločbe pospešilo dekolonizacijska gibanja v Aziji in Afriki , v Zahodni Evropi pa sta se gospodarstvo ter proces Evropska integracije okrepila. Ozadje vojne [ uredi | uredi kodo ] Evropa [ uredi | uredi kodo ] Zasedanje Lige narodov v Ženevi, Švica, 1930 S porazom centralnih sil ( Avstro-Ogrsko , Nemškim cesarstvom , Bolgarijo , Otomanskim imperijem ) v prvi svetovni vojni ter vzponom boljševikov v Ruskem imperiju leta 1917 se je korenito spremenil politični zemljevid Evrope. Iz razpadlih imperijev so nastale nove nacionalne države zmagovalke velike vojne (Velika Britanija, Francija, Belgija, Romunija, Italija in Grčija) pa so dobila nova ozemlja. Da bi preprečili prihodnje vojne je bila na pariški mirovni konferenci , leta 1919 , ustanovljena Liga narodov . Glavni cilj organizacije je bil preprečevanje oboroženih spopadov preko kolektivne varnosti, vojaška in pomorska razorožitev ter reševanje mednarodnih sporov z mirovnimi pogajanji in arbitražo . Kljub močnim pacifističnim čustvom, ki so jih spodbudile grozote velike vojne [ 6 ] so se v več evropskih državah širil nevarni iredentistični in revanšistični nacionalizem. Ta čustva so bila še posebej izrazita v Nemčiji zaradi velikih teritorialnih, kolonialnih in finančnih izgub, ki so nastale zaradi versajske pogodbe . V skladu s pogodbo je Nemčija izgubila 13 odstotkov svojega domačega ozemlja, vse kolonije, plačati je morala visoko vojno odškodnino in postavljene so bile omejitve glede velikosti in zmogljivosti nemških oboroženih sil. [ 7 ] Adolf Hitler na zborovanju Nacionalsocialistične stranke v Nurembergu, avgust 1933 Nemško cesarstvo je bilo razpuščeno v nemški revoluciji v letih 1918 do 1919, iz njega je nastala Weimarska republika . V obdobju med obema vojnama je prišlo do resnega in globokega spora med privrženci nove republike ter nasprotniki iz desnega in levega tabora. Italija je kot del antante po prvi svetovni vojni dobila nekaj ozemlja vendar z izkupičkom ni bila zadovoljena saj ni dobila tistega kar sta ji obljubili Velika Britanija in Francija. Zaradi vse splošnega nezadovoljstva so v letih 1922 in 1925 oblast v državi prevzeli fašisti pod vodstvom Benita Mussolinija . Ti so vladali z nacionalistično, totalitarno in razredno kolaboracijsko agendo, ki je odpravila demokracijo zatrla socialistične, levičarske in liberalne sile ter nadaljevala agresivno ekspanzionistično zunanjo politiko usmerjeno v to, da bi Italija postala svetovna sila po zgledu starega rimskega imperija . [ 8 ] Adolf Hitler je po neuspešnem poskusu strmoglavljenja nemške vlade leta 1923 pristal v zaporu in s časoma po demokratični poti, leta 1933, postal nemški kancler . Po vzponu na oblast je ukinil demokracijo in se zavzel za korenito rasno motivirano revizijo svetovnega reda in začel obsežno kampanjo za oboroževanje. [ 9 ] Medtem je Francija, da bi si zagotovila zavezništvo, Italiji dala proste roke v Etiopiji , ki jo je Italija želele kot kolonialno posest. Stanje se je poslabšalo v letu 1935 ko je bilo Posarje vrnjeno Nemčiji, za tem je Hitler zavrnil versajsko pogodbo pospešil program obnove vojske in uvedel vpoklic. [ 10 ] Da bi omejili Nemčijo so Velika Britanija, Francija in Italija aprila 1935 ustanovile fronto Strasa (sporazum iz italijanskega kraja Strasa ob jezeru Maggiore), ki je bila ključni korak pri vojaški globalizaciji. Kljub dogovorjenim omejitvam je Velika Britanija popustila in junija z Nemčijo sklenila neodvisen pomorski sporazum, ki je omilil predhodne omejitve. Ker se je Sovjetska zveza bala nemških načrtov po osvajanju vzhodne Evrope je začela pripravljati pogodbo s Francijo o medsebojni pomoči. Francosko-Sovjetska zveza se ni odnesla saj je izgubila svoj pomen v birokratskem stroju Društva narodov, ki bi moral sporazum potrditi. Združene države so bile nad dogodki v Aziji in Evropi zaskrbljene zato so avgusta istega leta sprejele zakon o nevtralnosti . [ 11 ] Hitler se je dokončno uprl versajski in lucernovi pogodbi marca 1936 ko je militariziral Porenje . Zaradi strahu zahodnih zaveznikov pred zaostrovanjem je naletel na malo odpora. [ 12 ] Oktobra 1936 sta Nemčija in Italija ustanovili os Rim-Berlin. Mesec dni kasneje sta Nemčija in Japonska podpisali pakt za boj proti Kominterni, ki se mu je Italija pridružila naslednje leto. [ 13 ] Azija [ uredi | uredi kodo ] Na kitajskem je stranka Kuomintang (KMT) sredi dvajsetih let sprožila kampanjo združevanja regij, ki so jim poveljevali lokalni vojaški poveljniki s čimer je želel poenotiti Kitajsko . S tem je prišla v spor z nekdanjim zaveznikom, Komunistično partijo Kitajske , kar je privedlo do državljanske vojne. Bliskovit razvoj japonskega gospodarstva in prebivalstva, pomanjkanje surovin na otokih in militaristična vlada so sprožili ekspanzionistične težnje Japonskega cesarstva . Vse bolj pa se je uveljavilo prepričanje, da Azija pripada Japonski. Leta 1931 so Japonci izkoristili incident v Mukdenu in zasedli Mandžurijo ter ustanovili marionetno državo Mandžurijo. [ 14 ] Kitajska je Ligo narodov pozvala naj ustavi japonsko invazijo. Potem ko je ta obsodila vdor v Mandžurijo je Japonska izstopila iz Lige narodov. Vojna se je nadaljevala dokler leta 1933 v Tanggu ni bilo podpisano premirje. Kljub temu se je kitajski odpor proti japonski okupaciji nadaljeval. Po incidentu Xi'an leta 1936 sta se Kuomintang in Komunistična partija Kitajske odločili, da združita sile v boju proti japonskemu okupatorju. [ 15 ] Ozadje vojne Evropa [ uredi | uredi kodo ] Zasedanje Lige narodov v Ženevi, Švica, 1930 S porazom centralnih sil ( Avstro-Ogrsko , Nemškim cesarstvom , Bolgarijo , Otomanskim imperijem ) v prvi svetovni vojni ter vzponom boljševikov v Ruskem imperiju leta 1917 se je korenito spremenil politični zemljevid Evrope. Iz razpadlih imperijev so nastale nove nacionalne države zmagovalke velike vojne (Velika Britanija, Francija, Belgija, Romunija, Italija in Grčija) pa so dobila nova ozemlja. Da bi preprečili prihodnje vojne je bila na pariški mirovni konferenci , leta 1919 , ustanovljena Liga narodov . Glavni cilj organizacije je bil preprečevanje oboroženih spopadov preko kolektivne varnosti, vojaška in pomorska razorožitev ter reševanje mednarodnih sporov z mirovnimi pogajanji in arbitražo . Kljub močnim pacifističnim čustvom, ki so jih spodbudile grozote velike vojne [ 6 ] so se v več evropskih državah širil nevarni iredentistični in revanšistični nacionalizem. Ta čustva so bila še posebej izrazita v Nemčiji zaradi velikih teritorialnih, kolonialnih in finančnih izgub, ki so nastale zaradi versajske pogodbe . V skladu s pogodbo je Nemčija izgubila 13 odstotkov svojega domačega ozemlja, vse kolonije, plačati je morala visoko vojno odškodnino in postavljene so bile omejitve glede velikosti in zmogljivosti nemških oboroženih sil. [ 7 ] Adolf Hitler na zborovanju Nacionalsocialistične stranke v Nurembergu, avgust 1933 Nemško cesarstvo je bilo razpuščeno v nemški revoluciji v letih 1918 do 1919, iz njega je nastala Weimarska republika . V obdobju med obema vojnama je prišlo do resnega in globokega spora med privrženci nove republike ter nasprotniki iz desnega in levega tabora. Italija je kot del antante po prvi svetovni vojni dobila nekaj ozemlja vendar z izkupičkom ni bila zadovoljena saj ni dobila tistega kar sta ji obljubili Velika Britanija in Francija. Zaradi vse splošnega nezadovoljstva so v letih 1922 in 1925 oblast v državi prevzeli fašisti pod vodstvom Benita Mussolinija . Ti so vladali z nacionalistično, totalitarno in razredno kolaboracijsko agendo, ki je odpravila demokracijo zatrla socialistične, levičarske in liberalne sile ter nadaljevala agresivno ekspanzionistično zunanjo politiko usmerjeno v to, da bi Italija postala svetovna sila po zgledu starega rimskega imperija . [ 8 ] Adolf Hitler je po neuspešnem poskusu strmoglavljenja nemške vlade leta 1923 pristal v zaporu in s časoma po demokratični poti, leta 1933, postal nemški kancler . Po vzponu na oblast je ukinil demokracijo in se zavzel za korenito rasno motivirano revizijo svetovnega reda in začel obsežno kampanjo za oboroževanje. [ 9 ] Medtem je Francija, da bi si zagotovila zavezništvo, Italiji dala proste roke v Etiopiji , ki jo je Italija želele kot kolonialno posest. Stanje se je poslabšalo v letu 1935 ko je bilo Posarje vrnjeno Nemčiji, za tem je Hitler zavrnil versajsko pogodbo pospešil program obnove vojske in uvedel vpoklic. [ 10 ] Da bi omejili Nemčijo so Velika Britanija, Francija in Italija aprila 1935 ustanovile fronto Strasa (sporazum iz italijanskega kraja Strasa ob jezeru Maggiore), ki je bila ključni korak pri vojaški globalizaciji. Kljub dogovorjenim omejitvam je Velika Britanija popustila in junija z Nemčijo sklenila neodvisen pomorski sporazum, ki je omilil predhodne omejitve. Ker se je Sovjetska zveza bala nemških načrtov po osvajanju vzhodne Evrope je začela pripravljati pogodbo s Francijo o medsebojni pomoči. Francosko-Sovjetska zveza se ni odnesla saj je izgubila svoj pomen v birokratskem stroju Društva narodov, ki bi moral sporazum potrditi. Združene države so bile nad dogodki v Aziji in Evropi zaskrbljene zato so avgusta istega leta sprejele zakon o nevtralnosti . [ 11 ] Hitler se je dokončno uprl versajski in lucernovi pogodbi marca 1936 ko je militariziral Porenje . Zaradi strahu zahodnih zaveznikov pred zaostrovanjem je naletel na malo odpora. [ 12 ] Oktobra 1936 sta Nemčija in Italija ustanovili os Rim-Berlin. Mesec dni kasneje sta Nemčija in Japonska podpisali pakt za boj proti Kominterni, ki se mu je Italija pridružila naslednje leto. [ 13 ] Evropa S porazom centralnih sil ( Avstro-Ogrsko , Nemškim cesarstvom , Bolgarijo , Otomanskim imperijem ) v prvi svetovni vojni ter vzponom boljševikov v Ruskem imperiju leta 1917 se je korenito spremenil politični zemljevid Evrope. Iz razpadlih imperijev so nastale nove nacionalne države zmagovalke velike vojne (Velika Britanija, Francija, Belgija, Romunija, Italija in Grčija) pa so dobila nova ozemlja. Da bi preprečili prihodnje vojne je bila na pariški mirovni konferenci , leta 1919 , ustanovljena Liga narodov . Glavni cilj organizacije je bil preprečevanje oboroženih spopadov preko kolektivne varnosti, vojaška in pomorska razorožitev ter reševanje mednarodnih sporov z mirovnimi pogajanji in arbitražo . Kljub močnim pacifističnim čustvom, ki so jih spodbudile grozote velike vojne [ 6 ] so se v več evropskih državah širil nevarni iredentistični in revanšistični nacionalizem. Ta čustva so bila še posebej izrazita v Nemčiji zaradi velikih teritorialnih, kolonialnih in finančnih izgub, ki so nastale zaradi versajske pogodbe . V skladu s pogodbo je Nemčija izgubila 13 odstotkov svojega domačega ozemlja, vse kolonije, plačati je morala visoko vojno odškodnino in postavljene so bile omejitve glede velikosti in zmogljivosti nemških oboroženih sil. [ 7 ] Nemško cesarstvo je bilo razpuščeno v nemški revoluciji v letih 1918 do 1919, iz njega je nastala Weimarska republika . V obdobju med obema vojnama je prišlo do resnega in globokega spora med privrženci nove republike ter nasprotniki iz desnega in levega tabora. Italija je kot del antante po prvi svetovni vojni dobila nekaj ozemlja vendar z izkupičkom ni bila zadovoljena saj ni dobila tistega kar sta ji obljubili Velika Britanija in Francija. Zaradi vse splošnega nezadovoljstva so v letih 1922 in 1925 oblast v državi prevzeli fašisti pod vodstvom Benita Mussolinija . Ti so vladali z nacionalistično, totalitarno in razredno kolaboracijsko agendo, ki je odpravila demokracijo zatrla socialistične, levičarske in liberalne sile ter nadaljevala agresivno ekspanzionistično zunanjo politiko usmerjeno v to, da bi Italija postala svetovna sila po zgledu starega rimskega imperija . [ 8 ] Adolf Hitler je po neuspešnem poskusu strmoglavljenja nemške vlade leta 1923 pristal v zaporu in s časoma po demokratični poti, leta 1933, postal nemški kancler . Po vzponu na oblast je ukinil demokracijo in se zavzel za korenito rasno motivirano revizijo svetovnega reda in začel obsežno kampanjo za oboroževanje. [ 9 ] Medtem je Francija, da bi si zagotovila zavezništvo, Italiji dala proste roke v Etiopiji , ki jo je Italija želele kot kolonialno posest. Stanje se je poslabšalo v letu 1935 ko je bilo Posarje vrnjeno Nemčiji, za tem je Hitler zavrnil versajsko pogodbo pospešil program obnove vojske in uvedel vpoklic. [ 10 ] Da bi omejili Nemčijo so Velika Britanija, Francija in Italija aprila 1935 ustanovile fronto Strasa (sporazum iz italijanskega kraja Strasa ob jezeru Maggiore), ki je bila ključni korak pri vojaški globalizaciji. Kljub dogovorjenim omejitvam je Velika Britanija popustila in junija z Nemčijo sklenila neodvisen pomorski sporazum, ki je omilil predhodne omejitve. Ker se je Sovjetska zveza bala nemških načrtov po osvajanju vzhodne Evrope je začela pripravljati pogodbo s Francijo o medsebojni pomoči. Francosko-Sovjetska zveza se ni odnesla saj je izgubila svoj pomen v birokratskem stroju Društva narodov, ki bi moral sporazum potrditi. Združene države so bile nad dogodki v Aziji in Evropi zaskrbljene zato so avgusta istega leta sprejele zakon o nevtralnosti . [ 11 ] Hitler se je dokončno uprl versajski in lucernovi pogodbi marca 1936 ko je militariziral Porenje . Zaradi strahu zahodnih zaveznikov pred zaostrovanjem je naletel na malo odpora. [ 12 ] Oktobra 1936 sta Nemčija in Italija ustanovili os Rim-Berlin. Mesec dni kasneje sta Nemčija in Japonska podpisali pakt za boj proti Kominterni, ki se mu je Italija pridružila naslednje leto. [ 13 ] Azija [ uredi | uredi kodo ] Na kitajskem je stranka Kuomintang (KMT) sredi dvajsetih let sprožila kampanjo združevanja regij, ki so jim poveljevali lokalni vojaški poveljniki s čimer je želel poenotiti Kitajsko . S tem je prišla v spor z nekdanjim zaveznikom, Komunistično partijo Kitajske , kar je privedlo do državljanske vojne. Bliskovit razvoj japonskega gospodarstva in prebivalstva, pomanjkanje surovin na otokih in militaristična vlada so sprožili ekspanzionistične težnje Japonskega cesarstva . Vse bolj pa se je uveljavilo prepričanje, da Azija pripada Japonski. Leta 1931 so Japonci izkoristili incident v Mukdenu in zasedli Mandžurijo ter ustanovili marionetno državo Mandžurijo. [ 14 ] Kitajska je Ligo narodov pozvala naj ustavi japonsko invazijo. Potem ko je ta obsodila vdor v Mandžurijo je Japonska izstopila iz Lige narodov. Vojna se je nadaljevala dokler leta 1933 v Tanggu ni bilo podpisano premirje. Kljub temu se je kitajski odpor proti japonski okupaciji nadaljeval. Po incidentu Xi'an leta 1936 sta se Kuomintang in Komunistična partija Kitajske odločili, da združita sile v boju proti japonskemu okupatorju. [ 15 ] Azija Na kitajskem je stranka Kuomintang (KMT) sredi dvajsetih let sprožila kampanjo združevanja regij, ki so jim poveljevali lokalni vojaški poveljniki s čimer je želel poenotiti Kitajsko . S tem je prišla v spor z nekdanjim zaveznikom, Komunistično partijo Kitajske , kar je privedlo do državljanske vojne. Bliskovit razvoj japonskega gospodarstva in prebivalstva, pomanjkanje surovin na otokih in militaristična vlada so sprožili ekspanzionistične težnje Japonskega cesarstva . Vse bolj pa se je uveljavilo prepričanje, da Azija pripada Japonski. Leta 1931 so Japonci izkoristili incident v Mukdenu in zasedli Mandžurijo ter ustanovili marionetno državo Mandžurijo. [ 14 ] Kitajska je Ligo narodov pozvala naj ustavi japonsko invazijo. Potem ko je ta obsodila vdor v Mandžurijo je Japonska izstopila iz Lige narodov. Vojna se je nadaljevala dokler leta 1933 v Tanggu ni bilo podpisano premirje. Kljub temu se je kitajski odpor proti japonski okupaciji nadaljeval. Po incidentu Xi'an leta 1936 sta se Kuomintang in Komunistična partija Kitajske odločili, da združita sile v boju proti japonskemu okupatorju. [ 15 ] Dogodki pred vojno [ uredi | uredi kodo ] Italijanski napad na Etiopijo [ uredi | uredi kodo ] Glavni članek : Druga italijansko-abesinska vojna . Benito Mussolini med pregledom vojakov v času druge abesinske vojne, 1935 Druga italijansko-etiopska vojna je bila kratkotrajen kolonialen spopad, ki se je začel oktobra 1935 in končal maja 1936. Vojna se je začela z italijanskim napadom na Etiopsko cesarstvo ( Abesinija) iz sosednje italijanske Somalije in Eritreje. [ 16 ] Spopad se je končal z italijansko zmago in priključitvijo Etiopije novoustanovljeni italijanski koloniji Italijanska vzhodna Afrika (Africa Orientale Iataliana ali AOI). Iz svetovnega stališča je bil spopad lokalnega značaja in popolnoma nepomemben, po drug stran pa je razkril slabosti in nemoč društva narodov, ki bi moral zagotavljati mir. Člana Društva narodov sta bila tako Etiopija kot Kraljevina Italija. [ 17 ] Velika Britanija in Francija sta podpirali sankcije proti Italiji vendar te nikoli niso bile popolnoma uveljavljene tako, da na Italijo praktično niso imele nobenega resnega učinka. [ 18 ] Italija se je na sankcije odzvala tako da ni nasprotovala nemškim nameram po priključitvi Avstrije. [ 19 ] Španska državljanska vojna [ uredi | uredi kodo ] Glavni članek : Španska državljanska vojna . Bombardiranje Guernice leta 1937, v času španske državljanske vojne, je prestrašilo ljudi v tujini, da bi v naslednji vojni bila lahko mesta glavna tarča letalskih bombardiranj kar bi povzročilo veliko žrtev med civilnim prebivalstvom. Ko je v Španiji izbruhnila državljanska vojna sta Mussolini in Hitler španskim nacionalistom pod vodstvom Francisca Franca zagotavljala vojaško podporo. Največjo podpore so zagotovili Italijani, ki so v Španijo poslali več kot 70.000 vojakov, 6.000 članov letalskega osebja in 720 letal. [ 20 ] Na drugi strani je Sovjetska zveza je podpirala uradno vlado španske republike. Proti nacionalistom se je borilo tudi preko 30.000 tujih prostovoljcev zbranih v Mednarodne brigade. Španska državljanska vojna je bila proksi vojna kjer sta Nemčija in Sovjetska zveza preizkušala svoja orožja in vojaško taktiko. Vojna se je končala aprila 1939 z zmago nacionalistov. Po vojni je general Franco ostal v dobrih odnosih z nacisti in fašisti vendar se v drugo svetovno vojno ni vpletal saj je Španija ostala nevtralna. [ 21 ] Njegov največji prispevek drugi svetovni vojni so bili prostovoljci, ki jih je v pomoč Nemcev pošiljal na vzhodno fronto. [ 22 ] Druga kitajsko-japonska vojna [ uredi | uredi kodo ] Glavni članek : Druga kitajsko-japonska vojna . Japonski vojaki med bitko za Shanghai, 1937 Po incidentu na mostu Marca Pola je Japonska napadla Kitajsko in julija 1937 zasedla Peking nekdanjo prestolnico kitajskega cesarstva. [ 23 ] Sovjetska zveza je s Kitajski podpisala pakt o nenapadanju in s tem Kitajski zagotovila nujno treba materialno in vojaško pomoč posledično pa se je s tem končalo sodelovanje kitajske z Nemčijo, ki ji je prav tako zagotavljala materialno in vojaško pomoč. Od septembra do novembra so potekali hudi boji ta Taiyuan, Xinkou in Pingxingguan. [ 24 ] [ 25 ] [ 26 ] Konec novembra je kljub zagrizeni obrambi padel Shanghai, decembra pa še prestolnica Nanking. Po padcu mesta je japonska vojsko nad nemočnim prebivalstvom mesta izvedla enega najhujših pobojev v katerem je bilo ubitih več deset tisoč ljudi. [ 27 ] [ 28 ] Marca 1938 so Kitajci v bitki pri Taierzhuangu doseglo pomembnejšo zmago vendar so že maja izgubili Xuzhou. [ 29 ] Napredovanje Japoncev so začasno ustavili s porušitvijo jezov na Rumeni reki in poplavami. S tem so pridobili čas, da so pripravili obrambo mesta Vuhan . Sledila je obsežna bitka, ki se je končala s taktično japonsko zmago, vendar sta imeli obe strani strahovite izgube tako, da se je japonsko napredovanje ustavilo. Za Kitajce kljub porazu v bitki vojna ni bila izgubljena; svojo vlado so preselili v Chongqing in nadaljevali z odporom, ki je trajal vse do konca druge svetovne vojne. [ 30 ] [ 31 ] [ 32 ] Sovjetsko-japonski obmejni konflikt [ uredi | uredi kodo ] Tekom tridesetih let dvajsetega stoletja je na mandžursko sovjetski in mongolski meji občasno prihajalo do večjih mejnih spopadov saj je imela Japonska Mandžurijo in Sibirijo za svoje interesno območje. Japonska je bila širitvi na sever zaradi surovin zelo naklonjena, vendar je to strategijo po izgubljeni bitki pri Khalkin Gol popolnoma opustila. [ 33 ] Aprila 1941 sta Sovjetska zveza in Japonska podpisali pakt o nevtralnosti, Japonska pa je vse svoje sile usmerila v širitev proti jugu s čimer je prišla v spor z ZDA in zahodnimi zavezniki. [ 34 ] [ 35 ] Okupacije in sporazumi v Evropi [ uredi | uredi kodo ] Glavni članki : Münchenski sporazum , Anschluss in Pakt Ribbentrop-Molotov . Chamberlain, Daladier, Hitler, Mussolini, in Ciano fotografirani tik preden so podpisali münchenski sporazum, 29. september 1938 V Evropi sta Nemčija in Italija postajali vedno bolj agresivni. Marca 1938 si je Nemčija priključila Avstrijo , odziv nasprotnih sil (Velike Britanije in Francije) je bil zelo medel. [ 36 ] Dogodek je Hitlerja toliko opogumil, da je zahteval še Sudete na Češkoslovaškem kjer je živelo večinsko nemško prebivalstvo. V strahu pred novo vojno sta Francija in Velika Britanija, pod vodstvom mirovniške politike britanskega premiera Neville Chamberlaina , z Nemčijo v Münchnu podpisali Münchenski sporazum s katerim je Nemčija dobila Sudete v zameno pa se je morala odreči novim teritorialnim zahtevam. [ 37 ] Češkoslovaška pri dogovoru ni imela nobene besede kasneje pa sta jo Nemčija in Italija prisilile, da je dele svojega ozemlja odstopila še Madžarski in Poljski. [ 38 ] Čeprav je Hitler s sporazumom dobil vse kar je zahteval je bil kljub temu besen ker so se Britanci vpletali v njegove načrte s katerimi je želel zasesti celotno Češkoslovaško. V javnem govoru je napadel Veliko Britanijo in Žide januarja pa nemški mornarici ukazal visoko vojno pripravljenost s katero je želel izzvati prevlado britanske mornarice. Marca 1939 je Nemčija zasedla še preostanek Češkoslovaške in jo razdelila na nemški protektorat Češka in Moravska ter nemško satelitsko državo Republiko Slovaško. [ 39 ] Dvajsetega marca 1939 je Hitler od Litve zahteval regijo Memel (Klaipeda). [ 40 ] Nemški zunanji minister Joachim von Ribbentrop (desno) in sovjetski vodja Josif Stalin po podpisu pakta Molotov–Ribbentrop, 23. avgust 1939 Ko je Hitler zahteval še svobodno mesto Gdansk sta Francija in Velika Britanija potrdila podporo Poljski ter jamčili za njeno samostojnost. Podobno se je zgodilo na Balkanu po italijanski zasedbi Albanije, aprila 1939, kjer sta Velika Britanija in Francija jamčili za samostojnost Romunije in Grčije. [ 41 ] Nemčija in Italija sta na to podporo odgovorili z jeklenim paktom (vojaško in politično zavezništvo med Italijo in Nemčijo). [ 42 ] Hitler je obtožil Veliko Britanijo in Poljsko, da želita obkoliti Nemčijo ter razdrl britansko-nemški mornariški sporazum in nemško poljski sporazum o nenapadanju. [ 43 ] Zemljevid prikazuje ozemlje, ki so ga zasedle sile osi in zavezniki v različnih obdobjih druge svetovne vojne. zahodni zavezniki Sovjetska zveza in zavezniki sile osi, in njeni zavezniki nevtralne države Kriza je dosegla vrhunec konec avgusta 1939, ko so se nemške čete začele zbirati na nemško poljski meji. 23. avgusta, ko so pogovori o zavezništvu med Veliko Britanijo, Francijo in Sovjetsko zvezo zastali, [ 44 ] je bil med Nemčijo in Sovjetsko zvezo podpisan pakt o nenapadanju . [ 45 ] Pakt je vseboval tajen protokol, ki je določal nemško in sovjetsko vplivno območje na Poljskem, Litvi, Latviji, Estoniji in Finskem. [ 46 ] Sporazum je bil tudi zagotovilo Nemčiji, da se rdeča armada ne bo vpletala v nemške operacije proti Poljski s tem se je Nemčija želela izogniti dvema frontama kakor se je to zgodilo v prvi svetovni vojni. Takoj po podpisu sporazuma je Hitler ukazal napasti Poljsko 26. avgusta, vendar je kasneje napad prestavil ko je izvedel, do bo Velika Britanija Poljski zagotovila podporo v primeru vojne in, da bo Italija v primeru vojne razglasila nevtralnost. [ 47 ] Britanci na vojno niso bili pripravljeni zato so se ji želeli na vsak način izogniti in so zahtevali nova pogajanja, Nemčija je na to odgovorila z nemogočimi zahtevami kar je položaj samo še poslabšalo. [ 48 ] 29. avgusta je Hitler od Poljske zahteval naj Nemčiji preda Gdansk ter izvede plebiscit na katerem se bojo Nemci živeči na območju poljskega koridorja sami odločili v kateri državi želijo živeti. [ 48 ] Poljaki niso želeli ugoditi nemškim zahtevam, na burnem sestanku v Berlinu med britanskim veleposlanikom in nemškim zunanjim ministrom Ribbentropom v noči iz 30. na 31. je Ribbentrop izjavil, da so bile po njegovem mnenju vse nemške zahteve zavrnjene. [ 49 ] Naslednji dan se je Evropa znašla v novi vojni. Dogodki pred vojno Italijanski napad na Etiopijo [ uredi | uredi kodo ] Glavni članek : Druga italijansko-abesinska vojna . Benito Mussolini med pregledom vojakov v času druge abesinske vojne, 1935 Druga italijansko-etiopska vojna je bila kratkotrajen kolonialen spopad, ki se je začel oktobra 1935 in končal maja 1936. Vojna se je začela z italijanskim napadom na Etiopsko cesarstvo ( Abesinija) iz sosednje italijanske Somalije in Eritreje. [ 16 ] Spopad se je končal z italijansko zmago in priključitvijo Etiopije novoustanovljeni italijanski koloniji Italijanska vzhodna Afrika (Africa Orientale Iataliana ali AOI). Iz svetovnega stališča je bil spopad lokalnega značaja in popolnoma nepomemben, po drug stran pa je razkril slabosti in nemoč društva narodov, ki bi moral zagotavljati mir. Člana Društva narodov sta bila tako Etiopija kot Kraljevina Italija. [ 17 ] Velika Britanija in Francija sta podpirali sankcije proti Italiji vendar te nikoli niso bile popolnoma uveljavljene tako, da na Italijo praktično niso imele nobenega resnega učinka. [ 18 ] Italija se je na sankcije odzvala tako da ni nasprotovala nemškim nameram po priključitvi Avstrije. [ 19 ] Italijanski napad na Etiopijo Druga italijansko-etiopska vojna je bila kratkotrajen kolonialen spopad, ki se je začel oktobra 1935 in končal maja 1936. Vojna se je začela z italijanskim napadom na Etiopsko cesarstvo ( Abesinija) iz sosednje italijanske Somalije in Eritreje. [ 16 ] Spopad se je končal z italijansko zmago in priključitvijo Etiopije novoustanovljeni italijanski koloniji Italijanska vzhodna Afrika (Africa Orientale Iataliana ali AOI). Iz svetovnega stališča je bil spopad lokalnega značaja in popolnoma nepomemben, po drug stran pa je razkril slabosti in nemoč društva narodov, ki bi moral zagotavljati mir. Člana Društva narodov sta bila tako Etiopija kot Kraljevina Italija. [ 17 ] Velika Britanija in Francija sta podpirali sankcije proti Italiji vendar te nikoli niso bile popolnoma uveljavljene tako, da na Italijo praktično niso imele nobenega resnega učinka. [ 18 ] Italija se je na sankcije odzvala tako da ni nasprotovala nemškim nameram po priključitvi Avstrije. [ 19 ] Španska državljanska vojna [ uredi | uredi kodo ] Glavni članek : Španska državljanska vojna . Bombardiranje Guernice leta 1937, v času španske državljanske vojne, je prestrašilo ljudi v tujini, da bi v naslednji vojni bila lahko mesta glavna tarča letalskih bombardiranj kar bi povzročilo veliko žrtev med civilnim prebivalstvom. Ko je v Španiji izbruhnila državljanska vojna sta Mussolini in Hitler španskim nacionalistom pod vodstvom Francisca Franca zagotavljala vojaško podporo. Največjo podpore so zagotovili Italijani, ki so v Španijo poslali več kot 70.000 vojakov, 6.000 članov letalskega osebja in 720 letal. [ 20 ] Na drugi strani je Sovjetska zveza je podpirala uradno vlado španske republike. Proti nacionalistom se je borilo tudi preko 30.000 tujih prostovoljcev zbranih v Mednarodne brigade. Španska državljanska vojna je bila proksi vojna kjer sta Nemčija in Sovjetska zveza preizkušala svoja orožja in vojaško taktiko. Vojna se je končala aprila 1939 z zmago nacionalistov. Po vojni je general Franco ostal v dobrih odnosih z nacisti in fašisti vendar se v drugo svetovno vojno ni vpletal saj je Španija ostala nevtralna. [ 21 ] Njegov največji prispevek drugi svetovni vojni so bili prostovoljci, ki jih je v pomoč Nemcev pošiljal na vzhodno fronto. [ 22 ] Španska državljanska vojna Ko je v Španiji izbruhnila državljanska vojna sta Mussolini in Hitler španskim nacionalistom pod vodstvom Francisca Franca zagotavljala vojaško podporo. Največjo podpore so zagotovili Italijani, ki so v Španijo poslali več kot 70.000 vojakov, 6.000 članov letalskega osebja in 720 letal. [ 20 ] Na drugi strani je Sovjetska zveza je podpirala uradno vlado španske republike. Proti nacionalistom se je borilo tudi preko 30.000 tujih prostovoljcev zbranih v Mednarodne brigade. Španska državljanska vojna je bila proksi vojna kjer sta Nemčija in Sovjetska zveza preizkušala svoja orožja in vojaško taktiko. Vojna se je končala aprila 1939 z zmago nacionalistov. Po vojni je general Franco ostal v dobrih odnosih z nacisti in fašisti vendar se v drugo svetovno vojno ni vpletal saj je Španija ostala nevtralna. [ 21 ] Njegov največji prispevek drugi svetovni vojni so bili prostovoljci, ki jih je v pomoč Nemcev pošiljal na vzhodno fronto. [ 22 ] Druga kitajsko-japonska vojna [ uredi | uredi kodo ] Glavni članek : Druga kitajsko-japonska vojna . Japonski vojaki med bitko za Shanghai, 1937 Po incidentu na mostu Marca Pola je Japonska napadla Kitajsko in julija 1937 zasedla Peking nekdanjo prestolnico kitajskega cesarstva. [ 23 ] Sovjetska zveza je s Kitajski podpisala pakt o nenapadanju in s tem Kitajski zagotovila nujno treba materialno in vojaško pomoč posledično pa se je s tem končalo sodelovanje kitajske z Nemčijo, ki ji je prav tako zagotavljala materialno in vojaško pomoč. Od septembra do novembra so potekali hudi boji ta Taiyuan, Xinkou in Pingxingguan. [ 24 ] [ 25 ] [ 26 ] Konec novembra je kljub zagrizeni obrambi padel Shanghai, decembra pa še prestolnica Nanking. Po padcu mesta je japonska vojsko nad nemočnim prebivalstvom mesta izvedla enega najhujših pobojev v katerem je bilo ubitih več deset tisoč ljudi. [ 27 ] [ 28 ] Marca 1938 so Kitajci v bitki pri Taierzhuangu doseglo pomembnejšo zmago vendar so že maja izgubili Xuzhou. [ 29 ] Napredovanje Japoncev so začasno ustavili s porušitvijo jezov na Rumeni reki in poplavami. S tem so pridobili čas, da so pripravili obrambo mesta Vuhan . Sledila je obsežna bitka, ki se je končala s taktično japonsko zmago, vendar sta imeli obe strani strahovite izgube tako, da se je japonsko napredovanje ustavilo. Za Kitajce kljub porazu v bitki vojna ni bila izgubljena; svojo vlado so preselili v Chongqing in nadaljevali z odporom, ki je trajal vse do konca druge svetovne vojne. [ 30 ] [ 31 ] [ 32 ] Druga kitajsko-japonska vojna Po incidentu na mostu Marca Pola je Japonska napadla Kitajsko in julija 1937 zasedla Peking nekdanjo prestolnico kitajskega cesarstva. [ 23 ] Sovjetska zveza je s Kitajski podpisala pakt o nenapadanju in s tem Kitajski zagotovila nujno treba materialno in vojaško pomoč posledično pa se je s tem končalo sodelovanje kitajske z Nemčijo, ki ji je prav tako zagotavljala materialno in vojaško pomoč. Od septembra do novembra so potekali hudi boji ta Taiyuan, Xinkou in Pingxingguan. [ 24 ] [ 25 ] [ 26 ] Konec novembra je kljub zagrizeni obrambi padel Shanghai, decembra pa še prestolnica Nanking. Po padcu mesta je japonska vojsko nad nemočnim prebivalstvom mesta izvedla enega najhujših pobojev v katerem je bilo ubitih več deset tisoč ljudi. [ 27 ] [ 28 ] Marca 1938 so Kitajci v bitki pri Taierzhuangu doseglo pomembnejšo zmago vendar so že maja izgubili Xuzhou. [ 29 ] Napredovanje Japoncev so začasno ustavili s porušitvijo jezov na Rumeni reki in poplavami. S tem so pridobili čas, da so pripravili obrambo mesta Vuhan . Sledila je obsežna bitka, ki se je končala s taktično japonsko zmago, vendar sta imeli obe strani strahovite izgube tako, da se je japonsko napredovanje ustavilo. Za Kitajce kljub porazu v bitki vojna ni bila izgubljena; svojo vlado so preselili v Chongqing in nadaljevali z odporom, ki je trajal vse do konca druge svetovne vojne. [ 30 ] [ 31 ] [ 32 ] Sovjetsko-japonski obmejni konflikt [ uredi | uredi kodo ] Tekom tridesetih let dvajsetega stoletja je na mandžursko sovjetski in mongolski meji občasno prihajalo do večjih mejnih spopadov saj je imela Japonska Mandžurijo in Sibirijo za svoje interesno območje. Japonska je bila širitvi na sever zaradi surovin zelo naklonjena, vendar je to strategijo po izgubljeni bitki pri Khalkin Gol popolnoma opustila. [ 33 ] Aprila 1941 sta Sovjetska zveza in Japonska podpisali pakt o nevtralnosti, Japonska pa je vse svoje sile usmerila v širitev proti jugu s čimer je prišla v spor z ZDA in zahodnimi zavezniki. [ 34 ] [ 35 ] Sovjetsko-japonski obmejni konflikt Tekom tridesetih let dvajsetega stoletja je na mandžursko sovjetski in mongolski meji občasno prihajalo do večjih mejnih spopadov saj je imela Japonska Mandžurijo in Sibirijo za svoje interesno območje. Japonska je bila širitvi na sever zaradi surovin zelo naklonjena, vendar je to strategijo po izgubljeni bitki pri Khalkin Gol popolnoma opustila. [ 33 ] Aprila 1941 sta Sovjetska zveza in Japonska podpisali pakt o nevtralnosti, Japonska pa je vse svoje sile usmerila v širitev proti jugu s čimer je prišla v spor z ZDA in zahodnimi zavezniki. [ 34 ] [ 35 ] Okupacije in sporazumi v Evropi [ uredi | uredi kodo ] Glavni članki : Münchenski sporazum , Anschluss in Pakt Ribbentrop-Molotov . Chamberlain, Daladier, Hitler, Mussolini, in Ciano fotografirani tik preden so podpisali münchenski sporazum, 29. september 1938 V Evropi sta Nemčija in Italija postajali vedno bolj agresivni. Marca 1938 si je Nemčija priključila Avstrijo , odziv nasprotnih sil (Velike Britanije in Francije) je bil zelo medel. [ 36 ] Dogodek je Hitlerja toliko opogumil, da je zahteval še Sudete na Češkoslovaškem kjer je živelo večinsko nemško prebivalstvo. V strahu pred novo vojno sta Francija in Velika Britanija, pod vodstvom mirovniške politike britanskega premiera Neville Chamberlaina , z Nemčijo v Münchnu podpisali Münchenski sporazum s katerim je Nemčija dobila Sudete v zameno pa se je morala odreči novim teritorialnim zahtevam. [ 37 ] Češkoslovaška pri dogovoru ni imela nobene besede kasneje pa sta jo Nemčija in Italija prisilile, da je dele svojega ozemlja odstopila še Madžarski in Poljski. [ 38 ] Čeprav je Hitler s sporazumom dobil vse kar je zahteval je bil kljub temu besen ker so se Britanci vpletali v njegove načrte s katerimi je želel zasesti celotno Češkoslovaško. V javnem govoru je napadel Veliko Britanijo in Žide januarja pa nemški mornarici ukazal visoko vojno pripravljenost s katero je želel izzvati prevlado britanske mornarice. Marca 1939 je Nemčija zasedla še preostanek Češkoslovaške in jo razdelila na nemški protektorat Češka in Moravska ter nemško satelitsko državo Republiko Slovaško. [ 39 ] Dvajsetega marca 1939 je Hitler od Litve zahteval regijo Memel (Klaipeda). [ 40 ] Nemški zunanji minister Joachim von Ribbentrop (desno) in sovjetski vodja Josif Stalin po podpisu pakta Molotov–Ribbentrop, 23. avgust 1939 Ko je Hitler zahteval še svobodno mesto Gdansk sta Francija in Velika Britanija potrdila podporo Poljski ter jamčili za njeno samostojnost. Podobno se je zgodilo na Balkanu po italijanski zasedbi Albanije, aprila 1939, kjer sta Velika Britanija in Francija jamčili za samostojnost Romunije in Grčije. [ 41 ] Nemčija in Italija sta na to podporo odgovorili z jeklenim paktom (vojaško in politično zavezništvo med Italijo in Nemčijo). [ 42 ] Hitler je obtožil Veliko Britanijo in Poljsko, da želita obkoliti Nemčijo ter razdrl britansko-nemški mornariški sporazum in nemško poljski sporazum o nenapadanju. [ 43 ] Zemljevid prikazuje ozemlje, ki so ga zasedle sile osi in zavezniki v različnih obdobjih druge svetovne vojne. zahodni zavezniki Sovjetska zveza in zavezniki sile osi, in njeni zavezniki nevtralne države Kriza je dosegla vrhunec konec avgusta 1939, ko so se nemške čete začele zbirati na nemško poljski meji. 23. avgusta, ko so pogovori o zavezništvu med Veliko Britanijo, Francijo in Sovjetsko zvezo zastali, [ 44 ] je bil med Nemčijo in Sovjetsko zvezo podpisan pakt o nenapadanju . [ 45 ] Pakt je vseboval tajen protokol, ki je določal nemško in sovjetsko vplivno območje na Poljskem, Litvi, Latviji, Estoniji in Finskem. [ 46 ] Sporazum je bil tudi zagotovilo Nemčiji, da se rdeča armada ne bo vpletala v nemške operacije proti Poljski s tem se je Nemčija želela izogniti dvema frontama kakor se je to zgodilo v prvi svetovni vojni. Takoj po podpisu sporazuma je Hitler ukazal napasti Poljsko 26. avgusta, vendar je kasneje napad prestavil ko je izvedel, do bo Velika Britanija Poljski zagotovila podporo v primeru vojne in, da bo Italija v primeru vojne razglasila nevtralnost. [ 47 ] Britanci na vojno niso bili pripravljeni zato so se ji želeli na vsak način izogniti in so zahtevali nova pogajanja, Nemčija je na to odgovorila z nemogočimi zahtevami kar je položaj samo še poslabšalo. [ 48 ] 29. avgusta je Hitler od Poljske zahteval naj Nemčiji preda Gdansk ter izvede plebiscit na katerem se bojo Nemci živeči na območju poljskega koridorja sami odločili v kateri državi želijo živeti. [ 48 ] Poljaki niso želeli ugoditi nemškim zahtevam, na burnem sestanku v Berlinu med britanskim veleposlanikom in nemškim zunanjim ministrom Ribbentropom v noči iz 30. na 31. je Ribbentrop izjavil, da so bile po njegovem mnenju vse nemške zahteve zavrnjene. [ 49 ] Naslednji dan se je Evropa znašla v novi vojni. Okupacije in sporazumi v Evropi V Evropi sta Nemčija in Italija postajali vedno bolj agresivni. Marca 1938 si je Nemčija priključila Avstrijo , odziv nasprotnih sil (Velike Britanije in Francije) je bil zelo medel. [ 36 ] Dogodek je Hitlerja toliko opogumil, da je zahteval še Sudete na Češkoslovaškem kjer je živelo večinsko nemško prebivalstvo. V strahu pred novo vojno sta Francija in Velika Britanija, pod vodstvom mirovniške politike britanskega premiera Neville Chamberlaina , z Nemčijo v Münchnu podpisali Münchenski sporazum s katerim je Nemčija dobila Sudete v zameno pa se je morala odreči novim teritorialnim zahtevam. [ 37 ] Češkoslovaška pri dogovoru ni imela nobene besede kasneje pa sta jo Nemčija in Italija prisilile, da je dele svojega ozemlja odstopila še Madžarski in Poljski. [ 38 ] Čeprav je Hitler s sporazumom dobil vse kar je zahteval je bil kljub temu besen ker so se Britanci vpletali v njegove načrte s katerimi je želel zasesti celotno Češkoslovaško. V javnem govoru je napadel Veliko Britanijo in Žide januarja pa nemški mornarici ukazal visoko vojno pripravljenost s katero je želel izzvati prevlado britanske mornarice. Marca 1939 je Nemčija zasedla še preostanek Češkoslovaške in jo razdelila na nemški protektorat Češka in Moravska ter nemško satelitsko državo Republiko Slovaško. [ 39 ] Dvajsetega marca 1939 je Hitler od Litve zahteval regijo Memel (Klaipeda). [ 40 ] Ko je Hitler zahteval še svobodno mesto Gdansk sta Francija in Velika Britanija potrdila podporo Poljski ter jamčili za njeno samostojnost. Podobno se je zgodilo na Balkanu po italijanski zasedbi Albanije, aprila 1939, kjer sta Velika Britanija in Francija jamčili za samostojnost Romunije in Grčije. [ 41 ] Nemčija in Italija sta na to podporo odgovorili z jeklenim paktom (vojaško in politično zavezništvo med Italijo in Nemčijo). [ 42 ] Hitler je obtožil Veliko Britanijo in Poljsko, da želita obkoliti Nemčijo ter razdrl britansko-nemški mornariški sporazum in nemško poljski sporazum o nenapadanju. [ 43 ] Kriza je dosegla vrhunec konec avgusta 1939, ko so se nemške čete začele zbirati na nemško poljski meji. 23. avgusta, ko so pogovori o zavezništvu med Veliko Britanijo, Francijo in Sovjetsko zvezo zastali, [ 44 ] je bil med Nemčijo in Sovjetsko zvezo podpisan pakt o nenapadanju . [ 45 ] Pakt je vseboval tajen protokol, ki je določal nemško in sovjetsko vplivno območje na Poljskem, Litvi, Latviji, Estoniji in Finskem. [ 46 ] Sporazum je bil tudi zagotovilo Nemčiji, da se rdeča armada ne bo vpletala v nemške operacije proti Poljski s tem se je Nemčija želela izogniti dvema frontama kakor se je to zgodilo v prvi svetovni vojni. Takoj po podpisu sporazuma je Hitler ukazal napasti Poljsko 26. avgusta, vendar je kasneje napad prestavil ko je izvedel, do bo Velika Britanija Poljski zagotovila podporo v primeru vojne in, da bo Italija v primeru vojne razglasila nevtralnost. [ 47 ] Britanci na vojno niso bili pripravljeni zato so se ji želeli na vsak način izogniti in so zahtevali nova pogajanja, Nemčija je na to odgovorila z nemogočimi zahtevami kar je položaj samo še poslabšalo. [ 48 ] 29. avgusta je Hitler od Poljske zahteval naj Nemčiji preda Gdansk ter izvede plebiscit na katerem se bojo Nemci živeči na območju poljskega koridorja sami odločili v kateri državi želijo živeti. [ 48 ] Poljaki niso želeli ugoditi nemškim zahtevam, na burnem sestanku v Berlinu med britanskim veleposlanikom in nemškim zunanjim ministrom Ribbentropom v noči iz 30. na 31. je Ribbentrop izjavil, da so bile po njegovem mnenju vse nemške zahteve zavrnjene. [ 49 ] Naslednji dan se je Evropa znašla v novi vojni. Časovni pregled [ uredi | uredi kodo ] Glavni članek : Kronologija druge svetovne vojne . Glavni članek : Poljska kampanja (1939) . Vojna se je začela 1. septembra 1939, ko so nemške čete vdrle na Poljsko , leta 1940 so napadli Norveško in Dansko , maja pa Francijo, Belgijo , Luksemburg in Nizozemsko . Aprila 1941 je nemška vojska napadla Kraljevino Jugoslavijo in Grčijo , 22. junija pa Sovjetsko zvezo. Pozimi leta 1941 so bili pred vrati Moskve , vendar jih je Sovjetska zveza premagala in jih potisnila 200 km proti zahodu. Vojna je postala svetovna z japonskim napadom na Pearl Harbour , nekaj dni kasneje pa se je v vojni znašla skoraj celotna vzhodna Azija in Pacifik. Zima med letoma 1942 in 1943 velja za preobrat v drugi svetovni vojni, ker so bili Nemci hudo poraženi v bitki za Stalingrad . Propad Nemčije je bil zapečaten z dnevom D . Vojna sreča se je postavila na stran zaveznikov tudi na pacifiškem bojišču, saj so Japonci začeli izgubljali otok za otokom. Vojna se je končala 2. septembra 1945, ko se je vdala Japonska . V Evropi se je uradno končala že 8. maja s predajo Nemčije, v Sloveniji in na avstrijskem Koroškem ter ponekod drugod v Vzhodni Evropi pa so boji trajali še do 15. maja. Časovni pregled Vojna se je začela 1. septembra 1939, ko so nemške čete vdrle na Poljsko , leta 1940 so napadli Norveško in Dansko , maja pa Francijo, Belgijo , Luksemburg in Nizozemsko . Aprila 1941 je nemška vojska napadla Kraljevino Jugoslavijo in Grčijo , 22. junija pa Sovjetsko zvezo. Pozimi leta 1941 so bili pred vrati Moskve , vendar jih je Sovjetska zveza premagala in jih potisnila 200 km proti zahodu. Vojna je postala svetovna z japonskim napadom na Pearl Harbour , nekaj dni kasneje pa se je v vojni znašla skoraj celotna vzhodna Azija in Pacifik. Zima med letoma 1942 in 1943 velja za preobrat v drugi svetovni vojni, ker so bili Nemci hudo poraženi v bitki za Stalingrad . Propad Nemčije je bil zapečaten z dnevom D . Vojna sreča se je postavila na stran zaveznikov tudi na pacifiškem bojišču, saj so Japonci začeli izgubljali otok za otokom. Vojna se je končala 2. septembra 1945, ko se je vdala Japonska . V Evropi se je uradno končala že 8. maja s predajo Nemčije, v Sloveniji in na avstrijskem Koroškem ter ponekod drugod v Vzhodni Evropi pa so boji trajali še do 15. maja. Vojaško dogajanje [ uredi | uredi kodo ] Bliskovita vojna (Blietzkrieg) [ uredi | uredi kodo ] Glavni članek : Vojna v Evropi (druga svetovna vojna) . Nemški tanki, 1939 Druga svetovna vojna se je začela 1. septembra 1939 z nenapovedanim vendar pričakovanim napadom na Poljsko . Nemčija je kot vzrok navedla zaigran incident na nemško-poljski meji, v katerem naj bi poljska vojska uničila nemško radijsko postajo in pri tem ubila tam zaposlene Nemce. 3. septembra je Velika Britanija kot poljska zaveznica v Berlin poslala ultimat, vendar ni dobila nobenega odgovora, zato je napovedala vojno Nemčiji. Veliki Britaniji sta se pridružili še Avstralija in Nova Zelandija . Nekoliko kasneje, čeprav zelo nerada, je vojno Nemčiji napovedala tudi Francija, ki je bila zaveznica Velike Britanije. Tem državam so nato sledile še Kanada , Južna Afrika in Nepal . 7TP je bil poljski lahki tank Kljub temu, da sta Velika Britanija in Francija napovedali vojno Nemčiji, je Poljska zaman pričakovala pomoč zaveznikov, saj se Velika Britanija in Francija zaradi težav pri mobilizaciji čet še nista mislili zapletati v vojno. To je zaveznike na koncu drago stalo, saj v tistem času Nemci na zahodni meji niso imeli omembe vrednih enot, ki bi lahko ustavile napadalca. 28. septembra je nemška vojska ob podpori letalskih bombnih napadov zasedla skoraj popolnoma uničeno Varšavo, vendar poljska vojska še ni bila uničena in se je pogumno upira agresorju, pri tem pa mu zadala veliko izgub. Zadnji udarec je Poljski zadala Sovjetska zveza, ki je 17. septembra skoraj brez bojev zasedla vzhodni del države. Poljski vojski tako ni ostalo drugega, kot da 6. oktobra kapitulira. Državo sta si nato po dogovoru Ribbentrop-Molotov razdelili Nemčija in Sovjetska zveza : prva je okupirala zahodni del države, druga pa vzhodni del. Porušene stavbe v Londonu po nemškem bombardiranju. Po kratkotrajni vojni na Poljskem se ja na francosko-nemški meji pojavila t. i. lažna vojna , ko ne ena ne druga stran ni prevzela pobude in napadla sovražnika, ki se je skrival za močno utrjeno Maginotovo in Siegfridovo linijo . V tem času SZ ni počivala, poleg Poljske je okupirala še baltske države: Litvo , Latvijo in Estonijo , na daljnem severu pa se je v t. i. zimski vojni spustila v krvave spopade s finsko vojsko, ki so Rdečo armado na koncu veliko stale, vendar pa so jo istočasno na nek način tudi rešile pred popolnim porazom v letu 1941, ko je Nemčija v operaciji Barbarosa napadla SZ. Aprila 1940 sta se zavezniška in nemška vojska prvič srečali na odprtem bojišču. Do bojev je prišlo v Skandinaviji , vzrok zanje pa je bilo varovanje transportnih poti do rudnikov železa na Švedskem , od katerih je bila nemška težka industrija življenjsko odvisna. Za zagotovitev nemotene dostave rude preko Norveške in Švedske so bili Nemci pripravljeni zasesti tudi skandinavske države. K temu jih je tudi prisilila britanska mornarica, ki je v teritorialnih vodah sicer nevtralne Norveške položila mine. Nemški odgovor na to je bilo zavzetje Danske in Norveške . V skandinavski operaciji so Nemci brez večjih težav v enem samem dnevu zasedli Dansko, nato pa so se usmerili proti Norveški, kjer so se spopadli z norveško, britansko in francosko vojsko. Po dveh mesecih krvavih spopadov na daljnem severu je bila zavezniška vojska poražena, zato se je morala umakniti. Zaradi poraza Velike Britanije in njenih zaveznikov je bil Neville Chamberlain kot ministrski predsednik prisiljen odstopiti, nadomestil pa ga je Winston Churchill , ki si je zadal nalogo uničiti nacizem in fašizem. Britanski in francoski ujetniki, ki se jim ni uspelo pravočasno evakuirati iz Dunkerquea. 10. maja 1940 je vojna dobila popolnoma nove razsežnosti, ko je Nemčija napadla nevtralne države: Nizozemsko , Belgijo in Luksemburg , nato pa se je usmerila proti Franciji in na ta način obšla nepremagljivo Maginotovo linijo. Istočasno sta britanski ekspedicijski korpus in francoska vojska prestopila belgijsko mejo in se spopadla z nemško armado. Zavezniški vojski sta imeli sicer premoč v orožju, vendar sta bili premalo gibljivi, zato so ju nemške tankovske enote zlahka obšle in s tem obkolile. Po več neuspelih protinapadih je v operaciji Dinamo sledil umik britanskih čet iz Francije. 10. junija je Francijo napadla še Italija, vendar njena vojska ni bila tako uspešna kot nemška, zato je francoska vojska njen napad odbila. Po umiku britanskih čet se je nemška armada usmerila proti Parizu . Sledila je bitka pri Somi , v kateri je bila francoska vojska poražena, zato je ta 22. junija podpisala kapitulacijo. Nemška vojska je nato vkorakala v Pariz in okupirala približno dve tretjini Francije, ostalo tretjino pa pustila neokupirano, vendar pod nemškim nadzorom. Po porazu Francije je ostala Velika Britanija edini nasprotnik nacistične Nemčije. Hitler je upal, da bo po porazu Francije Veliki Britaniji vsilil mir, ker pa se to ni zgodilo, je začel pripravljati operacijo Morski lev , do katere pa nikoli ni prišlo, saj je bilo predhodno treba uničiti RAF . Tako se je začela na nebu nad Veliko Britanijo, Bitka za Britanijo , v kateri so bili Nemci poraženi. Vojna se je po tem na zahodu za nekaj časa umirila. V tem času so nemška letala sistematično bombardirala Anglijo, ta pa je izvajala skrivne operacije na sovražnikovem ozemlju. V pričakovanju novega napada zaveznikov je začela Nemčija na obalah Francije, Belgije in Nizozemske postavljati mogočen atlantski zid . Bitka za Atlantik [ uredi | uredi kodo ] Glavni članek : Bitka za Atlantik . Zavezniški tanker, ki je postal žrtev nemške podmornice, se potaplja v plamenih. Bitka za Atlantik se je začela skoraj istočasno z nemškim napadom na Poljsko in s torpediranjem britanske potniške ladje SS Athenia . Nemci so v pričakovanju vojne svoje podmornice in bojne ladje poslali na Atlantik že nekaj tednov prej z namenom, da bi ob začetku vojne takoj začele napadati zavezniške trgovske in vojne ladje. Najbolj zloglasno orožje bitke za Atlantik so bile nemške podmornice ( U-Boot, okrajšava za Unterseeboot ), ki so z začetkom vojne začele napadati zavezniško trgovsko ladjevje. Sprva so se zadrževale okoli Britanskega otočja, kjer je bil ladijski promet največji. Z uvedbo varovanih konvojev pa so svoje lovsko območje preselile v osrednji Atlantik, kjer Angleži zaradi pomanjkanja spremljevalnih ladij in letal niso morali nadzorovati morja. Največji podmorniški podvig nemške mornarice na začetku vojne je bila potopitev britanske letalonosilke HMS Courageous in nočni napad podmornice U-47 na britansko pomorsko oporišče Scapa Flow na Orkneyskih otokih, kjer je bila potopljena ladja HMS Royal Oak . S porazom Francije leta 1940 se je začelo popolnoma novo poglavje v bitki za Atlantik. Nemška mornarica je na francoski atlantski obali dobila oporišča, iz katerih je lahko neovirano napadala britanske konvoje. To je pripeljalo britansko mornarico na rob obupa, saj je morala istočasno nadzorovati Rokavski preliv in Severno morje pred operacijo Morski lev, hkrati pa je morala varovati konvoje v smeri Amerike in Afrike. Temu obdobju so nemški podmorničarji pravili kar "srečni časi", saj so v njem potopili veliko trgovskih ladij, sami pa pri tem skoraj niso imeli izgub. Stvari so se za Britance nekoliko izboljšale s podpisom Atlantske listine med ZDA in Veliko Britanijo. ZDA naj bi Veliki Britaniji v zameno za nekatera ozemlja zagotovila skoraj neomejeno dostavo materiala in orožja. Pomembno vlogo v bojih za Atlantik je imelo tudi nemško površinsko ladjevje. To sicer ni bilo tako zelo uspešne kot podmornice, vendar je Britancem povzročalo velike preglavice. Tak primer je bila težka križarka Admiral Graf Spee , ki je prvo leto vojne križarila po južnem Atlantiku in Indijskem oceanu ter potapljala zavezniške trgovske ladje, pri tem pa nase vezala velik del britanske flote, ki jo je zaman iskala vse do bitke pri ustje reke Rio de la Plata. Veliko vlogo so odigrale tudi pomožne križarke , ki so ogrožale zavezniške ladje vse do Avstralije in Antarktike . Največji udarec za nemško mornarico je bila pomorska operacija na Norveškem leta 1940, v kateri so izgubili skoraj polovico svojih najboljših bojnih ladij. Hud udarec je bila tudi izguba bojne ladje Bismarck . Zaradi tega je Hitler preklical vse bojne operacije površinskega ladjevja, to je lahko do konca vojne delovalo le v vodah okoli okupirane Norveške in tam ogrožalo arktične konvoje namenjene proti Rusiji. Napad zavezniškega letala na nemško podmornico. Maja 1941 so Angleži v potapljajoči se nemški podmornici zaplenili kodirni stroj enigma . Ta jim je v prihodnje pomagal pri razvozlavanju nemških kodiranih sporočil, namenjenim podmornicam. Tega leta so v vojno vstopile tudi ZDA, kar je pomenilo za Nemce druge "srečne čase", saj ZDA še niso bile pripravljene na vojno, zato njene ladje niso bile varovane, kar je pomenilo, da so bile lahek plen za nemške podmornice. Te so pričele z napadi tudi v Mehiškem zalivu . Februarja 1942 se je nemški mornarici posrečil izreden podvig. Skozi neprehoden Rokavski preliv, ki je bil posejan z minami ter ga je varovalo britansko ladjevje in letalstvo, jim je uspelo pretihotapiti več težkih križark , ki so pri tem utrpele le manjšo škodo. Zaradi vse večjih izgub ladij v ameriških vodah so tudi ZDA uvedle sistem konvojev, zaradi česar se je ulov podmornic drastično zmanjšal, tako da so se bile te prisiljene umakniti nazaj na odprt Atlantik. Decembra je nemška mornarica začela novo ofenzivo proti arktičnim konvojem , ki pa se je za Nemce končala katastrofalno, saj jim ni uspelo potopiti niti ene zavezniške ladje, sami pa so utrpeli zelo veliko škodo. Zaradi tega je odstopil admiral Erich Raeder , nadomestil pa ga je Karl Dönitz , ki je v podmorniškem vojskovanju uvedel taktiko volčjih krdel . Junija 1943 se je sreča postavila na stran zaveznikov, ko jim je z vse večjimi protipodmorniškimi ukrepi uspelo uničiti 25 % podmornic, pri tem pa so sami izgubili le nekaj ladij. Decembra so Nemci v bitki pri North Capu izgubili še zadnjo križarko. Zaradi vse boljšega varovanja so se napadi na konvoje zmanjšali, zavezniki pa so potopili več podmornic kot kadarkoli Nemške podmornice so kljub porazu v bitki za Atalntik ostale na Atlantiku do konca vojne in napadale zavezniške ladje, vendar so bili njihovi uspehi skromni, izgube pa iz dneva v dan večje. Vojna v severni Afriki [ uredi | uredi kodo ] Glavni članek : Vojna v severni Afriki . Goreči nemški tank poleg angleškega tanka Crusader med operacijo Crusader (angl. Križar ). Vojna v Severni Afriki se je začela 11. septembra leta 1940, ko je italijanska vojska pod poveljstvom Rodolfa Grazianija s petimi divizijami preko Libije vdrla v Egipt . Po začetnih uspehih so se vkopali pri Sidiju Baraniju in čakali na britanski protinapad. Zavladalo je trimesečno zatišje, ki so ga Britanci izkoristili za okrepitev lastnih sil in za priprave na protinapad. Decembra je britanska armada, ki ji je poveljeval Archibald Wavell , izvedla veliko ofenzivo in v dveh mesecih pregnala Italijane 800 km nazaj v Libijo, pri tem pa zajela več kot 130.000 italijanskih vojakov. Britansko napredovanje se je ustavilo šele pri Benghaziju , potem ko je padlo že več močno utrjenih italijanskih utrdb, vključno s Tobrukom . Ker je kazalo, da bo Mussolini kmalu ob vso Severno Afriko, mu je Hitler poslal dve diviziji, poimenovani Afriški korpus , pod poveljstvom Erwina Rommla , ki je prišel v Tripolis februarja 1941. Ta je začel svojo prvo ofenzivo 24. marca 1941, le nekaj tednov pred nemškim napadom na Jugoslavijo in Grčijo. V bliskovitem napadu je pridobil nazaj skoraj vso izgubljeno ozemlje, za seboj pa je pustil obkoljeno angleško posadko v Tobruku. Nemško letalstvo je iz oporišč v Tripolitaniji in na Siciliji napadlo Aleksandrijo , Port Said in Suez ter tako uspešno preprečevalo dovoz čet in materiala v Egipt. V naslednjih štirinajstih mesecih se je fronta po krvavih bitkah premikala sem ter tja po puščavi . Enkrat so zmagali Angleži, drugič je zmagal nemški Afriški korpus. Spomladi leta 1942 je padel tudi Tobruk, ki je bil že dalj časa trn v Rommlovi peti, potem pa se je ta na 110 km približal Aleksandriji. Fronta se je nato ustavila pri znamenitem kraju El Alamein . V tem času si je Rommel pridobil vzdevek "puščavska lisica". Zaradi angleškega poraza na Afriškem bojišču je Churchill avgusta 1942 odletel v Kairo , da bi osebno reorganiziral svoje vrhovno poveljstvo. Za Auchinleckovega naslednika je določil Harolda Alexandra za poveljnika vseh srednjevzhodnih sil. Za poveljnika osme armade, poimenovane "puščavske podgane", si je izbral W. H. E. Gotta. Ker pa je ta umrl v letalski nesreči, ga je nadomestil Bernard Montgomery . Ta se je takoj lotil prerazporeditev v armadi. Po reorganizaciji britanske osme armade je začel pripravljati nov napad na nemško armado pri El Alameinu. 23. oktobra 1942 ponoči se je začela ena najbolj znamenitih bitk na svetu. Napad je bil za nemško armado popolno presenečenje. Ko se je Rommel 25. oktobra vrnil na fronto, sta mu ostali le dve možnosti: naprej ali nazaj. Čez dva dni je spoznal, da je bitka izgubljena, zato je 2. novembra ukazal umik, vendar je bilo že prepozno, saj je bila pot za umik odrezana. Kljub temu pa se mu je posrečilo, da se je glavnina vojske izmuznila skozi ovire, v veliko pomoč mu je bilo tudi deževje, ki je upočasnilo britansko napredovanje. 8. oktobra 1942 so se ameriške in britanske sile v operaciji Bakla (angleško: Torch ) izkrcale v francoskem Maroku in Alžiriji . S to invazijo so želeli zavezniki udariti v hrbet Afriškemu korpusu in ga na ta način dokončno uničiti, treba pa je bilo tudi ustvariti drugo fronto, ki bi razbremenila Sovjetsko zvezo. Francozi, zvesti vladi v Vichiyu, so se večinoma upirali izkrcanim četam. A boji niso trajali dolgo in Francozi v Severni Afriki so se kmalu pridružili boju proti Hitlerju, de Gaulla pa so končno priznali za svojega voditelja. Tri dni po izkrcanju v Severni Afriki je general Eisenhower začel z veliko ofenzivo, ki naj bi dokončno pregnala Nemce iz Severne Afrike. A napad se je končal katastrofalno, saj je Nemcem iz Italije uspelo pripeljati okrepitve, k neuspehu pa je prispevalo tudi zimsko deževje, ki je ceste spremenilo v močvirje. Tako se je vojskovanje decembra ustavilo, saj je bilo treba počakati Montgomeryja, ki se je Tuniziji približeval z vzhoda. Februarja 1943 so Nemci izvedli nenaden protinapad proti neusklajenemu zavezniškemu napredovanju in porinili Američane nazaj čez prelaz Kassarine, a so se stvari kmalu obrnile. Marca je bilo v Berlinu in Rimu jasno, da je Afrika izgubljena, zato je Hitler odpoklical Rommla. Britanci pod Montgomeryjevim poveljstvom so napredovali proti Tuniziji iz vzhoda ob podpori francoske enote Jeana Leclerca, ki je napadla s smeri Čada . Medtem so Američani in Britanci pritiskali na Tunizijo z zahoda. 23. aprila se je začel končni napad. Montgomery je prebil staro francosko obrambno črto Mareth med Libijo in Tunizijo, drugi korpus ZDA pa je zavzel koto 609, ki je zapirala pot v Bizerto . Britanska prva armada je zavzela Longstop Hill, zadnjo veliko naravno oviro. 7. maja sta padla Tunis in Bizerta, s čimer je bila presekana smer umika nemških enot v smeri rta Bon , s čimer se je končala vojna v Severni Ariki. Vojna na Tihem oceanu in v Aziji [ uredi | uredi kodo ] Glavna članka : Vojna za Tihi ocean in Burmanska kampanja . USS Arizona v plamenih po japonskem napadu na ameriško oprišče Pearl Harbor . Vojna na Tihem oceanu se je začela 8. decembra 1941 z japonskim napadom na angleško kolonijo Hong Kong , Nizozemsko vzhodno Indijo , Tajsko in ameriške Filipine . Dan prej, 7. decembra, se je zgodil tudi japonski napad na ameriško mornariško oporišče v Pearl Harborju na Havajih, s čimer so ZDA vstopile v vojno. Po japonski invaziji na Tajsko, ki je padla v 24 urah, je 25. decembra padel tudi Hongkong, istega dne pa še oporišča na ameriških otokih Guam in Wake . Da bi Angleži preprečili izkrcanje japonskih čet v Maleziji , so v boj poslali bojni ladji HMS Repulse in HMS Prince of Wales , ki pa sta kmalu postali tarči japonskih bombnikov, kar je bil eden prvih dokazov, da je čas velikih bojnih ladij mimo. Januarja 1942 je Japonska napadla Burmo , Nizozemsko Vzhodno Indijo in Novo Gvinejo . 15. februarja je padel Singapur , mesto, za katero so Angleži pravili, da ga ni mogoče zavzeti. Pred japonskimi napadi ni bila varna niti Avstralija; 19. februarja so japonska letala bombardirala avstralsko mesto Darwin in ostala mesta na severu Avstralije. Po večmesečnih bojih so 8. maja padli tudi Filipini, s čimer je postala Avstralija praktično obkoljena. Do sredine leta 1942 so se Američani reorganizirali in zbrali svoje razbito ladjevje ter čete za ponovni napad na japonsko mornarico in njihove postojanke. Ker japonske čete v preteklosti niso zasedle mesta Port Moresby na južnem koncu Nove Gvineje, so želeli zdaj to doseči z izkrcanjem, kar je pripeljalo do bitke v Koralnem morju . Rezultat bitke je bil sicer neodločen, vendar pa so Američani dosegli taktično zmago, saj so prekinili izkrcavanje japonskih čet na jugu Nove Gvineje. Junija so Japonci začeli novo ofenzivo, zasesti so nameravali atol Midway v havajskem otočju. Da bi svoje namere prikrili pred Američani, so zasedli nekaj Aleutskih otokov ob obali Aljaske , a to Američanov ni zmedlo. Tako je med 4. in 7. junijem 1942 prišlo do bitke za Midway , v kateri je bilo japonsko ladjevje poraženo, kar je bil jasen znak, da se je tehtnica prevesila na stran zaveznikov. V tem času so na Novi Gvineji in Salomonovih otokih potekali krvavi spopadi med angleškimi, avstralskimi, novozelandskimi in japonskimi enotami, ki so si še vedno želeli zasesti Port Moresby ter okoliške otoke. Avgusta se je na Guadalcanalu izkrcalo 16.000 ameriških marincev, kar je bila prva večja kopenska operacija ameriške vojske po padcu Filipinov. Krvavi boji za otok so se končali šele 9. februarja 1943, ko je bilo z otoka pregnana večina japonskih vojakov, s tem pa se je končalo tudi obleganje Avstralije. Američani so nato skupaj z avstralsko, novozelandsko in angleško vojsko začeli prodirati vedno globlje proti severu Nove Gvineje, dokler se niso pred Filipini srečali z enotami, ki so prodirale iz vzhoda. Ameriška letala med bitko za Midway. Kljub zmagi v bitkah za Midway in Guadalcanal je Američane od Japonske še vedno ločil obsežen Tihi ocean, poln majhnih koralnih otokov, od katerih je vsak predstavljal močno utrjeno japonsko postojanko. Da bi Američani zavzeli te otoke, so si izmislili taktiko žabjih skokov, v kateri bi zavzeli otok za otokom in se tako postopoma približali Japonski na razdaljo, od koder bi jo lahko bombardirali iz zraka. Otoke, ki bi bili premočno oboroženi, bi obšli in se tako izognili nepotrebnim izgubam. Svojo taktiko so preizkusili na dveh majhnih koralnih otokih: Tarawa in Makin v skupini Gilbertovih otokov , ki so ju zavzeli z veliko težavami, vendar so se ob tem veliko naučili, saj so bile izgube v sledečih operacijah dosti manjše. Nato so nadaljevali v smeri Marshallovih otokov , kjer so zasedli pomembna atola Kwajalein in Eniwetok . Največji dosežek v tej kampanji je bil zasedba otokov Saipan , Tinian in Guam v skupini Marianskih otokov . Z zasedbo teh otokov je Japonska prišla v doseg ameriških bombnikov B-29 , ki so lahko sedaj brez prestanka bombardirali pomembna japonska mesta. Med 19. in 20. junijem 1944 je prišlo do bitke v Filipinskem morju , kjer je japonska mornarica ponovno doživela poraz, od katerega si ni več opomogla. Med septembrom in oktobrom so padli še otoki Ulithi , Yap , Ngulu in Palau . Po uspešnih operacijah na Tihem oceanu so na vrsto prišli Filipini. Ameriške čete so se tam izkrcale 20. oktobra 1944, boji zanj pa so trajali do 2. septembra 1945, med 23. in 26. oktobrom 1944 pa je v zalivu Leyte pred filipinsko vzhodno obalo prišlo do zadnje velike pomorske bitke med ameriško in japonsko mornarico, v kateri je bila slednja ponovno poražena. Obroč okoli Japonske se je začel vedno bolj ožiti, kmalu so padli otoki, kot sta Iwo Jima ter Okinawa , ki sta sestavni del Japonske. Nič bolje ni Japoncem kazalo v Burmi, kjer so angleške čete prebile japonsko obrambno črto in začele osvobajati malezijski polotok. Svoje je prispevala tudi Sovjetska zveza, ki je napadla Mandžurijo in okupirala Kurilske otoke . Vendar se Japonska kljub brezizhodnemu položaju ni želela predati in se je nameravala, tako kot Nemčija, boriti do samega konca. Tako nesmiselno upiranje bi Američanom povzročilo strahovite izgube, zato so se odločili, da bodo uporabili novo čudežno orožje, za katero svet vse do tedaj še ni slišal: atomsko bombo . Prvo bombo so odvrgli na Hirošimo 6. avgusta leta 1945, ker pa se Japonska kljub uporabi tega strahovitega orožja ni želela predati, so 9. avgusta odvrgli še drugo bombo, tokrat na mesto Nagasaki , s čimer se je vojna na Tihem oceanu končala. Vojna v Sredozemlju [ uredi | uredi kodo ] Glavna članka : Italijansko bojišče in Bitka za Malto . Italijanski samostan Monte Cassino v ruševinah, po tem ko ga je do tal porušilo zavezniško letalstvo. Bitka za Monte Cassino je bila ena najbolj krvavih bitk na italijanskem bojišču. Vojna v Sredozemskem morju se je začela 10. junija 1940 z vstopom Italije v vojno. Po porazu Francije 24. junija je ta postala največja pomorska velesila v Sredozemskem morju, zato je začela vedno bolj ogrožati Britanske konvoje, namenjene v Egipt, kjer so se boji po posredovanju Nemcev zelo zaostrili. S porazom Francije pa se je pojavil problem še z ostankom Francoske bojne flote, ki je ostala zvesta francoski vladi v Vichiyu. Ta je bila pod velikim vplivom Nemcev, zato so Britanci sklepali, da je le še vprašanje časa, kdaj se bodo Nemci polastili te mogočne flote in jo uporabili v svojo korist. Da bi Britanci to preprečili, so od Francozov zahtevali, da svoje bojne ladje razorožijo, ali pa jih predajo Britancem. Ker so Francozi zahtevo zavrnili, je britansko ladjevje 3. julija 1940 napadlo francosko pomorsko floto pri Mers-el-Kebir na obali Severne Afrike in jo popolnoma uničilo. 11. novembra so britanska letala iz letalonosilke HMS Illustrious (R87) napadla italijansko ladjevje, zasidrano v Tarentu , in potopilo ter poškodovalo več bojnih ladij. Jeseni leta 1940 je Italija brez Hitlerjeve vednosti iz smeri Albanije napadla Grčijo in doživela strahoten poraz, zaradi katerega je skoraj izgubila še Albanijo. Spomladi leta 1941 sta Nemčija in Italija skupaj napadli Jugoslavijo in Grčijo. Nemška vojska je ob pomoči italijanske vojske brez težav porazila jugoslovansko, grško in britansko vojsko. Po padcu Grčije sta se bili grška in britanska vojska prisiljeni umakniti na Kreto , vendar je po nemškem letalskem desantu kmalu padla tudi ta, zato je temu sledila evakuacija britanskih čet v Egipt. Med 27. in 29. marcem je italijanska mornarica doživela še en poraz. V bitki pri rtu Matapan je izgubila pet ladij, ena pa je bila huje poškodovana, medtem ko so Britanci izgubili eno samo letalo, več ladij pa je bilo poškodovanih. Leta 1941 je do bojev prišlo tudi v Libanonu in Siriji , ki sta bili pod nadzorom Francozov, zvestih Vichiyu. Vzrok za začetek britanske vojaške operacije proti Francozom je bilo sestreljeno nemško letalo v Iraku , ravno v času, ko je tam potekala vstaja proti Britancem. Ker bi nemško letalo lahko v Irak priletelo le s smeri ene od teh dveh držav, so Britanci sklepali, da imajo Nemci tam svojo oporišča, ki jih je treba uničiti. Z razmahom bojev v Severni Afriki je postala vedno bolj pomembna tudi Malta , majhen otok na pol poti med Egiptom in Gilbertarjem, ki se nahaja blizu italijanske obale. Zaradi svoje lege je imel otok zelo pomemben strateški pomen, saj je lahko služil kot vmesna postojanka za poškodovane ladje, namenjene v Egipt in Severno Afriko, iz letališč na otoku pa je bilo možno nadzorovati sovražnikove pomorske poti in napadati mesta na jugu Italije. Ker Nemci in Italijani otoka nikoli niso imeli priložnosti zasesti, so se odločili, da ga bodo v bitki za Malto izstradali, vendar je otok nekako zdržal vse do poraza sil osi v Severni Afriki. Po končanih bojih v Severni Afriki, je z operacijo Husky 10. junija 1943 prišlo do izkrcanja zavezniških čet na jugu Sicilije , ki so jo brez večjega odpora zasedli. 3. septembra so se zavezniki v operaciji Baytown izkrcali na jugu Italije in začeli brez večjih težav prodirati proti severu. Temu je 8. septembra sledila kapitulacija Italije, ki je nato prestopila na stran zaveznikov. Ti so se 10. septembra v operaciji Avalounch izkrcali še pri Salernu , vendar se je njihova hitro napredovanje kmalu ustavilo pred nemško zimsko obrambno črto. Da bi to obrambno črto obšli, so se izkrcali pri Anziu , kjer pa so padli v nemško past, zaradi česar se je izkrcanje sprevrglo v pravo nočno moro, iz katere ni bilo videti izhoda. Pomlad leta 1944 je prinesla nov začetek. Po krvavih bojih za Monte Cassino je bila nemška zimska obrambna črta prebita, zato je junija končno padel Rim, vendar pa so Nemci na severu države postavili Gotsko obrambno črto , zaradi česar je bilo zavezniško napredovanje ponovno ustavljeno vse do pomladi leta 1945. Nič bolje se Nemcem ni godilo na Balkanu. Zaradi napredovanja Rdeče armade na vzhodni fronti in vse močnejšega odporniškega gibanja v Grčiji in Jugoslaviji so se bili prisiljeni umakniti. Z umikom nemških čet in Francije, Italije, Grčije in Jugoslavije so se boji v Sredozemskem morju in njegovi okolici končali. Vzhodna fronta in Balkan [ uredi | uredi kodo ] Glavna članka : Vzhodna fronta (druga svetovna vojna) in Vojna na Balkanu . Nemška vojska v prvi bitki za Harkov , oktober 1941. Po končanih vojaških operacijah na zahodu se je Hitler usmeril na vzhod proti Sovjetski zvezi. Ta je v njegovem velikopoteznem načrtu širjenja arijske rase igrala izredno pomembno vlogo, saj naj bi na njenem ozemlju naselili Nemce, vzhodnoslovanska ljudstva pa zasužnjili. Priprave za napad so se začele že leta 1939 s podpisom pakta o nenapadanju, ki pa ga Hitler ni mislil spoštovati, saj si je z njim želel le izogniti se spopadu na dveh frontah. Same vojaške priprave za napad so stekle takoj po porazu Francije, nepričakovano pa jih je prekinila balkanska kriza. Hitler se sprva ni želel vmešavati v balkanske probleme, saj je vedel, da Balkan predstavlja sod smodnika, ki ga lahko vsak čas raznese in povzroči še večje probleme. Vendar pa je aprila 1941 prišlo do nepričakovanih dogodkov, ko je Kraljevina Jugoslavija, kmalu po njegovem podpisu, zavrnila pakt med nacistično Nemčijo in Kraljevino Jugoslavijo. Hitler je to zavrnitev vzel zelo osebno in je vojski ukazal, da naj v t. i. aprilski vojni napade Jugoslavijo in Grčijo, ki sta bili po kratkotrajnih spopadih kmalu poraženi. Po porazu Jugoslavije in njeni okupaciji so se na njenem ozemlju kmalu začela pojavljati odporniška gibanja poimenovana četniki in partizani . Prvi so si prizadevali za vrnitev jugoslovanskega kralja , druge so vodili komunisti pod vodstvom Josipa Broza Tita, ki so želeli po porazu nacizma in fašizma vzpostaviti komunistično državo po zgledu Sovjetske zveze. Na začetku so imeli skupen cilj, poraziti nacizem in fašizem in so zato sklenili zavezništvo. Vendar pa je zaradi različnih ideologij prišlo do hudih razhajanj, ki so povzročila, da so začeli četniki napadati partizane in začeli sodelovati z okupatorjem. [ 50 ] Da so se stvari še dodatno zapletle, so se v strahu pred komunizmom začele po državi ustanavljati vojske, ki so tesno sodelovale z okupatorjem. Boji na Balkanu so izredno pomembno vplivali na potek druge svetovne vojne, saj so različna odporniška gibanja nase vezala velik del nemške vojske, ki je tako niso mogli uporabiti v boju na vzhodni ali zahodni fronti. Po okupaciji Jugoslavije in Grčije so priprave za napad na Sovjetsko zvezo ponovno stekle, vendar so Nemci s tem, ko so napadli Jugoslavijo in Grčijo, izgubili dragocen čas, ki jih je kasneje stal zmage. Operacija Barbarossa , ki je označevala začetek napada na Sovjetsko zvezo, je stekla 22. junija 1941. Nemška vojska je brez večjih težav porazila enote Rdeče armade, ki niso pričakovale nemškega napada. Glavni cilj napada je bila Moskva , ki jo je bilo treba doseči še pred zimo, vendar je v zimi med letoma 1941 in 1942 kmalu postalo jasno, da je ta cilj nedosegljiv. Bliskovito napredovanje nemške vojske se je ustavilo tudi na severu pred obleganim Leningradom in na jugu, ko so se začeli boji za Stalingrad . Po porazu nemške vojske pri Stalingradu se je vojna sreča prevesila na stran Sovjetske zveze. Po bitki pri Kursku poleti 1943 se je bila nemška vojske prisiljena umikati proti domovini. V zimi 1943 in 1944 je prišlo do zloma fronte, zaradi česar se je nemška vojska začela umikati proti zahodu na vsej fronti od Baltskega morja pa vse do Črnega morja . 27. januarja 1944 se je končalo obleganje Leningrada, Rdeča armada pa je nato začela prodirati vedno globlje na zahod. Kmalu so padle vzhodnoevropske države, nato pa je rdeča armada prišla do same nemške meje. Zadnja velika bitka vzhodne fronte je bila Bitka za Berlin . Ko je ta padel, se je druga svetovna vojna v Evropi končala. Zahodna fronta [ uredi | uredi kodo ] Zavezniško izkrcanje v Normandiji , 6. junij 1944. Glavni članek : Zahodna fronta (druga svetovna vojna) . Zaradi vse večjega pritiska Sovjetske zveze, ki je zahtevala odprtje druge fronte , s katero bi razbremenili vzhodno fronto, je 6. junija 1944 prišlo do izkrcanja zavezniških čet v Normandiji . Po uspešnem izkrcanju je prišlo do bitke za Francijo , katere vrhunec je bila osvoboditev Pariza . Po krvavih in mučnih spopadih so se bili Nemci prisiljeni umakniti iz Francije in zasesti nove obrambne položaje za Siegfridovo obrambno črto oz. zahodnim zidom. Da bi se izognili izgubam, ki bi jih utrpeli ob napadu na to zelo dobro branjeno obrambno črto, so nameravali zavezniki v Nemčijo prodreti preko Belgije, Luksemburga in Nizozemske. Vendar se je Operacija Market-Garden , ki je označevala napad na te države, spremenila v pravo polomijo, ki je zaveznike veliko stala. Zaradi spodletele operacije in vedno daljših oskrbovalnih poti zavezniške vojske je fronta vse do decembra 1944 obstala. 16. decembra so Nemci v Ardenski ofenzivi izvedli še zadnji bliskoviti napad, v katerem so presenetili zaveznike in jim prizadejali velike izgube, vendar pa protinapad iz obupa poteka fronte ni mogel več spremeniti. Do konca januarja 1945 se je fronta ustalila tam, kjer je bila decembra 1944, tako je ostalo vse do sredine marca, ko je zaveznikom uspelo prečkati mejno reko Ren , s čimer se je začel prodor v Nemčijo, ki je označeval skorajšnji konec vojne. Prodor se je končal s srečanjem ameriških in sovjetskih enot na reki Labi . Stranska bojišča [ uredi | uredi kodo ] zimska vojna nadaljevalna vojna laponska vojna kitajsko-japonska vojna Vojaško dogajanje Bliskovita vojna (Blietzkrieg) [ uredi | uredi kodo ] Glavni članek : Vojna v Evropi (druga svetovna vojna) . Nemški tanki, 1939 Druga svetovna vojna se je začela 1. septembra 1939 z nenapovedanim vendar pričakovanim napadom na Poljsko . Nemčija je kot vzrok navedla zaigran incident na nemško-poljski meji, v katerem naj bi poljska vojska uničila nemško radijsko postajo in pri tem ubila tam zaposlene Nemce. 3. septembra je Velika Britanija kot poljska zaveznica v Berlin poslala ultimat, vendar ni dobila nobenega odgovora, zato je napovedala vojno Nemčiji. Veliki Britaniji sta se pridružili še Avstralija in Nova Zelandija . Nekoliko kasneje, čeprav zelo nerada, je vojno Nemčiji napovedala tudi Francija, ki je bila zaveznica Velike Britanije. Tem državam so nato sledile še Kanada , Južna Afrika in Nepal . 7TP je bil poljski lahki tank Kljub temu, da sta Velika Britanija in Francija napovedali vojno Nemčiji, je Poljska zaman pričakovala pomoč zaveznikov, saj se Velika Britanija in Francija zaradi težav pri mobilizaciji čet še nista mislili zapletati v vojno. To je zaveznike na koncu drago stalo, saj v tistem času Nemci na zahodni meji niso imeli omembe vrednih enot, ki bi lahko ustavile napadalca. 28. septembra je nemška vojska ob podpori letalskih bombnih napadov zasedla skoraj popolnoma uničeno Varšavo, vendar poljska vojska še ni bila uničena in se je pogumno upira agresorju, pri tem pa mu zadala veliko izgub. Zadnji udarec je Poljski zadala Sovjetska zveza, ki je 17. septembra skoraj brez bojev zasedla vzhodni del države. Poljski vojski tako ni ostalo drugega, kot da 6. oktobra kapitulira. Državo sta si nato po dogovoru Ribbentrop-Molotov razdelili Nemčija in Sovjetska zveza : prva je okupirala zahodni del države, druga pa vzhodni del. Porušene stavbe v Londonu po nemškem bombardiranju. Po kratkotrajni vojni na Poljskem se ja na francosko-nemški meji pojavila t. i. lažna vojna , ko ne ena ne druga stran ni prevzela pobude in napadla sovražnika, ki se je skrival za močno utrjeno Maginotovo in Siegfridovo linijo . V tem času SZ ni počivala, poleg Poljske je okupirala še baltske države: Litvo , Latvijo in Estonijo , na daljnem severu pa se je v t. i. zimski vojni spustila v krvave spopade s finsko vojsko, ki so Rdečo armado na koncu veliko stale, vendar pa so jo istočasno na nek način tudi rešile pred popolnim porazom v letu 1941, ko je Nemčija v operaciji Barbarosa napadla SZ. Aprila 1940 sta se zavezniška in nemška vojska prvič srečali na odprtem bojišču. Do bojev je prišlo v Skandinaviji , vzrok zanje pa je bilo varovanje transportnih poti do rudnikov železa na Švedskem , od katerih je bila nemška težka industrija življenjsko odvisna. Za zagotovitev nemotene dostave rude preko Norveške in Švedske so bili Nemci pripravljeni zasesti tudi skandinavske države. K temu jih je tudi prisilila britanska mornarica, ki je v teritorialnih vodah sicer nevtralne Norveške položila mine. Nemški odgovor na to je bilo zavzetje Danske in Norveške . V skandinavski operaciji so Nemci brez večjih težav v enem samem dnevu zasedli Dansko, nato pa so se usmerili proti Norveški, kjer so se spopadli z norveško, britansko in francosko vojsko. Po dveh mesecih krvavih spopadov na daljnem severu je bila zavezniška vojska poražena, zato se je morala umakniti. Zaradi poraza Velike Britanije in njenih zaveznikov je bil Neville Chamberlain kot ministrski predsednik prisiljen odstopiti, nadomestil pa ga je Winston Churchill , ki si je zadal nalogo uničiti nacizem in fašizem. Britanski in francoski ujetniki, ki se jim ni uspelo pravočasno evakuirati iz Dunkerquea. 10. maja 1940 je vojna dobila popolnoma nove razsežnosti, ko je Nemčija napadla nevtralne države: Nizozemsko , Belgijo in Luksemburg , nato pa se je usmerila proti Franciji in na ta način obšla nepremagljivo Maginotovo linijo. Istočasno sta britanski ekspedicijski korpus in francoska vojska prestopila belgijsko mejo in se spopadla z nemško armado. Zavezniški vojski sta imeli sicer premoč v orožju, vendar sta bili premalo gibljivi, zato so ju nemške tankovske enote zlahka obšle in s tem obkolile. Po več neuspelih protinapadih je v operaciji Dinamo sledil umik britanskih čet iz Francije. 10. junija je Francijo napadla še Italija, vendar njena vojska ni bila tako uspešna kot nemška, zato je francoska vojska njen napad odbila. Po umiku britanskih čet se je nemška armada usmerila proti Parizu . Sledila je bitka pri Somi , v kateri je bila francoska vojska poražena, zato je ta 22. junija podpisala kapitulacijo. Nemška vojska je nato vkorakala v Pariz in okupirala približno dve tretjini Francije, ostalo tretjino pa pustila neokupirano, vendar pod nemškim nadzorom. Po porazu Francije je ostala Velika Britanija edini nasprotnik nacistične Nemčije. Hitler je upal, da bo po porazu Francije Veliki Britaniji vsilil mir, ker pa se to ni zgodilo, je začel pripravljati operacijo Morski lev , do katere pa nikoli ni prišlo, saj je bilo predhodno treba uničiti RAF . Tako se je začela na nebu nad Veliko Britanijo, Bitka za Britanijo , v kateri so bili Nemci poraženi. Vojna se je po tem na zahodu za nekaj časa umirila. V tem času so nemška letala sistematično bombardirala Anglijo, ta pa je izvajala skrivne operacije na sovražnikovem ozemlju. V pričakovanju novega napada zaveznikov je začela Nemčija na obalah Francije, Belgije in Nizozemske postavljati mogočen atlantski zid . Bliskovita vojna (Blietzkrieg) Druga svetovna vojna se je začela 1. septembra 1939 z nenapovedanim vendar pričakovanim napadom na Poljsko . Nemčija je kot vzrok navedla zaigran incident na nemško-poljski meji, v katerem naj bi poljska vojska uničila nemško radijsko postajo in pri tem ubila tam zaposlene Nemce. 3. septembra je Velika Britanija kot poljska zaveznica v Berlin poslala ultimat, vendar ni dobila nobenega odgovora, zato je napovedala vojno Nemčiji. Veliki Britaniji sta se pridružili še Avstralija in Nova Zelandija . Nekoliko kasneje, čeprav zelo nerada, je vojno Nemčiji napovedala tudi Francija, ki je bila zaveznica Velike Britanije. Tem državam so nato sledile še Kanada , Južna Afrika in Nepal . Kljub temu, da sta Velika Britanija in Francija napovedali vojno Nemčiji, je Poljska zaman pričakovala pomoč zaveznikov, saj se Velika Britanija in Francija zaradi težav pri mobilizaciji čet še nista mislili zapletati v vojno. To je zaveznike na koncu drago stalo, saj v tistem času Nemci na zahodni meji niso imeli omembe vrednih enot, ki bi lahko ustavile napadalca. 28. septembra je nemška vojska ob podpori letalskih bombnih napadov zasedla skoraj popolnoma uničeno Varšavo, vendar poljska vojska še ni bila uničena in se je pogumno upira agresorju, pri tem pa mu zadala veliko izgub. Zadnji udarec je Poljski zadala Sovjetska zveza, ki je 17. septembra skoraj brez bojev zasedla vzhodni del države. Poljski vojski tako ni ostalo drugega, kot da 6. oktobra kapitulira. Državo sta si nato po dogovoru Ribbentrop-Molotov razdelili Nemčija in Sovjetska zveza : prva je okupirala zahodni del države, druga pa vzhodni del. Po kratkotrajni vojni na Poljskem se ja na francosko-nemški meji pojavila t. i. lažna vojna , ko ne ena ne druga stran ni prevzela pobude in napadla sovražnika, ki se je skrival za močno utrjeno Maginotovo in Siegfridovo linijo . V tem času SZ ni počivala, poleg Poljske je okupirala še baltske države: Litvo , Latvijo in Estonijo , na daljnem severu pa se je v t. i. zimski vojni spustila v krvave spopade s finsko vojsko, ki so Rdečo armado na koncu veliko stale, vendar pa so jo istočasno na nek način tudi rešile pred popolnim porazom v letu 1941, ko je Nemčija v operaciji Barbarosa napadla SZ. Aprila 1940 sta se zavezniška in nemška vojska prvič srečali na odprtem bojišču. Do bojev je prišlo v Skandinaviji , vzrok zanje pa je bilo varovanje transportnih poti do rudnikov železa na Švedskem , od katerih je bila nemška težka industrija življenjsko odvisna. Za zagotovitev nemotene dostave rude preko Norveške in Švedske so bili Nemci pripravljeni zasesti tudi skandinavske države. K temu jih je tudi prisilila britanska mornarica, ki je v teritorialnih vodah sicer nevtralne Norveške položila mine. Nemški odgovor na to je bilo zavzetje Danske in Norveške . V skandinavski operaciji so Nemci brez večjih težav v enem samem dnevu zasedli Dansko, nato pa so se usmerili proti Norveški, kjer so se spopadli z norveško, britansko in francosko vojsko. Po dveh mesecih krvavih spopadov na daljnem severu je bila zavezniška vojska poražena, zato se je morala umakniti. Zaradi poraza Velike Britanije in njenih zaveznikov je bil Neville Chamberlain kot ministrski predsednik prisiljen odstopiti, nadomestil pa ga je Winston Churchill , ki si je zadal nalogo uničiti nacizem in fašizem. 10. maja 1940 je vojna dobila popolnoma nove razsežnosti, ko je Nemčija napadla nevtralne države: Nizozemsko , Belgijo in Luksemburg , nato pa se je usmerila proti Franciji in na ta način obšla nepremagljivo Maginotovo linijo. Istočasno sta britanski ekspedicijski korpus in francoska vojska prestopila belgijsko mejo in se spopadla z nemško armado. Zavezniški vojski sta imeli sicer premoč v orožju, vendar sta bili premalo gibljivi, zato so ju nemške tankovske enote zlahka obšle in s tem obkolile. Po več neuspelih protinapadih je v operaciji Dinamo sledil umik britanskih čet iz Francije. 10. junija je Francijo napadla še Italija, vendar njena vojska ni bila tako uspešna kot nemška, zato je francoska vojska njen napad odbila. Po umiku britanskih čet se je nemška armada usmerila proti Parizu . Sledila je bitka pri Somi , v kateri je bila francoska vojska poražena, zato je ta 22. junija podpisala kapitulacijo. Nemška vojska je nato vkorakala v Pariz in okupirala približno dve tretjini Francije, ostalo tretjino pa pustila neokupirano, vendar pod nemškim nadzorom. Po porazu Francije je ostala Velika Britanija edini nasprotnik nacistične Nemčije. Hitler je upal, da bo po porazu Francije Veliki Britaniji vsilil mir, ker pa se to ni zgodilo, je začel pripravljati operacijo Morski lev , do katere pa nikoli ni prišlo, saj je bilo predhodno treba uničiti RAF . Tako se je začela na nebu nad Veliko Britanijo, Bitka za Britanijo , v kateri so bili Nemci poraženi. Vojna se je po tem na zahodu za nekaj časa umirila. V tem času so nemška letala sistematično bombardirala Anglijo, ta pa je izvajala skrivne operacije na sovražnikovem ozemlju. V pričakovanju novega napada zaveznikov je začela Nemčija na obalah Francije, Belgije in Nizozemske postavljati mogočen atlantski zid . Bitka za Atlantik [ uredi | uredi kodo ] Glavni članek : Bitka za Atlantik . Zavezniški tanker, ki je postal žrtev nemške podmornice, se potaplja v plamenih. Bitka za Atlantik se je začela skoraj istočasno z nemškim napadom na Poljsko in s torpediranjem britanske potniške ladje SS Athenia . Nemci so v pričakovanju vojne svoje podmornice in bojne ladje poslali na Atlantik že nekaj tednov prej z namenom, da bi ob začetku vojne takoj začele napadati zavezniške trgovske in vojne ladje. Najbolj zloglasno orožje bitke za Atlantik so bile nemške podmornice ( U-Boot, okrajšava za Unterseeboot ), ki so z začetkom vojne začele napadati zavezniško trgovsko ladjevje. Sprva so se zadrževale okoli Britanskega otočja, kjer je bil ladijski promet največji. Z uvedbo varovanih konvojev pa so svoje lovsko območje preselile v osrednji Atlantik, kjer Angleži zaradi pomanjkanja spremljevalnih ladij in letal niso morali nadzorovati morja. Največji podmorniški podvig nemške mornarice na začetku vojne je bila potopitev britanske letalonosilke HMS Courageous in nočni napad podmornice U-47 na britansko pomorsko oporišče Scapa Flow na Orkneyskih otokih, kjer je bila potopljena ladja HMS Royal Oak . S porazom Francije leta 1940 se je začelo popolnoma novo poglavje v bitki za Atlantik. Nemška mornarica je na francoski atlantski obali dobila oporišča, iz katerih je lahko neovirano napadala britanske konvoje. To je pripeljalo britansko mornarico na rob obupa, saj je morala istočasno nadzorovati Rokavski preliv in Severno morje pred operacijo Morski lev, hkrati pa je morala varovati konvoje v smeri Amerike in Afrike. Temu obdobju so nemški podmorničarji pravili kar "srečni časi", saj so v njem potopili veliko trgovskih ladij, sami pa pri tem skoraj niso imeli izgub. Stvari so se za Britance nekoliko izboljšale s podpisom Atlantske listine med ZDA in Veliko Britanijo. ZDA naj bi Veliki Britaniji v zameno za nekatera ozemlja zagotovila skoraj neomejeno dostavo materiala in orožja. Pomembno vlogo v bojih za Atlantik je imelo tudi nemško površinsko ladjevje. To sicer ni bilo tako zelo uspešne kot podmornice, vendar je Britancem povzročalo velike preglavice. Tak primer je bila težka križarka Admiral Graf Spee , ki je prvo leto vojne križarila po južnem Atlantiku in Indijskem oceanu ter potapljala zavezniške trgovske ladje, pri tem pa nase vezala velik del britanske flote, ki jo je zaman iskala vse do bitke pri ustje reke Rio de la Plata. Veliko vlogo so odigrale tudi pomožne križarke , ki so ogrožale zavezniške ladje vse do Avstralije in Antarktike . Največji udarec za nemško mornarico je bila pomorska operacija na Norveškem leta 1940, v kateri so izgubili skoraj polovico svojih najboljših bojnih ladij. Hud udarec je bila tudi izguba bojne ladje Bismarck . Zaradi tega je Hitler preklical vse bojne operacije površinskega ladjevja, to je lahko do konca vojne delovalo le v vodah okoli okupirane Norveške in tam ogrožalo arktične konvoje namenjene proti Rusiji. Napad zavezniškega letala na nemško podmornico. Maja 1941 so Angleži v potapljajoči se nemški podmornici zaplenili kodirni stroj enigma . Ta jim je v prihodnje pomagal pri razvozlavanju nemških kodiranih sporočil, namenjenim podmornicam. Tega leta so v vojno vstopile tudi ZDA, kar je pomenilo za Nemce druge "srečne čase", saj ZDA še niso bile pripravljene na vojno, zato njene ladje niso bile varovane, kar je pomenilo, da so bile lahek plen za nemške podmornice. Te so pričele z napadi tudi v Mehiškem zalivu . Februarja 1942 se je nemški mornarici posrečil izreden podvig. Skozi neprehoden Rokavski preliv, ki je bil posejan z minami ter ga je varovalo britansko ladjevje in letalstvo, jim je uspelo pretihotapiti več težkih križark , ki so pri tem utrpele le manjšo škodo. Zaradi vse večjih izgub ladij v ameriških vodah so tudi ZDA uvedle sistem konvojev, zaradi česar se je ulov podmornic drastično zmanjšal, tako da so se bile te prisiljene umakniti nazaj na odprt Atlantik. Decembra je nemška mornarica začela novo ofenzivo proti arktičnim konvojem , ki pa se je za Nemce končala katastrofalno, saj jim ni uspelo potopiti niti ene zavezniške ladje, sami pa so utrpeli zelo veliko škodo. Zaradi tega je odstopil admiral Erich Raeder , nadomestil pa ga je Karl Dönitz , ki je v podmorniškem vojskovanju uvedel taktiko volčjih krdel . Junija 1943 se je sreča postavila na stran zaveznikov, ko jim je z vse večjimi protipodmorniškimi ukrepi uspelo uničiti 25 % podmornic, pri tem pa so sami izgubili le nekaj ladij. Decembra so Nemci v bitki pri North Capu izgubili še zadnjo križarko. Zaradi vse boljšega varovanja so se napadi na konvoje zmanjšali, zavezniki pa so potopili več podmornic kot kadarkoli Nemške podmornice so kljub porazu v bitki za Atalntik ostale na Atlantiku do konca vojne in napadale zavezniške ladje, vendar so bili njihovi uspehi skromni, izgube pa iz dneva v dan večje. Bitka za Atlantik Bitka za Atlantik se je začela skoraj istočasno z nemškim napadom na Poljsko in s torpediranjem britanske potniške ladje SS Athenia . Nemci so v pričakovanju vojne svoje podmornice in bojne ladje poslali na Atlantik že nekaj tednov prej z namenom, da bi ob začetku vojne takoj začele napadati zavezniške trgovske in vojne ladje. Najbolj zloglasno orožje bitke za Atlantik so bile nemške podmornice ( U-Boot, okrajšava za Unterseeboot ), ki so z začetkom vojne začele napadati zavezniško trgovsko ladjevje. Sprva so se zadrževale okoli Britanskega otočja, kjer je bil ladijski promet največji. Z uvedbo varovanih konvojev pa so svoje lovsko območje preselile v osrednji Atlantik, kjer Angleži zaradi pomanjkanja spremljevalnih ladij in letal niso morali nadzorovati morja. Največji podmorniški podvig nemške mornarice na začetku vojne je bila potopitev britanske letalonosilke HMS Courageous in nočni napad podmornice U-47 na britansko pomorsko oporišče Scapa Flow na Orkneyskih otokih, kjer je bila potopljena ladja HMS Royal Oak . S porazom Francije leta 1940 se je začelo popolnoma novo poglavje v bitki za Atlantik. Nemška mornarica je na francoski atlantski obali dobila oporišča, iz katerih je lahko neovirano napadala britanske konvoje. To je pripeljalo britansko mornarico na rob obupa, saj je morala istočasno nadzorovati Rokavski preliv in Severno morje pred operacijo Morski lev, hkrati pa je morala varovati konvoje v smeri Amerike in Afrike. Temu obdobju so nemški podmorničarji pravili kar "srečni časi", saj so v njem potopili veliko trgovskih ladij, sami pa pri tem skoraj niso imeli izgub. Stvari so se za Britance nekoliko izboljšale s podpisom Atlantske listine med ZDA in Veliko Britanijo. ZDA naj bi Veliki Britaniji v zameno za nekatera ozemlja zagotovila skoraj neomejeno dostavo materiala in orožja. Pomembno vlogo v bojih za Atlantik je imelo tudi nemško površinsko ladjevje. To sicer ni bilo tako zelo uspešne kot podmornice, vendar je Britancem povzročalo velike preglavice. Tak primer je bila težka križarka Admiral Graf Spee , ki je prvo leto vojne križarila po južnem Atlantiku in Indijskem oceanu ter potapljala zavezniške trgovske ladje, pri tem pa nase vezala velik del britanske flote, ki jo je zaman iskala vse do bitke pri ustje reke Rio de la Plata. Veliko vlogo so odigrale tudi pomožne križarke , ki so ogrožale zavezniške ladje vse do Avstralije in Antarktike . Največji udarec za nemško mornarico je bila pomorska operacija na Norveškem leta 1940, v kateri so izgubili skoraj polovico svojih najboljših bojnih ladij. Hud udarec je bila tudi izguba bojne ladje Bismarck . Zaradi tega je Hitler preklical vse bojne operacije površinskega ladjevja, to je lahko do konca vojne delovalo le v vodah okoli okupirane Norveške in tam ogrožalo arktične konvoje namenjene proti Rusiji. Maja 1941 so Angleži v potapljajoči se nemški podmornici zaplenili kodirni stroj enigma . Ta jim je v prihodnje pomagal pri razvozlavanju nemških kodiranih sporočil, namenjenim podmornicam. Tega leta so v vojno vstopile tudi ZDA, kar je pomenilo za Nemce druge "srečne čase", saj ZDA še niso bile pripravljene na vojno, zato njene ladje niso bile varovane, kar je pomenilo, da so bile lahek plen za nemške podmornice. Te so pričele z napadi tudi v Mehiškem zalivu . Februarja 1942 se je nemški mornarici posrečil izreden podvig. Skozi neprehoden Rokavski preliv, ki je bil posejan z minami ter ga je varovalo britansko ladjevje in letalstvo, jim je uspelo pretihotapiti več težkih križark , ki so pri tem utrpele le manjšo škodo. Zaradi vse večjih izgub ladij v ameriških vodah so tudi ZDA uvedle sistem konvojev, zaradi česar se je ulov podmornic drastično zmanjšal, tako da so se bile te prisiljene umakniti nazaj na odprt Atlantik. Decembra je nemška mornarica začela novo ofenzivo proti arktičnim konvojem , ki pa se je za Nemce končala katastrofalno, saj jim ni uspelo potopiti niti ene zavezniške ladje, sami pa so utrpeli zelo veliko škodo. Zaradi tega je odstopil admiral Erich Raeder , nadomestil pa ga je Karl Dönitz , ki je v podmorniškem vojskovanju uvedel taktiko volčjih krdel . Junija 1943 se je sreča postavila na stran zaveznikov, ko jim je z vse večjimi protipodmorniškimi ukrepi uspelo uničiti 25 % podmornic, pri tem pa so sami izgubili le nekaj ladij. Decembra so Nemci v bitki pri North Capu izgubili še zadnjo križarko. Zaradi vse boljšega varovanja so se napadi na konvoje zmanjšali, zavezniki pa so potopili več podmornic kot kadarkoli Nemške podmornice so kljub porazu v bitki za Atalntik ostale na Atlantiku do konca vojne in napadale zavezniške ladje, vendar so bili njihovi uspehi skromni, izgube pa iz dneva v dan večje. Vojna v severni Afriki [ uredi | uredi kodo ] Glavni članek : Vojna v severni Afriki . Goreči nemški tank poleg angleškega tanka Crusader med operacijo Crusader (angl. Križar ). Vojna v Severni Afriki se je začela 11. septembra leta 1940, ko je italijanska vojska pod poveljstvom Rodolfa Grazianija s petimi divizijami preko Libije vdrla v Egipt . Po začetnih uspehih so se vkopali pri Sidiju Baraniju in čakali na britanski protinapad. Zavladalo je trimesečno zatišje, ki so ga Britanci izkoristili za okrepitev lastnih sil in za priprave na protinapad. Decembra je britanska armada, ki ji je poveljeval Archibald Wavell , izvedla veliko ofenzivo in v dveh mesecih pregnala Italijane 800 km nazaj v Libijo, pri tem pa zajela več kot 130.000 italijanskih vojakov. Britansko napredovanje se je ustavilo šele pri Benghaziju , potem ko je padlo že več močno utrjenih italijanskih utrdb, vključno s Tobrukom . Ker je kazalo, da bo Mussolini kmalu ob vso Severno Afriko, mu je Hitler poslal dve diviziji, poimenovani Afriški korpus , pod poveljstvom Erwina Rommla , ki je prišel v Tripolis februarja 1941. Ta je začel svojo prvo ofenzivo 24. marca 1941, le nekaj tednov pred nemškim napadom na Jugoslavijo in Grčijo. V bliskovitem napadu je pridobil nazaj skoraj vso izgubljeno ozemlje, za seboj pa je pustil obkoljeno angleško posadko v Tobruku. Nemško letalstvo je iz oporišč v Tripolitaniji in na Siciliji napadlo Aleksandrijo , Port Said in Suez ter tako uspešno preprečevalo dovoz čet in materiala v Egipt. V naslednjih štirinajstih mesecih se je fronta po krvavih bitkah premikala sem ter tja po puščavi . Enkrat so zmagali Angleži, drugič je zmagal nemški Afriški korpus. Spomladi leta 1942 je padel tudi Tobruk, ki je bil že dalj časa trn v Rommlovi peti, potem pa se je ta na 110 km približal Aleksandriji. Fronta se je nato ustavila pri znamenitem kraju El Alamein . V tem času si je Rommel pridobil vzdevek "puščavska lisica". Zaradi angleškega poraza na Afriškem bojišču je Churchill avgusta 1942 odletel v Kairo , da bi osebno reorganiziral svoje vrhovno poveljstvo. Za Auchinleckovega naslednika je določil Harolda Alexandra za poveljnika vseh srednjevzhodnih sil. Za poveljnika osme armade, poimenovane "puščavske podgane", si je izbral W. H. E. Gotta. Ker pa je ta umrl v letalski nesreči, ga je nadomestil Bernard Montgomery . Ta se je takoj lotil prerazporeditev v armadi. Po reorganizaciji britanske osme armade je začel pripravljati nov napad na nemško armado pri El Alameinu. 23. oktobra 1942 ponoči se je začela ena najbolj znamenitih bitk na svetu. Napad je bil za nemško armado popolno presenečenje. Ko se je Rommel 25. oktobra vrnil na fronto, sta mu ostali le dve možnosti: naprej ali nazaj. Čez dva dni je spoznal, da je bitka izgubljena, zato je 2. novembra ukazal umik, vendar je bilo že prepozno, saj je bila pot za umik odrezana. Kljub temu pa se mu je posrečilo, da se je glavnina vojske izmuznila skozi ovire, v veliko pomoč mu je bilo tudi deževje, ki je upočasnilo britansko napredovanje. 8. oktobra 1942 so se ameriške in britanske sile v operaciji Bakla (angleško: Torch ) izkrcale v francoskem Maroku in Alžiriji . S to invazijo so želeli zavezniki udariti v hrbet Afriškemu korpusu in ga na ta način dokončno uničiti, treba pa je bilo tudi ustvariti drugo fronto, ki bi razbremenila Sovjetsko zvezo. Francozi, zvesti vladi v Vichiyu, so se večinoma upirali izkrcanim četam. A boji niso trajali dolgo in Francozi v Severni Afriki so se kmalu pridružili boju proti Hitlerju, de Gaulla pa so končno priznali za svojega voditelja. Tri dni po izkrcanju v Severni Afriki je general Eisenhower začel z veliko ofenzivo, ki naj bi dokončno pregnala Nemce iz Severne Afrike. A napad se je končal katastrofalno, saj je Nemcem iz Italije uspelo pripeljati okrepitve, k neuspehu pa je prispevalo tudi zimsko deževje, ki je ceste spremenilo v močvirje. Tako se je vojskovanje decembra ustavilo, saj je bilo treba počakati Montgomeryja, ki se je Tuniziji približeval z vzhoda. Februarja 1943 so Nemci izvedli nenaden protinapad proti neusklajenemu zavezniškemu napredovanju in porinili Američane nazaj čez prelaz Kassarine, a so se stvari kmalu obrnile. Marca je bilo v Berlinu in Rimu jasno, da je Afrika izgubljena, zato je Hitler odpoklical Rommla. Britanci pod Montgomeryjevim poveljstvom so napredovali proti Tuniziji iz vzhoda ob podpori francoske enote Jeana Leclerca, ki je napadla s smeri Čada . Medtem so Američani in Britanci pritiskali na Tunizijo z zahoda. 23. aprila se je začel končni napad. Montgomery je prebil staro francosko obrambno črto Mareth med Libijo in Tunizijo, drugi korpus ZDA pa je zavzel koto 609, ki je zapirala pot v Bizerto . Britanska prva armada je zavzela Longstop Hill, zadnjo veliko naravno oviro. 7. maja sta padla Tunis in Bizerta, s čimer je bila presekana smer umika nemških enot v smeri rta Bon , s čimer se je končala vojna v Severni Ariki. Vojna v severni Afriki Vojna v Severni Afriki se je začela 11. septembra leta 1940, ko je italijanska vojska pod poveljstvom Rodolfa Grazianija s petimi divizijami preko Libije vdrla v Egipt . Po začetnih uspehih so se vkopali pri Sidiju Baraniju in čakali na britanski protinapad. Zavladalo je trimesečno zatišje, ki so ga Britanci izkoristili za okrepitev lastnih sil in za priprave na protinapad. Decembra je britanska armada, ki ji je poveljeval Archibald Wavell , izvedla veliko ofenzivo in v dveh mesecih pregnala Italijane 800 km nazaj v Libijo, pri tem pa zajela več kot 130.000 italijanskih vojakov. Britansko napredovanje se je ustavilo šele pri Benghaziju , potem ko je padlo že več močno utrjenih italijanskih utrdb, vključno s Tobrukom . Ker je kazalo, da bo Mussolini kmalu ob vso Severno Afriko, mu je Hitler poslal dve diviziji, poimenovani Afriški korpus , pod poveljstvom Erwina Rommla , ki je prišel v Tripolis februarja 1941. Ta je začel svojo prvo ofenzivo 24. marca 1941, le nekaj tednov pred nemškim napadom na Jugoslavijo in Grčijo. V bliskovitem napadu je pridobil nazaj skoraj vso izgubljeno ozemlje, za seboj pa je pustil obkoljeno angleško posadko v Tobruku. Nemško letalstvo je iz oporišč v Tripolitaniji in na Siciliji napadlo Aleksandrijo , Port Said in Suez ter tako uspešno preprečevalo dovoz čet in materiala v Egipt. V naslednjih štirinajstih mesecih se je fronta po krvavih bitkah premikala sem ter tja po puščavi . Enkrat so zmagali Angleži, drugič je zmagal nemški Afriški korpus. Spomladi leta 1942 je padel tudi Tobruk, ki je bil že dalj časa trn v Rommlovi peti, potem pa se je ta na 110 km približal Aleksandriji. Fronta se je nato ustavila pri znamenitem kraju El Alamein . V tem času si je Rommel pridobil vzdevek "puščavska lisica". Zaradi angleškega poraza na Afriškem bojišču je Churchill avgusta 1942 odletel v Kairo , da bi osebno reorganiziral svoje vrhovno poveljstvo. Za Auchinleckovega naslednika je določil Harolda Alexandra za poveljnika vseh srednjevzhodnih sil. Za poveljnika osme armade, poimenovane "puščavske podgane", si je izbral W. H. E. Gotta. Ker pa je ta umrl v letalski nesreči, ga je nadomestil Bernard Montgomery . Ta se je takoj lotil prerazporeditev v armadi. Po reorganizaciji britanske osme armade je začel pripravljati nov napad na nemško armado pri El Alameinu. 23. oktobra 1942 ponoči se je začela ena najbolj znamenitih bitk na svetu. Napad je bil za nemško armado popolno presenečenje. Ko se je Rommel 25. oktobra vrnil na fronto, sta mu ostali le dve možnosti: naprej ali nazaj. Čez dva dni je spoznal, da je bitka izgubljena, zato je 2. novembra ukazal umik, vendar je bilo že prepozno, saj je bila pot za umik odrezana. Kljub temu pa se mu je posrečilo, da se je glavnina vojske izmuznila skozi ovire, v veliko pomoč mu je bilo tudi deževje, ki je upočasnilo britansko napredovanje. 8. oktobra 1942 so se ameriške in britanske sile v operaciji Bakla (angleško: Torch ) izkrcale v francoskem Maroku in Alžiriji . S to invazijo so želeli zavezniki udariti v hrbet Afriškemu korpusu in ga na ta način dokončno uničiti, treba pa je bilo tudi ustvariti drugo fronto, ki bi razbremenila Sovjetsko zvezo. Francozi, zvesti vladi v Vichiyu, so se večinoma upirali izkrcanim četam. A boji niso trajali dolgo in Francozi v Severni Afriki so se kmalu pridružili boju proti Hitlerju, de Gaulla pa so končno priznali za svojega voditelja. Tri dni po izkrcanju v Severni Afriki je general Eisenhower začel z veliko ofenzivo, ki naj bi dokončno pregnala Nemce iz Severne Afrike. A napad se je končal katastrofalno, saj je Nemcem iz Italije uspelo pripeljati okrepitve, k neuspehu pa je prispevalo tudi zimsko deževje, ki je ceste spremenilo v močvirje. Tako se je vojskovanje decembra ustavilo, saj je bilo treba počakati Montgomeryja, ki se je Tuniziji približeval z vzhoda. Februarja 1943 so Nemci izvedli nenaden protinapad proti neusklajenemu zavezniškemu napredovanju in porinili Američane nazaj čez prelaz Kassarine, a so se stvari kmalu obrnile. Marca je bilo v Berlinu in Rimu jasno, da je Afrika izgubljena, zato je Hitler odpoklical Rommla. Britanci pod Montgomeryjevim poveljstvom so napredovali proti Tuniziji iz vzhoda ob podpori francoske enote Jeana Leclerca, ki je napadla s smeri Čada . Medtem so Američani in Britanci pritiskali na Tunizijo z zahoda. 23. aprila se je začel končni napad. Montgomery je prebil staro francosko obrambno črto Mareth med Libijo in Tunizijo, drugi korpus ZDA pa je zavzel koto 609, ki je zapirala pot v Bizerto . Britanska prva armada je zavzela Longstop Hill, zadnjo veliko naravno oviro. 7. maja sta padla Tunis in Bizerta, s čimer je bila presekana smer umika nemških enot v smeri rta Bon , s čimer se je končala vojna v Severni Ariki. Vojna na Tihem oceanu in v Aziji [ uredi | uredi kodo ] Glavna članka : Vojna za Tihi ocean in Burmanska kampanja . USS Arizona v plamenih po japonskem napadu na ameriško oprišče Pearl Harbor . Vojna na Tihem oceanu se je začela 8. decembra 1941 z japonskim napadom na angleško kolonijo Hong Kong , Nizozemsko vzhodno Indijo , Tajsko in ameriške Filipine . Dan prej, 7. decembra, se je zgodil tudi japonski napad na ameriško mornariško oporišče v Pearl Harborju na Havajih, s čimer so ZDA vstopile v vojno. Po japonski invaziji na Tajsko, ki je padla v 24 urah, je 25. decembra padel tudi Hongkong, istega dne pa še oporišča na ameriških otokih Guam in Wake . Da bi Angleži preprečili izkrcanje japonskih čet v Maleziji , so v boj poslali bojni ladji HMS Repulse in HMS Prince of Wales , ki pa sta kmalu postali tarči japonskih bombnikov, kar je bil eden prvih dokazov, da je čas velikih bojnih ladij mimo. Januarja 1942 je Japonska napadla Burmo , Nizozemsko Vzhodno Indijo in Novo Gvinejo . 15. februarja je padel Singapur , mesto, za katero so Angleži pravili, da ga ni mogoče zavzeti. Pred japonskimi napadi ni bila varna niti Avstralija; 19. februarja so japonska letala bombardirala avstralsko mesto Darwin in ostala mesta na severu Avstralije. Po večmesečnih bojih so 8. maja padli tudi Filipini, s čimer je postala Avstralija praktično obkoljena. Do sredine leta 1942 so se Američani reorganizirali in zbrali svoje razbito ladjevje ter čete za ponovni napad na japonsko mornarico in njihove postojanke. Ker japonske čete v preteklosti niso zasedle mesta Port Moresby na južnem koncu Nove Gvineje, so želeli zdaj to doseči z izkrcanjem, kar je pripeljalo do bitke v Koralnem morju . Rezultat bitke je bil sicer neodločen, vendar pa so Američani dosegli taktično zmago, saj so prekinili izkrcavanje japonskih čet na jugu Nove Gvineje. Junija so Japonci začeli novo ofenzivo, zasesti so nameravali atol Midway v havajskem otočju. Da bi svoje namere prikrili pred Američani, so zasedli nekaj Aleutskih otokov ob obali Aljaske , a to Američanov ni zmedlo. Tako je med 4. in 7. junijem 1942 prišlo do bitke za Midway , v kateri je bilo japonsko ladjevje poraženo, kar je bil jasen znak, da se je tehtnica prevesila na stran zaveznikov. V tem času so na Novi Gvineji in Salomonovih otokih potekali krvavi spopadi med angleškimi, avstralskimi, novozelandskimi in japonskimi enotami, ki so si še vedno želeli zasesti Port Moresby ter okoliške otoke. Avgusta se je na Guadalcanalu izkrcalo 16.000 ameriških marincev, kar je bila prva večja kopenska operacija ameriške vojske po padcu Filipinov. Krvavi boji za otok so se končali šele 9. februarja 1943, ko je bilo z otoka pregnana večina japonskih vojakov, s tem pa se je končalo tudi obleganje Avstralije. Američani so nato skupaj z avstralsko, novozelandsko in angleško vojsko začeli prodirati vedno globlje proti severu Nove Gvineje, dokler se niso pred Filipini srečali z enotami, ki so prodirale iz vzhoda. Ameriška letala med bitko za Midway. Kljub zmagi v bitkah za Midway in Guadalcanal je Američane od Japonske še vedno ločil obsežen Tihi ocean, poln majhnih koralnih otokov, od katerih je vsak predstavljal močno utrjeno japonsko postojanko. Da bi Američani zavzeli te otoke, so si izmislili taktiko žabjih skokov, v kateri bi zavzeli otok za otokom in se tako postopoma približali Japonski na razdaljo, od koder bi jo lahko bombardirali iz zraka. Otoke, ki bi bili premočno oboroženi, bi obšli in se tako izognili nepotrebnim izgubam. Svojo taktiko so preizkusili na dveh majhnih koralnih otokih: Tarawa in Makin v skupini Gilbertovih otokov , ki so ju zavzeli z veliko težavami, vendar so se ob tem veliko naučili, saj so bile izgube v sledečih operacijah dosti manjše. Nato so nadaljevali v smeri Marshallovih otokov , kjer so zasedli pomembna atola Kwajalein in Eniwetok . Največji dosežek v tej kampanji je bil zasedba otokov Saipan , Tinian in Guam v skupini Marianskih otokov . Z zasedbo teh otokov je Japonska prišla v doseg ameriških bombnikov B-29 , ki so lahko sedaj brez prestanka bombardirali pomembna japonska mesta. Med 19. in 20. junijem 1944 je prišlo do bitke v Filipinskem morju , kjer je japonska mornarica ponovno doživela poraz, od katerega si ni več opomogla. Med septembrom in oktobrom so padli še otoki Ulithi , Yap , Ngulu in Palau . Po uspešnih operacijah na Tihem oceanu so na vrsto prišli Filipini. Ameriške čete so se tam izkrcale 20. oktobra 1944, boji zanj pa so trajali do 2. septembra 1945, med 23. in 26. oktobrom 1944 pa je v zalivu Leyte pred filipinsko vzhodno obalo prišlo do zadnje velike pomorske bitke med ameriško in japonsko mornarico, v kateri je bila slednja ponovno poražena. Obroč okoli Japonske se je začel vedno bolj ožiti, kmalu so padli otoki, kot sta Iwo Jima ter Okinawa , ki sta sestavni del Japonske. Nič bolje ni Japoncem kazalo v Burmi, kjer so angleške čete prebile japonsko obrambno črto in začele osvobajati malezijski polotok. Svoje je prispevala tudi Sovjetska zveza, ki je napadla Mandžurijo in okupirala Kurilske otoke . Vendar se Japonska kljub brezizhodnemu položaju ni želela predati in se je nameravala, tako kot Nemčija, boriti do samega konca. Tako nesmiselno upiranje bi Američanom povzročilo strahovite izgube, zato so se odločili, da bodo uporabili novo čudežno orožje, za katero svet vse do tedaj še ni slišal: atomsko bombo . Prvo bombo so odvrgli na Hirošimo 6. avgusta leta 1945, ker pa se Japonska kljub uporabi tega strahovitega orožja ni želela predati, so 9. avgusta odvrgli še drugo bombo, tokrat na mesto Nagasaki , s čimer se je vojna na Tihem oceanu končala. Vojna na Tihem oceanu in v Aziji Vojna na Tihem oceanu se je začela 8. decembra 1941 z japonskim napadom na angleško kolonijo Hong Kong , Nizozemsko vzhodno Indijo , Tajsko in ameriške Filipine . Dan prej, 7. decembra, se je zgodil tudi japonski napad na ameriško mornariško oporišče v Pearl Harborju na Havajih, s čimer so ZDA vstopile v vojno. Po japonski invaziji na Tajsko, ki je padla v 24 urah, je 25. decembra padel tudi Hongkong, istega dne pa še oporišča na ameriških otokih Guam in Wake . Da bi Angleži preprečili izkrcanje japonskih čet v Maleziji , so v boj poslali bojni ladji HMS Repulse in HMS Prince of Wales , ki pa sta kmalu postali tarči japonskih bombnikov, kar je bil eden prvih dokazov, da je čas velikih bojnih ladij mimo. Januarja 1942 je Japonska napadla Burmo , Nizozemsko Vzhodno Indijo in Novo Gvinejo . 15. februarja je padel Singapur , mesto, za katero so Angleži pravili, da ga ni mogoče zavzeti. Pred japonskimi napadi ni bila varna niti Avstralija; 19. februarja so japonska letala bombardirala avstralsko mesto Darwin in ostala mesta na severu Avstralije. Po večmesečnih bojih so 8. maja padli tudi Filipini, s čimer je postala Avstralija praktično obkoljena. Do sredine leta 1942 so se Američani reorganizirali in zbrali svoje razbito ladjevje ter čete za ponovni napad na japonsko mornarico in njihove postojanke. Ker japonske čete v preteklosti niso zasedle mesta Port Moresby na južnem koncu Nove Gvineje, so želeli zdaj to doseči z izkrcanjem, kar je pripeljalo do bitke v Koralnem morju . Rezultat bitke je bil sicer neodločen, vendar pa so Američani dosegli taktično zmago, saj so prekinili izkrcavanje japonskih čet na jugu Nove Gvineje. Junija so Japonci začeli novo ofenzivo, zasesti so nameravali atol Midway v havajskem otočju. Da bi svoje namere prikrili pred Američani, so zasedli nekaj Aleutskih otokov ob obali Aljaske , a to Američanov ni zmedlo. Tako je med 4. in 7. junijem 1942 prišlo do bitke za Midway , v kateri je bilo japonsko ladjevje poraženo, kar je bil jasen znak, da se je tehtnica prevesila na stran zaveznikov. V tem času so na Novi Gvineji in Salomonovih otokih potekali krvavi spopadi med angleškimi, avstralskimi, novozelandskimi in japonskimi enotami, ki so si še vedno želeli zasesti Port Moresby ter okoliške otoke. Avgusta se je na Guadalcanalu izkrcalo 16.000 ameriških marincev, kar je bila prva večja kopenska operacija ameriške vojske po padcu Filipinov. Krvavi boji za otok so se končali šele 9. februarja 1943, ko je bilo z otoka pregnana večina japonskih vojakov, s tem pa se je končalo tudi obleganje Avstralije. Američani so nato skupaj z avstralsko, novozelandsko in angleško vojsko začeli prodirati vedno globlje proti severu Nove Gvineje, dokler se niso pred Filipini srečali z enotami, ki so prodirale iz vzhoda. Kljub zmagi v bitkah za Midway in Guadalcanal je Američane od Japonske še vedno ločil obsežen Tihi ocean, poln majhnih koralnih otokov, od katerih je vsak predstavljal močno utrjeno japonsko postojanko. Da bi Američani zavzeli te otoke, so si izmislili taktiko žabjih skokov, v kateri bi zavzeli otok za otokom in se tako postopoma približali Japonski na razdaljo, od koder bi jo lahko bombardirali iz zraka. Otoke, ki bi bili premočno oboroženi, bi obšli in se tako izognili nepotrebnim izgubam. Svojo taktiko so preizkusili na dveh majhnih koralnih otokih: Tarawa in Makin v skupini Gilbertovih otokov , ki so ju zavzeli z veliko težavami, vendar so se ob tem veliko naučili, saj so bile izgube v sledečih operacijah dosti manjše. Nato so nadaljevali v smeri Marshallovih otokov , kjer so zasedli pomembna atola Kwajalein in Eniwetok . Največji dosežek v tej kampanji je bil zasedba otokov Saipan , Tinian in Guam v skupini Marianskih otokov . Z zasedbo teh otokov je Japonska prišla v doseg ameriških bombnikov B-29 , ki so lahko sedaj brez prestanka bombardirali pomembna japonska mesta. Med 19. in 20. junijem 1944 je prišlo do bitke v Filipinskem morju , kjer je japonska mornarica ponovno doživela poraz, od katerega si ni več opomogla. Med septembrom in oktobrom so padli še otoki Ulithi , Yap , Ngulu in Palau . Po uspešnih operacijah na Tihem oceanu so na vrsto prišli Filipini. Ameriške čete so se tam izkrcale 20. oktobra 1944, boji zanj pa so trajali do 2. septembra 1945, med 23. in 26. oktobrom 1944 pa je v zalivu Leyte pred filipinsko vzhodno obalo prišlo do zadnje velike pomorske bitke med ameriško in japonsko mornarico, v kateri je bila slednja ponovno poražena. Obroč okoli Japonske se je začel vedno bolj ožiti, kmalu so padli otoki, kot sta Iwo Jima ter Okinawa , ki sta sestavni del Japonske. Nič bolje ni Japoncem kazalo v Burmi, kjer so angleške čete prebile japonsko obrambno črto in začele osvobajati malezijski polotok. Svoje je prispevala tudi Sovjetska zveza, ki je napadla Mandžurijo in okupirala Kurilske otoke . Vendar se Japonska kljub brezizhodnemu položaju ni želela predati in se je nameravala, tako kot Nemčija, boriti do samega konca. Tako nesmiselno upiranje bi Američanom povzročilo strahovite izgube, zato so se odločili, da bodo uporabili novo čudežno orožje, za katero svet vse do tedaj še ni slišal: atomsko bombo . Prvo bombo so odvrgli na Hirošimo 6. avgusta leta 1945, ker pa se Japonska kljub uporabi tega strahovitega orožja ni želela predati, so 9. avgusta odvrgli še drugo bombo, tokrat na mesto Nagasaki , s čimer se je vojna na Tihem oceanu končala. Vojna v Sredozemlju [ uredi | uredi kodo ] Glavna članka : Italijansko bojišče in Bitka za Malto . Italijanski samostan Monte Cassino v ruševinah, po tem ko ga je do tal porušilo zavezniško letalstvo. Bitka za Monte Cassino je bila ena najbolj krvavih bitk na italijanskem bojišču. Vojna v Sredozemskem morju se je začela 10. junija 1940 z vstopom Italije v vojno. Po porazu Francije 24. junija je ta postala največja pomorska velesila v Sredozemskem morju, zato je začela vedno bolj ogrožati Britanske konvoje, namenjene v Egipt, kjer so se boji po posredovanju Nemcev zelo zaostrili. S porazom Francije pa se je pojavil problem še z ostankom Francoske bojne flote, ki je ostala zvesta francoski vladi v Vichiyu. Ta je bila pod velikim vplivom Nemcev, zato so Britanci sklepali, da je le še vprašanje časa, kdaj se bodo Nemci polastili te mogočne flote in jo uporabili v svojo korist. Da bi Britanci to preprečili, so od Francozov zahtevali, da svoje bojne ladje razorožijo, ali pa jih predajo Britancem. Ker so Francozi zahtevo zavrnili, je britansko ladjevje 3. julija 1940 napadlo francosko pomorsko floto pri Mers-el-Kebir na obali Severne Afrike in jo popolnoma uničilo. 11. novembra so britanska letala iz letalonosilke HMS Illustrious (R87) napadla italijansko ladjevje, zasidrano v Tarentu , in potopilo ter poškodovalo več bojnih ladij. Jeseni leta 1940 je Italija brez Hitlerjeve vednosti iz smeri Albanije napadla Grčijo in doživela strahoten poraz, zaradi katerega je skoraj izgubila še Albanijo. Spomladi leta 1941 sta Nemčija in Italija skupaj napadli Jugoslavijo in Grčijo. Nemška vojska je ob pomoči italijanske vojske brez težav porazila jugoslovansko, grško in britansko vojsko. Po padcu Grčije sta se bili grška in britanska vojska prisiljeni umakniti na Kreto , vendar je po nemškem letalskem desantu kmalu padla tudi ta, zato je temu sledila evakuacija britanskih čet v Egipt. Med 27. in 29. marcem je italijanska mornarica doživela še en poraz. V bitki pri rtu Matapan je izgubila pet ladij, ena pa je bila huje poškodovana, medtem ko so Britanci izgubili eno samo letalo, več ladij pa je bilo poškodovanih. Leta 1941 je do bojev prišlo tudi v Libanonu in Siriji , ki sta bili pod nadzorom Francozov, zvestih Vichiyu. Vzrok za začetek britanske vojaške operacije proti Francozom je bilo sestreljeno nemško letalo v Iraku , ravno v času, ko je tam potekala vstaja proti Britancem. Ker bi nemško letalo lahko v Irak priletelo le s smeri ene od teh dveh držav, so Britanci sklepali, da imajo Nemci tam svojo oporišča, ki jih je treba uničiti. Z razmahom bojev v Severni Afriki je postala vedno bolj pomembna tudi Malta , majhen otok na pol poti med Egiptom in Gilbertarjem, ki se nahaja blizu italijanske obale. Zaradi svoje lege je imel otok zelo pomemben strateški pomen, saj je lahko služil kot vmesna postojanka za poškodovane ladje, namenjene v Egipt in Severno Afriko, iz letališč na otoku pa je bilo možno nadzorovati sovražnikove pomorske poti in napadati mesta na jugu Italije. Ker Nemci in Italijani otoka nikoli niso imeli priložnosti zasesti, so se odločili, da ga bodo v bitki za Malto izstradali, vendar je otok nekako zdržal vse do poraza sil osi v Severni Afriki. Po končanih bojih v Severni Afriki, je z operacijo Husky 10. junija 1943 prišlo do izkrcanja zavezniških čet na jugu Sicilije , ki so jo brez večjega odpora zasedli. 3. septembra so se zavezniki v operaciji Baytown izkrcali na jugu Italije in začeli brez večjih težav prodirati proti severu. Temu je 8. septembra sledila kapitulacija Italije, ki je nato prestopila na stran zaveznikov. Ti so se 10. septembra v operaciji Avalounch izkrcali še pri Salernu , vendar se je njihova hitro napredovanje kmalu ustavilo pred nemško zimsko obrambno črto. Da bi to obrambno črto obšli, so se izkrcali pri Anziu , kjer pa so padli v nemško past, zaradi česar se je izkrcanje sprevrglo v pravo nočno moro, iz katere ni bilo videti izhoda. Pomlad leta 1944 je prinesla nov začetek. Po krvavih bojih za Monte Cassino je bila nemška zimska obrambna črta prebita, zato je junija končno padel Rim, vendar pa so Nemci na severu države postavili Gotsko obrambno črto , zaradi česar je bilo zavezniško napredovanje ponovno ustavljeno vse do pomladi leta 1945. Nič bolje se Nemcem ni godilo na Balkanu. Zaradi napredovanja Rdeče armade na vzhodni fronti in vse močnejšega odporniškega gibanja v Grčiji in Jugoslaviji so se bili prisiljeni umakniti. Z umikom nemških čet in Francije, Italije, Grčije in Jugoslavije so se boji v Sredozemskem morju in njegovi okolici končali. Vojna v Sredozemlju Vojna v Sredozemskem morju se je začela 10. junija 1940 z vstopom Italije v vojno. Po porazu Francije 24. junija je ta postala največja pomorska velesila v Sredozemskem morju, zato je začela vedno bolj ogrožati Britanske konvoje, namenjene v Egipt, kjer so se boji po posredovanju Nemcev zelo zaostrili. S porazom Francije pa se je pojavil problem še z ostankom Francoske bojne flote, ki je ostala zvesta francoski vladi v Vichiyu. Ta je bila pod velikim vplivom Nemcev, zato so Britanci sklepali, da je le še vprašanje časa, kdaj se bodo Nemci polastili te mogočne flote in jo uporabili v svojo korist. Da bi Britanci to preprečili, so od Francozov zahtevali, da svoje bojne ladje razorožijo, ali pa jih predajo Britancem. Ker so Francozi zahtevo zavrnili, je britansko ladjevje 3. julija 1940 napadlo francosko pomorsko floto pri Mers-el-Kebir na obali Severne Afrike in jo popolnoma uničilo. 11. novembra so britanska letala iz letalonosilke HMS Illustrious (R87) napadla italijansko ladjevje, zasidrano v Tarentu , in potopilo ter poškodovalo več bojnih ladij. Jeseni leta 1940 je Italija brez Hitlerjeve vednosti iz smeri Albanije napadla Grčijo in doživela strahoten poraz, zaradi katerega je skoraj izgubila še Albanijo. Spomladi leta 1941 sta Nemčija in Italija skupaj napadli Jugoslavijo in Grčijo. Nemška vojska je ob pomoči italijanske vojske brez težav porazila jugoslovansko, grško in britansko vojsko. Po padcu Grčije sta se bili grška in britanska vojska prisiljeni umakniti na Kreto , vendar je po nemškem letalskem desantu kmalu padla tudi ta, zato je temu sledila evakuacija britanskih čet v Egipt. Med 27. in 29. marcem je italijanska mornarica doživela še en poraz. V bitki pri rtu Matapan je izgubila pet ladij, ena pa je bila huje poškodovana, medtem ko so Britanci izgubili eno samo letalo, več ladij pa je bilo poškodovanih. Leta 1941 je do bojev prišlo tudi v Libanonu in Siriji , ki sta bili pod nadzorom Francozov, zvestih Vichiyu. Vzrok za začetek britanske vojaške operacije proti Francozom je bilo sestreljeno nemško letalo v Iraku , ravno v času, ko je tam potekala vstaja proti Britancem. Ker bi nemško letalo lahko v Irak priletelo le s smeri ene od teh dveh držav, so Britanci sklepali, da imajo Nemci tam svojo oporišča, ki jih je treba uničiti. Z razmahom bojev v Severni Afriki je postala vedno bolj pomembna tudi Malta , majhen otok na pol poti med Egiptom in Gilbertarjem, ki se nahaja blizu italijanske obale. Zaradi svoje lege je imel otok zelo pomemben strateški pomen, saj je lahko služil kot vmesna postojanka za poškodovane ladje, namenjene v Egipt in Severno Afriko, iz letališč na otoku pa je bilo možno nadzorovati sovražnikove pomorske poti in napadati mesta na jugu Italije. Ker Nemci in Italijani otoka nikoli niso imeli priložnosti zasesti, so se odločili, da ga bodo v bitki za Malto izstradali, vendar je otok nekako zdržal vse do poraza sil osi v Severni Afriki. Po končanih bojih v Severni Afriki, je z operacijo Husky 10. junija 1943 prišlo do izkrcanja zavezniških čet na jugu Sicilije , ki so jo brez večjega odpora zasedli. 3. septembra so se zavezniki v operaciji Baytown izkrcali na jugu Italije in začeli brez večjih težav prodirati proti severu. Temu je 8. septembra sledila kapitulacija Italije, ki je nato prestopila na stran zaveznikov. Ti so se 10. septembra v operaciji Avalounch izkrcali še pri Salernu , vendar se je njihova hitro napredovanje kmalu ustavilo pred nemško zimsko obrambno črto. Da bi to obrambno črto obšli, so se izkrcali pri Anziu , kjer pa so padli v nemško past, zaradi česar se je izkrcanje sprevrglo v pravo nočno moro, iz katere ni bilo videti izhoda. Pomlad leta 1944 je prinesla nov začetek. Po krvavih bojih za Monte Cassino je bila nemška zimska obrambna črta prebita, zato je junija končno padel Rim, vendar pa so Nemci na severu države postavili Gotsko obrambno črto , zaradi česar je bilo zavezniško napredovanje ponovno ustavljeno vse do pomladi leta 1945. Nič bolje se Nemcem ni godilo na Balkanu. Zaradi napredovanja Rdeče armade na vzhodni fronti in vse močnejšega odporniškega gibanja v Grčiji in Jugoslaviji so se bili prisiljeni umakniti. Z umikom nemških čet in Francije, Italije, Grčije in Jugoslavije so se boji v Sredozemskem morju in njegovi okolici končali. Vzhodna fronta in Balkan [ uredi | uredi kodo ] Glavna članka : Vzhodna fronta (druga svetovna vojna) in Vojna na Balkanu . Nemška vojska v prvi bitki za Harkov , oktober 1941. Po končanih vojaških operacijah na zahodu se je Hitler usmeril na vzhod proti Sovjetski zvezi. Ta je v njegovem velikopoteznem načrtu širjenja arijske rase igrala izredno pomembno vlogo, saj naj bi na njenem ozemlju naselili Nemce, vzhodnoslovanska ljudstva pa zasužnjili. Priprave za napad so se začele že leta 1939 s podpisom pakta o nenapadanju, ki pa ga Hitler ni mislil spoštovati, saj si je z njim želel le izogniti se spopadu na dveh frontah. Same vojaške priprave za napad so stekle takoj po porazu Francije, nepričakovano pa jih je prekinila balkanska kriza. Hitler se sprva ni želel vmešavati v balkanske probleme, saj je vedel, da Balkan predstavlja sod smodnika, ki ga lahko vsak čas raznese in povzroči še večje probleme. Vendar pa je aprila 1941 prišlo do nepričakovanih dogodkov, ko je Kraljevina Jugoslavija, kmalu po njegovem podpisu, zavrnila pakt med nacistično Nemčijo in Kraljevino Jugoslavijo. Hitler je to zavrnitev vzel zelo osebno in je vojski ukazal, da naj v t. i. aprilski vojni napade Jugoslavijo in Grčijo, ki sta bili po kratkotrajnih spopadih kmalu poraženi. Po porazu Jugoslavije in njeni okupaciji so se na njenem ozemlju kmalu začela pojavljati odporniška gibanja poimenovana četniki in partizani . Prvi so si prizadevali za vrnitev jugoslovanskega kralja , druge so vodili komunisti pod vodstvom Josipa Broza Tita, ki so želeli po porazu nacizma in fašizma vzpostaviti komunistično državo po zgledu Sovjetske zveze. Na začetku so imeli skupen cilj, poraziti nacizem in fašizem in so zato sklenili zavezništvo. Vendar pa je zaradi različnih ideologij prišlo do hudih razhajanj, ki so povzročila, da so začeli četniki napadati partizane in začeli sodelovati z okupatorjem. [ 50 ] Da so se stvari še dodatno zapletle, so se v strahu pred komunizmom začele po državi ustanavljati vojske, ki so tesno sodelovale z okupatorjem. Boji na Balkanu so izredno pomembno vplivali na potek druge svetovne vojne, saj so različna odporniška gibanja nase vezala velik del nemške vojske, ki je tako niso mogli uporabiti v boju na vzhodni ali zahodni fronti. Po okupaciji Jugoslavije in Grčije so priprave za napad na Sovjetsko zvezo ponovno stekle, vendar so Nemci s tem, ko so napadli Jugoslavijo in Grčijo, izgubili dragocen čas, ki jih je kasneje stal zmage. Operacija Barbarossa , ki je označevala začetek napada na Sovjetsko zvezo, je stekla 22. junija 1941. Nemška vojska je brez večjih težav porazila enote Rdeče armade, ki niso pričakovale nemškega napada. Glavni cilj napada je bila Moskva , ki jo je bilo treba doseči še pred zimo, vendar je v zimi med letoma 1941 in 1942 kmalu postalo jasno, da je ta cilj nedosegljiv. Bliskovito napredovanje nemške vojske se je ustavilo tudi na severu pred obleganim Leningradom in na jugu, ko so se začeli boji za Stalingrad . Po porazu nemške vojske pri Stalingradu se je vojna sreča prevesila na stran Sovjetske zveze. Po bitki pri Kursku poleti 1943 se je bila nemška vojske prisiljena umikati proti domovini. V zimi 1943 in 1944 je prišlo do zloma fronte, zaradi česar se je nemška vojska začela umikati proti zahodu na vsej fronti od Baltskega morja pa vse do Črnega morja . 27. januarja 1944 se je končalo obleganje Leningrada, Rdeča armada pa je nato začela prodirati vedno globlje na zahod. Kmalu so padle vzhodnoevropske države, nato pa je rdeča armada prišla do same nemške meje. Zadnja velika bitka vzhodne fronte je bila Bitka za Berlin . Ko je ta padel, se je druga svetovna vojna v Evropi končala. Vzhodna fronta in Balkan Po končanih vojaških operacijah na zahodu se je Hitler usmeril na vzhod proti Sovjetski zvezi. Ta je v njegovem velikopoteznem načrtu širjenja arijske rase igrala izredno pomembno vlogo, saj naj bi na njenem ozemlju naselili Nemce, vzhodnoslovanska ljudstva pa zasužnjili. Priprave za napad so se začele že leta 1939 s podpisom pakta o nenapadanju, ki pa ga Hitler ni mislil spoštovati, saj si je z njim želel le izogniti se spopadu na dveh frontah. Same vojaške priprave za napad so stekle takoj po porazu Francije, nepričakovano pa jih je prekinila balkanska kriza. Hitler se sprva ni želel vmešavati v balkanske probleme, saj je vedel, da Balkan predstavlja sod smodnika, ki ga lahko vsak čas raznese in povzroči še večje probleme. Vendar pa je aprila 1941 prišlo do nepričakovanih dogodkov, ko je Kraljevina Jugoslavija, kmalu po njegovem podpisu, zavrnila pakt med nacistično Nemčijo in Kraljevino Jugoslavijo. Hitler je to zavrnitev vzel zelo osebno in je vojski ukazal, da naj v t. i. aprilski vojni napade Jugoslavijo in Grčijo, ki sta bili po kratkotrajnih spopadih kmalu poraženi. Po porazu Jugoslavije in njeni okupaciji so se na njenem ozemlju kmalu začela pojavljati odporniška gibanja poimenovana četniki in partizani . Prvi so si prizadevali za vrnitev jugoslovanskega kralja , druge so vodili komunisti pod vodstvom Josipa Broza Tita, ki so želeli po porazu nacizma in fašizma vzpostaviti komunistično državo po zgledu Sovjetske zveze. Na začetku so imeli skupen cilj, poraziti nacizem in fašizem in so zato sklenili zavezništvo. Vendar pa je zaradi različnih ideologij prišlo do hudih razhajanj, ki so povzročila, da so začeli četniki napadati partizane in začeli sodelovati z okupatorjem. [ 50 ] Da so se stvari še dodatno zapletle, so se v strahu pred komunizmom začele po državi ustanavljati vojske, ki so tesno sodelovale z okupatorjem. Boji na Balkanu so izredno pomembno vplivali na potek druge svetovne vojne, saj so različna odporniška gibanja nase vezala velik del nemške vojske, ki je tako niso mogli uporabiti v boju na vzhodni ali zahodni fronti. Po okupaciji Jugoslavije in Grčije so priprave za napad na Sovjetsko zvezo ponovno stekle, vendar so Nemci s tem, ko so napadli Jugoslavijo in Grčijo, izgubili dragocen čas, ki jih je kasneje stal zmage. Operacija Barbarossa , ki je označevala začetek napada na Sovjetsko zvezo, je stekla 22. junija 1941. Nemška vojska je brez večjih težav porazila enote Rdeče armade, ki niso pričakovale nemškega napada. Glavni cilj napada je bila Moskva , ki jo je bilo treba doseči še pred zimo, vendar je v zimi med letoma 1941 in 1942 kmalu postalo jasno, da je ta cilj nedosegljiv. Bliskovito napredovanje nemške vojske se je ustavilo tudi na severu pred obleganim Leningradom in na jugu, ko so se začeli boji za Stalingrad . Po porazu nemške vojske pri Stalingradu se je vojna sreča prevesila na stran Sovjetske zveze. Po bitki pri Kursku poleti 1943 se je bila nemška vojske prisiljena umikati proti domovini. V zimi 1943 in 1944 je prišlo do zloma fronte, zaradi česar se je nemška vojska začela umikati proti zahodu na vsej fronti od Baltskega morja pa vse do Črnega morja . 27. januarja 1944 se je končalo obleganje Leningrada, Rdeča armada pa je nato začela prodirati vedno globlje na zahod. Kmalu so padle vzhodnoevropske države, nato pa je rdeča armada prišla do same nemške meje. Zadnja velika bitka vzhodne fronte je bila Bitka za Berlin . Ko je ta padel, se je druga svetovna vojna v Evropi končala. Zahodna fronta [ uredi | uredi kodo ] Zavezniško izkrcanje v Normandiji , 6. junij 1944. Glavni članek : Zahodna fronta (druga svetovna vojna) . Zaradi vse večjega pritiska Sovjetske zveze, ki je zahtevala odprtje druge fronte , s katero bi razbremenili vzhodno fronto, je 6. junija 1944 prišlo do izkrcanja zavezniških čet v Normandiji . Po uspešnem izkrcanju je prišlo do bitke za Francijo , katere vrhunec je bila osvoboditev Pariza . Po krvavih in mučnih spopadih so se bili Nemci prisiljeni umakniti iz Francije in zasesti nove obrambne položaje za Siegfridovo obrambno črto oz. zahodnim zidom. Da bi se izognili izgubam, ki bi jih utrpeli ob napadu na to zelo dobro branjeno obrambno črto, so nameravali zavezniki v Nemčijo prodreti preko Belgije, Luksemburga in Nizozemske. Vendar se je Operacija Market-Garden , ki je označevala napad na te države, spremenila v pravo polomijo, ki je zaveznike veliko stala. Zaradi spodletele operacije in vedno daljših oskrbovalnih poti zavezniške vojske je fronta vse do decembra 1944 obstala. 16. decembra so Nemci v Ardenski ofenzivi izvedli še zadnji bliskoviti napad, v katerem so presenetili zaveznike in jim prizadejali velike izgube, vendar pa protinapad iz obupa poteka fronte ni mogel več spremeniti. Do konca januarja 1945 se je fronta ustalila tam, kjer je bila decembra 1944, tako je ostalo vse do sredine marca, ko je zaveznikom uspelo prečkati mejno reko Ren , s čimer se je začel prodor v Nemčijo, ki je označeval skorajšnji konec vojne. Prodor se je končal s srečanjem ameriških in sovjetskih enot na reki Labi . Zahodna fronta Zaradi vse večjega pritiska Sovjetske zveze, ki je zahtevala odprtje druge fronte , s katero bi razbremenili vzhodno fronto, je 6. junija 1944 prišlo do izkrcanja zavezniških čet v Normandiji . Po uspešnem izkrcanju je prišlo do bitke za Francijo , katere vrhunec je bila osvoboditev Pariza . Po krvavih in mučnih spopadih so se bili Nemci prisiljeni umakniti iz Francije in zasesti nove obrambne položaje za Siegfridovo obrambno črto oz. zahodnim zidom. Da bi se izognili izgubam, ki bi jih utrpeli ob napadu na to zelo dobro branjeno obrambno črto, so nameravali zavezniki v Nemčijo prodreti preko Belgije, Luksemburga in Nizozemske. Vendar se je Operacija Market-Garden , ki je označevala napad na te države, spremenila v pravo polomijo, ki je zaveznike veliko stala. Zaradi spodletele operacije in vedno daljših oskrbovalnih poti zavezniške vojske je fronta vse do decembra 1944 obstala. 16. decembra so Nemci v Ardenski ofenzivi izvedli še zadnji bliskoviti napad, v katerem so presenetili zaveznike in jim prizadejali velike izgube, vendar pa protinapad iz obupa poteka fronte ni mogel več spremeniti. Do konca januarja 1945 se je fronta ustalila tam, kjer je bila decembra 1944, tako je ostalo vse do sredine marca, ko je zaveznikom uspelo prečkati mejno reko Ren , s čimer se je začel prodor v Nemčijo, ki je označeval skorajšnji konec vojne. Prodor se je končal s srečanjem ameriških in sovjetskih enot na reki Labi . Stranska bojišča [ uredi | uredi kodo ] zimska vojna nadaljevalna vojna laponska vojna kitajsko-japonska vojna Stranska bojišča zimska vojna nadaljevalna vojna laponska vojna kitajsko-japonska vojna Druga svetovna vojna na Slovenskem [ uredi | uredi kodo ] Glavni članek : Druga svetovna vojna na Slovenskem . Adolf Hitler in Martin Bormann med obiskom okupiranega Maribora aprila 1941, kar je oznanilo začetek nacističnega protislovenskega programa. Druga svetovna vojna v Dravski banovini se je začela 6. aprila 1941, ob vkorakanju nemške vojske. 11. aprila 1941 so se v boj za ozemlje vključile tudi italijanske in madžarske sile. Jugoslovanska armada, šibka zaradi nacionalnih nasprotij, je razpadla v desetih dneh. Slovenijo so trije okupatorji zasedli v celoti že 11. aprila. Nemški rajh je dobil Gorenjsko, Štajersko, severozahodni del Prekmurja in severni del Dolenjske ter Mežiško dolino. Italijani so zasedli Notranjsko, večino Dolenjske in Ljubljano, Madžari pa večino Prekmurja. Nekatere vasi v jugovzhodnem delu so bile priključene Neodvisni državi Hrvaški (NDH). [ 51 ] [ 52 ] Za Primorce se je druga svetovna vojna začela že 10. junija 1940 z vstopom Italije v drugo svetovno vojno, dejansko pa že prej z italijanskim napadom na Etiopsko cesarstvo , nato sodelovanjem v španski državljanski vojni in okupacijo Albanije. Vsi okupatorji so izvajali potujčevanje in drugo nasilje nad prebivalstvom, saj so nameravali zasedeno ozemlje priključiti matičnim deželam. Italijani so sicer zaradi politično-taktičnih razlogov dovolili kulturno avtonomijo ter lastno upravo na občinski ravni v svojem okupacijskem območju, tj. v Ljubljanski pokrajini , medtem ko so nacisti začeli izvajati nasilno germanizacijo ter načrt etnocida in genocida , tj. izgon vsega slovenskega izobraženstva in narodno zavednih ljudi, vključno z duhovščino, ki je dosegla vrhunec s preselitvijo več kot 83.000 Slovencev v druga območja Tretjega rajha , kot tudi v Srbijo in Hrvaško. [ 51 ] Z namenom upora proti okupatorjem so 26. aprila 1941 slovenski komunisti skupaj z nekaterimi levo usmerjenimi skupinami ( krščanski socialisti , Sokol ) ustanovili Protiimperialistično fronto slovenskega naroda, kasneje imenovano Osvobodilna fronta (OF) Slovenskega naroda. Osvobodilna fronta, pod katero so delovale slovenske partizanske enote, je predstavljala temelj za oborožen boj proti okupatorjem. [ 52 ] [ 53 ] Zaradi političnih atentatov, ki so jih izvajale komunistične skupine, ter radikalne nenaklonjenosti in strahu pred komunizmom v stari družbeni eliti, se je začela državljanska vojna med Slovenci v italijansko okupirani jugovzhodni Sloveniji spomladi leta 1942. Nasprotujoči si skupini sta bili torej Osvobodilna fronta Slovenskega naroda ter Slovensko domobranstvo , ki so jo podpirale okupacijske sile. [ 52 ] [ 53 ] Slovenska partizanska vojska, ki je vojaško sodelovala z zavezniki, je po letih bojevanja v težkih razmerah ob koncu vojne skupaj z Jugoslovansko armado osvobodila vse slovensko narodno ozemlje. Rezultat narodnoosvobodilnega boja je bila osvoboditev in zavarovanje Zedinjene Slovenije skoraj v celoti in pa vzpostavitev slovenske republike s pravico do samoodločbe, vključno s pravico do odcepitve, v jugoslovanski federaciji. Proti pričakovanju slovenskih partizanov je Josip Broz - Tito kljub poprejšnjim obljubam odpravil glavni štab Jugoslovanske armade za Slovenijo in slovensko partizansko vojsko vključil v enotno Jugoslovansko armado; s tem je bil Slovencem odvzet pomemben del narodne suverenosti. [ 52 ] [ 53 ] Druga svetovna vojna na Slovenskem Druga svetovna vojna v Dravski banovini se je začela 6. aprila 1941, ob vkorakanju nemške vojske. 11. aprila 1941 so se v boj za ozemlje vključile tudi italijanske in madžarske sile. Jugoslovanska armada, šibka zaradi nacionalnih nasprotij, je razpadla v desetih dneh. Slovenijo so trije okupatorji zasedli v celoti že 11. aprila. Nemški rajh je dobil Gorenjsko, Štajersko, severozahodni del Prekmurja in severni del Dolenjske ter Mežiško dolino. Italijani so zasedli Notranjsko, večino Dolenjske in Ljubljano, Madžari pa večino Prekmurja. Nekatere vasi v jugovzhodnem delu so bile priključene Neodvisni državi Hrvaški (NDH). [ 51 ] [ 52 ] Za Primorce se je druga svetovna vojna začela že 10. junija 1940 z vstopom Italije v drugo svetovno vojno, dejansko pa že prej z italijanskim napadom na Etiopsko cesarstvo , nato sodelovanjem v španski državljanski vojni in okupacijo Albanije. Vsi okupatorji so izvajali potujčevanje in drugo nasilje nad prebivalstvom, saj so nameravali zasedeno ozemlje priključiti matičnim deželam. Italijani so sicer zaradi politično-taktičnih razlogov dovolili kulturno avtonomijo ter lastno upravo na občinski ravni v svojem okupacijskem območju, tj. v Ljubljanski pokrajini , medtem ko so nacisti začeli izvajati nasilno germanizacijo ter načrt etnocida in genocida , tj. izgon vsega slovenskega izobraženstva in narodno zavednih ljudi, vključno z duhovščino, ki je dosegla vrhunec s preselitvijo več kot 83.000 Slovencev v druga območja Tretjega rajha , kot tudi v Srbijo in Hrvaško. [ 51 ] Z namenom upora proti okupatorjem so 26. aprila 1941 slovenski komunisti skupaj z nekaterimi levo usmerjenimi skupinami ( krščanski socialisti , Sokol ) ustanovili Protiimperialistično fronto slovenskega naroda, kasneje imenovano Osvobodilna fronta (OF) Slovenskega naroda. Osvobodilna fronta, pod katero so delovale slovenske partizanske enote, je predstavljala temelj za oborožen boj proti okupatorjem. [ 52 ] [ 53 ] Zaradi političnih atentatov, ki so jih izvajale komunistične skupine, ter radikalne nenaklonjenosti in strahu pred komunizmom v stari družbeni eliti, se je začela državljanska vojna med Slovenci v italijansko okupirani jugovzhodni Sloveniji spomladi leta 1942. Nasprotujoči si skupini sta bili torej Osvobodilna fronta Slovenskega naroda ter Slovensko domobranstvo , ki so jo podpirale okupacijske sile. [ 52 ] [ 53 ] Slovenska partizanska vojska, ki je vojaško sodelovala z zavezniki, je po letih bojevanja v težkih razmerah ob koncu vojne skupaj z Jugoslovansko armado osvobodila vse slovensko narodno ozemlje. Rezultat narodnoosvobodilnega boja je bila osvoboditev in zavarovanje Zedinjene Slovenije skoraj v celoti in pa vzpostavitev slovenske republike s pravico do samoodločbe, vključno s pravico do odcepitve, v jugoslovanski federaciji. Proti pričakovanju slovenskih partizanov je Josip Broz - Tito kljub poprejšnjim obljubam odpravil glavni štab Jugoslovanske armade za Slovenijo in slovensko partizansko vojsko vključil v enotno Jugoslovansko armado; s tem je bil Slovencem odvzet pomemben del narodne suverenosti. [ 52 ] [ 53 ] Politično dogajanje [ uredi | uredi kodo ] »Veliki trije« na Jaltski konferenci; Winston Churchill, Franklin D. Roosevelt in Stalin. Politični in ostali dogodki, ki so se zgodili leta 1939 in nekaj let prej so dali misliti, da je izbruh nove velike vojne v Evropi le še vprašanje časa. Najbolj odmevna sta bila priključitev Avstrije leta 1938 in leto kasneje še priključitev Češke in Slovaške. Zahodni zavezniki bi to lahko preprečili, vendar so ob misli na novo veliko vojno proti Nemčiji raje izvajali t. i. politiko popuščanja . V imenu te politike so Nemcem žrtvovali Avstrijo in Češkoslovaško, saj so mislili, da bodo tako pomirili Hitlerja in Evropo rešili pred novo vojno. Vendar so se motili, Hitler je zahteval več. Njegov naslednji cilj je bila Poljska, oziroma mestna državica Gdansk (nem. Danzig), ki so jo tudi vodili lokalni nacionalsocialisti. V nemškem interesu je bilo, da teritorialno poveže rajh z Vzhodno Prusijo, kar pa bi lahko naredila le z zasedbo Gdanska. Le-ta pa je bila za Poljsko nesprejemljiva, saj bi ji odvzela strateški dostop do morja. Ker je Hitler vedel, da se ne bo izognil vojni, je želel preprečiti vsaj vojno na dveh frontah, zato je s Sovjetsko zvezo sklenil pakt o nenapadanju, zahodnim zaveznikom pa je ponudil lažno mirovno pogodbo. Sledil je napad na Poljsko, zavezniki so se postavili na stran Poljske in na tem stališču vztrajali ter tako Hitlerju, ki je upal, da bo po napadu sklenil nov mir, prekrižali načrte. Kot protiutež zahodnim zaveznikom je Hitler že pred samo invazijo na Poljsko sklenil trojni pakt med Nemčijo, Italijo in Japonsko (sile osi). Politični odnosi med silami osi in zavezniki so se pretrgali, Evropa in Azija pa sta se pogreznili globoko v vojno. Hud udarec za Veliko Britanijo je bil poraz Francije leta 1940, zato so si ti prizadevali pridobiti novega velikega zaveznika, ZDA, v kateri pa je javno mnenje nasprotovalo vstopu v vojno. Kljub temu je bila v ta namen 14. avgusta 1941 na krovu bojne ladje HMS Prince of Wales podpisana atlantska listina . Medtem so Nemci napadli Sovjetsko zvezo in tako prekršili sporazum o nenapadanju, Velika Britanija pa je tako dobila še enega velikega zaveznika v boju proti silam osi. Clement Attlee , Harry Truman in Stalin na potsdamski konferenci. Leto 1943 je bilo tako za sile osi kot tudi za zaveznike prelomno, zato so slednji v Teheranu organizirali t. i. teheransko konferenco . Tam so Churchill, Roosevelt in Stalin, ki je bil prvič povabljen na zavezniško konferenco, razglabljali o odprtju druge fronte, ki bi razbremenila vzhodno fronto. Voditelji so razpravljali tudi o povojni ureditvi, mdr. o ustanovitvi Organizacije združenih narodov . Stalin pa se je zavzel za sovjetski vpliv v baltskih državah in v vzhodni Evropi, Iranu , ki je bil do tedaj pod britanskim in sovjetskim vplivom, pa so zagotovili samostojnost. V drugi polovici leta 1943 so zavezniki začeli napredovati na vseh frontah, tako da je proti koncu leta 1944 kazalo, da bo vojne kmalu konec. Potrebno je bilo razmišljati o novi evropski ureditvi. V ta namen je bila med 4. in 11. februarjem 1945 organizirana jaltska konferenca , med katero so Stalin, Churchill in Roosevelt razpravljali o sklepnih etapah vojne in povojni razdelitvi Nemčije. Čez pet mesecev je tej konferenci sledila še potsdamska konferenca . Ta je potekala med 17. julijem in 2. avgustom 1945 in je bila zadnja izmed konferenc na vrhu v drugi svetovni vojni. Potekala je v Potsdamu v bližini Berlina, udeležili pa so se je Churchill (vmes ga je zamenjal novo izvoljeni ministrski predsednik Attlee ), Stalin in Truman. Na konferenci so priznali sovjetsko prevlado nad vzhodno Evropo. Razpravljali so še o reparacijah , prepovedali nacistično stranko, demonopolizirali nemško industrijo in decentralizirali njeno gospodarstvo. Končni sporazumi, ki so jih sprejeli, so bili nejasni in nedorečeni, zato so bili kasneje predmet mnogih kršitev. Pogovarjali so se tudi o Japonski in ji zagrozili s popolnim uničenjem, če ne privoli v brezpogojno kapitulacijo. Kmalu po koncu vojne so se začeli odnosi med nekdanjimi zavezniki ohlajati, začela se je hladna vojna . Politično dogajanje Politični in ostali dogodki, ki so se zgodili leta 1939 in nekaj let prej so dali misliti, da je izbruh nove velike vojne v Evropi le še vprašanje časa. Najbolj odmevna sta bila priključitev Avstrije leta 1938 in leto kasneje še priključitev Češke in Slovaške. Zahodni zavezniki bi to lahko preprečili, vendar so ob misli na novo veliko vojno proti Nemčiji raje izvajali t. i. politiko popuščanja . V imenu te politike so Nemcem žrtvovali Avstrijo in Češkoslovaško, saj so mislili, da bodo tako pomirili Hitlerja in Evropo rešili pred novo vojno. Vendar so se motili, Hitler je zahteval več. Njegov naslednji cilj je bila Poljska, oziroma mestna državica Gdansk (nem. Danzig), ki so jo tudi vodili lokalni nacionalsocialisti. V nemškem interesu je bilo, da teritorialno poveže rajh z Vzhodno Prusijo, kar pa bi lahko naredila le z zasedbo Gdanska. Le-ta pa je bila za Poljsko nesprejemljiva, saj bi ji odvzela strateški dostop do morja. Ker je Hitler vedel, da se ne bo izognil vojni, je želel preprečiti vsaj vojno na dveh frontah, zato je s Sovjetsko zvezo sklenil pakt o nenapadanju, zahodnim zaveznikom pa je ponudil lažno mirovno pogodbo. Sledil je napad na Poljsko, zavezniki so se postavili na stran Poljske in na tem stališču vztrajali ter tako Hitlerju, ki je upal, da bo po napadu sklenil nov mir, prekrižali načrte. Kot protiutež zahodnim zaveznikom je Hitler že pred samo invazijo na Poljsko sklenil trojni pakt med Nemčijo, Italijo in Japonsko (sile osi). Politični odnosi med silami osi in zavezniki so se pretrgali, Evropa in Azija pa sta se pogreznili globoko v vojno. Hud udarec za Veliko Britanijo je bil poraz Francije leta 1940, zato so si ti prizadevali pridobiti novega velikega zaveznika, ZDA, v kateri pa je javno mnenje nasprotovalo vstopu v vojno. Kljub temu je bila v ta namen 14. avgusta 1941 na krovu bojne ladje HMS Prince of Wales podpisana atlantska listina . Medtem so Nemci napadli Sovjetsko zvezo in tako prekršili sporazum o nenapadanju, Velika Britanija pa je tako dobila še enega velikega zaveznika v boju proti silam osi. Leto 1943 je bilo tako za sile osi kot tudi za zaveznike prelomno, zato so slednji v Teheranu organizirali t. i. teheransko konferenco . Tam so Churchill, Roosevelt in Stalin, ki je bil prvič povabljen na zavezniško konferenco, razglabljali o odprtju druge fronte, ki bi razbremenila vzhodno fronto. Voditelji so razpravljali tudi o povojni ureditvi, mdr. o ustanovitvi Organizacije združenih narodov . Stalin pa se je zavzel za sovjetski vpliv v baltskih državah in v vzhodni Evropi, Iranu , ki je bil do tedaj pod britanskim in sovjetskim vplivom, pa so zagotovili samostojnost. V drugi polovici leta 1943 so zavezniki začeli napredovati na vseh frontah, tako da je proti koncu leta 1944 kazalo, da bo vojne kmalu konec. Potrebno je bilo razmišljati o novi evropski ureditvi. V ta namen je bila med 4. in 11. februarjem 1945 organizirana jaltska konferenca , med katero so Stalin, Churchill in Roosevelt razpravljali o sklepnih etapah vojne in povojni razdelitvi Nemčije. Čez pet mesecev je tej konferenci sledila še potsdamska konferenca . Ta je potekala med 17. julijem in 2. avgustom 1945 in je bila zadnja izmed konferenc na vrhu v drugi svetovni vojni. Potekala je v Potsdamu v bližini Berlina, udeležili pa so se je Churchill (vmes ga je zamenjal novo izvoljeni ministrski predsednik Attlee ), Stalin in Truman. Na konferenci so priznali sovjetsko prevlado nad vzhodno Evropo. Razpravljali so še o reparacijah , prepovedali nacistično stranko, demonopolizirali nemško industrijo in decentralizirali njeno gospodarstvo. Končni sporazumi, ki so jih sprejeli, so bili nejasni in nedorečeni, zato so bili kasneje predmet mnogih kršitev. Pogovarjali so se tudi o Japonski in ji zagrozili s popolnim uničenjem, če ne privoli v brezpogojno kapitulacijo. Kmalu po koncu vojne so se začeli odnosi med nekdanjimi zavezniki ohlajati, začela se je hladna vojna . Vojaška tehnologija [ uredi | uredi kodo ] Glavni članek : Vojaška tehnologija druge svetovne vojne . Letalonosilka USS Saratoga . Nemški tank Tiger II ali kar »kraljevi Tiger« . Nemška raketa V2 . Prva svetovna vojna je po svojem koncu postregla z različnimi novimi orožji in izumi, ki so v drugi svetovni vojni odigrali ključno vlogo in ji tudi dali svojevrsten značaj sodobnega hitrega vojskovanja. Ta orožja so bila letala, tanki, podmornice, letalonosilke, različna hitrostrelna orožja, rakete, idr. Napredovala je tudi komunikacijska tehnologija, poleg tega pa so bile pomembne naprave, kot so radar [ 54 ] ter naprave za šifriranje (npr. nemška Enigma ). [ 55 ] [ 56 ] Največji pečat je drugi svetovni vojni dal tank . Ta sicer sprva precej neroden britanski izum se je v t. i. dvajsetletnem premirju spremenil v izredno učinkovit bojni stroj. Na tankovskem področju so prednjačili predvsem Nemci in Sovjetska zveza, ki so razvijali vedno večje in bolj napredne tanke. [ 57 ] [ 58 ] Najbolj znan nemški tank iz prve polovice vojne je bil Panzer IV , tega je zaradi svoje zastarelosti nadomestil Panzer V ali Panter in Tiger I . Proti koncu vojne pa je v boje posegel še Tiger II , ki so mu zavezniški tankisti zaradi njegove velikosti in topa 88 mm nadeli kar ime »kraljevi Tiger« . Tako kot Nemci je tudi Sovjetska zveza, za razliko od zaveznikov, v vojno vstopila z zelo razvitimi tankovskimi enotami. Njihovi najbolj znani tanki so bili BT-7 , T-35 in v prvi vrsti T-34 , ki je odigral ključno vlogo na vzhodni fronti. Sovjetska zveza je razvila tudi nekaj težkih tankov, kot sta bila uničevalca tigrov JS-2 in 3 (Josif Stalin). Zahodni zavezniki so v vojno na tankovskem področju vstopili popolnoma nepripravljeni. Njihovi tanki so bili v primerjavi z nemškimi slabše konstrukcije, poleg tega pa niso razumeli pomena tanka na bojišču, zaradi česar je bilo njihovo število relativno majhno. Najbolj znani zahodno-zavezniški tanki iz prvega obdobja vojne so bili francoski Char B1 in Somua S-35 ter skupina t. i. križarskih tankov ( Matilda , Crusader , Cromwel ). Ker so bili Francozi poraženi že leta 1940, Britanci pa so imeli tanke slabe kakovosti, so se na bojišču pojavili ameriški tanki. V prvi vojni je ključno vlogo odigralo topništvo, v drugi vojni temu, zaradi gibljivega vojskovanja in letalstva, ni bilo več tako. Vendar je topništvo kljub temu odigralo pomembno vlogo. Največ je topništvo uporabljala Sovjetska zveza, zato mu je Stalin nadel ime »bog vojne«. Ker je bilo za drugo svetovno vojno značilno gibljivo vojskovanje so topove namestili na različna prevozna sredstva ter tako dobili samovozno topništvo , kljub temu pa se se je še dogajalo, da je topove vlekla konjska vprega. Razvil se je tudi nov rod topništva, to so bili protitankovski in protiletalski topovi. Najbolj znan je bil Flak 88mm , ki so ga uporabljali tako za protiletalsko, kot tudi za protitankovsko orožje. Zasnova topov se od konca prve svetovne vojne ni bistveno spremenila, zato pa so je korenito spremenilo strelivo, ki je lahko sedaj doseglo nadpovprečen domet in izredno veliko prebojno moč. Proti koncu vojne pa je topništvo pričelo dobivati konkurenco v raketnem orožju. Prvi operativni reaktivni lovec Me 262 . Med dvajsetletnim premirjem se je razvilo tudi letalstvo. Letala so postajala vedno hitrejša in so lahko letela vedno višje. Dokončno sta se izoblikovali dve skupini letalstva: lovsko letalstvo in bombniško letalstvo. Na začetku vojne so na obeh področjih prednjačile predvsem sile osi z letali, kot so bili FW 190 , Me-109 , Ju 87 štuka in A6M3 reisen oz. bolje znan kot zero . V tem obdobju so se zavezniki lahko tem letalom resneje zoperstavili le z lovcema Spitfire in Hurricane . Za strateško bombardiranja Nemčije in Japonske so uporabljali bombnike, kot so britanski Avro Lancaster ter ameriška B-17 in B-29 . Najbolj znani sovjetski lovski letali sta bili Jak 1 ter La-5 /7 . Čeprav se v drugi polovici vojne nekatera nemška letala niso mogla več kosati s sodobnimi zavezniškimi lovci, so dokončno premoč v zraku zavezniki dobili šele z lovcem P-51 Mustang . Letalski napad na Tarent in Pearl Harbor ter potopitev ladij HMS Repulse in HMS Prince of Wales je oznanil konec nekega obdobja na morju. Velike bojne ladje so nadomestile letalonosilke , ki so s svojimi letali dosegale nasprotnika daleč preko obzorja. [ 59 ] Pomembno vlogo pa so ponovno odigrale podmornice , ki so v obdobju med obema vojnama postale zmogljivejše in so vojno za konvoje iz okolice britanskega otočja prenesle vse do vzhodne ameriške obali in ostale oceane po celem svetu. Skupaj s podmornicami pa so se razvijala tudi protipodmorniška sredstva, kot so bili sonarji , globinske bombe , radarji ter različne protipodmorniške taktike. Kot zelo učinkovito sredstvo proti sovražnikovim ladjam so se izkazale magnetne mine . [ 60 ] Za desant na sovražnikovo obalo pa so se razvili različni tipi desantnih ladij . Med drugo vojno je bila izredno pisana tudi pehotna oborožitev vojakov. Prva vojna je pokazala, da puške repetirke ne dajejo dovolj velike strelne moči, zato so se pojavila različna hitrostrelna orožja, ki so od konca prve vojne postala dosti majhna, da je z njimi lahko rokoval en sam vojak. Najbolj znana nemška pehotna orožja so bila puškomitraljez MG 42 , pištoli Walther P38 in P.08 Luger , brzostrelka MP 40 , repetirka Karabiner 98k , ter prednik vseh sodobnih avtomatskih pušk , StG44 . Zavezniki na tem področju niso prav nič zaostajali, čeprav so predvsem Britanci prisegali na bolj tradicionalno orožje, kot je bila repetirka Lee-Enfield . Američani so svoje vojake oborožili z brzostrelko Thompson , polavtomatsko puško M1 Garand , puškomitraljezom M1918 BAR in pištolo Colt 1911 . Sovjetski vojak pa je uporabljal predvsem brzostrelko Špagin , puško repetirko izredno starega izvora Mosin-Nagant , polavtomatsko puško Tokarjev ter enega izmed puškomitraljezov Maxim , Degtjarev in Gorjunov . Brzostrelke so se zelo izkazale v bitkah v zaprtih prostorih ter pogojih džungle , [ 61 ] avtomatske puške, ki so vključevale lastnosti pušk in brzostrelk, pa so postale standardna pehotna oborožitev pri skorajda vseh oboroženih silah v povojnem času. [ 62 ] Pred vojno ter med samo vojno se je Nemčija lotila tudi izdelave tako imenovanih »čudežnih orožij«. Nekatera med njimi so bila zares na meji znanstvene fantastike , druga pa so se izkazala kot zelo učinkovita, vendar so bila še daleč pred svojim časom. Tako so Nemci proti koncu vojne v operativno delovanje poslali prvo reaktivno letalo, lovca Me 262 ter t. i. maščevalno orožje ( nemško : Vergeltungswaffen ), tj. letečo bombo V-1 , raketo V-2 ter top V-3 . [ 63 ] Eksperimentirali so tudi z novimi, od zraka neodvisnimi motorji za podmornice, različnimi raketami, vodenimi bombami (na primer Fritz X ), [ 64 ] žarki ( IR ) ter letali na reakcijski in raketni pogon. V načrtu so imeli tudi izdelavo atomske bombe , vendar so si načrt napačno zastavili, tako [ 65 ] [ 66 ] da so jih Američani prehiteli in leta 1945 odvrgli dve atomski bombi na Japonsko, s čimer se je druga svetovna vojna končala, svet pa se je za vedno spremenil in prešel v novo obdobje zgodovine - "Atomsko dobo". Vojaška tehnologija Prva svetovna vojna je po svojem koncu postregla z različnimi novimi orožji in izumi, ki so v drugi svetovni vojni odigrali ključno vlogo in ji tudi dali svojevrsten značaj sodobnega hitrega vojskovanja. Ta orožja so bila letala, tanki, podmornice, letalonosilke, različna hitrostrelna orožja, rakete, idr. Napredovala je tudi komunikacijska tehnologija, poleg tega pa so bile pomembne naprave, kot so radar [ 54 ] ter naprave za šifriranje (npr. nemška Enigma ). [ 55 ] [ 56 ] Največji pečat je drugi svetovni vojni dal tank . Ta sicer sprva precej neroden britanski izum se je v t. i. dvajsetletnem premirju spremenil v izredno učinkovit bojni stroj. Na tankovskem področju so prednjačili predvsem Nemci in Sovjetska zveza, ki so razvijali vedno večje in bolj napredne tanke. [ 57 ] [ 58 ] Najbolj znan nemški tank iz prve polovice vojne je bil Panzer IV , tega je zaradi svoje zastarelosti nadomestil Panzer V ali Panter in Tiger I . Proti koncu vojne pa je v boje posegel še Tiger II , ki so mu zavezniški tankisti zaradi njegove velikosti in topa 88 mm nadeli kar ime »kraljevi Tiger« . Tako kot Nemci je tudi Sovjetska zveza, za razliko od zaveznikov, v vojno vstopila z zelo razvitimi tankovskimi enotami. Njihovi najbolj znani tanki so bili BT-7 , T-35 in v prvi vrsti T-34 , ki je odigral ključno vlogo na vzhodni fronti. Sovjetska zveza je razvila tudi nekaj težkih tankov, kot sta bila uničevalca tigrov JS-2 in 3 (Josif Stalin). Zahodni zavezniki so v vojno na tankovskem področju vstopili popolnoma nepripravljeni. Njihovi tanki so bili v primerjavi z nemškimi slabše konstrukcije, poleg tega pa niso razumeli pomena tanka na bojišču, zaradi česar je bilo njihovo število relativno majhno. Najbolj znani zahodno-zavezniški tanki iz prvega obdobja vojne so bili francoski Char B1 in Somua S-35 ter skupina t. i. križarskih tankov ( Matilda , Crusader , Cromwel ). Ker so bili Francozi poraženi že leta 1940, Britanci pa so imeli tanke slabe kakovosti, so se na bojišču pojavili ameriški tanki. V prvi vojni je ključno vlogo odigralo topništvo, v drugi vojni temu, zaradi gibljivega vojskovanja in letalstva, ni bilo več tako. Vendar je topništvo kljub temu odigralo pomembno vlogo. Največ je topništvo uporabljala Sovjetska zveza, zato mu je Stalin nadel ime »bog vojne«. Ker je bilo za drugo svetovno vojno značilno gibljivo vojskovanje so topove namestili na različna prevozna sredstva ter tako dobili samovozno topništvo , kljub temu pa se se je še dogajalo, da je topove vlekla konjska vprega. Razvil se je tudi nov rod topništva, to so bili protitankovski in protiletalski topovi. Najbolj znan je bil Flak 88mm , ki so ga uporabljali tako za protiletalsko, kot tudi za protitankovsko orožje. Zasnova topov se od konca prve svetovne vojne ni bistveno spremenila, zato pa so je korenito spremenilo strelivo, ki je lahko sedaj doseglo nadpovprečen domet in izredno veliko prebojno moč. Proti koncu vojne pa je topništvo pričelo dobivati konkurenco v raketnem orožju. Med dvajsetletnim premirjem se je razvilo tudi letalstvo. Letala so postajala vedno hitrejša in so lahko letela vedno višje. Dokončno sta se izoblikovali dve skupini letalstva: lovsko letalstvo in bombniško letalstvo. Na začetku vojne so na obeh področjih prednjačile predvsem sile osi z letali, kot so bili FW 190 , Me-109 , Ju 87 štuka in A6M3 reisen oz. bolje znan kot zero . V tem obdobju so se zavezniki lahko tem letalom resneje zoperstavili le z lovcema Spitfire in Hurricane . Za strateško bombardiranja Nemčije in Japonske so uporabljali bombnike, kot so britanski Avro Lancaster ter ameriška B-17 in B-29 . Najbolj znani sovjetski lovski letali sta bili Jak 1 ter La-5 /7 . Čeprav se v drugi polovici vojne nekatera nemška letala niso mogla več kosati s sodobnimi zavezniškimi lovci, so dokončno premoč v zraku zavezniki dobili šele z lovcem P-51 Mustang . Letalski napad na Tarent in Pearl Harbor ter potopitev ladij HMS Repulse in HMS Prince of Wales je oznanil konec nekega obdobja na morju. Velike bojne ladje so nadomestile letalonosilke , ki so s svojimi letali dosegale nasprotnika daleč preko obzorja. [ 59 ] Pomembno vlogo pa so ponovno odigrale podmornice , ki so v obdobju med obema vojnama postale zmogljivejše in so vojno za konvoje iz okolice britanskega otočja prenesle vse do vzhodne ameriške obali in ostale oceane po celem svetu. Skupaj s podmornicami pa so se razvijala tudi protipodmorniška sredstva, kot so bili sonarji , globinske bombe , radarji ter različne protipodmorniške taktike. Kot zelo učinkovito sredstvo proti sovražnikovim ladjam so se izkazale magnetne mine . [ 60 ] Za desant na sovražnikovo obalo pa so se razvili različni tipi desantnih ladij . Med drugo vojno je bila izredno pisana tudi pehotna oborožitev vojakov. Prva vojna je pokazala, da puške repetirke ne dajejo dovolj velike strelne moči, zato so se pojavila različna hitrostrelna orožja, ki so od konca prve vojne postala dosti majhna, da je z njimi lahko rokoval en sam vojak. Najbolj znana nemška pehotna orožja so bila puškomitraljez MG 42 , pištoli Walther P38 in P.08 Luger , brzostrelka MP 40 , repetirka Karabiner 98k , ter prednik vseh sodobnih avtomatskih pušk , StG44 . Zavezniki na tem področju niso prav nič zaostajali, čeprav so predvsem Britanci prisegali na bolj tradicionalno orožje, kot je bila repetirka Lee-Enfield . Američani so svoje vojake oborožili z brzostrelko Thompson , polavtomatsko puško M1 Garand , puškomitraljezom M1918 BAR in pištolo Colt 1911 . Sovjetski vojak pa je uporabljal predvsem brzostrelko Špagin , puško repetirko izredno starega izvora Mosin-Nagant , polavtomatsko puško Tokarjev ter enega izmed puškomitraljezov Maxim , Degtjarev in Gorjunov . Brzostrelke so se zelo izkazale v bitkah v zaprtih prostorih ter pogojih džungle , [ 61 ] avtomatske puške, ki so vključevale lastnosti pušk in brzostrelk, pa so postale standardna pehotna oborožitev pri skorajda vseh oboroženih silah v povojnem času. [ 62 ] Pred vojno ter med samo vojno se je Nemčija lotila tudi izdelave tako imenovanih »čudežnih orožij«. Nekatera med njimi so bila zares na meji znanstvene fantastike , druga pa so se izkazala kot zelo učinkovita, vendar so bila še daleč pred svojim časom. Tako so Nemci proti koncu vojne v operativno delovanje poslali prvo reaktivno letalo, lovca Me 262 ter t. i. maščevalno orožje ( nemško : Vergeltungswaffen ), tj. letečo bombo V-1 , raketo V-2 ter top V-3 . [ 63 ] Eksperimentirali so tudi z novimi, od zraka neodvisnimi motorji za podmornice, različnimi raketami, vodenimi bombami (na primer Fritz X ), [ 64 ] žarki ( IR ) ter letali na reakcijski in raketni pogon. V načrtu so imeli tudi izdelavo atomske bombe , vendar so si načrt napačno zastavili, tako [ 65 ] [ 66 ] da so jih Američani prehiteli in leta 1945 odvrgli dve atomski bombi na Japonsko, s čimer se je druga svetovna vojna končala, svet pa se je za vedno spremenil in prešel v novo obdobje zgodovine - "Atomsko dobo". Posledice [ uredi | uredi kodo ] Razdelitev Sveta med države NATA in Varšavskega pakta. Drugega septembra 1945 je bila v Tokijskem zalivu na ladji USS Missouri podpisana japonska brezpogojna kapitulacija . Vojna, ki je trajala točno šest let, se je s tem končno zaključila. Začelo se je novo obdobje, na katerega je svet čakal že od konca prve svetovne vojne. Da se kaj podobnega nikoli več ne bi zgodilo, so zavezniki 24. oktobra 1945 ustanovili Organizacijo združenih narodov z namenom reševanja svetovnih problemov. Ta je nadomestila neučinkovito in pristransko organizacijo Društvo narodov , ki je bilo ustanovljeno po prvi svetovni vojni. Moč vala sprememb so občutili tudi stari kolonialni imperiji (Velika Britanija, Francija, Nizozemska, Belgija, Portugalska), ki so bili skozi stoletja simbol svetovne moči. Iz nekdanjih kolonij je v procesu postopne dekolonializacije nastala cela kopica novih samostojnih držav, kot so Indija , Pakistan , Indonezija , Madagaskar , Alžirija , Izrael , Severna Koreja , Južna Koreja , idr. Stare imperije so nadomestile ZDA, ki so na veliko pozdravljale in podpirale idejo o samoodločbi narodov, ter Sovjetska zveza, ki je močno vplivala na gradnjo političnih socializmov v nerazvitih dekolonializiranih državah. Spremenila se je tudi svetovna ureditev. Kmalu po vojni so se razmere med vzhodnimi in zahodnimi zavezniki začele slabšati, zato sta obe strani začeli oblikovati svoja vplivna območja. Evropa se je razdelila na vzhodno, pod nadzorom Sovjetske zveze, in na zahodno pod nadzorom ZDA oz. zahodnih zaveznikov. Nekaj podobnega se je zgodilo tudi drugod po svetu. ZDA so zasedle Japonsko ter si tako pridobile vpliv nad Južno Korejo, Južnim Vietnamom in Tihim oceanom. Sovjetska zveza je okupirala Kurilske otoke in si zagotovila vpliv nad Severno Korejo. Ker so bile napetosti med nekdanjimi vojnimi zavezniki vedno večje so zahodni zavezniki ustanovili zvezo NATO , Sovjetska zveza pa je nanjo odgovorila z Varšavskim paktom . Kmalu za tem se je svet znašel globoko v hladni vojni , obdobju, v katerem je celoten svet trepetal pred neprestano nevarnostjo atomskega spopada . Posledice Drugega septembra 1945 je bila v Tokijskem zalivu na ladji USS Missouri podpisana japonska brezpogojna kapitulacija . Vojna, ki je trajala točno šest let, se je s tem končno zaključila. Začelo se je novo obdobje, na katerega je svet čakal že od konca prve svetovne vojne. Da se kaj podobnega nikoli več ne bi zgodilo, so zavezniki 24. oktobra 1945 ustanovili Organizacijo združenih narodov z namenom reševanja svetovnih problemov. Ta je nadomestila neučinkovito in pristransko organizacijo Društvo narodov , ki je bilo ustanovljeno po prvi svetovni vojni. Moč vala sprememb so občutili tudi stari kolonialni imperiji (Velika Britanija, Francija, Nizozemska, Belgija, Portugalska), ki so bili skozi stoletja simbol svetovne moči. Iz nekdanjih kolonij je v procesu postopne dekolonializacije nastala cela kopica novih samostojnih držav, kot so Indija , Pakistan , Indonezija , Madagaskar , Alžirija , Izrael , Severna Koreja , Južna Koreja , idr. Stare imperije so nadomestile ZDA, ki so na veliko pozdravljale in podpirale idejo o samoodločbi narodov, ter Sovjetska zveza, ki je močno vplivala na gradnjo političnih socializmov v nerazvitih dekolonializiranih državah. Spremenila se je tudi svetovna ureditev. Kmalu po vojni so se razmere med vzhodnimi in zahodnimi zavezniki začele slabšati, zato sta obe strani začeli oblikovati svoja vplivna območja. Evropa se je razdelila na vzhodno, pod nadzorom Sovjetske zveze, in na zahodno pod nadzorom ZDA oz. zahodnih zaveznikov. Nekaj podobnega se je zgodilo tudi drugod po svetu. ZDA so zasedle Japonsko ter si tako pridobile vpliv nad Južno Korejo, Južnim Vietnamom in Tihim oceanom. Sovjetska zveza je okupirala Kurilske otoke in si zagotovila vpliv nad Severno Korejo. Ker so bile napetosti med nekdanjimi vojnimi zavezniki vedno večje so zahodni zavezniki ustanovili zvezo NATO , Sovjetska zveza pa je nanjo odgovorila z Varšavskim paktom . Kmalu za tem se je svet znašel globoko v hladni vojni , obdobju, v katerem je celoten svet trepetal pred neprestano nevarnostjo atomskega spopada . Žrtve in škoda [ uredi | uredi kodo ] Drugo svetovno vojno bi lahko označili kot totalno vojno . Trajala je polnih šest let, v njej pa je sodelovalo 61 držav z milijardo sedemsto milijoni prebivalcev in s površino 131,5 milijoni km 2 , kar je predstavljalo kar 96 % zemeljske površine. Medtem ko je prva svetovna vojna potekala predvsem v Evropi, se je druga svetovna vojna odvijala praktično po celem svetu. V njej je sodelovalo 81 % takratnega prebivalstva. Mobiliziranih je bilo 110 milijonov vojakov od 210 milijonov odraslih moških (skoraj vsak drugi moški), na različne načine pa so bili v boje vključeni tudi civilisti, kar je bila ena od velikih značilnosti te vojne. Vojna sama je terjala 60 milijonov mrtvih in 35 milijonov ranjenih ter še 3 milijone pogrešanih. Največ ljudi je umrlo zaradi nacističnih zločinov. Prvič v zgodovini modernega vojskovanja se je zgodilo, da je bilo mrtvih več civilistov kot vojakov (tj. okoli 40 milijonov), ki so umrli zaradi različnih bolezni , lakote , bombardiranj ter pokolov, genocidov in drugih vojnih zločinov , [ 67 ] [ 68 ] [ 69 ] ki so jih zagrešili tako na strani sil osi (npr. holokavst in pokol v Nankingu ) kot tudi na strani zaveznikov (npr. Katinski pokol [ 70 ] in bombardiranje Dresdena [ 71 ] [ 72 ] [ 73 ] [ 74 ] [ 75 ] ). Sile osi so v določenih primerih za poboje civilistov in vojnih ujetnikov uporabile biološko in kemično orožje (npr. italijanske sile so uporabile iperit v Abesiniji , [ 76 ] enota 731 Japonske cesarske vojske pa različno biološko in kemično orožje med okupacijo Kitajske [ 77 ] in začetnih bojih s Sovjetsko zvezo [ 78 ] ). Zaprtih je bilo 45 milijonov ljudi, 20 milijonov otrok je ostalo brez staršev, bilo pa je tudi 10 milijonov prisilnih delavcev. Taboriščniki v Mauthausnu po osvoboditvi, Avstrija 1945. Po številu izstopata Poljska z okoli 6 milijoni žrtev, torej z 20 % izgubo prebivalstva in Sovjetska zveza z okoli 20 milijonov žrtev ali izgubo okoli 13 % njenega prebivalstva. Francija je imela okoli 358.000 žrtev ali 0,85 % prebivalstva. V Jugoslaviji je bilo med vojno ubitih okoli 1.100.000 ljudi oziroma 5,8 % populacije. [ 79 ] Med deli Jugoslavije je bilo največ žrtev v Bosni in Hercegovini, in sicer 328.000 žrtev (več kot 10 % prebivalstva), sledi Črna gora 37.000 žrtev (skoraj 8 %), Hrvaška 295.000 žrtev (več kot 7 %), Slovenija približno 89.000 žrtev, Vojvodina 73.000 žrtev (več kot 5 %), Srbija 303.000 žrtev (več kot 4 %), Kosovo 24.000 žrtev (skoraj 2 %) in Makedonija 24.000 žrtev (skoraj 2 %). [ 80 ] V Sloveniji je bilo med vojno ubitih po doslej znanih podatkih 70.922 ljudi, po vojni pa 13.989. Od vseh žrtev je bilo 53.680 vojaških oziroma 63 %, kar 37 % vseh žrtev je bilo med civilisti. Za primerjavo velja omeniti, da je bilo v Sloveniji v času prve svetovne vojne 10 % vseh žrtev med civilisti. [ 81 ] Po zavezniškem bombnem napadu popolnoma porušeno mesto Dresden . Uničenih je bilo 30 milijonov zgradb. Škoda je znašala 278 milijard USD. SZ je imela škode za 128 milijard USD, Poljska za 65 milijard USD, Jugoslavija pa za 50 milijard USD. Izdatki za oboroževanje so znašali 1500 milijard USD (ZDA – 320 milijard USD; Velika Britanija – 300 milijard USD; Nemčija – 275 milijard USD; ZSSR – 190 milijard USD; Italija – 94 milijard USD; Japonska – 56 milijard USD). Po nekaterih ocenah je vojna stala 4.000 milijard USD, države so za vojno namenile 60–70 % svojega nacionalnega dohodka . [ 82 ] [ 83 ] Najbolj sta bili na vojno pripravljeni Nemčija in Japonska. Sledila jim je SZ, vendar je ta v prvih tednih vojne izgubila velik del ozemlja in industrije, zato se je znašla na dnu. Do leta 1945 je morala vso industrijo postaviti na novo, kar jo je veliko stalo. Najmanj sta bili na vojno pripravljeni ZDA in Velika Britanija. ZDA so se vojnim razmeram zaradi svojega velikega gospodarskega potenciala hitro prilagodile in tako postale svetovna velesila. Velika Britanija ni imela take sreče. Njena industrija je temeljila na uvozu surovin iz prekomorskih ozemelj, zato je imela tekom vojne izredno obremenjeno industrijo, večino orožja je morala kupovati v tujini. [ 82 ] [ 83 ] [ 84 ] Tekom vojne je bilo izdelanih več kot 800.000 letal, 300.000 tankov, milijon topov, 650.000 minometov, 52 milijonov različnih kosov pehotnega strelnega orožja ter 2.970 podmornic in ladij. [ 82 ] [ 83 ] Nemčija je vojno začela z 1,4 milijonov vojakov, končala pa s 7,5 milijoni. SZ je imela pred vojno poldrugi milijon vojakov, leta 1941 je njihovo število naraslo na 4,7 milijonov, ob koncu vojne pa je bilo pod orožjem že kar neverjetnih 12 milijonov ljudi. ZDA, ki so bile na vojno najmanj pripravljene, so imela leta 1939 pičlih 174.000 izredno slabo oboroženih vojakov, do konca vojne so zbrali 12,3 milijonov vojakov in se tako brez težav kosali s SZ. Velika Britanija je imela pred vojno 472.000 izredno dobro oboroženih vojakov, do konca vojne je njihovo število naraslo na 5 milijonov. Največ so med vojno pridobile ZDA, ki so s svojo močno industrijo iz nje prišle kot svetovna gospodarska in politična velesila. Medtem pa so se nekdanje gospodarske velesile (Nemčija, Francija, Velika Britanija idr.) znašle v ruševinah povojne Evrope in so se morale prilagoditi novi svetovni ureditvi. Žrtve in škoda Drugo svetovno vojno bi lahko označili kot totalno vojno . Trajala je polnih šest let, v njej pa je sodelovalo 61 držav z milijardo sedemsto milijoni prebivalcev in s površino 131,5 milijoni km 2 , kar je predstavljalo kar 96 % zemeljske površine. Medtem ko je prva svetovna vojna potekala predvsem v Evropi, se je druga svetovna vojna odvijala praktično po celem svetu. V njej je sodelovalo 81 % takratnega prebivalstva. Mobiliziranih je bilo 110 milijonov vojakov od 210 milijonov odraslih moških (skoraj vsak drugi moški), na različne načine pa so bili v boje vključeni tudi civilisti, kar je bila ena od velikih značilnosti te vojne. Vojna sama je terjala 60 milijonov mrtvih in 35 milijonov ranjenih ter še 3 milijone pogrešanih. Največ ljudi je umrlo zaradi nacističnih zločinov. Prvič v zgodovini modernega vojskovanja se je zgodilo, da je bilo mrtvih več civilistov kot vojakov (tj. okoli 40 milijonov), ki so umrli zaradi različnih bolezni , lakote , bombardiranj ter pokolov, genocidov in drugih vojnih zločinov , [ 67 ] [ 68 ] [ 69 ] ki so jih zagrešili tako na strani sil osi (npr. holokavst in pokol v Nankingu ) kot tudi na strani zaveznikov (npr. Katinski pokol [ 70 ] in bombardiranje Dresdena [ 71 ] [ 72 ] [ 73 ] [ 74 ] [ 75 ] ). Sile osi so v določenih primerih za poboje civilistov in vojnih ujetnikov uporabile biološko in kemično orožje (npr. italijanske sile so uporabile iperit v Abesiniji , [ 76 ] enota 731 Japonske cesarske vojske pa različno biološko in kemično orožje med okupacijo Kitajske [ 77 ] in začetnih bojih s Sovjetsko zvezo [ 78 ] ). Zaprtih je bilo 45 milijonov ljudi, 20 milijonov otrok je ostalo brez staršev, bilo pa je tudi 10 milijonov prisilnih delavcev. Po številu izstopata Poljska z okoli 6 milijoni žrtev, torej z 20 % izgubo prebivalstva in Sovjetska zveza z okoli 20 milijonov žrtev ali izgubo okoli 13 % njenega prebivalstva. Francija je imela okoli 358.000 žrtev ali 0,85 % prebivalstva. V Jugoslaviji je bilo med vojno ubitih okoli 1.100.000 ljudi oziroma 5,8 % populacije. [ 79 ] Med deli Jugoslavije je bilo največ žrtev v Bosni in Hercegovini, in sicer 328.000 žrtev (več kot 10 % prebivalstva), sledi Črna gora 37.000 žrtev (skoraj 8 %), Hrvaška 295.000 žrtev (več kot 7 %), Slovenija približno 89.000 žrtev, Vojvodina 73.000 žrtev (več kot 5 %), Srbija 303.000 žrtev (več kot 4 %), Kosovo 24.000 žrtev (skoraj 2 %) in Makedonija 24.000 žrtev (skoraj 2 %). [ 80 ] V Sloveniji je bilo med vojno ubitih po doslej znanih podatkih 70.922 ljudi, po vojni pa 13.989. Od vseh žrtev je bilo 53.680 vojaških oziroma 63 %, kar 37 % vseh žrtev je bilo med civilisti. Za primerjavo velja omeniti, da je bilo v Sloveniji v času prve svetovne vojne 10 % vseh žrtev med civilisti. [ 81 ] Uničenih je bilo 30 milijonov zgradb. Škoda je znašala 278 milijard USD. SZ je imela škode za 128 milijard USD, Poljska za 65 milijard USD, Jugoslavija pa za 50 milijard USD. Izdatki za oboroževanje so znašali 1500 milijard USD (ZDA – 320 milijard USD; Velika Britanija – 300 milijard USD; Nemčija – 275 milijard USD; ZSSR – 190 milijard USD; Italija – 94 milijard USD; Japonska – 56 milijard USD). Po nekaterih ocenah je vojna stala 4.000 milijard USD, države so za vojno namenile 60–70 % svojega nacionalnega dohodka . [ 82 ] [ 83 ] Najbolj sta bili na vojno pripravljeni Nemčija in Japonska. Sledila jim je SZ, vendar je ta v prvih tednih vojne izgubila velik del ozemlja in industrije, zato se je znašla na dnu. Do leta 1945 je morala vso industrijo postaviti na novo, kar jo je veliko stalo. Najmanj sta bili na vojno pripravljeni ZDA in Velika Britanija. ZDA so se vojnim razmeram zaradi svojega velikega gospodarskega potenciala hitro prilagodile in tako postale svetovna velesila. Velika Britanija ni imela take sreče. Njena industrija je temeljila na uvozu surovin iz prekomorskih ozemelj, zato je imela tekom vojne izredno obremenjeno industrijo, večino orožja je morala kupovati v tujini. [ 82 ] [ 83 ] [ 84 ] Tekom vojne je bilo izdelanih več kot 800.000 letal, 300.000 tankov, milijon topov, 650.000 minometov, 52 milijonov različnih kosov pehotnega strelnega orožja ter 2.970 podmornic in ladij. [ 82 ] [ 83 ] Nemčija je vojno začela z 1,4 milijonov vojakov, končala pa s 7,5 milijoni. SZ je imela pred vojno poldrugi milijon vojakov, leta 1941 je njihovo število naraslo na 4,7 milijonov, ob koncu vojne pa je bilo pod orožjem že kar neverjetnih 12 milijonov ljudi. ZDA, ki so bile na vojno najmanj pripravljene, so imela leta 1939 pičlih 174.000 izredno slabo oboroženih vojakov, do konca vojne so zbrali 12,3 milijonov vojakov in se tako brez težav kosali s SZ. Velika Britanija je imela pred vojno 472.000 izredno dobro oboroženih vojakov, do konca vojne je njihovo število naraslo na 5 milijonov. Največ so med vojno pridobile ZDA, ki so s svojo močno industrijo iz nje prišle kot svetovna gospodarska in politična velesila. Medtem pa so se nekdanje gospodarske velesile (Nemčija, Francija, Velika Britanija idr.) znašle v ruševinah povojne Evrope in so se morale prilagoditi novi svetovni ureditvi. Glej tudi [ uredi | uredi kodo ] Kronologija druge svetovne vojne Vojne napovedi v drugi svetovni vojni Tretji rajh koncentracijsko taborišče izumi in pridobitve druge svetovne vojne seznam osebnosti druge svetovne vojne Preoblikovanje Evrope po drugi svetovni vojni Druga svetovna vojna na Slovenskem Glej tudi Kronologija druge svetovne vojne Vojne napovedi v drugi svetovni vojni Tretji rajh koncentracijsko taborišče izumi in pridobitve druge svetovne vojne seznam osebnosti druge svetovne vojne Preoblikovanje Evrope po drugi svetovni vojni Druga svetovna vojna na Slovenskem Sklici [ uredi | uredi kodo ] ↑ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"»""«""›""‹"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#3a3;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit} Sommerville, D. (2008). The Complete Illustrated History of World War Two: An Authoritative Account of the Deadliest Conflict in Human History with Analysis of Decisive Encounters and Landmark Engagements . Lorenz Books. str. 5 . ISBN 0754818985 . ↑ Gilbert, M. (2000). Second World War . London: Phoenix Press, str. 745-746. ↑ Barrett, D.P. & Shyu, L.N. (2001). "China in the anti-Japanese War, 1937–1945: politics, culture and society". V: Studies in modern Chinese history , 1. knjiga (str. 6); uredniki Barrett D.P., Shyu L.N. in Lang, P. ISBN 0-8204-4556-8 , 9780820445564 ↑ »Australia Declares War on Japan« . ibiblio . Pridobljeno 3. oktobra 2009 . ↑ »The Kingdom of The Netherlands Declares War with Japan« . ibiblio. 2007 . 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Sklici ↑ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"»""«""›""‹"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#3a3;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit} Sommerville, D. (2008). The Complete Illustrated History of World War Two: An Authoritative Account of the Deadliest Conflict in Human History with Analysis of Decisive Encounters and Landmark Engagements . Lorenz Books. str. 5 . ISBN 0754818985 . ↑ Gilbert, M. (2000). Second World War . London: Phoenix Press, str. 745-746. ↑ Barrett, D.P. & Shyu, L.N. (2001). "China in the anti-Japanese War, 1937–1945: politics, culture and society". V: Studies in modern Chinese history , 1. knjiga (str. 6); uredniki Barrett D.P., Shyu L.N. in Lang, P. ISBN 0-8204-4556-8 , 9780820445564 ↑ »Australia Declares War on Japan« . ibiblio . Pridobljeno 3. oktobra 2009 . ↑ »The Kingdom of The Netherlands Declares War with Japan« . ibiblio. 2007 . Pridobljeno 3. oktobra 2009 . ↑ Ingram 2006 , str. ; 76–8 . sfn error: no target: CITEREFIngram2006 ( pomoč ) ↑ Kantowicz 1999 , str. 149. sfn error: no target: CITEREFKantowicz1999 ( pomoč ) ↑ Shaw 2000 , str. 35. sfn error: no target: CITEREFShaw2000 ( pomoč ) ↑ Brody 1999 , str. 4. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBrody1999 ( pomoč ) ↑ Zalampas 1989 , str. 62. sfn error: no target: CITEREFZalampas1989 ( pomoč ) ↑ Schmitz 2000 , str. 124. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSchmitz2000 ( pomoč ) ↑ Adamthwaite 1992 , str. 52. sfn error: no target: CITEREFAdamthwaite1992 ( pomoč ) ↑ Shirer 1990 , str. ;298–99. sfn error: no target: CITEREFShirer1990 ( pomoč ) ↑ Smith & Steadman 2004 , str. 28. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSmithSteadman2004 ( pomoč ) ↑ Busky 2002 , str. 10. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBusky2002 ( pomoč ) ↑ Andrea L. Stanton; Edward Ramsamy; Peter J. Seybolt (2012). Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia . str. 308. ISBN 978-1-4129-8176-7 . Arhivirano iz spletišča dne 18. avgusta 2018 . Pridobljeno 6. aprila 2014 . ↑ Barker 1971 , str. ;131–32. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBarker1971 ( pomoč ) ↑ Shirer 1990 , str. 289. sfn error: no target: CITEREFShirer1990 ( pomoč ) ↑ Kitson 2001 , str. 231. sfn error: no target: CITEREFKitson2001 ( pomoč ) ↑ Neulen 2000 , str. 25. sfn error: no target: CITEREFNeulen2000 ( pomoč ) ↑ Payne 2008 , str. 271. sfn error: no target: CITEREFPayne2008 ( pomoč ) ↑ Payne 2008 , str. 146. sfn error: no target: CITEREFPayne2008 ( pomoč ) ↑ Eastman 1986 , str. ;547–51. sfn error: no target: CITEREFEastman1986 ( pomoč ) ↑ Hsu & Chang 1971 , str. ;195–200 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHsuChang1971 ( pomoč ) . ↑ Tucker, Spencer C. (2009). A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East [ 6 volumes ] : From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East . ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-85109-672-5 . Arhivirano iz spletišča dne 18. avgusta 2018 . Pridobljeno 27. avgusta 2017 – prek Google Books. ↑ Yang Kuisong, "On the reconstruction of the facts of the Battle of Pingxingguan" ↑ Levene, Mark and Roberts, Penny. The Massacre in History . 1999, pp. 223–24 ↑ Totten, Samuel. Dictionary of Genocide . 2008, 298–99. ↑ Hsu & Chang 1971 , str. ;221–30. sfn error: no target: CITEREFHsuChang1971 ( pomoč ) ↑ Eastman 1986 , str. 566. sfn error: no target: CITEREFEastman1986 ( pomoč ) ↑ Taylor 2009 , str. ;150–52. sfn error: no target: CITEREFTaylor2009 ( pomoč ) ↑ Sella 1983 , str. ;651–87. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSella1983 ( pomoč ) ↑ Beevor 2012 , str. 342. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBeevor2012 ( pomoč ) ↑ Goldman, Stuart D. (28. avgust 2012). »The Forgotten Soviet-Japanese War of 1939« . The Diplomat . Arhivirano iz spletišča dne 29. junija 2015 . Pridobljeno 26. junija 2015 . ↑ Timothy Neeno. »Nomonhan: The Second Russo-Japanese War« . MilitaryHistoryOnline.com. Arhivirano iz spletišča dne 24. novembra 2005 . Pridobljeno 26. junija 2015 . ↑ Collier & Pedley 2000 , str. 144. sfn error: no target: CITEREFCollierPedley2000 ( pomoč ) ↑ Kershaw 2001 , str. ;121–22. sfn error: no target: CITEREFKershaw2001 ( pomoč ) ↑ Kershaw 2001 , str. 157. sfn error: no target: CITEREFKershaw2001 ( pomoč ) ↑ Davies 2006 , pp. 143–44 (2008 ed.). sfn error: no target: CITEREFDavies2006 ( pomoč ) ↑ Shirer 1990 , str. ;461–62. sfn error: no target: CITEREFShirer1990 ( pomoč ) ↑ Lowe & Marzari 2002 , str. 330. sfn error: no target: CITEREFLoweMarzari2002 ( pomoč ) ↑ Dear & Foot 2001 , str. 234. sfn error: no target: CITEREFDearFoot2001 ( pomoč ) ↑ Shirer 1990 , str. 471. sfn error: no target: CITEREFShirer1990 ( pomoč ) ↑ Watson, Derek (2000). »Molotov's Apprenticeship in Foreign Policy: The Triple Alliance Negotiations in 1939« . Europe-Asia Studies . 52 (4): 695–722. doi : 10.1080/713663077 . ISSN 0966-8136 . JSTOR 153322 . ↑ Shore 2003 , str. 108. sfn error: no target: CITEREFShore2003 ( pomoč ) ↑ Dear & Foot 2001 , str. 608. sfn error: no target: CITEREFDearFoot2001 ( pomoč ) ↑ »The German Campaign In Poland (1939)« . Arhivirano iz spletišča dne 24. maja 2014 . Pridobljeno 29. oktobra 2014 . 1 2 »The Danzig Crisis« . ww2db.com . Arhivirano iz spletišča dne 5. maja 2016 . Pridobljeno 29. aprila 2016 . ↑ »Major international events of 1939, with explanation« . Ibiblio.org. Arhivirano iz spletišča dne 10. marca 2013 . Pridobljeno 9. maja 2013 . ↑ Marijan F. Kranjc in Slobodan Kljakić, Plava garda – poveljnikovo zaupno poročilo , Pro-Andy, Maribor, 2006 ( COBISS ) 1 2 Cvirn, J. idr. (1999). "Okupacija in razkosanje Slovenije v 2. svetovni vojni". V: Ilustrirana zgodovina Slovencev (str. 344-7); uredniki Vidic M., Brenk L. in Ivanič M. Ljubljana: Mladinska knjiga. ISBN 86-11-15664-1 1 2 3 4 (2006). Slovenska novejša zgodovina: od programa Zedinjena Slovenija do mednarodnega priznanja Republike Slovenije : 1848-1992 . Ljubljana: Mladinska knjiga in Inštitut za novejšo zgodovino. ( COBISS ) 1 2 3 Cvirn, J. idr. (1999). "Narodnoosvobodilni boj in revolucija". V: Ilustrirana zgodovina Slovencev (str. 348-61). ↑ Batt, R. (1991). "The Radar Army: Winning the War of the Airwaves". Robert Hale Ltd. ISBN 0-7090-4508-5 ↑ Ratcliff, R.A. (2006). Delusions of Intelligence: Enigma, Ultra and the End of Secure Ciphers . Cambridge University Press. str. 11 . ISBN 0521855225 . ↑ Schoenherr, S. (2007). »Code Breaking in World War II« . History Department at the University of San Diego . Pridobljeno 15. novembra 2009 . ↑ Tucker, S.C. & Roberts, P.M. (2004). Encyclopedia of World War II: A Political, Social, and Military History . ABC-CLIO, str. 125. ISBN 1-57607-999-6 ↑ Dupuy, T.N. (1982). The Evolution of Weapons and Warfare . Jane's Information Group, str. 231. ISBN 0-7106-0123-9 ↑ Tucker, S.C. & Roberts, P.M. (2004). Encyclopedia of World War II: A Political, Social, and Military History . ABC-CLIO, str. 163. ISBN 1-57607-999-6 ↑ Rydill, L. (1995). Concepts in Submarine Design . Cambridge University Press, str. 16. ISBN 0-521-55926-X ↑ Cowley, R. & Parker, G. (2001). The Reader's Companion to Military History . Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, str. 221. ISBN 0-618-12742-9 ↑ Sprague, O. & Griffiths, H. (2006). The AK-47: the worlds favourite killing machine Arhivirano 2011-04-30 na Wayback Machine . (PDF). Amnesty International, str. 1. Pridobljeno 14.11.2009. ↑ Basil, C. (1976). The Battle of the V-Weapons . Morley: The Elmfield Press. ↑ Fitzsimons, B. (ur). (1978). "Fritz-X". V: The Illustrated Encyclopedia of 20th Century Weapons and Warfare , vol. 10 (str. 1037). London: Phoebus. ↑ Bethe, H.A. »The German Uranium Project«. Physics Today 53 (7): 34-36. ↑ Krieger, W. (1995). The Germans and the Nuclear Question . German Historical Institute Washington, D.C.: Occasional Paper, št. 14. ↑ O'Brien, J.V. »World War II: Combatants and Casualties (1937— 1945)« . Obee's History Page . John Jay College of Criminal Justice . Pridobljeno 16. avgusta 2010 . ↑ White, M. »Source List and Detailed Death Tolls for the Twentieth Century Hemoclysm« . Historical Atlas of the Twentieth Century . Matthew White's Homepage . Pridobljeno 16. avgusta 2010 . ↑ »World War II Fatalities« . secondworldwar.co.uk. Arhivirano iz prvotnega spletišča dne 25. februarja 2007 . Pridobljeno 16. avgusta 2010 . ↑ Paul, A. (2010). Katyń: Stalin's Massacre and the Triumph of Truth . DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press, str. 447. ISBN 978-0-87580-634-1 ↑ Stanton, G. »How Can We Prevent Genocide: Building An International Campaign to End Genocide« . Arhivirano iz prvotnega spletišča dne 27. septembra 2007 . Pridobljeno 16. avgusta 2010 . ↑ Addison, P. & Crang, J.A. (ur.). (2006). Firestorm: The Bombing of Dresden . Pimlico, str. 180. ISBN 1-84413-928-X ↑ Harding, L. »German historian provokes row over war photos« , The Guardian , 21. oktober 2003. ↑ Grayling, A.C (27. marec 2006). »Bombing civilians is not only immoral, it's ineffective« . London: The Guardian . Pridobljeno 1. oktobra 2008 . ↑ Hawley, C. »Dresden Bombing Is To Be Regretted Enormously« . Spiegel Online , 11. februar 2005. ↑ Tucker, S.C.; Roberts, P.M. (2004). Encyclopedia of World War II: A Political, Social, and Military History . ABC-CLIO. str. 319. ISBN 1576079996 . ↑ Sabella, R; Li, F Fei; Liu, D (2002). Nanking 1937: Memory and Healing . M.E. Sharpe. str. 69 . ISBN 0765608162 . ↑ Harris, S. (2002). Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare, 1932–1945, and the American Cover-up . Routledge. str. 74 . ISBN 0415932149 . ↑ Žerjavić, V. (1989). Gubici stanovništva Jugoslavije u drugom svjetskom ratu . Zagreb. ↑ Godeša B., Mlakar B., Šorn M. in Tominšek R.T. (2002). "Žrtve druge svetovne vojne v Sloveniji". V: Prispevki za novejšo zgodovino , str. 121-130. ↑ Godeša B., Mlakar B., Šorn M. in Tominšek R.T. (2002). "Žrtve druge svetovne vojne v Sloveniji". V: Prispevki za novejšo zgodovino , str. 125-130. 1 2 3 Milward, A.S. (1979). War, economy, and society, 1939-1945 . University of California Press. 1 2 3 Overy, R. (1997). Why the Allies Won . W.W. Norton & Company. ↑ Barnett, C. (1986). The audit of war: the illusion & reality of Britain as a great nation . Macmillan. Viri [ uredi | uredi kodo ] Čuček, J. idr. (ur.) (1991). "Druga svetovna vojna 1939–1945". V: Stoletje svetovnih vojn . Ljubljana: Cankarjeva založba. ( COBISS ) (1981). Stoletje svetovnih vojn . Ljubljana: Cankarjeva založba. (1981). Druga svetovna vojna . Ljubljana: Mladinska knjiga. (1970). Druga svetovna vojna . Ljubljana: Mladinska knjiga. Viri Čuček, J. idr. (ur.) (1991). "Druga svetovna vojna 1939–1945". V: Stoletje svetovnih vojn . Ljubljana: Cankarjeva založba. ( COBISS ) (1981). Stoletje svetovnih vojn . Ljubljana: Cankarjeva založba. (1981). Druga svetovna vojna . Ljubljana: Mladinska knjiga. (1970). Druga svetovna vojna . Ljubljana: Mladinska knjiga. Zunanje povezave [ uredi | uredi kodo ] .mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:#f9f9f9;display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}} .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Wikimedijina zbirka ponuja več predstavnostnega gradiva o temi: Druga svetovna vojna . (angleško) Slike druge svetovne vojne Baza podatkov o drugi svetovni vojni Enciklopedija 2.SV na History Channel Barvne slike o 2.SV Internetna baza podatkov pisem vojakov iz 2.SV Arhivirano 2009-01-30 na Wayback Machine . »WW2 People's War« - projekt »WW2 People's War« - projekt BBCja : zbirka zgodb običajnih ljudi tako ali drugače udeleženih v vojni »Fort Leavenworth papers«: študije in dokumenti knjižnice ameriškega inštituta vojnih operacij »cgsc« Arhivirano 2009-04-26 na Wayback Machine . Spletne zbirke normativne kontrole Mednarodno GND FAST WorldCat Nacionalno .mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help} ZDA Francija podatki BnF Japonska Republika Češka Španija Koreja Švedska Poljska Izrael Umetniki KulturNav Drugo Lexicon Istoric Retic Historical Dictionary of Switzerland NARA Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine İslâm Ansiklopedisi Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine Yale LUX Istrapedia Zunanje povezave (angleško) Slike druge svetovne vojne Baza podatkov o drugi svetovni vojni Enciklopedija 2.SV na History Channel Barvne slike o 2.SV Internetna baza podatkov pisem vojakov iz 2.SV Arhivirano 2009-01-30 na Wayback Machine . »WW2 People's War« - projekt »WW2 People's War« - projekt BBCja : zbirka zgodb običajnih ljudi tako ali drugače udeleženih v vojni »Fort Leavenworth papers«: študije in dokumenti knjižnice ameriškega inštituta vojnih operacij »cgsc« Arhivirano 2009-04-26 na Wayback Machine . Spletne zbirke normativne kontrole Mednarodno GND FAST WorldCat GND FAST WorldCat Nacionalno .mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help} ZDA Francija podatki BnF Japonska Republika Češka Španija Koreja Švedska Poljska Izrael .mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help} ZDA Francija podatki BnF Japonska Republika Češka Španija Koreja Švedska Poljska Izrael Umetniki KulturNav KulturNav Drugo Lexicon Istoric Retic Historical Dictionary of Switzerland NARA Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine İslâm Ansiklopedisi Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine Yale LUX Istrapedia Lexicon Istoric Retic Historical Dictionary of Switzerland NARA Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine İslâm Ansiklopedisi Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine Yale LUX Istrapedia Druga svetovna vojna Vojne Albanije Vojne Argentine Vojne Avstralije Vojne Avstrije Vojne Bahavalpurja Vojne Belgije Vojne Bolgarije Vojne Bolivije Vojne Brazilije Vojne Češkoslovaške Vojne Danske Vojne Dominikanske republike Vojne Egipta Vojne Ekvadorja Vojne Etiopije Vojne Filipinov Vojne Francije Vojne Grčije Vojne Gvatemale Vojne Haitija Vojne Hondurasa Vojne Hrvaške Vojne Indije Vojne Iraka Vojne Irana Vojne Italije Vojne Japonske Vojne Kanade Vojne Kitajske Vojne Kolumbije Vojne Kostarike Vojne Kraljevine Jugoslavije Vojne Kube Vojne Libanona Vojne Liberije Vojne Luksemburga Vojne Madžarske Vojne Mehike Vojne Mongolije Vojne Nemčije Vojne Nepala Vojne Nikaragve Vojne Nizozemske Vojne Norveške Vojne Nove Funlandije Vojne Nove Zelandije Vojne Paname Vojne Paragvaja Vojne Peruja Vojne Poljske Vojne Romunije Vojne Salvadorja Vojne San Marina Vojne Saudove Arabije Vojne Sirije Vojne Slovaške Vojne Sovjetske zveze Vojne Tajske Vojne Tonge Vojne Turčije Vojne Urugvaja Vojne Venezuele Vojne Združenega kraljestva Vojne Združenih držav Amerike Nacionalizem Strani s čarobnimi povezavami ISBN Harv in Sfn no-target napake Predloga Webarchive z wayback linki Povezava na kategorijo Zbirke je v Wikipodatkih Vsi izbrani članki Čas zadnje spremembe strani: 18:32, 28. december 2025. 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Background 2 Writing and production 3 Composition Toggle Composition subsection 3.1 Music 3.2 Lyrics 3.3 Songs 3.1 Music 3.2 Lyrics 3.3 Songs 4 Release and promotion Toggle Release and promotion subsection 4.1 Touring 4.1 Touring 5 Commercial performance 6 Critical reception 7 Accolades 8 Legacy Toggle Legacy subsection 8.1 Critical recognition 8.2 Popular culture 8.3 2021 re-recording 8.1 Critical recognition 8.2 Popular culture 8.3 2021 re-recording 9 Track listing Toggle Track listing subsection 9.1 Notes 9.1 Notes 10 Personnel 11 Charts Toggle Charts subsection 11.1 Weekly charts 11.2 Year-end charts 11.3 Decade-end charts 11.4 All-time charts 11.1 Weekly charts 11.2 Year-end charts 11.3 Decade-end charts 11.4 All-time charts 12 Certifications 13 See also 14 Footnotes 15 References Toggle References subsection 15.1 Citations 15.2 Cited literature 15.1 Citations 15.2 Cited literature 16 External links Red (Taylor Swift album) العربية Արեւմտահայերէն Azərbaycanca Беларуская Català Cebuano Čeština Deutsch Eesti Español فارسی Français Gaeilge 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Red Standard edition cover Studio album by Taylor Swift Released October 22, 2012 ( 2012-10-22 ) Recorded c. 2011–2012 Studio Blackbird Pain in the Art (Nashville) Ballroom West (New York City) Conway Enormous The Village (Los Angeles) Instrument Landing ( Minneapolis ) Marlay ( North Hollywood ) MXM ( Stockholm ) Garage ( Topanga Canyon ) Ruby Red ( Santa Monica ) [ 1 ] Blackbird Pain in the Art (Nashville) Blackbird Pain in the Art (Nashville) Ballroom West (New York City) Conway Enormous The Village (Los Angeles) Conway Enormous The Village (Los Angeles) Instrument Landing ( Minneapolis ) Marlay ( North Hollywood ) MXM ( Stockholm ) Garage ( Topanga Canyon ) Ruby Red ( Santa Monica ) [ 1 ] Genre Pop country pop arena rock country rock pop rock Pop country pop arena rock country rock pop rock Length 65 : 09 Label Big Machine Producer Taylor Swift Nathan Chapman Jeff Bhasker Dann Huff Jacknife Lee Max Martin Shellback Butch Walker Dan Wilson Taylor Swift Nathan Chapman Jeff Bhasker Dann Huff Jacknife Lee Max Martin Shellback Butch Walker Dan Wilson Taylor Swift chronology Speak Now World Tour – Live (2011) Red (2012) 1989 (2014) Speak Now World Tour – Live (2011) Red (2012) 1989 (2014) Singles from Red " We Are Never Ever Getting Back Together " Released: August 13, 2012 " Begin Again " Released: October 1, 2012 " I Knew You Were Trouble " Released: November 27, 2012 " 22 " Released: March 12, 2013 " Red " Released: June 24, 2013 " Everything Has Changed " Released: July 14, 2013 " The Last Time " Released: November 4, 2013 " We Are Never Ever Getting Back Together " Released: August 13, 2012 " Begin Again " Released: October 1, 2012 " I Knew You Were Trouble " Released: November 27, 2012 " 22 " Released: March 12, 2013 " Red " Released: June 24, 2013 " Everything Has Changed " Released: July 14, 2013 " The Last Time " Released: November 4, 2013 Red is the fourth studio album by the American singer-songwriter Taylor Swift . It was released on October 22, 2012, through Big Machine Records . Inspired by a breakup that left behind emotional tumult, Swift framed Red as a breakup album that chronicles the aftermath of a failed relationship. The songs on Red depict the complex and conflicting feelings ensuing from lost love. To convey those sentiments through music, Swift enlisted new producers to experiment with styles other than the country pop sound of her past albums. She produced Red with Nathan Chapman , Dann Huff , Max Martin , Shellback , Jeff Bhasker , Dan Wilson , Jacknife Lee , and Butch Walker . Regarded by critics as a primarily pop album, it incorporates eclectic styles of rock , folk , and country , featuring both acoustic instruments and electronic arrangements of synths and drum machines . Swift promoted Red as a country album, although music critics debated its genre classification and questioned her identity as a country artist. Swift supported the album with the Red Tour (2013–2014) and seven singles; " We Are Never Ever Getting Back Together " and " I Knew You Were Trouble " peaked at numbers one and two on the Billboard Hot 100 and in the top 10 in several countries; and " Begin Again " and " Red " were US country top-10 singles. Red topped the charts and received multi-platinum certifications in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. In the United States, it spent seven weeks atop the Billboard 200 —making Swift the first artist since the Beatles to have three consecutive albums with over six weeks at number one—and was certified eight-times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America . Initial reviews of Red mostly praised Swift's songwriting for showcasing mature perspectives and sharp details, although the pop-leaning production divided critics who deemed it either bold or inconsistent. Red was nominated for Album of the Year and Best Country Album at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards . Retrospectively, critics have regarded it as a career-defining album that reflected Swift's maturity and pushed her songwriting to greater heights. Rolling Stone placed the album at number 99 on their 2023 revision of " 500 Greatest Albums of All Time ". Following a 2019 dispute regarding the ownership of Swift's back catalog, she released the re-recorded album Red (Taylor's Version) in 2021, and acquired the original album's master recording in 2025. Background Taylor Swift 's third studio album, Speak Now , was released by Big Machine Records on October 25, 2010. She wrote the album entirely herself [ 2 ] and produced it with Nathan Chapman , who had produced both of her previous albums. [ 3 ] Speak Now expands on those albums' country pop sound with a more aggressive influence of crossover pop that was also characteristic of Fearless (2008) [ 4 ] and incorporates rock styles including pop rock , arena rock , and new wave rock . [ 5 ] Speak Now registered in the 2010 Guinness World Records as the fastest-selling digital album by a female artist [ 6 ] and was nominated for Best Country Album at the 54th Grammy Awards in 2012. [ 7 ] After Speak Now , Swift continued working with Chapman on her next album. [ 8 ] By October 2011, she had written around 25 songs. [ 9 ] Although executives at Big Machine felt that the materials were sufficient and congratulated her for finishing work within one year, Swift felt that her creativity was diminished because she had been repeating the same songwriting process. [ 10 ] She sought to collaborate with other producers to venture outside of her "comfort zone" of writing songs alone. [ 10 ] While Swift viewed the solo-written Speak Now as her statement as a songwriter, she envisioned her fourth studio album as a statement of her "thirst for learning". [ 11 ] She reworked the new album while touring on the Speak Now World Tour from 2011 to 2012. [ 12 ] Writing and production Swift recalled working on her fourth studio album within two years—she wrote songs by herself and produced them with Chapman within the first year, and engaged other producers within the second year. According to Swift, she recruited producers with whom she had not worked, but whose works had instilled curiosities in her. [ 10 ] [ 12 ] While experimenting sonically, she prioritized conveying emotional sentiments through her lyrics over what particular sounds she should pursue, as with her typical approach. [ 13 ] On songs that Swift co-wrote, she first presented her co-writers with the feelings she had been going through, played a rough version of her song on guitar, and asked for their ideas on ways to better convey the story. [ 8 ] Each track's production corresponded to the emotion it portrayed, to which Swift attributed the album's "eclectic blend of music". [ 10 ] Production sessions took place in between stops of the Speak Now World Tour during 2011–2012. [ 14 ] The first song that Swift wrote was " All Too Well "; during a February 2011 rehearsal of the tour, she ad-libbed lyrics written after a broken relationship while playing a four- chord guitar riff as her touring band spontaneously played backing instruments. [ 11 ] Swift told Rolling Stone that this relationship caused "a few roller coasters", and she channeled the tumult into the songs. [ 14 ] She continued writing tracks like " Red " and " State of Grace " and produced them with Chapman in her creative base of Nashville, Tennessee . [ 11 ] "Red" was a critical point during the album's formation; [ 8 ] Big Machine's president Scott Borchetta overheard the production and suggested a pop-oriented sound. [ 15 ] After several failed attempts at the desired outcome, Swift asked Borchetta to recruit Max Martin , a Swedish producer known for his chart-topping pop songs. [ 8 ] [ 15 ] Swift travelled to Los Angeles to work with Martin and his frequent collaborator Shellback , who produced the songs " 22 ", " I Knew You Were Trouble ", and " We Are Never Ever Getting Back Together ". [ 15 ] Swift and Chapman produced the final version of "Red" with Dann Huff , and the three produced two more tracks: " Starlight " and " Begin Again ". [ 12 ] She engaged Jeff Bhasker because she was intrigued by his drum production, citing " We Are Young " (2011) by the indie band Fun as an example. [ 10 ] [ 16 ] Bhasker produced two songs: " Holy Ground " and "The Lucky One". [ 17 ] She wrote " Everything Has Changed " with the English singer-songwriter Ed Sheeran and produced it with Butch Walker , and Dan Wilson co-wrote and produced " Treacherous ". [ 12 ] " The Last Time " is a collaboration of Swift with the Irish-Scottish band Snow Patrol : Gary Lightbody co-wrote and featured as a guest vocalist, and Jacknife Lee produced it. [ 8 ] [ 12 ] Swift named the album Red , denoting the color to which she associated the tumultuous and extreme emotions that she was experiencing—"intense love, intense frustration, jealousy, confusion". [ 18 ] [ 19 ] By the time recording began, Swift had written more than 30 songs, and 16 of which made the final cut of the standard edition; Swift was the sole writer of nine tracks as well as two tracks from the deluxe edition. [ 11 ] [ 16 ] Composition Music Red incorporates various styles of pop, rock, and folk , [ 20 ] [ 21 ] [ 22 ] namely dance-pop , indie pop , dubstep , Britrock , pop rock , and arena rock. [ a ] The arrangements of its songs include acoustic instruments, electronic synths , and drum machines . [ 20 ] Calling Red her "only true breakup album", Swift said that the diverse musical styles were a "metaphor for how messy a real breakup is". [ 11 ] Its first half consists of country and pop songs intertwined with each other; [ 28 ] "22", "I Knew You Were Trouble", and "We Are Never Ever Getting Back Together" have a pop production that incorporates electronic vocal processing and hip-hop -influenced bass drums . [ 29 ] [ 30 ] "State of Grace", "Red", and "Holy Ground" expand on the 1980s arena-rock stylings of Speak Now , [ 26 ] [ 31 ] while "All Too Well", "I Almost Do", "Stay Stay Stay", "Sad Beautiful Tragic", and "Begin Again" feature the country sound of Swift's earlier music. [ 32 ] [ 33 ] [ 34 ] Critics were divided on the album's genre classification. Jon Dolan's review for Rolling Stone appeared in the magazine's column for country music, but he described its musical foundation as "post-country rock". [ 35 ] Some reviewers commented that Red blurred the divide between country and pop, [ 28 ] [ 36 ] while others called it a straightforward pop album with contemporary influences, [ 32 ] [ 37 ] [ 38 ] deeming it Swift's inevitable move away from country into mainstream pop. [ 39 ] [ 40 ] [ 41 ] Jon Caramanica of The New York Times regarded Swift as a "pop star in a country context more than a country star" and argued that Red was the culmination of a gradual progress since her debut album to expand beyond the limitations of country music. [ 29 ] In his article for Grantland , Steven Hyden argued that Red 's broad musical styles made it a country album as much as a pop or rock one. [ 42 ] Some retrospective reviews labeled Red as country pop, [ 11 ] [ 43 ] arena rock, [ 26 ] country rock, [ 43 ] or pop rock. [ 44 ] Lyrics Swift's songwriting influences on Red include the Chilean poet Pablo Neruda and the Canadian singer-songwriter Joni Mitchell . In the album's physical booklet, she quotes a line from Naruda's poem Tonight I Can Write The Saddest Lines , "Love is so short, forgetting is so long." [ 45 ] [ 46 ] She was inspired by Mitchell's 1971 album Blue for how it "explores somebody's soul so deeply". [ 47 ] Several journalists opined that Blue also influenced the cover artwork of Red , which shows Swift looking downward with her face partially shadowed from her brimmed hat. [ 48 ] [ 27 ] [ 49 ] In The Atlantic , Brad Nelson argued that Swift's songcraft uses details and narrative devices that resemble the styles of rock and roll musicians such as Steely Dan , Bruce Springsteen , and Leonard Cohen . [ 50 ] Using autobiographical songwriting, Red is about the aftermath of an intense breakup, detailing loss, pain, abandonment, and regrets. [ 19 ] [ 51 ] [ 52 ] According to Swift, most of the album was inspired by an ex-boyfriend who later contacted her after listening to it and described the experience as "bittersweet ... like going through a photo album". [ 41 ] Whereas her previous albums contain fantasy-driven narratives with happy endings, Red explores the uneasy reality of how a relationship can painfully end; [ 48 ] Caramanica wrote, "Almost everything here is corroded in some way." [ 29 ] Each song is contained within a fixed scene and narrative with defined characters, informed by the storytelling aspect of country songwriting. [ 23 ] [ 51 ] [ 53 ] Reflecting Swift's personal experience, Red details her recurring themes of love and heartbreak, but from a more complex perspective gained from her early-20s adulthood. [ 41 ] [ 50 ] [ 54 ] Nelson wrote that Red sees Swift no longer putting the blame solely on ex-lovers and instead viewing heartbreak with "ambiguity", [ 50 ] while Emily Yoshida from Vulture opined that there are moments of vulnerability that "feel wise beyond the 22 years Swift was". [ 51 ] There are allusions to sexuality on tracks like "State of Grace", "Treacherous", and "Stay Stay Stay"; [ 29 ] [ 55 ] writing for NPR , J. English regarded this new theme as Swift's coming of age and her first-hand experience and exploration in womanhood, a departure from her past albums which had hinted at sex but from an outsider's perspective. [ 23 ] Songs "State of Grace" is an arena-rock song that features chiming guitars and dynamic drums, and its lyrics are about the tumultuous feelings stemming from romantic beginnings. [ 48 ] [ 56 ] According to the musicologist James E. Perone, the lyric, "Love is a ruthless game, unless you play it good and right", sets the overall theme of an album about passionate romance gone wrong. [ 57 ] The title track explores an intense relationship that has failed, [ 57 ] relating the stages of love to colors: "losing him" is blue, "missing him" is a dark gray, and "loving him" is red. [ 58 ] It is built on an acoustic arrangement consisting of string instruments of acoustic guitar, banjitar , cello , fiddle , and bouzouki , which display a country sound, [ 57 ] while also featuring electronic vocal manipulation and elements of mainstream pop, soft rock , and adult contemporary . [ 59 ] "Treacherous", which begins with slow guitar strumming and percussion and gradually builds up, [ 28 ] [ 48 ] is about attempting to protect a fragile relationship. [ 33 ] "I Knew You Were Trouble" has a pop-rock production in its verses, and its refrain begins with a dubstep drop and continues with aggressive synth backing and hip hop-influenced syncopated percussion. [ 48 ] [ 57 ] In the lyrics of "I Knew You Were Trouble", Swift's character blames herself for a toxic relationship that has ended. [ 29 ] Critics considered the song widely different from the music that Swift had explored on her past albums: Perone said that the track's dynamic shifts between the verses were "sudden and unexpected", [ 22 ] and Caramanica wrote that the dubstep drop was "a wrecking ball, changing the course not just of the song but also of Ms. Swift's career". [ 29 ] "All Too Well", considered by critics the emotional centerpiece of the album's narrative, [ 11 ] has a slow-building production with overdubs of acoustic guitar, electric guitar , bass, drums, and harmony vocals. [ 60 ] It chronicles a lost relationship from the peak of romance to the lingering memories after it has ended. [ 28 ] [ 38 ] "22" is about celebrating the joys of being youthful by going out and meeting new people to move on from heartbreak. [ 23 ] [ 53 ] Its verses are driven by acoustic guitar, and its refrain incorporates a dance -influenced arrangement consisting of electronic synths and hip hop-influenced bass drums. [ 29 ] [ 61 ] According to Perone, the arrangement of "I Almost Do" is derived from Swift's early country songs: its verses are formed on short melodic motives and Swift's lower register vocals, while its refrain has a longer range in Swift's vocals. The song displays elements of country and folk via acoustic guitars and open string notes in the texture. [ 62 ] In "I Almost Do", Swift's character wonders what she would do if an ex-lover asked her to come back to him, and she admits she would likely agree to do so. [ 62 ] Her character in "We Are Never Ever Getting Back Together", meanwhile, promises an ex-lover that they will never rekindle their relationship. [ 28 ] Swift's vocals in the song are electronically processed, [ 63 ] and its production features an acoustic guitar arrangement alongside other stylistic embellishments including filtered guitar tones, synths, and hip hop-influenced bass drums. [ 37 ] [ 63 ] "Stay Stay Stay", a fast-tempo song combining styles of country and 1980s pop, [ 63 ] features toy piano , ukulele , mandolin , and hand claps, and its lyrics are about two lovers trying to reconcile after a fight. [ 29 ] [ 38 ] "The Last Time", a duet with Lightbody, is a melancholic power ballad that begins with piano and crescendoes with strings and electric guitars. [ 64 ] Perone compared its production with the music of late-1970s and early-1980s rock bands but with a muted texture. [ 65 ] Lightbody's and Swift's characters detail their perspectives on a failing long-term relationship in the first and second verses, [ 65 ] and the refrain is backed by an orchestra playing intense strings and brass . [ 63 ] [ 66 ] In "Holy Ground", Swift's character reminisces about an absent lover and the specific memories of their past. [ 65 ] It is a country rock and heartland rock track with persistent drums and a recurring guitar riff. [ 38 ] [ 50 ] "Sad Beautiful Tragic", an intimate and melancholic acoustic track, [ 28 ] [ 33 ] is composed of overdubs of acoustic instruments. [ 67 ] She wrote the song when reminiscing about a relationship that had ended "months before", which evoked wistful feelings. [ 68 ] Perone commented that "Sad Beautiful Tragic" extended the "lyrical impressionism" of Swift's songwriting by using various images without drawing a straightforward connection between them. [ 67 ] "The Lucky One" incorporates a driving drum machine and has a soft-rock, [ 23 ] indie rock , [ 32 ] and 1960s pop-rock sound. [ 67 ] Written in third-person perspective , the lyrics tell the story of a successful singer who looked "like a '60s queen" in her high-school days, was envied by her friends after achieving fame in "the angels' city", [ 67 ] and ultimately "chose the rose garden over Madison Square ". [ 28 ] [ 38 ] "Everything Has Changed", a duet with Sheeran, is a mid-tempo acoustic guitar-led ballad [ 28 ] that incorporates deep bass drums. [ 69 ] Perone commented that the song's arrangement is similar to the music from Swift's debut album, using "a high degree of syncopation" at the sixteenth note level. In the song, Swift and Sheeran sing about the beginnings of a new romance, alternating their lead vocals in the verses. [ 69 ] Swift was inspired to write "Starlight" by the teenage romance of Ethel Kennedy and Robert F. Kennedy . [ 70 ] In the lyrics, Swift's character reminisces about meeting her lover one evening in the "summer of '45" and how they intruded a "yacht club party" and danced "like [they] were made of starlight". [ 35 ] [ 69 ] Containing an electric guitar solo , [ 69 ] "Starlight" is a dance-pop song [ 38 ] that Perone deemed "vaguely contemporary country pop in nature". [ 69 ] In the closing track of the standard edition, "Begin Again", Swift's character explores how a newfound love interest differs from her ex-lovers, giving her hopes of a new romance. According to Perone, that the genre-spanning Red concludes with a country ballad confirms country music as an integral part of Swift's musical identity. [ 34 ] The deluxe edition of Red includes three extra original songs: "The Moment I Knew", "Come Back ... Be Here", and "Girl at Home"; demo recordings of "Treacherous" and "Red"; and an acoustic version of "State of Grace". [ 71 ] "The Moment I Knew" is a somber pop-rock piano ballad ; [ 55 ] its lyrics were inspired by Swift's 21st birthday: her narrator realizes that the relationship is coming to an end when she keeps staring at the door, hoping her boyfriend would appear to celebrate her birthday party, but he never comes. [ 72 ] "Come Back... Be Here", with a 2000s adult-contemporary-oriented sound, has lyrics about a long-distance relationship with few chances to endure. [ 73 ] "Girl at Home", a 1980s-styled folk-pop song with elements of electronic music and country, [ 74 ] [ 75 ] [ 76 ] details a woman's contempt for a flirtatious man who is in a relationship with another woman. [ 71 ] Release and promotion Swift and Big Machine implemented an extensive marketing plan for Red , encompassing brand endorsements, multimedia promotions, and song releases. [ 77 ] She announced the album on August 13, 2012, via a live webchat held on Google Hangouts . [ 78 ] Her corporate partnerships included album distribution deals at retail sites by Starbucks , Walgreens , Walmart , and Papa John's , and an exclusive merchandise line with Keds . [ 77 ] [ 79 ] Both the standard and deluxe editions were released on October 22, 2012. [ 77 ] In the United States, the standard edition was available in digital and physical formats, and the deluxe edition was available exclusively for physical purchase at Target . [ 77 ] A day after the release, Swift began a cycle of television appearances in the United States, which included Good Morning America (October 23), Late Show with David Letterman (October 23), The View (October 24), The Ellen DeGeneres Show (October 25), Katie (October 26), and 20/20 (October 26). [ 79 ] She gave interviews to as many as 72 radio stations, mostly in the United States and some from South Africa, New Zealand, Spain, Germany, and Mexico. On social media, Swift encouraged her fans to ask their local radio stations to air her songs. [ 77 ] Her live performances at awards shows included the MTV Video Music Awards , [ 80 ] the Country Music Association Awards , [ 81 ] and the American Music Awards . [ 82 ] In November 2012, she embarked on a promotional tour in Japan, appearing on Nippon Television 's show Sukkiri and giving an interview to the radio station InterFM . [ 83 ] On a promotional tour for Red in France in 2013, she gave a private concert to fans and journalists in Paris, and appeared at the NRJ Music Awards . [ 84 ] "We Are Never Ever Getting Back Together" was released as the lead single on August 13, 2012. [ 85 ] It was Swift's first number-one single on the Billboard Hot 100 . [ 86 ] After Billboard revised the Hot Country Songs chart to include downloads and streaming in addition to airplay, the single spent 10 weeks at number one due to strong digital sales. [ 87 ] [ 88 ] Elsewhere, it topped the Canadian and New Zealand singles charts and peaked in the top 10 in Australia, Japan, Norway, Spain, and the United Kingdom. [ b ] During a four-week countdown to the album's release, from September 24 to October 22, Swift previewed one album track each week via Good Morning America : "Begin Again", "Red", "I Knew You Were Trouble", and "State of Grace". [ 92 ] [ 93 ] "Begin Again" and "Red" were released to US country radio as singles, [ 94 ] [ 95 ] and they both peaked in the top 10 of Country Airplay . [ 96 ] "I Knew You Were Trouble" was released to US pop radio on November 27, 2012; [ 97 ] it peaked atop the Pop Songs chart for seven weeks, reached number two on the Billboard Hot 100, and peaked in the top 10 in Australia, New Zealand, Denmark, Germany, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. [ c ] Other singles were "22" and "Everything Has Changed", which reached the top 10 in the United Kingdom, [ 101 ] and "The Last Time". [ 102 ] Despite Red 's promotion as a country album, its diverse musical styles sparked a media debate over Swift's status as a country artist. [ 103 ] Its two most successful singles, "We Are Never Ever Getting Back Together" and "I Knew You Were Trouble", were successful pop hits that had little impact on country radio. [ 104 ] Spin argued Red was difficult to categorize because country music was "the most dynamically vibrant pop genre of the last decade or so". [ 105 ] Critics commented that Swift had always been more pop-oriented than country, and they described Red as her inevitable move to mainstream pop. [ 106 ] In an interview with The Wall Street Journal , Swift said that country music "feels like home" and responded to the critical debate: "I leave the genre labeling to other people." [ 107 ] Touring Swift announced the first North American leg of the Red Tour on October 26, 2012. Its first 58 dates began in Omaha, Nebraska , visited Canada and the United States throughout the spring and summer of 2013, and concluded in September in Nashville, Tennessee. [ 108 ] [ 109 ] To support a high demand, Swift held the concerts in sports arenas and stadiums. [ 108 ] After the North American leg, the Red Tour visited Australasia, [ 110 ] the United Kingdom, [ 111 ] Germany, [ 112 ] and Asia. [ 113 ] The Red Tour broke several revenue records. The four shows at Staples Center in Los Angeles extended Swift's total of sold-out shows to 11, making her the solo artist with the most sold-out shows at the venue. [ 114 ] She was the first female artist to sell out the Sydney Football Stadium since its opening in 1988. [ 115 ] Tickets for the Shanghai show sold out within 60 seconds, setting the Chinese record for the fastest sellout. [ 113 ] When it ended in June 2014, the Red Tour had grossed $150.2 million and became the highest-grossing tour by a country artist of all time. [ 116 ] Commercial performance In the United States, Red debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 with first-week sales of 1.208 million copies. It surpassed Garth Brooks 's Double Live (1998) as the fastest-selling country album and, together with Speak Now , made Swift the first female solo artist to have two million-selling albums within one week. [ 79 ] [ 117 ] Red spent seven non-consecutive weeks at number one on the Billboard 200, making Swift the first female artist and the first overall since the Beatles in 1969 to have three consecutive studio albums each spend six or more weeks atop the chart. [ 118 ] [ d ] Its number-one position for the week ending December 23, 2012, marked Swift's third consecutive time—after Fearless and Speak Now —to have a number-one album during the last week before Christmas, which is traditionally the most competitive week of the year. [ 120 ] On Billboard 's Top Country Albums chart, Red spent 16 weeks at number one and was the year-end number-one album of both 2012 and 2013. [ 121 ] It was the second-best-selling album of 2012 in the United States with 3.11 million copies sold after two months of sales, [ 122 ] and surpassed 3.84 million copies after one year of release. [ 123 ] The album had sold 4.582 million US copies as of January 2024, [ 124 ] and it was certified eight-times platinum for surpassing eight million album-equivalent units by the Recording Industry Association of America in October 2025. [ 125 ] Red sold 2.8 million copies worldwide after less than one month of release, [ 126 ] 5.2 million by the end of 2012 — the global second-best-selling album of the year, [ 127 ] and 8 million by August 2014. [ 128 ] The album reached number one on charts in Australia, [ 129 ] Canada, [ 130 ] New Zealand, [ 131 ] Ireland, [ 132 ] and Scotland. [ 133 ] It received platinum or higher certifications in Australia (five-times platinum), [ 134 ] Canada (four-times platinum), [ 135 ] and New Zealand (six-times platinum). [ 136 ] In the United Kingdom, Red was Swift's first number-one album and had four top-10 singles, the most of her albums; it had sold 619,000 copies as of June 2021 and was certified triple platinum by the British Phonographic Industry in January 2025. [ 101 ] [ 137 ] Critical reception Aggregate scores Source Rating AnyDecentMusic? 6.6/10 [ 138 ] Metacritic 77/100 [ 139 ] Review scores Source Rating AllMusic [ e ] The A.V. Club B+ [ 54 ] The Daily Telegraph [ 36 ] Entertainment Weekly B+ [ 142 ] The Guardian [ 143 ] Los Angeles Times [ 39 ] MSN Music ( Expert Witness ) A− [ 144 ] Pitchfork 9.0/10 [ 48 ] Rolling Stone [ 35 ] Spin 8/10 [ 105 ] Upon its release, Red received generally positive reviews from music critics, although there were a mix of complimentary and dismissive reviews. [ 77 ] [ 145 ] On the review aggregator website Metacritic , the album received a weighted average score of 77 out of 100, based on 23 reviews in mainstream publications. [ 139 ] Many reviews praised Swift's songwriting for its emotional exploration; [ 146 ] [ 147 ] they regarded Red as a pivotal album for Swift, citing its themes of adulthood and real-life experiences as a representation of her maturity. [ f ] Dolan highlighted the "stark-relief emotional mapping" that recalled the singer-songwriters Joni Mitchell and Carole King , [ 35 ] while Entertainment Weekly 's Melissa Maerz hailed the detail-heavy narratives of songs like "All Too Well", [ 142 ] and The Observer 's Alex Macpherson remarked that Swift was able to "pull you inside her break-up narratives" with her use of language. [ 148 ] The Guardian 's Kate Mossman commented that the many emotions on Red made it "one of the finest fantasies pop music has ever constructed". [ 143 ] Nelson opined that Swift's songwriting on Red became sharper and more nuanced; [ 50 ] in his retrospective review for Pitchfork , he highlighted a "newfound patience" to her perspectives that resulted in multi-dimensional songs. [ 48 ] In a more measured praise, Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic opined that the lyrics were at times "on the nose". [ 37 ] American Songwriter 's Jewly Hight commented that although Swift's songwriting outlook was occasionally one-sided, it was still more accomplished than "plenty of songwriters twice her age". [ 40 ] The production received mixed reviews, with the pop-leaning tracks being particularly divisive. [ 146 ] [ 149 ] Consequence of Sound 's Jon Bernstein likened this reaction to the controversy when Bob Dylan "went electric". [ 150 ] On a positive side, Billboard opined that the album pushed Swift's to artistic heights with successful experimentations. [ 28 ] Erlewine highlighted the "the pristine pop confections" and remarked that she deftly executed the diverse musical styles, [ 37 ] while Caramanica and Randall Roberts of the Los Angeles Times commented that the genre-spanning styles showcased a bold and worthwhile transition. [ 29 ] [ 39 ] Less complimentary reviews from Slant Magazine 's Jonathan Keefe and The A.V. Club 's Michael Gallucci deemed the broad musical styles ambitious but inconsistent, which prevented Red from being a truly great pop album. [ 38 ] [ 54 ] On a more critical side, Mesfin Fekadu of the Associated Press wrote that the experimentations did not always succeed, resulting in an "empty" sound compared to Fearless and Speak Now , [ 151 ] while James Lachno of The Daily Telegraph deemed the production bloated and commented that it would be better had Swift abandoned country altogether. [ 36 ] Within weeks after the initial reviews, several critics defended the album. Channing Freeman of Sputnikmusic opined that the criticism towards the pop-leaning production was due to sexism , citing several online reviews that focused on Swift's love life and undermined her musicianship. He wrote that by embracing "pure pop sensibilities", the album became a distillation of all the conflicting emotions she had explored in her lyricism. [ 152 ] In PopMatters , Nathan Wisnicki commented that the mixed reviews were a result of music journalism's tendency to pigeonhole Swift into a specific genre. He argued that Red showed Swift as both a deft songwriter and a great pop artist, which made her worthy of being representative of her generation, Millennials . [ 153 ] The rock critic Robert Christgau viewed Red as Swift's attempt to approximate Stephin Merritt on 69 Love Songs , writing that while she "hits the mark less often than Merritt – 65 or 70 percent", the ambitious reach "forces her to aim higher" and resulted in songs that "hit just as hard", like "Begin Again", "Stay Stay Stay", and "the feisty ones". [ 144 ] Accolades In 2013, Red was nominated for Album of the Year at the Country Music Association Awards , the Academy of Country Music Awards , the American Music Awards , and the Libera Awards , [ 154 ] [ 155 ] and it won Favorite Country Album at the American Music Awards, [ 156 ] and Top Billboard 200 Album and Top Country Album at the Billboard Music Awards . [ 157 ] Internationally, the album won Top Selling Album at the Canadian Country Music Association Awards , [ 158 ] helped Swift earn a nomination for Best International Artist at the Australian ARIA Music Awards , [ 159 ] and was nominated for International Album of the Year at the Canadian Juno Awards . [ 160 ] At the 56th Annual Grammy Awards in 2014, Red was nominated for Album of the Year and Best Country Album. [ 161 ] Various publications featured Red on their lists of the best albums of 2012. The album was ranked in the top 10 by Billboard , Newsday , MTV News ; [ 162 ] [ 163 ] [ 164 ] top 20 by The Guardian and Stereogum ; [ 165 ] [ 166 ] top 30 by PopMatters , [ 167 ] and top 50 by Rolling Stone and Spin , who additionally included it in their list of the year's best country albums. [ 168 ] [ 169 ] [ 170 ] On the mass critics' poll Pazz & Jop by The Village Voice , it ranked 17th based on aggregate scores of all voters, earning votes from 34 critics. [ 171 ] Caramanica ranked it second on his list of 2012's best albums (behind Emeli Sandé 's Our Version of Events ). [ 172 ] Legacy Critical recognition Although its diverse styles were met with mixed reactions upon release from critics and fans, who took issue with the pop-leaning direction, Red has been considered by critics as a career-defining album for Swift. [ 149 ] They highlight the genre-blending sound as a bold and successful endeavor that laid the groundwork to Swift's full transition to pop music. [ g ] — Pitchfork opined that the eclectic production expanded Swift's songcraft to reach higher standards, [ 174 ] while some critics opined that the pop songwriting influenced Swift's more streamlined writing on her later albums. [ 149 ] [ 175 ] According to i-D , the album turned the "arena-rock-meets-country-pop" sound into her signature. [ 176 ] Meanwhile, Hyden opined that it solidified Swift's status as a genre-agnostic musician capable of turning any sound into her own. [ 42 ] Red 's themes of heartbreak and sexuality during early adulthood marked her evolution to embrace more complex and subtle songwriting perspectives on relationships in subsequent albums. [ 23 ] [ 149 ] [ 177 ] Several critics have regarded Red as Swift's magnum opus , [ 145 ] [ 149 ] and it has frequently been ranked by publications in the upper tier of her entire discography, [ h ] being ranked as her best album by The A.V. Club , i-D , the Star Tribune , and Paste . [ i ] The critic Rob Sheffield wrote that the album established Swift as both the representative pop songwriter of her generation and one of the greatest songwriters of all time. [ 183 ] Publications that ranked Red among the best albums of the 2010s include Atwood Magazine , The Independent , and Pitchfork ; [ 184 ] [ 185 ] [ 186 ] it was ranked within the top 10 by Billboard , Rolling Stone , Stereogum , Uproxx , and the Tampa Bay Times , [ j ] while Taste of Country ranked it as one of the best country albums of the decade. [ 192 ] Rolling Stone ranked it at number 99 on its 2023 revision of " The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time " and number 36 on its 2025 list of "The 250 Greatest Albums of the 21st Century So Far", [ 21 ] [ 193 ] and Paste featured the album at number 171 on their 2025 list "The 300 Greatest Albums of All Time". [ 194 ] Popular culture Red was released when Swift's popularity became increasingly intertwined with tabloid gossip that routinely publicized her love life and associated her songs to her ex-boyfriends, leading to misogynistic criticism that trivialized her songwriting. [ 149 ] [ 195 ] According to the music critic Jessica Hopper , the criticism of Swift's music in relation to her public image was a natural product of how young female artists engaged with their fans through music. [ 196 ] By constructing an image that reflected her transition from "pop's Virgin Queen" into a sexually-aware woman, but with an implicit and feminine approach, she conflated her songs with the tabloid gossip to create a greater narrative, which showcased a deft manipulation of her own image, "a cultural prescience that speaks to [her] ambition and interest in being understood". [ 197 ] Red 's successful pop singles influenced Swift to work again with Martin and Shellback on her fifth studio album, 1989 (2014), which recalibrated her artistic identity from country to pop. [ 198 ] [ 199 ] Critics have regarded Red as a classic breakup album that had a generational impact on both Millennials and Generation Z , [ 200 ] [ 201 ] and cited it as an influence on confessional singer-songwriters including Halsey , Kacey Musgraves , Troye Sivan , Billie Eilish , Olivia Rodrigo , and Conan Gray . [ k ] In the view of Hyden, the album inspired a generation of "indie" artists to create pop-friendly music without being confined by the "underground" rock scene. [ 204 ] In 2019, an indie rock tribute album titled ReRed , featuring Wild Pink , Adult Mom , Chris Farren , among others, was released with all of its proceeds going to the Equal Justice Initiative . [ 205 ] 2021 re-recording Following the 2019 dispute over the ownership of the masters to her back catalog , Swift began re-recording her first six studio albums including Red in November 2020. [ 206 ] By re-recording those albums, Swift had the ownership to the new master recordings , which enabled her to control the licensing of her songs for commercial use and therefore devalued the Big Machine-owned masters. [ 207 ] The re-recording of Red , titled Red (Taylor's Version) , was released on November 12, 2021. [ 206 ] In addition to the re-recordings of the 19 tracks on the original Red , the re-recorded album features re-recorded versions of the charity single " Ronan ", the songs " Better Man " and " Babe " that Swift had written for the country groups Little Big Town and Sugarland , the 10-minute version of "All Too Well", and six previously unreleased tracks. [ 208 ] The ownership of the original album's master recording, alongside her other five albums released under Big Machine, was acquired by Swift on May 30, 2025. [ 209 ] Track listing No. Title Writer(s) Producer(s) Length 1. " State of Grace " Taylor Swift Swift Nathan Chapman Swift Nathan Chapman 4:55 2. " Red " Swift Swift Chapman Dann Huff Swift Chapman Dann Huff 3:43 3. " Treacherous " Swift Dan Wilson Swift Dan Wilson Wilson 4:02 4. " I Knew You Were Trouble " Swift Max Martin Shellback Swift Max Martin Shellback Martin Shellback Martin Shellback 3:39 5. " All Too Well " Swift Liz Rose Swift Liz Rose Swift Chapman Swift Chapman 5:29 6. " 22 " Swift Martin Shellback Swift Martin Shellback Martin Shellback Martin Shellback 3:52 7. "I Almost Do" Swift Swift Chapman Swift Chapman 4:04 8. " We Are Never Ever Getting Back Together " Swift Martin Shellback Swift Martin Shellback Martin Shellback Swift [ l ] Martin Shellback Swift [ l ] 3:13 9. "Stay Stay Stay" Swift Swift Chapman Swift Chapman 3:25 10. " The Last Time " (featuring Gary Lightbody of Snow Patrol ) Swift Lightbody Jacknife Lee Swift Lightbody Jacknife Lee Lee 4:59 11. " Holy Ground " Swift Jeff Bhasker 3:22 12. "Sad Beautiful Tragic" Swift Swift Chapman Swift Chapman 4:44 13. "The Lucky One" Swift Bhasker 4:00 14. " Everything Has Changed " (featuring Ed Sheeran ) Swift Sheeran Swift Sheeran Butch Walker 4:05 15. " Starlight " Swift Swift Chapman Huff Swift Chapman Huff 3:40 16. " Begin Again " Swift Swift Chapman Huff Swift Chapman Huff 3:57 Total length: 65:09 No. Title Writer(s) Producer(s) Length 17. "The Moment I Knew" Swift Swift Chapman Swift Chapman 4:46 18. "Come Back... Be Here" Swift Wilson Swift Wilson Wilson 3:43 19. "Girl at Home" Swift Swift Chapman Swift Chapman 3:40 20. "Treacherous" (original demo recording) Swift Wilson Swift Wilson Wilson 4:00 21. "Red" (original demo recording) Swift Swift Chapman Swift Chapman 3:47 22. "State of Grace" (acoustic version) Swift Swift Chapman Swift Chapman 5:23 Total length: 25:19 Notes "I Knew You Were Trouble" is stylized as "I Knew You Were Trouble." (with a period). Personnel Musicians Taylor Swift – lead vocals, background vocals, acoustic guitar Nathan Chapman – bass guitar, drums, acoustic guitar, electric guitar, keyboards , mandolin , percussion, piano, soloist, synthesizer , background vocals Peggy Baldwin – cello Brett Banducci – viola Jeff Bhasker – bass guitar , keyboards, piano, background vocals J. Bonilla – drums, percussion Nick Buda – drums Tom Bukovac – electric guitar David Campbell – string arrangements , conducting Daphne Chen – violin Lauren Chipman – viola Eric Darken – percussion Marcia Dickstein – harp Richard Dodd – cello Paul Franklin – steel guitar Eric Gorfain – violin Dann Huff – bouzouki , electric guitar, high strung guitar, mandolin Charlie Judge – accordion , Hammond B3 , piano, upright piano , strings, synthaxe, synthesizer Gina Kronstadt – violin John Krovoza – cello Marisa Kuney – violin Jacknife Lee – bass guitar, guitar, keyboards Max Martin – keyboards Grant Mickelson – guitar Anders Mouridsen – guitar Jamie Muhoberac – cello Neli Nikolaeva – violin Owen Pallett – conductor, orchestration Radu Pieptea – violin Simeon Pillich – contrabass Wes Precourt – violin Bill Rieflin – drums Shellback – bass guitar, guitar, acoustic guitar, electric guitar, keyboards Jake Sinclair – bass guitar, background vocals Jimmie Lee Sloas – bass guitar Aaron Sterling – drums Jeff Takiguchi – contrabass Andy Thompson – guitar, electric piano Ilya Toshinsky – mandolin Butch Walker – drums, guitar, keyboards, percussion, background vocals Patrick Warren – string arrangements Amy Wickman – violin Dan Wilson – bass guitar, electric guitar, piano, background vocals Rodney Wirtz – violin Jonathan Yudkin – fiddle, violin Caitlin Evanson – background vocals Liz Huett – background vocals ("The Moment I Knew") Tyler Sam Johnson – background vocals Gary Lightbody – featured artist, background vocals Ciara O'Leary – background vocals Ed Sheeran – featured artist Production Taylor Swift – songwriting, production Nathan Chapman – production, engineering Joe Baldridge – engineering Sam Bell – engineering Matt Bishop – engineering Delbert Bowers – assistant Chad Carlson – engineering Tom Coyne – mastering Leland Elliott – assistant Jeff Bhasker – production Eric Eylands – assistant Greg Fuess – assistant Chris Galland – assistant Şerban Ghenea – mixing Matty Green – assistant John Hanes – mixing engineering Sam Holland – engineering Dann Huff – production David Huff – digital editing Michael Ilbert – engineer Tyler Sam Johnson – guitar engineer Jacknife Lee – engineering, production, songwriting, programming Gary Lightbody – songwriting Steve Marcantonio – engineer Manny Marroquin – mixing Max Martin – production, songwriting Seth Morton – assistant Justin Niebank – mixing Chris Owens – assistant John Rausch – engineering Matt Rausch – engineering Tim Roberts – assistant Eric Robinson – engineering Liz Rose – songwriting Pawel Sek – engineering Shellback – production, songwriting, programming Ed Sheeran – songwriting Jake Sinclair – engineering Mark "Spike" Stent – mixing Andy Thompson – engineering Butch Walker – production Hank Williams – mastering Brian David Willis – engineer Dan Wilson – production, songwriting Visuals and design Taylor Swift – creative director Sarah Barlow – photography Austin Hale – designing Jemma Muradian – hair stylist Bethany Newman – art direction Josh Newman – art direction Lorrie Turk – make-up artist Visuals and design Taylor Swift – creative director Sarah Barlow – photography Austin Hale – designing Jemma Muradian – hair stylist Bethany Newman – art direction Josh Newman – art direction Lorrie Turk – make-up artist Managerial Scott Borchetta – executive producer Leann Bennett – production coordination Jason Campbell – production coordination Mike "Frog" Griffith – production coordination JoAnn Tominaga – production coordination Managerial Scott Borchetta – executive producer Leann Bennett – production coordination Jason Campbell – production coordination Mike "Frog" Griffith – production coordination JoAnn Tominaga – production coordination Charts Weekly charts [ edit ] .mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px;white-space:nowrap} 2012–2013 weekly chart performance Chart (2012–2013) Peak position Australian Albums ( ARIA ) [ 129 ] 1 Australian Country Albums ( ARIA ) [ 211 ] 1 Austrian Albums ( Ö3 Austria ) [ 212 ] 3 Belgian Albums ( Ultratop Flanders) [ 213 ] 2 Belgian Albums ( Ultratop Wallonia) [ 214 ] 25 Canadian Albums ( Billboard ) [ 130 ] 1 Chinese Albums ( Sino Chart ) [ 215 ] 1 Croatian Albums ( HDU ) [ 216 ] 27 Danish Albums ( Hitlisten ) [ 217 ] 3 Dutch Albums ( Album Top 100 ) [ 218 ] 7 Finnish Albums ( Suomen virallinen lista ) [ 219 ] 49 French Albums ( SNEP ) [ 220 ] 30 German Albums ( Offizielle Top 100 ) [ 221 ] 5 Irish Albums ( IRMA ) [ 132 ] 1 Italian Albums ( FIMI ) [ 222 ] 3 Japanese Albums ( Oricon ) [ 223 ] 3 Japanese Albums ( Billboard Japan ) [ 224 ] 5 Mexican Albums ( Top 100 Mexico ) [ 225 ] 4 New Zealand Albums ( RMNZ ) [ 131 ] 1 Norwegian Albums ( VG-lista ) [ 226 ] 2 Portuguese Albums ( AFP ) [ 227 ] 8 Scottish Albums ( OCC ) [ 133 ] 1 South African Albums ( RISA ) [ 228 ] 4 South Korean Albums ( Gaon ) [ 229 ] 12 South Korean International Albums ( Gaon ) [ 230 ] 1 Spanish Albums ( PROMUSICAE ) [ 231 ] 4 Swedish Albums ( Sverigetopplistan ) [ 232 ] 8 Swiss Albums ( Schweizer Hitparade ) [ 233 ] 9 UK Albums ( OCC ) [ 234 ] 1 US Billboard 200 [ 235 ] 1 US Top Country Albums ( Billboard ) [ 236 ] 1 2019–2024 weekly chart performance Chart (2019–2024) Peak position Austrian Albums ( Ö3 Austria ) [ 212 ] 4 Croatian International Albums ( HDU ) [ 237 ] 4 German Albums ( Offizielle Top 100 ) [ 221 ] 8 Greek Albums ( IFPI ) [ 238 ] 1 Hungarian Physical Albums ( MAHASZ ) [ 239 ] 33 Swiss Albums ( Schweizer Hitparade ) [ 233 ] 7 US Independent Albums ( Billboard ) [ 240 ] 3 Weekly charts Chart (2012–2013) Peak position Australian Albums ( ARIA ) [ 129 ] 1 Australian Country Albums ( ARIA ) [ 211 ] 1 Austrian Albums ( Ö3 Austria ) [ 212 ] 3 Belgian Albums ( Ultratop Flanders) [ 213 ] 2 Belgian Albums ( Ultratop Wallonia) [ 214 ] 25 Canadian Albums ( Billboard ) [ 130 ] 1 Chinese Albums ( Sino Chart ) [ 215 ] 1 Croatian Albums ( HDU ) [ 216 ] 27 Danish Albums ( Hitlisten ) [ 217 ] 3 Dutch Albums ( Album Top 100 ) [ 218 ] 7 Finnish Albums ( Suomen virallinen lista ) [ 219 ] 49 French Albums ( SNEP ) [ 220 ] 30 German Albums ( Offizielle Top 100 ) [ 221 ] 5 Irish Albums ( IRMA ) [ 132 ] 1 Italian Albums ( FIMI ) [ 222 ] 3 Japanese Albums ( Oricon ) [ 223 ] 3 Japanese Albums ( Billboard Japan ) [ 224 ] 5 Mexican Albums ( Top 100 Mexico ) [ 225 ] 4 New Zealand Albums ( RMNZ ) [ 131 ] 1 Norwegian Albums ( VG-lista ) [ 226 ] 2 Portuguese Albums ( AFP ) [ 227 ] 8 Scottish Albums ( OCC ) [ 133 ] 1 South African Albums ( RISA ) [ 228 ] 4 South Korean Albums ( Gaon ) [ 229 ] 12 South Korean International Albums ( Gaon ) [ 230 ] 1 Spanish Albums ( PROMUSICAE ) [ 231 ] 4 Swedish Albums ( Sverigetopplistan ) [ 232 ] 8 Swiss Albums ( Schweizer Hitparade ) [ 233 ] 9 UK Albums ( OCC ) [ 234 ] 1 US Billboard 200 [ 235 ] 1 US Top Country Albums ( Billboard ) [ 236 ] 1 Chart (2019–2024) Peak position Austrian Albums ( Ö3 Austria ) [ 212 ] 4 Croatian International Albums ( HDU ) [ 237 ] 4 German Albums ( Offizielle Top 100 ) [ 221 ] 8 Greek Albums ( IFPI ) [ 238 ] 1 Hungarian Physical Albums ( MAHASZ ) [ 239 ] 33 Swiss Albums ( Schweizer Hitparade ) [ 233 ] 7 US Independent Albums ( Billboard ) [ 240 ] 3 Year-end charts [ edit ] 2012 year-end charts Chart (2012) Position Australian Albums (ARIA) [ 241 ] 7 Canadian Albums ( Billboard ) [ 242 ] 10 Danish Albums (Hitlisten) [ 243 ] 84 Japanese Albums (Oricon) [ 244 ] 64 Mexican Albums (AMPROFON) [ 245 ] 56 New Zealand Albums (RMNZ) [ 246 ] 6 South Korean International Albums (Gaon) [ 247 ] 36 UK Albums (OCC) [ 248 ] 42 US Billboard 200 [ 249 ] 4 US Top Country Albums ( Billboard ) [ 250 ] 1 2013 year-end charts Chart (2013) Position Australian Albums (ARIA) [ 251 ] 24 Belgian Albums (Ultratop Flanders) [ 252 ] 140 Canadian Albums ( Billboard ) [ 253 ] 8 Japanese Albums (Oricon) [ 254 ] 38 Japanese Albums ( Billboard Japan ) [ 255 ] 60 French Albums (SNEP) [ 256 ] 194 New Zealand Albums (RMNZ) [ 257 ] 17 South Korean International Albums (Gaon) [ 258 ] 98 UK Albums (OCC) [ 259 ] 27 US Billboard 200 [ 260 ] 2 US Top Country Albums ( Billboard ) [ 261 ] 1 2014 year-end charts Chart (2014) Position Australian Albums (ARIA) [ 262 ] 96 Chinese Albums (Sino Chart) [ 263 ] 18 South Korean International Albums (Gaon) [ 264 ] 86 US Billboard 200 [ 265 ] 106 US Top Country Albums ( Billboard ) [ 266 ] 24 2015 year-end charts Chart (2015) Position Japanese Albums ( Billboard Japan ) [ 267 ] 94 US Billboard 200 [ 268 ] 111 2017 year-end charts Chart (2017) Position US Top Country Albums ( Billboard ) [ 269 ] 48 2018 year-end charts Chart (2018) Position US Top Country Albums ( Billboard ) [ 270 ] 28 2019 year-end charts Chart (2019) Position US Top Country Albums ( Billboard ) [ 271 ] 25 2020 year-end charts Chart (2020) Position US Top Country Albums ( Billboard ) [ 272 ] 25 2021 year-end charts Chart (2021) Position Austrian Albums (Ö3 Austria) [ 273 ] 70 US Independent Albums ( Billboard ) [ 274 ] 28 US Top Country Albums ( Billboard ) [ 275 ] 15 2022 year-end charts Chart (2022) Position US Top Country Albums ( Billboard ) [ 276 ] 62 2024 year-end chart Chart (2024) Position Australian Country Albums (ARIA) [ 277 ] 33 Decade-end charts [ edit ] 2010s decade-end charts Chart (2010–2019) Position Australian Albums (ARIA) [ 278 ] 23 UK Albums (OCC) [ 279 ] 96 US Billboard 200 [ 280 ] 32 US Top Country Albums ( Billboard ) [ 281 ] 11 All-time charts [ edit ] All-time charts Chart Position US Billboard 200 [ m ] 140 US Billboard 200 (Women) [ n ] 37 US Top Country Albums ( Billboard ) [ o ] 72 Year-end charts Chart (2012) Position Australian Albums (ARIA) [ 241 ] 7 Canadian Albums ( Billboard ) [ 242 ] 10 Danish Albums (Hitlisten) [ 243 ] 84 Japanese Albums (Oricon) [ 244 ] 64 Mexican Albums (AMPROFON) [ 245 ] 56 New Zealand Albums (RMNZ) [ 246 ] 6 South Korean International Albums (Gaon) [ 247 ] 36 UK Albums (OCC) [ 248 ] 42 US Billboard 200 [ 249 ] 4 US Top Country Albums ( Billboard ) [ 250 ] 1 Chart (2013) Position Australian Albums (ARIA) [ 251 ] 24 Belgian Albums (Ultratop Flanders) [ 252 ] 140 Canadian Albums ( Billboard ) [ 253 ] 8 Japanese Albums (Oricon) [ 254 ] 38 Japanese Albums ( Billboard Japan ) [ 255 ] 60 French Albums (SNEP) [ 256 ] 194 New Zealand Albums (RMNZ) [ 257 ] 17 South Korean International Albums (Gaon) [ 258 ] 98 UK Albums (OCC) [ 259 ] 27 US Billboard 200 [ 260 ] 2 US Top Country Albums ( Billboard ) [ 261 ] 1 Chart (2014) Position Australian Albums (ARIA) [ 262 ] 96 Chinese Albums (Sino Chart) [ 263 ] 18 South Korean International Albums (Gaon) [ 264 ] 86 US Billboard 200 [ 265 ] 106 US Top Country Albums ( Billboard ) [ 266 ] 24 Chart (2015) Position Japanese Albums ( Billboard Japan ) [ 267 ] 94 US Billboard 200 [ 268 ] 111 Chart (2017) Position US Top Country Albums ( Billboard ) [ 269 ] 48 Chart (2018) Position US Top Country Albums ( Billboard ) [ 270 ] 28 Chart (2019) Position US Top Country Albums ( Billboard ) [ 271 ] 25 Chart (2020) Position US Top Country Albums ( Billboard ) [ 272 ] 25 Chart (2021) Position Austrian Albums (Ö3 Austria) [ 273 ] 70 US Independent Albums ( Billboard ) [ 274 ] 28 US Top Country Albums ( Billboard ) [ 275 ] 15 Chart (2022) Position US Top Country Albums ( Billboard ) [ 276 ] 62 Chart (2024) Position Australian Country Albums (ARIA) [ 277 ] 33 Decade-end charts Chart (2010–2019) Position Australian Albums (ARIA) [ 278 ] 23 UK Albums (OCC) [ 279 ] 96 US Billboard 200 [ 280 ] 32 US Top Country Albums ( Billboard ) [ 281 ] 11 All-time charts Chart Position US Billboard 200 [ m ] 140 US Billboard 200 (Women) [ n ] 37 US Top Country Albums ( Billboard ) [ o ] 72 Certifications Region Certification Certified units /sales Australia ( ARIA ) [ 134 ] 5× Platinum 350,000 ‡ Austria ( IFPI Austria) [ 287 ] Platinum 20,000 * Belgium ( BRMA ) [ 288 ] 2× Platinum 60,000 ‡ Brazil ( Pro-Música Brasil ) [ 289 ] Gold 20,000 * Canada ( Music Canada ) [ 135 ] 4× Platinum 320,000 ^ Colombia [ 290 ] Gold Denmark ( IFPI Danmark ) [ 291 ] Platinum 20,000 ‡ France ( SNEP ) [ 292 ] Gold 50,000 ‡ Germany ( BVMI ) [ 293 ] Platinum 200,000 ‡ Ireland ( IRMA ) [ 294 ] Platinum 15,000 ^ Japan ( RIAJ ) [ 295 ] Platinum 250,000 ^ Japan ( RIAJ ) [ 296 ] Digital download Gold 100,000 * Mexico ( AMPROFON ) [ 297 ] Gold 30,000 ^ New Zealand ( RMNZ ) [ 136 ] 6× Platinum 90,000 ‡ Poland ( ZPAV ) [ 298 ] Platinum 20,000 ‡ Singapore ( RIAS ) [ 299 ] 2× Platinum 20,000 * Sweden ( GLF ) [ 300 ] Gold 20,000 ‡ Switzerland ( IFPI Switzerland) [ 301 ] Platinum 30,000 ‡ United Kingdom ( BPI ) [ 137 ] 3× Platinum 900,000 ‡ United States ( RIAA ) [ 125 ] 8× Platinum 4,582,000 [ p ] * Sales figures based on certification alone. ^ Shipments figures based on certification alone. ‡ Sales+streaming figures based on certification alone. * Sales figures based on certification alone. ^ Shipments figures based on certification alone. ‡ Sales+streaming figures based on certification alone. See also List of Billboard 200 number-one albums of 2012 List of Billboard 200 number-one albums of 2013 List of Billboard Top Country Albums number ones of 2012 List of Billboard Top Country Albums number ones of 2013 List of number-one albums of 2012 (Australia) List of number-one albums of 2012 (Canada) List of number-one albums from the 2010s (New Zealand) List of UK Albums Chart number ones of the 2010s Footnotes ^ Attributed to publications including Rolling Stone , [ 11 ] NPR , [ 23 ] Beats Per Minute , [ 24 ] Atwood Magazine , [ 25 ] the Alternative Press , [ 26 ] and Consequence [ 27 ] ^ Chart positions for Canada; [ 89 ] Australia, New Zealand, Norway, Spain; [ 90 ] Japan; [ 62 ] the UK [ 91 ] ^ Chart positions for the Billboard Hot 100; [ 98 ] the Pop Songs chart; [ 15 ] Australia, New Zealand, Denmark, Germany, Switzerland; [ 99 ] the UK [ 100 ] ^ Fearless spent 11 weeks at number one in 2008–2009, and Speak Now spent 6 weeks in 2010–2011. [ 119 ] ^ Upon Red 's release, AllMusic gave the album a four-star rating. [ 140 ] The site reassessed the album with a five-star rating since around August 2020. [ 141 ] ^ Attributed to reviews in Billboard , [ 28 ] The New York Times , [ 29 ] Rolling Stone , [ 35 ] and Spin [ 105 ] ^ Attributed to multiple references: [ 21 ] [ 53 ] [ 173 ] [ 149 ] ^ Attributed to multiple references: [ 178 ] [ 179 ] [ 180 ] [ 181 ] ^ References: [ 20 ] [ 176 ] [ 173 ] [ 182 ] ^ References: [ 187 ] [ 188 ] [ 189 ] [ 190 ] [ 191 ] ^ Attributed to multiple references: [ 149 ] [ 202 ] [ 203 ] ^ The album's liner notes credit Martin and Shellback as producers, but the Recording Academy , in a list announcing nominees for the Grammy Award for Record of the Year in 2012, additionally credits Swift as a producer. [ 210 ] ^ Compiled by Billboard for albums 1963–2015 [ 282 ] [ 283 ] ^ Compiled by Billboard for albums 1963–2017 [ 284 ] [ 285 ] ^ Compiled by Billboard for albums 1963–2016 [ 286 ] ^ US sales as of January 2024 [ 124 ] References Citations ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Swift, Taylor (2012). 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Retrieved July 13, 2020 . ^ Trust, Gary (November 30, 2017). "Madonna, Barbra Streisand, Adele & LeAnn Rimes Are Hot 100 & Billboard 200's Leading Ladies" . Billboard . Archived from the original on June 16, 2023 . Retrieved June 16, 2023 . ^ "Greatest of All Time Top Country Albums" . Billboard . Archived from the original on June 26, 2023 . Retrieved June 26, 2023 . ^ "Austrian album certifications – Taylor Swift – Red" (in German). IFPI Austria . Retrieved August 10, 2023 . ^ "Ultratop − Goud en Platina – albums 2022" . Ultratop . Hung Medien . Retrieved August 30, 2022 . ^ "Brazilian album certifications – Taylor Swift – Red" (in Portuguese). Pro-Música Brasil . Retrieved July 3, 2014 . ^ "Taylor Swift obtiene disco de oro en Colombia con Red " [Taylor Swift Achieves Gold Disk in Colombia with Red ] (in Spanish). Los 40 Principales . March 20, 2013. Archived from the original on May 6, 2021 . Retrieved May 6, 2021 . ^ "Danish album certifications – Taylor Swift – Red" . IFPI Danmark . Retrieved August 23, 2022 . ^ "French album certifications – Taylor Swift – Red" (in French). SNEP . Retrieved December 26, 2020 . ^ "Gold-/Platin-Datenbank (Taylor Swift; ' Red ' )" (in German). Bundesverband Musikindustrie . Retrieved November 11, 2023 . ^ "The Irish Charts - 2012 Certification Awards - Platinum" . Irish Recorded Music Association . Retrieved June 12, 2013 . ^ "Japanese album certifications – Taylor Swift – Red" (in Japanese). Recording Industry Association of Japan . Retrieved June 12, 2013 . Select 2013年4月 on the drop-down menu ^ "Japanese digital album certifications – Taylor Swift – Red" (in Japanese). Recording Industry Association of Japan . Select 2016年4月 on the drop-down menu ^ "Certificaciones" (in Spanish). Asociación Mexicana de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas . Retrieved June 12, 2013 . Type Taylor Swift in the box under the ARTISTA column heading and Red in the box under the TÍTULO column heading . ^ "OLiS - oficjalna lista wyróżnień" (in Polish). Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry . Retrieved June 19, 2024 . Click "TYTUŁ" and enter Red in the search box. ^ "Singapore album certifications" . Recording Industry Association Singapore . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ "Sverigetopplistan – Taylor Swift" (in Swedish). Sverigetopplistan . ^ "The Official Swiss Charts and Music Community: Awards ( ' Red ' )" . IFPI Switzerland. Hung Medien . Retrieved April 15, 2024 . Cited literature Lamb, Charles W.; Hair, Joe F.; McDaniel, Carl (2014). MKTG 8: Principles of Marketing . Cengage . ISBN 978-1-305-43699-2 . McNutt, Myles (2020). "From 'Mine' to 'Ours': Gendered Hierarchies of Authorship and the Limits of Taylor Swift's Paratextual Feminism". Communication, Culture and Critique . 13 (1): 72– 91. doi : 10.1093/ccc/tcz042 . Perone, James E. (2017). " Red ". The Words and Music of Taylor Swift . The Praeger Singer-Songwriter Collection. ABC-Clio . pp. 43– 54. ISBN 978-1-4408-5294-7 . Spencer, Liv (2013). Taylor Swift: The Platinum Edition . ECW Press . ISBN 978-1-77041-151-7 . Tribulski, Emily (2020–2021). "Look What You Made Her Do: How Swift, Streaming, and Social Media Can Increase Artists' Bargaining Power". Duke Law & Technology Review . 19 : 91– 121. Wickman, Kase; Weiss, Joanna; McAvoy, Moira (2025). Taylor Swift: Album by Album . Motorbooks. ISBN 978-0-7603-9750-3 . Zaleski, Annie (2024). "The Red Era". Taylor Swift: The Stories Behind the Songs . Thunder Bay Press . pp. 76– 105. ISBN 978-1-6672-0845-9 . External links Red at Discogs (list of releases) .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Taylor Swift v t e Albums Singles Songs Videography Live performances Awards and nominations Public image Albums Singles Songs Videography Live performances Awards and nominations Public image Studio albums Taylor Swift Fearless Speak Now Red 1989 Reputation Lover Folklore Evermore Midnights The Tortured Poets Department The Life of a Showgirl Taylor Swift Fearless Speak Now Red 1989 Reputation Lover Folklore Evermore Midnights The Tortured Poets Department The Life of a Showgirl Re-recorded albums Fearless (Taylor's Version) Red (Taylor's Version) Speak Now (Taylor's Version) 1989 (Taylor's Version) Fearless (Taylor's Version) Red (Taylor's Version) Speak Now (Taylor's Version) 1989 (Taylor's Version) Extended plays The Taylor Swift Holiday Collection Beautiful Eyes The Taylor Swift Holiday Collection Beautiful Eyes Live albums Speak Now World Tour – Live Live from Clear Channel Stripped 2008 Folklore: The Long Pond Studio Sessions Lover (Live from Paris) Speak Now World Tour – Live Live from Clear Channel Stripped 2008 Folklore: The Long Pond Studio Sessions Lover (Live from Paris) Concert tours Fearless Tour Speak Now World Tour The Red Tour The 1989 World Tour Reputation Stadium Tour The Eras Tour Fearless Tour Speak Now World Tour The Red Tour The 1989 World Tour Reputation Stadium Tour The Eras Tour Films and specials Miss Americana City of Lover Folklore: The Long Pond Studio Sessions All Too Well: The Short Film The Eras Tour The Official Release Party of a Showgirl The End of an Era Miss Americana City of Lover Folklore: The Long Pond Studio Sessions All Too Well: The Short Film The Eras Tour The Official Release Party of a Showgirl The End of an Era Legacy Cultural impact Political impact Swifties Impact of the Eras Tour Nannaria swiftae Castianeira swiftay Cultural impact Political impact Swifties Impact of the Eras Tour Nannaria swiftae Castianeira swiftay Controversies and incidents Kanye West feud Gaylor conspiracy theory Sexual assault trial Masters dispute Ticketmaster fiasco Death of Ana Clara Benevides Deepfake pornography Vienna terrorism plot It Ends with Us Kanye West feud Gaylor conspiracy theory Sexual assault trial Masters dispute Ticketmaster fiasco Death of Ana Clara Benevides Deepfake pornography Vienna terrorism plot It Ends with Us Family Austin Swift (brother) Marjorie Finlay (grandmother) Travis Kelce (fiance) Olivia Benson (cat) Austin Swift (brother) Marjorie Finlay (grandmother) Travis Kelce (fiance) Olivia Benson (cat) Related Taylor Swift Productions SwiftOnSecurity Tree Paine High Watch Samuel Goldwyn Estate The Eras Tour Book Taylor Swift vs Scooter Braun: Bad Blood Taylor Swift Productions SwiftOnSecurity Tree Paine High Watch Samuel Goldwyn Estate The Eras Tour Book Taylor Swift vs Scooter Braun: Bad Blood Category Category Authority control databases International VIAF VIAF Other MusicBrainz release group MusicBrainz release group 2012 albums Taylor Swift albums Albums produced by Taylor Swift Albums produced by Nathan Chapman (record producer) Albums produced by Max Martin Albums produced by Shellback (record producer) Albums produced by Dan Wilson (musician) Albums produced by Dann Huff Albums produced by Jeff Bhasker Albums produced by Jacknife Lee Albums produced by Butch Walker Big Machine Records albums Canadian Country Music Association Top Selling Album albums Country albums by American artists Pop albums by American artists Rock albums by American artists CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list CS1 uses Japanese-language script (ja) CS1 Japanese-language sources (ja) CS1 French-language sources (fr) CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 Chinese-language sources (zh) CS1 Korean-language sources (ko) CS1 Croatian-language sources (hr) CS1 Danish-language sources (da) CS1 Spanish-language sources (es) CS1 uses Chinese-language script (zh) CS1 Portuguese-language sources (pt) CS1 Polish-language sources (pl) CS1 Swedish-language sources (sv) Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Featured articles Use mdy dates from December 2025 Articles with hAudio microformats Album chart usages for Australia Album chart making named ref Album chart usages for Austria Album chart usages for Flanders Album chart usages for Wallonia Album chart usages for BillboardCanada Album chart called without album Album chart usages for Denmark Album chart usages for Netherlands Album chart usages for Finland Album chart usages for France Album chart usages for Germany Album chart usages for Italy Album chart usages for Oricon Album chart called without artist Album chart usages for Mexico2 Album chart used with defunct chart Album chart usages for New Zealand Album chart usages for Norway Album chart usages for 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Lists 2 See also 3 Notes 4 References 5 Bibliography 6 External links List of Michelin-starred restaurants in Washington, D.C. Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item As of the 2025 Michelin Guide , there are 25 restaurants in the Washington metropolitan area with a Michelin-star rating. The Michelin Guides have been published by the French tire company Michelin since 1900. They were designed as a guide to tell drivers about restaurants Michelin recommended to visit and to subtly sponsor their tires, by encouraging drivers to use their cars more and therefore need to replace the tires as they wore out. Over time, the stars that were given out became more valuable. [ 1 ] While Michelin often works with tourism boards or other financial co-venturers for the creation of new guides, that was not the case with the Washington, D.C. guide; rather, it was an extension of existing US Michelin guides. [ 2 ] Although the Washington metropolitan area had early pioneers in cooking such as Michel Richard and Jean-Louis Palladin , the city's innovative food scene took off in the 2010s. Washington, D.C. has become a dining destination driven by a combination of well-compensated professionals, population growth, and a wide variety of businesses. [ 3 ] Numerous James Beard Foundation Award -winning chefs, such as Aaron Silverman [ 4 ] and José Andrés , [ 5 ] have restaurants in the Washington metropolitan area along with Patrick O'Connell 's [ 6 ] Michelin-starred restaurant, The Inn at Little Washington . Multiple anonymous Michelin inspectors visit the restaurants several times. They rate the restaurants on five criteria: "quality of products", "mastery of flavor and cooking techniques", "the personality of the chef represented in the dining experience", "value for money", and "consistency between inspectors' visits". [ 1 ] [ 7 ] Inspectors have at least ten years of expertise and create a list of popular restaurants supported by media reports, reviews, and diner popularity. If they reach a consensus, Michelin awards restaurants from one to three stars based on its evaluation methodology: one star means "high-quality cooking, worth a stop", two stars signify "excellent cooking, worth a detour", and three stars denote "exceptional cuisine, worth a special journey". [ 8 ] The stars are not permanent and restaurants are constantly re-evaluated. If the criteria are not met, the restaurant will lose its stars. [ 1 ] The Washington, D.C. guide started in 2017, and is the first US Michelin Guide released in a new region since the Chicago guide in 2011. [ 9 ] Although originally stating that all restaurants would be within the city limits, Michelin awarded stars to The Inn at Little Washington, in Rappahannock County , Virginia , which is included in the Washington metropolitan area. [ 10 ] In 2025, Michelin merged Washington, D.C.'s list with those of Chicago and New York City , and incorporated newly added coverage of Boston and Philadelphia , into one larger list titled MICHELIN Guide Northeast Cities . Lists One Michelin star Two Michelin stars Three Michelin stars One Michelin green star — The restaurant did not receive a star that year Closed The restaurant is no longer open One Michelin key Name Cuisine Location 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 Albi Middle Eastern DC – Navy Yard — — — — — Blue Duck Tavern American DC – West End — — — — — — Bresca American DC – Logan Circle — — Causa Peruvian DC – Shaw — — — — — — Cranes Fusion DC – Penn Quarter — — — — — — — The Dabney American DC – Shaw El Cielo Colombian DC – Union Market — — — — Fiola Italian DC – Penn Quarter Gravitas American DC – Ivy City — — — Imperfecto Latin American DC – West End — — — — — Inn at Little Washington American Virginia – Rappahannock County Jônt Contemporary DC – Logan Circle — — — — Kinship French DC – Mount Vernon Square Komi Mediterranean DC – Dupont Circle — Closed [ a ] Little Pearl Contemporary DC – Capitol Hill — — — Masseria Italian DC – Union Market Maydan Middle Eastern DC – Columbia Heights — — — — — Mita Latin American DC – Shaw — — — — — — — Métier French DC – Mount Vernon Square — minibar Contemporary DC – Penn Quarter Omakase at Barracks Row Japanese DC – Capitol Hill — — — — — — — Oyster Oyster Vegetarian DC – Shaw — — — — — Pineapple & Pearls Contemporary DC – Capitol Hill Plume Contemporary DC – Downtown Closed [ 12 ] Rania Indian DC – Penn Quarter — — — — — — Reverie Contemporary DC – Georgetown — — — — — — Rooster & Owl Fusion DC – Columbia Heights — — — — Rose's Luxury Contemporary DC – Capitol Hill Siren Seafood DC – Logan Circle — — Closed [ 13 ] Sushi Nakazawa Japanese DC – Federal Triangle — — — Sushi Taro Japanese DC – Dupont Circle — — — — Tail Up Goat Contemporary DC – Adams Morgan Xiquet Spanish DC – Glover Park — — — — Reference [ 14 ] [ 15 ] [ 16 ] [ 17 ] [ 18 ] [ 19 ] [ 20 ] [ 21 ] See also List of Michelin-starred restaurants in American Northeast Cities List of restaurants Notes ^ Komi transitioned to the Happy Gyro. [ 11 ] References ^ a b c .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Buchwald, Elisabeth (February 10, 2024). "Michelin Guide history: How did a tire company become an elite restaurant rating guide?" . CNN . Archived from the original on February 20, 2024 . Retrieved May 19, 2024 . ^ Sidman, Jessica (October 10, 2016). "Why Is the Michelin Guide Launching in DC? It's Not Solely About the Dining Scene - Washingtonian" . Washingtonian. Archived from the original on December 26, 2024 . Retrieved December 26, 2024 . ^ "The History of Washington D.C.'s Dining Scene" . Michelin Guide . March 30, 2017. Archived from the original on December 25, 2024 . Retrieved December 25, 2024 . ^ "Pineapple & Pearls" . Bon Appétit . ^ "minibar review" . Ultimate DC Dining . Archived from the original on January 2, 2023 . Retrieved December 26, 2024 . ^ "A Meal So Good, Politicians Leave Their Partisanship at the Door" . The New York Times . November 3, 2024. Archived from the original on November 5, 2024 . Retrieved December 26, 2024 . ^ "How Restaurants Get Michelin Stars: A Brief History of the Michelin Guide" . Auguste Escoffier School of Culinary Arts . February 9, 2024. Archived from the original on April 8, 2024 . Retrieved May 19, 2024 . ^ Dixon, Rachel (June 24, 2008). "Q&A: Michelin stars" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on May 20, 2024 . Retrieved May 19, 2024 . ^ Judkis, Maura. "D.C.'s food scene gets a prestigious boost: Michelin inspection (and stars)" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on October 5, 2016 . Retrieved October 26, 2016 . ^ Frederick, Missy (May 31, 2016). "D.C. Is Getting a Michelin Guide" . Eater Washington, D.C. Vox Media . Archived from the original on November 6, 2016 . Retrieved October 26, 2016 . ^ Hiatt, Gabe (September 13, 2019). "Komi Is Swapping Its Pricey Tasting Menu for Vegetarian Diner Riffs Again" . Eater Washington, D.C . Archived from the original on December 25, 2024 . Retrieved November 17, 2024 . ^ Ngomsi, Vinciane (May 11, 2022). "The Jefferson Hotel's New Greenhouse Has Big Michelin-Starred Shoes to Fill" . Eater Washington, D.C . Archived from the original on December 25, 2024 . Retrieved November 19, 2024 . ^ Plumb, Tierney (January 14, 2019). "Michelin-Starred Siren Is Moving Out of Its Hotel Digs In Search of a 'Better Location' " . Eater Washington, D.C . Archived from the original on December 4, 2024 . Retrieved November 19, 2024 . ^ Sutton, Ryan; Frederick, Missy (October 13, 2016). "Michelin Declines to Award Top Honors to Any D.C. Restaurant in Debut Guide" . Eater Washington, D.C . Archived from the original on October 27, 2016 . Retrieved October 26, 2016 . ^ Sutton, Ryan; Frederick, Missy (October 17, 2017). "Here Are Washington D.C.'s New Michelin Starred Restaurants for 2018" . Eater Washington, D.C . Archived from the original on November 7, 2017 . Retrieved October 29, 2017 . ^ Limpert, Ann (September 13, 2018). "Here Are the 2019 Michelin Star Restaurants for DC" . Washingtonian . Archived from the original on January 26, 2021 . Retrieved September 13, 2018 . ^ Limpert, Ann (October 1, 2019). "Here Are the 2020 Michelin Star Restaurants for DC" . Washingtonian . Archived from the original on October 7, 2019 . Retrieved October 7, 2019 . ^ Sidman, Jessica (April 22, 2021). "DC Gains Five New Starred Restaurants in 2021 Michelin Guide" . Washingtonian . Archived from the original on May 7, 2023 . Retrieved July 19, 2023 . ^ Spiegel, Anna (May 4, 2022). "Michelin DC Announces 2022 Star Restaurants and Bib Gourmand Awards" . Washingtonian . Archived from the original on May 30, 2023 . Retrieved July 19, 2023 . ^ "Michelin Awards Two More D.C. Restaurants With Its Coveted Stars" . DCist. Archived from the original on November 9, 2023 . Retrieved November 8, 2023 . ^ "Date set for 2024 MICHELIN Guide Ceremony in New York" . Michelin Guide . Michelin North America . Retrieved October 20, 2024 . Bibliography Michelin Guide Washington, D.C. 2017 . Michelin Travel Publications. 2017. ISBN 978-2-06-721958-8 . Michelin Guide Washington, D.C. 2018 . Michelin Travel Publications. 2018. ISBN 978-2-06-722093-5 . Michelin Guide Washington, D.C. 2019 . Michelin Travel Publications. 2019. ISBN 978-2-06-723055-2 . Michelin Guide Washington, D.C. 2020 . Michelin Travel Publications. 2020. ISBN 978-2-06-723900-5 . External links Michelin Guide - Washington, D.C. .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Lists of restaurants v t e By city Amsterdam Barcelona Hong Kong Istanbul Lagos London Paris Rotterdam Tokyo Vancouver Vienna United States Albuquerque Atlanta Austin Baltimore Boston Cambridge Cincinnati Dallas Fort Worth Houston Huntington, West Virginia Las Vegas Valley Miami New Orleans New York City Philadelphia Portland, Oregon Seattle Tampa, Florida Amsterdam Barcelona Hong Kong Istanbul Lagos London Paris Rotterdam Tokyo Vancouver Vienna Amsterdam Barcelona Hong Kong Istanbul Lagos London Paris Rotterdam Tokyo Vancouver Vienna United States Albuquerque Atlanta Austin Baltimore Boston Cambridge Cincinnati Dallas Fort Worth Houston Huntington, West Virginia Las Vegas Valley Miami New Orleans New York City Philadelphia Portland, Oregon Seattle Tampa, Florida Albuquerque Atlanta Austin Baltimore Boston Cambridge Cincinnati Dallas Fort Worth Houston Huntington, West Virginia Las Vegas Valley Miami New Orleans New York City Philadelphia Portland, Oregon Seattle Tampa, Florida By country Restaurant districts and streets Australia chains pizzerias Canada chains fast-food pizza China Germany Hungary Iceland Indonesia India chains Ireland chains Israel Mexico Philippines chains Poland chains Scotland Singapore South Korea oldest Sweden Switzerland Taiwan Wales United States chains pizza U.S. restaurant districts and streets Hawaii New Jersey Rhode Island Restaurant districts and streets Australia chains pizzerias pizzerias Canada chains fast-food pizza chains fast-food pizza China Germany Hungary Iceland Indonesia India chains Ireland chains Israel Mexico Philippines chains Poland chains Scotland Singapore South Korea oldest oldest Sweden Switzerland Taiwan Wales United States chains pizza U.S. restaurant districts and streets Hawaii New Jersey Rhode Island pizza U.S. restaurant districts and streets Hawaii New Jersey Rhode Island By food type Barbecue Chicken Coffeehouse chains Doughnut shops Fish and chip Frozen yogurt companies Hamburger Hot dog Ice cream parlor chains Noodle Oyster bars Pancake houses Pizza chains Pizza franchises Seafood Steakhouses Submarine sandwich restaurants Sushi Teahouses Vegetarian and vegan Barbecue Chicken Coffeehouse chains Doughnut shops Fish and chip Frozen yogurt companies Hamburger Hot dog Ice cream parlor chains Noodle Oyster bars Pancake houses Pizza chains Pizza franchises Pizza franchises Seafood Steakhouses Submarine sandwich restaurants Sushi Teahouses Vegetarian and vegan By cuisine African Ashkenazi Jewish Basque British Cajun Cambodian Chinese Cuban Czech Filipino French German Greek Hawaiian Indian Indonesian Irish Italian Japanese Korean Lebanese Louisiana Creole Mexican Middle Eastern New American Pacific Northwest Peruvian Russian Scandinavian Soul 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Nara Netherlands New York City Norway Paris Philippines Poland Portugal Quebec Saudi Arabia Scotland Serbia Shanghai Singapore Slovenia South Korea Spain Sweden Switzerland Taiwan Texas Thailand Toronto Turkey Vancouver Vietnam Wales Washington, D.C. Canada's 100 Best Restaurants La Liste The World's 50 Best Restaurants Canada's 100 Best Restaurants La Liste The World's 50 Best Restaurants Michelin -starred 3-star restaurants Hong Kong & Macau United Kingdom United States By location Abu Dhabi American Northeast Cities American South Argentina Austria Beijing Belgium and Luxembourg Brazil California Chengdu Chicago Colorado Croatia Czech Republic Denmark Doha Dubai England Estonia Finland Florida France Germany Greater London Greece Guangzhou Hangzhou Hokkaido Hong Kong and Macau Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Japan Kyoto and Osaka Las Vegas Latvia Lithuania Malaysia Malta Mexico Monaco Moscow Nara Netherlands New York City Norway Paris Philippines Poland Portugal Quebec Saudi Arabia Scotland Serbia Shanghai Singapore Slovenia South Korea Spain Sweden Switzerland Taiwan Texas Thailand Toronto Turkey Vancouver Vietnam Wales Washington, D.C. 3-star restaurants Hong Kong & Macau United Kingdom United States 3-star restaurants Hong Kong & Macau United Kingdom United States Hong Kong & Macau United Kingdom United States By location Abu Dhabi American Northeast Cities American South Argentina Austria Beijing Belgium and Luxembourg Brazil California Chengdu Chicago Colorado Croatia Czech Republic Denmark Doha Dubai England Estonia Finland Florida France Germany Greater London Greece Guangzhou Hangzhou Hokkaido Hong Kong and Macau Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Japan Kyoto and Osaka Las Vegas Latvia Lithuania Malaysia Malta Mexico Monaco Moscow Nara Netherlands New York City Norway Paris Philippines Poland Portugal Quebec Saudi Arabia Scotland Serbia Shanghai Singapore Slovenia South Korea Spain Sweden Switzerland Taiwan Texas Thailand Toronto Turkey Vancouver Vietnam Wales Washington, D.C. Abu Dhabi American Northeast Cities American South Argentina Austria Beijing Belgium and Luxembourg Brazil California Chengdu Chicago Colorado Croatia Czech Republic Denmark Doha Dubai England Estonia Finland Florida France Germany Greater London Greece Guangzhou Hangzhou Hokkaido Hong Kong and Macau Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Japan Kyoto and Osaka Las Vegas Latvia Lithuania Malaysia Malta Mexico Monaco Moscow Nara Netherlands New York City Norway Paris Philippines Poland Portugal Quebec Saudi Arabia Scotland Serbia Shanghai Singapore Slovenia South Korea Spain Sweden Switzerland Taiwan Texas Thailand Toronto Turkey Vancouver Vietnam Wales Washington, D.C. By type Bakeries Buffet Cafeterias Delicatessens Diners Dinner theaters Dive bars Drive-in Jewish delis Kosher Restaurant chains Casual dining Fast food Defunct fast-food Revolving Supper clubs Bakeries Buffet Cafeterias Delicatessens Diners Dinner theaters Dive bars Drive-in Jewish delis Kosher Restaurant chains Casual dining Fast food Defunct fast-food Casual dining Fast food Defunct fast-food Revolving Supper clubs By ownership Black-owned Restaurateurs American Owned or operated by Gordon Ramsay Black-owned Restaurateurs American American Owned or operated by Gordon Ramsay v t e Michelin v t e Brands Achilles Active Wheel ATS Euromaster BFGoodrich Corsa Michelin PAX System Michelin TRX ViaMichelin Fenner (Company) Achilles Active Wheel ATS Euromaster BFGoodrich Corsa Michelin PAX System Michelin TRX ViaMichelin Fenner (Company) Facilities French Bilingual School of South Carolina Michelin House French Bilingual School of South Carolina Michelin House Events Michelin Challenge Bibendum Michelin Challenge Bibendum Products Budd–Michelin rubber-tired rail cars Micheline Tweel Budd–Michelin rubber-tired rail cars Micheline Tweel Subsidiaries Camso Fenner Kleber Masternaut Multistrada Arah Sarana NexTraq Uniroyal Camso Fenner Kleber Masternaut Multistrada Arah Sarana NexTraq Uniroyal Michelin Guide Derek Brown Lists of Michelin-starred restaurants 3-star restaurants Hong Kong & Macau United Kingdom United States Asia China Beijing Chengdu Guangzhou Hangzhou Hong Kong & Macau Shanghai Japan Hokkaido Kyoto and Osaka Nara Malaysia Philippines Qatar Doha Saudi Arabia Singapore South Korea Taiwan Thailand Turkey UAE Abu Dhabi Dubai Vietnam Europe Austria Belgium & Luxembourg Croatia Czech Republic Denmark England Greater London Estonia Finland France Paris Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Latvia Lithuania Malta Monaco Moscow Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Scotland Serbia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Wales North America Canada Quebec Toronto Vancouver Mexico United States American Northeast Cities American South Boston California Chicago Colorado Florida Georgia Las Vegas Louisiana New York City North Carolina Philadelphia South Carolina Tennessee Texas Washington, D.C. South America Argentina Brazil Bib Gourmand restaurants North America Canada Derek Brown Derek Brown Lists of Michelin-starred restaurants 3-star restaurants Hong Kong & Macau United Kingdom United States Asia China Beijing Chengdu Guangzhou Hangzhou Hong Kong & Macau Shanghai Japan Hokkaido Kyoto and Osaka Nara Malaysia Philippines Qatar Doha Saudi Arabia Singapore South Korea Taiwan Thailand Turkey UAE Abu Dhabi Dubai Vietnam Europe Austria Belgium & Luxembourg Croatia Czech Republic Denmark England Greater London Estonia Finland France Paris Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Latvia Lithuania Malta Monaco Moscow Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Scotland Serbia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Wales North America Canada Quebec Toronto Vancouver Mexico United States American Northeast Cities American South Boston California Chicago Colorado Florida Georgia Las Vegas Louisiana New York City North Carolina Philadelphia South Carolina Tennessee Texas Washington, D.C. South America Argentina Brazil 3-star restaurants Hong Kong & Macau United Kingdom United States 3-star restaurants Hong Kong & Macau United Kingdom United States Hong Kong & Macau United Kingdom United States Asia China Beijing Chengdu Guangzhou Hangzhou Hong Kong & Macau Shanghai Japan Hokkaido Kyoto and Osaka Nara Malaysia Philippines Qatar Doha Saudi Arabia Singapore South Korea Taiwan Thailand Turkey UAE Abu Dhabi Dubai Vietnam China Beijing Chengdu Guangzhou Hangzhou Hong Kong & Macau Shanghai Beijing Chengdu Guangzhou Hangzhou Hong Kong & Macau Shanghai Japan Hokkaido Kyoto and Osaka Nara Hokkaido Kyoto and Osaka Nara Malaysia Philippines Qatar Doha Doha Saudi Arabia Singapore South Korea Taiwan Thailand Turkey UAE Abu Dhabi Dubai Abu Dhabi Dubai Vietnam Europe Austria Belgium & Luxembourg Croatia Czech Republic Denmark England Greater London Estonia Finland France Paris Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Latvia Lithuania Malta Monaco Moscow Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Scotland Serbia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Wales Austria Belgium & Luxembourg Croatia Czech Republic Denmark England Greater London Greater London Estonia Finland France Paris Paris Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Latvia Lithuania Malta Monaco Moscow Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Scotland Serbia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Wales North America Canada Quebec Toronto Vancouver Mexico United States American Northeast Cities American South Boston California Chicago Colorado Florida Georgia Las Vegas Louisiana New York City North Carolina Philadelphia South Carolina Tennessee Texas Washington, D.C. Canada Quebec Toronto Vancouver Quebec Toronto Vancouver Mexico United States American Northeast Cities American South Boston California Chicago Colorado Florida Georgia Las Vegas Louisiana New York City North Carolina Philadelphia South Carolina Tennessee Texas Washington, D.C. American Northeast Cities American South Boston California Chicago Colorado Florida Georgia Las Vegas Louisiana New York City North Carolina Philadelphia South Carolina Tennessee Texas Washington, D.C. South America Argentina Brazil Argentina Brazil Bib Gourmand restaurants North America Canada North America Canada Canada People André Michelin Édouard Michelin André Michelin Édouard Michelin Related Michelin Man Michelin PLR Tire war ( 2005 United States Grand Prix ) Uniroyal Giant Tire Michelin Man Michelin PLR Tire war ( 2005 United States Grand Prix ) Uniroyal Giant Tire v t e Michelin Guide 3-star restaurants in the United States v t e California Addison Atelier Crenn Benu The French Laundry Quince Providence SingleThread Somni Addison Atelier Crenn Benu The French Laundry Quince Providence SingleThread Somni Chicago Smyth Smyth New York City Le Bernardin Eleven Madison Park Jungsik Per Se Sushi Sho Le Bernardin Eleven Madison Park Jungsik Per Se Sushi Sho Restaurants formerly with 3 stars Alinea Chef's Table at Brooklyn Fare Daniel Jean-Georges Joël Robuchon Masa Saison The Inn at Little Washington Alinea Chef's Table at Brooklyn Fare Daniel Jean-Georges Joël Robuchon Masa Saison The Inn at Little Washington Defunct 3-star restaurants Alain Ducasse at the Essex House Coi Grace L2O Manresa The Restaurant at Meadowood Alain Ducasse at the Essex House Coi Grace L2O Manresa The Restaurant at Meadowood List of Michelin 3-star restaurants Business and economics Food Washington, D.C. Lists of Michelin-starred restaurants in the United States Michelin-starred restaurants in Washington, D.C. Washington, D.C.-related lists Lists of restaurants by populated place Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Featured lists Use mdy dates from April 2025 This page was last edited on 20 November 2025, at 21:07 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Plot 2 Cast 3 Production Toggle Production subsection 3.1 Development 3.2 Writing 3.3 Casting 3.4 Filming 3.5 Design and effects 3.6 Post-production 3.7 Music 3.1 Development 3.2 Writing 3.3 Casting 3.4 Filming 3.5 Design and effects 3.6 Post-production 3.7 Music 4 Release Toggle Release subsection 4.1 Context 4.2 Marketing 4.3 Box office 4.1 Context 4.2 Marketing 4.3 Box office 5 Reception Toggle Reception subsection 5.1 Critical response 5.2 Accolades 5.1 Critical response 5.2 Accolades 6 After release Toggle After release subsection 6.1 Performance analysis and aftermath 6.2 Home media 6.3 Other media 6.1 Performance analysis and aftermath 6.2 Home media 6.3 Other media 7 Thematic analysis Toggle Thematic analysis subsection 7.1 Duality and fragmented identity 7.2 The carnivalesque and social critique 7.3 Sexuality and repression 7.4 Power, politics, and ideology 7.5 Christmas, capitalism, and cultural critique 7.1 Duality and fragmented identity 7.2 The carnivalesque and social critique 7.3 Sexuality and repression 7.4 Power, politics, and ideology 7.5 Christmas, capitalism, and cultural critique 8 Legacy Toggle Legacy subsection 8.1 Retrospective reception 8.2 Cultural influence 8.1 Retrospective reception 8.2 Cultural influence 9 Sequels 10 Footnotes 11 Notes 12 References Toggle References subsection 12.1 Citations 12.2 Works cited 12.2.1 Books 12.2.2 Journals 12.2.3 Magazines 12.1 Citations 12.2 Works cited 12.2.1 Books 12.2.2 Journals 12.2.3 Magazines 12.2.1 Books 12.2.2 Journals 12.2.3 Magazines 13 External links Batman Returns العربية Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Latviešu Magyar Македонски მარგალური مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська 中文 Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item Batman Returns Theatrical release poster by John Alvin Directed by Tim Burton Screenplay by Daniel Waters Story by .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Daniel Waters Sam Hamm Daniel Waters Sam Hamm Based on Batman characters created by Bob Kane Bill Finger [ i ] and published by DC Comics Batman characters created by Bob Kane Bill Finger [ i ] Bob Kane Bill Finger [ i ] and published by DC Comics Produced by Denise Di Novi Tim Burton Denise Di Novi Tim Burton Starring Michael Keaton Danny DeVito Michelle Pfeiffer Christopher Walken Michael Gough Pat Hingle Michael Murphy Michael Keaton Danny DeVito Michelle Pfeiffer Christopher Walken Michael Gough Pat Hingle Michael Murphy Cinematography Stefan Czapsky Edited by Chris Lebenzon Music by Danny Elfman Production companies Warner Bros. PolyGram Pictures Warner Bros. PolyGram Pictures Distributed by Warner Bros. Release dates June 16, 1992 ( 1992-06-16 ) (Hollywood, California) June 19, 1992 ( 1992-06-19 ) (United States) June 16, 1992 ( 1992-06-16 ) (Hollywood, California) June 19, 1992 ( 1992-06-19 ) (United States) Running time 126 minutes Country United States Language English Budget $50–80 million Box office $266.8 million Batman Returns is a 1992 American superhero film directed by Tim Burton and written by Daniel Waters . Based on the DC Comics character Batman , it is the sequel to Batman (1989), also directed by Burton, and the second installment in the Batman film series (1989–1997). The cast includes Michael Keaton , Danny DeVito , Michelle Pfeiffer , Christopher Walken , Michael Gough , Pat Hingle , and Michael Murphy . Set during Christmas in Gotham City , the film follows Batman (Keaton) as he confronts corrupt businessman Max Shreck (Walken) and deformed crime boss Oswald Cobblepot / the Penguin (DeVito), whose bid for power threatens the city. Their schemes are further complicated by Shreck's former secretary Selina Kyle (Pfeiffer), who seeks revenge against him as Catwoman. Burton was initially uninterested in directing a sequel to Batman , feeling creatively constrained by Warner Bros. ' expectations. He agreed to return only after being granted greater creative control, which included replacing original writer Sam Hamm with Daniel Waters and reuniting with many of his previous collaborators. Waters's script emphasized characterization over plot, and Wesley Strick was later hired for an uncredited rewrite that added, among other elements, a master plan for the Penguin. Filming took place from September 1991 to February 1992 on a budget of $50–80 million, primarily on sets and soundstages at Warner Bros. Studios and the Universal Studios Lot in California. The film's special effects relied mainly on practical techniques and makeup, supplemented with animatronics, limited computer-generated imagery (CGI), and dozens of live penguins. The film's marketing campaign was extensive, featuring brand tie-ins and merchandise intended to replicate the financial success of Batman . Released on June 19, 1992, Batman Returns broke several box-office records and grossed $266.8 million worldwide, becoming the sixth-highest-grossing film of 1992 , but fell short of Batman in overall success and longevity. The darker tone, along with violent and sexual content, was cited as alienating family audiences and prompted backlash against marketing partners for promoting the film to children. Critical reception was polarized, though most reviewers praised the principal cast. Following the mixed reception of Batman Returns , Burton was replaced as director for its sequel, Batman Forever (1995), which was developed with a more family-friendly tone. Keaton also declined to return. In the years since its release, Batman Returns has been reappraised as one of the strongest Batman films and a pivotal early example of auteur -driven superhero cinema that helped shape the genre's darker, more ambitious direction. The film is also recognized as an alternative Christmas classic due to its winter setting, festive imagery, and themes of loneliness and isolation. Its story was revisited in the comic series Batman '89 (2021), and Keaton later reprised his version of Batman in The Flash (2023). Plot In Gotham City , two wealthy socialites , horrified by the birth of their malformed and feral son Oswald , abandon him in the sewers, where he is taken in by a colony of penguins. Thirty-three years later, during the Christmas season, wealthy industrialist Max Shreck is abducted by the Red Triangle Gang—former circus performers implicated in child disappearances across the country—and taken to their hideout in the abandoned Arctic exhibit at Gotham Zoo. Their leader, Oswald, now known as the Penguin, blackmails Max with evidence of his corruption and murders, coercing him into helping Oswald re-enter Gotham's high society. Max stages the kidnapping of the mayor's infant child, allowing Oswald to "rescue" the child and become a public hero. In return, Oswald requests access to the city's birth records, claiming he seeks to uncover his true identity by investigating Gotham's first-born sons. Max attempts to kill his timid secretary, Selina Kyle , by pushing her out of a window after she discovers his plan to build a power plant that would secretly drain and store Gotham's electricity. Selina survives, returns home, crafts a costume, and adopts the persona of Catwoman . To Max's surprise, she reappears at work with newfound confidence and assertiveness, immediately attracting the attention of visiting billionaire Bruce Wayne . As the vigilante Batman , Bruce begins investigating Oswald, suspecting his ties to the Red Triangle Gang. Seeking to remove opposition to his power plant, Max convinces Oswald to run for mayor and discredit the incumbent by unleashing the gang on Gotham. Batman's efforts to quell the violence bring him into conflict with Catwoman, while in their civilian lives Selina and Bruce begin a romance. Meanwhile, Catwoman allies with Oswald to smear Batman's reputation. During Gotham's Christmas-tree lighting, Oswald and Catwoman kidnap Gotham's beauty queen, the Ice Princess, and lure Batman to a rooftop above the ceremony. Oswald pushes the Ice Princess to her death with a swarm of bats, effectively framing Batman. When Catwoman objects to the murder and rebuffs Oswald's sexual advances, he attacks her, sending her crashing through a glasshouse. Batman escapes in the Batmobile , unaware that the Red Triangle gang has sabotaged it, allowing Oswald to control the vehicle, causing what appears to be a case of road rage . Before regaining control, Batman records Oswald's insulting tirade against Gotham's citizens and later plays it during Oswald's mayoral rally, destroying his public image and forcing him to retreat to Gotham Zoo. There, Oswald renounces his humanity, fully embracing his identity as the Penguin, and sets his plan in motion to abduct and kill Gotham's first-born sons as revenge for his own abandonment and problems. Selina attempts to kill Max at his charity ball, but Bruce intervenes, and the two inadvertently discover each other's secret identities. Penguin crashes the event intending to kidnap Max's son, Chip, but Max offers himself instead. Batman disrupts the Red Triangle gang and halts the kidnappings, prompting the Penguin to unleash his missile-equipped penguin army to destroy Gotham. Batman's ally, Alfred Pennyworth , overrides the control signal, redirecting the penguins back to Gotham Zoo. As the missiles obliterate the zoo, Batman unleashes a swarm of bats, causing the Penguin to fall into the toxic waters of the Arctic exhibit. Catwoman confronts Max, rejecting Batman's plea to abandon her revenge and leave with him. Max shoots Batman, incapacitating him, and then shoots Catwoman multiple times, but she survives, claiming she has two of her nine lives left. Catwoman electrocutes Max with a live cable, causing a power surge that appears to kill them both; however, Batman finds only Max's remains. The Penguin emerges one last time but succumbs to his injuries, with his penguins carrying his body into the water. Sometime later, while traveling home, Bruce spots Selina's silhouette but finds only a cat, which he takes with him. The Bat-Signal shines above the city as Catwoman gazes up at it. Cast Michael Keaton as Bruce Wayne / Batman : A billionaire businessman who operates as Gotham's vigilante protector [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Danny DeVito as Oswald Cobblepot / Penguin : A malformed crime boss [ 6 ] Michelle Pfeiffer as Selina Kyle / Catwoman : A meek assistant turned vengeful villainess [ 6 ] [ 7 ] Christopher Walken as Max Shreck: A ruthless industrialist [ 6 ] [ 8 ] [ 9 ] Michael Gough as Alfred Pennyworth : Wayne's butler and surrogate father [ 10 ] Pat Hingle as James Gordon : The Gotham City police commissioner and Batman's ally [ 11 ] Michael Murphy as the Mayor: The city's incumbent mayor [ 5 ] [ 12 ] The cast of Batman Returns includes Andrew Bryniarski as Max's son Charles "Chip" Schreck and Cristi Conaway as the Ice Princess, Gotham's beauty queen-elect. [ 13 ] [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Paul Reubens and Diane Salinger appear as Tucker and Esther Cobblepot, Oswald's wealthy, elite parents. [ 16 ] Sean Whalen appears as a paperboy; [ 15 ] Jan Hooks and Steve Witting play Jen and Josh, Oswald's mayoral image consultants . [ 17 ] [ 18 ] [ 19 ] The Red Triangle gang includes the monkey-toting Organ Grinder ( Vincent Schiavelli ), the Poodle Lady ( Anna Katarina ), the Tattooed Strongman ( Rick Zumwalt ), the Sword Swallower (John Strong), the Knifethrower Dame (Erika Andersch), the Acrobatic Thug (Gregory Scott Cummins), the Terrifying Clown ( Branscombe Richmond ), the Fat Clown (Travis Mckenna), and the Thin Clown ( Doug Jones ). [ 15 ] [ 20 ] [ 21 ] Production Development Following the success of Batman (1989), which became the fifth-highest-grossing film of its time, a sequel was considered inevitable. Warner Bros. Pictures began discussing a follow-up by late 1989, with plans to start filming the next May. [ a ] The studio wanted Robin Williams and Danny DeVito to portray the Riddler and Penguin, respectively, [ 23 ] and invested $2 million in acquiring the Gotham City sets at Pinewood Studios in England, intending to reuse them for at least two sequels. The sets were placed under 24-hour surveillance, as maintaining them was more cost-effective than rebuilding. [ 23 ] Despite Warner Bros.' pressure to secure a script and begin production, director Tim Burton was hesitant to return. [ 23 ] [ 9 ] [ 25 ] He described the idea of a sequel as "dumbfounded", particularly before the first film's box-office performance could be assessed. [ 23 ] [ 25 ] [ 26 ] Burton was skeptical of sequels in general, believing they were only worthwhile if they offered something new and different. [ 23 ] [ 26 ] Batman writer Sam Hamm 's initial story treatment expanded on district attorney Harvey Dent —played by Billy Dee Williams in Batman —and charted his transformation into the supervillain Two-Face . Warner Bros., however, pushed for the Penguin as the primary antagonist, whom Hamm believed the studio regarded as Batman's most recognizable foe after the Joker . Catwoman was also added because Burton and Hamm were interested in the character. [ 25 ] Hamm's drafts followed directly from Batman , continuing Bruce Wayne's relationship with Vicki Vale ( Kim Basinger ) and leading to their engagement. [ 9 ] [ 25 ] His Penguin was depicted as an avian-themed criminal who weaponized birds, while Catwoman was portrayed as more overtly sexual, clad in " bondage " attire, and casually murdering groups of men. [ 25 ] The story paired Penguin and Catwoman in a plot to frame Batman for the murders of Gotham's wealthiest citizens while pursuing a hidden treasure, which ultimately drew them to Wayne Manor and uncovered the Wayne family's secret past. Hamm also introduced the Christmastime setting and included Robin , Batman's sidekick, though his idea of assault rifle -wielding Santas was discarded. In Hamm's drafts, Batman avoided killing and concentrated on protecting Gotham's homeless. [ 9 ] [ 25 ] Ultimately, his two scripts failed to reignite Burton's interest, [ 25 ] [ 26 ] and the director instead focused on Edward Scissorhands (1990) and co-writing The Nightmare Before Christmas (1993). [ 9 ] Burton was confirmed to direct the sequel in January 1991, with filming planned to begin later that year for a 1992 release. [ 27 ] His decision was influenced by the 1989 departure of Batman producers Peter Guber and Jon Peters to Columbia Pictures , as Burton had been frustrated by the level of creative control they exercised over the first film. [ 28 ] He agreed to return only after securing greater creative authority, later admitting that Batman was his least favorite of his films, describing it as "occasionally boring". [ 9 ] [ 25 ] [ 29 ] According to long-time collaborator Denise Di Novi , "Only about 50% of Batman was [Burton]", and Warner Bros. wanted Batman Returns to be "more of a Tim Burton movie ... [a] weirder movie but also more hip and fun". [ 29 ] Burton brought in several long-time collaborators to replace key members of the original Batman crew, including cinematographer Stefan Czapsky , production designer Bo Welch , creature-effects supervisor Stan Winston , makeup artist Ve Neill , and art directors Tom Duffield and Rick Henrichs. [ 30 ] He hired Daniel Waters to replace Hamm, preferring a writer with no emotional attachment to Batman . Burton admired Waters's script for the dark comedy Heathers (1988), which reflected the darker tone and creative direction he envisioned for the sequel. [ 25 ] [ 26 ] [ 29 ] Burton reportedly clashed with Peters, demoting him to executive producer and largely excluding him from the set. [ 9 ] Warner Bros. served as the production company and distributor, with additional support from executive producer Guber and Peters's Polygram Pictures . [ 31 ] [ 32 ] Writing Waters began work on his first draft in mid-1990. [ 33 ] Burton's only guidance was that the script should avoid connections to the previous Batman , aside from a brief reference to Vale as Wayne's former partner, and that Catwoman should be developed with more depth than the typical sexy vixen archetype. [ 22 ] [ 34 ] [ 35 ] Waters, who disliked the 1989 film, ignored its narrative threads and comic-book history, focusing instead on artistic expression. [ 25 ] [ 34 ] [ 35 ] Unlike Hamm, Waters did not object to Batman killing , arguing that the character should reflect darker contemporary sensibilities and that relying on authorities to handle captured villains felt outdated. [ 25 ] Even so, he limited Batman's lethal actions to moments that served the story. He also expressed dissatisfaction with unscripted additions, such as the scene where Batman blows up a Red Triangle gang member. [ 8 ] Keaton had Waters remove jabs at the 1989 film's merchandising, including an opening on a merchandise store, saying, "[This] is very clever. Cut it". [ 36 ] Waters's dialogue for Batman, which he described as "bitter and cynical"—including lines suggesting Gotham City was unworthy of protection—was pared back because Keaton felt Batman should speak as little as possible in costume, and Burton preferred to portray the character as motivated by trauma rather than nihilism . [ 8 ] [ 34 ] [ 37 ] As a result, the script focused on the villains . Burton said he initially struggled to understand the appeal of the Penguin's comic-book counterpart; Batman, Catwoman, and the Joker had clear psychological profiles, but the Penguin was "just this guy with a cigarette and a top hat". [ 25 ] The initial draft portrayed him as a stereotypical DeVito character—an abrasive gangster—but Waters and Burton agreed to make him more "animalistic". [ 33 ] They decided to present the Penguin as a tragic figure, abandoned as an infant by his parents, mirroring Batman's childhood trauma of losing his own parents. [ 25 ] Political and social satire was incorporated, influenced by two episodes of the 1960s television series Batman ("Hizzoner the Penguin" and "Dizhonner the Penguin"), in which the Penguin runs for mayor. [ 9 ] [ 25 ] Waters reimagined Hamm's Catwoman, shifting her from a "fetishy sexual fantasy" femme fatale to a working-class, disenchanted secretary, writing her as an allegory of contemporary feminism. [ 25 ] [ 26 ] Waters created Max Shreck—an original character named after actor Max Schreck —to replace Harvey Dent/Two-Face. [ 25 ] [ 26 ] Shreck was written satirically, an evil industrialist who orchestrates the Penguin's mayoral campaign, to show that true villains do not always wear costumes. In one draft, he was depicted as the Penguin's favored brother. [ 9 ] [ 25 ] With four central characters to develop, Waters and Burton removed Robin, a garage mechanic who aids Batman after the Penguin crashes the Batmobile, describing the character as "worthless". [ 25 ] [ 30 ] The Red Triangle gang, initially conceived as a troupe of performance artists, was changed to circus clowns at Burton's request. [ 38 ] Waters said his 160-page first draft was too outlandish and would have cost $400 million to produce, prompting him to adopt a more restrained approach. [ 33 ] His fifth and final draft focused on characterization and interactions rather than plot. [ b ] Burton and Waters eventually fell out over disagreements about the script, particularly Waters's refusal to make requested changes. Burton hired Wesley Strick to streamline Waters's lengthy script, condense dialogue, and lighten the tone. [ 37 ] Warner Bros. executives required Strick to include a master plan for the Penguin, leading to the addition of a plot involving the kidnapping of Gotham's first-born sons and the threat of missile attacks. [ 25 ] [ 34 ] [ 40 ] Strick delivered his draft in August 1991. [ 28 ] Waters described the changes as relatively minor but expressed confusion over the Penguin's master plan. [ 22 ] [ 34 ] [ 37 ] He made a final revision to Strick's shooting script, and although Strick was on set for months and involved in agreed-upon rewrites, Waters was the sole credited screenwriter. [ 22 ] [ 34 ] [ 41 ] Casting Michael Keaton reprised his role as Bruce Wayne / Batman for $10 million, double his salary for Batman . [ 25 ] [ 26 ] [ 42 ] Burton initially wanted Marlon Brando to play the Penguin, but Warner Bros. preferred Dustin Hoffman . Christopher Lloyd and Robert De Niro were also considered, with Danny DeVito emerging as the frontrunner after Waters reimagined the character as a deformed human-bird hybrid. [ 22 ] [ 26 ] [ 43 ] DeVito was initially hesitant to accept the role until persuaded by his close friend Jack Nicholson , who had portrayed the Joker in Batman . [ 26 ] [ 43 ] To communicate his vision, Burton showed DeVito a painting he had created of a small character sitting on a red-and-white striped ball, captioned: "my name is Jimmy, but my friends call me the hideous penguin boy". [ 8 ] [ 25 ] [ 40 ] Casting Selina Kyle / Catwoman proved challenging. [ 25 ] [ 40 ] Annette Bening was initially cast in the role but had to withdraw due to pregnancy. Other actresses considered included Ellen Barkin , Cher , Bridget Fonda , Jennifer Jason Leigh , Madonna , Julie Newmar , Lena Olin , Susan Sarandon , Raquel Welch , and Kim Basinger. The most notable contender was Sean Young , who had been cast as Vale in Batman before an injury prevented her from performing. [ c ] Young reportedly visited the Warner Bros. lot in a homemade Catwoman costume for an impromptu audition with Burton, who allegedly hid under his desk while Keaton and producer Mark Canton briefly met with her. She also showcased her costume on Entertainment Tonight and pitched it on The Joan Rivers Show . Warner Bros. ultimately decided that Young did not align with their vision for Catwoman. [ d ] The role went to Michelle Pfeiffer , who was regarded as a proven actress and someone who worked well with Burton, although some publications suggested the role would challenge her acting range. [ 8 ] [ 26 ] [ 44 ] Pfeiffer had also been considered for the role of Vale in Batman , but Keaton vetoed her casting due to their previous romantic relationship, believing her presence could interfere with attempts to reconcile with his wife. [ 47 ] She received a $3 million salary—$2 million more than Bening—plus a share of the film's gross profits. [ e ] Pfeiffer trained for several months in kickboxing with her stunt double, Kathy Long , mastering the whip and becoming skilled enough to perform many of her own stunts with it. [ f ] Shreck's appearance was modeled on Vincent Price in an unspecified older film, while Walken based his performance on moguls such as Sol Hurok and Samuel Goldwyn . [ 5 ] [ 8 ] Walken said, "I tend to play mostly villains and twisted people. Unsavory guys. I think it's my face, the way I look". [ 51 ] Burgess Meredith , who portrayed the Penguin in the 1960s TV series, was originally scheduled to cameo as Penguin's father, Tucker Cobblepot, but became ill during filming. He was replaced by Paul Reubens, while Diane Salinger played Tucker's wife, Esther. Both had previously appeared in Burton's feature-film debut, Pee-wee's Big Adventure (1985). [ 9 ] [ 26 ] [ 52 ] Although Robin was removed from the final screenplay, the character's development had progressed far enough that Marlon Wayans had already been cast (Burton had specifically wanted an African-American Robin), and costumes, sets, and action figures were created. In a 1998 interview, Wayans said that he continued to receive residual checks under the two-film contract he had signed. [ g ] Early reports suggested that Nicholson had been asked to return as the Joker, but he allegedly declined to film in England due to foreign salary taxes. Nicholson, however, denied being asked, believing that Warner Bros. would not want to replicate the generous compensation he had received for Batman . [ 54 ] [ 55 ] [ 56 ] Filming Principal photography began on September 3, 1991. [ 51 ] [ 52 ] [ 57 ] Burton wanted to film in the United States with American actors, believing that Batman , which had been shot in the United Kingdom, had "suffered from a British subtext". [ h ] Changes in the economics of filming in the UK also made it more cost-effective to remain in the U.S. [ 30 ] This decision required abandoning the Pinewood Studios sets in favor of Burton's new designs. Batman Returns was filmed almost entirely on up to eight soundstages at Warner Bros. Studios, Burbank , California, including Stage 16, which housed the expansive Gotham Plaza set. [ i ] Stage 12 at the Universal Studios Lot was used for the Penguin's Arctic-exhibit lair. [ j ] Warner Bros. maintained a high level of security to avoid details leaking for Batman Returns . Cast and crew wore ID badges branded with the film's working title , Dictel , a word coined by Welch and Burton meaning "dictatorial", as they were unhappy with the studio's "ridiculous gestapo " measures. [ 59 ] Some sets were kept very cold for the live Emperor , black-footed , and King penguins. [ 8 ] [ 22 ] [ 26 ] The birds were transported in a refrigerated airplane for filming, and housed in a chilled waiting area with a swimming pool stocked daily with half a ton of ice and fresh fish. [ 8 ] [ 26 ] DeVito stated that, although he generally enjoyed being on set, he disliked the cold conditions and was the only cast member somewhat comfortable due to the heavy padding in his costume. [ 8 ] The penguin army was created using live penguins supplemented by puppets, forty Emperor-penguin suits worn by little people, and computer-generated imagery (CGI). [ 8 ] [ 22 ] People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) protested the use of real penguins, citing concerns over moving the birds from their natural environment. While the organization later acknowledged that the penguins were not mistreated, it criticized the lack of fresh drinking water, noting they were confined to a small chlorinated pool. [ 22 ] [ 60 ] PETA also objected to the penguins being fitted with prop weapons and gadgets, which Warner Bros. stated were lightweight plastic. [ 61 ] Burton himself expressed a reluctance to use live animals, emphasizing his care and concern for their treatment. [ 62 ] Walken described the filming process as highly collaborative, recalling that his suggestion to add a blueprint for Shreck's power plant led to a model being constructed within hours. [ 8 ] The scene in which Catwoman places a live bird in her mouth was performed live, with no CGI, and Pfeiffer later remarked that she would not perform the stunt again, given the potential risks of injury or disease. [ 8 ] For a sewer scene, handlers positioned above and below guided an organ-grinder monkey carrying a note for the Penguin. When the monkey saw DeVito in full costume and makeup, it lunged at him. DeVito recalled, "The monkey looked at me, froze, and then leapt right at my balls ... Thank god it was a padded costume". [ 63 ] A scene depicting the explosion of Shreck's superstore resulted in minor injuries to four stuntmen. [ 22 ] Principal photography concluded on February 20, 1992, after 170 days. [ 22 ] Design and effects Batman Returns ' production design and visual style were reimagined by Bo Welch, replacing the late Anton Furst and bringing a darker, expressionist aesthetic after collaborating with Burton on Beetlejuice (1988) and Edward Scissorhands . [ 5 ] [ 26 ] [ 35 ] Welch designed key props such as the Batskiboat and Penguin's umbrellas, introduced a "Batmissile" mode for the Batmobile, and oversaw large-scale sets including Gotham Plaza and Penguin's lair. [ 35 ] [ 64 ] Influenced by German Expressionism —a 1920s cinematic style characterized by harsh shadows, distorted architecture, and psychological intensity—Welch also drew from neo-fascist architecture (including Nazi Germany-era styles ), American Precisionist painting, and street-level imagery of homelessness amid affluence. He employed miniatures and exaggerated verticality to evoke a decaying, alienating Gotham. [ 22 ] [ 35 ] [ 65 ] Welch, a trained architect, structured the city on a grid of strong vertical lines, emphasizing huge skyscrapers that transform streets into dark canyons to evoke a sense of victimization and oppression. [ 35 ] [ 66 ] He researched the look by studying fascist architecture from the Third Reich and world's fairs , styles he felt were "evocative of oppressive bureaucracies and dictatorships", to design the monolithic Gotham Plaza. [ 66 ] [ 67 ] Welch further drew upon Precisionism, a movement known for using hard outlines, solid shadows, and slick, impersonal surfaces to lend industrial subjects an epic character, citing the work of Charles Sheeler and Georgia O'Keeffe as specific influences. [ 66 ] He also incorporated Burton's early sketch of Catwoman, with a "very S&M kind of look", by integrating steel and chain elements into the set, creating the impression of a city collapsing in on itself. [ 35 ] [ 22 ] Costume designers Bob Ringwood and Mary Vogt updated the Batsuit with a mechanical look and created a fragile latex Catwoman suit requiring numerous backups. [ 22 ] [ 68 ] [ 69 ] DeVito's Penguin relied on extensive prosthetics by Stan Winston Studio , including black saliva for grotesque effect, and the team built thirty animatronic penguins supplemented with actors and digital effects. [ 70 ] [ 71 ] [ 22 ] Post-production was intense, with some effects shots conceived just weeks before the June 19, 1992 release. [ 72 ] The visual effects workload ultimately encompassed around 115 shots, employing matte paintings, miniatures, CGI, makeup, puppets, and pyrotechnics, handled by six major effects houses including Stan Winston Studio, Boss Film Studios , and Matte World Digital . [ 72 ] [ 31 ] Post-production Chris Lebenzon edited the 126-minute theatrical cut of Batman Returns . [ 7 ] [ 17 ] [ 73 ] The post-production period was rushed, forcing Burton to present a cut to studio executives only four weeks after filming wrapped—far shorter than his typical editing timelines. [ 74 ] The final scene of Catwoman looking up at the Bat-Signal was filmed during post-production, just two weeks before release. Warner Bros. mandated the scene—showing that Catwoman survived—after test audiences responded positively to Pfeiffer's performance. Pfeiffer was unavailable, so a stand-in was used. [ k ] Although the character draws on feline mythology—such as cats having nine lives—Waters and Burton never intended the supernatural elements to be taken literally, and Catwoman was planned to definitively die alongside Shreck. [ 8 ] [ 78 ] A scene showing Penguin's gang destroying a store filled with Batman merchandise was also removed. [ 25 ] Warner Bros. provided a final budget of $55 million for Batman Returns , though other sources have cited estimates of $50 million, $65 million, $75 million, or $80 million. [ l ] [ ii ] Music Danny Elfman was initially reluctant to score Batman Returns because he was unhappy that his Batman score was supplemented with pop music by Prince . [ 8 ] Elfman built on many of his Batman themes, and said that he enjoyed working on the Penguin's themes the most because of the character's sympathetic aspects, such as his abandonment and death. [ 8 ] [ 83 ] Recorded with a studio orchestra on the Sony Scoring Stage in Los Angeles, Elfman's score includes vocals, harps, bells, xylophones, flutes, pianos, and chimes. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] Burton and Elfman fell out during production due to the stress of finishing Batman Returns on time, but reconciled shortly afterward. [ 86 ] The song " Face to Face ", played during the costume-ball scene, was co-written and performed by the British rock band Siouxsie and the Banshees . [ 85 ] Release Context By the summer theatrical season of 1992 (starting the last week of May), the film industry faced low ticket sales, rising production costs, and several box-office failures from the previous year. [ 87 ] Eighty-nine films were scheduled for release, including A League of Their Own , Alien 3 , Encino Man , Far and Away , Patriot Games , and Sister Act . [ 24 ] [ 79 ] [ 87 ] Studios had to carefully plan releases to avoid competition from anticipated blockbusters, such as Lethal Weapon 3 , Batman Returns , and the 1992 Summer Olympics . [ 79 ] Batman Returns was predicted to be the summer's biggest hit, causing other studios to worry about scheduling films even a few weeks from its premiere. [ 79 ] [ 88 ] Paramount Pictures reportedly increased Patriot Games ' budget by $14 million to make it more competitive with Batman Returns and Lethal Weapon 3 . [ 79 ] [ 87 ] Marketing Franchising had not been a major focus for Batman prior to its release, but after merchandise generated roughly $500 million of the film's $1.5 billion total earnings, it became a priority for Batman Returns . [ 8 ] [ 9 ] [ 89 ] A 12-minute promotional reel debuted at WorldCon in September 1991, alongside a black-and-white poster of a silhouetted Batman, which was deemed "mundane" and uninspiring by industry professionals. [ 22 ] [ 65 ] Warner Bros. delayed major promotion until February 1992 to avoid over-saturation and alienating audiences. [ 65 ] [ 89 ] [ 90 ] A trailer rolled out in 5,000 theaters that month, accompanied by a new poster showing a snow-swept Batman logo. [ 22 ] [ 65 ] The campaign focused on the three central characters—Batman, Penguin, and Catwoman—which Warner Bros. believed would offset the absence of the popular Nicholson. [ 87 ] [ 90 ] Over two-thirds of the 300 public posters were stolen, prompting Warner Bros. to offer 200 limited-edition posters for $250, signed by Keaton, who donated his earnings to charity. [ 22 ] [ 90 ] [ 91 ] Marketing expenditures were expected to exceed $100 million, including $20 million by Warner Bros. for commercials and trailers and $60 million by merchandising partners. These partners—including McDonald's , Ralston Purina , Kmart , Target Corporation , Venture Stores , and Sears —planned roughly 300 in-store Batman shops. [ 22 ] [ 89 ] [ 90 ] McDonald's converted 9,000 outlets into Gotham City restaurants, featuring Batman-themed packaging and a cup lid that doubled as a flying disc. [ 89 ] CBS aired the television special The Bat, The Cat, The Penguin ... Batman Returns , while Choice Hotels sponsored the hour-long The Making of Batman Returns . [ 22 ] [ 89 ] TV ads depicted Batman and Catwoman fighting over a can of Diet Coke , with the Penguin (and his penguins) promoting Choice Hotels, and additional advertisements ran on billboards and in print—sometimes across three consecutive newspaper pages—targeting older audiences. [ 90 ] Box office Batman Returns premiered on June 16, 1992, at Grauman's Chinese Theatre in Hollywood. Two blocks of Hollywood Boulevard were closed for more than 3,000 fans, 33 TV film crews, and 100 photographers. A party followed on the Stage 16 Gotham Plaza set, attended by the cast and crew, as well as Arnold Schwarzenegger , Faye Dunaway , James Caan , Mickey Rooney , Harvey Keitel , Christian Slater , and James Woods , among others. [ 58 ] The film had a limited preview release in the U.S. and Canada on Thursday, June 18, grossing $2 million. [ 8 ] [ 24 ] [ 82 ] It expanded widely the following day, playing on an above-average 3,000 screens across 2,644 theaters. [ 8 ] [ 24 ] [ 92 ] Batman Returns grossed $45.7 million in its opening weekend, breaking the record set by Batman ($42.7 million), and debuted as the number-one film, topping Sister Act ($7.8 million in its fourth weekend) and Patriot Games ($7.7 million in its third). [ 24 ] [ 92 ] [ 93 ] Batman Returns was the first feature film released in Dolby Stereo Digital , in select theaters, marking a milestone in cinema audio technology that later became synonymous with surround sound in theaters. [ 94 ] [ 95 ] Early analysis suggested Batman Returns could become one of the highest-grossing films of all time. Warner Bros. executive Robert Friedman noted, "We opened it the first real weekend when kids are out of school. The audience is everybody, but the engine that drives the charge are kids under 20". [ 24 ] Patriot Games producer Mace Neufeld observed that other films benefited from overflow audiences who avoided long lines or sold-out screenings of Batman Returns . [ 24 ] Batman Returns grossed $25.4 million in its second weekend—a 44.3 percent drop—yet remained the number-one film ahead of the debuting Unlawful Entry ($10.1 million) and Sister Act ($7.2 million). [ 96 ] [ 97 ] By its third weekend, it became the second-fastest film to reach $100 million (11 days), behind Batman (10 days). [ 98 ] It held the top spot with $13.8 million (a 45.6 percent drop), narrowly edging out the debuts of A League of Their Own ($13.7 million) and Boomerang ($13.6 million). [ 97 ] [ 99 ] The Washington Post described its steep week-to-week declines as concerning, and industry analysts suggested that Batman Returns would struggle to match the theatrical longevity of Batman . [ 97 ] [ 22 ] The film exited the top ten highest-grossing films by its seventh week and concluded its 18-week run in late October with a total U.S. and Canada gross of $162.8 million. [ 100 ] [ 101 ] This made it the third-highest-grossing film of 1992, behind Home Alone 2: Lost in New York ($173.6 million) and Aladdin ($217.3 million). [ 102 ] Outside the U.S. and Canada, Batman Returns grossed $104 million, [ 103 ] setting U.K. records for the highest-grossing opening weekend (£2.5 million) and single-day gross (£1.1 million). [ 97 ] [ 104 ] [ 105 ] Worldwide, Batman Returns grossed $266.8 million, [ iii ] making it the sixth-highest-grossing film of 1992, ahead of A Few Good Men ($243.2 million) and behind Lethal Weapon 3 ($321.7 million). [ 103 ] Reception Critical response Batman Returns drew a polarized response from critics and audiences, with its darker tone and mature content proving divisive. [ 5 ] [ 22 ] [ 106 ] CinemaScore polling reported an average grade from audiences of B on an A+-to-F scale. [ 107 ] Some reviewers, including Janet Maslin and Desson Howe , compared the sequel favorably to Batman , citing faster pacing, increased humor, and greater character depth, which avoided the original's "dourness" and "tedium". [ m ] Maslin and Dave Kehr emphasized that Burton's creative control made Batman Returns a more personal and "fearlessly" distinctive work. [ 109 ] [ 112 ] Critics such as Kenneth Turan commended the film's visuals but argued that the emphasis on spectacle sometimes made it feel cheerless and claustrophobic, occasionally at the expense of the plot. [ 7 ] [ 81 ] [ 111 ] Owen Gleiberman suggested that Burton's imaginative flourishes were undermined by a lack of grounding in normality. [ 7 ] The narrative received mixed reactions. Howe and Turan praised the film for adding emotional depth to its characters, particularly Catwoman and the Penguin, though Turan noted a lag in pacing midway. [ 108 ] [ 81 ] In contrast, Todd McCarthy found the story cluttered, with too many plotlines diminishing momentum. [ 110 ] Gleiberman similarly argued that the numerous storylines created a sense of disjointedness. [ 7 ] Critics generally agreed that the first two acts were more compelling than the finale, which they believed struggled to resolve multiple character arcs satisfactorily. [ 108 ] [ 81 ] [ 110 ] Others, including Jonathan Rosenbaum , believed the film lacked suspense and clever writing, overwhelmed by characters and near-constant banter. [ 12 ] [ 113 ] [ 114 ] Maslin observed that Burton prioritized visuals over plot. [ 109 ] Gene Siskel argued that the sympathetic villains diminished narrative satisfaction, leaving viewers wishing Batman might not prevail. [ 115 ] Critics noted that the film devoted more attention to its villains than to Batman himself. [ 12 ] [ 81 ] [ 116 ] Gleiberman remarked that the villain sequences often overshadowed Keaton's performance. [ 7 ] McCarthy described Batman as a symbolic figure rather than a psychologically complex character, while Ebert viewed being Batman as a curse rather than a heroic fantasy. [ 12 ] [ 110 ] [ 116 ] Conversely, Peter Travers praised Keaton's "manic depressive hero" as a fully realized character. [ 117 ] DeVito was acclaimed by Gleiberman, McCarthy, and Maslin for his energetic and distinctive portrayal, effectively conveying pathos and complexity despite heavy prosthetics. [ 7 ] [ 109 ] [ 110 ] Howe highlighted Burton's focus on the character as indicative of directorial sympathy, [ 108 ] while Maslin and Caryn James praised DeVito's charm, making the Penguin a compelling and memorable presence. [ 109 ] [ 116 ] McCarthy and Travers described him as fascinating and humorously warped. [ 110 ] [ 117 ] Turan and Rosenbaum, however, felt he did not evoke the same fear or energy as Nicholson's Joker. [ 12 ] [ 81 ] [ 113 ] Turan, Kehr, and Maslin praised Pfeiffer for her passionate, intelligent, and fiercely independent performance, providing energy and levity amid the film's dark tone. [ 81 ] [ 109 ] [ 112 ] Rosenbaum felt she did not match Nicholson's villainy, [ 113 ] though Turan called the Batman–Catwoman scenes the most interesting. [ 81 ] Travers noted that when the characters remove their masks, they appear "lost and touchingly human," and Ty Burr described the ballroom scene as more emotionally resonant than anything in Batman . [ 117 ] [ 111 ] Ebert observed that their sexual tension seemed muted for a younger audience. [ 12 ] [ 81 ] Walken's performance was praised for its combination of charm, wit, and understated authority. Maslin emphasized Walken's debonair and engaging performance as one of the film's highlights, while McCarthy noted his understated, composed delivery. Travers also remarked on his clever and amusing take on the character, describing him as a "fiendishly funny" presence. [ 109 ] [ 110 ] [ 117 ] Bo Welch's production design received acclaim for creating a sleeker, brighter, and more authoritarian Gotham than Furst's "brooding" style. [ 81 ] [ 112 ] [ 118 ] McCarthy lauded Welch's realization of Burton's vision, though Siskel dismissed it as "toy shop window decorating" compared to Furst. [ 110 ] [ 115 ] Costume and makeup design were praised, with Maslin noting their lingering visual impact. [ 108 ] [ 109 ] [ 119 ] Stefan Czapsky's cinematography was well received, lending a "lively" quality to the subterranean sets. [ 109 ] Accolades At the 46th British Academy Film Awards , Batman Returns was nominated for Best Makeup (Ve Neill and Stan Winston) and Best Special Visual Effects (Michael Fink, Craig Barron, John Bruno, and Dennis Skotak). [ 120 ] For the 65th Academy Awards , Batman Returns received two nomations: Best Makeup (Neill, Ronnie Specter, and Winston) and Best Visual Effects (Fink, Barron, Bruno, and Skotak). [ 121 ] Neill and Winston received the Best Make-up award at the 19th Saturn Awards . The film received four other Saturn Award nominations for Best Fantasy Film , Best Supporting Actor (DeVito), Best Director (Burton), and Best Costume Design (Bob Ringwood, Mary Vogt, and Vin Burnham ). [ 122 ] DeVito was nominated for Worst Supporting Actor at the 13th Golden Raspberry Awards , and Pfeiffer for Most Desirable Female at the 1993 MTV Movie Awards . [ 123 ] [ 124 ] Batman Returns was nominated for a Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation. [ 125 ] After release Performance analysis and aftermath The U.S. and Canadian box office underperformed in 1992, with admissions down by up to five percent and about 290 million tickets sold (compared to over 300 million in each of the preceding four years). Industry professionals attributed the decline to a combination of uninspired films, rising ticket prices, competition from the Olympics, and an economic recession . Even financially successful films experienced steep week-to-week drops, particularly among younger audiences, who were vital to box office success. [ 126 ] Despite these challenges, Batman Returns and Lethal Weapon 3 gave Warner Bros. the most profitable first half-year in its history, with the studio expecting returns over $200 million . [ 98 ] However, Batman Returns fell $114.8 million short of Batman ' s $411.6 million gross, and was considered a disappointment as a sequel to the fifth-highest-grossing film of its time. [ 42 ] [ 127 ] [ 128 ] By July 1992, anonymous Warner Bros. executives reportedly said about the film, "It's too dark. It's not a lot of fun". [ 5 ] Although it carried a PG-13 rating —warning that it may contain content unsuitable for children—Warner Bros. received thousands of complaint letters from parents who objected to the film's violent and sexualized content. [ 8 ] [ 42 ] [ 126 ] Waters recalled one screening where "It's like kids crying, people acting like they've been punched in the stomach and like they've been mugged". [ 5 ] He anticipated some backlash but admitted that certain elements may have gone too far. [ 129 ] Burton later said that he preferred Batman Returns to Batman and did not view it as darker. [ 130 ] Sam Hamm defended Burton and Waters, stating that, aside from merchandising, the film had never been intended as child-friendly. [ 129 ] McDonald's was also criticized for its child-centered promotion and toy tie-ins. [ n ] The company subsequently changed its practices, requiring extended previews of films before agreeing to promotional partnerships. [ 132 ] Warner Bros.' hopes that the film might mirror Batman ' s lucrative merchandising campaign were similarly undercut, as demand for licensed products proved far weaker than in 1989. A JCPenney representative reported that only about one-third of stock had sold, with the remainder discounted, while another store described sales as barely a tenth of Batman ' s. [ 132 ] In light of the backlash and merchandising decline, Warner Bros. chose to continue the series without Burton, whom they considered "too dark and odd for them", and hired Joel Schumacher to direct the next installment. [ 42 ] A rival studio executive remarked, "If you bring back Burton and Keaton, you're stuck with their vision. You can't expect Honey, I Shrunk the Batman ", referencing the family-friendly Honey, I Shrunk the Kids (1989). [ 131 ] Around the same time, executive producers Benjamin Melniker and Michael Uslan sued Warner Bros., alleging that the studio had denied them their share of profits from Batman and Batman Returns through Hollywood accounting practices—artificially inflating a film's production costs to make it appear unprofitable and limit payouts. A court ruled in Warner Bros.' favor, citing insufficient evidence. [ 133 ] [ 134 ] Home media Batman Returns was released on VHS and LaserDisc on October 21, 1992. [ 22 ] [ 135 ] [ 136 ] The VHS carried a lower-than-average price to encourage sales and rentals. Although the film was expected to sell millions of copies and perform strongly as a rental, commentators suggested its darker tone would limit appeal among children, the demographic most responsible for driving home-video sales. [ 135 ] Danny Elfman's score was issued on compact disc in 1992, with an expanded edition released in 2010. [ 85 ] The film was first released on DVD in 1997, without additional features. [ 137 ] [ 138 ] In October 2005, Warner Bros. issued an anthology DVD box set containing all four films in the Burton–Schumacher Batman series. The Batman Returns disc included a commentary by Burton, the making-of featurette The Bat, The Cat, and The Penguin , the fourth part of the documentary Shadows of the Bat: The Cinematic Saga of the Dark Knight , featurettes on costumes, make-up, and special effects, and the music video for Face to Face . [ 139 ] The anthology set was reissued on Blu-ray in 2009, alongside a standalone Blu-ray edition of Batman Returns . [ 137 ] [ 140 ] A 4K Ultra HD Blu-ray edition, restored from the original 35mm negative, was released in 2019 with previously available special features. [ 141 ] [ 142 ] A 4K collector's edition followed in 2022, packaged in a SteelBook case with original cover art, character cards, a double-sided poster, and the earlier supplements. [ 143 ] Other media About 120 products were marketed with Batman Returns , including action figures and toys by Kenner Products , Catwoman-themed clothing, toothbrushes, roller skates, T-shirts, underwear, sunglasses, towels, beanbags, mugs, weightlifting gloves, throw pillows, cookie cutters, commemorative coins, playing cards, costume jewelry, cereal, a radio-controlled Batmobile, and even tortilla chips shaped like the Batman logo. [ 22 ] [ 89 ] [ 90 ] Although a similar number of products had been marketed for Batman (1989), Warner Bros. used fewer licensees this time to allow greater oversight. To combat counterfeiting, holographic labels developed by American Bank Note Holographics were attached to licensed merchandise. [ 89 ] [ 90 ] The concurrent release of Batman: The Animated Series later in 1992 was expected to extend merchandising success beyond the film's theatrical run. [ 89 ] Other tie-ins included a novelization by Craig Shaw Gardner , published in July 1992, [ 144 ] [ 145 ] and the roller coaster Batman: The Ride at Six Flags Great America , built at a cost of $8 million and later replicated at additional Six Flags parks alongside a Batman stunt show. [ 22 ] [ 89 ] Several video-game adaptations titled Batman Returns were released across nearly all available platforms; [ 146 ] [ 147 ] [ 148 ] the Super Nintendo Entertainment System version was the most successful. [ 149 ] The film's legacy continued in later media. To celebrate the Penguin's 80th anniversary, DeVito wrote the 2021 comic story "Bird Cat Love", in which Penguin and Catwoman fall in love and end the COVID-19 pandemic . [ 150 ] [ 151 ] In 2022, DC Comics launched Batman '89 , a series written by Sam Hamm with art by Joe Quinones, which continues the Burton continuity, following up on Batman Returns by depicting Harvey Dent's transformation into Two-Face and introducing Robin. [ 152 ] The Red Triangle Gang made their first appearance outside the film in Robin #15 (2022). [ 153 ] [ 154 ] That same year, a holiday tie-in book was released, Batman Returns: One Dark Christmas Eve: The Illustrated Holiday Classic , by Ivan Cohen. [ 155 ] In 2023, LEGO released a near 4,000-piece Batcave set inspired by Batman Returns . [ 156 ] Thematic analysis Duality and fragmented identity Critic David Crow identifies duality as a central motif in Batman Returns , noting that Catwoman, Penguin, and Shreck each reflect warped aspects of Batman. [ 157 ] [ 25 ] [ 114 ] English and American studies professor Carol Siegel contends that the film is a neo-gothic fairy tale exploring bodily transformation and fragmented identity, often through the lens of rage against oppressive social structures. [ 158 ] Siegel argues that the film is unique within the Batman mythos because it is "more concerned with Bruce Wayne than his alter ego", resulting in an "almost complete abandonment of the action-adventure aspect of the comic tradition". [ 159 ] The divided selves of Bruce and Selina are central to the narrative, and themes of fractured identity are especially evident in Catwoman's transformation. [ 159 ] [ 160 ] According to author Simon Born, the dual identities constrain both characters, and their fleeting recognition at the masquerade ball is undermined by what he terms their "advanced schizophrenia". [ 161 ] Like Bruce, Selina is driven by trauma and inner conflict; unlike Batman, who seeks justice, she seeks vengeance. [ 6 ] [ 112 ] Although Catwoman acknowledges Batman's assertion that they are "the same, split right down the center", their differences prevent reconciliation. [ 25 ] Critics Darren Mooney and Betsy Sharkey argue that Penguin mirrors Batman's origin, as both lost their parents at an early age. Shreck even notes that, if not for his abandonment, Oswald Cobblepot and Bruce Wayne might have shared social circles. While Batman accepts his solitude, the Penguin craves acceptance, love, and respect, despite his destructive impulses. [ 5 ] [ 35 ] Mooney suggests Batman's conflicts with Penguin are personal rather than moral: Batman, quietly proud of being a "freak", resents the Penguin for mirroring his own abnormality. [ 5 ] Shreck, meanwhile, embodies Bruce's public persona taken to extremes—an industrialist whose greed and populism are masked by cheap gestures toward the public. [ 25 ] Born describes Batman Returns as a highly stylized neo-gothic work in which identity, social critique, and psychological trauma are externalized through an opulent design. [ 157 ] He refers to Gotham as an "insurrection of signs", where established symbols are inverted and notions of good and evil destabilized. [ 162 ] Born further argues that Batman has lost his personal identity to his alter ego: "Bruce Wayne is the mask of Batman". Batman uses this monstrous persona to shield himself from the world. Born notes that the hero's violence is depicted with a "casualness and malice" that is intended to unsettle the audience. [ 160 ] This portrayal implies that Batman is not far removed from the "relentless methods" of the fascistic powers he once opposed in earlier comics. [ 163 ] The carnivalesque and social critique Writer Catherine Mettler describes Batman Returns as a cinematic application of Mikhail Bakhtin 's theory of the carnivalesque , which posits that carnival can invert existing power hierarchies and enable popular renewal. Burton's work is characterized by elements that are "exuberantly colorful, gay, hallucinogenic, childlike, and chaotic", which he applies to films such as Pee-wee's Big Adventure (1985) and Charlie and the Chocolate Factory (2005). [ 164 ] The Penguin is a key embodiment of the carnivalesque, particularly through the concept of the grotesque body. [ 165 ] Mettler highlights his deformed physicality and excessive appetites as representations of the "unbounded" and "materially linked" body of the common people. [ 165 ] His sewer lair is described as a circus, further emphasizing the visual chaos of his character. [ 166 ] Living among the city's waste, the Penguin's existence underscores the stark divide between the elite and the masses he represents. [ 167 ] As the "least obvious carnivalesque character," Catwoman embodies the theme on a personal level. [ 168 ] Her transformation aligns with Bakhtin's notion of a carnival spirit that liberates a person from "conventions and established truths" and offers entry into "a completely new order of things". [ 168 ] Selina, a victim of a "sexist macho society", is pushed out a window by her boss. [ 169 ] Born argues that Selina empowers herself by adapting the 'symbol of her oppression—the cat—' and reframing it as a 'furious panther' in opposition to the chauvinistic business world. [ 160 ] Her rebellion reflects post-feminist theories linking sexuality, power, and identity. [ 160 ] However, Born argues that her struggle against masculine authority ultimately fails, as her autonomy is continually challenged by male characters, reflecting Hollywood's patriarchal system. [ 160 ] Sexuality and repression Batman Returns is noted for its exploration of sexuality, particularly the relationship between Batman and Catwoman, with critics often citing its S&M undertones and the use of leather fetish suits. [ 170 ] Siegel described the film as an "S&M art film" marketed as a children's summer blockbuster. [ 171 ] She argues that the film's exploration of fetishism, perversity, and eroticism is central to its neo-gothic themes. [ 158 ] According to Siegel, a central theme in Burton's work, including Batman Returns , is the "shared exhilaration and anxiety concerning bodily transformation". [ 172 ] This is most evident in Catwoman, whose transformation is marked by prominent stitches on her homemade patent-leather suit. [ 173 ] These stitches are both literal and symbolic, testifying to her reanimation after her death and revival by alley cats. [ 172 ] Siegel posits that the act of sewing her own suit functions as an ironic mimicry of the oppressive feminine social roles that had previously terrorized her. [ 174 ] Siegel suggests that their consensual S&M-coded relationship is mitigated by their heroic actions, which allow them to channel "both their rage and their perverse desires into their ongoing fight against destructive evil". [ 175 ] She contends this portrayal suggests that S&M can be regarded as "nearly wholesome so long as it is manifested with control and proper purpose". [ 175 ] Other critics interpret Batman and Catwoman's attraction less as sexual perversity and more as a "romance between two schizophrenics," rooted in shared anger and emotional wounds. [ 175 ] Critic Tom Breihan described Catwoman's vinyl catsuit as "pure BDSM ", complete with the whip she wields as a weapon. [ 25 ] [ 176 ] In the climax, she rejects Batman's offer of a happy ending and abandoning her revenge against Shreck; accepting Batman's will would mean allowing another man to control her. [ 25 ] Selina's arc from timid secretary to dominant Catwoman represents liberation from social conventions and established truths. [ 168 ] For Siegel, her stitched-together "Frankensteinean" catsuit is an artistic embodiment of her rage against patriarchal and repressive roles that once defined her. [ 177 ] Her story is one of personal empowerment against male hegemony, culminating in her showdown with Shreck. [ 178 ] Catwoman's overt embrace of sexuality contrasts with Batman's repression, presenting sexuality as dangerous, destabilizing, and incompatible with their vigilante roles. [ 179 ] Her sexuality functions both as empowerment and as a threat to patriarchal structures embodied by Shreck, Batman, and Penguin. [ 179 ] Alongside Catwoman's sexualized persona, Batman Returns continues a tradition in Batman media in which the hero's power stems from sublimating sexuality into violence. [ 179 ] Criminal justice scholar Graeme Newman said that, historically, Batman has been portrayed as asexual, reinforcing his obsessive focus on crime-fighting and echoing a moral stance that renounces "the medieval evil itself: sex". [ 180 ] His "tremendous force" of sexuality is redirected into "unrestrained lust: violence", presenting a distinctly male response to desire. [ 181 ] In Batman , his sexual encounter with Vicki Vale leaves him restless and disturbed, suggesting intimacy conflicts with his crime-fighting obsession. [ 182 ] The avoidance of homosexual themes—such as omitting Robin from the film or killing him in comics—was partly driven by fears that such portrayals would "contradict and divert attention away from the single-minded pursuit of justice". [ 182 ] The dynamic between Batman and Catwoman underscores this tension; both recognize that if they were to be together, they would no longer need to pursue their respective justice obsessions. [ 181 ] Mettler notes that while Catwoman achieves independence from social constraints and male control, she never achieves sexual liberation, observing that despite their attraction, she and Batman never consummate their relationship. [ 183 ] Film analyst Arthur Taussig argues that Catwoman's final decision in Batman Returns to reject the heroic Batman and choose "total freedom, total independence from all men" is a "revolutionary statement" and a "political breakthrough for popular cinema," as it subverts the traditional Hollywood formula of female characters finding fulfillment only through a male partner. [ 184 ] Power, politics, and ideology These tensions between sexuality and repression feed directly into the film's broader exploration of power and ideology, most clearly embodied in the Penguin's mayoral campaign, which Shreck masterminds. [ 111 ] [ 112 ] Selina gains agency by donning the Catwoman costume and embracing her anger and sexuality. [ 111 ] [ 112 ] By contrast, according to Newman, Batman sublimates sexuality into violence, aligning him with a conservative ideology: order requires the denial of personal desire, and strength must be expressed through "good violence" in service of justice. [ 185 ] The film's political themes are interwoven with the machinations of Shreck, a figure who wields wealth to secure influence, declaring, "There's no such thing as too much power; if my life has a meaning that's the meaning". [ 25 ] Born argues that Shreck is arguably the film's only purely evil character; he is more frightening than the "freaks and monsters" because he operates "behind a façade of normalcy" while manipulating, corrupting, and killing others. Born contends that Burton's work suggests the true source of fear is not "the Other" (the outsider) but the "ordinary". [ 186 ] He further explains that Burton portrays the film's "freaks and monsters" as victimized individuals: the Penguin, abandoned by wealthy parents, lashes out at the consumer society that rejected him; Catwoman emerges from a chauvinistic world; and even Batman is a "traumatized individual". [ 187 ] Born concludes that the film ultimately destabilizes the binaries of good and evil, framing them as subjective narrative constructs. [ 188 ] Shreck convinces Penguin to run for mayor to advance his own interests, while Penguin seeks the legitimacy and respect that recognition would bring, echoing Catwoman's struggle. [ 116 ] [ 189 ] Critic Caryn James observed that Batman Returns delivers "sharp political jabs", suggesting that money and image matter more than substance. [ 116 ] Whereas the Joker in Batman won support by throwing money into the crowd, Shreck and Penguin rely on spectacle, pandering, and corporate showmanship. Penguin notes that both he and Shreck are monsters, but only Shreck is "well-respected". James remarked that Penguin does not seek to become lovable, only accepted. [ 9 ] [ 25 ] [ 116 ] When voters turn on him, he retaliates with a plan to kill infants, symbols of the opportunities he never had. Critic John Crow argued that Burton shows greatest sympathy for Penguin, devoting more screen time to his development. [ 25 ] The narrative aligns with Newman's interpretation of the film as delivering a "deeply conservative message". [ 185 ] The ineffectual liberal mayor is outmaneuvered by Shreck, the "evil capitalist", while Gotham's "fickle masses" nearly elect Penguin. [ 185 ] In this reading, "the moral weakness of liberalism is eclipsed by the moral strength of evil", leaving Batman's "good violence" as the only force capable of restoring order. [ 185 ] The interplay of sexuality and politics completes this logic: Catwoman's sexuality threatens male control, Batman's repression channels desire into violence, and Gotham's citizens, manipulated by spectacle, require a morally certain, if brutal, hero to save them from themselves. [ 190 ] These artistic and political strands are closely tied to Burton's personal rebellious impulses. He admitted a desire to vent anger "on such a grand scale," claiming he was "pretty much against society from the beginning". [ 191 ] This resistance to class hierarchy and patriarchy recurs throughout his work. [ 191 ] Christmas, capitalism, and cultural critique Crow and Mooney saw Batman Returns as a critique of Batman's real-world cultural popularity and merchandising, particularly following the success of the previous film. Notably, a scene of a store filled with Batman merchandise being destroyed was removed from the final cut. [ 25 ] The film is "saturated with Christmas energy", but rejects conventional holiday norms to function as an anti- Christmas film that critiques commercialism and the absence of true goodwill. Shreck cynically exploits Christmas tropes, falsely portraying himself as selfless and benevolent, while the perversions of Penguin's Red Triangle gang represent a more overt rejection of the holiday. [ 5 ] [ 25 ] Born describes Christmas as a central motif in the film, but it is portrayed as a symbol of "commercial mass deception" and the "tyranny of department stores". [ 162 ] Both Penguin and Catwoman use the festive season to challenge Gotham's established power structures with carnivalesque traits. [ 192 ] Gotham City is dominated by Shreck. [ 193 ] Shreck embodies ruthless capitalism concealed behind the "friendly face of a cartoon animal", a subtle critique by Burton of his own experiences with corporate entities like The Walt Disney Company . [ 193 ] Batman Returns has been described as a neo-gothic fairy tale that is "more Burton than Batman". [ 194 ] Its content was deemed unsuitable for young children, prompting backlash from parents and critics. [ 132 ] An editorial in The New York Times warned that the film was "violent, sexually suggestive", featuring scenes where "kids are abandoned, kidnapped, and threatened with death". [ 132 ] The film includes racy dialogue, such as "just the pussy I've been looking for" and "I'd like to fill her void", which angered many parents. This controversy extended to merchandising, with McDonald's receiving numerous complaints about licensed toys and promotional items tied to the film. The resulting outcry over the film's tone and violence highlighted a clash between its dark themes and its marketing to a younger audience. [ 132 ] The film emphasizes loneliness and isolation during Christmastime: Bruce is first shown sitting alone in his vast mansion, inert until the Bat-Signal shines in the sky. While he forms a connection with Kyle, their differences remain insurmountable, and he ends the film as he began it; alone. [ 5 ] Critic Todd McCarthy noted that isolation is a recurring theme in much of Burton's work, emphasized in the film's three main characters. [ 110 ] Some contemporary critics argue that while the film is not explicitly antisemitic , it utilizes visual and thematic elements associated with historical Jewish stereotypes. [ 195 ] They suggest the Penguin embodies traits such as a "hooked nose, pale face and lust for herring" and is "unathletic and seemingly unthreatening but who, in fact, wants to murder every firstborn child of the gentile community". [ 195 ] The character teams with Shreck (a name the critics describe as 'Jewish-sounding') to disrupt Christmas and Christian traditions. [ 195 ] According to LAist , the Penguin's exaggerated caricature, assault on holiday customs, and overt biblical symbolism create a "perfect storm" of imagery evoking antisemitic tropes. [ 196 ] These critics contend that Burton, in drawing inspiration from the German Expressionist aesthetic, unintentionally referenced a problematic lineage, as some art critics view the Nosferatu (1922) character Count Orlok (portrayed by actor Max Shreck) as an example of a bizarre and monstrous characterization of Jews as the predatory, parasitic "other". [ 195 ] [ 196 ] [ 193 ] Conversely, Melvin Salberg and Abraham H. Foxman of the Anti-Defamation League argued that reading the film as antisemitic is a misinterpretation that overlooks the filmmakers' intent and distracts from real-world antisemitism. [ 197 ] Furthermore, Taussig noted the biblical resonance of the Penguin's infancy, with a baby carriage floating in a river recalling the story of Moses . [ 184 ] Visual effects supervisor Robert Skotak explained that the sequence was conceived as a visual descent into the underworld, portraying a sinister baptism, symbolically paralleling the biblical narrative. [ 198 ] Legacy Retrospective reception Despite a mixed initial reception from critics and audiences, Batman Returns has undergone a critical reappraisal in the years since its release and is now considered a classic of the superhero genre. Several publications, such as Variety and The Hollywood Reporter , now rank it among the best Batman and superhero films, with some calling it "the greatest Batman movie ever made". [ o ] The film is seen as "underrated" and a "series peaking early," with subsequent films failing to live up to its vision. [ 9 ] [ 201 ] Burton's artistic choices, which were criticized at the time, are now seen as prescient and ahead of their time. [ 9 ] The "darker" and more "bleak" aspects of the film have been re-evaluated in the wake of later, more serious superhero films. Burton noted the irony of the film being deemed 'too dark,' given that later films—including The Dark Knight trilogy (2005–2012) and The Batman (2022)—went even darker. [ p ] Burton said that while Batman Returns was seen by some as bleak, for him it was a mixture of gothic, playful, kinky, and experimental tones. [ 202 ] The Hollywood Reporter notes that the film was "truer to Tim Burton's dark vision than its predecessor". [ 205 ] [ 203 ] According to The Ringer , the very "fatalistic and noir elements" that Roger Ebert criticized in 1992 are now "the going currency of event movies". [ 9 ] Critic Brian Tallerico said that the elements which originally upset critics and audiences are what makes it still "revelatory... It's one of the best and strangest movies of its kind ever made". [ 141 ] Writer Daniel Waters recalled being told that Batman Returns was a "great movie for people who don't like Batman". [ 34 ] [ 206 ] While the film received criticism for its depiction of Batman killing, Waters defended the choice, arguing that in a film like The Dark Knight (2008), it was not practical for Batman to let the Joker live, knowing he could escape and cause more harm. [ 8 ] [ 25 ] He believed that the reception to Batman Returns was improving with time, especially after the release of The Batman . [ 34 ] Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes has an 82% approval rating from reviews by 93 critics, with an average score of 6.9/10. According to the website's critical consensus, "Director Tim Burton's dark, brooding atmosphere, Michael Keaton's work as the tormented hero, and the flawless casting of Danny DeVito as The Penguin and Christopher Walken as, well, Christopher Walken make the sequel better than the first". [ 207 ] The film has a score of 68 out of 100 on Metacritic (based on 23 critics), indicating "generally favorable" reviews. [ 208 ] Cultural influence The film is widely regarded as an exemplar of the superhero genre's potential for artistic expression. Variety credits the film with helping to legitimize the genre by pairing Keaton's Batman with Burton's distinct and vivid world-building. [ 199 ] The Burton Batman films are also credited with establishing the darker, more serious tone that would later define the modern superhero genre of the early 21st century. [ 94 ] Publications like Empire and Polygon describe the film as a deeply personal and "unmistakably Burton" work, infused with the same gothic and satirical sensibilities as his earlier films like Beetlejuice and Edward Scissorhands . [ 77 ] [ 202 ] This approach made the film a "bold, auteur-driven detour" in Batman's cinematic history, contrasting sharply with the camp of the 1960s and the later, more grounded style of The Dark Knight trilogy. [ 202 ] Author Jeff Bond called Batman Returns the "first auteur superhero movie" because it allowed Burton to make a film that was his "weird experiment" rather than a strict adaptation. [ 95 ] [ 202 ] This willingness to ignore traditional comic book elements and sequel hooks in favor of his unique vision helped pave the way for other creative directors, such as Christopher Nolan , Peter Jackson , and Sam Raimi , to helm major franchises. [ 9 ] [ 77 ] Director of The Batman Matt Reeves and that film's star Robert Pattinson both called Batman Returns their favorite Batman film. [ 209 ] [ 210 ] Additionally, director Robert Eggers said that it visually inspired his film Nosferatu (2024). [ 211 ] Pfeiffer's portrayal of Catwoman is widely regarded as a definitive big-screen interpretation of the character, praised not only for her iconic costume but for a performance that brought a unique blend of sexuality, danger, outrageousness, and pathos to the role. [ q ] Burton called it one of his favorite performances he has ever worked on. [ 212 ] While initially hailed as the film's "bright spot" amid a mixed critical reception, the performance is now considered one of the greatest in the superhero genre, credited with taking a comic book character and turning her into a complex, contradictory figure that served as a commentary on the portrayal of women in genre fiction. [ r ] The role is seen as a "career-making" one that helped audiences forget previous portrayals and cemented Pfeiffer's as the "definitive big-screen Catwoman". [ 8 ] [ 199 ] [ 205 ] Variety argued that Pfeiffer deserved an Academy Award nomination for her performance, and set a benchmark for future portrayals. [ s ] Burton recalled that by the time of Batman Returns , studios had begun to talk in terms of "franchises" and marketing, concepts that were still relatively new during production of the 1989 film. The Hollywood Reporter notes that while Batman launched the modern superhero movie, Batman Returns marked a more complex stage in that evolution. With its darker tone, bold characterizations, and extensive marketing tie-ins, the film helped pave the way for the genre's later dominance, even if Burton's approach made that progression a more uneven one. [ 8 ] The film's tone and clash with corporate partners like McDonald's, which objected to darker content, prompted Warner Bros. to pivot to the more lighthearted and "campy" style of the Joel Schumacher films. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] While this was an attempt to create films with more broad, family-friendly appeal, The Ringer wrote that the Schumacher films are now seen as "borderline unwatchable", while Batman Returns is seen as a superior and more enduring cinematic work. [ 9 ] [ 224 ] In January 2017, one of the iconic Batsuits worn by Keaton in the film sold at auction for $41,250. [ 225 ] Although a summer blockbuster upon its release, Batman Returns has become a holiday film staple due to its winter setting and Christmas iconography. Several publications have listed it among the best alternative Christmas films, noting its themes of loneliness and isolation. [ t ] It is also identified as the centerpiece of Burton's unofficial Christmas trilogy, bookended by Edward Scissorhands and The Nightmare Before Christmas . [ 5 ] [ 9 ] Sequels Following the reception of Batman Returns , Warner Bros. sought to continue the series without Burton. [ 8 ] [ 42 ] [ 129 ] Although Burton considered making a third film, the studio encouraged him to pursue other projects and he realized they did not want him to return. He was replaced with Joel Schumacher, who was seen as better suited to delivering a more family- and merchandise-friendly sequel. [ 8 ] [ 42 ] [ 129 ] Keaton initially supported the change but eventually left the role, later saying the proposed third film "just wasn't any good, man". [ 42 ] [ 131 ] [ 229 ] Industry reports suggested he also sought a $15 million salary and profit share, though his producing partner Harry Colomby denied money was the issue. [ 129 ] Schumacher's Batman Forever (1995) was financially successful but less well received critically than Batman Returns . [ 230 ] Its sequel, Batman & Robin (1997), was a critical and commercial disappointment, often cited as one of the worst blockbuster films ever made, [ 230 ] [ 231 ] and led to the franchise being placed on hiatus until the reboot Batman Begins (2005). [ 129 ] [ 231 ] [ 131 ] By the mid-1990s, Burton and Waters were attached to a planned Catwoman film starring Pfeiffer. [ 232 ] [ 233 ] Burton and Waters held competing visions for the project: Burton wanted to make an intimate black-and-white drama in homage to Cat People (1942), while Waters's script followed Catwoman, suffering from amnesia after the events of Batman Returns , in the Las Vegas -like Oasisburg, where she confronted corrupt male superheroes. [ 234 ] [ 235 ] The project stalled as Burton and Pfeiffer moved on to other work, and Warner Bros. eventually produced Catwoman (2004), starring Halle Berry , which was widely panned. [ 234 ] [ 236 ] Keaton later reprised his Batman in The Flash (2023), [ 231 ] [ 237 ] and had also filmed scenes for the cancelled Batgirl (2022). [ 238 ] [ 239 ] Footnotes ^ Although Bob Kane received sole credit for Batman and his associated characters in Batman Returns , it was established in 2015 that writer Bill Finger was jointly involved in the creation of Batman as well as The Penguin and Catwoman, among others. He received equal credit to Kane in future adaptations of the Batman comic books. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] ^ The 1992 budget of $50–$80 million is equivalent to $112 million–$202 million in 2024. ^ The 1992 theatrical box office gross of $266.8 million is equivalent to $598 million in 2024. Notes ^ Attributed to multiple references: [ 22 ] [ 23 ] [ 24 ] [ 25 ] ^ Attributed to multiple references: [ 22 ] [ 25 ] [ 34 ] [ 39 ] ^ Attributed to multiple references: [ 8 ] [ 25 ] [ 26 ] [ 44 ] ^ Attributed to multiple references: [ 22 ] [ 25 ] [ 45 ] [ 46 ] ^ Attributed to multiple references: [ 8 ] [ 26 ] [ 44 ] [ 48 ] ^ Attributed to multiple references: [ 8 ] [ 22 ] [ 49 ] [ 50 ] ^ Attributed to multiple references: [ 25 ] [ 30 ] [ 42 ] [ 53 ] ^ Attributed to multiple references: [ 22 ] [ 25 ] [ 30 ] [ 58 ] ^ Attributed to multiple references: [ 22 ] [ 25 ] [ 30 ] [ 58 ] ^ Attributed to multiple references: [ 22 ] [ 25 ] [ 30 ] [ 58 ] ^ Attributed to multiple references: [ 8 ] [ 75 ] [ 76 ] [ 77 ] ^ Attributed to multiple references: [ 22 ] [ 24 ] [ 35 ] [ 79 ] [ 80 ] [ 81 ] [ 82 ] ^ Attributed to multiple references: [ 108 ] [ 109 ] [ 110 ] [ 111 ] ^ Attributed to multiple references: [ 5 ] [ 9 ] [ 26 ] [ 131 ] ^ Attributed to multiple references: [ 8 ] [ 199 ] [ 200 ] [ 201 ] ^ Attributed to multiple references: [ 94 ] [ 202 ] [ 203 ] [ 204 ] ^ Attributed to multiple references: [ 9 ] [ 212 ] [ 213 ] [ 214 ] [ 215 ] ^ Attributed to multiple references: [ 212 ] [ 216 ] [ 217 ] [ 218 ] ^ Attributed to multiple references: [ 219 ] [ 220 ] [ 221 ] [ 222 ] [ 223 ] ^ Attributed to multiple references: [ 5 ] [ 226 ] [ 227 ] [ 228 ] References Citations ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Meenan, Devin (January 24, 2022). 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"Every Live-action Catwoman, Ranked From Worst To Best" . Variety . Archived from the original on March 17, 2022 . Retrieved July 18, 2022 . ^ Hassenger, Jesse (March 8, 2022). " Batman Movie Villains, Ranked" . Vulture . Archived from the original on April 19, 2022 . Retrieved July 18, 2022 . ^ "13 Things We're Still Mad About: Oscars Edition" . The New York Times . March 9, 2024. Archived from the original on April 4, 2024 . Retrieved September 7, 2025 . ^ Leitch, Will; Grierson, Tim (March 4, 2022). "Every Batman Movie, Ranked" . Vulture . Archived from the original on June 2, 2022 . Retrieved July 17, 2022 . ^ Gulino, Elizabeth (January 27, 2017). "Michael Keaton's Batman Returns Suit Brings $41,000 at Auction" . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on May 13, 2025 . Retrieved September 5, 2025 . ^ Franich, Darren; Nashawaty, Chris (July 18, 2018). " The Dark Knight turns 10: EW Critics Revisit Christopher Nolan's Batman Phenomenon" . Entertainment Weekly . Archived from the original on May 21, 2025 . Retrieved December 5, 2024 . ^ "The 25 Best Christmas Movies, From Love Actually To The Muppets Christmas Carol " . The Daily Telegraph . December 24, 2019. Archived from the original on December 26, 2019 . Retrieved November 18, 2023 . ^ Longeretta, Emily; Earl, William; Moreau, Jordan; Kim Murphy, J.; Saperstein, Pat; Shanfeld, Ethan; Shafer, Ellise; Stephan, Katcy; Woerner, Meredith; Zee, Michaela (November 17, 2023). "The 40 Best Christmas Movies Of All Time" . Variety . Archived from the original on November 18, 2023 . Retrieved November 18, 2023 . ^ Freeman, Hadley (September 9, 2017). "Michael Keaton: 'There Was A Lot Of Bad Taste In The 90s And I Contributed To That' " . The Guardian . Archived from the original on August 13, 2025 . Retrieved August 31, 2025 . ^ a b Bailey, Jason (June 23, 2020). "Don't Forget That Joel Schumacher Briefly Saved Batman" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on April 18, 2022 . Retrieved July 17, 2022 . ^ a b c Chitwood, Adam (January 4, 2022). "Michael Keaton Explains Why He Didn't Return for Batman Forever " . TheWrap . Archived from the original on March 12, 2022 . Retrieved July 17, 2022 . ^ Fleming, Michael (July 22, 1993). "Another Life At WB For Catwoman And Burton?" . Variety . Archived from the original on October 24, 2012 . Retrieved August 14, 2008 . ^ Fleming, Michael (January 13, 1994). "Seagal on the pulpit may be too much for WB" . Variety . Archived from the original on October 24, 2012 . Retrieved August 14, 2008 . ^ a b Brew, Simon (August 16, 2015). "Whatever Happened To The Tim Burton Catwoman Movie?" . Den of Geek . Archived from the original on June 30, 2022 . Retrieved July 17, 2022 . ^ Haring, Bruce (December 29, 2023). " Batman Returns Spinoff Featuring Catwoman Had Two Very Different Takes, Screenwriter Reveals" . Deadline Hollywood . Archived from the original on January 13, 2024 . Retrieved September 6, 2025 . ^ Bergeson, Samantha (July 19, 2024). "Halle Berry: Critics Have 'So Much Power' to Tank Films" . IndieWire . Archived from the original on July 25, 2024 . Retrieved September 7, 2025 . ^ Casey, Henry T. (January 7, 2022). " The Flash Movie Teaser And Everything We Know So Far" . Tom's Guide . Archived from the original on June 14, 2025 . Retrieved August 4, 2022 . ^ Melendez, Marcos (February 13, 2022). " Batgirl Set Photos Reveal First Look at Michael Keaton's Batman" . Collider . Archived from the original on May 8, 2022 . Retrieved July 17, 2022 . ^ Gonzalez, Umberto (August 2, 2022). " Batgirl Won't Fly: Warner Bros. Discovery Has No Plans To Release Nearly Finished $90 Million Film" . TheWrap . Archived from the original on August 2, 2022 . Retrieved August 2, 2022 . Works cited Books Proctor, William (2023). "The Darkest Knight: Archaeology of the Batman in Comics and Film". In Guignard, F. (ed.). Reboot Culture – Comics, Film, Transmedia . London : Palgrave Macmillan . pp. 195– 258. doi : 10.1007/978-3-031-40912-7_6 . ISBN 978-3-031-40911-0 . Reinhart, Mark S. (2013). "10: Batman Returns ". The Batman Filmography - Second Edition . Jefferson, North Carolina : McFarland & Company . pp. 123– 138. ISBN 978-0-7864-6891-1 . Salisbury, Mark; Burton, Tim (2006). "Batman Returns". Burton on Burton . London : Faber and Faber . pp. 102– 114. ISBN 0-571-22926-3 . Siegel, Carol (2013). "Tim Burton's Popularization of Perversity: Edward Scissorhands , Batman Returns , Sleepy Hollow , and Corpse Bride ". In Weinstock, J.A. (ed.). The Works of Tim Burton - Margins to Mainstream . New York City : Palgrave Macmillan . pp. 197– 216. doi : 10.1057/9781137370839_12 . Journals Born, Simon Philipp (2017). "Shadows of the Bat: Constructions of Good and Evil in the Batman Movies of Tim Burton and Christopher Nolan" . Journal for Religion, Film, and Media . 3 (1). Marburg, Germany: Schüren Publishing House. doi : 10.25364/05.3:2017.1.5 . Retrieved August 12, 2025 . Mettler, Catarina (2012). "The Carnevalesque in Tim Burton's Batman and Batman Returns ". Werkstücke . 2 (2): 109– 133. doi : 10.60135/werkstuecke.02.2012.6 . Newman, Graeme (1993). "Batman and Justice: The True Story". Humanity & Society . 17 (3): 297– 320. doi : 10.1177/016059769301700304 . Magazines Cotta Vaz, Mark (August 1992). "A Knight At The Zoo". Cinefex . No. 51. United States. pp. 22– 69. Fennell, Tim (August 1992). "Schwing!". Empire . London . p. 40. Groves, Don (August 2, 1993). " Park Keeps Stomping On World B.O.". Variety . Los Angeles , California. p. 18. Jones, Alan (November 1989). "Batman" . Cinefantastique . Vol. 20, no. 1– 2. Forest Park, Illinois : Fourth Castle Micromedia. pp. 48– 63 . Retrieved July 2, 2022 . McBride, Joseph (July 14, 1992). "Socko Batsequel Rolls To Record B.O. In U.K.". Daily Variety . Los Angeles , California. p. 20. Resner, Jeffrey (August 1992). "Three Go Mad in Gotham". Empire . London . pp. 39– 46. Shapiro, Marc (July 1992). "Darker Knights When Batman Returns". Fangoria . No. 114. Atlanta, Georgia : Fangoria Publishing, LLC. pp. 30– 33. White, Taylor L. (August 1992). "Batman Returns" . Cinefantastique . Vol. 23, no. 1. Forest Park, Illinois : Fourth Castle Micromedia. pp. 8– 11 . Retrieved July 3, 2022 . External links Official website (Warner Bros.) Official website (DC Comics) Batman Returns at IMDb Batman Returns at the TCM Movie Database (archived version) .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Batman (1989–97 film series) v t e Films Batman (1989) Batman Returns (1992) Batman Forever (1995) Batman & Robin (1997) DC Extended Universe The Flash (2023) Batgirl (unreleased) Batman (1989) Batman Returns (1992) Batman Forever (1995) Batman & Robin (1997) DC Extended Universe The Flash (2023) Batgirl (unreleased) The Flash (2023) Batgirl (unreleased) Other media Batman OnStar commercials (2000–02) Batman '89 (2021–present) Batman: Resurrection (2024) Batman: Revolution (2025) Batman OnStar commercials (2000–02) Batman '89 (2021–present) Batman: Resurrection (2024) Batman: Revolution (2025) Characters Bruce Wayne / Batman Jack Napier / Joker Selina Kyle / Catwoman Barry Allen / Flash Bruce Wayne / Batman Jack Napier / Joker Selina Kyle / Catwoman Barry Allen / Flash Music Batman Batman: Original Motion Picture Score (1989) Batman (1989) " Batdance " " Partyman " " The Arms of Orion " " Scandalous! 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" " The Future " Batman Returns Batman Returns: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack (1992) " Face to Face " Batman Returns: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack (1992) " Face to Face " " Face to Face " Batman Forever Batman Forever: Original Motion Picture Score Album (1995) Batman Forever: Music from the Motion Picture (1995) " Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me " " Kiss from a Rose " " The Hunter Gets Captured by the Game " " Nobody Lives Without Love " " Smash It Up " " The Riddler " " The Passenger " Batman Forever: Original Motion Picture Score Album (1995) Batman Forever: Music from the Motion Picture (1995) " Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me " " Kiss from a Rose " " The Hunter Gets Captured by the Game " " Nobody Lives Without Love " " Smash It Up " " The Riddler " " The Passenger " " Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me " " Kiss from a Rose " " The Hunter Gets Captured by the Game " " Nobody Lives Without Love " " Smash It Up " " The Riddler " " The Passenger " Batman & Robin Batman & Robin: Music from and Inspired by the "Batman & Robin" Motion Picture (1997) " The End Is the Beginning Is the End " " Look into My Eyes " " Gotham City " " Foolish Games " " Lazy Eye " " Poison Ivy " " Moaner " Batman & Robin: Music from and Inspired by the "Batman & Robin" Motion Picture (1997) " The End Is the Beginning Is the End " " Look into My Eyes " " Gotham City " " Foolish Games " " Lazy Eye " " Poison Ivy " " Moaner " " The End Is the Beginning Is the End " " Look into My Eyes " " Gotham City " " Foolish Games " " Lazy Eye " " Poison Ivy " " Moaner " Video games Batman: The Movie (1989–90) PC NES Game Boy Sega Genesis PC Engine arcade Batman Returns (1992) Lynx NES SNES Sega systems Batman Forever (1995) arcade Batman & Robin (1998) Batman: The Movie (1989–90) PC NES Game Boy Sega Genesis PC Engine arcade PC NES Game Boy Sega Genesis PC Engine arcade Batman Returns (1992) Lynx NES SNES Sega systems Lynx NES SNES Sega systems Batman Forever (1995) arcade arcade 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characters Pennyworth Arrowverse Batwoman episodes characters " Crisis on Infinite Earths " Batwoman episodes characters episodes characters " Crisis on Infinite Earths " The Penguin The Penguin " After Hours " " Inside Man " " Bliss " " Cent'Anni " " Homecoming " " Gold Summit " " Top Hat " " A Great or Little Thing " The Penguin " After Hours " " Inside Man " " Bliss " " Cent'Anni " " Homecoming " " Gold Summit " " Top Hat " " A Great or Little Thing " " After Hours " " Inside Man " " Bliss " " Cent'Anni " " Homecoming " " Gold Summit " " Top Hat " " A Great or Little Thing " Other Batman OnStar commercials Birds of Prey Gotham Knights Batman OnStar commercials Birds of Prey Gotham Knights Live-action films Early films Batman (1943) Batman and Robin Batman (1966) 1989–1997 film series Batman (1989) Batman Returns ( special effects ) Batman Forever Batman & Robin The Dark Knight Trilogy Batman Begins The Dark Knight The Dark Knight Rises DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of 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Death in the Family Novels The Ultimate Evil Enemies & Allies Wayne of Gotham Batman: Resurrection Batman: Revolution The Ultimate Evil Enemies & Allies Wayne of Gotham Batman: Resurrection Batman: Revolution Podcasts Batman: The Audio Adventures Batman Unburied DC High Volume: Batman Batman: The Audio Adventures Batman Unburied DC High Volume: Batman Enemies in other media Bane Joker Mr. Freeze Penguin Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Bane Joker Mr. Freeze Penguin Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Supporting characters in other media Barbara Gordon Catwoman Robin Barbara Gordon Catwoman Robin Related topics Batman & Bill Bruce Wayne (unproduced series) Batkid Begins Batman action figures Lego Batman Batman Total Justice Batman Unlimited Bat phone Bat-Manga!: The Secret History of Batman in Japan List of Batman films cast members List of Batman television series cast members List of Batman video games List of Batman children's books Batman music Batman Live Holy Musical B@man! Batman '89 (comic book) The Riddler: Year One Batman & Bill Bruce Wayne (unproduced series) Batkid Begins Batman action figures Lego Batman Batman Total Justice Batman Unlimited Lego Batman Batman Total Justice Batman Unlimited Bat phone Bat-Manga!: The Secret History of Batman in Japan List of Batman films cast members List of Batman television series cast members List of Batman video games List of Batman children's books Batman music Batman Live Holy Musical B@man! Batman '89 (comic book) The Riddler: Year One v t e Batman in film v t e Serials Batman (1943 serial) Batman and Robin (1949 serial) Batman (1943 serial) Batman and Robin (1949 serial) Adam West films Batman (1966) Return of the Caped Crusaders (2016) Batman vs. Two-Face (2017) Batman (1966) Return of the Caped Crusaders (2016) Batman vs. Two-Face (2017) 1989–1997 series Films Batman (1989) score soundtrack home computer game NES game Game Boy game Sega Genesis game PC Engine game arcade game Batman Returns (1992) soundtrack special effects Sega games Atari Lynx game NES game SNES game Batman Forever (1995) score soundtrack video game arcade game pinball game Batman & Robin (1997) soundtrack video game Characters Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman Films Batman (1989) score soundtrack home computer game NES game Game Boy game Sega Genesis game PC Engine game arcade game Batman Returns (1992) soundtrack special effects Sega games Atari Lynx game NES game SNES game Batman Forever (1995) score soundtrack video game arcade game pinball game Batman & Robin (1997) soundtrack video game Batman (1989) score soundtrack home computer game NES game Game Boy game Sega Genesis game PC Engine game arcade game score soundtrack home computer game NES game Game Boy game Sega Genesis game PC Engine game arcade game Batman Returns (1992) soundtrack special effects Sega games Atari Lynx game NES game SNES game soundtrack special effects Sega games Atari Lynx game NES game SNES game Batman Forever (1995) score soundtrack video game arcade game pinball game score soundtrack video game arcade game pinball game Batman & Robin (1997) soundtrack video game soundtrack video game Characters Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman The Dark Knight trilogy Films Batman Begins (2005) soundtrack video game The Dark Knight (2008) soundtrack canceled video game The Dark Knight Rises (2012) soundtrack Characters Bruce Wayne Joker Rachel Dawes Films Batman Begins (2005) soundtrack video game The Dark Knight (2008) soundtrack canceled video game The Dark Knight Rises (2012) soundtrack Batman Begins (2005) soundtrack video game soundtrack video game The Dark Knight (2008) soundtrack canceled video game soundtrack canceled video game The Dark Knight Rises (2012) soundtrack soundtrack Characters Bruce Wayne Joker Rachel Dawes Bruce Wayne Joker Rachel Dawes DC Extended Universe Films Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016) soundtrack Suicide Squad (2016) soundtrack Justice League (2017) soundtrack Zack Snyder's Justice League (2021) soundtrack The Flash (2023) soundtrack Batgirl (unreleased) Characters Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn Films Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016) soundtrack Suicide Squad (2016) soundtrack Justice League (2017) soundtrack Zack Snyder's Justice League (2021) soundtrack The Flash (2023) soundtrack Batgirl (unreleased) Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016) soundtrack soundtrack Suicide Squad (2016) soundtrack soundtrack Justice League (2017) soundtrack soundtrack Zack Snyder's Justice League (2021) soundtrack soundtrack The Flash (2023) soundtrack soundtrack Batgirl (unreleased) Characters Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn The Batman series The Batman (2022) production accolades soundtrack The Batman (2022) production accolades soundtrack production accolades soundtrack Theatrical animated films Mask of the Phantasm (1993) soundtrack The Killing Joke (2016) The Lego Batman Movie (2017) soundtrack Mask of the Phantasm (1993) soundtrack soundtrack The Killing Joke (2016) The Lego Batman Movie (2017) soundtrack soundtrack Spin-off films Catwoman (2004) video game Joker (2019) accolades soundtrack Birds of Prey (2020) soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux (2024) score soundtrack Catwoman (2004) video game video game Joker (2019) accolades soundtrack accolades soundtrack Birds of Prey (2020) soundtrack soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux (2024) score soundtrack score soundtrack Unofficial and fan films Features Batman Dracula Alyas Batman at Robin James Batman Batman Fights Dracula Fight Batman Fight! Alyas Batman en Robin Batman XXX Shorts Dead End Grayson World's Finest City of Scars Dying Is Easy Batman Beyond: Year One Jokers Wild Features Batman Dracula Alyas Batman at Robin James Batman Batman Fights Dracula Fight Batman Fight! Alyas Batman en Robin Batman XXX Batman Dracula Alyas Batman at Robin James Batman Batman Fights Dracula Fight Batman Fight! Alyas Batman en Robin Batman XXX Shorts Dead End Grayson World's Finest City of Scars Dying Is Easy Batman Beyond: Year One Jokers Wild Dead End Grayson World's Finest City of Scars Dying Is Easy Batman Beyond: Year One Jokers Wild See also Batman franchise List of Batman films cast members Batman OnStar commercials Batman franchise List of Batman films cast members Batman OnStar commercials v t e Live-action films based on DC Comics v t e Serials Adventures of Captain Marvel (1941) Spy Smasher (1942) Batman (1943) Hop Harrigan (1946) The Vigilante (1947) Superman (1948) Congo Bill (1948) Batman and Robin (1949) Atom Man vs. Superman (1950) Blackhawk (1952) Adventures of Captain Marvel (1941) Spy Smasher (1942) Batman (1943) Hop Harrigan (1946) The Vigilante (1947) Superman (1948) Congo Bill (1948) Batman and Robin (1949) Atom Man vs. Superman (1950) Blackhawk (1952) Single films Steel (1997) Catwoman (2004) Constantine (2005) Watchmen (2009) Jonah Hex (2010) Green Lantern (2011) Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016) Justice League (2017) production Zack Snyder's Justice League (2021) Birds of Prey (2020) Batgirl (produced 2021–2022; unreleased) Black Adam (2022) The Flash (2023) Blue Beetle (2023) Clayface (2026) Steel (1997) Catwoman (2004) Constantine (2005) Watchmen (2009) Jonah Hex (2010) Green Lantern (2011) Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016) Justice League (2017) production Zack Snyder's Justice League (2021) production Zack Snyder's Justice League (2021) Birds of Prey (2020) Batgirl (produced 2021–2022; unreleased) Black Adam (2022) The Flash (2023) Blue Beetle (2023) Clayface (2026) Franchises Aquaman Aquaman (2018) The Lost Kingdom (2023) Batman Batman (1966) Batman (1989) Batman Returns (1992) special effects Batman Forever (1995) Batman & Robin (1997) Batman Begins (2005) The Dark Knight (2008) The Dark Knight Rises (2012) The Batman (2022) production Joker Joker (2019) Folie à Deux (2024) Shazam Shazam! (2019) Fury of the Gods (2023) Suicide Squad Suicide Squad (2016) The Suicide Squad (2021) Supergirl Supergirl (1984) Supergirl (2026) Superman Superman and the Mole Men (1951) Stamp Day for Superman (1954) Superman (1978) Superman II (1980) The Richard Donner Cut (2006) Superman III (1983) The Quest for Peace (1987) Superman Returns (2006) Man of Steel (2013) Superman (2025) Swamp Thing Swamp Thing (1982) The Return of Swamp Thing (1989) Wonder Woman Wonder Woman (2017) Wonder Woman 1984 (2020) Aquaman Aquaman (2018) The Lost Kingdom (2023) Aquaman (2018) The Lost Kingdom (2023) Batman Batman (1966) Batman (1989) Batman Returns (1992) special effects Batman Forever (1995) Batman & Robin (1997) Batman Begins (2005) The Dark Knight (2008) The Dark Knight Rises (2012) The Batman (2022) production Batman (1966) Batman (1989) Batman Returns (1992) special effects special effects Batman Forever (1995) Batman & Robin (1997) Batman Begins (2005) The Dark Knight (2008) The Dark Knight Rises (2012) The Batman (2022) production production Joker Joker (2019) Folie à Deux (2024) Joker (2019) Folie à Deux (2024) Shazam Shazam! (2019) Fury of the Gods (2023) Shazam! (2019) Fury of the Gods (2023) Suicide Squad Suicide Squad (2016) The Suicide Squad (2021) Suicide Squad (2016) The Suicide Squad (2021) Supergirl Supergirl (1984) Supergirl (2026) Supergirl (1984) Supergirl (2026) Superman Superman and the Mole Men (1951) Stamp Day for Superman (1954) Superman (1978) Superman II (1980) The Richard Donner Cut (2006) Superman III (1983) The Quest for Peace (1987) Superman Returns (2006) Man of Steel (2013) Superman (2025) Superman and the Mole Men (1951) Stamp Day for Superman (1954) Superman (1978) Superman II (1980) The Richard Donner Cut (2006) The Richard Donner Cut (2006) Superman III (1983) The Quest for Peace (1987) Superman Returns (2006) Man of Steel (2013) Superman (2025) Swamp Thing Swamp Thing (1982) The Return of Swamp Thing (1989) Swamp Thing (1982) The Return of Swamp Thing (1989) Wonder Woman Wonder Woman (2017) Wonder Woman 1984 (2020) Wonder Woman (2017) Wonder Woman 1984 (2020) DC Imprints Single films Road to Perdition (2002) The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen (2003) A History of Violence (2005) V for Vendetta (2006) Stardust (2007) The Spirit (2008) The Losers (2010) The Kitchen (2019) Red Red (2010) Red 2 (2013) Single films Road to Perdition (2002) The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen (2003) A History of Violence (2005) V for Vendetta (2006) Stardust (2007) The Spirit (2008) The Losers (2010) The Kitchen (2019) Road to Perdition (2002) The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen (2003) A History of Violence (2005) V for Vendetta (2006) Stardust (2007) The Spirit (2008) The Losers (2010) The Kitchen (2019) Red Red (2010) Red 2 (2013) Red (2010) Red 2 (2013) See also DC Studios DC Extended Universe DC Universe List of unproduced DC Comics projects DC Imprints DC Studios DC Extended Universe DC Universe List of unproduced DC Comics projects DC Imprints DC Imprints v t e Tim Burton v t e Filmography Frequent collaborators Unproduced projects Tim Burton Productions Skellington Productions Awards and nominations Filmography Frequent collaborators Unproduced projects Tim Burton Productions Skellington Productions Awards and nominations Director Feature films Pee-wee's Big Adventure (1985) Beetlejuice (1988) Batman (1989) Edward Scissorhands (1990) Batman Returns (1992) Ed Wood (1994) Mars Attacks! (1996) Sleepy Hollow (1999) Planet of the Apes (2001) Big Fish (2003) Charlie and the Chocolate Factory (2005) Corpse Bride (2005) Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street (2007) Alice in Wonderland (2010) Dark Shadows (2012) Frankenweenie (2012) Big Eyes (2014) Miss Peregrine's Home for Peculiar Children (2016) Dumbo (2019) Beetlejuice Beetlejuice (2024) Short films The Island of Doctor Agor (1971) Stalk of the Celery Monster (1979) Vincent (1982) Hansel and Gretel (1983) Frankenweenie (1984) Stainboy (2000) Television series Wednesday (2022–present) Music videos " Bones " " Here with Me " " The Dead Dance " Feature films Pee-wee's Big Adventure (1985) Beetlejuice (1988) Batman (1989) Edward Scissorhands (1990) Batman Returns (1992) Ed Wood (1994) Mars Attacks! (1996) Sleepy Hollow (1999) Planet of the Apes (2001) Big Fish (2003) Charlie and the Chocolate Factory (2005) Corpse Bride (2005) Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street (2007) Alice in Wonderland (2010) Dark Shadows (2012) Frankenweenie (2012) Big Eyes (2014) Miss Peregrine's Home for Peculiar Children (2016) Dumbo (2019) Beetlejuice Beetlejuice (2024) Pee-wee's Big Adventure (1985) Beetlejuice (1988) Batman (1989) Edward Scissorhands (1990) Batman Returns (1992) Ed Wood (1994) Mars Attacks! (1996) Sleepy Hollow (1999) Planet of the Apes (2001) Big Fish (2003) Charlie and the Chocolate Factory (2005) Corpse Bride (2005) Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street (2007) Alice in Wonderland (2010) Dark Shadows (2012) Frankenweenie (2012) Big Eyes (2014) Miss Peregrine's Home for Peculiar Children (2016) Dumbo (2019) Beetlejuice Beetlejuice (2024) Short films The Island of Doctor Agor (1971) Stalk of the Celery Monster (1979) Vincent (1982) Hansel and Gretel (1983) Frankenweenie (1984) Stainboy (2000) The Island of Doctor Agor (1971) Stalk of the Celery Monster (1979) Vincent (1982) Hansel and Gretel (1983) Frankenweenie (1984) Stainboy (2000) Television series Wednesday (2022–present) Wednesday (2022–present) Music videos " Bones " " Here with Me " " The Dead Dance " " Bones " " Here with Me " " The Dead Dance " Writer Films The Nightmare Before Christmas (1993) Poetry " The Nightmare Before Christmas " (1982) The Melancholy Death of Oyster Boy & Other Stories (1997) Films The Nightmare Before Christmas (1993) The Nightmare Before Christmas (1993) Poetry " The Nightmare Before Christmas " (1982) The Melancholy Death of Oyster Boy & Other Stories (1997) " The Nightmare Before Christmas " (1982) The Melancholy Death of Oyster Boy & Other Stories (1997) TV series created Beetlejuice (1989–91) Beetlejuice (1989–91) v t e Catwoman v t e Bob Kane Bill Finger Bob Kane Bill Finger Incarnations Selina Kyle Holly Robinson Eiko Hasigawa Selina Kyle Holly Robinson Eiko Hasigawa Supporting characters Batgirl Batman Slam Bradley Gotham City Sirens Dick Grayson Huntress Justice League Outsiders Alfred Pennyworth Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Madame Zodiac Leslie Thompkins Wildcat Batgirl Batman Slam Bradley Gotham City Sirens Dick Grayson Huntress Justice League Outsiders Alfred Pennyworth Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Madame Zodiac Leslie Thompkins Wildcat Antagonists Angle Man Bane Black Mask Clayface Film Freak Hush Joker Penguin Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Riddler Scarecrow Snowflame Hugo Strange Two-Face Zeiss Angle Man Bane Black Mask Clayface Film Freak Hush Joker Penguin Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Riddler Scarecrow Snowflame Hugo Strange Two-Face Zeiss Publications Catwoman Catwoman: When in Rome Gotham City Sirens Nine Lives Catwoman Catwoman: When in Rome Gotham City Sirens Nine Lives In other media Catwoman (film) Chase Me DC Showcase: Catwoman Catwoman (video game) Selina Kyle ( Gotham character) "Selina Kyle" ( Gotham episode) Selina Kyle ( Batman Returns ) " The Cat and the Fiddle " " The Cat and the Claw " Catwoman: Soulstealer Catwoman: Hunted Catwoman (film) Chase Me DC Showcase: Catwoman Catwoman (video game) Selina Kyle ( Gotham character) "Selina Kyle" ( Gotham episode) Selina Kyle ( Batman Returns ) " The Cat and the Fiddle " " The Cat and the Claw " Catwoman: Soulstealer Catwoman: Hunted Category Category 1990s Film United States Speculative fiction Media from Commons Data from Wikidata Authority control databases International VIAF VIAF Other MusicBrainz work Yale LUX MusicBrainz work Yale LUX 1992 films 1990s Christmas films 1990s political satire films 1990s superhero films Batman (1989 film series) American Christmas films American films about revenge American neo-noir films American political satire films American sequel films American superhero films Catwoman in other media Films about elections Films adapted into comics Films directed by Tim Burton Films produced by Denise Di Novi Films produced by Tim Burton Films scored by Danny Elfman Films set in zoos Films shot at Pinewood Studios Films shot in Los Angeles Films with screenplays by Daniel Waters (screenwriter) Films with screenplays by Sam Hamm Gothic films Penguin (character) in other media Saturn Award–winning films PolyGram Filmed Entertainment films Warner Bros. films 1990s English-language films 1992 American films Rating controversies in film English-language action films English-language Christmas films Dolby Cinema films Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Featured articles Wikipedia pages semi-protected against vandalism Use list-defined references from July 2022 Use American English from July 2022 All Wikipedia articles written in American English Use mdy dates from October 2021 Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages Template film date with 2 release dates Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Official website different in Wikidata and Wikipedia Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 10:27 (UTC) . 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.mw-parser-output div.hp-portalen a{color:white}} Welkom op Wikipedia De vrije encyclopedie Aantal artikelen: 2.209.154 Aantal actieve gebruikers: 8.625 Portaal van de week: Spanje Biologie Geschiedenis Kunst & Cultuur Landen & Volken Mens & Maatschappij Politiek Religie Sport Taal Wetenschap & Technologie Uitgelicht Straatfotografie Straatfotografie is een fotografiegenre waarbij mensen op publieke plaatsen zoals straten, parken en metrostations gefotografeerd worden zonder dat ze zich daar bewust van zijn. Het is een kunstzinnige vorm van candid-camerafotografie die natuurlijke in plaats van geposeerde foto’s oplevert. Hoewel straatfotografie reeds beoefend werd van in het begin van de fotografie, legden pioniers als Eugène Atget en Henri Cartier-Bresson in de 20e eeuw de basis voor straatfotografie als kunstvorm. De ontwikkeling van kleinbeeldcamera's met 135-film midden jaren twintig – en in het bijzonder de Leica met meetzoekersysteem – betekende een grote stimulans voor de straatfotografie. ( Lees verder ) Etalage Johan Helmich Roman Georgius Macropedius Amsterdamse tram Vlinders Legio X Fretensis Paus Benedictus XV Elene Achvlediani Heterocyclische verbinding Over Wikipedia Wikipedia is een online encyclopedie die ernaar streeft om in alle erkende talen informatie te bieden die objectief , verifieerbaar en vrij herbruikbaar is. Het project is gebaseerd op vijf basisprincipes . De Nederlandstalige versie startte op 19 juni 2001 en is met meer dan 2,2 miljoen artikelen de op vijf na grootste van circa 345 taalversies. De encyclopedie is vrij bewerkbaar. Dat houdt in dat iedereen tekst en afbeeldingen kan toevoegen of aanpassen, met inachtneming van de basisregels . Voor de bewerkers zijn er diverse hulppagina's beschikbaar. Er is ook een snelcursus voor nieuwelingen. Zaken uitproberen kan in de zandbak en vragen kunnen gesteld worden bij de helpdesk . Voor privacyvragen kunt u hier terecht . Wist je dat ... ... de ijsbeer een witgelige vacht heeft, maar een zwarte huid? ... de artiesten Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young alle vier tot tweemaal toe zijn opgenomen in de Rock and Roll Hall of Fame , hoewel Young beide keren om andere prestaties dan zijn lidmaatschap van deze band werd geëerd? ... de Duitse socioloog Wolfgang Streeck de kredietcrisis ziet als voorbode van het einde van het kapitalisme ? ... de zeespiegel bij de monding van het Suezkanaal aan de kant van de Rode Zee ongeveer 1,2 meter hoger ligt dan aan de kant van de Middellandse Zee? ... Lawson Craddock in 2018 als eerste wielrenner ooit na elke etappe van de Tour de France laatste in het klassement stond? Afbeelding De uitbarstingskolom van de eruptie in 2022 van de onderzeese vulkaan Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha'apai in Tonga gezien vanuit het International Space Station , 433km boven de Grote Oceaan ten noordwesten van Auckland (Nieuw-Zeeland). Actueel Kabinet-Trump II Het kabinet–Trump II is sinds 20 januari 2025 de uitvoerende macht van de Verenigde Staten van Amerika . Voormalig president Donald Trump van de Republikeinse Partij werd tijdens de presidentsverkiezingen van 2024 voor een tweede termijn verkozen als de 47e president van de Verenigde Staten , en volgde Joe Biden op. ( Lees verder ) Recent overleden 13 jan Pé Langen (72), Nederlands ondernemer en politicus 13 jan Claudette Colvin (86), Amerikaans mensenrechtenactiviste 13 jan Jo Körver (74), Nederlands voetballer 13 jan Annemarie Prins (93), Nederlands actrice, regisseuse en schrijfster 12 jan Robert Jensen (52), Nederlands radio-dj en televisiepresentator In het nieuws 3 jan Verenigde Staten arresteren president Maduro van Venezuela Militaire eenheden van de Verenigde Staten voeren acties uit in Venezuela . In de hoofdstad Caracas worden explosies gemeld en helikopters gezien. President Nicolás Maduro en diens vrouw zijn gevangengenomen en overgebracht naar de VS. 1 jan Brand in Zwitsers skiresort Tijdens de nieuwjaarsviering in een bar in het Zwitserse ski-resort Crans-Montana breekt een grote brand uit. Ongeveer 40 mensen komen om het leven en 119 raken gewond. Velen worden behandeld voor ernstige brandwonden. 14 dec Aanslag Bondi Beach Twee mannen, vader en zoon, plegen een terreuraanslag op joodse feestvierders op Bondi Beach , een populair strand in Sydney , Australië . Bij de schietpartij vallen minstens 16 doden. 16 januari in de geschiedenis 1547 Geschiedenis van Rusland Ivan IV (de Verschrikkelijke ) wordt tot eerste tsaar aller Russen gekroond. 1969 Jan Palach Uit protest tegen de teruggedraaide hervormingen van de Praagse Lente steekt een student zichzelf op het Wenceslausplein in Praag in brand. 2003 Spaceshuttle Columbia Bij de lancering van de spaceshuttle Columbia raakt het hitteschild beschadigd, waardoor het ruimteveer op 1 februari 2003 bij terugkeer in de dampkring verongelukt. Zusterprojecten Wikipedia is onderdeel van de Wikimedia Foundation , een non-profitorganisatie , en heeft diverse zusterprojecten die ook van de wikisoftware gebruikmaken: Wikinieuws Vrije nieuwsbron WikiWoordenboek Vrij woordenboek Wikibooks Handleidingen & vrije boeken Wikisource Vrije bibliotheek Wikiquote Citaten & spreekwoorden Wikispecies Catalogus van levende wezens Wikiversity Vrije onderwijsprojecten Wikivoyage Vrije, wereldwijde reisgids Commons Vrije media Wikidata Vrije database Wikifuncties Bibliotheek met codefuncties Meta-Wiki Coördinatie MediaWiki Ontwikkeling wiki-software Perscontact • Publiekscontact • Statistieken Welkom op Wikipedia De vrije encyclopedie Aantal artikelen: 2.209.154 Aantal actieve gebruikers: 8.625 Portaal van de week: Spanje Biologie Geschiedenis Kunst & Cultuur Landen & Volken Mens & Maatschappij Politiek Religie Sport Taal Wetenschap & Technologie Uitgelicht Straatfotografie Straatfotografie is een fotografiegenre waarbij mensen op publieke plaatsen zoals straten, parken en metrostations gefotografeerd worden zonder dat ze zich daar bewust van zijn. Het is een kunstzinnige vorm van candid-camerafotografie die natuurlijke in plaats van geposeerde foto’s oplevert. Hoewel straatfotografie reeds beoefend werd van in het begin van de fotografie, legden pioniers als Eugène Atget en Henri Cartier-Bresson in de 20e eeuw de basis voor straatfotografie als kunstvorm. De ontwikkeling van kleinbeeldcamera's met 135-film midden jaren twintig – en in het bijzonder de Leica met meetzoekersysteem – betekende een grote stimulans voor de straatfotografie. ( Lees verder ) Uitgelicht Straatfotografie Straatfotografie is een fotografiegenre waarbij mensen op publieke plaatsen zoals straten, parken en metrostations gefotografeerd worden zonder dat ze zich daar bewust van zijn. Het is een kunstzinnige vorm van candid-camerafotografie die natuurlijke in plaats van geposeerde foto’s oplevert. Hoewel straatfotografie reeds beoefend werd van in het begin van de fotografie, legden pioniers als Eugène Atget en Henri Cartier-Bresson in de 20e eeuw de basis voor straatfotografie als kunstvorm. De ontwikkeling van kleinbeeldcamera's met 135-film midden jaren twintig – en in het bijzonder de Leica met meetzoekersysteem – betekende een grote stimulans voor de straatfotografie. ( Lees verder ) Uitgelicht Straatfotografie Straatfotografie is een fotografiegenre waarbij mensen op publieke plaatsen zoals straten, parken en metrostations gefotografeerd worden zonder dat ze zich daar bewust van zijn. Het is een kunstzinnige vorm van candid-camerafotografie die natuurlijke in plaats van geposeerde foto’s oplevert. Hoewel straatfotografie reeds beoefend werd van in het begin van de fotografie, legden pioniers als Eugène Atget en Henri Cartier-Bresson in de 20e eeuw de basis voor straatfotografie als kunstvorm. De ontwikkeling van kleinbeeldcamera's met 135-film midden jaren twintig – en in het bijzonder de Leica met meetzoekersysteem – betekende een grote stimulans voor de straatfotografie. ( Lees verder ) Etalage Johan Helmich Roman Georgius Macropedius Amsterdamse tram Vlinders Legio X Fretensis Paus Benedictus XV Elene Achvlediani Heterocyclische verbinding Etalage Johan Helmich Roman Georgius Macropedius Amsterdamse tram Vlinders Legio X Fretensis Paus Benedictus XV Elene Achvlediani Heterocyclische verbinding Etalage Johan Helmich Roman Georgius Macropedius Amsterdamse tram Vlinders Legio X Fretensis Paus Benedictus XV Elene Achvlediani Heterocyclische verbinding Over Wikipedia Wikipedia is een online encyclopedie die ernaar streeft om in alle erkende talen informatie te bieden die objectief , verifieerbaar en vrij herbruikbaar is. Het project is gebaseerd op vijf basisprincipes . De Nederlandstalige versie startte op 19 juni 2001 en is met meer dan 2,2 miljoen artikelen de op vijf na grootste van circa 345 taalversies. De encyclopedie is vrij bewerkbaar. Dat houdt in dat iedereen tekst en afbeeldingen kan toevoegen of aanpassen, met inachtneming van de basisregels . Voor de bewerkers zijn er diverse hulppagina's beschikbaar. Er is ook een snelcursus voor nieuwelingen. Zaken uitproberen kan in de zandbak en vragen kunnen gesteld worden bij de helpdesk . Voor privacyvragen kunt u hier terecht . Over Wikipedia Wikipedia is een online encyclopedie die ernaar streeft om in alle erkende talen informatie te bieden die objectief , verifieerbaar en vrij herbruikbaar is. Het project is gebaseerd op vijf basisprincipes . De Nederlandstalige versie startte op 19 juni 2001 en is met meer dan 2,2 miljoen artikelen de op vijf na grootste van circa 345 taalversies. De encyclopedie is vrij bewerkbaar. Dat houdt in dat iedereen tekst en afbeeldingen kan toevoegen of aanpassen, met inachtneming van de basisregels . Voor de bewerkers zijn er diverse hulppagina's beschikbaar. Er is ook een snelcursus voor nieuwelingen. Zaken uitproberen kan in de zandbak en vragen kunnen gesteld worden bij de helpdesk . Voor privacyvragen kunt u hier terecht . Over Wikipedia Wikipedia is een online encyclopedie die ernaar streeft om in alle erkende talen informatie te bieden die objectief , verifieerbaar en vrij herbruikbaar is. Het project is gebaseerd op vijf basisprincipes . De Nederlandstalige versie startte op 19 juni 2001 en is met meer dan 2,2 miljoen artikelen de op vijf na grootste van circa 345 taalversies. De encyclopedie is vrij bewerkbaar. Dat houdt in dat iedereen tekst en afbeeldingen kan toevoegen of aanpassen, met inachtneming van de basisregels . Voor de bewerkers zijn er diverse hulppagina's beschikbaar. Er is ook een snelcursus voor nieuwelingen. Zaken uitproberen kan in de zandbak en vragen kunnen gesteld worden bij de helpdesk . Voor privacyvragen kunt u hier terecht . Wist je dat ... ... de ijsbeer een witgelige vacht heeft, maar een zwarte huid? ... de artiesten Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young alle vier tot tweemaal toe zijn opgenomen in de Rock and Roll Hall of Fame , hoewel Young beide keren om andere prestaties dan zijn lidmaatschap van deze band werd geëerd? ... de Duitse socioloog Wolfgang Streeck de kredietcrisis ziet als voorbode van het einde van het kapitalisme ? ... de zeespiegel bij de monding van het Suezkanaal aan de kant van de Rode Zee ongeveer 1,2 meter hoger ligt dan aan de kant van de Middellandse Zee? ... Lawson Craddock in 2018 als eerste wielrenner ooit na elke etappe van de Tour de France laatste in het klassement stond? Wist je dat ... ... de ijsbeer een witgelige vacht heeft, maar een zwarte huid? ... de artiesten Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young alle vier tot tweemaal toe zijn opgenomen in de Rock and Roll Hall of Fame , hoewel Young beide keren om andere prestaties dan zijn lidmaatschap van deze band werd geëerd? ... de Duitse socioloog Wolfgang Streeck de kredietcrisis ziet als voorbode van het einde van het kapitalisme ? ... de zeespiegel bij de monding van het Suezkanaal aan de kant van de Rode Zee ongeveer 1,2 meter hoger ligt dan aan de kant van de Middellandse Zee? ... Lawson Craddock in 2018 als eerste wielrenner ooit na elke etappe van de Tour de France laatste in het klassement stond? Wist je dat ... ... de ijsbeer een witgelige vacht heeft, maar een zwarte huid? ... de artiesten Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young alle vier tot tweemaal toe zijn opgenomen in de Rock and Roll Hall of Fame , hoewel Young beide keren om andere prestaties dan zijn lidmaatschap van deze band werd geëerd? ... de Duitse socioloog Wolfgang Streeck de kredietcrisis ziet als voorbode van het einde van het kapitalisme ? ... de zeespiegel bij de monding van het Suezkanaal aan de kant van de Rode Zee ongeveer 1,2 meter hoger ligt dan aan de kant van de Middellandse Zee? ... Lawson Craddock in 2018 als eerste wielrenner ooit na elke etappe van de Tour de France laatste in het klassement stond? Afbeelding De uitbarstingskolom van de eruptie in 2022 van de onderzeese vulkaan Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha'apai in Tonga gezien vanuit het International Space Station , 433km boven de Grote Oceaan ten noordwesten van Auckland (Nieuw-Zeeland). Afbeelding De uitbarstingskolom van de eruptie in 2022 van de onderzeese vulkaan Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha'apai in Tonga gezien vanuit het International Space Station , 433km boven de Grote Oceaan ten noordwesten van Auckland (Nieuw-Zeeland). Afbeelding Actueel Kabinet-Trump II Het kabinet–Trump II is sinds 20 januari 2025 de uitvoerende macht van de Verenigde Staten van Amerika . Voormalig president Donald Trump van de Republikeinse Partij werd tijdens de presidentsverkiezingen van 2024 voor een tweede termijn verkozen als de 47e president van de Verenigde Staten , en volgde Joe Biden op. ( Lees verder ) Actueel Kabinet-Trump II Het kabinet–Trump II is sinds 20 januari 2025 de uitvoerende macht van de Verenigde Staten van Amerika . Voormalig president Donald Trump van de Republikeinse Partij werd tijdens de presidentsverkiezingen van 2024 voor een tweede termijn verkozen als de 47e president van de Verenigde Staten , en volgde Joe Biden op. ( Lees verder ) Actueel Kabinet-Trump II Het kabinet–Trump II is sinds 20 januari 2025 de uitvoerende macht van de Verenigde Staten van Amerika . Voormalig president Donald Trump van de Republikeinse Partij werd tijdens de presidentsverkiezingen van 2024 voor een tweede termijn verkozen als de 47e president van de Verenigde Staten , en volgde Joe Biden op. ( Lees verder ) Recent overleden 13 jan Pé Langen (72), Nederlands ondernemer en politicus 13 jan Claudette Colvin (86), Amerikaans mensenrechtenactiviste 13 jan Jo Körver (74), Nederlands voetballer 13 jan Annemarie Prins (93), Nederlands actrice, regisseuse en schrijfster 12 jan Robert Jensen (52), Nederlands radio-dj en televisiepresentator Recent overleden 13 jan Pé Langen (72), Nederlands ondernemer en politicus 13 jan Claudette Colvin (86), Amerikaans mensenrechtenactiviste 13 jan Jo Körver (74), Nederlands voetballer 13 jan Annemarie Prins (93), Nederlands actrice, regisseuse en schrijfster 12 jan Robert Jensen (52), Nederlands radio-dj en televisiepresentator Recent overleden 13 jan Pé Langen (72), Nederlands ondernemer en politicus 13 jan Claudette Colvin (86), Amerikaans mensenrechtenactiviste 13 jan Jo Körver (74), Nederlands voetballer 13 jan Annemarie Prins (93), Nederlands actrice, regisseuse en schrijfster 12 jan Robert Jensen (52), Nederlands radio-dj en televisiepresentator In het nieuws In het nieuws In het nieuws 3 jan Verenigde Staten arresteren president Maduro van Venezuela Militaire eenheden van de Verenigde Staten voeren acties uit in Venezuela . In de hoofdstad Caracas worden explosies gemeld en helikopters gezien. President Nicolás Maduro en diens vrouw zijn gevangengenomen en overgebracht naar de VS. 3 jan Verenigde Staten arresteren president Maduro van Venezuela Militaire eenheden van de Verenigde Staten voeren acties uit in Venezuela . In de hoofdstad Caracas worden explosies gemeld en helikopters gezien. President Nicolás Maduro en diens vrouw zijn gevangengenomen en overgebracht naar de VS. 1 jan Brand in Zwitsers skiresort Tijdens de nieuwjaarsviering in een bar in het Zwitserse ski-resort Crans-Montana breekt een grote brand uit. Ongeveer 40 mensen komen om het leven en 119 raken gewond. Velen worden behandeld voor ernstige brandwonden. 1 jan Brand in Zwitsers skiresort Tijdens de nieuwjaarsviering in een bar in het Zwitserse ski-resort Crans-Montana breekt een grote brand uit. Ongeveer 40 mensen komen om het leven en 119 raken gewond. Velen worden behandeld voor ernstige brandwonden. 14 dec Aanslag Bondi Beach Twee mannen, vader en zoon, plegen een terreuraanslag op joodse feestvierders op Bondi Beach , een populair strand in Sydney , Australië . Bij de schietpartij vallen minstens 16 doden. 14 dec Aanslag Bondi Beach Twee mannen, vader en zoon, plegen een terreuraanslag op joodse feestvierders op Bondi Beach , een populair strand in Sydney , Australië . Bij de schietpartij vallen minstens 16 doden. 16 januari in de geschiedenis 16 januari in de geschiedenis 16 januari in de geschiedenis 1547 Geschiedenis van Rusland Ivan IV (de Verschrikkelijke ) wordt tot eerste tsaar aller Russen gekroond. 1547 Geschiedenis van Rusland Ivan IV (de Verschrikkelijke ) wordt tot eerste tsaar aller Russen gekroond. 1969 Jan Palach Uit protest tegen de teruggedraaide hervormingen van de Praagse Lente steekt een student zichzelf op het Wenceslausplein in Praag in brand. 1969 Jan Palach Uit protest tegen de teruggedraaide hervormingen van de Praagse Lente steekt een student zichzelf op het Wenceslausplein in Praag in brand. 2003 Spaceshuttle Columbia Bij de lancering van de spaceshuttle Columbia raakt het hitteschild beschadigd, waardoor het ruimteveer op 1 februari 2003 bij terugkeer in de dampkring verongelukt. 2003 Spaceshuttle Columbia Bij de lancering van de spaceshuttle Columbia raakt het hitteschild beschadigd, waardoor het ruimteveer op 1 februari 2003 bij terugkeer in de dampkring verongelukt. 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Key 2 List of first overall picks 3 See also 4 Notes 5 References List of first overall NBA draft picks Català Deutsch Eesti Español فارسی Français Հայերեն Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar 日本語 Português Русский Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item Page version status This is an accepted version of this page The first overall pick in the National Basketball Association (NBA) is the player who is selected first among all eligible draftees by a team during the league's annual draft . The first pick is awarded to the team that wins the NBA draft lottery ; in most cases, that team had a losing record in the previous season . The NBA team that garners the top overall draft pick selection generates significant media attention, [ 1 ] as does the respective player who eventually gets selected with that first pick. Eleven first picks have won the NBA Most Valuable Player Award : Oscar Robertson , Kareem Abdul-Jabbar (record six-time winner), Bill Walton , Magic Johnson (three-time winner), Hakeem Olajuwon , David Robinson , Shaquille O'Neal , Allen Iverson , Tim Duncan (two-time winner), LeBron James (four-time winner), and Derrick Rose (youngest winner). China's Yao Ming (2002), Italy's Andrea Bargnani (2006), France's Victor Wembanyama (2023), and Zaccharie Risacher (2024) are the only players without competitive experience in the United States to be drafted first overall. Eleven other international players with U.S. college experience have been drafted first overall— Mychal Thompson ( Bahamas ) in 1978, Olajuwon ( Nigeria ) in 1984, Patrick Ewing ( Jamaica ) in 1985, Duncan ( U.S. Virgin Islands ) in 1997, Michael Olowokandi (Nigeria) in 1998, Andrew Bogut (Australia) in 2005, Kyrie Irving (Australia) in 2011, Anthony Bennett (Canada) in 2013, Andrew Wiggins (Canada) in 2014, Ben Simmons (Australia) in 2016, and Deandre Ayton (Bahamas) in 2018. Duncan is an American citizen, but is considered an "international" player by the NBA because he was not born in one of the fifty states or the District of Columbia . [ 2 ] Ewing [ 3 ] had dual Jamaican—American citizenship when he was drafted, and Irving [ 4 ] and Simmons [ 5 ] had dual Australian—American citizenship when they were drafted. The drafts between 1947 and 1949 were held by the Basketball Association of America (BAA). The Basketball Association of America became the National Basketball Association after absorbing teams from the National Basketball League in the fall of 1949. Official NBA publications include the BAA Drafts as part of the NBA's draft history. Key ^ Denotes players who have been selected to the All-Star Game or All-NBA Team ^* Denotes Hall of Famers PPG Points per game [ a ] APG Assists per game [ a ] RPG Rebounds per game [ a ] Player (in italic text) Rookie of the Year Player (in bold text) Denotes a player who is currently active in the NBA List of first overall picks Draft Selected by Player Nationality Position College/ high school/ former club NBA rookie statistics Ref. PPG RPG APG 1947 Pittsburgh Ironmen Clifton McNeely [ b ] United States Guard Texas Wesleyan — — — [ b ] 1948 Providence Steamrollers Andy Tonkovich United States Guard / forward Marshall 2.6 — 0.6 [ 8 ] 1949 Providence Steamrollers Howie Shannon [ c ] United States Center Kansas State 13.4 — 2.3 [ 10 ] 1950 Boston Celtics Charlie Share [ d ] United States Center Bowling Green 3.9 5.3 1.0 [ 11 ] 1951 Baltimore Bullets Gene Melchiorre [ e ] United States Guard Bradley — — — [ e ] 1952 Milwaukee Hawks Mark Workman [ f ] United States Center West Virginia 5.1 3.0 0.6 [ 16 ] 1953 Baltimore Bullets Ray Felix ^ [ g ] United States Center Manchester British-Americans ( ABL ) 17.6 13.3 1.1 [ 18 ] 1954 Baltimore Bullets Frank Selvy ^ United States Forward / center Furman 19.0 5.5 3.5 [ 19 ] 1955 Milwaukee Hawks Dick Ricketts [ h ] United States Guard / forward Duquesne 8.9 7.2 3.0 [ 21 ] 1956 Rochester Royals Sihugo Green [ i ] United States Guard / forward Duquesne 11.5 5.2 3.6 [ 23 ] 1957 Cincinnati Royals Rod Hundley ^ United States Guard West Virginia 7.0 2.9 1.9 [ 24 ] 1958 Minneapolis Lakers Elgin Baylor ^* [ j ] United States Forward Seattle 24.9 15.0 4.1 [ 26 ] 1959 Cincinnati Royals Bob Boozer ^ [ k ] United States Forward Kansas State 8.4 6.2 1.4 [ 28 ] 1960 Cincinnati Royals Oscar Robertson ^* [ l ] United States Guard / forward Cincinnati 30.5 10.1 9.7 [ 31 ] 1961 Chicago Packers Walt Bellamy ^* United States Center Indiana 31.6 19.0 2.7 [ 32 ] 1962 Chicago Zephyrs Bill McGill [ m ] United States Forward / center Utah 7.4 2.7 0.6 [ 34 ] 1963 New York Knicks Art Heyman [ n ] United States Forward / guard Duke 15.4 4.0 3.4 [ 36 ] 1964 New York Knicks Jim Barnes [ o ] United States Center / forward Texas Western 15.5 9.7 1.2 [ 38 ] 1965 San Francisco Warriors Fred Hetzel [ p ] United States Forward / center Davidson 6.8 5.2 0.5 [ 40 ] 1966 New York Knicks Cazzie Russell ^ United States Forward / guard Michigan 11.3 3.3 2.4 [ 41 ] 1967 Detroit Pistons Jimmy Walker ^ United States Guard Providence 8.8 1.7 2.8 [ 42 ] 1968 San Diego Rockets Elvin Hayes ^* United States Center / forward Houston 28.4 17.1 1.4 [ 43 ] 1969 Milwaukee Bucks Lew Alcindor ^* [ q ] United States Center UCLA 28.8 14.5 4.1 [ 45 ] 1970 Detroit Pistons Bob Lanier ^* United States Center St. Bonaventure 15.6 8.1 1.8 [ 46 ] 1971 Cleveland Cavaliers Austin Carr ^ United States Guard Notre Dame 21.2 3.5 3.4 [ 47 ] 1972 Portland Trail Blazers LaRue Martin United States Center Loyola (Illinois) 4.4 4.6 0.5 [ 48 ] 1973 Philadelphia 76ers Doug Collins ^ United States Guard / forward Illinois State 8.0 1.8 1.6 [ 49 ] 1974 Portland Trail Blazers Bill Walton ^* United States Center UCLA 12.8 12.6 4.8 [ 50 ] 1975 Atlanta Hawks David Thompson ^* [ r ] United States Forward / guard NC State 26.0 6.3 3.7 [ 51 ] 1976 Houston Rockets John Lucas United States Guard Maryland 11.1 2.7 5.6 [ 52 ] 1977 Milwaukee Bucks Kent Benson United States Center Indiana 7.7 4.3 1.4 [ 53 ] 1978 Portland Trail Blazers Mychal Thompson Bahamas Forward / center Minnesota 14.7 8.3 2.4 [ 54 ] 1979 Los Angeles Lakers Magic Johnson ^* United States Guard / forward Michigan State 18.0 7.7 7.3 [ 55 ] 1980 Golden State Warriors Joe Barry Carroll ^ United States Center Purdue 18.9 9.3 1.4 [ 56 ] 1981 Dallas Mavericks Mark Aguirre ^ United States Forward DePaul 18.7 4.9 3.2 [ 57 ] 1982 Los Angeles Lakers James Worthy ^* United States Forward North Carolina 13.4 5.2 1.7 [ 58 ] 1983 Houston Rockets Ralph Sampson ^* United States Center Virginia 21.0 11.1 2.0 [ 59 ] 1984 Houston Rockets Akeem Olajuwon ^* [ s ] Nigeria [ s ] Center Houston 20.6 11.9 1.4 [ 62 ] 1985 New York Knicks Patrick Ewing ^* United States [ t ] Center Georgetown 20.0 9.0 2.0 [ 65 ] 1986 Cleveland Cavaliers Brad Daugherty ^ United States Center North Carolina 15.7 8.1 3.8 [ 66 ] 1987 San Antonio Spurs David Robinson ^* [ u ] United States Center Navy 24.3 12.0 2.0 [ 68 ] 1988 Los Angeles Clippers Danny Manning ^ United States Forward Kansas 16.7 6.6 3.1 [ 69 ] 1989 Sacramento Kings Pervis Ellison United States Center Louisville 8.0 5.8 1.9 [ 70 ] 1990 New Jersey Nets Derrick Coleman ^ United States Forward / center Syracuse 18.4 10.3 2.2 [ 71 ] 1991 Charlotte Hornets Larry Johnson ^ United States Forward UNLV 19.2 11.0 3.6 [ 72 ] 1992 Orlando Magic Shaquille O'Neal ^* United States Center LSU 23.4 13.9 1.9 [ 73 ] 1993 Orlando Magic Chris Webber ^* United States Forward Michigan 17.5 9.1 3.6 [ 74 ] 1994 Milwaukee Bucks Glenn Robinson ^ United States Forward Purdue 21.9 6.4 2.5 [ 75 ] 1995 Golden State Warriors Joe Smith United States Forward Maryland 15.3 8.7 1.0 [ 76 ] 1996 Philadelphia 76ers Allen Iverson ^* United States Guard Georgetown 23.5 4.1 7.5 [ 77 ] 1997 San Antonio Spurs Tim Duncan ^* United States [ v ] Forward / center Wake Forest 21.1 11.9 2.7 [ 79 ] 1998 Los Angeles Clippers Michael Olowokandi Nigeria Center Pacific 8.9 7.9 0.6 [ 80 ] 1999 Chicago Bulls Elton Brand ^ [ w ] United States Forward Duke 20.1 10.0 1.9 [ 82 ] 2000 New Jersey Nets Kenyon Martin ^ United States Forward Cincinnati 12.0 7.4 1.9 [ 83 ] 2001 Washington Wizards Kwame Brown United States Center Glynn Academy HS ( Brunswick, Georgia ) 4.5 3.5 0.8 [ 84 ] 2002 Houston Rockets Yao Ming ^* China Center Shanghai Sharks ( China ) 13.5 8.2 1.7 [ 85 ] 2003 Cleveland Cavaliers LeBron James ^ United States Forward St. Vincent–St. Mary HS ( Akron, Ohio ) 20.9 5.5 5.9 [ 86 ] 2004 Orlando Magic Dwight Howard ^* United States Center SACA ( Atlanta ) 12.0 10.0 0.9 [ 87 ] 2005 Milwaukee Bucks Andrew Bogut ^ Australia Center Utah 9.4 7.0 2.3 [ 88 ] 2006 Toronto Raptors Andrea Bargnani Italy Forward / center Benetton Treviso ( Italy ) 11.6 3.9 0.8 [ 89 ] 2007 Portland Trail Blazers Greg Oden [ x ] United States Center Ohio State 8.9 7.0 0.5 [ 91 ] 2008 Chicago Bulls Derrick Rose ^ United States Guard Memphis 16.8 3.9 6.3 [ 92 ] 2009 Los Angeles Clippers Blake Griffin ^ [ y ] United States Forward Oklahoma 22.5 12.1 3.8 [ 94 ] 2010 Washington Wizards John Wall ^ United States Guard Kentucky 16.4 4.6 8.3 [ 95 ] 2011 Cleveland Cavaliers Kyrie Irving ^ United States [ z ] Guard Duke 18.5 3.7 5.4 [ 98 ] 2012 New Orleans Hornets Anthony Davis ^ United States Forward / center Kentucky 13.5 8.2 1.0 [ 99 ] 2013 Cleveland Cavaliers Anthony Bennett Canada Forward UNLV 4.2 3.0 0.3 [ 100 ] 2014 Cleveland Cavaliers Andrew Wiggins ^ Canada Forward / guard Kansas 16.9 4.6 2.1 [ 101 ] 2015 Minnesota Timberwolves Karl-Anthony Towns ^ United States [ aa ] Center Kentucky 18.3 10.4 2.0 [ 102 ] 2016 Philadelphia 76ers Ben Simmons ^ [ ab ] Australia [ ac ] Guard LSU 15.8 8.1 8.2 [ 103 ] 2017 Philadelphia 76ers Markelle Fultz United States Guard Washington 7.1 3.1 3.8 [ 104 ] 2018 Phoenix Suns Deandre Ayton Bahamas Center Arizona 16.3 10.3 1.8 [ 105 ] 2019 New Orleans Pelicans Zion Williamson ^ United States Forward Duke 22.5 6.3 2.1 [ 106 ] 2020 Minnesota Timberwolves Anthony Edwards ^ United States Guard Georgia 19.3 4.7 2.9 [ 107 ] 2021 Detroit Pistons Cade Cunningham ^ United States Guard Oklahoma State 17.4 5.5 5.6 [ 108 ] 2022 Orlando Magic Paolo Banchero ^ United States Forward Duke 20.0 6.9 3.7 [ 109 ] 2023 San Antonio Spurs Victor Wembanyama ^ France Center Metropolitans 92 ( France ) 21.4 10.6 3.9 [ 110 ] 2024 Atlanta Hawks Zaccharie Risacher France Forward JL Bourg ( France ) 12.6 3.6 1.2 [ 111 ] 2025 Dallas Mavericks Cooper Flagg United States Forward Duke See also Sports portal List of undrafted NBA players List of first overall NBA G League draft picks List of first overall WNBA draft picks List of first overall Major League Baseball draft picks List of first overall NFL draft picks List of first overall NHL draft picks Notes ^ a b c All statistics are taken from the players' respective rookie season unless otherwise noted. ^ a b Clifton McNeely never played professional basketball. Instead, he became a basketball coach for Pampa High School in Texas. [ 6 ] [ 7 ] ^ Howie Shannon was the first overall pick, although Ed Macauley and Vern Mikkelsen had been taken before the draft as their teams' territorial picks . [ 9 ] ^ Charlie Share did not play in the 1950–51 season . His rookie statistics are from the 1951–52 season . [ 11 ] Share was the first overall pick, although Paul Arizin had been taken before the draft as the Philadelphia Warriors' territorial pick. [ 12 ] ^ a b Gene Melchiorre never played in the NBA. He was banned for life from the NBA due to his involvement in the CCNY point shaving scandal . [ 13 ] Melchiorre was the first overall pick, although Myer Skoog had been taken before the draft as the Minneapolis Lakers' territorial pick. [ 14 ] ^ Mark Workman was the first overall pick, although Bill Mlkvy had been taken before the draft as the Philadelphia Warriors' territorial pick. [ 15 ] ^ Ray Felix was the first overall pick, although Ernie Beck and Walter Dukes had been taken before the draft as their teams' territorial picks. [ 17 ] ^ Dick Ricketts was the first overall pick, although Dick Garmaker and Tom Gola had been taken before the draft as their teams' territorial picks. [ 20 ] ^ Sihugo Green was the first overall pick, although Tom Heinsohn had been taken before the draft as the Boston Celtics' territorial pick. [ 22 ] ^ Elgin Baylor was the first overall pick, although Guy Rodgers had been taken before the draft as the Philadelphia Warriors' territorial pick. [ 25 ] ^ Bob Boozer was the first overall pick, although Wilt Chamberlain and Bob Ferry had been taken before the draft as their teams' territorial picks. [ 27 ] ^ Although Oscar Robertson was drafted as a territorial pick by the Cincinnati Royals , he was also recognized as the first pick in the first round of the draft as the Royals also held the first overall draft pick. [ 29 ] [ 30 ] ^ Bill McGill was the first overall pick, although Dave DeBusschere and Jerry Lucas had been taken before the draft as their teams' territorial picks. [ 33 ] ^ Art Heyman was the first overall pick, although Tom Thacker had been taken before the draft as the Cincinnati Royals' territorial pick. [ 35 ] ^ Jim Barnes was the first overall pick, although Walt Hazzard and George Wilson had been taken before the draft as their teams' territorial picks. [ 37 ] ^ Fred Hetzel was the first overall pick, although Bill Bradley , Bill Buntin and Gail Goodrich had been taken before the draft as their teams' territorial picks. [ 39 ] ^ Before the 1971–72 season, Lew Alcindor changed his name to Kareem Abdul-Jabbar. [ 44 ] ^ David Thompson played in the American Basketball Association (ABA) in the 1975–76 season and did not play in the NBA until 1976. His rookie statistics are from the 1976–77 season . [ 51 ] ^ a b Hakeem Olajuwon was born in Nigeria , but became a naturalized United States citizen in 1993. When he arrived to the United States, the University of Houston incorrectly spelled his first name "Akeem". Olajuwon used that spelling until March 9, 1991, when he announced that he would add an H, saying, "I'm not changing the spelling of my name, I'm correcting it." [ 60 ] [ 61 ] ^ Patrick Ewing was born in Jamaica , but had become a naturalized United States citizen while at Georgetown. [ 63 ] He represented the United States at the 1984 Summer Olympics . [ 64 ] ^ David Robinson did not play in the NBA until 1989 due to commitments to the United States Navy . [ 67 ] His rookie statistics are from the 1989–90 season . [ 68 ] ^ Tim Duncan is a United States citizen by birth, as are all natives of the U.S. Virgin Islands. Because of this citizenship arrangement, Duncan has played for the U.S. internationally. [ 78 ] ^ Elton Brand shared Rookie of the Year honors with Steve Francis of the Houston Rockets . [ 81 ] ^ Greg Oden underwent microfracture surgery on his right knee before the 2007–08 season , and missed the entire season. His rookie statistics are from the 2008–09 season . [ 90 ] ^ Blake Griffin injured his left kneecap in a pre-season game before the 2009–10 season . He underwent a surgery in January 2010 and missed the entire season. His rookie statistics are from the 2010–11 season . [ 93 ] ^ Kyrie Irving was born in Australia to American parents who returned to the U.S. when he was two years old. He has played for the U.S. internationally at both youth and senior level. [ 96 ] [ 97 ] ^ Karl-Anthony Towns was born and raised in the United States; his mother is Dominican. He has chosen to represent the Dominican Republic at the international level. ^ Ben Simmons injured his right foot during training camp before the 2016–17 season . He missed the entire season. His rookie statistics are from the 2017–18 season . [ 103 ] ^ Simmons was born in Melbourne, Australia, to an American father and Australian mother. He chose to represent Australia at international level. References .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Draft Index" . basketball-reference.com . 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Retrieved May 24, 2021 . ^ "Cade Cunningham Stats" . Basketball Reference . Retrieved June 23, 2022 . ^ "Paolo Banchero Stats" . Basketball Reference . Retrieved April 24, 2023 . ^ "Victor Wembanyama Stats" . Basketball Reference . Retrieved November 13, 2023 . ^ "Zaccharie Risacher Stats" . Basketball Reference . Retrieved April 18, 2025 . .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e NBA first overall draft picks v t e 1947 : McNeely 1948 : Tonkovich 1949 : Shannon 1950 : Share 1951 : Melchiorre 1952 : Workman 1953 : Felix 1954 : Selvy 1955 : Ricketts 1956 : Green 1957 : Hundley 1958 : Baylor 1959 : Boozer 1960 : Robertson 1961 : Bellamy 1962 : McGill 1963 : Heyman 1964 : Barnes 1965 : Hetzel 1966 : Russell 1967 : Walker 1968 : Hayes 1969 : Alcindor 1970 : Lanier 1971 : Carr 1972 : L. Martin 1973 : Collins 1974 : Walton 1975 : D. Thompson 1976 : Lucas 1977 : Benson 1978 : M. Thompson 1979 : E. Johnson 1980 : Carroll 1981 : Aguirre 1982 : Worthy 1983 : Sampson 1984 : Olajuwon 1985 : Ewing 1986 : Daugherty 1987 : D. Robinson 1988 : Manning 1989 : Ellison 1990 : Coleman 1991 : L. Johnson 1992 : O'Neal 1993 : Webber 1994 : G. Robinson 1995 : Smith 1996 : Iverson 1997 : Duncan 1998 : Olowokandi 1999 : Brand 2000 : K. Martin 2001 : Brown 2002 : Yao 2003 : James 2004 : Howard 2005 : Bogut 2006 : Bargnani 2007 : Oden 2008 : Rose 2009 : Griffin 2010 : Wall 2011 : Irving 2012 : Davis 2013 : Bennett 2014 : Wiggins 2015 : Towns 2016 : Simmons 2017 : Fultz 2018 : Ayton 2019 : Williamson 2020 : Edwards 2021 : Cunningham 2022 : Banchero 2023 : Wembanyama 2024 : Risacher 2025 : Flagg 1947 : McNeely 1948 : Tonkovich 1949 : Shannon 1950 : Share 1951 : Melchiorre 1952 : Workman 1953 : Felix 1954 : Selvy 1955 : Ricketts 1956 : Green 1957 : Hundley 1958 : Baylor 1959 : Boozer 1960 : Robertson 1961 : Bellamy 1962 : McGill 1963 : Heyman 1964 : Barnes 1965 : Hetzel 1966 : Russell 1967 : Walker 1968 : Hayes 1969 : Alcindor 1970 : Lanier 1971 : Carr 1972 : L. Martin 1973 : Collins 1974 : Walton 1975 : D. Thompson 1976 : Lucas 1977 : Benson 1978 : M. Thompson 1979 : E. Johnson 1980 : Carroll 1981 : Aguirre 1982 : Worthy 1983 : Sampson 1984 : Olajuwon 1985 : Ewing 1986 : Daugherty 1987 : D. Robinson 1988 : Manning 1989 : Ellison 1990 : Coleman 1991 : L. Johnson 1992 : O'Neal 1993 : Webber 1994 : G. Robinson 1995 : Smith 1996 : Iverson 1997 : Duncan 1998 : Olowokandi 1999 : Brand 2000 : K. Martin 2001 : Brown 2002 : Yao 2003 : James 2004 : Howard 2005 : Bogut 2006 : Bargnani 2007 : Oden 2008 : Rose 2009 : Griffin 2010 : Wall 2011 : Irving 2012 : Davis 2013 : Bennett 2014 : Wiggins 2015 : Towns 2016 : Simmons 2017 : Fultz 2018 : Ayton 2019 : Williamson 2020 : Edwards 2021 : Cunningham 2022 : Banchero 2023 : Wembanyama 2024 : Risacher 2025 : Flagg v t e NBA drafts v t e Draft lottery Draft combine Eligibility Territorial picks First overall picks High school draftees Undrafted players Supreme Court case WNBA draft 1976 ABA dispersal draft Draft lottery Draft combine Eligibility Territorial picks First overall picks High school draftees Undrafted players Supreme Court case WNBA draft 1976 ABA dispersal draft 1940s 1947 1948 1949 1947 1948 1949 1950s 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960s 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970s 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980s 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990s 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000s 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010s 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020s 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 Expansion drafts 1961 1966 1967 1968 1970 1974 1980 1988 1989 1995 2004 Expansion drafts 1961 1966 1967 1968 1970 1974 1980 1988 1989 1995 2004 1961 1961 1966 1966 1967 1967 1968 1968 1970 1970 1974 1974 1980 1980 1988 1988 1989 1989 1995 1995 2004 2004 v t e National Basketball Association v t e Eastern Conference Atlantic Boston Celtics Brooklyn Nets New York Knicks Philadelphia 76ers Toronto Raptors Central Chicago Bulls Cleveland Cavaliers Detroit Pistons Indiana Pacers Milwaukee Bucks Southeast Atlanta Hawks Charlotte Hornets Miami Heat Orlando Magic Washington Wizards Atlantic Boston Celtics Brooklyn Nets New York Knicks Philadelphia 76ers Toronto Raptors Central Chicago Bulls Cleveland Cavaliers Detroit Pistons Indiana Pacers Milwaukee Bucks Southeast Atlanta Hawks Charlotte Hornets Miami Heat Orlando Magic Washington Wizards Western Conference Northwest Denver Nuggets Minnesota Timberwolves Oklahoma City Thunder Portland Trail Blazers Utah Jazz Pacific Golden State Warriors Los Angeles Clippers Los Angeles Lakers Phoenix Suns Sacramento Kings Southwest Dallas Mavericks Houston Rockets Memphis Grizzlies New Orleans Pelicans San Antonio Spurs Northwest Denver Nuggets Minnesota Timberwolves Oklahoma City Thunder Portland Trail Blazers Utah Jazz Pacific Golden State Warriors Los Angeles Clippers Los Angeles Lakers Phoenix Suns Sacramento Kings Southwest Dallas Mavericks Houston Rockets Memphis Grizzlies New Orleans Pelicans San Antonio Spurs Annual events Draft eligibility Summer League Christmas All-Star weekend game Global Games Cup tournament Play-in Playoffs list Finals champions History Predecessors BAA NBL ABA merger dispersal draft Walter A. Brown Trophy Criticisms and controversies Malice at the Palace Donaghy betting scandal 2025 gambling prosecution Antitrust cases Haywood Robertson Lockouts Former divisions Eastern Midwest Western Teams defunct expansion relocated timeline Seasons 2019–20 suspension and bubble Records regular season postseason All-Star win–loss People Players current rosters Eastern Western foreign players race and ethnicity first overall draft picks highest paid banned or suspended NBPA Head coaches current player-coaches champions foreign female NBCA Owners Referees NBRA Commissioner Broadcasters Awards and honors Larry O'Brien Trophy Maurice Podoloff Trophy All-NBA Team MVP Finals MVP All-Star MVP Hall of Fame Members Anniversary teams Retired numbers Others Arenas NBA ABA Business collective bargaining agreement jersey sponsors Motorola lawsuit salary cap NBA Store team valuations Culture cheerleading mascots dress code superteams sleep Pride Night G League Media TV NBA TV NBA Academy NBA Africa Rivalries WNBA Basketball portal Category 2025–26 season Basketball portal Category 2025–26 season NBA draft First overall NBA draft picks NBA lists Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia pending changes protected pages Use American English from July 2022 All Wikipedia articles written in American English Use mdy dates from July 2022 Articles with hCards Featured lists This page was last edited on 26 December 2025, at 12:33 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early life and education 2 Career Toggle Career subsection 2.1 Insolvency 2.1 Insolvency 3 Works Toggle Works subsection 3.1 Overview 3.2 Periods, subjects and styles 3.3 Graphic works 3.4 Asian inspiration 3.5 The Night Watch 3.1 Overview 3.2 Periods, subjects and styles 3.3 Graphic works 3.4 Asian inspiration 3.5 The Night Watch 4 Expert assessments 5 Painting materials 6 Name and signature 7 Workshop 8 Museum collections 9 Selected works 10 Exhibitions 11 Paintings Toggle Paintings subsection 11.1 Self-portraits 11.2 Other major paintings 11.1 Self-portraits 11.2 Other major paintings 12 Drawings and etchings 13 Works about Rembrandt Toggle Works about Rembrandt subsection 13.1 Literary works (e.g. poetry and fiction) 13.2 Music 13.3 Films 13.1 Literary works (e.g. poetry and fiction) 13.2 Music 13.3 Films 14 Notes 15 References Toggle References subsection 15.1 Works cited 15.1 Works cited 16 Further reading 17 External links Rembrandt Адыгэбзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch Алтай тил አማርኛ Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés ܐܪܡܝܐ Արեւմտահայերէն অসমীয়া Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bislama Български Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Čeština ChiTumbuka Cymraeg Dagbanli Dansk Davvisámegiella Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 贛語 ગુજરાતી 한국어 Hawaiʻi Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan ქართული Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Кыргызча Ladin Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Limburgs Lingála Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala Lombard Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Malti Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى ဘာသာမန် Bahasa Melayu Minangkabau Mirandés Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाली नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Novial Occitan Олык марий Oromoo Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Patois ភាសាខ្មែរ Picard Piemontèis Plattdüütsch Polski Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Română Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Scots Seeltersk Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Ślůnski کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Taqbaylit Татарча / tatarça ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Tyap Тыва дыл Українська اردو Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Batak Mandailing Yerwa Kanuri Tolışi Toki pona Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikinews Wikiquote Wikisource Wikidata item Rembrandt Self-Portrait with Beret and Turned-Up Collar (1659) Born Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn ( 1606-07-15 ) 15 July 1606 [ 1 ] Leiden , Dutch Republic Died 4 October 1669 (1669-10-04) (aged 63) Amsterdam , Dutch Republic Education Jacob van Swanenburg Pieter Lastman Known for Painting , printmaking , drawing Notable work Self-portraits The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp (1632) The Storm on the Sea of Galilee (1633) Belshazzar's Feast (1635–1638) The Night Watch (1642) The Hundred Guilder Print (etching, c. 1647–1649) Bathsheba at Her Bath (1654) Syndics of the Drapers' Guild (1662) The Return of the Prodigal Son (1661–1669) Movement Dutch Golden Age Baroque Spouse .mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-inline{display:inline} Saskia van Uylenburgh ( m. 1634; died 1642) Children 2, including Titus Signature Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn ( / ˈ r ɛ m b r æ n t , ˈ r ɛ m b r ɑː n t / ; [ 2 ] .mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%} Dutch: [ˈrɛmbrɑnt ˈɦɑrmə(n)ˌsoːɱ vɑn ˈrɛin] ⓘ ; 15 July 1606 [ 1 ] – 4 October 1669), mononymously known as Rembrandt , was a Dutch Golden Age painter , printmaker , and draughtsman . He is generally considered one of the greatest visual artists in the history of Western art . [ 3 ] It is estimated that Rembrandt's surviving works amount to about three hundred paintings, three hundred etchings, and several hundred drawings. Unlike most Dutch painters of the 17th century, Rembrandt's works depict a wide range of styles and subject matter, from portraits and self-portraits to landscapes, genre scenes , allegorical and historical scenes, biblical and mythological subjects and animal studies. His contributions to art came in a period that historians call the Dutch Golden Age . Rembrandt never went abroad, but was considerably influenced by the work of the Italian Old Masters and Dutch and Flemish artists who had studied in Italy. After he achieved youthful success as a portrait painter, Rembrandt's later years were marked by personal tragedy and financial hardships. Yet his etchings and paintings were popular throughout his lifetime, his reputation as an artist remained high, [ 4 ] and for twenty years he taught many important Dutch painters. [ 5 ] Rembrandt's portraits of his contemporaries, self-portraits and illustrations of scenes from the Bible are regarded as his greatest creative triumphs. His approximately 40 self-portraits form an intimate autobiography. [ 3 ] [ 6 ] Early life and education Rembrandt [ a ] Harmenszoon van Rijn was born on 15 July 1606 in Leiden, [ 1 ] in the Dutch Republic , now the Netherlands . He was the ninth child born to Harmen Gerritszoon van Rijn and Neeltgen Willemsdochter van Zuijtbrouck. [ 8 ] His family was quite well-to-do; his father was a miller and his mother was a baker's daughter. His mother was Catholic , and his father belonged to the Dutch Reformed Church . Religion is a central theme in Rembrandt's works and the religiously fraught period in which he lived makes his faith a matter of interest. [ 9 ] As a boy, he attended a Latin school . In 1620, he was enrolled at the University of Leiden , although he had a greater inclination towards painting and was soon apprenticed to Jacob van Swanenburg , with whom he spent three years. [ 10 ] After a brief but important apprenticeship of six months with the history painter Pieter Lastman in Amsterdam, Rembrandt stayed a few months with Jacob Pynas in 1625, though Simon van Leeuwen claimed that Rembrandt was taught by Joris van Schooten and then started his own workshop. [ 10 ] [ 11 ] Career In 1625, Rembrandt opened a studio in Leiden, which he shared with friend and colleague Jan Lievens . In 1627, Rembrandt began to accept students, among them Gerrit Dou and Isaac de Jouderville . [ 12 ] Joan Huydecoper is mentioned as the first buyer of a Rembrandt painting in 1628. [ 13 ] In 1629, Rembrandt was discovered by the statesman Constantijn Huygens who procured for Rembrandt important commissions from the court of The Hague. As a result of this connection, Prince Frederik Hendrik continued to purchase paintings from Rembrandt. [ 14 ] At the end of 1631, Rembrandt moved to Amsterdam, a city rapidly expanding as the business and trade capital. He began to practice as a professional portraitist for the first time, with great success. He initially stayed with an art dealer, Hendrick van Uylenburgh , and in 1634, married Hendrick's cousin, Saskia van Uylenburgh . [ 15 ] Saskia came from a respected family: her father Rombertus was a lawyer and had been burgomaster (mayor) of Leeuwarden. The couple married in the local church of St. Annaparochie without the presence of Rembrandt's relatives. [ 16 ] In the same year, Rembrandt became a citizen of Amsterdam and a member of the local guild of painters . He also acquired a number of students, among them Ferdinand Bol and Govert Flinck . [ 17 ] In 1635, Rembrandt and Saskia rented a fashionable lodging with a view of the river Amstel. [ 18 ] In 1637, Rembrandt moved upriver to Vlooienburg , in a building on the previous site of the current Stopera . [ 19 ] In May 1639 they moved to a recently modernized house in the upscale 'Breestraat' with artists and art dealers; Nicolaes Pickenoy , a portrait painter, was his neighbor. The mortgage to finance the 13,000 guilder purchase would be a cause for later financial difficulties. [ b ] [ 17 ] The neighborhood sheltered many immigrants and was becoming the Jewish quarter. It was there that Rembrandt frequently sought his Jewish neighbors to model for his Old Testament scenes. [ 22 ] One of the great patrons at the early stages of his career was Amsterdam statesman Andries de Graeff . [ 23 ] [ 24 ] Although they were by now affluent, the couple suffered several personal setbacks; three children died within weeks of their births. [ c ] [ d ] Only their fourth child, Titus , who was born in 1641, survived into adulthood. Saskia died in 1642, probably from tuberculosis . Rembrandt's drawings of her on her sick and death bed are among his most moving works. [ 26 ] [ 18 ] After Saskia's illness, the widow Geertje Dircx was hired as Titus' caretaker and dry nurse; at some time, she also became Rembrandt's lover. In May 1649 she left and charged Rembrandt with breach of promise and asked to be awarded alimony . [ 17 ] Rembrandt tried to settle the matter amicably, but to pay her lawyer she pawned the diamond ring he had given her that once belonged to Saskia. On 14 October they came to an agreement; the court particularly stated that Rembrandt had to pay a yearly maintenance allowance, provided that Titus remained her only heir and she sold none of Rembrandt's possessions. [ 27 ] [ 28 ] As Dircx broke her promise, Rembrandt and members of Dircx's own family had her committed to a women's house of correction at Gouda in August 1650. Rembrandt also took measures to ensure she stayed in the house of correction for as long as possible. [ 29 ] Rembrandt paid for the costs. [ 30 ] [ e ] In early 1649, Rembrandt began a relationship with the 23-year-old Hendrickje Stoffels , who had initially been his maid. She may have been the cause of Geertje's leaving. In that year he made no (dated) paintings or etchings at all. [ 31 ] In 1654 Rembrandt painted a nude Bathsheba at Her Bath . In June Hendrickje received three summonses from the Reformed Church to answer the charge "that she had committed the acts of a whore with Rembrandt the painter". In July she admitted her guilt and was banned from receiving communion . [ 32 ] Rembrandt was not summoned to appear for the Church council. [ 33 ] In October they had a daughter, Cornelia. Had he remarried he would have lost access to a trust set up for Titus in Saskia's will. [ 26 ] Insolvency Rembrandt, despite his artistic success, found himself in financial turmoil. His penchant for acquiring art, prints, and rare items led him to live beyond his means. In January 1653 the sale of the property formally was finalized but Rembrandt still had to cover half of the remaining mortgage. Creditors began pressing for installments but Rembrandt, facing financial strain, sought a postponement. The house required repairs prompting Rembrandt to borrow money from friends, including Jan Six . [ 34 ] [ f ] In November 1655, amid a year overshadowed by plague and the drafting of wills, Rembrandt's 14-year-old son Titus took a significant step by drafting a will that designated his father as the sole heir, effectively sidelining his mother's family. [ 37 ] [ 38 ] In December Rembrandt orchestrated a sale of his paintings, yet the earnings failed to meet expectations. [ 39 ] This tumultuous period deeply impacted the art industry, prompting Rembrandt to seek a high court arrangement known as cessio bonorum . [ 40 ] Despite the financial difficulties, Rembrandt's bankruptcy was not forced. [ 39 ] [ 41 ] In July 1656, he declared his insolvency , taking stock and willingly surrendered his assets. [ 42 ] Notably, he had already transferred the house to his son. [ 21 ] Both the authorities and his creditors showed leniency, granting him ample time to settle his debts. Jacob J. Hinlopen allegedly played a role. [ 43 ] In November 1657 another auction was held to sell his paintings, as well as a substantial number of etching plates and drawings, some of the latter by famous artists including Raphael , Mantegna and Giorgione . [ g ] Remarkably, Rembrandt was permitted to retain his tools as a means of generating income. [ 21 ] Rembrandt lost the guardianship of his son and thus control over his actions. A new guardian, Louis Crayers, claimed the house in settlement of Titus's debt. [ 44 ] The sale list comprising 363 items offers insight into Rembrandt's diverse collections, which encompassed Old Master paintings, drawings, busts of Roman emperors , statues of Greek philosophers , books (a bible), two globes , bonnets, armor , and various objects from Asia ( porcelain ), as well as a collections of natural history specimens (two lion skins, a bird-of-paradise , corals and minerals). [ 45 ] Unfortunately, the prices realized in the sale were disappointing. [ 46 ] By February 1658, Rembrandt' house was sold at a foreclosure auction, and the family moved to more modest lodgings at Rozengracht . [ 47 ] In 1660, he finished Ahasuerus and Haman at the feast of Esther which he sold to Jan J. Hinlopen . [ 48 ] Early December 1660, the sale of the house was finalized but the proceeds went directly to Titus' guardian. [ 49 ] [ 50 ] Two weeks later, Hendrickje and Titus established a dummy corporation as art dealers, allowing Rembrandt, who had board and lodging , to continue his artistic pursuits. [ 51 ] [ 52 ] In 1661, they secured a contract for a major project at the newly completed town hall . The resulting work, The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis , was rejected by the mayors and returned to the painter within a few weeks; the surviving fragment (in Stockholm) is only a quarter of the original. [ 53 ] Despite these setbacks, Rembrandt continued to receive significant portrait commissions and completed notable works, such as the Sampling Officials in 1662. [ 54 ] It remains a challenge to gauge Rembrandt's wealth accurately as he may have overestimated the value of his art collection. [ 42 ] Nonetheless, half of his assets were earmarked for Titus' inheritance. [ 55 ] In March 1663, with Hendrickje's illness, Titus assumed a more prominent role. Isaac van Hertsbeeck, Rembrandt's primary creditor, went to the High Court and contested Titus' priority for payment, leading to legal battles that Titus ultimately won in 1665 when he came of age. [ 56 ] [ 57 ] [ 58 ] During this time, Rembrandt worked on notable pieces like The Jewish Bride and his final self-portraits but struggled with rent arrears. [ 59 ] Notably, Cosimo III de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany , visited Rembrandt twice, and returned to Florence with one of the self-portraits. [ 60 ] Rembrandt outlived both Hendrickje and Titus; he died on Friday 4 October 1669 and was buried four days later in a rented grave in the Westerkerk . [ 61 ] His illegitimate child , Cornelia (1654–1684), eventually moved to Batavia in 1670 accompanied by an obscure painter and her mother's inheritance. [ 62 ] Titus' considerable inheritance passed to his only child, Titia (1669-1715) who married her cousin and lived at Blauwburgwal . [ 63 ] Rembrandt's life was marked by more than just artistic achievements; he navigated numerous legal and financial challenges, leaving a complex legacy. [ 64 ] [ 65 ] Works Overview In a letter to Huygens, Rembrandt offered the only surviving explanation of what he sought to achieve through his art, writing that, "the greatest and most natural movement", translated from de meeste en de natuurlijkste beweegelijkheid . The word " beweegelijkheid " translates to "emotion" or "motive". Whether this refers to objectives, material, or something else, is not known but critics have drawn particular attention to the way Rembrandt seamlessly melded the earthly and spiritual. [ 66 ] Earlier 20th century connoisseurs claimed Rembrandt had produced well over 600 paintings, [ 67 ] nearly 400 etchings and 2,000 drawings. [ 68 ] More recent scholarship, from the 1960s to the present day (led by the Rembrandt Research Project ), often controversially, has winnowed his oeuvre to nearer 300 paintings. [ h ] His prints , traditionally all called etchings, although many are produced in whole or part by engraving and sometimes drypoint , have a much more stable total of slightly under 300. [ i ] It is likely Rembrandt made many more drawings in his lifetime than 2,000 but those extant are rarer than presumed. [ j ] Two experts claim that the number of drawings whose autograph status can be regarded as effectively "certain" is no higher than about 75, although this is disputed. The list was to be unveiled at a scholarly meeting in February 2010. [ 71 ] At one time, approximately 90 paintings were counted as Rembrandt self-portraits but it is now known that he had his students copy his own self-portraits as part of their training. Modern scholarship has reduced the autograph count to over forty paintings, as well as a few drawings and thirty-one etchings, which include many of the most remarkable images of the group. [ 72 ] Some show him posing in quasi-historical fancy dress, or pulling faces at himself. His oil paintings trace the progress from an uncertain young man, through the dapper and very successful portrait-painter of the 1630s, to the troubled but massively powerful portraits of his old age. Together they give a remarkably clear picture of the man, his appearance and his psychological make-up, as revealed by his richly weathered face. [ k ] In his portraits and self-portraits, he angles the sitter's face in such a way that the ridge of the nose nearly always forms the line of demarcation between brightly illuminated and shadowy areas. A Rembrandt face is a face partially eclipsed; and the nose, bright and obvious, thrusting into the riddle of halftones, serves to focus the viewer's attention upon, and to dramatize, the division between a flood of light—an overwhelming clarity—and a brooding duskiness. [ 73 ] In some of his biblical works, including The Raising of the Cross , Joseph Telling His Dreams , and The Stoning of Saint Stephen , Rembrandt painted himself as a character in the crowd. Durham suggests that this was because the Bible was for Rembrandt "a kind of diary, an account of moments in his own life". [ 74 ] Among the more prominent characteristics of Rembrandt's work are his use of chiaroscuro , the theatrical employment of light and shadow derived from Caravaggio , or, more likely, from the Dutch Caravaggisti but adapted for very personal means. [ 75 ] Also notable are his dramatic and lively presentation of subjects, devoid of the rigid formality that his contemporaries often displayed, and a deeply felt compassion for mankind, irrespective of wealth and age. His immediate family—his wife Saskia, his son Titus and his common-law wife Hendrickje—often figured prominently in his paintings, [ 76 ] many of which had mythical , biblical or historical subjects. [ 77 ] Periods, subjects and styles Throughout his career, Rembrandt took as his most common subjects portraits, narrative or " history paintings ", mostly biblical, and landscapes . He was especially praised by his contemporaries for his biblical subjects, for his skill in representing emotions, and attention to detail. [ 79 ] Stylistically, his paintings progressed from the early "smooth" manner, characterized by fine technique in the portrayal of illusionistic form, to the late "rough" treatment of richly variegated paint surfaces, which allowed for an illusionism of form suggested by the tactile quality of the paint itself. Rembrandt must have realized that if he kept the paint deliberately loose and "paint-like" on some parts of the canvas, the perception of space became much greater. [ 80 ] A parallel development may be seen in Rembrandt's skill as a printmaker. In the etchings of his maturity, particularly from the late 1640s onward, the freedom and breadth of his drawings and paintings found expression in the print medium as well. The works encompass a wide range of subject matter and technique, sometimes leaving large areas of white paper to suggest space, at other times employing complex webs of line to produce rich dark tones. [ 81 ] Lastman's influence on Rembrandt was most prominent during his period in Leiden from 1625 to 1631. [ 82 ] Paintings were rather small but rich in details (for example, in costumes and jewelry). Religious and allegorical subjects were favored, as were tronies . [ 82 ] In 1626 Rembrandt produced his first etchings, the wide dissemination of which would largely account for his international fame. [ 82 ] In 1629, he completed Judas Repentant, Returning the Pieces of Silver and The Artist in His Studio , works that evidence his interest in the handling of light and variety of paint application and constitute the first major progress in his development as a painter. [ 83 ] During his early years in Amsterdam (1632–1636), Rembrandt began to paint dramatic biblical and mythological scenes in high contrast and of large format ( The Blinding of Samson , 1636, Belshazzar's Feast , c. 1635 Danaë , 1636 but reworked later), seeking to emulate the baroque style of Rubens . [ 84 ] With the occasional help of assistants in Uylenburgh's workshop, he painted numerous portrait commissions both small ( Jacob de Gheyn III ) and large ( Portrait of the Shipbuilder Jan Rijcksen and his Wife , 1633, Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp , 1632). [ 85 ] By the late 1630s, Rembrandt had produced a few paintings and many etchings of landscapes . Often these landscapes highlighted natural drama, featuring uprooted trees and ominous skies ( Cottages before a Stormy Sky , c. 1641; The Three Trees , 1643). From 1640 his work became less exuberant and more sober in tone, possibly reflecting personal tragedy. Biblical scenes were now derived more often from the New Testament than the Old Testament , as had been the case before. In 1642 he painted The Night Watch , the most substantial of the important group portrait commissions which he received in this period, and through which he sought to find solutions to compositional and narrative problems that had been attempted in previous works. [ 86 ] In the decade following the Night Watch , Rembrandt's paintings varied greatly in size, subject, and style. The previous tendency to create dramatic effects primarily by strong contrasts of light and shadow gave way to the use of frontal lighting and larger and more saturated areas of color. Simultaneously, figures came to be placed parallel to the picture plane. These changes can be seen as a move toward a classical mode of composition and, considering the more expressive use of brushwork as well, may indicate a familiarity with Venetian art ( Susanna and the Elders , 1637–47). [ 87 ] At the same time, there was a marked decrease in painted works in favor of etchings and drawings of landscapes. [ 88 ] In the 1650s, Rembrandt's style changed again. Colors became richer and brush strokes more pronounced. With these changes, Rembrandt distanced himself from earlier work and current fashion, which increasingly inclined toward fine, detailed works. His use of light becomes more jagged and harsh, and shine becomes almost nonexistent. His singular approach to paint application may have been suggested in part by familiarity with the work of Titian , and could be seen in the context of the then current discussion of 'finish' and surface quality of paintings. Contemporary accounts sometimes remark disapprovingly of the coarseness of Rembrandt's brushwork, and the artist himself was said to have dissuaded visitors from looking too closely at his paintings. [ 90 ] The tactile manipulation of paint may hearken to medieval procedures, when mimetic effects of rendering informed a painting's surface. The result is a richly varied handling of paint, deeply layered and often apparently haphazard, which suggests form and space in both an illusory and highly individual manner. [ 91 ] In later years, biblical subjects were often depicted but emphasis shifted from dramatic group scenes to intimate portrait-like figures ( James the Apostle , 1661). In his last years, Rembrandt painted his most deeply reflective self-portraits (from 1652 to 1669 he painted fifteen), and several moving images of both men and women ( The Jewish Bride , c. 1666)—in love, in life, and before God. [ 92 ] [ 93 ] Graphic works Rembrandt produced etchings for most of his career, from 1626 to 1660, when he was forced to sell his printing-press and practically abandoned etching. Only the troubled year of 1649 produced no dated work. [ 94 ] He took easily to etching and, though he learned to use a burin and partly engraved many plates, the freedom of etching technique was fundamental to his work. He was very closely involved in the whole process of printmaking, and must have printed at least early examples of his etchings himself. At first he used a style based on drawing but soon moved to one based on painting, using a mass of lines and numerous bitings with the acid to achieve different strengths of line. Towards the end of the 1630s, he reacted against this manner and moved to a simpler style, with fewer bitings. [ 95 ] He worked on the so-called Hundred Guilder Print in stages throughout the 1640s, and it was the "critical work in the middle of his career", from which his final etching style began to emerge. [ 96 ] Although the print only survives in two states , the first very rare, evidence of much reworking can be seen underneath the final print and many drawings survive for elements of it. [ 97 ] In the mature works of the 1650s, Rembrandt was more ready to improvise on the plate and large prints typically survive in several states, up to eleven, often radically changed. He now used hatching to create his dark areas, which often take up much of the plate. He also experimented with the effects of printing on different kinds of paper, including Japanese paper , which he used frequently, and on vellum . He began to use " surface tone ", leaving a thin film of ink on parts of the plate instead of wiping it completely clean to print each impression. He made more use of drypoint , exploiting, especially in landscapes, the rich fuzzy burr that this technique gives to the first few impressions. [ 98 ] His prints have similar subjects to his paintings, although the 27 self-portraits are relatively more common, and portraits of other people less so. The landscapes, mostly small, largely set the course for the graphic treatment of landscape until the end of the 19th century. Of the many hundreds of drawings Rembrandt made, only about two hundred have a landscape motif as their subject, and of the approximately three hundred etchings, about thirty show a landscape. As for his painted landscapes, one does not even get beyond eight works. [ 99 ] One third of his etchings are of religious subjects, many treated with a homely simplicity, whilst others are his most monumental prints. A few erotic, or just obscene, compositions have no equivalent in his paintings. [ 100 ] Rembrandt owned, until forced to sell it, a magnificent collection of works by other artists. He was influenced by artists including Caravaggio with his chiaroscuro lighting. [ 101 ] Borrowings and influences in his work can be traced to artists as diverse as Andrea Mantegna (with his Entombment ), [ 102 ] Anthony van Dyck , Raphael , Titian , Peter Paul Rubens , [ 103 ] Hercules Seghers , [ 104 ] and Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione . [ 105 ] Drawings by Rembrandt and his pupils/followers have been extensively studied by many artists and scholars [ l ] through the centuries. Asian inspiration Rembrandt was interested in Mughal miniatures , especially around the 1650s. He drew versions of some 23 Mughal paintings and may have owned an album of them. These miniatures include paintings of Shah Jahan , Akbar , Jahangir and Dara Shikoh and may have influenced the costumes and other aspects of his works. [ 112 ] [ 113 ] [ 114 ] [ 115 ] The Night Watch Rembrandt painted The Militia Company of Captain Frans Banning Cocq , known as The Night Watch , between 1640 and 1642, and it became his most famous work. [ 116 ] [ 117 ] The piece was commissioned for the new hall of the Kloveniersdoelen , the musketeer branch of the civic militia . [ 117 ] Rembrandt departed from convention on both narrative painting and portraits, which ordered that such genre pieces should be stately and formal. Instead, he created a complex layering of figures in a dramatic depiction of an action, the firing of a musket, affecting some of the characters but not others. The painting is not set at night, its darkness being caused by ageing; and it is not of a watch or patrol, but a ceremony. [ 118 ] The painting has received many interpretations; if as Joseph Manca suggests it was meant to function at multiple levels, many of the interpretations may be correct. Thus, unlike in a conventional narrative painting, the people depicted are represented in lifelike individual portraits. The style seems to show a real event in a real place, but its complex structure appears contrived or theatrical, while the street setting is invented. It can be seen as a picture of a militia charged with keeping order, but it equally looks like a disorderly scene. It alludes to serious works like The School of Athens by Raphael , and has been seen as humorous or parodic. [ 118 ] Manca suggests that the calmness of the two officers in the foreground, continuing to carry out their duty despite the disturbance behind them, indicates their "moral excellence"; certainly, their status is clearly indicated, even flattered. [ 118 ] Expert assessments In 1968, the Rembrandt Research Project began under the sponsorship of the Netherlands Organization for the Advancement of Scientific Research; it was initially expected to last a highly optimistic ten years. Art historians teamed up with experts from other fields to reassess the authenticity of works attributed to Rembrandt, using all methods available, including state-of-the-art technical diagnostics, and to compile a complete new catalogue raisonné of his paintings. As a result of their findings, many paintings that were previously attributed to Rembrandt have been removed from their list, although others have been added back. [ 119 ] One example of activity is The Polish Rider , now in the Frick Collection in New York. Rembrandt's authorship had been questioned by at least one scholar, Alfred von Wurzbach, at the beginning of the twentieth century but for many decades later most scholars, including the foremost authority writing in English, Julius S. Held , agreed that it was indeed by the master. In the 1980s, however, Dr. Josua Bruyn of the Foundation Rembrandt Research Project cautiously and tentatively attributed the painting to one of Rembrandt's closest and most talented pupils, Willem Drost , about whom little is known. But Bruyn's remained a minority opinion, the suggestion of Drost's authorship is now generally rejected, and the Frick itself never changed its own attribution, the label still reading "Rembrandt" and not "attributed to" or "school of". More recent opinion has shifted even more decisively in favor of the Frick; In his 1999 book Rembrandt's Eyes , Simon Schama and the Rembrandt Project scholar Ernst van de Wetering (Melbourne Symposium, 1997) both argued for attribution to the master. Those few scholars who still question Rembrandt's authorship feel that the execution is uneven and favour different attributions for different parts of the work. [ 120 ] A similar issue was raised by Schama concerning the verification of titles associated with the subject matter depicted in Rembrandt's works. For example, the exact subject being portrayed in Aristotle with a Bust of Homer , recently retitled by curators at the Metropolitan Museum, has been directly challenged by Schama applying the scholarship of Paul Crenshaw. [ 122 ] Schama presents a substantial argument that it was the famous ancient Greek painter Apelles who is depicted in contemplation by Rembrandt and not Aristotle. [ 123 ] Another painting, Pilate Washing His Hands , is also of questionable attribution. Critical opinion of this picture has varied since 1905, when Wilhelm von Bode described it as "a somewhat abnormal work" by Rembrandt. Scholars have since dated the painting to the 1660s and assigned it to an anonymous pupil, possibly Aert de Gelder. The composition bears superficial resemblance to mature works by Rembrandt but lacks the master's command of illumination and modeling. [ 124 ] The attribution and re-attribution work is ongoing. In 2005 four oil paintings previously attributed to Rembrandt's students were reclassified as the work of Rembrandt himself: Study of an Old Man in Profile and Study of an Old Man with a Beard from a US private collection, Study of a Weeping Woman , owned by the Detroit Institute of Arts , and Portrait of an Elderly Woman in a White Bonnet , painted in 1640. [ 125 ] The Old Man Sitting in a Chair is a further example: in 2014, Professor Ernst van de Wetering offered his view to The Guardian that the demotion of the 1652 painting Old Man Sitting in a Chair "was a vast mistake...it is a most important painting. The painting needs to be seen in terms of Rembrandt's experimentation". This was highlighted much earlier by Nigel Konstam who studied Rembrandt throughout his career. [ 126 ] Rembrandt's own studio practice is a major factor in the difficulty of attribution, since, like many masters before him, he encouraged his students to copy his paintings, sometimes finishing or retouching them to be sold as originals, and sometimes selling them as authorized copies. Additionally, his style proved easy enough for his most talented students to emulate. Further complicating matters is the uneven quality of some of Rembrandt's own work, and his frequent stylistic evolutions and experiments. [ 127 ] As well, there were later imitations of his work, and restorations which so seriously damaged the original works that they are no longer recognizable. [ 128 ] Painting materials Technical investigation of Rembrandt's paintings in the possession of the Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister [ 129 ] and in the Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister (Kassel) [ 130 ] was conducted by Hermann Kühn in 1977. The pigment analyses of some thirty paintings have shown that Rembrandt's palette consisted of the following pigments: lead white , various ochres , Vandyke brown, bone black, charcoal black , lamp black , vermilion , madder lake , azurite , ultramarine , yellow lake and lead-tin-yellow . Synthetic orpiment was shown in the shadows of the sleeve of the jewish groom. This toxic arsenic yellow was rarely used in oil painting. [ 131 ] One painting (Saskia van Uylenburgh as Flora) [ 132 ] reportedly contains gamboge . Rembrandt very rarely used pure blue or green colors, the most pronounced exception being Belshazzar's Feast in the National Gallery in London . [ 133 ] [ 134 ] The book by Bomford [ 133 ] describes more recent technical investigations and pigment analyses of Rembrandt's paintings predominantly in the National Gallery in London. The entire array of pigments employed by Rembrandt can be found at ColourLex. [ 135 ] The best source for technical information on Rembrandt's paintings on the web is the Rembrandt Database containing all works of Rembrandt with detailed investigative reports, infrared and radiography images and other scientific details. [ 136 ] Name and signature "Rembrandt" is a modification of the spelling of the artist's first name that he introduced in 1633. "Harmenszoon" indicates that his father's name is Harmen. "van Rijn" indicates that his family lived near the Rhine . [ 137 ] Rembrandt's earliest signatures (c. 1625) consisted of an initial "R", or the monogram "RH" (for Rembrant Harmenszoon), and starting in 1629, "RHL" (the "L" stood, presumably, for Leiden). In 1632, he used this monogram early in the year, then added his family name to it, "RHL-van Rijn" but replaced this form in that same year and began using his first name alone with its original spelling, "Rembrant". In 1633 he added a "d", and maintained this form consistently from then on, proving that this minor change had a meaning for him (whatever it might have been). This change is purely visual; it does not change the way his name is pronounced. Despite the large number of paintings and etchings signed with this modified first name, most of the documents that mentioned him during his lifetime retained the original "Rembrant" spelling. (Note: the rough chronology of signature forms above applies to the paintings, and to a lesser degree to the etchings; from 1632, presumably, there is only one etching signed "RHL-v. Rijn", the large-format "Raising of Lazarus", B 73). [ 138 ] His practice of signing his work with his first name, later followed by Vincent van Gogh , was probably inspired by Raphael , Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo who, then as now, were referred to by their first names alone. [ 139 ] Workshop Rembrandt ran a large workshop and had many pupils. The list of Rembrandt pupils from his period in Leiden as well as his time in Amsterdam is quite long, mostly because his influence on painters around him was so great that it is difficult to tell whether someone worked for him in his studio or just copied his style for patrons eager to acquire a Rembrandt. A partial list should include Ferdinand Bol , Adriaen Brouwer , Gerrit Dou , Willem Drost , Heiman Dullaart , Gerbrand van den Eeckhout , Carel Fabritius , Govert Flinck , Hendrick Fromantiou , Aert de Gelder , Samuel Dirksz van Hoogstraten , Abraham Janssens , Godfrey Kneller , Philip de Koninck , Jacob Levecq , Nicolaes Maes , Jürgen Ovens , Christopher Paudiß , Willem de Poorter , Jan Victors , and Willem van der Vliet . [ 140 ] Museum collections The United States has the largest number of Rembrandt's paintings, spread over several museums including the Metropolitan Museum of Art (mostly portraits) and the Frick Collection in New York City, the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C., Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, and J. Paul Getty Museum in Los Angeles, in total 86 paintings. [ 141 ] Other large groups are in Germany, with 69 paintings, at the Gemäldegalerie in Berlin, Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister in Dresden, and Schloss Wilhelmshöhe in Kassel, and elsewhere. The UK has a total of 51, especially in the National Gallery and Royal Collection . There are 49 in the Netherlands, many in the Rijksmuseum , which has The Night Watch and The Jewish Bride , and the Mauritshuis in The Hague. [ 142 ] Others can be found in The Louvre , the Hermitage Museum , and Nationalmuseum, Stockholm . The Royal Castle in Warsaw has two paintings by Rembrandt. [ 143 ] Large collections of Rembrandt's drawings are held in the Rijksmuseum , [ 144 ] the Louvre , [ 145 ] and the British Museum . [ 146 ] The Rembrandt House Museum holds many of his drawings and "almost all" the etchings, a selection of which are on rotating display in the house. [ 147 ] Apart from a few very rare prints, mostly less important early studies, [ 148 ] or "the informal printed scribbles from the artist's early years", [ 149 ] most of his prints are not very rare by museum standards, and major print rooms have good collections. Both the Rijksmuseum and the British Museum, who claim to have the best collections, have over 1,000 impressions of the 300-odd prints; [ 150 ] most of these can be viewed in great detail online. The degree to which these collections are displayed to the public or can easily be viewed by them in the print room, varies greatly. The Morgan Library & Museum in New York claims to have the best collection in America, with "impressions of most of the three hundred or so known etchings by Rembrandt, as well as multiple, often exceedingly rare impressions of various states"; it has "almost 500" images online. [ 151 ] Impressions often continued to be printed by others until at least the 19th-century, with many of the plates reworked as they became worn. In 1986, 79 of Rembrandt's original copper plates still existed. [ 152 ] Selected works The Entombment of Christ ( c. 1624 ) – Hunterian Museum and Art Gallery , Glasgow The Stoning of Saint Stephen (1625) – Musée des Beaux-Arts , Lyon Andromeda Chained to the Rocks (1630) – Mauritshuis , The Hague Old Man with a Gold Chain ( c. 1631 ) – Art Institute of Chicago Jacob de Gheyn III (1632) – Dulwich Picture Gallery , London Philosopher in Meditation (1632) – The Louvre , Paris The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp (1632) – Mauritshuis, The Hague Judith at the Banquet of Holofernes (1634) – Museo del Prado , Madrid Descent from the Cross (1634) – Hermitage Museum , St. Petersburg. Belshazzar's Feast ( c. 1635-1638 ) – National Gallery , London The Prodigal Son in the Tavern ( c. 1635 ) – Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister , Dresden Danaë ( c. 1635 , reworked before 1643) – Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg The Scholar at the Lectern (1641) – Royal Castle , Warsaw The Girl in a Picture Frame (1641) – Royal Castle, Warsaw The Night Watch , formally The Militia Company of Captain Frans Banning Cocq (1642) – Rijksmuseum , Amsterdam Boaz and Ruth (1643) – Woburn Abbey , Bedfordshire & Gemaldegalerie , Berlin The Mill (1645/48) – National Gallery of Art , Washington, D.C. Susanna and the Elders (1647) – Gemäldegalerie, Berlin Christ Healing the Sick, also known as the Hundred Guilder Print ( c. 1648 ) – Allen Memorial Art Museum , Oberlin, Ohio. Name derives from a print seller who claimed to have sold an impression of the print back to Rembrandt for 100 Guilders. Head of Christ (1648) – Gemäldegalerie, Berlin Aristotle Contemplating a Bust of Homer (1653) – Metropolitan Museum of Art , New York The Three Crosses (1653) – Museum of Fine Arts , Boston Bathsheba at Her Bath (1654) – The Louvre, Paris Christ Presented to the People ( c. 1655 ) – Various versions at different museums. One of the two largest prints made by Rembrandt. Pallas Athena ( c. 1657 ) – Calouste Gulbenkian Museum , Lisbon Portrait of Dirck van Os ( c. 1658 ) – Joslyn Art Museum , Omaha, Nebraska Self-Portrait with Beret and Turned-Up Collar (1659) – National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. Ahasuerus and Haman at the Feast of Esther (1660) – Pushkin Museum , Moscow The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis ( c. 1661-1662 ) – Nationalmuseum , Stockholm. The majority of the original painting is now lost as Rembrandt cut it up in order for it to be sold. It is also his last secular history painting. Syndics of the Drapers' Guild (1662) – Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam The Jewish Bride ( c. 1665-1669 ) – Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam Haman before Esther (1665) – National Museum of Art of Romania , Bucharest [ 153 ] Self-Portrait at the Age of 63 (1669) – National Gallery, London. One of Rembrandt's last self-portraits. The Return of the Prodigal Son (1669) – Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg. One of Rembrandt's last paintings. Exhibitions Sept–Oct 1898: Rembrandt Tentoonstelling ( Rembrandt Exhibition ), Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam, the Netherlands. [ 154 ] Jan–Feb 1899: Rembrandt Tentoonstelling ( Rembrandt Exhibition ), Royal Academy, London. [ 154 ] 30 January – 1 May 2005: Rembrandt's Religious Etchings , National Gallery of Art [ 155 ] 30 January – 1 May 2005: Rembrandt's Late Religious Portraits , National Gallery of Art, traveled to the J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles, June 7 - August 28, 2005 catalog by Arthur K. Wheelock Jr . [ 156 ] 21 April 2011 – 18 July 2011: Rembrandt and the Face of Jesus , Musée du Louvre. [ 157 ] 23 February – 20 May 2012: Rembrandt and Degas: Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man , Metropolitan Museum of Art. [ 158 ] 16 September 2013 – 14 November 2013: Rembrandt: The Consummate Etcher , Syracuse University Art Galleries. [ 159 ] 19 May 2014 – 27 June 2014: From Rembrandt to Rosenquist: Works on Paper from the NAC's Permanent Collection , National Arts Club. [ 160 ] 19 October 2014 – 4 January 2015: Rembrandt, Rubens, Gainsborough and the Golden Age of Painting in Europe , Jule Collins Smith Museum of Art. [ 161 ] 15 October 2014 – 18 January 2015: Rembrandt: The Late Works , The National Gallery, London. [ 162 ] 12 February 2015 – 17 May 2015: Late Rembrandt , The Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam. [ 163 ] 16 September 2018 – 6 January 2019: Rembrandt – Painter as Printmaker , Denver Art Museum, Denver. [ 164 ] 24 August 2019 – 1 December 2019: Leiden circa 1630: Rembrandt Emerges , Agnes Etherington Art Centre, Kingston, Ontario. [ 165 ] 4 October 2019 – 2 February 2020: Rembrandt's Light , Dulwich Picture Gallery, London. [ 166 ] 18 February 2020 – 30 August 2020: Rembrandt and Amsterdam portraiture, 1590–1670 , Museo Nacional Thyssen-Bornemisza, Madrid. [ 167 ] 10 August 2020 – 1 November 2020: Young Rembrandt , Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. [ 168 ] 18 November 2023 – 19 February 2024 Rembrandt: Etchings from the Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen , Worcester Art Museum, Worcester, Massachusetts. [ 169 ] Paintings Self-portraits A young Rembrandt ( c. 1628 ) when he was 22. Partly an exercise in chiaroscuro . Rijksmuseum Self-Portrait in a Gorget ( c. 1629 ), Germanisches Nationalmuseum , Nuremberg Self-portrait (1630), Nationalmuseum , Stockholm Self-Portrait with Velvet Beret and Furred Mantle (1634) Self-Portrait at the Age of 34 (1640), National Gallery London Self-Portrait , an oil on canvas portrait (1652), Kunsthistorisches Museum , Vienna Self-portrait (1655) an oil on walnut portrait cut down in size, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna Self-Portrait (1660) Self Portrait as Zeuxis ( c. 1662 ), one of two self-portraits in which Rembrandt is turned to the left, [ 170 ] Wallraf–Richartz Museum , Cologne Self-Portrait with Two Circles ( c. 1665 –69), Kenwood House , London Self-portrait (1669) Self-Portrait at the Age of 63 (1669, the year he died), National Gallery, London Rembrandt, Self-portrait, 1668–69, Galleria degli Uffizi , Florence Other major paintings The Stoning of Saint Stephen (1625), Rembrandt's first painting completed at the age of 19, [ 171 ] Musée des Beaux-Arts de Lyon . Two old men disputing (1628) at the National Gallery of Victoria in Melbourne Artist in His Studio (1628) at the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston Bust of an old man with a fur hat (1630), a painting of Rembrandt's father Jeremiah Lamenting the Destruction of Jerusalem (c. 1630) Andromeda (c. 1630) Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp (c. 1632) Portrait of Aeltje Uylenburgh (1632) at the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston Portrait of Saskia van Uylenburgh (c. 1633–34) Flora (1634), Hermitage Museum , Saint Petersburg , Russia Sacrifice of Isaac (1634), Hermitage Museum , Saint Petersburg , Russia The Descent from the Cross (1634), Hermitage Museum , Saint Petersburg , Russia The Rape of Ganymede (1635), Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden The Blinding of Samson (1636), which Rembrandt gave to Huyghens Susanna (1636) Belshassar's Feast (c. 1636–38) Danaë (c. 1636–43), Hermitage Museum , Saint Petersburg , Russia The Archangel Raphael Leaving Tobias' Family (1637), Louvre The Landscape with Good Samaritan (1638), Czartoryski Museum , Kraków , Poland Scholar at his Writing Table (1641), Royal Castle, Warsaw Joseph's Dream (c. 1645) Susanna and the Elders (1647) The Mill (1648) An Old Man in Red (c. 1652–54), Hermitage Museum , Saint Petersburg , Russia Aristotle with a Bust of Homer (1653), Metropolitan Museum of Art , New York Young Girl at the Window (1654), Nationalmuseum , Stockholm Portrait of Jan Six , a painting of a wealthy friend of Rembrandt (1654) Bathsheba at Her Bath , modelled by Hendrickje (1654) A Woman Bathing in a Stream , modelled by Hendrickje (1654) Pallas Athene (c. 1655) The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Deijman (1656) Jacob Blessing the Sons of Joseph (1656) Woman in a Doorway (1657–58) Ahasuerus and Haman at the Feast of Esther (1660), Pushkin Museum , Moscow The Incredulity of St Thomas (1660), Pushkin Museum , Moscow Saint Bartholomew (1661), J. Paul Getty Museum , Malibu The Syndics of the Drapers' Guild (1662) The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis (cut-down) (1661–62) Lucretia (1666), Minneapolis Institute of Art The Return of the Prodigal Son ( c. 1669 ), Hermitage Museum , Saint Petersburg , Russia Drawings and etchings Self-portrait , c. 1628 –29, pen and brush and ink on paper Self-portrait in a cap, with eyes wide open , 1630, etching and burin Seated Old Man (c. 1630), red and black chalk on paper, Nationalmuseum, Stockholm Suzannah and the Elders , 1634, drawing in Sanguine on paper, Kupferstichkabinett Berlin Self-portrait with Saskia , 1636, etching An elephant , 1637, drawing in black chalk on paper, Albertina , Austria Self-portrait leaning on a Sill , 1639, etching Christ and the woman taken in adultery , c. 1639–41, drawing in ink, Louvre Beggars I. , c. 1640–42, ink on paper, Warsaw University Library The Windmill , 1641, etching The Diemerdijk at Houtewael (near Amsterdam), 1648–49, pen and brown ink, brown wash, Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen The Three Crosses , 1653, drypoint etching, state III of V Virgin and Child with a Cat , 1654, original copper etching plate above (the original copper plate), in Victoria and Albert Museum , example of the print below Christ presented to the People , drypoint etching, 1655, state I of VIII Two Old Men in Conversation /Two Jews in Discussion, Walking , year unknown, black chalk and brown ink on paper, Teylers Museum A child being taught to walk (c. 1635) A young woman sleeping (c. 1654). Shows Rembrandt's calligraphic-style draughtsmanship. [ 172 ] [ 173 ] Works about Rembrandt Literary works (e.g. poetry and fiction) To the Picture of Rembrandt , a Russian-language poem by Mikhail Lermontov , 1830 Gaspard de la nuit: Fantaisies à la manière de Rembrandt et de Callot , a series of French-language poems by Aloysius Bertrand , 1842 Picture This , a novel by Joseph Heller , 1988 Moi, la Putain de Rembrandt , a French-language novel by Sylvie Matton, 1998 Van Rijn , a novel by Sarah Emily Miano, 2006 I Am Rembrandt's Daughter , a novel by Lynn Cullen, 2007 The Rembrandt Affair , a novel by Daniel Silva , 2011 The Anatomy Lesson , a novel by Nina Siegal, 2014 Rembrandt's Mirror , a novel by Kim Devereux, 2015 Music The Donna Summer song " Dinner with Gershwin " contain the lyrics "I want to watch Rembrandt sketch." The Scott Walker song "Duchess" features the lyrics "It's your bicycle bells / and your Rembrandt swells" The song on the Dreamville album Revenge of the Dreamers III "Rembrand... Run it Back" Films The Stolen Rembrandt , a 1914 film directed by Leo D. Maloney and J. P. McGowan The Tragedy of a Great / Die Tragödie eines Großen , a 1920 film directed by Arthur Günsburg The Missing Rembrandt , a 1932 film directed by Leslie S. Hiscott Rembrandt , a 1936 film directed by Alexander Korda Rembrandt , a 1940 film Rembrandt in de schuilkelder / Rembrandt in the Bunker , a 1941 film directed by Gerard Rutten Rembrandt , a 1942 film directed by Hans Steinhoff Rembrandt: A Self-Portrait , a 1954 documentary film by Morrie Roizman Rembrandt, schilder van de mens / Rembrandt, Painter of Man , a 1957 film directed by Bert Haanstra Rembrandt fecit 1669 , a 1977 film directed by Jos Stelling Rembrandt: The Public Eye and the Private Gaze , a 1992 documentary film by Simon Schama Rembrandt , a 1999 film directed by Charles Matton Rembrandt: Fathers & Sons [ it ] , a 1999 film directed by David Devine Stealing Rembrandt , a 2003 film directed by Jannik Johansen and Anders Thomas Jensen Simon Schama's Power of Art : Rembrandt , a 2006 BBC documentary film series by Simon Schama Nightwatching , a 2007 film directed by Peter Greenaway Rembrandt's J'Accuse , a 2008 documentary film by Peter Greenaway Rembrandt en ik [ nl ] , a 2011 film directed by Marleen Gorris Schama on Rembrandt: Masterpieces of the Late Years , a 2014 documentary film by Simon Schama Notes ^ This version of his first name, "Rembrandt" with a "d," first appeared in his signatures in 1633. Until then, he had signed with a combination of initials or monograms. In late 1632, he began signing solely with his first name, "Rembrant". He added the "d" in the following year and stuck to this spelling for the rest of his life. Although scholars can only speculate, this change must have had a meaning for Rembrandt, which is generally interpreted as his wanting to be known by his first name like the great figures of the Italian Renaissance: Leonardo, Raphael etc., who did not sign with their last names, if at all. [ 7 ] ^ Rembrandt promised the owner—a woman with mental problems—to pay a quarter of the purchase price within a year; [ 20 ] the rest within five to six years. For some reason the purchase was not registered at the town hall and had to be renewed in 1653. [ 21 ] ^ Their son Rombartus died two months after his birth and their daughter Cornelia died at just three weeks of age. A second daughter, also named Cornelia, died after living barely over a month. ^ His children were christened in Dutch Reformed churches in Amsterdam: four in the Old Church and Titus, in the Southern Church . [ 25 ] ^ Five years later he did not support her release without the presence of her brother, a sailor. In August 1656 Geertghe Dircx was listed as one of Rembrandt's seven major creditors. ^ Quite a few people were in debt after the First Anglo-Dutch War . [ 35 ] The Dutch were driven from Brazil too; the 'Brazilian Adventure' cost the Dutch merchant community dearly. [ 36 ] ^ Jan van de Capelle bought 500 of the drawings/prints by Lucas van Leyden , Hercules Seghers and Goltzius among others. ^ Useful totals of the figures from various different oeuvre catalogues, often divided into classes along the lines of: "very likely authentic", "possibly authentic" and "unlikely to be authentic" are given at the Online Rembrandt catalogue [ 69 ] ^ Two hundred years ago Bartsch listed 375. More recent catalogues have added three (two in unique impressions) and excluded enough to reach totals as follows: Schwartz, pp. 6, 289; Münz 1952, 279; Boon 1963, 287 Print Council of America – but Schwartz's total quoted does not tally with the book. ^ It is not possible to give a total, as a new wave of scholarship on Rembrandt drawings is still in progress – analysis of the Berlin collection for an exhibition in 2006/7 has produced a probable drop from 130 sheets there to about 60. Codart.nl [ 70 ] The British Museum is due to publish a new catalogue after a similar exercise. ^ While the popular interpretation is that these paintings represent a personal and introspective journey, it is possible that they were painted to satisfy a market for self-portraits by prominent artists. Van de Wetering, p. 290. ^ Such as Otto Benesch , [ 106 ] [ 107 ] [ 108 ] David Hockney , [ 109 ] Nigel Konstam , Jakob Rosenberg , Gary Schwartz , and Seymour Slive . [ 110 ] [ 111 ] References ^ a b c Or possibly 1607 as on 10 June 1634 he himself claimed to be 26 years old. See Is the Rembrandt Year being celebrated one year too soon? One year too late? Archived 21 November 2010 at the Wayback Machine and (in Dutch) J. de Jong, Rembrandts geboortejaar een jaar te vroeg gevierd Archived 18 July 2010 at the Wayback Machine for sources concerning Rembrandt's birth year, especially supporting 1607. However, most sources continue to use 1606. ^ "Rembrandt" Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine . Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary . ^ a b Gombrich, p. 420. ^ Gombrich, p. 427. ^ Clark 1969 , p. 203 ^ W. Liedtke (2007) Dutch painting in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, p. 687 ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Rembrandt Signature Files" . www.rembrandt-signature-file.com . Archived from the original on 9 April 2016. ^ Bull, et al., p. 28. ^ Ruprecht, Louis A., Jr. "Rembrandt at 350: Light and Shadow in the Modern World" . Sacred Matters Magazine . Retrieved 26 February 2025 . {{ cite magazine }} : CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( link ) ^ a b (in Dutch) Rembrandt biography in De groote schouburgh der Nederlantsche konstschilders en schilderessen (1718) by Arnold Houbraken , courtesy of the Digital library for Dutch literature ^ Joris van Schooten as teacher of Rembrandt and Lievens Archived 26 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine in Simon van Leeuwen's Korte besgryving van het Lugdunum Batavorum nu Leyden , Leiden, 1672 ^ Slive (1995) has a comprehensive biography, pp. 55ff. ^ Schwarz, G. (1987) Rembrandt, p. 134. ^ Slive (1995), pp. 60, 65 ^ Slive (1995), pp. 60–61 ^ Registration of the banns of Rembrandt and Saskia , kept at the Amsterdam City Archives ^ a b c Bull, et al., p. 28 ^ a b "Rijksmuseum" . Rijksmuseum . ^ "RemDoc" . ^ Anrooij, Wim van; Hoftijzer, Paul (28 June 2017). Vijftien strekkende meter: Nieuwe onderzoeksmogelijkheden in het archief van de Bibliotheca Thysiana . Uitgeverij Verloren. ISBN 9789087046842 – via Google Books. ^ a b c "Rembrandt's boedelafstand door jhr. mr. J.F. Backer., Elseviers Geïllustreerd Maandschrift. Jaargang 29" . DBNL . ^ Adams, p. 660 ^ "Pieter C. Vis: Andries de Graeff (1611–1678) 't Gezagh is heerelyk: doch vol bekommeringen" (PDF) . ^ "Portrait of Andries de Graeff (1611–1678), Burgomaster of Amsterdam" . The Leiden Collection . ^ "Doopregisters, Zoek" (in Dutch). Amsterdam City Archive . Retrieved 7 March 2023 . ^ a b Slive (1995), p. 71 ^ "Indexen" . archief.amsterdam . ^ Crenshaw, Paul (2006). Rembrandt's bankruptcy: the artist, his patrons, and the art market in seventeenth-century Nederlands . Cambridge: University Press. ISBN 978-0521858250 . OCLC 902528433 . ^ "Dircks, Geertje (ca. 1610-1656?)" . Resources Huygens ING . 25 March 2024. ^ C. Driessen, pp. 151–157 ^ Gary Schwartz (1987) Rembrandt. Zijn leven, zijn schilderijen, p. 248. ^ G. Schwartz, pp. 292–293 ^ Slive (1995), p. 82 ^ "Rembrandt" . Voetnoot.org . ^ Dehing, P. (2012). Geld in Amsterdam. Wisselbank en wisselkoersen, 1650–1725. [Universiteit van Amsterdam], p. 142 ^ Professor P. C. Emmer, review of The Rise of Commercial Empires England and the Netherlands in the Age of Mercantilism, 1650–1770, (review no. 345) Date accessed: 26 March 2023 ^ Wexuan, Li. "Review of: 'Rembrandts plan: De ware geschiedenis van zijn faillissement" , Oud Holland Reviews , April 2020. ^ Broos, B. (1999) Das Leben Rembrandts van Rijn (1606–1669). In: Rembrandt Selbstbildnisse, p. 79. ^ a b "Drie vragen aan Machiel Bosman | Rembrandts plan | Faillissement Rembrandt van Rijn" . ^ C.M. in ’t Veld (2019) Rembrandts boedelafstand: een institutionele en politieke benadering ^ Wexuan, Li. "Review of: 'Rembrandts plan: De ware geschiedenis van zijn faillissement" , Oud Holland Reviews , April 2020. ^ a b M. Bosman (2019) Rembrandts plan. De ware geschiedenis van zijn faillissement ^ Crenshaw, P. (2006) Rembrandt's Bankruptcy. The artist, his patrons and the art market in seventeenth-century Netherlands, pp. 61, 76. ^ Ruysscher, Dave De; Veld, Cornelis In ’T (26 April 2021). "Rembrandt's insolvency: The artist as legal actor" (PDF) . Oud Holland – Journal for Art of the Low Countries . 134 (1): 9– 24. doi : 10.1163/18750176-13401002 . S2CID 236619973 – via brill.com. ^ Schwartz (1984), pp. 288–291 ^ Slive (1995), p. 84 ^ "Inventarissen" . archief.amsterdam . ^ Dudok van Heel, S.A.C. (1969) De Rembrandt's in de verzamelingen Hinlopen. In: Maandblad Amstelodamum, pp. 233-237. (In Dutch.) ^ "Inventarissen" . archief.amsterdam . ^ Wexuan, Li. "Review of: 'Rembrandts plan: De ware geschiedenis van zijn faillissement" , Oud Holland Reviews , April 2020. ^ Clark, 1974 p. 105 ^ "De geldzaken van Rembrandt - Stadsarchief Amsterdam" . ^ Clark 1974, pp. 60–61 ^ Bull, et al., p. 29. ^ Jan Veth (1906) Rembrandt's verwarde zaken DBNL ^ Ruysscher, Dave De; Veld, Cornelis In ’T (26 April 2021). "Rembrandt's insolvency: The artist as legal actor" (PDF) . Oud Holland – Journal for Art of the Low Countries . 134 (1): 9– 24. doi : 10.1163/18750176-13401002 . S2CID 236619973 – via brill.com. ^ Bailly, M.-Ch le; Bailly, Maria Charlotte Le (28 June 2008). Hof van Holland, Zeeland en West-Friesland: de hoofdlijnen van het procederen in civiele zaken voor het Hof van Holland, Zeeland en West-Friesland zowel in eerste instantie als in hoger beroep . Uitgeverij Verloren. ISBN 978-9087040567 – via Google Books. ^ Wexuan, Li. "Review of: 'Rembrandts plan: De ware geschiedenis van zijn faillissement" , Oud Holland Reviews , April 2020. ^ "380 Whitewashing Rembrandt, part 2 – Gary Schwartz Art Historian" . 1 March 2020. ^ Clark 1978, p. 34 ^ Burial register of the Westerkerk with record of Rembrandt's burial , kept at the Amsterdam City Archives ^ "Cornelia van Rijn" . ^ Dudok van Heel, S.A.C. (1987) Dossier Rembrandt, pp. 86–88 ^ "Rembrandt made a mess of his legal and financial life" . Leiden University . 16 November 2021. ^ Rembrandt’s insolvency: No preconceived plan, but smart entrepreneurship. VUB, 2021 ^ Hughes, p. 6 ^ "A Web Catalogue of Rembrandt Paintings" . 28 July 2012. Archived from the original on 28 July 2012. ^ "Institute Member Login – Institute for the Study of Western Civilization" . Archived from the original on 29 September 2007. ^ "A Web Catalogue of Rembrandt Paintings" . Archived from the original on 13 May 2012 . Retrieved 10 July 2007 . ^ "Rembrandt, der Zeichner" . Archived from the original on 27 May 2016 . Retrieved 3 October 2007 . ^ "Schwartzlist 301 – Blog entry by the Rembrandt scholar Gary Schwartz" . Garyschwartzarthistorian.nl. 3 January 2010. Archived from the original on 22 February 2012 . Retrieved 17 February 2012 . ^ White and Buvelot 1999, p. 10. ^ Taylor, Michael (2007). Rembrandt's Nose: Of Flesh & Spirit in the Master's Portraits Archived 5 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine p. 21, D.A.P./Distributed Art Publishers, Inc., New York ISBN 978-1933045443 ' ^ Durham, p. 60. ^ Bull, et al., pp. 11–13. ^ Wheelock, Arthur K., Jr. (2020). "Rembrandt as Universal Artist" . The Leiden Collection. {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( link ) ^ Vaizey, Marina (19 October 2014). "Schama on Rembrandt: Masterpieces of the Late Years, BBC Two" . The Arts Desk . ^ Clough, p. 23 ^ van der Wetering, p. 268. ^ van de Wetering, pp. 160, 190. ^ Ackley, p. 14. ^ a b c van de Wetering, p. 284. ^ van de Wetering, p. 285. ^ van de Wetering, p. 287. ^ van de Wetering, p. 286. ^ van de Wetering, p. 288. ^ van de Wetering, pp. 163–165. ^ van de Wetering, p. 289. ^ Clark 1978, p. 28 ^ van de Wetering, pp. 155–165. ^ van de Wetering, pp. 157–158, 190. ^ "In Rembrandt's (late) great portraits we feel face to face with real people, we sense their warmth, their need for sympathy and also their loneliness and suffering. Those keen and steady eyes that we know so well from Rembrandt's self-portraits must have been able to look straight into the human heart." Gombrich, p. 423. ^ The Jewish Bride "is a picture of grown-up love, a marvelous amalgam of richness, tenderness, and trust... the heads which, in their truth, have a spiritual glow that painters influenced by the classical tradition could never achieve." Clark [ year needed ] , p. 206. ^ Schwartz, 1994, pp. 8–12 ^ White 1969, pp. 5–6 ^ White 1969, p. 6 ^ White 1969, pp. 6, 9–10 ^ White, 1969 pp. 6–7 ^ Christiaan Vogelaar & Gregor J.M. Weber (2006) Rembrandts Landschappen ^ See Schwartz, 1994, where the works are divided by subject, following Bartsch . ^ "Rembrandt 1606 - 1669" . The National Gallery . Retrieved 26 February 2025 . ^ "The Entombment: Andrea Mantegna" . National Gallery of Art. Archived from the original on 26 February 2025 . Retrieved 26 February 2025 . Rembrandt, among others, used Mantegna's Entombment as a model. ^ Liedtke, Walter A. (1 October 2003). "Rembrandt (1606–1669): Paintings" . Metropolitan Museum of Art . Retrieved 26 February 2025 . ^ "Under the Spell of Hercules Segers: Rembrandt and the Moderns" . Museum Rembrandt Huis . Retrieved 26 February 2025 . ^ "Self-Portrait: Rembrandt van Rijn" . National Gallery of Art. Archived from the original on 26 February 2025 . Retrieved 26 February 2025 . ^ Benesch, Otto: The Drawings of Rembrandt: First Complete Edition in Six Volumes . (London: Phaidon, 1954–57) ^ Benesch, Otto: Rembrandt as a Draughtsman : An Essay with 115 Illustrations . (London: Phaidon Press, 1960) ^ Benesch, Otto: The Drawings of Rembrandt . A Critical and Chronological Catalogue [2nd ed., 6 vols.]. (London: Phaidon, 1973) ^ Lewis, Tim (16 November 2014). "David Hockney: 'When I'm working, I feel like Picasso, I feel I'm 30' " . The Guardian . Archived from the original on 16 May 2020 . Retrieved 16 June 2020 . ^ Slive, Seymour: The Drawings of Rembrandt: A New Study . (London: Thames & Hudson, 2009) ^ Silve, Seymour: The Drawings of Rembrandt . (London: Thames & Hudson, 2019) ^ Schrader, Stephanie; et al. (eds.): Rembrandt and the Inspiration of India Archived 1 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine . (Los Angeles, CA: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2018) ISBN 978-1606065525 ^ "Rembrandt and the Inspiration of India (catalogue)" (PDF) . Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 October 2019 . Retrieved 18 October 2019 . ^ "In Paintings: Rembrandt & his Mughal India Inspiration" . 3 September 2017. Archived from the original on 23 May 2018 . Retrieved 12 May 2018 . ^ Ganz, James (2013). Rembrandt's Century . San Francisco, CA: Fine Arts Museum of San Francisco. p. 45. ISBN 978-3791352244 . ^ Beliën, H. & P. Knevel (2006) Langs Rembrandts roem, pp. 92–121 ^ a b Boffey, Daniel (8 December 2021). "Hidden sketch revealed beneath Rembrandt's The Night Watch" . The Guardian . ^ a b c Manca, Joseph (2022). "3. The Moment in Rembrandt's Night Watch: The Musket Blast, Narrative Drama, and Moral Excellence" . Journal of Interdisciplinary History of Ideas . 11 (21). Item 4. ^ "The Rembrandt Research Project: Past, Present, Future" (PDF) . Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 August 2014 . Retrieved 11 August 2014 . ^ See "Further Battles for the 'Lisowczyk' (Polish Rider) by Rembrandt" Zdzislaw Zygulski, Jr., Artibus et Historiae , Vol. 21, No. 41 (2000), pp. 197–205. Also New York Times story Archived 8 January 2008 at the Wayback Machine . There is a book on the subject: Responses to Rembrandt; Who painted the Polish Rider? by Anthony Bailey (New York, 1993) ^ John Russell (1 December 1985). "Art View; In Search of the Real Thing" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 1 July 2017 . Retrieved 12 February 2017 . ^ Schama, Simon (1999). Rembrandt's Eyes . Knopf, p. 720. ^ Schama, pp. 582–591. ^ "Rembrandt Pilate Washing His Hands Oil Painting Reproduction" . Outpost Art. Archived from the original on 12 January 2015 . Retrieved 1 January 2015 . ^ "Entertainment | Lost Rembrandt works discovered" . BBC News . 23 September 2005. Archived from the original on 22 December 2006 . Retrieved 7 October 2009 . ^ Brown, Mark (23 May 2014), "Rembrandt expert urges National Gallery to rethink demoted painting" , The Guardian , archived from the original on 21 September 2016 , retrieved 21 December 2015 ^ "...Rembrandt was not always the perfectly consistent, logical Dutchman he was originally anticipated to be." Ackley, p. 13. ^ van de Wetering, p. x. ^ Kühn, Hermann. 'Untersuchungen zu den Pigmenten und Malgründen Rembrandts, durchgeführt an den Gemälden der Staatlichen Kunstsammlungen Dresden'(Examination of pigments and grounds used by Rembrandt, analysis carried out on paintings in the Staatlichen Kunstsammlungen Dresden), Maltechnik/Restauro, issue 4 (1977): 223–233 ^ Kühn, Hermann. 'Untersuchungen zu den Pigmenten und Malgründen Rembrandts, durchgeführt an den Gemälden der Staatlichen Kunstsammlungen Kassel' (Examination of pigments and grounds used by Rembrandt, analysis carried out on paintings in the Staatlichen Kunstsammlungen Kassel), Maltechnik/Restauro, volume 82 (1976): 25–33 ^ Van Loon, A., Noble, P., Krekeler, A., van der Snickt, G., Janssens, K., Abe, Y., Nakai, I., & Dik, J. 2017. "Artificial orpiment, a new pigment in Rembrandt's palette". Heritage Science, 5 (26) ^ Rembrandt, Saskia as Flora Archived 15 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine , ColourLex ^ a b Bomford, D. et al., Art in the making: Rembrandt, New edition, Yale University Press, 2006 ^ Rembrandt, Belshazzar's Feast, Pigment analysis Archived 7 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine at ColourLex ^ "Resources Rembrandt" . ColourLex . Archived from the original on 24 February 2021 . Retrieved 23 February 2021 . ^ "The Rembrandt Database" . Archived from the original on 23 August 2015 . Retrieved 6 July 2015 . ^ Roberts, Russell. Rembrandt . Mitchell Lane Publishers, 2009. ISBN 978-1612287607 . p. 13. ^ Chronology of his signatures (pdf) Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine with examples. Source: www.rembrandt-signature-file.com ^ Slive (1995), p. 60 ^ Rembrandt pupils (under Leraar van ) in the RKD , who list 29, plus another list of followers. ^ Clark 1974, pp. 147–150. See the catalogue in Further reading for the location of all accepted Rembrandts (at that time) ^ G. Schwartz (1987) Rembrandt, zijn leven, zijn schilderen. ^ "The Lanckoroński Collection – Rembrandt's Paintings" . zamek-krolewski.pl . Archived from the original on 20 May 2014 . Retrieved 20 May 2014 . The works of art which Karolina Lanckorońska gave to the Royal Castle in 1994 was one of the most invaluable gift's made in the museum's history. ^ "Rembrandt" . Rijksmuseum . Retrieved 26 February 2025 . Artworks (1745 [pieces]) ^ "Rembrandt van Rijn, Harmensz, oeuvre en rapport" . Louvre . Retrieved 26 February 2025 . 221 results ^ "Rembrandt" . British Museum . Retrieved 26 February 2025 . 3,210 Related objects though the majority of both of these are prints ^ "Collection" . Rembrandt House Museum. 9 January 2023 . Retrieved 26 February 2025 . The Rembrandt House Museum has built up a large collection of artworks of not only paintings and drawings, but also almost all of Rembrandt's etchings. ^ For example Hinterding et al., no. 2, with 2 impressions known; unique or very rare states of prints are more frequent. ^ Hinterding et al., 21 ^ Hinterding et al., 7 ^ "Rembrandt etchings", Morgan Library ^ Hinterding, Erik (1995). The history of Rembrandt's copperplates: with a catalog of those that survive . Zwolle. ISBN 90-400-9744-5 . ^ "The National Museum of Art of Romania – Rembrandt – Haman before Esther" . www.mnar.arts.ro . Archived from the original on 7 November 2021 . Retrieved 15 July 2020 . ^ a b "Rembrandt tentoonstilling" . www.nga.gov . Archived from the original on 14 August 2019 . Retrieved 14 August 2019 . ^ "Rembrandt's Religious Etchings | National Gallery of Art" . www.nga.gov . 30 January 2005 . Retrieved 8 August 2025 . ^ "Rembrandt's Late Religious Portraits | National Gallery of Art" . www.nga.gov . 30 January 2005 . Retrieved 8 August 2025 . ^ "Rembrandt and the Face of Jesus" . Archived from the original on 31 January 2015 . Retrieved 13 January 2015 . ^ "Rembrandt and Degas" . The Metropolitan Museum of Art . Retrieved 22 August 2025 . ^ "Rembrandt: The Consummate Etcher" . Archived from the original on 13 January 2015 . Retrieved 13 January 2015 . ^ "From Rembrandt to Rosenquist: Works on Paper from the NAC's Permanent Collection" . Archived from the original on 31 January 2015 . Retrieved 11 January 2015 . Retrieved 11 January 2015. "MutualArt.com" . Archived from the original on 10 January 2015 . Retrieved 11 January 2015 . ^ "Rembrandt, Rubens, Gainsborough and the Golden Age of Painting in Europe" . Archived from the original on 31 January 2015 . Retrieved 11 January 2015 . Retrieved 11 January 2015. "MutualArt.com" . Archived from the original on 10 January 2015 . Retrieved 11 January 2015 . ^ "Rembrandt: The Late Works" . Archived from the original on 31 January 2015 . Retrieved 11 January 2015 . "MutualArt.com" . Archived from the original on 10 January 2015 . Retrieved 11 January 2015 . ^ "MutualArt – Auctions, Exhibitions and Analysis for over 400,000 artists" . www.mutualart.com . Archived from the original on 10 October 2018 . Retrieved 10 October 2018 . ^ "MutualArt.com – The Web's Largest Art Information Service" . www.mutualart.com . Archived from the original on 10 October 2018 . Retrieved 10 October 2018 . ^ "Leiden circa 1630: Rembrandt Emerges | Agnes Etherington Art Centre" . agnes.queensu.ca . Archived from the original on 15 January 2019 . Retrieved 15 January 2019 . ^ "Rembrandt's Light | Dulwich Picture Gallery" . www.dulwichpicturegallery.org.uk . Archived from the original on 6 August 2020 . Retrieved 12 February 2020 . ^ "Exhibitions Rembrandt and Amsterdam portraiture, 1590–1670" . Madrid: Museo Nacional Thyssen Bornemisza. 2020. Archived from the original on 9 October 2020 . Retrieved 19 September 2020 . ^ "Welcome | Ashmolean Museum" . Archived from the original on 24 September 2020 . Retrieved 23 September 2020 . ^ "Rembrandt: Etchings from the Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen | Worcester Art Museum" . www.worcesterart.org . Archived from the original on 7 September 2025 . Retrieved 4 December 2025 . ^ White, 200 ^ Starcky, Emmanuel (1990). Rembrandt . Hazan. p. 45. ISBN 978-2850252129 . ^ Mendelowitz, Daniel Marcus: Drawing . (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc., 1967), p. 305. ^ Sullivan, Michael: The Meeting of Eastern and Western Art . (Berkeley/Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1989), p. 91 Works cited Ackley, Clifford, et al., Rembrandt's Journey , Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, 2004. ISBN 0-87846-677-0 Adams, Laurie Schneider (1999). Art Across Time. Volume II . New York: McGraw-Hill College. Bomford, David, et al., Art in the Making: Rembrandt , New edition, Yale University Press, 2006. Bull, Duncan, et al., Rembrandt-Caravaggio , Rijksmuseum, 2006. Buvelot, Quentin, White, Christopher (eds), Rembrandt by himself , 1999, National Gallery Clark, Kenneth (1969). Civilisation: A Personal View . New York: Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0-06-010801-4 . Clark, Kenneth , An Introduction to Rembrandt , 1978, London, John Murray/Readers Union, 1978 Clough, Shepard B. (1975). European History in a World Perspective . D.C. Heath and Company, Los Lexington, MA. ISBN 978-0-669-85555-5 . Driessen, Christoph, Rembrandts vrouwen , Bert Bakker, Amsterdam, 2012. ISBN 978-90-351-3690-8 Durham, John I. (2004). Biblical Rembrandt: Human Painter in a Landscape of Faith . Mercer University Press. ISBN 978-0-86554-886-2 . Gombrich, E. H. , The Story of Art , Phaidon, 1995. ISBN 0-7148-3355-X Hinterding, Eric, Luijten, Ger, Royalton-Kisch, Martin, Rembrandt the Printmaker , 2000, British Museum Press/Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, ISBN 071412625X Hughes, Robert (6 April 2006), "The God of Realism", The New York Review of Books , vol. 53, no. 6 {{ citation }} : CS1 maint: year ( link ) The Complete Etchings of Rembrandt Reproduced in Original Size , Gary Schwartz (editor). New York: Dover, 1988. ISBN 0-486-28181-7 Slive, Seymour , ed. (1995), Dutch Painting, 1600–1800 , Yale University Press ISBN 0-300-07451-4 van de Wetering, Ernst in Rembrandt by himself , 1999 National Gallery, London/Mauritshuis, The Hague, ISBN 1-85709-270-8 van de Wetering, Ernst , Rembrandt: The Painter at Work , Amsterdam University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-520-22668-2 White, Christopher, The Late Etchings of Rembrandt , 1999, British Museum/Lund Humphries, London ISBN 978-90-400-9315-9 Further reading Catalogue raisonné : Stichting Foundation Rembrandt Research Project: A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings – Volume I , which deals with works from Rembrandt's early years in Leiden (1629–1631), 1982 A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings – Volume II: 1631–1634 . Bruyn, J., Haak, B. (et al.), Band 2, 1986, ISBN 978-90-247-3339-2 A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings – Volume III, 1635–1642 . Bruyn, J., Haak, B., Levie, S.H., van Thiel, P.J.J. , van de Wetering, E. (Ed. Hrsg.), Band 3, 1990, ISBN 978-90-247-3781-9 A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings – Volume IV . Ernst van de Wetering , Karin Groen et al. Springer, Dordrecht, the Netherlands. ISBN 1-4020-3280-3 . p. 692. (Self-Portraits) A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings – Volume I , which deals with works from Rembrandt's early years in Leiden (1629–1631), 1982 A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings – Volume II: 1631–1634 . Bruyn, J., Haak, B. (et al.), Band 2, 1986, ISBN 978-90-247-3339-2 A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings – Volume III, 1635–1642 . Bruyn, J., Haak, B., Levie, S.H., van Thiel, P.J.J. , van de Wetering, E. (Ed. Hrsg.), Band 3, 1990, ISBN 978-90-247-3781-9 A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings – Volume IV . Ernst van de Wetering , Karin Groen et al. Springer, Dordrecht, the Netherlands. ISBN 1-4020-3280-3 . p. 692. (Self-Portraits) Christian and Astrid Tümpel (2006). Rembrandt: Images and Metaphors . London: Haus Publishing. ISBN 978-1-904950-92-9 Anthony M. Amore; Tom Mashberg (2012). Stealing Rembrandts: The Untold Stories of Notorious Art Heists . St. Martin's Publishing. ISBN 978-0-230-33990-3 . External links A biography of the artist Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn from the National Gallery, London Works and literature on Rembrandt from Pubhist.com The Drawings of Rembrandt: a revision of Otto Benesch's catalogue raisonné by Martin Royalton-Kisch (in progress) Rembrandt's house in Amsterdam Site of the Rembrandt House Museum in Amsterdam, with images of many of his etchings 114 artworks by or after Rembrandt at the Art UK site Works by or about Rembrandt at the Internet Archive Rembrandt van Rijn, General Resources The transparent connoisseur 3: the 30 million pound question by Gary Schwartz The Rembrandt Database research data on the paintings, including the full contents of the first volumes of A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings by the Rembrandt Research Project Some Rembrandt drawings at the Albertina Die Urkunden über Rembrandt by C. Hofstede de Groot (1906). Reality and Imagination: Rembrandt and the Jews in the Dutch Republic Exhibition at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston , December 15, 2025–December 1, 2026. .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Rembrandt v t e Lists of drawings , etchings , paintings , prints , self-portraits Paintings The Senses (1624–25) The Stoning of Saint Stephen (1625) Suffer little children to come unto me (1620s) History Painting (1626) Balaam and the Ass (1626) The Baptism of the Eunuch (1626) Bust of a Man Wearing a Gorget and Plumed Beret (1626) Tobit and Anna with the Kid (c. 1626) The Flight into Egypt (1627) The Parable of the Rich Fool (1627) The Artist in his Studio (1628) Samson and Delilah (1629–30) Jeremiah Lamenting the Destruction of Jerusalem (1630) Anna and the Blind Tobit (c. 1630) The Raising of Lazarus (c. 1630–1632) Andromeda Chained to the Rocks (1631) The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp (1631) Christ with a Staff (1631) Christ on the Cross (1631) Old Man with a Gold Chain (c. 1631) Philosopher in Meditation (1632) The Abduction of Europa (1632) Adoration of the Magi (1632–1633) The Shipbuilder and his Wife (1633) The Storm on the Sea of Galilee (1633) 2 A Lady and Gentleman in Black (1633) Raising of the Cross (1633) Descent from the Cross (1633) Diana Bathing with her Nymphs with Actaeon and Callisto (1634) Flora (1634) Judith at the Banquet of Holofernes (1634) Descent from the Cross (1634) Belshazzar's Feast (1635) Minerva (1635) The Prodigal Son in the Brothel (c. 1635) Raising of the Cross (study) (c. 1635) The Rape of Ganymede (1635) The Entombment of Christ (1635) Samson Threatening His Father-In-Law (1635) The Standard Bearer (1636) Danaë (1636) The Blinding of Samson (1636) Landscape with Arched Bridge (c. 1636-1637) The Preacher Eleazar Swalmius (1637) The Archangel Raphael Leaving Tobias' Family (1637) The Stone Bridge (1637) The Wedding Feast of Samson (1638) Landscape with the Good Samaritan (1638) Still Life with Peacocks (c. 1639) The Girl in a Picture Frame (1641) The Scholar at the Lectern (1641) The Night Watch (1642) Concord of the State (1642) David and Jonathan (1642) Boaz and Ruth (1643) The Woman Taken in Adultery (1644) Joseph's Dream (1645) Holy Family with Angels (1645) The Mill (1645–1648) Abraham Serving the Three Angels (1646) Susanna and the Elders (1647) Head of Christ (1648) The Kitchen Maid (1651) Descent from the Cross (1650–1652) Saul and David (c. 1652) 1 Aristotle with a Bust of Homer (1653) A Woman Bathing in a Stream (1654) Bathsheba at Her Bath (1654) The Polish Rider (1655) 1 Slaughtered Ox (1655) Pallas Athena (c. 1655) The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Deijman (1656) Jacob Blessing the Sons of Joseph (1656) Courtesan at her Mirror (1657) Saint Bartholomew (1657) Moses Breaking the Tablets of the Law (1659) Ahasuerus and Haman at the Feast of Esther (1660) The Denial of Saint Peter (1660) Titus as a Monk (1660) The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis (1661) Saint Matthew and the Angel (1661) Syndics of the Drapers' Guild (1662) Homer Dictating his Verses (1663) The Jewish Bride (1664) Lucretia (1664) 1 David and Uriah (c. 1665) Young Woman with a Lapdog (1665) Lucretia (1666) The Return of the Prodigal Son (1662–1669) Simeon in the Temple (c. 1669) Landscape with a Castle The Senses (1624–25) The Stoning of Saint Stephen (1625) Suffer little children to come unto me (1620s) History Painting (1626) Balaam and the Ass (1626) The Baptism of the Eunuch (1626) Bust of a Man Wearing a Gorget and Plumed Beret (1626) Tobit and Anna with the Kid (c. 1626) The Flight into Egypt (1627) The Parable of the Rich Fool (1627) The Artist in his Studio (1628) Samson and Delilah (1629–30) Jeremiah Lamenting the Destruction of Jerusalem (1630) Anna and the Blind Tobit (c. 1630) The Raising of Lazarus (c. 1630–1632) Andromeda Chained to the Rocks (1631) The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp (1631) Christ with a Staff (1631) Christ on the Cross (1631) Old Man with a Gold Chain (c. 1631) Philosopher in Meditation (1632) The Abduction of Europa (1632) Adoration of the Magi (1632–1633) The Shipbuilder and his Wife (1633) The Storm on the Sea of Galilee (1633) 2 A Lady and Gentleman in Black (1633) Raising of the Cross (1633) Descent from the Cross (1633) Diana Bathing with her Nymphs with Actaeon and Callisto (1634) Flora (1634) Judith at the Banquet of Holofernes (1634) Descent from the Cross (1634) Belshazzar's Feast (1635) Minerva (1635) The Prodigal Son in the Brothel (c. 1635) Raising of the Cross (study) (c. 1635) The Rape of Ganymede (1635) The Entombment of Christ (1635) Samson Threatening His Father-In-Law (1635) The Standard Bearer (1636) Danaë (1636) The Blinding of Samson (1636) Landscape with Arched Bridge (c. 1636-1637) The Preacher Eleazar Swalmius (1637) The Archangel Raphael Leaving Tobias' Family (1637) The Stone Bridge (1637) The Wedding Feast of Samson (1638) Landscape with the Good Samaritan (1638) Still Life with Peacocks (c. 1639) The Girl in a Picture Frame (1641) The Scholar at the Lectern (1641) The Night Watch (1642) Concord of the State (1642) David and Jonathan (1642) Boaz and Ruth (1643) The Woman Taken in Adultery (1644) Joseph's Dream (1645) Holy Family with Angels (1645) The Mill (1645–1648) Abraham Serving the Three Angels (1646) Susanna and the Elders (1647) Head of Christ (1648) The Kitchen Maid (1651) Descent from the Cross (1650–1652) Saul and David (c. 1652) 1 Aristotle with a Bust of Homer (1653) A Woman Bathing in a Stream (1654) Bathsheba at Her Bath (1654) The Polish Rider (1655) 1 Slaughtered Ox (1655) Pallas Athena (c. 1655) The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Deijman (1656) Jacob Blessing the Sons of Joseph (1656) Courtesan at her Mirror (1657) Saint Bartholomew (1657) Moses Breaking the Tablets of the Law (1659) Ahasuerus and Haman at the Feast of Esther (1660) The Denial of Saint Peter (1660) Titus as a Monk (1660) The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis (1661) Saint Matthew and the Angel (1661) Syndics of the Drapers' Guild (1662) Homer Dictating his Verses (1663) The Jewish Bride (1664) Lucretia (1664) 1 David and Uriah (c. 1665) Young Woman with a Lapdog (1665) Lucretia (1666) The Return of the Prodigal Son (1662–1669) Simeon in the Temple (c. 1669) Landscape with a Castle Portraits Portrait of Nicolaes Ruts (1631) Portrait of a Man (1632) Portrait of a Woman (1632) Portrait of Jacob de Gheyn III (1632) Portrait of a 62-year-old Woman (1632) Portrait of a Man Rising from His Chair (1633) Portrait of a Young Woman with a Fan (1633) Oval Portrait of a Woman (1633) Portrait of a Woman Wearing a Gold Chain (1634) Pendant portraits of Maerten Soolmans and Oopjen Coppit (1634) Portrait of Petronella Buys (1635) A Polish Nobleman (1637) Portrait of Maria Trip (1639) Portrait of Jan Six (1654) Portrait of Floris Soop (1654) Portrait of Catharina Hooghsaet (1657) Portrait of a Man (1657) Portrait of a Man with Arms Akimbo (1658) Portrait of Dirck van Os (c. 1662) Portrait of Gerard de Lairesse (1665–1667) Portrait of Nicolaes Ruts (1631) Portrait of a Man (1632) Portrait of a Woman (1632) Portrait of Jacob de Gheyn III (1632) Portrait of a 62-year-old Woman (1632) Portrait of a Man Rising from His Chair (1633) Portrait of a Young Woman with a Fan (1633) Oval Portrait of a Woman (1633) Portrait of a Woman Wearing a Gold Chain (1634) Pendant portraits of Maerten Soolmans and Oopjen Coppit (1634) Portrait of Petronella Buys (1635) A Polish Nobleman (1637) Portrait of Maria Trip (1639) Portrait of Jan Six (1654) Portrait of Floris Soop (1654) Portrait of Catharina Hooghsaet (1657) Portrait of a Man (1657) Portrait of a Man with Arms Akimbo (1658) Portrait of Dirck van Os (c. 1662) Portrait of Gerard de Lairesse (1665–1667) Self-portraits Self-Portrait with Dishevelled Hair (1628) Rembrandt Laughing (1628) Self-Portrait (1629) Self-Portrait in a Gorget (c.1629) Portrait of a Young Man with a Golden Chain (1635) ( disputed ) Self-Portrait Wearing a White Feathered Bonnet (1635) Self-Portrait with an Architectural Background (c. 1639) Self-Portrait at the Age of 34 (1640) Self-Portrait (1652) Self-Portrait in a Black Beret and Gold Chain (1654) Self-Portrait (1658) Self-Portrait with Beret and Turned-Up Collar (1659) Self-Portrait (1660) Self-Portrait as the Apostle Paul (1662) Self-Portrait as Zeuxis Laughing (1662) Self-Portrait with Two Circles (1665–1669) Self-Portrait (c. 1669) Self-Portrait at the Age of 63 (1669) Self-Portrait with Dishevelled Hair (1628) Rembrandt Laughing (1628) Self-Portrait (1629) Self-Portrait in a Gorget (c.1629) Portrait of a Young Man with a Golden Chain (1635) ( disputed ) Self-Portrait Wearing a White Feathered Bonnet (1635) Self-Portrait with an Architectural Background (c. 1639) Self-Portrait at the Age of 34 (1640) Self-Portrait (1652) Self-Portrait in a Black Beret and Gold Chain (1654) Self-Portrait (1658) Self-Portrait with Beret and Turned-Up Collar (1659) Self-Portrait (1660) Self-Portrait as the Apostle Paul (1662) Self-Portrait as Zeuxis Laughing (1662) Self-Portrait with Two Circles (1665–1669) Self-Portrait (c. 1669) Self-Portrait at the Age of 63 (1669) Drawings and prints (including etchings ) Joseph and Potiphar's Wife (1634) Bearded Old Man (1634) River with Trees (1634) The Artist and his Model (1639) The Death of the Virgin (1639) The Mill (1641) The Three Trees (1643) The State Bed (1646) Portrait of Jan Six (1647) Hundred Guilder Print (1647–1649) Conus Marmoreus (1650) Goldweigher's Field (1651) Doctor Fautrieus (1652) Descent from the Cross by Torchlight (1652) The Three Crosses (1653) The Virgin and Child with a Cat (1654) Christ Presented to the People (1655) Mughal drawings Joseph and Potiphar's Wife (1634) Bearded Old Man (1634) River with Trees (1634) The Artist and his Model (1639) The Death of the Virgin (1639) The Mill (1641) The Three Trees (1643) The State Bed (1646) Portrait of Jan Six (1647) Hundred Guilder Print (1647–1649) Conus Marmoreus (1650) Goldweigher's Field (1651) Doctor Fautrieus (1652) Descent from the Cross by Torchlight (1652) The Three Crosses (1653) The Virgin and Child with a Cat (1654) Christ Presented to the People (1655) Mughal drawings Collections Rembrandt House Museum Rembrandt in Southern California Rembrandt House Museum Rembrandt in Southern California Rembrandt studies Connoisseurs and scholars Rembrandt Research Project Rembrandt catalogues raisonnés 1908 1935 1968 1986 Connoisseurs and scholars Rembrandt Research Project Rembrandt catalogues raisonnés 1908 1935 1968 1986 1908 1935 1968 1986 Related people Pupils Saskia van Uylenburgh (wife, model) Titus van Rijn (son, model) Geertje Dircx (mistress, model) Hendrickje Stoffels (mistress, model) Jacob Isaacsz. van Swanenburg (teacher) Pieter Lastman (teacher) Jan Lievens (colleague and friend) Hendrick van Uylenburgh (art dealer, patron) Jan Six (art collector, patron) Thomas Kaplan (art collector) Pupils Saskia van Uylenburgh (wife, model) Titus van Rijn (son, model) Geertje Dircx (mistress, model) Hendrickje Stoffels (mistress, model) Jacob Isaacsz. van Swanenburg (teacher) Pieter Lastman (teacher) Jan Lievens (colleague and friend) Hendrick van Uylenburgh (art dealer, patron) Jan Six (art collector, patron) Thomas Kaplan (art collector) Works about Rembrandt Cultural depictions of Rembrandt Rembrandt's Daughter (1827 painting) The Tragedy of a Great (1920 film) Rembrandt (1936 film) Rembrandt (1940 film) Rembrandt (1942 film) Rembrandt: A Self-Portrait (1954 documentary film) Rembrandt fecit 1669 (1977 film) The Anatomy Lesson (1995 novel) Rembrandt (1999 film) Stealing Rembrandt (2003 film) Nightwatching (2007 film) I Am Rembrandt's Daughter (2008 novel) Cultural depictions of Rembrandt Rembrandt's Daughter (1827 painting) The Tragedy of a Great (1920 film) Rembrandt (1936 film) Rembrandt (1940 film) Rembrandt (1942 film) Rembrandt: A Self-Portrait (1954 documentary film) Rembrandt fecit 1669 (1977 film) The Anatomy Lesson (1995 novel) Rembrandt (1999 film) Stealing Rembrandt (2003 film) Nightwatching (2007 film) I Am Rembrandt's Daughter (2008 novel) Namesakes Rembrandt, Iowa Rembrandtplein Rembrandtpark Rembrandt (crater) Rembrandt (train) Vereniging Rembrandt (foundation) Rembrandt, Iowa Rembrandtplein Rembrandtpark Rembrandt (crater) Rembrandt (train) Vereniging Rembrandt (foundation) 1 Contested 2 Stolen in 1990 1 Contested 2 Stolen in 1990 Authority control databases International VIAF GND VIAF GND National United States France BnF data United States France BnF data Artists ULAN RKD Artists KulturNav Victoria Museum of Modern Art Scientific illustrators Auckland Städel Prado National Gallery of Canada South Australia ULAN RKD Artists KulturNav Victoria Museum of Modern Art Scientific illustrators Auckland Städel Prado National Gallery of Canada South Australia People Netherlands 2 Trove Deutsche Biographie Netherlands 2 2 Trove Deutsche Biographie Other SNAC Te Papa (New Zealand) SNAC Te Papa (New Zealand) Rembrandt 1606 births 1669 deaths Art collectors from Amsterdam Artists from Leiden Dutch art dealers Dutch Christians Dutch draughtsmen Dutch etchers 17th-century etchers Dutch Golden Age painters Dutch Golden Age printmakers Dutch male painters Dutch portrait painters Dutch printmakers Engravers from Amsterdam Leiden University alumni Painters from Amsterdam People celebrated in the Lutheran liturgical calendar 17th-century Dutch painters Pages using the Phonos extension Webarchive template wayback links Articles with Dutch-language sources (nl) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list CS1 Dutch-language sources (nl) Articles needing the year an event occurred from January 2026 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Good articles Use dmy dates from July 2025 Biography with signature Articles with hCards Pages with Dutch IPA Pages including recorded pronunciations CS1 maint: year Commons link from Wikidata Articles with Internet Archive links This page was last edited on 5 January 2026, at 03:18 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History 2 Application 3 Structure Toggle Structure subsection 3.1 Notation 3.2 Basic features and syntax 3.3 Organization 3.3.1 Main classes 3.3.2 Common auxiliary tables 3.3.3 Connecting signs 3.1 Notation 3.2 Basic features and syntax 3.3 Organization 3.3.1 Main classes 3.3.2 Common auxiliary tables 3.3.3 Connecting signs 3.3.1 Main classes 3.3.2 Common auxiliary tables 3.3.3 Connecting signs 4 Outline Toggle Outline subsection 4.1 Main tables 4.1.1 0 Science and knowledge. Organization. Computer science. Information. Documentation. Librarianship. Institution. Publications 4.1.2 1 Philosophy. Psychology 4.1.3 2 Religion. Theology 4.1.4 3 Social sciences 4.1.5 4 Currently Vacant 4.1.6 5 Mathematics. Natural sciences 4.1.7 6 Applied sciences. Medicine. Technology 4.1.8 7 The arts. Recreation. Entertainment. Sport 4.1.9 8 Language. Linguistics. Literature 4.1.10 9 Geography. Biography. History 4.2 Common auxiliary tables 4.2.1 Table 1c: Language 4.2.2 Table 1d: Form 4.2.3 Table 1e: Place 4.2.4 Table 1f: Human ancestry and grouping 4.2.5 Table 1g: Time 4.2.6 Table 1k: General characteristics 4.1 Main tables 4.1.1 0 Science and knowledge. Organization. Computer science. Information. Documentation. Librarianship. Institution. Publications 4.1.2 1 Philosophy. Psychology 4.1.3 2 Religion. Theology 4.1.4 3 Social sciences 4.1.5 4 Currently Vacant 4.1.6 5 Mathematics. Natural sciences 4.1.7 6 Applied sciences. Medicine. Technology 4.1.8 7 The arts. Recreation. Entertainment. Sport 4.1.9 8 Language. Linguistics. Literature 4.1.10 9 Geography. Biography. History 4.1.1 0 Science and knowledge. Organization. Computer science. Information. Documentation. Librarianship. Institution. Publications 4.1.2 1 Philosophy. Psychology 4.1.3 2 Religion. Theology 4.1.4 3 Social sciences 4.1.5 4 Currently Vacant 4.1.6 5 Mathematics. Natural sciences 4.1.7 6 Applied sciences. Medicine. Technology 4.1.8 7 The arts. Recreation. Entertainment. Sport 4.1.9 8 Language. Linguistics. Literature 4.1.10 9 Geography. Biography. History 4.2 Common auxiliary tables 4.2.1 Table 1c: Language 4.2.2 Table 1d: Form 4.2.3 Table 1e: Place 4.2.4 Table 1f: Human ancestry and grouping 4.2.5 Table 1g: Time 4.2.6 Table 1k: General characteristics 4.2.1 Table 1c: Language 4.2.2 Table 1d: Form 4.2.3 Table 1e: Place 4.2.4 Table 1f: Human ancestry and grouping 4.2.5 Table 1g: Time 4.2.6 Table 1k: General characteristics 5 See also Toggle See also subsection 5.1 Classifications based on UDC 5.2 Other faceted classifications 5.3 Other library classifications 5.1 Classifications based on UDC 5.2 Other faceted classifications 5.3 Other library classifications 6 References 7 External links Universal Decimal Classification العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Čeština Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto Euskara Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Português Română Русский සිංහල Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Українська اردو 粵語 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item The Universal Decimal Classification ( UDC ) is a bibliographic and library classification representing the systematic arrangement of all branches of human knowledge organized as a coherent system in which knowledge fields are related and inter-linked. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ] The UDC is an analytico-synthetic and faceted classification system featuring detailed vocabulary and syntax that enables powerful content indexing and information retrieval in large collections. [ 6 ] [ 7 ] Since 1991, the UDC has been owned and managed by the UDC Consortium, [ 8 ] a non-profit international association of publishers with headquarters in The Hague , Netherlands. Unlike other library classification schemes that started their life as national systems, the UDC was conceived and maintained as an international scheme. Its translation into other languages started at the beginning of the 20th century and has since been published in various printed editions in over 40 languages. [ 9 ] [ 10 ] UDC Summary, an abridged Web version of the scheme, is available in over 50 languages. [ 11 ] The classification has been modified and extended over the years to cope with increasing output in all areas of human knowledge, and is still under continuous review to take account of new developments. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] Albeit originally designed as an indexing and retrieval system, due to its logical structure and scalability, UDC has become one of the most widely used knowledge organization systems in libraries, where it is used for either shelf arrangement, content indexing or both. [ 14 ] UDC codes can describe any type of document or object to any desired level of detail. These can include textual documents and other media such as films , video and sound recordings, illustrations , maps as well as realia such as museum objects. History The UDC was developed by the Belgian bibliographers Paul Otlet and Henri La Fontaine at the end of the 19th century. In 1895, they created the Universal Bibliographic Repertory ( Répertoire Bibliographique Universel ) (RBU) which was intended to become a comprehensive classified index to all published information. The idea that the RBU should take the form of a card catalogue came from the young American zoologist Herbert Haviland Field , who was at the time himself setting up a bibliographical agency in Zurich, the Concilium Bibliographicum . [ 15 ] A means of arranging the entries would be needed, and Otlet, having heard of the Dewey Decimal Classification , wrote to Melvil Dewey and obtained permission to translate it into French. The idea outgrew the plan of mere translation, and a number of radical innovations were made, adapting the purely enumerative classification (in which all the subjects envisaged are already listed and coded) into one which allows for synthesis (that is, the construction of compound numbers to denote interrelated subjects that could never be exhaustively foreseen); various possible relations between subjects were identified, and symbols assigned to represent them. In its first edition in French, Manuel du Répertoire bibliographique universel (1905), the UDC already included many features that were revolutionary in the context of knowledge classifications: tables of generally applicable (aspect-free) concepts—called common auxiliary tables; a series of special auxiliary tables with specific but re-usable attributes in a particular field of knowledge; an expressive notational system with connecting symbols and syntax rules to enable coordination of subjects and the creation of a documentation language proper. The Universal Bibliographic Repertory grew to more than eleven million records in the period before World War I . The catalogue and its content organized by UDC can still be seen in Mundaneum in Mons, Belgium. In 2013 this catalogue was accepted onto the UNESCO Memory of the World international register , recognising it as documentary heritage of global importance. [ 16 ] Application UDC is used in around 150,000 libraries in 130 countries and in many bibliographical services which require detailed content indexing. In a number of countries it is the main classification system for information exchange and is used in all types of libraries: public, school, academic and special libraries. [ 17 ] [ 18 ] [ 19 ] UDC is also used in national bibliographies of around 30 countries. Examples of large databases indexed by UDC include: [ 20 ] NEBIS (The Network of Libraries and Information Centers in Switzerland) — 2.6 million records COBIB.SI (Slovenian National Union Catalogue) — 3.5 million records Hungarian National Union Catalogue (MOKKA) — 2.9 million records VINITI RAS database (All-Russian Scientific and Technical Information Institute of Russian Academy of Science) with 28 million records Meteorological & Geoastrophysical Abstracts (MGA) with 600 journal titles PORBASE (Portuguese National Bibliography) with 1.5 million records UDC has traditionally been used for the indexing of scientific articles which was an important source of information of scientific output in the period predating electronic publishing. Collections of research articles in many countries covering decades of scientific output contain UDC codes. Examples of journal articles indexed by UDC: UDC code 663.12:57.06 in the article "Yeast Systematics: from Phenotype to Genotype" in the journal Food Technology and Biotechnology ( .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} ISSN 1330-9862 ) [ 21 ] UDC code 37.037:796.56 , provided in the article "The game method as means of interface of technical-tactical and psychological preparation in sports orienteering" in the Russian journal " Pedagogico-psychological and medico-biological problems of the physical culture and sport " ( ISSN 2070-4798 ). [ 22 ] UDC code 621.715:621.924:539.3 in the article Residual Stress in Shot-Peened Sheets of AIMg4.5Mn Alloy - in the journal Materials and technology ( ISSN 1580-2949 ). [ 23 ] The design of UDC lends itself to machine readability, and the system has been used both with early automatic mechanical sorting devices, and modern library OPACs . [ 24 ] [ 25 ] Since 1993, a standard version of UDC has been maintained and distributed in a database format: UDC Master Reference File (UDC MRF) which is updated and released regularly. [ 26 ] The 2011 version of the MRF (released in 2012) contains over 70,000 classes. [ 1 ] In the past full printed editions used to have around 220,000 subdivisions. [ 11 ] Structure Notation A notation is a code commonly used in classification schemes to represent a class, i.e. a subject and its position in the hierarchy, to enable mechanical sorting and filing of subjects. UDC uses Arabic numerals arranged decimally. Every number is thought of as a decimal fraction with the initial decimal point omitted, which determines the filing order. An advantage of decimal notational systems is that they are infinitely extensible, and when new subdivisions are introduced, they need not disturb the existing allocation of numbers. For ease of reading, a UDC notation is usually punctuated after every third digit: Notation Caption (Class description) 539.120 Theoretical problems of elementary particles physics. Theories and models of fundamental interactions 539.120.2 Symmetries of quantum physics 539.120.22 Conservation laws 539.120.222 Translations. Rotations 539.120.224 Reflection in time and space 539.120.226 Space-time symmetries 539.120.23 Internal symmetries 539.120.3 Currents 539.120.4 Unified field theories 539.120.5 Strings In UDC the notation has two features that make the scheme easier to browse and work with: hierarchically expressive – the longer the notation, the more specific the class: removing the final digit automatically produces a broader class code. syntactically expressive – when UDC codes are combined, the sequence of digits is interrupted by a precise type of punctuation sign which indicates that the expression is a combination of classes rather than a simple class. For example, the colon in 34:32 indicates that there are two distinct notational elements: 34 Law. Jurisprudence and 32 Politics . In the following code 913(574.22)"19"(084.3) , the parentheses and quotes indicate four separate notational elements: 913 Regional geography , (574.22) North Kazakhstan , "19" 20th century and (084.3) Maps (document form) . Basic features and syntax UDC is an analytico-synthetic and faceted classification . It allows an unlimited combination of attributes of a subject and relationships between subjects to be expressed. UDC codes from different tables can be combined to present various aspects of document content and form, e.g. 94(410)"19"(075) History (main subject) of United Kingdom (place) in 20th century (time), a textbook (document form). Or: 37:2 Relationship between Education and Religion . Complex UDC expressions can be accurately parsed into constituent elements. UDC is also a disciplinary classification covering the entire universe of knowledge. [ 27 ] This type of classification can also be described as aspect or perspective , which means that concepts are subsumed and placed under the field in which they are studied. Thus, the same concept can appear in different fields of knowledge. This particular feature is usually implemented in UDC by re-using the same concept in various combinations with the main subject, e.g. a code for language in common auxiliaries of language is used to derive numbers for ethnic grouping, individual languages in linguistics and individual literatures. Or, a code from the auxiliaries of place, e.g. (410) United Kingdom , uniquely representing the concept of United Kingdom can be used to express 911(410) Regional geography of United Kingdom and 94(410) History of United Kingdom . Organization Concepts are organized in two kinds of tables: [ 28 ] Common auxiliary tables (including certain auxiliary signs). These tables contain facets of concepts representing general recurrent characteristics, applicable over a range of subjects throughout the main tables, including notions such as place, language of the text and physical form of the document, which may occur in almost any subject. UDC numbers from these tables, called common auxiliaries are simply added at the end of the number for the subject taken from the main tables. There are over 15,000 common auxiliaries in UDC. The main tables or main schedules containing the various disciplines and branches of knowledge are arranged in 9 main classes, numbered from 0 to 9 (with class 4 being vacant). At the beginning of each class there are also series of special auxiliaries, which express aspects that are recurrent within this specific class. Main tables in UDC contain more than 60,000 subdivisions. Main classes 0 Science and Knowledge . Organization . Computer Science . Information Science . Documentation . Librarianship . Institutions . Publications 1 Philosophy . Psychology 2 Religion . Theology 3 Social Sciences 4 vacant 5 Mathematics . Natural Sciences 6 Applied Sciences . Medicine , Technology 7 The Arts . Entertainment . Sport 8 Linguistics . Literature 9 Geography . History The vacant class 4 is the result of a planned schedule expansion. This class was freed by moving linguistics into class 8 in the 1960s to make space for future developments in the rapidly expanding fields of knowledge; primarily natural sciences and technology. Common auxiliary tables Common auxiliaries are aspect-free concepts that can be used in combination with any other UDC code from the main classes or with other common auxiliaries. They have unique notational representations that make them stand out in complex expressions. Common auxiliary numbers always begin with a certain symbol known as a facet indicator. For example, an equals sign always indicates a language; numbers starting with zero and enclosed in parentheses always indicate a document form. Thus (075) Textbook and =111 English can be combined to express, for example, (075)=111 Textbooks in English . When combined with numbers from the main UDC tables one might get: 2(075)=111 Religion textbooks in English or 51(075)=111 Mathematics textbooks in English . Indicator Table Concepts =... 1c Language (0...) 1d Form (1/9) 1e Place (=...) 1f Human ancestry, ethnic grouping and nationality "..." 1g Time -02 1k Properties -03 Materials -04 Relations, processes and operations -05 Persons and personal characteristics Connecting signs In order to preserve the precise meaning and enable accurate parsing of complex UDC expressions, a number of connecting symbols are made available to relate and extend UDC numbers. These are: Symbol Symbol name Meaning Example + plus coordination, addition 59+636 zoology and animal breeding / stroke consecutive extension 592/599 Systematic zoology (everything from 592 to 599 inclusive) : colon relation 17:7 Relation of ethics to art [ ] square brackets subgrouping 311:[622+669](485) statistics of mining and metallurgy in Sweden (the auxiliary qualifiers 622+669 are considered as a unit) * asterisk Introduces non-UDC notation 523.4*433 Planetology, minor planet Eros ( IAU authorized number after the asterisk) A/Z alphabetical extension Direct alphabetical specification 821.133.1MOL French literature, works of Molière Outline UDC classes in this outline are taken from the Multilingual Universal Decimal Classification Summary (UDCC Publication No. 088) released by the UDC Consortium under the Creative Commons Attribution Share Alike 3.0 license (first release 2009, subsequent update 2012). [ 11 ] Main tables 0 Science and knowledge. Organization. Computer science. Information. Documentation. Librarianship. Institution. Publications Class Description 00 Prolegomena. Fundamentals of knowledge and culture. Propaedeutics 001 Science and knowledge in general. Organization of intellectual work 002 Documentation. Books. Writings. Authorship 003 Writing systems and scripts 004 Computer science and technology. Computing 004.2 Computer architecture 004.3 Computer hardware 004.4 Software 004.5 Human-computer interaction 004.6 Data 004.7 Computer communication 004.8 Artificial intelligence 004.9 Application-oriented computer-based techniques 005 Management 005.1 Management Theory 005.2 Management agents. Mechanisms. Measures 005.3 Management activities 005.5 Management operations. Direction 005.6 Quality management. Total quality management (TQM) 005.7 Organizational management (OM) 005.9 Fields of management 005.92 Records management 005.93 Plant management. Physical resources management 005.94 Knowledge management 005.95/.96 Personnel management. Human Resources management 006 Standardization of products, operations, weights, measures and time 007 Activity and organizing. Information. Communication and control theory generally (cybernetics) 008 Civilization. Culture . Progress 01 Bibliography and bibliographies. Catalogues 02 Librarianship 030 General reference works (as subject) 050 Serial publications, periodicals (as subject) 06 Organizations of a general nature 069 Museums 070 Newspapers (as subject). The Press. Outline of journalism 08 Polygraphies. Collective works (as subject) 09 Manuscripts. Rare and remarkable works (as subject) 1 Philosophy. Psychology Class Description 101 Nature and role of philosophy 11 Metaphysics 111 General metaphysics. Ontology 122/129 Special Metaphysics 13 Philosophy of mind and spirit. Metaphysics of spiritual life 14 Philosophical systems and points of view 141 Kinds of viewpoint. Including: Monism. Dualism. Pluralism. Ontological Materialism. Metaphysical Idealism. Platonism, etc. 159.9 Psychology 159.91 Psychophysiology (physiological psychology). Mental physiology 159.92 Mental development and capacity. Comparative psychology 159.93 Sensation. Sensory perception 159.94 Executive functions 159.95 Higher mental processes 159.96 Special mental states and processes 159.97 Abnormal psychology 159.98 Applied psychology (psychotechnology) in general 16 Logic . Epistemology . Theory of knowledge. Methodology of logic 17 Moral philosophy. Ethics . Practical philosophy 2 Religion. Theology The UDC tables for religion are fully faceted. The second table below lists special auxiliary numbers that can be used to express attributes (facets) of any specific faith. Any special number can be combined with any religion e.g. -5 Worship can be used to express, for example, 26-5 Worship in Judaism , 27-5 Worship in Christianity , or 24-5 Worship in Buddhism . The complete special auxiliary tables contain around 2000 subdivisions of various attributes that can be attached to express various aspects of individual faiths to a great level of specificity allowing equal level of detail for every religion. Class Description 21/29 Religious systems. Religions and faiths 21 Prehistoric and primitive religions 22 Religions originating in the Far East 23 Religions originating in Indian sub-continent. Hindu religion in the broad sense 24 Buddhism 25 Religions of antiquity. Minor cults and religions 26 Judaism 27 Christianity 28 Islam 29 Modern spiritual movements Class Description 2-1 Theory and philosophy of religion. Nature of religion. Phenomenon of religion 2-2 Evidences of religion 2-3 Persons in religion 2-4 Religious activities. Religious practice 2-5 Worship broadly. Cult. Rites and ceremonies 2-6 Processes in religion 2-7 Religious organization and administration 2-8 Religions characterised by various properties 2-9 History of the faith, religion, denomination or church 3 Social sciences Class Description 303 Methods of the social sciences 304 Social questions. Social practice. Cultural practice. Way of life (Lebensweise) 305 Gender studies 308 Sociography. Descriptive studies of society (both qualitative and quantitative) 311 Statistics as a science. Statistical theory 314/316 Society 314 Demography. Population studies 316 Sociology 32 Politics 33 Economics . Economic science 34 Law . Jurisprudence 35 Public administration. Government. Military affairs 36 Safeguarding the mental and material necessities of life 37 Education 39 Cultural anthropology. Ethnography. Customs. Manners. Traditions. Way of life 4 Currently Vacant This section is currently vacant. 5 Mathematics. Natural sciences Class Description 502/504 Environmental science. Conservation of natural resources. Threats to the environment and protection against them 502 The environment and its protection 504 Threats to the environment 51 Mathematics 510 Fundamental and general considerations of mathematics 511 Number theory 512 Algebra 514 Geometry 517 Analysis 519.1 Combinatorial analysis . Graph theory 519.2 Probability . Mathematical statistics 519.6 Computational mathematics. Numerical analysis 519.7 Mathematical cybernetics 519.8 Operational research (OR): mathematical theories and methods 52 Astronomy . Astrophysics. Space research . Geodesy 53 Physics 531/534 Mechanics 535 Optics 536 Heat . Thermodynamics . Statistical physics 537 Electricity . Magnetism . Electromagnetism 538.9 Condensed matter physics . Solid state physics 539 Physical nature of matter 54 Chemistry . Crystallography. Mineralogy 542 Practical laboratory chemistry. Preparative and experimental chemistry 543 Analytical chemistry 544 Physical chemistry 546 Inorganic chemistry 547 Organic chemistry 548/549 Mineralogical sciences. Crystallography. Mineralogy 55 Earth sciences . Geological sciences 56 Paleontology 57 Biological sciences in general 58 Botany 59 Zoology 6 Applied sciences. Medicine. Technology Class 6 occupies the largest proportion of UDC schedules. It contains over 44,000 subdivisions. Each specific field of technology or industry usually contains more than one special auxiliary table with concepts needed to express operations, processes, materials and products. As a result, UDC codes are often created through the combination of various attributes. Equally, some parts of this class enumerate concepts to a great level of detail, for example, 621.882.212 Hexagon screws with additional shapes. Including: Flank screws. Collar screws. Cap screws Class Description 60 Biotechnology 61 Medical sciences 611/612 Human biology 613 Hygiene generally. Personal health and hygiene 614 Public health and hygiene. Accident prevention 615 Pharmacology . Therapeutics . Toxicology 616 Pathology . Clinical medicine 617 Surgery . Orthopaedics . Ophthalmology 618 Gynaecology . Obstetrics 62 Engineering . Technology in general 620 Materials testing. Commercial materials. Power stations. Economics of energy 621 Mechanical engineering in general. Nuclear technology. Electrical engineering. Machinery 622 Mining 623 Military engineering 624 Civil and structural engineering in general 625 Civil engineering of land transport. Railway engineering. Highway engineering 626/627 Hydraulic engineering and construction. Water (aquatic) structures 629 Transport vehicle engineering 63 Agriculture and related sciences and techniques. Forestry. Farming. Wildlife exploitation 630 Forestry 631/635 Farm management. Agronomy. Horticulture 633/635 Horticulture in general. Specific crops 636 Animal husbandry and breeding in general. Livestock rearing. Breeding of domestic animals 64 Home economics. Domestic science. Housekeeping 65 Communication and transport industries. Accountancy. Business management. Public relations 654 Telecommunication and telecontrol (organization, services) 655 Graphic industries. Printing. Publishing. Book trade 656 Transport and postal services. Traffic organization and control 657 Accountancy 658 Business management , administration. Commercial organization 659 Publicity. Information work. Public relations 66 Chemical technology. Chemical and related industries 67 Various industries, trades and crafts 68 Industries, crafts and trades for finished or assembled articles 69 Building ( construction ) trade. Building materials. Building practice and procedure 7 The arts. Recreation. Entertainment. Sport Class Description 71 Physical planning. Regional, town and country planning. Landscapes, parks, gardens 72 Architecture 73 Plastic arts 74 Drawing . Design . Applied arts and crafts 745/749 Industrial and domestic arts and crafts. Applied arts 75 Painting 76 Graphic art, printmaking. Graphics 77 Photography and similar processes 78 Music 79 Recreation. Entertainment . Games . Sport 791 Cinema. Films (motion pictures) 792 Theatre . Stagecraft . Dramatic performances 793 Social entertainments and recreations. Art of movement. Dance 794 Board and table games (of thought, skill and chance) 796 Sport . Games . Physical exercises 797 Water sports. Aerial sports 798 Riding and driving. Horse and other animal sports 799 Sport fishing. Sport hunting. Shooting and target sports Class Description 7.01 Theory and philosophy of art. Principles of design, proportion, optical effect 7.02 Art technique. Craftsmanship 7.03 Artistic periods and phases. Schools, styles, influences 7.04 Subjects for artistic representation. Iconography. Iconology 7.05 Applications of art (in industry, trade, the home, everyday life) 7.06 Various questions concerning art 7.07 Occupations and activities associated with the arts and entertainment 7.08 Characteristic features, forms, combinations etc. (in art, entertainment and sport) 7.091 Performance, presentation (in original medium) 8 Language. Linguistics. Literature Tables for class 8 are fully faceted and details are expressed through combination with common auxiliaries of language ( Table 1c ) and a series of special auxiliary tables to indicate other facets or attributes in Linguistics or Literature. As a result, this class allows for great specificity in indexing although the schedules themselves occupy very little space in UDC. The subdivisions of 811 Languages or 821 Literature , for example, are derived from common auxiliaries of language =1/=9 (Table 1c) by substituting a point for the equals sign. Thus 811.111 English language (as a subject of a linguistic study) and 821.111 English literature derive from =111 English language . Common auxiliaries of place and time are also frequently used in this class to express place and time facets of Linguistics or Literature, e.g. 821.111(71)"18" English literature of Canada in the 19th century . Class Description 80 General questions relating to both linguistics and literature. Philology 801 Prosody. Auxiliary sciences and sources of philology 808 Rhetoric. The effective use of language 81 Linguistics and languages 811 Languages Derived from the common auxiliaries of language =1/=9 ( Table 1c ) by replacing the equals sign = with prefix 811. . E.g. =111 English becomes 811.111 Linguistics of English language . Languages Derived from the common auxiliaries of language =1/=9 ( Table 1c ) by replacing the equals sign = with prefix 811. . E.g. =111 English becomes 811.111 Linguistics of English language . 811.1/.9 All languages natural or artificial 811.1/.8 Individual natural languages 811.1/.2 Indo-European languages 811.21/.22 Indo-Iranian languages 811.3 Dead languages of unknown affiliation. Caucasian languages 811.4 Afro-Asiatic, Nilo-Saharan, Congo-Kordofanian, Khoisan languages 811.5 Ural-Altaic, Palaeo-Siberian, Eskimo-Aleut, Dravidian and Sino-Tibetan languages. Japanese. Korean. Ainu 811.6 Austro-Asiatic languages. Austronesian languages 811.7 Indo-Pacific (non-Austronesian) languages. Australian languages 811.8 American indigenous languages 811.9 Artificial languages 82 Literature 821 Literatures of individual languages and language families Derived from the common auxiliaries of language =1/=9 ( Table 1c ) by replacing the equals sign = with prefix 821. . E.g. =111 English becomes 821.111 English literature . Literatures of individual languages and language families Derived from the common auxiliaries of language =1/=9 ( Table 1c ) by replacing the equals sign = with prefix 821. . E.g. =111 English becomes 821.111 English literature . Class Description 81`1 General linguistics 81`2 Theory of signs . Theory of translation. Standardization. Usage. Geographical linguistics 81`3 Mathematical and applied linguistics. Phonetics. Graphemics. Grammar. Semantics. Stylistics 81`4 Text linguistics, Discourse analysis. Typological linguistics 81`42 Text linguistics. Discourse analysis 81`44 Typological linguistics Class Description 82-1 Poetry . Poems. Verse 82-2 Drama. Plays 82-3 Fiction . Prose narrative 82-31 Novels. Full-length stories 82-32 Short stories. Novellas 82-4 Essays 82-5 Oratory. Speeches 82-6 Letters. Art of letter-writing. Correspondence. Genuine letters 82-7 Prose satire. Humour, epigram, parody 82-8 Miscellanea. Polygraphies. Selections 82-9 Various other literary forms 82-92 Periodical literature. Writings in serials, journals, reviews 82-94 History as literary genre. Historical writing. Historiography. Chronicles. Annals. Memoirs Class Description 82.02 Literary schools, trends and movements 82.09 Literary criticism. Literary studies 82.091 Comparative literary studies. Comparative literature 9 Geography. Biography. History Tables for Geography and History in UDC are fully faceted and place, time and ethnic grouping facets are expressed through combination with common auxiliaries of place ( Table 1e ), ethnic grouping ( Table 1f ) and time ( Table 1g ) Class Description 902/908 Archaeology. Prehistory. Cultural remains. Area studies 902 Archaeology 903 Prehistory. Prehistoric remains, artifacts, antiquities 904 Cultural remains of historical times 908 Area studies. Study of a locality 91 Geography . Exploration of the Earth and of individual countries. Travel. Regional geography 910 General questions. Geography as a science. Exploration. Travel 911 General geography. Science of geographical factors (systematic geography). Theoretical geography 911.2 Physical geography 911.3 Human geography (cultural geography). Geography of cultural factors 911.5/.9 Theoretical geography 912 Nonliterary, nontextual representations of a region 913 Regional geography 92 Biographical studies. Genealogy. Heraldry. Flags 929 Biographical studies 929.5 Genealogy 929.6 Heraldry 929.7 Nobility. Titles. Peerage 929.9 Flags. Standards. Banners 93/94 History 930 Science of history. Historiography 930.1 History as a science 930.2 Methodology of history. Ancillary historical sciences 930.25 Archivistics. Archives (including public and other records) 930.85 History of civilization. Cultural history 94 General Common auxiliary tables Table 1c: Language Class Description =1/=9 Languages (natural and artificial) =1/=8 Natural languages =1/=2 Indo-European languages =1 Indo-European languages of Europe =11 Germanic languages =12 Italic languages =13 Romance languages =14 Greek (Hellenic) =15 Celtic languages =16 Slavic languages =17 Baltic languages =18 Albanian =19 Armenian =2 Indo-Iranian, Nuristani (Kafiri) and dead Indo-European languages =21/=22 Indo-Iranian languages =21 Indic languages =22 Iranian languages =29 Dead Indo-European languages (not listed elsewhere) =3 Dead languages of unknown affiliation. Caucasian languages =34 Dead languages of unknown affiliation, spoken in the Mediterranean and Near East (except Semitic) =35 Caucasian languages =4 Afro-Asiatic, Nilo-Saharan, Congo-Kordofanian, Khoisan languages =41 Afro-Asiatic (Hamito-Semitic) languages =42 Nilo-Saharan languages =43 Congo-Kordofanian (Niger-Kordofanian) languages =45 Khoisan languages =5 Ural-Altaic, Palaeo-Siberian, Eskimo-Aleut, Dravidian and Sino-Tibetan languages. Japanese. Korean. Ainu =51 Ural-Altaic languages =521 Japanese =531 Korean =541 Ainu =55 Palaeo-Siberian languages =56 Eskimo-Aleut languages =58 Sino-Tibetan languages =6 Austro-Asiatic languages. Austronesian languages =61 Austro-Asiatic languages =62 Austronesian languages =7 Indo-Pacific (non-Austronesian) languages. Australian languages =71 Indo-Pacific (non-Austronesian) languages =72 Australian languages =8 American indigenous languages =81 Indigenous languages of Canada, USA and Northern-Central Mexico =82 Indigenous languages of western North American Coast, Mexico and Yucatán =84/=88 Central and South American indigenous languages =84 Ge-Pano-Carib languages. Macro-Chibchan languages =85 Andean languages. Equatorial languages =86 Chaco languages. Patagonian and Fuegian languages =88 Isolated, unclassified Central and South American indigenous languages =9 Artificial languages =92 Artificial languages for use among human beings. International auxiliary languages (interlanguages) =93 Artificial languages used to instruct machines. Programming languages. Computer languages Table 1d: Form Class Description (01) Bibliographies (02) Books in general (03) Reference works (04) Non-serial separates. Separata (041) Pamphlets. Brochures (042) Addresses. Lectures. Speeches (043) Theses. Dissertations (044) Personal documents. Correspondence. Letters. Circulars (045) Articles in serials, collections etc. Contributions (046) Newspaper articles (047) Reports. Notices. Bulletins (048) Bibliographic descriptions. Abstracts. Summaries. Surveys (049) Other non-serial separates (05) Serial publications. Periodicals (06) Documents relating to societies, associations, organizations (07) Documents for instruction, teaching, study, training (08) Collected and polygraphic works. Forms. Lists. Illustrations. Business publications (09) Presentation in historical form. Legal and historical sources (091) Presentation in chronological, historical form. Historical presentation in the strict sense (092) Biographical presentation (093) Historical sources (094) Legal sources. Legal documents Class Description (0.02) Documents according to physical, external form (0.03) Documents according to method of production (0.032) Handwritten documents (autograph, holograph copies). Manuscripts. Pictorial documents (drawings, paintings) (0.034) Machine-readable documents (0.04) Documents according to stage of production (0.05) Documents for particular kinds of user (0.06) Documents according to level of presentation and availability (0.07) Supplementary matter issued with a document (0.08) Separately issued supplements or parts of documents Table 1e: Place Class Description (1) Place and space in general. Localization. Orientation (100) Universal as to place. International. All countries in general (2) Physiographic designation (20) Ecosphere (21) Surface of the Earth in general. Land areas in particular. Natural zones and regions (23) Above sea level. Surface relief. Above ground generally. Mountains (24) Below sea level. Underground. Subterranean (25) Natural flat ground (at, above or below sea level). The ground in its natural condition, cultivated or inhabited (26) Oceans, seas and interconnections (28) Inland waters (29) The world according to physiographic features (3) Places of the ancient and mediaeval world (31) Ancient China and Japan (32) Ancient Egypt (33) Ancient Roman Province of Judaea. The Holy Land. Region of the Israelites (34) Ancient India (35) Medo-Persia (36) Regions of the so-called barbarians (37) Italia. Ancient Rome and Italy (38) Ancient Greece (399) Other regions. Ancient geographical divisions other than those of classical antiquity (4/9) Countries and places of the modern world (4) Europe (5) Asia (6) Africa (7) North and Central America (8) South America (9) States and regions of the South Pacific and Australia . Arctic. Antarctic Class Description (1-0) Zones (1-1) Orientation. Points of the compass. Relative position (1-11) East. Eastern (1-13) South. Southern (1-14) South-west. South-western (1-15) West. Western (1-17) North. Northern (1-19) Relative location, direction and orientation (1-2) Lowest administrative units. Localities (1-5) Dependent or semi-dependent territories (1-6) States or groupings of states from various points of view (1-7) Places and areas according to privacy, publicness and other special features (1-8) Location. Source. Transit. Destination (1-9) Regionalization according to specialized points of view Table 1f: Human ancestry and grouping They are derived mainly from the common auxiliaries of language =... ( Table 1c ) and so may also usefully distinguish linguistic-cultural groups. For example =111 English is used to represent (=111) English speaking peoples . Class Description (=01) Human ancestry groups (=011) European Continental Ancestry Group (=012) Asian Continental Ancestry Group (=013) African Continental Ancestry Group (=014) Oceanic Ancestry Group (=017) American Native Continental Ancestry Group (=1/=8) Linguistic-cultural groups, ethnic groups, peoples [derived from Table 1c ] (=1:1/9) Peoples associated with particular places E.g. (=111:71) Anglophone population of Canada Peoples associated with particular places E.g. (=111:71) Anglophone population of Canada Table 1g: Time Class Description "0/2" Dates and ranges of time (CE or AD) in conventional Christian (Gregorian) reckoning "0" First millennium CE "1" Second millennium CE "2" Third millennium CE "3/7" Time divisions other than dates in Christian (Gregorian) reckoning "3" Conventional time divisions and subdivisions: numbered, named, etc. "4" Duration. Time-span. Period. Term. Ages and age-groups "5" Periodicity. Frequency. Recurrence at specified intervals. "6" Geological, archaeological and cultural time divisions "61/62" Geological time division "63" Archaeological, prehistoric, protohistoric periods and ages "67/69" Time reckonings: universal, secular, non-Christian religious "67" Universal time reckoning. Before Present "68" Secular time reckonings other than universal and the Christian (Gregorian) calendar "69" Dates and time units in non-Christian (non-Gregorian) religious time reckonings "7" Phenomena in time. Phenomenology of time Table 1k: General characteristics Class Description -02 Common auxiliaries of properties -021 Properties of existence -022 Properties of magnitude, degree, quantity, number, temporal values, dimension, size -023 Properties of shape -024 Properties of structure. Properties of position -025 Properties of arrangement -026 Properties of action and movement -027 Operational properties -028 Properties of style and presentation -029 Properties derived from other main classes -03 Common auxiliaries of materials -032 Naturally occurring mineral materials -033 Manufactured mineral-based materials -034 Metals -035 Materials of mainly organic origin -036 Macromolecular materials. Rubbers and plastics -037 Textiles. Fibres. Yarns. Fabrics. Cloth -039 Other materials -04 Common auxiliaries of relations, processes and operations -042 Phase relations -043 General processes -043.8/.9 Processes of existence -045 Processes related to position, arrangement, movement, physical properties, states of matter -047/-049 General operations and activities -05 Common auxiliaries of persons and personal characteristics -051 Persons as agents, doers, practitioners (studying, making, serving etc.) -052 Persons as targets, clients, users (studied, served etc.) -053 Persons according to age or age-groups -054 Persons according to ethnic characteristics, nationality, citizenship etc. -055 Persons according to gender and kinship -056 Persons according to constitution, health, disposition, hereditary or other traits -057 Persons according to occupation, work, livelihood, education -058 Persons according to social class, civil status See also Classifications based on UDC BBC LonClass Other faceted classifications Bliss bibliographic classification Colon classification Other library classifications Dewey Decimal Classification Library of Congress Classification Chinese Library Classification Harvard-Yenching Classification References ^ a b "UDC Fact Sheet" . UDC Consortium website . Retrieved 28 October 2018 . ^ McIlwaine, I. C. (2007). Universal Decimal Classification: a guide to its use (Revised ed.). The Hague: UDC Consortium. ^ McIlwaine, I. C. (2009). "Universal Decimal Classification (UDC)". Encyclopedia of Library and Information Sciences (Third ed.). pp. 5432– 5439. doi : 10.1081/E-ELIS3-120043532 . ISBN 978-0-8493-9712-7 . ^ "Universal Decimal Classification 1: General properties and basic number building". Essential Classification . 2017. pp. 241– 264. doi : 10.29085/9781783302383.019 . ISBN 9781783302383 . ^ "Universal Decimal Classification 2: Auxiliary tables". Essential Classification . 2017. pp. 265– 298. doi : 10.29085/9781783302383.020 . ISBN 9781783302383 . ^ UDC History , "About UDC" - UDC Consortium website ^ McIlwaine, I. C. (1997). "The Universal Decimal Classification: Some factors concerning its origins, development, and influence". Journal of the American Society for Information Science . 48 (4): 331– 339. doi : 10.1002/(SICI)1097-4571(199704)48:4<331::AID-ASI6>3.0.CO;2-X . ^ UDC Consortium , UDC Consortium website ^ UDC Editions , UDC Consortium website ^ Slavic, A. (November 2004). "UDC Translations: a 2004 Survey Report and Bibliography". Extensions & Corrections to the UDC . 26 (2004): 58– 80. hdl : 10150/106363 . ^ a b c "Universal Decimal Classification Summary" . UDC Consortium . Retrieved April 13, 2022 . ^ Major Revisions of the UDC 1993-2013 , UDC Consortium website ^ Slavic, A.; Cordeiro, M. I.; Riesthuis, G. (June 2008). "Maintenance of the Universal Decimal Classification: overview of the past and preparations for the future". International Cataloguing and Bibliographic Control . 37 (2): 23– 29. hdl : 10150/105220 . ^ Slavic, A. (2004). "UDC implementation: from library shelves to a structured indexing language". International Cataloguing and Bibliographic Control . 33.3 (2004): 60– 65. hdl : 10150/105685 . ^ Rayward, W. Boyd: From the index card to the World City: knowledge organization and visualization in the work and ideas of Paul Otlet. IN: A. Slavic, A. Akdag Salah and S. Davies (Eds.): Proceedings of the International UDC Seminar 2013: Classification & Visualization: Interfaces to Knowledge, The Hague (Netherlands), 24–25 October 2013. Wurzburg: Ergon Verlag, 2013, pp. 1-41 ^ "Universal Bibliographic Repertory" . UNESCO Memory of the World Programme . Retrieved 2025-04-04 . ^ Slavic, A. (2006). "Use of the Universal Decimal Classification: a worldwide survey". Journal of Documentation . 64 (2): 211– 228. doi : 10.1108/00220410810858029 . hdl : 10150/105579 . ^ "UDC Users Worldwide" . UDC Consortium website . ^ "UDC Countries" . UDC Consortium . ^ Collections indexed by UDC , UDC Consortium website ^ "Yeast Systematics: from Phenotype to Genotype" . Food Technology and Biotechnology . ISSN 1330-9862 . Retrieved 28 October 2018 . Example: Journal article indexed by UDC ^ "The game method as means of interface of technical-tactical and psychological preparation in sports orienteering" (PDF) . Pedagogico-psychological and Medico-biological Problems of the Physical Culture and Sport (in Russian). ISSN 2070-4798 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 March 2016 . Retrieved 28 October 2018 . Example: Journal article indexed by UDC ^ "Residual Stress in Shot-Peened Sheets of AIMg4.5Mn Alloy" . Materials and Technology . ISSN 1580-2949 . Retrieved 28 October 2018 . Example: Journal article indexed by UDC ^ Slavic, A. (December 2006). "The level of exploitation of Universal Decimal Classification in library OPACs: a pilot study". Vjesnik Bibliotekara Hrvatske . 49 ( 3– 4): 155– 182. hdl : 10150/105346 . ^ Slavic, A. (2006). "UDC in subject gateways: experiment or opportunity?". Knowledge Organization . 33 (2): 67– 85. hdl : 10150/105276 . ^ UDC Master Reference File , UDC Consortium website ^ UDC Subject Coverage , UDC Consortium website ^ UDC Structure and Tables , UDC Consortium website External links Universal Decimal Classification (P1190) (see uses ) Universal Decimal Classification Consortium About Universal Decimal Classification Multilingual UDC Summary UDC Summary Linked Data – latest version with downloadable data: Archived 2019-02-16 at the Wayback Machine About Universal Decimal Classification Multilingual UDC Summary UDC Summary Linked Data – latest version with downloadable data: Archived 2019-02-16 at the Wayback Machine .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Library classification systems v t e Bliss (BC) Brian Deer Chinese Library (CLC/CCL) CODOC Colon (CC) Cutter Expansive Dewey Decimal (DDC) Harvard–Yenching Korean decimal (KDC) Library of Congress (LCC) New Classification Scheme for Chinese Libraries NLM Classification Nippon Decimal (NDC) Superintendent of Documents (SuDocs) Swedish library system (SAB) Universal Decimal (UDC) Bliss (BC) Brian Deer Chinese Library (CLC/CCL) CODOC Colon (CC) Cutter Expansive Dewey Decimal (DDC) Harvard–Yenching Korean decimal (KDC) Library of Congress (LCC) New Classification Scheme for Chinese Libraries NLM Classification Nippon Decimal (NDC) Superintendent of Documents (SuDocs) Swedish library system (SAB) Universal Decimal (UDC) See also: Knowledge organization See also: Knowledge organization Category Commons Category Commons Authority control databases International VIAF GND VIAF GND National United States Czech Republic Norway Poland Israel United States Czech Republic Norway Poland Israel Other Yale LUX Yale LUX Belgian inventions Controlled vocabularies Decimal classification systems Library cataloging and classification CS1 Russian-language sources (ru) Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Webarchive template wayback links This page was last edited on 29 November 2025, at 14:43 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Dimensions and planes of existence Toggle Dimensions and planes of existence subsection 1.1 Matter/Object — Physical sciences 1.2 Life/Organism — Biological sciences 1.3 Mind/Animal — (Basic) psychological sciences 1.4 Culture/Person — Human social sciences 1.1 Matter/Object — Physical sciences 1.2 Life/Organism — Biological sciences 1.3 Mind/Animal — (Basic) psychological sciences 1.4 Culture/Person — Human social sciences 2 Theoretical joint points Toggle Theoretical joint points subsection 2.1 Quantum gravity 2.2 The modern synthesis 2.3 Behavioral investment theory 2.4 Justification systems theory 2.1 Quantum gravity 2.2 The modern synthesis 2.3 Behavioral investment theory 2.4 Justification systems theory 3 The "problem of psychology" Toggle The "problem of psychology" subsection 3.1 Solution 3.1 Solution 4 Consciousness and human behavior 5 Toward the integration of human knowledge 6 See also 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 External links Tree of knowledge system العربية Español فارسی Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . ( Learn how and when to remove these messages ) A major contributor to this article appears to have a close connection with its subject. It may require cleanup to comply with Wikipedia's content policies, particularly neutral point of view . Please discuss further on the talk page . See our advice if the article is about you and read our scam warning in case someone asks for money to edit this article. ( October 2020 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines . Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references . ( September 2022 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) A major contributor to this article appears to have a close connection with its subject. It may require cleanup to comply with Wikipedia's content policies, particularly neutral point of view . Please discuss further on the talk page . See our advice if the article is about you and read our scam warning in case someone asks for money to edit this article. ( October 2020 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines . Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references . ( September 2022 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) The tree of knowledge ( ToK ) system is a new [ when? ] map of Big History that traces cosmic evolution across four different planes of existence, identified as Matter, Life, Mind and Culture that are mapped respectively by the physical, biological, psychological and social domains of science. The Tree of Knowledge (ToK) System was developed by Gregg Henriques , who is a professor and core faculty member in the Combined-Integrated Doctoral Program in Clinical and School Psychology at James Madison University . [ 1 ] The ToK System is part of a larger Unified Theory of Knowledge that Henriques describes as a consilient scientific humanistic philosophy for the 21st Century. The official Unified Theory of Knowledge website describes the ToK System as: [ 2 ] [A] theory of scientific knowledge that defines the human knower in relation to the known. It achieves this novel accomplishment by solving the problem of psychology and giving rise to a truly consilient view of the scientific landscape. It accomplishes this via dividing the evolution of behavioral complexity into four different planes of existence...The ToK also characterizes modern empirical natural science as a kind of justification system that functions to map complexity and change. [A] theory of scientific knowledge that defines the human knower in relation to the known. It achieves this novel accomplishment by solving the problem of psychology and giving rise to a truly consilient view of the scientific landscape. It accomplishes this via dividing the evolution of behavioral complexity into four different planes of existence...The ToK also characterizes modern empirical natural science as a kind of justification system that functions to map complexity and change. The outline of the ToK System was first published in 2003 in Review of General Psychology . [ 3 ] Two special issues of the Journal of Clinical Psychology in December 2004 [ 4 ] and January 2005 [ 5 ] were devoted to the elaboration and evaluation of the model. In 2008, a special issue of Theory & Psychology [ 6 ] was devoted to the ToK System. In 2011, Henriques published A New Unified Theory of Psychology . That same year he also launched the blog Theory of Knowledge: A Unified Approach to Psychology and Philosophy on Psychology Today , which remains active. There is also a Theory Of Knowledge Society and discussion listserve that is devoted to discussing Henriques' work and other big picture viewpoints. In some ways, the ToK System reflects a fairly common hierarchy of nature and of the sciences that has been represented in one way or another since the time of Auguste Comte , who in the 19th century used a hierarchical conception of nature to argue for the existence of sociology. It also has clear parallels with Aristotle's conception of the scales of nature and the first four levels of the Great Chain of Being . Despite some overlap with a number of traditional schemes, the ToK System is properly thought of as a new theory of both ontic reality and our scientific knowledge of that reality. One of the most important and salient features of the Tree of Knowledge is how it represents reality as consisting of four different planes of existence. The theory is that, following Matter, Life, Mind and Culture each represent complex adaptive landscapes that are organized and mediated by novel emergent information processing and communication systems. Specifically, DNA/RNA store information that is processed by cells which then engage in intercellular communication to create the plane of existence called Life. Similarly, the brain and nervous system store and process information in animals which then engage in communication networks on the complex adaptive plane called Mind. Finally, linguistic storage and processing and communication between human beings generates the emergence of the Culture-Person plane of existence. The separable planes of existence or dimension of complexity argument is one of the most crucial aspects of the system. Many have argued nature is hierarchically leveled; for example, a list of such levels might be subatomic particles , atoms , molecules , cells , organ structures, multi-celled organisms, consciousness , and society is common. The ToK System embraces a view of nature as levels, but adds the notion that there are also separable dimensions of complexity . The difference becomes particularly clear in the extension of the ToK System into the Periodic Table of Behavior . The Periodic Table of Behavior (PTB) shows that natural science can be arranged in terms of the four fundamental dimensions (i.e., matter, life, mind, and culture) and three fundamental levels of analysis (i.e., part, whole, group). The PTB also demonstrates that behavior is a central concept in science. Epistemologically, natural scientists view the world via a third person behavioral lens. Ontologically, science is about mapping different kinds of behaviors that take place in nature at various levels and dimensions of analysis. The second central insight of the ToK System is that it shows how natural science is a particular kind of justification system that emerges out of Culture based on novel methods and specific epistemological commitments and assumptions (i.e., an exterior view point, quantification and experimentation). This epistemology and methodology functions to justify scientific ontology, which in turn maps the ontic reality. Specifically, the domains of the physical, biological, (basic) psychological and social sciences map the ontic dimensions of matter, life, mind and culture. The Periodic Table of Behavior further shows how science is a justification system that is arranged to map behavioral frequencies at different dimensions of complexity and levels of analysis. Dimensions and planes of existence This section relies largely or entirely on a single source . Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page . Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources at this section. ( April 2024 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) Matter/Object — Physical sciences The dimension of matter refers to the set of material objects and their behaviors through time. In accordance with modern cosmology , matter is theorized to have emerged from a pure energy singularity at the Big Bang . Space and time were also born at such a point. Nonliving material objects range in complexity from subatomic particles to large organic molecules. The physical sciences (i.e., physics , chemistry , geology, astronomy ) describe the behavior of material objects. [ 3 ] Life/Organism — Biological sciences The dimension of life refers to organisms and their behaviors through time. Living objects are considered a unique subset of material objects. Just as quantum particles form the fundamental units of material complexity, genes are the fundamental units of living information. Although many questions about the emergence of life remain unanswered, in accordance with modern biology, the ToK posits that natural selection operating on genetic combinations through time is the unified theory of biology and forms the foundational understanding for the emergence of organic complexity. [ 3 ] Mind/Animal — (Basic) psychological sciences Mind/cognition in the ToK system refers to the set of mental behaviors. Mental behaviors are behaviors of animals mediated by the nervous system that produce a functional effect on the animal-environment relationship. As such, Mind/cognition is essentially synonymous with what behavioral psychologists have meant when they use the term behavior. Thus, a fly avoiding a fly swatter, a rat pushing a bar or a human getting a drink of water are all mental behaviors. Mind is not synonymous with sentience or the capacity for mental experience, although such processes are presumed to emerge in the mental/cognitive dimension. Cognition , in the broad sense of the term is meaning bodily-neuro-social information processing, as in EEEE Cognition: Embodied, Embedded, Enactive, Extended. While cognitive science stands for naturalist study of mind, psychology is an approach grounded in the tradition of humanities, especially philosophy. Thus, by defining mind as mental behavior, Henriques argues that the ToK System provides a way to bridge the epistemological differences between cognitive and behavioral science . [ 3 ] Henriques argues that comparative psychology , ethology, and (animal) cognitive behavioral neuroscience should all be thought of as parts of the discipline that maps the animal-mental domain. Culture/Person — Human social sciences Culture in the ToK system refers to the set of sociolinguistic behaviors, which range from large scale nation states to individual human justifications for particular actions. Just as genetic information processing is associated with the Life dimension and neuronal information processing associated with the Mind dimension, symbolic information processing emerges with the Cultural dimension. [ 3 ] Henriques argues that human cognitive science, human psychology and the social sciences (i.e., anthropology, sociology, political science, and economics) work to map this domain. Theoretical joint points Quantum gravity Quantum gravity refers to the imagined merger between the twin pillars of physical science which are quantum mechanics , the study of the microscopic (e.g., electrons), and general relativity , the science of the macroscopic (e.g., galaxies ). Currently, these two great domains of science cannot be effectively interwoven into a single, physical Theory of Everything , yet progress is being made, most notably through string theory , loop quantum gravity , black hole thermodynamics and the study of the early universe. Some of the difficulties combining these two pillars of physical science are philosophical in nature and it is possible that the macro view of knowledge offered by the ToK may eventually aid in the construction of a coherent theory of quantum gravity. The reason the ToK might help is that it locates scientific knowledge in relationship to the physical universe. The modern synthesis The modern synthesis refers to the merger of genetics with natural selection which occurred in the 1930s and 1940s and offers a reasonably complete framework for understanding the emergence of biological complexity. Although there remain significant gaps in biological knowledge surrounding questions such as the origin of life and the emergence of sexual reproduction, the modern synthesis represents the most complete and well-substantiated joint point. Behavioral investment theory Behavioral investment theory (BIT) is a metatheoretical formulation for the mind, brain and animal behavioral sciences. Henriques proposes that it enables the merger of the selection science of behaviorism with the information science of cognitive neuroscience that has conceptual parallels with the modern synthesis. BIT posits that the nervous system evolved as an increasingly flexible computational control system that coordinates the behavioral expenditure of energy of the animal as a whole. Expenditure of behavioral energy is theorized to be computed on an investment value system built evolutionarily through natural selection operating on genetic combinations and ontogenetically through behavioral selection operating on neural combinations. As such, the current behavioral investments of the animal are conceptualized as the joint product of the two vectors of phylogeny and ontogeny . A unique element of BIT is that it finds a core of agreement and builds bridges between five brain-behavior paradigms: (1) cognitive science ; (2) behavioral science ; (3) evolutionary theory and genetics; (4) neuroscience; and (5) cybernetics / systems theory . David C. Geary noted the similarities between his "motive-to-control" hypothesis and Henriques' Behavioral Investment Theory, which were developed independently of each other. Furthermore, Geary suggested that his model "seem[ed] to fill in many of the proximate mechanisms and evolutionary pressures that define the life-mind joint point, and provided a framework for further development of the mind-culture joint point." [ 7 ] Justification systems theory The justification systems theory (JUST; formerly known as the justification hypothesis) posits that the evolution of language reached a tipping point with emergence of propositional claims. Specifically, propositional claims can be questioned, which generates the "question-answer" dynamic. This creates the problem of justification, which Henriques argues drives both the design of the human self-consciousness system as a mental organ of justification and gives rise to the evolution of the Culture-Person plane of existence. JUST is a novel proposal that allows for both the understanding of the evolution of culture and for identifying what makes humans distinct animals. A basic initial claim of JUST is that the process of justification is a crucial component of human mental behavior at both the individual and societal level. Unlike all other animals, humans everywhere ask for and give explanations for their actions. Arguments, debates, moral dictates, rationalizations, and excuses all involve the process of explaining why one's claims, thoughts or actions are warranted. In virtually every form of social exchange, from warfare to politics to family struggles to science, humans are constantly justifying their behavioral investments to themselves and others. JUST consists of three key postulates: The first is that the evolution of propositional language must have created the problem of justification, which involves three interlocking problems of deciphering what is (1) analytically true and what is (2) good for the group and (3) good for the individual. The second postulate is that the structure and functional design of human consciousness can be understood as a solution to the problem of justification. Specifically, the three domains of human consciousness that Henriques identifies in the Updated Tripartite Model of the (1) experiential; (2) private narrator; and (3) public narrator are directly consistent with adaptive pressures that arise from the logic of the problem of justification. This analysis deepens when one considers the dynamic relationships and filtering that takes place between these three domains. The third postulate is that culture can be understood as large scale justification systems that coordinate the behavior of human populations. Cultural systems are seen to evolve much in the same way as organisms do in biological evolution: there is a process of variation, selection and retention of belief systems. The "problem of psychology" The ToK System emerged as a consequence of Henriques wrestling with what he calls "the problem of psychology". Henriques argues that the most difficult problem in psychology as a discipline is that while there is incredible diversity offered by different approaches to psychology, and there is no consensus model of what psychology actually is. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] Specifically, Henriques argues that the field lacks a clear definition, an agreed upon subject matter, and a coherent conceptual framework . The problem has been long standing, identified as the "crisis" by Lev Vygotsky in the mid 1920s. Henriques further argues that the patent tendency of psychology has been toward theoretical and substantial fragmentation and increasing insularity among the "specialties." In other words, the discipline has fragmented into different schools of thought and methodology, with no overall framework to interpret and integrate the research of different areas. At its best, the different approaches are a strength of psychology; different approaches lead to novel ideas, and prevent psychologists from clinging to a paradigm that fails to explain a phenomenon. At its worst, adherents of one particular school cling to their beliefs concerning the relative importance of their research and disregard or are ignorant of different approaches. In most cases, individual psychologists have to determine for themselves which elements of which perspective to apply, and how to integrate them into their overall understanding. Henriques argues that the problem of psychology is a central feature of modern knowledge systems. In A New Unified Theory of Psychology , he described it as follows: The problem of psychology is the joint observation that the field cannot be coherently defined and yet it connects more deeply than any other discipline to the three great branches of learning. Taken together, these observations suggest that the problem of psychology is a profound problem in academia at large. This conclusion is bolstered by the fact that as psychology has lumbered along acquiring findings but not foundational clarity, the fragmentation of human knowledge has grown exponentially. All of this suggests that the question, "What is psychology?" is profoundly important, one of the central questions in all of philosophy. Asking the right questions is often the most important step in getting the right answer. My interest in psychotherapy integration ultimately led me to ask the question, "What is psychology?”. Although I had no idea at the time, it turns out that this is the right question. And, as startling as it sounds, because psychology connects to so many different domains, the correct answer to it opens up a whole new vision for integrating human knowledge. The problem of psychology is the joint observation that the field cannot be coherently defined and yet it connects more deeply than any other discipline to the three great branches of learning. Taken together, these observations suggest that the problem of psychology is a profound problem in academia at large. This conclusion is bolstered by the fact that as psychology has lumbered along acquiring findings but not foundational clarity, the fragmentation of human knowledge has grown exponentially. All of this suggests that the question, "What is psychology?" is profoundly important, one of the central questions in all of philosophy. Asking the right questions is often the most important step in getting the right answer. My interest in psychotherapy integration ultimately led me to ask the question, "What is psychology?”. Although I had no idea at the time, it turns out that this is the right question. And, as startling as it sounds, because psychology connects to so many different domains, the correct answer to it opens up a whole new vision for integrating human knowledge. The reason for psychology's fragmentation, according to the ToK System, is that there has been no meta-theoretical frame that allows scholars to agree on the basic questions that need to be addressed. As such, the different schools of thought in psychology are like the blind men who each grab a part of the elephant and proclaim they have discovered its true nature. With its novel depiction of evolving dimensions of complexity, the ToK allows scholars finally to see the elephant. In his 2003 Review of General Psychology paper, [ 8 ] Henriques used the ToK System with the attempt to clarify and align the views of B.F. Skinner and Sigmund Freud . These luminaries were chosen because when one considers their influence and historical opposition, it can readily be argued that they represent two schools of thought that are the most difficult to integrate. Henriques used the meta-perspective offered by the ToK to argue how one can retain the key insights from each school of thought, identify errors and points of confusion, and integrate the insights into a coherent whole. Cultural and personality psychologist, Michael Katzko, [ 10 ] however critiques Henriques' position on "the problem of psychology": There is a very good reason for skepticism regarding the repeated claims that the one unique problem of psychology, applicable across the entire discipline, has been identified and that the ToK System solves it. The reason is given by the detail with which alternatives have been worked out, be they historical studies of institutional development or critical commentaries on the rhetorical structure of psychology's literature. [ 11 ] There is a very good reason for skepticism regarding the repeated claims that the one unique problem of psychology, applicable across the entire discipline, has been identified and that the ToK System solves it. The reason is given by the detail with which alternatives have been worked out, be they historical studies of institutional development or critical commentaries on the rhetorical structure of psychology's literature. [ 11 ] Solution The problem of psychology, according to the ToK, is its conceptual incoherence, which Henriques identifies by the following: When the various conceptions of psychology (e.g., behavioral, humanistic, cognitive) are viewed through the lens of the ToK System, psychology spans two different dimensions of complexity: the mental and the cultural. In other words, the discipline has historically spanned two fundamentally separate problems: If, as previously thought, nature simply consisted of levels of complexity, psychology would not be crisply defined in relationship to biology or the social sciences. And, indeed, it is frequently suggested that psychology exists in an amorphous space between biology and the social sciences. However, with its dimension of complexity depiction, the ToK System suggests that psychology can be crisply defined as the science of mind, which is the third dimension of complexity. Furthermore, because human behavior exists in the fourth dimension, psychology must be divided into two broad scientific domains of Psychological formalism is defined as the science of mind and corresponds to the behavior of animal objects. Human psychology is considered to be a unique subset of psychological formalism that deals with human behavior at the level of the individual. Because human behavior is immersed in the larger socio-cultural context (level four in the ToK System), human psychology is considered a hybrid discipline that merges the pure science of psychology with the social sciences. It is important to point out that there are other disciplines the ToK System would classify as “hybrids.” Molecular genetics, for example, is a hybrid between chemistry and biology and neuroscience is a hybrid between biology and psychology. As with Henriques' proposed conception of human psychology, both of these disciplines adopt an object level perspective (molecular and cellular, respectively) on phenomena that simultaneously exist as part of meta-level system processes (life and mind, respectively). [ 9 ] Though David A. F. Haaga "congratulate[d] Dr. Henriques' ambitious, scholarly, provocative paper", and "found the Tree of Knowledge taxonomy, the theoretical joint points, the evolutionary history, and the levels of emergent properties highly illuminating", he asks the rhetorical questions, If it is so difficult to define terms such as 'psychology' with such precision, why bother? Why not just agree that we all have at least a rough idea of what psychology is, and take the rest of the afternoon off? After all, if theoretical or empirical work improves our understanding of some aspect of the world or our fellow people, or improves our ability to help people enhance their physical or emotional well being, what difference does it make whether this work is considered a part of psychology, of cognitive science, of behavioral neuroscience, of public health, or what have you? This raises the question of what definitions in general are good for. [ 12 ] If it is so difficult to define terms such as 'psychology' with such precision, why bother? Why not just agree that we all have at least a rough idea of what psychology is, and take the rest of the afternoon off? After all, if theoretical or empirical work improves our understanding of some aspect of the world or our fellow people, or improves our ability to help people enhance their physical or emotional well being, what difference does it make whether this work is considered a part of psychology, of cognitive science, of behavioral neuroscience, of public health, or what have you? This raises the question of what definitions in general are good for. [ 12 ] In a similar vein, Scott O. Lilienfeld, who described Henriques' effort as "thoughtful", contended that psychology is "an inherently fuzzy concept that resists precise definition" and that "attempts to define psychology [would be] likely to hamper rather than foster consilience across disciplines". Lilienfield went on further to suggest that the scientist-practitioner gap in psychology lies not in definitional issues, but in different "epistemic attitudes" between these two groups. He stated that scientists have an epistemic attitude of empiricism , (where questions regarding human nature are settled by scientific evidence), and that practitioners have an epistemic attitude of romanticism , (where questions of human nature are settled by intuition). Lilienfeld suggested that the solution to the scientist-practitioner gulf isn't definitional, but in "train[ing] future clinical scientists to appreciate the proper places of romanticism and empiricism within science". [ 13 ] Consciousness and human behavior A frequent question and point of confusion in the ToK System is the definition and meaning of consciousness . As mentioned above, mind is not synonymous with consciousness. And, to understand consciousness from a ToK vantage point, it is crucial to recognize that the term is often ambiguous in its meaning. Two primary meanings are sentience , which is the capacity for mental experience and self-awareness , which is the capacity to be aware of one's awareness. Sentience is conceptualized as a "level 3" phenomenon, possessed by many animals other than humans and is defined as a "perceived" electro-neuro-chemical representation of animal-environment relations. The ingredient of neurological behavior that allows for the emergence of mental experience is considered the "hard" problem of consciousness and the ToK System does not address this question explicitly. In contrast, through the Justification Hypothesis (see below), the ToK System involves a very direct analysis of the other issue of consciousness, that of self-awareness . Another frequent question that is raised is "Where does individual human behavior fall on the ToK?" To analyze human behavior from the context of the ToK, one uses the ToK like a prism to separate the dimensions of behavior into physiochemical, biogenetic, neuropsychological and sociolinguistic. Thus if we imagine a conversation between a husband and wife as follows: Wife: “You are late again.” Husband: “Please, not now. It was a stressful day, traffic was bad, and you know that if work needs to be done, I can’t just leave it.” Wife: “You are late again.” Husband: “Please, not now. It was a stressful day, traffic was bad, and you know that if work needs to be done, I can’t just leave it.” The words represent the sociolinguistic dimension and are understood as a function of justification. Justification systems are seen both at the level of individual, micro-social and societal (i.e., the context of justification in which men work and women stay at home). The actions of the husband and wife in terms of facial expression , body movement, etc. are seen as the mental dimension and are understood as a function of behavioral investment. The physiological make up of the organ systems and cells of each body is seen as the biogenetic dimension. Finally, the position, temperature, molecular make up is seen as the physiochemical dimension. Each of the more basic dimensions represent conditions of possibility that allow for the emergence of the higher dimension of process. Thus, insufficient oxygen disrupts organic processes which in turn renders neuropsychological and sociolinguistic processes impossible. Toward the integration of human knowledge As stated above, the ToK System proposes a new epistemology with the goal of moving academic knowledge toward what E.O. Wilson termed consilience . Consilience is the interlocking of fact and theory into a coherent, holistic view of knowledge. Henriques argues that the ToK affords new perspectives on how knowledge is obtained because it depicts how science emerges from culture and that the four dimensions of complexity correspond to four broad classes of science: the physical, biological, psychological and social sciences. Henriques further argues that developing such a system for integrating knowledge is not just an academic enterprise. He suggests that in an increasingly complex world, the fragmented state of knowledge can be seen as one of the most pressing social problems of our time. Henriques also believes that history seems to attest that the absence of a collective worldview ostensibly condemns humanity to an endless series of conflicts that inevitably stem from incompatible, partially correct, locally situated justification systems. Thus, from Henriques' perspective, there are good reasons for believing that if there was a shared, general background of explanation, humanity might be able to achieve much greater levels of harmonious relations. In a 2008 article on the ToK, [ 14 ] Henriques cites Oliver Reiser 's 1958 call for unifying scientific knowledge that Henriques implies is similar in theme to the ToK: With its depiction of the dimensions of complexity and interlocking theoretical joint points, Henriques' believes that his ToK System offers new avenues that might allow scholars to meet Reiser’s call for academic synthesis. Henriques, like Reiser, believes that with a shared sense of purpose and a common background of explanation, people might yet be able to integrate bodies of knowledge into a unified interpretation of humanity, with humanity's place in nature and its potentialities for creating the good society. See also Tree of knowledge (philosophy) by René Descartes Tinbergen's four questions Behavioral repertoire Consilience Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge – 1998 book by E.O. Wilson Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge – 1998 book by E.O. Wilson Descriptive psychology General System Theory Psychological behaviorism Social meaning-making The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution – 1959 book by C. P. Snow Unified theory of cognition Unity of science Metasystem transition References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} " "About Me" section of the ToK System website" . Archived from the original on 5 December 2008 . Retrieved 3 January 2009 . ^ " "The Tree of Knowledge System" section of the 8 key ideas in the Unified Theory of Knowledge website" . Archived from the original on 2 July 2022 . Retrieved 2 July 2022 . ^ a b c d e Henriques, G.R. (2003). The Tree of Knowledge System and the Theoretical Unification of Psychology. Archived 25 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine Review of General Psychology, 7, 150–182. ^ "Defining Psychology: Articles and Commentaries on a New Unified Theory (Part 1): Journal of Clinical Psychology: Vol 60, No 12" . Archived from the original on 3 March 2011 . Retrieved 30 July 2021 – via Wiley Online Library. ^ "Defining Psychology: Articles and Commentaries on a New Unified Theory (Part 2): Journal of Clinical Psychology: Vol 61, No 1" . Archived from the original on 16 December 2012 . Retrieved 30 July 2021 – via Wiley Online Library. ^ "Theory & Psychology - Volume 18, Number 6, Dec 01, 2008" . Sage Journals . ^ Geary, D. C. (2005). The motivation to control and the origin of mind: Exploring the life-mind joint point in the tree of knowledge. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 21–46. ^ a b Henriques, G.R. (2003). The tree of knowledge system and the theoretical unification of psychology. Archived 25 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine Review of General Psychology, 7, 150–182. ^ a b Henriques, G.R. (2004). Psychology Defined Archived 10 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine . Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1207–1221. ^ Homepage of Michael Katzko ^ Katzko, M. W. (2008). Pruning the Tree of Knowledge. Theory & Psychology , 18, 817–828. Abstract ^ Haaga, D.A.F. (2004). Defining psychology: What can it do for us? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1227–1230. ^ Lilienfeld, S.O. (2004). Defining psychology: Is it worth the trouble? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1249–1253. ^ Henriques, G.R. (2008). The problem of psychology and the integration of human knowledge: Contrasting Wilson's Consilience with the Tree of Knowledge System. Theory & Psychology, 18, 731–755. Final draft ^ Reiser, O.L. (1958). The integration of human knowledge. Boston: Porter Sargent. Bibliography Anchin, J.C. (2008). The critical role of the dialectic in viable metatheory: A commentary on Henriques' Tree of Knowledge System for integrating human knowledge. Theory & Psychology, 18, 801–816. Full text Calhoun, L.G. (2004). The unification of psychology: A noble quest. Journal of Clinical Psychology , 60, 1283–1289. Abstract Geary, D. C. (2005). The motivation to control and the origin of mind: Exploring the life-mind joint point in the tree of knowledge. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 21–46. Full text Gilbert, P. (2004). A much needed macro level view: A commentary on Henriques’ psychology defined. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1223–1226. Full text Goertzen, J.R. (2008). On the possibility of unification: The reality and nature of the crisis in psychology. Theory & Psychology, 18, 829–852. Full text Haaga, D.A.F. (2004). Defining psychology: What can it do for us? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1227–1230. Full text Hayes, S.C. (2004). Taxonomy as a contextualist views it. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1231–1236. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2008). The problem of psychology and the integration of human knowledge: Contrasting Wilson's Consilience with the Tree of Knowledge System. Theory & Psychology, 18, 731–755. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2005). A new vision for the field: Introduction to the second special issue on the unified theory. Journal of Clinical Psychology , 61, 3–6. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2005). Toward a useful mass movement. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 121–139. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2004). Psychology Defined. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1207–1221. Full text Archived 10 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine Henriques, G.R. (2004). The development of the unified theory and the future of psychotherapy. Psychotherapy Bulletin, 39, 16–21. Final draft Henriques, G.R., & Cobb, H.C. (2004). Introduction to the special issues on the unified theory. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1203–1205. Full text Henriques, G.R., & Sternberg, R. J. (2004). Unified professional psychology: Implications for combined-integrated doctoral training programs. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1051–1063. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2003). The Tree of Knowledge System and the Theoretical Unification of Psychology. Review of General Psychology, 7, 150–182. Full text Archived 25 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine . Henriques, G.R. (2002). The harmful dysfunction analysis and the differentiation between mental disorder and disease. Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice , 1, 157–173. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2000). Depression: Disease or behavioral shutdown mechanism? Journal of Science and Health Policy, 1, 152–165. Full text Jones, R. (2005). From that dirty little science grows a Tree of Knowledge. The Madison, 1, 36–45. Full text Katzko, M.W. (2008). Pruning the Tree of Knowledge. Theory & Psychology, 18, 817–828. Full text Katzko, M.W. (2004). Psychology's dilemma: An institutional neurosis? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1237–1242. Full text Kihlstrom, J.F. (2004). Unity within psychology, and unity between science and practice. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1243–1247. Full text Lilienfeld, S.O. (2004). Defining psychology: Is it worth the trouble? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1249–1253. Full text Mayer, J.D. (2004). How does psychotherapy influence personality? A theoretical integration. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1291–1315. Full text Presbury, J. (2004). Rooting the tree of knowledge: A response to Henriques’ psychology defined. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1255–1258. Full text Quackenbush, S.W. (2008). Theoretical unification as a practical project: Kant and the Tree of Knowledge System. Theory & Psychology, 18, 757–777. Full text Quackenbush, S.W. (2005). Remythologizing culture: Narrativity, justification, and the politics of personalization. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 67–80. Full text Archived 16 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine Rand, K.L., & Ilardi, S.S. (2005). Toward a consilient science of psychology. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 7–20. Full text Shaffer, L.S. (2008). Religion as a large-scale justification system: Does the Justification Hypothesis explain animistic attribution? Theory & Psychology, 18, 779–799. Full text Shaffer, L.S. (2006). Durkheim's aphorism, the Justification Hypothesis, and the nature of social facts. Sociological Viewpoints, fall issue, 57–70. Full text Shaffer, L.S. (2005). From mirror self-recognition to the looking glass self: Exploring the justification hypothesis. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 47–65 . Full text Shealy, C.N. (2005). Justifying the justification hypothesis: Scientific-humanism, Equilintegration (EI) Theory, and the Beliefs, Events, and Values Inventory (BEVI). Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 81–106. Full text Slife, B. (2005). Testing the limits of Henriques' proposal: Wittgensteinian lessons and hermenuetic dialogue. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 107–120. Full text Stam, H.J. (2004). Unifying psychology: Epistemological act or disciplinary maneuver? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1259–1262. Full text Stanovich, K.E. (2004). Metarepresentation and the great cognitive divide: A commentary on Henriques' "Psychology Defined". Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1263–1266. Full text Stricker, G. (2004). The unification of psychology and psychological organizations. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1267–1269. Full text Vazire, S., & Robins, R.W. (2004). Beyond the Justification Hypothesis: A Broader Theory of the Evolution of Self-Consciousness. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1271–1273. Full text Viney, W. (2004). Pluralism in the sciences is not easily dismissed. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1275–1278. Full text Yanchar, S.C. (2004). Some discontents with theoretical unification. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1279–1281. Full text External links The Official Tree of Knowledge Website Archived 6 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine Tree of Knowledge System/Expert article by Gregg Henriques at the Psychology Wiki This page uses content from the English-language version of Psychology Wiki . The original article was at Tree of Knowledge System/Expert article by Gregg Henriques . The list of authors can be seen in the page history . The text of both The Psychology Wiki and Wikipedia is available under the GNU Free Documentation License . 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We gratefully acknowledge support from the Simons Foundation, member institutions , and all contributors. Donate Help | Advanced Search Showing 1–12 of 12 results for author: Kapoor, V Show abstracts Hide abstracts arXiv:2601.10245 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.CL cs.LG TRIM: Hybrid Inference via Targeted Stepwise Routing in Multi-Step Reasoning Tasks Authors: Vansh Kapoor , Aman Gupta , Hao Chen , Anurag Beniwal , Jing Huang , Aviral Kumar Abstract : Multi-step reasoning tasks like mathematical problem solving are vulnerable to cascading failures, where a single incorrect step leads to complete solution breakdown. Current LLM routing methods assign entire queries to one model, treating all reasoning steps as equal. We propose TRIM (Targeted routing in multi-step reasoning tasks), which routes only critical steps$\unicode{x2013}$those likely to… ▽ More Multi-step reasoning tasks like mathematical problem solving are vulnerable to cascading failures, where a single incorrect step leads to complete solution breakdown. Current LLM routing methods assign entire queries to one model, treating all reasoning steps as equal. We propose TRIM (Targeted routing in multi-step reasoning tasks), which routes only critical steps$\unicode{x2013}$those likely to derail the solution$\unicode{x2013}$to larger models while letting smaller models handle routine continuations. Our key insight is that targeted step-level interventions can fundamentally transform inference efficiency by confining expensive calls to precisely those steps where stronger models prevent cascading errors. TRIM operates at the step-level: it uses process reward models to identify erroneous steps and makes routing decisions based on step-level uncertainty and budget constraints. We develop several routing strategies within TRIM, ranging from a simple threshold-based policy to more expressive policies that reason about long-horizon accuracy-cost trade-offs and uncertainty in step-level correctness estimates. On MATH-500, even the simplest thresholding strategy surpasses prior routing methods with 5x higher cost efficiency, while more advanced policies match the strong, expensive model's performance using 80% fewer expensive model tokens. On harder benchmarks such as AIME, TRIM achieves up to 6x higher cost efficiency. All methods generalize effectively across math reasoning tasks, demonstrating that step-level difficulty represents fundamental characteristics of reasoning. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10245 [ pdf , ps , other ] TRIM: Hybrid Inference via Targeted Stepwise Routing in Multi-Step Reasoning Tasks Authors: Vansh Kapoor , Aman Gupta , Hao Chen , Anurag Beniwal , Jing Huang , Aviral Kumar Abstract : Multi-step reasoning tasks like mathematical problem solving are vulnerable to cascading failures, where a single incorrect step leads to complete solution breakdown. Current LLM routing methods assign entire queries to one model, treating all reasoning steps as equal. We propose TRIM (Targeted routing in multi-step reasoning tasks), which routes only critical steps$\unicode{x2013}$those likely to… ▽ More Multi-step reasoning tasks like mathematical problem solving are vulnerable to cascading failures, where a single incorrect step leads to complete solution breakdown. Current LLM routing methods assign entire queries to one model, treating all reasoning steps as equal. We propose TRIM (Targeted routing in multi-step reasoning tasks), which routes only critical steps$\unicode{x2013}$those likely to derail the solution$\unicode{x2013}$to larger models while letting smaller models handle routine continuations. Our key insight is that targeted step-level interventions can fundamentally transform inference efficiency by confining expensive calls to precisely those steps where stronger models prevent cascading errors. TRIM operates at the step-level: it uses process reward models to identify erroneous steps and makes routing decisions based on step-level uncertainty and budget constraints. We develop several routing strategies within TRIM, ranging from a simple threshold-based policy to more expressive policies that reason about long-horizon accuracy-cost trade-offs and uncertainty in step-level correctness estimates. On MATH-500, even the simplest thresholding strategy surpasses prior routing methods with 5x higher cost efficiency, while more advanced policies match the strong, expensive model's performance using 80% fewer expensive model tokens. On harder benchmarks such as AIME, TRIM achieves up to 6x higher cost efficiency. All methods generalize effectively across math reasoning tasks, demonstrating that step-level difficulty represents fundamental characteristics of reasoning. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2505.03280 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG MDPs with a State Sensing Cost Authors: Vansh Kapoor , Jayakrishnan Nair Abstract : In many practical sequential decision-making problems, tracking the state of the environment incurs a sensing/communication/computation cost. In these settings, the agent's interaction with its environment includes the additional component of deciding when to sense the state, in a manner that balances the value associated with optimal (state-specific) actions and the cost of sensing. We formulate… ▽ More In many practical sequential decision-making problems, tracking the state of the environment incurs a sensing/communication/computation cost. In these settings, the agent's interaction with its environment includes the additional component of deciding when to sense the state, in a manner that balances the value associated with optimal (state-specific) actions and the cost of sensing. We formulate this as an expected discounted cost Markov Decision Process (MDP), wherein the agent incurs an additional cost for sensing its next state, but has the option to take actions while remaining `blind' to the system state. We pose this problem as a classical discounted cost MDP with an expanded (countably infinite) state space. While computing the optimal policy for this MDP is intractable in general, we derive lower bounds on the optimal value function, which allow us to bound the suboptimality gap of any policy. We also propose a computationally efficient algorithm SPI, based on policy improvement, which in practice performs close to the optimal policy. Finally, we benchmark against the state-of-the-art via a numerical case study. △ Less Submitted 29 October, 2025; v1 submitted 6 May, 2025; originally announced May 2025. Comments: This revision adds a real-world healthcare benchmark and provides a more detailed explanation of SPI arXiv:2505.03280 [ pdf , ps , other ] MDPs with a State Sensing Cost Authors: Vansh Kapoor , Jayakrishnan Nair Abstract : In many practical sequential decision-making problems, tracking the state of the environment incurs a sensing/communication/computation cost. In these settings, the agent's interaction with its environment includes the additional component of deciding when to sense the state, in a manner that balances the value associated with optimal (state-specific) actions and the cost of sensing. We formulate… ▽ More In many practical sequential decision-making problems, tracking the state of the environment incurs a sensing/communication/computation cost. In these settings, the agent's interaction with its environment includes the additional component of deciding when to sense the state, in a manner that balances the value associated with optimal (state-specific) actions and the cost of sensing. We formulate this as an expected discounted cost Markov Decision Process (MDP), wherein the agent incurs an additional cost for sensing its next state, but has the option to take actions while remaining `blind' to the system state. We pose this problem as a classical discounted cost MDP with an expanded (countably infinite) state space. While computing the optimal policy for this MDP is intractable in general, we derive lower bounds on the optimal value function, which allow us to bound the suboptimality gap of any policy. We also propose a computationally efficient algorithm SPI, based on policy improvement, which in practice performs close to the optimal policy. Finally, we benchmark against the state-of-the-art via a numerical case study. △ Less Submitted 29 October, 2025; v1 submitted 6 May, 2025; originally announced May 2025. Comments: This revision adds a real-world healthcare benchmark and provides a more detailed explanation of SPI arXiv:2503.11163 cs.RO cs.CV A Benchmarking Study of Vision-based Robotic Grasping Algorithms Authors: Bharath K Rameshbabu , Sumukh S Balakrishna , Brian Flynn , Vinarak Kapoor , Adam Norton , Holly Yanco , Berk Calli Abstract : We present a benchmarking study of vision-based robotic grasping algorithms with distinct approaches, and provide a comparative analysis. In particular, we compare two machine-learning-based and two analytical algorithms using an existing benchmarking protocol from the literature and determine the algorithm's strengths and weaknesses under different experimental conditions. These conditions includ… ▽ More We present a benchmarking study of vision-based robotic grasping algorithms with distinct approaches, and provide a comparative analysis. In particular, we compare two machine-learning-based and two analytical algorithms using an existing benchmarking protocol from the literature and determine the algorithm's strengths and weaknesses under different experimental conditions. These conditions include variations in lighting, background textures, cameras with different noise levels, and grippers. We also run analogous experiments in simulations and with real robots and present the discrepancies. Some experiments are also run in two different laboratories using same protocols to further analyze the repeatability of our results. We believe that this study, comprising 5040 experiments, provides important insights into the role and challenges of systematic experimentation in robotic manipulation, and guides the development of new algorithms by considering the factors that could impact the performance. The experiment recordings and our benchmarking software are publicly available. △ Less Submitted 2 October, 2025; v1 submitted 14 March, 2025; originally announced March 2025. Comments: This work was intended as a replacement of arXiv:2307.11622. I will upload it as a replacement to arXiv:2307.11622 simultaneously MSC Class: 68T99 arXiv:2503.11163 A Benchmarking Study of Vision-based Robotic Grasping Algorithms Authors: Bharath K Rameshbabu , Sumukh S Balakrishna , Brian Flynn , Vinarak Kapoor , Adam Norton , Holly Yanco , Berk Calli Abstract : We present a benchmarking study of vision-based robotic grasping algorithms with distinct approaches, and provide a comparative analysis. In particular, we compare two machine-learning-based and two analytical algorithms using an existing benchmarking protocol from the literature and determine the algorithm's strengths and weaknesses under different experimental conditions. These conditions includ… ▽ More We present a benchmarking study of vision-based robotic grasping algorithms with distinct approaches, and provide a comparative analysis. In particular, we compare two machine-learning-based and two analytical algorithms using an existing benchmarking protocol from the literature and determine the algorithm's strengths and weaknesses under different experimental conditions. These conditions include variations in lighting, background textures, cameras with different noise levels, and grippers. We also run analogous experiments in simulations and with real robots and present the discrepancies. Some experiments are also run in two different laboratories using same protocols to further analyze the repeatability of our results. We believe that this study, comprising 5040 experiments, provides important insights into the role and challenges of systematic experimentation in robotic manipulation, and guides the development of new algorithms by considering the factors that could impact the performance. The experiment recordings and our benchmarking software are publicly available. △ Less Submitted 2 October, 2025; v1 submitted 14 March, 2025; originally announced March 2025. Comments: This work was intended as a replacement of arXiv:2307.11622. I will upload it as a replacement to arXiv:2307.11622 simultaneously MSC Class: 68T99 arXiv:2411.15320 [ pdf , other ] cs.CL cs.AI PPLqa: An Unsupervised Information-Theoretic Quality Metric for Comparing Generative Large Language Models Authors: Gerald Friedland , Xin Huang , Yueying Cui , Vishaal Kapoor , Ashish Khetan , Sanjiv Das Abstract : We propose PPLqa, an easy to compute, language independent, information-theoretic metric to measure the quality of responses of generative Large Language Models (LLMs) in an unsupervised way, without requiring ground truth annotations or human supervision. The method and metric enables users to rank generative language models for quality of responses, so as to make a selection of the best model fo… ▽ More We propose PPLqa, an easy to compute, language independent, information-theoretic metric to measure the quality of responses of generative Large Language Models (LLMs) in an unsupervised way, without requiring ground truth annotations or human supervision. The method and metric enables users to rank generative language models for quality of responses, so as to make a selection of the best model for a given task. Our single metric assesses LLMs with an approach that subsumes, but is not explicitly based on, coherence and fluency (quality of writing) and relevance and consistency (appropriateness of response) to the query. PPLqa performs as well as other related metrics, and works better with long-form Q\&A. Thus, PPLqa enables bypassing the lengthy annotation process required for ground truth evaluations, and it also correlates well with human and LLM rankings. △ Less Submitted 22 November, 2024; originally announced November 2024. ACM Class: I.2.m; E.4 arXiv:2411.15320 [ pdf , other ] PPLqa: An Unsupervised Information-Theoretic Quality Metric for Comparing Generative Large Language Models Authors: Gerald Friedland , Xin Huang , Yueying Cui , Vishaal Kapoor , Ashish Khetan , Sanjiv Das Abstract : We propose PPLqa, an easy to compute, language independent, information-theoretic metric to measure the quality of responses of generative Large Language Models (LLMs) in an unsupervised way, without requiring ground truth annotations or human supervision. The method and metric enables users to rank generative language models for quality of responses, so as to make a selection of the best model fo… ▽ More We propose PPLqa, an easy to compute, language independent, information-theoretic metric to measure the quality of responses of generative Large Language Models (LLMs) in an unsupervised way, without requiring ground truth annotations or human supervision. The method and metric enables users to rank generative language models for quality of responses, so as to make a selection of the best model for a given task. Our single metric assesses LLMs with an approach that subsumes, but is not explicitly based on, coherence and fluency (quality of writing) and relevance and consistency (appropriateness of response) to the query. PPLqa performs as well as other related metrics, and works better with long-form Q\&A. Thus, PPLqa enables bypassing the lengthy annotation process required for ground truth evaluations, and it also correlates well with human and LLM rankings. △ Less Submitted 22 November, 2024; originally announced November 2024. ACM Class: I.2.m; E.4 arXiv:2311.06323 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.IR cs.AI cs.LG Reviewing Developments of Graph Convolutional Network Techniques for Recommendation Systems Authors: Haojun Zhu , Vikram Kapoor , Priya Sharma Abstract : The Recommender system is a vital information service on today's Internet. Recently, graph neural networks have emerged as the leading approach for recommender systems. We try to review recent literature on graph neural network-based recommender systems, covering the background and development of both recommender systems and graph neural networks. Then categorizing recommender systems by their set… ▽ More The Recommender system is a vital information service on today's Internet. Recently, graph neural networks have emerged as the leading approach for recommender systems. We try to review recent literature on graph neural network-based recommender systems, covering the background and development of both recommender systems and graph neural networks. Then categorizing recommender systems by their settings and graph neural networks by spectral and spatial models, we explore the motivation behind incorporating graph neural networks into recommender systems. We also analyze challenges and open problems in graph construction, embedding propagation and aggregation, and computation efficiency. This guides us to better explore the future directions and developments in this domain. △ Less Submitted 10 November, 2023; originally announced November 2023. Comments: arXiv admin note: text overlap with arXiv:2103.08976 by other authors arXiv:2311.06323 [ pdf , ps , other ] Reviewing Developments of Graph Convolutional Network Techniques for Recommendation Systems Authors: Haojun Zhu , Vikram Kapoor , Priya Sharma Abstract : The Recommender system is a vital information service on today's Internet. Recently, graph neural networks have emerged as the leading approach for recommender systems. We try to review recent literature on graph neural network-based recommender systems, covering the background and development of both recommender systems and graph neural networks. Then categorizing recommender systems by their set… ▽ More The Recommender system is a vital information service on today's Internet. Recently, graph neural networks have emerged as the leading approach for recommender systems. We try to review recent literature on graph neural network-based recommender systems, covering the background and development of both recommender systems and graph neural networks. Then categorizing recommender systems by their settings and graph neural networks by spectral and spatial models, we explore the motivation behind incorporating graph neural networks into recommender systems. We also analyze challenges and open problems in graph construction, embedding propagation and aggregation, and computation efficiency. This guides us to better explore the future directions and developments in this domain. △ Less Submitted 10 November, 2023; originally announced November 2023. Comments: arXiv admin note: text overlap with arXiv:2103.08976 by other authors arXiv:2307.11622 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO doi 10.1109/MRA.2025.3603931 A Benchmarking Study of Vision-Based Robotic Grasping Algorithms: A Comparative Analysis Authors: Bharath K Rameshbabu , Sumukh S Balakrishna , Brian Flynn , Vinayak Kapoor , Adam Norton , Holly Yanco , Berk Calli Abstract : We present a benchmarking study of vision-based robotic grasping algorithms and provide a comparative analysis. In particular, we compare two machine-learning-based and two analytical algorithms using an existing benchmarking protocol from the literature and determine the algorithms strengths and weaknesses under different experimental conditions. These conditions include variations in lighting, b… ▽ More We present a benchmarking study of vision-based robotic grasping algorithms and provide a comparative analysis. In particular, we compare two machine-learning-based and two analytical algorithms using an existing benchmarking protocol from the literature and determine the algorithms strengths and weaknesses under different experimental conditions. These conditions include variations in lighting, background textures, cameras with different noise levels, and grippers. We also run analogous experiments in simulations and with real robots and present the discrepancies. Some experiments are also run in two different laboratories using the same protocols to further analyze the repeatability of our results. We believe that this study, comprising 5040 experiments, provides important insights into the role and challenges of systematic experimentation in robotic manipulation and guides the development of new algorithms by considering the factors that could impact the performance. The experiment recordings and our benchmarking software are publicly available. △ Less Submitted 5 October, 2025; v1 submitted 21 July, 2023; originally announced July 2023. Comments: Accepted in IEEE Robotics and Automation Magazine 2025. Previously this version with slight modifications appeared as arXiv:2503.11163, which was submitted as a new work by accident. We have requested for removal of arXiv:2503.11163 from the other account, while simultaneously submitting this version as a revision to arXiv:2307.11622. We are stressing that this submission is intentional arXiv:2307.11622 [ pdf , ps , other ] A Benchmarking Study of Vision-Based Robotic Grasping Algorithms: A Comparative Analysis Authors: Bharath K Rameshbabu , Sumukh S Balakrishna , Brian Flynn , Vinayak Kapoor , Adam Norton , Holly Yanco , Berk Calli Abstract : We present a benchmarking study of vision-based robotic grasping algorithms and provide a comparative analysis. In particular, we compare two machine-learning-based and two analytical algorithms using an existing benchmarking protocol from the literature and determine the algorithms strengths and weaknesses under different experimental conditions. These conditions include variations in lighting, b… ▽ More We present a benchmarking study of vision-based robotic grasping algorithms and provide a comparative analysis. In particular, we compare two machine-learning-based and two analytical algorithms using an existing benchmarking protocol from the literature and determine the algorithms strengths and weaknesses under different experimental conditions. These conditions include variations in lighting, background textures, cameras with different noise levels, and grippers. We also run analogous experiments in simulations and with real robots and present the discrepancies. Some experiments are also run in two different laboratories using the same protocols to further analyze the repeatability of our results. We believe that this study, comprising 5040 experiments, provides important insights into the role and challenges of systematic experimentation in robotic manipulation and guides the development of new algorithms by considering the factors that could impact the performance. The experiment recordings and our benchmarking software are publicly available. △ Less Submitted 5 October, 2025; v1 submitted 21 July, 2023; originally announced July 2023. Comments: Accepted in IEEE Robotics and Automation Magazine 2025. Previously this version with slight modifications appeared as arXiv:2503.11163, which was submitted as a new work by accident. We have requested for removal of arXiv:2503.11163 from the other account, while simultaneously submitting this version as a revision to arXiv:2307.11622. We are stressing that this submission is intentional arXiv:2210.09052 [ pdf , other ] cs.CV cs.MM Digital Image Forensics using Deep Learning Authors: Akash Nagaraj , Mukund Sood , Vivek Kapoor , Yash Mathur , Bishesh Sinha Abstract : During the investigation of criminal activity when evidence is available, the issue at hand is determining the credibility of the video and ascertaining that the video is real. Today, one way to authenticate the footage is to identify the camera that was used to capture the image or video in question. While a very common way to do this is by using image meta-data, this data can easily be falsified… ▽ More During the investigation of criminal activity when evidence is available, the issue at hand is determining the credibility of the video and ascertaining that the video is real. Today, one way to authenticate the footage is to identify the camera that was used to capture the image or video in question. While a very common way to do this is by using image meta-data, this data can easily be falsified by changing the video content or even splicing together content from two different cameras. Given the multitude of solutions proposed to this problem, it is yet to be sufficiently solved. The aim of our project is to build an algorithm that identifies which camera was used to capture an image using traces of information left intrinsically in the image, using filters, followed by a deep neural network on these filters. Solving this problem would have a big impact on the verification of evidence used in criminal and civil trials and even news reporting. △ Less Submitted 13 October, 2022; originally announced October 2022. Comments: This paper was written in 2018 as a part of our submission to the 2018 IEEE Signal Processing Cup: Forensic Camera Model Identification Challenge arXiv:2210.09052 [ pdf , other ] Digital Image Forensics using Deep Learning Authors: Akash Nagaraj , Mukund Sood , Vivek Kapoor , Yash Mathur , Bishesh Sinha Abstract : During the investigation of criminal activity when evidence is available, the issue at hand is determining the credibility of the video and ascertaining that the video is real. Today, one way to authenticate the footage is to identify the camera that was used to capture the image or video in question. While a very common way to do this is by using image meta-data, this data can easily be falsified… ▽ More During the investigation of criminal activity when evidence is available, the issue at hand is determining the credibility of the video and ascertaining that the video is real. Today, one way to authenticate the footage is to identify the camera that was used to capture the image or video in question. While a very common way to do this is by using image meta-data, this data can easily be falsified by changing the video content or even splicing together content from two different cameras. Given the multitude of solutions proposed to this problem, it is yet to be sufficiently solved. The aim of our project is to build an algorithm that identifies which camera was used to capture an image using traces of information left intrinsically in the image, using filters, followed by a deep neural network on these filters. Solving this problem would have a big impact on the verification of evidence used in criminal and civil trials and even news reporting. △ Less Submitted 13 October, 2022; originally announced October 2022. Comments: This paper was written in 2018 as a part of our submission to the 2018 IEEE Signal Processing Cup: Forensic Camera Model Identification Challenge arXiv:2205.11603 [ pdf , other ] cs.CL Representation Projection Invariance Mitigates Representation Collapse Authors: Anastasia Razdaibiedina , Ashish Khetan , Zohar Karnin , Daniel Khashabi , Vishaal Kapoor , Vivek Madan Abstract : Fine-tuning contextualized representations learned by pre-trained language models remains a prevalent practice in NLP. However, fine-tuning can lead to representation degradation (also known as representation collapse), which may result in instability, sub-optimal performance, and weak generalization. In this paper, we propose Representation Projection Invariance (REPINA), a novel regularization… ▽ More Fine-tuning contextualized representations learned by pre-trained language models remains a prevalent practice in NLP. However, fine-tuning can lead to representation degradation (also known as representation collapse), which may result in instability, sub-optimal performance, and weak generalization. In this paper, we propose Representation Projection Invariance (REPINA), a novel regularization method to maintain the information content of representation and reduce representation collapse during fine-tuning by discouraging undesirable changes in the representations. We study the empirical behavior of the proposed regularization in comparison to 5 comparable baselines across 13 language understanding tasks (GLUE benchmark and six additional datasets). When evaluating in-domain performance, REPINA consistently outperforms other baselines on most tasks (10 out of 13). We also demonstrate its effectiveness in few-shot settings and robustness to label perturbation. As a by-product, we extend previous studies of representation collapse and propose several metrics to quantify it. Our empirical findings show that our approach is significantly more effective at mitigating representation collapse. △ Less Submitted 21 November, 2023; v1 submitted 23 May, 2022; originally announced May 2022. Comments: 41 pages, 6 figures arXiv:2205.11603 [ pdf , other ] Representation Projection Invariance Mitigates Representation Collapse Authors: Anastasia Razdaibiedina , Ashish Khetan , Zohar Karnin , Daniel Khashabi , Vishaal Kapoor , Vivek Madan Abstract : Fine-tuning contextualized representations learned by pre-trained language models remains a prevalent practice in NLP. However, fine-tuning can lead to representation degradation (also known as representation collapse), which may result in instability, sub-optimal performance, and weak generalization. In this paper, we propose Representation Projection Invariance (REPINA), a novel regularization… ▽ More Fine-tuning contextualized representations learned by pre-trained language models remains a prevalent practice in NLP. However, fine-tuning can lead to representation degradation (also known as representation collapse), which may result in instability, sub-optimal performance, and weak generalization. In this paper, we propose Representation Projection Invariance (REPINA), a novel regularization method to maintain the information content of representation and reduce representation collapse during fine-tuning by discouraging undesirable changes in the representations. We study the empirical behavior of the proposed regularization in comparison to 5 comparable baselines across 13 language understanding tasks (GLUE benchmark and six additional datasets). When evaluating in-domain performance, REPINA consistently outperforms other baselines on most tasks (10 out of 13). We also demonstrate its effectiveness in few-shot settings and robustness to label perturbation. As a by-product, we extend previous studies of representation collapse and propose several metrics to quantify it. Our empirical findings show that our approach is significantly more effective at mitigating representation collapse. △ Less Submitted 21 November, 2023; v1 submitted 23 May, 2022; originally announced May 2022. Comments: 41 pages, 6 figures arXiv:2107.11094 [ pdf , other ] cs.CL Improving Early Sepsis Prediction with Multi Modal Learning Authors: Fred Qin , Vivek Madan , Ujjwal Ratan , Zohar Karnin , Vishaal Kapoor , Parminder Bhatia , Taha Kass-Hout Abstract : Sepsis is a life-threatening disease with high morbidity, mortality and healthcare costs. The early prediction and administration of antibiotics and intravenous fluids is considered crucial for the treatment of sepsis and can save potentially millions of lives and billions in health care costs. Professional clinical care practitioners have proposed clinical criterion which aid in early detection o… ▽ More Sepsis is a life-threatening disease with high morbidity, mortality and healthcare costs. The early prediction and administration of antibiotics and intravenous fluids is considered crucial for the treatment of sepsis and can save potentially millions of lives and billions in health care costs. Professional clinical care practitioners have proposed clinical criterion which aid in early detection of sepsis; however, performance of these criterion is often limited. Clinical text provides essential information to estimate the severity of the sepsis in addition to structured clinical data. In this study, we explore how clinical text can complement structured data towards early sepsis prediction task. In this paper, we propose multi modal model which incorporates both structured data in the form of patient measurements as well as textual notes on the patient. We employ state-of-the-art NLP models such as BERT and a highly specialized NLP model in Amazon Comprehend Medical to represent the text. On the MIMIC-III dataset containing records of ICU admissions, we show that by using these notes, one achieves an improvement of 6.07 points in a standard utility score for Sepsis prediction and 2.89% in AUROC score. Our methods significantly outperforms a clinical criteria suggested by experts, qSOFA, as well as the winning model of the PhysioNet Computing in Cardiology Challenge for predicting Sepsis. △ Less Submitted 23 July, 2021; originally announced July 2021. arXiv:2107.11094 [ pdf , other ] Improving Early Sepsis Prediction with Multi Modal Learning Authors: Fred Qin , Vivek Madan , Ujjwal Ratan , Zohar Karnin , Vishaal Kapoor , Parminder Bhatia , Taha Kass-Hout Abstract : Sepsis is a life-threatening disease with high morbidity, mortality and healthcare costs. The early prediction and administration of antibiotics and intravenous fluids is considered crucial for the treatment of sepsis and can save potentially millions of lives and billions in health care costs. Professional clinical care practitioners have proposed clinical criterion which aid in early detection o… ▽ More Sepsis is a life-threatening disease with high morbidity, mortality and healthcare costs. The early prediction and administration of antibiotics and intravenous fluids is considered crucial for the treatment of sepsis and can save potentially millions of lives and billions in health care costs. Professional clinical care practitioners have proposed clinical criterion which aid in early detection of sepsis; however, performance of these criterion is often limited. Clinical text provides essential information to estimate the severity of the sepsis in addition to structured clinical data. In this study, we explore how clinical text can complement structured data towards early sepsis prediction task. In this paper, we propose multi modal model which incorporates both structured data in the form of patient measurements as well as textual notes on the patient. We employ state-of-the-art NLP models such as BERT and a highly specialized NLP model in Amazon Comprehend Medical to represent the text. On the MIMIC-III dataset containing records of ICU admissions, we show that by using these notes, one achieves an improvement of 6.07 points in a standard utility score for Sepsis prediction and 2.89% in AUROC score. Our methods significantly outperforms a clinical criteria suggested by experts, qSOFA, as well as the winning model of the PhysioNet Computing in Cardiology Challenge for predicting Sepsis. △ Less Submitted 23 July, 2021; originally announced July 2021. arXiv:1910.13965 [ pdf ] cs.NI cs.CY The Internet of Things: a Survey and Outlook Authors: Giovanni Perrone , Massimo Vecchio , Javier Del Ser , Fabio Antonelli , Vivart Kapoor Abstract : The recent history has witnessed disruptive advances in disciplines related to information and communication technologies that have laid a rich technological ecosystem for the growth and maturity of latent paradigms in this domain. Among them, sensor networks have evolved from the originally conceived set-up where hundreds of nodes with sensing and actuating functionalities were deployed to captur… ▽ More The recent history has witnessed disruptive advances in disciplines related to information and communication technologies that have laid a rich technological ecosystem for the growth and maturity of latent paradigms in this domain. Among them, sensor networks have evolved from the originally conceived set-up where hundreds of nodes with sensing and actuating functionalities were deployed to capture information from their environment and act accordingly (coining the so-called wireless sensor network concept) to the provision of such functionalities embedded in quotidian objects that communicate and work together to collaboratively accomplish complex tasks based on the information they acquire by sensing the environment. This is nowadays a reality, embracing the original idea of an Internet of things (IoT) forged in the late twentieth century, yet featuring unprecedented scales, capabilities and applications ignited by new radio interfaces, communication protocols and intelligent data-based models. This chapter examines the latest findings reported in the literature around these topics, with a clear focus on IoT communications, protocols and platforms, towards ultimately identifying opportunities and trends that will be at the forefront of IoT-related research in the near future. △ Less Submitted 30 October, 2019; originally announced October 2019. Comments: 34 pages, chapter included in the book "Sensors in the Age of the Internet of Things: Technologies and applications", IET Library, 2019 arXiv:1910.13965 [ pdf ] The Internet of Things: a Survey and Outlook Authors: Giovanni Perrone , Massimo Vecchio , Javier Del Ser , Fabio Antonelli , Vivart Kapoor Abstract : The recent history has witnessed disruptive advances in disciplines related to information and communication technologies that have laid a rich technological ecosystem for the growth and maturity of latent paradigms in this domain. Among them, sensor networks have evolved from the originally conceived set-up where hundreds of nodes with sensing and actuating functionalities were deployed to captur… ▽ More The recent history has witnessed disruptive advances in disciplines related to information and communication technologies that have laid a rich technological ecosystem for the growth and maturity of latent paradigms in this domain. Among them, sensor networks have evolved from the originally conceived set-up where hundreds of nodes with sensing and actuating functionalities were deployed to capture information from their environment and act accordingly (coining the so-called wireless sensor network concept) to the provision of such functionalities embedded in quotidian objects that communicate and work together to collaboratively accomplish complex tasks based on the information they acquire by sensing the environment. This is nowadays a reality, embracing the original idea of an Internet of things (IoT) forged in the late twentieth century, yet featuring unprecedented scales, capabilities and applications ignited by new radio interfaces, communication protocols and intelligent data-based models. This chapter examines the latest findings reported in the literature around these topics, with a clear focus on IoT communications, protocols and platforms, towards ultimately identifying opportunities and trends that will be at the forefront of IoT-related research in the near future. △ Less Submitted 30 October, 2019; originally announced October 2019. Comments: 34 pages, chapter included in the book "Sensors in the Age of the Internet of Things: Technologies and applications", IET Library, 2019 arXiv:1612.05626 [ pdf ] cs.CY An Open, Multi-Sensor, Dataset of Water Pollution of Ganga Basin and its Application to Understand Impact of Large Religious Gathering Authors: Biplav Srivastava , Sandeep Sandha , Vaskar Raychoudhury , Sukanya Randhawa , Viral Kapoor , Anmol Agrawal Abstract : Water is a crucial pre-requisite for all human activities. Due to growing demand from population and shrinking supply of potable water, there is an urgent need to use computational methods to manage available water intelligently, and especially in developing countries like India where even basic data to track water availability or physical infrastructure to process water are inadequate. In this co… ▽ More Water is a crucial pre-requisite for all human activities. Due to growing demand from population and shrinking supply of potable water, there is an urgent need to use computational methods to manage available water intelligently, and especially in developing countries like India where even basic data to track water availability or physical infrastructure to process water are inadequate. In this context, we present a dataset of water pollution containing quantitative and qualitative data from a combination for modalities - real-time sensors, lab results, and estimates from people using mobile apps. The data on our API-accessible cloud platform covers more than 60 locations and consists of both what we have ourselves collected from multiple location following a novel process, and from others (lab-results) which were open but hither-to difficult to access. Further, we discuss an application of released data to understand spatio-temporal pollution impact of a large event with hundreds of millions of people converging on a river during a religious gathering (Ardh Khumbh 2016) spread over months. Such unprecedented details can help authorities manage an ongoing event or plan for future ones. The community can use the data for any application and also contribute new data to the platform. △ Less Submitted 19 November, 2016; originally announced December 2016. Comments: 7 pages ACM Class: H.2; H.2.8; H.4.2 arXiv:1612.05626 [ pdf ] An Open, Multi-Sensor, Dataset of Water Pollution of Ganga Basin and its Application to Understand Impact of Large Religious Gathering Authors: Biplav Srivastava , Sandeep Sandha , Vaskar Raychoudhury , Sukanya Randhawa , Viral Kapoor , Anmol Agrawal Abstract : Water is a crucial pre-requisite for all human activities. Due to growing demand from population and shrinking supply of potable water, there is an urgent need to use computational methods to manage available water intelligently, and especially in developing countries like India where even basic data to track water availability or physical infrastructure to process water are inadequate. In this co… ▽ More Water is a crucial pre-requisite for all human activities. Due to growing demand from population and shrinking supply of potable water, there is an urgent need to use computational methods to manage available water intelligently, and especially in developing countries like India where even basic data to track water availability or physical infrastructure to process water are inadequate. In this context, we present a dataset of water pollution containing quantitative and qualitative data from a combination for modalities - real-time sensors, lab results, and estimates from people using mobile apps. The data on our API-accessible cloud platform covers more than 60 locations and consists of both what we have ourselves collected from multiple location following a novel process, and from others (lab-results) which were open but hither-to difficult to access. Further, we discuss an application of released data to understand spatio-temporal pollution impact of a large event with hundreds of millions of people converging on a river during a religious gathering (Ardh Khumbh 2016) spread over months. Such unprecedented details can help authorities manage an ongoing event or plan for future ones. The community can use the data for any application and also contribute new data to the platform. △ Less Submitted 19 November, 2016; originally announced December 2016. Comments: 7 pages ACM Class: H.2; H.2.8; H.4.2 arXiv:0710.5340 [ pdf , other ] cs.IT cs.NI Bounds on the Network Coding Capacity for Wireless Random Networks Authors: Salah A. Aly , Vishal Kapoor , Jie Meng , Andreas Klappenecker Abstract : Recently, it has been shown that the max flow capacity can be achieved in a multicast network using network coding. In this paper, we propose and analyze a more realistic model for wireless random networks. We prove that the capacity of network coding for this model is concentrated around the expected value of its minimum cut. Furthermore, we establish upper and lower bounds for wireless nodes u… ▽ More Recently, it has been shown that the max flow capacity can be achieved in a multicast network using network coding. In this paper, we propose and analyze a more realistic model for wireless random networks. We prove that the capacity of network coding for this model is concentrated around the expected value of its minimum cut. Furthermore, we establish upper and lower bounds for wireless nodes using Chernoff bound. Our experiments show that our theoretical predictions are well matched by simulation results. △ Less Submitted 29 October, 2007; originally announced October 2007. Comments: Netcoding07 arXiv:0710.5340 [ pdf , other ] Bounds on the Network Coding Capacity for Wireless Random Networks Authors: Salah A. Aly , Vishal Kapoor , Jie Meng , Andreas Klappenecker Abstract : Recently, it has been shown that the max flow capacity can be achieved in a multicast network using network coding. In this paper, we propose and analyze a more realistic model for wireless random networks. We prove that the capacity of network coding for this model is concentrated around the expected value of its minimum cut. Furthermore, we establish upper and lower bounds for wireless nodes u… ▽ More Recently, it has been shown that the max flow capacity can be achieved in a multicast network using network coding. In this paper, we propose and analyze a more realistic model for wireless random networks. We prove that the capacity of network coding for this model is concentrated around the expected value of its minimum cut. Furthermore, we establish upper and lower bounds for wireless nodes using Chernoff bound. Our experiments show that our theoretical predictions are well matched by simulation results. △ Less Submitted 29 October, 2007; originally announced October 2007. Comments: Netcoding07 About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 In literature 2 In film Toggle In film subsection 2.1 Slapstick and gore in horror comedy (1980s–1990s) 2.2 Meta-horror and satirical trends (2000s–present) 2.1 Slapstick and gore in horror comedy (1980s–1990s) 2.2 Meta-horror and satirical trends (2000s–present) 3 In television 4 See also 5 References 6 Bibliography 7 Further reading Comedy horror العربية Български Català Čeština Deutsch Español فارسی Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano مصرى 日本語 Polski Português Română Русский Simple English کوردی Suomi Türkçe اردو 粵語 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item This article may contain original research . Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations . Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. ( April 2023 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) Comedy horror (also called horror comedy ) is a literary , television and film genre that combines elements of comedy and horror fiction . Comedy horror has been described as having three types: " black comedy , parody and spoof." [ 1 ] Comedy horror can also parody or subtly spoof horror clichés as its main source of humour or use those elements to take a story in a different direction. Examples of comedy horror films include Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein (1948), An American Werewolf in London (1981), the Evil Dead franchise (1981–present), Gremlins (1984), Shaun of the Dead (2004) and The Cabin in the Woods (2011). In literature Horror and comedy have been associated with each other since the early days of horror novels. Author Bruce G. Hallenbeck cites the 1820 short story " The Legend of Sleepy Hollow " by Washington Irving as "the first great comedy horror story". [ 2 ] The story made readers "laugh one moment and scream the next" and its premise was based on mischief typically found during the holiday Halloween . [ 2 ] Shortly after the publication of Mary Shelley 's Frankenstein , comedic parodies appeared. Edgar Allan Poe put humor and horror on the same continuum, and many nineteenth century authors used black humor in their horror stories. Author Robert Bloch called them "opposite sides of the same coin". [ 3 ] In film In comedy horror film, gallows humor is a common element. While comedy horror films provide scares for audiences, they also provide something that dramatic horror films do not: "the permission to laugh at your fears, to whistle past the cinematic graveyard and feel secure in the knowledge that the monsters can't get you". [ 2 ] In the era of silent film , the source material for early comedy horror films came from stage performances instead of literature. One example, The Ghost Breaker (1914), was based on a 1909 play, though the film's horror elements were more interesting to the audience than the comedy elements. In the United States following the trauma of World War I , film audiences sought to see horror on screen but tempered with humor. The "pioneering" comedy horror film was One Exciting Night (1922), written, directed and produced by D. W. Griffith , who noticed the stage success of the genre and foresaw a cinematic translation. The film included comedic blackface performances and footage of a hurricane for a climactic storm. As an early experiment, the various genres were not well-balanced with horror and comedy, and later films improved the balance and took more sophisticated approaches. [ 4 ] Charles Bramesco of Vulture.com identifies Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein as the first commercially successful comedy horror film. Its success legitimized the genre and established it as commercially viable. [ 5 ] Following the success of Universal’s classic monster films, horror comedies in the mid-20th century often combined slapstick humor with supernatural elements. Films like The Fearless Vampire Killers (1967) blended parody with gothic horror. [ 6 ] This era established the foundation for later films that would more evenly mix horror and comedy. Slapstick and gore in horror comedy (1980s–1990s) The 1980s marked a shift toward more extreme and graphic horror comedies. Films like An American Werewolf in London (1981) and Evil Dead II (1987) featured elaborate practical effects and exaggerated gore, merging body horror with absurd humor. [ 7 ] Other notable entries, such as Gremlins (1984) and Beetlejuice (1988), embraced fantasy-horror elements while maintaining a comedic tone suitable for wider audiences. [ 3 ] The 1990s saw a continuation of self-aware horror comedies, as seen in Scream (1996), which satirized slasher tropes while still functioning as a horror film. [ 8 ] This approach influenced later films that incorporated meta-humor. Meta-horror and satirical trends (2000s–present) Horror comedies in the 21st century frequently incorporate meta-commentary on the horror genre itself. Scary Movie (2000) and its sequels directly parodied popular horror films, such as Scream (1996) and I Know What You Did Last Summer (1997). [ 9 ] Unlike traditional horror-comedies, Scary Movie primarily functions as a comedy with horror references. Films such as Shaun of the Dead (2004) offered a comedic but heartfelt homage to zombie cinema. [ 5 ] Cabin in the Woods (2012) took a self-aware approach by deconstructing horror archetypes. [ 10 ] In the 2010s and 2020s, horror comedies also began incorporating social satire. Get Out (2017) blended psychological horror with dark humor to critique racial dynamics, while Ready or Not (2019) and Bodies Bodies Bodies (2022) used horror-comedy to comment on class and generational divides. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] In television Horror comedy on television dates back to classic sitcoms like The Munsters and The Addams Family and has since expanded to include a variety of styles. [ 13 ] Notable examples range from the gory slapstick of Ash vs Evil Dead and Stan Against Evil to mockumentaries like the What We Do in the Shadows franchise and Wellington Paranormal . [ 14 ] Other comedic horror series include Todd and the Book of Pure Evil , Shining Vale , and Santa Clarita Diet , while animated entries feature Beetlejuice , Invader Zim , School for Vampires , Scooby-Doo , and Courage the Cowardly Dog . [ 15 ] More recent additions to the genre include The Ghost and Molly McGee , Wednesday , Don't Hug Me I'm Scared , Gravity Falls , Hazbin Hotel , Helluva Boss , and Bunsen Is a Beast . See also Film portal Literature portal Comedy portal Speculative fiction/Horror portal List of comedy horror films List of genres Zombie comedy – a subgenre involving zombies Black comedy References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Miller, J.S. (2004). The Horror Spoofs of Abbott and Costello: A Critical Assessment of the Comedy Team's Monster Films . Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, Inc. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-7864-1922-7 . ^ a b c Hallenbeck 2009 , p. 3 ^ a b Carroll, Noel (Spring 1999). "Horror and Humor". The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism . 57 (2): 145– 146. doi : 10.1111/1540_6245.jaac57.2.0145 . JSTOR 432309 . ^ Hallenbeck 2009 , pp. 5–7 ^ a b Bramesco, Charles (22 October 2015). "The History of Horror-Comedy in 11 Crucial Films" . Vulture.com . Retrieved 27 October 2015 . ^ Grabias, M. (2017). Horror and Humour in Vampire Oriented Cinema. Kultura i Historia , 17 (32), 109-126. ^ Gowan, D. (2023). Laughter and Madness: The Comic Horror of Evil Dead II. The Journal of Purdue Undergraduate Research , 13 (1), 36. ^ WEE, V. (2005). The Scream Trilogy, “Hyperpostmodernism,” and the Late-Nineties Teen Slasher Film. Journal of Film and Video , 57 (3), 44–61. ^ Wee, V. (2005). The Scream trilogy," hyperpostmodernism," and the late-nineties teen slasher film. Journal of Film and Video , 57 (3), 44-61. ^ Canavan, G. (2014). " Something Nightmares Are From": Metacommentary in Joss Whedon's The Cabin in the Woods. Slayage . ^ Wilkinson, Alissa (24 February 2017). "Get Out is a horror film about benevolent racism. It's spine-chilling" . Vox . Retrieved 10 March 2025 . ^ Heimberger, T. Eat the Rich: Satire and Marxism in Ready or Not. SIGMA TAU DELTA , 214. ^ Morowitz, L. (2007). The monster within: the Munsters, the Addams Family and the american family in the 1960s. Critical Studies in Television , 2 (1), 35-56. ^ Osley, Maysa (8 February 2025). "10 Best Horror Comedy Shows of All Time, Ranked" . Collider . Retrieved 10 March 2025 . ^ "Advanced search" . IMDb . Retrieved 10 March 2025 . Bibliography Hallenbeck, Bruce G. (2009). Comedy-Horror Films: A Chronological History, 1914–2008 . Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, Inc. ISBN 978-0-7864-3332-2 . Further reading Och, Dana; Strayer, Kirsten, eds. (2013). Transnational Horror Across Visual Media: Fragmented Bodies . Routledge Research in Cultural and Media Studies. Taylor & Francis. pp. 201– 208. ISBN 978-1-136-74484-6 . Carroll, Noël (2001). "Horror and Humor". Beyond Aesthetics: Philosophical Essays . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early years 2 Marriage and children 3 Acrimony and separation 4 Kidnap 5 Monach Isles 6 St Kilda 7 Skye 8 Motivations 9 In literature and the arts 10 See also 11 Footnotes 12 References Toggle References subsection 12.1 Citations 12.2 Sources 12.1 Citations 12.2 Sources 13 External links Rachel Chiesley, Lady Grange Ελληνικά Français Kiswahili Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Rachel Chiesley Portrait c. 1710 Born 1679 Died 12 May 1745 (1745-05-12) (aged 66) Trumpan , Skye, Inverness-shire, Scotland Known for being kidnapped Title Lady Grange Spouse James Erskine, Lord Grange Children 9 Rachel Chiesley (baptised 4 February 1679 – 12 May 1745), usually known as Lady Grange , was the wife of Lord Grange , a Scottish lawyer with Jacobite sympathies. After 25 years of marriage and nine children, the Granges separated acrimoniously. When Lady Grange produced letters that she claimed were evidence of his treasonable plottings against the Hanoverian government in London, her husband had her kidnapped in 1732. She was incarcerated in various remote locations on the western seaboard of Scotland, including the Monach Isles , Skye and St Kilda . Lady Grange's father was convicted of murder and she is known to have had a violent temper; initially her absence seems to have caused little comment. News of her plight eventually reached her home town of Edinburgh and an unsuccessful rescue attempt was undertaken by her lawyer, Thomas Hope of Rankeillor . She died in captivity, after being in effect imprisoned for over 13 years. Her life has been remembered in poetry, prose and plays. Early years Rachel Chiesley was one of ten children born to John Chiesley of Dalry and Margaret Nicholson. Her parents' marriage was unhappy and Margaret took her husband to court for aliment . She was awarded 1,700 merks by Sir George Lockhart of Carnwath , the Lord President of the Court of Session . Furious with the result, John Chiesley shot Lockhart dead on the High Street of Edinburgh as he walked home from church on Easter Sunday , 31 March 1689. [ 1 ] He made no attempt to escape and confessed at his trial, held before the Lord Provost the next day. Two days later he was taken from the Tolbooth to the Mercat Cross on the High Street. His right hand was cut off before he was hanged, and the pistol he had used for the murder was placed around his neck. [ 2 ] Rachel Chiesley was baptised on 4 February 1679 and would have been born not long before that date, making her about ten years old at the time of her father's execution. [ 3 ] Marriage and children The date of Chiesley's marriage to James Erskine is uncertain: based on the text of a letter she wrote much later in life, it may have been in 1707 when she was about 28. [ Note 1 ] Erskine was the younger son of Charles Erskine, Earl of Mar and in 1689 his older brother John Erskine , became Earl of Mar on their father's death. [ 7 ] [ Note 2 ] These were politically troubled times; the Jacobite cause was still popular in many parts of Scotland, and the younger Earl was nicknamed "Bobbing John" for his varied manoeuverings. [ 10 ] After playing a prominent role in the Jacobite rising of 1715 he was stripped of his title, sent into exile , and never returned to Scotland. [ 9 ] The young Lady Grange has been described as a "wild beauty", and it is likely the marriage only took place after she became pregnant . [ 11 ] [ Note 3 ] This uncertain background notwithstanding, Lord and Lady Grange led a superficially uneventful domestic life. They divided their time between a town house at the foot of Niddry's Wynd off the High Street in Edinburgh and an estate at Preston (now part of Prestonpans in East Lothian ), where Lady Grange was the factor (or supervisor) for a time. [ 13 ] [ 14 ] Her husband was a successful lawyer, becoming Lord Justice Clerk in 1710, [ 15 ] and the marriage produced nine children: Charlie, born August 1709. [ 12 ] Johnie, born March 1711, died age two months. [ 12 ] James, born March 1713. [ 12 ] He married his uncle "Bobbing" John's daughter Frances. Their son John eventually became Earl of Mar after the title was restored. [ 16 ] [ 17 ] Mary, born July 1714, [ 12 ] who married John Keith the 3rd Earl of Kintore in August 1729. [ 17 ] [ 18 ] Meggie, who died young in May 1717. [ 19 ] Fannie, born December 1716. [ 12 ] Jeannie, born in December 1717. [ 19 ] Rachel. [ 12 ] John. [ 12 ] In addition, Lady Grange miscarried twice and one of the above children is known to have died in 1721. [ 12 ] Acrimony and separation There was evidently an element of discord in the marriage that eventually became public knowledge. In late 1717 or early 1718, Erskine received warnings from a friend that he had enemies in the government. At about the same time one of the children's tutors recorded in his diary that Lady Grange was "imperious with an unreasonable temper". [ 20 ] Her outbursts were evidently also capable of frightening her younger daughters and after Lady Grange's kidnapping, no action was ever taken on her behalf by any of her children, the eldest of whom would have been in their early twenties when she was abducted. Macaulay writes that "[t]he calm acceptance by the family of their mother's disappearance would persuade many that it need not be a matter of concern to them either". [ 21 ] [ Note 4 ] This restraint may have been influenced by the fact their mother had previously disinherited all of them when the youngest were still infants, an outcome described as "unnatural" by the Sobieski Stuarts , [ 21 ] [ 22 ] two English brothers who claimed descent from Prince Charles Edward Stuart. [ Note 5 ] As the Erskines' marriage trouble increased, Lady Grange's behaviour became increasingly unpredictable. In 1730, the factorship of the Preston estate was removed from her, further increasing her angst. Her discovery of an affair her husband was conducting with coffeehouse owner Fanny Lindsay can only have made matters worse. In April of that year, she threatened suicide and to run naked through the streets of Edinburgh. She may have kept a razor under her pillow and attempted to intimidate her husband by reminding him whose daughter she was. On 27 July, she signed a formal letter of separation from James Erskine but things did not improve. [ 24 ] For example, she barracked her husband in the street and in church and he and one of their children were forced to hide from her in a tavern for two hours or more on one occasion. She intercepted one of his letters and took it to the authorities alleging it was evidence of treason. She is also said to have stood outside the house in Niddry's Wynd, waving the letter and shouting obscenities on at least two occasions. In January 1732 she booked a stagecoach to London and James Erskine and his friends, afraid her presence there would cause them further trouble, decided it was time to take decisive action. [ 25 ] Kidnap Lady Grange was abducted from her temporary home of lodgings on Niddrys Wynd off the Royal Mile on the night of 22 January 1732 by two Highland lairds, Roderick MacLeod of Berneray and Macdonald of Morar , and several of their men. After a bloody struggle, in which they knocked out several of her teeth, [ 26 ] she was blindfolded and taken out of the city in a waiting sedan chair occupied by Alexander Foster of Carsebonny. Going northwards they transferred out of the sedan chair near Multres Hill (now St Andrew Square) and then taken on horseback westward to the house of John Macleod, advocate at Muiravonside, west of Linlithgow for a night. [ 27 ] She was next taken northwards to Wester Polmaise near Falkirk , where she was held until 15 August on the ground floor of an uninhabited tower. [ 28 ] She was by then over fifty years old. Upon the 22d of Jan 1732, I lodged in Margaret M'Lean house and a little before twelve at night Mrs M'Lean being on the plot opened the door and there rush'd in to my room some servants of Lovats and his Couson Roderick Macleod he is a writer to the Signet they threw me down upon the floor in a Barbarous manner I cri'd murther murther then they stopp'd my mouth I puled out the cloth and told Rod: Macleod I knew him their hard rude hands bleed and abassed my face all below my eyes they dung out some of my teeth and toere the cloth of my head and toere out some of my hair I wrestled and defend'd -my self with my hands then Rod: order'd to tye down my hands and cover my face most pity- fully there was no skin left on my face with a cloath and stopp'd my mouth again they had wrestl'd so long with me that it was al that I could breath, then they carry'd me down stairs as a corps. [ 29 ] Upon the 22d of Jan 1732, I lodged in Margaret M'Lean house and a little before twelve at night Mrs M'Lean being on the plot opened the door and there rush'd in to my room some servants of Lovats and his Couson Roderick Macleod he is a writer to the Signet they threw me down upon the floor in a Barbarous manner I cri'd murther murther then they stopp'd my mouth I puled out the cloth and told Rod: Macleod I knew him their hard rude hands bleed and abassed my face all below my eyes they dung out some of my teeth and toere the cloth of my head and toere out some of my hair I wrestled and defend'd -my self with my hands then Rod: order'd to tye down my hands and cover my face most pity- fully there was no skin left on my face with a cloath and stopp'd my mouth again they had wrestl'd so long with me that it was al that I could breath, then they carry'd me down stairs as a corps. [ 29 ] From there she was taken west by Peter Fraser (a page of Lord Lovat ) and his men through Perthshire. At Balquhidder , according to MacGregor tradition, she was entertained in the great hall, provided with a meal of venison, and slept on a heather bed covered with deerskins. [ 30 ] The existence of St Fillan's Pool on the River Fillan near Tyndrum would have provided useful cover for her captors: it was regularly used as a cure for insanity, which would have helped to explain her presence to the curious. [ 31 ] The details of the onward route from there are not clear but it is likely she was taken through Glen Coe to Loch Ness and then through Glen Garry to Loch Hourn on the west coast. After a short delay she was then put on board ship to Heisker the main isle of the Monach Isles . The difficulty of her position must have quickly become evident. She was in the company of men whose loyalty was to clan chieftains rather than the law, and few of them spoke any English at all. Their native Gaelic would have been incomprehensible to her, although as her years of captivity wore on she slowly learned something of the language. [ 32 ] She complained that young members of the local aristocracy visited her as she waited by the shores of Loch Hourn, but that "they came with design to see me, but not to relieve me". [ 33 ] Monach Isles The Monach Isles , also known as Heisker, lie 8 kilometres (5 mi) west of North Uist in the Outer Hebrides , an archipelago itself lying off the western coast of Scotland. The main islands are Ceann Ear , Ceann Iar and Shivinish , which are all linked at low tide and have a combined area of 357 hectares (880 acres). The islands are low-lying and fertile, and their population in the 18th century may have been about 100. [ 34 ] [ Note 6 ] At the time they were owned by Sir Alexander MacDonald of Sleat , and Lady Grange was housed with his tacksman , another Alexander MacDonald, and his wife. When she complained about her condition, she was told by her host that he had no orders to provide her with either clothes, or food other than the normal fare he and his wife were used to. She lived in isolation for two years, not even being told the name of the island where she was living, and it took her some time to find out who her landlord was. She was there until June 1734, when John and Norman MacLeod from North Uist arrived to move her on. They told her they were taking her to Orkney , but instead set sail for the Atlantic outliers of St Kilda. [ 34 ] [ 35 ] St Kilda One of the more poignant ruins on the island of Hirta in the St Kilda archipelago is the site of Lady Grange's House. [ 36 ] The "house" is in fact a large cleit or stone storage hut in the Village meadows that is said to resemble "a giant Christmas pudding". [ 37 ] Some authorities believe it was rebuilt on the site of a larger blackhouse where she lived during her incarceration, [ 38 ] although in 1838 the grandson of a St Kildan who had assisted her quoted the dimensions as being "20 feet by 10 feet" (7 metres by 3 metres), which is roughly the size of the cleit. [ 37 ] [ Note 7 ] Hirta is more remote than the Monach Isles, lying 66 kilometres (36 nautical miles) west-northwest of Benbecula in the North Atlantic Ocean [ 41 ] and the predominant theme of life on St Kilda was isolation. When Martin Martin visited the islands in 1697, [ 42 ] the only means of making the journey was by open longboat, which could take several days and nights of rowing and sailing across the open ocean and was next to impossible in autumn and winter. In all seasons, waves up to 12 metres (40 ft) high lash the beach of Village Bay, and even on calmer days landing on the slippery rocks can be hazardous. Cut off by distance and weather, the natives knew little of the rest of the world. [ 43 ] Lady Grange's circumstances were correspondingly more uncomfortable and no one on the island spoke English. [ 40 ] She described Hirta as "a viled neasty, stinking poor Isle" and insisted that "I was in great miserie in the Husker but I'm ten times worse and worse here". [ 29 ] Her lodgings were very primitive. They had an earthen floor, rain ran down the walls, and in winter snow had to be scooped out in handfuls from behind the bed. [ 44 ] She spent her days asleep, drank as much whisky as was available to her, and wandered the shore at night bemoaning her fate. During her sojourn on Hirta she wrote two letters relating her story, which eventually reached Edinburgh. One, dated 20 January 1738, found its way to Thomas Hope of Rankeillor, her lawyer, in December 1740. Some sources state that the first letter had been hidden in some yarn that was collected as part of a rent payment and taken to Inverness and thence to Edinburgh. [ 45 ] The idea of the letter's concealment in yarn is also mentioned by James Boswell in his Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides (1785). However, Macaulay states that this method for the delivery of the letter(s) has "no basis in reality" and that both letters were smuggled off Hirta by Roderick MacLennan, the island's minister. [ 46 ] Whatever its route, the letter caused a sensation in Edinburgh although James Erskine's friends managed to block attempts by Hope to obtain a warrant to search St Kilda. [ Note 8 ] In the second letter, addressed to Dr Carlyle, minister of Inveresk , Lady Grange writes bitterly of the roles of Lord Lovat and Roderick MacLeod in her capture and bemoans being described by Sir Alexander MacDonald as "the cargo". [ 29 ] [ 49 ] [ Note 9 ] Hope had known of Lady Grange's removal from Edinburgh but had assumed she would be well cared for. Appalled by her condition, he paid for a sloop with twenty armed men on board to go to St Kilda at his own expense. It had already set sail by 14 February 1741, but it arrived too late. [ 45 ] [ 50 ] Lady Grange had been removed from the island, probably in the summer of 1740. [ 51 ] After the Battle of Culloden in 1746, it was rumoured that Prince Charles Edward Stuart and some of his senior Jacobite aides had escaped to St Kilda. An expedition was launched, and in due course British soldiers were ferried ashore to Hirta. They found a deserted village, as the St Kildans, fearing pirates, had fled to caves to the west. When they were persuaded to come down, the soldiers discovered that the isolated natives knew nothing of the Prince and had never heard of King George II either. [ 52 ] Paradoxically, Lady Grange's letters and her resultant evacuation from the island may have prevented her being found by this expedition. [ Note 10 ] Skye By 1740 Lady Grange was 61 years old. Removed from St Kilda in haste, she was transported to various locations in the Gàidhealtachd including possibly Assynt in the far north west of mainland Scotland and the Outer Hebridean locations of Harris and Uist before arriving at Waternish on Skye in 1742. [ Note 11 ] Local folklore suggests she may have been kept for 18 months in a cave either at Idrigill on the Trotternish peninsula [ 55 ] or on the Duirinish coast near the stacks known as a "Macleod's Maidens". [ 56 ] She was certainly later housed with Rory MacNeil at Trumpan in Waternish. She died there on 12 May 1745, and MacNeil had her "decently interred" the following week in the Trumpan churchyard . Other sources state she died in a humble cottar's cottage at Idrigill in June 1749. [ 57 ] For reasons unknown a second funeral was held at nearby Duirinish some time thereafter, where a large crowd gathered to watch the burial of a coffin filled with turf and stones. [ 58 ] It is sometimes stated that this was her third funeral , Lord Grange having conducted one in Edinburgh shortly after her kidnapping. [ 59 ] [ 60 ] However, this story first appears in writing in 1845 and no other evidence of its veracity has emerged. [ 54 ] [ 61 ] Motivations Lady Grange's story is a remarkable one [ Note 12 ] and various issues have been raised by Macaulay (2009) as requiring explanation. These include: what drove James Erskine to these extraordinary lengths?; [ 63 ] why were so many individuals willing to participate in this illegal and dangerous kidnapping of his wife?; [ 64 ] and how was she held for so long without rescue? [ 63 ] The first and second of these issues are related. Erskine's brother had already been exiled for his support of the Jacobites. Simon Fraser, Lord Lovat, a key figure in Lady Grange's abduction was himself executed for his part in the Jacobite Rising of 1745 . [ 65 ] No concrete evidence of Erskine's plotting against the crown or government has ever emerged, but any threat of such exposure, whether based in fact or fantasy would certainly have been taken very seriously by all concerned. It was thus relatively easy for Erskine to find accomplices amongst the Highland gentry. In addition to Simon Fraser and Alexander Macdonald of Sleat, the Sobieski Stuarts listed Norman MacLeod of Dunvegan [ 66 ] —who became known as "The Wicked Man" [ 67 ] —amongst the senior accomplices. [ 68 ] Erskine himself was a "singular compound of good and bad qualities". [ 69 ] In addition to his legal career he was elected to Parliament in 1734 and he survived the vicissitudes of the Jacobite rebellions unscathed. [ 15 ] He was a philanderer and over-partial to claret , whilst at the same time deeply religious. [ 70 ] This last quality would have been instrumental in any decision not to have his wife assassinated, [ 71 ] and he did not marry his long-term partner Fanny Lindsay until after he had heard of the first Lady Grange's death. [ 72 ] The reason no successful rescue was ever effected lies in the remoteness of the Hebrides from the anglophone world in the early 18th century. No reliable naval charts of the area became available until 1776. [ Note 13 ] Without local assistance and knowledge, finding a captive in this wilderness would have required a significant expeditionary force. Nonetheless, the lack of action taken by Edinburgh society in general and her children in particular to retrieve one of their own is remarkable. The Kirk hierarchy, for example, made no attempt to contact her or convey news of her condition to the capital, yet they could easily have done so. Whatever the call of morality and natural justice may have suggested, John Chiesley's daughter evidently did not command a sympathetic audience in her home town. [ 74 ] In her account of the affair, Margaret Macaulay explores 18th-century attitudes to women in general as a significant factor [ 75 ] and notes that although numerous documents from the hands of Lord Grange's friends and supporters are still extant, not a single contemporary female view of the affair has survived, save that of Lady Grange herself. [ 76 ] Divorces were complex and divorced mothers were rarely given custody of children. [ 77 ] [ Note 14 ] Furthermore, Lord Grange's powerful friends in both the church and the legal profession might have made this a risky endeavour. [ 78 ] Something of James Erskine's attitude to these matters may perhaps be gleaned from the fact that for his first speech in the House of Commons he chose to oppose the repeal of various laws relating to witchcraft . Even in his day this appeared unduly conservative and his perorations were met with laughter, which effectively ended his political career before it had begun. [ 79 ] Writing in the mid-19th century the Sobieski Stuarts told the tale from the perspective of the descendants of the Highland aristocrats who had been responsible for Chiesley's kidnap and imprisonment. They emphasise Lady Grange's personal shortcomings, although to modern sensibilities these hardly seem good reasons for a judge and Member of Parliament and his wealthy friends to organise an illegal kidnapping and life sentence. [ 80 ] As for Lady Grange herself, her vituperative outbursts and indulgence in alcohol were clearly important factors in her undoing. [ 81 ] Alexander Carlyle described her as "stormy and outrageous", whilst noting that it was in her husband's interests to exaggerate the nature of her violent emotions. [ 81 ] Macaulay (2009) takes the view that the ultimate cause of her troubles was her reaction to her husband's infidelity. In an attempt to end his relationship with Mrs Lindsay, (who owned a coffee house in Haymarket, Edinburgh ), Rachel threatened to expose him as a Jacobite sympathiser. Perhaps she did not understand the magnitude of this accusation and the danger it posed to her husband and his friends, or how ruthless their instincts of self-preservation were likely to be. [ 82 ] [ 83 ] In literature and the arts Rachel Chiesley's tale inspired a romantic poem called "Epistle from Lady Grange to Edward D— Esq" written by William Erskine in 1798 [ Note 15 ] and a 1905 novel entitled The Lady of Hirta, a Tale of the Isles by W. C. Mackenzie. Edwin Morgan also published a sonnet in 1984 called "Lady Grange on St Kilda". [ 86 ] [ 87 ] The Straw Chair is a two-act play by Sue Glover , also about the time on St Kilda, first performed at the Traverse Theatre in Edinburgh in 1988. [ 88 ] [ 89 ] Burdalane is a play about these same events by Judith Adams performed in 1996 at the Battersea Arts Centre , London and on BBC Radio 4 . [ 90 ] Rachel Chiesley inspired Andrew Drummond 's fantasy novel The Books of the Incarceration of the Lady Grange (2016) and Sue Lawrence 's The Unreliable Death of Lady Grange (2020). Boswell and Johnson discussed the subject in their 1773 tour of the Hebrides . Boswell wrote: "After dinner to-day, we talked of the extraordinary fact of Lady Grange's being sent to St Kilda, and confined there for several years, without any means of relief. Dr Johnson said, if M'Leod would let it be known that he had such a place for naughty ladies, he might make it a very profitable island." [ Note 16 ] There are portraits of both James Erskine and Rachel Chiesley in the Scottish National Portrait Gallery in Edinburgh, by William Aikman and Sir John Baptiste de Medina respectively. When the writer Margaret Macaulay sought them out she discovered they had been placed together in the same cold store. [ 91 ] See also Queen Joanna of Castile , 16th-century monarch who was declared mentally ill and confined, possibly because those around her (such as her father, Ferdinand of Aragon ) wished to control her kingdom. Lisbeth Salander , a fictional 21st-century heroine who is declared mentally incompetent by authority figures trying to control her behaviour. List of kidnappings Tibbie Tamson , an 18th-century Scots woman, whose persecution may have led to her suicide. Footnotes ^ In a letter written from St Kilda, Lady Grange states that "He told me he loved me two years or he gott me and we lived 25 years together few or non I thought so happy." [ 6 ] If her recollection is accurate, 25 years before her kidnapping would give a date of 1707. ^ The Mar lineage is very old and the numbering of the titles arrived at by more than one system. "Bobbing John" Erskine is variously described as the 6th, 11th, 22nd and 23rd Earl. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] ^ This pregnancy and another in 1708 ended in miscarriage. [ 12 ] ^ Macaulay also poignantly notes that "no hue and cry was ever raised on behalf of Lady Grange by the daughter [Mary] she had called her angel". [ 21 ] ^ Although taken seriously by Lord Lovat , the Sobieski Stuarts' claims were eventually exposed and the Collins Encyclopaedia of Scotland states that their publication on the history of clan tartans , Vestiarium Scoticum "is as bogus as its author's descent". [ 23 ] ^ The islands were abandoned in 1810 because of overgrazing, but re-settled in 1839. In common with many of the more remote Scottish islands they were then abandoned once more in the mid-20th century. Only lighthouse keepers lived there from the early 1930s until 1942, when they too left. [ 34 ] ^ According to the National Trust for Scotland the cleit is "traditionally said to be the house where she was held prisoner, but this is unlikely to be true". [ 39 ] Quine (2000) states that it is the "possible site" of the house where Lady Grange lived, but that the house itself was destroyed prior to 1876. [ 36 ] Maclean (1977) refers to the structure as a "two roomed cottage". [ 40 ] Fleming (2005) notes the various suggestions on record about the site of the dwelling but concludes that "there is no reason to believe there was any break in the islander's oral traditions in the period since the 1730s". [ 37 ] ^ In 1732 Lord Lovat had written "But as to that insolent fellow Mr Hope of Eankiller, I would advise him to to [not to] meddle with me, for the moment that I can prove that he attacts my character and reputation by any calumnie I'l certainly pursue him for Scandalum Magnatum ". [ 29 ] Hope was well able to take care of himself and is fondly remembered in Edinburgh as the creator of The Meadows which was also known for some time as "Hope Park". [ 47 ] MacLennan was not so lucky. Ostracised in Edinburgh as a result of evidence produced against him and his wife by Lord Grange's legal counsel, [ 48 ] he eventually died in poverty on the island of Stroma , circa 1757. [ 47 ] ^ No original survives of the second letter, and a copy published in 1819 is dated 1741, which makes little sense as it relates to her time on St Kilda. This may have been the date it was copied. [ 29 ] ^ Although she died in May 1745 the year before this expedition, her further travails and movements after she left St Kilda may have hastened her demise. [ 53 ] ^ According to a 19th-century source, she learned to spin there, in a repetition of the story relating to St Kilda, managed to smuggle a letter out in a ball of yarn, which then had the result of a government naval vessel being sent out to look for her, although there is no surviving evidence for any of these assertions. The source is Clerk (1845) and Macaulay (2009) states that no letter referring to her life on Skye has ever been found, there is no record of any such sailing by a government vessel and that "nor indeed does learning to spin sound quite like Lady Grange's style." [ 54 ] ^ Boswell (1785) wrote: "The true story of this lady, which happened In this century, is as frightfully romantick as if it had been the fiction of a gloomy fancy." [ 62 ] ^ The failure of the British navy to capture Bonnie Prince Charlie after the Battle of Culloden in 1746 was a major factor in the creation of a new rutter by Murdoch Mackenzie , Hydrographer to the Admiralty, called A Nautical Description researched from 1748 to 1757 and published in 1776. Johan Blaeu 's 1654 map was the best chart of the area at the time, but even this was not available to the Hanoverian government and military at the time. [ 73 ] ^ The Scottish legal system of the day was "fundamentally different" [ 77 ] from its English equivalent in these matters. For example, Lady Grange could have sued for divorce in Scotland as husbands and wives were treated alike in this matter, although in England at the time "adultery by the husband was generally regarded as a regrettable but understandable foible". [ 77 ] ^ Erskine (c. 1769–1822), later Lord Kinneder, was a judge with an interest in literature and a mentor to Walter Scott . According to David Douglas he "became the nearest and most confidential of all [Scott's] Edinburgh associates." [ 84 ] His father was the Rev. William Erskine, Episcopalian minister of Muthill in Perthshire from 1732–1783, who was born in 1709. [ 85 ] It has not been possible to establish whether or not he was related to Rachel Chiesley. ^ In an additional note Boswell added: "She was the wife of one of the Lords of Session in Scotland, a man of the very first blood of his country. For some mysterious reasons, which have never been discovered, she was seized and carried off in the dark, she knew not by whom, and by nightly journies was conveyed to the Highland shores, from whence she was transported by sea to the remote rock of St Kilda, where she remained, amongst its few wild inhabitants, a forlorn prisoner, but had a constant supply of provisions, and a woman to wait on her. No inquiry was made after her, till she at last found means to convey a letter to a confidential friend, by the daughter of a Catechist who concealed it in a clue of yarn. Information being thus obtained at Edinburgh, a ship was sent to bring her off; but intelligence of this being received, she was conveyed to M'Leod's island of Herries, where she died." [ 62 ] References Citations ^ Macaulay (2009) pp. 23–24 ^ Macaulay (2009) pp. 29–30 ^ Macaulay (2009) p. 19 ^ "Gladstone's Land" Archived 19 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine . National Trust for Scotland . Retrieved 8 August 2010. ^ "Gladstone's Land" Archived 15 July 2007 at the Wayback Machine . VisitScotland . Retrieved 4 February 2012. ^ Macaulay (2009) p. 33 ^ "Mormaers of Mar and Earls of Mar" Archived 3 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine . Tribe of Mar. Retrieved 5 February 2012. ^ Ehrenstein, Christoph von (2004) "John Erskine" Archived 2 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine . Oxford Dictionary of National Biography . 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A.; Howard de Walden, Lord (eds) (1932) The Complete Peerage VIII London: St Catherine Press pp. 425–27 ^ a b Mosley, Charles (ed) (2003) Burke's Peerage, Baronetage and Knightage: 107th edition II Wilmington, Delaware: Burke's Peerage & Gentry .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} ISBN 978-0-9711966-2-9 pp. 2604, 2608–10 ^ "Kintore, Earl of (S, 1677)" Archived 12 August 2013 at the Wayback Machine . 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Retrieved 5 February 2012. ^ Stiùbhart, Domhnall Uilleam (2004) "Norman MacLeod of Dunvegan" Archived 9 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine . Oxford Dictionary of National Biography . Retrieved 5 February 2012. ^ Mackenzie, Alexander (1887) The Celtic Magazine 12 Inverness: A. & W. Mackenzie pp. 119–22 ^ Macaulay (2009) p. 89 ^ Macaulay (2009) p. 155, possibly quoting the antiquarian David Laing. ^ Macaulay (2009) pp. 135–36, 139 ^ Macaulay (2009) p. 90 ^ Proceedings of the Society (11 June 1877) ^ a b Bray (1996) pp. 58–59 ^ Macaulay (2009) pp. 117–18 ^ Macaulay (2009) pp. 170–71 ^ Macaulay (2009) pp. 153–54 ^ a b c Macaulay (2009) p. 170 ^ Macaulay (2009) p. 171 ^ Macaulay (2009) p. 135 ^ Sobieski Stuart (1847) ^ a b Macaulay (2009) p. 154 ^ Macaulay (2009) p. 137 ^ Macaulay (2009) pp. 156–57 ^ Scott (1771–1832) note 91 ^ " The Private Lives of Books: Handlist of Exhibits Archived 5 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine ". (2004) (pdf) National Library of Scotland . p. 24 ^ Groote, Guusje. "On 'Lady Grange on St Kilda' " Archived 13 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine . edwinmorgan.com. Retrieved 7 May 2010. ^ "Edwin Morgan" Archived 8 December 2004 at the Wayback Machine . BBC. Retrieved 7 May 2010. ^ Macaulay (2009) pp. 173–74 ^ review of The Straw Chair by Nigel Billen , The List , Issue 63, 1 - 14 April 1888, p. 18 ^ "Reviews" Archived 24 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine . Judith Adams. Retrieved 9 May 2013. ^ Macaulay (2009) p. 19 Sources Boswell, James (1785) Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides with Samuel Johnson, LL.D. . Adelaide University. Retrieved 1 May 2010. Bray, Elizabeth (1996) The Discovery of the Hebrides: Voyages to the Western Isles 1745–1883 . Edinburgh: Birlinn. ISBN 978-1-874744-59-7 . Brunton, George (1832) An Historical Account of the Senators of the College of Justice, from its Institution in 1532. London: Saunders and Benning. Clerk, Rev. Archibald (1845) "Parish of Duirinish, Skye". New Statistical Account of Scotland . Edinburgh and London. Fleming, Andrew (2005) St. Kilda and the Wider World: Tales of an Iconic Island . Bollington, Cheshire: Windgather Press. ISBN 978-1-905119-00-4 . Haswell-Smith, Hamish (2004) The Scottish Islands . Edinburgh: Canongate. ISBN 978-1-84195-454-7 . Keay, J., and Keay, J. (1994) Collins Encyclopaedia of Scotland . London: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-00-255082-6 . Laing, David (1874) "An episode in the life of Mrs. Rachel Erskine, Lady Grange, detailed by herself in a letter from St. Kilda, January 20, 1738, and other original papers" . Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland . xi Edinburgh. pp. 593–608. Macaulay, Margaret (2009) The Prisoner of St Kilda: The true story of the unfortunate Lady Grange . Edinburgh: Luath. ISBN 978-1-906817-02-2 . Macleod, Rev. R. C. (1906) "The Macleods: A Short Sketch Of Their Clan, History, Folk-Lore, Tales, And Biographical Notices Of Some Eminent Clansmen" . Edinburgh: Clan MacLeod Society. Retrieved 22 August 2010. Martin, Martin (1703) " A Voyage to St. Kilda " in A Description of The Western Islands of Scotland . Appin Regiment/Appin Historical Society. Retrieved 3 March 2007. Maclean, Charles (1977) Island on the Edge of the World: the Story of St. Kilda . Edinburgh: Canongate. ISBN 978-0-903937-41-2 . Proceedings of the Society (11 June 1877) "Lady Grange in Edinburgh 1730" . Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland . Edinburgh. Quine, David (2000) St Kilda . Grantown-on-Spey: Colin Baxter Island Guides. ISBN 978-1-84107-008-7 . Scott, Sir Walter (1771–1832) The Journal of Sir Walter Scott From the Original Manuscript at Abbotsford . Project Gutenberg. Retrieved 14 August 2010. Sobieski Stuart, John and Charles Edward (1847) Tales of the Century: or Sketches of the romance of history between the years 1746 and 1846 . Edinburgh. Steel, Tom (1988) The Life and Death of St. Kilda . London: Fontana. ISBN 978-0-00-637340-7 . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early life 2 Journalism and non-fiction 3 Fiction Toggle Fiction subsection 3.1 Romantic novels series 3.2 The Rutshire Chronicles 3.3 Little Mabel series 3.1 Romantic novels series 3.2 The Rutshire Chronicles 3.3 Little Mabel series 4 Personal life 5 Death and tributes 6 Honours, awards and recognition 7 Film and television productions Toggle Film and television productions subsection 7.1 Screenwriting and appearances 7.2 Adaptations 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 7.1 Screenwriting and appearances 7.2 Adaptations 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 8 Analysis 9 List of works Toggle List of works subsection 9.1 Fiction 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.2 Non-fiction 9.1 Fiction 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.2 Non-fiction 10 References 11 External links Jilly Cooper العربية Български Cymraeg Deutsch Español فارسی Français کٲشُر مصرى Polski Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska Türkçe Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item Dame Jilly Cooper DBE Cooper in 1974 Born Jill Sallitt ( 1937-02-21 ) 21 February 1937 Hornchurch , Essex, England Died 5 October 2025 (2025-10-05) (aged 88) Gloucester , England Occupation Author Genre Erotic , romance Notable works Rutshire Chronicles Spouse .mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-inline{display:inline} Leo Cooper ( m. 1961; died 2013) Children 2 Website jillycooper .co .uk Dame Jilly Cooper (born Jill Sallitt ; 21 February 1937 – 5 October 2025) was an English author and journalist, best known for her long-running Rutshire Chronicles series. She began her career in journalism and published several works of non-fiction, including books on class, animals and marriage, before turning to fiction. Her first book was How to Stay Married , which was published in 1969. She published several collections of journalism, alongside other non-fiction volumes throughout much of her career. Cooper's first novel to be published was the romance , Emily , which appeared in 1975 and was followed by five more, as well as a volume of short stories. Cooper was also an anthologist and wrote the Little Mabel series of children's books. Cooper went on to become a prominent figure in British popular literature, noted for her witty social commentary and depictions of upper-middle-class life. Her best-known works are the Rutshire Chronicles of which the 1985 novel Riders was the first; it was followed by ten more volumes with the latest installment Tackle! published in 2023. The series is known for its humour, sexuality and depictions of upper-class life; several of the volumes feature the character Rupert Campbell-Black as a key protagonist. Whilst Riders alone sold over one million copies, and her romance novels compared to those of Nancy Mitford and Barbara Cartland , not all reviews were positive. Private Eye lampooned Cooper and gave her the nickname 'Super Cooper', which she later used as a title for one of her own books. Nevertheless Cooper is recognised as one of the key writers of the bonkbuster novel, along with Jackie Collins , Shirley Conran and Judith Krantz . Whilst few academics have analysed her work, those that have, recognise her ability to portray large cast of characters and her focus on pleasure as a literary theme. Academic Ian Patterson compared her to Anthony Trollope and Charles Dickens . In 2025, the Jilly Cooper Prize was established as part of the Comedy Women in Print Awards to honour her contribution to comic fiction. After Cooper's death in the same year, Queen Camilla described her as a "wonderfully witty and compassionate friend". Cooper had received several honours during her lifetime, including that of Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2024 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity. Several of her works were adapted for television and radio, including the second Rutshire Chronicles volume, Rivals , which was adapted by Disney+ and released in 2024. It starred David Tennant and Aidan Turner . Early life Jill Sallitt was born in Hornchurch , Essex, on 21 February 1937 to Mary Elaine ( née Whincup) and Brigadier W. B. Sallitt. [ 1 ] She grew up in Ilkley , Yorkshire, and in Surrey . Cooper was educated at Moorfield School in Ilkley and Godolphin School in Salisbury , Wiltshire. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] She subsequently learnt to type in Oxford. [ 3 ] Journalism and non-fiction Aged 20, Cooper became a junior reporter for The Middlesex Independent , based in Brentford . [ 3 ] She worked for the paper from 1957 to 1959. Subsequently, she worked as an account executive, copywriter , publisher's reader and receptionist . [ 4 ] Her break came with a chance meeting at a dinner party with Godfrey Smith , the editor of The Sunday Times Magazine , who asked her to write a feature about her experiences as a young married woman. [ 4 ] This led to a column in which Cooper wrote about marriage , sex and housework . [ 3 ] That column ran from 1969 to 1982, when she moved to The Mail on Sunday , where she worked as a columnist for a further five years. [ 3 ] In parallel to her journalism, Cooper wrote several humorous and satirical books: her earliest columns led to the publication of her first book, the satirical How to Stay Married , in 1969, which was quickly followed by another satirical guide to working life, How to Survive from Nine to Five , in 1970. [ 5 ] Further satirical works were Men and Super Men , published in 1972, [ 6 ] and Women and Super Women , published in 1974. [ 7 ] The former has mixed reviews, with the Liverpool Daily Post describing the puns as bad, but that Cooper's writing had a "knowing adolescence". [ 6 ] In contrast the Evening Dispatch instructed all its readers to immediately buy it, as a guide to "men and sex". [ 8 ] Women and Super Women was reviewed positively by Clive James in The Observer , [ 9 ] whereas other reviews described the book as cruel (if funny) in its discussions of a wide range of women. [ 7 ] Cooper's journalism was first collected into a single volume, Jolly Super , in 1971. [ 5 ] That collection took its title from the nickname given to Cooper by Private Eye . [ 10 ] A further collection Jolly Super Too was published in 1973. [ 11 ] The Birmingham Evening Mail compared Cooper to Mick McManus as someone the public loved to hate, and stated that the book would deliver "a snigger a minute" to readers. [ 12 ] Jolly Superlative was published in 1975 and largely included pieces from The Sunday Times , but also Vogue , and was praised by The Daily Telegraph for its "limitless comic invention". [ 13 ] In 1977 another collection of journalism, Super Jilly, was reviewed by Clive James in the The Observer as "another breathless year-book by the Sunday Times' head-girl". [ 14 ] The same year How to Stay Married and How to Survive from Nine to Five were republished together in a single volume in 1977 under the revised title How To Survive Work and Wedlock. [ 15 ] The combined volume had mixed reviews from "saucy, but relevant" according to the Sydney Morning Herald , [ 16 ] to the Evening Standard describing how "Women's Lib must hate her insouciant approach to the woman's world". [ 17 ] The theme of class dominated much of her writing and her non-fiction with her work written from an explicitly upper-middle-class British perspective, with emphasis on the relationships between men and women and matters of social class in contemporary Britain. [ 2 ] Upon the publication of 1979's book Class , Ralf Dahrendorf reviewed it for the London Review of Books , describing the work as one where "the characters are fun, the observations acute". [ 18 ] Published in 2000 David Cannadine 's Class in Britain assessed Cooper's book, pointing out that Cooper herself had felt that it did not fully describe the intricacies of the British class system. [ 19 ] Another republication during this period was 1980's Super Cooper , which was a volume of excerpts from her earlier books Men and Super Men and Women and Super Women. [ 20 ] This was described the Sydney Morning Herald as a "brilliant guide to the sexes" and by the Liverpool as a volume "that never disappoints the reader". [ 20 ] [ 21 ] Jolly Marsupial another volume of journalism, this time focussing on Cooper's 1980 tour of Australia to promote the book Class , was published in 1982. [ 22 ] In 1981 Cooper published Intelligent and Loyal , which is a book about mongrels . [ 23 ] In it Cooper created her own humorous typology for mongrels. [ 24 ] To gather stories about mongrels for the book, Cooper put an advert in newspapers asking people to share stories about their pets for the book. [ 23 ] [ 25 ] As a result of the book's success Cooper and her dogs subsequently made public appearances, including on The Animals Roadshow in 1989. [ 26 ] In 1983 she published Animals in War , a book that recorded the contributions a variety of species made to the military. [ 27 ] Public response to the book led to a campaign, supported by Cooper, to establish the Animals in War Memorial . [ 28 ] [ 29 ] Cooper edited an anthology of prose and poetry entitled The British in Love . [ 30 ] With Tom Hartman she also co-edited a dictionary of quotations purely sourced from women entitled Violets and Vinegar . [ 31 ] In 2020, some of her writings on sex and marriage from the 1970s were republished as Between the Covers and praised for their honesty . [ 32 ] Fiction Cooper has been described as "the queen of the bonkbuster ", [ 33 ] however her first novels were romances. [ 34 ] [ 35 ] These were followed by the Rutshire Chronicles series, where dogs and horses featured heavily. [ 36 ] Cooper described the research she undertook for each novel as "like studying for an A-level". [ 37 ] Quoted in the Evening Standard in 1994, Cooper stated that she thought that product placement in literary works was acceptable and discussed how she had received thank you gifts as a result of unsolicited mentions in her novels. [ 38 ] Romantic novels series Cooper was encouraged to write romantic fiction by the editor Desmond Elliott , who had read the short stories she had written previously for teenage magazines. [ 34 ] At the time she was working in publicity for HarperCollins ; Elliott commissioned her with a six-book contract and the paperback rights were subsequently sold to Corgi Books . [ 34 ] The series sold in the 100,000s. [ 34 ] The contract was for Cooper to publish a novel every six months. [ 39 ] The first novel in the series was Emily , which was published in 1975. [ 40 ] Set on a remote Scottish island, its storyline follows Emily who moves to the island after a short courtship and marriage to a volatile artist. [ 41 ] Reviews were complimentary, [ 42 ] [ 43 ] although Auberon Waugh noted similarity between Emily and Devil's Cub by Georgette Heyer . [ 44 ] The work was compared to that of Nancy Mitford and Barbara Cartland . [ 39 ] Emily was followed by Harriet and then Bella , both published in 1976. [ 45 ] [ 46 ] In Harriet , the titular character becomes pregnant whilst at university and subsequently works as a nanny for an irascible screenwriter so she can take the baby with her. [ 47 ] In review, Barbara Cartland disliked the novel. [ 48 ] The novel Bella ' s storyline revolves around an actress whose fiancé is super-wealthy, but his family do not approve of Bella. [ 49 ] The novel mixes romance and mystery, as Bella is kidnapped. [ 49 ] Auberon Waugh praised the emotional engagement of the novel, but The Guardian described disappointment since good jokes were lost in the prose. [ 44 ] [ 50 ] In October 1993, seven years after Private Eye had pointed out the similarities, Cooper admitted that sections of Emily and Bella were plagiarised from The Dud Avocado (1958) by Elaine Dundy , but said that it was not deliberate. [ 51 ] The next novel in the series was Octavia , which was published in 1977, set in Britain during the 1970s. [ 52 ] Reviews were less positive than the previous novels, but Cooper's word-play continued to be praised. [ 53 ] In a review Auberon Waugh expressed frustration with the novel as he felt Cooper could write much better than the text. [ 54 ] Octavia was followed by the novel Prudence , which was set in the Lake District in England during a house party. [ 55 ] [ 56 ] The novel had a mixed reception upon publication, including from one reviewer who hoped it was the last in the series. [ 57 ] In response, Cooper's publisher, Desmond Elliott, wrote to the paper announcing that the next novel, Imogen , was due that same year and it too was likely to be enjoyed by hundreds of thousands of readers. [ 57 ] The final novel in the series is Imogen , which was published in 1978. [ 58 ] At the time of publication, the preceding five novels had sold 340,000 copies. [ 59 ] Set between Yorkshire and the south of France, it follows Imogen as she is seduced by a tennis player, who takes her on holiday, but ultimately falls in love with his best friend. [ 58 ] The novel was mostly received favourably, [ 60 ] although the character of Imogen was described in one review as "spineless". [ 61 ] It is cited as an example in academic texts on a variety of themes, including the allure of the French Riviera for Anglo-American culture, [ 62 ] and a cultural analysis of cohabitation in the 1970s. [ 63 ] Also grouped in the romance series is the short story collection Lisa & Co ; each story is based on some of Cooper's earliest writings for women's magazines in the 1960s. [ 64 ] [ 65 ] In 2017 in her book The Gender Games , transgender writer Juno Dawson described how her obsession with the "ultra-glam" covers of these romances as a child gave her a sense that she was not "very good at being a boy". [ 66 ] The Rutshire Chronicles The best-known of Cooper's works, each book of the Rutshire Chronicles is set in a glamorous and wealthy milieu , such as the worlds of show jumping or classical music . [ 67 ] [ 68 ] These books were noted for the luxurious lifestyles portrayed, the proliferation of animals and their wit. [ 69 ] The first in the series was Riders (1985), an international bestseller, which sold over one million copies. [ 70 ] The first version of Riders was written by 1970, but shortly after Cooper had finished it, she took it with her into the West End of London , but left the manuscript on a bus. The London Evening Standard put out an appeal, but it was never found. She was, she says, "devastated" and it took her more than a decade to start it again. [ 71 ] Set in the world of show-jumping, the novel is the first appearance of Cooper's ongoing central character Rupert Campbell-Black . [ 72 ] The novel centres on his rivalry with fellow show-jumper Jake Lovell and the novel's denouement is set in the Los Angeles Olympics . [ 73 ] The follow-up novel to Riders was Rivals , set in the world of commercial television. [ 74 ] Still featuring Campbell-Black, he joins forces with television presenter Declan O'Hara and other characters to take over the local television station. [ 75 ] [ 76 ] Despite some initial scepticism from her publisher about the setting, [ 77 ] the novel debuted at #2 on the Sunday Times bestseller list for hardback fiction on June 12, 1988. [ 78 ] The next novel in the series was Polo , published in 1991, and was a return to the horse-focussed settings that Cooper became known for. [ 79 ] Cooper researched the book by travelling to Palm Beach and to Argentina, meeting polo players there. [ 80 ] [ 81 ] The novel went to number 1 in the UK hardback bestseller list, on its first entry. [ 82 ] Based on a rivalry between British polo player Ricky France-Lynch and an American millionaire Bart Alderton, the novel follows the teams associated with the two figures as they compete around the world. [ 83 ] It also features Rupert Campbell-Black's illegitimate daughter Perdita as a key protagonist. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] [ 86 ] Following Polo , the next novel in the series was The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous , which followed the life of Lysander Hawkley, a man who rich women employed to encourage their unfaithful husbands to return to their marriages. [ 87 ] It was the first novel to feature Roberto Rannaldini, a conductor and sworn enemy of Rupert Campbell-Black. [ 88 ] The novel received a range of reviews, but was praised for its "plain" heroine and a sub-plot relating to miscarriage. [ 89 ] [ 90 ] The next in the series was Appassionata , which was based in the world of classical music and followed the career of soloist, then conductor, Abigail Rosen. [ 91 ] Cooper spent three years researching the novel and travelled on tour to Spain, twice, with the Royal Scottish National Orchestra (RSNO). [ 91 ] The novel was a bestseller, and a soundtrack to the novel was released in parallel to the book. [ 92 ] [ 93 ] Reviews were mixed, with praise for Cooper's research [ 93 ] balanced by suggestions that the cast of characters was too large and contrived plots. [ 94 ] [ 95 ] Cooper remained largely in the world of classical music for her next novel, Score! , but this time focussing on a production of the opera Don Carlos . [ 86 ] In it Rannaldini is directing a film of the production, but is murdered on set, leading to a police investigation. [ 96 ] The novel was a Number 1 bestseller upon its release. The book received mixed reviews, [ 97 ] [ 86 ] as well as the accusation that at some moments the book seemed to suggest "that the death of a dog is rather more grief-worthy than the death of a human". [ 98 ] Her following novel Pandora was set in the art world, [ 99 ] and followed the Belvedon family of dealers and artists, based in the neighbouring county of Larkshire. [ 100 ] Reviewing the novel in The Observer , Robert Macfarlane described how it depicted and lampooned Britart , conceptual art and the Turner Prize . [ 99 ] This theme was continued by the New Statesman , where a reviewer described one scene where a woman who is raped is also menstruating as "very Jake and Dinos Chapman ". [ 101 ] The next volume in the series was Wicked! which was published in 2006 and was set in a boarding school, going to No. 1 in the fiction charts on its release. [ 102 ] [ 103 ] The novel had mixed reviews with some writers sharing unease at the depictions of teenage sex and romance. [ 104 ] [ 86 ] The Guardian stated that running at over 800 pages, the book needed a thorough edit since it was "as long as Anna Karenina and that, surely, is a mistake". [ 105 ] Returning to the world of horses, the ninth novel Jump! was released in 2010. [ 106 ] It features characters from the Rutshire Chronicles in the world of National Hunt steeplechase racing and tells the transformation of a mutilated horse (Mrs Wilkinson) into a successful racehorse. [ 106 ] After publication, it was revealed that Cooper had named a goat in the book (Chisolm) in order to hit back at the critic Anne Chisholm. [ 107 ] The tenth novel in the series Jump! was set in the world of flat racing . [ 108 ] Whilst Cooper's descriptions of the Cotswolds and her descriptions of racing were praised, some reviewers criticised the characterisation and "depraved and ridiculous" sex scenes. [ 109 ] [ 110 ] [ 111 ] The eleventh book in the series was Tackle! , published in 2023 it was set in the world of football. [ 112 ] It was named by The Week as one of the best novels of 2023. [ 113 ] The novel features Rupert Campbell-Black becoming the director of a local football club, based on Cooper's local side Forest Green Rovers . [ 114 ] [ 115 ] The sexual content of the novel received mixed reviews, with praise for the oral sex featured, but dismay that other scenes felt "lacklustre". [ 116 ] Little Mabel series Cooper also wrote a series of four children's books based on the misadventures of a young mongrel puppy called Mabel. [ 117 ] The Little Mabel series comprised Little Mabel, Little Mabel's Great Escape, Little Mabel Wins and Little Mabel Saves the Day. [ 117 ] When interviewed in 2013 to discuss the inclusion of a new class for mongrels at Crufts , Cooper described her book Little Mabel Wins as "prophetic" since it featured a protest against mongrel discrimination at that dog show. [ 118 ] Two of the books featured in the British children's television series Jackanory , read by Victoria Wood and Liza Goddard . [ 119 ] [ 120 ] Personal life In 1961, she married Leo Cooper , a publisher of military history books. [ 121 ] The couple had met when she was aged eight and Cooper aged 10, although they did not marry until she was 24 and he was 27. [ 122 ] [ 3 ] The couple adopted two children and had five grandchildren. [ 123 ] [ 124 ] In 1982, the couple left Putney , south-west London, for an old manor house near Stroud , Gloucestershire. [ 121 ] [ 125 ] As she told The Field in 2002, "I loved London, but I used to cry because I missed the countryside. We did the usual married run: Earl’s Court ; Fulham ; Putney ; Move To The Country." [ 126 ] The Coopers' marriage was greatly disrupted in 1990 when publisher Sarah Johnson revealed that she and Leo had had an affair for several years. [ 127 ] [ 128 ] Leo was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease in 2002. He died on 29 November 2013, at the age of 80. [ 121 ] In 2010, Cooper [ which? ] suffered a minor stroke. [ 129 ] Cooper was a passenger in one of the derailed carriages in the Ladbroke Grove rail crash of 1999, in which 31 people died, [ 123 ] and crawled through a window to escape. She later spoke of feeling that her "number was up". [ 3 ] Cooper was a supporter of the Conservative Party , [ 130 ] and was also in favour of the Iraq War (2003 to 2011). [ 131 ] In a 2007 interview with The Guardian she said, "I loved Mrs Thatcher , I adored her, she was very very nice to me". [ 132 ] By 2012, however, she had grown disillusioned with the Conservatives, telling The Spectator that she was "disappointed with this government" and that the party was "full of terrible people now". [ 133 ] In 2018 Cooper said that because of the #MeToo movement , young men and women no longer feel free to flirt with one another and that she enjoyed being the subject of wolf whistles . [ 134 ] Cooper stated that she was a football fan and supported Leeds United when she lived in Yorkshire. [ 135 ] She was also a Manchester City fan. [ 136 ] Cooper campaigned for the preservation of limestone grasslands in Gloucestershire with the Trust for Nature Conservation. [ 137 ] Death and tributes On 4 October 2025, Cooper was attended to by paramedics after suffering a fall at her home in Bisley , Gloucestershire, which caused a fatal head injury. She was transported to Gloucestershire Royal Hospital , where her condition deteriorated. She died there on 5 October, aged 88, surrounded by family. [ 138 ] Queen Camilla , a long-term friend, led the tributes to Cooper, describing her as a legend and a "wonderfully witty and compassionate friend to me and so many", adding: "May her hereafter be filled with impossibly handsome men and devoted dogs." [ 139 ] The official spokesman of the prime minister, Keir Starmer , said: "Dame Jilly Cooper was a literary force whose wit, warmth and wisdom shaped British culture for over half a century and brought joy to millions." Famously a fan of Cooper's novels, former prime minister Rishi Sunak wrote on X : "Sad to hear of the passing of Dame Jilly Cooper, a storyteller whose wit and love of character brought joy to millions. My thoughts are with her family and fellow readers." [ 140 ] Others paying tribute to Cooper included comedian Helen Lederer , who wrote on X: "Trail blazer, wit, optimist and the giver of the greatest summer parties – you made it look simple." Broadcaster Gyles Brandreth wrote that she was "simply adorable". [ 141 ] Television presenter Kirstie Allsopp said Cooper was "a British institution, funny, enthusiastic and self deprecating, we don't see enough of it these days". [ 142 ] Piers Morgan posted: "Such a fabulously fun, mischievous, warm-hearted lady. If she was in a room, everyone would feel instantly cheerier." [ 142 ] Fellow broadcaster Russell Grant wrote on X: "Jilly was one of the most kind, courteous, generous, warm-hearted and smiley people I ever met when I worked on breakfast and morning TV." [ 143 ] Actress Dame Joanna Lumley , who starred in Cooper's early 1970s sitcom It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling , told BBC News: "She was entirely generous, hugely talented, prolific, enthusiastic, meticulous and wholly loveable: a darling friend and a brilliant person." [ 144 ] A number of authors have also recognised her and her legacy, including Jill Mansell who credited Cooper for inspiring her to be a writer. The Australian-British author Kathy Lette said: "A twinkle has gone out of the world." [ 144 ] Author and former doctor Adam Kay recalled being Cooper's "perhaps unlikely penpal", adding: "We have lost one of the greats." [ 139 ] Honours, awards and recognition Cooper was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2004 Birthday Honours for services to literature, Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2018 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity and Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2024 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity. [ 145 ] On 13 November 2009, Cooper was awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Letters by the University of Gloucestershire at a ceremony in Gloucester Cathedral . [ 146 ] In 2011, She was also awarded an Honorary Doctor of Letters at Anglia Ruskin University . [ 147 ] In 2024 she was named Harper's Bazaar ' s Author of the Year. [ 148 ] In 1997 local councillors in Ilkley , West Yorkshire, rejected a housing developers' proposal to name a street after Cooper. [ 149 ] Located on the site of the tennis courts of Ilkley Hall, where Cooper spent some of her childhood, the street was ultimately named after Thomas Maufe , who was awarded a Victoria Cross . Cooper stated that "[Maufe] is much more deserving than me." [ 149 ] A racehorse was named after Cooper, but it had to be euthanised in 2024 after a racing accident. [ 150 ] [ 151 ] In 2025, the Jilly Cooper Prize was established as part of the Comedy Women in Print Awards to honour her contribution to comic fiction. [ 152 ] The prize recognises works of fiction by women and non-binary authors that demonstrate a distinctive sense of humour, irreverence, and comic narrative voice. The award was introduced following Cooper’s death in 2024, with the intention of acknowledging her influence on contemporary comic fiction and her long-standing reputation for comedic prose, romantic satire, and portrayals of British high society. [ 153 ] The inaugural winner of the prize was Sara Pascoe , who received the award in 2025 for her novel Weirdo . [ 154 ] Film and television productions Screenwriting and appearances In 1971 Cooper wrote the comedy series It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling with Christopher Bond , about four posh young women sharing a flat in London, featuring Joanna Lumley and airing on BBC1 . [ 155 ] [ 156 ] In the 1980s she was a regular guest on the BBC television programme What's My Line? [ 157 ] According to a 2016 interview with Cooper, she was also the subject of a Spitting Image puppet, whose only line was "Sex sex sex sex sex sex". [ 5 ] Adaptations Romance series Emily was adapted by Eleanor Bron for Thames Television in 1976 as part of a six-part romance series. [ 158 ] [ 159 ] Directed by Alastair Reid , [ 160 ] it was broadcast on 6 April 1977. [ 161 ] Prudence was adapted for radio in 1979 by Capital Radio , starring Felicity Kendal as Prudence, [ 162 ] alongside Nigel Davenport and Gerald Harper . [ 163 ] In 2007 a television adaptation of four of the romance novels was proposed. [ 164 ] This was suggested as one of a four-part series focusing on Harriet , Bella , Octavia and one unspecified; the only episode to be filmed was Octavia . [ 164 ] The screenplay was written by Jonathan Harvey . [ 165 ] As of 2009 there was no date for its screening. [ 166 ] In 2013 The Telegraph reported that Harriet was being adapted into a musical by Eva Rice, novelist and daughter of Tim Rice . [ 167 ] Rutshire Chronicles Television adaptations of Cooper's novels were produced for ITV and Disney+. Other productions include the television mini-series The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous , starring Hugh Bonneville , produced by Sarah Lawson ; Riders ; [ 168 ] and, in 2024, Rivals , starring David Tennant , Aidan Turner and Alex Hassell , produced by Eliza Mellor. [ 169 ] The latter was renewed for a second series, which is expected to be released in 2026. [ 170 ] Analysis Cooper has been identified as one of the key writers of the bonkbuster novel, along with Jackie Collins , Shirley Conran and Judith Krantz . [ 70 ] Riders in particular is seen as a key text for the genre, embodying its themes of sex (sometimes coercive) and romance (sometimes unfulfilled). [ 70 ] Indeed, academic Emma Parker has described how the novel "exemplified" the genre. [ 171 ] Ian Patterson , writing for the London Review of Books is one of the few academics to seriously consider Cooper's literary oeuvre. [ 172 ] In his critique of her work, Patterson described how Cooper had a "propensity for subplots worthy of Trollope or Dickens". [ 97 ] Moreover, that her books are "worth thinking about" because they cover "pleasure, that most ticklish of subjects". [ 97 ] Patterson goes on to describe the themes of pleasure that Cooper deals with: "pleasure delayed and deferred, guilty pleasure, the pleasure of repetition and the problems of it", as well as "good pleasures, in various degrees, wrong but permissible pleasures, and unequivocally bad pleasures". [ 97 ] He praised Cooper's use of language, in particular "puns and other forms of verbal humour", which give the reader the impression that Cooper, as writer, is never far away. [ 97 ] On the Romance series, Patterson described the novels as "tightly structured, agreeably predictable wish-fulfilment narratives named for their heroines". [ 97 ] Beyond Cooper's novels, Patterson praised her portrait of Margaret Thatcher, and her Sunday Times columns. [ 97 ] Patterson compared Cooper to Ali Smith since in their writing they share a "fondness for both wordplay and wise children". [ 97 ] Cooper's use of humour as part of erotic writing has been discussed by Tim Miles, who described how there was "is little or no separation" of the two, especially in Riders. [ 173 ] In his analysis of the career of Mary Ward , academic Alan Deyermond describes how she was described as "the Jilly Cooper of her day", which became part of her professional denigration. [ 174 ] Cooper's use of horses as a repeated trope across many of her novels has been considered by academic Gail Cunningham, who described how Riders and Polo provided "women readers with an adult version of the pony book ". [ 175 ] List of works Fiction The Rutshire Chronicles Riders (1985) [ 176 ] Rivals (1988; also known as Players ) [ 177 ] Polo (1991) [ 178 ] The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous (1993) [ 179 ] Appassionata (1996) [ 180 ] Score! (1999) [ 181 ] Pandora (2002) [ 182 ] Wicked! (2006) [ 183 ] Jump! (2010) [ 184 ] Mount! (2016) [ 185 ] Tackle! (2023) [ 186 ] Romances Emily (1975) [ 187 ] Bella (1976) [ 188 ] Harriet (1976) [ 189 ] Octavia (1977) [ 190 ] Prudence (1978) [ 191 ] Imogen (1978) [ 192 ] Lisa & Co . (1981) [ 193 ] "Little Mabel" series Little Mabel (1980) [ 194 ] Little Mabel's Great Escape (1981) [ 195 ] Little Mabel Wins (1982) [ 196 ] Little Mabel Saves the Day (1985) [ 197 ] Other Araminta's Wedding (1993) [ 198 ] Non-fiction How to Stay Married (1969) [ 199 ] How To Survive from Nine To Five (1970) [ 200 ] Jolly Super (1971) [ 201 ] Men and Super Men (1972) [ 202 ] Jolly Super Too (1973) [ 203 ] Women and Super Women (1974) [ 204 ] Jolly Superlative (1975) [ 205 ] Supermen and Superwomen (1976) [ 206 ] How to Survive Work and Wedlock (1977); republication of earlier works [ 207 ] Superjilly (1977) [ 208 ] The British in Love (1979) [ 209 ] Class: A View from Middle England (1979) [ 210 ] Supercooper (1980) [ 211 ] Violets and Vinegar: An Anthology of Women's Writings and Sayings (1980) [ 212 ] Intelligent and Loyal (1981) [ 213 ] Jolly Marsupial (1982) [ 214 ] Animals in War (1983) [ 215 ] The Common Years (1984) [ 216 ] On Rugby (1984; with Leo Cooper ) [ 217 ] On Cricket (1985; with Leo Cooper) [ 218 ] Hotfoot to Zabriskie Point (1985; with Patrick Lichfield ) [ 219 ] Horse Mania! (1986; with Leo Cooper) [ 220 ] How To Survive Christmas (1986) [ 221 ] Turn Right at the Spotted Dog (1987) [ 222 ] Angels Rush In (1990) [ 223 ] Between the Covers (2020) [ 32 ] References ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Biography with magazine quotations" . 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"Bonk hard and start a business! 10 life lessons I learned from Jilly Cooper" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ "The best novels of 2023" . The Week . 10 February 2023 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Thorp, Clare. "From Riders to Tackle! – how Britain loves Jilly Cooper's raunchy novels" . www.bbc.com . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Silver, Madeleine (20 April 2024). " 'Bonkbuster' queen Jilly Cooper to swap horses for football" . Horse & Hound . Archived from the original on 20 April 2024 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Cooke, Rachel (12 November 2023). "Tackle! review – Jilly Cooper takes on the beautiful game" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ a b "Jilly's age of anxiety" . The Gloucestershire Echo . 13 December 1993. p. 9 . Retrieved 23 August 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Williamson, Charlotte (3 March 2013). "Why our mongrels are a dying breed" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 23 March 2021 . Retrieved 23 August 2025 . ^ "Leafing through the history of Jackanory on World Book Day" . BBC . Archived from the original on 18 August 2025 . Retrieved 18 August 2025 . ^ St Claire, Lynne (23 January 1987). "24 hour TV" . Evening Post . p. 2 . Retrieved 23 August 2025 . ^ a b c Obituary: Leo Cooper , The Daily Telegraph , 2 December 2013. ^ "About Jilly" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ a b Cooper, Jilly (17 September 2010). "Jilly Cooper interview" . The Daily Telegraph . Interviewed by Grice, Elizabeth. Archived from the original on 29 March 2019 . Retrieved 15 January 2026 . ^ Barber, Richard (7 April 2017). "Jilly Cooper: 'My books are my babies' " . The Guardian . Retrieved 29 March 2019 . ^ Horwell, Veronica (6 October 2025). "Dame Jilly Cooper obituary" . The Guardian . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "A Sporting Life – Dame Jilly Cooper" . The Field . 14 October 2024 . Retrieved 8 October 2025 . ^ Barber, Michael (3 December 2013). "Leo Cooper obituary: Publisher of military history books and husband of Jilly Cooper" . The Guardian . Retrieved 7 May 2020 . ^ Davies, Karin (2 September 1990). "Fiction into fact" . UPI . ^ Kennedy, Philippa (26 September 2010). "Jilly Cooper is still riding high" . The National . ^ "Women and gender in the Conservative party archive" . 24 November 2015. ^ Cooper, Jilly (16 February 2003). "Cover story: The voices for and against war" . The Sunday Times . Archived from the original on 5 March 2016 . Retrieved 29 February 2016 . ^ Pool, Hannah; Pool, Hannah Azieb (26 April 2007). "Question time" . The Guardian . ^ "The end is neigh: even Jilly Cooper has dumped Dave" . 3 December 2012. ^ Butterworth, Benjamin (29 July 2018). "Jilly Cooper says she loves being wolf-whistled as she criticises #MeToo movement" . The i Paper . Retrieved 28 February 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper: why I will write just one more novel" . Yorkshire Post . 25 October 2016 [8 October 2016]. Archived from the original on 4 May 2023 . Retrieved 4 May 2023 . ^ Glancy, Josh (28 July 2024). "Jilly Cooper: 'Upper classes are unbelievable, they just love sex' " . The Times . Archived from the original on 28 July 2024 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Clegg, Harry (24 June 1991). "Novelist is riding to rescue of wildlife heritage" . The Citizen . p. 8 . Retrieved 8 July 2025 . ^ De la Mare, Tess (11 November 2025). "Jilly Cooper died from head injury, says coroner" . BBC News . Retrieved 11 November 2025 . ^ a b "Jilly Cooper: Best-selling author of Rivals and Riders dies at 88" . BBC News . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "Camilla's tribute to 'legend' Dame Jilly Cooper after author's death aged 88" . The Independent . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "Author Jilly Cooper has passed away at 88" . Euro Weekly News . 6 October 2025. ^ a b "Queen pays tribute to 'legend' Jilly Cooper after author dies aged 88 – live updates" . BBC News . ^ Grant, Russell (6 October 2025). "Jilly was one of the most kind, courteous, generous, warm-hearted and smiley people I ever met when I worked on breakfast and morning TV" . X . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ a b "Tributes pour in from Rivals cast in honour of Dame Jilly Cooper" . The Independent . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "No. 64269" . The London Gazette (Supplement). 30 December 2023. p. N9. ^ University Announces Honorary Awards Archived 19 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine University of Gloucestershire ^ "Dame Jilly Cooper (1937-2025) - ARU" . www.aru.ac.uk . Retrieved 11 November 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper is our author of the year" . Harper's BAZAAR . 5 December 2024 . Retrieved 6 June 2025 . ^ a b Oldham, Nick (17 January 1997). "Jilly's Street? It's not such a novel idea" . Telegraph and Argus . p. 3 . Retrieved 7 June 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper (IRE) | Race Record & Form" . Racing Post . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper (IRE) | Horse Profile" . Sky Sports . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Kerridge, Jake (12 July 2019). "Jilly Cooper on the Comedy Women in Print Prize: 'Men are funnier than women? Rubbish!' " . The Telegraph . ISSN 0307-1235 . Retrieved 11 November 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper honoured with Comedy Women In Print prize" . Irish Independent . 10 July 2019 . Retrieved 9 November 2025 . ^ Loffhagen, Emma (4 November 2025). "Sara Pascoe's novel wins inaugural Jilly Cooper award" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 9 November 2025 . ^ "It's Awfully Bad For Your Eyes, Darling (Production)" . www.phill.co.uk . Archived from the original on 8 October 2025 . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ Storah, Peter (18 November 1971). "Jilly gets her own laugh show". Lancashire Telegraph . No. 23646. p. 2. ^ "You're a glamorous lot, says author Jilly ..." Western Daily Press . 22 February 1985. p. 7. Archived from the original on 8 July 2025 . Retrieved 8 July 2025 . ^ Macdonald, Keith (6 April 1977). "Eleanor misses out on Romance" . Manchester Evening News . p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Mitchell, Linton (17 February 1977). "Return to romance" . Reading Evening Post . p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Things go so wrong for Emily" . Evening Sentinel . 6 April 1977. p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Television and radio" . Scunthorpe Evening Telegraph . 6 April 1977. p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Drama for the 80s" . The Observer . 2 September 1979. p. 35 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ Howard, Geoffrey (31 August 1979). "Highlights on radio" . Ealing and Acton Gazette . p. 15 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ a b Richardson, Anna (27 July 2007). "Jilly romps to ITV" . The Bookseller . p. 34. ^ Coming Up Archived 28 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine thecustard.tv ^ Dowell, Ben (12 February 2009). "ITV delays single dramas in downturn" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 28 April 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper sets the stage for her West End debut" . The Daily Telegraph . 19 October 2018. Archived from the original on 19 October 2018 . Retrieved 17 May 2025 . ^ "Riders (1993)" . Archived from the original on 21 September 2019 . Retrieved 21 September 2019 . ^ Cormack, Morgan. "David Tennant, Aidan Turner to star in Jilly Cooper adaptation Rivals | Radio Times" . www.radiotimes.com . Retrieved 25 October 2025 . ^ Garden, House & (8 October 2024). "Rivals season 2: Hayley Atwell and Rupert Everett join the cast of the Disney+ adaptation of Jilly Cooper's novel" . House & Garden . Retrieved 25 October 2025 . ^ Parker, Emma (1 December 2006). "Sex Changes: The Politics of Pleasure in the Novels of Michèle Roberts" . Lit: Literature Interpretation Theory . 17 ( 3– 4): 325– 351. doi : 10.1080/10436920601000336 . ISSN 1043-6928 . ^ "Jilly Cooper compared to Charles Dickens and Anthony Trollope by Cambridge academic" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 13 May 2017 . Retrieved 14 October 2025 . ^ Miles, Tim (2011). "Sex, pies and Jilly Cooper: An online, cooperative analysis of humour and the erotic" . Comedy Studies . 2 (1): 63– 71. doi : 10.1386/cost.2.1.63_1 . ISSN 2040-610X . ^ Deyermond, Alan (2004). "Mary Ward, or the Incremental Denigration of a Hispanist" . Hispanic Research Journal . 5 (2): 177– 179. doi : 10.1179/hrj.2004.5.2.177 . ISSN 1468-2737 . ^ Cunningham G. 'Seizing the reins: women, girls and horses' in: Sceats, S. and Cunnigham, G. 2014. Image and Power : Women in Fiction in the Twentieth Century [Online]. Taylor & Francis. ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Riders . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15617-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Rivals . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15637-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (11 March 2025). Polo . Grand Central Publishing. ISBN 978-1-5387-7355-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). The Man who Made Husbands Jealous . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15639-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Appassionata. Jilly Cooper . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15638-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2000). Score! . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14579-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Pandora . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15640-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Wicked! . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15156-6 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2010). Jump! . Bantam Press. ISBN 978-0-593-06153-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (25 October 2016). Mount! . National Geographic Books. ISBN 978-0-593-07291-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2001). Tackle! . Ulverscroft, Charnwood. ISBN 978-1-4448-5217-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Emily . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15249-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Bella: A Deliciously Upbeat and Laugh-out-loud Romance from the Inimitable Multimillion-copy Bestselling Jilly Cooper . Transworld Publishers Limited. ISBN 978-0-552-15250-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Harriet . Transworld Publishers Limited. ISBN 978-0-552-15251-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Octavia: A light-hearted and hilarious romcom from the Sunday Times bestselling author of Rivals . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3218-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Prudence: The feel-good romance from the Sunday Times bestselling author of Rivals . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3228-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1979). Imogen . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11149-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1982). Lisa & Co . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-12041-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1980). Little Mabel . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11158-6 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Little Mabel's Great Escape . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11160-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1982). Little Mabel Wins . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11159-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1985). Little Mabel Saves the Day . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-12291-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (30 June 2012). Araminta's Wedding . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-5252-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 September 2011). How To Stay Married . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4464-9798-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 February 2012). How To Survive From Nine To Five . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0772-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Jolly Super . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11751-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 October 2011). Men and Supermen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0813-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1973). Jolly Super Too . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-30530-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 January 2012). Women And Superwomen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-3505-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Jolly Superlative . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11801-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Super Men and Super Women, by Jilly Cooper . ISBN 978-0-417-05370-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Work and Wedlock . London: Magnum Books. ISBN 978-0417018201 . Retrieved 9 October 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Superjilly . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-38620-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). The British in Love . Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-005650-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1999). Class: A View from Middle England . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14662-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Supercooper . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11832-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Hartman, Tom (1982). Violets and Vinegar: An Anthology of Women's Writings and Sayings . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11869-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Intelligent and Loyal: A Celebration of the Mongrel . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-48000-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 February 2012). Jolly Marsupial . Transworld. ISBN 978-1-4481-0902-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Animals In War . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3190-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1999). The Common Years . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14663-0 . ^ Cooper, Leo; Cooper, Jilly (1984). Leo & Jilly Cooper on Rugby . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2411-6 . ^ Cooper, Leo (1985). Leo & Jilly Cooper on Cricket . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2537-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Lichfield, Patrick (1985). Hotfoot to Zabriskie Point . Constable. ISBN 978-0-09-466760-0 . ^ Cooper, Leo; Cooper, Jilly (1986). Horse Mania! . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2665-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1986). How to Survive Christmas: An Xmasochist's Guide to the Darkest Days of the Year . Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-59780-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1988). Turn Right at the Spotted Dog: And Other Diversions . Chivers. ISBN 978-0-7451-0744-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (24 April 2012). Angels Rush In . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0810-7 . External links Official website Jilly Cooper at IMDb Jilly Cooper at the British Film Institute Portraits of Jilly Cooper at the National Portrait Gallery, London "The queen of chick lit" article , The Guardian , 15 June 2004 An interview with Cooper recorded in 2000 by meettheauthor.co.uk .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Jilly Cooper v t e Fiction Rutshire Chronicles Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Romance series Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Short stories Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Children's stories Little Mabel (series) Rutshire Chronicles Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Romance series Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Short stories Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Children's stories Little Mabel (series) Little Mabel (series) Non-fiction How to Stay Married How To Survive From Nine To Five Jolly Super Jolly Super Too Jolly Superlative Class Violets and Vinegar Intelligent and Loyal Jolly Marsupial Animals in War The Common Years How To Survive Christmas Turn Right at the Spotted Dog Angels Rush In Between the Covers How to Stay Married How To Survive From Nine To Five Jolly Super Jolly Super Too Jolly Superlative Class Violets and Vinegar Intelligent and Loyal Jolly Marsupial Animals in War The Common Years How To Survive Christmas Turn Right at the Spotted Dog Angels Rush In Between the Covers Adaptations It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling Riders The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Rivals It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling Riders The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Rivals Fictional characters Rupert Campbell-Black Rupert Campbell-Black Related Leo Cooper Leo Cooper Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Greece Poland Israel United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Greece Poland Israel Academics CiNii CiNii Artists MusicBrainz MusicBrainz People Trove Trove Other IdRef Open Library Yale LUX IdRef Open Library Yale LUX 1937 births 2025 deaths 20th-century English non-fiction writers 20th-century English novelists 20th-century English women writers 21st-century English non-fiction writers 21st-century English novelists 21st-century English women writers Accidental deaths from falls in the United Kingdom Accidental deaths in England British Book Award winners British women romantic fiction writers British women columnists Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire English romantic fiction writers English women journalists English women non-fiction writers English women novelists People educated at Godolphin School People from Hornchurch Survivors of railway accidents or incidents 21st-century British women novelists 20th-century British women novelists British children's writers British women children's writers Deaths from head injury CS1 maint: publisher location Pages containing London Gazette template with parameter supp set to y Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Use British English from October 2016 All Wikipedia articles written in British English Use dmy dates from October 2025 All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from January 2026 Commons category link from Wikidata National Portrait Gallery (London) person ID same as Wikidata This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 06:20 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Dimensions and planes of existence Toggle Dimensions and planes of existence subsection 1.1 Matter/Object — Physical sciences 1.2 Life/Organism — Biological sciences 1.3 Mind/Animal — (Basic) psychological sciences 1.4 Culture/Person — Human social sciences 1.1 Matter/Object — Physical sciences 1.2 Life/Organism — Biological sciences 1.3 Mind/Animal — (Basic) psychological sciences 1.4 Culture/Person — Human social sciences 2 Theoretical joint points Toggle Theoretical joint points subsection 2.1 Quantum gravity 2.2 The modern synthesis 2.3 Behavioral investment theory 2.4 Justification systems theory 2.1 Quantum gravity 2.2 The modern synthesis 2.3 Behavioral investment theory 2.4 Justification systems theory 3 The "problem of psychology" Toggle The "problem of psychology" subsection 3.1 Solution 3.1 Solution 4 Consciousness and human behavior 5 Toward the integration of human knowledge 6 See also 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 External links Tree of knowledge system العربية Español فارسی Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . ( Learn how and when to remove these messages ) A major contributor to this article appears to have a close connection with its subject. It may require cleanup to comply with Wikipedia's content policies, particularly neutral point of view . Please discuss further on the talk page . See our advice if the article is about you and read our scam warning in case someone asks for money to edit this article. ( October 2020 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines . Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references . ( September 2022 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) A major contributor to this article appears to have a close connection with its subject. It may require cleanup to comply with Wikipedia's content policies, particularly neutral point of view . Please discuss further on the talk page . See our advice if the article is about you and read our scam warning in case someone asks for money to edit this article. ( October 2020 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines . Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references . ( September 2022 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) The tree of knowledge ( ToK ) system is a new [ when? ] map of Big History that traces cosmic evolution across four different planes of existence, identified as Matter, Life, Mind and Culture that are mapped respectively by the physical, biological, psychological and social domains of science. The Tree of Knowledge (ToK) System was developed by Gregg Henriques , who is a professor and core faculty member in the Combined-Integrated Doctoral Program in Clinical and School Psychology at James Madison University . [ 1 ] The ToK System is part of a larger Unified Theory of Knowledge that Henriques describes as a consilient scientific humanistic philosophy for the 21st Century. The official Unified Theory of Knowledge website describes the ToK System as: [ 2 ] [A] theory of scientific knowledge that defines the human knower in relation to the known. It achieves this novel accomplishment by solving the problem of psychology and giving rise to a truly consilient view of the scientific landscape. It accomplishes this via dividing the evolution of behavioral complexity into four different planes of existence...The ToK also characterizes modern empirical natural science as a kind of justification system that functions to map complexity and change. [A] theory of scientific knowledge that defines the human knower in relation to the known. It achieves this novel accomplishment by solving the problem of psychology and giving rise to a truly consilient view of the scientific landscape. It accomplishes this via dividing the evolution of behavioral complexity into four different planes of existence...The ToK also characterizes modern empirical natural science as a kind of justification system that functions to map complexity and change. The outline of the ToK System was first published in 2003 in Review of General Psychology . [ 3 ] Two special issues of the Journal of Clinical Psychology in December 2004 [ 4 ] and January 2005 [ 5 ] were devoted to the elaboration and evaluation of the model. In 2008, a special issue of Theory & Psychology [ 6 ] was devoted to the ToK System. In 2011, Henriques published A New Unified Theory of Psychology . That same year he also launched the blog Theory of Knowledge: A Unified Approach to Psychology and Philosophy on Psychology Today , which remains active. There is also a Theory Of Knowledge Society and discussion listserve that is devoted to discussing Henriques' work and other big picture viewpoints. In some ways, the ToK System reflects a fairly common hierarchy of nature and of the sciences that has been represented in one way or another since the time of Auguste Comte , who in the 19th century used a hierarchical conception of nature to argue for the existence of sociology. It also has clear parallels with Aristotle's conception of the scales of nature and the first four levels of the Great Chain of Being . Despite some overlap with a number of traditional schemes, the ToK System is properly thought of as a new theory of both ontic reality and our scientific knowledge of that reality. One of the most important and salient features of the Tree of Knowledge is how it represents reality as consisting of four different planes of existence. The theory is that, following Matter, Life, Mind and Culture each represent complex adaptive landscapes that are organized and mediated by novel emergent information processing and communication systems. Specifically, DNA/RNA store information that is processed by cells which then engage in intercellular communication to create the plane of existence called Life. Similarly, the brain and nervous system store and process information in animals which then engage in communication networks on the complex adaptive plane called Mind. Finally, linguistic storage and processing and communication between human beings generates the emergence of the Culture-Person plane of existence. The separable planes of existence or dimension of complexity argument is one of the most crucial aspects of the system. Many have argued nature is hierarchically leveled; for example, a list of such levels might be subatomic particles , atoms , molecules , cells , organ structures, multi-celled organisms, consciousness , and society is common. The ToK System embraces a view of nature as levels, but adds the notion that there are also separable dimensions of complexity . The difference becomes particularly clear in the extension of the ToK System into the Periodic Table of Behavior . The Periodic Table of Behavior (PTB) shows that natural science can be arranged in terms of the four fundamental dimensions (i.e., matter, life, mind, and culture) and three fundamental levels of analysis (i.e., part, whole, group). The PTB also demonstrates that behavior is a central concept in science. Epistemologically, natural scientists view the world via a third person behavioral lens. Ontologically, science is about mapping different kinds of behaviors that take place in nature at various levels and dimensions of analysis. The second central insight of the ToK System is that it shows how natural science is a particular kind of justification system that emerges out of Culture based on novel methods and specific epistemological commitments and assumptions (i.e., an exterior view point, quantification and experimentation). This epistemology and methodology functions to justify scientific ontology, which in turn maps the ontic reality. Specifically, the domains of the physical, biological, (basic) psychological and social sciences map the ontic dimensions of matter, life, mind and culture. The Periodic Table of Behavior further shows how science is a justification system that is arranged to map behavioral frequencies at different dimensions of complexity and levels of analysis. Dimensions and planes of existence This section relies largely or entirely on a single source . Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page . Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources at this section. ( April 2024 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) Matter/Object — Physical sciences The dimension of matter refers to the set of material objects and their behaviors through time. In accordance with modern cosmology , matter is theorized to have emerged from a pure energy singularity at the Big Bang . Space and time were also born at such a point. Nonliving material objects range in complexity from subatomic particles to large organic molecules. The physical sciences (i.e., physics , chemistry , geology, astronomy ) describe the behavior of material objects. [ 3 ] Life/Organism — Biological sciences The dimension of life refers to organisms and their behaviors through time. Living objects are considered a unique subset of material objects. Just as quantum particles form the fundamental units of material complexity, genes are the fundamental units of living information. Although many questions about the emergence of life remain unanswered, in accordance with modern biology, the ToK posits that natural selection operating on genetic combinations through time is the unified theory of biology and forms the foundational understanding for the emergence of organic complexity. [ 3 ] Mind/Animal — (Basic) psychological sciences Mind/cognition in the ToK system refers to the set of mental behaviors. Mental behaviors are behaviors of animals mediated by the nervous system that produce a functional effect on the animal-environment relationship. As such, Mind/cognition is essentially synonymous with what behavioral psychologists have meant when they use the term behavior. Thus, a fly avoiding a fly swatter, a rat pushing a bar or a human getting a drink of water are all mental behaviors. Mind is not synonymous with sentience or the capacity for mental experience, although such processes are presumed to emerge in the mental/cognitive dimension. Cognition , in the broad sense of the term is meaning bodily-neuro-social information processing, as in EEEE Cognition: Embodied, Embedded, Enactive, Extended. While cognitive science stands for naturalist study of mind, psychology is an approach grounded in the tradition of humanities, especially philosophy. Thus, by defining mind as mental behavior, Henriques argues that the ToK System provides a way to bridge the epistemological differences between cognitive and behavioral science . [ 3 ] Henriques argues that comparative psychology , ethology, and (animal) cognitive behavioral neuroscience should all be thought of as parts of the discipline that maps the animal-mental domain. Culture/Person — Human social sciences Culture in the ToK system refers to the set of sociolinguistic behaviors, which range from large scale nation states to individual human justifications for particular actions. Just as genetic information processing is associated with the Life dimension and neuronal information processing associated with the Mind dimension, symbolic information processing emerges with the Cultural dimension. [ 3 ] Henriques argues that human cognitive science, human psychology and the social sciences (i.e., anthropology, sociology, political science, and economics) work to map this domain. Theoretical joint points Quantum gravity Quantum gravity refers to the imagined merger between the twin pillars of physical science which are quantum mechanics , the study of the microscopic (e.g., electrons), and general relativity , the science of the macroscopic (e.g., galaxies ). Currently, these two great domains of science cannot be effectively interwoven into a single, physical Theory of Everything , yet progress is being made, most notably through string theory , loop quantum gravity , black hole thermodynamics and the study of the early universe. Some of the difficulties combining these two pillars of physical science are philosophical in nature and it is possible that the macro view of knowledge offered by the ToK may eventually aid in the construction of a coherent theory of quantum gravity. The reason the ToK might help is that it locates scientific knowledge in relationship to the physical universe. The modern synthesis The modern synthesis refers to the merger of genetics with natural selection which occurred in the 1930s and 1940s and offers a reasonably complete framework for understanding the emergence of biological complexity. Although there remain significant gaps in biological knowledge surrounding questions such as the origin of life and the emergence of sexual reproduction, the modern synthesis represents the most complete and well-substantiated joint point. Behavioral investment theory Behavioral investment theory (BIT) is a metatheoretical formulation for the mind, brain and animal behavioral sciences. Henriques proposes that it enables the merger of the selection science of behaviorism with the information science of cognitive neuroscience that has conceptual parallels with the modern synthesis. BIT posits that the nervous system evolved as an increasingly flexible computational control system that coordinates the behavioral expenditure of energy of the animal as a whole. Expenditure of behavioral energy is theorized to be computed on an investment value system built evolutionarily through natural selection operating on genetic combinations and ontogenetically through behavioral selection operating on neural combinations. As such, the current behavioral investments of the animal are conceptualized as the joint product of the two vectors of phylogeny and ontogeny . A unique element of BIT is that it finds a core of agreement and builds bridges between five brain-behavior paradigms: (1) cognitive science ; (2) behavioral science ; (3) evolutionary theory and genetics; (4) neuroscience; and (5) cybernetics / systems theory . David C. Geary noted the similarities between his "motive-to-control" hypothesis and Henriques' Behavioral Investment Theory, which were developed independently of each other. Furthermore, Geary suggested that his model "seem[ed] to fill in many of the proximate mechanisms and evolutionary pressures that define the life-mind joint point, and provided a framework for further development of the mind-culture joint point." [ 7 ] Justification systems theory The justification systems theory (JUST; formerly known as the justification hypothesis) posits that the evolution of language reached a tipping point with emergence of propositional claims. Specifically, propositional claims can be questioned, which generates the "question-answer" dynamic. This creates the problem of justification, which Henriques argues drives both the design of the human self-consciousness system as a mental organ of justification and gives rise to the evolution of the Culture-Person plane of existence. JUST is a novel proposal that allows for both the understanding of the evolution of culture and for identifying what makes humans distinct animals. A basic initial claim of JUST is that the process of justification is a crucial component of human mental behavior at both the individual and societal level. Unlike all other animals, humans everywhere ask for and give explanations for their actions. Arguments, debates, moral dictates, rationalizations, and excuses all involve the process of explaining why one's claims, thoughts or actions are warranted. In virtually every form of social exchange, from warfare to politics to family struggles to science, humans are constantly justifying their behavioral investments to themselves and others. JUST consists of three key postulates: The first is that the evolution of propositional language must have created the problem of justification, which involves three interlocking problems of deciphering what is (1) analytically true and what is (2) good for the group and (3) good for the individual. The second postulate is that the structure and functional design of human consciousness can be understood as a solution to the problem of justification. Specifically, the three domains of human consciousness that Henriques identifies in the Updated Tripartite Model of the (1) experiential; (2) private narrator; and (3) public narrator are directly consistent with adaptive pressures that arise from the logic of the problem of justification. This analysis deepens when one considers the dynamic relationships and filtering that takes place between these three domains. The third postulate is that culture can be understood as large scale justification systems that coordinate the behavior of human populations. Cultural systems are seen to evolve much in the same way as organisms do in biological evolution: there is a process of variation, selection and retention of belief systems. The "problem of psychology" The ToK System emerged as a consequence of Henriques wrestling with what he calls "the problem of psychology". Henriques argues that the most difficult problem in psychology as a discipline is that while there is incredible diversity offered by different approaches to psychology, and there is no consensus model of what psychology actually is. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] Specifically, Henriques argues that the field lacks a clear definition, an agreed upon subject matter, and a coherent conceptual framework . The problem has been long standing, identified as the "crisis" by Lev Vygotsky in the mid 1920s. Henriques further argues that the patent tendency of psychology has been toward theoretical and substantial fragmentation and increasing insularity among the "specialties." In other words, the discipline has fragmented into different schools of thought and methodology, with no overall framework to interpret and integrate the research of different areas. At its best, the different approaches are a strength of psychology; different approaches lead to novel ideas, and prevent psychologists from clinging to a paradigm that fails to explain a phenomenon. At its worst, adherents of one particular school cling to their beliefs concerning the relative importance of their research and disregard or are ignorant of different approaches. In most cases, individual psychologists have to determine for themselves which elements of which perspective to apply, and how to integrate them into their overall understanding. Henriques argues that the problem of psychology is a central feature of modern knowledge systems. In A New Unified Theory of Psychology , he described it as follows: The problem of psychology is the joint observation that the field cannot be coherently defined and yet it connects more deeply than any other discipline to the three great branches of learning. Taken together, these observations suggest that the problem of psychology is a profound problem in academia at large. This conclusion is bolstered by the fact that as psychology has lumbered along acquiring findings but not foundational clarity, the fragmentation of human knowledge has grown exponentially. All of this suggests that the question, "What is psychology?" is profoundly important, one of the central questions in all of philosophy. Asking the right questions is often the most important step in getting the right answer. My interest in psychotherapy integration ultimately led me to ask the question, "What is psychology?”. Although I had no idea at the time, it turns out that this is the right question. And, as startling as it sounds, because psychology connects to so many different domains, the correct answer to it opens up a whole new vision for integrating human knowledge. The problem of psychology is the joint observation that the field cannot be coherently defined and yet it connects more deeply than any other discipline to the three great branches of learning. Taken together, these observations suggest that the problem of psychology is a profound problem in academia at large. This conclusion is bolstered by the fact that as psychology has lumbered along acquiring findings but not foundational clarity, the fragmentation of human knowledge has grown exponentially. All of this suggests that the question, "What is psychology?" is profoundly important, one of the central questions in all of philosophy. Asking the right questions is often the most important step in getting the right answer. My interest in psychotherapy integration ultimately led me to ask the question, "What is psychology?”. Although I had no idea at the time, it turns out that this is the right question. And, as startling as it sounds, because psychology connects to so many different domains, the correct answer to it opens up a whole new vision for integrating human knowledge. The reason for psychology's fragmentation, according to the ToK System, is that there has been no meta-theoretical frame that allows scholars to agree on the basic questions that need to be addressed. As such, the different schools of thought in psychology are like the blind men who each grab a part of the elephant and proclaim they have discovered its true nature. With its novel depiction of evolving dimensions of complexity, the ToK allows scholars finally to see the elephant. In his 2003 Review of General Psychology paper, [ 8 ] Henriques used the ToK System with the attempt to clarify and align the views of B.F. Skinner and Sigmund Freud . These luminaries were chosen because when one considers their influence and historical opposition, it can readily be argued that they represent two schools of thought that are the most difficult to integrate. Henriques used the meta-perspective offered by the ToK to argue how one can retain the key insights from each school of thought, identify errors and points of confusion, and integrate the insights into a coherent whole. Cultural and personality psychologist, Michael Katzko, [ 10 ] however critiques Henriques' position on "the problem of psychology": There is a very good reason for skepticism regarding the repeated claims that the one unique problem of psychology, applicable across the entire discipline, has been identified and that the ToK System solves it. The reason is given by the detail with which alternatives have been worked out, be they historical studies of institutional development or critical commentaries on the rhetorical structure of psychology's literature. [ 11 ] There is a very good reason for skepticism regarding the repeated claims that the one unique problem of psychology, applicable across the entire discipline, has been identified and that the ToK System solves it. The reason is given by the detail with which alternatives have been worked out, be they historical studies of institutional development or critical commentaries on the rhetorical structure of psychology's literature. [ 11 ] Solution The problem of psychology, according to the ToK, is its conceptual incoherence, which Henriques identifies by the following: When the various conceptions of psychology (e.g., behavioral, humanistic, cognitive) are viewed through the lens of the ToK System, psychology spans two different dimensions of complexity: the mental and the cultural. In other words, the discipline has historically spanned two fundamentally separate problems: If, as previously thought, nature simply consisted of levels of complexity, psychology would not be crisply defined in relationship to biology or the social sciences. And, indeed, it is frequently suggested that psychology exists in an amorphous space between biology and the social sciences. However, with its dimension of complexity depiction, the ToK System suggests that psychology can be crisply defined as the science of mind, which is the third dimension of complexity. Furthermore, because human behavior exists in the fourth dimension, psychology must be divided into two broad scientific domains of Psychological formalism is defined as the science of mind and corresponds to the behavior of animal objects. Human psychology is considered to be a unique subset of psychological formalism that deals with human behavior at the level of the individual. Because human behavior is immersed in the larger socio-cultural context (level four in the ToK System), human psychology is considered a hybrid discipline that merges the pure science of psychology with the social sciences. It is important to point out that there are other disciplines the ToK System would classify as “hybrids.” Molecular genetics, for example, is a hybrid between chemistry and biology and neuroscience is a hybrid between biology and psychology. As with Henriques' proposed conception of human psychology, both of these disciplines adopt an object level perspective (molecular and cellular, respectively) on phenomena that simultaneously exist as part of meta-level system processes (life and mind, respectively). [ 9 ] Though David A. F. Haaga "congratulate[d] Dr. Henriques' ambitious, scholarly, provocative paper", and "found the Tree of Knowledge taxonomy, the theoretical joint points, the evolutionary history, and the levels of emergent properties highly illuminating", he asks the rhetorical questions, If it is so difficult to define terms such as 'psychology' with such precision, why bother? Why not just agree that we all have at least a rough idea of what psychology is, and take the rest of the afternoon off? After all, if theoretical or empirical work improves our understanding of some aspect of the world or our fellow people, or improves our ability to help people enhance their physical or emotional well being, what difference does it make whether this work is considered a part of psychology, of cognitive science, of behavioral neuroscience, of public health, or what have you? This raises the question of what definitions in general are good for. [ 12 ] If it is so difficult to define terms such as 'psychology' with such precision, why bother? Why not just agree that we all have at least a rough idea of what psychology is, and take the rest of the afternoon off? After all, if theoretical or empirical work improves our understanding of some aspect of the world or our fellow people, or improves our ability to help people enhance their physical or emotional well being, what difference does it make whether this work is considered a part of psychology, of cognitive science, of behavioral neuroscience, of public health, or what have you? This raises the question of what definitions in general are good for. [ 12 ] In a similar vein, Scott O. Lilienfeld, who described Henriques' effort as "thoughtful", contended that psychology is "an inherently fuzzy concept that resists precise definition" and that "attempts to define psychology [would be] likely to hamper rather than foster consilience across disciplines". Lilienfield went on further to suggest that the scientist-practitioner gap in psychology lies not in definitional issues, but in different "epistemic attitudes" between these two groups. He stated that scientists have an epistemic attitude of empiricism , (where questions regarding human nature are settled by scientific evidence), and that practitioners have an epistemic attitude of romanticism , (where questions of human nature are settled by intuition). Lilienfeld suggested that the solution to the scientist-practitioner gulf isn't definitional, but in "train[ing] future clinical scientists to appreciate the proper places of romanticism and empiricism within science". [ 13 ] Consciousness and human behavior A frequent question and point of confusion in the ToK System is the definition and meaning of consciousness . As mentioned above, mind is not synonymous with consciousness. And, to understand consciousness from a ToK vantage point, it is crucial to recognize that the term is often ambiguous in its meaning. Two primary meanings are sentience , which is the capacity for mental experience and self-awareness , which is the capacity to be aware of one's awareness. Sentience is conceptualized as a "level 3" phenomenon, possessed by many animals other than humans and is defined as a "perceived" electro-neuro-chemical representation of animal-environment relations. The ingredient of neurological behavior that allows for the emergence of mental experience is considered the "hard" problem of consciousness and the ToK System does not address this question explicitly. In contrast, through the Justification Hypothesis (see below), the ToK System involves a very direct analysis of the other issue of consciousness, that of self-awareness . Another frequent question that is raised is "Where does individual human behavior fall on the ToK?" To analyze human behavior from the context of the ToK, one uses the ToK like a prism to separate the dimensions of behavior into physiochemical, biogenetic, neuropsychological and sociolinguistic. Thus if we imagine a conversation between a husband and wife as follows: Wife: “You are late again.” Husband: “Please, not now. It was a stressful day, traffic was bad, and you know that if work needs to be done, I can’t just leave it.” Wife: “You are late again.” Husband: “Please, not now. It was a stressful day, traffic was bad, and you know that if work needs to be done, I can’t just leave it.” The words represent the sociolinguistic dimension and are understood as a function of justification. Justification systems are seen both at the level of individual, micro-social and societal (i.e., the context of justification in which men work and women stay at home). The actions of the husband and wife in terms of facial expression , body movement, etc. are seen as the mental dimension and are understood as a function of behavioral investment. The physiological make up of the organ systems and cells of each body is seen as the biogenetic dimension. Finally, the position, temperature, molecular make up is seen as the physiochemical dimension. Each of the more basic dimensions represent conditions of possibility that allow for the emergence of the higher dimension of process. Thus, insufficient oxygen disrupts organic processes which in turn renders neuropsychological and sociolinguistic processes impossible. Toward the integration of human knowledge As stated above, the ToK System proposes a new epistemology with the goal of moving academic knowledge toward what E.O. Wilson termed consilience . Consilience is the interlocking of fact and theory into a coherent, holistic view of knowledge. Henriques argues that the ToK affords new perspectives on how knowledge is obtained because it depicts how science emerges from culture and that the four dimensions of complexity correspond to four broad classes of science: the physical, biological, psychological and social sciences. Henriques further argues that developing such a system for integrating knowledge is not just an academic enterprise. He suggests that in an increasingly complex world, the fragmented state of knowledge can be seen as one of the most pressing social problems of our time. Henriques also believes that history seems to attest that the absence of a collective worldview ostensibly condemns humanity to an endless series of conflicts that inevitably stem from incompatible, partially correct, locally situated justification systems. Thus, from Henriques' perspective, there are good reasons for believing that if there was a shared, general background of explanation, humanity might be able to achieve much greater levels of harmonious relations. In a 2008 article on the ToK, [ 14 ] Henriques cites Oliver Reiser 's 1958 call for unifying scientific knowledge that Henriques implies is similar in theme to the ToK: With its depiction of the dimensions of complexity and interlocking theoretical joint points, Henriques' believes that his ToK System offers new avenues that might allow scholars to meet Reiser’s call for academic synthesis. Henriques, like Reiser, believes that with a shared sense of purpose and a common background of explanation, people might yet be able to integrate bodies of knowledge into a unified interpretation of humanity, with humanity's place in nature and its potentialities for creating the good society. See also Tree of knowledge (philosophy) by René Descartes Tinbergen's four questions Behavioral repertoire Consilience Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge – 1998 book by E.O. Wilson Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge – 1998 book by E.O. Wilson Descriptive psychology General System Theory Psychological behaviorism Social meaning-making The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution – 1959 book by C. P. Snow Unified theory of cognition Unity of science Metasystem transition References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} " "About Me" section of the ToK System website" . Archived from the original on 5 December 2008 . Retrieved 3 January 2009 . ^ " "The Tree of Knowledge System" section of the 8 key ideas in the Unified Theory of Knowledge website" . Archived from the original on 2 July 2022 . Retrieved 2 July 2022 . ^ a b c d e Henriques, G.R. (2003). The Tree of Knowledge System and the Theoretical Unification of Psychology. Archived 25 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine Review of General Psychology, 7, 150–182. ^ "Defining Psychology: Articles and Commentaries on a New Unified Theory (Part 1): Journal of Clinical Psychology: Vol 60, No 12" . Archived from the original on 3 March 2011 . Retrieved 30 July 2021 – via Wiley Online Library. ^ "Defining Psychology: Articles and Commentaries on a New Unified Theory (Part 2): Journal of Clinical Psychology: Vol 61, No 1" . Archived from the original on 16 December 2012 . Retrieved 30 July 2021 – via Wiley Online Library. ^ "Theory & Psychology - Volume 18, Number 6, Dec 01, 2008" . Sage Journals . ^ Geary, D. C. (2005). The motivation to control and the origin of mind: Exploring the life-mind joint point in the tree of knowledge. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 21–46. ^ a b Henriques, G.R. (2003). The tree of knowledge system and the theoretical unification of psychology. Archived 25 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine Review of General Psychology, 7, 150–182. ^ a b Henriques, G.R. (2004). Psychology Defined Archived 10 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine . Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1207–1221. ^ Homepage of Michael Katzko ^ Katzko, M. W. (2008). Pruning the Tree of Knowledge. Theory & Psychology , 18, 817–828. Abstract ^ Haaga, D.A.F. (2004). Defining psychology: What can it do for us? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1227–1230. ^ Lilienfeld, S.O. (2004). Defining psychology: Is it worth the trouble? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1249–1253. ^ Henriques, G.R. (2008). The problem of psychology and the integration of human knowledge: Contrasting Wilson's Consilience with the Tree of Knowledge System. Theory & Psychology, 18, 731–755. Final draft ^ Reiser, O.L. (1958). The integration of human knowledge. Boston: Porter Sargent. Bibliography Anchin, J.C. (2008). The critical role of the dialectic in viable metatheory: A commentary on Henriques' Tree of Knowledge System for integrating human knowledge. Theory & Psychology, 18, 801–816. Full text Calhoun, L.G. (2004). The unification of psychology: A noble quest. Journal of Clinical Psychology , 60, 1283–1289. Abstract Geary, D. C. (2005). The motivation to control and the origin of mind: Exploring the life-mind joint point in the tree of knowledge. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 21–46. Full text Gilbert, P. (2004). A much needed macro level view: A commentary on Henriques’ psychology defined. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1223–1226. Full text Goertzen, J.R. (2008). On the possibility of unification: The reality and nature of the crisis in psychology. Theory & Psychology, 18, 829–852. Full text Haaga, D.A.F. (2004). Defining psychology: What can it do for us? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1227–1230. Full text Hayes, S.C. (2004). Taxonomy as a contextualist views it. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1231–1236. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2008). The problem of psychology and the integration of human knowledge: Contrasting Wilson's Consilience with the Tree of Knowledge System. Theory & Psychology, 18, 731–755. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2005). A new vision for the field: Introduction to the second special issue on the unified theory. Journal of Clinical Psychology , 61, 3–6. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2005). Toward a useful mass movement. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 121–139. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2004). Psychology Defined. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1207–1221. Full text Archived 10 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine Henriques, G.R. (2004). The development of the unified theory and the future of psychotherapy. Psychotherapy Bulletin, 39, 16–21. Final draft Henriques, G.R., & Cobb, H.C. (2004). Introduction to the special issues on the unified theory. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1203–1205. Full text Henriques, G.R., & Sternberg, R. J. (2004). Unified professional psychology: Implications for combined-integrated doctoral training programs. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1051–1063. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2003). The Tree of Knowledge System and the Theoretical Unification of Psychology. Review of General Psychology, 7, 150–182. Full text Archived 25 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine . Henriques, G.R. (2002). The harmful dysfunction analysis and the differentiation between mental disorder and disease. Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice , 1, 157–173. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2000). Depression: Disease or behavioral shutdown mechanism? Journal of Science and Health Policy, 1, 152–165. Full text Jones, R. (2005). From that dirty little science grows a Tree of Knowledge. The Madison, 1, 36–45. Full text Katzko, M.W. (2008). Pruning the Tree of Knowledge. Theory & Psychology, 18, 817–828. Full text Katzko, M.W. (2004). Psychology's dilemma: An institutional neurosis? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1237–1242. Full text Kihlstrom, J.F. (2004). Unity within psychology, and unity between science and practice. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1243–1247. Full text Lilienfeld, S.O. (2004). Defining psychology: Is it worth the trouble? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1249–1253. Full text Mayer, J.D. (2004). How does psychotherapy influence personality? A theoretical integration. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1291–1315. Full text Presbury, J. (2004). Rooting the tree of knowledge: A response to Henriques’ psychology defined. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1255–1258. Full text Quackenbush, S.W. (2008). Theoretical unification as a practical project: Kant and the Tree of Knowledge System. Theory & Psychology, 18, 757–777. Full text Quackenbush, S.W. (2005). Remythologizing culture: Narrativity, justification, and the politics of personalization. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 67–80. Full text Archived 16 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine Rand, K.L., & Ilardi, S.S. (2005). Toward a consilient science of psychology. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 7–20. Full text Shaffer, L.S. (2008). Religion as a large-scale justification system: Does the Justification Hypothesis explain animistic attribution? Theory & Psychology, 18, 779–799. Full text Shaffer, L.S. (2006). Durkheim's aphorism, the Justification Hypothesis, and the nature of social facts. Sociological Viewpoints, fall issue, 57–70. Full text Shaffer, L.S. (2005). From mirror self-recognition to the looking glass self: Exploring the justification hypothesis. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 47–65 . Full text Shealy, C.N. (2005). Justifying the justification hypothesis: Scientific-humanism, Equilintegration (EI) Theory, and the Beliefs, Events, and Values Inventory (BEVI). Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 81–106. Full text Slife, B. (2005). Testing the limits of Henriques' proposal: Wittgensteinian lessons and hermenuetic dialogue. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 107–120. Full text Stam, H.J. (2004). Unifying psychology: Epistemological act or disciplinary maneuver? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1259–1262. Full text Stanovich, K.E. (2004). Metarepresentation and the great cognitive divide: A commentary on Henriques' "Psychology Defined". Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1263–1266. Full text Stricker, G. (2004). The unification of psychology and psychological organizations. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1267–1269. Full text Vazire, S., & Robins, R.W. (2004). Beyond the Justification Hypothesis: A Broader Theory of the Evolution of Self-Consciousness. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1271–1273. Full text Viney, W. (2004). Pluralism in the sciences is not easily dismissed. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1275–1278. Full text Yanchar, S.C. (2004). Some discontents with theoretical unification. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1279–1281. Full text External links The Official Tree of Knowledge Website Archived 6 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine Tree of Knowledge System/Expert article by Gregg Henriques at the Psychology Wiki This page uses content from the English-language version of Psychology Wiki . The original article was at Tree of Knowledge System/Expert article by Gregg Henriques . The list of authors can be seen in the page history . The text of both The Psychology Wiki and Wikipedia is available under the GNU Free Documentation License . Science studies Systems Systems theory Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia articles with possible conflicts of interest from October 2020 Wikipedia external links cleanup from September 2022 Articles with multiple maintenance issues Use dmy dates from September 2017 All articles with vague or ambiguous time Vague or ambiguous time from March 2023 Articles needing additional references from April 2024 All articles needing additional references This page was last edited on 5 November 2025, at 05:53 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. 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Help | Advanced Search quick links Login Help Pages About Computer Science > Artificial Intelligence Title: The Impact of Generative AI on Architectural Conceptual Design: Performance, Creative Self-Efficacy and Cognitive Load Abstract: Our study examines how generative AI (GenAI) influences performance, creative self-efficacy, and cognitive load in architectural conceptual design tasks. Thirty-six student participants from Architectural Engineering and other disciplines completed a two-phase architectural design task, first independently and then with external tools (GenAI-assisted condition and control condition using an online repository of existing architectural projects). Design outcomes were evaluated by expert raters, while self-efficacy and cognitive load were self-reported after each phase. Difference-in-differences analyses revealed no overall performance advantage of GenAI across participants; however, subgroup analyses showed that GenAI significantly improved design performance for novice designers. In contrast, general creative self-efficacy declined for students using GenAI. Cognitive load did not differ significantly between conditions, though prompt usage patterns showed that iterative idea generation and visual feedback prompts were linked to greater reductions in cognitive load. These findings suggest that GenAI effectiveness depends on users' prior expertise and interaction strategies through prompting. Subjects: Artificial Intelligence (cs.AI) Cite as: arXiv:2601.10696 [cs.AI] (or arXiv:2601.10696v1 [cs.AI] for this version) Focus to learn more arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite Submission history Access Paper: View PDF References & Citations NASA ADS Google Scholar Semantic Scholar BibTeX formatted citation Bookmark Bibliographic and Citation Tools Code, Data and Media Associated with this Article Demos Recommenders and Search Tools Author Venue Institution Topic arXivLabs: experimental projects with community collaborators arXivLabs is a framework that allows collaborators to develop and share new arXiv features directly on our website. Both individuals and organizations that work with arXivLabs have embraced and accepted our values of openness, community, excellence, and user data privacy. arXiv is committed to these values and only works with partners that adhere to them. Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? Learn more about arXivLabs . About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status arXiv Operational Status
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https://arxiv.org/abs/2601.10696?context=cs
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Panyayari Sarisáring mga websityo an nabáli sa mga protesta laban sa U.S. bill na SOPA asín PIPA. Napili si Secretaryo Gilberto Teodoro na magin pamato kan Lakas-Kampi-CMD sa paaboton na pirilian sa 2010 . Nagadan si Eraño Manalo , an ehikutibong ministro kan Iglesia Ni Kristo sa edad na 84 kan Agosto 31 . Si Stefania Fernandez (yaon sa ritrato) kan Benesuela an pigkoronahan bilang Miss Universe 2009 sa An Bahamas . Senador Noynoy Aquino ipigtutulod kan mga kapartido na magin kandidato para pagka- Bise Presidente ni senador Mar Roxas . Senador Panfilo Lacson bukas sa ideyang magdalagan na Bise Presidente sa Mayo 2010 . Dating presidente kan Sur na Korea na si Kim Dae-jung nagadan sa edad na 85 pagkatapos nin halawig na paglaban sa helang na pulmonya. Mga detalye asin iba pan mga panyayari sa ngonyan... Magdagdag nin bareta para sa aldaw nin Byernes, ika-16 nin Enero, 2026 • Basahon asin aramon an mga kaipuhan na sundon sa pagkaag nin mga bàgong bareta (Tagalog) Enero 16, 2026 (Byernes) — magdagdag? Enero 15, 2026 (Huwebes) — magdagdag? Enero 14, 2026 (Myerkules) — magdagdag? Enero 13, 2026 (Martes) — magdagdag? Enero 12, 2026 (Lunes) — magdagdag? Enero 11, 2026 (Domingo) — magdagdag? Enero 10, 2026 (Sabado) — magdagdag? Enero 9, 2026 (Byernes) — magdagdag? Enero 8, 2026 (Huwebes) — magdagdag? Enero 7, 2026 (Myerkules) — magdagdag? Enero 6, 2026 (Martes) — magdagdag? Enero 5, 2026 (Lunes) — magdagdag? Enero 4, 2026 (Domingo) — magdagdag? Enero 3, 2026 (Sabado) — magdagdag? Enero 2, 2026 (Byernes) — magdagdag? Enero 1, 2026 (Huwebes) — magdagdag? Disyembre 31, 2025 (Myerkules) — magdagdag? Disyembre 30, 2025 (Martes) — magdagdag? Disyembre 29, 2025 (Lunes) — magdagdag? Disyembre 28, 2025 (Domingo) — magdagdag? Disyembre 27, 2025 (Sabado) — magdagdag? Disyembre 26, 2025 (Byernes) — magdagdag? Disyembre 25, 2025 (Huwebes) — magdagdag? Disyembre 24, 2025 (Myerkules) — magdagdag? Disyembre 23, 2025 (Martes) — magdagdag? Disyembre 22, 2025 (Lunes) — magdagdag? Disyembre 21, 2025 (Domingo) — magdagdag? Disyembre 20, 2025 (Sabado) — magdagdag? Disyembre 19, 2025 (Byernes) — magdagdag? Disyembre 18, 2025 (Huwebes) — magdagdag? Disyembre 17, 2025 (Myerkules) — magdagdag? << Enero 2026 >> Do Lu Ma My Hu By Sa 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Iba pan panyayari sa bulan nin Desyembre 12... liwaton Wikinews Pwedeng bisitahon man an Wikinews tangarig bumasa asin magsurat nin mga artikulong pambareta. .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .mw-body-content .navbar ul{line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar.mini li abbr[title]{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .body.skin-minerva navbar.mini li span{font-variant:small-caps}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em;width:6em}.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child:after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child:after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child:after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child:before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child:before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child:before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child:before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child:before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child:before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child:before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child:before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child:before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child:after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child:after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child:after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child:after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child:after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child:after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child:after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child:after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child:after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li:before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child:before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child:before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child:before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} h o l Lista nin mga panyayari lambang bulan 2009 : Enero · Pebrero · Marso · Abril · Mayo · Hunyo · Hulyo · Agosto · Septyembre · Oktobre · Nobyembre · Desyembre 2008 : Enero · Pebrero · Marso · Abril · Mayo · Hunyo · Hulyo · Agosto · Septyembre · Oktobre · Nobyembre · Desyembre 2007 : Enero · Pebrero · Marso · Abril · Mayo · Hunyo · Hulyo · Agosto · Septyembre · Oktobre · Nobyembre · Desyembre 2006 : Enero · Pebrero · Marso · Abril · Mayo · Hunyo · Hulyo · Agosto · Septyembre · Oktobre · Nobyembre · Desyembre 2005 : Enero · Pebrero · Marso · Abril · Mayo · Hunyo · Hulyo · Agosto · Septyembre · Oktobre · Nobyembre · Desyembre 2004 : Enero · Pebrero · Marso · Abril · Mayo · Hunyo · Hulyo · Agosto · Septyembre · Oktobre · Nobyembre · Desyembre 2003 : Enero · Pebrero · Marso · Abril · Mayo · Hunyo · Hulyo · Agosto · Septyembre · Oktobre · Nobyembre · Desyembre 2002 : Enero · Pebrero · Marso · Abril · Mayo · Hunyo · Hulyo · Agosto · Septyembre · Oktobre · Nobyembre · Desyembre 2001 : Enero · Pebrero · Marso · Abril · Mayo · Hunyo · Hulyo · Agosto · Septyembre · Oktobre · Nobyembre · Desyembre 2000 : Enero · Pebrero · Marso · Abril · Mayo · Hunyo · Hulyo · Agosto · Septyembre · Oktobre · Nobyembre · Desyembre Baol Ini an mga pangyayari sa ngonyan na mahihiling sa Pangenot na Pahina komo parte kan Mga panyayari sa ngonyan . Panyayari Sarisáring mga websityo an nabáli sa mga protesta laban sa U.S. bill na SOPA asín PIPA. Napili si Secretaryo Gilberto Teodoro na magin pamato kan Lakas-Kampi-CMD sa paaboton na pirilian sa 2010 . Nagadan si Eraño Manalo , an ehikutibong ministro kan Iglesia Ni Kristo sa edad na 84 kan Agosto 31 . Si Stefania Fernandez (yaon sa ritrato) kan Benesuela an pigkoronahan bilang Miss Universe 2009 sa An Bahamas . Senador Noynoy Aquino ipigtutulod kan mga kapartido na magin kandidato para pagka- Bise Presidente ni senador Mar Roxas . Senador Panfilo Lacson bukas sa ideyang magdalagan na Bise Presidente sa Mayo 2010 . Dating presidente kan Sur na Korea na si Kim Dae-jung nagadan sa edad na 85 pagkatapos nin halawig na paglaban sa helang na pulmonya. Mga detalye asin iba pan mga panyayari sa ngonyan... Sarisáring mga websityo an nabáli sa mga protesta laban sa U.S. bill na SOPA asín PIPA. Napili si Secretaryo Gilberto Teodoro na magin pamato kan Lakas-Kampi-CMD sa paaboton na pirilian sa 2010 . Nagadan si Eraño Manalo , an ehikutibong ministro kan Iglesia Ni Kristo sa edad na 84 kan Agosto 31 . Si Stefania Fernandez (yaon sa ritrato) kan Benesuela an pigkoronahan bilang Miss Universe 2009 sa An Bahamas . Senador Noynoy Aquino ipigtutulod kan mga kapartido na magin kandidato para pagka- Bise Presidente ni senador Mar Roxas . Senador Panfilo Lacson bukas sa ideyang magdalagan na Bise Presidente sa Mayo 2010 . Dating presidente kan Sur na Korea na si Kim Dae-jung nagadan sa edad na 85 pagkatapos nin halawig na paglaban sa helang na pulmonya. Mga detalye asin iba pan mga panyayari sa ngonyan... Magdagdag nin bareta para sa aldaw nin Byernes, ika-16 nin Enero, 2026 • Basahon asin aramon an mga kaipuhan na sundon sa pagkaag nin mga bàgong bareta (Tagalog) Enero 16, 2026 (Byernes) — magdagdag? Enero 15, 2026 (Huwebes) — magdagdag? Enero 14, 2026 (Myerkules) — magdagdag? Enero 13, 2026 (Martes) — magdagdag? Enero 12, 2026 (Lunes) — magdagdag? Enero 11, 2026 (Domingo) — magdagdag? Enero 10, 2026 (Sabado) — magdagdag? Enero 9, 2026 (Byernes) — magdagdag? Enero 8, 2026 (Huwebes) — magdagdag? Enero 7, 2026 (Myerkules) — magdagdag? Enero 6, 2026 (Martes) — magdagdag? Enero 5, 2026 (Lunes) — magdagdag? Enero 4, 2026 (Domingo) — magdagdag? Enero 3, 2026 (Sabado) — magdagdag? Enero 2, 2026 (Byernes) — magdagdag? Enero 1, 2026 (Huwebes) — magdagdag? Disyembre 31, 2025 (Myerkules) — magdagdag? Disyembre 30, 2025 (Martes) — magdagdag? Disyembre 29, 2025 (Lunes) — magdagdag? Disyembre 28, 2025 (Domingo) — magdagdag? Disyembre 27, 2025 (Sabado) — magdagdag? Disyembre 26, 2025 (Byernes) — magdagdag? Disyembre 25, 2025 (Huwebes) — magdagdag? Disyembre 24, 2025 (Myerkules) — magdagdag? Disyembre 23, 2025 (Martes) — magdagdag? Disyembre 22, 2025 (Lunes) — magdagdag? Disyembre 21, 2025 (Domingo) — magdagdag? Disyembre 20, 2025 (Sabado) — magdagdag? Disyembre 19, 2025 (Byernes) — magdagdag? Disyembre 18, 2025 (Huwebes) — magdagdag? Disyembre 17, 2025 (Myerkules) — magdagdag? Enero 16, 2026 (Byernes) — magdagdag? Enero 15, 2026 (Huwebes) — magdagdag? Enero 14, 2026 (Myerkules) — magdagdag? Enero 13, 2026 (Martes) — magdagdag? Enero 12, 2026 (Lunes) — magdagdag? Enero 11, 2026 (Domingo) — magdagdag? Enero 10, 2026 (Sabado) — magdagdag? Enero 9, 2026 (Byernes) — magdagdag? Enero 8, 2026 (Huwebes) — magdagdag? Enero 7, 2026 (Myerkules) — magdagdag? Enero 6, 2026 (Martes) — magdagdag? Enero 5, 2026 (Lunes) — magdagdag? Enero 4, 2026 (Domingo) — magdagdag? Enero 3, 2026 (Sabado) — magdagdag? Enero 2, 2026 (Byernes) — magdagdag? Enero 1, 2026 (Huwebes) — magdagdag? Disyembre 31, 2025 (Myerkules) — magdagdag? Disyembre 30, 2025 (Martes) — magdagdag? Disyembre 29, 2025 (Lunes) — magdagdag? Disyembre 28, 2025 (Domingo) — magdagdag? Disyembre 27, 2025 (Sabado) — magdagdag? Disyembre 26, 2025 (Byernes) — magdagdag? Disyembre 25, 2025 (Huwebes) — magdagdag? Disyembre 24, 2025 (Myerkules) — magdagdag? Disyembre 23, 2025 (Martes) — magdagdag? Disyembre 22, 2025 (Lunes) — magdagdag? Disyembre 21, 2025 (Domingo) — magdagdag? Disyembre 20, 2025 (Sabado) — magdagdag? Disyembre 19, 2025 (Byernes) — magdagdag? Disyembre 18, 2025 (Huwebes) — magdagdag? Disyembre 17, 2025 (Myerkules) — magdagdag? << Enero 2026 >> Do Lu Ma My Hu By Sa 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Iba pan panyayari sa bulan nin Desyembre 12... liwaton Wikinews Pwedeng bisitahon man an Wikinews tangarig bumasa asin magsurat nin mga artikulong pambareta. << Enero 2026 >> Do Lu Ma My Hu By Sa 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Iba pan panyayari sa bulan nin Desyembre 12... liwaton Wikinews Pwedeng bisitahon man an Wikinews tangarig bumasa asin magsurat nin mga artikulong pambareta. Pwedeng bisitahon man an Wikinews tangarig bumasa asin magsurat nin mga artikulong pambareta. .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .mw-body-content .navbar ul{line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar.mini li abbr[title]{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .body.skin-minerva navbar.mini li span{font-variant:small-caps}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em;width:6em}.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child:after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child:after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child:after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child:before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child:before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child:before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child:before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child:before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child:before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child:before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child:before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child:before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child:after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child:after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child:after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child:after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child:after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child:after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child:after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child:after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child:after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li:before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child:before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child:before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child:before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} h o l Lista nin mga panyayari lambang bulan h o l 2009 : Enero · Pebrero · Marso · Abril · Mayo · Hunyo · Hulyo · Agosto · Septyembre · Oktobre · Nobyembre · Desyembre 2008 : Enero · Pebrero · Marso · Abril · Mayo · Hunyo · Hulyo · Agosto · Septyembre · Oktobre · Nobyembre · Desyembre 2007 : Enero · Pebrero · Marso · Abril · Mayo · Hunyo · Hulyo · Agosto · Septyembre · Oktobre · Nobyembre · Desyembre 2006 : Enero · Pebrero · Marso · Abril · Mayo · Hunyo · Hulyo · Agosto · Septyembre · Oktobre · Nobyembre · Desyembre 2005 : Enero · Pebrero · Marso · Abril · Mayo · Hunyo · Hulyo · Agosto · Septyembre · Oktobre · Nobyembre · Desyembre 2004 : Enero · Pebrero · Marso · Abril · Mayo · Hunyo · Hulyo · Agosto · Septyembre · Oktobre · Nobyembre · Desyembre 2003 : Enero · Pebrero · Marso · Abril · Mayo · Hunyo · Hulyo · Agosto · Septyembre · Oktobre · Nobyembre · Desyembre 2002 : Enero · Pebrero · Marso · Abril · Mayo · Hunyo · Hulyo · Agosto · Septyembre · Oktobre · Nobyembre · Desyembre 2001 : Enero · Pebrero · Marso · Abril · Mayo · Hunyo · Hulyo · Agosto · Septyembre · Oktobre · Nobyembre · Desyembre 2000 : Enero · Pebrero · Marso · Abril · Mayo · Hunyo · Hulyo · Agosto · Septyembre · Oktobre · Nobyembre · Desyembre Baol Mga panyayari sa ngonyan Huring binago an pahinang ini kaitong 5 Enero 2021, alas 11:07. 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We gratefully acknowledge support from the Simons Foundation, member institutions , and all contributors. Donate Help | Advanced Search Showing 1–50 of 117 results for author: Raza, A Show abstracts Hide abstracts 1 2 3 arXiv:2601.10413 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.CR LADFA: A Framework of Using Large Language Models and Retrieval-Augmented Generation for Personal Data Flow Analysis in Privacy Policies Authors: Haiyue Yuan , Nikolay Matyunin , Ali Raza , Shujun Li Abstract : Privacy policies help inform people about organisations' personal data processing practices, covering different aspects such as data collection, data storage, and sharing of personal data with third parties. Privacy policies are often difficult for people to fully comprehend due to the lengthy and complex legal language used and inconsistent practices across different sectors and organisations. To… ▽ More Privacy policies help inform people about organisations' personal data processing practices, covering different aspects such as data collection, data storage, and sharing of personal data with third parties. Privacy policies are often difficult for people to fully comprehend due to the lengthy and complex legal language used and inconsistent practices across different sectors and organisations. To help conduct automated and large-scale analyses of privacy policies, many researchers have studied applications of machine learning and natural language processing techniques, including large language models (LLMs). While a limited number of prior studies utilised LLMs for extracting personal data flows from privacy policies, our approach builds on this line of work by combining LLMs with retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) and a customised knowledge base derived from existing studies. This paper presents the development of LADFA, an end-to-end computational framework, which can process unstructured text in a given privacy policy, extract personal data flows and construct a personal data flow graph, and conduct analysis of the data flow graph to facilitate insight discovery. The framework consists of a pre-processor, an LLM-based processor, and a data flow post-processor. We demonstrated and validated the effectiveness and accuracy of the proposed approach by conducting a case study that involved examining ten selected privacy policies from the automotive industry. Moreover, it is worth noting that LADFA is designed to be flexible and customisable, making it suitable for a range of text-based analysis tasks beyond privacy policy analysis. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10413 [ pdf , ps , other ] LADFA: A Framework of Using Large Language Models and Retrieval-Augmented Generation for Personal Data Flow Analysis in Privacy Policies Authors: Haiyue Yuan , Nikolay Matyunin , Ali Raza , Shujun Li Abstract : Privacy policies help inform people about organisations' personal data processing practices, covering different aspects such as data collection, data storage, and sharing of personal data with third parties. Privacy policies are often difficult for people to fully comprehend due to the lengthy and complex legal language used and inconsistent practices across different sectors and organisations. To… ▽ More Privacy policies help inform people about organisations' personal data processing practices, covering different aspects such as data collection, data storage, and sharing of personal data with third parties. Privacy policies are often difficult for people to fully comprehend due to the lengthy and complex legal language used and inconsistent practices across different sectors and organisations. To help conduct automated and large-scale analyses of privacy policies, many researchers have studied applications of machine learning and natural language processing techniques, including large language models (LLMs). While a limited number of prior studies utilised LLMs for extracting personal data flows from privacy policies, our approach builds on this line of work by combining LLMs with retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) and a customised knowledge base derived from existing studies. This paper presents the development of LADFA, an end-to-end computational framework, which can process unstructured text in a given privacy policy, extract personal data flows and construct a personal data flow graph, and conduct analysis of the data flow graph to facilitate insight discovery. The framework consists of a pre-processor, an LLM-based processor, and a data flow post-processor. We demonstrated and validated the effectiveness and accuracy of the proposed approach by conducting a case study that involved examining ten selected privacy policies from the automotive industry. Moreover, it is worth noting that LADFA is designed to be flexible and customisable, making it suitable for a range of text-based analysis tasks beyond privacy policy analysis. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09696 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL Empathy Applicability Modeling for General Health Queries Authors: Shan Randhawa , Agha Ali Raza , Kentaro Toyama , Julie Hui , Mustafa Naseem Abstract : LLMs are increasingly being integrated into clinical workflows, yet they often lack clinical empathy, an essential aspect of effective doctor-patient communication. Existing NLP frameworks focus on reactively labeling empathy in doctors' responses but offer limited support for anticipatory modeling of empathy needs, especially in general health queries. We introduce the Empathy Applicability Frame… ▽ More LLMs are increasingly being integrated into clinical workflows, yet they often lack clinical empathy, an essential aspect of effective doctor-patient communication. Existing NLP frameworks focus on reactively labeling empathy in doctors' responses but offer limited support for anticipatory modeling of empathy needs, especially in general health queries. We introduce the Empathy Applicability Framework (EAF), a theory-driven approach that classifies patient queries in terms of the applicability of emotional reactions and interpretations, based on clinical, contextual, and linguistic cues. We release a benchmark of real patient queries, dual-annotated by Humans and GPT-4o. In the subset with human consensus, we also observe substantial human-GPT alignment. To validate EAF, we train classifiers on human-labeled and GPT-only annotations to predict empathy applicability, achieving strong performance and outperforming the heuristic and zero-shot LLM baselines. Error analysis highlights persistent challenges: implicit distress, clinical-severity ambiguity, and contextual hardship, underscoring the need for multi-annotator modeling, clinician-in-the-loop calibration, and culturally diverse annotation. EAF provides a framework for identifying empathy needs before response generation, establishes a benchmark for anticipatory empathy modeling, and enables supporting empathetic communication in asynchronous healthcare. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: In Submission to ACL arXiv:2601.09696 [ pdf , ps , other ] Empathy Applicability Modeling for General Health Queries Authors: Shan Randhawa , Agha Ali Raza , Kentaro Toyama , Julie Hui , Mustafa Naseem Abstract : LLMs are increasingly being integrated into clinical workflows, yet they often lack clinical empathy, an essential aspect of effective doctor-patient communication. Existing NLP frameworks focus on reactively labeling empathy in doctors' responses but offer limited support for anticipatory modeling of empathy needs, especially in general health queries. We introduce the Empathy Applicability Frame… ▽ More LLMs are increasingly being integrated into clinical workflows, yet they often lack clinical empathy, an essential aspect of effective doctor-patient communication. Existing NLP frameworks focus on reactively labeling empathy in doctors' responses but offer limited support for anticipatory modeling of empathy needs, especially in general health queries. We introduce the Empathy Applicability Framework (EAF), a theory-driven approach that classifies patient queries in terms of the applicability of emotional reactions and interpretations, based on clinical, contextual, and linguistic cues. We release a benchmark of real patient queries, dual-annotated by Humans and GPT-4o. In the subset with human consensus, we also observe substantial human-GPT alignment. To validate EAF, we train classifiers on human-labeled and GPT-only annotations to predict empathy applicability, achieving strong performance and outperforming the heuristic and zero-shot LLM baselines. Error analysis highlights persistent challenges: implicit distress, clinical-severity ambiguity, and contextual hardship, underscoring the need for multi-annotator modeling, clinician-in-the-loop calibration, and culturally diverse annotation. EAF provides a framework for identifying empathy needs before response generation, establishes a benchmark for anticipatory empathy modeling, and enables supporting empathetic communication in asynchronous healthcare. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: In Submission to ACL arXiv:2512.12224 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.SE cs.CR Cluster-guided LLM-Based Anonymization of Software Analytics Data: Studying Privacy-Utility Trade-offs in JIT Defect Prediction Authors: Maaz Khan , Gul Sher Khan , Ahsan Raza , Pir Sami Ullah , Abdul Ali Bangash Abstract : The increasing use of machine learning (ML) for Just-In-Time (JIT) defect prediction raises concerns about privacy leakage from software analytics data. Existing anonymization methods, such as tabular transformations and graph perturbations, often overlook contextual dependencies among software metrics, leading to suboptimal privacy-utility tradeoffs. Leveraging the contextual reasoning of Large L… ▽ More The increasing use of machine learning (ML) for Just-In-Time (JIT) defect prediction raises concerns about privacy leakage from software analytics data. Existing anonymization methods, such as tabular transformations and graph perturbations, often overlook contextual dependencies among software metrics, leading to suboptimal privacy-utility tradeoffs. Leveraging the contextual reasoning of Large Language Models (LLMs), we propose a cluster-guided anonymization technique that preserves contextual and statistical relationships within JIT datasets. Our method groups commits into feature-based clusters and employs an LLM to generate context-aware parameter configurations for each commit cluster, defining alpha-beta ratios and churn mixture distributions used for anonymization. Our evaluation on six projects (Cassandra, Flink, Groovy, Ignite, OpenStack, and Qt) shows that our LLM-based approach achieves privacy level 2 (IPR >= 80 percent), improving privacy by 18 to 25 percent over four state-of-the-art graph-based anonymization baselines while maintaining comparable F1 scores. Our results demonstrate that LLMs can act as adaptive anonymization engines when provided with cluster-specific statistical information about similar data points, enabling context-sensitive and privacy-preserving software analytics without compromising predictive accuracy. △ Less Submitted 13 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.12224 [ pdf , ps , other ] Cluster-guided LLM-Based Anonymization of Software Analytics Data: Studying Privacy-Utility Trade-offs in JIT Defect Prediction Authors: Maaz Khan , Gul Sher Khan , Ahsan Raza , Pir Sami Ullah , Abdul Ali Bangash Abstract : The increasing use of machine learning (ML) for Just-In-Time (JIT) defect prediction raises concerns about privacy leakage from software analytics data. Existing anonymization methods, such as tabular transformations and graph perturbations, often overlook contextual dependencies among software metrics, leading to suboptimal privacy-utility tradeoffs. Leveraging the contextual reasoning of Large L… ▽ More The increasing use of machine learning (ML) for Just-In-Time (JIT) defect prediction raises concerns about privacy leakage from software analytics data. Existing anonymization methods, such as tabular transformations and graph perturbations, often overlook contextual dependencies among software metrics, leading to suboptimal privacy-utility tradeoffs. Leveraging the contextual reasoning of Large Language Models (LLMs), we propose a cluster-guided anonymization technique that preserves contextual and statistical relationships within JIT datasets. Our method groups commits into feature-based clusters and employs an LLM to generate context-aware parameter configurations for each commit cluster, defining alpha-beta ratios and churn mixture distributions used for anonymization. Our evaluation on six projects (Cassandra, Flink, Groovy, Ignite, OpenStack, and Qt) shows that our LLM-based approach achieves privacy level 2 (IPR >= 80 percent), improving privacy by 18 to 25 percent over four state-of-the-art graph-based anonymization baselines while maintaining comparable F1 scores. Our results demonstrate that LLMs can act as adaptive anonymization engines when provided with cluster-specific statistical information about similar data points, enabling context-sensitive and privacy-preserving software analytics without compromising predictive accuracy. △ Less Submitted 13 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2511.03826 [ pdf , ps , other ] q-bio.QM cs.AI CORE -- A Cell-Level Coarse-to-Fine Image Registration Engine for Multi-stain Image Alignment Authors: Esha Sadia Nasir , Behnaz Elhaminia , Mark Eastwood , Catherine King , Owen Cain , Lorraine Harper , Paul Moss , Dimitrios Chanouzas , David Snead , Nasir Rajpoot , Adam Shephard , Shan E Ahmed Raza Abstract : Accurate and efficient registration of whole slide images (WSIs) is essential for high-resolution, nuclei-level analysis in multi-stained tissue slides. We propose a novel coarse-to-fine framework CORE for accurate nuclei-level registration across diverse multimodal whole-slide image (WSI) datasets. The coarse registration stage leverages prompt-based tissue mask extraction to effectively filter o… ▽ More Accurate and efficient registration of whole slide images (WSIs) is essential for high-resolution, nuclei-level analysis in multi-stained tissue slides. We propose a novel coarse-to-fine framework CORE for accurate nuclei-level registration across diverse multimodal whole-slide image (WSI) datasets. The coarse registration stage leverages prompt-based tissue mask extraction to effectively filter out artefacts and non-tissue regions, followed by global alignment using tissue morphology and ac- celerated dense feature matching with a pre-trained feature extractor. From the coarsely aligned slides, nuclei centroids are detected and subjected to fine-grained rigid registration using a custom, shape-aware point-set registration model. Finally, non-rigid alignment at the cellular level is achieved by estimating a non-linear dis- placement field using Coherent Point Drift (CPD). Our approach benefits from automatically generated nuclei that enhance the accuracy of deformable registra- tion and ensure precise nuclei-level correspondence across modalities. The pro- posed model is evaluated on three publicly available WSI registration datasets, and two private datasets. We show that CORE outperforms current state-of-the-art methods in terms of generalisability, precision, and robustness in bright-field and immunofluorescence microscopy WSIs △ Less Submitted 25 November, 2025; v1 submitted 5 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.03826 [ pdf , ps , other ] CORE -- A Cell-Level Coarse-to-Fine Image Registration Engine for Multi-stain Image Alignment Authors: Esha Sadia Nasir , Behnaz Elhaminia , Mark Eastwood , Catherine King , Owen Cain , Lorraine Harper , Paul Moss , Dimitrios Chanouzas , David Snead , Nasir Rajpoot , Adam Shephard , Shan E Ahmed Raza Abstract : Accurate and efficient registration of whole slide images (WSIs) is essential for high-resolution, nuclei-level analysis in multi-stained tissue slides. We propose a novel coarse-to-fine framework CORE for accurate nuclei-level registration across diverse multimodal whole-slide image (WSI) datasets. The coarse registration stage leverages prompt-based tissue mask extraction to effectively filter o… ▽ More Accurate and efficient registration of whole slide images (WSIs) is essential for high-resolution, nuclei-level analysis in multi-stained tissue slides. We propose a novel coarse-to-fine framework CORE for accurate nuclei-level registration across diverse multimodal whole-slide image (WSI) datasets. The coarse registration stage leverages prompt-based tissue mask extraction to effectively filter out artefacts and non-tissue regions, followed by global alignment using tissue morphology and ac- celerated dense feature matching with a pre-trained feature extractor. From the coarsely aligned slides, nuclei centroids are detected and subjected to fine-grained rigid registration using a custom, shape-aware point-set registration model. Finally, non-rigid alignment at the cellular level is achieved by estimating a non-linear dis- placement field using Coherent Point Drift (CPD). Our approach benefits from automatically generated nuclei that enhance the accuracy of deformable registra- tion and ensure precise nuclei-level correspondence across modalities. The pro- posed model is evaluated on three publicly available WSI registration datasets, and two private datasets. We show that CORE outperforms current state-of-the-art methods in terms of generalisability, precision, and robustness in bright-field and immunofluorescence microscopy WSIs △ Less Submitted 25 November, 2025; v1 submitted 5 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2509.20472 [ pdf , ps , other ] quant-ph cs.CC cs.CR cs.IT Computational Relative Entropy Authors: Johannes Jakob Meyer , Asad Raza , Jacopo Rizzo , Lorenzo Leone , Sofiene Jerbi , Jens Eisert Abstract : Our capacity to process information depends on the computational power at our disposal. Information theory captures our ability to distinguish states or communicate messages when it is unconstrained with unrivaled elegance. For computationally bounded observers the situation is quite different. They can, for example, be fooled to believe that distributions are more random than they actually are. I… ▽ More Our capacity to process information depends on the computational power at our disposal. Information theory captures our ability to distinguish states or communicate messages when it is unconstrained with unrivaled elegance. For computationally bounded observers the situation is quite different. They can, for example, be fooled to believe that distributions are more random than they actually are. In our work, we go beyond the prevailing single-shot approach and take a new direction in computational quantum information theory that captures the essence of complexity-constrained information theory while retaining the look and feel of the unbounded asymptotic theory. As our foundational quantity, we define the computational relative entropy as the optimal error exponent in asymmetric hypothesis testing when restricted to polynomially many copies and quantum gates, defined in a mathematically rigorous way. Building on this foundation, we prove a computational analogue of Stein's lemma, establish computational versions of fundamental inequalities like Pinsker's bound, and demonstrate a computational smoothing property showing that computationally indistinguishable states yield equivalent information measures. We derive a computational entropy that operationally characterizes optimal compression rates for quantum states under computational limitations and show that our quantities apply to computational entanglement theory, proving a computational version of the Rains bound. Our framework reveals striking separations between computational and unbounded information measures, including quantum-classical gaps that arise from cryptographic assumptions, demonstrating that computational constraints fundamentally alter the information-theoretic landscape and open new research directions at the intersection of quantum information, complexity theory, and cryptography. △ Less Submitted 24 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: Feedback welcome arXiv:2509.20472 [ pdf , ps , other ] Computational Relative Entropy Authors: Johannes Jakob Meyer , Asad Raza , Jacopo Rizzo , Lorenzo Leone , Sofiene Jerbi , Jens Eisert Abstract : Our capacity to process information depends on the computational power at our disposal. Information theory captures our ability to distinguish states or communicate messages when it is unconstrained with unrivaled elegance. For computationally bounded observers the situation is quite different. They can, for example, be fooled to believe that distributions are more random than they actually are. I… ▽ More Our capacity to process information depends on the computational power at our disposal. Information theory captures our ability to distinguish states or communicate messages when it is unconstrained with unrivaled elegance. For computationally bounded observers the situation is quite different. They can, for example, be fooled to believe that distributions are more random than they actually are. In our work, we go beyond the prevailing single-shot approach and take a new direction in computational quantum information theory that captures the essence of complexity-constrained information theory while retaining the look and feel of the unbounded asymptotic theory. As our foundational quantity, we define the computational relative entropy as the optimal error exponent in asymmetric hypothesis testing when restricted to polynomially many copies and quantum gates, defined in a mathematically rigorous way. Building on this foundation, we prove a computational analogue of Stein's lemma, establish computational versions of fundamental inequalities like Pinsker's bound, and demonstrate a computational smoothing property showing that computationally indistinguishable states yield equivalent information measures. We derive a computational entropy that operationally characterizes optimal compression rates for quantum states under computational limitations and show that our quantities apply to computational entanglement theory, proving a computational version of the Rains bound. Our framework reveals striking separations between computational and unbounded information measures, including quantum-classical gaps that arise from cryptographic assumptions, demonstrating that computational constraints fundamentally alter the information-theoretic landscape and open new research directions at the intersection of quantum information, complexity theory, and cryptography. △ Less Submitted 24 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: Feedback welcome arXiv:2509.08803 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.SI cs.AI cs.CL cs.CY Scaling Truth: The Confidence Paradox in AI Fact-Checking Authors: Ihsan A. Qazi , Zohaib Khan , Abdullah Ghani , Agha A. Raza , Zafar A. Qazi , Wassay Sajjad , Ayesha Ali , Asher Javaid , Muhammad Abdullah Sohail , Abdul H. Azeemi Abstract : The rise of misinformation underscores the need for scalable and reliable fact-checking solutions. Large language models (LLMs) hold promise in automating fact verification, yet their effectiveness across global contexts remains uncertain. We systematically evaluate nine established LLMs across multiple categories (open/closed-source, multiple sizes, diverse architectures, reasoning-based) using 5… ▽ More The rise of misinformation underscores the need for scalable and reliable fact-checking solutions. Large language models (LLMs) hold promise in automating fact verification, yet their effectiveness across global contexts remains uncertain. We systematically evaluate nine established LLMs across multiple categories (open/closed-source, multiple sizes, diverse architectures, reasoning-based) using 5,000 claims previously assessed by 174 professional fact-checking organizations across 47 languages. Our methodology tests model generalizability on claims postdating training cutoffs and four prompting strategies mirroring both citizen and professional fact-checker interactions, with over 240,000 human annotations as ground truth. Findings reveal a concerning pattern resembling the Dunning-Kruger effect: smaller, accessible models show high confidence despite lower accuracy, while larger models demonstrate higher accuracy but lower confidence. This risks systemic bias in information verification, as resource-constrained organizations typically use smaller models. Performance gaps are most pronounced for non-English languages and claims originating from the Global South, threatening to widen existing information inequalities. These results establish a multilingual benchmark for future research and provide an evidence base for policy aimed at ensuring equitable access to trustworthy, AI-assisted fact-checking. △ Less Submitted 10 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: 65 pages, 26 figures, 6 tables arXiv:2509.08803 [ pdf , ps , other ] Scaling Truth: The Confidence Paradox in AI Fact-Checking Authors: Ihsan A. Qazi , Zohaib Khan , Abdullah Ghani , Agha A. Raza , Zafar A. Qazi , Wassay Sajjad , Ayesha Ali , Asher Javaid , Muhammad Abdullah Sohail , Abdul H. Azeemi Abstract : The rise of misinformation underscores the need for scalable and reliable fact-checking solutions. Large language models (LLMs) hold promise in automating fact verification, yet their effectiveness across global contexts remains uncertain. We systematically evaluate nine established LLMs across multiple categories (open/closed-source, multiple sizes, diverse architectures, reasoning-based) using 5… ▽ More The rise of misinformation underscores the need for scalable and reliable fact-checking solutions. Large language models (LLMs) hold promise in automating fact verification, yet their effectiveness across global contexts remains uncertain. We systematically evaluate nine established LLMs across multiple categories (open/closed-source, multiple sizes, diverse architectures, reasoning-based) using 5,000 claims previously assessed by 174 professional fact-checking organizations across 47 languages. Our methodology tests model generalizability on claims postdating training cutoffs and four prompting strategies mirroring both citizen and professional fact-checker interactions, with over 240,000 human annotations as ground truth. Findings reveal a concerning pattern resembling the Dunning-Kruger effect: smaller, accessible models show high confidence despite lower accuracy, while larger models demonstrate higher accuracy but lower confidence. This risks systemic bias in information verification, as resource-constrained organizations typically use smaller models. Performance gaps are most pronounced for non-English languages and claims originating from the Global South, threatening to widen existing information inequalities. These results establish a multilingual benchmark for future research and provide an evidence base for policy aimed at ensuring equitable access to trustworthy, AI-assisted fact-checking. △ Less Submitted 10 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: 65 pages, 26 figures, 6 tables arXiv:2509.05037 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG ModalSurv: Investigating opportunities and limitations of multimodal deep survival learning in prostate and bladder cancer Authors: Noorul Wahab , Ethar Alzaid , Jiaqi Lv , Fayyaz Minhas , Adam Shephard , Shan E Ahmed Raza Abstract : Accurate survival prediction is essential for personalised cancer treatment. We propose ModalSurv, a multimodal deep survival framework integrating clinical, MRI, histopathology, and RNA-sequencing data via modality-specific projections and cross-attention fusion. On the CHIMERA Grand Challenge datasets, ModalSurv achieved a C-index of 0.7402 (1st) for prostate and 0.5740 (5th) for bladder cancer.… ▽ More Accurate survival prediction is essential for personalised cancer treatment. We propose ModalSurv, a multimodal deep survival framework integrating clinical, MRI, histopathology, and RNA-sequencing data via modality-specific projections and cross-attention fusion. On the CHIMERA Grand Challenge datasets, ModalSurv achieved a C-index of 0.7402 (1st) for prostate and 0.5740 (5th) for bladder cancer. Notably, clinical features alone outperformed multimodal models on external tests, highlighting challenges of limited multimodal alignment and potential overfitting. Local validation showed multimodal gains but limited generalisation. ModalSurv provides a systematic evaluation of multimodal survival modelling, underscoring both its promise and current limitations for scalable, generalisable cancer prognosis. △ Less Submitted 18 December, 2025; v1 submitted 5 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: 4 pages, 1 figure, 2 tables arXiv:2509.05037 [ pdf , ps , other ] ModalSurv: Investigating opportunities and limitations of multimodal deep survival learning in prostate and bladder cancer Authors: Noorul Wahab , Ethar Alzaid , Jiaqi Lv , Fayyaz Minhas , Adam Shephard , Shan E Ahmed Raza Abstract : Accurate survival prediction is essential for personalised cancer treatment. We propose ModalSurv, a multimodal deep survival framework integrating clinical, MRI, histopathology, and RNA-sequencing data via modality-specific projections and cross-attention fusion. On the CHIMERA Grand Challenge datasets, ModalSurv achieved a C-index of 0.7402 (1st) for prostate and 0.5740 (5th) for bladder cancer.… ▽ More Accurate survival prediction is essential for personalised cancer treatment. We propose ModalSurv, a multimodal deep survival framework integrating clinical, MRI, histopathology, and RNA-sequencing data via modality-specific projections and cross-attention fusion. On the CHIMERA Grand Challenge datasets, ModalSurv achieved a C-index of 0.7402 (1st) for prostate and 0.5740 (5th) for bladder cancer. Notably, clinical features alone outperformed multimodal models on external tests, highlighting challenges of limited multimodal alignment and potential overfitting. Local validation showed multimodal gains but limited generalisation. ModalSurv provides a systematic evaluation of multimodal survival modelling, underscoring both its promise and current limitations for scalable, generalisable cancer prognosis. △ Less Submitted 18 December, 2025; v1 submitted 5 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: 4 pages, 1 figure, 2 tables arXiv:2509.02586 [ pdf , ps , other ] eess.IV cs.AI cs.CV MitoDetect++: A Domain-Robust Pipeline for Mitosis Detection and Atypical Subtyping Authors: Esha Sadia Nasir , Jiaqi Lv , Mostafa Jahanifar , Shan E Ahmed Raza Abstract : Automated detection and classification of mitotic figures especially distinguishing atypical from normal remain critical challenges in computational pathology. We present MitoDetect++, a unified deep learning pipeline designed for the MIDOG 2025 challenge, addressing both mitosis detection and atypical mitosis classification. For detection (Track 1), we employ a U-Net-based encoder-decoder archite… ▽ More Automated detection and classification of mitotic figures especially distinguishing atypical from normal remain critical challenges in computational pathology. We present MitoDetect++, a unified deep learning pipeline designed for the MIDOG 2025 challenge, addressing both mitosis detection and atypical mitosis classification. For detection (Track 1), we employ a U-Net-based encoder-decoder architecture with EfficientNetV2-L as the backbone, enhanced with attention modules, and trained via combined segmentation losses. For classification (Track 2), we leverage the Virchow2 vision transformer, fine-tuned efficiently using Low-Rank Adaptation (LoRA) to minimize resource consumption. To improve generalization and mitigate domain shifts, we integrate strong augmentations, focal loss, and group-aware stratified 5-fold cross-validation. At inference, we deploy test-time augmentation (TTA) to boost robustness. Our method achieves a balanced accuracy of 0.892 across validation domains, highlighting its clinical applicability and scalability across tasks. △ Less Submitted 4 September, 2025; v1 submitted 28 August, 2025; originally announced September 2025. arXiv:2509.02586 [ pdf , ps , other ] MitoDetect++: A Domain-Robust Pipeline for Mitosis Detection and Atypical Subtyping Authors: Esha Sadia Nasir , Jiaqi Lv , Mostafa Jahanifar , Shan E Ahmed Raza Abstract : Automated detection and classification of mitotic figures especially distinguishing atypical from normal remain critical challenges in computational pathology. We present MitoDetect++, a unified deep learning pipeline designed for the MIDOG 2025 challenge, addressing both mitosis detection and atypical mitosis classification. For detection (Track 1), we employ a U-Net-based encoder-decoder archite… ▽ More Automated detection and classification of mitotic figures especially distinguishing atypical from normal remain critical challenges in computational pathology. We present MitoDetect++, a unified deep learning pipeline designed for the MIDOG 2025 challenge, addressing both mitosis detection and atypical mitosis classification. For detection (Track 1), we employ a U-Net-based encoder-decoder architecture with EfficientNetV2-L as the backbone, enhanced with attention modules, and trained via combined segmentation losses. For classification (Track 2), we leverage the Virchow2 vision transformer, fine-tuned efficiently using Low-Rank Adaptation (LoRA) to minimize resource consumption. To improve generalization and mitigate domain shifts, we integrate strong augmentations, focal loss, and group-aware stratified 5-fold cross-validation. At inference, we deploy test-time augmentation (TTA) to boost robustness. Our method achieves a balanced accuracy of 0.892 across validation domains, highlighting its clinical applicability and scalability across tasks. △ Less Submitted 4 September, 2025; v1 submitted 28 August, 2025; originally announced September 2025. arXiv:2508.10186 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI cs.CY cs.LG PakBBQ: A Culturally Adapted Bias Benchmark for QA Authors: Abdullah Hashmat , Muhammad Arham Mirza , Agha Ali Raza Abstract : With the widespread adoption of Large Language Models (LLMs) across various applications, it is empirical to ensure their fairness across all user communities. However, most LLMs are trained and evaluated on Western centric data, with little attention paid to low-resource languages and regional contexts. To address this gap, we introduce PakBBQ, a culturally and regionally adapted extension of the… ▽ More With the widespread adoption of Large Language Models (LLMs) across various applications, it is empirical to ensure their fairness across all user communities. However, most LLMs are trained and evaluated on Western centric data, with little attention paid to low-resource languages and regional contexts. To address this gap, we introduce PakBBQ, a culturally and regionally adapted extension of the original Bias Benchmark for Question Answering (BBQ) dataset. PakBBQ comprises over 214 templates, 17180 QA pairs across 8 categories in both English and Urdu, covering eight bias dimensions including age, disability, appearance, gender, socio-economic status, religious, regional affiliation, and language formality that are relevant in Pakistan. We evaluate multiple multilingual LLMs under both ambiguous and explicitly disambiguated contexts, as well as negative versus non negative question framings. Our experiments reveal (i) an average accuracy gain of 12\% with disambiguation, (ii) consistently stronger counter bias behaviors in Urdu than in English, and (iii) marked framing effects that reduce stereotypical responses when questions are posed negatively. These findings highlight the importance of contextualized benchmarks and simple prompt engineering strategies for bias mitigation in low resource settings. △ Less Submitted 28 September, 2025; v1 submitted 13 August, 2025; originally announced August 2025. Comments: 13 total pages, 7 figures, 2 tables, Accepted at Main Conference of EMNLP 2025 arXiv:2508.10186 [ pdf , ps , other ] PakBBQ: A Culturally Adapted Bias Benchmark for QA Authors: Abdullah Hashmat , Muhammad Arham Mirza , Agha Ali Raza Abstract : With the widespread adoption of Large Language Models (LLMs) across various applications, it is empirical to ensure their fairness across all user communities. However, most LLMs are trained and evaluated on Western centric data, with little attention paid to low-resource languages and regional contexts. To address this gap, we introduce PakBBQ, a culturally and regionally adapted extension of the… ▽ More With the widespread adoption of Large Language Models (LLMs) across various applications, it is empirical to ensure their fairness across all user communities. However, most LLMs are trained and evaluated on Western centric data, with little attention paid to low-resource languages and regional contexts. To address this gap, we introduce PakBBQ, a culturally and regionally adapted extension of the original Bias Benchmark for Question Answering (BBQ) dataset. PakBBQ comprises over 214 templates, 17180 QA pairs across 8 categories in both English and Urdu, covering eight bias dimensions including age, disability, appearance, gender, socio-economic status, religious, regional affiliation, and language formality that are relevant in Pakistan. We evaluate multiple multilingual LLMs under both ambiguous and explicitly disambiguated contexts, as well as negative versus non negative question framings. Our experiments reveal (i) an average accuracy gain of 12\% with disambiguation, (ii) consistently stronger counter bias behaviors in Urdu than in English, and (iii) marked framing effects that reduce stereotypical responses when questions are posed negatively. These findings highlight the importance of contextualized benchmarks and simple prompt engineering strategies for bias mitigation in low resource settings. △ Less Submitted 28 September, 2025; v1 submitted 13 August, 2025; originally announced August 2025. Comments: 13 total pages, 7 figures, 2 tables, Accepted at Main Conference of EMNLP 2025 arXiv:2508.05130 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.NI eess.SP TeraRIS NOMA-MIMO Communications for 6G and Beyond Industrial Networks Authors: Ali Raza , Muhammad Farhan Khan , Zeeshan Alam , Muhammad Saad , Ilyas Saleem , Muhammad Ahmed Mohsin , Muhammad Ali Jamshed Abstract : This paper presents a joint framework that integrates reconfigurable intelligent surfaces (RISs) with Terahertz (THz) communications and non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA) to enhance smart industrial communications. The proposed system leverages the advantages of RIS and THz bands to improve spectral efficiency, coverage, and reliability key requirements for industrial automation and real-time… ▽ More This paper presents a joint framework that integrates reconfigurable intelligent surfaces (RISs) with Terahertz (THz) communications and non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA) to enhance smart industrial communications. The proposed system leverages the advantages of RIS and THz bands to improve spectral efficiency, coverage, and reliability key requirements for industrial automation and real-time communications in future 6G networks and beyond. Within this framework, two power allocation strategies are investigated: the first optimally distributes power between near and far industrial nodes, and the second prioritizes network demands to enhance system performance further. A performance evaluation is conducted to compare the sum rate and outage probability against a fixed power allocation scheme. Our scheme achieves up to a 23% sum rate gain over fixed PA at 30 dBm. Simulation results validate the theoretical analysis, demonstrating the effectiveness and robustness of the RIS-assisted NOMA MIMO framework for THz enabled industrial communications. △ Less Submitted 7 August, 2025; originally announced August 2025. Comments: Accepted at PIMRC arXiv:2508.05130 [ pdf , ps , other ] TeraRIS NOMA-MIMO Communications for 6G and Beyond Industrial Networks Authors: Ali Raza , Muhammad Farhan Khan , Zeeshan Alam , Muhammad Saad , Ilyas Saleem , Muhammad Ahmed Mohsin , Muhammad Ali Jamshed Abstract : This paper presents a joint framework that integrates reconfigurable intelligent surfaces (RISs) with Terahertz (THz) communications and non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA) to enhance smart industrial communications. The proposed system leverages the advantages of RIS and THz bands to improve spectral efficiency, coverage, and reliability key requirements for industrial automation and real-time… ▽ More This paper presents a joint framework that integrates reconfigurable intelligent surfaces (RISs) with Terahertz (THz) communications and non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA) to enhance smart industrial communications. The proposed system leverages the advantages of RIS and THz bands to improve spectral efficiency, coverage, and reliability key requirements for industrial automation and real-time communications in future 6G networks and beyond. Within this framework, two power allocation strategies are investigated: the first optimally distributes power between near and far industrial nodes, and the second prioritizes network demands to enhance system performance further. A performance evaluation is conducted to compare the sum rate and outage probability against a fixed power allocation scheme. Our scheme achieves up to a 23% sum rate gain over fixed PA at 30 dBm. Simulation results validate the theoretical analysis, demonstrating the effectiveness and robustness of the RIS-assisted NOMA MIMO framework for THz enabled industrial communications. △ Less Submitted 7 August, 2025; originally announced August 2025. Comments: Accepted at PIMRC arXiv:2508.01752 [ pdf ] cs.CV cs.AI Vision transformer-based multi-camera multi-object tracking framework for dairy cow monitoring Authors: Kumail Abbas , Zeeshan Afzal , Aqeel Raza , Taha Mansouri , Andrew W. Dowsey , Chaidate Inchaisri , Ali Alameer Abstract : Activity and behaviour correlate with dairy cow health and welfare, making continual and accurate monitoring crucial for disease identification and farm productivity. Manual observation and frequent assessments are laborious and inconsistent for activity monitoring. In this study, we developed a unique multi-camera, real-time tracking system for indoor-housed Holstein Friesian dairy cows. This tec… ▽ More Activity and behaviour correlate with dairy cow health and welfare, making continual and accurate monitoring crucial for disease identification and farm productivity. Manual observation and frequent assessments are laborious and inconsistent for activity monitoring. In this study, we developed a unique multi-camera, real-time tracking system for indoor-housed Holstein Friesian dairy cows. This technology uses cutting-edge computer vision techniques, including instance segmentation and tracking algorithms to monitor cow activity seamlessly and accurately. An integrated top-down barn panorama was created by geometrically aligning six camera feeds using homographic transformations. The detection phase used a refined YOLO11-m model trained on an overhead cow dataset, obtaining high accuracy (mAP\@0.50 = 0.97, F1 = 0.95). SAMURAI, an upgraded Segment Anything Model 2.1, generated pixel-precise cow masks for instance segmentation utilizing zero-shot learning and motion-aware memory. Even with occlusion and fluctuating posture, a motion-aware Linear Kalman filter and IoU-based data association reliably identified cows over time for object tracking. The proposed system significantly outperformed Deep SORT Realtime. Multi-Object Tracking Accuracy (MOTA) was 98.7% and 99.3% in two benchmark video sequences, with IDF1 scores above 99% and near-zero identity switches. This unified multi-camera system can track dairy cows in complex interior surroundings in real time, according to our data. The system reduces redundant detections across overlapping cameras, maintains continuity as cows move between viewpoints, with the aim of improving early sickness prediction through activity quantification and behavioural classification. △ Less Submitted 3 August, 2025; originally announced August 2025. Comments: Submitted in Smart Agriculture Technology MSC Class: 68T01 - Artificial Intelligence ACM Class: I.2.1 arXiv:2508.01752 [ pdf ] Vision transformer-based multi-camera multi-object tracking framework for dairy cow monitoring Authors: Kumail Abbas , Zeeshan Afzal , Aqeel Raza , Taha Mansouri , Andrew W. Dowsey , Chaidate Inchaisri , Ali Alameer Abstract : Activity and behaviour correlate with dairy cow health and welfare, making continual and accurate monitoring crucial for disease identification and farm productivity. Manual observation and frequent assessments are laborious and inconsistent for activity monitoring. In this study, we developed a unique multi-camera, real-time tracking system for indoor-housed Holstein Friesian dairy cows. This tec… ▽ More Activity and behaviour correlate with dairy cow health and welfare, making continual and accurate monitoring crucial for disease identification and farm productivity. Manual observation and frequent assessments are laborious and inconsistent for activity monitoring. In this study, we developed a unique multi-camera, real-time tracking system for indoor-housed Holstein Friesian dairy cows. This technology uses cutting-edge computer vision techniques, including instance segmentation and tracking algorithms to monitor cow activity seamlessly and accurately. An integrated top-down barn panorama was created by geometrically aligning six camera feeds using homographic transformations. The detection phase used a refined YOLO11-m model trained on an overhead cow dataset, obtaining high accuracy (mAP\@0.50 = 0.97, F1 = 0.95). SAMURAI, an upgraded Segment Anything Model 2.1, generated pixel-precise cow masks for instance segmentation utilizing zero-shot learning and motion-aware memory. Even with occlusion and fluctuating posture, a motion-aware Linear Kalman filter and IoU-based data association reliably identified cows over time for object tracking. The proposed system significantly outperformed Deep SORT Realtime. Multi-Object Tracking Accuracy (MOTA) was 98.7% and 99.3% in two benchmark video sequences, with IDF1 scores above 99% and near-zero identity switches. This unified multi-camera system can track dairy cows in complex interior surroundings in real time, according to our data. The system reduces redundant detections across overlapping cameras, maintains continuity as cows move between viewpoints, with the aim of improving early sickness prediction through activity quantification and behavioural classification. △ Less Submitted 3 August, 2025; originally announced August 2025. Comments: Submitted in Smart Agriculture Technology MSC Class: 68T01 - Artificial Intelligence ACM Class: I.2.1 arXiv:2507.13974 [ pdf , ps , other ] eess.IV cs.CV q-bio.QM Leveraging Pathology Foundation Models for Panoptic Segmentation of Melanoma in H&E Images Authors: Jiaqi Lv , Yijie Zhu , Carmen Guadalupe Colin Tenorio , Brinder Singh Chohan , Mark Eastwood , Shan E Ahmed Raza Abstract : Melanoma is an aggressive form of skin cancer with rapid progression and high metastatic potential. Accurate characterisation of tissue morphology in melanoma is crucial for prognosis and treatment planning. However, manual segmentation of tissue regions from haematoxylin and eosin (H&E) stained whole-slide images (WSIs) is labour-intensive and prone to inter-observer variability, this motivates t… ▽ More Melanoma is an aggressive form of skin cancer with rapid progression and high metastatic potential. Accurate characterisation of tissue morphology in melanoma is crucial for prognosis and treatment planning. However, manual segmentation of tissue regions from haematoxylin and eosin (H&E) stained whole-slide images (WSIs) is labour-intensive and prone to inter-observer variability, this motivates the need for reliable automated tissue segmentation methods. In this study, we propose a novel deep learning network for the segmentation of five tissue classes in melanoma H&E images. Our approach leverages Virchow2, a pathology foundation model trained on 3.1 million histopathology images as a feature extractor. These features are fused with the original RGB images and subsequently processed by an encoder-decoder segmentation network (Efficient-UNet) to produce accurate segmentation maps. The proposed model achieved first place in the tissue segmentation task of the PUMA Grand Challenge, demonstrating robust performance and generalizability. Our results show the potential and efficacy of incorporating pathology foundation models into segmentation networks to accelerate computational pathology workflows. △ Less Submitted 18 July, 2025; originally announced July 2025. Comments: Accepted by MIUA 2025 arXiv:2507.13974 [ pdf , ps , other ] Leveraging Pathology Foundation Models for Panoptic Segmentation of Melanoma in H&E Images Authors: Jiaqi Lv , Yijie Zhu , Carmen Guadalupe Colin Tenorio , Brinder Singh Chohan , Mark Eastwood , Shan E Ahmed Raza Abstract : Melanoma is an aggressive form of skin cancer with rapid progression and high metastatic potential. Accurate characterisation of tissue morphology in melanoma is crucial for prognosis and treatment planning. However, manual segmentation of tissue regions from haematoxylin and eosin (H&E) stained whole-slide images (WSIs) is labour-intensive and prone to inter-observer variability, this motivates t… ▽ More Melanoma is an aggressive form of skin cancer with rapid progression and high metastatic potential. Accurate characterisation of tissue morphology in melanoma is crucial for prognosis and treatment planning. However, manual segmentation of tissue regions from haematoxylin and eosin (H&E) stained whole-slide images (WSIs) is labour-intensive and prone to inter-observer variability, this motivates the need for reliable automated tissue segmentation methods. In this study, we propose a novel deep learning network for the segmentation of five tissue classes in melanoma H&E images. Our approach leverages Virchow2, a pathology foundation model trained on 3.1 million histopathology images as a feature extractor. These features are fused with the original RGB images and subsequently processed by an encoder-decoder segmentation network (Efficient-UNet) to produce accurate segmentation maps. The proposed model achieved first place in the tissue segmentation task of the PUMA Grand Challenge, demonstrating robust performance and generalizability. Our results show the potential and efficacy of incorporating pathology foundation models into segmentation networks to accelerate computational pathology workflows. △ Less Submitted 18 July, 2025; originally announced July 2025. Comments: Accepted by MIUA 2025 arXiv:2503.22247 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.HC Pneumatic Multi-mode Silicone Actuator with Pressure, Vibration, and Cold Thermal Feedback Authors: Mohammad Shadman Hashem , Ahsan Raza , Sama E Shan , Seokhee Jeon Abstract : A wide range of haptic feedback is crucial for achieving high realism and immersion in virtual environments. Therefore, a multi-modal haptic interface that provides various haptic signals simultaneously is highly beneficial. This paper introduces a novel silicone fingertip actuator that is pneumatically actuated, delivering a realistic and effective haptic experience by simultaneously providing pr… ▽ More A wide range of haptic feedback is crucial for achieving high realism and immersion in virtual environments. Therefore, a multi-modal haptic interface that provides various haptic signals simultaneously is highly beneficial. This paper introduces a novel silicone fingertip actuator that is pneumatically actuated, delivering a realistic and effective haptic experience by simultaneously providing pressure, vibrotactile, and cold thermal feedback. The actuator features a design with multiple air chambers, each with controllable volume achieved through pneumatic valves connected to compressed air tanks. The lower air chamber generates pressure feedback, while the upper chamber produces vibrotactile feedback. In addition, two integrated lateral air nozzles create a cold thermal sensation. To showcase the system's capabilities, we designed two unique 3D surfaces in the virtual environment: a frozen meat surface and an abrasive icy surface. These surfaces simulate tactile perceptions of coldness, pressure, and texture. Comprehensive performance assessments and user studies were conducted to validate the actuator's effectiveness, highlighting its diverse feedback capabilities compared to traditional actuators that offer only single feedback modalities. △ Less Submitted 23 November, 2025; v1 submitted 28 March, 2025; originally announced March 2025. arXiv:2503.22247 [ pdf , ps , other ] Pneumatic Multi-mode Silicone Actuator with Pressure, Vibration, and Cold Thermal Feedback Authors: Mohammad Shadman Hashem , Ahsan Raza , Sama E Shan , Seokhee Jeon Abstract : A wide range of haptic feedback is crucial for achieving high realism and immersion in virtual environments. Therefore, a multi-modal haptic interface that provides various haptic signals simultaneously is highly beneficial. This paper introduces a novel silicone fingertip actuator that is pneumatically actuated, delivering a realistic and effective haptic experience by simultaneously providing pr… ▽ More A wide range of haptic feedback is crucial for achieving high realism and immersion in virtual environments. Therefore, a multi-modal haptic interface that provides various haptic signals simultaneously is highly beneficial. This paper introduces a novel silicone fingertip actuator that is pneumatically actuated, delivering a realistic and effective haptic experience by simultaneously providing pressure, vibrotactile, and cold thermal feedback. The actuator features a design with multiple air chambers, each with controllable volume achieved through pneumatic valves connected to compressed air tanks. The lower air chamber generates pressure feedback, while the upper chamber produces vibrotactile feedback. In addition, two integrated lateral air nozzles create a cold thermal sensation. To showcase the system's capabilities, we designed two unique 3D surfaces in the virtual environment: a frozen meat surface and an abrasive icy surface. These surfaces simulate tactile perceptions of coldness, pressure, and texture. Comprehensive performance assessments and user studies were conducted to validate the actuator's effectiveness, highlighting its diverse feedback capabilities compared to traditional actuators that offer only single feedback modalities. △ Less Submitted 23 November, 2025; v1 submitted 28 March, 2025; originally announced March 2025. arXiv:2502.19123 [ pdf , other ] eess.IV cs.AI cs.CV From Traditional to Deep Learning Approaches in Whole Slide Image Registration: A Methodological Review Authors: Behnaz Elhaminia , Abdullah Alsalemi , Esha Nasir , Mostafa Jahanifar , Ruqayya Awan , Lawrence S. Young , Nasir M. Rajpoot , Fayyaz Minhas , Shan E Ahmed Raza Abstract : Whole slide image (WSI) registration is an essential task for analysing the tumour microenvironment (TME) in histopathology. It involves the alignment of spatial information between WSIs of the same section or serial sections of a tissue sample. The tissue sections are usually stained with single or multiple biomarkers before imaging, and the goal is to identify neighbouring nuclei along the Z-axi… ▽ More Whole slide image (WSI) registration is an essential task for analysing the tumour microenvironment (TME) in histopathology. It involves the alignment of spatial information between WSIs of the same section or serial sections of a tissue sample. The tissue sections are usually stained with single or multiple biomarkers before imaging, and the goal is to identify neighbouring nuclei along the Z-axis for creating a 3D image or identifying subclasses of cells in the TME. This task is considerably more challenging compared to radiology image registration, such as magnetic resonance imaging or computed tomography, due to various factors. These include gigapixel size of images, variations in appearance between differently stained tissues, changes in structure and morphology between non-consecutive sections, and the presence of artefacts, tears, and deformations. Currently, there is a noticeable gap in the literature regarding a review of the current approaches and their limitations, as well as the challenges and opportunities they present. We aim to provide a comprehensive understanding of the available approaches and their application for various purposes. Furthermore, we investigate current deep learning methods used for WSI registration, emphasising their diverse methodologies. We examine the available datasets and explore tools and software employed in the field. Finally, we identify open challenges and potential future trends in this area of research. △ Less Submitted 26 February, 2025; originally announced February 2025. arXiv:2502.19123 [ pdf , other ] From Traditional to Deep Learning Approaches in Whole Slide Image Registration: A Methodological Review Authors: Behnaz Elhaminia , Abdullah Alsalemi , Esha Nasir , Mostafa Jahanifar , Ruqayya Awan , Lawrence S. Young , Nasir M. Rajpoot , Fayyaz Minhas , Shan E Ahmed Raza Abstract : Whole slide image (WSI) registration is an essential task for analysing the tumour microenvironment (TME) in histopathology. It involves the alignment of spatial information between WSIs of the same section or serial sections of a tissue sample. The tissue sections are usually stained with single or multiple biomarkers before imaging, and the goal is to identify neighbouring nuclei along the Z-axi… ▽ More Whole slide image (WSI) registration is an essential task for analysing the tumour microenvironment (TME) in histopathology. It involves the alignment of spatial information between WSIs of the same section or serial sections of a tissue sample. The tissue sections are usually stained with single or multiple biomarkers before imaging, and the goal is to identify neighbouring nuclei along the Z-axis for creating a 3D image or identifying subclasses of cells in the TME. This task is considerably more challenging compared to radiology image registration, such as magnetic resonance imaging or computed tomography, due to various factors. These include gigapixel size of images, variations in appearance between differently stained tissues, changes in structure and morphology between non-consecutive sections, and the presence of artefacts, tears, and deformations. Currently, there is a noticeable gap in the literature regarding a review of the current approaches and their limitations, as well as the challenges and opportunities they present. We aim to provide a comprehensive understanding of the available approaches and their application for various purposes. Furthermore, we investigate current deep learning methods used for WSI registration, emphasising their diverse methodologies. We examine the available datasets and explore tools and software employed in the field. Finally, we identify open challenges and potential future trends in this area of research. △ Less Submitted 26 February, 2025; originally announced February 2025. arXiv:2501.12323 [ pdf , other ] eess.IV cs.CV Deep Learning Based Segmentation of Blood Vessels from H&E Stained Oesophageal Adenocarcinoma Whole-Slide Images Authors: Jiaqi Lv , Stefan S Antonowicz , Shan E Ahmed Raza Abstract : Blood vessels (BVs) play a critical role in the Tumor Micro-Environment (TME), potentially influencing cancer progression and treatment response. However, manually quantifying BVs in Hematoxylin and Eosin (H&E) stained images is challenging and labor-intensive due to their heterogeneous appearances. We propose a novel approach of constructing guiding maps to improve the performance of state-of-the… ▽ More Blood vessels (BVs) play a critical role in the Tumor Micro-Environment (TME), potentially influencing cancer progression and treatment response. However, manually quantifying BVs in Hematoxylin and Eosin (H&E) stained images is challenging and labor-intensive due to their heterogeneous appearances. We propose a novel approach of constructing guiding maps to improve the performance of state-of-the-art segmentation models for BV segmentation, the guiding maps encourage the models to learn representative features of BVs. This is particularly beneficial for computational pathology, where labeled training data is often limited and large models are prone to overfitting. We have quantitative and qualitative results to demonstrate the efficacy of our approach in improving segmentation accuracy. In future, we plan to validate this method to segment BVs across various tissue types and investigate the role of cellular structures in relation to BVs in the TME. △ Less Submitted 24 January, 2025; v1 submitted 21 January, 2025; originally announced January 2025. Comments: Accepted by ISBI 2025 arXiv:2501.12323 [ pdf , other ] Deep Learning Based Segmentation of Blood Vessels from H&E Stained Oesophageal Adenocarcinoma Whole-Slide Images Authors: Jiaqi Lv , Stefan S Antonowicz , Shan E Ahmed Raza Abstract : Blood vessels (BVs) play a critical role in the Tumor Micro-Environment (TME), potentially influencing cancer progression and treatment response. However, manually quantifying BVs in Hematoxylin and Eosin (H&E) stained images is challenging and labor-intensive due to their heterogeneous appearances. We propose a novel approach of constructing guiding maps to improve the performance of state-of-the… ▽ More Blood vessels (BVs) play a critical role in the Tumor Micro-Environment (TME), potentially influencing cancer progression and treatment response. However, manually quantifying BVs in Hematoxylin and Eosin (H&E) stained images is challenging and labor-intensive due to their heterogeneous appearances. We propose a novel approach of constructing guiding maps to improve the performance of state-of-the-art segmentation models for BV segmentation, the guiding maps encourage the models to learn representative features of BVs. This is particularly beneficial for computational pathology, where labeled training data is often limited and large models are prone to overfitting. We have quantitative and qualitative results to demonstrate the efficacy of our approach in improving segmentation accuracy. In future, we plan to validate this method to segment BVs across various tissue types and investigate the role of cellular structures in relation to BVs in the TME. △ Less Submitted 24 January, 2025; v1 submitted 21 January, 2025; originally announced January 2025. Comments: Accepted by ISBI 2025 arXiv:2501.11927 [ pdf , other ] cs.CV cs.AI A Lightweight and Interpretable Deepfakes Detection Framework Authors: Muhammad Umar Farooq , Ali Javed , Khalid Mahmood Malik , Muhammad Anas Raza Abstract : The recent realistic creation and dissemination of so-called deepfakes poses a serious threat to social life, civil rest, and law. Celebrity defaming, election manipulation, and deepfakes as evidence in court of law are few potential consequences of deepfakes. The availability of open source trained models based on modern frameworks such as PyTorch or TensorFlow, video manipulations Apps such as F… ▽ More The recent realistic creation and dissemination of so-called deepfakes poses a serious threat to social life, civil rest, and law. Celebrity defaming, election manipulation, and deepfakes as evidence in court of law are few potential consequences of deepfakes. The availability of open source trained models based on modern frameworks such as PyTorch or TensorFlow, video manipulations Apps such as FaceApp and REFACE, and economical computing infrastructure has easen the creation of deepfakes. Most of the existing detectors focus on detecting either face-swap, lip-sync, or puppet master deepfakes, but a unified framework to detect all three types of deepfakes is hardly explored. This paper presents a unified framework that exploits the power of proposed feature fusion of hybrid facial landmarks and our novel heart rate features for detection of all types of deepfakes. We propose novel heart rate features and fused them with the facial landmark features to better extract the facial artifacts of fake videos and natural variations available in the original videos. We used these features to train a light-weight XGBoost to classify between the deepfake and bonafide videos. We evaluated the performance of our framework on the world leaders dataset (WLDR) that contains all types of deepfakes. Experimental results illustrate that the proposed framework offers superior detection performance over the comparative deepfakes detection methods. Performance comparison of our framework against the LSTM-FCN, a candidate of deep learning model, shows that proposed model achieves similar results, however, it is more interpretable. △ Less Submitted 21 January, 2025; originally announced January 2025. Journal ref: International Conference of Advanced Engineering, Technology and Applications, 2021 arXiv:2501.11927 [ pdf , other ] A Lightweight and Interpretable Deepfakes Detection Framework Authors: Muhammad Umar Farooq , Ali Javed , Khalid Mahmood Malik , Muhammad Anas Raza Abstract : The recent realistic creation and dissemination of so-called deepfakes poses a serious threat to social life, civil rest, and law. Celebrity defaming, election manipulation, and deepfakes as evidence in court of law are few potential consequences of deepfakes. The availability of open source trained models based on modern frameworks such as PyTorch or TensorFlow, video manipulations Apps such as F… ▽ More The recent realistic creation and dissemination of so-called deepfakes poses a serious threat to social life, civil rest, and law. Celebrity defaming, election manipulation, and deepfakes as evidence in court of law are few potential consequences of deepfakes. The availability of open source trained models based on modern frameworks such as PyTorch or TensorFlow, video manipulations Apps such as FaceApp and REFACE, and economical computing infrastructure has easen the creation of deepfakes. Most of the existing detectors focus on detecting either face-swap, lip-sync, or puppet master deepfakes, but a unified framework to detect all three types of deepfakes is hardly explored. This paper presents a unified framework that exploits the power of proposed feature fusion of hybrid facial landmarks and our novel heart rate features for detection of all types of deepfakes. We propose novel heart rate features and fused them with the facial landmark features to better extract the facial artifacts of fake videos and natural variations available in the original videos. We used these features to train a light-weight XGBoost to classify between the deepfake and bonafide videos. We evaluated the performance of our framework on the world leaders dataset (WLDR) that contains all types of deepfakes. Experimental results illustrate that the proposed framework offers superior detection performance over the comparative deepfakes detection methods. Performance comparison of our framework against the LSTM-FCN, a candidate of deep learning model, shows that proposed model achieves similar results, however, it is more interpretable. △ Less Submitted 21 January, 2025; originally announced January 2025. Journal ref: International Conference of Advanced Engineering, Technology and Applications, 2021 arXiv:2501.08094 [ pdf , other ] eess.IV cs.CV CellOMaps: A Compact Representation for Robust Classification of Lung Adenocarcinoma Growth Patterns Authors: Arwa Al-Rubaian , Gozde N. Gunesli , Wajd A. Althakfi , Ayesha Azam , David Snead , Nasir M. Rajpoot , Shan E Ahmed Raza Abstract : Lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) is a morphologically heterogeneous disease, characterized by five primary histological growth patterns. The classification of such patterns is crucial due to their direct relation to prognosis but the high subjectivity and observer variability pose a major challenge. Although several studies have developed machine learning methods for growth pattern classification, they… ▽ More Lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) is a morphologically heterogeneous disease, characterized by five primary histological growth patterns. The classification of such patterns is crucial due to their direct relation to prognosis but the high subjectivity and observer variability pose a major challenge. Although several studies have developed machine learning methods for growth pattern classification, they either only report the predominant pattern per slide or lack proper evaluation. We propose a generalizable machine learning pipeline capable of classifying lung tissue into one of the five patterns or as non-tumor. The proposed pipeline's strength lies in a novel compact Cell Organization Maps (cellOMaps) representation that captures the cellular spatial patterns from Hematoxylin and Eosin whole slide images (WSIs). The proposed pipeline provides state-of-the-art performance on LUAD growth pattern classification when evaluated on both internal unseen slides and external datasets, significantly outperforming the current approaches. In addition, our preliminary results show that the model's outputs can be used to predict patients Tumor Mutational Burden (TMB) levels. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2025; originally announced January 2025. arXiv:2501.08094 [ pdf , other ] CellOMaps: A Compact Representation for Robust Classification of Lung Adenocarcinoma Growth Patterns Authors: Arwa Al-Rubaian , Gozde N. Gunesli , Wajd A. Althakfi , Ayesha Azam , David Snead , Nasir M. Rajpoot , Shan E Ahmed Raza Abstract : Lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) is a morphologically heterogeneous disease, characterized by five primary histological growth patterns. The classification of such patterns is crucial due to their direct relation to prognosis but the high subjectivity and observer variability pose a major challenge. Although several studies have developed machine learning methods for growth pattern classification, they… ▽ More Lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) is a morphologically heterogeneous disease, characterized by five primary histological growth patterns. The classification of such patterns is crucial due to their direct relation to prognosis but the high subjectivity and observer variability pose a major challenge. Although several studies have developed machine learning methods for growth pattern classification, they either only report the predominant pattern per slide or lack proper evaluation. We propose a generalizable machine learning pipeline capable of classifying lung tissue into one of the five patterns or as non-tumor. The proposed pipeline's strength lies in a novel compact Cell Organization Maps (cellOMaps) representation that captures the cellular spatial patterns from Hematoxylin and Eosin whole slide images (WSIs). The proposed pipeline provides state-of-the-art performance on LUAD growth pattern classification when evaluated on both internal unseen slides and external datasets, significantly outperforming the current approaches. In addition, our preliminary results show that the model's outputs can be used to predict patients Tumor Mutational Burden (TMB) levels. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2025; originally announced January 2025. arXiv:2411.11382 [ pdf , other ] cs.HC doi 10.1109/ACCESS.2025.3585067 Quantifying Haptic Affection of Car Door through Data-Driven Analysis of Force Profile Authors: Mudassir Ibrahim Awan , Ahsan Raza , Waseem Hassan , Ki-Uk Kyung , Seokhee Jeon Abstract : Haptic affection plays a crucial role in user experience, particularly in the automotive industry where the tactile quality of components can influence customer satisfaction. This study aims to accurately predict the affective property of a car door by only watching the force or torque profile of it when opening. To this end, a deep learning model is designed to capture the underlying relationship… ▽ More Haptic affection plays a crucial role in user experience, particularly in the automotive industry where the tactile quality of components can influence customer satisfaction. This study aims to accurately predict the affective property of a car door by only watching the force or torque profile of it when opening. To this end, a deep learning model is designed to capture the underlying relationships between force profiles and user-defined adjective ratings, providing insights into the door-opening experience. The dataset employed in this research includes force profiles and user adjective ratings collected from six distinct car models, reflecting a diverse set of door-opening characteristics and tactile feedback. The model's performance is assessed using Leave-One-Out Cross-Validation, a method that measures its generalization capability on unseen data. The results demonstrate that the proposed model achieves a high level of prediction accuracy, indicating its potential in various applications related to haptic affection and design optimization in the automotive industry. △ Less Submitted 22 May, 2025; v1 submitted 18 November, 2024; originally announced November 2024. Comments: 12 pages, 9 figures, 3 tables. Mudassir Ibrahim Awan and Ahsan Raza are equally contributing authors arXiv:2411.11382 [ pdf , other ] Quantifying Haptic Affection of Car Door through Data-Driven Analysis of Force Profile Authors: Mudassir Ibrahim Awan , Ahsan Raza , Waseem Hassan , Ki-Uk Kyung , Seokhee Jeon Abstract : Haptic affection plays a crucial role in user experience, particularly in the automotive industry where the tactile quality of components can influence customer satisfaction. This study aims to accurately predict the affective property of a car door by only watching the force or torque profile of it when opening. To this end, a deep learning model is designed to capture the underlying relationship… ▽ More Haptic affection plays a crucial role in user experience, particularly in the automotive industry where the tactile quality of components can influence customer satisfaction. This study aims to accurately predict the affective property of a car door by only watching the force or torque profile of it when opening. To this end, a deep learning model is designed to capture the underlying relationships between force profiles and user-defined adjective ratings, providing insights into the door-opening experience. The dataset employed in this research includes force profiles and user adjective ratings collected from six distinct car models, reflecting a diverse set of door-opening characteristics and tactile feedback. The model's performance is assessed using Leave-One-Out Cross-Validation, a method that measures its generalization capability on unseen data. The results demonstrate that the proposed model achieves a high level of prediction accuracy, indicating its potential in various applications related to haptic affection and design optimization in the automotive industry. △ Less Submitted 22 May, 2025; v1 submitted 18 November, 2024; originally announced November 2024. Comments: 12 pages, 9 figures, 3 tables. Mudassir Ibrahim Awan and Ahsan Raza are equally contributing authors arXiv:2411.05143 [ pdf ] cs.HC Pneumatically Controlled Tactile Actuating Modules for Enhanced VR Safety Training Authors: Ahsan Raza , Seokhee Jeon , Mohammad Shadman Hashem Abstract : Our system introduces a modularized pneumatic actuating unit capable of delivering vibration, pressure, and impact feedback. Designed for adaptability, these modular tactile actuating units can be rapidly customized and reconfigured to suit a wide range of virtual reality (VR) scenarios, with a particular emphasis on safety training applications. This flexibility is demonstrated through scenarios… ▽ More Our system introduces a modularized pneumatic actuating unit capable of delivering vibration, pressure, and impact feedback. Designed for adaptability, these modular tactile actuating units can be rapidly customized and reconfigured to suit a wide range of virtual reality (VR) scenarios, with a particular emphasis on safety training applications. This flexibility is demonstrated through scenarios such as using construction tools in a virtual environment and simulating safety protocols against falling objects. Innovative mounting solutions securely attach the actuators to various body sites, ensuring both comfort and stability during use. Our approach enables seamless integration into diverse VR safety training programs, enhancing the realism and effectiveness of simulations with precise and reliable haptic feedback. △ Less Submitted 7 November, 2024; originally announced November 2024. Comments: Part of proceedings of 6th International Conference AsiaHaptics 2024 arXiv:2411.05143 [ pdf ] Pneumatically Controlled Tactile Actuating Modules for Enhanced VR Safety Training Authors: Ahsan Raza , Seokhee Jeon , Mohammad Shadman Hashem Abstract : Our system introduces a modularized pneumatic actuating unit capable of delivering vibration, pressure, and impact feedback. Designed for adaptability, these modular tactile actuating units can be rapidly customized and reconfigured to suit a wide range of virtual reality (VR) scenarios, with a particular emphasis on safety training applications. This flexibility is demonstrated through scenarios… ▽ More Our system introduces a modularized pneumatic actuating unit capable of delivering vibration, pressure, and impact feedback. Designed for adaptability, these modular tactile actuating units can be rapidly customized and reconfigured to suit a wide range of virtual reality (VR) scenarios, with a particular emphasis on safety training applications. This flexibility is demonstrated through scenarios such as using construction tools in a virtual environment and simulating safety protocols against falling objects. Innovative mounting solutions securely attach the actuators to various body sites, ensuring both comfort and stability during use. Our approach enables seamless integration into diverse VR safety training programs, enhancing the realism and effectiveness of simulations with precise and reliable haptic feedback. △ Less Submitted 7 November, 2024; originally announced November 2024. Comments: Part of proceedings of 6th International Conference AsiaHaptics 2024 arXiv:2411.05129 [ pdf ] cs.HC cs.RO Silicone-made Tactile Actuator Integrated with Hot Thermo-fiber Finger Sleeve Authors: Mohammad Shadman Hashem , Ahsan Raza , Seokhee Jeon Abstract : Multi-mode haptic feedback is essential to achieve high realism and immersion in virtual environments. This paper proposed a novel silicone fingertip actuator integrated with a hot thermal fabric finger sleeve to render pressure, vibration, and hot thermal feedback simultaneously. The actuator is pneumatically actuated to render a realistic and effective tactile experience in accordance with hot t… ▽ More Multi-mode haptic feedback is essential to achieve high realism and immersion in virtual environments. This paper proposed a novel silicone fingertip actuator integrated with a hot thermal fabric finger sleeve to render pressure, vibration, and hot thermal feedback simultaneously. The actuator is pneumatically actuated to render a realistic and effective tactile experience in accordance with hot thermal sensation. The silicone actuator, with two air chambers controlled by pneumatic valves connected to compressed air tanks. Simultaneously, a PWM signal from a microcontroller regulates the temperature of the thermal fabric sleeve, enhancing overall system functionality. The lower chamber of the silicone actuator is responsible for pressure feedback, whereas the upper chamber is devoted to vibrotactile feedback. The conductive yarn or thread was utilized to spread the thermal feedback actuation points on the thermal fabric's surface. To demonstrate the actuator's capability, a VR environment consisting of a bowl of liquid and a stove with fire was designed. Based on different functionalities the scenario can simulate the tactile perception of pressure, vibration, and temperature simultaneously or consecutively. △ Less Submitted 7 November, 2024; originally announced November 2024. Comments: Part of proceedings of 6th International Conference AsiaHaptics 2024 arXiv:2411.05129 [ pdf ] Silicone-made Tactile Actuator Integrated with Hot Thermo-fiber Finger Sleeve Authors: Mohammad Shadman Hashem , Ahsan Raza , Seokhee Jeon Abstract : Multi-mode haptic feedback is essential to achieve high realism and immersion in virtual environments. This paper proposed a novel silicone fingertip actuator integrated with a hot thermal fabric finger sleeve to render pressure, vibration, and hot thermal feedback simultaneously. The actuator is pneumatically actuated to render a realistic and effective tactile experience in accordance with hot t… ▽ More Multi-mode haptic feedback is essential to achieve high realism and immersion in virtual environments. This paper proposed a novel silicone fingertip actuator integrated with a hot thermal fabric finger sleeve to render pressure, vibration, and hot thermal feedback simultaneously. The actuator is pneumatically actuated to render a realistic and effective tactile experience in accordance with hot thermal sensation. The silicone actuator, with two air chambers controlled by pneumatic valves connected to compressed air tanks. Simultaneously, a PWM signal from a microcontroller regulates the temperature of the thermal fabric sleeve, enhancing overall system functionality. The lower chamber of the silicone actuator is responsible for pressure feedback, whereas the upper chamber is devoted to vibrotactile feedback. The conductive yarn or thread was utilized to spread the thermal feedback actuation points on the thermal fabric's surface. To demonstrate the actuator's capability, a VR environment consisting of a bowl of liquid and a stove with fire was designed. Based on different functionalities the scenario can simulate the tactile perception of pressure, vibration, and temperature simultaneously or consecutively. △ Less Submitted 7 November, 2024; originally announced November 2024. Comments: Part of proceedings of 6th International Conference AsiaHaptics 2024 arXiv:2410.22897 [ pdf , other ] cs.SI cs.CY doi 10.1109/ITSC58415.2024.10919888 A Graph-Based Model for Vehicle-Centric Data Sharing Ecosystem Authors: Haiyue Yuan , Ali Raza , Nikolay Matyunin , Jibesh Patra , Shujun Li Abstract : The development of technologies has prompted a paradigm shift in the automotive industry, with an increasing focus on connected services and autonomous driving capabilities. This transformation allows vehicles to collect and share vast amounts of vehicle-specific and personal data. While these technological advancements offer enhanced user experiences, they also raise privacy concerns. To understa… ▽ More The development of technologies has prompted a paradigm shift in the automotive industry, with an increasing focus on connected services and autonomous driving capabilities. This transformation allows vehicles to collect and share vast amounts of vehicle-specific and personal data. While these technological advancements offer enhanced user experiences, they also raise privacy concerns. To understand the ecosystem of data collection and sharing in modern vehicles, we adopted the ontology 101 methodology to incorporate information extracted from different sources, including analysis of privacy policies using GPT-4, a small-scale systematic literature review, and an existing ontology, to develop a high-level conceptual graph-based model, aiming to get insights into how modern vehicles handle data exchange among different parties. This serves as a foundational model with the flexibility and scalability to further expand for modelling and analysing data sharing practices across diverse contexts. Two realistic examples were developed to demonstrate the usefulness and effectiveness of discovering insights into privacy regarding vehicle-related data sharing. We also recommend several future research directions, such as exploring advanced ontology languages for reasoning tasks, supporting topological analysis for discovering data privacy risks/concerns, and developing useful tools for comparative analysis, to strengthen the understanding of the vehicle-centric data sharing ecosystem. △ Less Submitted 21 April, 2025; v1 submitted 30 October, 2024; originally announced October 2024. Comments: Haiyue Yuan, Ali Raza, Nikolay Matyunin, Jibesh Patra and Shujun Li (2024) A Graph-Based Model for Vehicle-Centric Data Sharing Ecosystem. Proceedings of the 2024 IEEE 27th International Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITSC 2024), pp. 3587-3594, IEEE, arXiv:2410.22897 [ pdf , other ] A Graph-Based Model for Vehicle-Centric Data Sharing Ecosystem Authors: Haiyue Yuan , Ali Raza , Nikolay Matyunin , Jibesh Patra , Shujun Li Abstract : The development of technologies has prompted a paradigm shift in the automotive industry, with an increasing focus on connected services and autonomous driving capabilities. This transformation allows vehicles to collect and share vast amounts of vehicle-specific and personal data. While these technological advancements offer enhanced user experiences, they also raise privacy concerns. To understa… ▽ More The development of technologies has prompted a paradigm shift in the automotive industry, with an increasing focus on connected services and autonomous driving capabilities. This transformation allows vehicles to collect and share vast amounts of vehicle-specific and personal data. While these technological advancements offer enhanced user experiences, they also raise privacy concerns. To understand the ecosystem of data collection and sharing in modern vehicles, we adopted the ontology 101 methodology to incorporate information extracted from different sources, including analysis of privacy policies using GPT-4, a small-scale systematic literature review, and an existing ontology, to develop a high-level conceptual graph-based model, aiming to get insights into how modern vehicles handle data exchange among different parties. This serves as a foundational model with the flexibility and scalability to further expand for modelling and analysing data sharing practices across diverse contexts. Two realistic examples were developed to demonstrate the usefulness and effectiveness of discovering insights into privacy regarding vehicle-related data sharing. We also recommend several future research directions, such as exploring advanced ontology languages for reasoning tasks, supporting topological analysis for discovering data privacy risks/concerns, and developing useful tools for comparative analysis, to strengthen the understanding of the vehicle-centric data sharing ecosystem. △ Less Submitted 21 April, 2025; v1 submitted 30 October, 2024; originally announced October 2024. Comments: Haiyue Yuan, Ali Raza, Nikolay Matyunin, Jibesh Patra and Shujun Li (2024) A Graph-Based Model for Vehicle-Centric Data Sharing Ecosystem. Proceedings of the 2024 IEEE 27th International Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITSC 2024), pp. 3587-3594, IEEE, arXiv:2410.12499 [ pdf , other ] cs.CL With a Grain of SALT: Are LLMs Fair Across Social Dimensions? Authors: Samee Arif , Zohaib Khan , Maaidah Kaleem , Suhaib Rashid , Agha Ali Raza , Awais Athar Abstract : This paper presents a systematic analysis of biases in open-source Large Language Models (LLMs), across gender, religion, and race. Our study evaluates bias in smaller-scale Llama and Gemma models using the SALT ($\textbf{S}$ocial $\textbf{A}$ppropriateness in $\textbf{L}$LM-Generated $\textbf{T}$ext) dataset, which incorporates five distinct bias triggers: General Debate, Positioned Debate, Caree… ▽ More This paper presents a systematic analysis of biases in open-source Large Language Models (LLMs), across gender, religion, and race. Our study evaluates bias in smaller-scale Llama and Gemma models using the SALT ($\textbf{S}$ocial $\textbf{A}$ppropriateness in $\textbf{L}$LM-Generated $\textbf{T}$ext) dataset, which incorporates five distinct bias triggers: General Debate, Positioned Debate, Career Advice, Problem Solving, and CV Generation. To quantify bias, we measure win rates in General Debate and the assignment of negative roles in Positioned Debate. For real-world use cases, such as Career Advice, Problem Solving, and CV Generation, we anonymize the outputs to remove explicit demographic identifiers and use DeepSeek-R1 as an automated evaluator. We also address inherent biases in LLM-based evaluation, including evaluation bias, positional bias, and length bias, and validate our results through human evaluations. Our findings reveal consistent polarization across models, with certain demographic groups receiving systematically favorable or unfavorable treatment. By introducing SALT, we provide a comprehensive benchmark for bias analysis and underscore the need for robust bias mitigation strategies in the development of equitable AI systems. △ Less Submitted 18 February, 2025; v1 submitted 16 October, 2024; originally announced October 2024. arXiv:2410.12499 [ pdf , other ] With a Grain of SALT: Are LLMs Fair Across Social Dimensions? Authors: Samee Arif , Zohaib Khan , Maaidah Kaleem , Suhaib Rashid , Agha Ali Raza , Awais Athar Abstract : This paper presents a systematic analysis of biases in open-source Large Language Models (LLMs), across gender, religion, and race. Our study evaluates bias in smaller-scale Llama and Gemma models using the SALT ($\textbf{S}$ocial $\textbf{A}$ppropriateness in $\textbf{L}$LM-Generated $\textbf{T}$ext) dataset, which incorporates five distinct bias triggers: General Debate, Positioned Debate, Caree… ▽ More This paper presents a systematic analysis of biases in open-source Large Language Models (LLMs), across gender, religion, and race. Our study evaluates bias in smaller-scale Llama and Gemma models using the SALT ($\textbf{S}$ocial $\textbf{A}$ppropriateness in $\textbf{L}$LM-Generated $\textbf{T}$ext) dataset, which incorporates five distinct bias triggers: General Debate, Positioned Debate, Career Advice, Problem Solving, and CV Generation. To quantify bias, we measure win rates in General Debate and the assignment of negative roles in Positioned Debate. For real-world use cases, such as Career Advice, Problem Solving, and CV Generation, we anonymize the outputs to remove explicit demographic identifiers and use DeepSeek-R1 as an automated evaluator. We also address inherent biases in LLM-based evaluation, including evaluation bias, positional bias, and length bias, and validate our results through human evaluations. Our findings reveal consistent polarization across models, with certain demographic groups receiving systematically favorable or unfavorable treatment. By introducing SALT, we provide a comprehensive benchmark for bias analysis and underscore the need for robust bias mitigation strategies in the development of equitable AI systems. △ Less Submitted 18 February, 2025; v1 submitted 16 October, 2024; originally announced October 2024. arXiv:2410.04275 [ pdf , other ] cs.LG cs.CL Language Model-Driven Data Pruning Enables Efficient Active Learning Authors: Abdul Hameed Azeemi , Ihsan Ayyub Qazi , Agha Ali Raza Abstract : Active learning (AL) optimizes data labeling efficiency by selecting the most informative instances for annotation. A key component in this procedure is an acquisition function that guides the selection process and identifies the suitable instances for labeling from the unlabeled pool. However, these acquisition methods suffer from high computational costs with large unlabeled data pools, posing a… ▽ More Active learning (AL) optimizes data labeling efficiency by selecting the most informative instances for annotation. A key component in this procedure is an acquisition function that guides the selection process and identifies the suitable instances for labeling from the unlabeled pool. However, these acquisition methods suffer from high computational costs with large unlabeled data pools, posing a roadblock to their applicability on large datasets. To address this challenge and bridge this gap, we introduce a novel plug-and-play unlabeled data pruning strategy, ActivePrune, which leverages language models to prune the unlabeled pool. ActivePrune implements a two-stage pruning process: an initial fast evaluation using perplexity scores from an n-gram language model, followed by a high-quality selection using metrics for data quality computed through a quantized LLM. Additionally, to enhance the diversity in the unlabeled pool, we propose a novel perplexity reweighting method that systematically brings forward underrepresented instances for selection in subsequent labeling iterations. Experiments on translation, sentiment analysis, topic classification, and summarization tasks on four diverse datasets and four active learning strategies demonstrate that ActivePrune outperforms existing data pruning methods. Finally, we compare the selection quality $\leftrightarrow$ efficiency tradeoff of the data pruning methods and demonstrate that ActivePrune is computationally more efficient than other LLM score-based pruning methods, and provides up to 74% reduction in the end-to-end time required for active learning. △ Less Submitted 5 October, 2024; originally announced October 2024. Comments: 20 pages, 4 figures arXiv:2410.04275 [ pdf , other ] Language Model-Driven Data Pruning Enables Efficient Active Learning Authors: Abdul Hameed Azeemi , Ihsan Ayyub Qazi , Agha Ali Raza Abstract : Active learning (AL) optimizes data labeling efficiency by selecting the most informative instances for annotation. A key component in this procedure is an acquisition function that guides the selection process and identifies the suitable instances for labeling from the unlabeled pool. However, these acquisition methods suffer from high computational costs with large unlabeled data pools, posing a… ▽ More Active learning (AL) optimizes data labeling efficiency by selecting the most informative instances for annotation. A key component in this procedure is an acquisition function that guides the selection process and identifies the suitable instances for labeling from the unlabeled pool. However, these acquisition methods suffer from high computational costs with large unlabeled data pools, posing a roadblock to their applicability on large datasets. To address this challenge and bridge this gap, we introduce a novel plug-and-play unlabeled data pruning strategy, ActivePrune, which leverages language models to prune the unlabeled pool. ActivePrune implements a two-stage pruning process: an initial fast evaluation using perplexity scores from an n-gram language model, followed by a high-quality selection using metrics for data quality computed through a quantized LLM. Additionally, to enhance the diversity in the unlabeled pool, we propose a novel perplexity reweighting method that systematically brings forward underrepresented instances for selection in subsequent labeling iterations. Experiments on translation, sentiment analysis, topic classification, and summarization tasks on four diverse datasets and four active learning strategies demonstrate that ActivePrune outperforms existing data pruning methods. Finally, we compare the selection quality $\leftrightarrow$ efficiency tradeoff of the data pruning methods and demonstrate that ActivePrune is computationally more efficient than other LLM score-based pruning methods, and provides up to 74% reduction in the end-to-end time required for active learning. △ Less Submitted 5 October, 2024; originally announced October 2024. Comments: 20 pages, 4 figures arXiv:2409.11261 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL The Art of Storytelling: Multi-Agent Generative AI for Dynamic Multimodal Narratives Authors: Samee Arif , Taimoor Arif , Muhammad Saad Haroon , Aamina Jamal Khan , Agha Ali Raza , Awais Athar Abstract : This paper introduces the concept of an education tool that utilizes Generative Artificial Intelligence (GenAI) to enhance storytelling. We evaluate GenAI-driven narrative co-creation, text-to-speech conversion, text-to-music and text-to-video generation to produce an engaging experience for learners. We describe the co-creation process, the adaptation of narratives into spoken words using text-to… ▽ More This paper introduces the concept of an education tool that utilizes Generative Artificial Intelligence (GenAI) to enhance storytelling. We evaluate GenAI-driven narrative co-creation, text-to-speech conversion, text-to-music and text-to-video generation to produce an engaging experience for learners. We describe the co-creation process, the adaptation of narratives into spoken words using text-to-speech models, and the transformation of these narratives into contextually relevant visuals through text-to-video technology. Our evaluation covers the linguistics of the generated stories, the text-to-speech conversion quality, and the accuracy of the generated visuals. △ Less Submitted 18 September, 2025; v1 submitted 17 September, 2024; originally announced September 2024. arXiv:2409.11261 [ pdf , ps , other ] The Art of Storytelling: Multi-Agent Generative AI for Dynamic Multimodal Narratives Authors: Samee Arif , Taimoor Arif , Muhammad Saad Haroon , Aamina Jamal Khan , Agha Ali Raza , Awais Athar Abstract : This paper introduces the concept of an education tool that utilizes Generative Artificial Intelligence (GenAI) to enhance storytelling. We evaluate GenAI-driven narrative co-creation, text-to-speech conversion, text-to-music and text-to-video generation to produce an engaging experience for learners. We describe the co-creation process, the adaptation of narratives into spoken words using text-to… ▽ More This paper introduces the concept of an education tool that utilizes Generative Artificial Intelligence (GenAI) to enhance storytelling. We evaluate GenAI-driven narrative co-creation, text-to-speech conversion, text-to-music and text-to-video generation to produce an engaging experience for learners. We describe the co-creation process, the adaptation of narratives into spoken words using text-to-speech models, and the transformation of these narratives into contextually relevant visuals through text-to-video technology. Our evaluation covers the linguistics of the generated stories, the text-to-speech conversion quality, and the accuracy of the generated visuals. △ Less Submitted 18 September, 2025; v1 submitted 17 September, 2024; originally announced September 2024. arXiv:2409.11252 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.SD eess.AS WER We Stand: Benchmarking Urdu ASR Models Authors: Samee Arif , Sualeha Farid , Aamina Jamal Khan , Mustafa Abbas , Agha Ali Raza , Awais Athar Abstract : This paper presents a comprehensive evaluation of Urdu Automatic Speech Recognition (ASR) models. We analyze the performance of three ASR model families: Whisper, MMS, and Seamless-M4T using Word Error Rate (WER), along with a detailed examination of the most frequent wrong words and error types including insertions, deletions, and substitutions. Our analysis is conducted using two types of datase… ▽ More This paper presents a comprehensive evaluation of Urdu Automatic Speech Recognition (ASR) models. We analyze the performance of three ASR model families: Whisper, MMS, and Seamless-M4T using Word Error Rate (WER), along with a detailed examination of the most frequent wrong words and error types including insertions, deletions, and substitutions. Our analysis is conducted using two types of datasets, read speech and conversational speech. Notably, we present the first conversational speech dataset designed for benchmarking Urdu ASR models. We find that seamless-large outperforms other ASR models on the read speech dataset, while whisper-large performs best on the conversational speech dataset. Furthermore, this evaluation highlights the complexities of assessing ASR models for low-resource languages like Urdu using quantitative metrics alone and emphasizes the need for a robust Urdu text normalization system. Our findings contribute valuable insights for developing robust ASR systems for low-resource languages like Urdu. △ Less Submitted 5 June, 2025; v1 submitted 17 September, 2024; originally announced September 2024. arXiv:2409.11252 [ pdf , ps , other ] WER We Stand: Benchmarking Urdu ASR Models Authors: Samee Arif , Sualeha Farid , Aamina Jamal Khan , Mustafa Abbas , Agha Ali Raza , Awais Athar Abstract : This paper presents a comprehensive evaluation of Urdu Automatic Speech Recognition (ASR) models. We analyze the performance of three ASR model families: Whisper, MMS, and Seamless-M4T using Word Error Rate (WER), along with a detailed examination of the most frequent wrong words and error types including insertions, deletions, and substitutions. Our analysis is conducted using two types of datase… ▽ More This paper presents a comprehensive evaluation of Urdu Automatic Speech Recognition (ASR) models. We analyze the performance of three ASR model families: Whisper, MMS, and Seamless-M4T using Word Error Rate (WER), along with a detailed examination of the most frequent wrong words and error types including insertions, deletions, and substitutions. Our analysis is conducted using two types of datasets, read speech and conversational speech. Notably, we present the first conversational speech dataset designed for benchmarking Urdu ASR models. We find that seamless-large outperforms other ASR models on the read speech dataset, while whisper-large performs best on the conversational speech dataset. Furthermore, this evaluation highlights the complexities of assessing ASR models for low-resource languages like Urdu using quantitative metrics alone and emphasizes the need for a robust Urdu text normalization system. Our findings contribute valuable insights for developing robust ASR systems for low-resource languages like Urdu. △ Less Submitted 5 June, 2025; v1 submitted 17 September, 2024; originally announced September 2024. arXiv:2408.08688 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI The Fellowship of the LLMs: Multi-Model Workflows for Synthetic Preference Optimization Dataset Generation Authors: Samee Arif , Sualeha Farid , Abdul Hameed Azeemi , Awais Athar , Agha Ali Raza Abstract : This paper presents a novel methodology for generating synthetic Preference Optimization (PO) datasets using multi-model workflows. We evaluate the effectiveness and potential of these workflows in automating and enhancing the dataset generation process. PO dataset generation requires two modules: (1) $\textit{response evaluation}$, and (2) $\textit{response generation}$. In the… ▽ More This paper presents a novel methodology for generating synthetic Preference Optimization (PO) datasets using multi-model workflows. We evaluate the effectiveness and potential of these workflows in automating and enhancing the dataset generation process. PO dataset generation requires two modules: (1) $\textit{response evaluation}$, and (2) $\textit{response generation}$. In the $\textit{response evaluation}$ module, the responses from Large Language Models (LLMs) are evaluated and ranked - a task typically carried out by human annotators that we automate using LLMs. We assess the response evaluation module in a 2 step process. In step 1, we assess LLMs as evaluators using three distinct prompting strategies. In step 2, we apply the winning prompting strategy to compare the performance of LLM-as-a-Judge, LLMs-as-a-Jury, and LLM Debate. Our evaluation shows that GPT-4o-as-a-Judge is more consistent across all datasets. For the $\textit{response generation}$ module, we use the identified LLM evaluator configuration and compare different configurations of the LLM Feedback Loop. We use the win rate to determine the best multi-model configuration for generation. Experimenting with various configurations, we find that the LLM Feedback Loop, with Llama as the generator and Gemma as the reviewer, achieves a notable 71.8% and 73.8% win rate over single-model Llama and Gemma, respectively. After identifying the best configurations for both modules, we generate our PO datasets using the above pipeline. △ Less Submitted 14 August, 2025; v1 submitted 16 August, 2024; originally announced August 2024. arXiv:2408.08688 [ pdf , ps , other ] The Fellowship of the LLMs: Multi-Model Workflows for Synthetic Preference Optimization Dataset Generation Authors: Samee Arif , Sualeha Farid , Abdul Hameed Azeemi , Awais Athar , Agha Ali Raza Abstract : This paper presents a novel methodology for generating synthetic Preference Optimization (PO) datasets using multi-model workflows. We evaluate the effectiveness and potential of these workflows in automating and enhancing the dataset generation process. PO dataset generation requires two modules: (1) $\textit{response evaluation}$, and (2) $\textit{response generation}$. In the… ▽ More This paper presents a novel methodology for generating synthetic Preference Optimization (PO) datasets using multi-model workflows. We evaluate the effectiveness and potential of these workflows in automating and enhancing the dataset generation process. PO dataset generation requires two modules: (1) $\textit{response evaluation}$, and (2) $\textit{response generation}$. In the $\textit{response evaluation}$ module, the responses from Large Language Models (LLMs) are evaluated and ranked - a task typically carried out by human annotators that we automate using LLMs. We assess the response evaluation module in a 2 step process. In step 1, we assess LLMs as evaluators using three distinct prompting strategies. In step 2, we apply the winning prompting strategy to compare the performance of LLM-as-a-Judge, LLMs-as-a-Jury, and LLM Debate. Our evaluation shows that GPT-4o-as-a-Judge is more consistent across all datasets. For the $\textit{response generation}$ module, we use the identified LLM evaluator configuration and compare different configurations of the LLM Feedback Loop. We use the win rate to determine the best multi-model configuration for generation. Experimenting with various configurations, we find that the LLM Feedback Loop, with Llama as the generator and Gemma as the reviewer, achieves a notable 71.8% and 73.8% win rate over single-model Llama and Gemma, respectively. After identifying the best configurations for both modules, we generate our PO datasets using the above pipeline. △ Less Submitted 14 August, 2025; v1 submitted 16 August, 2024; originally announced August 2024. arXiv:2408.08454 [ pdf , other ] cs.CV cs.LG Beyond Uniform Query Distribution: Key-Driven Grouped Query Attention Authors: Zohaib Khan , Muhammad Khaquan , Omer Tafveez , Burhanuddin Samiwala , Agha Ali Raza Abstract : The Transformer architecture has revolutionized deep learning through its Self-Attention mechanism, which effectively captures contextual information. However, the memory footprint of Self-Attention presents significant challenges for long-sequence tasks. Grouped Query Attention (GQA) addresses this issue by grouping queries and mean-pooling the corresponding key-value heads - reducing the number… ▽ More The Transformer architecture has revolutionized deep learning through its Self-Attention mechanism, which effectively captures contextual information. However, the memory footprint of Self-Attention presents significant challenges for long-sequence tasks. Grouped Query Attention (GQA) addresses this issue by grouping queries and mean-pooling the corresponding key-value heads - reducing the number of overall parameters and memory requirements in a flexible manner without adversely compromising model accuracy. In this work, we introduce enhancements to GQA, focusing on two novel approaches that deviate from the static nature of grouping: Key-Distributed GQA (KDGQA) and Dynamic Key-Distributed GQA (DGQA), which leverage information from the norms of the key heads to inform query allocation. Specifically, KDGQA looks at the ratios of the norms of the key heads during each forward pass, while DGQA examines the ratios of the norms as they evolve through training. Additionally, we present Perturbed GQA (PGQA) as a case-study, which introduces variability in (static) group formation via subtracting noise from the attention maps. Our experiments with up-trained Vision Transformers, for Image Classification on datasets such as CIFAR-10, CIFAR-100, Food101, and Tiny ImageNet, demonstrate the promise of these variants in improving upon the original GQA through more informed and adaptive grouping mechanisms: specifically ViT-L experiences accuracy gains of up to 8% when utilizing DGQA in comparison to GQA and other variants. We further analyze the impact of the number of Key-Value Heads on performance, underscoring the importance of utilizing query-key affinities. Code is available on GitHub. △ Less Submitted 28 August, 2024; v1 submitted 15 August, 2024; originally announced August 2024. Comments: 11 pages, 9 figures arXiv:2408.08454 [ pdf , other ] Beyond Uniform Query Distribution: Key-Driven Grouped Query Attention Authors: Zohaib Khan , Muhammad Khaquan , Omer Tafveez , Burhanuddin Samiwala , Agha Ali Raza Abstract : The Transformer architecture has revolutionized deep learning through its Self-Attention mechanism, which effectively captures contextual information. However, the memory footprint of Self-Attention presents significant challenges for long-sequence tasks. Grouped Query Attention (GQA) addresses this issue by grouping queries and mean-pooling the corresponding key-value heads - reducing the number… ▽ More The Transformer architecture has revolutionized deep learning through its Self-Attention mechanism, which effectively captures contextual information. However, the memory footprint of Self-Attention presents significant challenges for long-sequence tasks. Grouped Query Attention (GQA) addresses this issue by grouping queries and mean-pooling the corresponding key-value heads - reducing the number of overall parameters and memory requirements in a flexible manner without adversely compromising model accuracy. In this work, we introduce enhancements to GQA, focusing on two novel approaches that deviate from the static nature of grouping: Key-Distributed GQA (KDGQA) and Dynamic Key-Distributed GQA (DGQA), which leverage information from the norms of the key heads to inform query allocation. Specifically, KDGQA looks at the ratios of the norms of the key heads during each forward pass, while DGQA examines the ratios of the norms as they evolve through training. Additionally, we present Perturbed GQA (PGQA) as a case-study, which introduces variability in (static) group formation via subtracting noise from the attention maps. Our experiments with up-trained Vision Transformers, for Image Classification on datasets such as CIFAR-10, CIFAR-100, Food101, and Tiny ImageNet, demonstrate the promise of these variants in improving upon the original GQA through more informed and adaptive grouping mechanisms: specifically ViT-L experiences accuracy gains of up to 8% when utilizing DGQA in comparison to GQA and other variants. We further analyze the impact of the number of Key-Value Heads on performance, underscoring the importance of utilizing query-key affinities. Code is available on GitHub. △ Less Submitted 28 August, 2024; v1 submitted 15 August, 2024; originally announced August 2024. Comments: 11 pages, 9 figures arXiv:2407.04459 [ pdf , other ] cs.CL Generalists vs. Specialists: Evaluating Large Language Models for Urdu Authors: Samee Arif , Abdul Hameed Azeemi , Agha Ali Raza , Awais Athar Abstract : In this paper, we compare general-purpose models, GPT-4-Turbo and Llama-3-8b, with special-purpose models--XLM-Roberta-large, mT5-large, and Llama-3-8b--that have been fine-tuned on specific tasks. We focus on seven classification and seven generation tasks to evaluate the performance of these models on Urdu language. Urdu has 70 million native speakers, yet it remains underrepresented in Natural… ▽ More In this paper, we compare general-purpose models, GPT-4-Turbo and Llama-3-8b, with special-purpose models--XLM-Roberta-large, mT5-large, and Llama-3-8b--that have been fine-tuned on specific tasks. We focus on seven classification and seven generation tasks to evaluate the performance of these models on Urdu language. Urdu has 70 million native speakers, yet it remains underrepresented in Natural Language Processing (NLP). Despite the frequent advancements in Large Language Models (LLMs), their performance in low-resource languages, including Urdu, still needs to be explored. We also conduct a human evaluation for the generation tasks and compare the results with the evaluations performed by GPT-4-Turbo, Llama-3-8b and Claude 3.5 Sonnet. We find that special-purpose models consistently outperform general-purpose models across various tasks. We also find that the evaluation done by GPT-4-Turbo for generation tasks aligns more closely with human evaluation compared to the evaluation the evaluation done by Llama-3-8b. This paper contributes to the NLP community by providing insights into the effectiveness of general and specific-purpose LLMs for low-resource languages. △ Less Submitted 3 October, 2024; v1 submitted 5 July, 2024; originally announced July 2024. arXiv:2407.04459 [ pdf , other ] Generalists vs. Specialists: Evaluating Large Language Models for Urdu Authors: Samee Arif , Abdul Hameed Azeemi , Agha Ali Raza , Awais Athar Abstract : In this paper, we compare general-purpose models, GPT-4-Turbo and Llama-3-8b, with special-purpose models--XLM-Roberta-large, mT5-large, and Llama-3-8b--that have been fine-tuned on specific tasks. We focus on seven classification and seven generation tasks to evaluate the performance of these models on Urdu language. Urdu has 70 million native speakers, yet it remains underrepresented in Natural… ▽ More In this paper, we compare general-purpose models, GPT-4-Turbo and Llama-3-8b, with special-purpose models--XLM-Roberta-large, mT5-large, and Llama-3-8b--that have been fine-tuned on specific tasks. We focus on seven classification and seven generation tasks to evaluate the performance of these models on Urdu language. Urdu has 70 million native speakers, yet it remains underrepresented in Natural Language Processing (NLP). Despite the frequent advancements in Large Language Models (LLMs), their performance in low-resource languages, including Urdu, still needs to be explored. We also conduct a human evaluation for the generation tasks and compare the results with the evaluations performed by GPT-4-Turbo, Llama-3-8b and Claude 3.5 Sonnet. We find that special-purpose models consistently outperform general-purpose models across various tasks. We also find that the evaluation done by GPT-4-Turbo for generation tasks aligns more closely with human evaluation compared to the evaluation the evaluation done by Llama-3-8b. This paper contributes to the NLP community by providing insights into the effectiveness of general and specific-purpose LLMs for low-resource languages. △ Less Submitted 3 October, 2024; v1 submitted 5 July, 2024; originally announced July 2024. arXiv:2407.00188 [ pdf ] cs.SD cs.AI eess.AS A Novel Labeled Human Voice Signal Dataset for Misbehavior Detection Authors: Ali Raza , Faizan Younas Abstract : Voice signal classification based on human behaviours involves analyzing various aspects of speech patterns and delivery styles. In this study, a real-time dataset collection is performed where participants are instructed to speak twelve psychology questions in two distinct manners: first, in a harsh voice, which is categorized as "misbehaved"; and second, in a polite manner, categorized as "norma… ▽ More Voice signal classification based on human behaviours involves analyzing various aspects of speech patterns and delivery styles. In this study, a real-time dataset collection is performed where participants are instructed to speak twelve psychology questions in two distinct manners: first, in a harsh voice, which is categorized as "misbehaved"; and second, in a polite manner, categorized as "normal". These classifications are crucial in understanding how different vocal behaviours affect the interpretation and classification of voice signals. This research highlights the significance of voice tone and delivery in automated machine-learning systems for voice analysis and recognition. This research contributes to the broader field of voice signal analysis by elucidating the impact of human behaviour on the perception and categorization of voice signals, thereby enhancing the development of more accurate and context-aware voice recognition technologies. △ Less Submitted 28 June, 2024; originally announced July 2024. Journal ref: 2024 arXiv:2407.00188 [ pdf ] A Novel Labeled Human Voice Signal Dataset for Misbehavior Detection Authors: Ali Raza , Faizan Younas Abstract : Voice signal classification based on human behaviours involves analyzing various aspects of speech patterns and delivery styles. In this study, a real-time dataset collection is performed where participants are instructed to speak twelve psychology questions in two distinct manners: first, in a harsh voice, which is categorized as "misbehaved"; and second, in a polite manner, categorized as "norma… ▽ More Voice signal classification based on human behaviours involves analyzing various aspects of speech patterns and delivery styles. In this study, a real-time dataset collection is performed where participants are instructed to speak twelve psychology questions in two distinct manners: first, in a harsh voice, which is categorized as "misbehaved"; and second, in a polite manner, categorized as "normal". These classifications are crucial in understanding how different vocal behaviours affect the interpretation and classification of voice signals. This research highlights the significance of voice tone and delivery in automated machine-learning systems for voice analysis and recognition. This research contributes to the broader field of voice signal analysis by elucidating the impact of human behaviour on the perception and categorization of voice signals, thereby enhancing the development of more accurate and context-aware voice recognition technologies. △ Less Submitted 28 June, 2024; originally announced July 2024. Journal ref: 2024 arXiv:2406.10045 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Unobtrusive Monitoring of Simulated Physical Weakness Using Fine-Grained Behavioral Features and Personalized Modeling Authors: Chen Long-fei , Muhammad Ahmed Raza , Craig Innes , Subramanian Ramamoorthy , Robert B. Fisher Abstract : Aging and chronic conditions affect older adults' daily lives, making early detection of developing health issues crucial. Weakness, common in many conditions, alters physical movements and daily activities subtly. However, detecting such changes can be challenging due to their subtle and gradual nature. To address this, we employ a non-intrusive camera sensor to monitor individuals' daily sitting… ▽ More Aging and chronic conditions affect older adults' daily lives, making early detection of developing health issues crucial. Weakness, common in many conditions, alters physical movements and daily activities subtly. However, detecting such changes can be challenging due to their subtle and gradual nature. To address this, we employ a non-intrusive camera sensor to monitor individuals' daily sitting and relaxing activities for signs of weakness. We simulate weakness in healthy subjects by having them perform physical exercise and observing the behavioral changes in their daily activities before and after workouts. The proposed system captures fine-grained features related to body motion, inactivity, and environmental context in real-time while prioritizing privacy. A Bayesian Network is used to model the relationships between features, activities, and health conditions. We aim to identify specific features and activities that indicate such changes and determine the most suitable time scale for observing the change. Results show 0.97 accuracy in distinguishing simulated weakness at the daily level. Fine-grained behavioral features, including non-dominant upper body motion speed and scale, and inactivity distribution, along with a 300-second window, are found most effective. However, individual-specific models are recommended as no universal set of optimal features and activities was identified across all participants. △ Less Submitted 18 November, 2025; v1 submitted 14 June, 2024; originally announced June 2024. arXiv:2406.10045 [ pdf , ps , other ] Unobtrusive Monitoring of Simulated Physical Weakness Using Fine-Grained Behavioral Features and Personalized Modeling Authors: Chen Long-fei , Muhammad Ahmed Raza , Craig Innes , Subramanian Ramamoorthy , Robert B. Fisher Abstract : Aging and chronic conditions affect older adults' daily lives, making early detection of developing health issues crucial. Weakness, common in many conditions, alters physical movements and daily activities subtly. However, detecting such changes can be challenging due to their subtle and gradual nature. To address this, we employ a non-intrusive camera sensor to monitor individuals' daily sitting… ▽ More Aging and chronic conditions affect older adults' daily lives, making early detection of developing health issues crucial. Weakness, common in many conditions, alters physical movements and daily activities subtly. However, detecting such changes can be challenging due to their subtle and gradual nature. To address this, we employ a non-intrusive camera sensor to monitor individuals' daily sitting and relaxing activities for signs of weakness. We simulate weakness in healthy subjects by having them perform physical exercise and observing the behavioral changes in their daily activities before and after workouts. The proposed system captures fine-grained features related to body motion, inactivity, and environmental context in real-time while prioritizing privacy. A Bayesian Network is used to model the relationships between features, activities, and health conditions. We aim to identify specific features and activities that indicate such changes and determine the most suitable time scale for observing the change. Results show 0.97 accuracy in distinguishing simulated weakness at the daily level. Fine-grained behavioral features, including non-dominant upper body motion speed and scale, and inactivity distribution, along with a 300-second window, are found most effective. However, individual-specific models are recommended as no universal set of optimal features and activities was identified across all participants. △ Less Submitted 18 November, 2025; v1 submitted 14 June, 2024; originally announced June 2024. arXiv:2406.04250 [ pdf , other ] quant-ph cs.LG stat.ML Online learning of quantum processes Authors: Asad Raza , Matthias C. Caro , Jens Eisert , Sumeet Khatri Abstract : Among recent insights into learning quantum states, online learning and shadow tomography procedures are notable for their ability to accurately predict expectation values even of adaptively chosen observables. In contrast to the state case, quantum process learning tasks with a similarly adaptive nature have received little attention. In this work, we investigate online learning tasks for quantum… ▽ More Among recent insights into learning quantum states, online learning and shadow tomography procedures are notable for their ability to accurately predict expectation values even of adaptively chosen observables. In contrast to the state case, quantum process learning tasks with a similarly adaptive nature have received little attention. In this work, we investigate online learning tasks for quantum processes. Whereas online learning is infeasible for general quantum channels, we show that channels of bounded gate complexity as well as Pauli channels can be online learned in the regret and mistake-bounded models of online learning. In fact, we can online learn probabilistic mixtures of any exponentially large set of known channels. We also provide a provably sample-efficient shadow tomography procedure for Pauli channels. Our results extend beyond quantum channels to non-Markovian multi-time processes, with favorable regret and mistake bounds, as well as a shadow tomography procedure. We complement our online learning upper bounds with mistake as well as computational lower bounds. On the technical side, we make use of the multiplicative weights update algorithm, classical adaptive data analysis, and Bell sampling, as well as tools from the theory of quantum combs for multi-time quantum processes. Our work initiates a study of online learning for classes of quantum channels and, more generally, non-Markovian quantum processes. Given the importance of online learning for state shadow tomography, this may serve as a step towards quantum channel variants of adaptive shadow tomography. △ Less Submitted 6 June, 2024; originally announced June 2024. Comments: 14 + 72 pages, 6 figures arXiv:2406.04250 [ pdf , other ] Online learning of quantum processes Authors: Asad Raza , Matthias C. Caro , Jens Eisert , Sumeet Khatri Abstract : Among recent insights into learning quantum states, online learning and shadow tomography procedures are notable for their ability to accurately predict expectation values even of adaptively chosen observables. In contrast to the state case, quantum process learning tasks with a similarly adaptive nature have received little attention. In this work, we investigate online learning tasks for quantum… ▽ More Among recent insights into learning quantum states, online learning and shadow tomography procedures are notable for their ability to accurately predict expectation values even of adaptively chosen observables. In contrast to the state case, quantum process learning tasks with a similarly adaptive nature have received little attention. In this work, we investigate online learning tasks for quantum processes. Whereas online learning is infeasible for general quantum channels, we show that channels of bounded gate complexity as well as Pauli channels can be online learned in the regret and mistake-bounded models of online learning. In fact, we can online learn probabilistic mixtures of any exponentially large set of known channels. We also provide a provably sample-efficient shadow tomography procedure for Pauli channels. Our results extend beyond quantum channels to non-Markovian multi-time processes, with favorable regret and mistake bounds, as well as a shadow tomography procedure. We complement our online learning upper bounds with mistake as well as computational lower bounds. On the technical side, we make use of the multiplicative weights update algorithm, classical adaptive data analysis, and Bell sampling, as well as tools from the theory of quantum combs for multi-time quantum processes. Our work initiates a study of online learning for classes of quantum channels and, more generally, non-Markovian quantum processes. Given the importance of online learning for state shadow tomography, this may serve as a step towards quantum channel variants of adaptive shadow tomography. △ Less Submitted 6 June, 2024; originally announced June 2024. Comments: 14 + 72 pages, 6 figures arXiv:2405.01937 [ pdf , other ] cs.CV An Attention Based Pipeline for Identifying Pre-Cancer Lesions in Head and Neck Clinical Images Authors: Abdullah Alsalemi , Anza Shakeel , Mollie Clark , Syed Ali Khurram , Shan E Ahmed Raza Abstract : Early detection of cancer can help improve patient prognosis by early intervention. Head and neck cancer is diagnosed in specialist centres after a surgical biopsy, however, there is a potential for these to be missed leading to delayed diagnosis. To overcome these challenges, we present an attention based pipeline that identifies suspected lesions, segments, and classifies them as non-dysplastic,… ▽ More Early detection of cancer can help improve patient prognosis by early intervention. Head and neck cancer is diagnosed in specialist centres after a surgical biopsy, however, there is a potential for these to be missed leading to delayed diagnosis. To overcome these challenges, we present an attention based pipeline that identifies suspected lesions, segments, and classifies them as non-dysplastic, dysplastic and cancerous lesions. We propose (a) a vision transformer based Mask R-CNN network for lesion detection and segmentation of clinical images, and (b) Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) based scheme for classification. Current results show that the segmentation model produces segmentation masks and bounding boxes with up to 82% overlap accuracy score on unseen external test data and surpassing reviewed segmentation benchmarks. Next, a classification F1-score of 85% on the internal cohort test set. An app has been developed to perform lesion segmentation taken via a smart device. Future work involves employing endoscopic video data for precise early detection and prognosis. △ Less Submitted 7 May, 2024; v1 submitted 3 May, 2024; originally announced May 2024. Comments: 5 pages, 3 figures, accepted in ISBI 2024, update: corrected typos arXiv:2405.01937 [ pdf , other ] An Attention Based Pipeline for Identifying Pre-Cancer Lesions in Head and Neck Clinical Images Authors: Abdullah Alsalemi , Anza Shakeel , Mollie Clark , Syed Ali Khurram , Shan E Ahmed Raza Abstract : Early detection of cancer can help improve patient prognosis by early intervention. Head and neck cancer is diagnosed in specialist centres after a surgical biopsy, however, there is a potential for these to be missed leading to delayed diagnosis. To overcome these challenges, we present an attention based pipeline that identifies suspected lesions, segments, and classifies them as non-dysplastic,… ▽ More Early detection of cancer can help improve patient prognosis by early intervention. Head and neck cancer is diagnosed in specialist centres after a surgical biopsy, however, there is a potential for these to be missed leading to delayed diagnosis. To overcome these challenges, we present an attention based pipeline that identifies suspected lesions, segments, and classifies them as non-dysplastic, dysplastic and cancerous lesions. We propose (a) a vision transformer based Mask R-CNN network for lesion detection and segmentation of clinical images, and (b) Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) based scheme for classification. Current results show that the segmentation model produces segmentation masks and bounding boxes with up to 82% overlap accuracy score on unseen external test data and surpassing reviewed segmentation benchmarks. Next, a classification F1-score of 85% on the internal cohort test set. An app has been developed to perform lesion segmentation taken via a smart device. Future work involves employing endoscopic video data for precise early detection and prognosis. △ Less Submitted 7 May, 2024; v1 submitted 3 May, 2024; originally announced May 2024. Comments: 5 pages, 3 figures, accepted in ISBI 2024, update: corrected typos arXiv:2405.01458 [ pdf , other ] cs.CL cs.AI cs.IR cs.LG UQA: Corpus for Urdu Question Answering Authors: Samee Arif , Sualeha Farid , Awais Athar , Agha Ali Raza Abstract : This paper introduces UQA, a novel dataset for question answering and text comprehension in Urdu, a low-resource language with over 70 million native speakers. UQA is generated by translating the Stanford Question Answering Dataset (SQuAD2.0), a large-scale English QA dataset, using a technique called EATS (Enclose to Anchor, Translate, Seek), which preserves the answer spans in the translated con… ▽ More This paper introduces UQA, a novel dataset for question answering and text comprehension in Urdu, a low-resource language with over 70 million native speakers. UQA is generated by translating the Stanford Question Answering Dataset (SQuAD2.0), a large-scale English QA dataset, using a technique called EATS (Enclose to Anchor, Translate, Seek), which preserves the answer spans in the translated context paragraphs. The paper describes the process of selecting and evaluating the best translation model among two candidates: Google Translator and Seamless M4T. The paper also benchmarks several state-of-the-art multilingual QA models on UQA, including mBERT, XLM-RoBERTa, and mT5, and reports promising results. For XLM-RoBERTa-XL, we have an F1 score of 85.99 and 74.56 EM. UQA is a valuable resource for developing and testing multilingual NLP systems for Urdu and for enhancing the cross-lingual transferability of existing models. Further, the paper demonstrates the effectiveness of EATS for creating high-quality datasets for other languages and domains. The UQA dataset and the code are publicly available at www.github.com/sameearif/UQA. △ Less Submitted 22 July, 2024; v1 submitted 2 May, 2024; originally announced May 2024. Journal ref: Proceedings of the 2024 Joint International Conference on Computational Linguistics, Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC-COLING 2024), pp. 17237-17244, May 2024 arXiv:2405.01458 [ pdf , other ] UQA: Corpus for Urdu Question Answering Authors: Samee Arif , Sualeha Farid , Awais Athar , Agha Ali Raza Abstract : This paper introduces UQA, a novel dataset for question answering and text comprehension in Urdu, a low-resource language with over 70 million native speakers. UQA is generated by translating the Stanford Question Answering Dataset (SQuAD2.0), a large-scale English QA dataset, using a technique called EATS (Enclose to Anchor, Translate, Seek), which preserves the answer spans in the translated con… ▽ More This paper introduces UQA, a novel dataset for question answering and text comprehension in Urdu, a low-resource language with over 70 million native speakers. UQA is generated by translating the Stanford Question Answering Dataset (SQuAD2.0), a large-scale English QA dataset, using a technique called EATS (Enclose to Anchor, Translate, Seek), which preserves the answer spans in the translated context paragraphs. The paper describes the process of selecting and evaluating the best translation model among two candidates: Google Translator and Seamless M4T. The paper also benchmarks several state-of-the-art multilingual QA models on UQA, including mBERT, XLM-RoBERTa, and mT5, and reports promising results. For XLM-RoBERTa-XL, we have an F1 score of 85.99 and 74.56 EM. UQA is a valuable resource for developing and testing multilingual NLP systems for Urdu and for enhancing the cross-lingual transferability of existing models. Further, the paper demonstrates the effectiveness of EATS for creating high-quality datasets for other languages and domains. The UQA dataset and the code are publicly available at www.github.com/sameearif/UQA. △ Less Submitted 22 July, 2024; v1 submitted 2 May, 2024; originally announced May 2024. Journal ref: Proceedings of the 2024 Joint International Conference on Computational Linguistics, Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC-COLING 2024), pp. 17237-17244, May 2024 arXiv:2404.17041 [ pdf , other ] cs.CV Nuclei-Location Based Point Set Registration of Multi-Stained Whole Slide Images Authors: Adith Jeyasangar , Abdullah Alsalemi , Shan E Ahmed Raza Abstract : Whole Slide Images (WSIs) provide exceptional detail for studying tissue architecture at the cell level. To study tumour microenvironment (TME) with the context of various protein biomarkers and cell sub-types, analysis and registration of features using multi-stained WSIs is often required. Multi-stained WSI pairs normally suffer from rigid and non-rigid deformities in addition to slide artefacts… ▽ More Whole Slide Images (WSIs) provide exceptional detail for studying tissue architecture at the cell level. To study tumour microenvironment (TME) with the context of various protein biomarkers and cell sub-types, analysis and registration of features using multi-stained WSIs is often required. Multi-stained WSI pairs normally suffer from rigid and non-rigid deformities in addition to slide artefacts and control tissue which present challenges at precise registration. Traditional registration methods mainly focus on global rigid/non-rigid registration but struggle with aligning slides with complex tissue deformations at the nuclei level. However, nuclei level non-rigid registration is essential for downstream tasks such as cell sub-type analysis in the context of protein biomarker signatures. This paper focuses on local level non-rigid registration using a nuclei-location based point set registration approach for aligning multi-stained WSIs. We exploit the spatial distribution of nuclei that is prominent and consistent (to a large level) across different stains to establish a spatial correspondence. We evaluate our approach using the HYRECO dataset consisting of 54 re-stained images of H\&E and PHH3 image pairs. The approach can be extended to other IHC and IF stained WSIs considering a good nuclei detection algorithm is accessible. The performance of the model is tested against established registration algorithms and is shown to outperform the model for nuclei level registration. △ Less Submitted 25 April, 2024; originally announced April 2024. Comments: 15 pages, 5 figures, Submitted to Medical Image Understanding and Analysis Conference 2024 ACM Class: I.4.3 arXiv:2404.17041 [ pdf , other ] Nuclei-Location Based Point Set Registration of Multi-Stained Whole Slide Images Authors: Adith Jeyasangar , Abdullah Alsalemi , Shan E Ahmed Raza Abstract : Whole Slide Images (WSIs) provide exceptional detail for studying tissue architecture at the cell level. To study tumour microenvironment (TME) with the context of various protein biomarkers and cell sub-types, analysis and registration of features using multi-stained WSIs is often required. Multi-stained WSI pairs normally suffer from rigid and non-rigid deformities in addition to slide artefacts… ▽ More Whole Slide Images (WSIs) provide exceptional detail for studying tissue architecture at the cell level. To study tumour microenvironment (TME) with the context of various protein biomarkers and cell sub-types, analysis and registration of features using multi-stained WSIs is often required. Multi-stained WSI pairs normally suffer from rigid and non-rigid deformities in addition to slide artefacts and control tissue which present challenges at precise registration. Traditional registration methods mainly focus on global rigid/non-rigid registration but struggle with aligning slides with complex tissue deformations at the nuclei level. However, nuclei level non-rigid registration is essential for downstream tasks such as cell sub-type analysis in the context of protein biomarker signatures. This paper focuses on local level non-rigid registration using a nuclei-location based point set registration approach for aligning multi-stained WSIs. We exploit the spatial distribution of nuclei that is prominent and consistent (to a large level) across different stains to establish a spatial correspondence. We evaluate our approach using the HYRECO dataset consisting of 54 re-stained images of H\&E and PHH3 image pairs. The approach can be extended to other IHC and IF stained WSIs considering a good nuclei detection algorithm is accessible. The performance of the model is tested against established registration algorithms and is shown to outperform the model for nuclei level registration. △ Less Submitted 25 April, 2024; originally announced April 2024. Comments: 15 pages, 5 figures, Submitted to Medical Image Understanding and Analysis Conference 2024 ACM Class: I.4.3 arXiv:2404.13359 [ pdf , other ] cs.DB cs.DS cs.PL Declarative Concurrent Data Structures Authors: Aun Raza , Hamish Nicholson , Ioanna Tsakalidou , Anna Herlihy , Prathamesh Tagore , Anastasia Ailamaki Abstract : Implementing concurrent data structures is challenging and requires a deep understanding of concurrency concepts and careful design to ensure correctness, performance, and scalability. Further, composing operations on two or more concurrent data structures often requires a synchronization wrapper to ensure the operations are applied together atomically, resulting in serialization and, thereby, giv… ▽ More Implementing concurrent data structures is challenging and requires a deep understanding of concurrency concepts and careful design to ensure correctness, performance, and scalability. Further, composing operations on two or more concurrent data structures often requires a synchronization wrapper to ensure the operations are applied together atomically, resulting in serialization and, thereby, giving up the performance benefit of the individual data structures. DBMS provides generalized concurrency control (CC) and is a good fit for implementing concurrent data structures. However, DBMSs are over-generalized for this use case, which fails to match the performance of specialized implementations. This paper makes the case for the Declarative Concurrent Data Structures (DCDS) framework for automatically generating concurrent data structures from a serial specification. In DCDS, users declare the attributes and methods needed for their desired data structure through an embedded DSL at design time. DCDS automatically injects CC at build-time, generating a concurrent intermediate representation (IR) compiled into machine code. A declarative interface for designing data structure enables efficient composability through co-optimizing component structures; optimizations are applied to both the composed serial specification and the generated concurrent IR. We realize the DCDS framework in our prototype system Rosti and experimentally show that data structures declared in Rosti can be efficiently composed by co-optimizing their logical functionality and the generated CC protocol. Our evaluation shows that composing a map and a list to create an LRU container can benefit up to 2X performance scalability in Rosti compared to an open-source library. We demonstrate the applicability of DCDS as an in-process OLTP by comparing it with in-memory DBMS, Proteus, and showing up to 2X performance gains. △ Less Submitted 20 April, 2024; originally announced April 2024. arXiv:2404.13359 [ pdf , other ] Declarative Concurrent Data Structures Authors: Aun Raza , Hamish Nicholson , Ioanna Tsakalidou , Anna Herlihy , Prathamesh Tagore , Anastasia Ailamaki Abstract : Implementing concurrent data structures is challenging and requires a deep understanding of concurrency concepts and careful design to ensure correctness, performance, and scalability. Further, composing operations on two or more concurrent data structures often requires a synchronization wrapper to ensure the operations are applied together atomically, resulting in serialization and, thereby, giv… ▽ More Implementing concurrent data structures is challenging and requires a deep understanding of concurrency concepts and careful design to ensure correctness, performance, and scalability. Further, composing operations on two or more concurrent data structures often requires a synchronization wrapper to ensure the operations are applied together atomically, resulting in serialization and, thereby, giving up the performance benefit of the individual data structures. DBMS provides generalized concurrency control (CC) and is a good fit for implementing concurrent data structures. However, DBMSs are over-generalized for this use case, which fails to match the performance of specialized implementations. This paper makes the case for the Declarative Concurrent Data Structures (DCDS) framework for automatically generating concurrent data structures from a serial specification. In DCDS, users declare the attributes and methods needed for their desired data structure through an embedded DSL at design time. DCDS automatically injects CC at build-time, generating a concurrent intermediate representation (IR) compiled into machine code. A declarative interface for designing data structure enables efficient composability through co-optimizing component structures; optimizations are applied to both the composed serial specification and the generated concurrent IR. We realize the DCDS framework in our prototype system Rosti and experimentally show that data structures declared in Rosti can be efficiently composed by co-optimizing their logical functionality and the generated CC protocol. Our evaluation shows that composing a map and a list to create an LRU container can benefit up to 2X performance scalability in Rosti compared to an open-source library. We demonstrate the applicability of DCDS as an in-process OLTP by comparing it with in-memory DBMS, Proteus, and showing up to 2X performance gains. △ Less Submitted 20 April, 2024; originally announced April 2024. arXiv:2403.09259 [ pdf , other ] cs.CL cs.LG To Label or Not to Label: Hybrid Active Learning for Neural Machine Translation Authors: Abdul Hameed Azeemi , Ihsan Ayyub Qazi , Agha Ali Raza Abstract : Active learning (AL) techniques reduce labeling costs for training neural machine translation (NMT) models by selecting smaller representative subsets from unlabeled data for annotation. Diversity sampling techniques select heterogeneous instances, while uncertainty sampling methods select instances with the highest model uncertainty. Both approaches have limitations - diversity methods may extrac… ▽ More Active learning (AL) techniques reduce labeling costs for training neural machine translation (NMT) models by selecting smaller representative subsets from unlabeled data for annotation. Diversity sampling techniques select heterogeneous instances, while uncertainty sampling methods select instances with the highest model uncertainty. Both approaches have limitations - diversity methods may extract varied but trivial examples, while uncertainty sampling can yield repetitive, uninformative instances. To bridge this gap, we propose Hybrid Uncertainty and Diversity Sampling (HUDS), an AL strategy for domain adaptation in NMT that combines uncertainty and diversity for sentence selection. HUDS computes uncertainty scores for unlabeled sentences and subsequently stratifies them. It then clusters sentence embeddings within each stratum and computes diversity scores by distance to the centroid. A weighted hybrid score that combines uncertainty and diversity is then used to select the top instances for annotation in each AL iteration. Experiments on multi-domain German-English and French-English datasets demonstrate the better performance of HUDS over other strong AL baselines. We analyze the sentence selection with HUDS and show that it prioritizes diverse instances having high model uncertainty for annotation in early AL iterations. △ Less Submitted 18 December, 2024; v1 submitted 14 March, 2024; originally announced March 2024. Comments: The 31st International Conference on Computational Linguistics (COLING 2025) arXiv:2403.09259 [ pdf , other ] To Label or Not to Label: Hybrid Active Learning for Neural Machine Translation Authors: Abdul Hameed Azeemi , Ihsan Ayyub Qazi , Agha Ali Raza Abstract : Active learning (AL) techniques reduce labeling costs for training neural machine translation (NMT) models by selecting smaller representative subsets from unlabeled data for annotation. Diversity sampling techniques select heterogeneous instances, while uncertainty sampling methods select instances with the highest model uncertainty. Both approaches have limitations - diversity methods may extrac… ▽ More Active learning (AL) techniques reduce labeling costs for training neural machine translation (NMT) models by selecting smaller representative subsets from unlabeled data for annotation. Diversity sampling techniques select heterogeneous instances, while uncertainty sampling methods select instances with the highest model uncertainty. Both approaches have limitations - diversity methods may extract varied but trivial examples, while uncertainty sampling can yield repetitive, uninformative instances. To bridge this gap, we propose Hybrid Uncertainty and Diversity Sampling (HUDS), an AL strategy for domain adaptation in NMT that combines uncertainty and diversity for sentence selection. HUDS computes uncertainty scores for unlabeled sentences and subsequently stratifies them. It then clusters sentence embeddings within each stratum and computes diversity scores by distance to the centroid. A weighted hybrid score that combines uncertainty and diversity is then used to select the top instances for annotation in each AL iteration. Experiments on multi-domain German-English and French-English datasets demonstrate the better performance of HUDS over other strong AL baselines. We analyze the sentence selection with HUDS and show that it prioritizes diverse instances having high model uncertainty for annotation in early AL iterations. △ Less Submitted 18 December, 2024; v1 submitted 14 March, 2024; originally announced March 2024. Comments: The 31st International Conference on Computational Linguistics (COLING 2025) arXiv:2402.19296 [ pdf ] cs.CV cs.LG An AI based Digital Score of Tumour-Immune Microenvironment Predicts Benefit to Maintenance Immunotherapy in Advanced Oesophagogastric Adenocarcinoma Authors: Quoc Dang Vu , Caroline Fong , Anderley Gordon , Tom Lund , Tatiany L Silveira , Daniel Rodrigues , Katharina von Loga , Shan E Ahmed Raza , David Cunningham , Nasir Rajpoot Abstract : Gastric and oesophageal (OG) cancers are the leading causes of cancer mortality worldwide. In OG cancers, recent studies have showed that PDL1 immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) in combination with chemotherapy improves patient survival. However, our understanding of the tumour immune microenvironment in OG cancers remains limited. In this study, we interrogate multiplex immunofluorescence (mIF) i… ▽ More Gastric and oesophageal (OG) cancers are the leading causes of cancer mortality worldwide. In OG cancers, recent studies have showed that PDL1 immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) in combination with chemotherapy improves patient survival. However, our understanding of the tumour immune microenvironment in OG cancers remains limited. In this study, we interrogate multiplex immunofluorescence (mIF) images taken from patients with advanced Oesophagogastric Adenocarcinoma (OGA) who received first-line fluoropyrimidine and platinum-based chemotherapy in the PLATFORM trial (NCT02678182) to predict the efficacy of the treatment and to explore the biological basis of patients responding to maintenance durvalumab (PDL1 inhibitor). Our proposed Artificial Intelligence (AI) based marker successfully identified responder from non-responder (p < 0.05) as well as those who could potentially benefit from ICI with statistical significance (p < 0.05) for both progression free and overall survival. Our findings suggest that T cells that express FOXP3 seem to heavily influence the patient treatment response and survival outcome. We also observed that higher levels of CD8+PD1+ cells are consistently linked to poor prognosis for both OS and PFS, regardless of ICI. △ Less Submitted 29 February, 2024; originally announced February 2024. arXiv:2402.19296 [ pdf ] An AI based Digital Score of Tumour-Immune Microenvironment Predicts Benefit to Maintenance Immunotherapy in Advanced Oesophagogastric Adenocarcinoma Authors: Quoc Dang Vu , Caroline Fong , Anderley Gordon , Tom Lund , Tatiany L Silveira , Daniel Rodrigues , Katharina von Loga , Shan E Ahmed Raza , David Cunningham , Nasir Rajpoot Abstract : Gastric and oesophageal (OG) cancers are the leading causes of cancer mortality worldwide. In OG cancers, recent studies have showed that PDL1 immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) in combination with chemotherapy improves patient survival. However, our understanding of the tumour immune microenvironment in OG cancers remains limited. In this study, we interrogate multiplex immunofluorescence (mIF) i… ▽ More Gastric and oesophageal (OG) cancers are the leading causes of cancer mortality worldwide. In OG cancers, recent studies have showed that PDL1 immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) in combination with chemotherapy improves patient survival. However, our understanding of the tumour immune microenvironment in OG cancers remains limited. In this study, we interrogate multiplex immunofluorescence (mIF) images taken from patients with advanced Oesophagogastric Adenocarcinoma (OGA) who received first-line fluoropyrimidine and platinum-based chemotherapy in the PLATFORM trial (NCT02678182) to predict the efficacy of the treatment and to explore the biological basis of patients responding to maintenance durvalumab (PDL1 inhibitor). Our proposed Artificial Intelligence (AI) based marker successfully identified responder from non-responder (p < 0.05) as well as those who could potentially benefit from ICI with statistical significance (p < 0.05) for both progression free and overall survival. Our findings suggest that T cells that express FOXP3 seem to heavily influence the patient treatment response and survival outcome. We also observed that higher levels of CD8+PD1+ cells are consistently linked to poor prognosis for both OS and PFS, regardless of ICI. △ Less Submitted 29 February, 2024; originally announced February 2024. arXiv:2401.17186 [ pdf , other ] cs.CV cs.AI cs.IR Embracing Language Inclusivity and Diversity in CLIP through Continual Language Learning Authors: Bang Yang , Yong Dai , Xuxin Cheng , Yaowei Li , Asif Raza , Yuexian Zou Abstract : While vision-language pre-trained models (VL-PTMs) have advanced multimodal research in recent years, their mastery in a few languages like English restricts their applicability in broader communities. To this end, there is an increasing interest in developing multilingual VL models via a joint-learning setup, which, however, could be unrealistic due to expensive costs and data availability. In th… ▽ More While vision-language pre-trained models (VL-PTMs) have advanced multimodal research in recent years, their mastery in a few languages like English restricts their applicability in broader communities. To this end, there is an increasing interest in developing multilingual VL models via a joint-learning setup, which, however, could be unrealistic due to expensive costs and data availability. In this work, we propose to extend VL-PTMs' language capacity by continual language learning (CLL), where a model needs to update its linguistic knowledge incrementally without suffering from catastrophic forgetting (CF). We begin our study by introducing a model dubbed CLL-CLIP, which builds upon CLIP, a prevailing VL-PTM that has acquired image-English text alignment. Specifically, CLL-CLIP contains an expandable token embedding layer to handle linguistic differences. It solely trains token embeddings to improve memory stability and is optimized under cross-modal and cross-lingual objectives to learn the alignment between images and multilingual texts. To alleviate CF raised by covariate shift and lexical overlap, we further propose a novel approach that ensures the identical distribution of all token embeddings during initialization and regularizes token embedding learning during training. We construct a CLL benchmark covering 36 languages based on MSCOCO and XM3600 datasets and then evaluate multilingual image-text retrieval performance. Extensive experiments verify the effectiveness of CLL-CLIP and show that our approach can boost CLL-CLIP, e.g., by 6.7% in text-to-image average Recall@1 on XM3600, and improve various state-of-the-art methods consistently. Our code and data are available at \url{ △ Less Submitted 30 January, 2024; originally announced January 2024. Comments: Accepted by AAAI'2024, 15 pages (with appendix), 7 figures, 10 tables arXiv:2401.17186 [ pdf , other ] Embracing Language Inclusivity and Diversity in CLIP through Continual Language Learning Authors: Bang Yang , Yong Dai , Xuxin Cheng , Yaowei Li , Asif Raza , Yuexian Zou Abstract : While vision-language pre-trained models (VL-PTMs) have advanced multimodal research in recent years, their mastery in a few languages like English restricts their applicability in broader communities. To this end, there is an increasing interest in developing multilingual VL models via a joint-learning setup, which, however, could be unrealistic due to expensive costs and data availability. In th… ▽ More While vision-language pre-trained models (VL-PTMs) have advanced multimodal research in recent years, their mastery in a few languages like English restricts their applicability in broader communities. To this end, there is an increasing interest in developing multilingual VL models via a joint-learning setup, which, however, could be unrealistic due to expensive costs and data availability. In this work, we propose to extend VL-PTMs' language capacity by continual language learning (CLL), where a model needs to update its linguistic knowledge incrementally without suffering from catastrophic forgetting (CF). We begin our study by introducing a model dubbed CLL-CLIP, which builds upon CLIP, a prevailing VL-PTM that has acquired image-English text alignment. Specifically, CLL-CLIP contains an expandable token embedding layer to handle linguistic differences. It solely trains token embeddings to improve memory stability and is optimized under cross-modal and cross-lingual objectives to learn the alignment between images and multilingual texts. To alleviate CF raised by covariate shift and lexical overlap, we further propose a novel approach that ensures the identical distribution of all token embeddings during initialization and regularizes token embedding learning during training. We construct a CLL benchmark covering 36 languages based on MSCOCO and XM3600 datasets and then evaluate multilingual image-text retrieval performance. Extensive experiments verify the effectiveness of CLL-CLIP and show that our approach can boost CLL-CLIP, e.g., by 6.7% in text-to-image average Recall@1 on XM3600, and improve various state-of-the-art methods consistently. Our code and data are available at \url{ △ Less Submitted 30 January, 2024; originally announced January 2024. Comments: Accepted by AAAI'2024, 15 pages (with appendix), 7 figures, 10 tables arXiv:2401.07209 [ pdf ] cs.HC Designing Visual Learning Analytics for Supporting Equity in STEM Classrooms Authors: Ali Raza , William R. Penuel , Tamara Sumner Abstract : Supporting equitable instruction is an important issue for teachers attending diverse STEM classrooms. Visual learning analytics along with effective student survey measures can support providing on time feedback to teachers in making instruction more culturally relevant to all students. We adopted a user-centered approach, where we engaged seven middle school science teachers in iterative testing… ▽ More Supporting equitable instruction is an important issue for teachers attending diverse STEM classrooms. Visual learning analytics along with effective student survey measures can support providing on time feedback to teachers in making instruction more culturally relevant to all students. We adopted a user-centered approach, where we engaged seven middle school science teachers in iterative testing of thirty data visualizations disaggregated over markers such as gender and race for implementation of selected displays in a visual learning analytics tool- Student Electronic Exit Ticket (SEET). This process helped us gather insights into teachers' sensemaking in identifying patterns of student data related to gender and race, selecting and improving the design of the feedback displays for the SEET [10]. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2024; originally announced January 2024. Journal ref: Poster Proceedings IEEE Visualization 2020 arXiv:2401.07209 [ pdf ] Designing Visual Learning Analytics for Supporting Equity in STEM Classrooms Authors: Ali Raza , William R. Penuel , Tamara Sumner Abstract : Supporting equitable instruction is an important issue for teachers attending diverse STEM classrooms. Visual learning analytics along with effective student survey measures can support providing on time feedback to teachers in making instruction more culturally relevant to all students. We adopted a user-centered approach, where we engaged seven middle school science teachers in iterative testing… ▽ More Supporting equitable instruction is an important issue for teachers attending diverse STEM classrooms. Visual learning analytics along with effective student survey measures can support providing on time feedback to teachers in making instruction more culturally relevant to all students. We adopted a user-centered approach, where we engaged seven middle school science teachers in iterative testing of thirty data visualizations disaggregated over markers such as gender and race for implementation of selected displays in a visual learning analytics tool- Student Electronic Exit Ticket (SEET). This process helped us gather insights into teachers' sensemaking in identifying patterns of student data related to gender and race, selecting and improving the design of the feedback displays for the SEET [10]. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2024; originally announced January 2024. Journal ref: Poster Proceedings IEEE Visualization 2020 arXiv:2311.15847 [ pdf , other ] eess.IV cs.CV cs.LG Cell Maps Representation For Lung Adenocarcinoma Growth Patterns Classification In Whole Slide Images Authors: Arwa Al-Rubaian , Gozde N. Gunesli , Wajd A. Althakfi , Ayesha Azam , Nasir Rajpoot , Shan E Ahmed Raza Abstract : Lung adenocarcinoma is a morphologically heterogeneous disease, characterized by five primary histologic growth patterns. The quantity of these patterns can be related to tumor behavior and has a significant impact on patient prognosis. In this work, we propose a novel machine learning pipeline capable of classifying tissue tiles into one of the five patterns or as non-tumor, with an Area Under th… ▽ More Lung adenocarcinoma is a morphologically heterogeneous disease, characterized by five primary histologic growth patterns. The quantity of these patterns can be related to tumor behavior and has a significant impact on patient prognosis. In this work, we propose a novel machine learning pipeline capable of classifying tissue tiles into one of the five patterns or as non-tumor, with an Area Under the Receiver Operating Characteristic Curve (AUCROC) score of 0.97. Our model's strength lies in its comprehensive consideration of cellular spatial patterns, where it first generates cell maps from Hematoxylin and Eosin (H&E) whole slide images (WSIs), which are then fed into a convolutional neural network classification model. Exploiting these cell maps provides the model with robust generalizability to new data, achieving approximately 30% higher accuracy on unseen test-sets compared to current state of the art approaches. The insights derived from our model can be used to predict prognosis, enhancing patient outcomes. △ Less Submitted 16 May, 2024; v1 submitted 27 November, 2023; originally announced November 2023. arXiv:2311.15847 [ pdf , other ] Cell Maps Representation For Lung Adenocarcinoma Growth Patterns Classification In Whole Slide Images Authors: Arwa Al-Rubaian , Gozde N. Gunesli , Wajd A. Althakfi , Ayesha Azam , Nasir Rajpoot , Shan E Ahmed Raza Abstract : Lung adenocarcinoma is a morphologically heterogeneous disease, characterized by five primary histologic growth patterns. The quantity of these patterns can be related to tumor behavior and has a significant impact on patient prognosis. In this work, we propose a novel machine learning pipeline capable of classifying tissue tiles into one of the five patterns or as non-tumor, with an Area Under th… ▽ More Lung adenocarcinoma is a morphologically heterogeneous disease, characterized by five primary histologic growth patterns. The quantity of these patterns can be related to tumor behavior and has a significant impact on patient prognosis. In this work, we propose a novel machine learning pipeline capable of classifying tissue tiles into one of the five patterns or as non-tumor, with an Area Under the Receiver Operating Characteristic Curve (AUCROC) score of 0.97. Our model's strength lies in its comprehensive consideration of cellular spatial patterns, where it first generates cell maps from Hematoxylin and Eosin (H&E) whole slide images (WSIs), which are then fed into a convolutional neural network classification model. Exploiting these cell maps provides the model with robust generalizability to new data, achieving approximately 30% higher accuracy on unseen test-sets compared to current state of the art approaches. The insights derived from our model can be used to predict prognosis, enhancing patient outcomes. △ Less Submitted 16 May, 2024; v1 submitted 27 November, 2023; originally announced November 2023. arXiv:2311.14674 [ pdf ] cs.CL cs.AI cs.IT Emotion-Oriented Behavior Model Using Deep Learning Authors: Muhammad Arslan Raza , Muhammad Shoaib Farooq , Adel Khelifi , Atif Alvi Abstract : Emotions, as a fundamental ingredient of any social interaction, lead to behaviors that represent the effectiveness of the interaction through facial expressions and gestures in humans. Hence an agent must possess the social and cognitive abilities to understand human social parameters and behave accordingly. However, no such emotion-oriented behavior model is presented yet in the existing researc… ▽ More Emotions, as a fundamental ingredient of any social interaction, lead to behaviors that represent the effectiveness of the interaction through facial expressions and gestures in humans. Hence an agent must possess the social and cognitive abilities to understand human social parameters and behave accordingly. However, no such emotion-oriented behavior model is presented yet in the existing research. The emotion prediction may generate appropriate agents' behaviors for effective interaction using conversation modality. Considering the importance of emotions, and behaviors, for an agent's social interaction, an Emotion-based Behavior model is presented in this paper for Socio-cognitive artificial agents. The proposed model is implemented using tweets data trained on multiple models like Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM), Convolution Neural Network (CNN) and Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers (BERT) for emotion prediction with an average accuracy of 92%, and 55% respectively. Further, using emotion predictions from CNN-LSTM, the behavior module responds using facial expressions and gestures using Behavioral Markup Language (BML). The accuracy of emotion-based behavior predictions is statistically validated using the 2-tailed Pearson correlation on the data collected from human users through questionnaires. Analysis shows that all emotion-based behaviors accurately depict human-like gestures and facial expressions based on the significant correlation at the 0.01 and 0.05 levels. This study is a steppingstone to a multi-faceted artificial agent interaction based on emotion-oriented behaviors. Cognition has significance regarding social interaction among humans. △ Less Submitted 28 October, 2023; originally announced November 2023. arXiv:2311.14674 [ pdf ] Emotion-Oriented Behavior Model Using Deep Learning Authors: Muhammad Arslan Raza , Muhammad Shoaib Farooq , Adel Khelifi , Atif Alvi Abstract : Emotions, as a fundamental ingredient of any social interaction, lead to behaviors that represent the effectiveness of the interaction through facial expressions and gestures in humans. Hence an agent must possess the social and cognitive abilities to understand human social parameters and behave accordingly. However, no such emotion-oriented behavior model is presented yet in the existing researc… ▽ More Emotions, as a fundamental ingredient of any social interaction, lead to behaviors that represent the effectiveness of the interaction through facial expressions and gestures in humans. Hence an agent must possess the social and cognitive abilities to understand human social parameters and behave accordingly. However, no such emotion-oriented behavior model is presented yet in the existing research. The emotion prediction may generate appropriate agents' behaviors for effective interaction using conversation modality. Considering the importance of emotions, and behaviors, for an agent's social interaction, an Emotion-based Behavior model is presented in this paper for Socio-cognitive artificial agents. The proposed model is implemented using tweets data trained on multiple models like Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM), Convolution Neural Network (CNN) and Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers (BERT) for emotion prediction with an average accuracy of 92%, and 55% respectively. Further, using emotion predictions from CNN-LSTM, the behavior module responds using facial expressions and gestures using Behavioral Markup Language (BML). The accuracy of emotion-based behavior predictions is statistically validated using the 2-tailed Pearson correlation on the data collected from human users through questionnaires. Analysis shows that all emotion-based behaviors accurately depict human-like gestures and facial expressions based on the significant correlation at the 0.01 and 0.05 levels. This study is a steppingstone to a multi-faceted artificial agent interaction based on emotion-oriented behaviors. Cognition has significance regarding social interaction among humans. △ Less Submitted 28 October, 2023; originally announced November 2023. arXiv:2311.06185 [ pdf , other ] eess.IV cs.CV cs.LG q-bio.QM An Automated Pipeline for Tumour-Infiltrating Lymphocyte Scoring in Breast Cancer Authors: Adam J Shephard , Mostafa Jahanifar , Ruoyu Wang , Muhammad Dawood , Simon Graham , Kastytis Sidlauskas , Syed Ali Khurram , Nasir M Rajpoot , Shan E Ahmed Raza Abstract : Tumour-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) are considered as a valuable prognostic markers in both triple-negative and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) positive breast cancer. In this study, we introduce an innovative deep learning pipeline based on the Efficient-UNet architecture to predict the TILs score for breast cancer whole-slide images (WSIs). We first segment tumour and stromal… ▽ More Tumour-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) are considered as a valuable prognostic markers in both triple-negative and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) positive breast cancer. In this study, we introduce an innovative deep learning pipeline based on the Efficient-UNet architecture to predict the TILs score for breast cancer whole-slide images (WSIs). We first segment tumour and stromal regions in order to compute a tumour bulk mask. We then detect TILs within the tumour-associated stroma, generating a TILs score by closely mirroring the pathologist's workflow. Our method exhibits state-of-the-art performance in segmenting tumour/stroma areas and TILs detection, as demonstrated by internal cross-validation on the TiGER Challenge training dataset and evaluation on the final leaderboards. Additionally, our TILs score proves competitive in predicting survival outcomes within the same challenge, underscoring the clinical relevance and potential of our automated TILs scoring pipeline as a breast cancer prognostic tool. △ Less Submitted 21 November, 2023; v1 submitted 10 November, 2023; originally announced November 2023. Comments: 5 pages, 1 figure, 2 tables arXiv:2311.06185 [ pdf , other ] An Automated Pipeline for Tumour-Infiltrating Lymphocyte Scoring in Breast Cancer Authors: Adam J Shephard , Mostafa Jahanifar , Ruoyu Wang , Muhammad Dawood , Simon Graham , Kastytis Sidlauskas , Syed Ali Khurram , Nasir M Rajpoot , Shan E Ahmed Raza Abstract : Tumour-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) are considered as a valuable prognostic markers in both triple-negative and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) positive breast cancer. In this study, we introduce an innovative deep learning pipeline based on the Efficient-UNet architecture to predict the TILs score for breast cancer whole-slide images (WSIs). We first segment tumour and stromal… ▽ More Tumour-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) are considered as a valuable prognostic markers in both triple-negative and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) positive breast cancer. In this study, we introduce an innovative deep learning pipeline based on the Efficient-UNet architecture to predict the TILs score for breast cancer whole-slide images (WSIs). We first segment tumour and stromal regions in order to compute a tumour bulk mask. We then detect TILs within the tumour-associated stroma, generating a TILs score by closely mirroring the pathologist's workflow. Our method exhibits state-of-the-art performance in segmenting tumour/stroma areas and TILs detection, as demonstrated by internal cross-validation on the TiGER Challenge training dataset and evaluation on the final leaderboards. Additionally, our TILs score proves competitive in predicting survival outcomes within the same challenge, underscoring the clinical relevance and potential of our automated TILs scoring pipeline as a breast cancer prognostic tool. △ Less Submitted 21 November, 2023; v1 submitted 10 November, 2023; originally announced November 2023. Comments: 5 pages, 1 figure, 2 tables arXiv:2311.05452 [ pdf , other ] eess.IV cs.CV cs.LG Transformer-based Model for Oral Epithelial Dysplasia Segmentation Authors: Adam J Shephard , Hanya Mahmood , Shan E Ahmed Raza , Anna Luiza Damaceno Araujo , Alan Roger Santos-Silva , Marcio Ajudarte Lopes , Pablo Agustin Vargas , Kris McCombe , Stephanie Craig , Jacqueline James , Jill Brooks , Paul Nankivell , Hisham Mehanna , Syed Ali Khurram , Nasir M Rajpoot Abstract : Oral epithelial dysplasia (OED) is a premalignant histopathological diagnosis given to lesions of the oral cavity. OED grading is subject to large inter/intra-rater variability, resulting in the under/over-treatment of patients. We developed a new Transformer-based pipeline to improve detection and segmentation of OED in haematoxylin and eosin (H&E) stained whole slide images (WSIs). Our model was… ▽ More Oral epithelial dysplasia (OED) is a premalignant histopathological diagnosis given to lesions of the oral cavity. OED grading is subject to large inter/intra-rater variability, resulting in the under/over-treatment of patients. We developed a new Transformer-based pipeline to improve detection and segmentation of OED in haematoxylin and eosin (H&E) stained whole slide images (WSIs). Our model was trained on OED cases (n = 260) and controls (n = 105) collected using three different scanners, and validated on test data from three external centres in the United Kingdom and Brazil (n = 78). Our internal experiments yield a mean F1-score of 0.81 for OED segmentation, which reduced slightly to 0.71 on external testing, showing good generalisability, and gaining state-of-the-art results. This is the first externally validated study to use Transformers for segmentation in precancerous histology images. Our publicly available model shows great promise to be the first step of a fully-integrated pipeline, allowing earlier and more efficient OED diagnosis, ultimately benefiting patient outcomes. △ Less Submitted 9 November, 2023; originally announced November 2023. Comments: 5 pages, 2 figures, 4 tables arXiv:2311.05452 [ pdf , other ] Transformer-based Model for Oral Epithelial Dysplasia Segmentation Authors: Adam J Shephard , Hanya Mahmood , Shan E Ahmed Raza , Anna Luiza Damaceno Araujo , Alan Roger Santos-Silva , Marcio Ajudarte Lopes , Pablo Agustin Vargas , Kris McCombe , Stephanie Craig , Jacqueline James , Jill Brooks , Paul Nankivell , Hisham Mehanna , Syed Ali Khurram , Nasir M Rajpoot Abstract : Oral epithelial dysplasia (OED) is a premalignant histopathological diagnosis given to lesions of the oral cavity. OED grading is subject to large inter/intra-rater variability, resulting in the under/over-treatment of patients. We developed a new Transformer-based pipeline to improve detection and segmentation of OED in haematoxylin and eosin (H&E) stained whole slide images (WSIs). Our model was… ▽ More Oral epithelial dysplasia (OED) is a premalignant histopathological diagnosis given to lesions of the oral cavity. OED grading is subject to large inter/intra-rater variability, resulting in the under/over-treatment of patients. We developed a new Transformer-based pipeline to improve detection and segmentation of OED in haematoxylin and eosin (H&E) stained whole slide images (WSIs). Our model was trained on OED cases (n = 260) and controls (n = 105) collected using three different scanners, and validated on test data from three external centres in the United Kingdom and Brazil (n = 78). Our internal experiments yield a mean F1-score of 0.81 for OED segmentation, which reduced slightly to 0.71 on external testing, showing good generalisability, and gaining state-of-the-art results. This is the first externally validated study to use Transformers for segmentation in precancerous histology images. Our publicly available model shows great promise to be the first step of a fully-integrated pipeline, allowing earlier and more efficient OED diagnosis, ultimately benefiting patient outcomes. △ Less Submitted 9 November, 2023; originally announced November 2023. Comments: 5 pages, 2 figures, 4 tables arXiv:2310.19656 [ pdf , other ] eess.IV cs.CV cs.LG Domain Generalization in Computational Pathology: Survey and Guidelines Authors: Mostafa Jahanifar , Manahil Raza , Kesi Xu , Trinh Vuong , Rob Jewsbury , Adam Shephard , Neda Zamanitajeddin , Jin Tae Kwak , Shan E Ahmed Raza , Fayyaz Minhas , Nasir Rajpoot Abstract : Deep learning models have exhibited exceptional effectiveness in Computational Pathology (CPath) by tackling intricate tasks across an array of histology image analysis applications. Nevertheless, the presence of out-of-distribution data (stemming from a multitude of sources such as disparate imaging devices and diverse tissue preparation methods) can cause \emph{domain shift} (DS). DS decreases t… ▽ More Deep learning models have exhibited exceptional effectiveness in Computational Pathology (CPath) by tackling intricate tasks across an array of histology image analysis applications. Nevertheless, the presence of out-of-distribution data (stemming from a multitude of sources such as disparate imaging devices and diverse tissue preparation methods) can cause \emph{domain shift} (DS). DS decreases the generalization of trained models to unseen datasets with slightly different data distributions, prompting the need for innovative \emph{domain generalization} (DG) solutions. Recognizing the potential of DG methods to significantly influence diagnostic and prognostic models in cancer studies and clinical practice, we present this survey along with guidelines on achieving DG in CPath. We rigorously define various DS types, systematically review and categorize existing DG approaches and resources in CPath, and provide insights into their advantages, limitations, and applicability. We also conduct thorough benchmarking experiments with 28 cutting-edge DG algorithms to address a complex DG problem. Our findings suggest that careful experiment design and CPath-specific Stain Augmentation technique can be very effective. However, there is no one-size-fits-all solution for DG in CPath. Therefore, we establish clear guidelines for detecting and managing DS depending on different scenarios. While most of the concepts, guidelines, and recommendations are given for applications in CPath, we believe that they are applicable to most medical image analysis tasks as well. △ Less Submitted 30 October, 2023; originally announced October 2023. Comments: Extended Version arXiv:2310.19656 [ pdf , other ] Domain Generalization in Computational Pathology: Survey and Guidelines Authors: Mostafa Jahanifar , Manahil Raza , Kesi Xu , Trinh Vuong , Rob Jewsbury , Adam Shephard , Neda Zamanitajeddin , Jin Tae Kwak , Shan E Ahmed Raza , Fayyaz Minhas , Nasir Rajpoot Abstract : Deep learning models have exhibited exceptional effectiveness in Computational Pathology (CPath) by tackling intricate tasks across an array of histology image analysis applications. Nevertheless, the presence of out-of-distribution data (stemming from a multitude of sources such as disparate imaging devices and diverse tissue preparation methods) can cause \emph{domain shift} (DS). DS decreases t… ▽ More Deep learning models have exhibited exceptional effectiveness in Computational Pathology (CPath) by tackling intricate tasks across an array of histology image analysis applications. Nevertheless, the presence of out-of-distribution data (stemming from a multitude of sources such as disparate imaging devices and diverse tissue preparation methods) can cause \emph{domain shift} (DS). DS decreases the generalization of trained models to unseen datasets with slightly different data distributions, prompting the need for innovative \emph{domain generalization} (DG) solutions. Recognizing the potential of DG methods to significantly influence diagnostic and prognostic models in cancer studies and clinical practice, we present this survey along with guidelines on achieving DG in CPath. We rigorously define various DS types, systematically review and categorize existing DG approaches and resources in CPath, and provide insights into their advantages, limitations, and applicability. We also conduct thorough benchmarking experiments with 28 cutting-edge DG algorithms to address a complex DG problem. Our findings suggest that careful experiment design and CPath-specific Stain Augmentation technique can be very effective. However, there is no one-size-fits-all solution for DG in CPath. Therefore, we establish clear guidelines for detecting and managing DS depending on different scenarios. While most of the concepts, guidelines, and recommendations are given for applications in CPath, we believe that they are applicable to most medical image analysis tasks as well. △ Less Submitted 30 October, 2023; originally announced October 2023. Comments: Extended Version arXiv:2307.03757 [ pdf ] q-bio.QM cs.CV eess.IV A Fully Automated and Explainable Algorithm for the Prediction of Malignant Transformation in Oral Epithelial Dysplasia Authors: Adam J Shephard , Raja Muhammad Saad Bashir , Hanya Mahmood , Mostafa Jahanifar , Fayyaz Minhas , Shan E Ahmed Raza , Kris D McCombe , Stephanie G Craig , Jacqueline James , Jill Brooks , Paul Nankivell , Hisham Mehanna , Syed Ali Khurram , Nasir M Rajpoot Abstract : Oral epithelial dysplasia (OED) is a premalignant histopathological diagnosis given to lesions of the oral cavity. Its grading suffers from significant inter-/intra- observer variability, and does not reliably predict malignancy progression, potentially leading to suboptimal treatment decisions. To address this, we developed a novel artificial intelligence algorithm that can assign an Oral Maligna… ▽ More Oral epithelial dysplasia (OED) is a premalignant histopathological diagnosis given to lesions of the oral cavity. Its grading suffers from significant inter-/intra- observer variability, and does not reliably predict malignancy progression, potentially leading to suboptimal treatment decisions. To address this, we developed a novel artificial intelligence algorithm that can assign an Oral Malignant Transformation (OMT) risk score, based on histological patterns in the in Haematoxylin and Eosin stained whole slide images, to quantify the risk of OED progression. The algorithm is based on the detection and segmentation of nuclei within (and around) the epithelium using an in-house segmentation model. We then employed a shallow neural network fed with interpretable morphological/spatial features, emulating histological markers. We conducted internal cross-validation on our development cohort (Sheffield; n = 193 cases) followed by independent validation on two external cohorts (Birmingham and Belfast; n = 92 cases). The proposed OMTscore yields an AUROC = 0.74 in predicting whether an OED progresses to malignancy or not. Survival analyses showed the prognostic value of our OMTscore for predicting malignancy transformation, when compared to the manually-assigned WHO and binary grades. Analysis of the correctly predicted cases elucidated the presence of peri-epithelial and epithelium-infiltrating lymphocytes in the most predictive patches of cases that transformed (p < 0.0001). This is the first study to propose a completely automated algorithm for predicting OED transformation based on interpretable nuclear features, whilst being validated on external datasets. The algorithm shows better-than-human-level performance for prediction of OED malignant transformation and offers a promising solution to the challenges of grading OED in routine clinical practice. △ Less Submitted 6 July, 2023; originally announced July 2023. arXiv:2307.03757 [ pdf ] A Fully Automated and Explainable Algorithm for the Prediction of Malignant Transformation in Oral Epithelial Dysplasia Authors: Adam J Shephard , Raja Muhammad Saad Bashir , Hanya Mahmood , Mostafa Jahanifar , Fayyaz Minhas , Shan E Ahmed Raza , Kris D McCombe , Stephanie G Craig , Jacqueline James , Jill Brooks , Paul Nankivell , Hisham Mehanna , Syed Ali Khurram , Nasir M Rajpoot Abstract : Oral epithelial dysplasia (OED) is a premalignant histopathological diagnosis given to lesions of the oral cavity. Its grading suffers from significant inter-/intra- observer variability, and does not reliably predict malignancy progression, potentially leading to suboptimal treatment decisions. To address this, we developed a novel artificial intelligence algorithm that can assign an Oral Maligna… ▽ More Oral epithelial dysplasia (OED) is a premalignant histopathological diagnosis given to lesions of the oral cavity. Its grading suffers from significant inter-/intra- observer variability, and does not reliably predict malignancy progression, potentially leading to suboptimal treatment decisions. To address this, we developed a novel artificial intelligence algorithm that can assign an Oral Malignant Transformation (OMT) risk score, based on histological patterns in the in Haematoxylin and Eosin stained whole slide images, to quantify the risk of OED progression. The algorithm is based on the detection and segmentation of nuclei within (and around) the epithelium using an in-house segmentation model. We then employed a shallow neural network fed with interpretable morphological/spatial features, emulating histological markers. We conducted internal cross-validation on our development cohort (Sheffield; n = 193 cases) followed by independent validation on two external cohorts (Birmingham and Belfast; n = 92 cases). The proposed OMTscore yields an AUROC = 0.74 in predicting whether an OED progresses to malignancy or not. Survival analyses showed the prognostic value of our OMTscore for predicting malignancy transformation, when compared to the manually-assigned WHO and binary grades. Analysis of the correctly predicted cases elucidated the presence of peri-epithelial and epithelium-infiltrating lymphocytes in the most predictive patches of cases that transformed (p < 0.0001). This is the first study to propose a completely automated algorithm for predicting OED transformation based on interpretable nuclear features, whilst being validated on external datasets. The algorithm shows better-than-human-level performance for prediction of OED malignant transformation and offers a promising solution to the challenges of grading OED in routine clinical practice. △ Less Submitted 6 July, 2023; originally announced July 2023. arXiv:2306.05642 [ pdf , other ] cs.CV cs.AI cs.CL cs.IR Customizing General-Purpose Foundation Models for Medical Report Generation Authors: Bang Yang , Asif Raza , Yuexian Zou , Tong Zhang Abstract : Medical caption prediction which can be regarded as a task of medical report generation (MRG), requires the automatic generation of coherent and accurate captions for the given medical images. However, the scarcity of labelled medical image-report pairs presents great challenges in the development of deep and large-scale neural networks capable of harnessing the potential artificial general intell… ▽ More Medical caption prediction which can be regarded as a task of medical report generation (MRG), requires the automatic generation of coherent and accurate captions for the given medical images. However, the scarcity of labelled medical image-report pairs presents great challenges in the development of deep and large-scale neural networks capable of harnessing the potential artificial general intelligence power like large language models (LLMs). In this work, we propose customizing off-the-shelf general-purpose large-scale pre-trained models, i.e., foundation models (FMs), in computer vision and natural language processing with a specific focus on medical report generation. Specifically, following BLIP-2, a state-of-the-art vision-language pre-training approach, we introduce our encoder-decoder-based MRG model. This model utilizes a lightweight query Transformer to connect two FMs: the giant vision Transformer EVA-ViT-g and a bilingual LLM trained to align with human intentions (referred to as ChatGLM-6B). Furthermore, we conduct ablative experiments on the trainable components of the model to identify the crucial factors for effective transfer learning. Our findings demonstrate that unfreezing EVA-ViT-g to learn medical image representations, followed by parameter-efficient training of ChatGLM-6B to capture the writing styles of medical reports, is essential for achieving optimal results. Our best attempt (PCLmed Team) achieved the 4th and the 2nd, respectively, out of 13 participating teams, based on the BERTScore and ROUGE-1 metrics, in the ImageCLEFmedical Caption 2023 Caption Prediction Task competition. △ Less Submitted 8 June, 2023; originally announced June 2023. Comments: 14 pages, 3 figures arXiv:2306.05642 [ pdf , other ] Customizing General-Purpose Foundation Models for Medical Report Generation Authors: Bang Yang , Asif Raza , Yuexian Zou , Tong Zhang Abstract : Medical caption prediction which can be regarded as a task of medical report generation (MRG), requires the automatic generation of coherent and accurate captions for the given medical images. However, the scarcity of labelled medical image-report pairs presents great challenges in the development of deep and large-scale neural networks capable of harnessing the potential artificial general intell… ▽ More Medical caption prediction which can be regarded as a task of medical report generation (MRG), requires the automatic generation of coherent and accurate captions for the given medical images. However, the scarcity of labelled medical image-report pairs presents great challenges in the development of deep and large-scale neural networks capable of harnessing the potential artificial general intelligence power like large language models (LLMs). In this work, we propose customizing off-the-shelf general-purpose large-scale pre-trained models, i.e., foundation models (FMs), in computer vision and natural language processing with a specific focus on medical report generation. Specifically, following BLIP-2, a state-of-the-art vision-language pre-training approach, we introduce our encoder-decoder-based MRG model. This model utilizes a lightweight query Transformer to connect two FMs: the giant vision Transformer EVA-ViT-g and a bilingual LLM trained to align with human intentions (referred to as ChatGLM-6B). Furthermore, we conduct ablative experiments on the trainable components of the model to identify the crucial factors for effective transfer learning. Our findings demonstrate that unfreezing EVA-ViT-g to learn medical image representations, followed by parameter-efficient training of ChatGLM-6B to capture the writing styles of medical reports, is essential for achieving optimal results. Our best attempt (PCLmed Team) achieved the 4th and the 2nd, respectively, out of 13 participating teams, based on the BERTScore and ROUGE-1 metrics, in the ImageCLEFmedical Caption 2023 Caption Prediction Task competition. △ Less Submitted 8 June, 2023; originally announced June 2023. Comments: 14 pages, 3 figures arXiv:2305.16195 [ pdf , other ] cs.CL cs.AI Abstractive Summary Generation for the Urdu Language Authors: Ali Raza , Hadia Sultan Raja , Usman Maratib Abstract : Abstractive summary generation is a challenging task that requires the model to comprehend the source text and generate a concise and coherent summary that captures the essential information. In this paper, we explore the use of an encoder/decoder approach for abstractive summary generation in the Urdu language. We employ a transformer-based model that utilizes self-attention mechanisms to encode… ▽ More Abstractive summary generation is a challenging task that requires the model to comprehend the source text and generate a concise and coherent summary that captures the essential information. In this paper, we explore the use of an encoder/decoder approach for abstractive summary generation in the Urdu language. We employ a transformer-based model that utilizes self-attention mechanisms to encode the input text and generate a summary. Our experiments show that our model can produce summaries that are grammatically correct and semantically meaningful. We evaluate our model on a publicly available dataset and achieve state-of-the-art results in terms of Rouge scores. We also conduct a qualitative analysis of our model's output to assess its effectiveness and limitations. Our findings suggest that the encoder/decoder approach is a promising method for abstractive summary generation in Urdu and can be extended to other languages with suitable modifications. △ Less Submitted 25 May, 2023; originally announced May 2023. Comments: 5 pages, 7 figures MSC Class: 68T50 (Primary) 03B65; 91F20 (Secondary) ACM Class: I.2; I.7 arXiv:2305.16195 [ pdf , other ] Abstractive Summary Generation for the Urdu Language Authors: Ali Raza , Hadia Sultan Raja , Usman Maratib Abstract : Abstractive summary generation is a challenging task that requires the model to comprehend the source text and generate a concise and coherent summary that captures the essential information. In this paper, we explore the use of an encoder/decoder approach for abstractive summary generation in the Urdu language. We employ a transformer-based model that utilizes self-attention mechanisms to encode… ▽ More Abstractive summary generation is a challenging task that requires the model to comprehend the source text and generate a concise and coherent summary that captures the essential information. In this paper, we explore the use of an encoder/decoder approach for abstractive summary generation in the Urdu language. We employ a transformer-based model that utilizes self-attention mechanisms to encode the input text and generate a summary. Our experiments show that our model can produce summaries that are grammatically correct and semantically meaningful. We evaluate our model on a publicly available dataset and achieve state-of-the-art results in terms of Rouge scores. We also conduct a qualitative analysis of our model's output to assess its effectiveness and limitations. Our findings suggest that the encoder/decoder approach is a promising method for abstractive summary generation in Urdu and can be extended to other languages with suitable modifications. △ Less Submitted 25 May, 2023; originally announced May 2023. Comments: 5 pages, 7 figures MSC Class: 68T50 (Primary) 03B65; 91F20 (Secondary) ACM Class: I.2; I.7 arXiv:2303.06274 [ pdf ] cs.CV cs.LG CoNIC Challenge: Pushing the Frontiers of Nuclear Detection, Segmentation, Classification and Counting Authors: Simon Graham , Quoc Dang Vu , Mostafa Jahanifar , Martin Weigert , Uwe Schmidt , Wenhua Zhang , Jun Zhang , Sen Yang , Jinxi Xiang , Xiyue Wang , Josef Lorenz Rumberger , Elias Baumann , Peter Hirsch , Lihao Liu , Chenyang Hong , Angelica I. Aviles-Rivero , Ayushi Jain , Heeyoung Ahn , Yiyu Hong , Hussam Azzuni , Min Xu , Mohammad Yaqub , Marie-Claire Blache , Benoît Piégu , Bertrand Vernay , et al. (64 additional authors not shown) Abstract : Nuclear detection, segmentation and morphometric profiling are essential in helping us further understand the relationship between histology and patient outcome. To drive innovation in this area, we setup a community-wide challenge using the largest available dataset of its kind to assess nuclear segmentation and cellular composition. Our challenge, named CoNIC, stimulated the development of repro… ▽ More Nuclear detection, segmentation and morphometric profiling are essential in helping us further understand the relationship between histology and patient outcome. To drive innovation in this area, we setup a community-wide challenge using the largest available dataset of its kind to assess nuclear segmentation and cellular composition. Our challenge, named CoNIC, stimulated the development of reproducible algorithms for cellular recognition with real-time result inspection on public leaderboards. We conducted an extensive post-challenge analysis based on the top-performing models using 1,658 whole-slide images of colon tissue. With around 700 million detected nuclei per model, associated features were used for dysplasia grading and survival analysis, where we demonstrated that the challenge's improvement over the previous state-of-the-art led to significant boosts in downstream performance. Our findings also suggest that eosinophils and neutrophils play an important role in the tumour microevironment. We release challenge models and WSI-level results to foster the development of further methods for biomarker discovery. △ Less Submitted 14 March, 2023; v1 submitted 10 March, 2023; originally announced March 2023. arXiv:2303.06274 [ pdf ] CoNIC Challenge: Pushing the Frontiers of Nuclear Detection, Segmentation, Classification and Counting Authors: Simon Graham , Quoc Dang Vu , Mostafa Jahanifar , Martin Weigert , Uwe Schmidt , Wenhua Zhang , Jun Zhang , Sen Yang , Jinxi Xiang , Xiyue Wang , Josef Lorenz Rumberger , Elias Baumann , Peter Hirsch , Lihao Liu , Chenyang Hong , Angelica I. Aviles-Rivero , Ayushi Jain , Heeyoung Ahn , Yiyu Hong , Hussam Azzuni , Min Xu , Mohammad Yaqub , Marie-Claire Blache , Benoît Piégu , Bertrand Vernay , et al. (64 additional authors not shown) Abstract : Nuclear detection, segmentation and morphometric profiling are essential in helping us further understand the relationship between histology and patient outcome. To drive innovation in this area, we setup a community-wide challenge using the largest available dataset of its kind to assess nuclear segmentation and cellular composition. Our challenge, named CoNIC, stimulated the development of repro… ▽ More Nuclear detection, segmentation and morphometric profiling are essential in helping us further understand the relationship between histology and patient outcome. To drive innovation in this area, we setup a community-wide challenge using the largest available dataset of its kind to assess nuclear segmentation and cellular composition. Our challenge, named CoNIC, stimulated the development of reproducible algorithms for cellular recognition with real-time result inspection on public leaderboards. We conducted an extensive post-challenge analysis based on the top-performing models using 1,658 whole-slide images of colon tissue. With around 700 million detected nuclei per model, associated features were used for dysplasia grading and survival analysis, where we demonstrated that the challenge's improvement over the previous state-of-the-art led to significant boosts in downstream performance. Our findings also suggest that eosinophils and neutrophils play an important role in the tumour microevironment. We release challenge models and WSI-level results to foster the development of further methods for biomarker discovery. △ Less Submitted 14 March, 2023; v1 submitted 10 March, 2023; originally announced March 2023. arXiv:2301.13141 [ pdf , other ] cs.CV Consistency Regularisation in Varying Contexts and Feature Perturbations for Semi-Supervised Semantic Segmentation of Histology Images Authors: Raja Muhammad Saad Bashir , Talha Qaiser , Shan E Ahmed Raza , Nasir M. Rajpoot Abstract : Semantic segmentation of various tissue and nuclei types in histology images is fundamental to many downstream tasks in the area of computational pathology (CPath). In recent years, Deep Learning (DL) methods have been shown to perform well on segmentation tasks but DL methods generally require a large amount of pixel-wise annotated data. Pixel-wise annotation sometimes requires expert's knowledge… ▽ More Semantic segmentation of various tissue and nuclei types in histology images is fundamental to many downstream tasks in the area of computational pathology (CPath). In recent years, Deep Learning (DL) methods have been shown to perform well on segmentation tasks but DL methods generally require a large amount of pixel-wise annotated data. Pixel-wise annotation sometimes requires expert's knowledge and time which is laborious and costly to obtain. In this paper, we present a consistency based semi-supervised learning (SSL) approach that can help mitigate this challenge by exploiting a large amount of unlabelled data for model training thus alleviating the need for a large annotated dataset. However, SSL models might also be susceptible to changing context and features perturbations exhibiting poor generalisation due to the limited training data. We propose an SSL method that learns robust features from both labelled and unlabelled images by enforcing consistency against varying contexts and feature perturbations. The proposed method incorporates context-aware consistency by contrasting pairs of overlapping images in a pixel-wise manner from changing contexts resulting in robust and context invariant features. We show that cross-consistency training makes the encoder features invariant to different perturbations and improves the prediction confidence. Finally, entropy minimisation is employed to further boost the confidence of the final prediction maps from unlabelled data. We conduct an extensive set of experiments on two publicly available large datasets (BCSS and MoNuSeg) and show superior performance compared to the state-of-the-art methods. △ Less Submitted 11 February, 2023; v1 submitted 30 January, 2023; originally announced January 2023. arXiv:2301.13141 [ pdf , other ] Consistency Regularisation in Varying Contexts and Feature Perturbations for Semi-Supervised Semantic Segmentation of Histology Images Authors: Raja Muhammad Saad Bashir , Talha Qaiser , Shan E Ahmed Raza , Nasir M. Rajpoot Abstract : Semantic segmentation of various tissue and nuclei types in histology images is fundamental to many downstream tasks in the area of computational pathology (CPath). In recent years, Deep Learning (DL) methods have been shown to perform well on segmentation tasks but DL methods generally require a large amount of pixel-wise annotated data. Pixel-wise annotation sometimes requires expert's knowledge… ▽ More Semantic segmentation of various tissue and nuclei types in histology images is fundamental to many downstream tasks in the area of computational pathology (CPath). In recent years, Deep Learning (DL) methods have been shown to perform well on segmentation tasks but DL methods generally require a large amount of pixel-wise annotated data. Pixel-wise annotation sometimes requires expert's knowledge and time which is laborious and costly to obtain. In this paper, we present a consistency based semi-supervised learning (SSL) approach that can help mitigate this challenge by exploiting a large amount of unlabelled data for model training thus alleviating the need for a large annotated dataset. However, SSL models might also be susceptible to changing context and features perturbations exhibiting poor generalisation due to the limited training data. We propose an SSL method that learns robust features from both labelled and unlabelled images by enforcing consistency against varying contexts and feature perturbations. The proposed method incorporates context-aware consistency by contrasting pairs of overlapping images in a pixel-wise manner from changing contexts resulting in robust and context invariant features. We show that cross-consistency training makes the encoder features invariant to different perturbations and improves the prediction confidence. Finally, entropy minimisation is employed to further boost the confidence of the final prediction maps from unlabelled data. We conduct an extensive set of experiments on two publicly available large datasets (BCSS and MoNuSeg) and show superior performance compared to the state-of-the-art methods. △ Less Submitted 11 February, 2023; v1 submitted 30 January, 2023; originally announced January 2023. arXiv:2301.06304 [ pdf ] eess.IV cs.CV LYSTO: The Lymphocyte Assessment Hackathon and Benchmark Dataset Authors: Yiping Jiao , Jeroen van der Laak , Shadi Albarqouni , Zhang Li , Tao Tan , Abhir Bhalerao , Jiabo Ma , Jiamei Sun , Johnathan Pocock , Josien P. W. Pluim , Navid Alemi Koohbanani , Raja Muhammad Saad Bashir , Shan E Ahmed Raza , Sibo Liu , Simon Graham , Suzanne Wetstein , Syed Ali Khurram , Thomas Watson , Nasir Rajpoot , Mitko Veta , Francesco Ciompi Abstract : We introduce LYSTO, the Lymphocyte Assessment Hackathon, which was held in conjunction with the MICCAI 2019 Conference in Shenzen (China). The competition required participants to automatically assess the number of lymphocytes, in particular T-cells, in histopathological images of colon, breast, and prostate cancer stained with CD3 and CD8 immunohistochemistry. Differently from other challenges se… ▽ More We introduce LYSTO, the Lymphocyte Assessment Hackathon, which was held in conjunction with the MICCAI 2019 Conference in Shenzen (China). The competition required participants to automatically assess the number of lymphocytes, in particular T-cells, in histopathological images of colon, breast, and prostate cancer stained with CD3 and CD8 immunohistochemistry. Differently from other challenges setup in medical image analysis, LYSTO participants were solely given a few hours to address this problem. In this paper, we describe the goal and the multi-phase organization of the hackathon; we describe the proposed methods and the on-site results. Additionally, we present post-competition results where we show how the presented methods perform on an independent set of lung cancer slides, which was not part of the initial competition, as well as a comparison on lymphocyte assessment between presented methods and a panel of pathologists. We show that some of the participants were capable to achieve pathologist-level performance at lymphocyte assessment. After the hackathon, LYSTO was left as a lightweight plug-and-play benchmark dataset on grand-challenge website, together with an automatic evaluation platform. LYSTO has supported a number of research in lymphocyte assessment in oncology. LYSTO will be a long-lasting educational challenge for deep learning and digital pathology, it is available at △ Less Submitted 13 April, 2023; v1 submitted 16 January, 2023; originally announced January 2023. Comments: will be sumitted to IEEE-JBHI MSC Class: 68T07 ACM Class: I.4.9; I.5.4; I.2.1 arXiv:2301.06304 [ pdf ] LYSTO: The Lymphocyte Assessment Hackathon and Benchmark Dataset Authors: Yiping Jiao , Jeroen van der Laak , Shadi Albarqouni , Zhang Li , Tao Tan , Abhir Bhalerao , Jiabo Ma , Jiamei Sun , Johnathan Pocock , Josien P. W. Pluim , Navid Alemi Koohbanani , Raja Muhammad Saad Bashir , Shan E Ahmed Raza , Sibo Liu , Simon Graham , Suzanne Wetstein , Syed Ali Khurram , Thomas Watson , Nasir Rajpoot , Mitko Veta , Francesco Ciompi Abstract : We introduce LYSTO, the Lymphocyte Assessment Hackathon, which was held in conjunction with the MICCAI 2019 Conference in Shenzen (China). The competition required participants to automatically assess the number of lymphocytes, in particular T-cells, in histopathological images of colon, breast, and prostate cancer stained with CD3 and CD8 immunohistochemistry. Differently from other challenges se… ▽ More We introduce LYSTO, the Lymphocyte Assessment Hackathon, which was held in conjunction with the MICCAI 2019 Conference in Shenzen (China). The competition required participants to automatically assess the number of lymphocytes, in particular T-cells, in histopathological images of colon, breast, and prostate cancer stained with CD3 and CD8 immunohistochemistry. Differently from other challenges setup in medical image analysis, LYSTO participants were solely given a few hours to address this problem. In this paper, we describe the goal and the multi-phase organization of the hackathon; we describe the proposed methods and the on-site results. Additionally, we present post-competition results where we show how the presented methods perform on an independent set of lung cancer slides, which was not part of the initial competition, as well as a comparison on lymphocyte assessment between presented methods and a panel of pathologists. We show that some of the participants were capable to achieve pathologist-level performance at lymphocyte assessment. After the hackathon, LYSTO was left as a lightweight plug-and-play benchmark dataset on grand-challenge website, together with an automatic evaluation platform. LYSTO has supported a number of research in lymphocyte assessment in oncology. LYSTO will be a long-lasting educational challenge for deep learning and digital pathology, it is available at △ Less Submitted 13 April, 2023; v1 submitted 16 January, 2023; originally announced January 2023. Comments: will be sumitted to IEEE-JBHI MSC Class: 68T07 ACM Class: I.4.9; I.5.4; I.2.1 1 2 3 About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 New Year's happy birthday world 🌎 you 2026 26 comments 2 Remove Tag? 9 comments 3 My first article Lemon water 17 comments 4 Using AI 11 comments 5 Multiple accounts not being allowed to edit the same article unless disclosed 12 comments 6 How long for edits to appear? 4 comments 7 Terry Yorath 10 comments 8 Question about AI on user pages. 10 comments 9 Question about when its appropriate to send WikiLove. 4 comments 10 Can COI editors participate in consensus? 21 comments 11 redwarnRules.json 7 comments 12 Talk:Draft:Openly, Inc. 3 comments 13 Should there be a page for all of SZNZ by Weezer? 6 comments 14 Too many tabs! 8 comments 15 Article for my upcoming projects 9 comments 16 How to create a new article, I have the draft I'm just trying to Ctrl+c Ctrl+v it 4 comments 17 Draft 4 comments 18 AFC 3 comments 19 Bhutia request to protection from IP Edits 11 comments 20 Editing articles 4 comments 21 Why is social media unreliable? 4 comments 22 help me 7 comments 23 Footnotes referencing album liner notes 4 comments 24 How can Wikipedia help? 2 comments 25 I'm finish 2 comments 26 Good evening, I am thinking about creating an article :) 4 comments 27 English 3 comments 28 Delete a page on Wikipedia 6 comments 29 Rob Reiner 5 comments 30 How to a add a qualification bit on the final rankings table 4 comments 31 WP:DO 4 comments 32 Help, there is a problem with a link in "south korean humidifier disnifectant case" 4 comments 33 Jimbo Wales talk page 3 comments 34 Repeated Vandalism 7 comments 35 AI pages 5 comments 36 Draft of a new article, trying to make it completely neutral 4 comments 37 Not receiving email notifications for Watch List 5 comments 38 How can I be able to make an article about "waterdrinker4life" 3 comments 39 De facto.wav 10 comments 40 Nils Molin 14 comments 41 What should I do if someone is advertising using their username? 6 comments 42 The Devil and the Daylong Brothers 4 comments 43 Saving useful pages 3 comments 44 Single use profiles 6 comments 45 Help with my draft No.3 6 comments 46 Would i be blocked for spamming if all of my drafted pages get accepted all at once? 3 comments 47 Primary topic 5 comments 48 Copyrighted Images 3 comments 49 Warning system 3 comments 50 AntWeb Images 2 comments 51 When inserting a new #1 citation in a current article . . . 7 comments 52 Mystery of the lack of japanese coverage of Sogen Kato's case 9 comments 53 Broken link on home page 3 comments 54 citation source 2 comments 55 Help with creating a wikipedia page for a company 3 comments 56 What's wrong with the top left Wikipedia logo? 6 comments 57 Moving an article from my sandbox to the mainspace 5 comments 58 There are concerns 5 comments 59 Updating maps 6 comments 60 How am I vandalizing wikipedia 3 comments 61 the cause 2 comments 62 Verizon outage 6 comments 63 Make Edits to an Article 5 comments 64 How do I know if a source is considered reliable for Wikipedia? 6 comments 65 Help with my draft No.7 8 comments 66 Photo Rights 10 comments 67 Your opinions 3 comments 68 Article draft declined 2 comments 69 my rejection 4 comments 70 HAPPY BIRTHDAY 20 comments Toggle HAPPY BIRTHDAY subsection 70.1 Wikipedia's 25th birthday 70.2 HAPPY BIRTHDAY, WIKIPEDIA 70.1 Wikipedia's 25th birthday 70.2 HAPPY BIRTHDAY, WIKIPEDIA 71 Why does the introductory statement in the "Earthquake" article say 1556 Shaanxi Earthquake instead of 1976 Tangshan Earthquake? 13 comments 72 (Possibly final) Help with my draft No.8 3 comments 73 Mandruss removed my message on Talk:Donald Trump 3 comments 74 About Creating an Article 7 comments 75 Draft in process 4 comments 76 Lost Kids Animation – Help Identify 5 comments 77 Source charged for fraud 3 comments 78 Readable prose size 3 comments 79 don’t ban me 3 comments 80 I found this message on the talk page of "LGBTQ (term)" titled "There is no "LGB". 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Just use this link to ask for help on your talk page ; a volunteer will visit you there shortly! To read the newest questions, skip to bottom About the Teahouse Most recent archives 1260 , 1261 , 1262 , 1263 , 1264 , 1265 , 1266 , 1267 , 1268 , 1269 , 1270 , 1271 , 1272 , 1273 , 1274 , 1275 , 1276 , 1277 , 1278 , 1279 New Year's happy birthday world 🌎 you 2026 Hello! Editors and communities of the English Wikipedia! Today is a great day, New Year's Day is widely celebrated on Wikipedia, and perhaps all over the world, as a global holiday ! Never tire of developing and protecting Wikipedia! We wish you all a happy New Year 2026! We appreciate every edit!😍 Thanks! ( Iluziya7 ( talk ) 17:00, 31 December 2025 (UTC) ) [ reply ] Remove Tag? Someone had put a "needs citations" tag on an article. I've added a lot of context and links to it, but I'm not sure if it's enough to remove the tag. Could someone take a quick look and remove the tag if they feel it's good enough now (or let me know what I should do to make it better). Thanks! Brooklyn–Queens Greenway . Robin the Bobbin ( talk ) 00:21, 8 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] My first article Lemon water Hello! I created this article and have since improved it with proper formatting and multiple reliable sources. Could someone please review it and, if appropriate, assess it as Start-class? Thanks for your time. Jr·NTR ( talk ) 23:04, 8 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Using AI For my draft, i had used AI to find sources. I cross-checked with the reliable sources list thing. I also read the entire page. Would that be okay? SomnambulantFish talk ∫ contribs 02:47, 11 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Multiple accounts not being allowed to edit the same article unless disclosed According to Sockpuppet policy , this lists @media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .inline-quote-talk{color:#00B785}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .inline-quote-talk{color:#00B785}}.mw-parser-output .inline-quote-talk{font-family:Georgia,"DejaVu Serif",serif;color:#008560;quotes:none}.mw-parser-output .inline-quote-talk-italic{font-family:inherit;font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output .inline-quote-talk-marks{quotes:"\"""\""} Editors may not use more than one account to contribute to the same page or discussion in a way that suggests they are multiple people. Is there a clear reason on why this is considered to be Sockpuppetry, and doing this will result in a block? Why should alternative accounts not be editing the same article, unless they are disclosed and revealed? What happens if undisclosed accounts were used to contribute to the same page? ~2026-21649-7 ( talk ) 04:53, 11 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] It is very likely that if someone contributes to the same page under multiple names, it will artificially create the appearance of more support for anything they're advocating (this can happen even if you don't intend it to.) Likewise, it can result in the perception of WP:BADHAND activity where one account is used for controversial stuff and another one isn't, or can come across as trying to evade scrutiny by dividing things between multiple accounts that would collectively add up to more serious problems if people realized they were the same person - and again, since editors won't always realize their positions are controversial, this can occur even if you didn't intend it. Often these can make the line between legitimate and illegitimate uses of alt accounts blurry; not using multiple alt accounts on the same page serves as a clear-cut red line so we don't have to spend ages digging into the intent of every individual potential sockmaster. -- Aquillion ( talk ) 20:30, 11 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] How long for edits to appear? Hi everyone. I've just made a basic edit on my band's Wikipedia page. I've updated the line up. How long does it take to come through on the page? All the best GB Kiosk2 ( talk ) 22:15, 11 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Terry Yorath Terry Yorath died around 10.30pm on January 7th My daughter Gabby Logan OBE had a press release put out at 9am on the > 8th but he died on ward J16 at St James hospital Leeds on the 7th > having been there since December 12th. > > Any published obituaries have taken the information from one > inaccurate piece of information. > > It is well published that Gabby left a live tv programme,MOTD, when > my son called her to say we were at the hospital where Terry had just died. > > If Wikipedia keeps the wrong info available then others will use that > source of information and it will continue to be inaccurate Please can you change the date of his death to January 7th Thank you Christine yorath ( talk ) 18:56, 11 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Question about AI on user pages. Hello, I have a question about this. If you find AI on a user page, can you remove it? I know you can't use AI on normal pages, but I don't know about on a user page. BoxOfThings123 ( talk ) 15:17, 12 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Question about when its appropriate to send WikiLove. Hello! I wanted to send a wikilove/food of appreciation thingy to my mentor to introduce myself, but I was unsure if this was an appropriate use of this feature. :) Minnoweu ( talk ) 15:35, 12 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Can COI editors participate in consensus? Here's the situation: 1. A COI editor requests a change to an article. 2. I agree, and post an explanation to the talk page. There are no other comments. 3. I make the change. 4. The change is reverted four hours later by the original author. 5. I restore my change. 6. It is reverted again, five minutes later. Do we have consensus? Is either of us guilty of edit-warring? Julian in LA ( talk ) 18:45, 12 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] redwarnRules.json My watch list tells me that I have updated my User:Langcliffe/redwarnRules.json page. What exactly is this page, and how is it used, please? Langcliffe ( talk ) 19:10, 12 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Talk:Draft:Openly, Inc. Hello everyone, I recently submitted a draft article Draft:Openly, Inc. that was declined because the references were not considered independent. I researched this topic for about a month, and my understanding is that independent sources should not be owned, published, or controlled by the company itself. Could someone please confirm if my understanding is correct and share any examples of sources that are usually acceptable? I want to make sure I follow Wikipedia’s rules and guidelines correctly, as I am still learning. Thank you for your time and help. WhiteFactLoom ( talk ) 19:24, 12 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Should there be a page for all of SZNZ by Weezer? I've noticed that all of the SZNZ have individual articles ( SZNZ Winter , SZNZ Spring , SZNZ Summer , SZNZ Autumn ) but the overall albums don't have a collective article, which would be something like SZNZ (Weezer album series) . Does one actually exist that I haven't noticed ?? Weez3rforever ( talk ) 20:03, 12 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Too many tabs! Hi all! A bit of a trivial matter but I figured I'm not the only one experiencing this and I figured there may be some wisdom out there from more well versed editors. Any time I'm contributing to discussions, I end up middle clicking plenty of tabs to investigate matters thoroughly. It doesn't take very long until a very large amount of browser tabs have been opened. And I just can't stand having that many tabs open! How do you guys manage your browser tabs? MEN KISSING (she/they) T - C - Email me! 20:13, 12 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Article for my upcoming projects :( Radica1Rex ( talk ) 21:08, 12 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] How to create a new article, I have the draft I'm just trying to Ctrl+c Ctrl+v it uh TheDailyWall ( talk ) 21:33, 12 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Draft I created Draft:Brickit because I found a lot of sources mentioning it while researching Draft:Rebrickable (still under review if anyone cares). I think Brickit undeniably passes notability with all the in-depth, independent sources that discuss it. However, I was advised to submit it through AfC over at Wikipedia:Requested moves/Technical requests . What would you recommend? Does it require an AfC review in its current state? NewAccount7295 ( talk ) 21:37, 12 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] AFC hi there, I have an article pending approval, it seems to be taking a while and i am just wondering if i have done verything correctly as i have made minor edits afew times after having submitted it initially. Dr.micahel ( talk ) 21:42, 12 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Bhutia request to protection from IP Edits please see this edit , this IP address continuously damaging this page. Mr.Lazy Guy ( talk ) 23:02, 12 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Editing articles The following discussion is closed. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page. No further edits should be made to this discussion. I’m new on that, how do I edit articles and pages, but where can I start with? CrystalBall5081 ( talk ) 23:44, 12 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Why is social media unreliable? The following discussion is closed. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page. No further edits should be made to this discussion. Please explain, and what happens if you cite them? What about press releases? ~2026-25369-8 ( talk ) 00:29, 13 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] help me i’m very scared. i don’t know what to do. everything seems so hard. how do i edit football. i want to edit football. i’m scared and i need help badly. how do i do it. my mentor no answer me why is this happening to me. help Jerodrodman ( talk ) 00:34, 13 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Footnotes referencing album liner notes Are album liner notes appropriate as footnote sources? If so, can anyone point me to a good example? Rdog2010 ( talk ) 00:54, 13 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] How can Wikipedia help? Learning ~2026-26241-3 ( talk ) 03:11, 13 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] I'm finish Already had a moment to research and realized I am what I mind myself to appreciate and approve me all by my honesty and self control ~2026-25444-5 ( talk ) 03:29, 13 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Good evening, I am thinking about creating an article :) I would like to make an article for the 1994 Powerman 5000 album True Force , but I fear I may find myself once more thwarted by my seeming inability to find anything of note enjoyable. So I ask here: would the notability for True Force be sufficient to warrant an article's creation? I have found something interesting to use for the article and the album is frequently referenced in brief overviews of the band's history and sound, but likewise I have found similar things for Bombshell , Supernova Goes Pop , and Dorian Heartsong , all of which have had their notability challenged ( Supernova Goes Pop still is, though I think, with due time, it should leave that status). With this in mind, should I get to work on an article, or should I simply add it to the PM5K article proper? TheSaturnLover ( talk ) 03:47, 13 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] English I want to practice my english ~2026-26580-1 ( talk ) 11:42, 13 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Delete a page on Wikipedia Courtesy link: Leon Angel hello Im sorry for the inconvenience but can you delete (Leon Angel) page on Wikipedia. This is my maternal great grandfather and he is Egyptian Greek Jewish actor and used to be called Chalom and my father and family are asking me to hide his identity or keep it private and if you don’t mind deleting it or putting it in draft section. I’ve tried many times to edit - delete on it but didn’t worked out. Olmenfun ( talk ) 12:26, 13 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Rob Reiner I saw here on Wikipedia that Rob Reiner had been murdered. I wondered if there is a place here on Wikipedia to discuss things like that? I know people want to discuss things. There is a natural tendency to want to discuss things like that on here. It would be a very popular aspect of your site. People just want to discuss things. Foundation360 ( talk ) 13:42, 13 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] How to a add a qualification bit on the final rankings table Hi, I just rehauled the 2026 European Men's Handball Championship Final ranking table so that it is more detailed. However, how do I add the qualification part of the table on the right as done here to the new table? ILoveSport2006 ( talk ) 13:54, 13 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] WP:DO I have a question about WP:DO . When you click the 'Random orphan page' button, it usually redirects me to a page with links, and without any orphaned page template. How do I stop this? SomnambulantLobster ( talk ) 14:26, 13 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Help, there is a problem with a link in "south korean humidifier disnifectant case" Help, there is a problem with a link in "south korean humidifier disnifectant case", where the link after the 10th source shows text instead of embedded and i dont know how to fix it ~2025-43053-85 ( talk ) 15:15, 13 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Jimbo Wales talk page The following discussion is closed. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page. No further edits should be made to this discussion. Is this page unprotected? How? ~2026-26901-9 ( talk ) 16:34, 13 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Repeated Vandalism If someone is repeatedly vandalizing a wikipedia page, is there a way I can protect the page, or ban the vandal? Thefrogofthenight ( talk ) 21:38, 13 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] AI pages What should I do if I encounter an ai page? Should I delete it, or mark it some way? Is there a standard procedure I should follow? and what should I do if I'm not entirely sure? Thefrogofthenight ( talk ) 22:05, 13 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Draft of a new article, trying to make it completely neutral Hi- I’m working on a draft article about a company I’m affiliated with and want to make sure it complies with Wikipedia’s neutrality & notability standards. I got feedback that earlier versions were too promotional, so I’ve significantly shortened and neutralized the draft (removing any funding and awards entirely). Could someone take a look at this sandbox draft and advise whether it’s appropriate, or what further changes would be good to make? I’ve disclosed my conflict of interest and am looking for independent editor guidance. Here is the draft: User:Willetling/sandbox Thank you Willetling ( talk ) 23:51, 13 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Not receiving email notifications for Watch List I have strong indication that I am not receiving notification emails when changes are made to articles that I am watching. This has been the case for some time. I *am* receiving some notification emails but not from the majority of articles I am following. Is there a technical issue or a limit on the number of watched articles? Jp2207 ( talk ) 00:15, 14 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] How can I be able to make an article about "waterdrinker4life" How can the article of "waterdrinker4life" be created? My request has been denied within a span of a few minutes, and to create a biography it seems very promotional, which is not what I choose to aim for. How can I make my article sound more neutral and allow for it to be accepted? Waterdrinker4life|2w5bottle 02:18, 14 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] De facto.wav Shouldn't this file be on Commons instead of Wikipedia? - Bᴏᴅʜı Hᴀᴙᴩ 05:15, 14 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Nils Molin Courtesy link: Draft:Nils Molin Hello! I wrote article about Nils Molin, Swedish vocalist, but my article was denied. They said that I made unreliable references. What can I do? I have to proove notability of subject but I see only interviews and can't find reliable articles. Evgeniia Kaplan ( talk ) 05:46, 14 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] What should I do if someone is advertising using their username? What should I do if someone is advertising using their username? Should I use a standardized warning template or should I report them. If I should report them how would I report them? Core1223e ( talk ) 05:47, 14 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] The Devil and the Daylong Brothers Hello! I recently created the article The Devil and the Daylong Brothers. This is my first full article, and the review/assessment seems incomplete. I’m more interested in working on sensitive topics, but since this account is still new, I felt that starting with a film article would be good practice. I’d appreciate any feedback on structure, sourcing, or areas that need improvement. Anonymous FASE ( talk ) 08:01, 14 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Saving useful pages Hello! I originally came to ask the question "Am I allowed to remove a tag once it's no longer applicable?" but then I found this page ( Help:Maintenance template removal ) IN one of those very tags. I want to keep this in a place (not just my bookmarks) where I can refer back to it (and other pages, too), can I put something like that on my userpage or is that not allowed? Thank you kindly. Itsaclarinet ( talk ) 11:32, 14 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Single use profiles I have come across two Wikipedia users who have edited exclusively two articles (a husband and wife). For various reasons, which I can explain, I suspect they have created and edited their own pages. Should I raise this somewhere? Salmon Of Ignorance ( talk ) 13:00, 14 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Help with my draft No.3 In my draft 's Orbital elements template, the absolute Magnitude is different depending on the source, with it being 17.25 according to JPL, and 17.27 according to IAU. Or should I just write it as '~17.26'? SomnambulantFish talk ∫ contribs 14:37, 14 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Would i be blocked for spamming if all of my drafted pages get accepted all at once? So, my articles were drafted, as my pages formerly had unreliable sources or in-general a bad article. However i have fixed those pages and submitted it to AfC — but an important question, am i getting blocked for spamming articles if all of articles get accepted all at once. - The Khan of the universe and the Hoofed animals. ( talk ) 14:56, 14 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Primary topic Hello everyone, Not sure if an RFC is needed, but I figured I'd start here. A huge thank you in advance for reading. An editor suggested starting an RFC even though the redirect to Washington University has long led to Washington University in St. Louis has the primary topic. Is an RFC needed for Washington University to be the main topic for Washington University in St. Louis or can this be solved elsewhere? Full context: For over 110 years (1856-1967), Washington University was the official name. There are currently 100 wikilinks that appear to refer to Washington University in St. Louis. There have been no other schools known as Washington University. Washington University in St. Louis For 5 years, Rochester Christian University was known as Rochester University. Rochester University now redirects there instead of University of Rochester. Based on the redirect history , Washington University redirected to the following: June 2002 - January 2007: Washington University in St. Louis was originally located on the Washington University page January 2007 - February 8, 2013: Redirected to Washington University in St. Louis February 8, 2013 - Editor changed redirect elsewhere but editor self-reverted due to many redirects to Washington University in St. Louis February 8, 2013- May 12, 2015 - Redirected to Washington University in St. Louis May 12, 2015- redirected to DAB May 13, 2015 - another editor undid this May 13, 2015 - November 8, 2025 - redirects to Washington University in St. Louis November 8, 2025 - December 16, 2025 - redirected to DAB December 16, 2025 - January 12, 2025 - redirected to Washington University in St. Louis January 12, 2025 - Redirected to DAB Previous redirect conversation reguarding another school by Washington University in St. Louis can be found here: Talk:Washington University School of Law#Requested move 16 April 2023 Wozal ( talk ) 15:10, 14 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Copyrighted Images I found an image for my draft , but I don't know whether it's copyrighted or not. Where can I find non-copyrighted images for Wikipedia? SomnambulantFish talk ∫ contribs 15:31, 14 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Warning system Sorry If this is the wrong place to post this, I'm new here. If it it the right place to ask this, I just wanted to know how you correctly add the warnings when reverting. The describe your changes page is full of text and I was just wondering where to put the warnings. Thank you. Abscondrespite ( talk ) 16:54, 14 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] AntWeb Images AntWeb is a huge ant database, providing information about ants, images and more. The article I've been working on recently ( hypopoponera punctatissima) could do with higher-quality photographs in profile. AntWeb states it's content is stated as being under a Creative Commons Attribute licence (linked). Just wanted to double check that I can upload these images? I've seen them uploaded before but didn't know whether or not there are any other prerequisites to uploading. I want to be especially clear, as I am aware of Wikipedia and Wikimedia's strict copyright policies. Link to the licence (the exact one linked by AntWeb) AntWeb's "about" page covering their policies regarding re-use of material Apologies if this query is better suited to a MediaWiki help forum or a Wikipedia photo forum. This is my first upload of another's work, so I am especially nervous. FranticSpud ( talk ) 17:38, 14 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Photos and drawings with CCBY, CC-BY-NC or CC-BY-SA can be used without further permission, Photos and drawings with CCBY, CC-BY-NC or CC-BY-SA can be used without further permission, When inserting a new #1 citation in a current article . . . I notice that the succeeding citations do not increment by the next number. Has anyone a suggestion on how to fix it? This is on the page Mihail Chemiakin Thanks Alan Alan Lamb - USA ( talk ) 17:56, 14 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Mystery of the lack of japanese coverage of Sogen Kato's case Sogen Kato's case is a case where a japanese man named Sogen Kato, born on 22th July 1899, was thought to have been Tokyo's oldest man until 27th July 2010, when his mummified corpse was found in his bedroom, it was concluded he had likely died in November 1978 , aged 79, and relatives had rebuffed attempts to see Kato in prepeartions for respect for the Aged Day later that year, citing many reasons from him being a "human vegetable" to becoming a sokushinbutsu (a type of buddhist mummy where buddhist monks while alive were observing asceticism to the point of death), his family had never reported his death to collect pensions, After the discovery of Kato's mummified corpse, other checks into elderly centenarians across Japan produced reports of missing centenarians and faulty recordkeeping. Tokyo officials attempted to find the oldest woman in the city, 113-year-old Fusa Furuya, who was registered as living with her daughter. Furuya's daughter said she had not seen her mother for over 25 years. The revelations about the disappearance of Furuya and the death of Kato prompted a nationwide investigation, which concluded that police did not know if 234,354 people older than 100 were still alive. More than 77,000 of these people, officials said, would have been older than 120 years old if they were still alive. Poor record keeping was blamed for many of the cases, and officials said that many may have died during World War II. One register claimed a man was still alive at age 186, One of Kato's relatives was found guilty of fraud, his relatives claimed 9,500,000 yen (117,939 US Dollars) of the pension meant for Kato, in addition, after Kato's wife died in 2004 at age of 101, 9,450,000 yen (117,318 US Dollars) from a survivor's mutual pension was deposited into Kato's bank account between October 2004 and June 2010, Approximately 6,050,000 yen (75,018 US Dollars) was wdithdrawn before his body was discovered, however despite having coverage in english-language media and having a english wikipedia article, there isn't a single japanese reliable source in the english wikipedia article, not only that, but even if a searched his japanese kanji name as is written in the english wikipedia article, the japanese wikipedia dosen't have a article but it dosen't even mention it once, and also i haven't found a single japanese news article about it, not sure if the kanji in the english wikipedia is wrong because japanese is notorious for multiple different kanji for same-sounding words, of course it dosen't mean it's fake, in fact there was a report on Nippon Television's program Bankisha, so what does that mean? Honestly, i don't know, maybe in Japan stuff like this don't get covered because of out of respect, also is Sogen Kato even a real name? Japanese media have sometimes used fake names out of respect for the individulas rather than the real name, and perhaps the english-language news articles had mistaked it as his real name, honestly it's a mystery of its own, and i don't know what to say more about it, what do you think about it? ~2025-43053-85 ( talk ) 18:14, 14 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Broken link on home page ~2026-29718-4 ( talk ) 18:30, 14 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] citation source Please help me by telling me the names of citation sources for living people like if I am editing an Indian actor's awards, then should i not use imdb or youtube. I got a disallowance to cite source youtube or imdb. I am a new editor ~2026-14011-4 ( talk ) 18:32, 14 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Help with creating a wikipedia page for a company The following discussion is closed. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page. No further edits should be made to this discussion. I would like to create a wiki page for a football club. Please assist. Maryfelsports ( talk ) 20:20, 14 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] What's wrong with the top left Wikipedia logo? Going to the top left of any page, where it says "Wikipedia The Free Encyclopedia", there is a blank square where the logo should be. VidanaliK ( talk to me ) 21:18, 14 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Moving an article from my sandbox to the mainspace I have created a new article (Systematic phonics) in my sandbox and want to move it to the main space. When I open the MOVE page there is no place to put the title. What am I doing wrong? John NH ( talk ) 21:41, 14 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Thank you. Now I am being blocked by a redirect to "Systematic phonics" on the Phonics page that I likely set up. But I don't know how to delete the redirect. Can you help? John NH ( talk ) 00:49, 15 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] There are concerns There are concerns among some people in the talk page of " List of pedophile advocacy organizations " that there is "misinformation" and "disinformation" and some people are wanting to "correct" the information in the article, that it needs to be resolved by top administrators and needs to be talked about it, i'm not gonna write here what exactly everything i wrote because originally what i wroted got flagged as "potentially unconstructive", because my grammar and my style of writing sucked, so my message didn't got sended because of it, and i'm not going to write a long text about it because it would take me a lot of energy, time and effort, so i'm gonna leave it up to the administrators, including top administrators and other people in the Teahouse about it, like there were many cases of people editing to "correct" the information in the article (whatever or not they actually corrected the information, is of course heavily debatable and heavily controversial), honestly the whole thing is more complicated than it seems based on the research about this topic i done myself, also considering the heavily controversial and heavy subject matter, this discussion would/will be and feel heated up, heavily controversial and heavily debatable, so i guess be prepared or something?, i don't know what to say. ~2025-43053-85 ( talk ) 22:38, 14 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Updating maps How would one update or change the colors on a map image, for example this one ? Dominik Tuazon ( talk ) 23:00, 14 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] How am I vandalizing wikipedia I was accused by user @ Arjayay of vandalizing the List of Universities in Nigeria page, but he failed to point out how I am vandalizing it, and from the article WP:Vandalism , I have not violated anything that could be counted as vandalism. Because I wouldn't want trouble, I would like further clarification on how I've "vandalized" the page so I won't make the same mistake later. Thank you. NetReader75 ( talk ) 23:32, 14 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] the cause The following discussion is closed. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page. No further edits should be made to this discussion. Extended content it is crucial. نرى كل شيء ( talk ) 00:08, 15 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] it is crucial. نرى كل شيء ( talk ) 00:08, 15 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Verizon outage Would it be reasonable to write an article on the current Verizon outage, assuming it passes the relevant notability guideline? Seems a little bit boring and clear cut but it’s very widespread and it seems like a lot of reliable sources are talking about it. FloblinTheGoblin ( talk ) 00:38, 15 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Make Edits to an Article How can I make edits to an article? Thanks! Ilovebread7271 ( talk ) 02:04, 15 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] How do I know if a source is considered reliable for Wikipedia? The following discussion is closed. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page. No further edits should be made to this discussion. Hello! I’m editing Wikipedia for the first time using a temporary account, and I want to make sure I’m doing things correctly. I’ve read about the reliable sources guideline, but I’m still a bit unsure how to apply it in practice. For example, are news articles, blogs, or organization websites usually acceptable? And how can I tell when a source is not reliable enough to use in an article? Any guidance or simple rules of thumb would be really appreciated. Thank you for your help! — Temporary account ~2026-29228-6 ( talk ) 02:37, 15 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Help with my draft No.7 Not really needing some help, but could you check the picture in my draft and tell me if you can see it? Thanks! SomnambulantFish talk ∫ contribs 04:39, 15 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Photo Rights If I find a picture I would like to add to wikipedia article, but it is under a CC 4.0 license, not totally open, how do I go about adding it? Do I add it into wikimedia first with proper accreditation and then search it through wikimedia in the article? Or do I simply add it straight to the article? And just to confirm, proper accreditation for something is to link the CC 4.0 license and then to credit the original photographer/owner? Is there anything I'm missing? I just want to make sure I go about this properly. Random Dyke ( talk ) 06:04, 15 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Your opinions In this discussion , I and the other user decided to invite other users' opinions at determining some sources' reliablity. Could you guys share the opinions about it? Thanks! Camilasdandelions ( ✉️ ) 13:16, 15 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Article draft declined Hi there! Hope this is the right place to ask a question about an article draft that´s been declined. Trying to create a page for an artist, got very good feedback for changes, then not much happening. Should I post link to the draft here? Any assistance in getting the submission right would be greatly appreciated! ComputerSaysYAY ( talk ) 14:06, 15 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] my rejection i would to know why I was rejected by @[[User:Bobby cohn Lw2311 ( talk ) 14:10, 15 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] HAPPY BIRTHDAY Happy birth-day to you! Happy birth-day to you! Happy birth-day Wikipediaaaaaaa... Happy birth-day to you! -- DollarStoreBa'al Converse 14:19, 15 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] NOOOOOO I MISSED THE LIVESTREAM BECAUSE I HAD TO PAY ATTENTION IN SCIENCE CLASS :( -- DollarStoreBa'al Converse 17:43, 15 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Wikipedia's 25th birthday Hello everyone, today is the 25th birthday of the English Wikipedia - we know that everyone has been waiting for this day! We have been developing Wikipedia for 25 years! I would like to express my deep gratitude to all of you for your every effort on Wikipedia! And at this point, we would like to congratulate all Wikipedians on Wikipedia's 25th birthday! ( Infinitywiki2 ( talk ) 15:04, 15 January 2026 (UTC) ) [ reply ] HAPPY BIRTHDAY, WIKIPEDIA I wish that Wikipedia - oh, this beautiful website - stays up for another century. Happy Birthday, Wikipedia! Lemurik the Historian - president of Alternia and brand-new user of the Wiki Lemurik the Historian ( talk ) 18:03, 15 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Why does the introductory statement in the "Earthquake" article say 1556 Shaanxi Earthquake instead of 1976 Tangshan Earthquake? The statement "Significant historical earthquakes include the 1556 Shaanxi earthquake in China, with over 100,000 fatalities, and the 1960 Valdivia earthquake in Chile, the largest ever recorded at 9.5 magnitude." should be changed to "Significant historical earthquakes include the 1976 Tangshan earthquake in China, with 242,469-779,000 fatalities, and the 1960 Valdivia earthquake in Chile, the largest ever recorded at 9.5 magnitude.", because it obviously has a higher death toll than the 1556 Shaanxi earthquake, there were also indirect deaths in the 1556 Shaanxi earthquake, but they don't count there. ~2025-43053-85 ( talk ) 14:42, 15 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] (Possibly final) Help with my draft No.8 Ok, one last thing. In the “Orbital elements” section of my draft , should I add the extra elements which don't have a checkbox-thingy for them in the template? Thanks! SomnambulantFish talk ∫ contribs 15:30, 15 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Mandruss removed my message on Talk:Donald Trump I was simply responding to Malikindahood07 and Mandruss removed my message, the message said "Well... Half of americans are Trump supporters, and Wikipedia follows others (reliable sources and other stuff) rather than having its own opinion about it, therefore as Mandruss said, establish a consensus.", I didn't said anything bad, yet Mandruss removed it. ~2025-43053-85 ( talk ) 16:27, 15 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] About Creating an Article Well, I am not exactly a new user, but I would like to have some opinions about creating a certain article. I am planning to make an article on a certain family. Three of the family members have their own Wikipedia pages and two have redirect pages and six others are mentioned. The family on the whole is extremely influential. Also, some members are kind of notable but not that notable, so I was thinking to include them in the family page. Hasan M. Elahi K. Maudood Elahi K. Mukhtar Elahi TrueMoriarty Talk | Contribs 16:45, 15 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Draft in process Hello! I currently have a draft page in process that was originally rejected so I made changes to it. I am wondering when I will know if it has been approved or not. Here is the link to the page: Draft:Pamela Drucker Mann . Mdwyer89 ( talk ) 18:26, 15 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Lost Kids Animation – Help Identify Platform: Netflix (international, likely removed) Description: Animation style was very simple, humanoid figures (almost stick-figure / line / clay-like) Characters were often pink and blue The setting was a dark city / nighttime urban environment Episodes sometimes showed the characters driving cars Music was synth / electronic, very atmospheric Felt retro / 80s-inspired, but I don’t think it was actually from the 80s Made for kids, not adult Not La Linea, not Angry Kid, not Abney & Teal, not Charlie’s Colorforms City It may have been: A short-form series An international show Something Netflix licensed briefly and later removed I can’t find any screenshots, clips, or listings online, so I believe it may be lost or undocumented media. Any help identifying this would be appreciated. Pooiey135 ( talk ) 20:06, 15 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Source charged for fraud If a source is charged for fraud, regardless of whether it necessarily reflects in the quality of the source's information itself, should that source be considered unreliable? For example, I saw someone cite this source before this charge: SEC.gov | SEC Charges App Annie and its Founder with Securities Fraud Intuitively, I would avoid such a source, but I wanted to make sure. Ash.tahno ( talk ) 20:53, 15 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Readable prose size How do I find the readable prose size for a page for things like WP:DYK ? I didn't see it in the tools. FloblinTheGoblin ( talk ) 21:29, 15 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] don’t ban me i changed a photo so what leave me alone don’t ban me ~2026-32458-7 ( talk ) 21:35, 15 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] I found this message on the talk page of "LGBTQ (term)" titled "There is no "LGB". It never existed. The reference in the first line is wrong." written by 2601:600:9280:D3B0:69DE:F93:4DC0:A2D8 The message reads "Somehow this utter nonsense has been inserted into the article: "In the 1990s, gay, lesbian, and bisexual activists adopted the initialism LGB. Terminology eventually shifted to LGBT, as transgender people gained recognition." You'll note the lack of citations, because it is of course completely made up. There was an acronym **GLB** but that is not "LGB". GLBT was used very, very briefly, but LGBT came during the AIDS crisis, as lesbians were switched to the front in recognition of how much lesbian women had done caring for gay men dying of AIDS. How this falsehood entered a prominant wikipedia article uncited is completely unknown. You will find NO photos of "LGB" from the 70s because it was "Gay," "gay and lesbian" or occasionally "GLB". Never LGB, as ordering the Lesbians first ONLY happened during the AIDS crisis, and happened after Transgender was added to the acronym.", they also added that "Edit: A creep has tried to remove this. This is a factual inaccuracy, heavily pushed by the hate group "LGB drop the T". Given this comment was removed within hours of being posted on a talk page, I think it's obvious how this inaccuracy got added, and who is keeping it around.", reading this made me decide to write it on the Teahouse for answers about it. ~2025-43053-85 ( talk ) 21:47, 15 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Radqueer and TransID Ok, it dosen't have to be articles about it, but like for Radqueer and TransID to be mentioned on Wikipedia. Radqueer is a niche non-mainstream movement, it is not to be confused with queer radicalism, it is a community that consists of transidentities (also called/shortened as TransID) and paraphilias. Some people inside the community consider them as part of LGBT+ community, while others don't consider them part of the LGBT+ community, and TransID are transidentities outside of transgender identities, honestly, i don't know if i described it properly, maybe these websites will explain it better, please be aware that some, if not many of them are biased, if not heavily biased, and/or include incorrect information, if not outright disinformation, the TransID website (named after TransID, not the inventor of TransID) might be the best website in terms of information and accuracy, about Radqueer and TransID, anyways here are websites that most, if not all of them, most likely, if not definitely, coundl't be used as reliable sources i found: Also, i found this but this web page dosen't work now and it isn't archived on Wayback Machine when i tried it, not sure if it can be found on Wayback Machine by other means, such as a different link, it could be archived on other web archiving sites, but i haven't tried it, anyways, find web pages about this that can be used as reliable sources, i'm not good at digging deep on the web, so someone here must find it themselfs, okay? ~2025-43053-85 ( talk ) 22:21, 15 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] School Recognition Hi! Full disclosure, I work at The Willows Community School and was wondering how to get the notable award from Hollywood Reporter linked to the school: . I believe the schools meets notability. Please let me know how to proceed! Thanks everyone. ~2026-33061-4 ( talk ) 22:40, 15 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] How to find the appropiate tone template? For the tone of the text. ~2025-43053-85 ( talk ) 22:44, 15 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] I want to delete a image i want to delete File:LinnMao.png from commons, first I didn't draw this, and secondly, I don't have a license, or at least I don't know if it did. PixelWhite ( talk ) 22:53, 15 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] How do I create a coloured map such as the one at File:Visa_Requirements_for_United_States_citizens.svg? I'm confused because there doesn't seem to be any Wikipedia tool to colour the countries, or to make the legend. VidanaliK ( talk to me ) 23:25, 15 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Inflation tag Hello. I added a sentence and then a source (see: ). However, I'm aware that 2005 £ would be much different than today and I have seen other pages put (from memory, in parentheses) what it would be worth more recently. I found on the Manual of Style that there are inflation tags but I couldn't figure out how to make them work. The visual editor says that parameters haven't been added yet (or something) for them. How would I improve my edit? Should I also put, after £1 million, "(2005)", to show it's from that year? I hope this is understandable. Thank you so much for all your help. Itsaclarinet ( talk ) 00:11, 16 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Video of Jeju Air Flight 2216 skidding on runway at Muan airport and crashing into barrier I would like to upload video of the South Korean airliner that belly-landed and crashed into a barrier at Muan airport, December 2024. I am uncertain about licensing. When the article, Jeju Air Flight 2216 , was still new, I linked to the video on an external source, which is: That link remains in the article and still works; the video is still available. The Telegraph article which contains the video seems to be at: I don't have a subscription, so I can't confirm if the video actually plays on that Telegraph page. I originally found the Telegraph source on this Yahoo page: The full video plays within that Yahoo page, and the video has an embedded link to download it from the Telegraph source with no apparent restriction. I have downloaded it to my computer with no issues. The video, or parts of it, also appears on multiple Youtube pages. The most complete may be: I could not find a licensing message for that specific video. Multiple sources that have the video show a credit for Lee Geun-young, who, as I remember, is the local business owner who recorded the video. Rather than depending on the external source, which might eventually become unavailable, I want to upload the video to Wikipedia so we can use it directly. I seek advice on whether it can be uploaded for legal use either on English Wikipedia or on Commons. Thanks. DonFB ( talk ) 00:45, 16 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] How to get a real-time preview window when editing in source-mode? Hey there. I've been editing for some time, and when in source mode, usually on talk pages, there used to be a split view. On the left would be the editable text, and the right would be a window that reflected my edits in real time, prior to publishing. Now, there is no split view and my window is solely the editable text. How do I get that real time preview back? Did I mess something up in my preferences? Thanks for any help! Jcgaylor ( talk ) 03:20, 16 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Teahouse Unanswered Questions This is a weird question (considering I'm currently in the Wikipedia Teahouse), but how can I answer unanswered teahouse questions? Thanks! Ilovebread7271 ( talk ) 03:50, 16 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Promotional draft creator, may be NOTHERE I was checking stuff at WikiProject Singapore when I came across Draft:Chin Hwee Tan , which had been submitted for review by an Elara Whitcombe ( talk · contribs ) After reading a bit more into the draft's history and the user's contributions, I found that the page as displayed to non-administrators was a re-creation and that the creator had complained about their inability to get it published at a now-archived Teahouse thread In the thread, they denied that they had used AI (a reason used to deny the fourth submission) for anything other than "the reference links" (direct quote), and were told that AI-generated references were prohibited and to read WP:NPOV They do not appear to have, given the re-creation (previously deleted for blatant AI use, see log ) and capitalised section titles characteristic of AI; I believe that their claim of not using AI for much was a blatant lie Elara, would you like to say anything? Whyiseverythingalreadyused ( t · c · he/him) 06:52, 16 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Editing carefully on Wikipedia How can I edit on wikipedia carefully without making the article and grammar worse? Can you provide me some ways to make ethical edits to wikipedia? I am quite new to this website and I need help. Thank you. Phong062474 ( talk ) 11:34, 16 January 2026 (UTC) [ reply ] Wikipedia Teahouse Wikipedia help forums Noindexed pages Non-talk pages that are automatically signed Pages that should not be manually archived This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 11:51 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Key 2 Selections 3 Notes 4 References 5 External links 1966 NBA expansion draft Español Français Italiano עברית Polski Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item 1966 NBA expansion draft General information Sport Basketball Date April 30 to May 1, 1966 Overview League NBA Expansion teams Chicago Bulls ← 1961 1967 → The 1966 NBA expansion draft was the second expansion draft of the National Basketball Association (NBA). The draft was held from April 30 to May 1, 1966, [ 1 ] [ 2 ] so that the newly founded Chicago Bulls could acquire players for the upcoming 1966–67 season . Chicago had been awarded the expansion team on January 16, 1966. [ 3 ] The Bulls were the third NBA franchise to play in Chicago, following the Chicago Stags , which folded in 1950, and the Chicago Packers–Zephyrs, which moved to Baltimore and became the Baltimore Bullets in 1963. [ 4 ] In an NBA expansion draft, new NBA teams are allowed to acquire players from the previously established teams in the league. Not all players on a given team are available during an expansion draft, since each team can protect a certain number of players from being selected. Before the 1966 expansion draft, the Bulls' general manager, Dick Klein , asked that each team reduce the number of protected players from eight (as initially planned) to seven. In exchange, he agreed to pick last (instead of first) in each round of that year's college draft . He also promised Red Auerbach of the Boston Celtics that he would not draft Boston's K. C. Jones , as long as Auerbach met with him to share his opinions of other players throughout the NBA. [ 5 ] The Bulls selected eighteen unprotected players, two from each of the nine other NBA teams. On the first day of the draft, they selected players from the Eastern Division teams; [ 1 ] on the second day, they picked from the Western Division teams. [ 2 ] The Bulls' selections included former first overall pick Bob Boozer , three-time All-Star Johnny Kerr and one-time All-Star Len Chappell . Kerr retired from playing prior to the start of the season, [ 6 ] and was later named the franchise's first head coach . [ 4 ] Another expansion draft pick, Al Bianchi , also retired as a player and was later named the team's assistant coach. [ 7 ] Dick Klein had been planning to hire Kerr and Bianchi as coaches before the draft even took place, but because they were still underplaying contracts with other teams, Klein needed to draft them instead of hiring them outright. [ 5 ] Ten players from the expansion draft joined the Bulls for their inaugural season, but only six played more than one season for the team. Guy Rodgers —whom the Bulls acquired in exchange for Jim King and Jeff Mullins —and Jerry Sloan were named to the 1967 All-Star Game , becoming the franchise's first All-Stars. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] Sloan played ten seasons with the Bulls and became the Bulls' franchise leader in games played when he retired in 1976, a record which has since been broken by Michael Jordan and Scottie Pippen . [ 10 ] He then coached the Bulls from 1979 to 1982, and in 1988, embarked upon a coaching career with the Utah Jazz that lasted 23 years. [ 11 ] Sloan has since been inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame as a coach , as has fellow draftee John Thompson . [ 12 ] The latter never worked for the Bulls in any capacity, but found success as a coach at Georgetown University . [ 13 ] [ 14 ] Key Pos. G F C Position Guard Forward Center + Denotes player who has been selected for at least one All-Star Game Selections Player Pos. Nationality Previous team Years of NBA experience .mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)} [a] Career with the franchise Ref. John Barnhill G United States Detroit Pistons 4 — [b] [ 15 ] Al Bianchi G United States Philadelphia 76ers 10 — [b] [ 16 ] Ron Bonham F United States Boston Celtics 2 — [b] [ 17 ] Bob Boozer + F United States Los Angeles Lakers 6 1966 – 1969 [ 18 ] Nate Bowman C United States Cincinnati Royals 0 [c] 1966 [ 19 ] Len Chappell + F/C United States New York Knicks 4 1966 [ 20 ] Barry Clemens F United States New York Knicks 1 1966 – 1969 [ 21 ] Keith Erickson G/F United States San Francisco Warriors 1 1966 – 1968 [ 22 ] Johnny Kerr + F/C United States Baltimore Bullets 12 — [b] [ 23 ] Jim King + G United States Los Angeles Lakers 3 — [b] [ 24 ] Don Kojis + F United States Detroit Pistons 3 1966–1967 [ 25 ] McCoy McLemore F/C United States San Francisco Warriors 2 1966 – 1968 [ 26 ] Jeff Mullins + G/F United States St. Louis Hawks 2 — [b] [ 27 ] Jerry Sloan + G/F United States Baltimore Bullets 1 1966 – 1976 [ 28 ] Tom Thacker G/F United States Cincinnati Royals 3 — [b] [ 29 ] John Thompson F United States Boston Celtics 2 — [b] [ 30 ] Gerry Ward G United States Philadelphia 76ers 3 1966–1967 [ 31 ] Jim Washington F/C United States St. Louis Hawks 1 1966 – 1969 [ 32 ] Notes a Number of years played in the NBA prior to the draft b Never played a game for the franchise c Never played in the NBA prior to the expansion draft References .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "NBA Expansion Drafts: Results" . NBA.com . Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. Archived from the original on March 29, 2010 . Retrieved March 11, 2010 . "All-Time NBA Expansion Draft Results" . NBA.com/Bobcats . Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. Archived from the original on January 16, 2008 . Retrieved March 11, 2010 . "1966 NBA Expansion Draft" . basketball-reference.com . Archived from the original on October 18, 2012 . Retrieved March 11, 2010 . ^ a b "Bowman, Sloan among 1st players on new Bulls". Chicago Tribune . May 1, 1966. p. C1. ^ a b "Bulls pick 8 to complete player draft; Boozer and Kojis are on the list". Chicago Tribune . May 2, 1966. p. C6. ^ "This Date in the NBA–January" . NBA.com . Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. June 17, 2014. Archived from the original on March 21, 2010 . Retrieved July 5, 2015 . ^ a b "History of the Chicago Bulls" . NBA.com/Bulls . Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. Archived from the original on November 4, 2012 . Retrieved March 11, 2010 . ^ a b Sachare, Alex. (1999). The Chicago Bulls Encyclopedia . Lincolnwood, Illinois: Contemporary. pp. 7–8. ISBN 0-8092-2515-8 . ^ "Johnny "Red" Kerr Bio" . NBA.com . Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. Archived from the original on January 22, 2012 . Retrieved March 11, 2010 . ^ "Suns Add Al Bianchi to Coaching Staff" . NBA.com/Suns . Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. February 18, 2002. Archived from the original on January 19, 2012 . Retrieved March 19, 2010 . ^ "1967 NBA All-Star Game" . basketball-reference.com . Archived from the original on April 21, 2009 . Retrieved March 14, 2010 . ^ "Guy Rodgers Statistics" . basketball-reference.com . Archived from the original on October 1, 2012 . Retrieved March 14, 2010 . ^ "Chicago Bulls Career Leaders" . basketball-reference.com . Archived from the original on June 4, 2011 . Retrieved December 11, 2010 . ^ "Jerry Sloan Bio" . NBA.com . Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. Archived from the original on March 19, 2010 . Retrieved March 14, 2010 . ^ "Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame Inductees" . basketball-reference.com . Archived from the original on December 5, 2010 . Retrieved March 14, 2010 . ^ Himmelsbach, Adam (March 3, 2006). "Hoyas' First Thompson Era Has Long Life on the Payroll" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on October 27, 2014 . Retrieved March 14, 2010 . ^ "John Thompson, Kay Yow Honored" . NCAA.com . CBS Interactive. November 20, 2009 . Retrieved March 14, 2010 . [ permanent dead link ] ^ "John Barnhill Statistics" . basketball-reference.com . Archived from the original on May 19, 2011 . Retrieved May 23, 2010 . ^ "Al Bianchi Statistics" . basketball-reference.com . Archived from the original on July 30, 2010 . Retrieved May 23, 2010 . ^ "Ron Bonham Statistics" . basketball-reference.com . Archived from the original on December 30, 2011 . Retrieved May 23, 2010 . ^ "Bob Boozer Statistics" . basketball-reference.com . Archived from the original on February 18, 2012 . Retrieved May 23, 2010 . ^ "Nate Bowman Statistics" . basketball-reference.com . Archived from the original on May 31, 2010 . Retrieved May 23, 2010 . ^ "Len Chappell Statistics" . basketball-reference.com . Archived from the original on November 29, 2020 . Retrieved May 23, 2010 . ^ "Barry Clemens Statistics" . basketball-reference.com . Archived from the original on May 4, 2019 . Retrieved May 23, 2010 . ^ "Keith Erickson Statistics" . basketball-reference.com . Archived from the original on June 16, 2009 . Retrieved May 23, 2010 . ^ "Red Kerr Statistics" . basketball-reference.com . Archived from the original on May 13, 2013 . Retrieved May 23, 2010 . ^ "Jim King Statistics" . basketball-reference.com . Archived from the original on March 6, 2011 . Retrieved May 23, 2010 . ^ "Don Kojis Statistics" . basketball-reference.com . Archived from the original on March 6, 2011 . Retrieved May 23, 2010 . ^ "McCoy McLemore Statistics" . basketball-reference.com . Archived from the original on May 5, 2010 . Retrieved May 23, 2010 . ^ "Jeff Mullins Statistics" . basketball-reference.com . Archived from the original on September 25, 2010 . Retrieved May 23, 2010 . ^ "Jerry Sloan Statistics" . basketball-reference.com . Archived from the original on May 31, 2020 . Retrieved May 23, 2010 . ^ "Tom Thacker Statistics" . basketball-reference.com . Archived from the original on June 14, 2010 . Retrieved May 23, 2010 . ^ "John Thompson Statistics" . basketball-reference.com . Archived from the original on July 8, 2017 . Retrieved May 23, 2010 . ^ "Gerry Ward Statistics" . basketball-reference.com . Archived from the original on June 19, 2010 . Retrieved May 23, 2010 . ^ "Jim Washington Statistics" . basketball-reference.com . Archived from the original on July 9, 2011 . Retrieved May 23, 2010 . External links NBA.com NBA.com: NBA Draft History .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e NBA drafts v t e Draft lottery Draft combine Eligibility Territorial picks First overall picks High school draftees Undrafted players Supreme Court case WNBA draft 1976 ABA dispersal draft Draft lottery Draft combine Eligibility Territorial picks First overall picks High school draftees Undrafted players Supreme Court case WNBA draft 1976 ABA dispersal draft 1940s 1947 1948 1949 1947 1948 1949 1950s 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960s 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970s 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980s 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990s 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000s 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010s 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020s 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 Expansion drafts 1961 1966 1967 1968 1970 1974 1980 1988 1989 1995 2004 Expansion drafts 1961 1966 1967 1968 1970 1974 1980 1988 1989 1995 2004 1961 1961 1966 1966 1967 1967 1968 1968 1970 1970 1974 1974 1980 1980 1988 1988 1989 1989 1995 1995 2004 2004 v t e 1966–67 NBA season by team v t e 1966 NBA expansion draft 1966 NBA draft All-Star Game Playoffs Finals Transactions 1966 NBA expansion draft 1966 NBA draft All-Star Game Playoffs Finals Transactions Eastern Baltimore Boston Cincinnati New York Philadelphia Baltimore Boston Cincinnati New York Philadelphia Western Chicago Detroit Los Angeles San Francisco St. Louis Chicago Detroit Los Angeles San Francisco St. Louis v t e Chicago Bulls v t e Founded in 1966 Based in Chicago Founded in 1966 Based in Chicago Franchise All-time roster Draft history 1966 Records Head coaches Seasons Current season All-time roster Draft history 1966 1966 Records Head coaches Seasons Current season Arenas International Amphitheatre Chicago Stadium United Center International Amphitheatre Chicago Stadium United Center Personnel Owner(s) Jerry Reinsdorf President Michael Reinsdorf General manager Marc Eversley Head coach Billy Donovan G League affiliate Windy City Bulls Windy City Bulls Retired numbers 4 10 23 33 4 10 23 33 NBA championships 1991 1992 1993 1996 1997 1998 1991 1992 1993 1996 1997 1998 Rivalries Cleveland Cavaliers Detroit Pistons New York Knicks Cleveland Cavaliers Detroit Pistons New York Knicks Culture and lore Broadcasters Air Jordan Jumpman Tommy Edwards Ray Clay Benny the Bull Disputed foul against Scottie Pippen " Sirius " " Sweet Home Chicago " Bill Swerski's Superfans Chuck Swirsky Jordan Rules Triangle offense Ashland Green/Pink Line Station College Prep Tex Winter The Spirit (Michael Jordan statue) Phantom Buzzer Game The Shot NBA championship riots Bulls vs Lakers and the NBA Playoffs Bulls vs. Blazers and the NBA Playoffs Trent Tucker Rule The Calhoun Shot 72–10 Michael Jordan's last shot Space Jam " I Believe I Can Fly " The Last Dance Broadcasters Air Jordan Jumpman Jumpman Tommy Edwards Ray Clay Benny the Bull Disputed foul against Scottie Pippen " Sirius " " Sweet Home Chicago " Bill Swerski's Superfans Chuck Swirsky Jordan Rules Triangle offense Ashland Green/Pink Line Station College Prep Tex Winter The Spirit (Michael Jordan statue) Phantom Buzzer Game The Shot NBA championship riots Bulls vs Lakers and the NBA Playoffs Bulls vs. Blazers and the NBA Playoffs Trent Tucker Rule The Calhoun Shot 72–10 Michael Jordan's last shot Space Jam " I Believe I Can Fly " " I Believe I Can Fly " The Last Dance 1966–67 NBA season Chicago Bulls lists NBA expansion draft April 1966 sports events in the United States May 1966 sports events in the United States All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from June 2017 Articles with permanently dead external links Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use mdy dates from August 2023 Articles with hCards Featured lists This page was last edited on 5 June 2024, at 20:22 (UTC) . 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Help | Advanced Search quick links Login Help Pages About Computer Science > Artificial Intelligence Title: The Impact of Generative AI on Architectural Conceptual Design: Performance, Creative Self-Efficacy and Cognitive Load Abstract: Our study examines how generative AI (GenAI) influences performance, creative self-efficacy, and cognitive load in architectural conceptual design tasks. Thirty-six student participants from Architectural Engineering and other disciplines completed a two-phase architectural design task, first independently and then with external tools (GenAI-assisted condition and control condition using an online repository of existing architectural projects). Design outcomes were evaluated by expert raters, while self-efficacy and cognitive load were self-reported after each phase. Difference-in-differences analyses revealed no overall performance advantage of GenAI across participants; however, subgroup analyses showed that GenAI significantly improved design performance for novice designers. In contrast, general creative self-efficacy declined for students using GenAI. Cognitive load did not differ significantly between conditions, though prompt usage patterns showed that iterative idea generation and visual feedback prompts were linked to greater reductions in cognitive load. These findings suggest that GenAI effectiveness depends on users' prior expertise and interaction strategies through prompting. Subjects: Artificial Intelligence (cs.AI) Cite as: arXiv:2601.10696 [cs.AI] (or arXiv:2601.10696v1 [cs.AI] for this version) Focus to learn more arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite (pending registration) Submission history Access Paper: View PDF References & Citations NASA ADS Google Scholar Semantic Scholar BibTeX formatted citation Bookmark Bibliographic and Citation Tools Code, Data and Media Associated with this Article Demos Recommenders and Search Tools Author Venue Institution Topic arXivLabs: experimental projects with community collaborators arXivLabs is a framework that allows collaborators to develop and share new arXiv features directly on our website. Both individuals and organizations that work with arXivLabs have embraced and accepted our values of openness, community, excellence, and user data privacy. arXiv is committed to these values and only works with partners that adhere to them. Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? Learn more about arXivLabs . About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status arXiv Operational Status
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Garang Portal komunitas Parubahan say ompay Halaman sabasingna Katulungan Halaman khusus Nyumbang Guway akun Kuruk log Nyumbang Guway akun Kuruk log Wikipidiya : Garang Garang Rombakan Baca Liyak sumbor Liyak riwayat Baca Liyak sumbor Liyak riwayat Pranala balik Parubahan say tikahik Unggah bondol Kahikan parmanin Katorangan halaman Dapokko URL say tibuntak'i Unduh kode QR Guway buku Unduh versi PDF Persi citak Wikimedia Commons Wikimedia Foundation MediaWiki Meta-Wiki Penjangkauan Wikimedia Wikisumber multibahasa Wikispesies Wikidata Wikifungsi Wikimania Butir di Wikidata Basa Igamo Kumoring Pulitik Sajarah Tiknulugi Ulahraga Manuk-manuk say bumigrasi nyopok kanik'an di Taman Nasiyunal Sambilang Say ngaguway : HARRY SANJAYA PUTRA CC BY-SA 4.0 Commons Balay midiya jama-jama MediaWiki Pangingunan paranti Meta-Wiki Pangingunan paroyek Wikibarita Barita say anyar Wikibuku Buku-buku say bibas Wikidata Balay pangkalna data Wikikamus Kamus say bibas Wikimidang Panduwan midang Wikisarambah Sarambah rik warah-warah Wikisapisiyes Macom-ragom mahluk Wikisumbor Kitab rik suratan sumbor Wikikuliyah Sarana tinaway Аԥсшәа Acèh Адыгабзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch Алтай тил አማርኛ Pangcah Aragonés Ænglisc Obolo अंगिका العربية ܐܪܡܝܐ الدارجة مصرى অসমীয়া Asturianu Atikamekw Авар Kotava अवधी Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Башҡортса Basa Bali Boarisch Žemaitėška Batak Toba Bikol Central Bajau Sama Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Betawi Български भोजपुरी Bislama Banjar ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ Bamanankan বাংলা བོད་ཡིག বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Brezhoneg Bosanski Batak Mandailing Basa Ugi Буряад Català Chavacano de Zamboanga 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Нохчийн Cebuano Chamoru ᏣᎳᎩ Tsetsêhestâhese کوردی Corsu Nēhiyawēwin / ᓀᐦᐃᔭᐍᐏᐣ Qırımtatarca Čeština Kaszëbsczi Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ Чӑвашла Cymraeg Dansk Dagbanli Deutsch Dagaare Thuɔŋjäŋ Zazaki Dolnoserbski Kadazandusun डोटेली ދިވެހިބަސް ཇོང་ཁ Eʋegbe Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Mfantse Fulfulde Suomi Võro Na Vosa Vakaviti Føroyskt Fɔ̀ngbè Français Arpetan Nordfriisk Furlan Frysk Gaeilge Gagauz 贛語 Kriyòl gwiyannen Gàidhlig Galego گیلکی Avañe'ẽ गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni Bahasa Hulontalo 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 Ghanaian Pidgin ગુજરાતી Wayuunaiki Farefare Gungbe Gaelg Hausa 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî Hawaiʻi עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Hornjoserbsce Kreyòl ayisyen Magyar Հայերեն Արեւմտահայերէն Interlingua Jaku Iban Bahasa Indonesia Interlingue Igbo Igala Iñupiatun Ilokano ГӀалгӀай Ido Íslenska Italiano ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut 日本語 Patois La .lojban. Jawa ქართული Qaraqalpaqsha Taqbaylit Адыгэбзэ Kabɩyɛ Tyap Kongo Gĩkũyũ Қазақша Kalaallisut ភាសាខ្មែរ ಕನ್ನಡ Yerwa Kanuri 한국어 Перем коми Къарачай-малкъар کٲشُر Ripoarisch Kurdî Kʋsaal Коми Kernowek Кыргызча Latina Ladino Lëtzebuergesch Лакку Лезги Lingua Franca Nova Luganda Limburgs Ligure Ladin Lombard Lingála ລາວ Lietuvių Latgaļu Latviešu Madhurâ मैथिली Basa Banyumasan Мокшень Malagasy Олык марий Māori Minangkabau Македонски മലയാളം Монгол ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ ဘာသာမန် Moore मराठी Кырык мары Bahasa Melayu Malti Mirandés မြန်မာဘာသာ Эрзянь مازِرونی Nāhuatl Napulitano Plattdüütsch Nedersaksies नेपाली नेपाल भाषा Li Niha Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Novial ߒߞߏ IsiNdebele seSewula Nouormand Sesotho sa Leboa Nupe Diné bizaad Chi-Chewa Occitan Livvinkarjala Oromoo ଓଡ଼ିଆ Ирон ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Pangasinan Kapampangan Papiamentu Picard Naijá Deitsch Pälzisch पालि Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Ποντιακά پښتو Português Pinayuanan Runa Simi ရခိုင် Rumantsch Romani čhib Ikirundi Română Armãneashti Tarandíne Руски Русский Русиньскый Ikinyarwanda संस्कृतम् Саха тыла ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Sardu Sicilianu Scots سنڌي Davvisámegiella Sängö Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Taclḥit တႆး සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina سرائیکی Slovenščina Gagana Samoa Anarâškielâ ChiShona Soomaaliga Shqip Српски / srpski Sranantongo SiSwati Sesotho Seeltersk Sunda Svenska Kiswahili ꠍꠤꠟꠐꠤ Ślůnski Sakizaya தமிழ் Tayal ತುಳು ᥖᥭᥰ ᥖᥬᥲ ᥑᥨᥒᥰ తెలుగు Tetun Тоҷикӣ ไทย ትግርኛ ትግሬ Türkmençe Tagalog Tolışi Setswana Lea faka-Tonga Toki pona Tok Pisin Türkçe Seediq Xitsonga Татарча / tatarça ChiTumbuka Twi Reo tahiti Тыва дыл Удмурт ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Tshivenda Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt West-Vlams Volapük Walon Winaray Wolof 吴语 Хальмг IsiXhosa მარგალური ייִדיש Yorùbá Vahcuengh Zeêuws ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ 中文 文言 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí 粵語 IsiZulu Halaman sija tarakhir tiubah di 4 Januwari 2025, jam 07.26. Teks uwat dibah Lisensi Atribusi-BubagiGoh-goh Creative Commons ; kontu uwat katamtuwan tambahan. Lihat Katamtuwan Pamakayan untuk rinciyan lobih lanjut. Kabijakan karusioan Tontang Wikipidiya Pambantahan Kode Etik Pangombang Statistik Parnyataan kuki Tampilan salulir
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Overview 2 History Toggle History subsection 2.1 Common Romanian 2.2 Old Romanian 2.3 Modern Romanian 2.3.1 Pre-modern period 2.3.2 Modern period 2.3.3 Contemporary period 2.3.4 Modern history of Romanian in Bessarabia 2.4 Historical grammar 2.1 Common Romanian 2.2 Old Romanian 2.3 Modern Romanian 2.3.1 Pre-modern period 2.3.2 Modern period 2.3.3 Contemporary period 2.3.4 Modern history of Romanian in Bessarabia 2.3.1 Pre-modern period 2.3.2 Modern period 2.3.3 Contemporary period 2.3.4 Modern history of Romanian in Bessarabia 2.4 Historical grammar 3 Geographic distribution Toggle Geographic distribution subsection 3.1 Legal status 3.1.1 In Romania 3.1.2 In Moldova 3.1.3 In Serbia 3.1.3.1 Vojvodina 3.1.3.2 Timok Valley 3.1.4 Regional language status in Ukraine 3.1.5 In other countries and organizations 3.2 As a second and foreign language 3.3 Popular culture 3.4 Dialects 3.1 Legal status 3.1.1 In Romania 3.1.2 In Moldova 3.1.3 In Serbia 3.1.3.1 Vojvodina 3.1.3.2 Timok Valley 3.1.4 Regional language status in Ukraine 3.1.5 In other countries and organizations 3.1.1 In Romania 3.1.2 In Moldova 3.1.3 In Serbia 3.1.3.1 Vojvodina 3.1.3.2 Timok Valley 3.1.3.1 Vojvodina 3.1.3.2 Timok Valley 3.1.4 Regional language status in Ukraine 3.1.5 In other countries and organizations 3.2 As a second and foreign language 3.3 Popular culture 3.4 Dialects 4 Classification Toggle Classification subsection 4.1 Romance language 4.2 Balkan language area 4.3 Slavic influence 4.4 Other influences 4.5 French, Italian, and English loanwords 4.6 Lexis 4.1 Romance language 4.2 Balkan language area 4.3 Slavic influence 4.4 Other influences 4.5 French, Italian, and English loanwords 4.6 Lexis 5 Grammar 6 Phonology Toggle Phonology subsection 6.1 Phonetic changes 6.1 Phonetic changes 7 Writing system Toggle Writing system subsection 7.1 Romanian alphabet 7.2 Pronunciation 7.3 Punctuation and capitalization 7.4 Academy spelling recommendations 7.5 Examples of Romanian text 7.1 Romanian alphabet 7.2 Pronunciation 7.3 Punctuation and capitalization 7.4 Academy spelling recommendations 7.5 Examples of Romanian text 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Bibliography 12 External links Romanian language Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ अंगिका Ænglisc Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés ܐܪܡܝܐ Արեւմտահայերէն Armãneashti Arpetan Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Bikol Central Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Corsu Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deutsch Dolnoserbski Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Hawaiʻi Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Ido Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Ирон IsiXhosa Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Коми Kreyòl ayisyen Kurdî Кыргызча ລາວ Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingua Franca Nova Lombard Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Nederlands नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Nouormand Novial Occitan Олык марий Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча پنجابی Papiamentu پښتو Перем коми ភាសាខ្មែរ Picard Piemontèis Plattdüütsch Polski Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Română Romani čhib Rumantsch Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Gagana Samoa ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Sardu Scots Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ Ślůnski Soomaaliga کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Tyap Удмурт Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vèneto Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon West-Vlams Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki Žemaitėška 中文 Tolışi Toki pona Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikibooks Wikifunctions Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wikidata item Romanian Daco-Romanian limba română , românește , română [ a ] Pronunciation [roˈmɨnə] Native to Romania , Moldova Region Southeastern Europe Eastern Europe Central Europe Ethnicity Romanians (including Moldovans and Timok Vlachs ) Romanians (including Moldovans and Timok Vlachs ) Native speakers 22 million (2020) [ 1 ] Language family Indo-European Italic Latino-Faliscan Latin Romance Eastern Northern Romanian ? [ b ] Eastern Romanian ? [ b ] Romanian Italic Latino-Faliscan Latin Romance Eastern Northern Romanian ? [ b ] Eastern Romanian ? [ b ] Romanian Latino-Faliscan Latin Romance Eastern Northern Romanian ? [ b ] Eastern Romanian ? [ b ] Romanian Latin Romance Eastern Northern Romanian ? [ b ] Eastern Romanian ? [ b ] Romanian Romance Eastern Northern Romanian ? [ b ] Eastern Romanian ? [ b ] Romanian Eastern Northern Romanian ? [ b ] Eastern Romanian ? [ b ] Romanian Northern Romanian ? [ b ] Eastern Romanian ? [ b ] Romanian Eastern Romanian ? [ b ] Romanian Romanian Early forms Proto-Indo-European Proto-Italic Old Latin Vulgar Latin Proto-Romance Common Romanian Proto-Italic Old Latin Vulgar Latin Proto-Romance Common Romanian Old Latin Vulgar Latin Proto-Romance Common Romanian Vulgar Latin Proto-Romance Common Romanian Proto-Romance Common Romanian Common Romanian Dialects Transylvanian Crișana Moldavian Banat Wallachian Maramureș Bukovinian Oltenian Transylvanian Crișana Moldavian Banat Wallachian Maramureș Bukovinian Oltenian Writing system Latin ( Romanian alphabet ) Cyrillic Moldovan Cyrillic alphabet ( Transnistria only) Romanian Cyrillic alphabet (historical) Romanian Braille Latin ( Romanian alphabet ) Cyrillic Moldovan Cyrillic alphabet ( Transnistria only) Romanian Cyrillic alphabet (historical) Moldovan Cyrillic alphabet ( Transnistria only) Romanian Cyrillic alphabet (historical) Romanian Braille Official status Official language in Romania [ 4 ] Moldova [ 5 ] Transnistria ( as " Moldovan " ) [ 6 ] Vojvodina ( Serbia ) [ 7 ] European Union [ 8 ] Romania [ 4 ] Moldova [ 5 ] Transnistria ( as " Moldovan " ) [ 6 ] Vojvodina ( Serbia ) [ 7 ] European Union [ 8 ] Recognised minority language in Hungary [ 9 ] Serbia ( both as Romanian and " Vlach " ) [ 10 ] Ukraine [ 11 ] Hungary [ 9 ] Serbia ( both as Romanian and " Vlach " ) [ 10 ] Ukraine [ 11 ] Regulated by Romanian Academy Language codes ISO 639-1 ro ISO 639-2 rum ( B ) ron ( T ) ISO 639-3 ron Glottolog roma1327 Linguasphere (varieties: 51-AAD-ca to -ck) 51-AAD-c (varieties: 51-AAD-ca to -ck) Blue: region where Romanian is the dominant language. Cyan: areas with a notable minority of Romanian speakers. Distribution of the Romanian language in Romania, Moldova and surroundings This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support , you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA . Romanian (obsolete spelling: Roumanian ; endonym : limba română [ˈlimba roˈmɨnə] ⓘ , or românește [romɨˈneʃte] , lit. ' in Romanian ' ) is the official and main language of Romania and Moldova . Romanian is part of the Eastern Romance sub-branch of Romance languages , a linguistic group that evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin which separated from the Western Romance languages in the course of the period from the 5th to the 8th centuries. [ 12 ] To distinguish it within the Eastern Romance languages, in comparative linguistics it is called Daco-Romanian as opposed to its closest relatives, Aromanian , Megleno-Romanian , and Istro-Romanian . It is also spoken as a minority language by stable communities in the countries surrounding Romania ( Bulgaria , Hungary , Serbia and Ukraine ), and by the large Romanian diaspora . In total, it is spoken by 25 million people as a first language . [ 1 ] Romanian was also known as Moldovan in Moldova, although the Constitutional Court of Moldova ruled in 2013 that "the official language of Moldova is Romanian". [ c ] On 16 March 2023, the Moldovan Parliament approved a law on referring to the national language as Romanian in all legislative texts and the constitution. On 22 March, the president of Moldova, Maia Sandu , promulgated the law. [ 13 ] Overview The history of the Romanian language started in the Roman provinces north of the Jireček Line in Classical antiquity but there are three main hypotheses about its exact territory: the autochthony thesis (it developed in left-Danube Dacia only), the discontinuation thesis (it developed in right-Danube provinces only), and the "as-well-as" thesis that supports the language development on both sides of the Danube. [ 14 ] Between the 6th and 8th century, following the accumulated tendencies inherited from the vernacular spoken in this large area and, to a much smaller degree, the influences from native dialects , and in the context of a lessened power of the Roman central authority the language evolved into Common Romanian . This proto-language then came into close contact with the Slavic languages and subsequently divided into Aromanian , Megleno-Romanian , Istro-Romanian , and Daco-Romanian. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] Due to limited attestation between the 6th and 16th century, entire stages from its history are re-constructed by researchers, often with proposed relative chronologies and loose limits. [ 17 ] From the 12th or 13th century, official documents and religious texts were written in Old Church Slavonic , a language that had a similar role to Medieval Latin in Western Europe. The oldest dated text in Romanian is a letter written in 1521 with Cyrillic letters , and until late 18th century, including during the development of printing, the same alphabet was used. The period after 1780, starting with the writing of its first grammar books, represents the modern age of the language, during which time the Latin alphabet became official, the literary language was standardized, and a large number of words from Modern Latin and other Romance languages entered the lexis. In the process of language evolution from fewer than 2500 attested words from Late Antiquity to a lexicon of over 150,000 words in its contemporary form, [ 18 ] Romanian showed a high degree of lexical permeability, reflecting contact with Thraco-Dacian , Slavic languages (including Old Slavic , Serbian , Bulgarian , Ukrainian , and Russian ), Greek , Hungarian , German , Turkish , and to languages that served as cultural models during and after the Age of Enlightenment , in particular French . [ 19 ] This lexical permeability is continuing today with the introduction of English words. [ 20 ] Yet while the overall lexis was enriched with foreign words and internal constructs, in accordance with the history and development of the society and the diversification in semantic fields, the fundamental lexicon—the core vocabulary used in everyday conversation—remains governed by inherited elements from the Latin spoken in the Roman provinces bordering Danube , without which no coherent sentence can be made. [ 21 ] History Common Romanian Romanian descended from the Latin spoken in the Roman provinces of Southeastern Europe [ 2 ] north of the Jireček Line (a hypothetical boundary between the dominance of Latin and Greek influences). Most scholars agree that two major dialects had developed from Common Romanian by the 10th century. [ 2 ] Daco-Romanian (the official language of Romania and Moldova) and Istro-Romanian (a language spoken today by no more than 2,000 people in Istria ) descended from the northern dialect. [ 2 ] Two other languages, Aromanian and Megleno-Romanian , developed from the southern version of Common Romanian. [ 2 ] These two languages are now spoken in lands to the south of the Jireček Line . [ 22 ] Of the features that individualize Common Romanian, inherited from Latin or subsequently developed, of particular importance are: [ 23 ] appearance of schwa (written as ă in Romanian) vowel; growth of the plural inflectional ending -uri for the neuter gender; analytic present conditional (ex: Daco-Romanian aș cânta ); analytic future with an auxiliary derived from Latin volo (ex: Aromanian va s-cântu ); enclisis of the definite article (ex. Istro-Romanian câre – cârele ); nominal declension with two case forms in the singular feminine. Old Romanian The use of the denomination Romanian ( română ) for the language and use of the demonym Romanians ( Români ) for speakers of this language predate the foundation of the modern Romanian state. Romanians always used the general term rumân / român or regional terms such as ardeleni (or ungureni ), moldoveni or munteni to designate themselves. Both the name of rumână or rumâniască for the Romanian language and the self-designation rumân/român are attested as early as the 16th century, by various foreign travelers into the Carpathian Romance-speaking space, [ 24 ] as well as in other historical documents written in Romanian at that time such as Cronicile Țării Moldovei [ ro ] ( The Chronicles of the land of Moldova ) by Grigore Ureche . The few allusions to the use of Romanian in writing as well as common words, anthroponyms and toponyms preserved in the Old Church Slavonic religious writings and chancellery documents, attested prior to the 16th century, along with the analysis of graphemes show that the writing of Romanian with the Cyrillic alphabet started in the second half of the 15th century. [ 25 ] The Hurmuzaki Psalter ( Psaltirea Hurmuzaki ) is the oldest writing in Romanian, dated on the basis of watermarks between 1491–1504. [ 26 ] It is a copy of an older, fifteenth-century translation of the Psalter, [ 25 ] [ 27 ] which was bilingual (written in Church Slavonic, with Romanian translation after each verse). [ 28 ] The oldest Romanian document precisely dated is Neacșu's letter (1521) and was written using the Romanian Cyrillic alphabet , which was used until the late 19th century. The letter is the oldest testimony of Romanian epistolary style and uses a prevalent lexis of Latin origin. [ 29 ] The slow process of Romanian establishing itself as an official language, used in the public sphere, in literature and ecclesiastically, began in the late 15th century and ended in the early decades of the 18th century, by which time Romanian had begun to be regularly used by the Church. The oldest Romanian texts of a literary nature are liturgical texts of the Eastern Orthodox Church : Psalter ( Hurmuzaki Psalter , Scheian Psalter, Psalter of Voroneț) and Apostolos lectionary (Bratu's Codex, Codex of Voroneț). Their origins go back to the 15th century. The fact that they are bilingual writings or descend from bilingual writings shows that the initiative to translate them was prompted by the need to facilitate access to the Church Slavonic liturgical text. [ 28 ] The language spoken during this period had a phonological system of seven vowels and twenty-nine consonants. Particular to Old Romanian are the distribution of /z/, as the allophone of /dz/ from Common Romanian , in the Wallachian and south-east Transylvanian varieties, the presence of palatal sonorants /ʎ/ and /ɲ/, nowadays preserved only regionally in Banat and Oltenia , and the beginning of devoicing of asyllabic [u] after consonants. [ 25 ] Text analysis revealed words that are now lost from modern vocabulary or used only in local varieties. These words were of various provenience for example: Latin ( cure – to run, mâneca - to leave), Old Church Slavonic ( drăghicame – gem, precious stone, prilăsti – to trick, to cheat), Hungarian ( bizăntui – to bear witness). [ 30 ] Modern Romanian The modern age of Romanian starts in 1780 with the printing in Vienna of a very important grammar book [ 23 ] titled Elementa linguae daco-romanae sive valachicae . The author of the book, Samuil Micu-Klein , and the revisor, Gheorghe Șincai , both members of the Transylvanian School , chose to use Latin as the language of the text and presented the phonetical and grammatical features of Romanian in comparison to its ancestor. [ 31 ] The Modern age of Romanian language can be further divided into three phases: pre-modern or modernizing between 1780 and 1830, modern phase between 1831 and 1880, and contemporary from 1880 onwards. Pre-modern period Beginning with the printing in 1780 of Elementa linguae daco-romanae sive valachicae , the pre-modern phase was characterized by the publishing of school textbooks, appearance of first normative works in Romanian, numerous translations, and the beginning of a conscious stage of re-latinization of the language. [ 23 ] Notable contributions, besides that of the Transylvanian School , are the activities of Gheorghe Lazăr , founder of the first Romanian school, and Ion Heliade Rădulescu . The end of this period is marked by the first printing of magazines and newspapers in Romanian, in particular Curierul Românesc and Albina Românească . [ 32 ] Modern period Starting from 1831 and lasting until 1880 the modern phase is characterized by the development of literary styles: scientific, administrative, and belletristic . It quickly reached a high point with the printing of Dacia Literară , a journal founded by Mihail Kogălniceanu and representing a literary society, which together with other publications like Propășirea and Gazeta de Transilvania spread the ideas of Romantic nationalism and later contributed to the formation of other societies that took part in the Revolutions of 1848 . Their members and those that shared their views are collectively known in Romania as "of '48"( pașoptiști ), a name that was extended to the literature and writers around this time such as Vasile Alecsandri , Grigore Alexandrescu , Nicolae Bălcescu , Timotei Cipariu . [ 33 ] Between 1830 and 1860 "transitional alphabets" were used, adding Latin letters to the Romanian Cyrillic alphabet . The Latin alphabet became official at different dates in Wallachia and Transylvania – 1860, and Moldova – 1862. [ 34 ] Following the unification of Moldavia and Wallachia further studies on the language were made, culminating with the founding of Societatea Literară Română on 1 April 1866 on the initiative of C. A. Rosetti , an academic society that had the purpose of standardizing the orthography, formalizing the grammar and (via a dictionary) vocabulary of the language, and promoting literary and scientific publications. This institution later became the Romanian Academy . [ 35 ] Contemporary period The third phase of the modern age of Romanian language, starting from 1880 and continuing to this day, is characterized by the prevalence of the supradialectal form of the language, standardized with the express contribution of the school system and Romanian Academy, bringing a close to the process of literary language modernization and development of literary styles. [ 20 ] It is distinguished by the activity of Romanian literature classics in its early decades: Mihai Eminescu , Ion Luca Caragiale , Ion Creangă , Ioan Slavici . [ 36 ] The current orthography, with minor reforms to this day and using Latin letters, was fully implemented in 1881, regulated by the Romanian Academy on a fundamentally phonological principle, with few morpho-syntactic exceptions. [ 37 ] Modern history of Romanian in Bessarabia The first Romanian grammar was published in Vienna in 1780. [ 38 ] Following the annexation of Bessarabia by Russia in 1812, Moldavian was established as an official language in the governmental institutions of Bessarabia , used along with Russian, [ 39 ] The publishing works established by Archbishop Gavril Bănulescu-Bodoni were able to produce books and liturgical works in Moldavian between 1815 and 1820. [ 40 ] Bessarabia during the 1812–1918 era witnessed the gradual development of bilingualism . Russian continued to develop as the official language of privilege, whereas Romanian remained the principal vernacular. [ citation needed ] The period from 1905 to 1917 was one of increasing linguistic conflict spurred by an increase in Romanian nationalism. [ citation needed ] In 1905 and 1906, the Bessarabian zemstva asked for the re-introduction of Romanian in schools as a "compulsory language", and the "liberty to teach in the mother language (Romanian language)". At the same time, Romanian-language newspapers and journals began to appear, such as Basarabia (1906), Viața Basarabiei (1907), Moldovanul (1907), Luminătorul (1908), Cuvînt moldovenesc (1913), Glasul Basarabiei (1913). From 1913, the synod permitted that "the churches in Bessarabia use the Romanian language". Romanian finally became the official language with the Constitution of 1923 . Historical grammar Romanian has preserved a part of the Latin declension . However, while Latin had six cases , from a morphological viewpoint, Romanian has only three: the nominative / accusative , genitive / dative , and marginally the vocative . Romanian nouns also preserve the neuter gender , although instead of functioning as a separate gender with its own forms in adjectives, the Romanian neuter became a mixture of masculine and feminine. The verb morphology of Romanian has shown the same move towards a compound perfect and future tense as the other Romance languages. Compared with the other Romance languages , during its evolution, Romanian simplified the original Latin tense system. [ 41 ] Geographic distribution Romanian is spoken mostly in Central , South-Eastern , and Eastern Europe , although speakers of the language can be found all over the world, mostly due to emigration of Romanian nationals and the return of immigrants to Romania back to their original countries. Romanian speakers account for 0.5% of the world's population, [ 42 ] and 4% of the Romance-speaking population of the world. [ 43 ] Romanian is the single official and national language in Romania and Moldova, although it shares the official status at regional level with other languages in the Moldovan autonomies of Gagauzia and Transnistria . Romanian is also an official language of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina in Serbia along with five other languages. Romanian minorities are encountered in Serbia ( Timok Valley ), Ukraine ( Chernivtsi and Odesa oblasts ), and Hungary ( Gyula ). Large immigrant communities are found in Italy, Spain, France, and Portugal. In 1995, the largest Romanian-speaking community in the Middle East was found in Israel, where Romanian was spoken by 5% of the population. [ 44 ] [ 45 ] Romanian is also spoken as a second language by people from Arabic-speaking countries who have studied in Romania. It is estimated that almost half a million Middle Eastern Arabs studied in Romania during the 1980s. [ 46 ] Small Romanian-speaking communities are to be found in Kazakhstan and Russia. Romanian is also spoken within communities of Romanian and Moldovan immigrants in the United States, Canada and Australia, although they do not make up a large homogeneous community statewide. Country Speakers (%) Speakers (native) Country Population World World 0.33% 23,623,890 7,035,000,000 Countries where Romanian is an official language Romania 90.65% 17,263,561 [ 47 ] 19,043,767 Moldova 2 82.1% 2,184,065 2,681,735 Transnistria (Moldova) 3 33.0% 156,600 475,665 Vojvodina ( Serbia ) 1.04% 18,038 [ 48 ] 1,740,230 [ 48 ] Ukraine 5 0.8% 327,703 48,457,000 Other neighboring European states (except for CIS countries where Romanian is not official) Hungary 0.14% 13,886 [ 49 ] 9,937,628 Timok Valley (Serbia) 0.39% 25,702 [ 50 ] 6,664,007 Bulgaria 0.06% 4,575 [ 51 ] [ full citation needed ] 7,364,570 CIS countries where Romanian is not official Russia 1 0.06% 92,675 [ 52 ] 142,856,536 Kazakhstan 1 0.1% 14,666 14,953,126 Asia (excluding CIS countries) Israel 1.11% ~82,300 [ 53 ] 7,412,200 UAE 0.1% 5,000 [ citation needed ] 4,106,427 Singapore 0.02% 1,400 [ citation needed ] 5,535,000 Japan 0.002% 2,185 [ citation needed ] 126,659,683 South Korea 0.0006% 300 [ citation needed ] 50,004,441 China 0.0008% 12,000 [ citation needed ] 1,376,049,000 The Americas United States 0.049% 154,625 [ 54 ] 315,091,138 Canada 0.289% 100,610 [ 55 ] 34,767,250 Argentina 0.03% 13,000 [ citation needed ] 40,117,096 Venezuela 0.036% 10,000 [ citation needed ] 27,150,095 Brazil 0.002% 4,000 [ citation needed ] 190,732,694 Oceania Australia 0.046% 12,251 [ 56 ] 26,482,413 New Zealand 0.08% 3,100 [ citation needed ] 4,027,947 Africa South Africa 0.007% 3,000 [ citation needed ] 44,819,778 1 Many are Moldavians who were deported 2 Data only for the districts on the right bank of Dniester (without Transnistria and the city of Tighina). In Moldova, it is sometimes referred to as the " Moldovan language " 3 In Transnistria, it is officially called " Moldovan language " and is written in Moldovan Cyrillic alphabet . 4 Officially divided into Vlachs and Romanians 5 Most in Northern Bukovina and Southern Bessarabia; according to a Moldova Noastră study (based on the latest Ukrainian census). [ 57 ] 1 Many are Moldavians who were deported 2 Data only for the districts on the right bank of Dniester (without Transnistria and the city of Tighina). In Moldova, it is sometimes referred to as the " Moldovan language " 3 In Transnistria, it is officially called " Moldovan language " and is written in Moldovan Cyrillic alphabet . 4 Officially divided into Vlachs and Romanians 5 Most in Northern Bukovina and Southern Bessarabia; according to a Moldova Noastră study (based on the latest Ukrainian census). [ 57 ] Legal status In Romania According to the Constitution of Romania of 1991, as revised in 2003, Romanian is the official language of the Republic. [ 58 ] Romania mandates the use of Romanian in official government publications, public education and legal contracts. Advertisements as well as other public messages must bear a translation of foreign words, [ 59 ] while trade signs and logos shall be written predominantly in Romanian. [ 60 ] The Romanian Language Institute (Institutul Limbii Române), established by the Ministry of Education of Romania, promotes Romanian and supports people willing to study the language, working together with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs' Department for Romanians Abroad. [ 61 ] Since 2013, the Romanian Language Day is celebrated on every 31 August . [ 62 ] [ 63 ] In Moldova Romanian is the official language of the Republic of Moldova. The 1991 Declaration of Independence named the official language Romanian, [ 64 ] [ 65 ] and the Constitution of Moldova as originally adopted in 1994 named the state language of the country Moldovan . In December 2013, a decision of the Constitutional Court of Moldova ruled that the Declaration of Independence took precedence over the Constitution and the state language should be called Romanian. [ 66 ] In 2023, the Moldovan parliament passed a law officially adopting the designation "Romanian" in all legal instruments, implementing the 2013 court decision. [ 67 ] Scholars agree that Moldovan and Romanian are the same language, with the glottonym "Moldovan" used in certain political contexts. [ 68 ] It has been the sole official language since the adoption of the Law on State Language of the Moldavian SSR in 1989. [ 69 ] This law mandates the use of Moldovan in all the political, economic, cultural and social spheres, as well as asserting the existence of a "linguistic Moldo-Romanian identity". [ 70 ] It is also used in schools, mass media, education and in the colloquial speech and writing. Outside the political arena the language is most often called "Romanian". In the breakaway territory of Transnistria, it is co-official with Ukrainian and Russian. In the 2014 census , out of the 2,804,801 people living in Moldova, 24% (652,394) stated Romanian as their most common language, whereas 56% stated Moldovan. While in the urban centers speakers are split evenly between the two names (with the capital Chișinău showing a strong preference for the name "Romanian", i.e. 3:2), in the countryside hardly a quarter of Romanian/Moldovan speakers indicated Romanian as their native language. [ 71 ] Unofficial results of this census first showed a stronger preference for the name Romanian, however the initial reports were later dismissed by the Institute for Statistics, which led to speculations in the media regarding the forgery of the census results. [ 72 ] Of the total population that declared its mother tongue in the 2024 Moldovan census , 49.2% declared Moldovan and 31.3% declared Romanian . The share of the population that declared Romanian as its mother tongue increased by 8.1% compared to the 2014 census (23.2%), and the share that declared Moldovan decreased by 7.8% (56.9% in the 2014 census). [ 73 ] The proportion of the population who declared its mother tongue to be Romanian was higher among younger age groups, and it actually predominated in the 20-29 age group (88.785 who declared their "language to be Romanian, and 88,737 who declared it to be Moldovan. [ 74 ] In contrast, regarding the usually spoken language in the 2024 Moldovan census , 46.0% declared it to be Moldovan and 33.2% declared it to be Romanian. The two had together an increase of 0.5% compared to the 2014 census, and there was a significant increase in the share of self-declared speakers of Romanian as their usually spoken language, of 9.5%, as well as a decrease in the share of the self-declared speakers of Moldovan as their usually spoken language, of 9%, compared to the 2014 census. [ 75 ] The proportion of the population who declared its usually spoken language to be Romanian was higher among younger age groups for which data is available, and it actually predominated in the 3-29 age group (319,303 who declared their "language to be Romanian, and 289,517 who declared it to be Moldovan). [ 76 ] In Serbia Vojvodina .mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{} 1–5% 5–10% 10–15% 15–25% 25–35% over 35% The Constitution of the Republic of Serbia determines that in the regions of the Republic of Serbia inhabited by national minorities, their own languages and scripts shall be officially used as well, in the manner established by law. [ 77 ] The Statute of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina determines that, together with the Serbian language and the Cyrillic script, and the Latin script as stipulated by the law, the Croat , Hungarian , Slovak , Romanian and Rusyn languages and their scripts, as well as languages and scripts of other nationalities, shall simultaneously be officially used in the work of the bodies of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina, in the manner established by the law. [ 78 ] [ 79 ] The bodies of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina are: the Assembly, the Executive Council and the provincial administrative bodies. The Romanian language and script are officially used in eight municipalities: Alibunar , Bela Crkva ( Biserica Albă ), Žitište ( Sângeorgiu de Bega ), Zrenjanin ( Becicherecu Mare ), Kovačica ( Covăcița ), Kovin ( Cuvin ), Plandište ( Plandiște ) and Sečanj ( Seceani ). In the municipality of Vršac ( Vârșeț ), Romanian is official only in the villages of Vojvodinci ( Voivodinț ), Markovac ( Marcovăț ), Straža ( Straja ), Mali Žam ( Jamu Mic ), Malo Središte ( Srediștea Mică ), Mesić ( Mesici ), Jablanka ( Iablanca ), Sočica ( Sălcița ), Ritiševo ( Râtișor ), Orešac ( Oreșaț ) and Kuštilj ( Coștei ). [ 80 ] In the 2002 Census, the last carried out in Serbia, 1.5% of Vojvodinians stated Romanian as their native language. Timok Valley The Vlachs of Serbia are considered to speak Romanian as well. [ 81 ] Regional language status in Ukraine In parts of Ukraine where Romanians constitute a significant share of the local population (districts in Chernivtsi , Odesa and Zakarpattia oblasts ) Romanian is taught in schools as a primary language and there are Romanian-language newspapers, TV, and radio broadcasting. [ 82 ] [ 83 ] The University of Chernivtsi in western Ukraine trains teachers for Romanian schools in the fields of Romanian philology, mathematics and physics. [ 84 ] In Hertsa Raion of Ukraine as well as in other villages of Chernivtsi Oblast and Zakarpattia Oblast , Romanian has been declared a "regional language" alongside Ukrainian as per the 2012 legislation on languages in Ukraine . In other countries and organizations Romanian is an official or administrative language in various communities and organisations, such as the Latin Union and the European Union . Romanian is also one of the five languages in which religious services are performed in the autonomous monastic state of Mount Athos , spoken in the monastic communities of Prodromos and Lakkoskiti . In the unrecognised state of Transnistria , Moldovan is one of the official languages. However, unlike all other dialects of Romanian, this variety of Moldovan is written in Cyrillic script . As a second and foreign language Romanian is taught in some areas that have Romanian minority communities, such as Vojvodina in Serbia, Bulgaria, Ukraine and Hungary. The Romanian Cultural Institute (ICR) has since 1992 organised summer courses in Romanian for language teachers. [ 85 ] There are also non-Romanians who study Romanian as a foreign language, for example the Nicolae Bălcescu High-school in Gyula , Hungary. Romanian is taught as a foreign language in tertiary institutions, mostly in European countries such as Germany, France and Italy, and the Netherlands, as well as in the United States. Overall, it is taught as a foreign language in 43 countries around the world. [ 86 ] Popular culture Romanian has become popular in other countries through movies and songs performed in the Romanian language. Examples of Romanian acts that had a great success in non-Romanophone countries are the bands O-Zone (with their No. 1 single Dragostea Din Tei , also known as Numa Numa , across the world in 2003–2004), Akcent (popular in the Netherlands, Poland and other European countries), Activ (successful in some Eastern European countries), DJ Project (popular as clubbing music) SunStroke Project (known by viral video " Epic Sax Guy ") and Alexandra Stan (worldwide no.1 hit with " Mr. Saxobeat ") and Inna as well as high-rated movies like 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days , The Death of Mr. Lazarescu , 12:08 East of Bucharest or California Dreamin' (all of them with awards at the Cannes Film Festival ). Also some artists wrote songs dedicated to the Romanian language. The multi-platinum pop trio O-Zone (originally from Moldova) released a song called "Nu mă las de limba noastră" ("I won't forsake our language"). The final verse of this song, "Eu nu mă las de limba noastră, de limba noastră cea română" , is translated in English as "I won't forsake our language, our Romanian language". Also, the Moldovan musicians Doina and Ion Aldea Teodorovici performed a song called "The Romanian language". Dialects Romanian is also called Daco-Romanian in comparative linguistics to distinguish from the other dialects of Common Romanian : Aromanian , Megleno-Romanian , and Istro-Romanian . The origin of the term "Daco-Romanian" can be traced back to the first printed book of Romanian grammar in 1780, [ 38 ] by Samuil Micu and Gheorghe Șincai . There, the Romanian dialect spoken north of the Danube is called lingua Daco-Romana to emphasize its origin and its area of use, which includes the former Roman province of Dacia , although it is spoken also south of the Danube, in Dobruja , the Timok Valley and northern Bulgaria. This article deals with the Romanian (i.e. Daco-Romanian) language, and thus only its dialectal variations are discussed here. The differences between the regional varieties are small, limited to regular phonetic changes, few grammar aspects, and lexical particularities. There is a single written and spoken standard (literary) Romanian language used by all speakers, regardless of region. Like most natural languages, Romanian dialects are part of a dialect continuum . The dialects of Romanian are also referred to as 'sub-dialects' and are distinguished primarily by phonetic differences. Romanians themselves speak of the differences as 'accents' or 'speeches' (in Romanian: accent or grai ). [ 87 ] Depending on the criteria used for classifying these dialects, fewer or more are found, ranging from 2 to 20, although the most widespread approaches give a number of five dialects. These are grouped into two main types, southern and northern, further divided as follows: The southern type has only one member: the Wallachian dialect , spoken in the southern part of Romania, in the historical regions of Muntenia , Oltenia and the southern part of Northern Dobruja , but also extending in the southern parts of Transylvania . the Wallachian dialect , spoken in the southern part of Romania, in the historical regions of Muntenia , Oltenia and the southern part of Northern Dobruja , but also extending in the southern parts of Transylvania . The northern type consists of several dialects: the Moldavian dialect , spoken in the historical region of Moldavia , now split among Romania, the Republic of Moldova, and Ukraine ( Bukovina and Bessarabia ), as well as northern part of Northern Dobruja ; the Banat dialect , spoken in the historical region of Banat , including parts of Serbia; a group of finely divided and transition-like Transylvanian varieties , among which two are most often distinguished, those of Crișana and Maramureș . the Moldavian dialect , spoken in the historical region of Moldavia , now split among Romania, the Republic of Moldova, and Ukraine ( Bukovina and Bessarabia ), as well as northern part of Northern Dobruja ; the Banat dialect , spoken in the historical region of Banat , including parts of Serbia; a group of finely divided and transition-like Transylvanian varieties , among which two are most often distinguished, those of Crișana and Maramureș . Over the last century, however, regional accents have been weakened due to mass communication and greater mobility. Some argots and speech forms have also arisen from the Romanian language. Examples are the Gumuțeasca , spoken in Mărgău , [ 88 ] [ 89 ] and the Totoiana , an inverted "version" of Romanian spoken in Totoi . [ 90 ] [ 91 ] [ 92 ] Classification Romance language Romanian is a Romance language, belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European language family , having much in common with languages such as Italian , Spanish , French and Portuguese . [ 93 ] The closest relative of Romanian among the Romance languages is Italian. [ 93 ] The lexical similarity of Romanian with Italian has been estimated at 77%, followed by French at 75%, Sardinian at 74%, Catalan at 73%, Portuguese and Rhaeto-Romance at 72%, and Spanish at 71%. [ 94 ] Compared to some other Romance languages such as Italian, Romanian reflects greater foreign influence in areas such as vocabulary. The Romanian vocabulary became predominantly influenced by French and, to a lesser extent, Italian in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. [ 95 ] A 1949 study by the Italian-American linguist Mario Pei , analyzing the degree to which seven Romance languages diverged from Classical Latin with respect to their accent vocalization, yielded the following measurements of divergence (with higher percentages indicating greater divergence from the stressed vowels of Classical Latin): Logudorese Sardinian : 8% Italian: 12% Spanish: 20% Romanian: 23.5% Occitan : 25% Portuguese: 31% French: 44% The study emphasized, however, that it represented only "a very elementary, incomplete and tentative demonstration" of how statistical methods could measure linguistic change, assigned "frankly arbitrary" point values to various types of change, and did not compare languages in the sample with respect to any characteristics or forms of divergence other than stressed vowels, among other caveats. [ 96 ] Balkan language area While most of Romanian grammar and morphology are based on Latin, there are some features that are shared only with other languages of the Balkans and not found in other Romance languages. The shared features of Romanian and the other languages of the Balkan language area ( Bulgarian , Macedonian , Albanian , Greek, and Serbo-Croatian ) include a suffixed definite article , the syncretism of genitive and dative case and the formation of the future and the alternation of infinitive with subjunctive constructions. [ 97 ] [ 98 ] According to a well-established scholarly theory, most Balkanisms could be traced back to the development of the Balkan Romance languages; these features were adopted by other languages due to language shift . [ 99 ] Slavic influence Slavic influence on Romanian is especially noticeable in its vocabulary, with words of Slavic origin constituting about 10–15% of modern Romanian lexicon, [ 100 ] [ 101 ] and with further influences in its phonetics, morphology and syntax. The greater part of its Slavic vocabulary comes from Old Church Slavonic , [ 102 ] [ 103 ] which was the official written language of Wallachia and Moldavia from the 14th to the 18th century (although not understood by most people), as well as the liturgical language of the Romanian Orthodox Church . [ 104 ] [ 105 ] As a result, much Romanian vocabulary dealing with religion, ritual, and hierarchy is Slavic. [ 106 ] [ 104 ] The number of high-frequency Slavic-derived words is also believed to indicate contact or cohabitation with South Slavic tribes from around the 6th century, though it is disputed where this took place (see Origin of the Romanians ). [ 104 ] Words borrowed in this way tend to be more vernacular (compare sfârși , "to end", with săvârși , "to commit"). [ 106 ] It has also been argued that Slavic borrowing was a key factor in the development of [ ɨ ] ( î and â ) as a separate phoneme . [ 107 ] Other influences Even before the 19th century, Romanian came in contact with several other languages. Notable examples of lexical borrowings include: German : cartof < Kartoffel "potato", bere < Bier "beer", șurub < Schraube "screw", turn < Turm "tower", ramă < Rahmen "frame", muștiuc < Mundstück "mouth piece", bormașină < Bohrmaschine "drilling machine", cremșnit < Kremschnitte "cream slice", șvaițer < Schweizer "Swiss cheese", șlep < Schleppkahn "barge", șpriț < Spritzer "wine with soda water", abțibild < Abziehbild "decal picture", șnițel < (Wiener) Schnitzel "a battered cutlet", șmecher < Schmecker "taster (not interested in buying)", șuncă < dialectal Schunke ( Schinken ) "ham", punct < Punkt "point", maistru < Meister "master", rundă < Runde "round". Furthermore, during the Habsburg and, later on, Austrian rule of Banat , Transylvania , and Bukovina , a large number of words were borrowed from Austrian High German , in particular in fields such as the military, administration, social welfare, economy, etc. [ 108 ] Subsequently, German terms have been taken out of science and technics, like: șină < Schiene "rail", știft < Stift "peg", liță < Litze "braid", șindrilă < Schindel "shingle", ștanță < Stanze "punch", șaibă < Scheibe "washer", ștangă < Stange "crossbar", țiglă < Ziegel "tile", șmirghel < Schmirgelpapier "emery paper"; Greek : folos < ófelos "use", buzunar < buzunára "pocket", proaspăt < prósfatos "fresh", cutie < cution "box", portocale < portokalia "oranges". While Latin borrowed words of Greek origin, Romanian obtained Greek loanwords on its own. Greek entered Romanian through the apoikiai (colonies) and emporia (trade stations) founded in and around Dobruja , through the presence of Byzantine Empire in north of the Danube , through Bulgarian during Bulgarian Empires that converted Romanians to Orthodox Christianity, and after the Greek Civil War, when thousands of Greeks fled Greece. Hungarian : a cheltui < költeni "to spend", a făgădui < fogadni "to promise", a mântui < menteni "to save", oraș < város "city"; Turkish : papuc < pabuç "slipper", ciorbă < çorba "wholemeal soup, sour soup", bacșiș < bahşiş "tip" (ultimately from Persian baksheesh ); Additionally, the Romani language has provided a series of slang words to Romanian such as: mișto "good, beautiful, cool" < mišto , [ 109 ] gagică "girlie, girlfriend" < gadji , a hali "to devour" < halo , mandea "yours truly" < mande , a mangli "to pilfer" < manglo . French, Italian, and English loanwords Since the 19th century, many literary or learned words were borrowed from the other Romance languages, especially from French and Italian (for example: birou "desk, office", avion "airplane", exploata "exploit"). It was estimated that about 38% of words in Romanian are of French and/or Italian origin (in many cases both languages); and adding this to Romanian's native stock, about 75%–85% of Romanian words can be traced to Latin. The use of these Romanianized French and Italian learned loans has tended to increase at the expense of previous loanwords, many of which have become rare or fallen out of use. As second or third languages, French and Italian themselves are better known in Romania than in Romania's neighbors. Along with the switch to the Latin alphabet in Moldova, the re-latinization of the vocabulary has tended to reinforce the Latin character of the language. In the process of lexical modernization, much of the native Latin stock have acquired doublets from other Romance languages , thus forming a further and more modern and literary lexical layer. Typically, the native word is a noun and the learned loan is an adjective. Some examples of doublets: Latin Native stock Learned loan agilis 'quick’ ager 'astute’ agil 'agile' (< French, Italian agile ) aqua apă 'water’ acvatic 'aquatic' (< Fr aquatique ) dens , dentem dinte 'tooth’ dentist 'dentist' (< Fr dentiste , It dentista ) directus drept 'straight; right’ direct 'direct' (< Fr direct ) frigidus 'cold' (adj.) frig 'cold' (noun) frigid 'frigid' (< Fr frigide ) rapidus repede 'quick’ rapid 'quick' (< Fr rapide , It rapido ) In the 20th century, an increasing number of English words have been borrowed (such as: gem < jam; interviu < interview; meci < match; manager < manager; fotbal < football; sandvici / sendviș < sandwich; bișniță < business; chec < cake; veceu < WC; tramvai < tramway). These words are assigned grammatical gender in Romanian and handled according to Romanian rules; thus "the manager" is managerul . Some borrowings, for example in the computer field, appear to have awkward (perhaps contrived and ludicrous) 'Romanisation,' such as cookie-uri which is the plural of the Internet term cookie ; normally, the hyphen isn't used for plural endings and definite articles. In some cases, there are multiple variants of loanwords, such as maus / mauși (masculine) and mouse / mouse-uri (neuter). Lexis A 1988 statistic by Marius Sala is based on 2,581 words chosen on the criteria of frequency, semantic richness and productivity, which also contain words formed on the territory of the Romanian language. This statistic gives the percentages below: [ 100 ] 30.33% – words inherited from Latin ; 15.26% – academic loanwords from Latin ; 22.12% – French loans; 9.18% – loans from Old Church Slavonic ; 3.95% – loans from Italian ; 3.91% – words formed in Romanian; 2.71% – words of uncertain origin; 2.6% – loans from Bulgarian ; 2.47% – loans from German (including Austrian High German ); 1.7% – loans from Greek ; 1.43% – loans from Hungarian ; 1.12% – loans from Russian ; 0.96% – words inherited from the Thraco-Dacian substratum; 0.85% – loans from Serbian ; 0.73% – loans from Turkish If the analysis is restricted to a core vocabulary of 2,500 frequent, semantically rich and productive words, then the Latin inheritance comes first, followed by Romance and classical Latin neologisms, whereas the Slavic borrowings come third. Romance and Latin 78% Slavic 14% Germanic [ d ] 2.54% Greek 1.7% Others 5.49% Although they are rarely used nowadays, the Romanian calendar used to have the traditional Romanian month names, unique to the language. [ 111 ] The longest word in Romanian is pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcaniconioză , with 44 letters, [ 112 ] but the longest one admitted by the Dicționarul explicativ al limbii române ("Explanatory Dictionary of the Romanian Language", DEX) is electroglotospectrografie , with 25 letters. [ 113 ] [ 114 ] Grammar Romanian nouns are characterized by gender (feminine, masculine, and neuter), and declined by number (singular and plural) and case ( nominative / accusative , dative / genitive and vocative ). The articles, as well as most adjectives and pronouns, agree in gender, number and case with the noun they modify. Romanian is the only major Romance language where definite articles are enclitic : that is, attached to the end of the noun (as in the Scandinavian Languages , Bulgarian and Albanian ), instead of in front ( proclitic ). [ 115 ] They were formed, as in other Romance languages, from the Latin demonstrative pronouns. As in all Romance languages, Romanian verbs are highly inflected for person, number, tense, mood, and voice. The usual word order in sentences is subject–verb–object (SVO). Romanian has four verbal conjugations which further split into ten conjugation patterns. Romanian verbs are conjugated for five moods ( indicative , conditional / optative , imperative , subjunctive , and presumptive ) and four non-finite forms ( infinitive , gerund , supine , and participle ). Phonology Romanian has seven vowels : /i/ , /ɨ/ , /u/ , /e/ , /ə/ , /o/ and /a/ . Additionally, /ø/ and /y/ may appear in some borrowed words . Arguably, the diphthongs /e̯a/ and /o̯a/ are also part of the phoneme set. There are twenty-two consonants. The two approximants /j/ and /w/ can appear before or after any vowel, creating a large number of glide-vowel sequences which are, strictly speaking, not diphthongs . In final positions after consonants, a short /i/ can be deleted, surfacing only as the palatalization of the preceding consonant (e.g., [mʲ] ). Similarly, a deleted /u/ may prompt labialization of a preceding consonant, though this has ceased to carry any morphological meaning. Phonetic changes Owing to its isolation from the other Romance languages, the phonetic evolution of Romanian was quite different, but the language does share a few changes with Italian, such as [kl] → [kj] (Lat. cl arus → Rom. chià r, Ital. chi aro, Lat. clamare → Rom. che mare, Ital. chia mare) and [ɡl] → [ɡj] (Lat. * gl acia ( gl acies) → Rom. ghé ață, Ital. ghi accia, ghi accio, Lat. *un gl a (ungula) → Rom. un ghi e, Ital. un ghi a), although this did not go as far as it did in Italian with other similar clusters (Rom. plà ce, Ital. pi ace). Another similarity with Italian is the change from [ke] or [ki] to [tʃe] or [tʃi] (Lat. pax, pa ce m → Rom. and Ital. pa ce , Lat. dul ce m → Rom. dul ce , Ital. dol ce , Lat. ci rcus → Rom. ce rc, Ital. ci rco) and [ɡe] or [ɡi] to [dʒe] or [dʒi] (Lat. ge lu → Rom. gè r, Ital. ge lo, Lat. mar gi nem → Rom. and Ital. mar gi ne, Lat. ge mere → Rom. gè m ( ge mere), Ital. ge mere). There are also a few changes shared with Dalmatian , such as /ɡn/ (probably phonetically [ŋn] ) → [mn] (Lat. co gn atus → Rom. cu mn at, Dalm. co mn ut) and /ks/ → [ps] in some situations (Lat. coxa → Rom. có ps ă, Dalm. co ps a). Among the notable phonetic changes are: diphthongization of e and o → ea and oa, before ă (or e as well, in the case of o) in the next syllable: Lat. c e ra → Rom. c é ră (wax) Lat. s o le → Rom. s ó re (sun) iotation [e] → [ie] in the beginning of the word Lat. h e rba → Rom. ĭ a rbă (grass, herb) velar [k ɡ] → labial [p b m] before alveolar consonants and [w] (e.g. ngu → mb ): Lat. o ct o → Rom. o pt (eight) Lat. li ng ua → Rom. lì mb ă (tongue, language) Lat. si gn um → Rom. sè mn (sign) Lat. co x a → Rom. có ps ă (thigh) Lat. a qu a → Rom. a p ă (water) rhotacism [l] → [r] between vowels Lat. cae l um → Rom. cè r (sky) Alveolars [d t] assibilated to [(d)z] [(t)s] when before short [e] or long [iː] Lat. d eus → Rom. ḑ èŭ → z èŭ (god) Lat. t enem → Rom. ț ine (hold) Romanian has entirely lost Latin /kw/ ( qu ), turning it either into /p/ (Lat. qu attuor → Rom. pàtru , "four"; cf. It. quattro ) or /k/ (Lat. qu ando → Rom. când , "when"; Lat. qu ale → Rom. càre , "which"). Writing system The first written record about a Romance language spoken in the Middle Ages in the Balkans is from 587. A Vlach muleteer accompanying the Byzantine army noticed that the load was falling from one of the animals and shouted to a companion Torna, torna, fratre! (meaning "Return, return, brother!"). Theophanes Confessor recorded it as part of a 6th-century military expedition by Comentiolus and Priscus against the Avars and Slovenes. [ 116 ] The oldest surviving written text in Romanian is a letter from late June 1521, [ 117 ] in which Neacșu of Câmpulung wrote to the mayor of Brașov about an imminent attack of the Turks. It was written using the Cyrillic alphabet , like most early Romanian writings. The earliest surviving writing in Latin script was a late 16th-century Transylvanian text which was written with the Hungarian alphabet conventions. [ citation needed ] In the 18th century, Transylvanian scholars noted the Latin origin of Romanian and adapted the Latin alphabet to the Romanian language, using some orthographic rules from Italian , recognized as Romanian's closest relative. The Cyrillic alphabet remained in (gradually decreasing) use until 1860, when Romanian writing was first officially regulated. In the Soviet Republic of Moldova , the Russian-derived Moldovan Cyrillic alphabet was used until 1989, when the Romanian Latin alphabet was introduced; in the breakaway territory of Transnistria the Cyrillic alphabet remains in use. [ 118 ] Romanian alphabet The Romanian alphabet is as follows: Capital letters A Ă Â B C D E F G H I Î J K L M N O P Q R S Ș T Ț U V W X Y Z Lower case letters a ă â b c d e f g h i î j k l m n o p q r s ș t ț u v w x y z Phonemes / a / / ə / / ɨ / / b / / k / , / t͡ʃ / / d / / e / , / e̯ / , /je/ / f / / ɡ / , / d͡ʒ / / h / , mute / i / , / j / , / ʲ / / ɨ / / ʒ / / k / / l / / m / / n / / o / , / o̯ / / p / / k / / r / / s / / ʃ / / t / / t͡s / / u / , / w / / v / / v / , / w / , / u / /ks/, /ɡz/ / j / , / i / / z / K, Q, W and Y, are not part of the native alphabet; they were officially introduced in the Romanian alphabet in 1982 and are mostly used to write loanwords like kilogram , quasar , watt , and yoga . The Romanian alphabet is based on the Latin script with five additional letters Ă , Â , Î , Ș , Ț . Formerly, there were as many as 12 additional letters, but some of them were abolished in subsequent reforms. Also, until the early 20th century, a breve marker was used, which survives only in ă. Today the Romanian alphabet is largely phonemic . However, the letters â and î both represent the same close central unrounded vowel /ɨ/ . Â is used only inside words; î is used at the beginning or the end of non-compound words and in the middle of compound words. Another exception from a completely phonetic writing system is the fact that vowels and their respective semivowels are not distinguished in writing. In dictionaries the distinction is marked by separating the entry word into syllables for words containing a hiatus . Stressed vowels also are not marked in writing, except very rarely in cases where by misplacing the stress a word might change its meaning and if the meaning is not obvious from the context. For example, trei copíi means "three children" while trei cópii means "three copies". Pronunciation h is not silent like in other Romance languages such as Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, Catalan and French, but represents the phoneme /h/ , except in the digraphs ch /k/ and gh /g/ (see below) j represents /ʒ/ , as in French, Catalan or Portuguese (the sound spelled with s in the English words "vision, pleasure, treasure"). There are two letters with a comma below, Ș and Ț , which represent the sounds /ʃ/ and /t͡s/ . However, the allographs with a cedilla instead of a comma, Ş and Ţ , became widespread when pre- Unicode and early Unicode character sets did not include the standard form. ă represents the schwa , /ə/ . î and â both represent the sound /ɨ/ . In rapid speech (for example in the name of the country) the â sound may sound similar to a casual listener to the short schwa sound ă (in fact, Aromanian does merge the two, writing them ã ) but careful speakers will distinguish the sound. The nearest equivalent is the vowel in the last syllable of the word roses for some English dialects which distinguish it from Rosa's (e.g. /ˈroʊzɪz/ vs /ˈroʊzəz/). It is also roughly equivalent to European Portuguese /ɨ/ , the Polish y or the Russian ы . The letter e generally represents the mid front unrounded vowel [e] , somewhat like in the English word s e t . However, the letter e is pronounced as [je] ([j] sounds like 'y' in 'you') when it is the first letter of any form of the verb a fi "to be", or of a personal pronoun, for instance este /jeste/ "is" and el /jel/ "he". [ 119 ] [ 120 ] This addition of the semivowel /j/ does not occur in more recent loans and their derivatives, such as eră "era", electric "electric" etc. Some words (such as iepure "hare", formerly spelled epure ) are now written with the initial i to indicate the semivowel. x represents either the phoneme sequence /ks/ as in expresie = expression, or /ɡz/ as in exemplu = example, as in English. As in Italian, the letters c and g represent the affricates /tʃ/ and /dʒ/ before i and e , and /k/ and /ɡ/ elsewhere. When /k/ and /ɡ/ are followed by vowels /e/ and /i/ (or their corresponding semivowels or the final /ʲ/ ) the digraphs ch and gh are used instead of c and g , as shown in the table below. Unlike Italian, however, Romanian uses ce- and ge- to write /t͡ʃ/ and /d͡ʒ/ before a central vowel instead of ci- and gi- . Group Phoneme Pronunciation Examples ce , ci /tʃ/ ch in chest , cheek cerc (circle), ceașcă (cup), cercel (earring), cină (dinner), ciocan (hammer) che , chi /k/ k in kettle , kiss cheie (key), chelner (waiter), chioșc (kiosk), chitară (guitar), ureche (ear) ge , gi /dʒ/ j in jelly , jigsaw ger (frost), gimnast (gymnast), gem (jam), girafă (giraffe), geantă (bag) ghe , ghi /ɡ/ g in get , give ghețar (glacier), ghid (guide), ghindă (acorn), ghidon (handle bar), stingher (lonely) Punctuation and capitalization Uses of punctuation peculiar to Romanian are: Quotation marks use one of the Polish quotation formats , specifically „quote «inside» quote”, that is, „…” for a normal quotation, and «…» for a quotation inside a quotation. Proper quotations which span multiple paragraphs do not start each paragraph with quotation marks; quotation marks are placed only at the beginning and the end of the entire quotation, regardless of how many paragraphs it contains. Dialogues use quotation dashes . The Oxford comma before "and" is considered incorrect ("red, yellow and blue" is the proper format). Punctuation signs which follow a text in parentheses always follow the final bracket. In titles, only the first letter of the first word is capitalized, the rest of the title using sentence capitalization (with all its rules: proper names are capitalized as usual, etc.). Names of months and days are not capitalized ( ianuarie "January", joi "Thursday"). Adjectives derived from proper names are not capitalized ( Germania "Germany", but german "German"). Academy spelling recommendations In 1993, new spelling rules were proposed by the Romanian Academy . In 2000, the Moldovan Academy recommended adopting the same spelling rules, [ 121 ] and in 2010 the Academy launched a schedule for the transition to the new rules that was intended to be completed by publications in 2011. [ 122 ] On 17 October 2016, the Moldovan minister of education signed Order No. 872, adopting the revised spelling rules as recommended by the Moldovan Academy of Sciences, and giving the following two school years as a transition period. Thus the spelling used by institutions under Moldova's ministry of education has been brought in line with the Romanian Academy's 1993 recommendation. This order, however, did not apply to other government institutions, and Law 3462 of 1989 (which provided for the means of transliterating Cyrillic to Latin) has not been amended to reflect the ministry of education's changes either; thus, most Moldovan government institutions, along with most Moldovans, prefer to use the spelling adopted in 1989 (when the use of Latin script became official). Examples of Romanian text The sentence in contemporary Romanian. Words inherited directly from Latin are highlighted: The same sentence, with French and Italian loanwords highlighted instead: The sentence rewritten to exclude French and Italian loanwords. Slavic loanwords are highlighted: The sentence rewritten to exclude all loanwords. The meaning is unchanged: See also Language portal Linguistics portal Moldova portal Romania portal Controversy over ethnic and linguistic identity in Moldova Eastern Romance languages Eastern Romance substratum Legacy of the Roman Empire Moldova–Romania relations Moldovan language Neacșu's letter Romanian Cyrillic alphabet Romanian dialects Romanian grammar Romanian lexis Romanian literature Romanian phonology Romanian transitional alphabet Tărtăria tablets Notes ^ лимба ромынэ , ромынеште , ромынэ in Moldovan Cyrillic , uniquely used in Transnistria . ^ a b The internal classification of the Eastern Romance languages presented in Petrucci (1999) proposes a bipartite split into Northern and Southern branches, with the Northern branch splitting into Istro-Romanian and Daco-Romanian. [ 2 ] By contrast, the classification presented within Glottolog v4.8 proposes a bipartite split between Aromanian and Northern Romanian, the latter of which is further split into Istro-Romanian and Eastern Romanian, from which Daco-Romanian and Megleno-Romanian are hypothesized to have split. [ 3 ] ^ The constitution of the Republic of Moldova referred to the country's language as Moldovan , whilst the 1991 Declaration of Independence named the official language Romanian . In December 2013, an official decision of the Constitutional Court of Moldova ruled that the Declaration of Independence takes precedence over the Constitution and that the state language is therefore Romanian, not 'Moldovan'. "Moldovan court rules official language is 'Romanian,' replacing Soviet-flavored 'Moldovan'" . ^ German-based influence and English loanwords References ^ a b Romanian at Ethnologue (27th ed., 2024) ^ a b c d e Petrucci 1999 , p. 4. ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Hammarström, Harald ; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin ; Bank, Sebastian (10 July 2023). 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Archived from the original on 30 September 2011 . Retrieved 23 January 2006 . "Archived copy" . Archived from the original on 27 April 2012 . Retrieved 23 January 2006 . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( link ) "Регіональний портрет України. 2003 р. Чернівецька область" . Ukrainian Center for Independent Political Research. Archived from the original on 30 September 2011 . Retrieved 23 January 2006 . "Archived copy" . Archived from the original on 27 April 2012 . Retrieved 23 January 2006 . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( link ) ^ "Internetový časopis človek a spoločnosť" . www.clovekaspolocnost.sk . Archived from the original on 14 May 2009. ^ Kramar Andriy. "University of Chernivtsi" . Chnu.cv.ua. Archived from the original on 23 July 2011 . 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"Care este satul din România unde se vorbește o limbă secretă?" . Shtiu (in Romanian). Archived from the original on 11 April 2021 . Retrieved 11 April 2021 . ^ "În localitatea Totoi, județul Alba, se vorbește o limbă specifică locului" . Realitatea TV (in Romanian). 19 January 2009. Archived from the original on 12 April 2021 . Retrieved 12 April 2021 . ^ Arsenie, Dan (9 December 2011). "Totoiana – messengerul de pe uliță. Povestea unei limbi inventate de români" . GreatNews.ro (in Romanian). Archived from the original on 12 April 2021 . Retrieved 12 April 2021 . ^ " 'Limba intoarsă' vorbită în Totoi" . Ziare.com (in Romanian). 2 November 2009. Archived from the original on 12 April 2021 . Retrieved 12 April 2021 . ^ a b Stoica, Vasile (1919). The Roumanian Question: The Roumanians and their Lands . Pittsburgh: Pittsburgh Printing Company. p. 50. Archived from the original on 29 December 2017 . Retrieved 8 October 2013 . ^ Ethnologue, Romanian Archived 25 May 2020 at the Wayback Machine ^ Sandiuc, Corina (1 November 2014). "Languages and cultures in contact: The French language and the maritime terminology" . Diversitate Si Identitate Culturala in Europa . 11 (2). ISSN 2067-0931 . Archived from the original on 1 December 2017 . Retrieved 21 November 2017 . ^ Pei, Mario (1949). "A New Methodology for Romance Classification" . WORD . 5 (2): 135– 146. doi : 10.1080/00437956.1949.11659494 . ^ Mišeska Tomić, Olga (2006). Balkan Sprachbund Morpho-Syntactic Features . Springer. p. 27 . ISBN 978-1-4020-4487-8 . ^ Schulte, Kim (2009). "Loanwords in Romanian". In Haspelmath, Martin; Tadmor, Uri (eds.). Loanwords in the World's Languages: A Comparative Handbook . De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 230– 259. ISBN 978-3-11-021843-5 . ^ Lindstedt, J. (2000). "Linguistic Balkanization: Contact-induced change by mutual reinforcement". In D. G. Gilbers; et al. (eds.). Languages in Contact . Studies in Slavic and General Linguistics, 28. Amsterdam & Atlanta, GA: Rodopi. p. 235. ISBN 90-4201-322-2 . ^ a b c Marius Sala (coord), Mihaela Bîrlădeanu, Maria Iliescu, Liliana Macarie, Ioana Nichita, Mariana Ploae-Hanganu, Maria Theban, Ioana Vintilă-Rădulescu, Vocabularul reprezentativ al limbilor romanice (VRLR) (Bucharest: Editura Științifică și Enciclopedică, 1988). ^ Schulte, Kim. Loanwords in Romanian . [ dead link ] , published in Martin Haspelmath; Uri Tadmor (22 December 2009). Loanwords in the World's Languages: A Comparative Handbook . Walter de Gruyter. p. 243. ISBN 978-3-11-021844-2 . ^ Macrea, Dimitrie (1961). "Originea și structura limbii române (7–45)". Probleme de lingvistică română (in Romanian). Bucharest: Editura Științifică. p. 32. ^ Pană Dindelegan, Gabriela, ed. (2013). The Grammar of Romanian (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 3. ISBN 9780199644926 . ^ a b c Keith Hitchins (20 February 2014). A Concise History of Romania . Cambridge University Press. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-521-87238-6 . ^ Virginia Hill; Gabriela Alboiu (2016). Verb Movement and Clause Structure in Old Romanian . Oxford University Press. p. xv. ISBN 978-0-19-873650-9 . ^ a b Bernard Comrie (13 January 2009). The World's Major Languages . Routledge. p. 266. ISBN 978-1-134-26156-7 . ^ Margaret E. L. Renwick (2014). The Phonetics and Phonology of Contrast: The Case of the Romanian Vowel System . De Gruyter. pp. 44– 5. ISBN 978-3-11-036277-0 . ^ Dama, Hans (2006). "Lexikale Einflüsse im Rumänischen aus dem österreichischen Deutsch" [Lexical influences of 'Austrian'-German on the Romanian language] (PDF) . Philologica Jassyensia (in German). 2 (1): 105– 110. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 March 2022 . Retrieved 27 February 2022 . ^ Zafiu, Rodica (2009). "Mișto și legenda bastonului" . România literară (in Romanian). No. 6. Archived from the original on 21 September 2018 . Retrieved 21 September 2018 . There is no doubt among linguists about the Romany etymology of the Romanian word mișto , but a fairly widespread folk etymology and urban legend maintains that the German phrase mit Stock 'with stick' would be its true origin. ^ Vocabularul reprezentativ diferă de vocabularul fundamental (VF) și de fondul principal lexical (FP). Cf. SCL (Studii și cercetări lingvistice), an XXVII (1976), nr. 1, p. 61-66 și SCL (1974) nr. 3, p. 247. Cf. Theodor Hristea, "Structura generală a lexicului românesc", Sinteze de limba română , eds., Theodor Hristea (coord.), Mioara Avram, Grigore Brâncuș, Gheorghe Bulgăr, Georgeta Ciompec, Ion Diaconescu, Rodica Bogza-Irimie & Flora Șuteu (Bucharest: 1984), 13. ^ * Dicționarul explicativ al limbii române , Academia Română , Institutul de Lingvistică "Iorgu Iordan", Editura Univers Enciclopedic, 1998 ^ Bălhuc, Paul (15 January 2017). "Câte litere are cel mai lung cuvânt din limba română și care este singurul termen ce conține toate vocalele" . Adevărul (in Romanian). Archived from the original on 17 April 2021 . Retrieved 10 February 2021 . ^ "Electroglotospectrografie" . Dicționarul explicativ al limbii române (in Romanian). Archived from the original on 17 April 2021 . Retrieved 10 February 2021 . ^ "Curiozități lingvistice: cele mai lungi cuvinte din limba română" . Dicție.ro (in Romanian). 2 December 2020. Archived from the original on 10 February 2021 . Retrieved 10 February 2021 . ^ Săvescu, Oana (2012). "When Syncretism Meets Word Order. On Clitic Order in Romanian". Probus . 24 (2): 233– 256. doi : 10.1515/probus-2012-0010 . S2CID 194568315 . ^ Baynes, Thomas Spencer, ed. (1898). "Vlachs" . Encyclopædia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature . Vol. 24 (9th ed.). Edinburgh: Adam and Charles Black. p. 269. ^ Sarlin, Mika (2014). Romanian Grammar (2nd ed.). Helsinki: Books on Demand. p. 15. ISBN 9789522868985 . ^ Dyer, Donald L. (1999). "Some Influences of Russian on the Romanian of Moldova during the Soviet Period". The Slavic and East European Journal . 43 (1): 85– 98. doi : 10.2307/309907 . JSTOR 309907 . ^ (in Romanian) Several Romanian dictionaries specify the pronunciation [je] for word-initial letter e in some personal pronouns: el , ei , etc. Archived 26 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine and in some forms of the verb a fi ( to be ): este , eram , etc. Archived 27 July 2009 at the Wayback Machine ^ (in Romanian) Mioara Avram, Ortografie pentru toți , Editura Litera, Chișinău, 1997, p. 29 ^ The new edition of "Dicționarul ortografic al limbii române (ortoepic, morfologic, cu norme de punctuație)" – introduced by the Academy of Sciences of Moldova and recommended for publishing following a conference on 15 November 2000 – applies the decision of the General Meeting of the Romanian Academy from 17 February 1993, regarding the reintroduction to "â" and "sunt" in the orthography of the Romanian language. ( Introduction, Institute of Linguistics of the Academy of Sciences of Moldova ) ^ "Gheorghe Duca: Trebuie schimbată atitudinea de sorginte proletară față de savanți și în genere față de intelectuali" (in Romanian). Allmoldova. 4 June 2010. Archived from the original on 22 July 2011 . Retrieved 3 January 2011 . Bibliography Andreose, Alvise; Renzi, Lorenzo (2013). "Geography and Distribution of the Romance Languages in Europe". In Maiden, Martin; Smith, John Charles; Ledgeway, Adam (eds.). The Cambridge History of the Romance Languages . Vol. 2: Contexts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 283– 334. ISBN 978-0-521-80073-0 . Giurescu, Constantin C. (1972). The Making of the Romanian People and Language . Bucharest: Meridiane. Kahl, Thede , ed. (2009). Das Rumänische und seine Nachbarn (in German). Berlin: Frank & Timme. Paliga, Sorin (2010). "When Could Be Dated the 'Earliest Slavic Borrowings in Romanian'?" (PDF) . Romanoslavica . 46 (4): 101– 119. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 June 2019 . Retrieved 27 June 2019 . Petrucci, Peter R. (1999). Slavic Features in the History of Rumanian . München: LINCOM Europa. ISBN 38-9586-599-0 . Rosetti, Alexandru (1965–1969). Istoria limbii române (in Romanian). Vol. 1– 2. București : Editura științifică. Hinrichs, Uwe, ed. (1999). Handbuch der Südosteuropa-Linguistik (in German). Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. External links SAMPA for Romanian Romanian Reference Grammar, by Dana Cojocaru, University of Bucharest (183 pages) – 4.6 MB – pdf USA Foreign Service Institute (FSI) Romanian basic course Romanian basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Phrasebook from Wikivoyage Romanian edition of Wikipedia Data from Wikidata .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Romanian language v t e Subdialects Wallachia Oltenia Dobruja Moldavia Bukovina Republic of Moldova Banat Transylvania Crișana Maramureș Argots and speech forms Gumuțeasca Totoiana Wallachia Oltenia Oltenia Dobruja Moldavia Bukovina Republic of Moldova Bukovina Republic of Moldova Banat Transylvania Crișana Maramureș Crișana Maramureș Argots and speech forms Gumuțeasca Totoiana Gumuțeasca Totoiana Dialects/related languages Daco-Romanian (Romanian itself) Aromanian Megleno-Romanian Istro-Romanian Daco-Romanian (Romanian itself) Aromanian Megleno-Romanian Istro-Romanian Linguistics Grammar nouns verbs numbers Ă Â Î Ș Ț Former: D̦ Ŭ Lexis and vocabulary longest Romanian word traditional month names profanities Phonology Grammar nouns verbs numbers Ă Â Î Ș Ț Former: D̦ Ŭ nouns verbs numbers Ă Â Î Ș Ț Former: D̦ Ŭ Lexis and vocabulary longest Romanian word traditional month names profanities longest Romanian word traditional month names profanities Phonology Periods of historic evolution Classical Latin → Vulgar Latin → Common Romanian → Old Romanian → Re-latinization → Modern Romanian Written form Modern alphabet Romanian transitional alphabet Moldovan Cyrillic alphabet Romanian Cyrillic alphabet Romanian Braille Modern alphabet Romanian transitional alphabet Moldovan Cyrillic alphabet Romanian Cyrillic alphabet Romanian Braille Institutions and movements Transylvanian School Junimea Romanian Academy Dicționarul explicativ al limbii române Dicționarul Limbii Române Dicționar moldovenesc-românesc Academy of Sciences of Moldova Transylvanian School Junimea Romanian Academy Dicționarul explicativ al limbii române Dicționarul Limbii Române Dicționarul explicativ al limbii române Dicționarul Limbii Române Dicționar moldovenesc-românesc Academy of Sciences of Moldova Language contact Substrata Balkan sprachbund Linguistic parallels with Albanian Slavic superstratum and adstratum Influence on Slavic languages Substrata Balkan sprachbund Linguistic parallels with Albanian Slavic superstratum and adstratum Influence on Slavic languages Speech communities Romanians origin diaspora Moldovans Timok Vlachs Romanians origin diaspora Moldovans Timok Vlachs origin diaspora Moldovans Timok Vlachs Others Romanian Language Day Romanian language in Serbia Romanian-language schools in Transnistria Romanian Language Day Romanian language in Serbia Romanian-language schools in Transnistria Category Category Links to related articles v t e Dialects of the Eastern Romance languages Classical Latin → Vulgar Latin → Common Romanian → Eastern Romance languages Romanian dialects Northern variants Moldavian Moldavian Bukovinian Transylvanian Transylvanian Crișana , divided into several subdialects Maramureș Banat Banat Boyash Southern variants Muntenian Muntenian Oltenian Oltenian †Dician † Dician (original Dobrujan dialect) Romanian-based argots/speech forms * Gumuțeasca Totoiana Aromanian dialects Northern Farsherot Grabovean/Moscopolean Muzachiar Gopeš–Malovište Gorna Belica–Dolna Belica Southern Pindean Olympian Gramostean Megleno-Romanian dialects Northern Northern Southern Southern Istro-Romanian dialects In Istria Northern Northern Southern Southern (variants between villages) †In Krk †Krko-Romanian †Krko-Romanian * = Not strictly dialects; † = extinct v t e Românofonia Click on the coloured regions on the map to get to the related article: *Romanian is also an official language of the Latin Union . Official and national language Official but not primary language National minority language EU Romanian diaspora Românofonia (Romanian language in the world) v t e Romance languages ( classification ) Major branches Eastern Italo-Western Italo-Dalmatian Western Southern Eastern Aromanian Istro-Romanian Megleno-Romanian Daco-Romanian dialects Banat Bukovinian Crișana Maramureș Moldavian Oltenian Transylvanian Wallachian Italo- Dalmatian Central Central Italian Central Marchigiano Ancona Fabriano Macerata Central−Northern Latian Romanesco Sabino Corsican Gallurese Italian Italo-Australian Maltese Italian Regional Italian Swiss Italian Sassarese Tuscan Florentine Southern Extreme Southern Italian Central−Southern Calabrian Salentino Manduriano Sicilian Pantesco Neapolitan–Calabrese Neapolitan Barese Benevento Castelmezzano Cilentan Irpinian Arianese Molisan Southern Latian Tarantino Vastese Northern Calabrian Others Dalmatian Romance Dalmatian Istriot Judeo-Italian Western Gallo-Italic Emilian–Romagnol Emilian Bolognese Judeo-Mantuan Parmigiano Romagnol Forlivese Old Romagnol Ferrarese Gallo-Italic of Basilicata Gallo-Italic of Sicily Ligurian Brigasc Genoese Intemelio Monégasque Royasc Tabarchino Judeo-Italian Lombard Eastern Bergamasque Cremish Old Lombard Western Brianzöö Canzés Bustocco–Legnanese Legnanese Comasco–Lecchese Comasco Laghée Lecchese Vallassinese Milanese Ossolano Southwestern Cremunés Novarese Pavese Ticinese Varesino Piedmontese Judeo-Piedmontese Gallo- Romance Langues d'oïl Angevin Berrichon Bourbonnais Burgundian Champenois Frainc-Comtou Gallo French Jersey Legal Meridional North American dialects Canadian Acadian Chiac St. Marys Bay French Brayon Newfoundland Quebec Joual Magoua Franco-Ontarian Métis Muskrat New England Frenchville Louisiana Missouri Creoles Lorrain Welche Moselle Romance Norman Anglo-Norman Auregnais Guernésiais Jèrriais Sercquiais Law French Augeron Cauchois Cotentinais Orléanais Picard Poitevin–Saintongeais Poitevin Saintongeais Walloon Wisconsin Walloon Fraco-Provençal/Arpitan Faetar–Cigliàje Savoyard Valdôtain Old Gallo-Romance Ibero- Romance ( West Iberian ) Asturo–Portuguese Asturleonese Asturian Eastern Western Cantabrian Extremaduran Leonese Bercian Paḷḷuezu Palra Riberan Riunorese Mirandese Old Leonese Galician– Portuguese Fala Galician Eonavian Portuguese dialects African Angolan Asian Brazilian Amazofonia Caipira Florianopolitan Gaúcho Mineiro Northeastern Paulistano European Alentejan Oliventine Estremenho Minderico Northern Uruguayan Creoles Portugis Papiamento Judeo-Portuguese Castilian Judeo-Spanish Haketia Tetuani Spanish dialects Equatoguinean Latin American Argentinian Bolivian Chilean Chilote Colombian Ecuadorian Mexican Paraguayan Peruvian Peruvian Ribereño Rioplatense Uruguayan Venezuelan Peninsular Andalusian Llanito Castilian Castrapo Castúo Murcian Philippine Saharan Creoles Old Spanish Pyrenean–Mozarabic Mozarabian Navarro-Aragonese Aragonese Central Eastern Ribagorçan Benasquese Judeo-Aragonese Southern Somontanés Navalese Western Aisinian Ansó Aragüés Hecho Community of Villages Aragonese Ebro Valley Aragonese Navarrese Old Riojan Valencian Aragonese Others Barranquenho (mixed Portuguese–Spanish) Caló (mixed Romani–Ibero- and Occitano-Romance) Occitano- Romance Catalan dialects Eastern Algherese Balearic Menorcan Central Northern Judeo-Catalan Patuet Western Ribagorçan Valencian Occitan Auvergnat Gascon Aranese Béarnese Aas whistled Landese Judeo-Gascon Judeo-Provençal Languedocien Limousin Provençal Niçard Vivaro-Alpine Gardiol Mentonasc Old Occitan Old Catalan Rhaeto- Romance Friulian Fornes Ladin Cadorino Nones Romansh Jauer Putèr Surmiran Sursilvan Tuatschin Sutsilvan Vallader Others Franco-Italian Mediterranean Lingua Franca (Western Romance-based pidgin) Venetian (unknown further classification) Chipilo Fiuman Judeo-Venetian Paduan Talian Triestine Others British Latin Pannonian Latin Southern Romance African Romance Sardinian Campidanese Logudorese Dialects of Latin Reconstructed Proto-Romance Proto-Eastern Romance Italics indicate extinct languages Bold indicates languages with more than 5 million speakers Languages between parentheses are varieties of the language on their left. v t e Languages of Romania Official language Romanian Regional or minority languages Albanian Armenian Bulgarian Croatian Czech German Greek Hungarian Italian Macedonian Polish Romani Russian Rusyn Serbian Slovak Tatar Turkish Ukrainian Yiddish Sign languages Romanian Sign Language v t e Languages of Hungary Official language(s) Hungarian Minority languages Croatian German Greek Hungarian Sign Language Romani Romanian Serbian Slovak Slovene Yemeni Arabic Extinct languages Cuman Jassic Kipchak Pecheneg See Also: Minority languages of Hungary v t e Languages of Moldova Official language Romanian Minority languages Bulgarian Gagauz Romani Russian Ukrainian Sign languages Russian Sign Language v t e Languages of Serbia Official language Serbian Minority languages Hungarian Bosnian Romani Albanian Slovak Romanian Croatian Rusyn Macedonian Bulgarian Montenegrin Czech Bunjevac Sign languages Yugoslav Sign Language v t e Languages of Ukraine Official languages Ukrainian dialects Indigenous languages Crimean Tatar dialects Karaim Krymchak Minority languages Recognized Belarusian Bulgarian Gagauz German ( Zipser ) Greek ( Ruméika ) Hungarian Polish ( Lviv Southern Kresy ) Romanian Russian Slovak Yiddish Unrecognized Albanian Armenian Azerbaijani Romani ( Carpathian Vlax ) Rusyn Swedish Turkish Urum Sign languages Ukrainian Sign Language Related Language policy in Ukraine Balachka Surzhyk Category v t e Dialects of the Eastern Romance languages v t e Classical Latin → Vulgar Latin → Common Romanian → Eastern Romance languages Romanian dialects Northern variants Moldavian Moldavian Bukovinian Transylvanian Transylvanian Crișana , divided into several subdialects Maramureș Banat Banat Boyash Southern variants Muntenian Muntenian Oltenian Oltenian †Dician † Dician (original Dobrujan dialect) Romanian-based argots/speech forms * Gumuțeasca Totoiana Northern variants Moldavian Moldavian Bukovinian Transylvanian Transylvanian Crișana , divided into several subdialects Maramureș Banat Banat Boyash Moldavian Moldavian Bukovinian Moldavian Bukovinian Bukovinian Transylvanian Transylvanian Crișana , divided into several subdialects Maramureș Transylvanian Crișana , divided into several subdialects Maramureș Crișana , divided into several subdialects Maramureș Banat Banat Boyash Banat Boyash Boyash Southern variants Muntenian Muntenian Oltenian Oltenian †Dician † Dician (original Dobrujan dialect) Muntenian Muntenian Muntenian Oltenian Oltenian Oltenian †Dician † Dician (original Dobrujan dialect) † Dician (original Dobrujan dialect) Romanian-based argots/speech forms * Gumuțeasca Totoiana Gumuțeasca Totoiana Aromanian dialects Northern Farsherot Grabovean/Moscopolean Muzachiar Gopeš–Malovište Gorna Belica–Dolna Belica Southern Pindean Olympian Gramostean Northern Farsherot Grabovean/Moscopolean Muzachiar Gopeš–Malovište Gorna Belica–Dolna Belica Farsherot Grabovean/Moscopolean Muzachiar Gopeš–Malovište Gorna Belica–Dolna Belica Southern Pindean Olympian Gramostean Pindean Olympian Olympian Gramostean Megleno-Romanian dialects Northern Northern Southern Southern Northern Northern Northern Southern Southern Southern Istro-Romanian dialects In Istria Northern Northern Southern Southern (variants between villages) †In Krk †Krko-Romanian †Krko-Romanian In Istria Northern Northern Southern Southern (variants between villages) Northern Northern Northern Southern Southern (variants between villages) Southern (variants between villages) †In Krk †Krko-Romanian †Krko-Romanian †Krko-Romanian †Krko-Romanian †Krko-Romanian * = Not strictly dialects; † = extinct v t e Românofonia v t e Click on the coloured regions on the map to get to the related article: *Romanian is also an official language of the Latin Union . Official and national language Official but not primary language National minority language EU Romanian diaspora Românofonia (Romanian language in the world) Click on the coloured regions on the map to get to the related article: *Romanian is also an official language of the Latin Union . Official and national language Official but not primary language National minority language EU Romanian diaspora Românofonia (Romanian language in the world) Click on the coloured regions on the map to get to the related article: *Romanian is also an official language of the Latin Union . Official and national language Official but not primary language National minority language EU Romanian diaspora v t e Romance languages ( classification ) v t e Major branches Eastern Italo-Western Italo-Dalmatian Western Southern Eastern Italo-Western Italo-Dalmatian Western Italo-Dalmatian Western Southern Eastern Aromanian Istro-Romanian Megleno-Romanian Daco-Romanian dialects Banat Bukovinian Crișana Maramureș Moldavian Oltenian Transylvanian Wallachian Aromanian Istro-Romanian Megleno-Romanian Daco-Romanian dialects Banat Bukovinian Crișana Maramureș Moldavian Oltenian Transylvanian Wallachian dialects Banat Bukovinian Crișana Maramureș Moldavian Oltenian Transylvanian Wallachian Italo- Dalmatian Central Central Italian Central Marchigiano Ancona Fabriano Macerata Central−Northern Latian Romanesco Sabino Corsican Gallurese Italian Italo-Australian Maltese Italian Regional Italian Swiss Italian Sassarese Tuscan Florentine Southern Extreme Southern Italian Central−Southern Calabrian Salentino Manduriano Sicilian Pantesco Neapolitan–Calabrese Neapolitan Barese Benevento Castelmezzano Cilentan Irpinian Arianese Molisan Southern Latian Tarantino Vastese Northern Calabrian Others Dalmatian Romance Dalmatian Istriot Judeo-Italian Central Central Italian Central Marchigiano Ancona Fabriano Macerata Central−Northern Latian Romanesco Sabino Corsican Gallurese Italian Italo-Australian Maltese Italian Regional Italian Swiss Italian Sassarese Tuscan Florentine Central Italian Central Marchigiano Ancona Fabriano Macerata Central−Northern Latian Romanesco Sabino Central Marchigiano Ancona Fabriano Macerata Ancona Fabriano Macerata Central−Northern Latian Romanesco Sabino Corsican Gallurese Gallurese Italian Italo-Australian Maltese Italian Regional Italian Swiss Italian Italo-Australian Maltese Italian Regional Italian Swiss Italian Sassarese Tuscan Florentine Florentine Southern Extreme Southern Italian Central−Southern Calabrian Salentino Manduriano Sicilian Pantesco Neapolitan–Calabrese Neapolitan Barese Benevento Castelmezzano Cilentan Irpinian Arianese Molisan Southern Latian Tarantino Vastese Northern Calabrian Extreme Southern Italian Central−Southern Calabrian Salentino Manduriano Sicilian Pantesco Central−Southern Calabrian Salentino Manduriano Manduriano Sicilian Pantesco Pantesco Neapolitan–Calabrese Neapolitan Barese Benevento Castelmezzano Cilentan Irpinian Arianese Molisan Southern Latian Tarantino Vastese Northern Calabrian Neapolitan Barese Benevento Castelmezzano Cilentan Irpinian Arianese Molisan Southern Latian Tarantino Vastese Barese Benevento Castelmezzano Cilentan Irpinian Arianese Arianese Molisan Southern Latian Tarantino Vastese Northern Calabrian Others Dalmatian Romance Dalmatian Istriot Judeo-Italian Dalmatian Romance Dalmatian Istriot Dalmatian Istriot Judeo-Italian Western Gallo-Italic Emilian–Romagnol Emilian Bolognese Judeo-Mantuan Parmigiano Romagnol Forlivese Old Romagnol Ferrarese Gallo-Italic of Basilicata Gallo-Italic of Sicily Ligurian Brigasc Genoese Intemelio Monégasque Royasc Tabarchino Judeo-Italian Lombard Eastern Bergamasque Cremish Old Lombard Western Brianzöö Canzés Bustocco–Legnanese Legnanese Comasco–Lecchese Comasco Laghée Lecchese Vallassinese Milanese Ossolano Southwestern Cremunés Novarese Pavese Ticinese Varesino Piedmontese Judeo-Piedmontese Gallo- Romance Langues d'oïl Angevin Berrichon Bourbonnais Burgundian Champenois Frainc-Comtou Gallo French Jersey Legal Meridional North American dialects Canadian Acadian Chiac St. Marys Bay French Brayon Newfoundland Quebec Joual Magoua Franco-Ontarian Métis Muskrat New England Frenchville Louisiana Missouri Creoles Lorrain Welche Moselle Romance Norman Anglo-Norman Auregnais Guernésiais Jèrriais Sercquiais Law French Augeron Cauchois Cotentinais Orléanais Picard Poitevin–Saintongeais Poitevin Saintongeais Walloon Wisconsin Walloon Fraco-Provençal/Arpitan Faetar–Cigliàje Savoyard Valdôtain Old Gallo-Romance Ibero- Romance ( West Iberian ) Asturo–Portuguese Asturleonese Asturian Eastern Western Cantabrian Extremaduran Leonese Bercian Paḷḷuezu Palra Riberan Riunorese Mirandese Old Leonese Galician– Portuguese Fala Galician Eonavian Portuguese dialects African Angolan Asian Brazilian Amazofonia Caipira Florianopolitan Gaúcho Mineiro Northeastern Paulistano European Alentejan Oliventine Estremenho Minderico Northern Uruguayan Creoles Portugis Papiamento Judeo-Portuguese Castilian Judeo-Spanish Haketia Tetuani Spanish dialects Equatoguinean Latin American Argentinian Bolivian Chilean Chilote Colombian Ecuadorian Mexican Paraguayan Peruvian Peruvian Ribereño Rioplatense Uruguayan Venezuelan Peninsular Andalusian Llanito Castilian Castrapo Castúo Murcian Philippine Saharan Creoles Old Spanish Pyrenean–Mozarabic Mozarabian Navarro-Aragonese Aragonese Central Eastern Ribagorçan Benasquese Judeo-Aragonese Southern Somontanés Navalese Western Aisinian Ansó Aragüés Hecho Community of Villages Aragonese Ebro Valley Aragonese Navarrese Old Riojan Valencian Aragonese Others Barranquenho (mixed Portuguese–Spanish) Caló (mixed Romani–Ibero- and Occitano-Romance) Occitano- Romance Catalan dialects Eastern Algherese Balearic Menorcan Central Northern Judeo-Catalan Patuet Western Ribagorçan Valencian Occitan Auvergnat Gascon Aranese Béarnese Aas whistled Landese Judeo-Gascon Judeo-Provençal Languedocien Limousin Provençal Niçard Vivaro-Alpine Gardiol Mentonasc Old Occitan Old Catalan Rhaeto- Romance Friulian Fornes Ladin Cadorino Nones Romansh Jauer Putèr Surmiran Sursilvan Tuatschin Sutsilvan Vallader Others Franco-Italian Mediterranean Lingua Franca (Western Romance-based pidgin) Venetian (unknown further classification) Chipilo Fiuman Judeo-Venetian Paduan Talian Triestine Gallo-Italic Emilian–Romagnol Emilian Bolognese Judeo-Mantuan Parmigiano Romagnol Forlivese Old Romagnol Ferrarese Gallo-Italic of Basilicata Gallo-Italic of Sicily Ligurian Brigasc Genoese Intemelio Monégasque Royasc Tabarchino Judeo-Italian Lombard Eastern Bergamasque Cremish Old Lombard Western Brianzöö Canzés Bustocco–Legnanese Legnanese Comasco–Lecchese Comasco Laghée Lecchese Vallassinese Milanese Ossolano Southwestern Cremunés Novarese Pavese Ticinese Varesino Piedmontese Judeo-Piedmontese Emilian–Romagnol Emilian Bolognese Judeo-Mantuan Parmigiano Romagnol Forlivese Old Romagnol Emilian Bolognese Judeo-Mantuan Parmigiano Bolognese Judeo-Mantuan Parmigiano Romagnol Forlivese Old Romagnol Forlivese Old Romagnol Ferrarese Gallo-Italic of Basilicata Gallo-Italic of Sicily Ligurian Brigasc Genoese Intemelio Monégasque Royasc Tabarchino Brigasc Genoese Intemelio Monégasque Royasc Tabarchino Judeo-Italian Lombard Eastern Bergamasque Cremish Old Lombard Western Brianzöö Canzés Bustocco–Legnanese Legnanese Comasco–Lecchese Comasco Laghée Lecchese Vallassinese Milanese Ossolano Southwestern Cremunés Novarese Pavese Ticinese Varesino Eastern Bergamasque Cremish Bergamasque Cremish Old Lombard Western Brianzöö Canzés Bustocco–Legnanese Legnanese Comasco–Lecchese Comasco Laghée Lecchese Vallassinese Milanese Ossolano Southwestern Cremunés Novarese Pavese Ticinese Varesino Brianzöö Canzés Canzés Bustocco–Legnanese Legnanese Legnanese Comasco–Lecchese Comasco Laghée Lecchese Vallassinese Comasco Laghée Lecchese Vallassinese Milanese Ossolano Southwestern Cremunés Novarese Pavese Cremunés Novarese Pavese Ticinese Varesino Piedmontese Judeo-Piedmontese Judeo-Piedmontese Gallo- Romance Langues d'oïl Angevin Berrichon Bourbonnais Burgundian Champenois Frainc-Comtou Gallo French Jersey Legal Meridional North American dialects Canadian Acadian Chiac St. Marys Bay French Brayon Newfoundland Quebec Joual Magoua Franco-Ontarian Métis Muskrat New England Frenchville Louisiana Missouri Creoles Lorrain Welche Moselle Romance Norman Anglo-Norman Auregnais Guernésiais Jèrriais Sercquiais Law French Augeron Cauchois Cotentinais Orléanais Picard Poitevin–Saintongeais Poitevin Saintongeais Walloon Wisconsin Walloon Fraco-Provençal/Arpitan Faetar–Cigliàje Savoyard Valdôtain Old Gallo-Romance Langues d'oïl Angevin Berrichon Bourbonnais Burgundian Champenois Frainc-Comtou Gallo French Jersey Legal Meridional North American dialects Canadian Acadian Chiac St. Marys Bay French Brayon Newfoundland Quebec Joual Magoua Franco-Ontarian Métis Muskrat New England Frenchville Louisiana Missouri Creoles Lorrain Welche Moselle Romance Norman Anglo-Norman Auregnais Guernésiais Jèrriais Sercquiais Law French Augeron Cauchois Cotentinais Orléanais Picard Poitevin–Saintongeais Poitevin Saintongeais Walloon Wisconsin Walloon Angevin Berrichon Bourbonnais Burgundian Champenois Frainc-Comtou Gallo French Jersey Legal Meridional North American dialects Canadian Acadian Chiac St. Marys Bay French Brayon Newfoundland Quebec Joual Magoua Franco-Ontarian Métis Muskrat New England Frenchville Louisiana Missouri Creoles Jersey Legal Meridional North American dialects Canadian Acadian Chiac St. Marys Bay French Brayon Newfoundland Quebec Joual Magoua Franco-Ontarian Métis Muskrat New England Frenchville Louisiana Missouri Canadian Acadian Chiac St. Marys Bay French Brayon Newfoundland Quebec Joual Magoua Franco-Ontarian Métis Muskrat New England Acadian Chiac St. Marys Bay French Chiac St. Marys Bay French Brayon Newfoundland Quebec Joual Magoua Joual Magoua Franco-Ontarian Métis Muskrat New England Frenchville Louisiana Missouri Creoles Lorrain Welche Welche Moselle Romance Norman Anglo-Norman Auregnais Guernésiais Jèrriais Sercquiais Law French Augeron Cauchois Cotentinais Anglo-Norman Auregnais Guernésiais Jèrriais Sercquiais Law French Auregnais Guernésiais Jèrriais Sercquiais Sercquiais Law French Augeron Cauchois Cotentinais Orléanais Picard Poitevin–Saintongeais Poitevin Saintongeais Poitevin Saintongeais Walloon Wisconsin Walloon Wisconsin Walloon Fraco-Provençal/Arpitan Faetar–Cigliàje Savoyard Valdôtain Old Gallo-Romance Fraco-Provençal/Arpitan Faetar–Cigliàje Savoyard Valdôtain Faetar–Cigliàje Savoyard Valdôtain Old Gallo-Romance Ibero- Romance ( West Iberian ) Asturo–Portuguese Asturleonese Asturian Eastern Western Cantabrian Extremaduran Leonese Bercian Paḷḷuezu Palra Riberan Riunorese Mirandese Old Leonese Galician– Portuguese Fala Galician Eonavian Portuguese dialects African Angolan Asian Brazilian Amazofonia Caipira Florianopolitan Gaúcho Mineiro Northeastern Paulistano European Alentejan Oliventine Estremenho Minderico Northern Uruguayan Creoles Portugis Papiamento Judeo-Portuguese Castilian Judeo-Spanish Haketia Tetuani Spanish dialects Equatoguinean Latin American Argentinian Bolivian Chilean Chilote Colombian Ecuadorian Mexican Paraguayan Peruvian Peruvian Ribereño Rioplatense Uruguayan Venezuelan Peninsular Andalusian Llanito Castilian Castrapo Castúo Murcian Philippine Saharan Creoles Old Spanish Pyrenean–Mozarabic Mozarabian Navarro-Aragonese Aragonese Central Eastern Ribagorçan Benasquese Judeo-Aragonese Southern Somontanés Navalese Western Aisinian Ansó Aragüés Hecho Community of Villages Aragonese Ebro Valley Aragonese Navarrese Old Riojan Valencian Aragonese Others Barranquenho (mixed Portuguese–Spanish) Caló (mixed Romani–Ibero- and Occitano-Romance) Asturo–Portuguese Asturleonese Asturian Eastern Western Cantabrian Extremaduran Leonese Bercian Paḷḷuezu Palra Riberan Riunorese Mirandese Old Leonese Galician– Portuguese Fala Galician Eonavian Portuguese dialects African Angolan Asian Brazilian Amazofonia Caipira Florianopolitan Gaúcho Mineiro Northeastern Paulistano European Alentejan Oliventine Estremenho Minderico Northern Uruguayan Creoles Portugis Papiamento Judeo-Portuguese Asturleonese Asturian Eastern Western Cantabrian Extremaduran Leonese Bercian Paḷḷuezu Palra Riberan Riunorese Mirandese Old Leonese Asturian Eastern Western Eastern Western Cantabrian Extremaduran Leonese Bercian Paḷḷuezu Palra Riberan Riunorese Bercian Paḷḷuezu Palra Riberan Riunorese Mirandese Old Leonese Galician– Portuguese Fala Galician Eonavian Portuguese dialects African Angolan Asian Brazilian Amazofonia Caipira Florianopolitan Gaúcho Mineiro Northeastern Paulistano European Alentejan Oliventine Estremenho Minderico Northern Uruguayan Creoles Portugis Papiamento Judeo-Portuguese Fala Galician Eonavian Portuguese dialects African Angolan Asian Brazilian Amazofonia Caipira Florianopolitan Gaúcho Mineiro Northeastern Paulistano European Alentejan Oliventine Estremenho Minderico Northern Uruguayan Creoles Portugis Papiamento dialects African Angolan Angolan Asian Brazilian Amazofonia Caipira Florianopolitan Gaúcho Mineiro Northeastern Paulistano Amazofonia Caipira Florianopolitan Gaúcho Mineiro Northeastern Paulistano European Alentejan Oliventine Estremenho Minderico Northern Alentejan Oliventine Oliventine Estremenho Minderico Northern Uruguayan Creoles Portugis Papiamento Portugis Papiamento Judeo-Portuguese Castilian Judeo-Spanish Haketia Tetuani Spanish dialects Equatoguinean Latin American Argentinian Bolivian Chilean Chilote Colombian Ecuadorian Mexican Paraguayan Peruvian Peruvian Ribereño Rioplatense Uruguayan Venezuelan Peninsular Andalusian Llanito Castilian Castrapo Castúo Murcian Philippine Saharan Creoles Old Spanish Judeo-Spanish Haketia Tetuani Haketia Tetuani Tetuani Spanish dialects Equatoguinean Latin American Argentinian Bolivian Chilean Chilote Colombian Ecuadorian Mexican Paraguayan Peruvian Peruvian Ribereño Rioplatense Uruguayan Venezuelan Peninsular Andalusian Llanito Castilian Castrapo Castúo Murcian Philippine Saharan Creoles dialects Equatoguinean Latin American Argentinian Bolivian Chilean Chilote Colombian Ecuadorian Mexican Paraguayan Peruvian Peruvian Ribereño Rioplatense Uruguayan Venezuelan Argentinian Bolivian Chilean Chilote Chilote Colombian Ecuadorian Mexican Paraguayan Peruvian Peruvian Ribereño Peruvian Ribereño Rioplatense Uruguayan Venezuelan Peninsular Andalusian Llanito Castilian Castrapo Castúo Murcian Andalusian Llanito Llanito Castilian Castrapo Castúo Murcian Philippine Saharan Creoles Old Spanish Pyrenean–Mozarabic Mozarabian Navarro-Aragonese Aragonese Central Eastern Ribagorçan Benasquese Judeo-Aragonese Southern Somontanés Navalese Western Aisinian Ansó Aragüés Hecho Community of Villages Aragonese Ebro Valley Aragonese Navarrese Old Riojan Valencian Aragonese Mozarabian Navarro-Aragonese Aragonese Central Eastern Ribagorçan Benasquese Judeo-Aragonese Southern Somontanés Navalese Western Aisinian Ansó Aragüés Hecho Community of Villages Aragonese Ebro Valley Aragonese Navarrese Old Riojan Valencian Aragonese Aragonese Central Eastern Ribagorçan Benasquese Judeo-Aragonese Southern Somontanés Navalese Western Aisinian Ansó Aragüés Hecho Central Eastern Ribagorçan Benasquese Ribagorçan Benasquese Benasquese Judeo-Aragonese Southern Somontanés Navalese Somontanés Navalese Navalese Western Aisinian Ansó Aragüés Hecho Aisinian Ansó Aragüés Hecho Community of Villages Aragonese Ebro Valley Aragonese Navarrese Old Riojan Valencian Aragonese Others Barranquenho (mixed Portuguese–Spanish) Caló (mixed Romani–Ibero- and Occitano-Romance) Barranquenho (mixed Portuguese–Spanish) Caló (mixed Romani–Ibero- and Occitano-Romance) Occitano- Romance Catalan dialects Eastern Algherese Balearic Menorcan Central Northern Judeo-Catalan Patuet Western Ribagorçan Valencian Occitan Auvergnat Gascon Aranese Béarnese Aas whistled Landese Judeo-Gascon Judeo-Provençal Languedocien Limousin Provençal Niçard Vivaro-Alpine Gardiol Mentonasc Old Occitan Old Catalan Catalan dialects Eastern Algherese Balearic Menorcan Central Northern Judeo-Catalan Patuet Western Ribagorçan Valencian dialects Eastern Algherese Balearic Menorcan Central Northern Algherese Balearic Menorcan Menorcan Central Northern Judeo-Catalan Patuet Western Ribagorçan Valencian Ribagorçan Valencian Occitan Auvergnat Gascon Aranese Béarnese Aas whistled Landese Judeo-Gascon Judeo-Provençal Languedocien Limousin Provençal Niçard Vivaro-Alpine Gardiol Mentonasc Auvergnat Gascon Aranese Béarnese Aas whistled Landese Judeo-Gascon Aranese Béarnese Aas whistled Aas whistled Landese Judeo-Gascon Judeo-Provençal Languedocien Limousin Provençal Niçard Niçard Vivaro-Alpine Gardiol Mentonasc Gardiol Mentonasc Old Occitan Old Catalan Old Catalan Rhaeto- Romance Friulian Fornes Ladin Cadorino Nones Romansh Jauer Putèr Surmiran Sursilvan Tuatschin Sutsilvan Vallader Friulian Fornes Fornes Ladin Cadorino Nones Cadorino Nones Romansh Jauer Putèr Surmiran Sursilvan Tuatschin Sutsilvan Vallader Jauer Putèr Surmiran Sursilvan Tuatschin Tuatschin Sutsilvan Vallader Others Franco-Italian Mediterranean Lingua Franca (Western Romance-based pidgin) Venetian (unknown further classification) Chipilo Fiuman Judeo-Venetian Paduan Talian Triestine Franco-Italian Mediterranean Lingua Franca (Western Romance-based pidgin) Venetian (unknown further classification) Chipilo Fiuman Judeo-Venetian Paduan Talian Triestine Chipilo Fiuman Judeo-Venetian Paduan Talian Triestine Others British Latin Pannonian Latin Southern Romance African Romance Sardinian Campidanese Logudorese Dialects of Latin British Latin Pannonian Latin Southern Romance African Romance Sardinian Campidanese Logudorese African Romance Sardinian Campidanese Logudorese Campidanese Logudorese Dialects of Latin Reconstructed Proto-Romance Proto-Eastern Romance Proto-Romance Proto-Eastern Romance Proto-Eastern Romance Italics indicate extinct languages Bold indicates languages with more than 5 million speakers Languages between parentheses are varieties of the language on their left. 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Etymology 2 Geography Toggle Geography subsection 2.1 Climate 2.2 Natural resources 2.1 Climate 2.2 Natural resources 3 Administrative divisions Toggle Administrative divisions subsection 3.1 Provinces 3.1.1 Governors and vice governors 3.2 Cities 3.1 Provinces 3.1.1 Governors and vice governors 3.1.1 Governors and vice governors 3.2 Cities 4 Demographics Toggle Demographics subsection 4.1 Languages 4.1 Languages 5 Economy 6 Culture Toggle Culture subsection 6.1 Dances 6.2 Music 6.3 Festivals 6.1 Dances 6.2 Music 6.3 Festivals 7 Infrastructure Toggle Infrastructure subsection 7.1 Transportation 7.2 Power and energy 7.1 Transportation 7.2 Power and energy 8 Education 9 Notable people 10 References 11 External links Eastern Visayas 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Bikol Central Català Cebuano Chavacano de Zamboanga Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara Français 한국어 हिन्दी Hrvatski Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Kapampangan ქართული Latviešu Lietuvių Македонски മലയാളം Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Pangasinan Polski Português Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 粵語 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikivoyage Wikidata item This article needs additional citations for verification . 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Find sources: "Eastern Visayas" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR ( December 2012 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) Eastern Visayas Sinirangan Kabisay-an Sidlakang Kabisay-an Silangang Visayas Region .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}} Clockwise from the top : San Juanico Bridge , Agas-Agas Bridge , Capul Church , Sohoton Caves and Natural Bridge Park , Leyte Provincial Capitol Location in the Philippines Interactive map of Eastern Visayas Coordinates: .mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap} 11°14′N 125°03′E / 11.24°N 125.05°E / 11.24; 125.05 Country Philippines Island group Visayas Regional center .mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal} and largest city Tacloban City Area • Total 23,251.10 km 2 (8,977.30 sq mi) Highest elevation (Alto Peak) 1,325 m (4,347 ft) Population (2024 census) [ 1 ] • Total 4,625,929 • Density 198.9553/km 2 (515.2918/sq mi) GDP (Nominal, 2024) • Total US$ 10.9 billion [ 2 ] • Per capita US$2,330 [ 2 ] Time zone UTC+8 ( PST ) ISO 3166 code PH-08 Provinces 6 Biliran Eastern Samar Leyte Northern Samar Samar Southern Leyte Biliran Eastern Samar Leyte Northern Samar Samar Southern Leyte Independent cities 2 Ormoc City Tacloban Ormoc City Tacloban Component cities 5 Baybay Borongan Calbayog Catbalogan Maasin Baybay Borongan Calbayog Catbalogan Maasin Municipalities 136 Barangays 4,390 Cong. districts 12 Languages .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} Waray-Waray (Lineyte-Samarnon) Cebuano Abaknon Baybayanon Kinabalian Tagalog English Waray-Waray (Lineyte-Samarnon) Cebuano Abaknon Baybayanon Kinabalian Tagalog English HDI 0.697 ( Medium ) HDI rank 11th in the Philippines (2019) Eastern Visayas ( Waray : Sinirangan Kabisay-an ; Cebuano : Sidlakang Kabisay-an ; Tagalog : Silangang Kabisayaan ; Filipino : Silangang Visayas ), designated as Region VIII , is an administrative region in the Philippines. It consists of three main islands: Samar , Leyte , and Biliran . The region has six provinces : Biliran , Leyte , Northern Samar , Samar , Eastern Samar , Southern Leyte , one independent city , Ormoc , and one highly urbanized city , Tacloban (its regional center and largest city). [ 3 ] The highly urbanized city of Tacloban is the sole regional center. These provinces and cities occupy the easternmost islands of the Visayas group of islands, hence the region's name. Eastern Visayas faces the Philippine Sea to the east. The region's most famous landmark is the San Juanico Bridge , which links the islands of Samar and Leyte . As of 2020, the Eastern Visayas region has a population of 4,547,150 inhabitants, [ 1 ] making it the least populous region in the Visayas. Etymology The current name of the region was derived from the position of its islands, which are all situated in the easternmost part of the Visayas . Geography Eastern Visayas lies on the east-central section of the Philippine archipelago. It consists of three main islands, Leyte, Biliran, and Samar, which form the easternmost coasts of the archipelago. It is bounded on the east and north by the Philippine Sea with the San Bernardino Strait separating Samar from southeastern Luzon ; on the west by the Camotes and Visayan seas, and on the south by the Bohol Sea with the Surigao Strait separating Leyte from northeastern Mindanao . It has a total land area of 2,156,285 hectares (5,328,300 acres) or 7.2% of the country's total land area. [ 4 ] 52% of its total land area is classified as forestland and 48% as alienable and disposable land. Climate There are two types of climate prevailing in the region under the Coronas system of classification : Type II and Type IV. Type II climate is characterized by having no dry season but a pronounced maximum rainfall from November to January. Samar Island and the eastern part of Leyte Island fall under this type of climate. Type IV, on the other hand, has an even distribution of rainfall year-round and a short period of dry season that can be observed starting in February up to May. This type of climate is well exhibited in the western half of Leyte Island and in some portions of Samar, which covers the municipality of Motiong up to San Isidro in Northern Samar. As the region directly faces the Philippine Sea, typhoons coming from the east frequently strike the region, often at their peak intensities. This, along with the Bicol Region , are the most typhoon-prone areas in the Philippines. In 2013, the region was struck by Typhoon Haiyan , locally known as Super Typhoon Yolanda, which later became the deadliest and most destructive typhoon to hit the Philippines in the satellite era. Natural resources The region's sea and inland waters are rich sources of salt, freshwater fish, and other marine products. It is one of the main fish-exporting regions of the country. There are substantial forest reserves in the interiors of the islands. Its mineral deposits include chromite , uranium (in Samar), gold , silver , manganese , magnesium , bronze , nickel , clay , coal , limestone , pyrite and sand and gravel . It also has abundant geothermal energy and water resources to support the needs of medium and heavy industries. Administrative divisions Provinces Eastern Visayas consists of 6 provinces , 1 highly urbanized city , 1 independent component city, 5 component cities, 136 municipalities and 4,390 barangays . Province or HUC Capital Population (2020) [ 5 ] Area [ 6 ] Density Cities Muni. Barangay km 2 sq mi /km 2 /sq mi Biliran Naval 3.9% 179,312 536.01 206.95 330 850 0 8 132 Eastern Samar Borongan City 10.5% 477,168 4,617.16 1,782.70 100 260 1 22 597 Leyte Tacloban 39.1% 1,776,847 6,335.44 2,446.13 280 730 3 40 1,503 Northern Samar Catarman 14.1% 639,186 3,694.96 1,426.63 170 440 0 24 569 Samar Catbalogan City 17.4% 793,183 6,048.03 2,335.16 130 340 2 24 951 Southern Leyte Maasin City 9.4% 429,573 1,801.46 695.55 240 620 1 18 500 Tacloban † — 5.5% 251,881 201.72 77.88 1,200 3,100 — — 138 Total 4,547,150 23,234.78 8,971.00 200 490 7 136 4,390 .mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{} † Tacloban is a highly-urbanized city ; figures are excluded from Leyte province. Figures for Leyte province include the independent component city of Ormoc . .mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{} † Tacloban is a highly-urbanized city ; figures are excluded from Leyte province. Figures for Leyte province include the independent component city of Ormoc . Governors and vice governors Province Image Governor Political Party Vice Governor Biliran Rogelio J. Espina Nacionalista Roselyn E. Paras Eastern Samar Ralph Vincent M. Evardone PFP Maria Caridad Goteesan Leyte Carlos Jericho L. Petilla NPC Leonardo M. Javier Jr. Northern Samar Harris Christopher M. Ongchuan NUP Clarence Dato Samar Sharee Ann Tan Nacionalista Arnold Vasquez Tan Southern Leyte Damian Mercado Lakas Rosa Emilia Mercado Cities † Regional center City Population (2020) [ 5 ] Area [ 7 ] Density City class Income class Founding year Province km 2 sq mi /km 2 /sq mi Baybay 111,848 459.34 177.35 240 620 Component 4th 1620 (cityhood: 2007) Leyte Borongan 71,961 475.00 183.40 150 390 Component 5th 1619 (cityhood: 2007) Eastern Samar Calbayog 186,960 880.74 340.06 210 540 Component 1st 1785 (cityhood: 1948) Samar Catbalogan 106,440 274.22 105.88 390 1,000 Component 5th 1596 (cityhood: 2007) Samar Maasin 87,446 211.71 81.74 410 1,100 Component 4th 1770 (cityhood: 2000) Southern Leyte Ormoc 230,998 613.60 236.91 380 980 Independent component 1st 1834 (cityhood: 1947) Leyte † Tacloban 251,881 201.72 77.88 1,200 3,100 Highly urbanized 1st 1770 (cityhood: 1953) Leyte Demographics Population census of Eastern Visayas Year Pop. ±% p.a. 1903 655,159 — 1918 977,525 +2.70% 1939 1,462,159 +1.94% 1948 1,764,103 +2.11% 1960 2,040,966 +1.22% 1970 2,381,409 +1.55% 1975 2,599,728 +1.77% 1980 2,799,534 +1.49% Year Pop. ±% p.a. 1903 655,159 — 1918 977,525 +2.70% 1939 1,462,159 +1.94% 1948 1,764,103 +2.11% 1960 2,040,966 +1.22% 1970 2,381,409 +1.55% 1975 2,599,728 +1.77% 1980 2,799,534 +1.49% Year Pop. ±% p.a. 1990 3,054,490 +0.88% 1995 3,366,917 +1.84% 2000 3,610,355 +1.51% 2007 3,915,140 +1.12% 2010 4,101,322 +1.71% 2015 4,440,150 +1.52% 2020 4,547,150 +0.50% 2024 4,625,929 +0.41% Year Pop. ±% p.a. 1990 3,054,490 +0.88% 1995 3,366,917 +1.84% 2000 3,610,355 +1.51% 2007 3,915,140 +1.12% 2010 4,101,322 +1.71% 2015 4,440,150 +1.52% 2020 4,547,150 +0.50% 2024 4,625,929 +0.41% Source: Philippine Statistics Authority [ 1 ] [ 8 ] Languages The native languages of Eastern Visayas are: Abaknon , spoken in Capul Island in Northern Samar. Baybayanon , spoken in Baybay in Leyte. Boholano , spoken in Southern Leyte. Cebuano , spoken in western parts of Biliran and Leyte widely used in Southern Leyte. Waray-Waray , spoken in Biliran, Leyte, Southern Leyte, Samar, Northern Samar, and Eastern Samar. It is the regional lingua franca . Economy Poverty incidence of Eastern Visayas Source: Philippine Statistics Authority [ 9 ] [ 10 ] [ 11 ] [ 12 ] [ 13 ] [ 14 ] [ 15 ] [ 16 ] Eastern Visayas is primarily an agricultural region with rice , corn , coconut , sugarcane and banana as its major crops. Primary sources of revenue are manufacturing, wholesale and retail trade and services. Mining, farming, fishing and tourism contribute significantly to the economy. Manufacturing firms include mining companies, fertilizer plants, sugar central, rice and corn mills and other food processing plants. Tacloban is the hub of investment, trade and development in the region. Other industries include coconut oil extraction, alcohol distilling, beverage manufacture and forest products. Home industries include hat and basket weaving, metal craft, needlecraft, pottery, ceramics, woodcraft, shell craft and bamboo craft. Culture Dances Tinikling , the Philippines' national dance is folkdance that originated from the region. But the most popular cultural dance among Waraynon s is the Kuratsa , danced during feast celebrations and special gatherings. The Leyte Kalipayan Dance Company , a local cultural group, held highly successful performances around the world. Music Waray people are music lovers whose folkloric music are mostly ballads in form, famous of which is Iroy nga Tuna (Motherland), a patriotic song. Festivals Since 2018, Eastern Visayas has held the 'Oktubafest' every October to showcase the best local wine made from coconut palm called tuba . [ 17 ] [ 18 ] Infrastructure Transportation The region's Leyte and Samar islands serve as main link between Luzon and Mindanao by land transport. A total of nine airports, are strategically located in different parts of the six provinces that define the region. Daniel Z. Romualdez Airport in Tacloban is the main gateway by air to the region. There are seaports in Tacloban , Baybay , Laoang , Catbalogan , Calbayog , Borongan , Allen , Ormoc , Bato , Hilongos , Maasin , Sogod , and Naval . The Pan-Philippine Highway passes through the entire province, starting from Allen in Northern Samar until Liloan in Southern Leyte, where it continues in Mindanao through a ferry service. The Palo-Carigara-Ormoc road is a spur of the aforementioned highway, connecting Cebu City to the network through a ferry ride from Ormoc. Bridges connect all the islands in the region. Apart from the famed San Juanico Bridge, which connects the islands of Samar and Leyte, the Biliran Bridge, constructed in 1975, connects Biliran to the island of Leyte. The Wawa Bridge also connects Panaon Island to the island of Leyte. Power and energy The region is the top producer of geothermal energy supply in the country. The province of Leyte hosts the biggest geothermal plant in the Philippines. Still, geothermal exploration is ongoing in the nearby province of Biliran . With abundance of river system, the region has potential in hydroelectric production. The strait of San Juanico between Leyte and Samar islands has been declared as potential source for water current and tidal energy sources. Education Eastern Visayas is home to several state universities, including the prestigious University of the Philippines Tacloban College . The region is also home to the University of Eastern Philippines (UEP), located in Catarman , Northern Samar , which holds the most number of baccalaureate and post-baccalaureate courses among universities in the region. The Zonal Agricultural University for the Visayas under the National Agriculture Education System concept, Visayas State University (VSU) is also in the region, located in Baybay . Also, the region is home to Palompon Institute of Technology , a maritime school in the Philippines providing deck and engine cadet. Its main campus is located in the municipality of Palompon , Leyte province. The Eastern Visayas State University is Leyte 's state university with five extension campuses. Southern Leyte State University with five extension campuses, is the only state university in the province of Southern Leyte . In Biliran , Naval State University is the province state university. For Eastern Samar , the Eastern Samar State University is the only state university of the province with four extension campus while Samar State University is Samar's state university with two extension campuses. Northwest Samar State University serves Samar Province's first district. For teacher education, the Leyte Normal University specializes in education courses. Notable people References ^ a b c .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Census of Population (2015). "Region VIII (Eastern Visayas)" . Total Population by Province, City, Municipality and Barangay . Philippine Statistics Authority . Retrieved June 20, 2016 . ^ a b "2022 to 2024 Gross Regional Domestic Product" (PDF) . Philippine Statistics Authority . ^ "Eastern Visayas in Visayas Philippines" . Archived from the original on November 26, 2012 . Retrieved December 1, 2012 . ^ "Evis.net.ph - evis Resources and Information" . ^ a b Census of Population (2020). "Region VIII (Eastern Visayas)" . Total Population by Province, City, Municipality and Barangay . Philippine Statistics Authority . Retrieved July 8, 2021 . ^ "PSGC Interactive; List of Provinces" . Philippine Statistics Authority . Archived from the original on January 17, 2013 . Retrieved March 29, 2016 . ^ "PSGC Interactive; List of Cities" . Philippine Statistics Authority . Archived from the original on April 29, 2011 . Retrieved March 29, 2016 . ^ "Population and Annual Growth Rates for The Philippines and Its Regions, Provinces, and Highly Urbanized Cities" (PDF) . 2010 Census and Housing Population . Philippine Statistics Authority. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 28, 2013 . Retrieved August 10, 2013 . ^ "Poverty incidence (PI):" . Philippine Statistics Authority . Retrieved December 28, 2020 . ^ "Estimation of Local Poverty in the Philippines" (PDF) . Philippine Statistics Authority. November 29, 2005. ^ "2009 Official Poverty Statistics of the Philippines" (PDF) . Philippine Statistics Authority. February 8, 2011. ^ "Annual Per Capita Poverty Threshold, Poverty Incidence and Magnitude of Poor Population, by Region and Province: 1991, 2006, 2009, 2012 and 2015" . Philippine Statistics Authority. August 27, 2016. ^ "Annual Per Capita Poverty Threshold, Poverty Incidence and Magnitude of Poor Population, by Region and Province: 1991, 2006, 2009, 2012 and 2015" . Philippine Statistics Authority. August 27, 2016. ^ "Annual Per Capita Poverty Threshold, Poverty Incidence and Magnitude of Poor Population, by Region and Province: 1991, 2006, 2009, 2012 and 2015" . Philippine Statistics Authority. August 27, 2016. ^ "Updated Annual Per Capita Poverty Threshold, Poverty Incidence and Magnitude of Poor Population with Measures of Precision, by Region and Province: 2015 and 2018" . Philippine Statistics Authority. June 4, 2020. ^ "2021 Full Year Official Poverty Statistics of the Philippines" (PDF) . Philippine Statistics Authority. August 15, 2022 . Retrieved April 28, 2024 . ^ "Oktubafest staging part of the 75th Leyte Gulf Landings anniversary" . September 24, 2019. ^ "Eastern Visayas to stage best coco wine in 'Oktubafest' " . Philippine News Agency . 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.navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Eastern Visayas (Region VIII) v t e Regional center Tacloban Tacloban Provinces Biliran Eastern Samar Leyte Northern Samar Samar Southern Leyte Biliran Eastern Samar Leyte Northern Samar Samar Southern Leyte Highly urbanized city Tacloban Tacloban Independent component city Ormoc Ormoc Component cities Baybay Borongan Calbayog Catbalogan Maasin Baybay Borongan Calbayog Catbalogan Maasin Provincial capitals Borongan Catarman Catbalogan Maasin Naval Tacloban Borongan Catarman Catbalogan Maasin Naval Tacloban Municipalities Abuyog Alangalang Albuera Allen Almagro Almeria Anahawan Arteche Babatngon Balangiga Balangkayan Barugo Basey Bato Biliran Biri Bobon Bontoc Burauen Cabucgayan Caibiran Calbiga Calubian Can-avid Capoocan Capul Carigara Catarman Catubig Culaba Dagami Daram Dolores Dulag Gamay Gandara General MacArthur Giporlos Guiuan Hernani Hilongos Hinabangan Hindang Hinunangan Hinundayan Inopacan Isabel Jaro Javier Jiabong Jipapad Julita Kananga Kawayan La Paz Laoang Lapinig Las Navas Lavezares Lawaan Leyte Libagon Liloan Limasawa Llorente Lope de Vega MacArthur Macrohon Mahaplag Malitbog Mapanas Marabut Maripipi Maslog Matag-ob Matalom Matuguinao Maydolong Mayorga Mercedes Merida Mondragon Motiong Naval Oras Padre Burgos Pagsanghan Palapag Palo Palompon Pambujan Paranas Pastrana Pinabacdao Pintuyan Quinapondan Rosario Saint Bernard Salcedo San Antonio San Francisco San Isidro (Leyte) San Isidro (Northern Samar) San Jorge San Jose San Jose de Buan San Juan San Julian San Miguel San Policarpo San Ricardo San Roque San Sebastian San Vicente Santa Fe Santa Margarita Santa Rita Santo Niño Silago Silvino Lobos Sogod Sulat Tabango Tabontabon Taft Tagapul-an Talalora Tanauan Tarangnan Tolosa Tomas Oppus Tunga Victoria Villaba Villareal Zumarraga Abuyog Alangalang Albuera Allen Almagro Almeria Anahawan Arteche Babatngon Balangiga Balangkayan Barugo Basey Bato Biliran Biri Bobon Bontoc Burauen Cabucgayan Caibiran Calbiga Calubian Can-avid Capoocan Capul Carigara Catarman Catubig Culaba Dagami Daram Dolores Dulag Gamay Gandara General MacArthur Giporlos Guiuan Hernani Hilongos Hinabangan Hindang Hinunangan Hinundayan Inopacan Isabel Jaro Javier Jiabong Jipapad Julita Kananga Kawayan La Paz Laoang Lapinig Las Navas Lavezares Lawaan Leyte Libagon Liloan Limasawa Llorente Lope de Vega MacArthur Macrohon Mahaplag Malitbog Mapanas Marabut Maripipi Maslog Matag-ob Matalom Matuguinao Maydolong Mayorga Mercedes Merida Mondragon Motiong Naval Oras Padre Burgos Pagsanghan Palapag Palo Palompon Pambujan Paranas Pastrana Pinabacdao Pintuyan Quinapondan Rosario Saint Bernard Salcedo San Antonio San Francisco San Isidro (Leyte) San Isidro (Northern Samar) San Jorge San Jose San Jose de Buan San Juan San Julian San Miguel San Policarpo San Ricardo San Roque San Sebastian San Vicente Santa Fe Santa Margarita Santa Rita Santo Niño Silago Silvino Lobos Sogod Sulat Tabango Tabontabon Taft Tagapul-an Talalora Tanauan Tarangnan Tolosa Tomas Oppus Tunga Victoria Villaba Villareal Zumarraga Visayas , Republic of the Philippines v t e Regions of the Philippines v t e Luzon NCR – National Capital Region CAR – Cordillera Administrative Region I – Ilocos Region II – Cagayan Valley III – Central Luzon IV-A – Calabarzon Mimaropa – Southwestern Tagalog Region V – Bicol Region NCR – National Capital Region CAR – Cordillera Administrative Region I – Ilocos Region II – Cagayan Valley III – Central Luzon IV-A – Calabarzon Mimaropa – Southwestern Tagalog Region V – Bicol Region Visayas VI – Western Visayas NIR – Negros Island Region VII – Central Visayas VIII – Eastern Visayas VI – Western Visayas NIR – Negros Island Region VII – Central Visayas VIII – Eastern Visayas Mindanao IX – Zamboanga Peninsula X – Northern Mindanao XI – Davao Region XII – Soccsksargen XIII – Caraga Region BARMM – Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao IX – Zamboanga Peninsula X – Northern Mindanao XI – Davao Region XII – Soccsksargen XIII – Caraga Region BARMM – Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao Former regions ARMM – Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao IV – Southern Tagalog ARMM – Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao IV – Southern Tagalog Eastern Visayas Regions of the Philippines Visayas Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles needing additional references from December 2012 All articles needing additional references Use mdy dates from March 2020 Use Philippine English from November 2022 All Wikipedia articles written in Philippine English Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Coordinates on Wikidata Articles containing Waray (Philippines)-language text Articles containing Cebuano-language text Articles containing Tagalog-language text Articles containing Filipino-language text Commons category link from Wikidata Pages using the Kartographer extension This page was last edited on 7 December 2025, at 01:31 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Impact Toggle Impact subsection 1.1 Areas 1.1 Areas 2 Asia Toggle Asia subsection 2.1 Israel and Palestine 2.2 Iran 2.3 Myanmar (Burma) 2.4 North Korea 2.5 Philippines 2.1 Israel and Palestine 2.2 Iran 2.3 Myanmar (Burma) 2.4 North Korea 2.5 Philippines 3 Americas Toggle Americas subsection 3.1 Argentina 3.2 Colombia 3.3 United States 3.4 Mexico 3.1 Argentina 3.2 Colombia 3.3 United States 3.4 Mexico 4 Africa Toggle Africa subsection 4.1 Somalia 4.2 Liberia and Sierra Leone conflicts 4.3 The South Sudanese civil war 4.1 Somalia 4.2 Liberia and Sierra Leone conflicts 4.3 The South Sudanese civil war 5 Europe Toggle Europe subsection 5.1 Northern Ireland 5.2 Hezbollah's Europe smuggling network 5.1 Northern Ireland 5.2 Hezbollah's Europe smuggling network 6 Global market value 7 Regulation 8 Related theories 9 In popular culture Toggle In popular culture subsection 9.1 Film 9.2 Television 9.1 Film 9.2 Television 10 See also 11 References 12 External links Arms trafficking العربية Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Català Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français 한국어 Italiano Kiswahili Lietuvių Македонски Norsk bokmål Português Română Русский Shqip Simple English کوردی Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska اردو Tiếng Việt 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Weapons trafficking or gunrunning is the illicit trade of contraband small arms , explosives , and ammunition , which constitutes part of a broad range of illegal activities often associated with transnational criminal organizations . The illegal trade of small arms, unlike other organized crime commodities, is more closely associated with exercising power in communities instead of achieving economic gain. [ 1 ] Scholars estimate illegal arms transactions amount to over US$1 billion annually. [ 2 ] To keep track of imports and exports of several of the most dangerous armament categories, the United Nations , in 1991, created a Register for Conventional Arms. Participation, however, is not compulsory, and lacks comprehensive data in regions outside of Europe. [ 3 ] [ 2 ] Africa , due to a prevalence of corrupt officials and loosely enforced trade regulations, is a region with extensive illicit arms activity. [ 4 ] In a resolution to complement the Register with legally binding obligations, a Firearms Protocol was incorporated into the UN Convention on Transnational Organized Crime, which requires states to improve systems that control trafficked ammunition and firearms. [ 2 ] The 1999 Report of the UN Panel of Governmental Experts on Small Arms provides a more refined and precise definition, which has become internationally accepted. This distinguishes between small arms ( revolvers and self-loading pistols , rifles and carbines , submachine guns , assault rifles , and light machine guns ), which are weapons designed for personal use, and light weapons ( heavy machine guns , hand-held under-barrel and mounted grenade launchers , portable anti-aircraft guns , portable anti-tank guns, recoilless rifles , portable launchers of anti-aircraft missile systems, and mortars of calibres less than 100 mm), which are designed for use by several persons serving as a unit. Ammunition and explosives also form an integral part of small arms and light weapons used in conflict. [ 5 ] Impact Areas Although arms trafficking is widespread in regions of political turmoil, it is not limited to such areas, and for example, in South Asia , an estimated 63 million guns have been trafficked into India and Pakistan . [ 6 ] The suppression of gunrunning is one of the areas of interest in the context of international law . In the United Nations, there has been widespread support to implement international legislation to prevent arms trafficking, however, it has been difficult to implement, due to many different factors that allow for arms trafficking to occur. [ 7 ] Asia Arms trafficking in Asia is a multifaceted issue, deeply intertwined with regional conflicts, organized crime, and governance challenges. In Southeast Asia, porous borders and post-conflict zones facilitate the smuggling of firearms, often linked to non-state actors, including separatists, criminal syndicates, and terrorist groups. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) has recognized the gravity of this problem and has initiated cooperative measures, such as the ASEAN Plan of Action in Combating Transnational Crime, to enhance information exchange and law enforcement capacity building. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] In South Asia, countries like India face significant challenges due to the influx of illegal small arms, which exacerbate internal security issues and insurgencies. The United Nations has facilitated regional workshops to address gun violence and illicit small arms trafficking, emphasizing the need for a gender perspective in policy formulation. [ 10 ] Western Asia, particularly the Middle East, has become a hotspot for arms trafficking, with weapons often recycled from past conflicts. This proliferation fuels ongoing instability and empowers organized crime groups, leading to a cycle of violence and insecurity. [ 11 ] Efforts to combat arms trafficking in Asia are further complicated by the involvement of transnational organized crime groups, which operate across borders and engage in various illicit activities, including arms smuggling. International initiatives, like the United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime and its protocols, aim to provide a framework for cooperation and legal measures to address these challenges. [ 12 ] Israel and Palestine Prior to the founding of Israel, law enforcement of the British Mandate of Palestine uncovered a cache of weapons in 359 drums of cement during the 1935 Cement Incident . Although no arrests were made, the listed recipient was a Jewish merchant named J. Katan. The incident led to a series of protests from Arab communities, and violent reprisals by armed groups loyal to Sheikh Izz ad-Din al-Qassam . [ 13 ] Shortly after the State of Israel was declared on May 14, 1948, the Arab-Israeli war broke out. During the war, the United States and later the United Nations imposed an arms embargo targeting all sides. [ 14 ] Both Israel and the Arab League bought weapons from the black market to supply their forces. [ 15 ] Notably, Czechoslovakia supplied Israel during Operation Balak and Operation Velvetta . Czechoslovakia also attempted to supply weapons to Syria on behalf of the Arab Liberation Army . [ 16 ] Throughout the Cold War, Israel still smuggled military equipment on a small scale. One example was the acquisition of five Sa'ar 3-class missile boat in the Cherbourg Project . These vessels were purchased from France, but were not delivered due to an arms embargo. [ 17 ] Meanwhile, the Palestine Liberation Organization and other Palestinian armed groups secretly received weapons from the Warsaw Pact before official relations began. [ 18 ] Post-Cold War, groups such as Hamas smuggle weaponry via underground tunnels and boats. [ 19 ] Other weapons are acquired through purchasing from corrupt Israel Defense Forces (IDF) soldiers or theft from Israeli settlements in the West Bank . [ 20 ] [ 21 ] Ahmed Jibril , the leader of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine-General Command claimed responsibility for attempting to smuggle weapons into the Gaza Strip using the Santorini fishing boat . [ 22 ] The IDF claimed to disrupt other smuggling runs in the Karine A affair , Francop Affair , the Klos C cargo ship seizure , and the Victoria Affair . Iran Iran 's arms trafficking operations are primarily orchestrated by the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps' (IRGC) Quds Force , notably through its specialized units, Unit 190 and Unit 700 . These units are responsible for clandestine weapons transfers to Iranian-aligned groups across the Middle East , including Hezbollah in Lebanon , Hamas in Gaza , the Houthis in Yemen , and various militias in Syria and Iraq . [ 23 ] [ 24 ] [ 25 ] Unit 190 specializes in smuggling weapons by land, sea, and air, employing covert methods such as disguising arms shipments as civilian goods and using front companies to obscure the true nature of their operations. Unit 700, led by Ali Naji Gal Farsat , focuses on logistics and maritime smuggling routes, facilitating arms deliveries to Hezbollah via the Port of Beirut . These operations have adapted to regional dynamics, shifting from overland routes through Syria to maritime channels to evade detection. [ 24 ] In Yemen, Iran's support has significantly enhanced the military capabilities of the Houthi rebels, enabling them to conduct attacks on international shipping and regional adversaries. Despite international sanctions and efforts to curb these activities, Iran continues to provide advanced weaponry and training to the Houthis, contributing to ongoing instability in the region. [ 26 ] [ 27 ] [ 28 ] Iran has also been implicated in attempts to smuggle weapons into the West Bank, aiming to arm Palestinian factions and foment unrest against Israel. Israeli security forces have intercepted multiple shipments of Iranian-made weapons, including advanced arms intended for terror operatives in the region. [ 29 ] [ 30 ] Myanmar (Burma) Since the end of World War II, both the Myanmar military juntas and various rebel groups relied on smuggled arms to equip themselves. During the Cold War , weapons for anti-communist groups (such as the Kuomintang remnants ) and the Communist Party of Burma were smuggled with indirect CIA and CCP support via Thailand and China , respectively. [ 31 ] [ 32 ] After the end of the Vietnam War , AK-47s, M-79 grenade launchers, and M16s began flowing into the hands of rebel groups such as U Nu 's Parliamentary Democracy Party . [ 33 ] Meanwhile, the authoritarian government under Ne Win imported G3 rifles and MG3 machine guns from West Germany in 1962 after student protests were violently suppressed. [ 34 ] The State Administration Council junta under Min Aung Hlaing bought weapons and spare parts via Thai and Singapore intermediaries. [ 35 ] During the post-Cold War conflict , smuggled weaponry primarily consists of small arms cloned from the Chinese Type 56 and Type 81 platforms by the Kachin Independence Army and United Wa State Army . [ 36 ] After the UWSA announced a restriction of weapons supply on August 28, 2025, speculation arose that this announcement contributed to a spike in black market arms prices. [ 37 ] However, various factions still source their weapons from neighboring countries such as Thailand or India. [ 38 ] [ 39 ] North Korea North Korea, via Room 39 , engages in weapons smuggling to increase its foreign currency reserves. One alleged recipient of North Korean weaponry was the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam . According to Professor Rohan Gunaratna , several LTTE members claimed that weapons were purchased with payments concluding at the Embassy of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea in Beijing . [ 40 ] Around the same time, the former Sri Lanka Minister of Finance, Basil Rajapaksa supposedly admitted in a newspaper interview that the government bought weapons from North Korea during the Sri Lankan Civil War . Rajapaksa denied making those remarks. [ 41 ] When Panama detained the North Korean cargo ship, Chong Chon Gang , in mid-2013, it carried missile parts and MiG 21 planes from Cuba [ 42 ] Philippines During the rule of Ferdinand Marcos , the New People's Army attempted to smuggle weapons from China in the MV Karagatan incident . Aside from internal theft and cross-border smuggling, criminals and insurgents in the Philippines source weapons from unlicensed workshops making firearms ranging from imitations of the 1911 pistol to single-shot .50 BMG long guns. [ 43 ] [ 44 ] Americas Argentina Under the presidency of Carlos Menem , 6,500 tons of weapons, including FAL rifles and howitzers, were smuggled to Croatia and Ecuador during the Yugoslav Wars and Cenepa War , respectively. The end-user certificates listed the destinations as Panama and Venezuela. These arms transfers violated UN arms embargos and peace treaties. [ 45 ] [ 46 ] Colombia In the 1980s Guns for Antigua scandal, the Medellin drug cartel used dubious end-user certificates purportedly meant for the Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force to equip itself with Israeli-made weapons. According to a 2004 CIA report, FARC acquires its weapons both from Cold War stockpiles in neighboring countries and stolen Colombian Armed Forces inventory. [ 47 ] United States During the American Civil War (1861–1865), the Confederacy lacked the financial and manufacturing capacity to wage war against the industrial and prosperous North . The Union Navy was enforcing the blockade along 3,500 miles of coast in the Southeast and Gulf of Mexico to prevent the smuggling of any material from or into the South. In order to increase its arsenal, the Confederacy looked to Britain as a major source of arms. British merchants and bankers funded the purchase of arms and construction of ships being outfitted as blockade runners which later carried war supplies bound for Southern ports. The chief figures for these acts were Confederate foreign agents James Dunwoody Bulloch and Charles K. Prioleau and Fraser, Trenholm and Co. based in Liverpool , England [ 48 ] and merchants in Glasgow , Scotland. [ 49 ] [ 50 ] The smuggling of arms into the South by blockade runners carrying British supplies were easily facilitated using ports in the British colonies of Canada and the Bahamas , where the Union Navy could not enter. [ 51 ] A British publication in 1862 summed up the country's involvement in blockade running: Score after score of the finest, swiftest British steamers and ships, loaded with British material of war of every description, cannon, rifles by the hundreds of thousand, powder by the thousand of tons, shot, shell, cartridges, swords, etc, with cargo after cargo of clothes, boots, shoes, blankets, medicines and supplies of every kind, all paid for by British money, at the sole risk of British adventurers, well insured by Lloyds and under the protection of the British flag, have been sent across the ocean to the insurgents by British agency. [ 52 ] Score after score of the finest, swiftest British steamers and ships, loaded with British material of war of every description, cannon, rifles by the hundreds of thousand, powder by the thousand of tons, shot, shell, cartridges, swords, etc, with cargo after cargo of clothes, boots, shoes, blankets, medicines and supplies of every kind, all paid for by British money, at the sole risk of British adventurers, well insured by Lloyds and under the protection of the British flag, have been sent across the ocean to the insurgents by British agency. [ 52 ] It was estimated the Confederates received thousands of tons of gunpowder, half a million rifles, and several hundred cannons from the blockade runners. [ 53 ] American politician Charles Sumner claimed after the war that these supplies lengthened the war by two more years. [ 54 ] [ 55 ] [ 56 ] [ 51 ] Ulysses S. Grant III , President of the American Civil War Centennial in 1961, remarked for example: [B]etween October 26, 1864 and January 1865, it was still possible for 8,632,000 lbs of meat, 1,507,000 lbs of lead, 1,933,000 lbs of saltpeter, 546,000 pairs of shoes, 316,000 blankets, half a million pounds of coffee, 69,000 rifles, and 43 cannon to run the blockade into the port of Wilmington alone, while cotton sufficient to pay for these purchases was exported[. I]t is evident that the blockade runners made an important contribution to the Confederate effort to carry on. [ 51 ] [B]etween October 26, 1864 and January 1865, it was still possible for 8,632,000 lbs of meat, 1,507,000 lbs of lead, 1,933,000 lbs of saltpeter, 546,000 pairs of shoes, 316,000 blankets, half a million pounds of coffee, 69,000 rifles, and 43 cannon to run the blockade into the port of Wilmington alone, while cotton sufficient to pay for these purchases was exported[. I]t is evident that the blockade runners made an important contribution to the Confederate effort to carry on. [ 51 ] In the United States, the term " Iron Pipeline " is sometimes used to describe Interstate Highway 95 and its connector highways as a corridor for arms trafficking into the New York City Metro Area. [ 57 ] Mexico During the Mexican Revolution , gunrunning into Mexico reached rampant levels with the majority of the arms being smuggled from the United States. [ 58 ] : 126 As Mexico manufactured no weapons of its own, acquiring arms and ammunition were one of the main concerns of the various rebels, intent on armed revolution. [ 58 ] : 198–199 Under American law at the time, arms smugglers into Mexico could be prosecuted only if one was caught in flagrante delicto crossing the border as merely buying arms with the intention of gunrunning into Mexico was not a criminal offense. [ 58 ] : 186 Given the length and often rugged terrain of the American-Mexican border, the undermanned American border service simply could not stop the massive gunrunning into Mexico. [ 58 ] : 186 In February 1913-February 1914, President Woodrow Wilson imposed an arms embargo on both sides of the Mexican civil war, and not until February 1914 was the embargo lifted on arms sales to the Constitutionalist rebels. [ 59 ] : 31 Despite the arms embargo, there was much gunrunning into Mexico, as one American official complained in 1913: "our border towns are practically their commissary and quartermaster depots". [ 59 ] : 31 Guns were smuggled into Mexico via barrels, coffins, and false bottoms of automobiles. [ 59 ] : 31 General Huerta avoided the American arms embargo by buying weapons from Germany. [ 59 ] : 154 In the Mexican drug war , the primary foreign sources for weaponry are the United States and various countries in Central and South America. [ 60 ] In March 1997, customs agents discovered "two truckloads" of grenade launchers and M2 carbines in a warehouse at the Port of Long Beach . These weapons were purportedly imported from Vietnam and law enforcement speculated that drug cartels were the recipient. [ 61 ] During the controversial Operation Fast and Furious , the ATF attached GPS trackers to firearms before they were straw-purchased to cartels in order to arrest leading figures. Many of the tracking systems were lost, resulting in multiple firearms ending up in the hands of criminal groups. [ 62 ] Africa Somalia From 1992 to 2023, the United Nations imposed a widespread arms embargo on Somalia after full-scale civil war followed the fall of the Siad Barre regime. [ 63 ] In spite of the embargo, weapons were openly sold in markets such as the Bakaara Market ; many of the weapons primarily originated from either Transitional Federal Government stocks or Yemen. These firearms ended up in the hands of warlords, the Islamic Courts Union , and Al-Shabaab . [ 64 ] [ 65 ] Tomislav Damnjanović , a Serbian businessman connected to former president, Slobodan Milošević , allegedly sold weapons to the ICU as he was simultaneously contracted to supply US-led Coalition forces in Iraq and Afghanistan . [ 66 ] [ 67 ] Liberia and Sierra Leone conflicts The civil war in Sierra Leone lasted from 1991 to 2002, and left 75,000 people dead. Gunrunning played a significant role in this conflict. Weapons of all sorts were shipped to all sides in both Sierra Leone , and Liberia from abroad. These included small arms , such as, pistols , assault rifles , grenades, Claymores , knives, machetes, etc. Larger weapons such as missiles, light machine guns, mortars, anti-tank missiles, tanks, and planes were also used. During this time a civil war was occurring in nearby Liberia. The Liberian Civil Wars took place from 1989 through 1997. The war was between the existing government and the National Patriotic Front . Leader of the National Patriotic Front of Liberia, Charles Taylor , helped to create the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) in Sierra Leone. Taylor was the recipient of thousands of illegally trafficked arms from eastern Europe (mostly Ukraine). Taylor then sold some of these weapons to the RUF in exchange for diamonds. [ 68 ] President of Burkina Faso, Blaise Compaore , "directly facilitated Liberia's arms-for-diamonds trade" with Liberia and Sierra Leone. [ 68 ] Compaore would give guns to Taylor, who would then sell them to the RUF in exchange for diamonds. These blood diamonds would then be sold back to Compaore for more guns. The cyclical exchange allowed Compaore the ability to deny directly sending arms to Sierra Leone. The Liberian government received arms through an elaborate front company in Guinea . The arms were intended to be shipped (legally) from Uganda to Slovakia . However, the arms were diverted to Guinea as a part of "an elaborate bait and switch". [ 68 ] Additionally the British government "encouraged Sandline International , a private security firm and non state entity, to supply arms and ammunitions to the loyal forces of the exiled government of President Kabbah." [ 69 ] Sandline proceeded 35 tons of arms from Bulgaria, to Kabbah's forces. [ 68 ] The South Sudanese civil war Ever since the South Sudanese civil war began in December 2013, gunrunning into that nation has reached rampant levels. [ 70 ] As South Sudan has hardly any electricity and no manufacturing, both sides were entirely dependent upon buying arms from abroad to fight their war. President Salva Kiir Mayardit used shadowy networks of arms dealers from China, Uganda, Israel, Egypt and Ukraine to arm his forces. [ 70 ] As oil companies paid rent for their concessions in South Sudan, the government was able to afford to buy arms on a lavish scale. [ 70 ] In June 2014, the government's National Security Service signed a deal worth $264 million US dollars with a Seychelles-based shell company to buy 30 tanks, 50,000 AK-47 assault rifles and 20 million bullets. [ 70 ] The owner of the shell company currently remains unknown. In July 2014, the Chinese arms manufacturer Norinco delivered a shipment to South Sudan of 95,000 assault rifles and 20 million rounds of ammunition, supplying enough bullets to kill every person in South Sudan twice over. [ 70 ] The American arms dealer and private military contractor, Erik Prince , sold to the government for $43 million three Mi-24 attack helicopters and two L-39 jets together with the services of Hungarian mercenary pilots to operate the aircraft. [ 70 ] The majority of the arms supplied to South Sudan from Uganda originated from Romania, Bulgaria and Slovakia, all which are members of the European Union (EU), and were supposed to abide by an EU arms embargo placed on South Sudan in 2011. [ 71 ] Less is known about the very secretive arms dealers supplying the rebel Sudan People's Liberation Movement-in-Opposition (SPLM-IO) led by Riek Machar other than that the majority of the gunrunners appeared to be European. [ 70 ] A rare exception was with the Franco-Polish arms dealer Pierre Dadak who was arrested on 14 July 2016 at his villa in Ibiza on charges of gunrunning into South Sudan. [ 70 ] At his villa, the Spanish National Police Corps allege that they found documents showing he was negotiating to sell Machar 40,000 AK-47 assault rifles, 30,000 PKM machine guns and 200,000 boxes of ammunition. [ 70 ] The United Nations Panel of Experts on South Sudan in a 2017 report declared: "Reports from independent sources indicate that the border areas between South Sudan and the Sudan and Uganda remain key entry points for arms, with some unsubstantiated reports of smaller numbers of weapons also crossing into South Sudan from the Democratic Republic of the Congo. There are also persistent reports and public accusations of shipments to forces affiliated with the leadership in Juba from further afield, specifically from Egypt". [ 72 ] The same report stated that a Ukrainian Air Force IL-76 transport jet flew in two L-39 jets to Uganda on 27 January 2017 in the full knowledge the L-39 jets were intended to go on to South Sudan, thereby violating the arms embargo Ukraine had placed on arms sales to South Sudan. [ 72 ] In 2018, the United Nations Security Council imposed a worldwide arms embargo on South Sudan, but the embargo has been widely ignored where despite a ceasefire signed the same year, both sides have continued to import arms on a massive scale, suggesting that they are preparing for another bout of the civil war. [ 71 ] Europe Since 1996, countries throughout Europe have taken notice of arms trafficking. Europe has been an overall large exporter of illicit weapons with the United Kingdom, Germany, and France in the national lead for the most exports. Imports to Europe from 2004 to 2013 have decreased by 25%, with the United Kingdom importing the most overall in Europe. [ 73 ] The firearms that are imported and passed around are commonly small arms and lighter weapons ( SALW ) compared to large machinery, such as tanks and aircraft . [ 74 ] The SALW bought in Europe tends to be secondhand weapons that are cheap and regularly available. Gun cultures, such as in Germany, where the "taken-for-granted cultural practice of carrying a handgun," [ 73 ] increases illicit SALW because guns are viewed as a way to enhance masculinity and status. In 2000, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) started on regional solutions and security measures to address the firearms trafficking problem. [ 74 ] Northern Ireland During and after the early 20th-century Irish revolutionary period , both Republican and Unionist factions clandestinely acquired arms from multiple sources. Prior to the Easter Rising , the Imperial German government attempted to smuggle Mosin-Nagant rifles to Irish rebels using the SS Libau ship in 1916, but failed. The more successful 1914 Howth gun-running operation yielded obsolete Mauser M1871 black-powder rifles. During The Troubles , the Provisional IRA implemented a sophisticated weapons smuggling network where small arms were primarily acquired from American sympathisers and the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya . [ 75 ] Before World War I, the Ulster Unionist Council initiated the Larne gun-running operation in April 1914 where they successfully brought in weapons and ammunition from the German Empire using motor vehicles to transport the cargo inland. However, the Unionist arms procurement network during The Troubles faced less success in contrast to the PIRA networks. Although they acquired some weapons from South African arms dealers and sympathizers from abroad, internal theft and improvisation remained a primary source of small arms logistics. [ 76 ] Hezbollah's Europe smuggling network In 2024-2025 European authorities investigated Hezbollah's drone smuggling network in Europe. This network, developed and operated by Hezbollah with support from Iran's Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC), involved the transnational procurement and logistics of unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) components. The smuggling operation spanned several countries, including Spain, Germany, France, and the United Kingdom. The investigation resulted in multiple arrests and prosecutions. [ 77 ] [ 78 ] Global market value Though one of the least profitable illegal trades, arms trafficking made an estimated $1.7-3.5 billion in 2014, making it the 9th largest criminal market, which was valued at $1.6-2.2 trillion. [ 79 ] The AK-47 is one of the most appealing weapons in the illegal weapons trade due to its low cost and reliability. [ 80 ] In Iraq, a smuggled AK-47 typically costs $150–300. In the first sixth months of the 2003 invasion of Iraq , the influx of new weapons lowered the AK-47's price, to the point the weapon was sold for as low as $25, or sometimes, nothing. [ 81 ] Comparatively, AK-47s sold on the Dark web in the United States can cost as much as $3,600, [ 82 ] as the price of illegal arms is increased greatly by the distance it must travel, due to the induced risk. A handgun trafficked from the United States to Canada can have its price increase by 560% from just crossing the border. [ 83 ] Weapons smuggled overseas will usually take several, short trips with multiple companies to mask the country of origin and the original sellers. [ 84 ] In the United States, biker gangs have been connected to arms trafficking. United States law enforcement agencies started investigating bike gangs in the late 90s, and started classifying them as organized criminal organizations. This was mainly due to the fact that they were able to get control of the prostitution market and the smuggling of stolen goods such as weapons, motorcycles, and car parts. [ 85 ] Regulation Prosecuting arms traffickers and brokers has proven difficult due to loopholes in national laws. In 2000, Israeli arms dealer Leonid Minin was arrested in Italy for drug possession, and while serving his sentence, Italian police found over 1,500 pages of forged end-user certificates and transfers of money which implicated him in trafficking arms to the Revolutionary United Front in Sierra Leone . Minin was released in December 2002, as according to Italian law, he could not be tried because the weapons he had sold had never reached Italy. Additionally, some arms dealers will operate in countries where they cannot be extradited . Arms traffickers are also able to evade capture due to a lack of co-operation between nations, especially in Africa and ex-Soviet states. [ 86 ] Related theories In the international criminal scholarly community, rational choice theory is commonly referenced in explanations as to why individuals engage in and justify criminal activity. [ 87 ] According to Jana Arsovska and Panos Kostakos, leading scholars on organized crime , the causes of arms trafficking are not solely based on rational choice theory but rather have been more closely linked to the intimacy of one's personal social networks as well as the "perception of risks, effort and rewards in violating criminal laws." [ 1 ] In popular culture Film Lord of War (2005), a crime war film in which Nicolas Cage plays a fictional arms dealer named Yuri Orlov, who was based on the real Viktor Bout . [ 88 ] The film was endorsed by Amnesty International for highlighting arms trafficking. [ 89 ] Lord of War's DVD release featured Making a Killing: Inside the International Arms Trade, a 15-minute documentary about arms trafficking. [ 90 ] War Dogs (2016), a dark comedy drama biographical film based on the true story of two young men, David Packouz and Efraim Diveroli , who won a $300 million contract from the Pentagon to arm America's allies in Afghanistan and later became involved in arms trafficking. [ 91 ] Television Sons of Anarchy , a crime drama about a fictional outlaw motorcycle club whose main source of income is trafficking arms to a variety of criminal enterprises domestically and internationally. [ 92 ] Jormungand , an anime television series based on the manga series by Keitarō Takahashi, focused on an illicit arms dealer and her child soldier bodyguard. [ 93 ] See also Annie Larsen affair Arms Crisis Arms control Cuban packages Conflict Armament Research International Action Network on Small Arms SS John Grafton List of illegal arms dealers Purulia arms drop case Polish arms sales to Republican Spain Small Arms Survey Transporte Aéreo Rioplatense United States v. Curtiss-Wright Export Corp References ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Kostakos, Panos A.; Arsovska, Jana (2008). 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Archived from the original on April 9, 2023 . Retrieved March 19, 2021 . ^ "Lord of War" (Press release). Amnesty International . 2006. Archived from the original on October 12, 2007 . Retrieved September 17, 2007 . ^ "Making a Killing: Inside the International Arms Trade" . IMDb . Archived from the original on January 23, 2023. ^ " 'War Dogs': True Story Inspired Jonah Hill and Miles Teller's Hit Movie" . Movies . February 17, 2021. Archived from the original on December 7, 2022 . Retrieved March 19, 2021 . ^ "Sons of Anarchy: 5 Times Jax Was A Great SAMCRO President (& 5 He Wasn't)" . ScreenRant . June 18, 2020. Archived from the original on April 9, 2023 . Retrieved March 19, 2021 . ^ "The dream of Jormungand – Japanese anime and wish-fulfilment" . Thought Leader . February 9, 2015. Archived from the original on April 8, 2023 . Retrieved March 19, 2021 . External links "Arms Sales Monitoring Project" . Federation of American Scientists . "Arms Trafficking Data and Market" . Havocscope Black Markets . Archived from the original on June 21, 2008 . Retrieved March 16, 2008 . CIA (1980). Central American Arms Trafficking Report (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on October 27, 2012 . Retrieved May 18, 2012 . "Illicit Trafficking" . Small Arms Survey . Archived from the original on June 19, 2011. "Official website" . Small Arms Survey . Authority control databases National United States Czech Republic Israel United States Czech Republic Israel Other Yale LUX Yale LUX .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Types of crime v t e Note: Crimes vary by jurisdiction . Not all types are listed here. Classes Infraction Misdemeanor Felony Summary Indictable Hybrid Corruption Infraction Misdemeanor Felony Summary Indictable Hybrid Corruption Law portal Law portal Against the person Assassination Assault Battery Child abuse Concealment of a corpse Criminal negligence Domestic violence False imprisonment Frameup Harassment Street Home invasion Hate crime Human trafficking Intimidation Kidnapping Manslaughter ( corporate ) Mayhem Murder felony Homicide Negligent homicide Reckless homicide Robbery Stalking Stabbing Torture Assassination Assault Battery Child abuse Concealment of a corpse Criminal negligence Domestic violence False imprisonment Frameup Harassment Street Street Home invasion Hate crime Human trafficking Intimidation Kidnapping Manslaughter ( corporate ) Mayhem Murder felony felony Homicide Negligent homicide Reckless homicide Robbery Stalking Stabbing Torture Against property Arson Arms trafficking Blackmail Bribery Burglary Cybercrime Embezzlement Extortion False pretenses Forgery Fraud Gambling Intellectual property violation Larceny Looting Payola Pickpocketing Possessing stolen property Robbery Smuggling Parallel import Tax evasion Theft Trespass to land Vandalism Mischief Arson Arms trafficking Blackmail Bribery Burglary Cybercrime Embezzlement Extortion False pretenses Forgery Fraud Gambling Intellectual property violation Larceny Looting Payola Pickpocketing Possessing stolen property Robbery Smuggling Parallel import Parallel import Tax evasion Theft Trespass to land Vandalism Mischief Against the public Apostasy Corruption Censorship violation Dueling Genocide Ethnic cleansing Hostage-taking People smuggling Insider trading Smuggling Illegal consumption (such as drugs , alcohol , and smoking ) Miscegenation Piracy Political corruption Regicide Unreported employment Usurpation War crimes Apostasy Corruption Censorship violation Dueling Genocide Ethnic cleansing Ethnic cleansing Hostage-taking People smuggling Insider trading Smuggling Illegal consumption (such as drugs , alcohol , and smoking ) Miscegenation Piracy Political corruption Regicide Unreported employment Usurpation War crimes Against the state Lèse-majesté Treason Espionage Secession Sedition Subversion Lèse-majesté Treason Espionage Secession Sedition Subversion Against justice Against public justice Justice delayed Compounding Contempt Malfeasance in office Miscarriage of justice Judicial misconduct Misprision Perjury Perverting the course of justice Against public justice Justice delayed Compounding Contempt Malfeasance in office Miscarriage of justice Judicial misconduct Misprision Perjury Perverting the course of justice Against animals Cruelty to animals Poaching Wildlife smuggling Bestiality Cruelty to animals Poaching Wildlife smuggling Bestiality Sexual offenses Adultery Bigamy Child sexual abuse Cybersex trafficking Fornication Homosexuality Groping Incest Indecent exposure Masturbation Obscenity Prostitution Rape Pederasty Sex trafficking Sexual assault Sexual harassment Sexual slavery Voyeurism Adultery Bigamy Child sexual abuse Cybersex trafficking Fornication Homosexuality Groping Incest Indecent exposure Masturbation Obscenity Prostitution Rape Pederasty Sex trafficking Sexual assault Sexual harassment Sexual slavery Voyeurism Inchoate offenses Attempt Conspiracy Incitement Solicitation Attempt Conspiracy Incitement Solicitation WikiSource Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikinews WikiSource Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikinews Arms trafficking Arms control Firearm commerce Gun politics Organized crime activity Small arms Organized crime Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use mdy dates from August 2021 Use American English from August 2021 All Wikipedia articles written in American English Articles with excerpts This page was last edited on 6 January 2026, at 15:09 (UTC) . 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Ana səhifə Kənd meydanı İcma portalı Son dəyişikliklər Təsadüfi məqalə Xüsusi səhifələr Seçilmiş məqalələr Seçilmiş siyahılar Yaxşı məqalələr Məqalə namizədləri Mövzulu ay Bizimlə əlaqə Kömək İanə et Hesab yarat Daxil ol İanə et Hesab yarat Daxil ol Mündəricat Giriş 1 Müharibənin başlanması 2 Müharibənin gedişatı 3 Müharibənin xronologiyası Müharibənin xronologiyası alt bölməsini göstər/gizlə 3.1 1937 3.2 1938 3.3 1939 3.4 1940 3.5 1941 3.6 1942 3.7 1943 3.8 1944 3.9 1945 3.1 1937 3.2 1938 3.3 1939 3.4 1940 3.5 1941 3.6 1942 3.7 1943 3.8 1944 3.9 1945 4 Müharibənin sonu 5 Yekunları Yekunları alt bölməsini göstər/gizlə 5.1 Müharibənin qurbanları 5.1.1 İkinci Dünya müharibəsinin itkiləri 5.1 Müharibənin qurbanları 5.1.1 İkinci Dünya müharibəsinin itkiləri 5.1.1 İkinci Dünya müharibəsinin itkiləri 6 Mənbə 7 Ədəbiyyat 8 İstinadlar 9 Xarici keçidlər 10 Həmçinin bax İkinci Dünya müharibəsi Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Aragonés Ænglisc العربية الدارجة مصرى অসমীয়া Asturianu Авар Aymar aru تۆرکجه Башҡортса Basa Bali Boarisch Žemaitėška Bikol Central Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български भोजपुरी Bislama ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ বাংলা བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Batak Mandailing Буряад Català Chavacano de Zamboanga 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Нохчийн Cebuano کوردی Corsu Qırımtatarca Čeština Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ Чӑвашла Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Thuɔŋjäŋ Zazaki Dolnoserbski डोटेली ދިވެހިބަސް Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Võro Føroyskt Français Arpetan Nordfriisk Furlan Frysk Gaeilge 贛語 Kriyòl gwiyannen Gàidhlig Galego گیلکی Avañe'ẽ ગુજરાતી Gaelg Hausa 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Hornjoserbsce Kreyòl ayisyen Magyar Հայերեն Արեւմտահայերէն İnterlingua Jaku Iban Bahasa Indonesia Interlingue Igbo Ilokano Ido Íslenska İtaliano 日本語 Patois La .lojban. Jawa ქართული Qaraqalpaqsha Taqbaylit Адыгэбзэ Kabɩyɛ Tyap Қазақша ភាសាខ្មែរ ಕನ್ನಡ Yerwa Kanuri 한국어 Къарачай-малкъар کٲشُر Ripoarisch Kurdî Коми Kernowek Кыргызча Latina Ladino Lëtzebuergesch Лакку Лезги Lingua Franca Nova Limburgs Ligure Ladin Lombard ລາວ Lietuvių Latviešu Madhurâ मैथिली Basa Banyumasan Мокшень Malagasy Олык марий Māori Minangkabau Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Malti Mirandés မြန်မာဘာသာ مازِرونی Napulitano Plattdüütsch Nedersaksies नेपाली नेपाल भाषा Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål ߒߞߏ Diné bizaad Chi-Chewa Occitan Livvinkarjala ଓଡ଼ିଆ Ирон ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Papiamentu Picard Deitsch Pälzisch Polski Piemontèis پنجابی پښتو Português Runa Simi Rumantsch Română Tarandíne Русский Русиньскый संस्कृतम् Саха тыла ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Sardu Sicilianu Scots سنڌي Davvisámegiella Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Taclḥit සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Gagana Samoa Anarâškielâ ChiShona Soomaaliga Shqip Српски / srpski Seeltersk Sunda Svenska Kiswahili Ślůnski Sakizaya தமிழ் తెలుగు Тоҷикӣ ไทย Türkmençe Tagalog Tolışi Toki pona Türkçe Татарча / tatarça Тыва дыл ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt West-Vlams Volapük Walon Winaray Wolof 吴语 მარგალური ייִדיש Yorùbá Vahcuengh Zeêuws 中文 文言 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí 粵語 Məqalə Müzakirə Oxu Redaktə Vikimətni redaktə et Tarixçəyə bax Oxu Redaktə Vikimətni redaktə et Tarixçəyə bax Səhifəyə keçidlər Əlaqəli redaktələr Fayl yüklə Daimi keçid Səhifə məlumatları Bu səhifəyə istinad et Qısaldılmış URL əldə et QR-kodu endir Kitab yarat PDF kimi yüklə Çap versiyası Vikianbar Vikidata elementi İkinci Dünya müharibəsi Saat əqrəbi istiqamətində: Çin qüvvələri Çande döyüşündə ; Birinci Əl-Ələmeyn döyüşündə Avstraliyanın 25 funtluq silahları; Alman Stuka bombardmançıları 1943-cü ilin dekabrında Şərq cəbhəsində ; ABŞ dəniz qüvvələri Linqayen körfəzində; Vilhelm Keytel Almaniyanın təslim olma sənədini imzalayır; Sovet qoşunları Stalinqrad döyüşündə Tarix 1 sentyabr 1939 [ 1 ] — 2 sentyabr 1945 (6 il, 1 gün) Yeri Avropa , Sakit okean , Atlantika , Hind okeanı , Cənubi - Şimali Asiya , Çin , Yaponiya , Orta Şərq , Cənubi Afrika , Şərqi Afrika , Mərkəzi Afrika , Avstraliya , Şimali və Cənubi Amerika Səbəbi Alman revanşizmi , italyan faşizmi , yapon şovinizmi Nəticəsi Antihitler koalisiyasının qələbəsi • Nasist Almaniyasının , Faşist İtaliyasının və Yaponiya imperiyasının süqutu • Almaniya , Yaponiya , Avstriya və Koreyanın müttəfiq hərbi işğalları • Atom dövrünün başlanğıcı • Millətlər İttifaqının ləğv edilməsi və BMT -nin yaradılması • ABŞ və SSRİ -nin rəqib supergüclər kimi meydana çıxması və Soyuq müharibənin başlaması Antihitler koalisiyasının qələbəsi • Nasist Almaniyasının , Faşist İtaliyasının və Yaponiya imperiyasının süqutu • Almaniya , Yaponiya , Avstriya və Koreyanın müttəfiq hərbi işğalları • Atom dövrünün başlanğıcı • Millətlər İttifaqının ləğv edilməsi və BMT -nin yaradılması Münaqişə tərəfləri Antihitler koalisiyası : SSRİ (1941-45) ABŞ (1941-45) Birləşmiş Krallıq ÇXR (1937-45) Fransa (1939-40) Azad Fransa (1940-44) Polşa (1939) Polşalı dirənişçilər (1942-45) Yuqoslaviya Krallığı (1941-45) Kanada Avstraliya Yeni Zelandiya Yunanıstan (1940-45) Çexoslovakiya CAR Norveç (1940-45) Niderland (1940-45) Belçika (1940-45) Braziliya (1942-45) Asılı və kukla dövlətlər Filippin (1941-45) Monqolustan (1941-45) ...və digərləri Berlin-Roma-Tokio oxu : Nasist Almaniyası Yaponiya İmperiyası (1937-45) İtaliya Krallığı (1940-43) Macarıstan krallığı (1940-45) Rumıniya Krallığı (1941-44) Bolqarıstan Krallığı (1941-44) Hərbi Müttəfiqlər Finlandiya (1941-44) Tailand (1942-45) İraq Krallığı (1941) Asılı və kukla dövlətlər Mançukuo İtaliya Sosial Respublikası (1943-45) Xorvatiya (1941-45) Slovakiya ...və digərləri Antihitler koalisiyası : SSRİ (1941-45) ABŞ (1941-45) Birləşmiş Krallıq ÇXR (1937-45) Fransa (1939-40) Azad Fransa (1940-44) Polşa (1939) Polşalı dirənişçilər (1942-45) Yuqoslaviya Krallığı (1941-45) Kanada Avstraliya Yeni Zelandiya Yunanıstan (1940-45) Çexoslovakiya CAR Norveç (1940-45) Niderland (1940-45) Belçika (1940-45) Braziliya (1942-45) Asılı və kukla dövlətlər Filippin (1941-45) Monqolustan (1941-45) ...və digərləri Antihitler koalisiyası : SSRİ (1941-45) ABŞ (1941-45) Birləşmiş Krallıq ÇXR (1937-45) Fransa (1939-40) Azad Fransa (1940-44) Polşa (1939) Polşalı dirənişçilər (1942-45) Yuqoslaviya Krallığı (1941-45) Kanada Avstraliya Yeni Zelandiya Yunanıstan (1940-45) Çexoslovakiya CAR Norveç (1940-45) Niderland (1940-45) Belçika (1940-45) Braziliya (1942-45) Asılı və kukla dövlətlər Filippin (1941-45) Monqolustan (1941-45) ...və digərləri Berlin-Roma-Tokio oxu : Nasist Almaniyası Yaponiya İmperiyası (1937-45) İtaliya Krallığı (1940-43) Macarıstan krallığı (1940-45) Rumıniya Krallığı (1941-44) Bolqarıstan Krallığı (1941-44) Hərbi Müttəfiqlər Finlandiya (1941-44) Tailand (1942-45) İraq Krallığı (1941) Asılı və kukla dövlətlər Mançukuo İtaliya Sosial Respublikası (1943-45) Xorvatiya (1941-45) Slovakiya ...və digərləri Berlin-Roma-Tokio oxu : Nasist Almaniyası Yaponiya İmperiyası (1937-45) İtaliya Krallığı (1940-43) Macarıstan krallığı (1940-45) Rumıniya Krallığı (1941-44) Bolqarıstan Krallığı (1941-44) Hərbi Müttəfiqlər Finlandiya (1941-44) Tailand (1942-45) İraq Krallığı (1941) Asılı və kukla dövlətlər Mançukuo İtaliya Sosial Respublikası (1943-45) Xorvatiya (1941-45) Slovakiya ...və digərləri Komandan(lar) İosif Stalin Franklin Ruzvelt Vinston Çörçill Çan Kayşi Adolf Hitler Hirohito Benito Mussolini İosif Stalin Franklin Ruzvelt Vinston Çörçill Çan Kayşi İosif Stalin Franklin Ruzvelt Vinston Çörçill Çan Kayşi Adolf Hitler Hirohito Benito Mussolini Adolf Hitler Hirohito Benito Mussolini İtkilər Hərbi ölənlər: 16.000.000-dan çox Mülki ölü: 45.000.000-dan çox Ölənlərin ümumi sayı: 61.000.000-dan çox (1937–1945) ...daha ətraflı Hərbi ölənlər: 8.000.000-dan çox Mülki ölü: 4.000.000-dan çox Ölənlərin ümumi sayı: 12.000.000-dən çox (1937-1945) ...daha ətraflı Hərbi ölənlər: 16.000.000-dan çox Mülki ölü: 45.000.000-dan çox Ölənlərin ümumi sayı: 61.000.000-dan çox (1937–1945) ...daha ətraflı Hərbi ölənlər: 16.000.000-dan çox Mülki ölü: 45.000.000-dan çox Ölənlərin ümumi sayı: 61.000.000-dan çox (1937–1945) ...daha ətraflı Hərbi ölənlər: 8.000.000-dan çox Mülki ölü: 4.000.000-dan çox Ölənlərin ümumi sayı: 12.000.000-dən çox (1937-1945) ...daha ətraflı Hərbi ölənlər: 8.000.000-dan çox Mülki ölü: 4.000.000-dan çox Ölənlərin ümumi sayı: 12.000.000-dən çox (1937-1945) ...daha ətraflı .mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman} Vikianbarda əlaqəli mediafayllar İkinci Dünya müharibəsi və ya İkinci Cahan savaşı — XX əsrdə baş vermiş iki Dünya müharibəsindən ikincisi. Almaniya ordusunun Polşaya hücuma başladığı 1 sentyabr 1939-cu il müharibənin başlanma tarixi sayılır. Lakin müharibədən əvvəlki baş verən hadisələr də nəzərə alınarsa, müharibə daha öncə başlamış sayıla bilər. İkinci Dünya müharibəsi çox böyük miqyas alaraq, demək olar ki, bütün dövlətləri əhatə etmişdi. 2 sentyabr 1945-ci ildə sona yetən müharibə 10 milyonlarla insanın ölümünə səbəb oldu: döyüş meydanlarında, əsirlikdə, konslagerlərdə 27 milyon hərbi xidmətçinin həyatı sona yetdi. Bundan başqa müharibə 25 milyona yaxın dinc əhalinin həyatına son qoymuşdu. Bu müharibə dünya siyasətinin və beynəlxalq hüququn dönüş nöqtəsi oldu. Dünya arenasında qüvvələrin yeni paylaşması və müharibə əleyhinə beynəlxalq mexanizmlər meydana çıxdı. Təkcə Almaniya və Yaponiya yox, həmçinin koalisiyanın tərkibinə daxil olan İngiltərə və Fransa da öz beynəlxalq mahiyyətini itirdi. Müharibədən sonra avtoritet mövqeyini bərpa edən ABŞ dünyada aparıcı qərb ölkələrinin başında, SSRİ isə sosialist ölkələrin başında dururdu. Hitler Koalisiyası -na qarşı müttəfiq olan SSRİ və ABŞ müharibədən sonra 50 ilə qədər davam edən " soyuq müharibə "yə başladılar. Müharibə 1945-ci ildə Antihitler koalisiyasının qələbəsi ilə başa çatdı və beləliklə də, dünya siyasi xəritəsi dəyişikliyə məruz qaldı. Beynəlxalq əməkdaşlıq qurmaq və növbəti toqquşmalara imkan verməmək üçün BMT yaradıldı. Bu zaman Afrika və Asiyada azadlıq uğrunda hərəkatlar üçün zəmin formalaşdı. Müharibənin başlanması Avropada İkinci Dünya müharibəsi 1939-cu ilin sentyabrın 1-də başlamışdı. Sakit okean cəbhəsində isə, İkinci Dünya müharibəsinin başlanma tarixi olaraq bəzən 1937-ci ilin iyulun 7-i, bəzən isə 1931-ci ilin sentyabrın 19-u göstərilir. 1931-ci ilin sentyabrın 19-da Yaponiyanın Mancuriyaya istilası başlamışdı. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] 1937-ci ilin iyulun 7-i isə İkinci Çin–Yaponiya müharibəsinin başlanğıc tarixidir. [ 4 ] [ 5 ] 1939-cu il 1 sentyabrda Almaniya Polşa üzərinə hücuma keçdi . 1939-cu il 1 sentyabrda saat 4:45 radələrində Danziq limanında olan Alman müharibə gəmisi Schleswig-Holstein Polşaya aid Westerplatte adlı gəmiyə atəş açdı. Bu tarix uzun bir müddət, İkinci Dünya müharibəsinin rəsmi başlanğıc tarixi olaraq qəbul edildi. Halbuki 4:40 radələrində Alman bombardman təyyarələri, Breslau'nun 100 km şərqindəki Wielun qəsəbəsinə hücum etmiş və 1200 insanın həyatına son qoymuşdu. Bundan əvvəl isə bir alman-slovak bölüyü 26 avqust tarixində Jablona Keçidini işğal etmişdi. Bölük komandirinə hücum tarixinin təxirə salındığı xəbərini bildirmək unudulmuşdu. Fitnə-fəsad yolu ilə hücuma keçən Almaniya sərhədləri pozaraq Polşa üzərinə 57 diviziya (1,5 milyon adam), 2500 tank , 2000 təyyarə göndərdi. 3 sentyabr tarixində İngiltərə və Fransa Almaniyaya müharibə elan etdilər. İkinci Dünya müharibəsi başlandı. Sentyabrın 3–10 arasında Avstraliya , Yeni Zelandiya , Hindistan , Kanada Almaniyaya qarşı müharibəyə qoşuldular. ABŞ özünü bitərəf elan etdi. Yaponiya Avropa müharibəsinə qarışmadığını bildirdi. İkinci dünya müharibəsinin başlanmasının başlıca səbəbləri: Birinci Dünya müharibəsindən sonra qalib dövlətlərin yaratdıqları Versal-Vaşinqton sisteminin çox sərt və alçaldıcı olması; Avropanın mərkəzində, Almaniyada qisasçılıq və militarizm ideyasının yüksək dərəcədə inkişaf etməsi; Hitler "reyx"inin irqçilik, " dəyərsiz xalqları " əsarət altına almaq siyasəti, ümumən dünya ağalığına nail olmaq iddiaları; Qərb dövlətlərinin, xüsusən İngiltərə və Fransanın nasizmin bəşəriyyət üçün təhlükə olmaq mahiyyətini dərk etməmələri, hətta onu şirnikləndirmək və sakitləşdirmək siyasətləri; İri dövlətlərin, o cümlədən ABŞ -nin "qarışmamaq" mövqeyi tutmaları; ABŞ başda olmaqla iri dövlətlərin Almaniyanın iqtisadi-hərbi cəhətdən dirçəlməsinə yardım etmələri; Sosializmə nifrət edən burjua-demokratik ölkələrin SSRİ ilə birlikdə faşizmə qarşı vaxtında alternativ ittifaq yaratmaq zəruriyyətini dərk etməmələri; SSRİ -nin müharibəni özündən uzaqlaşdırmaq üçün Almaniyaya güzəştlər etməsi, hətta onunla iqtisadi əlaqələr yaratması; 30-cu illərin axırları üçün Avropada və Şərqdə hərbi-sənaye komplekslərinin olmazın dərəcədə şişməsi və i.a. Müharibənin gedişatı İkinci Dünya müharibəsi kifayət qədər sərt başladı. Almanlar Qərbi Polşanı viran qoydular. Sazişə uyğun olaraq ruslar Polşanın şərq yarısını işğal etdilər. Ruslar həmçinin 1940-cı ildə Estoniya , Latviya və Litvanı da işğal etdilər, sonrakı ildə onlar sovetləşməyə məruz qaldılar və SSRİ -nin respublikalarının üzvlüyünə daxil oldular. Finlandiya SSRİ -yə qarşı müqavimət göstərdi, SSRİ 1939–1940-cı illərin qışında Finlandiya ilə qısa müharibə apardı. Bu vaxt Qərbdə hamı aldadıcı şəkildə sakit idi. Almaniya Fransaya tərəf qoşunlarını yönəldəndə fransızlar özlərinin Majino xəttinin arxasında yerləşmişdilər. Britaniya az sayda qoşuna malik idi. Almanlar hərəkət etmirdilər. Bu " Qəribə müharibə " adlanırdı. İki böyük Avropa ölkəsi hələ də özlərinin sülh dövründəki baxışlarından əl çəkmirdi. Belə qəribə qış ərzində almanlar öz qüvvələrinin xüsusi təlim-məşqdən keçirdilər, onların yazdakı niyyətləri tam aydın idi. 1940-cı ilin aprel və may aylarında almanlar qəflətən Norveçi , Danimarkanı və Niderlandı işğal etdilər və Belçikaya hücuma başladılar . Almanların zirehli diviziyalarının və adamların başı üzərində uğuldayan bombalarının qarşısında heç nə dayana bilmirdi. Polşada istifadə edilsə də, bu taktikalar fransızları və britaniyalıları heyrətə gətirmişdi. 1940-cı ilin mayında Fransa kampaniyasına başlayan Üçüncü Reyx cəmi 6 həftəyə Fransanı işğal etdi. Parisin özü 1940-cı ilin 13 iyununda işğal edildi. Müdafiə yönümlü hərbi nəzəriyyəyə malik olan Fransa ordusu ölkədə əməliyyat aparmağa hazırlaşmamışdı, onun hərbi hava qüvvələri yox idi, hökumət bölünmüşdü. Hökumət məğlubiyyət tərəfdarı və bir qədər alman meyilli olan adamlar qrupunun əlinə düşmüşdü və bu adamlar 22 iyunda Fransanı müharibədən çıxardı. Fransızların kiçik qrupu İngiltərəyə qaçıb general de Qollun başçılığı altında Azad Fransa hərəkatını yaratdılar. Fransanın özü yarıya qədər almanlar tərəfindən işğal olunmuşdu, geri qalan yarısı isə Vişi şəhərini öz paytaxtı etmişdi və marşal Filipp Petenin başçılıq etdiyi totalitar rejimin hakimiyyəti altına keçmişdi. 1807-ci ildə olduğu kimi 1940-cı ildə də yalnız Böyük Britaniya Avropanın fatehi ilə müharibədə qalmışdı. Britaniya özünün tarmar edilmiş qüvvələrini materik Avropasından Dünkerk limanı vasitəsilə geri çəkmişdi. Həmin vaxt onlar daha çətin vəziyyətlə üz-üzə qalmağa hazırlaşırdılar. Avropadakı döyüşlər vaxtı baş nazir vəzifəsində Çamberlini əvəz etmiş Vinston Çörçill bədbəxtlikdə qəhrəman liderliyi vəzifəsinə yüksəldi. Aylarla davam edən və 1940-cı ilin payızında özünün kulminasiya nöqtəsinə çatan Britaniya uğrunda döyüş hava hücumu formasını almışdı. Bu vaxta qədər heç vaxt hansısa hava bombardmanı belə güclü olmamışdı. Lakin almanlar Britaniya üzərindəki səmada nəzarəti ələ keçirməyə qadir deyildi. Tədricən britaniyalılar bombardmana qarşı daha uğurla vuruşurdular. Koventri şəhərinin yer üzündən silinməsi, digər şəhərlərin həyatı və sənayesinin dağıdılması və minlərlə insanın öldürülməsinə baxmayaraq, Britaniyadakı istehsal fəaliyyəti hələ də davam edirdi. Hava qüvvələrinin əksər nəzəriyyəçilərinin mülahizələrinin əksinə olaraq bombardmanlar mülki əhalinin mənəvi gücünü qıra bilmirdi. 1940–1941-ci illərin qışında almanlar öz hücumlarının ağırlığını şərqə tərəf döndərməyə başladılar. Hitler qərara almışdı ki, İngiltərədə məsələni qurtarmazdan qabaq o, Rusiya məsələsini həll etməlidir. Belə ki, hətta Hitler , nasional sosialist partiyasının öndə gələn şəxslərindən olan Rudolf Hessi, Britaniya ilə gizlin sövdələşmə üçün İngiltərəyə yollayır. Lakin İngilislərin Hessi həbsxanaya atdığını öyrəndiyi zaman, Hessin ruhi xəstə olduğunu mətbuat vasitəsilə xalqa bildirib. İngiltərə mühüm dayaq nöqtələrini, kommunikasiya xətlərini əlində saxlamaqla müqaviməti davam etdirsə də, Fransanın təslim olması ilə Hitler qərbdə öz məqsədlərinə çatdığını güman edirdi. İndi Avropada tam hakim olmaq üçün o, öz qüvvələrini SSRİ -yə qarşı yönəltdi. Almaniya ilə müqavilənin məxfi protokolunda ona vəd edilmiş ərazilərin, demək olar ki, hamısını ələ keçirən Stalinin Balkan yarımadasına və Qara dəniz boğazlarına olan iddiaları Hitleri ciddi narahat etmişdi. 1940-cı ilin iyununda Hitler Vermaxt rəhbərliyinə SSRİ -yə qarşı hücum planı hazırlamaq tapşırığı verdi. Barbarossa adını almış plan 1940-cı il dekabrın 18-də təsdiq edildi. 1941-ci il iyunun 22-də Almaniya SSRİ -yə hücum etdi. SSRİ -nin Böyük Vətən müharibəsi başlandı. [ 6 ] İldırımsürətli müharibə strategiyasına əsaslanan alman qoşunları qəfil zərbə ilə Sovet ordusunu ciddi məğlubiyyətə uğratdı. Almanlar qışa qədər Arxangelsk - Həştərxan xəttinə çıxmaq ümidində idilər. SSRİ -nin qərb sərhədlərində hələ tam komplektləşdirilməmiş hərbi birləşmələr daha yaxşı silahlanmış və müasir döyüş aparmaq təcrübəsi daha çox olan alman qoşunlarının güclü hücumuna tab gətirə bilmədi, böyük itkilər verərək ölkənin içərilərinə doğru sürətlə geri çəkildi. Almanlar müharibənin birinci həftəsində Leninqrad və Kiyevə yaxınlaşdılar, Smolenski ələ keçirdilər. Sentyabr ayında alman ordusu Kiyevi tutdu, Leninqradı mühasirəyə aldı və Moskva üzərinə güclü hücuma başladı. Lakin Sovet ordusunun təşəbbüsü ələ almaq səyləri sayəsində alman qoşunları Moskva döyüşündə darmadağın edilərək geri atıldı. Barbarossa planı iflasa uğradı, İldırımsürətili müharibə planı puç oldu. Noyabrın 15-də alman qoşunları böyük qüvvə ilə paytaxt üzərinə ikinci dəfə hücuma keçdi. Bəzi yerlərdə paytaxta 5 km-ə qədər yaxınlaşa bilmiş alman ordusunu sovet qoşunları müdafiə döyüşlərində taqətdən saldılar. 1941-ci il dekabrın 5 və 6-da sovet qoşunlarının əks-hücumu başlandı. Almanlar 100–250 km geriyə çəkilməli oldular. İspaniyada vəziyyət 1898-ci ildən bəri ölkədə mühüm koloniyaların itməsi ilə sürətlənən iqtisadi və sosial böhran vətəndaş müharibəsinin baş verməsinə səbəb oldu. 1923-cü ildə, diktator De Rivera general rütbəsinə yüksəldi. Ölkənin yeni monarx quruluşu siyasi cəhətdən qeyri-sabit vəziyyətdə olması iqtisadi və sosial vəziyyətə də pis təsir etdi. Eyni zamanda, zadəganların və ordunun royalist olduqları və qarşılıqlı maraqlar səbəbiylə sağçı olduqları bir vəziyyət meydana gəldi. Lakin Kataloniyada və Bask bölgəsində bu qrupa qarşı çıxan insanlar və kommunistlər var idi. De Rivera dövründə bu qruplar diqqət mərkəzində görünsələr də, 2-ci Cümhuriyyətdəki millətçilər və Respublikaçılar, onları ələ keçirə bilməmələri səbəbindən idarədən ayrıldıqdan sonra qurulan idarəyə gəldilər; lakin, ölkə daxilində artan qarışıqlığın qarşısını ala bilmədilər. Nəticədə Respublikaçılar və Milliyyətçilər arasında vətəndaş müharibəsi başladı. Əvvəlcə respublikaçılar üstünlüklü görünürdülər. Ancaq sonradan Afrika və İspan ordusunun bir hissəsi millətçilərə qoşuldu. Hitler və Mussolini, Alman və İtalyan pilotlarını radikal hərəkətlərlə döyüşə gətirən İspaniyada ilk döyüş gəmisini sınadılar. 1939-cu ildə millətçi qüvvələr General Frankonun rəhbərliyi altında məğlub edildiklərində ölənlərin ümumi sayı 600.000 nəfərə yaxın idi. Yaponiya isə 70-ci meridiandan şərqdə Avrasiyanı öz nüfuz dairəsi hesab edirdi. Müttəfiqləri də buna razılıq vermişdi. O, artıq Çinin böyük bir hissəsini işğal etmişdi. Yaponiya Fransa Almaniyaya təslim olduqdan sonra öz hərbi hissələrini onun müstəmləkələrində — Vyetnam , Laos və Kambocada yerləşdirdi. Filippindəki mülklərinə təhlükə yarandığını görən ABŞ Yaponiyadan qoşunlarını geri çəkməyi tələb etdi və bu ölkə ilə strateji məhsul ticarətinə qadağa qoydu. Yaponiyanın idxalı 75% azaldı. Buna cavab olaraq 7 dekabr 1941-ci ildə, bazar günü səhəri yapon təyyarə daşıyıcılarından havaya qaldırılan yüzlərlə döyüşçü, torpedo və bombardmançı Havay adalarından Ohau adasındakı Pörl Harbor dəniz bazasına genişmiqyaslı hava hücumu həyata keçirdi. Bombaladıqları 8 Dretnosun 6-sı batdı və digərləri yararsız hala gətirildi. ABŞ Konqresi 8 dekabr 1941-ci ildə Yaponiyaya müharibə elan etdi. Bununla da Yaponiyanın müttəfiqi olan Almaniya və İtaliya dekabrın 11-də ABŞ-yə müharibə elan etdi. Bir gün sonra Yaponiya, İngiltərə, Kanada və Avstraliyaya da müharibə elan etdi. Perl Harbor basqını ilə eyni gündə Tayvan adasından çıxan yapon təyyarələri Filippin adalarına hazırlıq hücumu etdi. Bu adalar yapon qoşunları tərəfindən hücum edildikdən dərhal sonra işğal edildi. General Duqlos Arturun rəhbərliyindəki ABŞ orduları Filippindən geri çəkilməli oldu. Yaponlar 1942-ci ilin mayında Filippini ələ keçirdikdə 36.000 əsgər və 25.000 mülki şəxsi əsir aldı. Sonrakı aylarda Yaponiya qüvvələrinin hərbi əməliyyatları davam etdirərək Quam, Honq Konq və Malayziyanı işğal etdi. Malay yarımadasındakı Sinqapur da 1942-ci ilin fevralında yaponlar tərəfindən ələ keçirildi. Yaponiya Bruney , Saravak, Borneo, Şərqi Timor , Yava , Sumatra, Selebes, Yeni Britaniya, Solomon adaları, Yeni Qvineyanın şərqi, Gilbert adaları, Andaman adası və Aleut adalarına qədər torpaqları işğal etdi. Bu uğurlar Yaponiyaya Cənub-Şərqi Asiya dənizlərində həlledici üstünlük qazandırdı. Müharibənin xronologiyası 1937 1937-il 7 iyul tarixində aqressiv yönələnmiş Yaponiyanın hakim qüvvələri müharibəyə təkan vermək məqsədilə Çin və Yaponiya arasında atışmalara başladırlar. 1938 15 iyul-10 avqust Xasan gölü ərazisində Sovet-yapon silahlı qarşıdurması yarandı. 1939 23 avqust — Moskvada Almaniya və SSRİ arasında bir-birinə hücum etməmək haqqında saziş imzalandı. [ 7 ] 1 sentyabr — Almaniya və SSRİ Polşanı öz aralarında bölüşdürməyə başlayırlar. Almaniya Polşanın bölüşdürülməsi istiqamətində ilk addımı ataraq 1 sentyabrda Polşaya qoşun yeritdi. SSRİ isə öz növbəsində bu istiqamətdə 2-ci addımı 16 sentyabrda atdı ( SSRİ 2 həftəlik ləngiməklə Polşanın müttəfiqlərinin Almaniyanın mütəfiqi kimi SSRİ-yə də müharibə elan etmələrinin qarşısını məharətlə almış oldu). 3 sentyabr — əvvəl İngiltərə , sonra Fransa , həmçinin, Avstraliya və Yeni Zellandiya Almaniyaya müharibə elan etdilər. Sonrakı bir-neçə gün ərzində Almaniyaya müharibə elan edən dövlətlərin sırasına Kanada , Nyufaundlend , Cənubi Afrika İttifaqı və Nepal da qatıldı. Bununla da İkinci Dünya müharibəsi başlamış oldu. 5 sentyabr — ABŞ və Yaponiya Avropa müharibəsində öz neytrallığını elan etdilər. 17 sentyabr — Sovet qoşunları Polşaya daxil oldu. Həmin gün axşam Polşanın qanuni rəhbərliyi Rumıniyaya qaçır 28 sentyabr — almanlar Varşava şəhərini ələ keçirirlər. Həmin gün Moskvada Almaniya və SSRİ arasında yeni sərhədlər müəyyənlədirilir, keçmiş Polşa ərazisi 2 tərəf arasında bölüşdürülür. 6 oktyabr — Polşa ordusunun müqavimət göstərən axırıncı hissələri təslim olur. Bundan sonra Hitler Almaniyası Polşanın qərb hissəsini almalanlaşdırmağa başlayır, buradakı polyaklar və yəhudilər Polşanın mərkəzinə deportasiya edilir. Polşanın SSRİ-nin payına düşən hissəsində isə sovetləşmə, kollektivləşmə tətbiq edilir. 8 noyabr — Münhendə uğursuz sui-qəsd. 30 noyabr — SSRİ Finlandiyaya müharibə elan edir. " Qış müharibəsi " adını alan bu müharibə 1940-cı ilin mart ayına kimi davam edir. Müharibə nəticəsində ruslar çox böyük itkilər versələr də, Finlandiyaya məxsus ərazilərin 10%-ni işğal edirlər. 1940 15 mart Sovet-fin müharibəsi sona yetir. Moskvada bağlanmış sülh müqaviləsinə görə Finlandiyanın bir hissəsi SSRİ-yə verilir. 9 aprel Alman qoşunları müharibə elan etmədən Danimarka və Norveçi işğal etdi 10 aprel Sovet qoşunları tərəfindən Baltikyanı respublikalarının tutuldu. 22 iyun Fransanın kapitulyasiyasına dair akt imzalandı. 13 avqust Alman aviasiyası Böyük Britaniyanı bombardman etməyə başladı. 23 sentyabr İtaliya Şərqi Afrikaya yürüş etdi. 27 sentyabr Almaniya , Yaponiya və İtaliya arasında Üçlük hərbi sazişi bağlanır. 2 noyabr ABŞ prezidenti Franklin Ruzvelt bütün ölkələrə aqressorlarla mübarizədə kömək təklif etdi. 20 noyabr Macarıstan "Üçlüyə" daxil olur. 1941 1 mart Almaniyanı dəstəkləyən Bolqarıstan da "Üçlüyə" daxil olur. 6 aprel Alman hərbi qüvvələri Yuqoslaviya və Yunanıstana soxulur. 9 aprel Britaniya aviasiyası Berlini bombardman edir. 1 iyun İngiltərə ordusu Bağdada soxulur və Livan və Suriyaya hücum edir. 16 iyun ABŞ hakimiyyəti öz ərazisində yerləşən bütün Almaniya səfirliklərinin bağlanmasını tələb edir. 22 iyun Almaniya SSRİ -yə qarşı elan edilməmiş müharibəyə başlayır. Burada onun müttəfiqləri Rumıniya , Macarıstan , Slovakiya , İtaliya və Finlandiyadır . 12 iyul Almaniyaya qarşı sovet-ingilis birliyinə dair saziş imzalanmışdır. 11 sentyabr Amerika dəniz hərbi qüvvələri ABŞ su sərhədlərinə daxil olduqları halda Almaniya gəmilərinə hücum etmək əmrini alır. 30 sentyabr Almanlar Moskvaya hücuma başladılar. 5 dekabr Sovet qoşunları Moskva ətrafındakı alman qoşunlarına əks-hücum edərək, onları 250 kilometrədəkdək uzaqlaşdırmağa müvəffəq oldular. Böyük Britaniya Finlandiya , Macarıstan və Rumıniyaya qarşı müharibə elan etdi. 7 dekabr Yaponlar Amerikanın Havay adalarında yerləşən Pörl Harbor hərbi dəniz limanına hücum edərək, elan edilməmiş müharibəyə başladılar. 11 dekabr Çin Almaniya və İtaliyaya müharibə elan etdi. 20 dekabr Hitler vətəndaşlarına müraciət edərək, könüllü olaraq, Şərq cəbhəsindəki qoşunlar üçün isti geyim təmin etməyi xahiş etdi. 1942 1 yanvar Vaşinqtonda 26 ölkə "Üçlüy"ə daxil olan ölkələrlə heç bir sahədə əməkdaşlıq etməmək haqqında saziş imzalandı. 20 yanvar Berlində "Vanzey konfransı". Yüksəkrütbəli faşist məmurları "yəhudi problemini kökündən həll etməy"ə dair müzakirələr apardılar. 18 aprel ABŞ hava qüvvələri Tokionu havadan bombaladı. 24 aprel Alman hava qüvvələri ingilis tarixi və mədəni obyektlərini hətta həmin obyektlərin hərbi məqsədi olmasa da bombalanması əmrini aldı. 13 sentyabr Stalinqrad uğrunda döyüşlər başlandı. 2 dekabr Çikaqoda yer üzündə ilk nüvə reaktoru fəaliyyətə başladı. Bu reaktorun yaradıcılarından biri də İtaliyadan emiqrasiya etmiş fizik Enriko Fermi idi. 1943 Kasablankada Ruzvelt və Vinston Çörçilin iştirakıyla konfrans açıldı. Amerika və İngiltərə birgə strateji fəaliyyət haqqında və Şimali Afrikada 2 irimiqyaslı operasiya haqqında razılığa gəldilər. 31 yanvar- 2 fevral Stalinqrad döyüşü sona yetir. 19 aprel Varşavada 56 min yəhudi qətlə yetirilirdi 13 mart Şimali Afrikada bütün alman-italyan qoşunları ingilislər tərəfindən hərtərəfli mühasirəyə alınaraq təslim edildi. 5 iyul-23 avqust Kurskda vuruşmalar. Bu vuruşmalar sovet-alman qoşunlarının cəbhədəki vəziyyətini dəyişməsi yolunda həlledici oldu. 24 iyul İngilis aviasiyası Hamburqu fosforlu bombalarla bombardman edir. Nəticə şəhərin yarısı darmadağın edilmiş, 30 min adamın həyatına son qoyulmuşdur. 25 iyul Benito Mussolinin yaxalanması və tutulması. İtaliya kralı Viktor Emmanuel ölkədə yeni hakimiyyətin formalaşması uğrunda əhəmiyyətli addımlar atır. 28 iyulda İtalyanın faşist diktaturasından azad olunması elan olunur. 13 oktyabr İtaliya Almaniyaya müharibə elan etdi. 28 noyabr İlk dəfə Stalin, Ruzvelt və Çerçilin birgə iştirak etdiyi Tehran konfransı başlayır. 26 dekabr Ruzvelt və Çörçillin iştrak etdiyi Qahirə konfransı. Müttəfiqlərin Türkiyəni Almaniyaya müharibə elan etməsi barədə uğursuz təklifləri. 1944 6 iyun ABŞ , Kanada və Böyük Britaniya qoşunları Normandiyaya daxil olur; ikinci cəbhə açılır. 20 iyul Hitlerə qarşı təşkil olunmuş uğursuz sui-qəsd. 1 avqust Varşavada general Tadeuş Borkaevskinin başçılığı altında faşist Almaniyasına qarşı üsyan başlayır. Hitler Varşavanın yerlə bir edilməsi haqqında əmr verir. Üsyançıların SSRİ və Böyük Britaniya tərəfindən dəstək haqqındakı ümidləri boşa çıxdı. Üsyanda 200 min polyak vəfat edir. 2 oktyabrda üsyan yatırıldı. 25 avqust Rumıniya Almaniyaya müharibə elan edir. 19 sentyabr SSRİ və Finlandiya arasında müvəqqəti sülh sazişi imzalandı. 21 oktyabr Amerika qoşunları ilk dəfə olaraq, iri alman şəhərlərindən biri olan Axeni aldılar. 31 dekabr Macarıstandakı yeni hökumət Almaniyaya müharibə elan etdi. 1945 27 yanvar Qızıl Ordu Osventsim konslagerini azad edir. Bu zaman orada 7 min əsir vardı. Osventsim ən böyük lagerlərdən biri olub faşist vəhşiliyinin simvolu idi. Bu lagerdə əsirlikdə olanların sayı bir milyon üç yüz mindən çox idi. Onlardan doqquz yüz mini qaz kameralarında boğulmuş və güllələnmişdir. İki yüz mini isə aclıq və xəstəlikdən, vəhşi qaydalardan və müxtəlif ağlasığmaz tibbi ekspertlərdən vəfat etmişdir. 4 fevral Stalin , Çerçil , Ruzveltin iştirakı ilə Yalta konfransının açılışı. Müttəfiqlər Yaponiyaya qarşı mübarizədə birlikdə olmaq haqqında razılığa gəldilər. 13 – 14 fevral Drezdenə hava hücumları edilir. Həlak olanların dəqiq sayı olmasa da, 60–245 min arasında olduğu təxmin edilir. 2 mart Amerika qoşunları Reynə gəlirlər. 10 mart Tokyo Amerika tərəfindən bombardman edilir. 80 min nəfər həlak olmuşdur. 12 aprel Franklin Ruzvelt vəfat edir. Prezidenti Harri Trumen əvəz edir. 16 aprel Sovet qoşunları Berlin üzərinə yürüş edir. 25 aprel tarixində şəhər tamamilə mühasirəyə alınır. 25 aprel Amerikan və Sovet qoşunları Torqau şəhərində, Elba yaxınlığında görüşürlər. 28 aprel Benito Mussoliini partizanlar tərəfindən güllələnir. 30 aprel Adolf Hitler intihar edir. 8 may Berlin yaxınlığında, Karlsxortda imzalanan aktda Alman qoşunlarının zərərsizləşdirilməsi və fəaliyyətinin dayandırılması şərti etiraza baxılmadan irəli sürülmüşdür. 9 may SSRİ Berlinə daxil olur və İkinci Dünya müharibəsinin qələbə ilə başa çatması. Faşizmin süqut etməsi. 16 iyul ABŞ -də Nyu- Meksiko səhrasında dünyada ilk dəfə nüvə silahı təcrübə olunmuşdur. 17 iyul Stalin , Trumen , Çerçilin iştirakı ilə keçirilən Potsdam konfransında Almaniyanın gələcək taleyi müzakirə olunur. 6 avqust ABŞ Xirosimaya atom bombası atır. 100 mindən çox adam vəfat edir. 8 avqust SSRİ Yaponiyaya müharibə elan edir. 9 avqust ABŞ Naqasakiyə atom bombası atır. 36 mindən çox adamın həyatına son qoylur. 14 avqust Yaponiya imperatoru Xiroxito kapitulyasiyanı qəbul etdiyini elan edir. 2 sentyabr Tokioda Amerika gəmisi "Missuri"nin göyərtəsində Yaponiya nümayəndələri qoşunlarını şərtsiz geri çəkmək haqqında akt imzaladılar. 14 noyabr Başlıca alman hərbi müqəssirlərin mühakimə olunması ilə əlaqədar Nyunberq prosesinin başlanması. Müharibənin sonu Müharibənin gedişində sonrakı mərhələ (1944-cü il yanvar-1945-ci il sentyabr) Almaniya faşizminin və Yaponiya militarizminin darmadağın edilməsi uğrunda mübarizə ilə səciyyələnir. Bu dövrdə müttəfiq ölkələrin bütün səyləri tezliklə müharibəyə son qoyulmasına yönəldilmişdi. 1944-cü ilin əvvəlindən etibarən SSRİ qoşunlarının keçirdiyi bir sıra strateji hərbi əməliyyatlar nəticəsində almanlar tərəfindən zəbt edilmiş sovet əraziləri tamamilə azad edildi, döyüşlər Avropa ölkələrinə keçirildi. 1944-cü ilin yanvar-fevralında Leninqrad-Novqorod vilayətləri, martda sağ sahil Ukraynası, aprel-mayda Krım-Odessa vilayətləri, iyunda Kareliya, iyun-iyulda Belarusiya, iyul-avqustda Qərbi Ukrayna, avqust ayında Moldaviya, sentyabr-oktyabrda Baltikyanı respublikalar almanlardan xilas olundular. 1944-cü ilin oktyabrı üçün SSRİ-nin keçmiş sərhədi bərpa olundu. Sovet orduları Mərkəzi və Cənub-Şərqi Avropa ölkələrinin ərazilərinə daxil oldular. Onların faşistlərdən azad edilməsi və sovet nüfuz dairəsinə keçirilməsi uğrunda mübarizə başlandı. Sözügedən strateji hərbi əməliyyatlar sırasında 1944-cü ilin iyun-iyul aylarında Vitebsk-Bobruysk-Minsk rayonunda keçirilən döyüşlər çox ibrətamiz idi. Bu döyüşdə almanların 17 diviziyası və 3 briqadası tamamilə məhv edilmiş, 50 diviziyası isə öz heyətinin yarısını itirmişdi. Ümumən, hitlerçilər bu döyüşdə yarım milyon adam itirmişdilər. Əsir alınan 60 minə yaxın alman əsgər və zabiti gətirilərək Moskvanın Qırmızı meydanından bayraqlarını ataraq keçirilmişdilər. Bu, Hitlerin hələ 1941-ci ilin 7 noyabrında Qırmızı meydanda faşist ordularının rəsmi keçidini təşkil etmək arzusuna cavab olaraq edilmişdi. Əlverşli şəraitdən istifadə edən müttəfiqlər 1944-cü il iyunun 6-da Fransanın şimalına (Normandiyaya) qoşun çıxardılar. Normandiya əməliyyatında müttəfiqlərin 2,9 milyon əsgəri, 10 min təyyarəsi və min hərbi gəmisi iştirak etmişdi. Beləliklə, Almaniyaya qarşı çoxdan vəd edilən və gözlənilən ikinci cəbhə açıldı. İndi Almaniya iki cəbhədə müharibə aparmağa məcbur oldu. Antihitler koalisiyası indi birlikdə ümumi düşmənə qarşı vuruşmağa başladı. 1944-cü ilin avqustunda müttəfiq qoşunlarının köməyi ilə Fransa faşistlərdən azad edildi. Ölkənin azad edilməsində general de Qollun başçılıq etdiyi "Döyüşən Fransanın hərbi hissələri də fəal iştirak etmişdilər. Sovet ordularının uğurlu hücumları və ikinci cəbhənin açılması "reyx"in sosial-iqtisadi, siyasi və hərbi vəziyyətini daha da ağırlaşdırdı. Uğursuz olsa da, fürerə qarşı sui-qəsdlər başladı, Onlardan biri 1944-cü il iyulun 20-də polkovnik Klaus fon Ştaufenberq tərəfindən edilmişdi. Sui-qəsd nəticə verməmişdi. 1944-cü ildə Hitler üç müttəfiqi Rumıniyadan, Bolqarıstandan, Finlandiyadan, 1945-ci ildə isə Macarıstandan məhrum oldu. Cənub-Şərqi və Mərkəzi Avropa ölkələrində milli-azadlıq hərəkatı geniş miqyas aldı. Sovet ordularının sözügedən ölkələrə daxil olması milli-azadlıq və antifaşist hərəkatlarına və sovet meyilli qüvvələrin fəallaşmasına yeni vüsət verdi. Polşada, Rumıniyada, Bolqarıstanda, Yuqoslaviyada, Albaniyada, Yunanıstanda, Macarıstanda, Çexoslovakiyada yeni dövlət qurumları və ictimai hərəkatlar formalaşdı. Artıq nasist Almaniyasının məğlubiyyəti göz qabağında idi. Belə bir şəraitdə SSRİ, ABŞ və Böyük Britaniya dövlət başçılarının Krım (Yalta) konfransı (1945-ci il fevralın 4–11-də) toplandı. Konfransda İ. V. Stalin (SSRİ), F. Ruzvelt (ABŞ) və U. Çörçill (Böyük Britaniya) iştirak edirdi. Konfransda Almaniyaya qarşı birgə mübarizəni davam etdirmək, hərbi əməliyyatları sıx əlaqələndirmək razılığına gəlindi. Konfransda tərəflər Almaniyanın gələcək perspektivləri barədə də yekdil qərarlar qəbul etdilər. Yekunları İkinci Dünya müharibəsi müharibələr tarixində ən dəhşətli və dağıdıcı müharibə olmuşdur. Onun müxtəlif mərhələlərində hər iki döyüşən tərəfdən eyni zamanda 8 milyondan — 12,8 milyona kimi insan, 84 mindən -,163 minə qədər top, 6,5 mindən — 18,3 minə kimi təyyarə iştirak etmişdi. Hərbi əməliyyatların əhatə etdiyi ərazi Birinci Dünya müharibəsindəkindən 5,5 dəfə çox idi. Müharibəyə sərf edilən xərclərin miqdarı 4 trilyon ABŞ dolları olmuşdu. Onların 1 trilyon 117 milyardını sırf hərbi xərclər təşkil etmişdir. Müharibə zamanı 60 milyondan çox adam tələf olmuşdu. Ondan 27 milyonu SSRİ -nin, 13,6 milyonu Almaniyanın , 6 milyonu Polşanın , 5 milyonu Çinin , 2,5 milyonu Yaponiyanın , 1,7 milyonu Yuqoslaviyanın , 600 mini Fransanın , 370 mini İngiltərənin , 300 mini ABŞ -nin və s. payına düşmüşdü. İkinci Dünya müharibəsinin ən başlıca yekunlarından biri faşizmin ictimai-siyasi sistem kimi yer üzündən silinməsidir. Bu, müharibədə nasist Almaniyanın, faşist İtalyanın və onların müttəfiqlərinin məğlubiyyəti nəticəsində baş vermişdi. Dünyada iki sistem — burjua demokratik və sosializm sistemləri qalmışdı. Müharibədən sonra dünyada çox ciddi geosiyasi və ictimai dəyişikliklər baş vermişdi. Avropada və Asiyada bir sıra müstəqil dövlətlər yaradılmış, sərhədlər yenidən qurulmuş, Mərkəzi və Cənub-Şərqi Avropanın bir çox ölkələri faşizmdən azad olduqdan sonra SSRİ-nin təsiri altına düşərək sovet modelli siyasi inkişaf yolunu götürmüşdülər, Asiyada , Afrikada və Latın Amerikası ölkələrində milli-azadlıq hərəkatı güclənmişdi. Müharibə dövlətlərarası münasibətlərdə yeni mütənasiblik yaratmışdı: qalib və məğlub dövlətlər qrupu yaranmış, qalib dövlətlər sırasında ABŞ -nin və SSRİ -nin nüfuzu olmazın dərəcədə artmış, onlar dünyanın super dövlətlərinə çevrilmişdilər, İngiltərə və Fransanın dünyada rolu zəifləmişdi. Müharibədən sonra Almaniya , Vyetnam , Koreya parçalanmışdı. İkinci Dünya müharibəsindən sonra sülhə və təhlükəsizliyə xidmət edən kütləvi beynəlxalq təşkilat və qurumlar yaranmışdı. Onların arasında hələ müharibənin gedişində formalaşmış BMT müstəsna yer tuturdu. İkinci Dünya müharibəsinin ən başlıca yekunlarından biri də, onun dünya sivilizasiyasını məhv olmaqdan xilas etməsidir. O, dünya sivilizasiyasını yeni inkişaf yoluna yönəltdi, onun yeni mahiyyət alması üçün möhkəm zəmin verdi. Müharibə, həmçinin dünyanın müəyyən zaman kəsiyində 2 ictimai-siyasi dünya sisteminə parçalanması üçün şərait yaratdı. Sonradan SSRİ-nin, dünya sosializm sisteminin süqutu nəticəsində sözügedən parçalanma aradan qalxdı. İkinci Dünya müharibəsi dünya sivilizasiyasını qoruyub inkişaf etdirmək üçün çox mühüm dərslər vermişdir. Belə ki: o, bəşəriyyətə böyük fəlakətlər gətirən müharibələrin mahiyyətini dərk etmək dərsini verdi; o, xalqlara yeni dünya müharibəsinə, özü də dəhşətli kütləvi qırğın silahlarının mövcud olduğu indiki dövrdə yol verilməsinə imkan yaratmamaq dərsini verdi; o, xalqlara dünya müharibəsinə yol verməməyin ən başlıca şərtinin bu təhlükəyə qarşı birləşməyin çox vacib olması dərsini verdi; o, göstərdi ki, dünya müharibəsinə yol verməmək üçün ilk növbədə regional müharibələrin baş verməsinin qarşısı alınmalıdır; o, göstərdi ki, müharibənin qarşısını almağın ən önəmli yollarından biri də, müharibə əleyhinə təbliğatı gücləndirmək, bunun üçün möhkəm ideya-siyasi baza yaratmaqdır; müharibənin qarşısını almağın ən mühüm şərtlərindən biri də, silahlanmaya son qoymağa, kütləvi qırğın silahlarını məhv etməyə və yenilərinin yaradılmasının qadağan edilməsinə nail olmaqdır. Hazırda mövcud olan beynəlxalq münasibətlər İkinci Dünya müharibəsi nəticəsində formalaşan Yalta sistemi üzərində qurulub. İkinci Dünya müharibəsi dünyada mövcud olan qüvvələr balansını köklü şəkildə dəyişdi. Birincisi faşizmin qlobal cərəyana çevirilməsinin qarşısı alndı. İkincisi, dünyada ABŞ və SSRİ kimi super dövlətlər yarandı və onların timsalında qlobal ideologiyalar qismində liberal-demokratiya ilə kommunizm təsdiqləndi (ikiqütblü sistem formalaşdı). Üçüncüsü, beynəlxalq münasibətləri tənzimləyəcək və beynəlxalq təhlükəsizliyi təmin edəcək ümumdünya təşkilat — Millətlər Liqası daha effektiv təşkilatla — BMT ilə əvəz olundu. Dördüncüsü, demək olar ki, yer üzündə müstəmləkə qalmadı. Ümumiyyətlə ənənəvi müstəmləkəçilik transformasiyalara məruz qaldı və iqtisadi-siyasi asılılığın yeni formalarlı yarandı. Beşincisi, Çin kimi SSRİ-yə rəqib kommunist dövləti yarandı, bununla da kommunist bloku çat verdi. Altıncısı, Yaponiya fövqəldövlət olaraq aradan getdi və faktiki olaraq Sakit Okean regionunda ABŞ siyasətinin platsdarmına çevirildi. Avropanın aparıcı ölkələri fövqəldövlət olaraq məhv oldular və onların təsir dairəsi Avropa ilə məhdudlaşdı. Nəticədə, Avropa dövlətləri dünya arenasına çıxmaq üçün birləşməli oldular. Bu baxımdan Avropa Birliyi də İkinci Dünya müharibəsinin səmərəsidir. Soyuq müharibə Berlin divarı Almaniya Demokratik Respublikası Berlin divarı Almaniya Demokratik Respublikası Almaniya Demokratik Respublikası Sadako Sasaki Müharibənin qurbanları Tarixin ən qanlı müharibəsi kimi tanınan İkinci Dünya müharibəsi qurbanlarının dəqiq sayı məlum deyil. Altı il davam edən və dünyanın 70-ə yaxın dövlətinin cəlb olunduğu bu müharibədə həlak olanların sayını 35 milyon göstərən də var, 68 milyon göstərən də. Amma mənbələrin əksəriyyəti bu müharibəyə 100 milyondan çox adamın birbaşa əldə silah cəlb olunduğunu, ölənlərin sayının isə 50 milyondan çox olduğunu yazır. Öldürülən adamlardan 15 milyonu əsgər, qalanı isə dinc əhali olub. "World War 2" saytı da ölkələr üzrə ayrı-ayrılıqda itkilərin sayını verməyə çalışıb. Əlbəttə, bunlar da təxmini rəqəmlərdir. Amma yenə də bir-birindən kəskin fərqlənən mənbələr arasında müharibənin qara statistikasında orta rəqəmlər haqqında təsəvvür yarada bilir. İkinci Dünya müharibəsinin itkiləri Ölkə Əhali (1939) Ölü (Əsgər) Ölü (Mülki) Ölü (Yəhudi soyqırımı) Cəm 1939 əhalisinə görə itki faizi ABŞ 131.028.000 416.800 1.700 418.500 0,32% Albaniya 1.073.000 28.000 200 28.200 2,63% Almaniya 69.623.000 5.533.000 1.600.000 160.000 7.293.000 10,47% Avstraliya 6.998.000 39.400 700 40.100 0,57% Avstriya 6.653.000 40.500 65.000 105.500 1,59% Belçika 8.387.000 12.100 49.600 24.400 86.100 1,02% Braziliya 40.289.000 1.000 1.000 2.000 0,00% Bolqarıstan 6.458.000 22.000 3.000 25.000 0,38% Böyük Britaniya 47.760.000 382.600 67.800 450.400 0,94% Myanma 16.119.000 22.000 250.000 272.000 1,16% Kanada 11.267.000 45.300 45.300 0,40% Çin 517.569.531 3.800.000 16.200.000 20.000.000 3,86% Kuba 4.235.000 100 100 0,00% Çexoslovakiya 15.300.000 25.000 43.000 277.000 345.000 2,25% Danimarka 3.795.000 2.100 1.000 100 3.200 0,08% Estoniya 1.134.000 40.000 1.000 41.000 3,62% Efiopiya 17.700.000 5.000 95.000 100.000 0,6% Finlandiya 3.700.000 95.000 2.000 97.000 2,62% Fransa 41.700.000 217.600 267.000 83.000 567.600 1,36% Hind-Çin 24.600.000 1.000.000 1.000.000 4,07% Yunanıstan 7.222.000 20.000 220.000 71.300 311.300 4,31% Macarıstan 9.129.000 300.000 80.000 200.000 580.000 6,35% İslandiya 119.000 200 200 0,17% Hindistan 378.000.000 87.000 1.500.000 1.587.000 0,42% İndoneziya 69.435.000 4.000.000 4.000.000 5,76% İran 14.340.000 200 200 0,00% İraq 3.698.000 1.000 1.000 0,03% İrlandiya 2.960.000 200 200 0,00% İtaliya 44.394.000 301.400 145.100 8.000 454.500 1,02% Yaponiya 71.380.000 2.100.000 580.000 2.680.000 3,75% Koreya 23.400.000 378.000 378.000 1,6% Latviya 1.995.000 147.000 80.000 227.000 11,38% Litva 2.575.000 212.000 141.000 353.000 13,71% Lüksemburq 295.000 1.300 700 2.000 0,68% Malayziya 4.391.000 100.000 100.000 2,28% Malta 269.000 1.500 1.500 0,56% Meksika 19.320.000 100 100 0,00% Monqolustan 819.000 300 300 0,04% Hollandiya 8.729.000 15.800 124.500 106.000 246.300 2,82% Nyufaundlend və Labrador 300.000 1.000 100 1.100 0,37% Yeni Zelandiya 1.629.000 11.900 11.900 0,67% Norveç 2.945.000 3.000 5.800 700 9.500 0,32% Filippin 16.000.000 57.000 90.000 147.000 0,92% Sakit okean 1.900.000 57.000 57.000 3,00% Polşa 34.849.000 160.000 2.440.000 3.000.000 5.600.000 16,07% Şərqi Timor 500.000 55.000 55.000 11,00% Rumıniya 19.934.000 300.000 64.000 469.000 833.000 4,22% Sinqapur 728.000 50.000 50.000 6,87% Cənubi Afrika 10.160.000 11.900 11.900 0,12% SSRİ 168.500.000 10.700.000 11.400.000 1.000.000 23.100.000 13,71% İspaniya 25.637.000 4.500 4.500 0,02% İsveç 6.341.000 200 2.000 2.200 0,03% İsveçrə 4.210.000 100 100 0,00% Tayland 15.023.000 5.600 300 5.900 0,04% Yuqoslaviya 15.400.000 446.000 514.000 67.000 1.027.000 6,67% Cəm 1.991.913.000 25.173.700 41.830.600 5.754.400 72.758.900 3,71% Mənbə www.9may.az Arxivləşdirilib 2010-02-27 at the Wayback Machine Ədəbiyyat Лиддел Гарт. İkinci dünya müharibəsi Гордиенко, Андрей Николаевич. Командиры Второй мировой войны. Т. 1–2. Минск, 1997–1998. Т. 1. ISBN 985-437-268-5 , Т. 2. ISBN 985-437-627-3 İkinci dünya müharibəsi Arxivləşdirilib 2007-03-17 at the Wayback Machine "Цели Германии в войне против СССР" "Война на уничтожение: вермахт и холокост" Сайт документальной военной литературы "Милитера" Arxivləşdirilib 2007-02-20 at the Wayback Machine . Колпакиди А. И. ГРУ в Великой Отечественной войне. — М.: Яуза: Эксмо, 2010. — 608 с. — (ГРУ) — 3000 экз. — ISBN 978-5-699-41251-8 В. И. Дашичев. Банкротство стратегии германского фашизма. М.: Наука, 1973. Том 1 — Подготовка и развёртывание нацистской агрессии в Европе 1933–1941 гг Том 2 — Агрессия против СССР. Падение "третьей империи" BETHELL, Nicholas. Útok na SSSR: druhá světová válka . Praha : Svojtka & Co., 2000. ISBN 80-7237-279-3 BOYLE, David. Druhá světová válka ve fotografiích . Čestlice : Rebo, 2007. ISBN 978-80-7234-780-3 CAWTHORNE, Nigel. Bitvy druhé světové války . Frýdek-Místek : Alpress, 2007. ISBN 978-80-7362-446-0 CÍLEK, Roman. Holocaust: zřetězení zla . Praha : P3K, 2007. ISBN 978-80-903584-8-5 GILBERT, Martin. Druhá světová válka: úplná historie . Praha : BB/art, 2006. ISBN 80-7341-933-5 CHURCHILL, Winston. Druhá světová válka I–VI . Praha : NLN, Nakladatelství Lidové noviny, 2005. ISBN 80-7106-739-3 JORDAN, David; WIEST, Andrew. Atlas druhé světové války: fakta o bojových střetnutích na všech frontách . Praha : Ottovo nakladatelství, 2006. ISBN 80-7360-273-3 KEEGAN, John. Druhá světová válka . Praha : Beta-Dobrovský ; Plzeň : Ševčík, 2003. ISBN 80-7306-063-9 LIDDELL HART, Basil. Dějiny druhé světové války . Brno : Jota, 2000. ISBN 80-7217-117-8 NÁLEVKA, Vladimír. Druhá světová válka . Praha : Triton, 2003. ISBN 80-7254-390-3 OVERY, Richard. Proč spojenci zvítězili . Praha : Beta-Dobrovský ; Plzeň : Ševčík, 2008. ISBN 978-80-7306-338-2 PIEKALKIEWICZ, Janusz. Druhá světová válka . Praha : Svojtka & Co., 2007. ISBN 978-80-7352-764-8 SALMAGGI, Cesare; PALLAVISINI, Alfredo. 2194 dnů: ilustrovaná chronologie druhé světové války . Praha : Olympia, 2007. ISBN 978-80-7376-005-2 SHAW, Antony. II. světová válka den po dni . Praha : Naše vojsko : Columbus, 2007. ISBN 80-206-0732-3 WILLMOTH, Hedley Paul. Druhá světová válka . Praha : Euromedia Group — Knižní klub, 2005. ISBN 80-242-1403-2 Kronika druhé světové války . Praha : Fortuna Print, 2003. ISBN 80-7321-072-X FRIEDRICH, Jörg Der Brand . München :13. Auflage 2003, Propyläen Verlag, ISBN 3-549-07165-5 İstinadlar ↑ Qərbi mənbələrdə qəbul olunmuş tarix. Bundan başqa müxtəlif tarixlər təklif olunur. Məsələn, Çin tarixşünaslıqda 7 iyul 1937 tarixi qəbul olunub. ↑ Ghuhl, Wernar (2007) Imperial Japan's World War Two Transaction Publishers pp. 7, 30 ↑ Polmar, Norman; Thomas B. Allen (1991) World War II: America at war, 1941–1945 ISBN 978-0-394-58530-7 ↑ Ferris, John; Mawdsley, Evan. The Cambridge History of the Second World War, Volume I: Fighting the War (ingilis) . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . 2015. .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-red-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em} ↑ Förster, Stig; Gessler, Myriam. The Ultimate Horror: Reflections on Total War and Genocide // Roger Chickering; Stig Förster; Bernd Greiner (redaktorlar ). A World at Total War: Global Conflict and the Politics of Destruction, 1937–1945. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . 2005. 53–68. ISBN 978-0-521-83432-2 . ↑ Böyük Vətən müharibəsi (1941–1945) necə başladı və başa çatdı? Arxivləşdirilib 2022-03-18 at the Wayback Machine (az.) ↑ История второй мировой войны. 1939–1945 Arxivləşdirilib 2022-04-07 at the Wayback Machine . Воениздат, 1982. С. 465. 2 сентября — Подписание акта о безоговорочной капитуляции милитаристской Японии. Окончание второй мировой войны. Xarici keçidlər Lüğətlər və ensiklopediyalar Böyük katalan · Böyük norveç · Böyük rus · Kruqosvet · Laruss ensiklopediyası · Laruss ensiklopediyası · Britannica (onlayn) · Treccani · Universalis · Universalis · Müasir Ukrayna · RİA istinad · İsveçrə tarixi · İsveçrə tarixi (online) .mw-parser-output .ts-navbox-plaintitle{font-size:100%!important;margin:0 6em!important} Normativ yoxlama BNE : XX526764 · BNF : 11996115g · GND : 4079167-1 · LCCN : sh85148273 · Microsoft : 137355542 · NDL : 00570524 · NKC : ph117270 · LIBRIS : 139432 Normativ yoxlama BNE : XX526764 · BNF : 11996115g · GND : 4079167-1 · LCCN : sh85148273 · Microsoft : 137355542 · NDL : 00570524 · NKC : ph117270 · LIBRIS : 139432 Vikianbarda İkinci Dünya müharibəsi ilə əlaqəli mediafayllar var. Der Zweite Weltkrieg Arxivləşdirilib 2012-06-06 at the Wayback Machine im Lebendigen virtuellen Museum Online (LeMO) Zweiter Weltkrieg in der Virtual Library Zeitgeschichte beim Historischen Centrum Hagen Zweiter Weltkrieg auf dem Informationsportal zur politischen Bildung Battle of the Ruhr 1939–1945 . Regionalgeschichte des Zweiten Weltkriegs beim Historischen Centrum Hagen ("eines der ältesten geschichtswissenschaftlichen Angebote im deutschsprachigen Internet") Der alliierte Bombenkrieg 1939–1945 Arxivləşdirilib 2012-01-02 at the Wayback Machine beim Fachportal historicum.net (Redaktion: Ralf Blank, Historisches Centrum Hagen) Сайт о Второй Мировой Войне Arxivləşdirilib 2011-12-28 at the Wayback Machine Таблицы справочного труда "История второй мировой войны 1939–1945 гг." Сайт Танковый фронт . Бронетанковые войска стран-участниц Второй мировой войны. СССР, Германия, Союзники, Ось. Böyük Vətən müharibəsi Arxivləşdirilib 2012-01-17 at the Wayback Machine İkinci dünya müharibəsi Каталог ресурсов: Вторая мировая война в Сети Непридуманные рассказы о войне ANPI Archives photos Arxivləşdirilib 2016-01-13 at the Wayback Machine (ital.) — İkinci Dünya müharibəsi şəkilləri Цветные фотографии Второй мировой войны Arxivləşdirilib 2005-10-28 at the Wayback Machine (ing.) Мультимедийная карта войны от вторжения на территорию СССР до падения Берлина Государственные архивы РФ, хранящие фотодокументы о Великой Отечественной войне 1941–1945 гг. Сайт "Победа. 1941–1945" — каталог фотодокументов ОБСЕ возложил ответственность за войну на Германию и СССР , статья о резолюции ОБСЕ , 02 июля 2009 Аэрофотоснимки Второй мировой войны "Докладная записка" С. Тимошенко и Г. Жукова накануне нападения фашистской Германии на СССР, изготовленная фальсификаторами Воспоминания ветеранов о Второй мировой войне Arxivləşdirilib 2014-03-30 at the Wayback Machine Оружие, военная техника и форма Второй мировой войны Collections Online des britischen Imperial War Museum (englisch) World War II Multimedia Database ; Umfangreiches Bild- und Tonarchiv mit Bildern und Videos (englisch) World War II ; US-amerikanisches Bild- und Tonarchiv zum Zweiten Weltkrieg auf authentichistory.com (englisch) Source List and Detailed Death Tolls ; Auflistung der Opfer- und Verlustzahlen auf users.erols.com , November 2005 (englisch) 60 Jahre Kriegsende ; Berichte russischer Zeitzeugen in deutscher Sprache auf kriegsende.aktuell.ru Germany surrenders unconditionally (1945) ; Originaldokumente der Kapitulation, Digitalisat auf archive.org , 26. Dezember 2007 Verkündung der Kapitulation der deutschen Wehrmacht, 8. Mai 1945 Arxivləşdirilib 2011-12-24 at the Wayback Machine ; Originalton (35 Sekunden) im Deutschen Rundfunkarchiv (Real-Audio-Format) Die deutsche Kapitulation 1945 Arxivləşdirilib 2015-07-08 at the Wayback Machine ; historische Bilder und Dokumente des Bundesarchivs Druhá světová válka (fronta.cz) Druhá světová válka a Reenacting na jednom místě(militaryzone.cz) II. světová válka (stránky Českého rozhlasu) Arxivləşdirilib 2006-11-03 at the Wayback Machine 2. světová válka: Válku vidět — slyšet II. světová válka — příčiny, průběh, výsledek, důsledky (PDF) [ ölü keçid ] Druhá světová válka (druha.svetova.cz) Panzernet, německá a sovětská obrněná technika druhé světové války Arxivləşdirilib 2021-03-31 at the Wayback Machine Barevné fotografie z druhé světové války World War II Database Arxivləşdirilib 2009-04-16 at the Wayback Machine (ing.) World War II Encyclopedia by the History Channel (ing.) Deutsche Welle special section on World War II Arxivləşdirilib 2005-05-07 at the Wayback Machine (ing.) Der Zweite Weltkrieg (shoa.de) (alm.) World War II Propaganda Leaflet Archive Arxivləşdirilib 2014-03-26 at the Wayback Machine (ing.) World War 2 Pictures In Colour Arxivləşdirilib 2008-08-21 at the Wayback Machine (ing.) Multimedia map, from the invasion of the Soviet Union to the fall of Berlin (ing.) World War II Military Situation Maps (ing.) La Segunda Guerra Mundial Arxivləşdirilib 2012-01-13 at the Wayback Machine Війна. Український рахунок Український тиждень, № 18, 2010 Україна. Друга світова. Тільки цифри Друга світова війна і доля народів України Друга світова війна зброя і техника Batallas de la Segunda Guerra Mundial Historia de la Segunda Guerra Mundial Cronología de la SGM Batallas y armamento utilizado durante el conflicto Arxivləşdirilib 2012-01-26 at the Wayback Machine Relaciones y organizaciones España en la Segunda Guerra Mundial Arxivləşdirilib 2011-12-14 at the Wayback Machine Relaciones de los Estados Miembros de Naciones Unidas con España (en inglés) Artículos y debates sobre la Segunda Guerra Mundial Cronología de la Segunda Guerra Mundial día por día y bajo licencia Creative Commons Los sumergibles alemanes y la guerra submarina Həmçinin bax Holokost Faşizm Adolf Hitler Üçüncü Reyx İkinci dünya müharibəsində istifadə olunmuş silahların siyahısı Böyük Vətən müharibəsi ABŞ İkinci dünya müharibəsində 5-ci mexanikləşdirilmiş korpus Azərbaycanın hərb tarixi Qədim Dövr Qavqamel döyüşü • Pompeyin Qafqaz Albaniyasına yürüşü • Amid döyüşü • Dzirav çölündə döyüş • II Vaçenin Sasanilərə qarşı üsyanı • Qadsiyyə döyüşü • Xəzər-ərəb müharibələri • Orta Əsrlər Pavlikanlar hərəkatı • Xürrəmilər hərəkatı • Rusların Qafqaz ekspedisiyaları • Monqolların Azərbaycana ilk yürüşü • Monqolların Azərbaycana II yürüşü • Monqolların Azərbaycana III yürüşü • Qızıl Ordanın Azərbaycana yürüşləri • Teymurilərin Azərbaycana yürüşləri • Şənbi-Qazan döyüşü • Kür döyüşü (1412) • Səncəq döyüşü • Otluqbeli döyüşü • Şəməsi döyüşü Yeni Dövr Səfəvi-Şirvanşahlar müharibələri • Cabanı döyüşü • Şərur döyüşü • Almaqulağı döyüşü • Səfəvi-Şeybani müharibələri • Mərv döyüşü • Səfəvi-Osmanlı müharibələri • Çaldıran döyüşü • Qoçhisar döyüşü • Vəkalət müharibəsi • Səfəvi-Osmanlı müharibəsi (1532-1555) • Səfəvi-Moğol müharibələri • Səfəvi-Moğol müharibəsi (1537-1544) • Səfəvi-Osmanlı müharibəsi (1578-1590) • Səfəvi-Osmanlı müharibəsi (1603-1618) • Sufiyan döyüşü • Səfəvi-Osmanlı müharibəsi (1616-1618) • Səfəvi-Osmanlı müharibəsi (1623-1639) • Səfəvi-Rusiya müharibəsi (1651-1653) • Don kazaklarının Səfəvilər dövlətinə yürüşləri (1667-1668) • Səfəvi-Rusiya müharibəsi (1722-1723) • Səfəvi-Osmanlı müharibəsi (1723-1727) • Səfəvi-Osmanlı müharibəsi (1730-1736) • Səfəvi-Osmanlı müharibəsi (1730-1732) • Osmanlı-İran müharibəsi (1743-1746) • Rusiya-İran müharibəsi (1796) • Gəncə qalasının işğalı • Rusiya-İran müharibəsi (1804-1813) • Sultanbud döyüşü • Aslandüz döyüşü • Rusiya-İran müharibəsi (1826-1828) • Şamxor döyüşü Ən Yeni Dövr Rus-yapon müharibəsi • Erməni-Azərbaycan müharibəsi (1905-1906) • Birinci Dünya müharibəsi • Gürcüstan-Ermənistan müharibəsi • Azərbaycan-Ermənistan müharibəsi (1918-1920) • Göyçay savaşı • Salyan döyüşü • Bakı döyüşü • Muğan hadisələri • Sarvan döyüşü • Yalama döyüşü • Aprel işğalı ( Türkiyənin müdaxiləsi ) • İkinci Dünya müharibəsi ( Azərbaycan İkinci dünya müharibəsində ) • Əfqanıstan müharibəsi (1979-1989) • Qarabağ müharibəsi • May hadisələri • Subtropik əməliyyatı • Naxçıvanda dövlət çevrilişinə cəhd • 4 iyun Gəncə qiyamı • 1995-ci il Azərbaycanda dövlət çevrilişinə cəhd • Qobustan qiyamı (1999) • Aprel döyüşləri • Günnüt əməliyyatı • Tovuz döyüşləri • İkinci Qarabağ müharibəsi • 2025-ci ildə Azərbaycanda dövlət çevrilişinə cəhd Qızılbaş • Qafqaz İslam Ordusu • Azərbaycan–NATO əlaqələri • Kateqoriya:Azərbaycanın hərb tarixi • Portal:Azərbaycan Silahlı Qüvvələri Əlifba sırasına görə hərbi münaqişələr 1945-ci ildəki münaqişələr İkinci Dünya müharibəsi Dünya müharibələri XX əsrin müharibələri Tarix Vikipediya:Şəkil kartoçkasında viki-işarə olan məqalələr ISBN sehrli keçidlərinin istifadə olunduğu səhifələr Bu səhifə sonuncu dəfə 08:16, 27 dekabr 2025 tarixində redaktə edilib. 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Portal:Current events 2 References Portal : Current events/January 2004 Portal Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version January 2004 was the first month of that leap year. The month, which began on a Thursday , ended on a Saturday after 31 days. Portal:Current events This is an archived version of Wikipedia's Current events Portal from January 2004. .mw-parser-output .current-events-main{margin:0.5em 0;padding:0.3em;background-color:var(--background-color-base,#fff);color:inherit;border:1px #cef2e0 solid}.mw-parser-output .current-events-heading{background-color:#cef2e0;color:inherit;font-weight:bold}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .current-events-heading{background-color:#0b281a}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .current-events-heading{background-color:#0b281a}}.mw-parser-output .current-events-title{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .current-events-navbar{list-style:none;margin:0;font-size:small}.mw-parser-output .current-events-navbar li{display:inline-block;padding:0 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .current-events-content{padding:0 0.3em}.mw-parser-output .current-events-content-heading{margin-top:0.3em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .current-events-more{border-width:2px;font-size:10pt;font-weight:bold;padding:0.3em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .current-events-nav{margin:auto;text-align:center;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .current-events-nav a{display:inline-block;margin:0.5em;padding:0.5em;background-color:var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0)}.mw-parser-output .current-events-nav a>div{font-weight:bold}@media all and (min-width:480px){.mw-parser-output .current-events-heading{align-items:center;display:flex}.mw-parser-output .current-events-title{flex:1}.mw-parser-output .current-events-navbar{flex:0 auto;text-align:right;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .current-events-nav{max-width:22em}.mw-parser-output .current-events-nav a{width:9em}} January 1, 2004 ( 2004-01-01 ) (Thursday) edit history watch Arts and culture Montréal/Dorval International Airport is renamed Montréal/Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport . MySpace has its official launch. Disasters and accidents A British Airways flight from London to Washington, D.C. is canceled one day after the same flight is delayed for three hours on the tarmac at Dulles International Airport for security screening. (Yahoo) International relations State papers released under Britain's Thirty Year Rule suggest that the United States considered using force to seize oil fields in the Middle East during an oil embargo by Arab states in 1973. (BBC) State papers also released reveal that, contrary to what was believed at the time, Princess Margaret of the United Kingdom would not have lost her title and Civil List payments if she had married Group Captain Peter Townsend , a divorced War hero in the 1950s. (BBC) (Sky News) Comparing planned United States finger-printing and photographic security controls on travelers from Brazil and other nations to Nazi actions, a Brazilian judge orders the fingerprinting of all arriving United States citizens in response. (Yahoo) Law and crime Haiti 's bicentennial celebrations erupt in violence. (Jamaica Observer) Politics and elections The Republic of Ireland takes over the presidency of the European Union , succeeding Italy, whose presidency is widely criticised as having been a failure due to the collapse of efforts to adopt a European constitution. (RTE News) Religion Ireland's Roman Catholic and Protestant Boy Scouts organisations merge after nearly a century of division, in spite of efforts by the Roman Catholic bishops to block the merger. Science and technology No leap second is added this year. This is the fifth year in a row without a leap-second after 28 years of adding leap-seconds to compensate for the slowing of the Earth's rotation. (CNN) January 2, 2004 ( 2004-01-02 ) (Friday) edit history watch South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation , composed of foreign ministers from seven south Asian countries ( Pakistan , India, Bangladesh , Sri Lanka , Nepal , Maldives and Bhutan ) meeting in Islamabad agree to create the South Asian Free Trade Area (SAFTA) by 2006. (NDTV) U.S. Representative Ralph Hall from Texas files for reelection and switches parties from Democrat to Republican . (SFGate) It appears that Stardust has successfully flown past Comet Wild 2 collecting samples that it will return to Earth in two years time. This is the first sample return mission to a comet and the first time that samples have returned to Earth from any celestial body since 1974. The spacecraft also took detailed images of the comet's icy nucleus. (Stardust) (Space Flight Now) (Space.com) January 3, 2004 ( 2004-01-03 ) (Saturday) edit history watch A Boeing 737 , Flight 604 , flown by Egyptian charter company Flash Airlines headed for Cairo crashes into the Red Sea minutes after take-off from the holiday resort of Sharm el-Sheikh in Egypt. All 148 people on board are killed, of whom more than 120 were French tourists. Though both United Kingdom Prime Minister Tony Blair and Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak were in the area, neither were involved in the incident, contrary to initial reports. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] The BBC cancels the appearance of Coca-Cola sponsorship credits in the music charts in its BBC One Top of the Pops show, after criticism from politicians and health campaigners that it would be promoting junk food and unhealthy drink products to teenagers. [ 4 ] Ricardo Palmera, better known as Simon Trinidad , one of top seven Colombian rebel group, FARC (Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia) is arrested in Ecuador . [ 5 ] Exploration of Mars : The first of the Mars Exploration Rovers , Spirit, has successfully landed on the Martian surface with a "very strong signal" being received from the lander. It was a tense few minutes as no signal was received from the lander during the minutes while it bounced over the surface. Mission Control is described as being a wild place with the mission scientists very happy. The first pictures are expected at the earliest around 0730 UTC [ 6 ] [ 7 ] [ 8 ] [ 9 ] The People's Republic of China's fifth-largest brokerage is seized by China Securities Regulatory Commission and local authorities for "illegal and irregular management operations and disorderly management." The unusual move to clamp down on China Southern Securities is a high-profile attempt to stem corruption. [ 10 ] [ 11 ] January 4, 2004 ( 2004-01-04 ) (Sunday) edit history watch The Loya jirga adopts a new Constitution of Afghanistan [ 12 ] A military court in Israel sentences five Israelis to one year in jail for refusing to serve in the military because of Israel's occupation of the West Bank and Gaza Strip . [ 13 ] (Compare conscientious objector ) Exploration of Mars : American Mars probe " Spirit " mission is successful and is sending back images. Spirit is alive after rolling to a stop on the surface of Mars; confirmed by NASA 's Deep Space Network ( 9:00 p.m. PST). [ 14 ] Mikhail Saakashvili becomes president-elect of Georgia , following the Presidential elections . He had been widely expected to win following the November 23, 2003, ousting of President Eduard Shevardnadze . [ 15 ] Bolivian Gas War : In a televised speech, Bolivian President Carlos Mesa announces that a national referendum will be held on 28 March to resolve the issue of how Bolivia's large natural gas reserves will be exploited. [ 16 ] Britney Spears abruptly marries a childhood friend, Jason Allen Alexander , in a Las Vegas wedding chapel at 5:30 a.m. ; by afternoon, the couple have arranged an annulment, which is expected to be made official when the courts reopen on Monday. [ 17 ] January 5, 2004 ( 2004-01-05 ) (Monday) edit history watch A British and a German Member of the European Parliament both receive letter bombs in the post. This follows an earlier letter bomb sent to the President of the European Commission , Romano Prodi . [ 18 ] Ulster Unionist Party defector Jeffrey Donaldson and two other MLAs join Rev. Ian Paisley 's Democratic Unionist Party , pushing the DUP's numbers in the Northern Ireland Assembly to 33. [ 19 ] Jaap de Hoop Scheffer of the Netherlands became the new Secretary General of NATO , replacing Britain's Lord Robertson . [ 20 ] The United States begins tracking foreign arrivals according to the new United States Visitor and Immigrant Status Indicator Technology (US-VISIT) program. [ 21 ] Pakistan President Pervez Musharraf and Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee meet face-to-face to discuss improving relations between their two countries. [ 22 ] South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), which comprises India, Pakistan , Sri Lanka , Nepal , Bangladesh , Bhutan and the Maldives , signs the South Asia Free Trade Agreement , a draft agreement to eliminate tariffs by 2016. [ 23 ] Norwegian prosecutors announce that they have abandoned their attempts to prosecute Jon Johansen for his release of the DeCSS DVD decryption software. [ 24 ] Panhellenic Socialist Movement , the ruling political party of Greece, is about to change leadership. The official report is expected to be published on January 7, 2004. It is expected by many that the new leader will be George Papandreou, junior . See [ 25 ] and [ 26 ] (Greek) A potential local root vulnerability [ 27 ] has been found in Linux 2.2, 2.4, and 2.6, and Linux Kernel developers have corrected the issue in 2.4 and 2.6; distributors are expected to offer the patches soon, for the benefit of those users who do not compile their own kernels. Chris Moyles presented The Chris Moyles Show on BBC Radio 1 in the Breakfast Show slot for the first time. The show subsequently went on to become the longest running incarnation of the Radio 1 Breakfast slot, with Moyles holding the position until September 2012. January 6, 2004 ( 2004-01-06 ) (Tuesday) edit history watch The man charged for the murder of Sweden's FM Anna Lindh on September 10, Mijailo Mijailovic , through his defence lawyer requests an interrogation to give critical details on the stabbing. Seemingly Mijailovic thereby confesses the assault. The Daily Mirror , a British tabloid, publishes the blacked out portion of a letter wherein Diana, Princess of Wales alleged that someone was trying to kill her. The relevant portion reads: "[M]y husband is planning 'an accident' in my car, brake failure & serious head injury in order to make the path clear for him to marry." The part "my husband" (referring to Charles, Prince of Wales ) had been previously blacked out, and the word "him" replaced with "Charles" in transcripts of the letter released by Diana's butler, Paul Burrell . [ 28 ] The revelation comes on the same day the inquest into the death of Diana and her lover Dodi Al-Fayed is officially opened. [ 29 ] Pakistan is cited as the source of nuclear weapon technology supplied to Libya , Iran and North Korea . The components intercepted at sea by Italy en route to Libya were fabricated in Malaysia . There is no evidence that the Pakistani government of President Pervez Musharraf knew about the transfer of technology of Libya. [ 30 ] [ 31 ] Pakistan and India have agreed to a new round of talks to settle the Kashmir dispute. The talks will begin in February 2004. [ 31 ] Exploration of Mars : The first color images have been released from the Spirit rover on Mars . They are the highest resolution images ever taken on the surface of another planet. It has also been announced by NASA that they plan to name the rover's landing site on Mars "Columbia Memorial Station" in honor of the crew of STS-107 . [ 32 ] [ 33 ] [ 34 ] [ 35 ] January 7, 2004 ( 2004-01-07 ) (Wednesday) edit history watch In the United States, the Bush administration proposes a major reform of immigration law, creating a temporary worker program and giving legal status to both illegal and foreign workers for renewable three-year periods. [ 36 ] [ 37 ] The Supreme Court of Indonesia upholds the death sentence handed down to Bali bomber Amrozi . The 12 October 2002 attacks killed 202 mainly holiday makers on the resort island of Bali . [ 38 ] July 1073437329581.html [ permanent dead link ] Costas Simitis , the prime minister of Greece and president of the ruling PASOK , after informing the country's president Costis Stephanopoulos , announced his resignation. At the same time he announced national elections for March 7, 2004, when PASOK will have a new president, expected to be George Papandreou . PASOK will be challenged by the New Democracy opposition led by Kostas Karamanlis . See, [ 39 ] [ 40 ] [ 41 ] [ 42 ] (Greek) and, [ 43 ] [ 44 ] [ 45 ] [ 46 ] [ 47 ] (English). Exploration of Mars : Mars Express failed to hear any signal from the Beagle 2 spacecraft during its first pass over the landing site. This is major blow, but scientists have once again not given up all hope. They will attempt again tomorrow using a different communication mode. The Beagle 2 mission manager, Colin Pillinger , set February 7 as the day to abandon contact efforts. By that time Beagle 2 would have switched into an autotransmit mode after having not received any signal for over a month if it was still alive. [ 48 ] A report from the International Monetary Fund expresses alarm regarding mounting budget deficits in the United States due to recession, tax cuts, and spending for the war on terrorism. The report says that the unprecedented level of external debt incurred poses "significant risks" not just for the United States but for the rest of the world. However, many outside economists note that other countries are also running large deficits and that underlying economic conditions in the U.S. are still robust. [ 49 ] [ 50 ] U.S.-led occupation of Iraq : Mortar attacks by Anti-American insurgents wound 35 U.S. soldiers at a military camp west of Baghdad . Six mortar rounds exploded around 6:45 p.m. local time. [ 51 ] January 8, 2004 ( 2004-01-08 ) (Thursday) edit history watch The Queen Mary 2 is christened by Queen Elizabeth II . [ 52 ] An RTÉ Prime Time investigation accuses the Garda Síochána , the Republic of Ireland 's police force, of violent abuse of people arrested. Irish Minister of State Dick Roche accuses Gardaí of "torture" of one student beaten up in a Dublin police station, while a former judge accuses police of committing perjury in his courts. The Gardaí deny all allegations. [ 53 ] The United States withdraws a group of 400 weapons inspectors from Iraq after finding nothing of substance. 1400 inspectors remain. [ 54 ] [ 55 ] Occupation of Iraq : Nine United States soldiers are reported killed after a Black Hawk helicopter makes an emergency landing near the central Iraqi town of Falluja. [ 56 ] The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace publishes a report accusing the United States of "systematically misrepresenting" the threat posed by "Iraq's weapons of mass destruction". [ 57 ] [ 58 ] [ 59 ] The New Jersey legislature passes a bill creating a domestic partnership status for same-sex couples, with many of the same legal rights as marriage. It becomes the fifth U.S. state to offer such a status to same-sex couples. [ 60 ] January 9, 2004 ( 2004-01-09 ) (Friday) edit history watch Education in Greece : George Papandreou, junior talks about the possibility to allow private universities in Greece. [ 61 ] (Greek) Turkey fully abolishes the death penalty . [ 62 ] The US lowers the terrorism advisory level to yellow (elevated) from orange (high). [ 63 ] Bangladesh bans books published by the Ahmadiyya movement, an Islamic sect. [ 64 ] Exploration of Mars : Engineers at JPL decide to turn the Mars Spirit Rover around on its lander after it was found the airbags could not be retracted enough to allow it to move off in a forward direction. It is expected the rover will drive off sometime next week. The Rover has also stood up and deployed its front wheels. [ 65 ] [ 6 ] Two volcanoes erupt: the Piton de la Fournaise on Réunion Island, and the Volcán de Fuego near Antigua Guatemala , Guatemala . The eruption in Guatemala is not thought to be serious enough to require evacuations. [ 66 ] In Guatemala City , fifteen people die and twenty are hurt when a public bus collides with a crane. [ 67 ] [ 68 ] Enron Corporation : Former Assistant Treasurer Lea Fastow and wife of Andrew Fastow , failed to respond to a plea agreement by the deadline. The offer would have allowed her to plead guilty in federal court to lesser charges and serve five months in return for her testimony. Her trial for conspiracy to commit wire fraud, money laundering, and tax evasion is scheduled to start February 10. [ 69 ] January 10, 2004 ( 2004-01-10 ) (Saturday) edit history watch Occupation of Iraq : Protests in the city of Amarah because of unemployment occur. Police officers and soldiers open fire on demonstrators. Five or six are killed and one or eleven wounded. [ 70 ] In publicity for a new book for which former U.S. Treasury Secretary Paul O'Neill is the primary source, 60 Minutes reveals O'Neill's claims that the Bush administration was making plans for an invasion of Iraq within days of Bush's inauguration . Bush officials note that regime change in Iraq had been official U.S. policy since 1998, three years before Bush took office. O'Neill, fired for his opposition to tax cuts , also characterized Bush as so disengaged in cabinet meetings that he "was like a blind man in a roomful of deaf people". On the positive side, O'Neill also described Bush as such a good listener that he (O'Neill) was able to give a non-stop monologue for nearly an hour in a one-on-one meeting. [ 71 ] SCO v. IBM : SCO Group claims that it has "low-level talks" with Google about a possible license agreement related to Linux . [ 72 ] Iraq and weapons of mass destruction : On January 9, 2004, Danish troops discovered decade-old mortar rounds containing suspicious liquid buried in Southern Iraq . Initial tests now indicate that the rounds contain the banned chemical weapon blister gas . Final tests should be available in two days. [ 73 ] [ 74 ] A speed boat carrying illegal immigrants from Albania , bound for Italy broke down and capsized. There were 11 survivors, while as many as 21 died due to drowning and exposure. Two have been arrested by Albanian authorities for people smuggling , while other senior officials have been implicated in connection with the tragedy. [ 75 ] [ 76 ] [ 77 ] January 11, 2004 ( 2004-01-11 ) (Sunday) edit history watch Exploration of Mars : NASA 's Spirit rover now has its arm and all six of its wheels free, and only a single cable must be cut before it can turn and roll off its lander onto the soil of Mars. As that milestone is completed, scientists are taking opportunities to take extra pictures and gather other data. [ 78 ] Occupation of Iraq : U.S. military records show that attacks against coalition soldiers have decreased by 22% in the four weeks following the capture of Saddam Hussein . [ 79 ] More protests in Amarah take place. Demonstrators, many of them related to the victims of January 10, requested compensation. No significant violence reported. [ 80 ] January 12, 2004 ( 2004-01-12 ) (Monday) edit history watch The U.S. Patent and Trademark Office announces the ten top United States patent recipients. For the 11th year in a row, IBM tops the list; the next three in the list are headquartered in Japan. Companies from the Netherlands ( Philips ) and Korea ( Samsung ) also make appearances. [ 81 ] The U.S. State Department concludes that the Israeli attack on USS Liberty in 1967, although probably accidental, was an act of gross negligence and that Israel should be held responsible. [ 82 ] [ 83 ] Canadian federal election, 2004 : Stephen Harper announces his entry into the race to lead the new Conservative Party of Canada . Earlier today, Jim Prentice drops out of the leadership contest, citing a lack of funds. [ 84 ] Israeli-Palestinian conflict : Over 100,000 people rally in Tel Aviv to protest Prime Minister Ariel Sharon 's plans to withdraw from parts of Gaza and the West Bank , which would involve abandoning some Israeli settlements in those areas (→ Israeli disengagement from the Gaza Strip ). [ 85 ] The deadline for SCO Group to present evidence "with specificity" in the SCO v. IBM lawsuit expires IBM and Intel Set Up $10m SCO Defense Fund. [ 86 ] Astronauts on board the International Space Station think that a leak in a hose used to stop the fogging of an Earth observation window was causing the slow loss of pressure in the station. Although it would have taken a couple of months for the crew to be in any danger, some equipment on the station was only rated to just below the normal pressure. Although the cause appears to have been located, ground controllers are still getting the crew to close the station into three sections to allow them to get baseline pressure readings and to make sure that there are no more leaks. [ 87 ] Iran 's provincial governors are threatening to resign unless a decision by the conservative Guardian Council is reversed. [ 88 ] Mars Exploration Rover Mission : The Spirit 's air bags that cushioned its landing on Mars have been obstructing the vehicle's path, and this complication has postponed its exit of the launch vehicle until Wednesday or Thursday. [ 89 ] The World Wildlife Fund -UK reports that the orangutan is in danger of becoming extinct within the next 20 years because of commercial logging and clearance for oil palm plantations . [ 90 ] Ayatollah Ali Khamenei , religious leader of Iran , announces that he will not intervene in a growing political confrontation between progressives and hardliners after the Guardian Council, which he controls, barred thousands of candidates from running in upcoming Parliamentary elections (including 80 current members of Parliament). [ 91 ] January 13, 2004 ( 2004-01-13 ) (Tuesday) edit history watch Israeli-Palestinian Conflict : Tom Hurndall , a British peace activist with the International Solidarity Movement , dies after being shot in the head by an Israeli soldier on April 11, 2003. The Israeli government say that they may consider bringing manslaughter charges against the soldier; the man's family claim that he should be tried for murder. [ 92 ] Education in Greece : Debate over the private universities issue and George Papandreou, junior 's suggestions (see 9 January) between New Democracy and PASOK . [ 93 ] (Greek) The Constitutional Court of Italy strikes down a law enacted to give Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi immunity from prosecution while in office. [ 94 ] British serial killer Dr Harold Shipman is found dead in his cell. [ 95 ] The Bichard Inquiry into events preceding the Soham murders formally opens [ 96 ] [ 97 ] Occupation of Iraq : A United States Army] AH-64 Apache attack helicopter is shot down near the central Iraqi town of Habbaniya, but is able to land without casualties. [ 98 ] A Yak-40 airliner en route from Termez in Uzbekistan crashes near the capital Tashkent , killing all 37 crew and passengers, including the U.N. 's top official in the country, Richard Conroy. [ 99 ] Robin Cook says that the British Museum 's Parthenon Marbles must be returned to Greece. [ 100 ] (Greek), [ 101 ] (English), [ 102 ] (Background, English) January 14, 2004 ( 2004-01-14 ) (Wednesday) edit history watch J.P. Morgan Chase strikes a $58 billion merger deal to buy Bank One to create the second-largest bank in the United States. Iraq and weapons of mass destruction : Tests performed by American and Danish military experts indicate no chemical agents are present in the "suspicious" mortar shells discovered in Iraq on January 9. [ 103 ] Self-confessed killer of Swedish FM Anna Lindh , 25-year-old Mijailo Mijailovic , says during cross-examination in a Stockholm court that he heard voices in his head commanding him to attack Lindh when he encountered her in a Stockholm shopping mall 10 September last year. Lindh died the next day from the many stab wounds she received. [ 104 ] Federal Reserve Bank Chairman Alan Greenspan said, "It's just a matter of time before we begin to see employment start to pick up quite significantly, as it always has in the past." Greenspan is also not worried about the fall of the dollar or the half trillion dollar U.S. trade deficit. [ 105 ] Israeli-Palestinian conflict : Reem El-Reyashi, a Palestinian suicide bomber , kills four border guards at the Erez Crossing . She is the first female suicide bomber used by Hamas . Four months before, Israel targeted Hamas leadership, including Ahmed Yassin , as a result Hamas halted all suicide bombing for four months. [ 106 ] Jack Kelley, USA TODAY foreign correspondent and a finalist for a Pulitzer Prize just two years ago, was forced to resign after the newspaper determined he repeatedly misled editors during an internal investigation into stories he wrote. Among the stories that are being investigated is one published September 4, 2001, contains an account of an attack on Palestinians by 13 Jewish settlers in the West Bank. Mark Memmott, the reporter asked to investigate Kelley, said he could not find anyone with first-hand knowledge of the attack. [ 107 ] A secondary school student in the Netherlands kills a teacher in his school cafeteria. [ 108 ] Greek electronic game ban : Greek police raid Internet cafés in Larissa . 80 computers are taken by the police as evidence and three Internet café owners are arrested. [ 109 ] (in Greek). Education in Greece : 114 University professors sign a document against George Papandreou 's positions on private universities and their recognition ( anagnorisi ). [ 110 ] (Greek) Jacques Delors referred to Prime Minister of Greece Costas Simitis , Prime Minister of Luxembourg Jean-Claude Juncker , and former Prime Minister of Belgium Jean Luc Dehaene as the top three candidates for the position of the President of the European Commission . [ 111 ] A 45-year-old Sudanese man travelling from Washington Dulles International Airport to airport Dubai is arrested en route at London's Heathrow Airport on suspicion of carrying five bullets in his coat pocket. [ 112 ] [ 113 ] U.S. President George W. Bush , in a speech at NASA headquarters, announces a plan to develop a new space vehicle to return humans to the Moon by 2015 and proposes the retirement of the Space Shuttle fleet by 2010 along with a $1 billion funding increase for NASA. [ 114 ] Enron Corporation : Former CFO Andrew Fastow and his wife Lea Fastow , former Assistant Treasurer, accept a plea agreement . Andrew Fastow will serve a ten-year prison sentence and forfeit $23.8 million . Lea Fastow will serve a five-month prison sentence and a year of supervised release, including five months of house arrest. Both will provide testimony against other Enron corporate officers. [ 115 ] Turkey and Greece: 22 Turkish military aircraft entered into the Greek Athens FIR . Five of these aircraft were loaded with ammunition. Greek aircraft intercepted them. Source: Athens News Agency and in.gr . [ 116 ] (Greek) January 15, 2004 ( 2004-01-15 ) (Thursday) edit history watch The United Nations sides with the United States on voting in Iraq . Secretary-General Kofi Annan and other UN officials call direct elections in advance of July 2004 impractical, due to continuing disorder in Iraq and other factors. [ 117 ] 30,000 Shiite protesters in Basra call for immediate country-wide elections in Iraq , a move that would give them more power than the UN-backed plan for regional caucuses mandated by the US-led coalition [ 118 ] South Korea's foreign minister Yoon Young-kwan resigns after a controversy in which his ministry was accused of diverging from the government's policy of increased independence from the United States. [ 119 ] The European Union asks the World Trade Organization for authorization to impose trade sanctions against the United States in response to the U.S.'s anti- dumping scheme, which has been ruled illegal by the WTO. [ 120 ] Canadian federal election, 2004 : Former Ontario Health Minister Tony Clement declares his candidacy for the leadership of the Conservative Party of Canada . Also confirmed is the candidacy of auto parts magnate Belinda Stronach , who will announce her entry into the leadership race next week. [ 121 ] Italy has indicted three Germans, all former members of an SS Panzergrenadier Division , on charges of massacring 560 people in 1944 in the Italian village of Sant'Anna di Stazzema . The three Germans, Gerhard Sommer , 83; Alfred Schonenberg , 83; and Ludwig Sonntag , 80, are currently living in Germany. It is not clear whether Italy will request the three men's extradition from Germany. [ 122 ] U.S. presidential election, 2004 : Carol Moseley Braun drops out of the race and endorses Dr. Howard Dean , confirming rumors circulating the night before as she taped an appearance on The Daily Show . [ 123 ] The date for the publication of the Hutton Inquiry 's report into the death of British weapons scientist Dr David Kelly is announced as January 28, 2004. [ 124 ] The creditors of ailing Finnish low-cost carrier Flying Finn have threatened to confiscate the airline's planes. [ 125 ] Exploration of Mars : The Spirit Rover has rolled off its lander to start its exploration. The first journey was only three metres. It took the rover about 78 seconds, ending with the back of the rover being 0.7 metres from the lander. [ 126 ] The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) announces the release of the Composite Capability/Preference Profiles (CC/PP 1.0). W3C's new standard profiling language CC/PP provides a standardized format of the description of information that will allow Web -enabled devices to effectively communicate their capabilities to the desired server and aids in delivering Web content to broad range of devices. Popeye , like The Adventures of Tintin , turns 75 this month. [ 127 ] January 16, 2004 ( 2004-01-16 ) (Friday) edit history watch Chen Shui-bian makes a televised address reiterating the Four Noes and One Without pledge and announcing the two questions for a referendum to coincide with the ROC presidential election, 2004 on March 20. [ 128 ] [ 129 ] U.S. President George W. Bush appoints Charles Pickering to the United States Court of Appeals . His nomination was filibustered in the U.S. Senate , so President Bush made a recess appointment . [ 130 ] Earthquake in Iran : Iran updates the death toll from the Bam earthquake to 41,000 people. The final figure could be as high as 45,000. The People's Republic of China arrests a top Hong Kong official into custody over suspicion of espionage for the United Kingdom. [ 131 ] Nunavut general election, 2004 : Premier Paul Okalik of Nunavut , Canada, requests a dissolution of the territory's legislature and an election call for February 16. [ 132 ] On or around this date, the United States national debt passes US$7 trillion. January 17, 2004 ( 2004-01-17 ) (Saturday) edit history watch Planned NASA servicing missions for the Hubble Space Telescope are cancelled. Safety concerns are cited as the main reason behind the decision. [ 133 ] [ 134 ] Human cloning : Fertility expert Dr. Panos Zavos claims to have successfully transplanted a two-week-old embryo into a 35-year-old woman. He said he had not done the act anywhere where "the spirit of the law" was against such a procedure. [ 135 ] George Papandreou of Greece promised that he will suggest to sign a mutual agreement with Turkey for lowering their defense military expenses. [ 136 ] (Greek). Protesters call for resignation of German Federal Police chief Ulrich Kersten: about 6,000 people demonstrates against moving Germany's Federal Police (BKA) headquarters from Wiesbaden to Berlin. [ 137 ] January 18, 2004 ( 2004-01-18 ) (Sunday) edit history watch Occupation of Iraq : At around 8 am local time ( 5 am GMT) in Baghdad , Iraq , an insurgent suicide bomber driving a car filled with explosives blew himself up while attempting to enter " Assassin's Gate ." Early reports said that about 18 people, including 16 Iraqi civilians and two United States Department of Defense workers were killed, while another 56 Iraqi civilians were wounded. [ 138 ] Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon praises the Israeli ambassador to Sweden, Zvi Mazel , for vandalising the artwork entitled " Snow White and The Madness of Truth " displayed at a Stockholm museum. The piece, created by an Israeli-born composer/musician, consists of a white float carrying a picture of a Palestinian suicide bomber in a pool of blood-coloured water. Mazel was caught on surveillance video disconnecting the electric power from the display and throwing a lamp into the water. Mazel says, "This exhibit was the culmination of dozens of anti-Israel and anti-Jewish events in Sweden." [ 139 ] January 19, 2004 ( 2004-01-19 ) (Monday) edit history watch Cargo ship MS Rocknes with a crew of 30 including the pilot capsizes near Bergen , Norway at 1630 local time (1530 UTC ). Two people are reported dead and 24 still missing the morning after the accident. The ship was carrying a heavy load of rocks for use as shielding on top of a gas pipeline to Emden , Germany, from the Norwegian Ormen Lange offshore gas field. [ 140 ] The English Court of Appeal calls for an end to the prosecution of parents whose babies may have died of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (cot death) in cases where the only evidence is contended expert testimony. [ 141 ] The European Space Agency releases detailed colour images of the surface of Mars , taken by its orbiting Mars Express probe. [ 142 ] NASA 's Spirit rover arrives at its initial destination, a rock named " Adirondack ", and prepares for analysis. [ 143 ] [ 144 ] U.S. presidential election, 2004 : The Iowa caucuses yield unexpectedly strong results for Democratic candidates John Kerry , who earns 38% of the state's delegates and John Edwards , who takes 32%. Former front-runner Howard Dean slips to 18%, and Richard A. "Dick" Gephardt 's fourth-place (11%) finish [ 145 ] [ 146 ] prompts him to end his presidential bid. [ 147 ] Yigal Amir , assassin of Yitzhak Rabin , plans to marry. [ 148 ] " Snow White and The Madness of Truth " displayed at a Stockholm museum is again vandalized. A Russian-Jewish artist floats another image in the pool, that of Mijailo Mijailovic , the murderer of Swedish foreign minister Anna Lindh . [ 149 ] José María Aznar 's government in Spain is dissolved prior to March general elections. He has said he will not run for a third term of office. [ 150 ] January 20, 2004 ( 2004-01-20 ) (Tuesday) edit history watch 2004 Canadian Federal Election : Belinda Stronach officially announces her run for leadership of the Conservative Party of Canada . [18] Martha Stewart pleads not guilty to five criminal counts that include conspiracy, obstruction of justice and securities fraud stemming from a sale of ImClone stock in 2001 . Conviction on any of the charges against her could put Ms. Stewart in federal prison. The five counts carry a total prison term of 30 years and a $1.25 million fine. [19] Colonel Rashid Abu Shbak of the Palestinian Authority , said that information was still coming in and the investigating team had been upgraded, but he had no new leads on who was behind the bombing attack of an American diplomatic convoy on October 15 , 2002 . Three people died in the attack. U.S. officials have been stopped from going to Gaza since the attack. No decision has been made yet on when they might be allowed to return. Col. Shbak blamed Israel for the lack of progress in the investigation. [20] Archived 2005-04-08 at the Wayback Machine January 21, 2004 ( 2004-01-21 ) (Wednesday) edit history watch The International Olympic Committee urges Athens to continue working round-the-clock for the 2004 Summer Olympics . The deadline is for August 13. [ 151 ] Norwegian Crown Prince Haakon Magnus 's wife Crown Princess Mette-Marit gives birth to a daughter, at 0913 local time (0813 UTC), at Rikshospitalet University Hospital in Oslo . The newborn princess, named Ingrid Alexandra , weighs in at 3,686 grams and is 51 cm tall. She is second in succession to the Norwegian throne. [ 152 ] [ 153 ] The latest World Economic Forum event opens in Davos , Switzerland, with a keynote address by Iranian President Mohammad Khatami . The Royal Canadian Mounted Police raid the residence of Ottawa Citizen reporter Juliet O'Neill for the purposes of searching for evidence of leaked information in the Maher Arar deportation scandal . It was widely denounced by media groups and civil libertarians January 22, 2004 ( 2004-01-22 ) (Thursday) edit history watch Mars Exploration Rover Mission : MER-A Spirit rover stops transmitting meaningful data and has thought to have gone into safe mode . The cause of this is unknown but the rover is still able to send back a simple acknowledgement tone. [ 154 ] Staff members of the United States Republican Party are accused of infiltrating Democratic Party computers and making copies of confidential files stored on the compromised computers. The infiltrations reportedly began in early 2002. [ 155 ] Maher Arar sues the United States government for having deported him to Syria and not Canada, his country of citizenship. He was reportedly tortured in Syria. [ 156 ] Enron Corporation : Richard Causey , former chief accounting officer was indicted in Houston, Texas , on federal charges of securities fraud and conspiracy for his role in masking Enron's faltering fiscal health in late 2001. He has pled not guilty. [ 157 ] Zimbabwe 's only independent daily newspaper resumes publishing. [ 158 ] January 23, 2004 ( 2004-01-23 ) (Friday) edit history watch David Kay steps down from Iraq Survey Group . George Tenet names former UN weapons inspector Charles Duelfer to succeed Kay. [ 159 ] The International Monetary Fund has joined the World Bank in forgiving US$4 billion of the $6.5bn debt owed by Nicaragua , sharply reducing the nation's overall debt payments. [ 160 ] The European Space Agency 's Mars Express orbiter directly detects water ice in the southern polar region of the planet Mars . [ 161 ] [ 162 ] NASA 's Spirit rover communicated with Earth in a signal detected by NASA's Deep Space Network antenna complex near Madrid, Spain , at 12:34 Universal Time ( 4:34 am PST) this morning. The transmissions came during a communication window about 90 minutes after Spirit woke up for the morning on Mars. The signal lasted for 10 minutes at a data rate of 10 bits per second. Mission controllers at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California, plan to send commands to Spirit seeking additional data from the spacecraft during the subsequent few hours. [ 163 ] The flight team for NASA's Spirit received data from the rover in another communication session that began at 13:26 Universal Time ( 5:26 am PST) and lasted 20 minutes at a data rate of 120 bits per second. [ 164 ] A Thai man suspected of having bird flu died, according to the Public Health Ministry. [ 165 ] At least 51 people, including a bridegroom , were killed on Friday when a fire ripped through a makeshift wedding hall in the southern Indian state of Tamil Nadu during a marriage ceremony. [ 166 ] An explosion has killed two people at Zhengzhou railway station, one of the People's Republic of China's biggest transport hubs. [ 167 ] January 24, 2004 ( 2004-01-24 ) (Saturday) edit history watch Mars Exploration Rover Mission NASA isolates the flash memory aboard Spirit as the most probable cause of communications problems; work continues on a method to operate the rover without it. [ 168 ] MER-B Opportunity successfully lands on Mars and continues communications through all stages. January 25, 2004 ( 2004-01-25 ) (Sunday) edit history watch Georgia 's new president, Mikhail Saakashvili , is sworn in. [ 169 ] Chess player Viswanathan Anand wins in group A of the Corus chess tournament . Thirteen-year-old Norwegian prodigy, Magnus Carlsen , wins in group C. [ 170 ] David Kay says, in his opinion, Iraq had no banned WMD stockpiles: "I don't think they existed", Kay said, "What everyone was talking about is stockpiles produced after the end of the last (1991) Gulf War , and I don't think there was a large-scale production program in the '90s." [ 171 ] David Kay also says that part of Saddam Hussein 's secret weapons programme may have been hidden in Syria . [ 172 ] [ 173 ] Syria denies receiving Iraq arms. [ 174 ] Indonesia announces that millions of birds have died from avian influenza in the last few months. [ 175 ] Golden Globe Awards : Major winners include The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King , Lost in Translation , and Angels in America . Hungarian footballer Miklós Fehér dies in a match between Benfica and Vitória Guimarães in Portugal. Benfica will subsequently retire his number 29 shirt. January 26, 2004 ( 2004-01-26 ) (Monday) edit history watch President Hamid Karzai signs into law the new constitution of Afghanistan . [ 176 ] Avian influenza has now been detected in a total of nine countries, with Pakistan and Laos as the latest additions. Pakistan has detected less dangerous strains H7 and H9. A six-year-old Thai boy became the seventh victim in Asia, with another ten suspected cases in the country. Around 19 million chickens have been slaughtered as a result of fighting the spread of the flu. The World Health Organisation expresses concern about a serious human outbreak. (WHO) [ 177 ] [ 178 ] [ 179 ] In Fellers v. United States , the United States Supreme Court unanimously reaffirms the Miranda Warning . [ 180 ] A federal judge in Los Angeles, California , declares a portion of the USA Patriot Act , banning "expert advice and assistance" to suspected foreign terrorist groups, to be unconstitutional . [ 181 ] The House of Representatives of Connecticut votes unanimously to investigate the dealings of Governor John G. Rowland , a step which might lead to impeachment proceedings. Rowland is accused of using state contractors for his personal gain. [ 182 ] The US Energy Department 's Inspector General releases a report stating that guards at the Y-12 enriched uranium storage facility in Oak Ridge, Tennessee , have been cheating on security drills, possibly for 20 years. [ 183 ] [ 184 ] Top Hamas official Abdel-Aziz al-Rantissi offered a 10-year truce if Israel would withdraw from territory occupied since 1967 and acknowledge the creation of a Palestinian state. Israel dismissed the peace offer as "ridiculous". [ 185 ] January 27, 2004 ( 2004-01-27 ) (Tuesday) edit history watch The People's Republic of China announces an outbreak of the deadly H5N1 strain of avian influenza in the autonomous region of Guangxi , becoming the 10th country in Asia to do so. [ 186 ] There are suspected cases in Hunan and Hubei provinces. [ 187 ] [ 188 ] British Prime Minister Tony Blair narrowly defeats a rebellion in his own party over the Higher Education Bill – a highly controversial bill to reform higher education funding, including the introduction of increased and variable tuition fees. It is approved in the House of Commons by 316 votes to 311. [ 189 ] [ 190 ] U.S. presidential election, 2004 : Senator John Kerry wins the New Hampshire primary . Howard Dean comes second. Academy Awards : nominations announced, leading films are The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (11), Master and Commander (10), Seabiscuit (7), Mystic River (6), and Cold Mountain (6). Keisha Castle-Hughes , at 13, becomes the youngest nominee ever for the Academy Award for Best Actress A new e-mail worm , Novarg/Mydoom , is spreading rapidly to thousands of machines running Microsoft Windows . It rapidly becomes the fastest-spreading e-mail worm to date. [ 191 ] [ 192 ] [ 193 ] [ 194 ] [ 195 ] [ 196 ] January 28, 2004 ( 2004-01-28 ) (Wednesday) edit history watch Milan Babic , the former leader of the breakaway Republic of Serbian Krajina (now re-incorporated into Croatia ), pleads guilty to crimes against humanity at the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia . David Kay testifies before a United States Senate committee stating that evidence of weapons of mass destruction was based on inaccurate intelligence . "I believe that the effort that has been directed to this point has been sufficiently intense that it is highly unlikely that there were large stockpiles of deployed, militarized chemical weapons there" and, even if Iraq did not have weapons stockpiles, this does not mean that nation was not dangerous. Kay urges for an inquiry into the intelligence failure and states that the United States needed better intelligence. [ 197 ] [ 198 ] [ 199 ] [ 200 ] The Hutton Inquiry report is released, stating the suicide of Iraqi weapons expert David Kelly did not involve "dishonourable conduct" on the part of the United Kingdom's government and exonerates Prime Minister Tony Blair of any wrongdoing in Kelly's death. The BBC receives harsh criticism for the allegations within Andrew Gilligan 's report on weapons of mass destruction and the BBC's subsequent backing of the report. Gavyn Davies takes full responsibility for any wrongdoing and resigns as the Chairman of the Board of Governors of the BBC. [ 201 ] [ 202 ] [ 203 ] [ 204 ] The discovery of a new form of matter, Fermionic condensate , has been announced. [ 205 ] The World Wide Web Consortium releases Document Object Model Level 3 Validation as a W3C Recommendation . [ 206 ] San Jose, California , mayor Ron Gonzales suffers a mild stroke while giving the State of the City address. The mayor is expected to make a full recovery. A rare artefact from the 1800s used against witchcraft is found in the United Kingdom. Now displayed in a museum. [ 207 ] January 29, 2004 ( 2004-01-29 ) (Thursday) edit history watch A 60-ton sperm whale carcass explodes in downtown Tainan , Taiwan , causing traffic delays and showering vehicles and pedestrians with blood and entrails. [ 208 ] A report submitted today to the State of Maryland states that the electronic voting machines made by Diebold Election Systems "have such poor computer security and physical security that an election could be disrupted or even stolen by corrupt insiders or determined outsiders". The machines have been purchased by a number of states in the United States. [ 209 ] This is the third report to state that the machines do not meet the security requirements of an election. Previous reports are available online. [ 210 ] [ 211 ] Hutton Inquiry : The BBC Director-General, Greg Dyke , resigns in the continuing fall-out from the report. Mr Dyke is the second high-ranking BBC official to resign. Mark Byford is appointed Acting Director-General. [ 212 ] The UK media in general condemns the report as a whitewash. [ 213 ] The Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades of Fatah claim responsibility for a suicide bombing aboard a city bus, in which Ali Yusuf Jaara , a member of the Palestinian police force, kills 10 Israelis and wounds more than 50, outside the Prime Minister's residence in Jerusalem . Simultaneously with the bombing, Shaul Mofaz , Israeli Defense Minister, is meeting with American envoys Wolfe and Sauterfield, who have requested an easing-up of conditions for the Palestinians. The explosion also coincides with a German-brokered prisoner swap between Israel and the Lebanese guerrilla group Hezbollah . [ 214 ] [ 215 ] [ 216 ] January 30, 2004 ( 2004-01-30 ) (Friday) edit history watch Hutton Inquiry : Reporter Andrew Gilligan resigns from the BBC in the continuing fallout of the publication of Lord Hutton's report into the circumstances of the death of Dr David Kelly . This follows the earlier resignation of the Director-General Greg Dyke and chairman of the Board of Governors Gavyn Davies . [ 217 ] [ 218 ] Former French Prime Minister and current Mayor of Bordeaux Alain Juppé is convicted of a party funding scam in the 1980s and early 1990s, and is given an 18-month suspended jail sentence and disqualified from elected office for 10 years, although he retains his mayoralty pending his appeal. He had been viewed as Jacques Chirac 's likely successor in the 2007 Presidential election . [ 219 ] Muslims begin the annual Hajj today amid fears of a possible attack by Saudi-born Osama bin Laden 's al Qaeda network. [ 220 ] Sheik Ahmed Yassin , leader of Hamas , announces that his group is making an all-out effort to kidnap Israeli soldiers to use as bargaining chips for Palestinians in Israeli prisons, following the prisoner exchange between Israel and Hezbollah in which the remains of three Israeli soldiers and a businessman were exchanged for over 400 prisoners on January 29, 2004. [ 221 ] Self-confessed German cannibal Armin Meiwes is sentenced to eight years and six months' imprisonment for manslaughter . [ 222 ] The prosecution had sought a life sentence for murder. David Bradley , creator of the famous " Ctrl-Alt-Del " keystroke combination, retires from IBM . [ 223 ] January 31, 2004 ( 2004-01-31 ) (Saturday) edit history watch The United States defense budget is set to exceed US$400 billion next year—an almost 7% increase—according to budget proposals inadvertently posted on the Pentagon 's website. [ 224 ] [ 225 ] The People's Republic of China puts poultry export bans on three more areas after a World Health Organization warning that the chance of controlling the Avian flu outbreak is slipping. [ 226 ] A new SARS case is confirmed in Guangdong province. [ 227 ] British Airways and Air France cancel five upcoming US flights to Washington, D.C. and Miami, Florida amid fears of targeting by Al-Qaida . [ 228 ] [ 229 ] [ 230 ] The Svalbard Undersea Cable System is officially put into operation, giving the island group at 78° North a 40 Gb connection to the Norwegian mainland. The dual 1,440 km fiber optic lines from Svalbard to Harstad is needed for communicating with polar orbiting satellite stations on Svalbard, some owned by NASA and NOAA . [ 231 ] [ 232 ] Copper prices rise to a 6-year high in New York as 441 unionised workers strike at BHP Billiton 's Cerro Colorado mine in northern Chile after pay negotiations fail. [ 233 ] edit history watch Montréal/Dorval International Airport is renamed Montréal/Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport . MySpace has its official launch. A British Airways flight from London to Washington, D.C. is canceled one day after the same flight is delayed for three hours on the tarmac at Dulles International Airport for security screening. (Yahoo) State papers released under Britain's Thirty Year Rule suggest that the United States considered using force to seize oil fields in the Middle East during an oil embargo by Arab states in 1973. (BBC) State papers also released reveal that, contrary to what was believed at the time, Princess Margaret of the United Kingdom would not have lost her title and Civil List payments if she had married Group Captain Peter Townsend , a divorced War hero in the 1950s. (BBC) (Sky News) Comparing planned United States finger-printing and photographic security controls on travelers from Brazil and other nations to Nazi actions, a Brazilian judge orders the fingerprinting of all arriving United States citizens in response. (Yahoo) Haiti 's bicentennial celebrations erupt in violence. (Jamaica Observer) The Republic of Ireland takes over the presidency of the European Union , succeeding Italy, whose presidency is widely criticised as having been a failure due to the collapse of efforts to adopt a European constitution. (RTE News) Ireland's Roman Catholic and Protestant Boy Scouts organisations merge after nearly a century of division, in spite of efforts by the Roman Catholic bishops to block the merger. No leap second is added this year. This is the fifth year in a row without a leap-second after 28 years of adding leap-seconds to compensate for the slowing of the Earth's rotation. (CNN) edit history watch South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation , composed of foreign ministers from seven south Asian countries ( Pakistan , India, Bangladesh , Sri Lanka , Nepal , Maldives and Bhutan ) meeting in Islamabad agree to create the South Asian Free Trade Area (SAFTA) by 2006. (NDTV) U.S. Representative Ralph Hall from Texas files for reelection and switches parties from Democrat to Republican . (SFGate) It appears that Stardust has successfully flown past Comet Wild 2 collecting samples that it will return to Earth in two years time. This is the first sample return mission to a comet and the first time that samples have returned to Earth from any celestial body since 1974. The spacecraft also took detailed images of the comet's icy nucleus. (Stardust) (Space Flight Now) (Space.com) edit history watch A Boeing 737 , Flight 604 , flown by Egyptian charter company Flash Airlines headed for Cairo crashes into the Red Sea minutes after take-off from the holiday resort of Sharm el-Sheikh in Egypt. All 148 people on board are killed, of whom more than 120 were French tourists. Though both United Kingdom Prime Minister Tony Blair and Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak were in the area, neither were involved in the incident, contrary to initial reports. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] The BBC cancels the appearance of Coca-Cola sponsorship credits in the music charts in its BBC One Top of the Pops show, after criticism from politicians and health campaigners that it would be promoting junk food and unhealthy drink products to teenagers. [ 4 ] Ricardo Palmera, better known as Simon Trinidad , one of top seven Colombian rebel group, FARC (Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia) is arrested in Ecuador . [ 5 ] Exploration of Mars : The first of the Mars Exploration Rovers , Spirit, has successfully landed on the Martian surface with a "very strong signal" being received from the lander. It was a tense few minutes as no signal was received from the lander during the minutes while it bounced over the surface. Mission Control is described as being a wild place with the mission scientists very happy. The first pictures are expected at the earliest around 0730 UTC [ 6 ] [ 7 ] [ 8 ] [ 9 ] The People's Republic of China's fifth-largest brokerage is seized by China Securities Regulatory Commission and local authorities for "illegal and irregular management operations and disorderly management." The unusual move to clamp down on China Southern Securities is a high-profile attempt to stem corruption. [ 10 ] [ 11 ] edit history watch The Loya jirga adopts a new Constitution of Afghanistan [ 12 ] A military court in Israel sentences five Israelis to one year in jail for refusing to serve in the military because of Israel's occupation of the West Bank and Gaza Strip . [ 13 ] (Compare conscientious objector ) Exploration of Mars : American Mars probe " Spirit " mission is successful and is sending back images. Spirit is alive after rolling to a stop on the surface of Mars; confirmed by NASA 's Deep Space Network ( 9:00 p.m. PST). [ 14 ] Mikhail Saakashvili becomes president-elect of Georgia , following the Presidential elections . He had been widely expected to win following the November 23, 2003, ousting of President Eduard Shevardnadze . [ 15 ] Bolivian Gas War : In a televised speech, Bolivian President Carlos Mesa announces that a national referendum will be held on 28 March to resolve the issue of how Bolivia's large natural gas reserves will be exploited. [ 16 ] Britney Spears abruptly marries a childhood friend, Jason Allen Alexander , in a Las Vegas wedding chapel at 5:30 a.m. ; by afternoon, the couple have arranged an annulment, which is expected to be made official when the courts reopen on Monday. [ 17 ] edit history watch A British and a German Member of the European Parliament both receive letter bombs in the post. This follows an earlier letter bomb sent to the President of the European Commission , Romano Prodi . [ 18 ] Ulster Unionist Party defector Jeffrey Donaldson and two other MLAs join Rev. Ian Paisley 's Democratic Unionist Party , pushing the DUP's numbers in the Northern Ireland Assembly to 33. [ 19 ] Jaap de Hoop Scheffer of the Netherlands became the new Secretary General of NATO , replacing Britain's Lord Robertson . [ 20 ] The United States begins tracking foreign arrivals according to the new United States Visitor and Immigrant Status Indicator Technology (US-VISIT) program. [ 21 ] Pakistan President Pervez Musharraf and Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee meet face-to-face to discuss improving relations between their two countries. [ 22 ] South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), which comprises India, Pakistan , Sri Lanka , Nepal , Bangladesh , Bhutan and the Maldives , signs the South Asia Free Trade Agreement , a draft agreement to eliminate tariffs by 2016. [ 23 ] Norwegian prosecutors announce that they have abandoned their attempts to prosecute Jon Johansen for his release of the DeCSS DVD decryption software. [ 24 ] Panhellenic Socialist Movement , the ruling political party of Greece, is about to change leadership. The official report is expected to be published on January 7, 2004. It is expected by many that the new leader will be George Papandreou, junior . See [ 25 ] and [ 26 ] (Greek) A potential local root vulnerability [ 27 ] has been found in Linux 2.2, 2.4, and 2.6, and Linux Kernel developers have corrected the issue in 2.4 and 2.6; distributors are expected to offer the patches soon, for the benefit of those users who do not compile their own kernels. Chris Moyles presented The Chris Moyles Show on BBC Radio 1 in the Breakfast Show slot for the first time. The show subsequently went on to become the longest running incarnation of the Radio 1 Breakfast slot, with Moyles holding the position until September 2012. edit history watch The man charged for the murder of Sweden's FM Anna Lindh on September 10, Mijailo Mijailovic , through his defence lawyer requests an interrogation to give critical details on the stabbing. Seemingly Mijailovic thereby confesses the assault. The Daily Mirror , a British tabloid, publishes the blacked out portion of a letter wherein Diana, Princess of Wales alleged that someone was trying to kill her. The relevant portion reads: "[M]y husband is planning 'an accident' in my car, brake failure & serious head injury in order to make the path clear for him to marry." The part "my husband" (referring to Charles, Prince of Wales ) had been previously blacked out, and the word "him" replaced with "Charles" in transcripts of the letter released by Diana's butler, Paul Burrell . [ 28 ] The revelation comes on the same day the inquest into the death of Diana and her lover Dodi Al-Fayed is officially opened. [ 29 ] Pakistan is cited as the source of nuclear weapon technology supplied to Libya , Iran and North Korea . The components intercepted at sea by Italy en route to Libya were fabricated in Malaysia . There is no evidence that the Pakistani government of President Pervez Musharraf knew about the transfer of technology of Libya. [ 30 ] [ 31 ] Pakistan and India have agreed to a new round of talks to settle the Kashmir dispute. The talks will begin in February 2004. [ 31 ] Exploration of Mars : The first color images have been released from the Spirit rover on Mars . They are the highest resolution images ever taken on the surface of another planet. It has also been announced by NASA that they plan to name the rover's landing site on Mars "Columbia Memorial Station" in honor of the crew of STS-107 . [ 32 ] [ 33 ] [ 34 ] [ 35 ] edit history watch In the United States, the Bush administration proposes a major reform of immigration law, creating a temporary worker program and giving legal status to both illegal and foreign workers for renewable three-year periods. [ 36 ] [ 37 ] The Supreme Court of Indonesia upholds the death sentence handed down to Bali bomber Amrozi . The 12 October 2002 attacks killed 202 mainly holiday makers on the resort island of Bali . [ 38 ] July 1073437329581.html [ permanent dead link ] Costas Simitis , the prime minister of Greece and president of the ruling PASOK , after informing the country's president Costis Stephanopoulos , announced his resignation. At the same time he announced national elections for March 7, 2004, when PASOK will have a new president, expected to be George Papandreou . PASOK will be challenged by the New Democracy opposition led by Kostas Karamanlis . See, [ 39 ] [ 40 ] [ 41 ] [ 42 ] (Greek) and, [ 43 ] [ 44 ] [ 45 ] [ 46 ] [ 47 ] (English). Exploration of Mars : Mars Express failed to hear any signal from the Beagle 2 spacecraft during its first pass over the landing site. This is major blow, but scientists have once again not given up all hope. They will attempt again tomorrow using a different communication mode. The Beagle 2 mission manager, Colin Pillinger , set February 7 as the day to abandon contact efforts. By that time Beagle 2 would have switched into an autotransmit mode after having not received any signal for over a month if it was still alive. [ 48 ] A report from the International Monetary Fund expresses alarm regarding mounting budget deficits in the United States due to recession, tax cuts, and spending for the war on terrorism. The report says that the unprecedented level of external debt incurred poses "significant risks" not just for the United States but for the rest of the world. However, many outside economists note that other countries are also running large deficits and that underlying economic conditions in the U.S. are still robust. [ 49 ] [ 50 ] U.S.-led occupation of Iraq : Mortar attacks by Anti-American insurgents wound 35 U.S. soldiers at a military camp west of Baghdad . Six mortar rounds exploded around 6:45 p.m. local time. [ 51 ] edit history watch The Queen Mary 2 is christened by Queen Elizabeth II . [ 52 ] An RTÉ Prime Time investigation accuses the Garda Síochána , the Republic of Ireland 's police force, of violent abuse of people arrested. Irish Minister of State Dick Roche accuses Gardaí of "torture" of one student beaten up in a Dublin police station, while a former judge accuses police of committing perjury in his courts. The Gardaí deny all allegations. [ 53 ] The United States withdraws a group of 400 weapons inspectors from Iraq after finding nothing of substance. 1400 inspectors remain. [ 54 ] [ 55 ] Occupation of Iraq : Nine United States soldiers are reported killed after a Black Hawk helicopter makes an emergency landing near the central Iraqi town of Falluja. [ 56 ] The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace publishes a report accusing the United States of "systematically misrepresenting" the threat posed by "Iraq's weapons of mass destruction". [ 57 ] [ 58 ] [ 59 ] The New Jersey legislature passes a bill creating a domestic partnership status for same-sex couples, with many of the same legal rights as marriage. It becomes the fifth U.S. state to offer such a status to same-sex couples. [ 60 ] edit history watch Education in Greece : George Papandreou, junior talks about the possibility to allow private universities in Greece. [ 61 ] (Greek) Turkey fully abolishes the death penalty . [ 62 ] The US lowers the terrorism advisory level to yellow (elevated) from orange (high). [ 63 ] Bangladesh bans books published by the Ahmadiyya movement, an Islamic sect. [ 64 ] Exploration of Mars : Engineers at JPL decide to turn the Mars Spirit Rover around on its lander after it was found the airbags could not be retracted enough to allow it to move off in a forward direction. It is expected the rover will drive off sometime next week. The Rover has also stood up and deployed its front wheels. [ 65 ] [ 6 ] Two volcanoes erupt: the Piton de la Fournaise on Réunion Island, and the Volcán de Fuego near Antigua Guatemala , Guatemala . The eruption in Guatemala is not thought to be serious enough to require evacuations. [ 66 ] In Guatemala City , fifteen people die and twenty are hurt when a public bus collides with a crane. [ 67 ] [ 68 ] Enron Corporation : Former Assistant Treasurer Lea Fastow and wife of Andrew Fastow , failed to respond to a plea agreement by the deadline. The offer would have allowed her to plead guilty in federal court to lesser charges and serve five months in return for her testimony. Her trial for conspiracy to commit wire fraud, money laundering, and tax evasion is scheduled to start February 10. [ 69 ] edit history watch Occupation of Iraq : Protests in the city of Amarah because of unemployment occur. Police officers and soldiers open fire on demonstrators. Five or six are killed and one or eleven wounded. [ 70 ] In publicity for a new book for which former U.S. Treasury Secretary Paul O'Neill is the primary source, 60 Minutes reveals O'Neill's claims that the Bush administration was making plans for an invasion of Iraq within days of Bush's inauguration . Bush officials note that regime change in Iraq had been official U.S. policy since 1998, three years before Bush took office. O'Neill, fired for his opposition to tax cuts , also characterized Bush as so disengaged in cabinet meetings that he "was like a blind man in a roomful of deaf people". On the positive side, O'Neill also described Bush as such a good listener that he (O'Neill) was able to give a non-stop monologue for nearly an hour in a one-on-one meeting. [ 71 ] SCO v. IBM : SCO Group claims that it has "low-level talks" with Google about a possible license agreement related to Linux . [ 72 ] Iraq and weapons of mass destruction : On January 9, 2004, Danish troops discovered decade-old mortar rounds containing suspicious liquid buried in Southern Iraq . Initial tests now indicate that the rounds contain the banned chemical weapon blister gas . Final tests should be available in two days. [ 73 ] [ 74 ] A speed boat carrying illegal immigrants from Albania , bound for Italy broke down and capsized. There were 11 survivors, while as many as 21 died due to drowning and exposure. Two have been arrested by Albanian authorities for people smuggling , while other senior officials have been implicated in connection with the tragedy. [ 75 ] [ 76 ] [ 77 ] edit history watch Exploration of Mars : NASA 's Spirit rover now has its arm and all six of its wheels free, and only a single cable must be cut before it can turn and roll off its lander onto the soil of Mars. As that milestone is completed, scientists are taking opportunities to take extra pictures and gather other data. [ 78 ] Occupation of Iraq : U.S. military records show that attacks against coalition soldiers have decreased by 22% in the four weeks following the capture of Saddam Hussein . [ 79 ] More protests in Amarah take place. Demonstrators, many of them related to the victims of January 10, requested compensation. No significant violence reported. [ 80 ] U.S. military records show that attacks against coalition soldiers have decreased by 22% in the four weeks following the capture of Saddam Hussein . [ 79 ] More protests in Amarah take place. Demonstrators, many of them related to the victims of January 10, requested compensation. No significant violence reported. [ 80 ] edit history watch The U.S. Patent and Trademark Office announces the ten top United States patent recipients. For the 11th year in a row, IBM tops the list; the next three in the list are headquartered in Japan. Companies from the Netherlands ( Philips ) and Korea ( Samsung ) also make appearances. [ 81 ] The U.S. State Department concludes that the Israeli attack on USS Liberty in 1967, although probably accidental, was an act of gross negligence and that Israel should be held responsible. [ 82 ] [ 83 ] Canadian federal election, 2004 : Stephen Harper announces his entry into the race to lead the new Conservative Party of Canada . Earlier today, Jim Prentice drops out of the leadership contest, citing a lack of funds. [ 84 ] Israeli-Palestinian conflict : Over 100,000 people rally in Tel Aviv to protest Prime Minister Ariel Sharon 's plans to withdraw from parts of Gaza and the West Bank , which would involve abandoning some Israeli settlements in those areas (→ Israeli disengagement from the Gaza Strip ). [ 85 ] The deadline for SCO Group to present evidence "with specificity" in the SCO v. IBM lawsuit expires IBM and Intel Set Up $10m SCO Defense Fund. [ 86 ] Astronauts on board the International Space Station think that a leak in a hose used to stop the fogging of an Earth observation window was causing the slow loss of pressure in the station. Although it would have taken a couple of months for the crew to be in any danger, some equipment on the station was only rated to just below the normal pressure. Although the cause appears to have been located, ground controllers are still getting the crew to close the station into three sections to allow them to get baseline pressure readings and to make sure that there are no more leaks. [ 87 ] Iran 's provincial governors are threatening to resign unless a decision by the conservative Guardian Council is reversed. [ 88 ] Mars Exploration Rover Mission : The Spirit 's air bags that cushioned its landing on Mars have been obstructing the vehicle's path, and this complication has postponed its exit of the launch vehicle until Wednesday or Thursday. [ 89 ] The World Wildlife Fund -UK reports that the orangutan is in danger of becoming extinct within the next 20 years because of commercial logging and clearance for oil palm plantations . [ 90 ] Ayatollah Ali Khamenei , religious leader of Iran , announces that he will not intervene in a growing political confrontation between progressives and hardliners after the Guardian Council, which he controls, barred thousands of candidates from running in upcoming Parliamentary elections (including 80 current members of Parliament). [ 91 ] edit history watch Israeli-Palestinian Conflict : Tom Hurndall , a British peace activist with the International Solidarity Movement , dies after being shot in the head by an Israeli soldier on April 11, 2003. The Israeli government say that they may consider bringing manslaughter charges against the soldier; the man's family claim that he should be tried for murder. [ 92 ] Education in Greece : Debate over the private universities issue and George Papandreou, junior 's suggestions (see 9 January) between New Democracy and PASOK . [ 93 ] (Greek) The Constitutional Court of Italy strikes down a law enacted to give Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi immunity from prosecution while in office. [ 94 ] British serial killer Dr Harold Shipman is found dead in his cell. [ 95 ] The Bichard Inquiry into events preceding the Soham murders formally opens [ 96 ] [ 97 ] Occupation of Iraq : A United States Army] AH-64 Apache attack helicopter is shot down near the central Iraqi town of Habbaniya, but is able to land without casualties. [ 98 ] A Yak-40 airliner en route from Termez in Uzbekistan crashes near the capital Tashkent , killing all 37 crew and passengers, including the U.N. 's top official in the country, Richard Conroy. [ 99 ] Robin Cook says that the British Museum 's Parthenon Marbles must be returned to Greece. [ 100 ] (Greek), [ 101 ] (English), [ 102 ] (Background, English) edit history watch J.P. Morgan Chase strikes a $58 billion merger deal to buy Bank One to create the second-largest bank in the United States. Iraq and weapons of mass destruction : Tests performed by American and Danish military experts indicate no chemical agents are present in the "suspicious" mortar shells discovered in Iraq on January 9. [ 103 ] Self-confessed killer of Swedish FM Anna Lindh , 25-year-old Mijailo Mijailovic , says during cross-examination in a Stockholm court that he heard voices in his head commanding him to attack Lindh when he encountered her in a Stockholm shopping mall 10 September last year. Lindh died the next day from the many stab wounds she received. [ 104 ] Federal Reserve Bank Chairman Alan Greenspan said, "It's just a matter of time before we begin to see employment start to pick up quite significantly, as it always has in the past." Greenspan is also not worried about the fall of the dollar or the half trillion dollar U.S. trade deficit. [ 105 ] Israeli-Palestinian conflict : Reem El-Reyashi, a Palestinian suicide bomber , kills four border guards at the Erez Crossing . She is the first female suicide bomber used by Hamas . Four months before, Israel targeted Hamas leadership, including Ahmed Yassin , as a result Hamas halted all suicide bombing for four months. [ 106 ] Jack Kelley, USA TODAY foreign correspondent and a finalist for a Pulitzer Prize just two years ago, was forced to resign after the newspaper determined he repeatedly misled editors during an internal investigation into stories he wrote. Among the stories that are being investigated is one published September 4, 2001, contains an account of an attack on Palestinians by 13 Jewish settlers in the West Bank. Mark Memmott, the reporter asked to investigate Kelley, said he could not find anyone with first-hand knowledge of the attack. [ 107 ] Reem El-Reyashi, a Palestinian suicide bomber , kills four border guards at the Erez Crossing . She is the first female suicide bomber used by Hamas . Four months before, Israel targeted Hamas leadership, including Ahmed Yassin , as a result Hamas halted all suicide bombing for four months. [ 106 ] Jack Kelley, USA TODAY foreign correspondent and a finalist for a Pulitzer Prize just two years ago, was forced to resign after the newspaper determined he repeatedly misled editors during an internal investigation into stories he wrote. Among the stories that are being investigated is one published September 4, 2001, contains an account of an attack on Palestinians by 13 Jewish settlers in the West Bank. Mark Memmott, the reporter asked to investigate Kelley, said he could not find anyone with first-hand knowledge of the attack. [ 107 ] A secondary school student in the Netherlands kills a teacher in his school cafeteria. [ 108 ] Greek electronic game ban : Greek police raid Internet cafés in Larissa . 80 computers are taken by the police as evidence and three Internet café owners are arrested. [ 109 ] (in Greek). Education in Greece : 114 University professors sign a document against George Papandreou 's positions on private universities and their recognition ( anagnorisi ). [ 110 ] (Greek) Jacques Delors referred to Prime Minister of Greece Costas Simitis , Prime Minister of Luxembourg Jean-Claude Juncker , and former Prime Minister of Belgium Jean Luc Dehaene as the top three candidates for the position of the President of the European Commission . [ 111 ] A 45-year-old Sudanese man travelling from Washington Dulles International Airport to airport Dubai is arrested en route at London's Heathrow Airport on suspicion of carrying five bullets in his coat pocket. [ 112 ] [ 113 ] U.S. President George W. Bush , in a speech at NASA headquarters, announces a plan to develop a new space vehicle to return humans to the Moon by 2015 and proposes the retirement of the Space Shuttle fleet by 2010 along with a $1 billion funding increase for NASA. [ 114 ] Enron Corporation : Former CFO Andrew Fastow and his wife Lea Fastow , former Assistant Treasurer, accept a plea agreement . Andrew Fastow will serve a ten-year prison sentence and forfeit $23.8 million . Lea Fastow will serve a five-month prison sentence and a year of supervised release, including five months of house arrest. Both will provide testimony against other Enron corporate officers. [ 115 ] Turkey and Greece: 22 Turkish military aircraft entered into the Greek Athens FIR . Five of these aircraft were loaded with ammunition. Greek aircraft intercepted them. Source: Athens News Agency and in.gr . [ 116 ] (Greek) edit history watch The United Nations sides with the United States on voting in Iraq . Secretary-General Kofi Annan and other UN officials call direct elections in advance of July 2004 impractical, due to continuing disorder in Iraq and other factors. [ 117 ] 30,000 Shiite protesters in Basra call for immediate country-wide elections in Iraq , a move that would give them more power than the UN-backed plan for regional caucuses mandated by the US-led coalition [ 118 ] South Korea's foreign minister Yoon Young-kwan resigns after a controversy in which his ministry was accused of diverging from the government's policy of increased independence from the United States. [ 119 ] The European Union asks the World Trade Organization for authorization to impose trade sanctions against the United States in response to the U.S.'s anti- dumping scheme, which has been ruled illegal by the WTO. [ 120 ] Canadian federal election, 2004 : Former Ontario Health Minister Tony Clement declares his candidacy for the leadership of the Conservative Party of Canada . Also confirmed is the candidacy of auto parts magnate Belinda Stronach , who will announce her entry into the leadership race next week. [ 121 ] Italy has indicted three Germans, all former members of an SS Panzergrenadier Division , on charges of massacring 560 people in 1944 in the Italian village of Sant'Anna di Stazzema . The three Germans, Gerhard Sommer , 83; Alfred Schonenberg , 83; and Ludwig Sonntag , 80, are currently living in Germany. It is not clear whether Italy will request the three men's extradition from Germany. [ 122 ] U.S. presidential election, 2004 : Carol Moseley Braun drops out of the race and endorses Dr. Howard Dean , confirming rumors circulating the night before as she taped an appearance on The Daily Show . [ 123 ] The date for the publication of the Hutton Inquiry 's report into the death of British weapons scientist Dr David Kelly is announced as January 28, 2004. [ 124 ] The creditors of ailing Finnish low-cost carrier Flying Finn have threatened to confiscate the airline's planes. [ 125 ] Exploration of Mars : The Spirit Rover has rolled off its lander to start its exploration. The first journey was only three metres. It took the rover about 78 seconds, ending with the back of the rover being 0.7 metres from the lander. [ 126 ] The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) announces the release of the Composite Capability/Preference Profiles (CC/PP 1.0). W3C's new standard profiling language CC/PP provides a standardized format of the description of information that will allow Web -enabled devices to effectively communicate their capabilities to the desired server and aids in delivering Web content to broad range of devices. Popeye , like The Adventures of Tintin , turns 75 this month. [ 127 ] edit history watch Chen Shui-bian makes a televised address reiterating the Four Noes and One Without pledge and announcing the two questions for a referendum to coincide with the ROC presidential election, 2004 on March 20. [ 128 ] [ 129 ] U.S. President George W. Bush appoints Charles Pickering to the United States Court of Appeals . His nomination was filibustered in the U.S. Senate , so President Bush made a recess appointment . [ 130 ] Earthquake in Iran : Iran updates the death toll from the Bam earthquake to 41,000 people. The final figure could be as high as 45,000. The People's Republic of China arrests a top Hong Kong official into custody over suspicion of espionage for the United Kingdom. [ 131 ] Nunavut general election, 2004 : Premier Paul Okalik of Nunavut , Canada, requests a dissolution of the territory's legislature and an election call for February 16. [ 132 ] On or around this date, the United States national debt passes US$7 trillion. edit history watch Planned NASA servicing missions for the Hubble Space Telescope are cancelled. Safety concerns are cited as the main reason behind the decision. [ 133 ] [ 134 ] Human cloning : Fertility expert Dr. Panos Zavos claims to have successfully transplanted a two-week-old embryo into a 35-year-old woman. He said he had not done the act anywhere where "the spirit of the law" was against such a procedure. [ 135 ] George Papandreou of Greece promised that he will suggest to sign a mutual agreement with Turkey for lowering their defense military expenses. [ 136 ] (Greek). Protesters call for resignation of German Federal Police chief Ulrich Kersten: about 6,000 people demonstrates against moving Germany's Federal Police (BKA) headquarters from Wiesbaden to Berlin. [ 137 ] edit history watch Occupation of Iraq : At around 8 am local time ( 5 am GMT) in Baghdad , Iraq , an insurgent suicide bomber driving a car filled with explosives blew himself up while attempting to enter " Assassin's Gate ." Early reports said that about 18 people, including 16 Iraqi civilians and two United States Department of Defense workers were killed, while another 56 Iraqi civilians were wounded. [ 138 ] Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon praises the Israeli ambassador to Sweden, Zvi Mazel , for vandalising the artwork entitled " Snow White and The Madness of Truth " displayed at a Stockholm museum. The piece, created by an Israeli-born composer/musician, consists of a white float carrying a picture of a Palestinian suicide bomber in a pool of blood-coloured water. Mazel was caught on surveillance video disconnecting the electric power from the display and throwing a lamp into the water. Mazel says, "This exhibit was the culmination of dozens of anti-Israel and anti-Jewish events in Sweden." [ 139 ] edit history watch Cargo ship MS Rocknes with a crew of 30 including the pilot capsizes near Bergen , Norway at 1630 local time (1530 UTC ). Two people are reported dead and 24 still missing the morning after the accident. The ship was carrying a heavy load of rocks for use as shielding on top of a gas pipeline to Emden , Germany, from the Norwegian Ormen Lange offshore gas field. [ 140 ] The English Court of Appeal calls for an end to the prosecution of parents whose babies may have died of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (cot death) in cases where the only evidence is contended expert testimony. [ 141 ] The European Space Agency releases detailed colour images of the surface of Mars , taken by its orbiting Mars Express probe. [ 142 ] NASA 's Spirit rover arrives at its initial destination, a rock named " Adirondack ", and prepares for analysis. [ 143 ] [ 144 ] U.S. presidential election, 2004 : The Iowa caucuses yield unexpectedly strong results for Democratic candidates John Kerry , who earns 38% of the state's delegates and John Edwards , who takes 32%. Former front-runner Howard Dean slips to 18%, and Richard A. "Dick" Gephardt 's fourth-place (11%) finish [ 145 ] [ 146 ] prompts him to end his presidential bid. [ 147 ] Yigal Amir , assassin of Yitzhak Rabin , plans to marry. [ 148 ] " Snow White and The Madness of Truth " displayed at a Stockholm museum is again vandalized. A Russian-Jewish artist floats another image in the pool, that of Mijailo Mijailovic , the murderer of Swedish foreign minister Anna Lindh . [ 149 ] José María Aznar 's government in Spain is dissolved prior to March general elections. He has said he will not run for a third term of office. [ 150 ] edit history watch 2004 Canadian Federal Election : Belinda Stronach officially announces her run for leadership of the Conservative Party of Canada . [18] Martha Stewart pleads not guilty to five criminal counts that include conspiracy, obstruction of justice and securities fraud stemming from a sale of ImClone stock in 2001 . Conviction on any of the charges against her could put Ms. Stewart in federal prison. The five counts carry a total prison term of 30 years and a $1.25 million fine. [19] Colonel Rashid Abu Shbak of the Palestinian Authority , said that information was still coming in and the investigating team had been upgraded, but he had no new leads on who was behind the bombing attack of an American diplomatic convoy on October 15 , 2002 . Three people died in the attack. U.S. officials have been stopped from going to Gaza since the attack. No decision has been made yet on when they might be allowed to return. Col. Shbak blamed Israel for the lack of progress in the investigation. [20] Archived 2005-04-08 at the Wayback Machine edit history watch The International Olympic Committee urges Athens to continue working round-the-clock for the 2004 Summer Olympics . The deadline is for August 13. [ 151 ] Norwegian Crown Prince Haakon Magnus 's wife Crown Princess Mette-Marit gives birth to a daughter, at 0913 local time (0813 UTC), at Rikshospitalet University Hospital in Oslo . The newborn princess, named Ingrid Alexandra , weighs in at 3,686 grams and is 51 cm tall. She is second in succession to the Norwegian throne. [ 152 ] [ 153 ] The latest World Economic Forum event opens in Davos , Switzerland, with a keynote address by Iranian President Mohammad Khatami . The Royal Canadian Mounted Police raid the residence of Ottawa Citizen reporter Juliet O'Neill for the purposes of searching for evidence of leaked information in the Maher Arar deportation scandal . It was widely denounced by media groups and civil libertarians edit history watch Mars Exploration Rover Mission : MER-A Spirit rover stops transmitting meaningful data and has thought to have gone into safe mode . The cause of this is unknown but the rover is still able to send back a simple acknowledgement tone. [ 154 ] Staff members of the United States Republican Party are accused of infiltrating Democratic Party computers and making copies of confidential files stored on the compromised computers. The infiltrations reportedly began in early 2002. [ 155 ] Maher Arar sues the United States government for having deported him to Syria and not Canada, his country of citizenship. He was reportedly tortured in Syria. [ 156 ] Enron Corporation : Richard Causey , former chief accounting officer was indicted in Houston, Texas , on federal charges of securities fraud and conspiracy for his role in masking Enron's faltering fiscal health in late 2001. He has pled not guilty. [ 157 ] Zimbabwe 's only independent daily newspaper resumes publishing. [ 158 ] edit history watch David Kay steps down from Iraq Survey Group . George Tenet names former UN weapons inspector Charles Duelfer to succeed Kay. [ 159 ] The International Monetary Fund has joined the World Bank in forgiving US$4 billion of the $6.5bn debt owed by Nicaragua , sharply reducing the nation's overall debt payments. [ 160 ] The European Space Agency 's Mars Express orbiter directly detects water ice in the southern polar region of the planet Mars . [ 161 ] [ 162 ] NASA 's Spirit rover communicated with Earth in a signal detected by NASA's Deep Space Network antenna complex near Madrid, Spain , at 12:34 Universal Time ( 4:34 am PST) this morning. The transmissions came during a communication window about 90 minutes after Spirit woke up for the morning on Mars. The signal lasted for 10 minutes at a data rate of 10 bits per second. Mission controllers at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California, plan to send commands to Spirit seeking additional data from the spacecraft during the subsequent few hours. [ 163 ] The flight team for NASA's Spirit received data from the rover in another communication session that began at 13:26 Universal Time ( 5:26 am PST) and lasted 20 minutes at a data rate of 120 bits per second. [ 164 ] A Thai man suspected of having bird flu died, according to the Public Health Ministry. [ 165 ] At least 51 people, including a bridegroom , were killed on Friday when a fire ripped through a makeshift wedding hall in the southern Indian state of Tamil Nadu during a marriage ceremony. [ 166 ] An explosion has killed two people at Zhengzhou railway station, one of the People's Republic of China's biggest transport hubs. [ 167 ] edit history watch Mars Exploration Rover Mission NASA isolates the flash memory aboard Spirit as the most probable cause of communications problems; work continues on a method to operate the rover without it. [ 168 ] MER-B Opportunity successfully lands on Mars and continues communications through all stages. NASA isolates the flash memory aboard Spirit as the most probable cause of communications problems; work continues on a method to operate the rover without it. [ 168 ] MER-B Opportunity successfully lands on Mars and continues communications through all stages. edit history watch Georgia 's new president, Mikhail Saakashvili , is sworn in. [ 169 ] Chess player Viswanathan Anand wins in group A of the Corus chess tournament . Thirteen-year-old Norwegian prodigy, Magnus Carlsen , wins in group C. [ 170 ] David Kay says, in his opinion, Iraq had no banned WMD stockpiles: "I don't think they existed", Kay said, "What everyone was talking about is stockpiles produced after the end of the last (1991) Gulf War , and I don't think there was a large-scale production program in the '90s." [ 171 ] David Kay also says that part of Saddam Hussein 's secret weapons programme may have been hidden in Syria . [ 172 ] [ 173 ] Syria denies receiving Iraq arms. [ 174 ] Indonesia announces that millions of birds have died from avian influenza in the last few months. [ 175 ] Golden Globe Awards : Major winners include The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King , Lost in Translation , and Angels in America . Hungarian footballer Miklós Fehér dies in a match between Benfica and Vitória Guimarães in Portugal. Benfica will subsequently retire his number 29 shirt. edit history watch President Hamid Karzai signs into law the new constitution of Afghanistan . [ 176 ] Avian influenza has now been detected in a total of nine countries, with Pakistan and Laos as the latest additions. Pakistan has detected less dangerous strains H7 and H9. A six-year-old Thai boy became the seventh victim in Asia, with another ten suspected cases in the country. Around 19 million chickens have been slaughtered as a result of fighting the spread of the flu. The World Health Organisation expresses concern about a serious human outbreak. (WHO) [ 177 ] [ 178 ] [ 179 ] In Fellers v. United States , the United States Supreme Court unanimously reaffirms the Miranda Warning . [ 180 ] A federal judge in Los Angeles, California , declares a portion of the USA Patriot Act , banning "expert advice and assistance" to suspected foreign terrorist groups, to be unconstitutional . [ 181 ] The House of Representatives of Connecticut votes unanimously to investigate the dealings of Governor John G. Rowland , a step which might lead to impeachment proceedings. Rowland is accused of using state contractors for his personal gain. [ 182 ] The US Energy Department 's Inspector General releases a report stating that guards at the Y-12 enriched uranium storage facility in Oak Ridge, Tennessee , have been cheating on security drills, possibly for 20 years. [ 183 ] [ 184 ] Top Hamas official Abdel-Aziz al-Rantissi offered a 10-year truce if Israel would withdraw from territory occupied since 1967 and acknowledge the creation of a Palestinian state. Israel dismissed the peace offer as "ridiculous". [ 185 ] edit history watch The People's Republic of China announces an outbreak of the deadly H5N1 strain of avian influenza in the autonomous region of Guangxi , becoming the 10th country in Asia to do so. [ 186 ] There are suspected cases in Hunan and Hubei provinces. [ 187 ] [ 188 ] British Prime Minister Tony Blair narrowly defeats a rebellion in his own party over the Higher Education Bill – a highly controversial bill to reform higher education funding, including the introduction of increased and variable tuition fees. It is approved in the House of Commons by 316 votes to 311. [ 189 ] [ 190 ] U.S. presidential election, 2004 : Senator John Kerry wins the New Hampshire primary . Howard Dean comes second. Academy Awards : nominations announced, leading films are The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (11), Master and Commander (10), Seabiscuit (7), Mystic River (6), and Cold Mountain (6). Keisha Castle-Hughes , at 13, becomes the youngest nominee ever for the Academy Award for Best Actress A new e-mail worm , Novarg/Mydoom , is spreading rapidly to thousands of machines running Microsoft Windows . It rapidly becomes the fastest-spreading e-mail worm to date. [ 191 ] [ 192 ] [ 193 ] [ 194 ] [ 195 ] [ 196 ] edit history watch Milan Babic , the former leader of the breakaway Republic of Serbian Krajina (now re-incorporated into Croatia ), pleads guilty to crimes against humanity at the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia . David Kay testifies before a United States Senate committee stating that evidence of weapons of mass destruction was based on inaccurate intelligence . "I believe that the effort that has been directed to this point has been sufficiently intense that it is highly unlikely that there were large stockpiles of deployed, militarized chemical weapons there" and, even if Iraq did not have weapons stockpiles, this does not mean that nation was not dangerous. Kay urges for an inquiry into the intelligence failure and states that the United States needed better intelligence. [ 197 ] [ 198 ] [ 199 ] [ 200 ] The Hutton Inquiry report is released, stating the suicide of Iraqi weapons expert David Kelly did not involve "dishonourable conduct" on the part of the United Kingdom's government and exonerates Prime Minister Tony Blair of any wrongdoing in Kelly's death. The BBC receives harsh criticism for the allegations within Andrew Gilligan 's report on weapons of mass destruction and the BBC's subsequent backing of the report. Gavyn Davies takes full responsibility for any wrongdoing and resigns as the Chairman of the Board of Governors of the BBC. [ 201 ] [ 202 ] [ 203 ] [ 204 ] The discovery of a new form of matter, Fermionic condensate , has been announced. [ 205 ] The World Wide Web Consortium releases Document Object Model Level 3 Validation as a W3C Recommendation . [ 206 ] San Jose, California , mayor Ron Gonzales suffers a mild stroke while giving the State of the City address. The mayor is expected to make a full recovery. A rare artefact from the 1800s used against witchcraft is found in the United Kingdom. Now displayed in a museum. [ 207 ] edit history watch A 60-ton sperm whale carcass explodes in downtown Tainan , Taiwan , causing traffic delays and showering vehicles and pedestrians with blood and entrails. [ 208 ] A report submitted today to the State of Maryland states that the electronic voting machines made by Diebold Election Systems "have such poor computer security and physical security that an election could be disrupted or even stolen by corrupt insiders or determined outsiders". The machines have been purchased by a number of states in the United States. [ 209 ] This is the third report to state that the machines do not meet the security requirements of an election. Previous reports are available online. [ 210 ] [ 211 ] Hutton Inquiry : The BBC Director-General, Greg Dyke , resigns in the continuing fall-out from the report. Mr Dyke is the second high-ranking BBC official to resign. Mark Byford is appointed Acting Director-General. [ 212 ] The UK media in general condemns the report as a whitewash. [ 213 ] The Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades of Fatah claim responsibility for a suicide bombing aboard a city bus, in which Ali Yusuf Jaara , a member of the Palestinian police force, kills 10 Israelis and wounds more than 50, outside the Prime Minister's residence in Jerusalem . Simultaneously with the bombing, Shaul Mofaz , Israeli Defense Minister, is meeting with American envoys Wolfe and Sauterfield, who have requested an easing-up of conditions for the Palestinians. The explosion also coincides with a German-brokered prisoner swap between Israel and the Lebanese guerrilla group Hezbollah . [ 214 ] [ 215 ] [ 216 ] edit history watch Hutton Inquiry : Reporter Andrew Gilligan resigns from the BBC in the continuing fallout of the publication of Lord Hutton's report into the circumstances of the death of Dr David Kelly . This follows the earlier resignation of the Director-General Greg Dyke and chairman of the Board of Governors Gavyn Davies . [ 217 ] [ 218 ] Former French Prime Minister and current Mayor of Bordeaux Alain Juppé is convicted of a party funding scam in the 1980s and early 1990s, and is given an 18-month suspended jail sentence and disqualified from elected office for 10 years, although he retains his mayoralty pending his appeal. He had been viewed as Jacques Chirac 's likely successor in the 2007 Presidential election . [ 219 ] Muslims begin the annual Hajj today amid fears of a possible attack by Saudi-born Osama bin Laden 's al Qaeda network. [ 220 ] Sheik Ahmed Yassin , leader of Hamas , announces that his group is making an all-out effort to kidnap Israeli soldiers to use as bargaining chips for Palestinians in Israeli prisons, following the prisoner exchange between Israel and Hezbollah in which the remains of three Israeli soldiers and a businessman were exchanged for over 400 prisoners on January 29, 2004. [ 221 ] Self-confessed German cannibal Armin Meiwes is sentenced to eight years and six months' imprisonment for manslaughter . [ 222 ] The prosecution had sought a life sentence for murder. David Bradley , creator of the famous " Ctrl-Alt-Del " keystroke combination, retires from IBM . [ 223 ] edit history watch The United States defense budget is set to exceed US$400 billion next year—an almost 7% increase—according to budget proposals inadvertently posted on the Pentagon 's website. [ 224 ] [ 225 ] The People's Republic of China puts poultry export bans on three more areas after a World Health Organization warning that the chance of controlling the Avian flu outbreak is slipping. [ 226 ] A new SARS case is confirmed in Guangdong province. [ 227 ] British Airways and Air France cancel five upcoming US flights to Washington, D.C. and Miami, Florida amid fears of targeting by Al-Qaida . [ 228 ] [ 229 ] [ 230 ] The Svalbard Undersea Cable System is officially put into operation, giving the island group at 78° North a 40 Gb connection to the Norwegian mainland. The dual 1,440 km fiber optic lines from Svalbard to Harstad is needed for communicating with polar orbiting satellite stations on Svalbard, some owned by NASA and NOAA . [ 231 ] [ 232 ] Copper prices rise to a 6-year high in New York as 441 unionised workers strike at BHP Billiton 's Cerro Colorado mine in northern Chile after pay negotiations fail. [ 233 ] .mw-parser-output .current-events-calendar{clear:right;max-width:350px;width:100%;margin:auto;padding:0.2em;font-size:88%;line-height:1.5;border-spacing:3px;border:1px solid #cedff2;text-align:center;background-color:#f5faff;color:black}.mw-parser-output .current-events-calendar tbody a{font-weight:bold;width:100%;display:inline-block}.mw-parser-output .current-events-calendar-archive{margin:8px 0 0 0}.mw-parser-output .current-events-calendar caption{font-weight:bold;background-color:#cedff2;line-height:1.6;padding:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .current-events-calendar caption span:first-child{float:left;width:calc(14% + 6px)}.mw-parser-output .current-events-calendar caption span:last-child{float:right;width:calc(14% + 6px)}.mw-parser-output .current-events-calendar th{width:14%}.mw-parser-output .current-events-calendar-footer td{padding-top:3px;padding-bottom:5px;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .current-events-calendar-footer td a{font-weight:normal;width:initial} ◀ January 2004 ▶ S M T W T F S 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Ongoing events 2004 Canadian Federal Election Conservative leadership race 2004 Taiwan Presidential Election 2004 U.S. Presidential Election Democratic Presidential Primary Bloody Sunday Inquiry Exploration of Mars Mars Exploration Rovers Mars Express Orbiter Bird flu Hutton Inquiry Israeli-Palestinian conflict Road Map to Peace Kyoto Protocol North Korean Crisis Same-sex Marriage SCO v. IBM War on Terrorism Occupation of Iraq Iraqi Insurgency Iraq Timeline edit sidebar S M T W T F S 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Ongoing events 2004 Canadian Federal Election Conservative leadership race 2004 Taiwan Presidential Election 2004 U.S. Presidential Election Democratic Presidential Primary Bloody Sunday Inquiry Exploration of Mars Mars Exploration Rovers Mars Express Orbiter Bird flu Hutton Inquiry Israeli-Palestinian conflict Road Map to Peace Kyoto Protocol North Korean Crisis Same-sex Marriage SCO v. IBM War on Terrorism Occupation of Iraq Iraqi Insurgency Iraq Timeline edit sidebar 2004 Canadian Federal Election Conservative leadership race 2004 Taiwan Presidential Election 2004 U.S. Presidential Election Democratic Presidential Primary Bloody Sunday Inquiry Exploration of Mars Mars Exploration Rovers Mars Express Orbiter Bird flu Hutton Inquiry Israeli-Palestinian conflict Road Map to Peace Kyoto Protocol North Korean Crisis Same-sex Marriage SCO v. IBM War on Terrorism Occupation of Iraq Iraqi Insurgency Iraq Timeline edit sidebar References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Middle East | Egyptian airliner crashes in sea" . 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Retrieved 2017-09-18 . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( link ) .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Current events by month v t e 2008 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2007 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2006 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2005 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2004 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2003 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2002 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2001 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2000 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1999 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2004 by day January 2004 Months in the 2000s Current events archives CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list CS1 maint: archived copy as title CS1 errors: generic name Webarchive template wayback links This page was last edited on 27 June 2024, at 10:58 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History Toggle History subsection 1.1 Founding 1.2 Appointments 1.3 Website issues 1.4 Reform initiatives 1.1 Founding 1.2 Appointments 1.3 Website issues 1.4 Reform initiatives 2 Office of the Director of National Intelligence Toggle Office of the Director of National Intelligence subsection 2.1 Organization 2.1.1 Organization seals 2.2 United States Intelligence Community 2.1 Organization 2.1.1 Organization seals 2.1.1 Organization seals 2.2 United States Intelligence Community 3 Line of succession 4 Lists of personnel Toggle Lists of personnel subsection 4.1 List of directors 4.2 List of principal deputy directors of national intelligence 4.3 List of chief operating officers 4.4 List of directors of the intelligence staff / chief management officer 4.5 List of inspectors general 4.6 List of deputy directors of national intelligence 4.7 Assistant directors of national intelligence 4.1 List of directors 4.2 List of principal deputy directors of national intelligence 4.3 List of chief operating officers 4.4 List of directors of the intelligence staff / chief management officer 4.5 List of inspectors general 4.6 List of deputy directors of national intelligence 4.7 Assistant directors of national intelligence 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Director of National Intelligence العربية Deutsch فارسی Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Lietuvių Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Shqip Simple English Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Director of National Intelligence Seal of the director of national intelligence Flag of the director of national intelligence Incumbent Tulsi Gabbard since February 12, 2025 Office of the Director of National Intelligence Style Madam Director (informal) The Honorable (formal) Member of Cabinet National Security Council Homeland Security Council Reports to President of the United States Seat Washington, D.C. Appointer The president with Senate advice and consent Constituting instrument 50 U.S.C. § 3023 Precursor Director of Central Intelligence (DCI) Formation December 17, 2025 First holder John Negroponte Deputy Principal Deputy Director of National Intelligence (P/DDNI) Website www .odni .gov The director of national intelligence ( DNI ) is a cabinet-level United States government intelligence and security official. The position is required by the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 to serve as executive head of the United States Intelligence Community (IC) and to direct and oversee the National Intelligence Program (NIP). All 18 IC agencies, including the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) and the National Security Agency (NSA), report directly to the DNI. Other federal agencies with intelligence capabilities also report to the DNI, including the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). The DNI also serves as the principal advisor to the president of the United States, the National Security Council , and the Homeland Security Council on all intelligence matters. The DNI, supported by the Office of the Director of National Intelligence (ODNI), produces the President's Daily Brief , a highly classified document including intelligence from all IC agencies, shared each morning with the president of the United States. [ 1 ] The DNI, who is appointed by the president of the United States and is subject to confirmation by the United States Senate , serves at the pleasure of the president . President George W. Bush strengthened the role of the DNI on July 30, 2008, with Executive Order 13470 , [ 2 ] which, among other things, solidified the DNI's legal authority to direct intelligence gathering and analysis, and to set policy for intelligence sharing with foreign agencies and for the hiring and firing of senior intelligence officials. [ 3 ] The DNI was given further responsibility for the entire IC's whistleblowing and source protection by President Barack Obama via Presidential Policy Directive 19 on October 10, 2012. The position was elevated to a cabinet-level role during the first presidency of Donald Trump and retained this status in subsequent administrations. Currently, the DNI attends all cabinet meetings and liaises with the executive office of the president and other Cabinet secretaries in the execution of their duties. President Donald Trump nominated Tulsi Gabbard to the position in 2025, and she was subsequently confirmed by the US Senate on February 12, 2025. [ 4 ] [ 5 ] History Founding Before the DNI was formally established, the head of the United States Intelligence Community was the director of central intelligence (DCI), who concurrently served as the director of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). The 9/11 Commission recommended establishing the DNI position in its 9/11 Commission Report , not released until July 22, 2004, as it had identified major intelligence failures that called into question how well the intelligence community was able to protect U.S. interests against foreign terrorist attacks. Senators Dianne Feinstein , Jay Rockefeller and Bob Graham introduced S. 2645 on June 19, 2002, to create the position of Director of National Intelligence. Other similar legislation soon followed. After considerable debate on the scope of the DNI's powers and authorities, the United States Congress passed the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 by votes of 336–75 in the House of Representatives , and 89–2 in the Senate . President George Bush signed the bill into law on December 17, 2004. Among other things, the law established the DNI position as the designated leader of the United States Intelligence Community and prohibited the DNI from serving as the CIA director or the head of any other intelligence community element at the same time. In addition, the law required the CIA Director to report their agency's activities to the DNI. Critics say compromises during the bill's crafting led to the establishment of a DNI whose powers are too weak to adequately lead, manage and improve the performance of the intelligence community. [ 6 ] In particular, the law left the United States Department of Defense in charge of the National Security Agency (NSA), the National Reconnaissance Office (NRO), and the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA). Under 50 U.S.C. § 3026 , "under ordinary circumstances, it is desirable" that either the director or the principal deputy director of national intelligence be an active-duty commissioned officer in the armed forces or have training or experience in military intelligence activities and requirements. Only one of the two positions can be held by a military officer at any given time. The statute does not specify what rank the commissioned officer will hold during their tenure in either position. Appointments The first director of national intelligence was former U.S. ambassador to Iraq John Negroponte who was appointed on February 17, 2005, by President George W. Bush, subject to confirmation by the U.S. Senate. It was reported that President Bush's first choice for DNI was former director of central intelligence Robert M. Gates , who was serving as president of Texas A&M University , but who declined the offer. [ 7 ] Negroponte was confirmed by a Senate vote of 98–2 on April 21, 2005, and he was sworn in by President Bush the same day. On February 13, 2007, Mike McConnell became the second director of national intelligence, after Negroponte was appointed Deputy Secretary of State . Donald M. Kerr was confirmed by the U.S. Senate to be Principal Deputy Director of National Intelligence on October 4, 2007, and sworn in on October 9, 2007. Kerr, from Virginia, was previously the director of the National Reconnaissance Office and the deputy director for science and technology at the CIA before that. Earlier in his career, he was an assistant director at the FBI , in charge of their Laboratory Division from 1997 to 2001. On January 29, 2009, retired Navy admiral Dennis C. Blair became the third DNI on after being nominated by newly inaugurated President Barack Obama . [ 8 ] President Obama dismissed Blair whose resignation became effective May 28, 2010. [ 9 ] On July 20, 2010, President Barack Obama nominated retired Air Force lieutenant general James Clapper as the fourth DNI. Clapper was confirmed by the U.S. Senate on August 5, and replaced acting director David C. Gompert . The fifth DNI, Dan Coats , the sixth DNI, John Ratcliffe , and acting DNIs Joseph Maguire , Richard Grenell and Lora Shiao , all served between March 16, 2017, and January 21, 2021, during the first administration of President Donald Trump . The seventh DNI is Avril Haines , who took office on January 21, 2021. The first woman to hold the office, she was nominated by President-elect Joe Biden on November 23, 2020 [ 10 ] and confirmed by the Senate on January 20, 2021. [ 11 ] She resigned January 20, 2025 at the conclusion of Joe Biden's term in office. On November 13, 2024, President-elect Donald Trump announced his intention to nominate Army Reserve lieutenant colonel Tulsi Gabbard as the director of national intelligence upon returning to the presidency in January 2025. Gabbard was confirmed by the U.S. Senate on February 12, 2025, replacing acting director Lora Shiao . With this appointment, she became the first female military combat veteran to serve as DNI and first Pacific Islander American and first Hindu American in this position as well as to hold a Cabinet-level position. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] Website issues Declan McCullagh at News.com wrote on August 24, 2007, that the DNI site was configured to repel all search engines to index any page at DNI.gov. This effectively made the DNI website invisible to all search engines and in turn, any search queries. [ 14 ] Ross Feinstein, Spokesman for the DNI, said that the cloaking was removed as of September 3, 2007. "We're not even sure how (the robots.txt file) got there" – but it was again somehow hidden the next day. On September 7, McCullagh reported that the DNI appeared to be open to web searches again. [ 15 ] Reform initiatives In September 2007, the Office of the DNI released " Intelligence Community 100 Day & 500 Day Plans for Integration & Collaboration ". These plans include a series of initiatives designed to build the foundation for increased cooperation and reform of the U.S. Intelligence Community. [ 16 ] Office of the Director of National Intelligence The Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 established the Office of the Director of National Intelligence (ODNI) as an independent agency to assist the DNI. The ODNI's goal is to effectively integrate foreign, military and domestic intelligence in defense of the homeland and of United States interests abroad. [ 17 ] The ODNI has about 1,750 employees. [ 18 ] Its headquarters are in McLean, Virginia . On March 23, 2007, DNI Mike McConnell announced organizational changes, which included: Elevating Acquisition to a new Deputy DNI position Creating a new Deputy DNI for Policy, Plans, and Requirements (replacing the Deputy DNI for Requirements position) Establishing an Executive Committee Designating the Chief of Staff position as the new Director of the Intelligence Staff The ODNI continued to evolve under succeeding directors, culminating in an organization focused on intelligence integration across the community. [ citation needed ] Organization The ODNI leadership includes the director, principal deputy director and chief operating officer. [ 19 ] In addition, the Director of Defense Intelligence reports to the DNI. There are two directorates, each led by a deputy director of National Intelligence: [ 19 ] [ 20 ] Mission Integration Directorate National Intelligence Council President's Daily Brief National Intelligence Council President's Daily Brief Policy & Capabilities Directorate Intelligence Advanced Research Projects Activity Intelligence Advanced Research Projects Activity There are five mission centers, each led by a director of that center: [ 19 ] [ 20 ] National Counterproliferation and Biosecurity Center National Counterterrorism Center National Counterintelligence and Security Center Foreign Malign Influence Center Cyber Threat Intelligence Integration Center There are also four oversight offices: [ 19 ] [ 20 ] Office of Civil Liberties, Privacy and Transparency (CLPT), led by the Civil Liberties Protection Officer (CLPO) [ 21 ] Office of Equal Employment Opportunity & Diversity Office of the Intelligence Community Inspector General Office of General Counsel Organization seals NCBC FMIC NCTC NCSC ICIG CTIIC United States Intelligence Community Name Parent Organization FBI Intelligence Branch (IB) Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) Independent agency National Security Agency (NSA) Department of Defense Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) Department of Defense National Reconnaissance Office (NRO) Department of Defense National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA) Department of Defense National Space Intelligence Center Space Force National Air and Space Intelligence Center Air Force Military Intelligence Corps Army Office of Naval Intelligence Navy Coast Guard Intelligence Coast Guard Marine Corps Intelligence Marine Corps Office of National Security Intelligence Drug Enforcement Administration Office of Intelligence and Analysis Department of Homeland Security Bureau of Intelligence and Research Department of State Office of Intelligence and Analysis Department of the Treasury Office of Intelligence and Counterintelligence Department of Energy Line of succession The line of succession for the director of national intelligence is as follows: [ 22 ] Principal Deputy Director of National Intelligence Deputy Director of National Intelligence for Intelligence Integration Director of the National Counterterrorism Center Director of the National Counterintelligence and Security Center Inspector General of the Intelligence Community Lists of personnel List of directors Position succeeded the director of central intelligence . .mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{} Denotes acting capacity. No. Image Name Start End Duration President(s) 1 John Negroponte April 21, 2005 February 13, 2007 1 year, 298 days George W. Bush (2001–2009) 2 Mike McConnell February 13, 2007 January 27, 2009 1 year, 349 days – Ronald Burgess Acting January 27, 2009 January 29, 2009 2 days Barack Obama (2009–2017) 3 Dennis Blair January 29, 2009 May 28, 2010 1 year, 119 days – David Gompert Acting May 28, 2010 August 5, 2010 69 days 4 James Clapper August 5, 2010 January 20, 2017 6 years, 168 days – Mike Dempsey Acting January 20, 2017 March 16, 2017 55 days Donald Trump (2017–2021) 5 Dan Coats March 16, 2017 August 15, 2019 2 years, 152 days – Joseph Maguire Acting August 15, 2019 February 20, 2020 189 days – Richard Grenell Acting February 20, 2020 May 26, 2020 96 days 6 John Ratcliffe May 26, 2020 January 20, 2021 239 days – Lora Shiao Acting January 20, 2021 January 21, 2021 1 day Joe Biden (2021–2025) 7 Avril Haines January 21, 2021 January 20, 2025 3 years, 365 days – Stacey Dixon Acting January 20, 2025 January 25, 2025 5 days Donald Trump (2025–present) – Lora Shiao Acting January 25, 2025 February 12, 2025 18 days 8 Tulsi Gabbard February 12, 2025 Incumbent 337 days List of principal deputy directors of national intelligence Name Term of office President(s) served under Michael Hayden April 21, 2005 – May 26, 2006 George W. Bush Ronald L. Burgess Jr. Acting June 2006 – October 5, 2007 Donald Kerr October 5, 2007 – January 20, 2009 Ronald L. Burgess Jr. Acting January 20, 2009 – February 2009 Barack Obama David C. Gompert November 10, 2009 – February 11, 2011 Stephanie O'Sullivan February 18, 2011 – January 20, 2017 Susan M. Gordon August 7, 2017 – August 15, 2019 Donald Trump Andrew P. Hallman a Acting October 30, 2019 – February 21, 2020 Kash Patel February 21, 2020 – May 13, 2020 Neil Wiley a May 13, 2020 – February 2021 Donald Trump , Joe Biden Stacey Dixon August 4, 2021 – January 25, 2025 [ 23 ] Joe Biden , Donald Trump Aaron Lukas July 24, 2025 - Incumbent [ 24 ] Donald Trump List of chief operating officers Name Term of office President(s) served under Deirdre Walsh February 2018 – May 2020 Donald Trump Lora Shiao October 2020 – September 2025 Donald Trump , Joe Biden Dennis Kirk September 2025 – Present Donald Trump List of directors of the intelligence staff / chief management officer Name Term of office President(s) served under Ronald L. Burgess Jr. May 2007 – February 2009 George W. Bush , Barack Obama John Kimmons February 2009 – October 2010 Barack Obama Mark Ewing [ citation needed ] November 2010 – n/a Barack Obama , Donald Trump List of inspectors general Name Term of office President(s) served under Charles McCullough October 7, 2010 – March 2017 [ 26 ] Barack Obama , Donald Trump Michael Atkinson May 17, 2018 – May 3, 2020 [ 27 ] [ 28 ] [ 29 ] Donald Trump Thomas Monheim April 3, 2020 [ 30 ] [ 31 ] a – January 3, 2025 Donald Trump , Joe Biden List of deputy directors of national intelligence Name Office Term of office President(s) served under William P. Ruger Mission Integration April 2025 [ 32 ] – present Donald Trump Beth Sanner Mission Integration May 2019 [ 33 ] – March 2021 Donald Trump , Joe Biden Kevin Meiners [ 34 ] Enterprise Capacity n/a – present Donald Trump Karen Gibson National Security Partnerships April 2019 [ 35 ] – 2020 Donald Trump Corin Stone [ 36 ] Strategy & Engagement n/a – present Donald Trump Assistant directors of national intelligence Name Office Term of Office President(s) served under Dr. Ronald Sanders ADNI for Human Capital June 2005 - March 2010 George W. Bush , Barack Obama Deborah Kircher ADNI for Human Capital October 2011 [ 37 ] – present Barack Obama , Donald Trump John Sherman Intelligence Community Chief Information Officer September 2017 [ 38 ] – June 2020 [ 39 ] Donald Trump Trey Treadwell [ 40 ] Chief Financial Officer n/a – present Donald Trump Catherine Johnston ADNI for Systems and Resource Analyses May 2018 [ 41 ] – present Donald Trump Roy Pettis [ 42 ] ADNI for Acquisition, Procurement and Facilities n/a – present Donald Trump James Smith [ 43 ] ADNI for Policy and Strategy (Acting) n/a – present Donald Trump See also Information Sharing Environment Intelligence Advanced Research Projects Activity Intellipedia Joint Worldwide Intelligence Communications System (JWICS) National Intelligence Coordination Center The National Security Act of 1947 Open source intelligence Title 32 of the CFR United States Joint Intelligence Community Council US intelligence community A-Space Privacy and Civil Liberties Oversight Board (PCLOB) References ^ "CIA to Cede President's Brief to Negroponte" , February 19, 2005, The Washington Post ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Executive Order 13470" . Federal Register . National Archives and Records Administration. July 30, 2008 . Retrieved November 22, 2016 . ^ Strohm, Chris (August 1, 2008). "Bush Orders Intelligence Overhaul" . CongressDaily . Retrieved November 22, 2016 – via republished by Nuclear Threat Initiative at NTI.org. ^ Peterson, Beatrice. "Senate committee advances Tulsi Gabbard's nomination to be intel chief" . ABC News . Retrieved February 5, 2025 . ^ Tulsi Gabbard confirmed as US director of national intelligence . Retrieved February 12, 2025 – via apnews.com. ^ Kaplan, Fred (December 7, 2004). "You Call That a Reform Bill?" . Slate . ^ "Robert M. Gates profile" . The Washington Post . November 8, 2006 . Retrieved November 22, 2016 . ^ ODNI, Biography Archived 2009-02-02 at the Wayback Machine , January 30, 2009 ^ Miller, Greg (May 21, 2010). "Dennis C. Blair to resign as Director of National Intelligence" . The Washington Post . Retrieved June 3, 2010 . ^ Jones, Dustin (November 23, 2020). "Avril Haines Nominated As First Female Director Of National Intelligence" . NPR . Retrieved November 24, 2020 . ^ Jones, Dustin (January 20, 2021). "Senate confirms Avril Haines as director of National Intelligence" . Fox news . Retrieved January 20, 2021 . ^ Nagari, Akhilesh (November 14, 2024). "Who is Tulsi Gabbard, first US Hindu lawmaker named as Trump's spy chief?" . India Today . Retrieved November 30, 2024 . ^ Kinnard, Meg; Klepper, David (November 13, 2024). "What to know about Tulsi Gabbard, Trump's pick to be director of national intelligence" . Associated Press . Retrieved December 10, 2024 . acts as the president's top intelligence adviser ^ McCullagh, Declan (August 24, 2007). "Feds use robots.txt files to stay invisible online. Lame" . CNET . Retrieved February 14, 2014 . ^ McCullagh, Declan (September 7, 2007). "National Intelligence Web site no longer invisible to search engines" . CNET. Archived from the original on February 15, 2014 . Retrieved February 14, 2014 . ^ "Director of National Intelligence Moves Forward with Intelligence Reform" (PDF) . ODNI News Release No. 20-07 . DNI.gov. September 13, 2007. ^ "Public Affairs Office, ODNI" . Office of the Director of National Intelligence . ODNI. Archived from the original on March 19, 2013 . Retrieved April 14, 2013 . ^ Clark, Charles (September 2012). "Lifting the Lid" . Government Executive. Archived from the original on January 2, 2014 . Retrieved April 14, 2013 . ^ a b c d "Leadership" . Office of the Director of National Intelligence . Retrieved September 27, 2019 . ^ a b c "Organization" . Office of the Director of National Intelligence . Retrieved January 21, 2020 . ^ 50 U.S.C. § 3029 as added by the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 . ^ "Designation of Officers of the Office of the Director of National Intelligence To Act as Director of National Intelligence" . Federal Register . 78 FR 59159. September 25, 2013 . Retrieved October 30, 2016 . ^ Collins, Carol (August 4, 2021). "Stacey Dixon Confirmed as ODNI Principal Deputy Director; Avril Haines Quoted" . Executive Gov . Retrieved August 5, 2021 . ^ "Aaron Lukas, of Arkansas, to be Principal Deputy Director of National Intelligence, vice Stacey A. Dixon" . United States Congress . March 10, 2025 . Retrieved March 26, 2025 . ^ "Andrew Hallman Joins the Office of the Director of National Intelligence as Principal Executive" . dni.gov . October 31, 2019. Archived from the original on October 20, 2020 . Retrieved May 28, 2020 . ^ Poulsen, Kevin (February 12, 2018). "U.S. Intelligence Shuts Down Damning Report on Whistleblower Retaliation" . The Daily Beast – via www.thedailybeast.com. ^ Haberman, Maggie; Savage, Charlie; Fandos, Nicholas (April 3, 2020). "Trump to Fire Intelligence Watchdog Who Had Key Role in Ukraine Complaint" . The New York Times . Retrieved May 24, 2021 . ^ "Trump Defends Firing 'Terrible' Intel Community Watchdog as Republicans Question Sacking" . Politico . April 4, 2020 . Retrieved May 24, 2021 . ^ Kelly, Amita; Neuman, Scott (May 24, 2021). "Fired Intel Community Inspector General Michael Atkinson Pushes Back On His Dismissal" . National Public Radio . Retrieved May 24, 2021 . ^ "Office of the DNI on Twitter" . Archived from the original on April 4, 2020 . Retrieved June 14, 2020 . ^ a b "Trump Fires Intel IG, Taps White House Confidant for Pandemic Oversight Role" . Government Executive . April 4, 2020 . Retrieved May 24, 2021 . ^ "Deputy DNI for Mission Integration" . www.dni.gov . Retrieved April 11, 2025 . ^ "Deputy DNI for Mission Integration" . www.dni.gov . Retrieved August 9, 2019 . ^ "Deputy DNI, Enterprise Capacity" . www.dni.gov . Archived from the original on October 22, 2020 . Retrieved August 9, 2019 . ^ "Karen Gibson Named Deputy Director of National Intelligence" . Executive Gov . April 23, 2019 . Retrieved August 9, 2019 . ^ "Deputy DNI, Strategy & Engagement" . www.dni.gov . Archived from the original on October 20, 2020 . Retrieved August 9, 2019 . ^ "Assistant DNI, Chief Human Capital Office" . www.dni.gov . Archived from the original on August 4, 2020 . Retrieved August 9, 2019 . ^ "Chief Information Officer" . www.dni.gov . Retrieved August 9, 2019 . ^ "IC CIO Announces Departure" (Press release). Office of the Director of National Intelligence. April 20, 2020. Archived from the original on October 16, 2020 . Retrieved August 4, 2020 . John Sherman, Chief Information Officer (CIO) of the Intelligence Community (IC), today announced that he will depart the Office of the Director of National Intelligence in June to serve as the Principal Deputy CIO for the U.S. Department of Defense. ^ "Leadership" . www.dni.gov . Retrieved August 9, 2019 . ^ "Assistant DNI, Systems & Resource Analyses" . www.dni.gov . Archived from the original on August 4, 2020 . Retrieved August 9, 2019 . ^ "NRO Honored at Intelligence Community Acquisition, Facilities, and Log" . National Reconnaissance Office . Archived from the original on January 31, 2021 . Retrieved August 9, 2019 . ^ "Assistant DNI, Policy & Strategy" . www.dni.gov . Archived from the original on August 10, 2020 . Retrieved August 9, 2019 . Further reading James R. Clapper with Trey Brown (2018). Facts and Fears: Hard Truths from a Life in Intelligence . New York: Viking. ISBN 978-0525558644 . OCLC 1006804896 . Memoir including his time as DNI. 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History Toggle History subsection 1.1 Training 1.2 Reorganization 1.3 Composition 1.4 Combat chronicle 1.5 Casualties 1.6 Post-World War II 1.1 Training 1.2 Reorganization 1.3 Composition 1.4 Combat chronicle 1.5 Casualties 1.6 Post-World War II 2 Official history 3 References 4 External links 6th Armored Division (United States) Deutsch فارسی Français Italiano עברית Русский Slovenščina Українська Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "6th Armored Division" United States – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR ( July 2012 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) 6th Armored Division 6th Armored Division shoulder sleeve insignia Active 1942–1945 1950–1956 Country United States Branch United States Army Type Armor Role Armored warfare Size Division Nickname "Super Sixth" [ 1 ] Engagements World War II Normandy Northern France Rhineland Ardennes-Alsace Central Europe Normandy Northern France Rhineland Ardennes-Alsace Central Europe Commanders Notable commanders BG Carlos Brewer MG William H. H. Morris MG Robert W. Grow BG George W. Read Jr. U.S. Armored Divisions Previous Next 5th Armored Division ( Inactive ) 7th Armored Division ( Inactive ) Previous Next 5th Armored Division ( Inactive ) 7th Armored Division ( Inactive ) The 6th Armored Division ("Super Sixth" [ 1 ] ) was an armored division of the United States Army during World War II . It was formed with a cadre from the 2nd Armored Division . History Training The 6th Armored Division was activated on 15 February 1942 at Fort Knox , Kentucky . The major elements of the division originally were the 68th and 69th Armored Regiments and the 50th Armored Infantry Regiment ; the 68th Armored Regiment had originally been part of the 1st Armored Division , while the 69th Armored Regiment had been part of the 2nd Armored Division . Brigadier General Carlos Brewer was assigned as the division's first commanding general. [ 2 ] It moved to Camp Chaffee on 15 March 1942 to make way for other Armored units, and then completed its assembly and unit training. The division then participated in the VIII Corps Louisiana Maneuvers from 25 August 1942, and then returned to Camp Chaffee on 21 September 1942. The 6th AD then moved to Camp Young at the Desert Training Center on 10 October 1942, and participated in the first California Maneuvers. Reorganization The 6th AD then moved to Camp Cooke to continue its training, where it was reorganized in September 1943, losing its "heavy" organization of two armored regiments and one armored infantry regiment in favor of a "light" organization of three tank battalions and three armored infantry battalions. Maj. Gen. [ 3 ] Robert W. Grow assumed command of the Division at Camp Cooke, California in May 1943 and commanded the division through the war until 30 July 1945. The 6th AD then staged at Camp Shanks , New York on 3 February 1944, departed the New York Port of Embarkation on 11 February 1944, and arrived in England on 23 February 1944. After continuing its training in England, 6th AD landed on Utah Beach in Normandy on 19 July 1944 as a follow-on unit, and went on the offensive as separate combat commands in the Cotentin Peninsula in support of the Normandy Campaign. Composition The division was composed of the following units: [ 4 ] Headquarters Headquarters Company Combat Command A Combat Command B Combat Command Reserve 15th Tank Battalion 68th Tank Battalion 69th Tank Battalion 9th Armored Infantry Battalion 44th Armored Infantry Battalion 50th Armored Infantry Battalion Headquarters and Headquarters Battery, 6th Armored Division Artillery 128th Armored Field Artillery Battalion 212th Armored Field Artillery Battalion 231st Armored Field Artillery Battalion 128th Armored Field Artillery Battalion 212th Armored Field Artillery Battalion 231st Armored Field Artillery Battalion 86th Cavalry Reconnaissance Squadron (Mechanized) 25th Armored Engineer Battalion 146th Armored Signal Company Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 6th Armored Division Trains 128th Ordnance Maintenance Battalion 76th Armored Medical Battalion Military Police Platoon Band 128th Ordnance Maintenance Battalion 76th Armored Medical Battalion Military Police Platoon Band Combat chronicle At the end of the Normandy Campaign , 6th AD assembled at Le Mesnil on 25 July 1944. 6th AD then passed through 8th Infantry Division to clear the heights near Le Bingard on 27 July 1944, and Combat Command A secured a bridgehead across the Sienne (river) near Pont de la Roque on 29 July 1944, and overran Granville on 31 July 1944. 6th AD then returned to Avranches , where it relieved 4th AD and secured the area bridges. In mid-August in Europe, the 6th Armored Division moved down to Lorient , where it was relieved by the 94th Infantry Division in September. Elements of the division participated in the Battle for Brest (7 August - 19 September 1944). The 6th then turned east and cut across France, reaching the Saar in November. It crossed the Nied River on 11–12 November, against strong opposition, reaching the German border on 6 December, and established and maintained defensive positions in the vicinity of Saarbrücken . On 23 December, the division was ordered north of Metz to take part in the Battle of the Bulge , and took over a sector along the south bank of the Sauer . The 6th was heavily engaged in the battle for Bastogne , finally driving the enemy back across the Our River into Germany by late January 1945. After a short period of rehabilitation, the division resumed the offensive, penetrated the Siegfried Line , crossed the Prum , reached the Rhine River at Worms on 21 March, and set up a counterreconnaissance screen along its west bank. The 6th crossed the Rhine at Oppenheim on 25 March, drove on to Frankfurt , crossed the Main , captured Bad Nauheim , and continued to advance eastward, and surrounded and captured Mühlhausen on 4–5 April. After repulsing a light counterattack, it moved forward 60 miles to cross the Saale River and assisted in freeing Allied prisoners of war and the German concentration camp at Buchenwald . The division raced on, took Leipzig, crossed the River Zwickau Mulde at Rochlitz on 15 April 1945, and stopped, pending the arrival of the Red Army . Defensive positions along the Mulde River were held until the end of hostilities in Europe. The division arrived at Camp Shanks , New York on 18 September 1945 and was inactivated. Casualties Total battle casualties: 4,670 [ 5 ] Killed in action: 1,169 [ 5 ] Wounded in action: 3,667 [ 5 ] Missing in action: 88 [ 5 ] Prisoner of war: 83 [ 5 ] Post-World War II The division was reactivated at Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri on 5 September 1950 in response to the Korean War, and served as a training division until inactivation on 16 March 1956. 6th Armored Division (Training) organization at Fort Leonard Wood: Headquarters Division Headquarters Company Combat Command A Combat Command B Combat Command Reserve Division Headquarters Company Combat Command A Combat Command B Combat Command Reserve Maneuver Battalions (served as basic training/advanced training units) 86th Recon Bn 5th Heavy Tank Battalion 15th Tank Battalion 68th Tank Battalion 69th Tank Battalion 9th Armored Infantry Battalion 44th Armored Infantry Battalion 50th Armored Infantry Battalion 86th Recon Bn 5th Heavy Tank Battalion 15th Tank Battalion 68th Tank Battalion 69th Tank Battalion 9th Armored Infantry Battalion 44th Armored Infantry Battalion 50th Armored Infantry Battalion 25th Armored Engineer Battalion U/I Signal Company/Bn? HHB, 6th Armored Division Artillery 62nd Armored Field Artillery Battalion 93rd Armored Field Artillery Battalion 231st Armored Field Artillery Battalion 253rd Armored Field Artillery Battalion 61st Anti-Aircraft Artillery (Automatic Weapons) Battalion 62nd Armored Field Artillery Battalion 93rd Armored Field Artillery Battalion 231st Armored Field Artillery Battalion 253rd Armored Field Artillery Battalion 61st Anti-Aircraft Artillery (Automatic Weapons) Battalion HHC, 6th Armored Division Trains 6th Quartermaster Battalion 128th Armored Ordinance and Maintenance Battalion 6th Quartermaster Battalion 128th Armored Ordinance and Maintenance Battalion Official history At the end of World War II, two 6th Armored Division G3 officers, Majors Paul L. Bogen and Clyde J. Burk along with Aide-de-Camp Captain Cyrus R. Shockey, compiled a Combat Record of the Sixth Armored Division in the European Theatre of Operations 18 July 1944 – 8 May 1945 . The official history by George F. Hofmann, The Super Sixth: History of the 6th Armored Division in World War II (1975, reprinted 2000) [ 6 ] has been called by World War II scholar Martin Blumenson , a "first-rate military history." He also noted that General Patton called the 6th AD one of the two best divisions in his Third Army. [ 7 ] References ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Special Unit Designations" . United States Army Center of Military History . 21 April 2010. Archived from the original on 9 June 2010 . Retrieved 24 June 2010 . ^ "Carlos Brewer 1913" . West point Association of Graduates . Retrieved 2 April 2016 . ^ U.S. Army Orders. ^ "Order of Battle of the US Army - WWII - ETO - 6th Armored Division" . US Army Center of Military History. Archived from the original on 24 April 2008 . Retrieved 22 May 2020 . ^ a b c d e Army Battle Casualties and Nonbattle Deaths, Final Report (Statistics and Accounting Branch, Office of the Adjutant General, 1 June 1953) ^ Hofmann, George F. (1975). The Super Sixth: history of the 6th Armored Division in World War II and its post-war association . Sixth Armored Division Association. ^ Journal of American History , December 1976 External links Super Sixth: The story of Patton's 6th Armored Division in WW II Brest to Bastogne: The Story of the 6th Armored Division Army Amphibian and Tank Battalions in the Battle of Saipan 15 June-9 July 1944 Saipan: The Beginning of the End (773rd Amphibian Tractor Battalion and 708th Amphibian Tank Battalion are discussed in citation number 55 under "Yellow Beach and Agingan Point) .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Divisions of the United States Army v t e Airborne 9th 11th 13th 17th 80th 82nd 101st 108th 9th 11th 13th 17th 80th 82nd 101st 108th Armored 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th 13th 14th 16th 19th 20th 22nd 25th 27th 30th 40th 48th 49th 50th 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th 13th 14th 16th 19th 20th 22nd 25th 27th 30th 40th 48th 49th 50th Cavalry 1st 2nd 3rd 15th 21st 22nd 23rd 24th 61st 62nd 63rd 64th 65th 66th 1st 2nd 3rd 15th 21st 22nd 23rd 24th 61st 62nd 63rd 64th 65th 66th Infantry 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th 13th 17th 19th 20th 23rd (Americal) 24th 25th 26th 27th 28th 29th 30th 31st 32nd 33rd 34th 35th 36th 37th 38th 39th 40th 41st 42nd 43rd 44th 45th 46th 47th 48th 49th 51st 55th 59th 63rd 65th 66th 69th 70th 71st 75th 76th 77th 78th 79th 80th 81st 83rd 84th 85th 86th 87th 88th 89th 90th 91st 92nd 93rd 94th 95th 96th 97th 98th 99th 100th 102nd 103rd 104th 106th 108th Hawaiian Panama Canal Philippine 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th 13th 17th 19th 20th 23rd (Americal) 24th 25th 26th 27th 28th 29th 30th 31st 32nd 33rd 34th 35th 36th 37th 38th 39th 40th 41st 42nd 43rd 44th 45th 46th 47th 48th 49th 51st 55th 59th 63rd 65th 66th 69th 70th 71st 75th 76th 77th 78th 79th 80th 81st 83rd 84th 85th 86th 87th 88th 89th 90th 91st 92nd 93rd 94th 95th 96th 97th 98th 99th 100th 102nd 103rd 104th 106th 108th Hawaiian Panama Canal Philippine Mountain 10th Category Armored divisions of the United States Army Armored divisions of the United States Army in World War II Military units and formations established in 1942 1942 establishments in the United States Military units and formations disestablished in 1956 1942 establishments in Kentucky Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles needing additional references from July 2012 All articles needing additional references Use dmy dates from April 2020 This page was last edited on 19 December 2025, at 09:21 (UTC) . 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Coğrafiya Ölkələr və ərazilər: Yaponiya • Qars vilayəti • Naxçıvan Muxtar Respublikası • Neftçala rayonu • Amerika Birləşmiş Ştatları • Britaniya imperiyası • Buru Yaşayış yerləri: Peterhof • Eri (Pensilvaniya) • Palmira • Xınalıq • Nyu-York Digər: Atlantida • Riketts Dərəsi Ştat Parkının şəlalələri • Everest • Amundsenin Cənub qütbünə ekspedisiyası Dil və ədəbiyyat Ədəbiyyat: Hərb və sülh • Sirlər Xəzinəsi (poema) • Xosrov və Şirin (Nizami) • Tintin Tibetdə (komiks) • Harri Potter və Sirlər Otağı (roman) • Yeddi gözəl (Nizami) • İsgəndərnamə • Leyli və Məcnun (Nizami) • Shojo Beat • I Şah Təhmasibin Xəmsə əlyazması • Bir qadının ürəyi • Bülbülü öldürmək • Esme üçün – məhəbbət və səfalətlə • Nizami Gəncəvinin divanı Manqa: Seylor Mun • Shojo Beat Yazıçılar və şairlər: Seyid Yəhya Bakuvi • Frans Kafka • Nəcəf bəy Vəzirov • Xəlil Rza Ulutürk • Əbdürrəhim bəy Haqverdiyev Din və fəlsəfə Dini və fəlsəfi cərəyanlar: Ateizm • Stoaçılıq • Azərbaycan sufizmi • Təmiz torpaq Mifik personajlar: Şeytan • Bona Dea Filosoflar: Şihabəddin Yəhya Sührəvərdi • İbn Xəldun Elm Alimlər: Laynus Polinq • Alan Türinq • Nikola Tesla • Noam Çomski • Riçard Kantilyon • Valentin Qluşko Astronomiya: Günəş sistemi: Mars (planet) • Günəş sistemi • Merkuri (planet) • Ay • Günəş • Neptun (planet) • Venera (planet) • Uran (planet) • Saturn (planet) • Yupiter (planet) • Yer Digər: GRB 970508 • Böyük partlayış • Qalaktika Biologiya: Zoologiya: Malurus elegans • Qarabağ atı • Tüklü mamont • Qozbel balina • Dəniz samuru Riyaziyyat: 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + · · · Tibb: İspan qripi • Qara ölüm Tibbi bioqrafiyalar: Rayan Vayt Hərb Hərbi münaqişələr: Bakı döyüşü • Plateya döyüşü • Səfəvi-Osmanlı müharibəsi (1578–1590) • Altı günlük müharibə • Ərəb-İsrail müharibəsi (1948) • Karnal döyüşü • Nadirin yürüşləri Rusların Qafqaz ekspedisiyaları • Dekabristlər üsyanı • 2009-cu il Urumçi iğtişaşları • 1956-cı il Macar inqilabı • Birinci Qarabağ müharibəsi • Türkiyə İstiqlaliyyət müharibəsi • 1920-ci il Gəncə üsyanı • 1871-ci il Almaniyanın birləşdirilməsi • İspaniya mirası uğrunda müharibə • Soyuq müharibə • Azərbaycanın sovetləşdirilməsində Türkiyənin müdaxiləsi • Böyük Malta mühasirəsi • Çaldıran döyüşü • 1944-cü il Varşava üsyanı Hərbi xadimlər: Reynhard Heydrix • Rixard Zorge • Mübariz İbrahimov Qətliam və soyqırımlar: Ruanda soyqırımı • Böyük təmizləmə • Azərbaycanda Stalin repressiyaları • Axısqa türklərinin deportasiyası • Xocalı soyqırımı • Kindertransport əməliyyatı • Katın qırğını • Krım tatarlarının deportasiyası İdman və əyləncə Futbol: Aston Villa FK • Liverpul FK İdmançılar: Kevin Durant • Valentin Demyanenko • Ləman Əlimuradova • Darya Sorokina • Teymur Məmmədov (boksçu) • Məhəmmədrəsul Məcidov Fiqurçular: Yuna Kim • Yelena Radionova • Tessa Vertyu • Skot Moir • Ketlin Osmond • Yevgeniya Medvedeva Futbolçular: Luiş Fiqu • Dennis Berqkamp Güləşçilər: Mariya Stadnik • Hacı Əliyev • Rövşən Bayramov • Rəsul Çunayev • Toğrul Əsgərov • Şərif Şərifov (güləşçi) • Maqomedxan Maqomedov • Həsrət Cəfərov • Xetaq Qazyumov Gimnastlar: Zeynəb Hümmətova Voleybol: Voleybol Yarışlar: Azərbaycan 2016 Yay Olimpiya Oyunlarında • Azərbaycan 2020 Yay Olimpiya Oyunlarında • Azərbaycan 2016 Yay Paralimpiya Oyunlarında • 2014 FİFA Dünya Kuboku finalı • Azərbaycan 2004 Yay Olimpiya Oyunlarında • Azərbaycan 2008 Yay Olimpiya Oyunlarında • Azərbaycan 2020 Yay Olimpiya Oyunlarında • Azərbaycan 2024 Yay Olimpiya Oyunlarında Coğrafiya Ölkələr və ərazilər: Yaponiya • Qars vilayəti • Naxçıvan Muxtar Respublikası • Neftçala rayonu • Amerika Birləşmiş Ştatları • Britaniya imperiyası • Buru Yaşayış yerləri: Peterhof • Eri (Pensilvaniya) • Palmira • Xınalıq • Nyu-York Digər: Atlantida • Riketts Dərəsi Ştat Parkının şəlalələri • Everest • Amundsenin Cənub qütbünə ekspedisiyası Dil və ədəbiyyat Ədəbiyyat: Hərb və sülh • Sirlər Xəzinəsi (poema) • Xosrov və Şirin (Nizami) • Tintin Tibetdə (komiks) • Harri Potter və Sirlər Otağı (roman) • Yeddi gözəl (Nizami) • İsgəndərnamə • Leyli və Məcnun (Nizami) 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Saqa: Yeni Ay • Harri Potter və Fəlsəfə Daşı (film) • Amerikansayağı gözəllik • Küləklə sovrulanlar (film) • Tənha kişi (film) • Ev qulluqçusu (film) • Bozun əlli çaları (film) • Bəziləri isti sevir • Dəmir adam • Qara cəngavər • Taxt-tac oyunları (I mövsüm) • Ulduzlararası • Hörümçək-adam 3 • Qisasçılar: Sonsuzluq savaşı • Unudulmuş əcdadların kölgələri Anime: Angel Beats! • Söz bağçası • Berserk Personajlar: Leya Orqana • Supermen • Ecazkar qadın • Hörümçək-adam • Cek Sərçə • Kirpi Sonik • Fleş • Dəmir adam Musiqi Mahnılar: Billie Jean • Earth Song • Beat It • Bitch I'm Madonna • Bon Jovi Musiqiçilər: Freddi Merkyuri Klassik kompozisiyalar: Qu gölü • Beşinci simfoniya • Yeddi gözəl • Rekviyem • Muğam • Orfey • Sevil • Nəsrlə yazılmış Milad nəğməsi • Böyük simfonik orkestr üçün konsert Sosial elmlər və cəmiyyət Mədəniyyət: Azərbaycan mədəniyyəti • ABŞ mədəniyyəti • Azərbaycan mifologiyası • Azərbaycan təsiri • Azərbaycanda dənizçilik və dəniz mədəniyyəti • Azərbaycan mədəni mühiti Cəmiyyət və siyasət: Uşaq nikahı • Türkofobiya • Azərbaycan Xalq Cümhuriyyəti Parlamentinin üzvləri • Azərbaycan Xalq Cümhuriyyəti tələbələri • İtalyan irredentizmi • Dağıstan azərbaycanlıları • Beynəlxalq Katın Komissiyası • Böyük yalan • Ərəb dünyası–Nasist Almaniyası münasibətləri Siyasi və hərbi xadimlər: Mahatma Qandi • Aspaziya • İvan Mazepa • Malkolm X • Martin Lüter Kinq • Reynhard Heydrix • Ben Şapiro • Əlimərdan bəy Topçubaşov • İsgəndər Həmidov • Mübariz İbrahimov • Rövşən Cavadov • Abbas Lisani • Vyaçeslav Çernovol • Karl Marks • Yasuke Monarxlar, hökmdarlar, hakim idarəçilərin nümayəndələri: I İbrahim • III Böyük Mənuçöhr • Perikl • Böyük Tamara • Makedoniyalı İsgəndər • Hüseynqulu xan Sərdar • Məhəmməd Cahan Pəhləvan • Şəmsəddin Eldəniz • Yozef Pilsudski • Adolf Eyxman • I Təhmasib • Əhməd bəy Ağaoğlu • I Abbas • II Abbas • Cavad xan • Məlikmüzəffər Şahsuvar bəy Zülqədər • Əlaüddövlə Bozqurd bəy Zülqədər Təhsil: Cənubi Florida Universiteti Digər: Pirsinq Tarix Antik dövr: Qladiator • Milad • Qafqaz Albaniyası • Midiya • Manna • Sünik • Roma imperiyasında xristianların təqibi • Hammurapi qanunları Orta əsrlər: Azərbaycan Ərəb Xilafətinin tərkibində • Paris orta əsrlərdə • Şirvanşahlar dövləti • Teymurilər dövləti • Böyük Moğol imperiyası • Göytürk xaqanlığı • Şəki dövləti • Ağqoyunlular • Qəznəvilər dövləti • Eldənizlər • Lvov orta əsrlərdə • Səfəvilərin əhalini şiələşdirməsi • Elxanilər • Zülqədəroğulları bəyliyi Yeni dövr: İrəvan xanlığı • Qarabağ xanlığı • Quba xanlığı • Naxçıvan xanlığı • Türkmənçay müqaviləsi Ən yeni dövr: Qafqaz İslam Ordusu • Azərbaycanın İstiqlal Bəyannaməsi • Con Lennonun qətli • Ceyms Kerdin səyahəti • Yaponiya bayrağı • 1981-ci il irland aclıq aksiyası • Azərbaycanlıların Ermənistandan deportasiyası (1948–1953) • Almaniyanın birləşdirilməsi (1990) • İranda Azərbaycana dəstək aksiyaları (2020) • Anıtqəbirin tarixi • SSRİ-də dissident hərəkatı Video oyunlar Video oyunlar: Steins;Gate • Half-Life • Spider-Man (videooyun, 2018) • Fallout: New Vegas • Fallout (videooyun) • Fallout 4 • Assassin's Creed Origins • Spec Ops: The Line • Ghost of Tsushima Vikipediya:Seçilmiş məqalələr Bu səhifə sonuncu dəfə 20:37, 23 dekabr 2025 tarixində redaktə edilib. 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Family and early life 2 Marriage and family 3 Political success 4 Secretary of State 5 Resignation and conversion to Catholicism 6 Colony of Avalon (Newfoundland) 7 Baltimore in Avalon 8 Attempt to found a Southern colony 9 Legacy 10 Notes 11 References 12 External links George Calvert, 1st Baron Baltimore Afrikaans العربية Deutsch Français Italiano Latina Polski Português Русский Svenska Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item The Right Honourable The Lord Baltimore Secretary of State In office 1618–1625 Proprietor of the Avalon Colony (Newfoundland) In office 1620–1632 Personal details Born 1580 Kiplin , North Yorkshire, England Died 15 April 1632 (1632-04-15) (aged 52–53) Lincoln's Inn Fields , London, England Spouse(s) .mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-inline{display:inline} Anne Mynne ( m. 1604) Joane Children 12, including: .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} Cecil Calvert, 2nd Baron Baltimore Leonard Calvert Philip Calvert Cecil Calvert, 2nd Baron Baltimore Leonard Calvert Philip Calvert Signature George Calvert, 1st Baron Baltimore ( / ˈ b ɔː l t ɪ m ɔːr / ; 1580 – 15 April 1632) was an English politician. He achieved domestic political success as a member of parliament and later Secretary of State under King James I . He lost much of his political power after his support for a failed marriage alliance between Prince Charles and the Spanish House of Habsburg royal family. Rather than continue in politics, he resigned all of his political offices in 1625 except for his position on the Privy Council and declared his Catholicism publicly. He was created Baron Baltimore in the Peerage of Ireland upon his resignation. Baltimore Manor was located in County Longford , Ireland. Calvert took an interest in the British colonization of the Americas , at first for commercial reasons and later to create a refuge for persecuted Irish and English Catholics . He became the proprietor of Avalon , the first sustained English settlement on the southeastern peninsula on the island of Newfoundland (off the eastern coast of modern Canada). Discouraged by its cold and sometimes inhospitable climate and the sufferings of the settlers, he looked for a more suitable spot further south and sought a new royal charter to settle the region, which would become the state of Maryland . Calvert died five weeks before the new Charter was sealed, leaving the settlement of the Maryland colony to his son Cecil . His second son Leonard Calvert was the first colonial governor of the Province of Maryland . Family and early life Little is known of the ancestry of the Yorkshire branch of the Calverts. At George Calvert's knighting, it was claimed that his family originally came from Flanders (a Dutch-speaking area today across the English Channel in modern Belgium ). [ 1 ] Calvert's father, Leonard of Yorkshire, was a country gentleman who had achieved some prominence as a tenant of Lord Wharton , [ 2 ] and was wealthy enough to marry a " gentlewoman " of a noble line, Alicia or Alice Crossland (sometimes spelt "Crosland"). Leonard established his family on the estate of the later-built Kiplin Hall , near Catterick in Yorkshire . [ 3 ] George Calvert was born at Kiplin in late 1579. [ 2 ] His mother Alicia/Alice died on 28 November 1587, when he was eight years old. His father then married Grace Crossland (sometimes spelt: "Crosland"), Alicia's first cousin . In 1569, Sir Thomas Gargrave had described Richmond as a territory where all gentlemen were "evil in religion", by which he meant predominately Roman Catholic; [ 2 ] it appears Leonard Calvert was no exception. During the reign of Elizabeth I , continuing the changes wrought earlier in the century by her father Henry VIII which made the monarch the supreme authority of the Christian Church in England , continuing the Protestant Reformation from the continent of Europe, with the political, spiritual and temporal separation from the Roman Catholic Church and the Pope/ Papacy in Rome, the Royal Government exerted authority over the matters of religious faith, practices and the Church. Acts mandating compulsory religious uniformity were enacted by Parliament and enforced through penal laws. [ 4 ] The Acts of Supremacy and the Uniformity Act of 1559 also included an oath of allegiance to the Queen and an implicit denial of the Pope's (then Pope Paul IV ) authority over the English Church. This oath was required of any subject who wished to hold high office, attend university, or take advantage of opportunities controlled by the state (king/kingdom). [ 5 ] The Calvert household suffered the intrusion of the Elizabethan-era religious laws. From the year of George's birth onward, his father, Leonard Calvert, was subjected to repeated harassment by the Yorkshire authorities, who in 1580 extracted a promise of conformity from him, compelling his attendance at the Church of England services. [ 6 ] In 1592, when George was twelve, the authorities denounced one of his tutors for teaching "from a popish primer" and instructed Leonard and Grace to send George and his brother Christopher to a Protestant tutor and, if necessary, to present the children before the commission "once a month to see how they perfect in learning". [ 6 ] As a result, the boys were sent to a Protestant tutor called Fowberry at Bilton. The senior Calvert had to give a "bond of conformity"; he was banned from employing any Catholic servants and forced to purchase an English Bible, which was to "lie open in his house for everyone to read". [ 6 ] In 1593, records show that Grace Calvert was committed to the custody of a "pursuivant" , an official responsible for identifying and persecuting Catholics, and in 1604 she was described as the "wife of Leonard Calvert of Kipling, non-communicant at Easter last". [ 6 ] George Calvert went up to Trinity College at Oxford University , matriculating in 1593/94, where he studied foreign languages and received a bachelor's degree in 1597. [ 3 ] As the oath of allegiance was compulsory after the age of sixteen, he would almost certainly have pledged conformity while at Oxford. The same pattern of conformity, whether pretended or sincere, continued through Calvert's early life. After Oxford, he moved in 1598 to London, where he studied municipal law at Lincoln's Inn for three years. [ 7 ] Marriage and family In November 1604 he married Anne Mynne (or Mayne), daughter of George Mynne of Hertingfordbury and his wife Elizabeth Wroth, in a Protestant Church of England ceremony at St Peter's , Cornhill, Middlesex , where his address was registered as St Martin in the Fields . [ 8 ] His children, including his eldest son and heir Cecil , who was born in the winter of 1605–06, were all baptised in the Church of England. When Anne died on 8 August 1622, she was buried at Calvert's local Protestant parish church, St Martin-in-the-Fields . [ 8 ] Calvert had a total of twelve children: Cecil , who succeeded his father as the 2nd Baron Baltimore, Leonard , Anne, Dorothy, Elizabeth, Grace, who married Sir Robert Talbot, 2nd Baronet of Carton, County Kildare , Francis, George, Helen, Henry, John (died young), and Philip . [ 9 ] Political success Calvert named his son "Cecilius" for Sir Robert Cecil, first Earl of Salisbury , [ 10 ] [ 11 ] spymaster to Queen Elizabeth, whom Calvert had met during an extended trip to the European mainland between 1601 and 1603, [ 3 ] after which he became known as a specialist in foreign affairs. Calvert carried a packet for Cecilius from Paris, and so entered the service of the principal engineer of King James VI of Scotland's succession to the English throne in 1603 (when he also assumed the title of King James I of England). [ 7 ] King James rewarded Robert Cecil, whom he made a Privy Councillor and secretary of state, with the granting of the title of Earl of Salisbury in 1605 and Lord High Treasurer in 1608, making him the most powerful man at the royal court. [ 7 ] As Cecil rose, Calvert rose with him. Calvert's foreign languages, legal training, and discretion made him an invaluable aide to Robert Cecil who, no lover of Catholics, [ 8 ] seems to have accepted Calvert's conformity as beyond question. Working at the centre of court politics, Calvert exploited his influence by selling favours, an accepted practice for the times. [ 12 ] Calvert accumulated a number of small offices, honours, and sinecures. In August 1605, he attended the King at Oxford, and received an honorary master-of-arts degree in an elaborate ceremony at which the Duke of Lennox , the earls of Oxford and Northumberland , and Cecilius received degrees. [ 13 ] Given the prestige of the other graduates, Calvert's was the last awarded, but his presence in such company signalled his growing stature. [ 10 ] In 1606 the king made Calvert "clerk of the Crown" and "Assizes in Connaught", County Clare , Ireland, his first royal appointment. [ 14 ] In 1609, James appointed him a "clerk of the Signet office", a post which required the preparation of documents for the royal signature and brought Calvert into close contact with the king. [ 8 ] Calvert also served in James's First Parliament as a member for the borough of Bossiney , in the county of Cornwall , installed there by Cecil to support his policies. [ 15 ] In 1610, Calvert was appointed a "clerk of the Privy Council". [ 8 ] Each of these positions would have required an oath of allegiance. With Robert Cecil's support, George Calvert came into his own as an adviser and supporter of King James. In 1610 and 1611, Calvert undertook missions to the continent on behalf of the King, visiting a number of embassies in Paris, Holland , and the Duchy of Cleves , [ 16 ] and acting as an ambassador to the French Royal Court during the coronation of King Louis XIII in 1610. [ 17 ] A correspondent from France reported that Calvert gave "everyone great contentment with his discreet conversation." [ 16 ] In 1615, James sent him to the continental Electorate of the Palatinate (German) in the Holy Roman Empire , whose impoverished elector, Frederick V , had married James's daughter Elizabeth in 1613. [ 18 ] Calvert had to convey the King's disapproval that Elizabeth, for lack of money, had given away expensive jewels to a gentlewoman leaving her employ. Elector Frederick's decision in 1619 to accept the throne of Bohemia triggered a war with the powerful neighbouring Habsburg dynasty of Austria to the southwest in Vienna , which James attempted to end through a proposed alliance with the Kingdom of Spain . [ 19 ] In 1611, James employed Calvert to research and transcribe his tract against the Dutch Protestant theologian Conrad Vorstius . [ 20 ] The following year, Cecil died, and Calvert acted as one of the four executors of his will. The king's favourite, Sir Robert Carr, first Earl of Somerset , Viscount Rochester, assumed the duties of secretary of state and recruited Calvert to assist with foreign policy, in particular the Latin and Spanish correspondence. [ 21 ] Carr, soon raised to the earldom of Somerset , was not a success in the job, and fell from favour partly as a result of the murder of Thomas Overbury , to which Carr's wife Frances, the former Countess of Essex and later Somerset , pleaded guilty in 1615. Carr's place as James's principal favourite was now taken by the handsome George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham , with whom James was said to have been infatuated . [ 22 ] In 1613 the King commissioned Calvert to investigate Roman Catholic grievances in Ireland , along with Sir Humphrey Wynch , Sir Charles Cornwallis and Sir Roger Wilbraham . The commission spent almost four months in Ireland, and its final report, partly drafted by Calvert, concluded that religious conformity should be enforced more strictly in Ireland, Catholic schools be suppressed, and bad priests removed and punished. [ 23 ] The King resolved not to reconvene the Parliament of Ireland until the Catholics "shall be better disciplined". [ 23 ] In 1616 James endowed Calvert with the manor of Danby Wiske in Yorkshire, which brought him into contact with Sir Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford , who became his closest friend and political ally. [ 24 ] Calvert was now wealthy enough to buy the Kiplin Hall estate in his home parish. (Today, the University of Maryland operates a research centre there, while the main building is a house museum owned by the Kiplin Hall Trust.) [ 18 ] In 1617 his social status received a further boost when he was knighted, and then became Sir George Calvert. [ 23 ] In 1619, Calvert completed his rise to power when James appointed him as one of the two principal secretaries of state . This followed the dismissal of Sir Thomas Lake due to scandals, including his wife's indiscretions with state secrets. [ 11 ] [ 25 ] Not emerging as a candidate until the end of the selection process, Calvert's appointment surprised him and most observers. Assuming he owed his promotion to the king's increasingly powerful favourite George Villiers (later first Duke of Buckingham ), he sent him a great jewel as a token of thanks. Villiers returned the jewel, saying he had had nothing to do with the matter. [ 26 ] Calvert's personal fortune was secured when he was additionally appointed a "commissioner of the treasury" with a pension of £1,000 and a subsidy on imported raw silk, which would later be converted to another £1,000 pension. [ 27 ] Secretary of State In Parliament, a political crisis developed over the king's policy of seeking a Spanish wife for Charles, Prince of Wales , as part of a proposed alliance with the Habsburgs. [ 28 ] In the parliament of 1621, it fell to Calvert to advocate the Spanish Match , as it came to be called, against the majority of Parliament, who feared an increase in Catholic influence on the state. [ 29 ] As a result of his pro-Spanish stance and defence of relaxations in the penal laws against Catholics, Calvert became estranged from many in the Commons , who were suspicious of his close familiarity with the Spanish ambassador's court. [ 30 ] Calvert also faced difficulties in his private life: his wife's death on 8 August 1622 left him the single father of ten children, the oldest of whom, Cecil, was sixteen years old. [ 31 ] King James rewarded Calvert in 1623 for his loyalty by granting him a 2,300-acre (930-hectare) estate in County Longford , in the Irish province of Leinster , where his seat was known as the "Manor of Baltimore". [ 32 ] The name Baltimore is an anglicisation of the Irish Baile an Tí Mhóir meaning "town of the big house". Calvert was increasingly isolated from court circles as the Prince of Wales , (heir to the throne) and George Villiers wrested control of policy from the ageing James. Without consulting the diplomatically astute Calvert, the prince and the duke travelled to Spain to negotiate the Spanish marriage for themselves, with disastrous results. [ 33 ] Instead of securing an alliance, the visit provoked hostility between the two courts which quickly led to war . In a reversal of policy, Buckingham dismissed the treaties with Spain, summoned a war council, and sought a French marriage for the Prince of Wales. [ 34 ] Resignation and conversion to Catholicism As the chief parliamentary spokesman for an abandoned policy, Calvert no longer served a useful purpose to the English Royal Court, and by February 1624 his duties had been restricted to placating the Spanish ambassador. [ 35 ] The degree of his disfavour was shown when he was reprimanded for supposedly delaying diplomatic letters. [ 35 ] Calvert bowed to the inevitable. On the pretext of ill health, he began negotiations for the sale of his position, finally resigning the secretariat in February 1625. [ 36 ] No disgrace was attached to Calvert's departure from office: the King, to whom he had always remained personally loyal, confirmed his place on the Privy Council and appointed him Baron Baltimore, of Baltimore, County Longford , one of his Irish manors . [ 37 ] Immediately after Calvert resigned, he converted to Roman Catholicism. [ 38 ] The connection between Calvert's resignation and his conversion to Roman Catholicism was a complex one. George Cottington, a former employee of Calvert, suggested in 1628 that Calvert's conversion had been in progress a long time before it was made public. [ 39 ] George Abbot , the reigning Archbishop of Canterbury (and ecclesiastical head of the independent Church of England ), reported that political opposition to Calvert, combined with his loss of office, had "made him discontented and, as the saying is, "Desperatio facit monachum" , so hee apparently did turne papist, which hee now professeth, this being the third time that he hath bene to blame that way [sic]". [ 40 ] Godfrey Goodman , the Bishop of Gloucester , later claimed Calvert had been a secret Catholic all along, which explained his support for lenient policies towards Catholics and for the Spanish match. [ 41 ] No one had questioned Calvert's conformity at the time, and if he had been secretly Catholic , he had hidden it well. It seems more likely Calvert converted in late 1624. At the time, Simon Stock, a Discalced Carmelite priest reported to the Congregation Propaganda Fide [ 42 ] in Rome on 15 November that he had converted two Privy Councillors to Catholicism, one of whom historians are certain was Calvert. [ 43 ] Calvert, who had probably met Stock at the Spanish embassy in London, later worked with the priest on a plan for a Catholic mission in his new first Newfoundland Colony (off modern Canada). [ 44 ] When King James I died in March 1625, his successor Charles I maintained Calvert's barony but not his previous place on the Privy Council. [ 45 ] Calvert then turned his attention to his Irish estates and his overseas investments. He was not entirely forgotten at court. [ 46 ] After Buckingham 's dabblings in wars against Spain and France had ended in failure, he recalled Baltimore to court, and for a while may have considered employing him in the peace negotiations with Spain. [ 47 ] Though nothing came of Baltimore's recall, he renewed his rights over the silk-import duties, which had lapsed with the death of James I, [ 48 ] and secured Charles' blessing for his venture in the "New Found Land". Colony of Avalon (Newfoundland) Calvert had long maintained an interest in the exploration and settlement of the New World , beginning with his investment of twenty-five pounds in the second Virginia Company in 1609, and a few months later a more substantial sum in the East India Company , which he increased in 1614. [ 49 ] In 1620, Calvert purchased a tract of land in Newfoundland from Sir William Vaughan , a Welsh writer and colonial investor, who had earlier failed to establish a colony on the large subarctic island off the eastern coast of North America. He named the area of the peninsula as Avalon, after the legendary spot where Christianity was supposedly introduced to Roman Britain in ancient times. [ 50 ] The plantation lay on what is now called the Avalon Peninsula [ 51 ] and included the fishing station at " Ferryland ". [ 52 ] Calvert almost certainly had a fishery project in mind at this stage. [ 53 ] Calvert dispatched Captain Edward Wynne and a group of Welsh colonists to Ferryland, where they landed in August 1621, and set about constructing a settlement. [ 54 ] Wynne sent positive reports concerning the potential for local fisheries and for the production of salt , hemp , flax , tar , iron , timber and hops . [ 55 ] Wynne also praised the climate, declaring, "It is better and not so cold as England," and predicted that the colony would become self-sufficient after one year. [ 56 ] Others corroborated Wynne's reports: for example, Captain Daniel Powell, who delivered a further party of settlers to Ferryland, wrote: "The land on which our Governor [Calvert and/or Wynne] planted is so good and commodious, that for the quantity, I think there is no better in many parts of England"; but he added ominously that Ferryland was "the coldest harbour in the land". [ 57 ] Wynne and his men began work on various building projects, including a substantial house and the shoring up of the harbour. To protect them against marauding French warships, a recent hazard in the area, since the recent founding of New France in the interior (modern Lower Canada of the 18th and 19th centuries, Province of Quebec and Dominion of Canada ) along the St. Lawrence River , Calvert employed the pirate John Nutt . [ 58 ] The settlement appeared to be progressing so well that in January 1623, Calvert obtained a concession from King James for the whole of Newfoundland, though the grant was soon reduced to cover only the southeastern Avalon peninsula, owing to competing claims from other English colonists. [ 59 ] The final Charter constituted the province as a "county palatinate" , officially titled the "Province of Avalon", under Calvert's personal rule. [ 60 ] After resigning the Royal secretariat of state in 1625, the new Baron Baltimore made clear his intention to visit the colony: "I intend shortly," he wrote in March, "God willing, a journey for Newfoundland to visit a plantation which I began there some few years since." [ 61 ] His plans were disrupted by the death of King James I, and by the crackdown on Catholics with which King Charles I began his reign to appease his opponents. The new King required all privy councillors to take the oaths of supremacy and allegiance; and since Baltimore, as a Catholic, had to refuse, he was obliged to step down from that cherished office. [ 62 ] Given the new religious and political climate, and perhaps also to escape a serious outbreak of plague in England, Baltimore moved to his estates in Ireland. His expedition to Newfoundland had set sail without him in late May 1625 under Sir Arthur Aston , who became the new provincial Governor of Avalon. [ 63 ] A reference by David Rothe, bishop of Ossory in Ireland, to a "Joane [also recorded as Jane] Baltimore now wife" of Calvert, reveals that Baltimore had recently remarried. [ 64 ] From the time of his conversion in 1625 onwards, Baltimore took care to cater for the religious needs of his colonists, both Catholic and Protestant. He had asked Simon Stock to provide priests for the 1625 expedition, [ 65 ] but Stock's recruits arrived in England after Aston had sailed. Stock's own ambitions for the colony appear to have exceeded Baltimore's: in letters to De Propaganda Fide in Rome, Stock claimed the Newfoundland settlement could act as a springboard for the conversion of natives not only in the New World but also in China, the latter via a passage he believed existed from the east coast to the Pacific Ocean. [ 66 ] Baltimore in Avalon Baltimore was determined to visit his colony in person. In May 1626, he wrote to Wentworth: Newfoundland ... imports me more than in Curiosity only to see; for I must either go and settle it in a better Order than it is, or else give it over, and lose all the Charges I have been at hitherto for other Men to build their Fortunes upon. And I had rather be esteemed a Fool for some by the Hazard of one Month's journey, than to prove myself one certainly for six Years by past, if the Business be now lost for some want of a little Pains and Care. [ 67 ] Newfoundland ... imports me more than in Curiosity only to see; for I must either go and settle it in a better Order than it is, or else give it over, and lose all the Charges I have been at hitherto for other Men to build their Fortunes upon. And I had rather be esteemed a Fool for some by the Hazard of one Month's journey, than to prove myself one certainly for six Years by past, if the Business be now lost for some want of a little Pains and Care. [ 67 ] Aston's return to England in late 1626, [ 68 ] along with all the Catholic settlers, failed to deter Baltimore, who finally sailed for Newfoundland in 1627, arriving on 23 July and staying only two months before returning to England. [ 69 ] He had taken both Protestant and Catholic settlers with him, as well as two secular priests , Thomas Longville and Anthony Pole (also known as Smith), the latter remaining behind in the colony when Baltimore departed for England. The land Baltimore had seen was by no means the paradise described by some early settlers, being only marginally productive; [ 70 ] as the summer climate was deceptively mild, his brief visit gave Baltimore no reason to alter his plans for the colony. In 1628 he sailed again for Newfoundland, this time with his second wife Jane, and most of his children, [ 71 ] and 40 more settlers, to officially take over as Proprietary Governor of Avalon. [ 72 ] He and his family moved into the house at Ferryland built by Wynne, a sizeable structure for the time, by colonial standards, and the only one in the settlement large enough to accommodate religious services for the community. [ 73 ] Matters connected to religion were to bedevil Baltimore's stay in "this remote part of the worlde where I have planted my selfe [ sic ]". He sailed at a time when English military preparations were underway to relieve the Huguenots at La Rochelle. He was dismayed to find that the war with France had spread to Newfoundland, and that he had to spend most of his time fighting off French attacks on English fishing fleets with his own ships the Dove and the Ark . [ 74 ] As he wrote to Buckingham, "I came to builde, and sett, and sowe, but I am falne to fighting with Frenchmen [sic]". His settlers were so successful against the French that they captured several ships, which they escorted back to England to help with the war effort. Baltimore was granted the loan of one of the ships to aid in his defence of the colony, as well as a share of the prize money. [ 75 ] Adopting a policy of free religious worship in the colony, Baltimore allowed the Catholics to worship in one part of his house and the Protestants in another. This novel arrangement proved too much for the resident Anglican priest, Erasmus Stourton —"that knave Stourton", as Baltimore referred to him—who, after altercations with Baltimore, was placed on a ship for England, where he lost no time in reporting Baltimore's practices to the authorities, complaining that the Catholic priests Smith and Hackett said mass every Sunday and "doe use all other ceremonies of the church of Rome in as ample a manner as tis used in Spayne [sic]". [ 76 ] and that Baltimore had the son of a Protestant forcibly baptised as a Catholic. [ 77 ] Although Stourton's complaints were investigated by the Privy Council, due to Baltimore's support in high places the case was dismissed. [ 78 ] Baltimore had become disenchanted with conditions in "this wofull country", and he wrote to his old acquaintances in England lamenting his troubles. [ 79 ] The final blow to his hopes was dealt by the Newfoundland winter of 1628–9, which did not release its grip until May. Like others before them, the residents of Avalon suffered terribly from the cold and from malnutrition. [ 80 ] Nine or ten of Baltimore's company died that winter, and with half the settlers ill at one time, his house had to be turned into a hospital. The sea froze over, and nothing would grow before May. "Tis not terra Christianorum", Baltimore wrote to Wentworth. [ 81 ] He confessed to the king: "I have found...by too deare bought experience [that which other men] always concealed from me...that there is a sad face of wynter upon all this land". [ 81 ] Baltimore solicited a new charter from the king. To found an alternative colony in a less hostile climate further south, he requested "a precinct" in Virginia , where he could grow tobacco. [ 82 ] He wrote to his friends Francis Cottington and Thomas Wentworth enlisting their support for this new proposal, admitting the impression his abandonment of Avalon might make in England: "I shall rayse a great deal of talke and discourse and be censured by most men of giddiness and levity [sic]". [ 83 ] The king, perhaps guided by Baltimore's friends at court, replied expressing concern for Baltimore's health and gently advising him to forget colonial schemes and return to England, where he would be treated with every respect: "Men of your condition and breeding are fitter for other imployments than the framing of new plantations, which commonly have rugged & laborious beginnings, and require much greater meanes, in managing them, than usually the power of one private subject can reach unto". [ 84 ] Baltimore sent his children home to England in August. By the time the king's letter reached Avalon, he had departed with his wife and servants for Virginia. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] Attempt to found a Southern colony In late September or October 1629, Baltimore arrived in Jamestown , where the Virginians, who suspected him of designs on some of their territory and vehemently opposed Catholicism, gave him a cool welcome. They gave him the oaths of supremacy and allegiance, which he refused to take, so they ordered him to leave. [ 86 ] After no more than a few weeks in the colony, Baltimore left for England to pursue the new charter, leaving his wife and servants behind. [ 87 ] In early 1630 he procured a ship to fetch them, but it foundered off the Irish coast, and his wife drowned. [ 88 ] Baltimore described himself the following year as "a long time myself a Man of Sorrows ". [ 89 ] Baltimore spent the last two years of his life constantly lobbying for his new charter, though the obstacles proved difficult. The Virginians, led by William Claiborne , who sailed to England to make the case, campaigned aggressively against the separate colonising of the Chesapeake , claiming they possessed the rights to that area. [ 90 ] Baltimore was short of capital, having exhausted his fortune, and was sometimes forced to depend on the assistance of his friends. [ 90 ] To make matters worse, in the summer of 1630 his household was infected by the bubonic plague , which he survived. He wrote to Wentworth: "Blessed be God for it who hath preserved me now from shipwreck, hunger, scurvy and pestilence..." [ 91 ] His health declining, Baltimore's persistence over the charter finally paid off in 1632. The king first granted him a location south of Jamestown, but Baltimore asked the king to reconsider in response to opposition from other investors interested in settling the new land of Carolina into a sugar plantation. [ 92 ] Baltimore eventually compromised by accepting redrawn boundaries to the north of the Potomac River , on either side of the Chesapeake Bay . [ 93 ] The charter was about to pass when the fifty-two-year-old Baltimore died in his lodgings at Lincoln's Inn Fields, on 15 April 1632. [ 94 ] Five weeks later, on 20 June 1632, the charter for Maryland passed the seals. [ 95 ] Legacy In his will, written the day before he died, Baltimore beseeched his friends Wentworth and Cottington to act as guardians and supervisors to his first son Cecil, who inherited the title of Lord Baltimore and the imminent grant of Maryland. [ 97 ] Baltimore's two colonies in the New World continued under the proprietorship of his family. [ 98 ] Avalon, which remained a prime spot for the salting and export of fish, was expropriated by Sir David Kirke , with a new royal charter which Cecil Calvert vigorously challenged, and it was finally absorbed into Newfoundland in 1754. [ 99 ] Although Baltimore's failed Avalon venture marked the end of an early era of attempts at proprietary colonisation, it laid the foundation upon which permanent settlements developed in that region of Newfoundland. [ 100 ] Maryland became a prime tobacco exporting colony in the mid-Atlantic and, for a time, a refuge for Catholic settlers, as George Calvert had hoped. [ 101 ] Under the rule of the Lords Baltimore, thousands of British Catholics emigrated to Maryland, establishing some of the oldest Catholic communities in what later became the United States. [ 101 ] Catholic rule in Maryland was eventually nullified by the re-assertion of royal control over the colony. One hundred and forty years after its first settlement, Maryland joined twelve other British colonies along the Atlantic coast in declaring their independence from British rule and the right to freedom of religion for all citizens in the new United States. [ 102 ] The World War II ship SS George Calvert was named in his honour. Notes ^ Browne, p. 2. ^ a b c Krugler, p. 28. ^ a b c Browne, p. 3. ^ Krugler, pp. 12–16; From 1571, graduated fines were imposed on anyone attending mass in the Roman Catholic church , and generous rewards were offered to informers of the crime. Middleton, p. 95. ^ Krugler, pp. 12–16. ^ a b c d Krugler, pp. 28–30. ^ a b c Krugler, p. 30. ^ a b c d e Krugler, p. 32. ^ Browne, p. 11 ^ a b Browne, p. 4. ^ a b Fiske, p. 255. ^ Krugler, p. 31. ^ Browne, p. 4; Krugler, p. 32. ^ Krugler, p. 33. ^ Browne, pp. 3–4. ^ a b Krugler, p. 35. ^ Browne, p. 5. ^ a b Krugler, p. 39. ^ Krugler, p. 40. ^ Krugler, p. 36. ^ Krugler, p. 37. ^ Stewart, p. 265. ^ a b c Krugler, p. 38. ^ Krugler, pp. 38, 83. ^ Browne, p. 6. ^ Krugler. pp. 41–42. ^ Browne, p. 8; Brugger, p. 4. ^ Krugler, p. 24. ^ Krugler, pp. 24–5. ^ Krugler, pp. 49–51. ^ Browne, p. 11. ^ Brugger, p. 4. ^ Krugler, pp. 61–3. ^ Krugler, pp. 63–64. ^ a b Krugler, p. 66. ^ Krugler, pp. 65–66. ^ "On 16th/26th February, in recompense for past services, King James I appointed Calvert Baron Baltimore of Baltimore, in County Longford, Ireland." Codignola, 12; In March, Lord Carew wrote: "Calvert is removed from his place as secretary of state, but yet without disgrace, for the king hath created him baron of Baltimore in Ireland, and remaynes a councillor". Krugler, p. 74. ^ Amerigo Salvetti, Tuscan representative in London, wrote in his January–February newsletter "being resolved for the future to live and die as a Catholic, he knew he could not serve him [the duke] where he was without the jealousy of the state and danger from Parliament." Krugler, p. 74. ^ Codignola, p. 12. ^ Krugler, p. 69. Abbot's remark suggests previous wavering on Calvert's part; Krugler speculates that the two previous times "he had bene to blame that way" were during his childhood, when his Catholic family was forced to become Protestant, and during the period of distress and doubt Calvert experienced after the death of his wife. ^ Krugler, p. 70. ^ "The Sacred Congregation de propaganda fide , officially established by Pope Gregory XV on 22 June 1622, with the papal bull : "Inscrutabile divinae providentiae" , had the double mission of spreading the "True Faith" among the infidels and of protecting it wherever Catholics lived side-by-side with non-Catholics. 'Propaganda' was meant to pursue these goals by co-ordinating all missionary activities and centralising information on foreign lands ... on the global chessboard on which Propaganda was operating, England was one of its most difficult problems.", Codignola, p. 9. ^ Letter of Simon Stock, 15 November 1624 quoted by Codignola, p. 11. ^ Codignola, p. 11. ^ Browne, p. 14; Fiske, p. 256; Codignola, p. 12; Krugler, p. 5. ^ Krugler, p. 78. ^ The Venetian ambassador wrote "Should this new scheme attain the king's assent, he [Baltimore] will be employed in it, because they consider him to be a staunch Spaniard". But later he wrote, "Because he is so notoriously a Spaniard the king cannot employ him from lack of confidence". Krugler, p. 90. ^ Krugler, pp. 90–91. ^ Krugler, pp. 33–4 and 39; He later also became a member of the New England Company which founded the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1622. Browne, p. 15. ^ Browne, p. 16. ^ Between the modern towns of Fermeuse and Aquaforte . ^ Fiske, p. 256. ^ Pope, p. 32. ^ Browne, p. 16; Codignola, p. 10. ^ Browne, p. 16; Wynne promised to send Calvert a barrel of the best salt that ever "my eyes beheld". Krugler, p. 79. ^ Krugler, p. 79. ^ When Calvert wintered in the colony in 1628–29, he would write of being deceived by the "lying letters of the Governors and such". Krugler, p. 79. ^ When Nutt was captured in 1623 after switching his activities to the Irish Sea , Calvert had him released, and his captor Captain Eliot imprisoned for malfeasance of office. Krugler, p. 82. ^ Browne, p. 17; Codignola, p. 10. ^ Browne, p. 17; Fiske, p. 256; A Palatinate was a province governed by a semi-autonomous agent in the King's name. Calvert, who had in April 1621, opposed attempts by the House of Commons in the English Parliament to extend their authority to the fishing rights in the "Americas"/"New World", believed that plantations: "are not yet annexed to the Crown of England, but are the King's as gotten him by conquest" governed according to the King's Prerogative, as he saw fit. Krugler, p. 78. ^ Krugler, pp. 75 and 84. ^ Charles accepted Baltimore's refusal with good grace. "His ability to manipulate the government for his own purposes over the next few years belies any suggestion that the government hounded him out of England." Krugler, pp. 85–7. ^ Krugler, pp. 85–86. Aston was granted a royal licence for the voyage in return for bringing back some hawks and elks for the king. ^ Since there is not a record of the marriage, it would certainly have been a Catholic one. Krugler, p. 86. ^ Stock wrote to his superiors that the "Avalon gentleman", as he cautiously called Baltimore, "desires to take with him two or three brethren to sow the Sacred Faith in that land." Krugler, p. 89. ^ Codignola, p. 25; Stock conceived the Avalon colony as a base for conversion, lest the natives "become pernicious heretics" under the influence of Protestant settlers. Krugler, p. 89. ^ Codignola, p. 43. ^ Aston died the following year in the siege of Île de Ré , opposite La Rochelle , in the service of George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham . Codignola, p. 42. ^ Browne, p. 18. ^ Browne, pp. 18–19. ^ He left his eldest son Cecil at home to supervise his lands and his affairs. Krugler, p. 95. ^ Browne, p. 19; Fiske, page 261. ^ The building was a two-storey longhouse, fifteen by forty-four feet, probably of stone, partly roofed with boards and partly with "sedge, flagges, and rushes"; it had a stone kitchen and chimney, a parlour, a two-room storehouse, a smithy, saltworks, brewhouse, henhouse, and tenements. Pope, p. 128. ^ Browne, p. 20; Fiske, p. 261. ^ Krugler, p. 95. ^ Krugler, p. 97. Baltimore's tolerance went down no better with the Catholics: Propaganda banned Catholics from worshipping in the same house as "heretics", but in practice, Baltimore's house in Ferryland was the only option for either denomination. Krugler, p. 98. ^ Codignola, p. 53. ^ Browne, pp. 23–24; Fiske, p. 261; Codignola, p. 53; Baltimore thanked the king for "protecting me also against calumny and malice" of those who sought "to make me seem foule" in your eyes. Krugler, p. 100. ^ Codignola, p. 53; Browne, pp. 19–20. ^ Browne, p. 24; Fiske, p. 261. ^ a b Krugler, p. 102. ^ Browne, pp. 24–25. ^ Letter to Wentworth. Krugler, p. 102. ^ a b Codignola, p. 54. ^ Browne, p. 27. ^ Browne, p. 27; Fiske, pp. 263–4; The Virginians may also have nursed unpleasant memories of Baltimore's membership of the Virginia Company board, when James I had revoked its original charter in 1624. Krugler, pp. 104–5. ^ Browne, p. 28. ^ Krugler, pp. 106–7. ^ Krugler, p. 117. ^ a b Krugler, p. 107. ^ Krugler, p. 108. ^ Fiske, p. 265. ^ Browne, p. 17. ^ Browne, p. 31; Krugler, p. 118. ^ Krugler, p. 118. ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Englefield, Eric (1979). Flags . Ward Lock. p. 104. ^ Browne, p. 31; Fiske, pp. 265–266; Krugler, p. 118. ^ Browne, pp. 31–32. ^ Browne, p. 32; Pope, p. 6. ^ Pope, p. 4. ^ a b Hennesey, pp. 36–45. ^ Hennesey, pp. 55–68. References Browne, William Hand (1890). George Calvert and Cecil Calvert: Barons Baltimore of Baltimore . New York: Dodd, Mead, and Company. Brugger, Robert J. (1988). Maryland: A Middle Temperament, 1634–1980 . Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press. ISBN 0-8018-3399-X . Codignola, Luca (1988). The Coldest Harbour of the Land: Simon Stock and Lord Baltimore's Colony in Newfoundland, 1621–1649, Translated by Anita Weston . Kingston, Ontario: McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 0-7735-0540-7 . Fiske, John (1897). Old Virginia and Her Neighbors . Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Hennesey, James (1981). American Catholics: A History of the Roman Catholic Community in the United States . Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-503268-3 . Krugler, John D. (2004). English and Catholic: the Lords Baltimore in the Seventeenth Century . Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-7963-9 . Middleton, Richard (3rd ed. 2002). Colonial America: A History. 1565–1776 . Oxford, UK; Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers. ISBN 0-631-22141-7 . Pope, Peter Edward (2004). Fish into Wine: the Newfoundland Plantation in the Seventeenth Century . Chapel Hill: Published for the Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture, Williamsburg, Virginia, by the University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-2910-2 . Stewart, Alan (2003). The Cradle King: A Life of James VI & I . London: Chatto & Windus. ISBN 0-7011-6984-2 . External links @media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}} Texts on Wikisource: " Calvert I. George ". The American Cyclopædia . Vol. 3. 1879. pp. 629– 630. " Baltimore, Sir George Calvert ". The Biographical Dictionary of America . Vol. 1. 1906. p. 202. " Baltimore, George Calvert, 1st Baron ". Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 3 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 287. " Calvert I. George ". The American Cyclopædia . Vol. 3. 1879. pp. 629– 630. " Baltimore, Sir George Calvert ". The Biographical Dictionary of America . Vol. 1. 1906. p. 202. " Baltimore, George Calvert, 1st Baron ". Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 3 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 287. Calvert Family Tree (accessed 10 July 2013) Calvert, Sir George (bio) , from "The Governorship of Newfoundland and Labrador: Government House" website. Calvert, Sir George (bio) , from Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online Calvert, Sir George (bio) , from Encyclopædia Britannica , full-article free, latest online edition. Calvert, Sir George (bio) , from Maryland State Archives. Includes photographs and sources. Parliament of England Preceded by Sir Jerome Horsey George Upton Member of Parliament for Bossiney 1609–1611 With: Sir Jerome Horsey Succeeded by Sir Jerome Horsey John Wood Preceded by Sir John Savile Sir Thomas Wentworth Member of Parliament for Yorkshire 1621–1622 With: Sir Thomas Wentworth Succeeded by Sir Thomas Savile Sir John Savile Preceded by Sir John Bennet Sir Clement Edmondes Member of Parliament for Oxford University 1624 With: Sir Isaac Wake Succeeded by Sir Thomas Edmonds Sir John Danvers Government offices Preceded by Sir Thomas Lake Sir Robert Naunton Secretary of State 1619–1625 With: Sir Robert Naunton 1619–1623 Sir Edward Conway 1623–1625 Succeeded by Sir Edward Conway Sir Albertus Morton Preceded by Sir Arthur Aston Proprietary Governor of Newfoundland 1627–1629 Succeeded by Cecil Calvert Peerage of Ireland New creation Baron Baltimore 1625–1632 Succeeded by Cecil Calvert .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output 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.navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Lieutenant-Governors and Governors of Newfoundland v t e Proprietary Governors (1610–1660) Guy Mason Hayman Whitbourne Tanfield Wynne Aston Calvert Baltimore Hill Kirke Treworgie Guy Mason Hayman Whitbourne Tanfield Wynne Aston Calvert Baltimore Hill Kirke Treworgie French Governors of Plaisance (1655–1713) de Kéréon Gargot Du Perron Bellot Palme Pioppe Parat Louis de Pastour de Costebelle de Brouillan de Monic de Subercase Philippe Pastour de Costebelle de Kéréon Gargot Du Perron Bellot Palme Pioppe Parat Louis de Pastour de Costebelle de Brouillan de Monic de Subercase Philippe Pastour de Costebelle Lieutenant-governors of Placentia (1713–1770) Moody Purcell Gledhill Cope Hamilton Goreham Moody Purcell Gledhill Cope Hamilton Goreham Commodore-Governors (1729–1825) Osborn Clinton Falkingham Muskerry Lee Vanbrugh Medley Smith Byng Smith Hardy Edwards Douglas Watson Rodney Drake Bonfoy Dorrill Edwards Webb Graves Palliser Byron Shuldham Duff 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Construction 2 End of World War II 3 Post-war events 4 See also 5 References Toggle References subsection 5.1 Informational notes 5.2 Citations 5.1 Informational notes 5.2 Citations 6 Bibliography 7 Further reading 8 External links Führerbunker العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Latviešu Magyar Македонски Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Simple English کوردی Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Führerbunker Führer's bunker July 1947 photo of the rear entrance to the Führerbunker in the garden of the Reich Chancellery . The corpses of Hitler and Eva Braun were burned in a shell hole in front of the emergency exit at left; the conical structure in the centre served for ventilation, and as a bomb shelter for the guards. [ 1 ] .mw-parser-output .locmap .od{position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .id{position:absolute;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .locmap .l0{font-size:0;position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv{line-height:110%;position:absolute;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv>div{display:inline;padding:1px}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:left}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:#fff!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .locmap img{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .locmap img{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:white!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}} Location within Central Berlin General information Location Berlin , Germany Coordinates .mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap} 52°30′45″N 13°22′53″E / 52.5125°N 13.3815°E / 52.5125; 13.3815 Construction started 1943 Completed 1944 Destroyed started 1947, completed 1980s Cost 1.35 million ℛ︁ℳ︁ (equivalent to €5 million in 2021) Design and construction Architects Albert Speer , Karl Piepenburg Architecture firm Hochtief AG The Führerbunker ( .mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%} German pronunciation: [ˈfyːʁɐˌbʊŋkɐ] ⓘ ) was an air raid shelter located near the Reich Chancellery in Berlin , Germany . It was part of a subterranean bunker complex constructed in two phases in 1936 and 1944. It was the last of the Führer Headquarters ( Führerhauptquartiere ) used by Adolf Hitler during World War II . Hitler took up residence in the Führerbunker on 16 January 1945, and it became the centre of the Nazi regime until the last week of World War II in Europe. Hitler married Eva Braun there on 29 April 1945, less than 40 hours before they committed suicide . After the war, both the old and new Chancellery buildings were levelled by the Soviet Red Army . The underground complex remained largely undisturbed until 1988–89, despite some attempts at demolition. The excavated sections of the old bunker complex were mostly destroyed during reconstruction of that area of Berlin. The site remained unmarked until 2006, when a small plaque was installed with a schematic diagram. Some corridors of the bunker still exist, but are sealed off from the public. Construction The Reich Chancellery bunker was initially constructed as a temporary air-raid shelter for Hitler, who actually spent very little time in the capital during most of the war. Increased bombing of Berlin led to expansion of the complex as an improvised permanent shelter. The elaborate complex consisted of two separate shelters, the Vorbunker ("forward bunker"; the upper bunker), completed in 1936, and the Führerbunker , located 2.5 metres (8 ft 2 in) lower than the Vorbunker and to the west-southwest, completed in 1944. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] They were connected by a stairway set at right angles and could be closed off from each other by a bulkhead and steel door. [ 4 ] The Vorbunker was located 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) beneath the cellar of a large reception hall behind the old Reich Chancellery at Wilhelmstrasse 77. [ 5 ] The Führerbunker was located about 8.5 m (28 ft) beneath the garden of the old Reich Chancellery, 120 m (390 ft) north of the new Reich Chancellery building at Voßstraße 6. [ 6 ] Besides being deeper under ground, the Führerbunker had significantly more reinforcement. Its roof was made of concrete almost 3 m (9 ft 10 in) thick. [ 7 ] About 30 small rooms were protected by approximately 4 m (13 ft 1 in) of concrete; exits led into the main buildings, as well as an emergency exit up to the garden. The Führerbunker development was built by the Hochtief company as part of an extensive programme of subterranean construction in Berlin begun in 1940. [ 8 ] The construction cost for the Führerbunker totaled 1,349,899.29 Reichsmarks . [ 9 ] Hitler's accommodations were in this newer, lower section, and by February 1945 it had been decorated with high-quality furniture taken from the Chancellery, along with several framed oil paintings. [ 10 ] After descending the stairs into the lower section and passing through the steel door, there was a long corridor with a series of rooms on each side. [ 11 ] On the right side were a series of rooms which included generator/ventilation rooms and the telephone switchboard. [ 11 ] On the left side was Eva Braun 's bedroom/sitting room (also known as Hitler's private guest room), and an antechamber (also known as Hitler's sitting room), which led into Hitler's study/office. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] On the wall hung a large portrait of Frederick the Great , one of Hitler's heroes. [ 14 ] A door led into Hitler's modestly furnished bedroom. [ 13 ] Next to it was the conference/map room (also known as the briefing/situation room) which had a door that led out into the waiting room/anteroom. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] The bunker complex was self-contained. [ 15 ] However, as the Führerbunker was below the water table , conditions were unpleasantly damp, with pumps running continuously to remove groundwater . A diesel generator provided electricity, and well water was pumped in as the water supply. [ 16 ] Communications systems included a telex , a telephone switchboard, and an army radio set with an outdoor antenna. As conditions deteriorated at the end of the war, Hitler received much of his war news from BBC radio broadcasts and via courier. [ 17 ] End of World War II Hitler moved into the Führerbunker on 16 January 1945. His senior staff, including Martin Bormann and Joseph Goebbels , as well as Braun, joined them in April, while Magda Goebbels and their six children took residence in the upper Vorbunker . [ 18 ] Two or three dozen support, medical, and administrative staff were also sheltered there. These included Hitler's secretaries (including Traudl Junge ), a nurse named Erna Flegel , and Sergeant Rochus Misch , who was both bodyguard and telephone switchboard operator. Initially, Hitler continued to use the undamaged wing of the Reich Chancellery, where he held afternoon military conferences in his large study. [ 19 ] Afterwards, he would have tea with his secretaries before returning to the bunker complex for the night. After several weeks of this routine, Hitler seldom left the bunker except for short strolls in the chancellery garden with his dog Blondi . [ 19 ] The bunker was crowded, the atmosphere was oppressive, and air raids occurred daily. [ 20 ] Hitler mostly stayed on the lower level, where it was quieter and he could sleep. [ 21 ] Conferences took place for much of the night, [ 20 ] often until 05:00. [ 22 ] On 16 April, the Red Army started the Battle of Berlin , and they started to encircle the city by 19 April. [ 23 ] Hitler made his last trip to the surface on 20 April, his 56th birthday, going to the ruined garden of the Reich Chancellery where he awarded the Iron Cross to boy soldiers of the Hitler Youth . [ 24 ] That afternoon, Berlin was bombarded by Soviet artillery for the first time. [ 25 ] Hitler was in denial about the dire situation and placed his hopes on the units commanded by Waffen-SS General Felix Steiner , the Armeeabteilung Steiner (" Army Detachment Steiner "). On 21 April, Hitler ordered Steiner to attack the northern flank of the encircling Soviet salient and ordered the German Ninth Army , south-east of Berlin, to attack northward in a pincer attack . [ 26 ] [ 27 ] That evening, Red Army tanks reached the outskirts of Berlin. [ 28 ] Hitler was told at his afternoon situation conference on 22 April that Steiner's forces had not moved, and he fell into a tearful rage when he realised that the attack was not going to be carried out. He openly declared for the first time the war was lost—and he blamed his generals. Hitler announced that he would stay in Berlin until the end and then shoot himself. [ 29 ] On 23 April, [ a ] Hitler appointed General of the Artillery Helmuth Weidling , commander of the LVI Panzer Corps , as the commander of the Berlin Defense Area, replacing Lieutenant Colonel ( Oberstleutnant ) Ernst Kaether . [ 30 ] The Red Army had consolidated their investment of Berlin by 25 April, despite the commands being issued from the Führerbunker . There was no prospect that the German defence could do anything but delay the city's capture. [ 31 ] Hitler summoned Field Marshal Robert Ritter von Greim from Munich to Berlin to take over command of the Luftwaffe from Hermann Göring , and he arrived on 26 April along with his mistress, the test pilot Hanna Reitsch . [ 32 ] On 28 April, Hitler learned that Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler was trying to discuss surrender terms with the Western Allies through Count Folke Bernadotte , [ 33 ] and Hitler considered this treason. [ 34 ] Himmler's SS representative in Berlin, Hermann Fegelein , was shot after being court-martialed for desertion, and Hitler ordered Himmler's arrest. [ 35 ] [ 32 ] On the same day, General Hans Krebs made his last telephone call from the Führerbunker to Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel , Chief of German Armed Forces High Command (OKW) in Fürstenberg . Krebs told him that all would be lost if relief did not arrive within 48 hours. Keitel promised to exert the utmost pressure on Generals Walther Wenck , commander of the Twelfth Army , and Theodor Busse , commander of the Ninth Army. Meanwhile, Bormann wired to German Admiral Karl Dönitz : "Reich Chancellery a heap of rubble." [ 32 ] He said that the foreign press was reporting fresh acts of treason and "that without exception Schörner , Wenck and the others must give evidence of their loyalty by the quickest relief of the Führer". [ 36 ] That evening, von Greim and Reitsch flew out from Berlin in an Arado Ar 96 trainer. Field Marshal von Greim was ordered to get the Luftwaffe to attack the Soviet forces that had just reached Potsdamer Platz , only a city block from the Führerbunker . [ b ] [ 37 ] [ 38 ] During the night of 28 April, General Wenck reported to Keitel that his Twelfth Army had been forced back along the entire front and it was no longer possible for his army to relieve Berlin. [ 39 ] Keitel gave Wenck permission to break off the attempt. [ 36 ] Hitler married Eva Braun after midnight on 28–29 April in a small civil ceremony within the Führerbunker . He then took secretary Traudl Junge to another room and dictated his last will and testament . [ 40 ] [ c ] Hans Krebs, Wilhelm Burgdorf , Goebbels, and Bormann witnessed and signed the documents at approximately 04:00. [ 40 ] Hitler then retired to bed. [ 41 ] Late in the evening of 29 April, Krebs contacted Jodl by radio: "Request immediate report. Firstly of the whereabouts of Wenck's spearheads. Secondly of time intended to attack. Thirdly of the location of the Ninth Army. Fourthly of the precise place in which the Ninth Army will break through. Fifthly of the whereabouts of General Rudolf Holste 's spearhead." [ 39 ] In the early morning of 30 April, Jodl replied to Krebs: "Firstly, Wenck's spearhead bogged down south of Schwielow Lake . Secondly, Twelfth Army therefore unable to continue attack on Berlin. Thirdly, bulk of Ninth Army surrounded. Fourthly, Holste's Corps on the defensive." [ 39 ] [ 42 ] [ 43 ] [ d ] SS- Brigadeführer Wilhelm Mohnke , commander of the centre government district of Berlin, informed Hitler during the morning of 30 April that he would be able to hold for less than two days. Later that morning, Weidling informed Hitler that the defenders would probably exhaust their ammunition that night and again asked him for permission to break out. Weidling finally received permission at about 13:00. [ 44 ] Hitler shot himself later that afternoon, at around 15:30, while Eva took cyanide . [ 45 ] [ 46 ] In accordance with Hitler's instructions, his and Eva's lifeless bodies were wrapped in blankets, carried outside, and burned. [ 47 ] Goebbels became the new Head of Government and Chancellor of Germany ( Reichskanzler ) in accordance with Hitler's last will and testament. Reichskanzler Goebbels and Bormann sent a radio message to Dönitz at 03:15, informing him of Hitler's death, and that he was the new Head of State and President of Germany ( Reichspräsident ), in accordance with Hitler's last will and testament. [ 48 ] Krebs talked to General Vasily Chuikov , commander of the Soviet 8th Guards Army , at about 04:00 on 1 May, [ e ] and Chuikov demanded unconditional surrender of the remaining German forces. Krebs did not have the authority to surrender, so he returned to the bunker. [ 49 ] In the late afternoon, Goebbels had his children poisoned , and he and his wife left the bunker at around 20:30. [ 50 ] There are several different accounts on what followed. According to one account, Goebbels shot his wife and then himself. Another account was that they each bit on a cyanide ampule and were given a coup de grâce immediately afterwards. [ 51 ] Goebbels' SS adjutant Günther Schwägermann testified in 1948 that the couple walked ahead of him up the stairs and out to the Chancellery garden. He waited in the stairwell and heard the shots, then walked up the remaining stairs and saw the lifeless bodies of the couple outside. He then followed Joseph Goebbels' order and had an SS soldier fire several shots into Goebbels' body, which did not move. [ 50 ] The bodies were then doused with petrol and set alight, but the remains were only partially burned and not buried. [ 51 ] Weidling had given the order for the survivors to break out to the northwest, and the plan got underway at around 23:00. The first group from the Reich Chancellery was led by Mohnke; they tried unsuccessfully to break through the Soviet rings and were captured the next day. Mohnke was interrogated by SMERSH , like others who were captured from the Führerbunker . The third breakout attempt from the Reich Chancellery was made around 01:00 on 2 May, and Bormann managed to cross the Spree . Artur Axmann followed the same route and reported seeing Bormann's body a short distance from the Weidendammer bridge . [ 52 ] [ f ] At 01:00, the Soviet forces picked up a radio message from the LVI Panzer Corps requesting a cease-fire. Down in the Führerbunker , General Krebs and General Burgdorf committed suicide by gunshot to the head. [ 53 ] The last defenders in the area of the bunker complex were mainly made up of Frenchmen of the 33rd Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS Charlemagne , others being Waffen-SS from the remnants of the 11th SS Volunteer Panzergrenadier Division Nordland , Latvian SS and Spanish SS units. [ 54 ] [ 55 ] A group of French SS remained in the area of the bunker until the early morning of 2 May. [ 56 ] The Soviet forces then captured the Reich Chancellery. [ 57 ] General Weidling surrendered with his staff at 6:00, and his meeting with Chuikov ended at 8:23. [ 39 ] Johannes Hentschel , the master electro-mechanic for the bunker complex, stayed after everyone else had either left or committed suicide, as the field hospital in the Reich Chancellery above needed power and water. He surrendered to the Red Army as they entered the bunker complex at 09:00 on 2 May. [ 58 ] The bodies of Goebbels' six children were discovered on 3 May. They were found in their beds in the Vorbunker with the clear mark of cyanide shown on their faces. [ 59 ] Post-war events The first post-war photos of the interior of the Führerbunker were taken in July 1945. On 4 July, American writer James P. O'Donnell toured the bunker after giving the Soviet guard a pack of cigarettes. [ 60 ] [ 61 ] Many soldiers, politicians, and diplomats visited the bunker complex in the following days and months. Winston Churchill visited the Chancellery and bunker on 14 July 1945. [ 62 ] That month, Life photojournalist William Vandivert photographed the bunker. [ 63 ] [ 64 ] During separate investigations by the Western allies, a bloodstain was noted on Hitler's bed frame. [ 65 ] According to historian Mark Felton , a British officer surmised that Hitler could have been shot in bed, with a less bloody death occurring on the sofa. [ 65 ] On 11 December 1945, the Soviet Union allowed a limited investigation of the bunker grounds by the other Allied powers. Two representatives from each nation watched several Germans dig up soil, including the site where Hitler's remains had allegedly been exhumed that May. The representatives planned to continue the work, but when they arrived the next morning, an NKVD armed guard met them and accused them of removing documents from the Chancellery. This was denied and no further outside probes were allowed for years. [ 66 ] As part of a disinformation campaign, the Soviets alleged that Hitler escaped or died by poison [ 67 ] [ 68 ] while maintaining secrecy about their investigation. [ 69 ] In May 1946, the Soviet Ministry of Internal Affairs tasked forensicist Piotr Semenovsky with investigating the scene, although it had by then already been contaminated by numerous individuals. In the bunker study, Semenovsky observed blood stains on the sofa and possibly traces of blood on the wall. [ 70 ] He also found blood in some corridors and spurts of blood on the upper walls of the stairwell leading to the emergency exit. The forensicist concluded these were the result of Hitler's body, wrapped in a blanket, being carried outside for burning. Semenovsky surmised that the blanket became blood-soaked in the process. [ 70 ] The outer ruins of both Chancellery buildings were levelled by the Soviets between 1945 and 1949 as part of an effort to destroy the landmarks of Nazi Germany. A detailed interior site investigation by the Soviets, including measurements, took place on 16 May 1946. [ 71 ] Thereafter, the bunker largely survived, although some areas were partially flooded. In December 1947, the Soviets tried to blow up the bunker, but only the separation walls were damaged. In 1959, the East German government began a series of demolitions of the Chancellery, including the bunker. [ 72 ] Because it was near the Berlin Wall , the site was undeveloped and neglected until 1988–89. [ 73 ] During extensive construction of residential housing and other buildings on the site, work crews uncovered several underground sections of the old bunker complex; for the most part these were destroyed. Other parts of the Chancellery underground complex were uncovered, but were filled in, resealed, or ignored. [ 74 ] Government authorities wanted to destroy the last vestiges of these Nazi landmarks. [ 75 ] The construction of the buildings in the area around the Führerbunker was a strategy for ensuring the surroundings remained anonymous and unremarkable. [ 76 ] The emergency exit point for the Führerbunker (which had been in the Chancellery gardens) was occupied by a car park . [ 77 ] On 8 June 2006, during the lead-up to the 2006 FIFA World Cup , an information board was installed to mark the location of the Führerbunker . The board, including a schematic diagram of the bunker, can be found at the corner of In den Ministergärten and Gertrud-Kolmar-Straße, two small streets about three minutes' walk from Potsdamer Platz . Rochus Misch , one of the last people living who was in the bunker at the time of Hitler's suicide, attended the ceremony. [ 78 ] In 2025, blood from the sofa in Hitler's study was used by Turi King of the University of Bath for DNA analysis . The blood was confirmed to be Hitler's by comparing it to a relative's DNA. [ 79 ] Ruins of the bunker after demolition in 1947 Site of Führerbunker and information board on Gertrud-Kolmar-Straße in October 2023 A side angle view of the site in July 2007 See also Berghof The Bunker – 1970 book The Bunker – 1981 film based on the book The Bunker – 1981 film based on the book Downfall – 2004 film Matsushiro Underground Imperial Headquarters Nazi architecture Presidential Emergency Operations Center Stalin's bunker Wolf's Lair Fahrerbunker References Informational notes ^ Beevor 2002 , p. 286 states the appointment was 23 April; Hamilton 2008 , p. 160 states "officially" it was the morning of 24 April; Dollinger 1997 , p. 228, gives 26 April for the appointment. ^ The Luftwaffe order differs in different sources. Beevor 2002 , p. 342 states it was to attack Potsdamerplatz , but Ziemke states it was to support Wenck's Twelfth Army attack. Both agree that von Greim was also ordered to make sure Himmler was punished. ^ " MI5 staff 2005 : Hitler's will and marriage" on the website of MI5 , using the sources available to Hugh Trevor-Roper (a World War II MI5 agent and historian/author of The Last Days of Hitler ), records the marriage as taking place after Hitler had dictated his last will and testament. ^ Dollinger 1997 , p. 239, says Jodl replied, but Ziemke 1969 , p. 120, and Beevor 2002 , p. 537, say it was Keitel. ^ Dollinger 1997 , p. 239, states 03:00, and Beevor 2002 , p. 367, 04:00, for Krebs' meeting with Chuikov. ^ Ziemke 1969 , p. 126 says that Weidling gave no orders for a break-out. Citations ^ Arnold 2012 . ^ Lehrer 2006 , pp. 117, 119, 123. ^ Kellerhoff 2004 , p. 56. ^ Mollo 1988 , p. 28. ^ Lehrer 2006 , p. 117. ^ Lehrer 2006 , p. 123. ^ McNab 2014 , pp. 21, 28. ^ Lehrer 2006 , pp. 117, 119, 121–123. ^ Lehrer 2006 , p. 124. ^ Kershaw 2008 , p. 97. ^ a b McNab 2014 , p. 28. ^ a b McNab 2011 , p. 109. ^ a b c McNab 2014 , p. 29. ^ Kershaw 2008 , pp. 97, 901–902. ^ Kershaw 2008 , p. 901. ^ Lehrer 2006 , pp. 124–125. ^ Taylor 2007 , p. 184. ^ Beevor 2002 , p. 278. ^ a b Kershaw 2008 , p. 902. ^ a b Bullock 1999 , p. 785. ^ Speer 1971 , p. 597. ^ Kershaw 2008 , p. 903. ^ Beevor 2002 , pp. 217–233. ^ Beevor 2002 , p. 251. ^ Beevor 2002 , p. 255. ^ Beevor 2002 , pp. 267–268. ^ Ziemke 1969 , pp. 87–88. ^ Beevor 2002 , pp. 255, 256. ^ Beevor 2002 , p. 275. ^ Kershaw 2008 , p. 934. ^ Ziemke 1969 , p. 111. ^ a b c Dollinger 1997 , p. 228. ^ Kershaw 2008 , pp. 923–925, 943. ^ Kershaw 2008 , pp. 943–946. ^ Kershaw 2008 , p. 946. ^ a b Ziemke 1969 , p. 119. ^ Beevor 2002 , p. 342. ^ Ziemke 1969 , p. 118. ^ a b c d Dollinger 1997 , p. 239. ^ a b Beevor 2002 , p. 343. ^ Kershaw 2008 , p. 950. ^ Ziemke 1969 , p. 120. ^ Beevor 2002 , p. 357, last paragraph. ^ Beevor 2002 , p. 358. ^ Joachimsthaler 1999 , pp. 160–182. ^ Linge 2009 , p. 199. ^ Kershaw 2008 , pp. 956–957. ^ Williams 2005 , pp. 324, 325. ^ Shirer 1960 , pp. 1135–1137. ^ a b Joachimsthaler 1999 , p. 52. ^ a b Beevor 2002 , p. 381. ^ Beevor 2002 , pp. 383, 389. ^ Beevor 2002 , p. 387. ^ Weale 2012 , p. 407. ^ Hamilton 2020 , pp. 349, 386. ^ Hamilton 2020 , p. 408. ^ Beevor 2002 , pp. 387, 388. ^ Joachimsthaler 1999 , p. 287. ^ Beevor 2002 , p. 398. ^ O'Donnell 2001 , pp. 9–12. ^ Kellerhoff 2004 , pp. 98–99. ^ Kellerhoff 2004 , pp. 98–101. ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Hitler's Destroyed Bunker - William Vandivert" . Google Arts & Culture . Retrieved 14 August 2024 . ^ "Hitler's Underground Shelter - William Vandivert" . Google Arts & Culture . Retrieved 14 August 2024 . ^ a b Felton, Mark (2023). "Back in the Bunker". Find the Führer: The Secret Soviet Investigation . Episode 4. 7:00, 8:30 minutes in. ^ Musmanno, Michael A. (1950). Ten Days to Die . Garden City, NY: Doubleday . pp. 233– 34. ^ Eberle & Uhl 2005 , p. 288. ^ Kershaw 2001 , p. 1037. ^ "Hitlers letzte Reise" . Der Spiegel (in German). 19 July 1992 . Retrieved 6 March 2021 . ^ a b Brisard & Parshina 2018 , pp. 257–259. ^ Kellerhoff 2004 , pp. 101–102. ^ Mollo 1988 , pp. 48, 49. ^ Mollo 1988 , pp. 49, 50. ^ Mollo 1988 , pp. 46, 48, 50–53. ^ McNab 2014 , p. 21. ^ Kellerhoff 2004 , pp. 27, 28. ^ Kellerhoff 2004 , p. 27. ^ Der Spiegel 2006 . ^ Oltermann 2025 . Bibliography Arnold, Dietmar (9 January 2012) [8 June 2010]. "Berliner Unterwelten e.V.: The Legend of Hitler's Bunker" . Berliner-unterwelten.de. Archived from the original on 18 May 2011 . Retrieved 11 June 2011 . Beevor, Antony (2002). Berlin: The Downfall 1945 . London: Viking–Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-670-03041-5 . Brisard, Jean-Christophe and Parshina, Lana (2018). The Death of Hitler . Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0306922589 . Bullock, Alan (1999) [1952]. Hitler: A Study in Tyranny . New York: Konecky & Konecky. ISBN 978-1-56852-036-0 . Dollinger, Hans (1997). Decline and the Fall of Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan . London: Chancellor. ISBN 978-0-7537-0009-9 . Eberle, Henrik ; Uhl, Matthias, eds. (2005). The Hitler Book: The Secret Dossier Prepared for Stalin from the Interrogations of Hitler's Personal Aides . New York: Public Affairs. ISBN 978-1-58648-366-1 . Hamilton, Stephan (2008). Bloody Streets: The Soviet Assault on Berlin, April 1945 . Solihull: Helion & Co. ISBN 978-1-906033-12-5 . Hamilton, A. Stephan (2020) [2008]. Bloody Streets: The Soviet Assault on Berlin, April 1945 . Helion & Co. ISBN 978-1912866137 . Joachimsthaler, Anton (1999) [1995]. The Last Days of Hitler: The Legends – The Evidence – The Truth . London: Brockhampton Press. ISBN 978-1-86019-902-8 . Kellerhoff, Sven (2004). The Führer Bunker . Berlin: Berlin Story Verlag. ISBN 978-3-929829-23-5 . Kershaw, Ian (2001) [2000]. Hitler, 1936–1945: Nemesis . London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-027239-0 . Kershaw, Ian (2008). Hitler: A Biography . New York: W.W. Norton & Co. ISBN 978-0-393-06757-6 . Lehrer, Steven (2006). The Reich Chancellery and Führerbunker Complex . An Illustrated History of the Seat of the Nazi Regime . Jefferson, NC: McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-2393-4 . Linge, Heinz (2009). With Hitler to the End . London; New York: Frontline Books–Skyhorse Publishing. ISBN 978-1-60239-804-7 . McNab, Chris (2011). Hitler's Masterplan: The Essential Facts and Figures for Hitler's Third Reich . Amber Books Ltd. ISBN 978-1907446962 . McNab, Chris (2014). Hitler's Fortresses: German Fortifications and Defences 1939–45 . Oxford; New York: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-78200-828-6 . Mollo, Andrew (1988). Ramsey, Winston (ed.). "The Berlin Führerbunker: The Thirteenth Hole". After the Battle (61). London: Battle of Britain International. MI5 staff (2005). "Hitler's last days" . mi5.gov.uk . MI5 . Retrieved 12 June 2011 . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( link ) O'Donnell, James P. (2001) [1978]. The Bunker . New York: Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0-306-80958-3 . Oltermann, Philip (13 November 2025). "Did Hitler really have a 'micropenis'? The dubious documentary analysing the dictator's DNA" . The Guardian . Retrieved 14 November 2025 . Shirer, William L. (1960). The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich . New York: Simon & Schuster. LCCN 60-6729 . Speer, Albert (1971) [1969]. Inside the Third Reich . New York: Avon. ISBN 978-0-380-00071-5 . Staff (9 June 2006). "Debunking Hitler: Marking the Site of the Führer's Bunker" . Spiegel Online . Spiegel-Verlag . Retrieved 7 April 2014 . Taylor, Blaine (2007). Hitler's Headquarters: From Beer Hall to Bunker, 1920–1945 . Dulles, Virginia: Potomac. ISBN 978-1-57488-928-4 . Weale, Adrian (2012). Army of Evil: A History of the SS . New York: Caliber Printing. ISBN 978-0-451-23791-0 . Williams, Andrew (2005). D-Day to Berlin . Hodder . ISBN 978-0-340-83397-1 . Ziemke, Earl F. (1969). Battle For Berlin: End Of The Third Reich . London: MacDonald. OCLC 253711605 . Further reading Boldt, Gerhard (1973). Hitler: The Last Ten Days . New York: Coward, McCann & Geoghegan. ISBN 978-0-698-10531-7 . C.I.U. General Staff, Geographical Section (1990). Ramsey, Winston G. (ed.). Berlin: Allied Intelligence Map of Key Buildings . After the Battle – Battle of Britain International. ISBN 978-1-870067-33-1 . de Boer, Sjoerd (2021). Escaping Hitler's Bunker: The Fate of the Third Reich Leaders . Frontline Books. ISBN 978-1-52679-269-3 . Fest, Joachim (2005). Inside Hitler's Bunker: The Last Days of the Third Reich . New York: Picador. ISBN 978-0-374-13577-5 . Galante, Pierre; Silianoff, Eugene (1989). Voices from the Bunker . New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. ISBN 978-0-3991-3404-3 . Junge, Traudl (2004). Müller, Melissa (ed.). Until the Final Hour: Hitler's Last Secretary . New York: Arcade Publishing. ISBN 978-1-55970-728-2 . Neubauer, Christoph (2010). Stadtführer durch Hitlers Berlin (in German and English). Frankfurt on the Oder: Flashback Medienverlag. ISBN 978-3-9813977-0-3 . Archived from the original on 20 March 2011 . Retrieved 8 October 2010 . Petrova, Ada; Watson, Peter (1995). The Death of Hitler: The Full Story with New Evidence from Secret Russian Archives . New York: Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-03914-6 . Ryan, Cornelius (1966). The Last Battle . New York: Simon and Schuster. Tissier, Tony Le (1999). Race for the Reichstag: The 1945 Battle for Berlin . London; Portland, OR: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7146-4929-0 . Trevor-Roper, Hugh (1992) [1947]. The Last Days of Hitler (paperback ed.). University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-81224-3 . External links Cosgrove, Ben. "After the Fall: Photos of Hitler's Bunker and the Ruins of Berlin" . Life Magazine . Latson, Jennifer (16 January 2015). "The Brief Luxurious Life of Adolf Hitler, 50 Feet Below Berlin" . Time Magazine . Shuger, Scott; Berger, Donald (21 June 2006). "Hitler Slept Here: The too-secret history of the Third Reich's most famous place" . Slate Magazine . 3D-stereoscopic images of Chancellery Hitler's Bunker , National Geographic UK. .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Final occupants of the Führerbunker by date of departure (1945) v t e 20 April Hermann Göring Heinrich Himmler Hermann Göring Heinrich Himmler 21 April Robert Ley Karl-Jesko von Puttkamer Robert Ley Karl-Jesko von Puttkamer 22 April Hugo Blaschke Karl Gebhardt Christa Schroeder Johanna Wolf Eckhard Christian Hugo Blaschke Karl Gebhardt Christa Schroeder Johanna Wolf Eckhard Christian 23 April Albert Bormann Theodor Morell Joachim von Ribbentrop Albert Speer Julius Schaub Albert Bormann Theodor Morell Joachim von Ribbentrop Albert Speer Julius Schaub 24 April Walter Frentz Walter Frentz 28 April Robert Ritter von Greim Hanna Reitsch Robert Ritter von Greim Hanna Reitsch 29 April Bernd Freytag von Loringhoven Gerhard Boldt Rudolf Weiss Wilhelm Zander Heinz Lorenz Willy Johannmeyer Walter Wagner Bernd Freytag von Loringhoven Gerhard Boldt Rudolf Weiss Wilhelm Zander Heinz Lorenz Willy Johannmeyer Walter Wagner 30 April Nicolaus von Below Nicolaus von Below 1 May Wilhelm Mohnke Traudl Junge Gerda Christian Constanze Manziarly Else Krüger Otto Günsche Walther Hewel Ernst-Günther Schenck Hans-Erich Voss Johann Rattenhuber Peter Högl Werner Naumann Martin Bormann Hans Baur Ludwig Stumpfegger Artur Axmann Georg Betz Heinz Linge Erich Kempka Heinrich Doose Günther Schwägermann Ewald Lindloff Hans Reisser Armin D. Lehmann Josef Ochs Heinz Krüger Werner Schwiedel Gerhard Schach Hans Fritzsche Käthe Heusermann Wilhelm Mohnke Traudl Junge Gerda Christian Constanze Manziarly Else Krüger Otto Günsche Walther Hewel Ernst-Günther Schenck Hans-Erich Voss Johann Rattenhuber Peter Högl Werner Naumann Martin Bormann Hans Baur Ludwig Stumpfegger Artur Axmann Georg Betz Heinz Linge Erich Kempka Heinrich Doose Günther Schwägermann Ewald Lindloff Hans Reisser Armin D. Lehmann Josef Ochs Heinz Krüger Werner Schwiedel Gerhard Schach Hans Fritzsche Käthe Heusermann 2 May Helmuth Weidling Hans Refior Theodor von Dufving Siegfried Knappe Rochus Misch Helmuth Weidling Hans Refior Theodor von Dufving Siegfried Knappe Rochus Misch Still present on 2 May Werner Haase Erna Flegel Helmut Kunz Fritz Tornow Liselotte Chervinska Johanna Ruf Johannes Hentschel Werner Haase Erna Flegel Helmut Kunz Fritz Tornow Liselotte Chervinska Johanna Ruf Johannes Hentschel Committed suicide Ernst-Robert Grawitz (24 April) Adolf Hitler (30 April) Eva Hitler (née Braun, 30 April) Joseph Goebbels (1 May) Magda Goebbels (1 May) Alwin-Broder Albrecht (1 May) Wilhelm Burgdorf (2 May) Hans Krebs (2 May) Franz Schädle (2 May) Ernst-Robert Grawitz (24 April) Adolf Hitler (30 April) Eva Hitler (née Braun, 30 April) Joseph Goebbels (1 May) Magda Goebbels (1 May) Alwin-Broder Albrecht (1 May) Wilhelm Burgdorf (2 May) Hans Krebs (2 May) Franz Schädle (2 May) Killed Hermann Fegelein (executed for desertion, 28 April) Blondi (Hitler's dog, poisoned 29 April) Goebbels children (poisoned 1 May) Hermann Fegelein (executed for desertion, 28 April) Blondi (Hitler's dog, poisoned 29 April) Goebbels children (poisoned 1 May) Unknown Heinrich Müller Heinrich Müller v t e Adolf Hitler v t e Politics Führer Führerprinzip Political views Political directives List Speeches Prophecy Mein Kampf in Arabic in English Zweites Buch Last will and testament Books Nazism Führer Führerprinzip Führerprinzip Political views Political directives List List Speeches Prophecy Mein Kampf in Arabic in English in Arabic in English Zweites Buch Last will and testament Books Nazism Events Military career Rise to power Hitler cabinet Nazi Germany World War II The Holocaust Assassination attempts Death conspiracy theories Military career Rise to power Hitler cabinet Nazi Germany World War II The Holocaust Assassination attempts Death conspiracy theories conspiracy theories Places of residence Führer Headquarters Berghof ( Kehlsteinhaus ) Reich Chancellery ( Führerbunker / Vorbunker ) Adlerhorst Anlage Süd Felsennest Tannenberg Werwolf Wolf's Lair Wolfsschlucht I Wolfsschlucht II Special train ( Führersonderzug ) Civilian residences Braunau am Inn Linz Vienna ( Meldemannstraße dormitory ) Munich ( 16 Prinzregentenplatz ) Obersalzberg ( Kampfhäusl ) Führer Headquarters Berghof ( Kehlsteinhaus ) Reich Chancellery ( Führerbunker / Vorbunker ) Adlerhorst Anlage Süd Felsennest Tannenberg Werwolf Wolf's Lair Wolfsschlucht I Wolfsschlucht II Special train ( Führersonderzug ) Berghof ( Kehlsteinhaus ) Reich Chancellery ( Führerbunker / Vorbunker ) Adlerhorst Anlage Süd Felsennest Tannenberg Werwolf Wolf's Lair Wolfsschlucht I Wolfsschlucht II Special train ( Führersonderzug ) Civilian residences Braunau am Inn Linz Vienna ( Meldemannstraße dormitory ) Munich ( 16 Prinzregentenplatz ) Obersalzberg ( Kampfhäusl ) Braunau am Inn Linz Vienna ( Meldemannstraße dormitory ) Munich ( 16 Prinzregentenplatz ) Obersalzberg ( Kampfhäusl ) Personal life Health possible monorchism Wealth and income Religious views Sexuality Vegetarianism Staff Bodyguard August Kubizek Stefanie Rabatsch Reinhold Hanisch Psychopathography Hitler's Table Talk Paintings 50th birthday German naturalization Health possible monorchism possible monorchism Wealth and income Religious views Sexuality Vegetarianism Staff Bodyguard August Kubizek Stefanie Rabatsch Reinhold Hanisch Psychopathography Hitler's Table Talk Paintings 50th birthday German naturalization Personal belongings Hitler's Globe Private library Hitler's Globe Private library Perceptions Books Cult of personality In popular culture Killing baby Hitler The Victory of Faith Triumph of the Will Hitler: The Last Ten Days The Meaning of Hitler Hitler Diaries Moloch Hitler: The Rise of Evil Downfall Shigeru Mizuki's Hitler Apocalypse: Hitler Books Cult of personality In popular culture Killing baby Hitler The Victory of Faith Triumph of the 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We gratefully acknowledge support from the Simons Foundation, member institutions , and all contributors. Donate Help | Advanced Search Showing 1–50 of 4,288 results for author: Liu, S Show abstracts Hide abstracts 1 2 3 4 5 … arXiv:2601.10696 [ pdf ] cs.AI The Impact of Generative AI on Architectural Conceptual Design: Performance, Creative Self-Efficacy and Cognitive Load Authors: Han Jiang , Yao Xiao , Rachel Hurley , Shichao Liu Abstract : Our study examines how generative AI (GenAI) influences performance, creative self-efficacy, and cognitive load in architectural conceptual design tasks. Thirty-six student participants from Architectural Engineering and other disciplines completed a two-phase architectural design task, first independently and then with external tools (GenAI-assisted condition and control condition using an online… ▽ More Our study examines how generative AI (GenAI) influences performance, creative self-efficacy, and cognitive load in architectural conceptual design tasks. Thirty-six student participants from Architectural Engineering and other disciplines completed a two-phase architectural design task, first independently and then with external tools (GenAI-assisted condition and control condition using an online repository of existing architectural projects). Design outcomes were evaluated by expert raters, while self-efficacy and cognitive load were self-reported after each phase. Difference-in-differences analyses revealed no overall performance advantage of GenAI across participants; however, subgroup analyses showed that GenAI significantly improved design performance for novice designers. In contrast, general creative self-efficacy declined for students using GenAI. Cognitive load did not differ significantly between conditions, though prompt usage patterns showed that iterative idea generation and visual feedback prompts were linked to greater reductions in cognitive load. These findings suggest that GenAI effectiveness depends on users' prior expertise and interaction strategies through prompting. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10696 [ pdf ] The Impact of Generative AI on Architectural Conceptual Design: Performance, Creative Self-Efficacy and Cognitive Load Authors: Han Jiang , Yao Xiao , Rachel Hurley , Shichao Liu Abstract : Our study examines how generative AI (GenAI) influences performance, creative self-efficacy, and cognitive load in architectural conceptual design tasks. Thirty-six student participants from Architectural Engineering and other disciplines completed a two-phase architectural design task, first independently and then with external tools (GenAI-assisted condition and control condition using an online… ▽ More Our study examines how generative AI (GenAI) influences performance, creative self-efficacy, and cognitive load in architectural conceptual design tasks. Thirty-six student participants from Architectural Engineering and other disciplines completed a two-phase architectural design task, first independently and then with external tools (GenAI-assisted condition and control condition using an online repository of existing architectural projects). Design outcomes were evaluated by expert raters, while self-efficacy and cognitive load were self-reported after each phase. Difference-in-differences analyses revealed no overall performance advantage of GenAI across participants; however, subgroup analyses showed that GenAI significantly improved design performance for novice designers. In contrast, general creative self-efficacy declined for students using GenAI. Cognitive load did not differ significantly between conditions, though prompt usage patterns showed that iterative idea generation and visual feedback prompts were linked to greater reductions in cognitive load. These findings suggest that GenAI effectiveness depends on users' prior expertise and interaction strategies through prompting. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10547 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.SD HeartMuLa: A Family of Open Sourced Music Foundation Models Authors: Dongchao Yang , Yuxin Xie , Yuguo Yin , Zheyu Wang , Xiaoyu Yi , Gongxi Zhu , Xiaolong Weng , Zihan Xiong , Yingzhe Ma , Dading Cong , Jingliang Liu , Zihang Huang , Jinghan Ru , Rongjie Huang , Haoran Wan , Peixu Wang , Kuoxi Yu , Helin Wang , Liming Liang , Xianwei Zhuang , Yuanyuan Wang , Haohan Guo , Junjie Cao , Zeqian Ju , Songxiang Liu , et al. (3 additional authors not shown) Abstract : We present a family of open-source Music Foundation Models designed to advance large-scale music understanding and generation across diverse tasks and modalities. Our framework consists of four major components: (1) HeartCLAP, an audio-text alignment model; (2) HeartTranscriptor, a robust lyric recognition model optimized for real-world music scenarios; and (3) HeartCodec, a low-frame-rate (12.5 H… ▽ More We present a family of open-source Music Foundation Models designed to advance large-scale music understanding and generation across diverse tasks and modalities. Our framework consists of four major components: (1) HeartCLAP, an audio-text alignment model; (2) HeartTranscriptor, a robust lyric recognition model optimized for real-world music scenarios; and (3) HeartCodec, a low-frame-rate (12.5 Hz) yet high-fidelity music codec tokenizer that captures long-range musical structure while preserving fine-grained acoustic details and enabling efficient autoregressive modeling; (4) HeartMuLa, an LLM-based song generation model capable of synthesizing high-fidelity music under rich, user-controllable conditions (e.g., textual style descriptions, lyrics, and reference audio). In addition, it provides two specialized modes: (i) fine-grained musical attribute control, which allows users to specify the style of different song sections (e.g., intro, verse, chorus) using natural language prompts; and (ii) short, engaging music generation, which is suitable as background music for short videos. Lastly, HeartMuLa improves significantly when scaled to 7B parameters. For the first time, we show that a Suno-level, commercial-grade system can be reproduced using academic-scale data and GPU resources. We expect these foundation models to serve as strong baselines for future research and to facilitate practical applications in multimodal content production. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10547 [ pdf , ps , other ] HeartMuLa: A Family of Open Sourced Music Foundation Models Authors: Dongchao Yang , Yuxin Xie , Yuguo Yin , Zheyu Wang , Xiaoyu Yi , Gongxi Zhu , Xiaolong Weng , Zihan Xiong , Yingzhe Ma , Dading Cong , Jingliang Liu , Zihang Huang , Jinghan Ru , Rongjie Huang , Haoran Wan , Peixu Wang , Kuoxi Yu , Helin Wang , Liming Liang , Xianwei Zhuang , Yuanyuan Wang , Haohan Guo , Junjie Cao , Zeqian Ju , Songxiang Liu , et al. (3 additional authors not shown) Abstract : We present a family of open-source Music Foundation Models designed to advance large-scale music understanding and generation across diverse tasks and modalities. Our framework consists of four major components: (1) HeartCLAP, an audio-text alignment model; (2) HeartTranscriptor, a robust lyric recognition model optimized for real-world music scenarios; and (3) HeartCodec, a low-frame-rate (12.5 H… ▽ More We present a family of open-source Music Foundation Models designed to advance large-scale music understanding and generation across diverse tasks and modalities. Our framework consists of four major components: (1) HeartCLAP, an audio-text alignment model; (2) HeartTranscriptor, a robust lyric recognition model optimized for real-world music scenarios; and (3) HeartCodec, a low-frame-rate (12.5 Hz) yet high-fidelity music codec tokenizer that captures long-range musical structure while preserving fine-grained acoustic details and enabling efficient autoregressive modeling; (4) HeartMuLa, an LLM-based song generation model capable of synthesizing high-fidelity music under rich, user-controllable conditions (e.g., textual style descriptions, lyrics, and reference audio). In addition, it provides two specialized modes: (i) fine-grained musical attribute control, which allows users to specify the style of different song sections (e.g., intro, verse, chorus) using natural language prompts; and (ii) short, engaging music generation, which is suitable as background music for short videos. Lastly, HeartMuLa improves significantly when scaled to 7B parameters. For the first time, we show that a Suno-level, commercial-grade system can be reproduced using academic-scale data and GPU resources. We expect these foundation models to serve as strong baselines for future research and to facilitate practical applications in multimodal content production. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10343 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI OctoBench: Benchmarking Scaffold-Aware Instruction Following in Repository-Grounded Agentic Coding Authors: Deming Ding , Shichun Liu , Enhui Yang , Jiahang Lin , Ziying Chen , Shihan Dou , Honglin Guo , Weiyu Cheng , Pengyu Zhao , Chengjun Xiao , Qunhong Zeng , Qi Zhang , Xuanjing Huang , Qidi Xu , Tao Gui Abstract : Modern coding scaffolds turn LLMs into capable software agents, but their ability to follow scaffold-specified instructions remains under-examined, especially when constraints are heterogeneous and persist across interactions. To fill this gap, we introduce OctoBench, which benchmarks scaffold-aware instruction following in repository-grounded agentic coding. OctoBench includes 34 environments and… ▽ More Modern coding scaffolds turn LLMs into capable software agents, but their ability to follow scaffold-specified instructions remains under-examined, especially when constraints are heterogeneous and persist across interactions. To fill this gap, we introduce OctoBench, which benchmarks scaffold-aware instruction following in repository-grounded agentic coding. OctoBench includes 34 environments and 217 tasks instantiated under three scaffold types, and is paired with 7,098 objective checklist items. To disentangle solving the task from following the rules, we provide an automated observation-and-scoring toolkit that captures full trajectories and performs fine-grained checks. Experiments on eight representative models reveal a systematic gap between task-solving and scaffold-aware compliance, underscoring the need for training and evaluation that explicitly targets heterogeneous instruction following. We release the benchmark to support reproducible benchmarking and to accelerate the development of more scaffold-aware coding agents. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10343 [ pdf , ps , other ] OctoBench: Benchmarking Scaffold-Aware Instruction Following in Repository-Grounded Agentic Coding Authors: Deming Ding , Shichun Liu , Enhui Yang , Jiahang Lin , Ziying Chen , Shihan Dou , Honglin Guo , Weiyu Cheng , Pengyu Zhao , Chengjun Xiao , Qunhong Zeng , Qi Zhang , Xuanjing Huang , Qidi Xu , Tao Gui Abstract : Modern coding scaffolds turn LLMs into capable software agents, but their ability to follow scaffold-specified instructions remains under-examined, especially when constraints are heterogeneous and persist across interactions. To fill this gap, we introduce OctoBench, which benchmarks scaffold-aware instruction following in repository-grounded agentic coding. OctoBench includes 34 environments and… ▽ More Modern coding scaffolds turn LLMs into capable software agents, but their ability to follow scaffold-specified instructions remains under-examined, especially when constraints are heterogeneous and persist across interactions. To fill this gap, we introduce OctoBench, which benchmarks scaffold-aware instruction following in repository-grounded agentic coding. OctoBench includes 34 environments and 217 tasks instantiated under three scaffold types, and is paired with 7,098 objective checklist items. To disentangle solving the task from following the rules, we provide an automated observation-and-scoring toolkit that captures full trajectories and performs fine-grained checks. Experiments on eight representative models reveal a systematic gap between task-solving and scaffold-aware compliance, underscoring the need for training and evaluation that explicitly targets heterogeneous instruction following. We release the benchmark to support reproducible benchmarking and to accelerate the development of more scaffold-aware coding agents. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09703 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.SE cs.AI cs.CL ShortCoder: Knowledge-Augmented Syntax Optimization for Token-Efficient Code Generation Authors: Sicong Liu , Yanxian Huang , Mingwei Liu , Jiachi Chen , Ensheng Shi , Yuchi Ma , Hongyu Zhang , Yin Zhang , Yanlin Wang Abstract : Code generation tasks aim to automate the conversion of user requirements into executable code, significantly reducing manual development efforts and enhancing software productivity. The emergence of large language models (LLMs) has significantly advanced code generation, though their efficiency is still impacted by certain inherent architectural constraints. Each token generation necessitates a c… ▽ More Code generation tasks aim to automate the conversion of user requirements into executable code, significantly reducing manual development efforts and enhancing software productivity. The emergence of large language models (LLMs) has significantly advanced code generation, though their efficiency is still impacted by certain inherent architectural constraints. Each token generation necessitates a complete inference pass, requiring persistent retention of contextual information in memory and escalating resource consumption. While existing research prioritizes inference-phase optimizations such as prompt compression and model quantization, the generation phase remains underexplored. To tackle these challenges, we propose a knowledge-infused framework named ShortCoder, which optimizes code generation efficiency while preserving semantic equivalence and readability. In particular, we introduce: (1) ten syntax-level simplification rules for Python, derived from AST-preserving transformations, achieving 18.1% token reduction without functional compromise; (2) a hybrid data synthesis pipeline integrating rule-based rewriting with LLM-guided refinement, producing ShorterCodeBench, a corpus of validated tuples of original code and simplified code with semantic consistency; (3) a fine-tuning strategy that injects conciseness awareness into the base LLMs. Extensive experimental results demonstrate that ShortCoder consistently outperforms state-of-the-art methods on HumanEval, achieving an improvement of 18.1%-37.8% in generation efficiency over previous methods while ensuring the performance of code generation. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09703 [ pdf , ps , other ] ShortCoder: Knowledge-Augmented Syntax Optimization for Token-Efficient Code Generation Authors: Sicong Liu , Yanxian Huang , Mingwei Liu , Jiachi Chen , Ensheng Shi , Yuchi Ma , Hongyu Zhang , Yin Zhang , Yanlin Wang Abstract : Code generation tasks aim to automate the conversion of user requirements into executable code, significantly reducing manual development efforts and enhancing software productivity. The emergence of large language models (LLMs) has significantly advanced code generation, though their efficiency is still impacted by certain inherent architectural constraints. Each token generation necessitates a c… ▽ More Code generation tasks aim to automate the conversion of user requirements into executable code, significantly reducing manual development efforts and enhancing software productivity. The emergence of large language models (LLMs) has significantly advanced code generation, though their efficiency is still impacted by certain inherent architectural constraints. Each token generation necessitates a complete inference pass, requiring persistent retention of contextual information in memory and escalating resource consumption. While existing research prioritizes inference-phase optimizations such as prompt compression and model quantization, the generation phase remains underexplored. To tackle these challenges, we propose a knowledge-infused framework named ShortCoder, which optimizes code generation efficiency while preserving semantic equivalence and readability. In particular, we introduce: (1) ten syntax-level simplification rules for Python, derived from AST-preserving transformations, achieving 18.1% token reduction without functional compromise; (2) a hybrid data synthesis pipeline integrating rule-based rewriting with LLM-guided refinement, producing ShorterCodeBench, a corpus of validated tuples of original code and simplified code with semantic consistency; (3) a fine-tuning strategy that injects conciseness awareness into the base LLMs. Extensive experimental results demonstrate that ShortCoder consistently outperforms state-of-the-art methods on HumanEval, achieving an improvement of 18.1%-37.8% in generation efficiency over previous methods while ensuring the performance of code generation. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09503 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI What Do LLM Agents Know About Their World? Task2Quiz: A Paradigm for Studying Environment Understanding Authors: Siyuan Liu , Hongbang Yuan , Xinze Li , Ziyue Zhu , Yixin Cao , Yu-Gang Jiang Abstract : Large language model (LLM) agents have demonstrated remarkable capabilities in complex decision-making and tool-use tasks, yet their ability to generalize across varying environments remains a under-examined concern. Current evaluation paradigms predominantly rely on trajectory-based metrics that measure task success, while failing to assess whether agents possess a grounded, transferable model of… ▽ More Large language model (LLM) agents have demonstrated remarkable capabilities in complex decision-making and tool-use tasks, yet their ability to generalize across varying environments remains a under-examined concern. Current evaluation paradigms predominantly rely on trajectory-based metrics that measure task success, while failing to assess whether agents possess a grounded, transferable model of the environment. To address this gap, we propose Task-to-Quiz (T2Q), a deterministic and automated evaluation paradigm designed to decouple task execution from world-state understanding. We instantiate this paradigm in T2QBench, a suite comprising 30 environments and 1,967 grounded QA pairs across multiple difficulty levels. Our extensive experiments reveal that task success is often a poor proxy for environment understanding, and that current memory machanism can not effectively help agents acquire a grounded model of the environment. These findings identify proactive exploration and fine-grained state representation as primary bottlenecks, offering a robust foundation for developing more generalizable autonomous agents. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09503 [ pdf , ps , other ] What Do LLM Agents Know About Their World? Task2Quiz: A Paradigm for Studying Environment Understanding Authors: Siyuan Liu , Hongbang Yuan , Xinze Li , Ziyue Zhu , Yixin Cao , Yu-Gang Jiang Abstract : Large language model (LLM) agents have demonstrated remarkable capabilities in complex decision-making and tool-use tasks, yet their ability to generalize across varying environments remains a under-examined concern. Current evaluation paradigms predominantly rely on trajectory-based metrics that measure task success, while failing to assess whether agents possess a grounded, transferable model of… ▽ More Large language model (LLM) agents have demonstrated remarkable capabilities in complex decision-making and tool-use tasks, yet their ability to generalize across varying environments remains a under-examined concern. Current evaluation paradigms predominantly rely on trajectory-based metrics that measure task success, while failing to assess whether agents possess a grounded, transferable model of the environment. To address this gap, we propose Task-to-Quiz (T2Q), a deterministic and automated evaluation paradigm designed to decouple task execution from world-state understanding. We instantiate this paradigm in T2QBench, a suite comprising 30 environments and 1,967 grounded QA pairs across multiple difficulty levels. Our extensive experiments reveal that task success is often a poor proxy for environment understanding, and that current memory machanism can not effectively help agents acquire a grounded model of the environment. These findings identify proactive exploration and fine-grained state representation as primary bottlenecks, offering a robust foundation for developing more generalizable autonomous agents. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09253 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.AI RIFT: Repurposing Negative Samples via Reward-Informed Fine-Tuning Authors: Zehua Liu , Shuqi Liu , Tao Zhong , Mingxuan Yuan Abstract : While Supervised Fine-Tuning (SFT) and Rejection Sampling Fine-Tuning (RFT) are standard for LLM alignment, they either rely on costly expert data or discard valuable negative samples, leading to data inefficiency. To address this, we propose Reward Informed Fine-Tuning (RIFT), a simple yet effective framework that utilizes all self-generated samples. Unlike the hard thresholding of RFT, RIFT repu… ▽ More While Supervised Fine-Tuning (SFT) and Rejection Sampling Fine-Tuning (RFT) are standard for LLM alignment, they either rely on costly expert data or discard valuable negative samples, leading to data inefficiency. To address this, we propose Reward Informed Fine-Tuning (RIFT), a simple yet effective framework that utilizes all self-generated samples. Unlike the hard thresholding of RFT, RIFT repurposes negative trajectories, reweighting the loss with scalar rewards to learn from both the positive and negative trajectories from the model outputs. To overcome the training collapse caused by naive reward integration, where direct multiplication yields an unbounded loss, we introduce a stabilized loss formulation that ensures numerical robustness and optimization efficiency. Extensive experiments on mathematical benchmarks across various base models show that RIFT consistently outperforms RFT. Our results demonstrate that RIFT is a robust and data-efficient alternative for alignment using mixed-quality, self-generated data. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09253 [ pdf , ps , other ] RIFT: Repurposing Negative Samples via Reward-Informed Fine-Tuning Authors: Zehua Liu , Shuqi Liu , Tao Zhong , Mingxuan Yuan Abstract : While Supervised Fine-Tuning (SFT) and Rejection Sampling Fine-Tuning (RFT) are standard for LLM alignment, they either rely on costly expert data or discard valuable negative samples, leading to data inefficiency. To address this, we propose Reward Informed Fine-Tuning (RIFT), a simple yet effective framework that utilizes all self-generated samples. Unlike the hard thresholding of RFT, RIFT repu… ▽ More While Supervised Fine-Tuning (SFT) and Rejection Sampling Fine-Tuning (RFT) are standard for LLM alignment, they either rely on costly expert data or discard valuable negative samples, leading to data inefficiency. To address this, we propose Reward Informed Fine-Tuning (RIFT), a simple yet effective framework that utilizes all self-generated samples. Unlike the hard thresholding of RFT, RIFT repurposes negative trajectories, reweighting the loss with scalar rewards to learn from both the positive and negative trajectories from the model outputs. To overcome the training collapse caused by naive reward integration, where direct multiplication yields an unbounded loss, we introduce a stabilized loss formulation that ensures numerical robustness and optimization efficiency. Extensive experiments on mathematical benchmarks across various base models show that RIFT consistently outperforms RFT. Our results demonstrate that RIFT is a robust and data-efficient alternative for alignment using mixed-quality, self-generated data. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09251 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.AI HGATSolver: A Heterogeneous Graph Attention Solver for Fluid-Structure Interaction Authors: Qin-Yi Zhang , Hong Wang , Siyao Liu , Haichuan Lin , Linying Cao , Xiao-Hu Zhou , Chen Chen , Shuangyi Wang , Zeng-Guang Hou Abstract : Fluid-structure interaction (FSI) systems involve distinct physical domains, fluid and solid, governed by different partial differential equations and coupled at a dynamic interface. While learning-based solvers offer a promising alternative to costly numerical simulations, existing methods struggle to capture the heterogeneous dynamics of FSI within a unified framework. This challenge is further… ▽ More Fluid-structure interaction (FSI) systems involve distinct physical domains, fluid and solid, governed by different partial differential equations and coupled at a dynamic interface. While learning-based solvers offer a promising alternative to costly numerical simulations, existing methods struggle to capture the heterogeneous dynamics of FSI within a unified framework. This challenge is further exacerbated by inconsistencies in response across domains due to interface coupling and by disparities in learning difficulty across fluid and solid regions, leading to instability during prediction. To address these challenges, we propose the Heterogeneous Graph Attention Solver (HGATSolver). HGATSolver encodes the system as a heterogeneous graph, embedding physical structure directly into the model via distinct node and edge types for fluid, solid, and interface regions. This enables specialized message-passing mechanisms tailored to each physical domain. To stabilize explicit time stepping, we introduce a novel physics-conditioned gating mechanism that serves as a learnable, adaptive relaxation factor. Furthermore, an Inter-domain Gradient-Balancing Loss dynamically balances the optimization objectives across domains based on predictive uncertainty. Extensive experiments on two constructed FSI benchmarks and a public dataset demonstrate that HGATSolver achieves state-of-the-art performance, establishing an effective framework for surrogate modeling of coupled multi-physics systems. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09251 [ pdf , ps , other ] HGATSolver: A Heterogeneous Graph Attention Solver for Fluid-Structure Interaction Authors: Qin-Yi Zhang , Hong Wang , Siyao Liu , Haichuan Lin , Linying Cao , Xiao-Hu Zhou , Chen Chen , Shuangyi Wang , Zeng-Guang Hou Abstract : Fluid-structure interaction (FSI) systems involve distinct physical domains, fluid and solid, governed by different partial differential equations and coupled at a dynamic interface. While learning-based solvers offer a promising alternative to costly numerical simulations, existing methods struggle to capture the heterogeneous dynamics of FSI within a unified framework. This challenge is further… ▽ More Fluid-structure interaction (FSI) systems involve distinct physical domains, fluid and solid, governed by different partial differential equations and coupled at a dynamic interface. While learning-based solvers offer a promising alternative to costly numerical simulations, existing methods struggle to capture the heterogeneous dynamics of FSI within a unified framework. This challenge is further exacerbated by inconsistencies in response across domains due to interface coupling and by disparities in learning difficulty across fluid and solid regions, leading to instability during prediction. To address these challenges, we propose the Heterogeneous Graph Attention Solver (HGATSolver). HGATSolver encodes the system as a heterogeneous graph, embedding physical structure directly into the model via distinct node and edge types for fluid, solid, and interface regions. This enables specialized message-passing mechanisms tailored to each physical domain. To stabilize explicit time stepping, we introduce a novel physics-conditioned gating mechanism that serves as a learnable, adaptive relaxation factor. Furthermore, an Inter-domain Gradient-Balancing Loss dynamically balances the optimization objectives across domains based on predictive uncertainty. Extensive experiments on two constructed FSI benchmarks and a public dataset demonstrate that HGATSolver achieves state-of-the-art performance, establishing an effective framework for surrogate modeling of coupled multi-physics systems. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09031 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO cs.AI Generalizable Geometric Prior and Recurrent Spiking Feature Learning for Humanoid Robot Manipulation Authors: Xuetao Li , Wenke Huang , Mang Ye , Jifeng Xuan , Bo Du , Sheng Liu , Miao Li Abstract : Humanoid robot manipulation is a crucial research area for executing diverse human-level tasks, involving high-level semantic reasoning and low-level action generation. However, precise scene understanding and sample-efficient learning from human demonstrations remain critical challenges, severely hindering the applicability and generalizability of existing frameworks. This paper presents a novel… ▽ More Humanoid robot manipulation is a crucial research area for executing diverse human-level tasks, involving high-level semantic reasoning and low-level action generation. However, precise scene understanding and sample-efficient learning from human demonstrations remain critical challenges, severely hindering the applicability and generalizability of existing frameworks. This paper presents a novel RGMP-S, Recurrent Geometric-prior Multimodal Policy with Spiking features, facilitating both high-level skill reasoning and data-efficient motion synthesis. To ground high-level reasoning in physical reality, we leverage lightweight 2D geometric inductive biases to enable precise 3D scene understanding within the vision-language model. Specifically, we construct a Long-horizon Geometric Prior Skill Selector that effectively aligns the semantic instructions with spatial constraints, ultimately achieving robust generalization in unseen environments. For the data efficiency issue in robotic action generation, we introduce a Recursive Adaptive Spiking Network. We parameterize robot-object interactions via recursive spiking for spatiotemporal consistency, fully distilling long-horizon dynamic features while mitigating the overfitting issue in sparse demonstration scenarios. Extensive experiments are conducted across the Maniskill simulation benchmark and three heterogeneous real-world robotic systems, encompassing a custom-developed humanoid, a desktop manipulator, and a commercial robotic platform. Empirical results substantiate the superiority of our method over state-of-the-art baselines and validate the efficacy of the proposed modules in diverse generalization scenarios. To facilitate reproducibility, the source code and video demonstrations are publicly available at △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09031 [ pdf , ps , other ] Generalizable Geometric Prior and Recurrent Spiking Feature Learning for Humanoid Robot Manipulation Authors: Xuetao Li , Wenke Huang , Mang Ye , Jifeng Xuan , Bo Du , Sheng Liu , Miao Li Abstract : Humanoid robot manipulation is a crucial research area for executing diverse human-level tasks, involving high-level semantic reasoning and low-level action generation. However, precise scene understanding and sample-efficient learning from human demonstrations remain critical challenges, severely hindering the applicability and generalizability of existing frameworks. This paper presents a novel… ▽ More Humanoid robot manipulation is a crucial research area for executing diverse human-level tasks, involving high-level semantic reasoning and low-level action generation. However, precise scene understanding and sample-efficient learning from human demonstrations remain critical challenges, severely hindering the applicability and generalizability of existing frameworks. This paper presents a novel RGMP-S, Recurrent Geometric-prior Multimodal Policy with Spiking features, facilitating both high-level skill reasoning and data-efficient motion synthesis. To ground high-level reasoning in physical reality, we leverage lightweight 2D geometric inductive biases to enable precise 3D scene understanding within the vision-language model. Specifically, we construct a Long-horizon Geometric Prior Skill Selector that effectively aligns the semantic instructions with spatial constraints, ultimately achieving robust generalization in unseen environments. For the data efficiency issue in robotic action generation, we introduce a Recursive Adaptive Spiking Network. We parameterize robot-object interactions via recursive spiking for spatiotemporal consistency, fully distilling long-horizon dynamic features while mitigating the overfitting issue in sparse demonstration scenarios. Extensive experiments are conducted across the Maniskill simulation benchmark and three heterogeneous real-world robotic systems, encompassing a custom-developed humanoid, a desktop manipulator, and a commercial robotic platform. Empirical results substantiate the superiority of our method over state-of-the-art baselines and validate the efficacy of the proposed modules in diverse generalization scenarios. To facilitate reproducibility, the source code and video demonstrations are publicly available at △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.08452 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CR cs.IT On the Maximum Toroidal Distance Code for Lattice-Based Public-Key Cryptography Authors: Shuiyin Liu , Amin Sakzad Abstract : We propose a maximum toroidal distance (MTD) code for lattice-based public-key encryption (PKE). By formulating the encryption encoding problem as the selection of $2^\ell$ points in the discrete $\ell$-dimensional torus $\mathbb{Z}_q^\ell$, the proposed construction maximizes the minimum $L_2$-norm toroidal distance to reduce the decryption failure rate (DFR) in post-quantum schemes such as the N… ▽ More We propose a maximum toroidal distance (MTD) code for lattice-based public-key encryption (PKE). By formulating the encryption encoding problem as the selection of $2^\ell$ points in the discrete $\ell$-dimensional torus $\mathbb{Z}_q^\ell$, the proposed construction maximizes the minimum $L_2$-norm toroidal distance to reduce the decryption failure rate (DFR) in post-quantum schemes such as the NIST ML-KEM (Crystals-Kyber). For $\ell = 2$, we show that the MTD code is essentially a variant of the Minal code recently introduced at IACR CHES 2025. For $\ell = 4$, we present a construction based on the $D_4$ lattice that achieves the largest known toroidal distance, while for $\ell = 8$, the MTD code corresponds to $2E_8$ lattice points in $\mathbb{Z}_4^8$. Numerical evaluations under the Kyber setting show that the proposed codes outperform both Minal and maximum Lee-distance ($L_1$-norm) codes in DFR for $\ell > 2$, while matching Minal code performance for $\ell = 2$. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 6 pages arXiv:2601.08452 [ pdf , ps , other ] On the Maximum Toroidal Distance Code for Lattice-Based Public-Key Cryptography Authors: Shuiyin Liu , Amin Sakzad Abstract : We propose a maximum toroidal distance (MTD) code for lattice-based public-key encryption (PKE). By formulating the encryption encoding problem as the selection of $2^\ell$ points in the discrete $\ell$-dimensional torus $\mathbb{Z}_q^\ell$, the proposed construction maximizes the minimum $L_2$-norm toroidal distance to reduce the decryption failure rate (DFR) in post-quantum schemes such as the N… ▽ More We propose a maximum toroidal distance (MTD) code for lattice-based public-key encryption (PKE). By formulating the encryption encoding problem as the selection of $2^\ell$ points in the discrete $\ell$-dimensional torus $\mathbb{Z}_q^\ell$, the proposed construction maximizes the minimum $L_2$-norm toroidal distance to reduce the decryption failure rate (DFR) in post-quantum schemes such as the NIST ML-KEM (Crystals-Kyber). For $\ell = 2$, we show that the MTD code is essentially a variant of the Minal code recently introduced at IACR CHES 2025. For $\ell = 4$, we present a construction based on the $D_4$ lattice that achieves the largest known toroidal distance, while for $\ell = 8$, the MTD code corresponds to $2E_8$ lattice points in $\mathbb{Z}_4^8$. Numerical evaluations under the Kyber setting show that the proposed codes outperform both Minal and maximum Lee-distance ($L_1$-norm) codes in DFR for $\ell > 2$, while matching Minal code performance for $\ell = 2$. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 6 pages arXiv:2601.08430 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI RubricHub: A Comprehensive and Highly Discriminative Rubric Dataset via Automated Coarse-to-Fine Generation Authors: Sunzhu Li , Jiale Zhao , Miteto Wei , Huimin Ren , Yang Zhou , Jingwen Yang , Shunyu Liu , Kaike Zhang , Wei Chen Abstract : Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards (RLVR) has driven substantial progress in reasoning-intensive domains like mathematics. However, optimizing open-ended generation remains challenging due to the lack of ground truth. While rubric-based evaluation offers a structured proxy for verification, existing methods suffer from scalability bottlenecks and coarse criteria, resulting in a supervi… ▽ More Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards (RLVR) has driven substantial progress in reasoning-intensive domains like mathematics. However, optimizing open-ended generation remains challenging due to the lack of ground truth. While rubric-based evaluation offers a structured proxy for verification, existing methods suffer from scalability bottlenecks and coarse criteria, resulting in a supervision ceiling effect. To address this, we propose an automated Coarse-to-Fine Rubric Generation framework. By synergizing principle-guided synthesis, multi-model aggregation, and difficulty evolution, our approach produces comprehensive and highly discriminative criteria capable of capturing the subtle nuances. Based on this framework, we introduce RubricHub, a large-scale ($\sim$110k) and multi-domain dataset. We validate its utility through a two-stage post-training pipeline comprising Rubric-based Rejection Sampling Fine-Tuning (RuFT) and Reinforcement Learning (RuRL). Experimental results demonstrate that RubricHub unlocks significant performance gains: our post-trained Qwen3-14B achieves state-of-the-art (SOTA) results on HealthBench (69.3), surpassing proprietary frontier models such as GPT-5. The code and data will be released soon. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.08430 [ pdf , ps , other ] RubricHub: A Comprehensive and Highly Discriminative Rubric Dataset via Automated Coarse-to-Fine Generation Authors: Sunzhu Li , Jiale Zhao , Miteto Wei , Huimin Ren , Yang Zhou , Jingwen Yang , Shunyu Liu , Kaike Zhang , Wei Chen Abstract : Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards (RLVR) has driven substantial progress in reasoning-intensive domains like mathematics. However, optimizing open-ended generation remains challenging due to the lack of ground truth. While rubric-based evaluation offers a structured proxy for verification, existing methods suffer from scalability bottlenecks and coarse criteria, resulting in a supervi… ▽ More Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards (RLVR) has driven substantial progress in reasoning-intensive domains like mathematics. However, optimizing open-ended generation remains challenging due to the lack of ground truth. While rubric-based evaluation offers a structured proxy for verification, existing methods suffer from scalability bottlenecks and coarse criteria, resulting in a supervision ceiling effect. To address this, we propose an automated Coarse-to-Fine Rubric Generation framework. By synergizing principle-guided synthesis, multi-model aggregation, and difficulty evolution, our approach produces comprehensive and highly discriminative criteria capable of capturing the subtle nuances. Based on this framework, we introduce RubricHub, a large-scale ($\sim$110k) and multi-domain dataset. We validate its utility through a two-stage post-training pipeline comprising Rubric-based Rejection Sampling Fine-Tuning (RuFT) and Reinforcement Learning (RuRL). Experimental results demonstrate that RubricHub unlocks significant performance gains: our post-trained Qwen3-14B achieves state-of-the-art (SOTA) results on HealthBench (69.3), surpassing proprietary frontier models such as GPT-5. The code and data will be released soon. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07773 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Beyond External Guidance: Unleashing the Semantic Richness Inside Diffusion Transformers for Improved Training Authors: Lingchen Sun , Rongyuan Wu , Zhengqiang Zhang , Ruibin Li , Yujing Sun , Shuaizheng Liu , Lei Zhang Abstract : Recent works such as REPA have shown that guiding diffusion models with external semantic features (e.g., DINO) can significantly accelerate the training of diffusion transformers (DiTs). However, this requires the use of pretrained external networks, introducing additional dependencies and reducing flexibility. In this work, we argue that DiTs actually have the power to guide the training of them… ▽ More Recent works such as REPA have shown that guiding diffusion models with external semantic features (e.g., DINO) can significantly accelerate the training of diffusion transformers (DiTs). However, this requires the use of pretrained external networks, introducing additional dependencies and reducing flexibility. In this work, we argue that DiTs actually have the power to guide the training of themselves, and propose \textbf{Self-Transcendence}, a simple yet effective method that achieves fast convergence using internal feature supervision only. It is found that the slow convergence in DiT training primarily stems from the difficulty of representation learning in shallow layers. To address this, we initially train the DiT model by aligning its shallow features with the latent representations from the pretrained VAE for a short phase (e.g., 40 epochs), then apply classifier-free guidance to the intermediate features, enhancing their discriminative capability and semantic expressiveness. These enriched internal features, learned entirely within the model, are used as supervision signals to guide a new DiT training. Compared to existing self-contained methods, our approach brings a significant performance boost. It can even surpass REPA in terms of generation quality and convergence speed, but without the need for any external pretrained models. Our method is not only more flexible for different backbones but also has the potential to be adopted for a wider range of diffusion-based generative tasks. The source code of our method can be found at △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07773 [ pdf , ps , other ] Beyond External Guidance: Unleashing the Semantic Richness Inside Diffusion Transformers for Improved Training Authors: Lingchen Sun , Rongyuan Wu , Zhengqiang Zhang , Ruibin Li , Yujing Sun , Shuaizheng Liu , Lei Zhang Abstract : Recent works such as REPA have shown that guiding diffusion models with external semantic features (e.g., DINO) can significantly accelerate the training of diffusion transformers (DiTs). However, this requires the use of pretrained external networks, introducing additional dependencies and reducing flexibility. In this work, we argue that DiTs actually have the power to guide the training of them… ▽ More Recent works such as REPA have shown that guiding diffusion models with external semantic features (e.g., DINO) can significantly accelerate the training of diffusion transformers (DiTs). However, this requires the use of pretrained external networks, introducing additional dependencies and reducing flexibility. In this work, we argue that DiTs actually have the power to guide the training of themselves, and propose \textbf{Self-Transcendence}, a simple yet effective method that achieves fast convergence using internal feature supervision only. It is found that the slow convergence in DiT training primarily stems from the difficulty of representation learning in shallow layers. To address this, we initially train the DiT model by aligning its shallow features with the latent representations from the pretrained VAE for a short phase (e.g., 40 epochs), then apply classifier-free guidance to the intermediate features, enhancing their discriminative capability and semantic expressiveness. These enriched internal features, learned entirely within the model, are used as supervision signals to guide a new DiT training. Compared to existing self-contained methods, our approach brings a significant performance boost. It can even surpass REPA in terms of generation quality and convergence speed, but without the need for any external pretrained models. Our method is not only more flexible for different backbones but also has the potential to be adopted for a wider range of diffusion-based generative tasks. The source code of our method can be found at △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07620 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV PARL: Position-Aware Relation Learning Network for Document Layout Analysis Authors: Fuyuan Liu , Dianyu Yu , He Ren , Nayu Liu , Xiaomian Kang , Delai Qiu , Fa Zhang , Genpeng Zhen , Shengping Liu , Jiaen Liang , Wei Huang , Yining Wang , Junnan Zhu Abstract : Document layout analysis aims to detect and categorize structural elements (e.g., titles, tables, figures) in scanned or digital documents. Popular methods often rely on high-quality Optical Character Recognition (OCR) to merge visual features with extracted text. This dependency introduces two major drawbacks: propagation of text recognition errors and substantial computational overhead, limiting… ▽ More Document layout analysis aims to detect and categorize structural elements (e.g., titles, tables, figures) in scanned or digital documents. Popular methods often rely on high-quality Optical Character Recognition (OCR) to merge visual features with extracted text. This dependency introduces two major drawbacks: propagation of text recognition errors and substantial computational overhead, limiting the robustness and practical applicability of multimodal approaches. In contrast to the prevailing multimodal trend, we argue that effective layout analysis depends not on text-visual fusion, but on a deep understanding of documents' intrinsic visual structure. To this end, we propose PARL (Position-Aware Relation Learning Network), a novel OCR-free, vision-only framework that models layout through positional sensitivity and relational structure. Specifically, we first introduce a Bidirectional Spatial Position-Guided Deformable Attention module to embed explicit positional dependencies among layout elements directly into visual features. Second, we design a Graph Refinement Classifier (GRC) to refine predictions by modeling contextual relationships through a dynamically constructed layout graph. Extensive experiments show PARL achieves state-of-the-art results. It establishes a new benchmark for vision-only methods on DocLayNet and, notably, surpasses even strong multimodal models on M6Doc. Crucially, PARL (65M) is highly efficient, using roughly four times fewer parameters than large multimodal models (256M), demonstrating that sophisticated visual structure modeling can be both more efficient and robust than multimodal fusion. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07620 [ pdf , ps , other ] PARL: Position-Aware Relation Learning Network for Document Layout Analysis Authors: Fuyuan Liu , Dianyu Yu , He Ren , Nayu Liu , Xiaomian Kang , Delai Qiu , Fa Zhang , Genpeng Zhen , Shengping Liu , Jiaen Liang , Wei Huang , Yining Wang , Junnan Zhu Abstract : Document layout analysis aims to detect and categorize structural elements (e.g., titles, tables, figures) in scanned or digital documents. Popular methods often rely on high-quality Optical Character Recognition (OCR) to merge visual features with extracted text. This dependency introduces two major drawbacks: propagation of text recognition errors and substantial computational overhead, limiting… ▽ More Document layout analysis aims to detect and categorize structural elements (e.g., titles, tables, figures) in scanned or digital documents. Popular methods often rely on high-quality Optical Character Recognition (OCR) to merge visual features with extracted text. This dependency introduces two major drawbacks: propagation of text recognition errors and substantial computational overhead, limiting the robustness and practical applicability of multimodal approaches. In contrast to the prevailing multimodal trend, we argue that effective layout analysis depends not on text-visual fusion, but on a deep understanding of documents' intrinsic visual structure. To this end, we propose PARL (Position-Aware Relation Learning Network), a novel OCR-free, vision-only framework that models layout through positional sensitivity and relational structure. Specifically, we first introduce a Bidirectional Spatial Position-Guided Deformable Attention module to embed explicit positional dependencies among layout elements directly into visual features. Second, we design a Graph Refinement Classifier (GRC) to refine predictions by modeling contextual relationships through a dynamically constructed layout graph. Extensive experiments show PARL achieves state-of-the-art results. It establishes a new benchmark for vision-only methods on DocLayNet and, notably, surpasses even strong multimodal models on M6Doc. Crucially, PARL (65M) is highly efficient, using roughly four times fewer parameters than large multimodal models (256M), demonstrating that sophisticated visual structure modeling can be both more efficient and robust than multimodal fusion. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07483 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV FocalOrder: Focal Preference Optimization for Reading Order Detection Authors: Fuyuan Liu , Dianyu Yu , He Ren , Nayu Liu , Xiaomian Kang , Delai Qiu , Fa Zhang , Genpeng Zhen , Shengping Liu , Jiaen Liang , Wei Huang , Yining Wang , Junnan Zhu Abstract : Reading order detection is the foundation of document understanding. Most existing methods rely on uniform supervision, implicitly assuming a constant difficulty distribution across layout regions. In this work, we challenge this assumption by revealing a critical flaw: \textbf{Positional Disparity}, a phenomenon where models demonstrate mastery over the deterministic start and end regions but suf… ▽ More Reading order detection is the foundation of document understanding. Most existing methods rely on uniform supervision, implicitly assuming a constant difficulty distribution across layout regions. In this work, we challenge this assumption by revealing a critical flaw: \textbf{Positional Disparity}, a phenomenon where models demonstrate mastery over the deterministic start and end regions but suffer a performance collapse in the complex intermediate sections. This degradation arises because standard training allows the massive volume of easy patterns to drown out the learning signals from difficult layouts. To address this, we propose \textbf{FocalOrder}, a framework driven by \textbf{Focal Preference Optimization (FPO)}. Specifically, FocalOrder employs adaptive difficulty discovery with exponential moving average mechanism to dynamically pinpoint hard-to-learn transitions, while introducing a difficulty-calibrated pairwise ranking objective to enforce global logical consistency. Extensive experiments demonstrate that FocalOrder establishes new state-of-the-art results on OmniDocBench v1.0 and Comp-HRDoc. Our compact model not only outperforms competitive specialized baselines but also significantly surpasses large-scale general VLMs. These results demonstrate that aligning the optimization with intrinsic structural ambiguity of documents is critical for mastering complex document structures. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07483 [ pdf , ps , other ] FocalOrder: Focal Preference Optimization for Reading Order Detection Authors: Fuyuan Liu , Dianyu Yu , He Ren , Nayu Liu , Xiaomian Kang , Delai Qiu , Fa Zhang , Genpeng Zhen , Shengping Liu , Jiaen Liang , Wei Huang , Yining Wang , Junnan Zhu Abstract : Reading order detection is the foundation of document understanding. Most existing methods rely on uniform supervision, implicitly assuming a constant difficulty distribution across layout regions. In this work, we challenge this assumption by revealing a critical flaw: \textbf{Positional Disparity}, a phenomenon where models demonstrate mastery over the deterministic start and end regions but suf… ▽ More Reading order detection is the foundation of document understanding. Most existing methods rely on uniform supervision, implicitly assuming a constant difficulty distribution across layout regions. In this work, we challenge this assumption by revealing a critical flaw: \textbf{Positional Disparity}, a phenomenon where models demonstrate mastery over the deterministic start and end regions but suffer a performance collapse in the complex intermediate sections. This degradation arises because standard training allows the massive volume of easy patterns to drown out the learning signals from difficult layouts. To address this, we propose \textbf{FocalOrder}, a framework driven by \textbf{Focal Preference Optimization (FPO)}. Specifically, FocalOrder employs adaptive difficulty discovery with exponential moving average mechanism to dynamically pinpoint hard-to-learn transitions, while introducing a difficulty-calibrated pairwise ranking objective to enforce global logical consistency. Extensive experiments demonstrate that FocalOrder establishes new state-of-the-art results on OmniDocBench v1.0 and Comp-HRDoc. Our compact model not only outperforms competitive specialized baselines but also significantly surpasses large-scale general VLMs. These results demonstrate that aligning the optimization with intrinsic structural ambiguity of documents is critical for mastering complex document structures. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07344 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI PulseMind: A Multi-Modal Medical Model for Real-World Clinical Diagnosis Authors: Jiao Xu , Junwei Liu , Jiangwei Lao , Qi Zhu , Yunpeng Zhao , Congyun Jin , Shinan Liu , Zhihong Lu , Lihe Zhang , Xin Chen , Jian Wang , Ping Wang Abstract : Recent advances in medical multi-modal models focus on specialized image analysis like dermatology, pathology, or radiology. However, they do not fully capture the complexity of real-world clinical diagnostics, which involve heterogeneous inputs and require ongoing contextual understanding during patient-physician interactions. To bridge this gap, we introduce PulseMind, a new family of multi-moda… ▽ More Recent advances in medical multi-modal models focus on specialized image analysis like dermatology, pathology, or radiology. However, they do not fully capture the complexity of real-world clinical diagnostics, which involve heterogeneous inputs and require ongoing contextual understanding during patient-physician interactions. To bridge this gap, we introduce PulseMind, a new family of multi-modal diagnostic models that integrates a systematically curated dataset, a comprehensive evaluation benchmark, and a tailored training framework. Specifically, we first construct a diagnostic dataset, MediScope, which comprises 98,000 real-world multi-turn consultations and 601,500 medical images, spanning over 10 major clinical departments and more than 200 sub-specialties. Then, to better reflect the requirements of real-world clinical diagnosis, we develop the PulseMind Benchmark, a multi-turn diagnostic consultation benchmark with a four-dimensional evaluation protocol comprising proactiveness, accuracy, usefulness, and language quality. Finally, we design a training framework tailored for multi-modal clinical diagnostics, centered around a core component named Comparison-based Reinforcement Policy Optimization (CRPO). Compared to absolute score rewards, CRPO uses relative preference signals from multi-dimensional com-parisons to provide stable and human-aligned training guidance. Extensive experiments demonstrate that PulseMind achieves competitive performance on both the diagnostic consultation benchmark and public medical benchmarks. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Accepted to AAAI 2026 arXiv:2601.07344 [ pdf , ps , other ] PulseMind: A Multi-Modal Medical Model for Real-World Clinical Diagnosis Authors: Jiao Xu , Junwei Liu , Jiangwei Lao , Qi Zhu , Yunpeng Zhao , Congyun Jin , Shinan Liu , Zhihong Lu , Lihe Zhang , Xin Chen , Jian Wang , Ping Wang Abstract : Recent advances in medical multi-modal models focus on specialized image analysis like dermatology, pathology, or radiology. However, they do not fully capture the complexity of real-world clinical diagnostics, which involve heterogeneous inputs and require ongoing contextual understanding during patient-physician interactions. To bridge this gap, we introduce PulseMind, a new family of multi-moda… ▽ More Recent advances in medical multi-modal models focus on specialized image analysis like dermatology, pathology, or radiology. However, they do not fully capture the complexity of real-world clinical diagnostics, which involve heterogeneous inputs and require ongoing contextual understanding during patient-physician interactions. To bridge this gap, we introduce PulseMind, a new family of multi-modal diagnostic models that integrates a systematically curated dataset, a comprehensive evaluation benchmark, and a tailored training framework. Specifically, we first construct a diagnostic dataset, MediScope, which comprises 98,000 real-world multi-turn consultations and 601,500 medical images, spanning over 10 major clinical departments and more than 200 sub-specialties. Then, to better reflect the requirements of real-world clinical diagnosis, we develop the PulseMind Benchmark, a multi-turn diagnostic consultation benchmark with a four-dimensional evaluation protocol comprising proactiveness, accuracy, usefulness, and language quality. Finally, we design a training framework tailored for multi-modal clinical diagnostics, centered around a core component named Comparison-based Reinforcement Policy Optimization (CRPO). Compared to absolute score rewards, CRPO uses relative preference signals from multi-dimensional com-parisons to provide stable and human-aligned training guidance. Extensive experiments demonstrate that PulseMind achieves competitive performance on both the diagnostic consultation benchmark and public medical benchmarks. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Accepted to AAAI 2026 arXiv:2601.07329 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL BayesRAG: Probabilistic Mutual Evidence Corroboration for Multimodal Retrieval-Augmented Generation Authors: Xuan Li , Yining Wang , Haocai Luo , Shengping Liu , Jerry Liang , Ying Fu , Weihuang , Jun Yu , Junnan Zhu Abstract : Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) has become a pivotal paradigm for Large Language Models (LLMs), yet current approaches struggle with visually rich documents by treating text and images as isolated retrieval targets. Existing methods relying solely on cosine similarity often fail to capture the semantic reinforcement provided by cross-modal alignment and layout-induced coherence. To address th… ▽ More Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) has become a pivotal paradigm for Large Language Models (LLMs), yet current approaches struggle with visually rich documents by treating text and images as isolated retrieval targets. Existing methods relying solely on cosine similarity often fail to capture the semantic reinforcement provided by cross-modal alignment and layout-induced coherence. To address these limitations, we propose BayesRAG, a novel multimodal retrieval framework grounded in Bayesian inference and Dempster-Shafer evidence theory. Unlike traditional approaches that rank candidates strictly by similarity, BayesRAG models the intrinsic consistency of retrieved candidates across modalities as probabilistic evidence to refine retrieval confidence. Specifically, our method computes the posterior association probability for combinations of multimodal retrieval results, prioritizing text-image pairs that mutually corroborate each other in terms of both semantics and layout. Extensive experiments demonstrate that BayesRAG significantly outperforms state-of-the-art (SOTA) methods on challenging multimodal benchmarks. This study establishes a new paradigm for multimodal retrieval fusion that effectively resolves the isolation of heterogeneous modalities through an evidence fusion mechanism and enhances the robustness of retrieval outcomes. Our code is available at △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 17 pages, 8 figures MSC Class: 68T50 arXiv:2601.07329 [ pdf , ps , other ] BayesRAG: Probabilistic Mutual Evidence Corroboration for Multimodal Retrieval-Augmented Generation Authors: Xuan Li , Yining Wang , Haocai Luo , Shengping Liu , Jerry Liang , Ying Fu , Weihuang , Jun Yu , Junnan Zhu Abstract : Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) has become a pivotal paradigm for Large Language Models (LLMs), yet current approaches struggle with visually rich documents by treating text and images as isolated retrieval targets. Existing methods relying solely on cosine similarity often fail to capture the semantic reinforcement provided by cross-modal alignment and layout-induced coherence. To address th… ▽ More Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) has become a pivotal paradigm for Large Language Models (LLMs), yet current approaches struggle with visually rich documents by treating text and images as isolated retrieval targets. Existing methods relying solely on cosine similarity often fail to capture the semantic reinforcement provided by cross-modal alignment and layout-induced coherence. To address these limitations, we propose BayesRAG, a novel multimodal retrieval framework grounded in Bayesian inference and Dempster-Shafer evidence theory. Unlike traditional approaches that rank candidates strictly by similarity, BayesRAG models the intrinsic consistency of retrieved candidates across modalities as probabilistic evidence to refine retrieval confidence. Specifically, our method computes the posterior association probability for combinations of multimodal retrieval results, prioritizing text-image pairs that mutually corroborate each other in terms of both semantics and layout. Extensive experiments demonstrate that BayesRAG significantly outperforms state-of-the-art (SOTA) methods on challenging multimodal benchmarks. This study establishes a new paradigm for multimodal retrieval fusion that effectively resolves the isolation of heterogeneous modalities through an evidence fusion mechanism and enhances the robustness of retrieval outcomes. Our code is available at △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 17 pages, 8 figures MSC Class: 68T50 arXiv:2601.07291 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI A Visual Semantic Adaptive Watermark grounded by Prefix-Tuning for Large Vision-Language Model Authors: Qi Zheng , Shuliang Liu , Yu Huang , Sihang Jia , Jungang Li , Lyuhao Chen , Junhao Chen , Hanqian Li , Aiwei Liu , Yibo Yan , Xuming Hu Abstract : Watermarking has emerged as a pivotal solution for content traceability and intellectual property protection in Large Vision-Language Models (LVLMs). However, vision-agnostic watermarks introduce visually irrelevant tokens and disrupt visual grounding by enforcing indiscriminate pseudo-random biases, while some semantic-aware methods incur prohibitive inference latency due to rejection sampling. I… ▽ More Watermarking has emerged as a pivotal solution for content traceability and intellectual property protection in Large Vision-Language Models (LVLMs). However, vision-agnostic watermarks introduce visually irrelevant tokens and disrupt visual grounding by enforcing indiscriminate pseudo-random biases, while some semantic-aware methods incur prohibitive inference latency due to rejection sampling. In this paper, we propose the VIsual Semantic Adaptive Watermark (VISA-Mark), a novel framework that embeds detectable signals while strictly preserving visual fidelity. Our approach employs a lightweight, efficiently trained prefix-tuner to extract dynamic Visual-Evidence Weights, which quantify the evidentiary support for candidate tokens based on the visual input. These weights guide an adaptive vocabulary partitioning and logits perturbation mechanism, concentrating watermark strength specifically on visually-supported tokens. By actively aligning the watermark with visual evidence, VISA-Mark effectively maintains visual fidelity. Empirical results confirm that VISA-Mark outperforms conventional methods with a 7.8% improvement in visual consistency (Chair-I) and superior semantic fidelity. The framework maintains highly competitive detection accuracy (96.88% AUC) and robust attack resilience (99.3%) without sacrificing inference efficiency, effectively establishing a new standard for reliability-preserving multimodal watermarking. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07291 [ pdf , ps , other ] A Visual Semantic Adaptive Watermark grounded by Prefix-Tuning for Large Vision-Language Model Authors: Qi Zheng , Shuliang Liu , Yu Huang , Sihang Jia , Jungang Li , Lyuhao Chen , Junhao Chen , Hanqian Li , Aiwei Liu , Yibo Yan , Xuming Hu Abstract : Watermarking has emerged as a pivotal solution for content traceability and intellectual property protection in Large Vision-Language Models (LVLMs). However, vision-agnostic watermarks introduce visually irrelevant tokens and disrupt visual grounding by enforcing indiscriminate pseudo-random biases, while some semantic-aware methods incur prohibitive inference latency due to rejection sampling. I… ▽ More Watermarking has emerged as a pivotal solution for content traceability and intellectual property protection in Large Vision-Language Models (LVLMs). However, vision-agnostic watermarks introduce visually irrelevant tokens and disrupt visual grounding by enforcing indiscriminate pseudo-random biases, while some semantic-aware methods incur prohibitive inference latency due to rejection sampling. In this paper, we propose the VIsual Semantic Adaptive Watermark (VISA-Mark), a novel framework that embeds detectable signals while strictly preserving visual fidelity. Our approach employs a lightweight, efficiently trained prefix-tuner to extract dynamic Visual-Evidence Weights, which quantify the evidentiary support for candidate tokens based on the visual input. These weights guide an adaptive vocabulary partitioning and logits perturbation mechanism, concentrating watermark strength specifically on visually-supported tokens. By actively aligning the watermark with visual evidence, VISA-Mark effectively maintains visual fidelity. Empirical results confirm that VISA-Mark outperforms conventional methods with a 7.8% improvement in visual consistency (Chair-I) and superior semantic fidelity. The framework maintains highly competitive detection accuracy (96.88% AUC) and robust attack resilience (99.3%) without sacrificing inference efficiency, effectively establishing a new standard for reliability-preserving multimodal watermarking. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07272 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV PALUM: Part-based Attention Learning for Unified Motion Retargeting Authors: Siqi Liu , Maoyu Wang , Bo Dai , Cewu Lu Abstract : Retargeting motion between characters with different skeleton structures is a fundamental challenge in computer animation. When source and target characters have vastly different bone arrangements, maintaining the original motion's semantics and quality becomes increasingly difficult. We present PALUM, a novel approach that learns common motion representations across diverse skeleton topologies by… ▽ More Retargeting motion between characters with different skeleton structures is a fundamental challenge in computer animation. When source and target characters have vastly different bone arrangements, maintaining the original motion's semantics and quality becomes increasingly difficult. We present PALUM, a novel approach that learns common motion representations across diverse skeleton topologies by partitioning joints into semantic body parts and applying attention mechanisms to capture spatio-temporal relationships. Our method transfers motion to target skeletons by leveraging these skeleton-agnostic representations alongside target-specific structural information. To ensure robust learning and preserve motion fidelity, we introduce a cycle consistency mechanism that maintains semantic coherence throughout the retargeting process. Extensive experiments demonstrate superior performance in handling diverse skeletal structures while maintaining motion realism and semantic fidelity, even when generalizing to previously unseen skeleton-motion combinations. We will make our implementation publicly available to support future research. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07272 [ pdf , ps , other ] PALUM: Part-based Attention Learning for Unified Motion Retargeting Authors: Siqi Liu , Maoyu Wang , Bo Dai , Cewu Lu Abstract : Retargeting motion between characters with different skeleton structures is a fundamental challenge in computer animation. When source and target characters have vastly different bone arrangements, maintaining the original motion's semantics and quality becomes increasingly difficult. We present PALUM, a novel approach that learns common motion representations across diverse skeleton topologies by… ▽ More Retargeting motion between characters with different skeleton structures is a fundamental challenge in computer animation. When source and target characters have vastly different bone arrangements, maintaining the original motion's semantics and quality becomes increasingly difficult. We present PALUM, a novel approach that learns common motion representations across diverse skeleton topologies by partitioning joints into semantic body parts and applying attention mechanisms to capture spatio-temporal relationships. Our method transfers motion to target skeletons by leveraging these skeleton-agnostic representations alongside target-specific structural information. To ensure robust learning and preserve motion fidelity, we introduce a cycle consistency mechanism that maintains semantic coherence throughout the retargeting process. Extensive experiments demonstrate superior performance in handling diverse skeletal structures while maintaining motion realism and semantic fidelity, even when generalizing to previously unseen skeleton-motion combinations. We will make our implementation publicly available to support future research. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07232 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI Yes FLoReNce, I Will Do Better Next Time! Agentic Feedback Reasoning for Humorous Meme Detection Authors: Olivia Shanhong Liu , Pai Chet Ng , De Wen Soh , Konstantinos N. Plataniotis Abstract : Humorous memes blend visual and textual cues to convey irony, satire, or social commentary, posing unique challenges for AI systems that must interpret intent rather than surface correlations. Existing multimodal or prompting-based models generate explanations for humor but operate in an open loop,lacking the ability to critique or refine their reasoning once a prediction is made. We propose FLoRe… ▽ More Humorous memes blend visual and textual cues to convey irony, satire, or social commentary, posing unique challenges for AI systems that must interpret intent rather than surface correlations. Existing multimodal or prompting-based models generate explanations for humor but operate in an open loop,lacking the ability to critique or refine their reasoning once a prediction is made. We propose FLoReNce, an agentic feedback reasoning framework that treats meme understanding as a closed-loop process during learning and an open-loop process during inference. In the closed loop, a reasoning agent is critiqued by a judge; the error and semantic feedback are converted into control signals and stored in a feedback-informed, non-parametric knowledge base. At inference, the model retrieves similar judged experiences from this KB and uses them to modulate its prompt, enabling better, self-aligned reasoning without finetuning. On the PrideMM dataset, FLoReNce improves both predictive performance and explanation quality over static multimodal baselines, showing that feedback-regulated prompting is a viable path to adaptive meme humor understanding. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: LaMAS@AAAI 2026 (Oral) arXiv:2601.07232 [ pdf , ps , other ] Yes FLoReNce, I Will Do Better Next Time! Agentic Feedback Reasoning for Humorous Meme Detection Authors: Olivia Shanhong Liu , Pai Chet Ng , De Wen Soh , Konstantinos N. Plataniotis Abstract : Humorous memes blend visual and textual cues to convey irony, satire, or social commentary, posing unique challenges for AI systems that must interpret intent rather than surface correlations. Existing multimodal or prompting-based models generate explanations for humor but operate in an open loop,lacking the ability to critique or refine their reasoning once a prediction is made. We propose FLoRe… ▽ More Humorous memes blend visual and textual cues to convey irony, satire, or social commentary, posing unique challenges for AI systems that must interpret intent rather than surface correlations. Existing multimodal or prompting-based models generate explanations for humor but operate in an open loop,lacking the ability to critique or refine their reasoning once a prediction is made. We propose FLoReNce, an agentic feedback reasoning framework that treats meme understanding as a closed-loop process during learning and an open-loop process during inference. In the closed loop, a reasoning agent is critiqued by a judge; the error and semantic feedback are converted into control signals and stored in a feedback-informed, non-parametric knowledge base. At inference, the model retrieves similar judged experiences from this KB and uses them to modulate its prompt, enabling better, self-aligned reasoning without finetuning. On the PrideMM dataset, FLoReNce improves both predictive performance and explanation quality over static multimodal baselines, showing that feedback-regulated prompting is a viable path to adaptive meme humor understanding. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: LaMAS@AAAI 2026 (Oral) arXiv:2601.06953 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.LG X-Coder: Advancing Competitive Programming with Fully Synthetic Tasks, Solutions, and Tests Authors: Jie Wu , Haoling Li , Xin Zhang , Jiani Guo , Jane Luo , Steven Liu , Yangyu Huang , Ruihang Chu , Scarlett Li , Yujiu Yang Abstract : Competitive programming presents great challenges for Code LLMs due to its intensive reasoning demands and high logical complexity. However, current Code LLMs still rely heavily on real-world data, which limits their scalability. In this paper, we explore a fully synthetic approach: training Code LLMs with entirely generated tasks, solutions, and test cases, to empower code reasoning models withou… ▽ More Competitive programming presents great challenges for Code LLMs due to its intensive reasoning demands and high logical complexity. However, current Code LLMs still rely heavily on real-world data, which limits their scalability. In this paper, we explore a fully synthetic approach: training Code LLMs with entirely generated tasks, solutions, and test cases, to empower code reasoning models without relying on real-world data. To support this, we leverage feature-based synthesis to propose a novel data synthesis pipeline called SynthSmith. SynthSmith shows strong potential in producing diverse and challenging tasks, along with verified solutions and tests, supporting both supervised fine-tuning and reinforcement learning. Based on the proposed synthetic SFT and RL datasets, we introduce the X-Coder model series, which achieves a notable pass rate of 62.9 avg@8 on LiveCodeBench v5 and 55.8 on v6, outperforming DeepCoder-14B-Preview and AReal-boba2-14B despite having only 7B parameters. In-depth analysis reveals that scaling laws hold on our synthetic dataset, and we explore which dimensions are more effective to scale. We further provide insights into code-centric reinforcement learning and highlight the key factors that shape performance through detailed ablations and analysis. Our findings demonstrate that scaling high-quality synthetic data and adopting staged training can greatly advance code reasoning, while mitigating reliance on real-world coding data. △ Less Submitted 11 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Project: arXiv:2601.06953 [ pdf , ps , other ] X-Coder: Advancing Competitive Programming with Fully Synthetic Tasks, Solutions, and Tests Authors: Jie Wu , Haoling Li , Xin Zhang , Jiani Guo , Jane Luo , Steven Liu , Yangyu Huang , Ruihang Chu , Scarlett Li , Yujiu Yang Abstract : Competitive programming presents great challenges for Code LLMs due to its intensive reasoning demands and high logical complexity. However, current Code LLMs still rely heavily on real-world data, which limits their scalability. In this paper, we explore a fully synthetic approach: training Code LLMs with entirely generated tasks, solutions, and test cases, to empower code reasoning models withou… ▽ More Competitive programming presents great challenges for Code LLMs due to its intensive reasoning demands and high logical complexity. However, current Code LLMs still rely heavily on real-world data, which limits their scalability. In this paper, we explore a fully synthetic approach: training Code LLMs with entirely generated tasks, solutions, and test cases, to empower code reasoning models without relying on real-world data. To support this, we leverage feature-based synthesis to propose a novel data synthesis pipeline called SynthSmith. SynthSmith shows strong potential in producing diverse and challenging tasks, along with verified solutions and tests, supporting both supervised fine-tuning and reinforcement learning. Based on the proposed synthetic SFT and RL datasets, we introduce the X-Coder model series, which achieves a notable pass rate of 62.9 avg@8 on LiveCodeBench v5 and 55.8 on v6, outperforming DeepCoder-14B-Preview and AReal-boba2-14B despite having only 7B parameters. In-depth analysis reveals that scaling laws hold on our synthetic dataset, and we explore which dimensions are more effective to scale. We further provide insights into code-centric reinforcement learning and highlight the key factors that shape performance through detailed ablations and analysis. Our findings demonstrate that scaling high-quality synthetic data and adopting staged training can greatly advance code reasoning, while mitigating reliance on real-world coding data. △ Less Submitted 11 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Project: arXiv:2601.06750 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI cs.CL Benchmarking Egocentric Clinical Intent Understanding Capability for Medical Multimodal Large Language Models Authors: Shaonan Liu , Guo Yu , Xiaoling Luo , Shiyi Zheng , Wenting Chen , Jie Liu , Linlin Shen Abstract : Medical Multimodal Large Language Models (Med-MLLMs) require egocentric clinical intent understanding for real-world deployment, yet existing benchmarks fail to evaluate this critical capability. To address these challenges, we introduce MedGaze-Bench, the first benchmark leveraging clinician gaze as a Cognitive Cursor to assess intent understanding across surgery, emergency simulation, and diagno… ▽ More Medical Multimodal Large Language Models (Med-MLLMs) require egocentric clinical intent understanding for real-world deployment, yet existing benchmarks fail to evaluate this critical capability. To address these challenges, we introduce MedGaze-Bench, the first benchmark leveraging clinician gaze as a Cognitive Cursor to assess intent understanding across surgery, emergency simulation, and diagnostic interpretation. Our benchmark addresses three fundamental challenges: visual homogeneity of anatomical structures, strict temporal-causal dependencies in clinical workflows, and implicit adherence to safety protocols. We propose a Three-Dimensional Clinical Intent Framework evaluating: (1) Spatial Intent: discriminating precise targets amid visual noise, (2) Temporal Intent: inferring causal rationale through retrospective and prospective reasoning, and (3) Standard Intent: verifying protocol compliance through safety checks. Beyond accuracy metrics, we introduce Trap QA mechanisms to stress-test clinical reliability by penalizing hallucinations and cognitive sycophancy. Experiments reveal current MLLMs struggle with egocentric intent due to over-reliance on global features, leading to fabricated observations and uncritical acceptance of invalid instructions. △ Less Submitted 10 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 16 pages, 4 figures arXiv:2601.06750 [ pdf , ps , other ] Benchmarking Egocentric Clinical Intent Understanding Capability for Medical Multimodal Large Language Models Authors: Shaonan Liu , Guo Yu , Xiaoling Luo , Shiyi Zheng , Wenting Chen , Jie Liu , Linlin Shen Abstract : Medical Multimodal Large Language Models (Med-MLLMs) require egocentric clinical intent understanding for real-world deployment, yet existing benchmarks fail to evaluate this critical capability. To address these challenges, we introduce MedGaze-Bench, the first benchmark leveraging clinician gaze as a Cognitive Cursor to assess intent understanding across surgery, emergency simulation, and diagno… ▽ More Medical Multimodal Large Language Models (Med-MLLMs) require egocentric clinical intent understanding for real-world deployment, yet existing benchmarks fail to evaluate this critical capability. To address these challenges, we introduce MedGaze-Bench, the first benchmark leveraging clinician gaze as a Cognitive Cursor to assess intent understanding across surgery, emergency simulation, and diagnostic interpretation. Our benchmark addresses three fundamental challenges: visual homogeneity of anatomical structures, strict temporal-causal dependencies in clinical workflows, and implicit adherence to safety protocols. We propose a Three-Dimensional Clinical Intent Framework evaluating: (1) Spatial Intent: discriminating precise targets amid visual noise, (2) Temporal Intent: inferring causal rationale through retrospective and prospective reasoning, and (3) Standard Intent: verifying protocol compliance through safety checks. Beyond accuracy metrics, we introduce Trap QA mechanisms to stress-test clinical reliability by penalizing hallucinations and cognitive sycophancy. Experiments reveal current MLLMs struggle with egocentric intent due to over-reliance on global features, leading to fabricated observations and uncritical acceptance of invalid instructions. △ Less Submitted 10 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 16 pages, 4 figures arXiv:2601.06490 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.MA Bi-Mem: Bidirectional Construction of Hierarchical Memory for Personalized LLMs via Inductive-Reflective Agents Authors: Wenyu Mao , Haosong Tan , Shuchang Liu , Haoyang Liu , Yifan Xu , Huaxiang Ji , Xiang Wang Abstract : Constructing memory from users' long-term conversations overcomes LLMs' contextual limitations and enables personalized interactions. Recent studies focus on hierarchical memory to model users' multi-granular behavioral patterns via clustering and aggregating historical conversations. However, conversational noise and memory hallucinations can be amplified during clustering, causing locally aggreg… ▽ More Constructing memory from users' long-term conversations overcomes LLMs' contextual limitations and enables personalized interactions. Recent studies focus on hierarchical memory to model users' multi-granular behavioral patterns via clustering and aggregating historical conversations. However, conversational noise and memory hallucinations can be amplified during clustering, causing locally aggregated memories to misalign with the user's global persona. To mitigate this issue, we propose Bi-Mem, an agentic framework ensuring hierarchical memory fidelity through bidirectional construction. Specifically, we deploy an inductive agent to form the hierarchical memory: it extracts factual information from raw conversations to form fact-level memory, aggregates them into thematic scenes (i.e., local scene-level memory) using graph clustering, and infers users' profiles as global persona-level memory. Simultaneously, a reflective agent is designed to calibrate local scene-level memories using global constraints derived from the persona-level memory, thereby enforcing global-local alignment. For coherent memory recall, we propose an associative retrieval mechanism: beyond initial hierarchical search, a spreading activation process allows facts to evoke contextual scenes, while scene-level matches retrieve salient supporting factual information. Empirical evaluations demonstrate that Bi-Mem achieves significant improvements in question answering performance on long-term personalized conversational tasks. △ Less Submitted 10 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.06490 [ pdf , ps , other ] Bi-Mem: Bidirectional Construction of Hierarchical Memory for Personalized LLMs via Inductive-Reflective Agents Authors: Wenyu Mao , Haosong Tan , Shuchang Liu , Haoyang Liu , Yifan Xu , Huaxiang Ji , Xiang Wang Abstract : Constructing memory from users' long-term conversations overcomes LLMs' contextual limitations and enables personalized interactions. Recent studies focus on hierarchical memory to model users' multi-granular behavioral patterns via clustering and aggregating historical conversations. However, conversational noise and memory hallucinations can be amplified during clustering, causing locally aggreg… ▽ More Constructing memory from users' long-term conversations overcomes LLMs' contextual limitations and enables personalized interactions. Recent studies focus on hierarchical memory to model users' multi-granular behavioral patterns via clustering and aggregating historical conversations. However, conversational noise and memory hallucinations can be amplified during clustering, causing locally aggregated memories to misalign with the user's global persona. To mitigate this issue, we propose Bi-Mem, an agentic framework ensuring hierarchical memory fidelity through bidirectional construction. Specifically, we deploy an inductive agent to form the hierarchical memory: it extracts factual information from raw conversations to form fact-level memory, aggregates them into thematic scenes (i.e., local scene-level memory) using graph clustering, and infers users' profiles as global persona-level memory. Simultaneously, a reflective agent is designed to calibrate local scene-level memories using global constraints derived from the persona-level memory, thereby enforcing global-local alignment. For coherent memory recall, we propose an associative retrieval mechanism: beyond initial hierarchical search, a spreading activation process allows facts to evoke contextual scenes, while scene-level matches retrieve salient supporting factual information. Empirical evaluations demonstrate that Bi-Mem achieves significant improvements in question answering performance on long-term personalized conversational tasks. △ Less Submitted 10 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.06216 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CY cs.AI LLM Agents in Law: Taxonomy, Applications, and Challenges Authors: Shuang Liu , Ruijia Zhang , Ruoyun Ma , Yujia Deng , Lanyi Zhu , Jiayu Li , Zelong Li , Zhibin Shen , Mengnan Du Abstract : Large language models (LLMs) have precipitated a dramatic improvement in the legal domain, yet the deployment of standalone models faces significant limitations regarding hallucination, outdated information, and verifiability. Recently, LLM agents have attracted significant attention as a solution to these challenges, utilizing advanced capabilities such as planning, memory, and tool usage to meet… ▽ More Large language models (LLMs) have precipitated a dramatic improvement in the legal domain, yet the deployment of standalone models faces significant limitations regarding hallucination, outdated information, and verifiability. Recently, LLM agents have attracted significant attention as a solution to these challenges, utilizing advanced capabilities such as planning, memory, and tool usage to meet the rigorous standards of legal practice. In this paper, we present a comprehensive survey of LLM agents for legal tasks, analyzing how these architectures bridge the gap between technical capabilities and domain-specific needs. Our major contributions include: (1) systematically analyzing the technical transition from standard legal LLMs to legal agents; (2) presenting a structured taxonomy of current agent applications across distinct legal practice areas; (3) discussing evaluation methodologies specifically for agentic performance in law; and (4) identifying open challenges and outlining future directions for developing robust and autonomous legal assistants. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.06216 [ pdf , ps , other ] LLM Agents in Law: Taxonomy, Applications, and Challenges Authors: Shuang Liu , Ruijia Zhang , Ruoyun Ma , Yujia Deng , Lanyi Zhu , Jiayu Li , Zelong Li , Zhibin Shen , Mengnan Du Abstract : Large language models (LLMs) have precipitated a dramatic improvement in the legal domain, yet the deployment of standalone models faces significant limitations regarding hallucination, outdated information, and verifiability. Recently, LLM agents have attracted significant attention as a solution to these challenges, utilizing advanced capabilities such as planning, memory, and tool usage to meet… ▽ More Large language models (LLMs) have precipitated a dramatic improvement in the legal domain, yet the deployment of standalone models faces significant limitations regarding hallucination, outdated information, and verifiability. Recently, LLM agents have attracted significant attention as a solution to these challenges, utilizing advanced capabilities such as planning, memory, and tool usage to meet the rigorous standards of legal practice. In this paper, we present a comprehensive survey of LLM agents for legal tasks, analyzing how these architectures bridge the gap between technical capabilities and domain-specific needs. Our major contributions include: (1) systematically analyzing the technical transition from standard legal LLMs to legal agents; (2) presenting a structured taxonomy of current agent applications across distinct legal practice areas; (3) discussing evaluation methodologies specifically for agentic performance in law; and (4) identifying open challenges and outlining future directions for developing robust and autonomous legal assistants. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.06118 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI Beyond Reproducibility: Token Probabilities Expose Large Language Model Nondeterminism Authors: Tairan Fu , Gonzalo Martínez , Javier Conde , Carlos Arriaga , Pedro Reviriego , Xiuyuan Qi , Shanshan Liu Abstract : The execution of Large Language Models (LLMs) has been shown to produce nondeterministic results when run on Graphics Processing Units (GPUs), even when they are configured to produce deterministic results. This is due to the finite precision effects of the arithmetic operations, which depend on the order in which they are executed. This order, in turn, depends on the processes that are running co… ▽ More The execution of Large Language Models (LLMs) has been shown to produce nondeterministic results when run on Graphics Processing Units (GPUs), even when they are configured to produce deterministic results. This is due to the finite precision effects of the arithmetic operations, which depend on the order in which they are executed. This order, in turn, depends on the processes that are running concurrently on the GPU. Previous studies have focused on the impact of nondeterminism on the text generated by the LLMs or on proposing mechanisms to achieve deterministic execution. This work takes a closer look at nondeterminism by analyzing the variations on the token probabilities, not on the generated text. Interestingly, all the models evaluated have similar results in both the trends and the actual values of the variations of the probabilities. In particular, the results show that the effects of nondeterminism are significant for token probabilities that are in the range of 0.1 to 0.9, while they are much smaller when the probabilities are close to 0 or 1. This has significant implications for our understanding of nondeterminism. The first is that nondeterminism will likely have a non-negligible impact on generated text when the temperature is not zero, as it introduces significant variations in the token probabilities except when they are close to 0 or 1. Secondly, it suggests that all models have similar non deterministic variations at the token probability level. Therefore, different variations in the performance of the generated text, for example, when measuring accuracy on a benchmark, seem to come from different token probabilities or response lengths. A third implication is that we may be able to estimate the impact of nondeterminism by running a single inference and analyzing the token level probabilities, instead of having to run the same inference many times. △ Less Submitted 3 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.06118 [ pdf , ps , other ] Beyond Reproducibility: Token Probabilities Expose Large Language Model Nondeterminism Authors: Tairan Fu , Gonzalo Martínez , Javier Conde , Carlos Arriaga , Pedro Reviriego , Xiuyuan Qi , Shanshan Liu Abstract : The execution of Large Language Models (LLMs) has been shown to produce nondeterministic results when run on Graphics Processing Units (GPUs), even when they are configured to produce deterministic results. This is due to the finite precision effects of the arithmetic operations, which depend on the order in which they are executed. This order, in turn, depends on the processes that are running co… ▽ More The execution of Large Language Models (LLMs) has been shown to produce nondeterministic results when run on Graphics Processing Units (GPUs), even when they are configured to produce deterministic results. This is due to the finite precision effects of the arithmetic operations, which depend on the order in which they are executed. This order, in turn, depends on the processes that are running concurrently on the GPU. Previous studies have focused on the impact of nondeterminism on the text generated by the LLMs or on proposing mechanisms to achieve deterministic execution. This work takes a closer look at nondeterminism by analyzing the variations on the token probabilities, not on the generated text. Interestingly, all the models evaluated have similar results in both the trends and the actual values of the variations of the probabilities. In particular, the results show that the effects of nondeterminism are significant for token probabilities that are in the range of 0.1 to 0.9, while they are much smaller when the probabilities are close to 0 or 1. This has significant implications for our understanding of nondeterminism. The first is that nondeterminism will likely have a non-negligible impact on generated text when the temperature is not zero, as it introduces significant variations in the token probabilities except when they are close to 0 or 1. Secondly, it suggests that all models have similar non deterministic variations at the token probability level. Therefore, different variations in the performance of the generated text, for example, when measuring accuracy on a benchmark, seem to come from different token probabilities or response lengths. A third implication is that we may be able to estimate the impact of nondeterminism by running a single inference and analyzing the token level probabilities, instead of having to run the same inference many times. △ Less Submitted 3 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05755 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CR cs.AI VIGIL: Defending LLM Agents Against Tool Stream Injection via Verify-Before-Commit Authors: Junda Lin , Zhaomeng Zhou , Zhi Zheng , Shuochen Liu , Tong Xu , Yong Chen , Enhong Chen Abstract : LLM agents operating in open environments face escalating risks from indirect prompt injection, particularly within the tool stream where manipulated metadata and runtime feedback hijack execution flow. Existing defenses encounter a critical dilemma as advanced models prioritize injected rules due to strict alignment while static protection mechanisms sever the feedback loop required for adaptive… ▽ More LLM agents operating in open environments face escalating risks from indirect prompt injection, particularly within the tool stream where manipulated metadata and runtime feedback hijack execution flow. Existing defenses encounter a critical dilemma as advanced models prioritize injected rules due to strict alignment while static protection mechanisms sever the feedback loop required for adaptive reasoning. To reconcile this conflict, we propose \textbf{VIGIL}, a framework that shifts the paradigm from restrictive isolation to a verify-before-commit protocol. By facilitating speculative hypothesis generation and enforcing safety through intent-grounded verification, \textbf{VIGIL} preserves reasoning flexibility while ensuring robust control. We further introduce \textbf{SIREN}, a benchmark comprising 959 tool stream injection cases designed to simulate pervasive threats characterized by dynamic dependencies. Extensive experiments demonstrate that \textbf{VIGIL} outperforms state-of-the-art dynamic defenses by reducing the attack success rate by over 22\% while more than doubling the utility under attack compared to static baselines, thereby achieving an optimal balance between security and utility. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; v1 submitted 9 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05755 [ pdf , ps , other ] VIGIL: Defending LLM Agents Against Tool Stream Injection via Verify-Before-Commit Authors: Junda Lin , Zhaomeng Zhou , Zhi Zheng , Shuochen Liu , Tong Xu , Yong Chen , Enhong Chen Abstract : LLM agents operating in open environments face escalating risks from indirect prompt injection, particularly within the tool stream where manipulated metadata and runtime feedback hijack execution flow. Existing defenses encounter a critical dilemma as advanced models prioritize injected rules due to strict alignment while static protection mechanisms sever the feedback loop required for adaptive… ▽ More LLM agents operating in open environments face escalating risks from indirect prompt injection, particularly within the tool stream where manipulated metadata and runtime feedback hijack execution flow. Existing defenses encounter a critical dilemma as advanced models prioritize injected rules due to strict alignment while static protection mechanisms sever the feedback loop required for adaptive reasoning. To reconcile this conflict, we propose \textbf{VIGIL}, a framework that shifts the paradigm from restrictive isolation to a verify-before-commit protocol. By facilitating speculative hypothesis generation and enforcing safety through intent-grounded verification, \textbf{VIGIL} preserves reasoning flexibility while ensuring robust control. We further introduce \textbf{SIREN}, a benchmark comprising 959 tool stream injection cases designed to simulate pervasive threats characterized by dynamic dependencies. Extensive experiments demonstrate that \textbf{VIGIL} outperforms state-of-the-art dynamic defenses by reducing the attack success rate by over 22\% while more than doubling the utility under attack compared to static baselines, thereby achieving an optimal balance between security and utility. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; v1 submitted 9 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05616 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG Dual-Phase LLM Reasoning: Self-Evolved Mathematical Frameworks Authors: ShaoZhen Liu , Xinting Huang , Houwen Peng , Xin Chen , Xinyang Song , Qi Li , Zhenan Sun Abstract : In recent years, large language models (LLMs) have demonstrated significant potential in complex reasoning tasks like mathematical problem-solving. However, existing research predominantly relies on reinforcement learning (RL) frameworks while overlooking supervised fine-tuning (SFT) methods. This paper proposes a new two-stage training framework that enhances models' self-correction capabilities… ▽ More In recent years, large language models (LLMs) have demonstrated significant potential in complex reasoning tasks like mathematical problem-solving. However, existing research predominantly relies on reinforcement learning (RL) frameworks while overlooking supervised fine-tuning (SFT) methods. This paper proposes a new two-stage training framework that enhances models' self-correction capabilities through self-generated long chain-of-thought (CoT) data. During the first stage, a multi-turn dialogue strategy guides the model to generate CoT data incorporating verification, backtracking, subgoal decomposition, and backward reasoning, with predefined rules filtering high-quality samples for supervised fine-tuning. The second stage employs a difficulty-aware rejection sampling mechanism to dynamically optimize data distribution, strengthening the model's ability to handle complex problems. The approach generates reasoning chains extended over 4 times longer while maintaining strong scalability, proving that SFT effectively activates models' intrinsic reasoning capabilities and provides a resource-efficient pathway for complex task optimization. Experimental results demonstrate performance improvements on mathematical benchmarks including GSM8K and MATH500, with the fine-tuned model achieving a substantial improvement on competition-level problems like AIME24. Code will be open-sourced. △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05616 [ pdf , ps , other ] Dual-Phase LLM Reasoning: Self-Evolved Mathematical Frameworks Authors: ShaoZhen Liu , Xinting Huang , Houwen Peng , Xin Chen , Xinyang Song , Qi Li , Zhenan Sun Abstract : In recent years, large language models (LLMs) have demonstrated significant potential in complex reasoning tasks like mathematical problem-solving. However, existing research predominantly relies on reinforcement learning (RL) frameworks while overlooking supervised fine-tuning (SFT) methods. This paper proposes a new two-stage training framework that enhances models' self-correction capabilities… ▽ More In recent years, large language models (LLMs) have demonstrated significant potential in complex reasoning tasks like mathematical problem-solving. However, existing research predominantly relies on reinforcement learning (RL) frameworks while overlooking supervised fine-tuning (SFT) methods. This paper proposes a new two-stage training framework that enhances models' self-correction capabilities through self-generated long chain-of-thought (CoT) data. During the first stage, a multi-turn dialogue strategy guides the model to generate CoT data incorporating verification, backtracking, subgoal decomposition, and backward reasoning, with predefined rules filtering high-quality samples for supervised fine-tuning. The second stage employs a difficulty-aware rejection sampling mechanism to dynamically optimize data distribution, strengthening the model's ability to handle complex problems. The approach generates reasoning chains extended over 4 times longer while maintaining strong scalability, proving that SFT effectively activates models' intrinsic reasoning capabilities and provides a resource-efficient pathway for complex task optimization. Experimental results demonstrate performance improvements on mathematical benchmarks including GSM8K and MATH500, with the fine-tuned model achieving a substantial improvement on competition-level problems like AIME24. Code will be open-sourced. △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05543 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.SD eess.AS Closing the Modality Reasoning Gap for Speech Large Language Models Authors: Chaoren Wang , Heng Lu , Xueyao Zhang , Shujie Liu , Yan Lu , Jinyu Li , Zhizheng Wu Abstract : Although speech large language models have achieved notable progress, a substantial modality reasoning gap remains: their reasoning performance on speech inputs is markedly weaker than on text. This gap could be associated with representational drift across Transformer layers and behavior deviations in long-chain reasoning. To address this issue, we introduce TARS, a reinforcement-learning framewo… ▽ More Although speech large language models have achieved notable progress, a substantial modality reasoning gap remains: their reasoning performance on speech inputs is markedly weaker than on text. This gap could be associated with representational drift across Transformer layers and behavior deviations in long-chain reasoning. To address this issue, we introduce TARS, a reinforcement-learning framework that aligns text-conditioned and speech-conditioned trajectories through an asymmetric reward design. The framework employs two dense and complementary signals: representation alignment, which measures layer-wise hidden-state similarity between speech- and text-conditioned trajectories, and behavior alignment, which evaluates semantic consistency between generated outputs and reference text completions. Experiments on challenging reasoning benchmarks, including MMSU and OBQA, show that our approach significantly narrows the modality reasoning gap and achieves state-of-the-art performance among 7B-scale Speech LLMs. △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05543 [ pdf , ps , other ] Closing the Modality Reasoning Gap for Speech Large Language Models Authors: Chaoren Wang , Heng Lu , Xueyao Zhang , Shujie Liu , Yan Lu , Jinyu Li , Zhizheng Wu Abstract : Although speech large language models have achieved notable progress, a substantial modality reasoning gap remains: their reasoning performance on speech inputs is markedly weaker than on text. This gap could be associated with representational drift across Transformer layers and behavior deviations in long-chain reasoning. To address this issue, we introduce TARS, a reinforcement-learning framewo… ▽ More Although speech large language models have achieved notable progress, a substantial modality reasoning gap remains: their reasoning performance on speech inputs is markedly weaker than on text. This gap could be associated with representational drift across Transformer layers and behavior deviations in long-chain reasoning. To address this issue, we introduce TARS, a reinforcement-learning framework that aligns text-conditioned and speech-conditioned trajectories through an asymmetric reward design. The framework employs two dense and complementary signals: representation alignment, which measures layer-wise hidden-state similarity between speech- and text-conditioned trajectories, and behavior alignment, which evaluates semantic consistency between generated outputs and reference text completions. Experiments on challenging reasoning benchmarks, including MMSU and OBQA, show that our approach significantly narrows the modality reasoning gap and achieves state-of-the-art performance among 7B-scale Speech LLMs. △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05279 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.MA cs.AI cs.GT Simulation-Free PSRO: Removing Game Simulation from Policy Space Response Oracles Authors: Yingzhuo Liu , Shuodi Liu , Weijun Luo , Liuyu Xiang , Zhaofeng He Abstract : Policy Space Response Oracles (PSRO) combines game-theoretic equilibrium computation with learning and is effective in approximating Nash Equilibrium in zero-sum games. However, the computational cost of PSRO has become a significant limitation to its practical application. Our analysis shows that game simulation is the primary bottleneck in PSRO's runtime. To address this issue, we conclude the c… ▽ More Policy Space Response Oracles (PSRO) combines game-theoretic equilibrium computation with learning and is effective in approximating Nash Equilibrium in zero-sum games. However, the computational cost of PSRO has become a significant limitation to its practical application. Our analysis shows that game simulation is the primary bottleneck in PSRO's runtime. To address this issue, we conclude the concept of Simulation-Free PSRO and summarize existing methods that instantiate this concept. Additionally, we propose a novel Dynamic Window-based Simulation-Free PSRO, which introduces the concept of a strategy window to replace the original strategy set maintained in PSRO. The number of strategies in the strategy window is limited, thereby simplifying opponent strategy selection and improving the robustness of the best response. Moreover, we use Nash Clustering to select the strategy to be eliminated, ensuring that the number of strategies within the strategy window is effectively limited. Our experiments across various environments demonstrate that the Dynamic Window mechanism significantly reduces exploitability compared to existing methods, while also exhibiting excellent compatibility. Our code is available at △ Less Submitted 30 December, 2025; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05279 [ pdf , ps , other ] Simulation-Free PSRO: Removing Game Simulation from Policy Space Response Oracles Authors: Yingzhuo Liu , Shuodi Liu , Weijun Luo , Liuyu Xiang , Zhaofeng He Abstract : Policy Space Response Oracles (PSRO) combines game-theoretic equilibrium computation with learning and is effective in approximating Nash Equilibrium in zero-sum games. However, the computational cost of PSRO has become a significant limitation to its practical application. Our analysis shows that game simulation is the primary bottleneck in PSRO's runtime. To address this issue, we conclude the c… ▽ More Policy Space Response Oracles (PSRO) combines game-theoretic equilibrium computation with learning and is effective in approximating Nash Equilibrium in zero-sum games. However, the computational cost of PSRO has become a significant limitation to its practical application. Our analysis shows that game simulation is the primary bottleneck in PSRO's runtime. To address this issue, we conclude the concept of Simulation-Free PSRO and summarize existing methods that instantiate this concept. Additionally, we propose a novel Dynamic Window-based Simulation-Free PSRO, which introduces the concept of a strategy window to replace the original strategy set maintained in PSRO. The number of strategies in the strategy window is limited, thereby simplifying opponent strategy selection and improving the robustness of the best response. Moreover, we use Nash Clustering to select the strategy to be eliminated, ensuring that the number of strategies within the strategy window is effectively limited. Our experiments across various environments demonstrate that the Dynamic Window mechanism significantly reduces exploitability compared to existing methods, while also exhibiting excellent compatibility. Our code is available at △ Less Submitted 30 December, 2025; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05242 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI cs.LG GDPO: Group reward-Decoupled Normalization Policy Optimization for Multi-reward RL Optimization Authors: Shih-Yang Liu , Xin Dong , Ximing Lu , Shizhe Diao , Peter Belcak , Mingjie Liu , Min-Hung Chen , Hongxu Yin , Yu-Chiang Frank Wang , Kwang-Ting Cheng , Yejin Choi , Jan Kautz , Pavlo Molchanov Abstract : As language models become increasingly capable, users expect them to provide not only accurate responses but also behaviors aligned with diverse human preferences across a variety of scenarios. To achieve this, Reinforcement learning (RL) pipelines have begun incorporating multiple rewards, each capturing a distinct preference, to guide models toward these desired behaviors. However, recent work h… ▽ More As language models become increasingly capable, users expect them to provide not only accurate responses but also behaviors aligned with diverse human preferences across a variety of scenarios. To achieve this, Reinforcement learning (RL) pipelines have begun incorporating multiple rewards, each capturing a distinct preference, to guide models toward these desired behaviors. However, recent work has defaulted to apply Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO) under multi-reward setting without examining its suitability. In this paper, we demonstrate that directly applying GRPO to normalize distinct rollout reward combinations causes them to collapse into identical advantage values, reducing the resolution of the training signal and resulting in suboptimal convergence and, in some cases, early training failure. We then introduce Group reward-Decoupled Normalization Policy Optimization (GDPO), a new policy optimization method to resolve these issues by decoupling the normalization of individual rewards, more faithfully preserving their relative differences and enabling more accurate multi-reward optimization, along with substantially improved training stability. We compare GDPO with GRPO across three tasks: tool calling, math reasoning, and coding reasoning, evaluating both correctness metrics (accuracy, bug ratio) and constraint adherence metrics (format, length). Across all settings, GDPO consistently outperforms GRPO, demonstrating its effectiveness and generalizability for multi-reward reinforcement learning optimization. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: NVIDIA-Tech Report arXiv:2601.05242 [ pdf , ps , other ] GDPO: Group reward-Decoupled Normalization Policy Optimization for Multi-reward RL Optimization Authors: Shih-Yang Liu , Xin Dong , Ximing Lu , Shizhe Diao , Peter Belcak , Mingjie Liu , Min-Hung Chen , Hongxu Yin , Yu-Chiang Frank Wang , Kwang-Ting Cheng , Yejin Choi , Jan Kautz , Pavlo Molchanov Abstract : As language models become increasingly capable, users expect them to provide not only accurate responses but also behaviors aligned with diverse human preferences across a variety of scenarios. To achieve this, Reinforcement learning (RL) pipelines have begun incorporating multiple rewards, each capturing a distinct preference, to guide models toward these desired behaviors. However, recent work h… ▽ More As language models become increasingly capable, users expect them to provide not only accurate responses but also behaviors aligned with diverse human preferences across a variety of scenarios. To achieve this, Reinforcement learning (RL) pipelines have begun incorporating multiple rewards, each capturing a distinct preference, to guide models toward these desired behaviors. However, recent work has defaulted to apply Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO) under multi-reward setting without examining its suitability. In this paper, we demonstrate that directly applying GRPO to normalize distinct rollout reward combinations causes them to collapse into identical advantage values, reducing the resolution of the training signal and resulting in suboptimal convergence and, in some cases, early training failure. We then introduce Group reward-Decoupled Normalization Policy Optimization (GDPO), a new policy optimization method to resolve these issues by decoupling the normalization of individual rewards, more faithfully preserving their relative differences and enabling more accurate multi-reward optimization, along with substantially improved training stability. We compare GDPO with GRPO across three tasks: tool calling, math reasoning, and coding reasoning, evaluating both correctness metrics (accuracy, bug ratio) and constraint adherence metrics (format, length). Across all settings, GDPO consistently outperforms GRPO, demonstrating its effectiveness and generalizability for multi-reward reinforcement learning optimization. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: NVIDIA-Tech Report arXiv:2601.05175 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV VideoAuto-R1: Video Auto Reasoning via Thinking Once, Answering Twice Authors: Shuming Liu , Mingchen Zhuge , Changsheng Zhao , Jun Chen , Lemeng Wu , Zechun Liu , Chenchen Zhu , Zhipeng Cai , Chong Zhou , Haozhe Liu , Ernie Chang , Saksham Suri , Hongyu Xu , Qi Qian , Wei Wen , Balakrishnan Varadarajan , Zhuang Liu , Hu Xu , Florian Bordes , Raghuraman Krishnamoorthi , Bernard Ghanem , Vikas Chandra , Yunyang Xiong Abstract : Chain-of-thought (CoT) reasoning has emerged as a powerful tool for multimodal large language models on video understanding tasks. However, its necessity and advantages over direct answering remain underexplored. In this paper, we first demonstrate that for RL-trained video models, direct answering often matches or even surpasses CoT performance, despite CoT producing step-by-step analyses at a hi… ▽ More Chain-of-thought (CoT) reasoning has emerged as a powerful tool for multimodal large language models on video understanding tasks. However, its necessity and advantages over direct answering remain underexplored. In this paper, we first demonstrate that for RL-trained video models, direct answering often matches or even surpasses CoT performance, despite CoT producing step-by-step analyses at a higher computational cost. Motivated by this, we propose VideoAuto-R1, a video understanding framework that adopts a reason-when-necessary strategy. During training, our approach follows a Thinking Once, Answering Twice paradigm: the model first generates an initial answer, then performs reasoning, and finally outputs a reviewed answer. Both answers are supervised via verifiable rewards. During inference, the model uses the confidence score of the initial answer to determine whether to proceed with reasoning. Across video QA and grounding benchmarks, VideoAuto-R1 achieves state-of-the-art accuracy with significantly improved efficiency, reducing the average response length by ~3.3x, e.g., from 149 to just 44 tokens. Moreover, we observe a low rate of thinking-mode activation on perception-oriented tasks, but a higher rate on reasoning-intensive tasks. This suggests that explicit language-based reasoning is generally beneficial but not always necessary. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Project page: arXiv:2601.05175 [ pdf , ps , other ] VideoAuto-R1: Video Auto Reasoning via Thinking Once, Answering Twice Authors: Shuming Liu , Mingchen Zhuge , Changsheng Zhao , Jun Chen , Lemeng Wu , Zechun Liu , Chenchen Zhu , Zhipeng Cai , Chong Zhou , Haozhe Liu , Ernie Chang , Saksham Suri , Hongyu Xu , Qi Qian , Wei Wen , Balakrishnan Varadarajan , Zhuang Liu , Hu Xu , Florian Bordes , Raghuraman Krishnamoorthi , Bernard Ghanem , Vikas Chandra , Yunyang Xiong Abstract : Chain-of-thought (CoT) reasoning has emerged as a powerful tool for multimodal large language models on video understanding tasks. However, its necessity and advantages over direct answering remain underexplored. In this paper, we first demonstrate that for RL-trained video models, direct answering often matches or even surpasses CoT performance, despite CoT producing step-by-step analyses at a hi… ▽ More Chain-of-thought (CoT) reasoning has emerged as a powerful tool for multimodal large language models on video understanding tasks. However, its necessity and advantages over direct answering remain underexplored. In this paper, we first demonstrate that for RL-trained video models, direct answering often matches or even surpasses CoT performance, despite CoT producing step-by-step analyses at a higher computational cost. Motivated by this, we propose VideoAuto-R1, a video understanding framework that adopts a reason-when-necessary strategy. During training, our approach follows a Thinking Once, Answering Twice paradigm: the model first generates an initial answer, then performs reasoning, and finally outputs a reviewed answer. Both answers are supervised via verifiable rewards. During inference, the model uses the confidence score of the initial answer to determine whether to proceed with reasoning. Across video QA and grounding benchmarks, VideoAuto-R1 achieves state-of-the-art accuracy with significantly improved efficiency, reducing the average response length by ~3.3x, e.g., from 149 to just 44 tokens. Moreover, we observe a low rate of thinking-mode activation on perception-oriented tasks, but a higher rate on reasoning-intensive tasks. This suggests that explicit language-based reasoning is generally beneficial but not always necessary. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Project page: arXiv:2601.05159 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI Vision-Language Introspection: Mitigating Overconfident Hallucinations in MLLMs via Interpretable Bi-Causal Steering Authors: Shuliang Liu , Songbo Yang , Dong Fang , Sihang Jia , Yuqi Tang , Lingfeng Su , Ruoshui Peng , Yibo Yan , Xin Zou , Xuming Hu Abstract : Object hallucination critically undermines the reliability of Multimodal Large Language Models, often stemming from a fundamental failure in cognitive introspection, where models blindly trust linguistic priors over specific visual evidence. Existing mitigations remain limited: contrastive decoding approaches operate superficially without rectifying internal semantic misalignments, while current l… ▽ More Object hallucination critically undermines the reliability of Multimodal Large Language Models, often stemming from a fundamental failure in cognitive introspection, where models blindly trust linguistic priors over specific visual evidence. Existing mitigations remain limited: contrastive decoding approaches operate superficially without rectifying internal semantic misalignments, while current latent steering methods rely on static vectors that lack instance-specific precision. We introduce Vision-Language Introspection (VLI), a training-free inference framework that simulates a metacognitive self-correction process. VLI first performs Attributive Introspection to diagnose hallucination risks via probabilistic conflict detection and localize the causal visual anchors. It then employs Interpretable Bi-Causal Steering to actively modulate the inference process, dynamically isolating visual evidence from background noise while neutralizing blind confidence through adaptive calibration. VLI achieves state-of-the-art performance on advanced models, reducing object hallucination rates by 12.67% on MMHal-Bench and improving accuracy by 5.8% on POPE. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05159 [ pdf , ps , other ] Vision-Language Introspection: Mitigating Overconfident Hallucinations in MLLMs via Interpretable Bi-Causal Steering Authors: Shuliang Liu , Songbo Yang , Dong Fang , Sihang Jia , Yuqi Tang , Lingfeng Su , Ruoshui Peng , Yibo Yan , Xin Zou , Xuming Hu Abstract : Object hallucination critically undermines the reliability of Multimodal Large Language Models, often stemming from a fundamental failure in cognitive introspection, where models blindly trust linguistic priors over specific visual evidence. Existing mitigations remain limited: contrastive decoding approaches operate superficially without rectifying internal semantic misalignments, while current l… ▽ More Object hallucination critically undermines the reliability of Multimodal Large Language Models, often stemming from a fundamental failure in cognitive introspection, where models blindly trust linguistic priors over specific visual evidence. Existing mitigations remain limited: contrastive decoding approaches operate superficially without rectifying internal semantic misalignments, while current latent steering methods rely on static vectors that lack instance-specific precision. We introduce Vision-Language Introspection (VLI), a training-free inference framework that simulates a metacognitive self-correction process. VLI first performs Attributive Introspection to diagnose hallucination risks via probabilistic conflict detection and localize the causal visual anchors. It then employs Interpretable Bi-Causal Steering to actively modulate the inference process, dynamically isolating visual evidence from background noise while neutralizing blind confidence through adaptive calibration. VLI achieves state-of-the-art performance on advanced models, reducing object hallucination rates by 12.67% on MMHal-Bench and improving accuracy by 5.8% on POPE. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05144 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI Distilling the Thought, Watermarking the Answer: A Principle Semantic Guided Watermark for Large Reasoning Models Authors: Shuliang Liu , Xingyu Li , Hongyi Liu , Yibo Yan , Bingchen Duan , Qi Zheng , Dong Fang , Lingfeng Su , Xuming Hu Abstract : Reasoning Large Language Models (RLLMs) excelling in complex tasks present unique challenges for digital watermarking, as existing methods often disrupt logical coherence or incur high computational costs. Token-based watermarking techniques can corrupt the reasoning flow by applying pseudo-random biases, while semantic-aware approaches improve quality but introduce significant latency or require… ▽ More Reasoning Large Language Models (RLLMs) excelling in complex tasks present unique challenges for digital watermarking, as existing methods often disrupt logical coherence or incur high computational costs. Token-based watermarking techniques can corrupt the reasoning flow by applying pseudo-random biases, while semantic-aware approaches improve quality but introduce significant latency or require auxiliary models. This paper introduces ReasonMark, a novel watermarking framework specifically designed for reasoning-intensive LLMs. Our approach decouples generation into an undisturbed Thinking Phase and a watermarked Answering Phase. We propose a Criticality Score to identify semantically pivotal tokens from the reasoning trace, which are distilled into a Principal Semantic Vector (PSV). The PSV then guides a semantically-adaptive mechanism that modulates watermark strength based on token-PSV alignment, ensuring robustness without compromising logical integrity. Extensive experiments show ReasonMark surpasses state-of-the-art methods by reducing text Perplexity by 0.35, increasing translation BLEU score by 0.164, and raising mathematical accuracy by 0.67 points. These advancements are achieved alongside a 0.34% higher watermark detection AUC and stronger robustness to attacks, all with a negligible increase in latency. This work enables the traceable and trustworthy deployment of reasoning LLMs in real-world applications. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05144 [ pdf , ps , other ] Distilling the Thought, Watermarking the Answer: A Principle Semantic Guided Watermark for Large Reasoning Models Authors: Shuliang Liu , Xingyu Li , Hongyi Liu , Yibo Yan , Bingchen Duan , Qi Zheng , Dong Fang , Lingfeng Su , Xuming Hu Abstract : Reasoning Large Language Models (RLLMs) excelling in complex tasks present unique challenges for digital watermarking, as existing methods often disrupt logical coherence or incur high computational costs. Token-based watermarking techniques can corrupt the reasoning flow by applying pseudo-random biases, while semantic-aware approaches improve quality but introduce significant latency or require… ▽ More Reasoning Large Language Models (RLLMs) excelling in complex tasks present unique challenges for digital watermarking, as existing methods often disrupt logical coherence or incur high computational costs. Token-based watermarking techniques can corrupt the reasoning flow by applying pseudo-random biases, while semantic-aware approaches improve quality but introduce significant latency or require auxiliary models. This paper introduces ReasonMark, a novel watermarking framework specifically designed for reasoning-intensive LLMs. Our approach decouples generation into an undisturbed Thinking Phase and a watermarked Answering Phase. We propose a Criticality Score to identify semantically pivotal tokens from the reasoning trace, which are distilled into a Principal Semantic Vector (PSV). The PSV then guides a semantically-adaptive mechanism that modulates watermark strength based on token-PSV alignment, ensuring robustness without compromising logical integrity. Extensive experiments show ReasonMark surpasses state-of-the-art methods by reducing text Perplexity by 0.35, increasing translation BLEU score by 0.164, and raising mathematical accuracy by 0.67 points. These advancements are achieved alongside a 0.34% higher watermark detection AUC and stronger robustness to attacks, all with a negligible increase in latency. This work enables the traceable and trustworthy deployment of reasoning LLMs in real-world applications. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05092 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.IT Precoding Matrix Indicator in the 5G NR Protocol: A Tutorial on 3GPP Beamforming Codebooks Authors: Boyu Ning , Haifan Yin , Sixu Liu , Hao Deng , Songjie Yang , Yuchen Zhang , Weidong Mei , David Gesbert , Jaebum Park , Robert W. Heath Jr. , Emil Björnson Abstract : This paper bridges this critical gap by providing a systematic examination of the beamforming codebook technology, i.e., precoding matrix indicator (PMI), in the 5G NR from theoretical, standardization, and implementation perspectives. We begin by introducing the background of beamforming in multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) systems and the signaling procedures for codebook-based beamforming i… ▽ More This paper bridges this critical gap by providing a systematic examination of the beamforming codebook technology, i.e., precoding matrix indicator (PMI), in the 5G NR from theoretical, standardization, and implementation perspectives. We begin by introducing the background of beamforming in multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) systems and the signaling procedures for codebook-based beamforming in practical 5G systems. Then, we establish the fundamentals of regular codebooks and port-selection codebooks in 3GPP standards. Next, we provide rigorous technical analysis of 3GPP codebook evolution spanning Releases 15-18, with particular focus on: 1) We elucidate the core principles underlying codebook design, 2) provide clear physical interpretations for each symbolic variable in the codebook formulas, summarized in tabular form, and 3) offer intuitive visual illustrations to explain how codebook parameters convey information. These essential pedagogical elements are almost entirely absent in the often-obscure standardization documents. Through mathematical modeling, performance benchmarking, feedback comparisons, and scenario-dependent applicability analysis, we provide researchers and engineers with a unified understanding of beamforming codebooks in real-world systems. Furthermore, we identify future directions and other beamforming scenarios for ongoing research and development efforts. This work serves as both an informative tutorial and a guidance for future research, facilitating more effective collaboration between academia and industry in advancing wireless communication technologies. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: This work has been accepted by IEEE COMST with manuscript number 00802-2025.R1 arXiv:2601.05092 [ pdf , ps , other ] Precoding Matrix Indicator in the 5G NR Protocol: A Tutorial on 3GPP Beamforming Codebooks Authors: Boyu Ning , Haifan Yin , Sixu Liu , Hao Deng , Songjie Yang , Yuchen Zhang , Weidong Mei , David Gesbert , Jaebum Park , Robert W. Heath Jr. , Emil Björnson Abstract : This paper bridges this critical gap by providing a systematic examination of the beamforming codebook technology, i.e., precoding matrix indicator (PMI), in the 5G NR from theoretical, standardization, and implementation perspectives. We begin by introducing the background of beamforming in multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) systems and the signaling procedures for codebook-based beamforming i… ▽ More This paper bridges this critical gap by providing a systematic examination of the beamforming codebook technology, i.e., precoding matrix indicator (PMI), in the 5G NR from theoretical, standardization, and implementation perspectives. We begin by introducing the background of beamforming in multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) systems and the signaling procedures for codebook-based beamforming in practical 5G systems. Then, we establish the fundamentals of regular codebooks and port-selection codebooks in 3GPP standards. Next, we provide rigorous technical analysis of 3GPP codebook evolution spanning Releases 15-18, with particular focus on: 1) We elucidate the core principles underlying codebook design, 2) provide clear physical interpretations for each symbolic variable in the codebook formulas, summarized in tabular form, and 3) offer intuitive visual illustrations to explain how codebook parameters convey information. These essential pedagogical elements are almost entirely absent in the often-obscure standardization documents. Through mathematical modeling, performance benchmarking, feedback comparisons, and scenario-dependent applicability analysis, we provide researchers and engineers with a unified understanding of beamforming codebooks in real-world systems. Furthermore, we identify future directions and other beamforming scenarios for ongoing research and development efforts. This work serves as both an informative tutorial and a guidance for future research, facilitating more effective collaboration between academia and industry in advancing wireless communication technologies. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: This work has been accepted by IEEE COMST with manuscript number 00802-2025.R1 arXiv:2601.05014 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO The RoboSense Challenge: Sense Anything, Navigate Anywhere, Adapt Across Platforms Authors: Lingdong Kong , Shaoyuan Xie , Zeying Gong , Ye Li , Meng Chu , Ao Liang , Yuhao Dong , Tianshuai Hu , Ronghe Qiu , Rong Li , Hanjiang Hu , Dongyue Lu , Wei Yin , Wenhao Ding , Linfeng Li , Hang Song , Wenwei Zhang , Yuexin Ma , Junwei Liang , Zhedong Zheng , Lai Xing Ng , Benoit R. Cottereau , Wei Tsang Ooi , Ziwei Liu , Zhanpeng Zhang , et al. (114 additional authors not shown) Abstract : Autonomous systems are increasingly deployed in open and dynamic environments -- from city streets to aerial and indoor spaces -- where perception models must remain reliable under sensor noise, environmental variation, and platform shifts. However, even state-of-the-art methods often degrade under unseen conditions, highlighting the need for robust and generalizable robot sensing. The RoboSense 2… ▽ More Autonomous systems are increasingly deployed in open and dynamic environments -- from city streets to aerial and indoor spaces -- where perception models must remain reliable under sensor noise, environmental variation, and platform shifts. However, even state-of-the-art methods often degrade under unseen conditions, highlighting the need for robust and generalizable robot sensing. The RoboSense 2025 Challenge is designed to advance robustness and adaptability in robot perception across diverse sensing scenarios. It unifies five complementary research tracks spanning language-grounded decision making, socially compliant navigation, sensor configuration generalization, cross-view and cross-modal correspondence, and cross-platform 3D perception. Together, these tasks form a comprehensive benchmark for evaluating real-world sensing reliability under domain shifts, sensor failures, and platform discrepancies. RoboSense 2025 provides standardized datasets, baseline models, and unified evaluation protocols, enabling large-scale and reproducible comparison of robust perception methods. The challenge attracted 143 teams from 85 institutions across 16 countries, reflecting broad community engagement. By consolidating insights from 23 winning solutions, this report highlights emerging methodological trends, shared design principles, and open challenges across all tracks, marking a step toward building robots that can sense reliably, act robustly, and adapt across platforms in real-world environments. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Official IROS 2025 RoboSense Challenge Report; 51 pages, 37 figures, 5 tables; Competition Website at arXiv:2601.05014 [ pdf , ps , other ] The RoboSense Challenge: Sense Anything, Navigate Anywhere, Adapt Across Platforms Authors: Lingdong Kong , Shaoyuan Xie , Zeying Gong , Ye Li , Meng Chu , Ao Liang , Yuhao Dong , Tianshuai Hu , Ronghe Qiu , Rong Li , Hanjiang Hu , Dongyue Lu , Wei Yin , Wenhao Ding , Linfeng Li , Hang Song , Wenwei Zhang , Yuexin Ma , Junwei Liang , Zhedong Zheng , Lai Xing Ng , Benoit R. Cottereau , Wei Tsang Ooi , Ziwei Liu , Zhanpeng Zhang , et al. (114 additional authors not shown) Abstract : Autonomous systems are increasingly deployed in open and dynamic environments -- from city streets to aerial and indoor spaces -- where perception models must remain reliable under sensor noise, environmental variation, and platform shifts. However, even state-of-the-art methods often degrade under unseen conditions, highlighting the need for robust and generalizable robot sensing. The RoboSense 2… ▽ More Autonomous systems are increasingly deployed in open and dynamic environments -- from city streets to aerial and indoor spaces -- where perception models must remain reliable under sensor noise, environmental variation, and platform shifts. However, even state-of-the-art methods often degrade under unseen conditions, highlighting the need for robust and generalizable robot sensing. The RoboSense 2025 Challenge is designed to advance robustness and adaptability in robot perception across diverse sensing scenarios. It unifies five complementary research tracks spanning language-grounded decision making, socially compliant navigation, sensor configuration generalization, cross-view and cross-modal correspondence, and cross-platform 3D perception. Together, these tasks form a comprehensive benchmark for evaluating real-world sensing reliability under domain shifts, sensor failures, and platform discrepancies. RoboSense 2025 provides standardized datasets, baseline models, and unified evaluation protocols, enabling large-scale and reproducible comparison of robust perception methods. The challenge attracted 143 teams from 85 institutions across 16 countries, reflecting broad community engagement. By consolidating insights from 23 winning solutions, this report highlights emerging methodological trends, shared design principles, and open challenges across all tracks, marking a step toward building robots that can sense reliably, act robustly, and adapt across platforms in real-world environments. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Official IROS 2025 RoboSense Challenge Report; 51 pages, 37 figures, 5 tables; Competition Website at arXiv:2601.04897 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.CV cs.LG cs.MM V-FAT: Benchmarking Visual Fidelity Against Text-bias Authors: Ziteng Wang , Yujie He , Guanliang Li , Siqi Yang , Jiaqi Xiong , Songxiang Liu Abstract : Recent advancements in Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) have demonstrated impressive performance on standard visual reasoning benchmarks. However, there is growing concern that these models rely excessively on linguistic shortcuts rather than genuine visual grounding, a phenomenon we term Text Bias. In this paper, we investigate the fundamental tension between visual perception and linguis… ▽ More Recent advancements in Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) have demonstrated impressive performance on standard visual reasoning benchmarks. However, there is growing concern that these models rely excessively on linguistic shortcuts rather than genuine visual grounding, a phenomenon we term Text Bias. In this paper, we investigate the fundamental tension between visual perception and linguistic priors. We decouple the sources of this bias into two dimensions: Internal Corpus Bias, stemming from statistical correlations in pretraining, and External Instruction Bias, arising from the alignment-induced tendency toward sycophancy. To quantify this effect, we introduce V-FAT (Visual Fidelity Against Text-bias), a diagnostic benchmark comprising 4,026 VQA instances across six semantic domains. V-FAT employs a Three-Level Evaluation Framework that systematically increases the conflict between visual evidence and textual information: (L1) internal bias from atypical images, (L2) external bias from misleading instructions, and (L3) synergistic bias where both coincide. We introduce the Visual Robustness Score (VRS), a metric designed to penalize "lucky" linguistic guesses and reward true visual fidelity. Our evaluation of 12 frontier MLLMs reveals that while models excel in existing benchmarks, they experience significant visual collapse under high linguistic dominance. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 12 pages, 6 figures arXiv:2601.04897 [ pdf , ps , other ] V-FAT: Benchmarking Visual Fidelity Against Text-bias Authors: Ziteng Wang , Yujie He , Guanliang Li , Siqi Yang , Jiaqi Xiong , Songxiang Liu Abstract : Recent advancements in Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) have demonstrated impressive performance on standard visual reasoning benchmarks. However, there is growing concern that these models rely excessively on linguistic shortcuts rather than genuine visual grounding, a phenomenon we term Text Bias. In this paper, we investigate the fundamental tension between visual perception and linguis… ▽ More Recent advancements in Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) have demonstrated impressive performance on standard visual reasoning benchmarks. However, there is growing concern that these models rely excessively on linguistic shortcuts rather than genuine visual grounding, a phenomenon we term Text Bias. In this paper, we investigate the fundamental tension between visual perception and linguistic priors. We decouple the sources of this bias into two dimensions: Internal Corpus Bias, stemming from statistical correlations in pretraining, and External Instruction Bias, arising from the alignment-induced tendency toward sycophancy. To quantify this effect, we introduce V-FAT (Visual Fidelity Against Text-bias), a diagnostic benchmark comprising 4,026 VQA instances across six semantic domains. V-FAT employs a Three-Level Evaluation Framework that systematically increases the conflict between visual evidence and textual information: (L1) internal bias from atypical images, (L2) external bias from misleading instructions, and (L3) synergistic bias where both coincide. We introduce the Visual Robustness Score (VRS), a metric designed to penalize "lucky" linguistic guesses and reward true visual fidelity. Our evaluation of 12 frontier MLLMs reveals that while models excel in existing benchmarks, they experience significant visual collapse under high linguistic dominance. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 12 pages, 6 figures arXiv:2601.04589 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV MiLDEdit: Reasoning-Based Multi-Layer Design Document Editing Authors: Zihao Lin , Wanrong Zhu , Jiuxiang Gu , Jihyung Kil , Christopher Tensmeyer , Lin Zhang , Shilong Liu , Ruiyi Zhang , Lifu Huang , Vlad I. Morariu , Tong Sun Abstract : Real-world design documents (e.g., posters) are inherently multi-layered, combining decoration, text, and images. Editing them from natural-language instructions requires fine-grained, layer-aware reasoning to identify relevant layers and coordinate modifications. Prior work largely overlooks multi-layer design document editing, focusing instead on single-layer image editing or multi-layer generat… ▽ More Real-world design documents (e.g., posters) are inherently multi-layered, combining decoration, text, and images. Editing them from natural-language instructions requires fine-grained, layer-aware reasoning to identify relevant layers and coordinate modifications. Prior work largely overlooks multi-layer design document editing, focusing instead on single-layer image editing or multi-layer generation, which assume a flat canvas and lack the reasoning needed to determine what and where to modify. To address this gap, we introduce the Multi-Layer Document Editing Agent (MiLDEAgent), a reasoning-based framework that combines an RL-trained multimodal reasoner for layer-wise understanding with an image editor for targeted modifications. To systematically benchmark this setting, we introduce the MiLDEBench, a human-in-the-loop corpus of over 20K design documents paired with diverse editing instructions. The benchmark is complemented by a task-specific evaluation protocol, MiLDEEval, which spans four dimensions including instruction following, layout consistency, aesthetics, and text rendering. Extensive experiments on 14 open-source and 2 closed-source models reveal that existing approaches fail to generalize: open-source models often cannot complete multi-layer document editing tasks, while closed-source models suffer from format violations. In contrast, MiLDEAgent achieves strong layer-aware reasoning and precise editing, significantly outperforming all open-source baselines and attaining performance comparable to closed-source models, thereby establishing the first strong baseline for multi-layer document editing. △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.04589 [ pdf , ps , other ] MiLDEdit: Reasoning-Based Multi-Layer Design Document Editing Authors: Zihao Lin , Wanrong Zhu , Jiuxiang Gu , Jihyung Kil , Christopher Tensmeyer , Lin Zhang , Shilong Liu , Ruiyi Zhang , Lifu Huang , Vlad I. Morariu , Tong Sun Abstract : Real-world design documents (e.g., posters) are inherently multi-layered, combining decoration, text, and images. Editing them from natural-language instructions requires fine-grained, layer-aware reasoning to identify relevant layers and coordinate modifications. Prior work largely overlooks multi-layer design document editing, focusing instead on single-layer image editing or multi-layer generat… ▽ More Real-world design documents (e.g., posters) are inherently multi-layered, combining decoration, text, and images. Editing them from natural-language instructions requires fine-grained, layer-aware reasoning to identify relevant layers and coordinate modifications. Prior work largely overlooks multi-layer design document editing, focusing instead on single-layer image editing or multi-layer generation, which assume a flat canvas and lack the reasoning needed to determine what and where to modify. To address this gap, we introduce the Multi-Layer Document Editing Agent (MiLDEAgent), a reasoning-based framework that combines an RL-trained multimodal reasoner for layer-wise understanding with an image editor for targeted modifications. To systematically benchmark this setting, we introduce the MiLDEBench, a human-in-the-loop corpus of over 20K design documents paired with diverse editing instructions. The benchmark is complemented by a task-specific evaluation protocol, MiLDEEval, which spans four dimensions including instruction following, layout consistency, aesthetics, and text rendering. Extensive experiments on 14 open-source and 2 closed-source models reveal that existing approaches fail to generalize: open-source models often cannot complete multi-layer document editing tasks, while closed-source models suffer from format violations. In contrast, MiLDEAgent achieves strong layer-aware reasoning and precise editing, significantly outperforming all open-source baselines and attaining performance comparable to closed-source models, thereby establishing the first strong baseline for multi-layer document editing. △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.03882 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG Feature-Aware One-Shot Federated Learning via Hierarchical Token Sequences Authors: Shudong Liu , Hanwen Zhang , Xiuling Wang , Yuesheng Zhu , Guibo Luo Abstract : One-shot federated learning (OSFL) reduces the communication cost and privacy risks of iterative federated learning by constructing a global model with a single round of communication. However, most existing methods struggle to achieve robust performance on real-world domains such as medical imaging, or are inefficient when handling non-IID (Independent and Identically Distributed) data. To addres… ▽ More One-shot federated learning (OSFL) reduces the communication cost and privacy risks of iterative federated learning by constructing a global model with a single round of communication. However, most existing methods struggle to achieve robust performance on real-world domains such as medical imaging, or are inefficient when handling non-IID (Independent and Identically Distributed) data. To address these limitations, we introduce FALCON, a framework that enhances the effectiveness of OSFL over non-IID image data. The core idea of FALCON is to leverage the feature-aware hierarchical token sequences generation and knowledge distillation into OSFL. First, each client leverages a pretrained visual encoder with hierarchical scale encoding to compress images into hierarchical token sequences, which capture multi-scale semantics. Second, a multi-scale autoregressive transformer generator is used to model the distribution of these token sequences and generate the synthetic sequences. Third, clients upload the synthetic sequences along with the local classifier trained on the real token sequences to the server. Finally, the server incorporates knowledge distillation into global training to reduce reliance on precise distribution modeling. Experiments on medical and natural image datasets validate the effectiveness of FALCON in diverse non-IID scenarios, outperforming the best OSFL baselines by 9.58% in average accuracy. △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 9 pages; 6 figures arXiv:2601.03882 [ pdf , ps , other ] Feature-Aware One-Shot Federated Learning via Hierarchical Token Sequences Authors: Shudong Liu , Hanwen Zhang , Xiuling Wang , Yuesheng Zhu , Guibo Luo Abstract : One-shot federated learning (OSFL) reduces the communication cost and privacy risks of iterative federated learning by constructing a global model with a single round of communication. However, most existing methods struggle to achieve robust performance on real-world domains such as medical imaging, or are inefficient when handling non-IID (Independent and Identically Distributed) data. To addres… ▽ More One-shot federated learning (OSFL) reduces the communication cost and privacy risks of iterative federated learning by constructing a global model with a single round of communication. However, most existing methods struggle to achieve robust performance on real-world domains such as medical imaging, or are inefficient when handling non-IID (Independent and Identically Distributed) data. To address these limitations, we introduce FALCON, a framework that enhances the effectiveness of OSFL over non-IID image data. The core idea of FALCON is to leverage the feature-aware hierarchical token sequences generation and knowledge distillation into OSFL. First, each client leverages a pretrained visual encoder with hierarchical scale encoding to compress images into hierarchical token sequences, which capture multi-scale semantics. Second, a multi-scale autoregressive transformer generator is used to model the distribution of these token sequences and generate the synthetic sequences. Third, clients upload the synthetic sequences along with the local classifier trained on the real token sequences to the server. Finally, the server incorporates knowledge distillation into global training to reduce reliance on precise distribution modeling. Experiments on medical and natural image datasets validate the effectiveness of FALCON in diverse non-IID scenarios, outperforming the best OSFL baselines by 9.58% in average accuracy. △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 9 pages; 6 figures arXiv:2601.03723 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG ETR: Outcome-Guided Elastic Trust Regions for Policy Optimization Authors: Shijie Zhang , Kevin Zhang , Zheyuan Gu , Xiang Guo , Rujun Guo , Shaoyu Liu , Guanjun Jiang , Xiaozhao Wang Abstract : Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards (RLVR) has emerged as an important paradigm for unlocking reasoning capabilities in large language models, exemplified by the success of OpenAI o1 and DeepSeek-R1. Currently, Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO) stands as the dominant algorithm in this domain due to its stable training and critic-free efficiency. However, we argue that GRPO suffe… ▽ More Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards (RLVR) has emerged as an important paradigm for unlocking reasoning capabilities in large language models, exemplified by the success of OpenAI o1 and DeepSeek-R1. Currently, Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO) stands as the dominant algorithm in this domain due to its stable training and critic-free efficiency. However, we argue that GRPO suffers from a structural limitation: it imposes a uniform, static trust region constraint across all samples. This design implicitly assumes signal homogeneity, a premise misaligned with the heterogeneous nature of outcome-driven learning, where advantage magnitudes and variances fluctuate significantly. Consequently, static constraints fail to fully exploit high-quality signals while insufficiently suppressing noise, often precipitating rapid entropy collapse. To address this, we propose \textbf{E}lastic \textbf{T}rust \textbf{R}egions (\textbf{ETR}), a dynamic mechanism that aligns optimization constraints with signal quality. ETR constructs a signal-aware landscape through dual-level elasticity: at the micro level, it scales clipping boundaries based on advantage magnitude to accelerate learning from high-confidence paths; at the macro level, it leverages group variance to implicitly allocate larger update budgets to tasks in the optimal learning zone. Extensive experiments on AIME and MATH benchmarks demonstrate that ETR consistently outperforms GRPO, achieving superior accuracy while effectively mitigating policy entropy degradation to ensure sustained exploration. △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.03723 [ pdf , ps , other ] ETR: Outcome-Guided Elastic Trust Regions for Policy Optimization Authors: Shijie Zhang , Kevin Zhang , Zheyuan Gu , Xiang Guo , Rujun Guo , Shaoyu Liu , Guanjun Jiang , Xiaozhao Wang Abstract : Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards (RLVR) has emerged as an important paradigm for unlocking reasoning capabilities in large language models, exemplified by the success of OpenAI o1 and DeepSeek-R1. Currently, Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO) stands as the dominant algorithm in this domain due to its stable training and critic-free efficiency. However, we argue that GRPO suffe… ▽ More Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards (RLVR) has emerged as an important paradigm for unlocking reasoning capabilities in large language models, exemplified by the success of OpenAI o1 and DeepSeek-R1. Currently, Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO) stands as the dominant algorithm in this domain due to its stable training and critic-free efficiency. However, we argue that GRPO suffers from a structural limitation: it imposes a uniform, static trust region constraint across all samples. This design implicitly assumes signal homogeneity, a premise misaligned with the heterogeneous nature of outcome-driven learning, where advantage magnitudes and variances fluctuate significantly. Consequently, static constraints fail to fully exploit high-quality signals while insufficiently suppressing noise, often precipitating rapid entropy collapse. To address this, we propose \textbf{E}lastic \textbf{T}rust \textbf{R}egions (\textbf{ETR}), a dynamic mechanism that aligns optimization constraints with signal quality. ETR constructs a signal-aware landscape through dual-level elasticity: at the micro level, it scales clipping boundaries based on advantage magnitude to accelerate learning from high-confidence paths; at the macro level, it leverages group variance to implicitly allocate larger update budgets to tasks in the optimal learning zone. Extensive experiments on AIME and MATH benchmarks demonstrate that ETR consistently outperforms GRPO, achieving superior accuracy while effectively mitigating policy entropy degradation to ensure sustained exploration. △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.03288 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CR cs.CL How Real is Your Jailbreak? Fine-grained Jailbreak Evaluation with Anchored Reference Authors: Songyang Liu , Chaozhuo Li , Rui Pu , Litian Zhang , Chenxu Wang , Zejian Chen , Yuting Zhang , Yiming Hei Abstract : Jailbreak attacks present a significant challenge to the safety of Large Language Models (LLMs), yet current automated evaluation methods largely rely on coarse classifications that focus mainly on harmfulness, leading to substantial overestimation of attack success. To address this problem, we propose FJAR, a fine-grained jailbreak evaluation framework with anchored references. We first categoriz… ▽ More Jailbreak attacks present a significant challenge to the safety of Large Language Models (LLMs), yet current automated evaluation methods largely rely on coarse classifications that focus mainly on harmfulness, leading to substantial overestimation of attack success. To address this problem, we propose FJAR, a fine-grained jailbreak evaluation framework with anchored references. We first categorized jailbreak responses into five fine-grained categories: Rejective, Irrelevant, Unhelpful, Incorrect, and Successful, based on the degree to which the response addresses the malicious intent of the query. This categorization serves as the basis for FJAR. Then, we introduce a novel harmless tree decomposition approach to construct high-quality anchored references by breaking down the original queries. These references guide the evaluator in determining whether the response genuinely fulfills the original query. Extensive experiments demonstrate that FJAR achieves the highest alignment with human judgment and effectively identifies the root causes of jailbreak failures, providing actionable guidance for improving attack strategies. △ Less Submitted 4 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 7 pages, 3 figures, preprint arXiv:2601.03288 [ pdf , ps , other ] How Real is Your Jailbreak? Fine-grained Jailbreak Evaluation with Anchored Reference Authors: Songyang Liu , Chaozhuo Li , Rui Pu , Litian Zhang , Chenxu Wang , Zejian Chen , Yuting Zhang , Yiming Hei Abstract : Jailbreak attacks present a significant challenge to the safety of Large Language Models (LLMs), yet current automated evaluation methods largely rely on coarse classifications that focus mainly on harmfulness, leading to substantial overestimation of attack success. To address this problem, we propose FJAR, a fine-grained jailbreak evaluation framework with anchored references. We first categoriz… ▽ More Jailbreak attacks present a significant challenge to the safety of Large Language Models (LLMs), yet current automated evaluation methods largely rely on coarse classifications that focus mainly on harmfulness, leading to substantial overestimation of attack success. To address this problem, we propose FJAR, a fine-grained jailbreak evaluation framework with anchored references. We first categorized jailbreak responses into five fine-grained categories: Rejective, Irrelevant, Unhelpful, Incorrect, and Successful, based on the degree to which the response addresses the malicious intent of the query. This categorization serves as the basis for FJAR. Then, we introduce a novel harmless tree decomposition approach to construct high-quality anchored references by breaking down the original queries. These references guide the evaluator in determining whether the response genuinely fulfills the original query. Extensive experiments demonstrate that FJAR achieves the highest alignment with human judgment and effectively identifies the root causes of jailbreak failures, providing actionable guidance for improving attack strategies. △ Less Submitted 4 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 7 pages, 3 figures, preprint arXiv:2601.02871 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI SimRPD: Optimizing Recruitment Proactive Dialogue Agents through Simulator-Based Data Evaluation and Selection Authors: Zhiyong Cao , Dunqiang Liu , Qi Dai , Haojun Xu , Huaiyan Xu , Huan He , Yafei Liu , Siyuan Liu , XiaoLin Lin , Ke Ma , Ruqian Shi , Sijia Yao , Hao Wang , Sicheng Zhou Abstract : Task-oriented proactive dialogue agents play a pivotal role in recruitment, particularly for steering conversations towards specific business outcomes, such as acquiring social-media contacts for private-channel conversion. Although supervised fine-tuning and reinforcement learning have proven effective for training such agents, their performance is heavily constrained by the scarcity of high-qual… ▽ More Task-oriented proactive dialogue agents play a pivotal role in recruitment, particularly for steering conversations towards specific business outcomes, such as acquiring social-media contacts for private-channel conversion. Although supervised fine-tuning and reinforcement learning have proven effective for training such agents, their performance is heavily constrained by the scarcity of high-quality, goal-oriented domain-specific training data. To address this challenge, we propose SimRPD, a three-stage framework for training recruitment proactive dialogue agents. First, we develop a high-fidelity user simulator to synthesize large-scale conversational data through multi-turn online dialogue. Then we introduce a multi-dimensional evaluation framework based on Chain-of-Intention (CoI) to comprehensively assess the simulator and effectively select high-quality data, incorporating both global-level and instance-level metrics. Finally, we train the recruitment proactive dialogue agent on the selected dataset. Experiments in a real-world recruitment scenario demonstrate that SimRPD outperforms existing simulator-based data selection strategies, highlighting its practical value for industrial deployment and its potential applicability to other business-oriented dialogue scenarios. △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; v1 submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.02871 [ pdf , ps , other ] SimRPD: Optimizing Recruitment Proactive Dialogue Agents through Simulator-Based Data Evaluation and Selection Authors: Zhiyong Cao , Dunqiang Liu , Qi Dai , Haojun Xu , Huaiyan Xu , Huan He , Yafei Liu , Siyuan Liu , XiaoLin Lin , Ke Ma , Ruqian Shi , Sijia Yao , Hao Wang , Sicheng Zhou Abstract : Task-oriented proactive dialogue agents play a pivotal role in recruitment, particularly for steering conversations towards specific business outcomes, such as acquiring social-media contacts for private-channel conversion. Although supervised fine-tuning and reinforcement learning have proven effective for training such agents, their performance is heavily constrained by the scarcity of high-qual… ▽ More Task-oriented proactive dialogue agents play a pivotal role in recruitment, particularly for steering conversations towards specific business outcomes, such as acquiring social-media contacts for private-channel conversion. Although supervised fine-tuning and reinforcement learning have proven effective for training such agents, their performance is heavily constrained by the scarcity of high-quality, goal-oriented domain-specific training data. To address this challenge, we propose SimRPD, a three-stage framework for training recruitment proactive dialogue agents. First, we develop a high-fidelity user simulator to synthesize large-scale conversational data through multi-turn online dialogue. Then we introduce a multi-dimensional evaluation framework based on Chain-of-Intention (CoI) to comprehensively assess the simulator and effectively select high-quality data, incorporating both global-level and instance-level metrics. Finally, we train the recruitment proactive dialogue agent on the selected dataset. Experiments in a real-world recruitment scenario demonstrate that SimRPD outperforms existing simulator-based data selection strategies, highlighting its practical value for industrial deployment and its potential applicability to other business-oriented dialogue scenarios. △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; v1 submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.02780 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI MiMo-V2-Flash Technical Report Authors: Xiaomi LLM-Core Team , : , Bangjun Xiao , Bingquan Xia , Bo Yang , Bofei Gao , Bowen Shen , Chen Zhang , Chenhong He , Chiheng Lou , Fuli Luo , Gang Wang , Gang Xie , Hailin Zhang , Hanglong Lv , Hanyu Li , Heyu Chen , Hongshen Xu , Houbin Zhang , Huaqiu Liu , Jiangshan Duo , Jianyu Wei , Jiebao Xiao , Jinhao Dong , Jun Shi , et al. (102 additional authors not shown) Abstract : We present MiMo-V2-Flash, a Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) model with 309B total parameters and 15B active parameters, designed for fast, strong reasoning and agentic capabilities. MiMo-V2-Flash adopts a hybrid attention architecture that interleaves Sliding Window Attention (SWA) with global attention, with a 128-token sliding window under a 5:1 hybrid ratio. The model is pre-trained on 27 trillion tok… ▽ More We present MiMo-V2-Flash, a Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) model with 309B total parameters and 15B active parameters, designed for fast, strong reasoning and agentic capabilities. MiMo-V2-Flash adopts a hybrid attention architecture that interleaves Sliding Window Attention (SWA) with global attention, with a 128-token sliding window under a 5:1 hybrid ratio. The model is pre-trained on 27 trillion tokens with Multi-Token Prediction (MTP), employing a native 32k context length and subsequently extended to 256k. To efficiently scale post-training compute, MiMo-V2-Flash introduces a novel Multi-Teacher On-Policy Distillation (MOPD) paradigm. In this framework, domain-specialized teachers (e.g., trained via large-scale reinforcement learning) provide dense and token-level reward, enabling the student model to perfectly master teacher expertise. MiMo-V2-Flash rivals top-tier open-weight models such as DeepSeek-V3.2 and Kimi-K2, despite using only 1/2 and 1/3 of their total parameters, respectively. During inference, by repurposing MTP as a draft model for speculative decoding, MiMo-V2-Flash achieves up to 3.6 acceptance length and 2.6x decoding speedup with three MTP layers. We open-source both the model weights and the three-layer MTP weights to foster open research and community collaboration. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; v1 submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 31 pages, technical report arXiv:2601.02780 [ pdf , ps , other ] MiMo-V2-Flash Technical Report Authors: Xiaomi LLM-Core Team , : , Bangjun Xiao , Bingquan Xia , Bo Yang , Bofei Gao , Bowen Shen , Chen Zhang , Chenhong He , Chiheng Lou , Fuli Luo , Gang Wang , Gang Xie , Hailin Zhang , Hanglong Lv , Hanyu Li , Heyu Chen , Hongshen Xu , Houbin Zhang , Huaqiu Liu , Jiangshan Duo , Jianyu Wei , Jiebao Xiao , Jinhao Dong , Jun Shi , et al. (102 additional authors not shown) Abstract : We present MiMo-V2-Flash, a Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) model with 309B total parameters and 15B active parameters, designed for fast, strong reasoning and agentic capabilities. MiMo-V2-Flash adopts a hybrid attention architecture that interleaves Sliding Window Attention (SWA) with global attention, with a 128-token sliding window under a 5:1 hybrid ratio. The model is pre-trained on 27 trillion tok… ▽ More We present MiMo-V2-Flash, a Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) model with 309B total parameters and 15B active parameters, designed for fast, strong reasoning and agentic capabilities. MiMo-V2-Flash adopts a hybrid attention architecture that interleaves Sliding Window Attention (SWA) with global attention, with a 128-token sliding window under a 5:1 hybrid ratio. The model is pre-trained on 27 trillion tokens with Multi-Token Prediction (MTP), employing a native 32k context length and subsequently extended to 256k. To efficiently scale post-training compute, MiMo-V2-Flash introduces a novel Multi-Teacher On-Policy Distillation (MOPD) paradigm. In this framework, domain-specialized teachers (e.g., trained via large-scale reinforcement learning) provide dense and token-level reward, enabling the student model to perfectly master teacher expertise. MiMo-V2-Flash rivals top-tier open-weight models such as DeepSeek-V3.2 and Kimi-K2, despite using only 1/2 and 1/3 of their total parameters, respectively. During inference, by repurposing MTP as a draft model for speculative decoding, MiMo-V2-Flash achieves up to 3.6 acceptance length and 2.6x decoding speedup with three MTP layers. We open-source both the model weights and the three-layer MTP weights to foster open research and community collaboration. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; v1 submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 31 pages, technical report arXiv:2601.02737 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Unveiling and Bridging the Functional Perception Gap in MLLMs: Atomic Visual Alignment and Hierarchical Evaluation via PET-Bench Authors: Zanting Ye , Xiaolong Niu , Xuanbin Wu , Xu Han , Shengyuan Liu , Jing Hao , Zhihao Peng , Hao Sun , Jieqin Lv , Fanghu Wang , Yanchao Huang , Hubing Wu , Yixuan Yuan , Habib Zaidi , Arman Rahmim , Yefeng Zheng , Lijun Lu Abstract : While Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) have demonstrated remarkable proficiency in tasks such as abnormality detection and report generation for anatomical modalities, their capability in functional imaging remains largely unexplored. In this work, we identify and quantify a fundamental functional perception gap: the inability of current vision encoders to decode functional tracer biodistr… ▽ More While Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) have demonstrated remarkable proficiency in tasks such as abnormality detection and report generation for anatomical modalities, their capability in functional imaging remains largely unexplored. In this work, we identify and quantify a fundamental functional perception gap: the inability of current vision encoders to decode functional tracer biodistribution independent of morphological priors. Identifying Positron Emission Tomography (PET) as the quintessential modality to investigate this disconnect, we introduce PET-Bench, the first large-scale functional imaging benchmark comprising 52,308 hierarchical QA pairs from 9,732 multi-site, multi-tracer PET studies. Extensive evaluation of 19 state-of-the-art MLLMs reveals a critical safety hazard termed the Chain-of-Thought (CoT) hallucination trap. We observe that standard CoT prompting, widely considered to enhance reasoning, paradoxically decouples linguistic generation from visual evidence in PET, producing clinically fluent but factually ungrounded diagnoses. To resolve this, we propose Atomic Visual Alignment (AVA), a simple fine-tuning strategy that enforces the mastery of low-level functional perception prior to high-level diagnostic reasoning. Our results demonstrate that AVA effectively bridges the perception gap, transforming CoT from a source of hallucination into a robust inference tool and improving diagnostic accuracy by up to 14.83%. Code and data are available at △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; v1 submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 9 pages, 6 figures, 6 tables arXiv:2601.02737 [ pdf , ps , other ] Unveiling and Bridging the Functional Perception Gap in MLLMs: Atomic Visual Alignment and Hierarchical Evaluation via PET-Bench Authors: Zanting Ye , Xiaolong Niu , Xuanbin Wu , Xu Han , Shengyuan Liu , Jing Hao , Zhihao Peng , Hao Sun , Jieqin Lv , Fanghu Wang , Yanchao Huang , Hubing Wu , Yixuan Yuan , Habib Zaidi , Arman Rahmim , Yefeng Zheng , Lijun Lu Abstract : While Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) have demonstrated remarkable proficiency in tasks such as abnormality detection and report generation for anatomical modalities, their capability in functional imaging remains largely unexplored. In this work, we identify and quantify a fundamental functional perception gap: the inability of current vision encoders to decode functional tracer biodistr… ▽ More While Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) have demonstrated remarkable proficiency in tasks such as abnormality detection and report generation for anatomical modalities, their capability in functional imaging remains largely unexplored. In this work, we identify and quantify a fundamental functional perception gap: the inability of current vision encoders to decode functional tracer biodistribution independent of morphological priors. Identifying Positron Emission Tomography (PET) as the quintessential modality to investigate this disconnect, we introduce PET-Bench, the first large-scale functional imaging benchmark comprising 52,308 hierarchical QA pairs from 9,732 multi-site, multi-tracer PET studies. Extensive evaluation of 19 state-of-the-art MLLMs reveals a critical safety hazard termed the Chain-of-Thought (CoT) hallucination trap. We observe that standard CoT prompting, widely considered to enhance reasoning, paradoxically decouples linguistic generation from visual evidence in PET, producing clinically fluent but factually ungrounded diagnoses. To resolve this, we propose Atomic Visual Alignment (AVA), a simple fine-tuning strategy that enforces the mastery of low-level functional perception prior to high-level diagnostic reasoning. Our results demonstrate that AVA effectively bridges the perception gap, transforming CoT from a source of hallucination into a robust inference tool and improving diagnostic accuracy by up to 14.83%. Code and data are available at △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; v1 submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 9 pages, 6 figures, 6 tables arXiv:2601.02386 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.IR cs.AI Tree of Preferences for Diversified Recommendation Authors: Hanyang Yuan , Ning Tang , Tongya Zheng , Jiarong Xu , Xintong Hu , Renhong Huang , Shunyu Liu , Jiacong Hu , Jiawei Chen , Mingli Song Abstract : Diversified recommendation has attracted increasing attention from both researchers and practitioners, which can effectively address the homogeneity of recommended items. Existing approaches predominantly aim to infer the diversity of user preferences from observed user feedback. Nonetheless, due to inherent data biases, the observed data may not fully reflect user interests, where underexplored p… ▽ More Diversified recommendation has attracted increasing attention from both researchers and practitioners, which can effectively address the homogeneity of recommended items. Existing approaches predominantly aim to infer the diversity of user preferences from observed user feedback. Nonetheless, due to inherent data biases, the observed data may not fully reflect user interests, where underexplored preferences can be overwhelmed or remain unmanifested. Failing to capture these preferences can lead to suboptimal diversity in recommendations. To fill this gap, this work aims to study diversified recommendation from a data-bias perspective. Inspired by the outstanding performance of large language models (LLMs) in zero-shot inference leveraging world knowledge, we propose a novel approach that utilizes LLMs' expertise to uncover underexplored user preferences from observed behavior, ultimately providing diverse and relevant recommendations. To achieve this, we first introduce Tree of Preferences (ToP), an innovative structure constructed to model user preferences from coarse to fine. ToP enables LLMs to systematically reason over the user's rationale behind their behavior, thereby uncovering their underexplored preferences. To guide diversified recommendations using uncovered preferences, we adopt a data-centric approach, identifying candidate items that match user preferences and generating synthetic interactions that reflect underexplored preferences. These interactions are integrated to train a general recommender for diversification. Moreover, we scale up overall efficiency by dynamically selecting influential users during optimization. Extensive evaluations of both diversity and relevance show that our approach outperforms existing methods in most cases and achieves near-optimal performance in others, with reasonable inference latency. △ Less Submitted 23 December, 2025; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.02386 [ pdf , ps , other ] Tree of Preferences for Diversified Recommendation Authors: Hanyang Yuan , Ning Tang , Tongya Zheng , Jiarong Xu , Xintong Hu , Renhong Huang , Shunyu Liu , Jiacong Hu , Jiawei Chen , Mingli Song Abstract : Diversified recommendation has attracted increasing attention from both researchers and practitioners, which can effectively address the homogeneity of recommended items. Existing approaches predominantly aim to infer the diversity of user preferences from observed user feedback. Nonetheless, due to inherent data biases, the observed data may not fully reflect user interests, where underexplored p… ▽ More Diversified recommendation has attracted increasing attention from both researchers and practitioners, which can effectively address the homogeneity of recommended items. Existing approaches predominantly aim to infer the diversity of user preferences from observed user feedback. Nonetheless, due to inherent data biases, the observed data may not fully reflect user interests, where underexplored preferences can be overwhelmed or remain unmanifested. Failing to capture these preferences can lead to suboptimal diversity in recommendations. To fill this gap, this work aims to study diversified recommendation from a data-bias perspective. Inspired by the outstanding performance of large language models (LLMs) in zero-shot inference leveraging world knowledge, we propose a novel approach that utilizes LLMs' expertise to uncover underexplored user preferences from observed behavior, ultimately providing diverse and relevant recommendations. To achieve this, we first introduce Tree of Preferences (ToP), an innovative structure constructed to model user preferences from coarse to fine. ToP enables LLMs to systematically reason over the user's rationale behind their behavior, thereby uncovering their underexplored preferences. To guide diversified recommendations using uncovered preferences, we adopt a data-centric approach, identifying candidate items that match user preferences and generating synthetic interactions that reflect underexplored preferences. These interactions are integrated to train a general recommender for diversification. Moreover, we scale up overall efficiency by dynamically selecting influential users during optimization. Extensive evaluations of both diversity and relevance show that our approach outperforms existing methods in most cases and achieves near-optimal performance in others, with reasonable inference latency. △ Less Submitted 23 December, 2025; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.01765 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.SE A New Benchmark for the Appropriate Evaluation of RTL Code Optimization Authors: Yao Lu , Shang Liu , Hangan Zhou , Wenji Fang , Qijun Zhang , Zhiyao Xie Abstract : The rapid progress of artificial intelligence increasingly relies on efficient integrated circuit (IC) design. Recent studies have explored the use of large language models (LLMs) for generating Register Transfer Level (RTL) code, but existing benchmarks mainly evaluate syntactic correctness rather than optimization quality in terms of power, performance, and area (PPA). This work introduces RTL-O… ▽ More The rapid progress of artificial intelligence increasingly relies on efficient integrated circuit (IC) design. Recent studies have explored the use of large language models (LLMs) for generating Register Transfer Level (RTL) code, but existing benchmarks mainly evaluate syntactic correctness rather than optimization quality in terms of power, performance, and area (PPA). This work introduces RTL-OPT, a benchmark for assessing the capability of LLMs in RTL optimization. RTL-OPT contains 36 handcrafted digital designs that cover diverse implementation categories including combinational logic, pipelined datapaths, finite state machines, and memory interfaces. Each task provides a pair of RTL codes, a suboptimal version and a human-optimized reference that reflects industry-proven optimization patterns not captured by conventional synthesis tools. Furthermore, RTL-OPT integrates an automated evaluation framework to verify functional correctness and quantify PPA improvements, enabling standardized and meaningful assessment of generative models for hardware design optimization. △ Less Submitted 4 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.01765 [ pdf , ps , other ] A New Benchmark for the Appropriate Evaluation of RTL Code Optimization Authors: Yao Lu , Shang Liu , Hangan Zhou , Wenji Fang , Qijun Zhang , Zhiyao Xie Abstract : The rapid progress of artificial intelligence increasingly relies on efficient integrated circuit (IC) design. Recent studies have explored the use of large language models (LLMs) for generating Register Transfer Level (RTL) code, but existing benchmarks mainly evaluate syntactic correctness rather than optimization quality in terms of power, performance, and area (PPA). This work introduces RTL-O… ▽ More The rapid progress of artificial intelligence increasingly relies on efficient integrated circuit (IC) design. Recent studies have explored the use of large language models (LLMs) for generating Register Transfer Level (RTL) code, but existing benchmarks mainly evaluate syntactic correctness rather than optimization quality in terms of power, performance, and area (PPA). This work introduces RTL-OPT, a benchmark for assessing the capability of LLMs in RTL optimization. RTL-OPT contains 36 handcrafted digital designs that cover diverse implementation categories including combinational logic, pipelined datapaths, finite state machines, and memory interfaces. Each task provides a pair of RTL codes, a suboptimal version and a human-optimized reference that reflects industry-proven optimization patterns not captured by conventional synthesis tools. Furthermore, RTL-OPT integrates an automated evaluation framework to verify functional correctness and quantify PPA improvements, enabling standardized and meaningful assessment of generative models for hardware design optimization. △ Less Submitted 4 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.01401 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.LG LANCET: Neural Intervention via Structural Entropy for Mitigating Faithfulness Hallucinations in LLMs Authors: Chenxu Wang , Chaozhuo Li , Pengbo Wang , Litian Zhang , Songyang Liu , Ji Qi , Jiahui Hu , Yushan Cai , Hao Zhao , Rui Pu Abstract : Large Language Models have revolutionized information processing, yet their reliability is severely compromised by faithfulness hallucinations. While current approaches attempt to mitigate this issue through node-level adjustments or coarse suppression, they often overlook the distributed nature of neural information, leading to imprecise interventions. Recognizing that hallucinations propagate th… ▽ More Large Language Models have revolutionized information processing, yet their reliability is severely compromised by faithfulness hallucinations. While current approaches attempt to mitigate this issue through node-level adjustments or coarse suppression, they often overlook the distributed nature of neural information, leading to imprecise interventions. Recognizing that hallucinations propagate through specific forward transmission pathways like an infection, we aim to surgically block this flow using precise structural analysis. To leverage this, we propose Lancet, a novel framework that achieves precise neural intervention by leveraging structural entropy and hallucination difference ratios. Lancet first locates hallucination-prone neurons via gradient-driven contrastive analysis, then maps their propagation pathways by minimizing structural entropy, and finally implements a hierarchical intervention strategy that preserves general model capabilities. Comprehensive evaluations across hallucination benchmark datasets demonstrate that Lancet significantly outperforms state-of-the-art methods, validating the effectiveness of our surgical approach to neural intervention. △ Less Submitted 4 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.01401 [ pdf , ps , other ] LANCET: Neural Intervention via Structural Entropy for Mitigating Faithfulness Hallucinations in LLMs Authors: Chenxu Wang , Chaozhuo Li , Pengbo Wang , Litian Zhang , Songyang Liu , Ji Qi , Jiahui Hu , Yushan Cai , Hao Zhao , Rui Pu Abstract : Large Language Models have revolutionized information processing, yet their reliability is severely compromised by faithfulness hallucinations. While current approaches attempt to mitigate this issue through node-level adjustments or coarse suppression, they often overlook the distributed nature of neural information, leading to imprecise interventions. Recognizing that hallucinations propagate th… ▽ More Large Language Models have revolutionized information processing, yet their reliability is severely compromised by faithfulness hallucinations. While current approaches attempt to mitigate this issue through node-level adjustments or coarse suppression, they often overlook the distributed nature of neural information, leading to imprecise interventions. Recognizing that hallucinations propagate through specific forward transmission pathways like an infection, we aim to surgically block this flow using precise structural analysis. To leverage this, we propose Lancet, a novel framework that achieves precise neural intervention by leveraging structural entropy and hallucination difference ratios. Lancet first locates hallucination-prone neurons via gradient-driven contrastive analysis, then maps their propagation pathways by minimizing structural entropy, and finally implements a hierarchical intervention strategy that preserves general model capabilities. Comprehensive evaluations across hallucination benchmark datasets demonstrate that Lancet significantly outperforms state-of-the-art methods, validating the effectiveness of our surgical approach to neural intervention. △ Less Submitted 4 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.01366 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI KGCE: Knowledge-Augmented Dual-Graph Evaluator for Cross-Platform Educational Agent Benchmarking with Multimodal Language Models Authors: Zixian Liu , Sihao Liu , Yuqi Zhao Abstract : With the rapid adoption of multimodal large language models (MLMs) in autonomous agents, cross-platform task execution capabilities in educational settings have garnered significant attention. However, existing benchmark frameworks still exhibit notable deficiencies in supporting cross-platform tasks in educational contexts, especially when dealing with school-specific software (such as XiaoYa Int… ▽ More With the rapid adoption of multimodal large language models (MLMs) in autonomous agents, cross-platform task execution capabilities in educational settings have garnered significant attention. However, existing benchmark frameworks still exhibit notable deficiencies in supporting cross-platform tasks in educational contexts, especially when dealing with school-specific software (such as XiaoYa Intelligent Assistant, HuaShi XiaZi, etc.), where the efficiency of agents often significantly decreases due to a lack of understanding of the structural specifics of these private-domain software. Additionally, current evaluation methods heavily rely on coarse-grained metrics like goal orientation or trajectory matching, making it challenging to capture the detailed execution and efficiency of agents in complex tasks. To address these issues, we propose KGCE (Knowledge-Augmented Dual-Graph Evaluator for Cross-Platform Educational Agent Benchmarking with Multimodal Language Models), a novel benchmarking platform that integrates knowledge base enhancement and a dual-graph evaluation framework. We first constructed a dataset comprising 104 education-related tasks, covering Windows, Android, and cross-platform collaborative tasks. KGCE introduces a dual-graph evaluation framework that decomposes tasks into multiple sub-goals and verifies their completion status, providing fine-grained evaluation metrics. To overcome the execution bottlenecks of existing agents in private-domain tasks, we developed an enhanced agent system incorporating a knowledge base specific to school-specific software. The code can be found at △ Less Submitted 3 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.01366 [ pdf , ps , other ] KGCE: Knowledge-Augmented Dual-Graph Evaluator for Cross-Platform Educational Agent Benchmarking with Multimodal Language Models Authors: Zixian Liu , Sihao Liu , Yuqi Zhao Abstract : With the rapid adoption of multimodal large language models (MLMs) in autonomous agents, cross-platform task execution capabilities in educational settings have garnered significant attention. However, existing benchmark frameworks still exhibit notable deficiencies in supporting cross-platform tasks in educational contexts, especially when dealing with school-specific software (such as XiaoYa Int… ▽ More With the rapid adoption of multimodal large language models (MLMs) in autonomous agents, cross-platform task execution capabilities in educational settings have garnered significant attention. However, existing benchmark frameworks still exhibit notable deficiencies in supporting cross-platform tasks in educational contexts, especially when dealing with school-specific software (such as XiaoYa Intelligent Assistant, HuaShi XiaZi, etc.), where the efficiency of agents often significantly decreases due to a lack of understanding of the structural specifics of these private-domain software. Additionally, current evaluation methods heavily rely on coarse-grained metrics like goal orientation or trajectory matching, making it challenging to capture the detailed execution and efficiency of agents in complex tasks. To address these issues, we propose KGCE (Knowledge-Augmented Dual-Graph Evaluator for Cross-Platform Educational Agent Benchmarking with Multimodal Language Models), a novel benchmarking platform that integrates knowledge base enhancement and a dual-graph evaluation framework. We first constructed a dataset comprising 104 education-related tasks, covering Windows, Android, and cross-platform collaborative tasks. KGCE introduces a dual-graph evaluation framework that decomposes tasks into multiple sub-goals and verifies their completion status, providing fine-grained evaluation metrics. To overcome the execution bottlenecks of existing agents in private-domain tasks, we developed an enhanced agent system incorporating a knowledge base specific to school-specific software. The code can be found at △ Less Submitted 3 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.01015 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.DB HyperJoin: LLM-augmented Hypergraph Link Prediction for Joinable Table Discovery Authors: Shiyuan Liu , Jianwei Wang , Xuemin Lin , Lu Qin , Wenjie Zhang , Ying Zhang Abstract : As a pivotal task in data lake management, joinable table discovery has attracted widespread interest. While existing language model-based methods achieve remarkable performance by combining offline column representation learning with online ranking, their design insufficiently accounts for the underlying structural interactions: (1) offline, they directly model tables into isolated or pairwise co… ▽ More As a pivotal task in data lake management, joinable table discovery has attracted widespread interest. While existing language model-based methods achieve remarkable performance by combining offline column representation learning with online ranking, their design insufficiently accounts for the underlying structural interactions: (1) offline, they directly model tables into isolated or pairwise columns, thereby struggling to capture the rich inter-table and intra-table structural information; and (2) online, they rank candidate columns based solely on query-candidate similarity, ignoring the mutual interactions among the candidates, leading to incoherent result sets. To address these limitations, we propose HyperJoin, a large language model (LLM)-augmented Hypergraph framework for Joinable table discovery. Specifically, we first construct a hypergraph to model tables using both the intra-table hyperedges and the LLM-augmented inter-table hyperedges. Consequently, the task of joinable table discovery is formulated as link prediction on this constructed hypergraph. We then design HIN, a Hierarchical Interaction Network that learns expressive column representations through bidirectional message passing over columns and hyperedges. To strengthen coherence and internal consistency in the result columns, we cast online ranking as a coherence-aware top-k column selection problem. We then introduce a reranking module that leverages a maximum spanning tree algorithm to prune noisy connections and maximize coherence. Experiments demonstrate the superiority of HyperJoin, achieving average improvements of 21.4% (Precision@15) and 17.2% (Recall@15) over the best baseline. △ Less Submitted 2 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.01015 [ pdf , ps , other ] HyperJoin: LLM-augmented Hypergraph Link Prediction for Joinable Table Discovery Authors: Shiyuan Liu , Jianwei Wang , Xuemin Lin , Lu Qin , Wenjie Zhang , Ying Zhang Abstract : As a pivotal task in data lake management, joinable table discovery has attracted widespread interest. While existing language model-based methods achieve remarkable performance by combining offline column representation learning with online ranking, their design insufficiently accounts for the underlying structural interactions: (1) offline, they directly model tables into isolated or pairwise co… ▽ More As a pivotal task in data lake management, joinable table discovery has attracted widespread interest. While existing language model-based methods achieve remarkable performance by combining offline column representation learning with online ranking, their design insufficiently accounts for the underlying structural interactions: (1) offline, they directly model tables into isolated or pairwise columns, thereby struggling to capture the rich inter-table and intra-table structural information; and (2) online, they rank candidate columns based solely on query-candidate similarity, ignoring the mutual interactions among the candidates, leading to incoherent result sets. To address these limitations, we propose HyperJoin, a large language model (LLM)-augmented Hypergraph framework for Joinable table discovery. Specifically, we first construct a hypergraph to model tables using both the intra-table hyperedges and the LLM-augmented inter-table hyperedges. Consequently, the task of joinable table discovery is formulated as link prediction on this constructed hypergraph. We then design HIN, a Hierarchical Interaction Network that learns expressive column representations through bidirectional message passing over columns and hyperedges. To strengthen coherence and internal consistency in the result columns, we cast online ranking as a coherence-aware top-k column selection problem. We then introduce a reranking module that leverages a maximum spanning tree algorithm to prune noisy connections and maximize coherence. Experiments demonstrate the superiority of HyperJoin, achieving average improvements of 21.4% (Precision@15) and 17.2% (Recall@15) over the best baseline. △ Less Submitted 2 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.00598 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Modality Dominance-Aware Optimization for Embodied RGB-Infrared Perception Authors: Xianhui Liu , Siqi Jiang , Yi Xie , Yuqing Lin , Siao Liu Abstract : RGB-Infrared (RGB-IR) multimodal perception is fundamental to embodied multimedia systems operating in complex physical environments. Although recent cross-modal fusion methods have advanced RGB-IR detection, the optimization dynamics caused by asymmetric modality characteristics remain underexplored. In practice, disparities in information density and feature quality introduce persistent optimiza… ▽ More RGB-Infrared (RGB-IR) multimodal perception is fundamental to embodied multimedia systems operating in complex physical environments. Although recent cross-modal fusion methods have advanced RGB-IR detection, the optimization dynamics caused by asymmetric modality characteristics remain underexplored. In practice, disparities in information density and feature quality introduce persistent optimization bias, leading training to overemphasize a dominant modality and hindering effective fusion. To quantify this phenomenon, we propose the Modality Dominance Index (MDI), which measures modality dominance by jointly modeling feature entropy and gradient contribution. Based on MDI, we develop a Modality Dominance-Aware Cross-modal Learning (MDACL) framework that regulates cross-modal optimization. MDACL incorporates Hierarchical Cross-modal Guidance (HCG) to enhance feature alignment and Adversarial Equilibrium Regularization (AER) to balance optimization dynamics during fusion. Extensive experiments on three RGB-IR benchmarks demonstrate that MDACL effectively mitigates optimization bias and achieves SOTA performance. △ Less Submitted 2 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.00598 [ pdf , ps , other ] Modality Dominance-Aware Optimization for Embodied RGB-Infrared Perception Authors: Xianhui Liu , Siqi Jiang , Yi Xie , Yuqing Lin , Siao Liu Abstract : RGB-Infrared (RGB-IR) multimodal perception is fundamental to embodied multimedia systems operating in complex physical environments. Although recent cross-modal fusion methods have advanced RGB-IR detection, the optimization dynamics caused by asymmetric modality characteristics remain underexplored. In practice, disparities in information density and feature quality introduce persistent optimiza… ▽ More RGB-Infrared (RGB-IR) multimodal perception is fundamental to embodied multimedia systems operating in complex physical environments. Although recent cross-modal fusion methods have advanced RGB-IR detection, the optimization dynamics caused by asymmetric modality characteristics remain underexplored. In practice, disparities in information density and feature quality introduce persistent optimization bias, leading training to overemphasize a dominant modality and hindering effective fusion. To quantify this phenomenon, we propose the Modality Dominance Index (MDI), which measures modality dominance by jointly modeling feature entropy and gradient contribution. Based on MDI, we develop a Modality Dominance-Aware Cross-modal Learning (MDACL) framework that regulates cross-modal optimization. MDACL incorporates Hierarchical Cross-modal Guidance (HCG) to enhance feature alignment and Adversarial Equilibrium Regularization (AER) to balance optimization dynamics during fusion. Extensive experiments on three RGB-IR benchmarks demonstrate that MDACL effectively mitigates optimization bias and achieves SOTA performance. △ Less Submitted 2 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.00200 [ pdf , ps , other ] stat.ML cs.LG Detecting Unobserved Confounders: A Kernelized Regression Approach Authors: Yikai Chen , Yunxin Mao , Chunyuan Zheng , Hao Zou , Shanzhi Gu , Shixuan Liu , Yang Shi , Wenjing Yang , Kun Kuang , Haotian Wang Abstract : Detecting unobserved confounders is crucial for reliable causal inference in observational studies. Existing methods require either linearity assumptions or multiple heterogeneous environments, limiting applicability to nonlinear single-environment settings. To bridge this gap, we propose Kernel Regression Confounder Detection (KRCD), a novel method for detecting unobserved confounding in nonlinea… ▽ More Detecting unobserved confounders is crucial for reliable causal inference in observational studies. Existing methods require either linearity assumptions or multiple heterogeneous environments, limiting applicability to nonlinear single-environment settings. To bridge this gap, we propose Kernel Regression Confounder Detection (KRCD), a novel method for detecting unobserved confounding in nonlinear observational data under single-environment conditions. KRCD leverages reproducing kernel Hilbert spaces to model complex dependencies. By comparing standard and higherorder kernel regressions, we derive a test statistic whose significant deviation from zero indicates unobserved confounding. Theoretically, we prove two key results: First, in infinite samples, regression coefficients coincide if and only if no unobserved confounders exist. Second, finite-sample differences converge to zero-mean Gaussian distributions with tractable variance. Extensive experiments on synthetic benchmarks and the Twins dataset demonstrate that KRCD not only outperforms existing baselines but also achieves superior computational efficiency. △ Less Submitted 31 December, 2025; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.00200 [ pdf , ps , other ] Detecting Unobserved Confounders: A Kernelized Regression Approach Authors: Yikai Chen , Yunxin Mao , Chunyuan Zheng , Hao Zou , Shanzhi Gu , Shixuan Liu , Yang Shi , Wenjing Yang , Kun Kuang , Haotian Wang Abstract : Detecting unobserved confounders is crucial for reliable causal inference in observational studies. Existing methods require either linearity assumptions or multiple heterogeneous environments, limiting applicability to nonlinear single-environment settings. To bridge this gap, we propose Kernel Regression Confounder Detection (KRCD), a novel method for detecting unobserved confounding in nonlinea… ▽ More Detecting unobserved confounders is crucial for reliable causal inference in observational studies. Existing methods require either linearity assumptions or multiple heterogeneous environments, limiting applicability to nonlinear single-environment settings. To bridge this gap, we propose Kernel Regression Confounder Detection (KRCD), a novel method for detecting unobserved confounding in nonlinear observational data under single-environment conditions. KRCD leverages reproducing kernel Hilbert spaces to model complex dependencies. By comparing standard and higherorder kernel regressions, we derive a test statistic whose significant deviation from zero indicates unobserved confounding. Theoretically, we prove two key results: First, in infinite samples, regression coefficients coincide if and only if no unobserved confounders exist. Second, finite-sample differences converge to zero-mean Gaussian distributions with tractable variance. Extensive experiments on synthetic benchmarks and the Twins dataset demonstrate that KRCD not only outperforms existing baselines but also achieves superior computational efficiency. △ Less Submitted 31 December, 2025; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.00003 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.CL doi 10.1109/JSTSP.2025.3577756 Reasoning in Action: MCTS-Driven Knowledge Retrieval for Large Language Models Authors: Shuqi Liu , Bowei He , Chen Ma , Linqi Song Abstract : Large language models (LLMs) typically enhance their performance through either the retrieval of semantically similar information or the improvement of their reasoning capabilities. However, a significant challenge remains in effectively integrating both retrieval and reasoning strategies to optimize LLM performance. In this paper, we introduce a reasoning-aware knowledge retrieval method that enr… ▽ More Large language models (LLMs) typically enhance their performance through either the retrieval of semantically similar information or the improvement of their reasoning capabilities. However, a significant challenge remains in effectively integrating both retrieval and reasoning strategies to optimize LLM performance. In this paper, we introduce a reasoning-aware knowledge retrieval method that enriches LLMs with information aligned to the logical structure of conversations, moving beyond surface-level semantic similarity. We follow a coarse-to-fine approach for knowledge retrieval. First, we identify a contextually relevant sub-region of the knowledge base, ensuring that all sentences within it are relevant to the context topic. Next, we refine our search within this sub-region to extract knowledge that is specifically relevant to the reasoning process. Throughout both phases, we employ the Monte Carlo Tree Search-inspired search method to effectively navigate through knowledge sentences using common keywords. Experiments on two multi-turn dialogue datasets demonstrate that our knowledge retrieval approach not only aligns more closely with the underlying reasoning in human conversations but also significantly enhances the diversity of the retrieved knowledge, resulting in more informative and creative responses. △ Less Submitted 28 November, 2025; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.00003 [ pdf , ps , other ] Reasoning in Action: MCTS-Driven Knowledge Retrieval for Large Language Models Authors: Shuqi Liu , Bowei He , Chen Ma , Linqi Song Abstract : Large language models (LLMs) typically enhance their performance through either the retrieval of semantically similar information or the improvement of their reasoning capabilities. However, a significant challenge remains in effectively integrating both retrieval and reasoning strategies to optimize LLM performance. In this paper, we introduce a reasoning-aware knowledge retrieval method that enr… ▽ More Large language models (LLMs) typically enhance their performance through either the retrieval of semantically similar information or the improvement of their reasoning capabilities. However, a significant challenge remains in effectively integrating both retrieval and reasoning strategies to optimize LLM performance. In this paper, we introduce a reasoning-aware knowledge retrieval method that enriches LLMs with information aligned to the logical structure of conversations, moving beyond surface-level semantic similarity. We follow a coarse-to-fine approach for knowledge retrieval. First, we identify a contextually relevant sub-region of the knowledge base, ensuring that all sentences within it are relevant to the context topic. Next, we refine our search within this sub-region to extract knowledge that is specifically relevant to the reasoning process. Throughout both phases, we employ the Monte Carlo Tree Search-inspired search method to effectively navigate through knowledge sentences using common keywords. Experiments on two multi-turn dialogue datasets demonstrate that our knowledge retrieval approach not only aligns more closely with the underlying reasoning in human conversations but also significantly enhances the diversity of the retrieved knowledge, resulting in more informative and creative responses. △ Less Submitted 28 November, 2025; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2512.24618 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL Youtu-LLM: Unlocking the Native Agentic Potential for Lightweight Large Language Models Authors: Junru Lu , Jiarui Qin , Lingfeng Qiao , Yinghui Li , Xinyi Dai , Bo Ke , Jianfeng He , Ruizhi Qiao , Di Yin , Xing Sun , Yunsheng Wu , Yinsong Liu , Shuangyin Liu , Mingkong Tang , Haodong Lin , Jiayi Kuang , Fanxu Meng , Xiaojuan Tang , Yunjia Xi , Junjie Huang , Haotong Yang , Zhenyi Shen , Yangning Li , Qianwen Zhang , Yifei Yu , et al. (13 additional authors not shown) Abstract : We introduce Youtu-LLM, a lightweight yet powerful language model that harmonizes high computational efficiency with native agentic intelligence. Unlike typical small models that rely on distillation, Youtu-LLM (1.96B) is pre-trained from scratch to systematically cultivate reasoning and planning capabilities. The key technical advancements are as follows: (1) Compact Architecture with Long-Contex… ▽ More We introduce Youtu-LLM, a lightweight yet powerful language model that harmonizes high computational efficiency with native agentic intelligence. Unlike typical small models that rely on distillation, Youtu-LLM (1.96B) is pre-trained from scratch to systematically cultivate reasoning and planning capabilities. The key technical advancements are as follows: (1) Compact Architecture with Long-Context Support: Built on a dense Multi-Latent Attention (MLA) architecture with a novel STEM-oriented vocabulary, Youtu-LLM supports a 128k context window. This design enables robust long-context reasoning and state tracking within a minimal memory footprint, making it ideal for long-horizon agent and reasoning tasks. (2) Principled "Commonsense-STEM-Agent" Curriculum: We curated a massive corpus of approximately 11T tokens and implemented a multi-stage training strategy. By progressively shifting the pre-training data distribution from general commonsense to complex STEM and agentic tasks, we ensure the model acquires deep cognitive abilities rather than superficial alignment. (3) Scalable Agentic Mid-training: Specifically for the agentic mid-training, we employ diverse data construction schemes to synthesize rich and varied trajectories across math, coding, and tool-use domains. This high-quality data enables the model to internalize planning and reflection behaviors effectively. Extensive evaluations show that Youtu-LLM sets a new state-of-the-art for sub-2B LLMs. On general benchmarks, it achieves competitive performance against larger models, while on agent-specific tasks, it significantly surpasses existing SOTA baselines, demonstrating that lightweight models can possess strong intrinsic agentic capabilities. △ Less Submitted 4 January, 2026; v1 submitted 30 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 57 pages, 26 figures arXiv:2512.24618 [ pdf , ps , other ] Youtu-LLM: Unlocking the Native Agentic Potential for Lightweight Large Language Models Authors: Junru Lu , Jiarui Qin , Lingfeng Qiao , Yinghui Li , Xinyi Dai , Bo Ke , Jianfeng He , Ruizhi Qiao , Di Yin , Xing Sun , Yunsheng Wu , Yinsong Liu , Shuangyin Liu , Mingkong Tang , Haodong Lin , Jiayi Kuang , Fanxu Meng , Xiaojuan Tang , Yunjia Xi , Junjie Huang , Haotong Yang , Zhenyi Shen , Yangning Li , Qianwen Zhang , Yifei Yu , et al. (13 additional authors not shown) Abstract : We introduce Youtu-LLM, a lightweight yet powerful language model that harmonizes high computational efficiency with native agentic intelligence. Unlike typical small models that rely on distillation, Youtu-LLM (1.96B) is pre-trained from scratch to systematically cultivate reasoning and planning capabilities. The key technical advancements are as follows: (1) Compact Architecture with Long-Contex… ▽ More We introduce Youtu-LLM, a lightweight yet powerful language model that harmonizes high computational efficiency with native agentic intelligence. Unlike typical small models that rely on distillation, Youtu-LLM (1.96B) is pre-trained from scratch to systematically cultivate reasoning and planning capabilities. The key technical advancements are as follows: (1) Compact Architecture with Long-Context Support: Built on a dense Multi-Latent Attention (MLA) architecture with a novel STEM-oriented vocabulary, Youtu-LLM supports a 128k context window. This design enables robust long-context reasoning and state tracking within a minimal memory footprint, making it ideal for long-horizon agent and reasoning tasks. (2) Principled "Commonsense-STEM-Agent" Curriculum: We curated a massive corpus of approximately 11T tokens and implemented a multi-stage training strategy. By progressively shifting the pre-training data distribution from general commonsense to complex STEM and agentic tasks, we ensure the model acquires deep cognitive abilities rather than superficial alignment. (3) Scalable Agentic Mid-training: Specifically for the agentic mid-training, we employ diverse data construction schemes to synthesize rich and varied trajectories across math, coding, and tool-use domains. This high-quality data enables the model to internalize planning and reflection behaviors effectively. Extensive evaluations show that Youtu-LLM sets a new state-of-the-art for sub-2B LLMs. On general benchmarks, it achieves competitive performance against larger models, while on agent-specific tasks, it significantly surpasses existing SOTA baselines, demonstrating that lightweight models can possess strong intrinsic agentic capabilities. △ Less Submitted 4 January, 2026; v1 submitted 30 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 57 pages, 26 figures 1 2 3 4 5 … About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 January Toggle January subsection 1.1 17 1.2 16 1.3 15 1.4 14 1.5 13 1.6 12 1.7 11 1.8 10 1.9 9 1.10 8 1.11 7 1.12 6 1.13 5 1.14 4 1.15 3 1.16 2 1.17 1 1.1 17 1.2 16 1.3 15 1.4 14 1.5 13 1.6 12 1.7 11 1.8 10 1.9 9 1.10 8 1.11 7 1.12 6 1.13 5 1.14 4 1.15 3 1.16 2 1.17 1 2 References 3 External links Deaths in 2026 العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Italiano کٲشُر Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو 中文 Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item The following notable deaths occurred in 2026. Names are reported under the date of death, in alphabetical order. A typical entry reports information in the following sequence: Name, age, country of citizenship at birth, subsequent nationality (if applicable), what subject was noted for, cause of death (if known), and a reference. January 17 16 Olena Grechanina , 90, Ukrainian scientist. [ 1 ] Ratbek hadji Nysanbayev , 85, Kazakh religious figure, supreme mufti of Kazakhstan (1990–2000). [ 2 ] (death announced on this date) 15 Abdullahi Abubakar , 90, Nigerian Islamic cleric and humanitarian. [ 3 ] Ante Grgurević , 50, Croatian basketball player ( Split , Lugano Tigers ) and coach (Split). [ 4 ] Rafael Gvaladze , 78, Azerbaijani jurist, judge of the Constitutional Court (1998–2025). [ 5 ] Princess Irene of Greece and Denmark , 83, Greek-Spanish royal. [ 6 ] Kim Sin-yong , 80, South Korean writer. [ 7 ] Mutumwa Mawere , 66, Zimbabwean-South African mining industry executive. [ 8 ] Kenny Morris , 68, English drummer ( Siouxsie and the Banshees ). [ 9 ] (death announced on this date) Edgar Salvé , 79, Belgian Olympic middle-distance runner ( 1968 , 1972 ). [ 10 ] Ajay Varma , 62, Indian cricketer ( Bengal ). [ 11 ] Gagik Yeganyan , 69, Armenian politician. [ 12 ] 14 Layonel Adams , 31, Russian footballer ( Banants , Cerceda , Isloch Minsk Raion ), fall. [ 13 ] Dmitri Akimov , 45, Russian footballer ( Metallurg Lipetsk , Sibir Novosibirsk , Rostov ). [ 14 ] Aroha Awarau , 49, New Zealand playwright and journalist. [ 15 ] Namirembe Bitamazire , 84, Ugandan academic and politician, MP (2001–2011). [ 16 ] Alfonso Castellanos , 91, Colombian radio broadcaster and journalist. [ 17 ] Jean-Hugues Colonna , 91, French politician, deputy (1981–1988). [ 18 ] (death announced on this date) Valeria Fedeli , 76, Italian politician, minister of education (2016–2018) and senator (2013–2022). [ 19 ] Oleksandr Kabanov , 52, Ukrainian politician, deputy (since 2019). [ 20 ] Kim Min-jae , 53, South Korean baseball player ( Lotte Giants , Hanwha Eagles ) and coach ( Doosan Bears ), cancer. [ 21 ] Rick Link , 66, American professional wrestler, trainer and promoter. [ 22 ] Nie Weiping , 73, Chinese Go player. [ 23 ] Melania Pérez [ es ] , 76, Argentine singer. [ 24 ] Ricard Pérez Casado , 80, Spanish politician, mayor of Valencia (1979–1988) and deputy (2000–2004). [ 25 ] Seppo Reijonen , 81, Finnish Olympic ski jumper ( 1968 ). [ 26 ] Jean Rossier , 81, Belgian biologist and academic. [ 27 ] (death announced on this date) Ernestine Russell , 87, Canadian Olympic gymnast ( 1956 , 1960 ). [ 28 ] Ado Schlier , 90, German radio personality ( Radio Salzburg , Bayerischer Rundfunk ). [ 29 ] Vera Valdez , 89, Brazilian model. [ 30 ] Quemil Yambay , 87, Paraguayan musician and composer. [ 31 ] Igor Zolotovitskiy , 64, Russian actor ( Taxi Blues , Luna Park , Composition for Victory Day ), academic and television director, cancer. [ 32 ] 13 Scott Adams , 68, American cartoonist ( Dilbert ), prostate cancer. [ 33 ] Iqbal Athas , 81, Sri Lankan journalist ( The Sunday Times , Jane's Defence Weekly ). [ 34 ] Lina Bernardi [ it ] , 87, Italian actress ( The Story of Piera , The Last Kiss , The Embalmer ). [ 35 ] Alfred Blumstein , 95, American scientist. [ 36 ] Mark Brnovich , 59, American politician and attorney, Arizona attorney general (2015–2023), heart attack. [ 37 ] Paola Cardia [ it ] , 73, Italian footballer ( national team ). [ 38 ] David Collier , 70, English sports administrator, chief executive of the England and Wales Cricket Board (2004–2014). [ 39 ] Claudette Colvin , 86, American civil rights activist ( Browder v. Gayle ). [ 40 ] Indira Devi Dhanrajgir , 95, Indian poet and socialite. [ 41 ] Catherine Duprat , 89, French historian. [ 42 ] Barbara Eustachiewicz , 87, Polish Olympic gymnast ( 1960 , 1964 ). [ 43 ] Jesse Flis , 92, Canadian politician, MP (1979–1984, 1988–1997). [ 44 ] Bir Bhadra Hagjer , 75, Indian politician, Assam MLA (2016–2021). [ 45 ] Ali Hassan , 61, Mozambican footballer ( Sporting , Vitória de Setúbal , national team ), cancer. [ 46 ] Hun Yuan , 81, Taiwanese religious leader, founder of Weixinism . [ 47 ] Heiki Kranich , 64, Estonian politician, twice MP , minister of finance (1994) and environment (1999–2003). [ 48 ] Jason Lafreniere , 59, Canadian ice hockey player ( Quebec Nordiques , Tampa Bay Lightning , New York Rangers ). [ 49 ] (death announced on this date) Blanche Marvin , 100, American-born British theatre critic, producer and writer. [ 50 ] Doug McConnell , 80, American television journalist. [ 51 ] Bruce McLeod , 96, Canadian clergyman, moderator of the United Church of Canada (1972–1974). [ 52 ] Rolando Nannicini , 79, Italian politician, deputy (2001–2013). [ 53 ] Seán Ó Sé , 89, Irish tenor singer. [ 54 ] Ivan Onufriyev , 58, Russian footballer ( Geolog Tyumen , MTsOP-Metallurg Verkhnyaya Pyshma , Dynamo Stavropol ). [ 55 ] Annemarie Prins , 93, Dutch actress ( Accused , Memory Lane ), director and writer. [ 56 ] Renzo Ragonesi [ it ] , 82, Italian footballer ( Venezia , Reggiana , Modena ). [ 57 ] Jean-Loup Trassard , 92, French photographer. [ 58 ] (death announced on this date) Rudolf Urc [ sk ] , 88, Slovak director of documentary and animated films and academic. [ 59 ] George Vassiliou , 94, Cypriot politician, president (1988–1993) and MP (1996–2001), respiratory infection. [ 60 ] David Webb , 60, British-born Hong Kong activist investor, prostate cancer. [ 61 ] Hans Wiktorsson [ sv ] , 75, Swedish actor ( The Painter , Kurt Olssons julkalender ), complications from a brain injury. [ 62 ] Brian Wilshire , 81, Australian radio broadcaster ( 2GB ). [ 63 ] Razmik Zohrabyan , 75, Armenian politician, MP (2007–2017). [ 64 ] 12 Oba C. D. Akran , 89, Nigerian politician and traditional ruler. [ 65 ] Mahmoud Al-Astal , Palestinian police chief, shot. [ 66 ] Sheila Bernette , 94, English singer ( The Good Old Days , The Black and White Minstrel Show ) and actress ( The Magnificent Seven Deadly Sins ). [ 67 ] Paul Clauson , 76, Australian politician, Queensland MP (1985–1989), attorney-general (1986–1989). [ 68 ] Rolland Courbis , 72, French football player ( Monaco ) and manager ( Bordeaux , Marseille ). [ 69 ] Bill Courtney , 55, American college basketball coach ( Cornell Big Red , Miami Hurricanes , Temple Owls ). [ 70 ] Mochammad Djamhari , 82, Indonesian military officer and politician, Regent of Bekasi Regency (1993–1998). [ 71 ] John Forté , 50, American rapper ( Refugee Camp All-Stars ) and producer ( The Score ). [ 72 ] Rick Garcia , 69, American LGBTQ activist. [ 73 ] Mohammad Ilyas , 79, Pakistani cricketer ( Lahore , Pakistan International Airlines , national team ), cancer. [ 74 ] Asda Jayanama , 84, Thai diplomat. [ 75 ] Robert Jensen , 52, Dutch television personality ( Jensen! ), cardiac arrest. [ 76 ] Jayashree Kabir , 73, Indian actress ( Pratidwandi , Simana Periye , Rupali Saikate ). [ 77 ] Robert V. Kohn , 72, American mathematician, cancer. [ 78 ] Matt Kwasniewski-Kelvin , 26, British guitarist ( Black Midi ). [ 79 ] (death announced on this date) Jan Mårtenson , 92, Swedish author and diplomat, ambassador to Switzerland and Liechtenstein (1993–1995). [ 80 ] Eddie McCreadie , 85, Scottish football player ( Chelsea , national team ) and manager (Chelsea). [ 81 ] Luigi Nicolais , 83, Italian engineer and politician, minister for public administration (2006–2008), deputy (2008–2012), and president of the National Research Council (2012–2016). [ 82 ] Alain Orsoni , 71, French politician, Corsican independence militant ( FLNC ) and football executive ( AC Ajaccio ), shot. [ 83 ] Mario Rigutti , 99, Italian astronomer. [ 84 ] Roland Riz , 98, Italian politician, deputy (1958–1963, 1968–1987), senator (1987–1996). [ 85 ] Catherine Samie , 92, French actress ( Lovers of Paris , The Old Maid , They Came Back ). [ 86 ] Michel Tombereau , 80, French painter, complications from influenza. [ 87 ] Karen Vold , 86, American Hall of Fame trick rider. [ 88 ] Martin Willich , 80, German politician, member of the Hamburg Parliament (1974–1995). [ 89 ] Isaac Witz , 91, Austrian-born Israeli immunologist. [ 90 ] Benjaminas Zelkevičius , 81, Lithuanian football player ( Žalgiris Vilnius , Shakhtar Donetsk ) and manager ( national team ). [ 91 ] 11 Pavel Akishev , 42, Russian baseball player ( national team ). [ 92 ] (death announced on this date) Gabriel Barkay , 81, Israeli archaeologist. [ 93 ] Alberto Benzoni , 90, Italian journalist and politician. [ 94 ] Louis E. Brus , 82, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (2023). [ 95 ] Thomas Causey , 76, American sound engineer ( Dick Tracy , Star Trek Generations , Escape from New York ). [ 96 ] Giancarlo Cauteruccio , 69, Italian theatre actor and director. [ 97 ] Richard Codey , 79, American politician, governor of New Jersey (2004–2006), member of the New Jersey Senate (1982–2024). [ 98 ] Marcus Gilbert , 67, British actor ( Army of Darkness , The Masks of Death , Rambo III ), throat cancer. [ 99 ] Dave Giusti , 86, American baseball player ( Houston Astros , Pittsburgh Pirates ), World Series champion ( 1971 ). [ 100 ] Robert Hopkins , 64, English footballer ( Birmingham City , West Bromwich Albion , Shrewsbury Town ). [ 101 ] Bennie Carlton Keel , 91, American archaeologist. [ 102 ] Ueli Kestenholz , 50, Swiss snowboarder, Olympic bronze medallist ( 1998 ), avalanche. [ 103 ] Mukharby Kirzhinov , 77, Russian weightlifter, Olympic champion ( 1972 ). [ 104 ] Kōtarō Kodama , 91, Japanese politician, mayor of Akitakata (1980–2008). [ 105 ] Nelson Manrique , 78, Peruvian historian and sociologist. [ 106 ] Titina Medeiros , 48, Brazilian actress ( Cheias de Charme , A Lei do Amor , Now Generation ), pancreatic cancer. [ 107 ] Ahmad Melli , 76–77, Syrian actor. [ 108 ] Miquel Naudí , 77, Andorran politician, member of the General Council (1981–1983). [ 109 ] Takashi Ono , 97, Japanese-born American mathematician. [ 110 ] Park Soon-yong , 81, South Korean lawyer, prosecutor general (1999–2001). [ 111 ] Miroslava Pešíková , 79, Czech dancer and ballet master. [ 112 ] Clarence Pierce , 97, American politician, member of the Mississippi House of Representatives (1952–1984). [ 113 ] Eugen Pojoni , 84, Romanian footballer ( Viitorul București , Crișul Oradea , UTA Arad ). [ 114 ] Laumatiamanu Ringo Purcell , Samoan politician, MLA (2021–2025). [ 115 ] Samir Putatundu , 73, Indian politician. [ 116 ] Nasser bin Radan Al Rashid Al Wadaei , Saudi longevity claimant. [ 117 ] Grete Salomonsen , 74, Norwegian film director ( Kamilla and the Thief , Yohan: The Child Wanderer ). [ 118 ] Robert G. Shulman , 101, American biophysicist. [ 119 ] Aniceto Sobrepeña , 77, Filipino banker and public servant. [ 120 ] Prashant Tamang , 43, Indian singer ( Indian Idol ) and actor ( Paatal Lok ), cardiac arrest. [ 121 ] Sergio Tarquinio , 100, Italian painter. [ 122 ] Trevor A. Toussaint , 65, British actor ( Hollyoaks ). [ 123 ] John Wallace , 76, Scottish trumpeter, composer and arts educator. [ 124 ] Herman Wouters , 85, Belgian politician, mayor of Grobbendonk (1989–1997). [ 125 ] 10 Sturla Böðvarsson , 80, Icelandic politician, minister of communications and transportation (1999–2007), president of the Althing (2007–2009). [ 126 ] Manoel Carlos , 92, Brazilian television writer ( Por Amor , Laços de Família , Mulheres Apaixonadas ). [ 127 ] Daniel Colson , 82, French sociologist and academic. [ 128 ] Yolande Viviane Compaoré , Burkinabe politician, governor of Nord Region . [ 129 ] Erich von Däniken , 90, Swiss author and ufologist ( Chariots of the Gods? ). [ 130 ] Distorted Humor , 32, American Thoroughbred racehorse and sire, euthanized. [ 131 ] Sergey Galkov , 60, Russian Olympic sprint canoeist ( 1988 ). [ 132 ] Richard Hynes , 81, British biologist. [ 133 ] (death announced on this date) Jim Hartung , 65, American gymnast, Olympic champion ( 1984 ), and coach. [ 134 ] Mario Jacquet [ es ] , 79, Paraguayan footballer ( Cerro Porteño , Real Oviedo , Real Valladolid ). [ 135 ] Włodzimierz Jakubowski , 86, Polish football player ( Lech Poznań ) and manager ( Mieszko Gniezno , Bałtyk Gdynia ). [ 136 ] Kathy Javner , 52, American politician, member of the Maine House of Representatives (since 2018), breast cancer. [ 137 ] Yeison Jiménez , 34, Colombian singer, plane crash . [ 138 ] Václav Klučka , 72, Czech politician, deputy (1992–1996, 2006–2017). [ 139 ] Robert Kostelka , 92, American politician, member of the Louisiana State Senate (2003–2016). [ 140 ] Derek Martin , 92, British actor ( Law & Order , Eldorado , EastEnders ). [ 141 ] Marco Proaño Maya , 80, Ecuadorian politician, three-time deputy . [ 142 ] Davinder Singh , 73, Indian field hockey player, Olympic champion ( 1980 ). [ 143 ] Ivan Štampach , 79, Czech religionist and theologian. [ 144 ] Thierry Steimetz , 42, French footballer ( Amnéville , Metz , Homburg ), cancer. [ 145 ] Orazio Svelto , 89, Italian physicist. [ 146 ] Isabel Veloso , 19, Brazilian social media influencer, complications from bone marrow transplant. [ 147 ] Manolo Villaverde , 91, Cuban-American actor ( ¿Qué Pasa, USA? , Taina , Wiseguy ). [ 148 ] Prawase Wasi , 93, Thai hematologist. [ 149 ] Bob Weir , 78, American Hall of Fame musician ( Grateful Dead ) and songwriter (" Sugar Magnolia ", " One More Saturday Night "), complications from cancer. [ 150 ] Robert Wolgemuth , 77, American author, chairman of the Evangelical Christian Publishers Association . [ 151 ] 9 Ai , 49, Japanese Western chimpanzee , subject of cognition studies, multiple organ failure. [ 152 ] Zeno Bianu , 75, French writer. [ 153 ] Andrés Caniulef , 48, Chilean journalist, heart attack. [ 154 ] T. K. Carter , 69, American actor ( The Thing , Punky Brewster , Runaway Train ). [ 155 ] Robert Croft , 91, American freediver. [ 156 ] Jean-Louis Duplat , 88, Belgian magistrate. [ 157 ] Beatriz González , 93, Colombian painter, sculptor and art historian. [ 158 ] Ulf Granberg , 80, Swedish comics creator and editor ( The Phantom ). [ 159 ] Jitka Gruntová , 80, Czech politician, deputy (2002–2006). [ 160 ] Hans Herrmann , 97, German racing driver ( Formula One ). [ 161 ] Sandra Hester , 68, American socio-political activist. [ 162 ] Pirkko Ikonen , 98, Finnish politician, MP (1983–1991). [ 163 ] Heber Jentzsch , 90, American Scientology executive ( Church of Scientology International ), actor and journalist ( Los Angeles Free Press ). [ 164 ] (death announced on this date) Manfred Kuhmichel , 82, German politician, member of the Landtag of North Rhine-Westphalia (1990–2012). [ 165 ] Lê Văn Dũng , 80, Vietnamese military officer and politician, chief of the general staff (1998–2001). [ 166 ] Khawlhring Lalremruata , 38, Indian cricketer ( Mizoram ), heart attack. [ 167 ] Diane Munday , 94, British political activist, co-founder of the British Pregnancy Advisory Service . [ 168 ] Valery Noskov [ ru ] , 59, Russian biathlete. [ 169 ] Tina Packer , 87, British actress ( David Copperfield , Doctor Who ) and stage director, co-founder of Shakespeare & Company . [ 170 ] Zelico Petrovic [ it ] , 77, Yugoslav-born Italian footballer ( Taranto , Rimini , Catania ). [ 171 ] Larry Snook , 84, American politician. [ 172 ] Terry Sullivan , 87, British drummer ( Renaissance ). [ 173 ] Josep Maria Triginer , 82, Spanish politician. [ 174 ] Eleni Varikas , 76, Greek-born French political philosopher and academic, lung cancer. [ 175 ] Yao Chiang-lin [ zh ] , 75, Taiwanese politician. [ 176 ] Vincenzo Zarri , 96, Italian Roman Catholic prelate, auxiliary bishop of Bologna (1976–1988) and bishop of Forlì-Bertinoro (1988–2005). [ 177 ] 8 Dolores Ashcroft-Nowicki , 96, British occult writer. [ 178 ] Musa Gibril Bala Gaye , 79, Gambian economist and politician, minister of finance (2003–2009) and foreign affairs (2005). [ 179 ] Murat Bisembin , 53, Kazakh actor, cancer. [ 180 ] Loraine Braham , 87, Australian politician, member (1994–2008) and speaker (1997–1999, 2001–2005) of the Northern Territory Legislative Assembly . [ 181 ] Günther Brendel , 95, German painter, graphic artist and academic. [ 182 ] Heloísa de Carvalho , 56, Brazilian writer and political activist. [ 183 ] Václav Cigler , 96, Czech sculptor and visual artist. [ 184 ] Conrado Corsalette , 47, Brazilian journalist. [ 185 ] Mieczysław Czerniawski , 77, Polish politician, MP (1989–1991, 1993–2005). [ 186 ] Nelly Chatué Diop , 41, Cameroonian computer scientist. [ 187 ] Jean-Luc Domenach , 80, French historian, sinologist and political scientist. [ 188 ] Jim Furlong , 85, Canadian football player ( Calgary Stampeders ). [ 189 ] Sergio Goizauskas , 69, Argentine-born French cartoonist. [ 190 ] Vijay Singh Gond , 68, Indian politician, Uttar Pradesh MLA (1980–2007, since 2024), kidney failure. [ 191 ] Dave Hitchcock , 76, English record producer ( In the Land of Grey and Pink , Foxtrot , The Snow Goose ) and accountant. [ 192 ] Jian Shuisheng [ zh ] , 96, Chinese academic. [ 193 ] Philippe Junot , 85, French venture capitalist and property developer. [ 194 ] Madalitso Kazombo , 46, Malawian politician, first deputy speaker of the National Assembly (2019–2025), asthma attack. [ 195 ] Dieudonné Larose , 80, Haitian singer. [ 196 ] Rhoda Levine , 93, American opera director and choreographer. [ 197 ] (death announced on this date) Elisa Lisboa [ pt ] , 81, Portuguese actress ( Sabor da Paixão , Morangos com Açúcar , A Impostora ). [ 198 ] Evgeny Lyubivyi , 51, Russian politician. [ 199 ] Antonino Mangano [ it ] , 75, Italian marathon and middle-distance runner. [ 200 ] Guy Moon , 63, American composer ( The Fairly OddParents , Big Time Rush , Danny Phantom ), traffic collision. [ 201 ] Jafar Nainggolan , 79, Indonesian politician, MP (2009–2014). [ 202 ] Hiroshi Nakamura , 93, Japanese surrealist painter, pancreatic cancer. [ 203 ] Álvaro Peña-Rojas , 82, Chilean-German singer and songwriter. [ 204 ] Howard Riley , 87, English footballer ( Leicester City , Walsall , Barrow ). [ 205 ] Astrid Roemer , 78, Surinamese-Dutch writer and teacher. [ 206 ] Kjersti Scheen , 82, Norwegian journalist and writer. [ 207 ] Uljana Semjonova , 73, Latvian basketball player, Olympic champion ( 1976 , 1980 ). [ 208 ] Sir Tim Shadbolt , 78, New Zealand politician, mayor of Waitemata City (1983–1989) and Invercargill (1993–1995, 1998–2022). [ 209 ] Meinam Bhorot Singh , 75, Indian politician, Manipur MLA (2002–2007). [ 210 ] Mojtaba Tarshiz , 47, Iranian footballer ( Shahr Khodro F.C. , Sanat Mes Kerman F.C. , Gostaresh Foulad F.C. ), shot . [ 211 ] Matthew Taylor , 57–58, American musician ( Bellini ) and artist, heart attack. [ 212 ] Wim Van Belleghem , 62, Belgian Olympic rower ( 1988 , 1992 ), world champion ( 1987 ). [ 213 ] Paul Calvin Visser , 89, American politician, mayor of Flint, Michigan (1973–1975). [ 214 ] Terry Yorath , 75, Welsh football player ( Leeds United , national team ) and manager (national team). [ 215 ] 7 Ali Ardestani , Iranian convicted spy, execution by hanging. [ 216 ] Madjoulba Batocfetou , Togolese agronomic engineer. [ 217 ] James Bernard , American music journalist and magazine editor ( The Source , XXL ). [ 218 ] (death announced on this date) Ihor Blazhkov , 89, Ukrainian conductor. [ 219 ] Albert Bourgi , 90, French jurist. [ 220 ] Raffaella Bragazzi , 66, Italian television presenter and radio host. [ 221 ] Frank S. Cerveny , 92, American Episcopalian clergyman, bishop of Florida (1974–1992). [ 222 ] Camilo Isaac Chavarría , 27, Panamanian model ( Mister Panamá ) and reality show contestant ( Calle 7 ), heart attack. [ 223 ] Martin Chivers , 80, English footballer ( Southampton , Tottenham Hotspur , national team ). [ 224 ] Ángel Coerezza , 92, Argentine football referee ( AFA ). [ 225 ] John W. Derr , 84, American politician, member of the Maryland Senate (1983–1999), cancer. [ 226 ] Hiroya Ebina , 67, Japanese politician, mayor of Kushiro (2008–2024), member of the Hokkaido Legislative Assembly (1999–2008), cardiac arrest. [ 227 ] Tony Field , 79, English footballer ( Blackburn Rovers , Southport , Memphis Rogues ). [ 228 ] Vera Frances , 95, English actress ( Back-Room Boy , King Arthur Was a Gentleman , It's That Man Again ). [ 229 ] Madhav Gadgil , 83, Indian ecologist. [ 230 ] Renee Good , 37, American poet and writer, shot . [ 231 ] Domenico Graziani , 81, Italian Roman Catholic prelate, bishop of Cassano all'Jonio (1999–2006) and archbishop of Crotone-Santa Severina (2006–2019). [ 232 ] Glenn Hall , 94, Canadian Hall of Fame ice hockey player ( Chicago Black Hawks , Detroit Red Wings , St. Louis Blues ), Stanley Cup champion ( 1952 , 1961 ). [ 233 ] Sidney de Jong , 46, Dutch Olympic baseball player ( 2004 , 2008 ). [ 234 ] Rebecca Kilgore , 76, American jazz vocalist. [ 235 ] Jon Lindsay , 90, American politician, member of the Texas Senate (1997–2007). [ 236 ] Uri Lupolianski , 74, Israeli politician, mayor of Jerusalem (2003–2008) and founder of Yad Sarah . [ 237 ] Ian McCrae , 84, Scottish rugby union player ( Gordonians , national team ). [ 238 ] Randy McMillan , 67, American football player ( Baltimore/Indianapolis Colts ). [ 239 ] Roberto Mondragón , 85, American politician, lieutenant governor of New Mexico (1971–1975, 1979–1983). [ 240 ] Kabindra Purkayastha , 94, Indian politician, MP (1991–2014). [ 241 ] Howard Sanderford , 90, American politician, member of the Alabama House of Representatives (1989–2022). [ 242 ] Dietrich Stratmann , 88, German politician, member of the Landtag of Lower Saxony (1982–2003). [ 243 ] Seydou Madani Sy , 92, Senegalese jurist and politician, minister of justice (1986–1990). [ 244 ] Kim Thorson , 93, Canadian politician, Saskatchewan MLA (1956–1960, 1971–1975). [ 245 ] Billy Truax , 82, American football player ( Los Angeles Rams , Dallas Cowboys ). [ 246 ] Chiara Valentini , 84, Italian journalist and writer. [ 247 ] Murad Wahba , 99, Egyptian writer, philosopher and academic. [ 248 ] Athol Webb , 90, Australian footballer ( Melbourne ). [ 249 ] 6 Ang Ziming [ zh ] , 65, Chinese academic. [ 250 ] Joe Arlooktoo , 86, Canadian visual artist and politician, Northwest Territories MLA (1979–1991). [ 251 ] (death announced on this date) Odette Bergoffen , 101, French resistance fighter. [ 252 ] Andrzej Bogusławski , 94, Polish philologist and semanticist. [ 253 ] Ron Boswell , 85, Australian politician, senator (1983–2014). [ 254 ] John Cunningham , 93, American actor ( Titanic , Company , Mystic Pizza ). [ 255 ] Dick Dull , 80, American athletic director ( Maryland Terrapins ). [ 256 ] V. K. Ebrahimkunju , 73, Indian politician, Kerala MLA (2011–2021). [ 257 ] Anna Eder [ de ] , 75, German politician, mayor of Deggendorf (2000–2012). [ 258 ] Johannes Fabian , 88, German anthropologist. [ 259 ] Alex Felipe , 32, Brazilian futsal player ( Sporting CP , Norilsk Nickel , national team ). [ 260 ] Angella D. Ferguson , 100, American pediatrician. [ 261 ] Edith M. Flanigen , 96, American chemist. [ 262 ] Robert Goebbels , 81, Luxembourgish politician, minister for the economy (1989–1999) and energy (1994–1999), signatory of the Schengen Agreement . [ 263 ] Suresh Kalmadi , 81, Indian politician and sports administrator, MP (1982–2014) and president of the IOA (1996–2011). [ 264 ] Doug LaMalfa , 65, American politician, member of the U.S. House of Representatives (since 2013), heart attack. [ 265 ] József Láyer , 70, Hungarian politician, MP (1998–2006). [ 266 ] Jim McBride , 78, American country music songwriter (" Chasing That Neon Rainbow ", " (Who Says) You Can't Have It All ", " Chattahoochee "). [ 267 ] Jack McGregor , 91, American politician and sports team owner, member of the Pennsylvania State Senate (1963–1970) and founder of the Pittsburgh Penguins . [ 268 ] Kathleen Muxel , 54, German politician, member of the Landtag of Brandenburg (since 2019). [ 269 ] Raffaele Nogaro , 92, Italian Roman Catholic prelate, bishop of Sessa Aurunca (1982–1990) and of Caserta (1990–2009). [ 270 ] James E. O'Grady , 96, American law enforcement officer, Cook County sheriff (1986–1990). [ 271 ] Saeid Pirdoost , 85, Iranian actor ( Snake Fang , Son of Adam, Daughter of Eve , Great Award ), cancer. [ 272 ] Claude Pivi , 66, Guinean military officer, complications from diabetes. [ 273 ] Jaap Pop , 84, Dutch politician, mayor of Haarlem (1995–2006). [ 274 ] David Quail , 88, South African politician and educator, member of the Gauteng Provincial Legislature (1999–2009). [ 275 ] Nihal Seneviratne , 91, Sri Lankan civil servant, secretary general of the Parliament of Sri Lanka (1981–1994). [ 276 ] Baghir Suleimanov , 66, Azerbaijani petroleum scientist. [ 277 ] Béla Tarr , 70, Hungarian film director ( Sátántangó , Werckmeister Harmonies , The Turin Horse ). [ 278 ] Jerry Thomas , 90, American baseball player ( Minnesota Golden Gophers ). [ 279 ] Gianpaolo Tosel [ it ] , 85, Italian magistrate. [ 280 ] Robert Vicot , 94, French football player ( SC Toulon ) and manager ( Paris Saint-Germain FC , Gabon national team ). [ 281 ] Anatoly Yevtushenko , 91, Russian handball coach, Olympic champion ( 1976 , 1988 ). [ 282 ] Zhang Shaokang [ zh ] , 90, Chinese scholar. [ 283 ] Zhou Liwei [ zh ] , 94, Chinese electro-optics professor. [ 284 ] 5 Ahn Sung-ki , 74, South Korean actor ( Silmido , Two Cops , Radio Star ), blood cancer. [ 285 ] Aldrich Ames , 84, American counterintelligence officer ( CIA ) and convicted Soviet-era spy. [ 286 ] Bonifacio Ávila , 75, Colombian Olympic boxer ( 1972 ). [ 287 ] Herbert Beck , 84, German art historian. [ 288 ] Andrew Bodnar , 71, English bass guitarist ( The Rumour ) and songwriter (" I Love the Sound of Breaking Glass "). [ 289 ] (death announced on this date) Andrew Carter , 86, English composer ( Benedicite ) and conductor. [ 290 ] Tom Cherones , 86, American television director ( Seinfeld , NewsRadio , Ellen ), complications from Alzheimer's disease. [ 291 ] Beatriz de Lenclós [ es ] , 102, Spanish dancer. [ 292 ] Jim Dennison , 87, American football coach ( Akron Zips , Walsh Cavaliers ). [ 293 ] Marian Diamond , 89, English actress ( Subterfuge , Goodbye Gemini , The Lord of the Rings ). [ 294 ] Miklós Dudás , 34, Hungarian Olympic sprint canoeist ( 2012 ), world champion ( 2014 ). [ 295 ] Mike Embro , 63, Canadian drummer ( Razor ). [ 296 ] (death announced on this date) Aoi Fujino , 27, Japanese gravure idol , rhabdomyosarcoma . [ 297 ] Paolo Gillet , 96, Italian Roman Catholic prelate, auxiliary bishop of Albano (1993–2005). [ 298 ] Pier Francesco Guarguaglini , 88, Italian defense industry executive, chairman of Finmeccanica (2002–2011). [ 299 ] Bruce Hammock , 78, American entomologist. [ 300 ] Ad van Kempen , 81, Dutch actor ( 1-900 , 'n Beetje Verliefd , Winter in Wartime ), prostate cancer. [ 301 ] Wiktor Kinecki , 96, Polish politician, MP (1976–1980). [ 302 ] José Mingorance , 87, Spanish football player ( Espanyol , national team ) and manager ( Granada ). [ 303 ] Reza Moradi Abdolvand , 18, Iranian protester, shot. [ 304 ] Jawann Oldham , 68, American basketball player ( Chicago Bulls , Houston Rockets , New York Knicks ). [ 305 ] Induratana Paribatra , 103, Thai royal. [ 306 ] Molly Parkin , 93, Welsh painter, novelist and journalist. [ 307 ] Christos Politis [ el ] , 83, Greek actor ( Lampsi ). [ 308 ] Bob Pulford , 89, Canadian Hall of Fame ice hockey player ( Toronto Maple Leafs , Los Angeles Kings ), coach ( Chicago Blackhawks ), and executive, NHLPA president (1967–1972), four-time Stanley Cup champion. [ 309 ] Cosimo Scaglioso , 89, Italian politician, senator (1994–1996). [ 310 ] Elle Simone , 49, American chef ( America's Test Kitchen ) and food stylist. [ 311 ] Miroslav Stárek [ cs ] , 77, Czech footballer ( Sparta Prague , Slavia Prague , Mladá Boleslav ). [ 312 ] Elsje de Wijn , 82, Dutch actress ( De stille Oceaan , For a Lost Soldier , Het 14e kippetje ) and singer. [ 313 ] Ken Wilcock , 91, British sprinter. [ 314 ] (death announced on this date) Mike Wilson , 66, British kart racer, six-time world champion . [ 315 ] Jiří Witzany [ cs ] , 84, Czech academic and rector of ČVUT (2000–2006). [ 316 ] Wu Lintao [ zh ] , 105, Chinese politician. [ 317 ] 4 Forest Able , 93, American basketball player ( Syracuse Nationals ). [ 318 ] Ali Abu al-Ragheb , 79, Jordanian politician, prime minister (2000–2003). [ 319 ] Fazl-ur-Raheem Ashrafi , 81, Pakistani Islamic scholar, patron of Wifaq-ul-Madaris al-Arabia . [ 320 ] Céline Bellot , 55, Canadian criminologist and academic, breast cancer. [ 321 ] Mario Blasone [ it ] , 85, Italian basketball player. [ 322 ] Bob Boyer , 93, Canadian professional wrestler. [ 323 ] David Branch , 77, Canadian ice hockey administrator, commissioner of the OHL (1979–2024) and president of the CHL (1996–2019). [ 324 ] Calbo , 52, French rapper ( Ärsenik ). [ 325 ] Germaine Cousin-Zermatten , 100, Swiss herbalist. [ 326 ] Kamiel Dierckx [ nl ] , 84, Belgian basketball player ( Belgian Lions ). [ 327 ] Frank Dunlop , 98, British theatre director. [ 328 ] Manuel Fernández Ilarraza , 85, Spanish gynaecologist and politician, president of the Parliament of La Rioja (1987–1988). [ 329 ] Miloslav Fiala , 97, Czech Roman Catholic priest. [ 330 ] Andy Friendly , 74, American television producer ( Entertainment Tonight ). [ 331 ] L. Ganesan , 91, Indian politician, MP (1980–1986, 2004–2009). [ 332 ] Anne-Claire Goulon , 51, French businesswoman, breast cancer. [ 333 ] Vicki L. Gregory , 75, American academic and librarian. [ 334 ] Michel Griffon , 77, French agronomist. [ 335 ] Roger Guesnerie , 82–83, French economist and academic. [ 336 ] Denise Harlow , 55, American politician, member of the Maine House of Representatives (2010–2018), cancer. [ 337 ] Bobby Holmes , 93, Scottish footballer ( St Mirren ). [ 338 ] (death announced on this date) Nora Ikstena , 56, Latvian writer and cultural manager. [ 339 ] Klaus Keitel , 86, German politician, member (1990–2002) and president (1990–1998) of the Landtag of Saxony-Anhalt . [ 340 ] Kim Young-in [ ko ] , 85, South Korean actor ( Dachimawa Lee , No Blood No Tears , Arahan ). [ 341 ] Milorad Kosanović , 75, Serbian football player ( Proleter Zrenjanin , Vojvodina ) and manager ( Malta national team ). [ 342 ] Bernard Lemoux , 83, French businessman, president of Stade Rennais FC (1973–1977). [ 343 ] George C. Lodge , 98, American politician. [ 344 ] Oscar Lofton , 87, American football player ( Boston Patriots ) and coach ( Southeastern Louisiana Lions ). [ 345 ] Naser Toure Mahama , 60, Ghanaian politician, MP (since 2012). [ 346 ] Miloslav Masopust , 101, Czech general. [ 347 ] Giorgos Papadakis [ el ] , 74, Greek journalist and television presenter, heart attack. [ 348 ] Daniel Pelletti , 77, Belgian painter. [ 349 ] Jules Radich , 71, New Zealand politician, mayor of Dunedin (2022–2025), heart attack. [ 350 ] Michael Reagan , 80, American political commentator. [ 351 ] Marissa Sanchez , 69, Filipino tennis player. [ 352 ] Jacqueline Schaeffer , 91, French psychoanalyst. [ 353 ] Steve Sheetz , 77, American convenience store operator, CEO and president of Sheetz, Inc. (1984–1995). [ 354 ] Jitamitra Prasad Singh Deo , 79, Indian historian and archaeologist. [ 355 ] Ralph L. Thomas , 86, Brazilian-born Canadian film director ( The Terry Fox Story , Apprentice to Murder , Ticket to Heaven ) and screenwriter, complications from heart disease. [ 356 ] Horacio Usandizaga , 85, Argentine politician, senator (1995–2003) and mayor of Rosario (1983–1989), complications from multiple strokes. [ 357 ] Mary White , 81, Irish businesswoman and politician, senator (2002–2016). [ 358 ] Xiao Zhuang , 92–93, Chinese photographer. [ 359 ] Teresa Zalewska , 83, Polish politician, MP (1989–1991). [ 360 ] 3 Hushang Ansary , 98, Iranian-American diplomat and politician, minister of finance (1974–1977) and information (1971–1974), ambassador to the United States (1967–1969), cardiac arrest. [ 361 ] Joan Costa Armengol [ es ] , 91, Spanish journalist. [ 362 ] Jamil Azar , 89, Jordanian journalist and broadcaster, founder of Al Jazeera . [ 363 ] Dietmar Bachmann , 91, Austrian politician, member of the Landtag of Tyrol (1965–1994). [ 364 ] Claude-Inga Barbey , 64, Swiss comedian, writer, and actress ( The Death of Mario Ricci ). [ 365 ] Stephen E. Braude , 80, American philosopher. [ 366 ] Natale Carlotto , 94, Italian politician, senator (1987–1994) and deputy (1976–1987). [ 367 ] Francesco Paolo Casavola , 94, Italian jurist, president of the Constitutional Court (1992–1995). [ 368 ] Frédéric Cerdal , 81, French actor and stage director. [ 369 ] Maria Eugènia Cuenca , 78, Spanish politician, member of the Catalan parliament (1999–2006) and the Congress of Deputies (1986–1992). [ 370 ] Tony Dennis , 63, Canadian football player ( Saskatchewan Roughriders ), multiple organ failure. [ 371 ] Dong Xiaoping [ zh ] , 75, Chinese folklorist. [ 372 ] Gerry Gable , 88, British political activist and magazine editor ( Searchlight ). [ 373 ] Bret Hanna-Shuford , 46, American actor ( Paramour , Amazing Grace , The Wolf of Wall Street ), cancer. [ 374 ] Franz Herre , 99, German journalist and biographer. [ 375 ] Marvalene Hughes , 88, American educator and academic administrator. [ 376 ] Mesut İktu , 78, Turkish operatic baritone. [ 377 ] Hernán Giraldo Jaramillo , 89, Colombian Roman Catholic prelate, auxiliary bishop of Pereira (1984–1987), bishop of Málaga–Soatá (1987–2001) and of Buga (2001–2012). [ 378 ] Nalani Kanakaʻole , 79, American kumu hula . [ 379 ] Latif Karimi , Iranian protester, Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps brigadier general, shot . [ 380 ] Michael Kemner , 72, German bass guitarist ( Fehlfarben ), cancer. [ 381 ] David M. Maddox , 87, American army general. [ 382 ] Guðmundur Oddur Magnússon , 70, Icelandic artist and academic. [ 383 ] Sir Graham McCamley , 93, Australian beef producer. [ 384 ] John Meredith , 85, English footballer ( Doncaster Rovers , Chesterfield , Gillingham ). [ 385 ] Errol Moorcroft , 85, South African politician, member of the House of Assembly (1981–1987, 1989–1994) and National Assembly (1999–2004). [ 386 ] Dastagir Hossain Nira , 60, Bangladeshi footballer ( Dhaka Abahani , Mohammedan , national team ), cardiac arrest. [ 387 ] Pa O'Dwyer , 40, Irish strongman. [ 388 ] Sverre Anker Ousdal , 81, Norwegian actor ( Insomnia , Flight of the Eagle , The Last Place on Earth ). [ 389 ] Andrzej Paczkowski , 87, Polish historian. [ 390 ] Dimitar Penev , 80, Bulgarian football player ( CSKA Sofia , national team ) and manager (national team). [ 391 ] Jenny Plocki , 100, French women's rights activist. [ 392 ] Rolf Riehm , 88, German composer ( Sirenen ), oboist and academic ( Musikhochschule Frankfurt ). [ 393 ] Randy Riley , 63, American librarian. [ 394 ] Eva Schloss , 96, Austrian-British Holocaust survivor and memoirist. [ 395 ] Robert K. Tanenbaum , 83, American trial attorney and novelist, mayor of Beverly Hills, California (1988–1989, 1992–1993), cancer. [ 396 ] Nam Singh Thapa , 79, Nepali Olympic boxer ( 1964 ), cancer. [ 397 ] Samuel O. Thier , 88, American doctor and academic, president of Brandeis University (1991–1994). [ 398 ] Ivan Varshavsky , 87, Russian engineer and railway track foreman. [ 399 ] Wang Zheng , 64, Chinese vice admiral. [ 400 ] Terry Wharton , 83, English footballer ( Wolverhampton Wanderers , Bolton Wanderers , Crystal Palace ). [ 401 ] William H. Yohn Jr. , 90, American jurist and politician, judge of the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania (since 1991), member of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives (1968–1980). [ 402 ] Amal Fathullah Zarkasyi , 76, Indonesian Muslim scholar. [ 403 ] Mirosław Zdanowicz [ pl ] , 88, Polish social activist. [ 404 ] Zhang Kerang [ zh ] , 78, Chinese Peking opera actor. [ 405 ] 2 Ritva Auvinen , 93, Finnish opera singer. [ 406 ] Ian Balding , 87, British horse trainer. [ 407 ] Sukumar Barua , 87, Bangladeshi poet. [ 408 ] Shyam Bihari Lal , 60, Indian politician, Uttar Pradesh MLA (since 2017), heart attack. [ 409 ] Carmen Arnold Biucchi , Swiss numismatist and archaeologist. [ 410 ] Dominique Bucchini , 82, French politician, MEP (1979–1984) and mayor of Sartène (1977–2001). [ 411 ] Tony Carr , 98, Maltese session drummer and percussionist ( CCS , Hot Chocolate ). [ 412 ] Jean-Max Causse , 85, French actor ( I Stand Alone ). [ 413 ] Bohdan Chufus , 75, Ukrainian journalist, actor and singer. [ 414 ] Jenny Collins , 83, English radio presenter ( BBC Radio Merseyside ). [ 415 ] (death announced on this date) Miquel Contestí , 92, Spanish football executive, president of RCD Mallorca (1978–1992). [ 416 ] Sir Patrick Duffy , 105, British politician, MP (1963–1966, 1970–1992) and president of the NATO Assembly (1988–1990). [ 417 ] Toshio Fujii , 83, Japanese politician, member of the House of Councillors (1998–2004), heart failure. [ 418 ] Francis Grant , 101, British marine and World War II veteran. [ 419 ] Stephen E. Haggerty , 87, American geophysicist. [ 420 ] Evan Hammond , 45, Canadian radio host and sports broadcaster ( CJAV-FM ), stroke. [ 421 ] Sidney Kibrick , 97, American actor ( Our Gang ). [ 422 ] Kristi Kiick , 58, American academic. [ 423 ] Elbert Kimbrough , 87, American football player ( San Francisco 49ers , Los Angeles Rams , New Orleans Saints ). [ 424 ] Anna Kurek , 96, Polish nurse and Warsaw Uprising participant. [ 425 ] Paul C. Lambert , 97, American diplomat, ambassador to Ecuador (1990–1992). [ 426 ] Johnny Legend , 77, American rockabilly musician, film producer and wrestling manager, stroke and heart failure. [ 427 ] Vladimir Lukić , 92, Bosnian Serb politician, prime minister of Republika Srpska (1993–1994). [ 428 ] Ashok Gajanan Modak , 85, Indian politician and academic, Maharashtra MLC (1994–2006). [ 429 ] Con Pederson , 91, American visual effects artist ( 2001: A Space Odyssey , Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back , Garfield: The Movie ). [ 430 ] Valery Fyodorovich Plotnikov , 82, Russian photographer. [ 431 ] Tim Robertson , 81, English-born Australian actor ( Chances , Australia You're Standing In It , Stingers ). [ 432 ] (death announced on this date) Lajos Rovátkay , 92, Hungarian-born German harpsichordist and musicologist. [ 433 ] Saleh Rusheidat , 80, Jordanian politician, member of the House of Representatives (1993–1997) and Senate (since 2009). [ 434 ] Edith Renfrow Smith , 111, American supercentenarian. [ 435 ] Phoenix Spicer , 23, Australian footballer ( North Melbourne ). [ 436 ] Ivanne Trebbi , 97, Italian partisan and politician, deputy (1979–1987). [ 437 ] Jim Willis , 98, American baseball player ( Chicago Cubs ). [ 438 ] Robert Wolski , 43, Polish Olympic high jumper ( 2004 ), traffic collision. [ 439 ] Nellie Wong , 91, American poet. [ 440 ] 1 Marat Amankulov , 55, Kyrgyz politician, MP (2015–2021). [ 441 ] Yvan Aumont , 87, French engineer and journalist ( Lys rouge ). [ 442 ] Alan Baker , 81, English footballer ( Aston Villa ). [ 443 ] Allyn Bromley , 97, American visual artist and art educator. [ 444 ] Xesús Cañedo [ es ] , 67, Spanish politician, co-founder of the Partíu Asturianista . [ 445 ] Lana Chornohorska , 26, Ukrainian soldier. [ 446 ] Diane Crump , 77, American jockey and horse trainer, glioblastoma. [ 447 ] Nexhat Daci , 81, Kosovan politician, acting president (2006) and chairman of the Assembly (2001–2006). [ 448 ] Brian Doyle , 90, Canadian writer. [ 449 ] Yehezkel Dror , 97, Austrian-born Israeli political scientist. [ 450 ] Imants Freibergs , 91, Latvian computer scientist, first gentleman (1999–2007). [ 451 ] James Grauerholz , 72, American writer, pneumonia. [ 452 ] Mohamed Harbi , 92, Algerian historian. [ 453 ] Huang Dongbi , 86, Chinese diplomat. [ 454 ] Jeon Jun-ho [ ko ] , 50, South Korean baseball player ( Hyundai Unicorns , Woori Heroes , SK Wyverns ), lung cancer. [ 455 ] Victoria Jones , 34, American actress. [ 456 ] Morris Kahn , 95, South African-born Israeli telecommunications industry executive, founder of Golden Pages , Amdocs and the Aurec Group . [ 457 ] Andrey Khoroshev [ ru ] , 66, Russian actor and screenwriter ( Engineering Red , 8 ½ $ , Admiral ). [ 458 ] Harvey C. Krautschun , 76, American politician, member of the South Dakota House of Representatives (1985–1996). [ 459 ] Hiroshi Kume , 81, Japanese television host, lung cancer. [ 460 ] John Langdon , 79, American typographer and graphic designer. [ 461 ] Arno Liiver , 71, Estonian actor ( Spring , Summer , Autumn ). [ 462 ] Lin Chaoqiang , 92, Chinese aerodynamicist. [ 463 ] Arnold Long , 85, British cricketer ( Sussex , MCC , Surrey ), cancer. [ 464 ] Volodymyr Marchenko , 103, Ukrainian mathematician ( Marchenko equation , Marchenko–Pastur distribution ). [ 465 ] Hélio Mauro , 83, Brazilian politician, deputy (1975–1978), mayor of Goiânia (1978–1979), cardiac arrest. [ 466 ] Paul McCullagh Jr. , 25, Northern Irish boxer, bone cancer. [ 467 ] Colin McDonald , 95, English footballer ( Burnley , Headington United , national team ). [ 468 ] Enric Mestre , 89, Spanish sculptor. [ 469 ] Mukhsin Mukhamadiev , 59, Tajik-Russian football player ( Tajikistan national team , Russia national team ) and manager (Tajikistan national team). [ 470 ] Sir James Munby , 77, English judge, president of the Family Division (2013–2018). [ 471 ] Hubertus von Pilgrim , 94, German sculptor. [ 472 ] Gregory de Polnay , 82, English actor ( Dixon of Dock Green , Doctor Who , Howards' Way ). [ 473 ] Dame Karen Poutasi , 76, New Zealand public health official, director general of health (1995–2006). [ 474 ] Candy Raymond , 75, Australian actress ( Don's Party , Number 96 , Prisoner ). [ 475 ] (death announced on this date) Amit Saar , 47, Israeli intelligence officer, head of the Military Intelligence Research Department (2020–2024), brain cancer. [ 476 ] Roland Schäfer , 76, German politician, mayor of Bergkamen (1998–2020). [ 477 ] Serafim Shyngo-Ya-Hombo , 80, Angolan Roman Catholic prelate, auxiliary bishop of Luanda (1990–1992) and bishop of Mbanza Congo (1992–2008). [ 478 ] Margaret Anne Staggers , 79, American politician, member of the West Virginia House of Delegates (2007–2014). [ 479 ] Hessy Levinsons Taft , 91, German chemist and child model. [ 480 ] Ruben Yesayan , 79, Russian-Armenian test pilot. [ 481 ] Yuen Cheung-yan , 68, Hong Kong actor ( The Miracle Fighters , Drunken Tai Chi , Flying Dagger ), director, and martial arts choreographer. [ 482 ] Valentin Zakharov , 92, Russian figure skater. [ 483 ] References ^ На 91-му році життя померла фахівчиня у галузі медичної генетики Олена Гречаніна ^ First mufti of Kazakhstan passes away ^ Plateau Imam who shielded 262 Christians during attack is dead ^ Preminuo je Ante Grgurević (51), jedan od najomiljenijih splitskih košarkaša i trenera! Bio je sinonim za borbenost (in Croatian) ^ Rafael Qvaladze vəfat etdi (in Azerbaijani) ^ Muere Irene de Grecia, hermana y fiel escudera de la reina Sofía (in Spanish) ^ '한국의 장 주네' 김신용 시인 별세…향년 81세 (in Korean) ^ Zimbabwean Tycoon Mutumwa Mawere Dies in SA Days After 66th Birthday ^ Siouxsie And the Banshees Drummer Kenny Morris Has Died ^ Athlétisme : décès d’Edgar Salvé, ex-champion d’Europe indoor du 1.500 m (in French) ^ বাংলার প্রাক্তন ক্রিকেটার অজয় ভার্মা প্রয়াত, শোকের ছায়া ময়দানে (in Bengali) ^ Մահացել է Գագիկ Եգանյանը (in Armenian) ^ Воспитанник ЦСКА найден мертвым в Подмосковье (in Russian) ^ Умер Дмитрий Акимов (in Russian) ^ Queer Māori Playwright Aroha Awarau Passes Away Peacefully in Ponsonby ^ Uganda mourns loss of education pioneer Namirembe Bitamazire ^ Murió el periodista colombiano Alfonso Castellanos (in Spanish) ^ Ancien député et père d'Yvan Colonna, Jean-Hugues Colonna est mort (in French) ^ È morta Valeria Fedeli, ex ministra dell’Istruzione (in Italian) ^ Помер народний депутат від "Слуги народу" Олександр Кабанов: перші подробиці (in Ukrainian) ^ Former Lotte Coach Kim Min-jae, National Team Shortstop, Dies ^ Rick Link Passes Away ^ Chinese Go legend Nie Weiping passes away ^ Adiós a Melania Pérez, voz emblema de la música argentina y del Festival de Cosquín (in Spanish) ^ Fallece el exalcalde de València Ricard Pérez Casado a los 80 años (in Spanish) ^ Jyväskylässä vaikuttanut olympiaurheilija Seppo Reijonen on kuollut (in Finnish) ^ Décès de Jean Rossier, président de Parole et Musique (in French) ^ Ernestine Russell Weaver, two-time Canadian Olympian and legendary U.S. coach, passes away at age 87 ^ Radio-Legende Ado Schlier mit 90 Jahren in Würzburg gestorben (in German) ^ Morre a atriz e modelo Vera Barreto Leite Valdez aos 89 anos (in Portuguese) ^ Fallece el músico Quemil Yambay, ícono del folclore paraguayo (in Spanish) ^ Умер Игорь Золотовицкий (in Russian) ^ Scott Adams, Creator of the ‘Dilbert’ Comic Strip, Dies at 68 ^ Veteran journalist Iqbal Athas passes away ^ Addio a Lina Bernardi, l’attrice di Latina aveva lavorato con i più grandi registi (in Italian) ^ Alfred Blumstein ^ Former Arizona Attorney General Mark Brnovich dies at age 59 ^ Capoterra, addio alla calciatrice Paola Cardia, 74 anni, nota Paoletta: il centrocampo era il suo mondo (in Italian) ^ Former ECB chief executive David Collier dies aged 70 ^ Claudette Colvin, US civil rights pioneer, dies at 86 ^ Regal Nizam-era Socialite Indira Devi Passes Away ^ Mort de Catherine Duprat, historienne de la Révolution française (in French) ^ Nie żyje Barbara Eustachiewicz-Kowal, wybitna polska gimnastyczka sportowa (in Polish) ^ Odszedł Jesse Philip Flis (1933–2026) – rozmowa z 2018 r. (in Polish) ^ Assam: Retired IAS officer Bir Bhadra Hagjer passes away at 75 ^ Mozambique: Footballer Ali Hassan passes away at 61 ^ 混元禪師圓寂！曾腎臟萎縮病危、長期糖尿病 醫示警6徵兆快就醫 (in Chinese) ^ Suri endine poliitik Heiki Kranich (in Estonian) ^ 97 Play Off Champion Jason Lafreniere Passes Away, aged 59 ^ Theatre world pays tribute to Blanche Marvin, who has died aged 100 ^ Doug McConnell, longtime host of OpenRoad with Doug McConnell and Friends, dies ^ Bruce McLeod, 25th Moderator of The United Church of Canada, Dies at Age 97 ^ Addio a Rolando Nannicini, il cordoglio del mondo politico (in Italian) ^ Renowned Cork singer Seán Ó Sé dies aged 89 ^ Ушёл из жизни бывший футболист тюменского «Геолога» Иван Онуфриев (in Russian) ^ Voor theatermaker Annemarie Prins was maatschappijkritiek en engagement tweede natuur (in Dutch) ^ Lutto nel calcio, si è spento l'ex calciatore della Spal: vinse un campionato di Serie C (in Italian) ^ « Écrivain de l’agriculture » et photographe, le Mayennais Jean-Loup Trassard est décédé (in French) ^ Zomrel režisér, dramaturg a publicista Rudolf Urc, významná osobnosť slovenskej kinematografie (in Slovak) ^ Former Cyprus President George Vassiliou, who put the country on the path to EU membership, has died ^ Hong Kong corporate governance activist David Webb dies at 60 ^ ”Arne” i Kurt Olsson död (in Swedish) ^ Veteran 2GB radio announcer Bruce Wilshire has died aged 81 ^ Մահացել է հայ քաղաքական գործիչ, ՀՀԿ առանցքային ներկայացուցիչ Ռազմիկ Զոհրաբյանը (in Armenian) ^ Oba Babatunde Akran of Badagry dies at 89 ^ Israeli-backed group kills a senior Hamas police officer in Gaza, threatens more attacks ^ BBC's Good Old Days and Coronation Street star and singer Sheila Bernette dies aged 94 ^ Clauson, Paul John ^ Entraîneur français emblématique, Rolland Courbis est mort (in French) ^ George Mason Athletics Mourns The Loss of Longtime Assistant Bill Courtney ^ Mantan Bupati Bekasi Mochammad Djamhari Tutup Usia di Bandung (in Indonesian) ^ John Forté, celebrated recording artist, dies suddenly at 50 ^ Rick Garcia, activist and leader in Chicago's LGBTQ+ civil rights movement, dies at 69 ^ Ex-cricketer Mohammad Ilyas passes away in Lahore ^ สิ้น “อัษฎา ชัยนาม” อดีตเอกอัครราชทูตและผู้แทนถาวรไทยประจำUN ถึงแก่อนิจกรรม (in Thai) ^ Presentator Robert Jensen (52) overleden aan hartstilstand (in Dutch) ^ Renowned actress Jayasree Kabir passes away in London ^ Professor Emeritus Robert Kohn (1953-2026) ^ Black Midi Co-Founder Matt Kwasniewski-Kelvin Dies at 26 ^ Author Jan Mårtenson dies at 92 ^ Eddie McCreadie – 1940-2026 ^ Morto Luigi Nicolais, è stato presidente della fondazione Reggia di Carditello (in Italian) ^ Alain Orsoni, ancien dirigeant nationaliste, abattu lors des obsèques de sa mère en Corse (in French) ^ Mario Rigutti (in Italian) ^ Südtirol trauert um Roland Riz (in German) ^ Décès de Catherine Samie, pilier de la Comédie-Française (in French) ^ e peintre nîmois Michel Tombereau est mort (in French) ^ Hall of Fame Trick Rider and Wife of Hall of Fame Stock Contractor Passes Away ^ „Einer der besten Debattenredner": Martin Willich ist tot (in German) ^ הפקולטה למדעי החיים מרכינה ראשה בצער על פטירתו של פרופ' יצחק (איציק) ויץ ז"ל (in Hebrew) ^ Mirė legendinis Lietuvos futbolo treneris Benjaminas Zelkevičius (in Lithuanian) ^ Умер бывший бейсболист сборной России Павел Акишев (in Russian) ^ The Passing of Dr. Gabriel Barkay ^ Addio Alberto Benzoni. Socialista di valore dallo sguardo acuto (in Italian) ^ Brus, Rice alumnus and Nobel laureate, passes away at 82 ^ Thomas Causey, Sound Mixer on ‘Dick Tracy,’ ‘Broadcast News’ and ‘Defending Your Life,’ Dies at 76 ^ [1] (in Italian) ^ Richard Codey, former governor of New Jersey, dies at 79 ^ Marcus Gilbert 1958 - 2026 RIP ^ Pirates World Series champion Dave Giusti dies at age 86 ^ Clubs pay tribute to former player Hopkins ^ Bernie Carlton Keel ^ Ueli Kestenholz, snowboarder e sportivo estremo svizzero, è morto travolto da una valanga (in Italian) ^ Ушел из жизни олимпийский чемпион по тяжелой атлетике (in Russian) ^ 児玉更太郎さん（こだま・こうたろう＝元安芸高田市長) (in Japanese) (subscription required) ^ Falleció el huancaíno Nelson Manrique, referente de las ciencias sociales del Perú (in Spanish) ^ Morre a atriz Titina Medeiros, aos 48 anos (in Portuguese) ^ Veteran Syrian Actor Ahmad Melli dies at 80 ^ Mor als 77 anys Miquel Naudí, qui va ser conseller general entre 1981 i 1983 i conseller comunal de Canillo (in Catalan) ^ Takashi Ono, 1928–2026 ^ 박순용(전 검찰총장)씨 별세 (in Korean) ^ Zemřela Miroslava Pešíková, osobnost našeho baletu a sólistka Národního divadla (in Czech) ^ Clarence Pierce ^ Doliu la UTA Arad » Eugen Pojoni, dublu campion al României, a murit la 84 de ani (in Romanian) ^ Laumatiamanu Ringo Purcell passes away ^ Veteran Left leader Samir Putatundu dies following prolonged illness ^ Saudi Arabia’s oldest man dies at 142, leaves 134 children and grandchildren ^ Filmskaper Grete Salomonsen Hynnekleiv er død (in Norwegian) ^ Robert G. Shulman, Yale biophysicist and pioneer of spectroscopy ^ Aniceto “Chito” Sobrepeña, veteran public servant and corporate leader, dies at 77 ^ Singer-actor Prashant Tamang passes away at 43 in Delhi ^ Addio a Sergio Tarquinio, una vita lunga un secolo tra fumetto e arte (in Italian) ^ ‘Enigmatic’ Hollyoaks star Trevor A Toussaint dies aged 65 ^ Tributes paid to 'extraordinary musician' John Wallace ^ Oud-burgemeester van Grobbendonk Herman Wouters overleden in ziekenhuis (in Dutch) ^ Andlát: Sturla Böðvarsson (in Icelandic) ^ Manoel Carlos, autor de grandes novelas da TV brasileira, morre aos 92 anos no Rio (in Portuguese) ^ Daniel Colson (1943-2026) ^ Former Burkinabe minister Viviane Compaoré found murdered ^ Schweizer Autor und Publizist Erich von Däniken ist gestorben (in German) ^ Leading Sire Distorted Humor Dies at 33 ^ Умер призер чемпионатов мира по гребле на байдарках Сергей Галков (in Russian) ^ In Memoriam: Richard Hynes ^ Husker Legend Jim Hartung Passes Away ^ Fallece el exblanquivioleta Mario Jacquet a los 79 años (in Spanish) ^ Zmarł Włodzimierz Jakubowski (in Polish) ^ Sitting Maine representative Kathy Javner dies of cancer ^ Atención: en accidente de avioneta esta tarde en Paipa (Boyacá) muere el cantante Yeison Jiménez y sus músicos (in Spanish) ^ Zemřel opavský politik, bývalý poslanec Václav Klučka (in Czech) ^ Former Louisiana State Senator Robert Kostelka dies at 92 ^ EastEnders actor Derek Martin dies aged 92 ^ Fallece Marco Proaño Maya, exvicepresidente del Congreso Nacional (in Spanish) ^ Hockey Olympian Davinder Singh Garcha passes away ^ Zemřel religionista Ivan Štampach. Spojoval křesťanství s otevřeností a dialogem (in Czech) ^ Monsieur Thierry STEINMETZ footballeur professionnel (in French) ^ Addio a Orazio Svelto, pioniere della ricerca sui laser in Italia (in Italian) ^ Isabel Veloso Dead: Influencer Dies at Age 19 After Battling Hodgkin’s Lymphoma ^ Fallece el actor cubano Manolo Villaverde, el querido Pepe en "¿Qué pasa USA? (in Spanish) ^ Honoured health reformer Prawase dies aged 93 ^ Bob Weir, co-founder of rock group the Grateful Dead, dies at age 78 ^ Robert Wolgemuth, Best-Selling Christian Author and Husband of Nancy DeMoss, Dies at 77 ^ Genius Chimpanzee Ai Dies at Age 49, Primate Known for Enthusiastic Role in Research on Learning, Memory ^ Zéno Bianu (1950-2025) (in French) ^ Muere el periodista Andrés Caniulef a los 48 años de edad - Chilevisión (in Spanish) ^ 'The Thing' Actor T.K. Carter Dead at 69 ^ Father of American Freediving Bob Croft Dies Aged 91 ^ Décès de Jean-Louis Duplat, ancien président de la Commission bancaire (in French) ^ Murió la maestra Beatriz González, ícono del arte colombiano (in Spanish) ^ Serieskaparen Ulf Granberg död (in Swedish) ^ Zemřela PaedDr. Jitka Gruntová (in Czech) ^ Porsche mourns the loss of Hans Herrmann ^ Longtime New Orleans activist Sandra Wheeler Hester dies ^ Entinen keskisuomalainen kansanedustaja Pirkko Ikonen on kuollut (in Finnish) ^ Heber Jentzsch Dead at 90: Scientology's Longtime 'President' Dies Years After Being Transferred to a Nursing Home ^ CDU Essen trauert um Manfred Kuhmichel (in German) ^ Đại tướng, Anh hùng LLVT nhân dân Lê Văn Dũng – Một cuộc đời trọn vẹn với non sông (in Vietnamese) ^ Former Ranji Trophy Cricketer from Mizoram Dies After Collapsing During Match ^ Humanists UK mourns Diane Munday, leading campaigner for the Abortion Act (1931-2026) ^ Ушел из жизни Валерий Носков (in Russian) ^ Shakespeare and Company Founding Artistic Director Tina Packer dies ^ Ci lascia Zelico Petrovic, stagioni meravigliose a Taranto (in Italian) ^ Larry Snook ^ Renaissance drummer Terry Sullivan has died ^ Muere Josep Maria Triginer, fundador del PSC y firmante de los Pactos de la Moncloa (in Spanish) ^ Eleni Varikas: the years with the FI in Greece ^ 前中常委「姚董」姚江臨辭世 國民黨工感念：他永遠走在第一線 (in Chinese) ^ Bishop Vincenzo Zarri † ^ Farewell to a great lady ^ Celebrating the Life and Legacy of Musa Gibril Bala Gaye ^ Танымал қазақстандық актер Мұрат Бисенбин өмірден өтті (in Kazakh) ^ Loraine Braham, trailblazing Northern Territory politician dies, aged 87 ^ Maler Günther Brendel gestorben (in German) ^ Filha de Olavo de Carvalho é encontrada morta (in Portuguese) ^ Zemřel sochař Václav Cigler, bylo mu 96 let. Poprvé v historii použil optické sklo k tvorbě uměleckého díla (in Czech) ^ Jornalista Conrado Corsalette morre em São Paulo aos 47 anos (in Portuguese) ^ Nie żyje były poseł i prezydent Łomży. Mieczysław Czerniawski miał 77 lat (in Polish) ^ Nelly Chatue-Diop, pionnière de la crypto pour tous en Afrique, est morte (in French) ^ La disparition de Jean-Luc Domenach (in French) ^ Former all-star linebacker, Grey Cup champion with Stamps, Jim Furlong, dead at 85 ^ Serguei, dessinateur au « Monde » depuis quarante-cinq ans, est mort (in French) ^ Veteran SP Leader, Eight-Time MLA Vijay Singh Gond Passes Away at 68 ^ Foxtrot producer David Hitchcock has passed away ^ 痛别！简水生院士逝世 (in Chinese) ^ Mort de l’ex-mari de Caroline de Monaco, le déchirant message de sa fille Victoria Junot : "À mon papa légendaire…" (in French) ^ Malawi Mourns Former Deputy Speaker Madalitso Kazombo ^ Larose, whose signature voice helped shape Haitian music, dies at 80 ^ Obituary: Opera Director Rhoda Levine Dies at 93 ^ Atriz Elisa Lisboa morreu aos 81 anos (in Portuguese) ^ В Кургане погиб экс-глава Калининграда Евгений Любивый (in Russian) ^ Padova piange Antonino Mangano, il maestro dell’atletica veneta (in Italian) ^ Guy Moon Dies: Emmy-Nominated ‘Fairly OddParents’ Composer Was 63 ^ Politikus Demokrat dan Mantan Ketua Komisi IV DPR RI, Kolonel (Purn) Jafar Nainggolan Wafat (in Indonesian) ^ 画家・中村宏さん死去 砂川闘争描いた「ルポルタージュ絵画」：朝日新聞 (in Japanese) ^ El Punk está de luto: falleció el gran músico Álvaro Peña Rojas (1943-2026) (in Spanish) ^ Howard Riley: 1938–2026 ^ Schrijfster Astrid Roemer overleden (in Dutch) ^ Kjersti Scheen (in Norwegian) ^ Sēru vēsts: mūžībā devusies Latvijas un pasaules basketbola leģenda Uļjana Semjonova (in Latvian) ^ Sir Tim Shadbolt has died at age 78 ^ Manipur BJP leader Meinam Bhorot Singh dies after prolonged illness in Imphal ^ جمهوری اسلامی مجتبی ترشیز، بازیکن پیشین تراکتور و همسرش را به قتل رساند (in Persian) ^ Matthew Taylor RIP ^ Le sport belge en deuil : le rameur Wim Van Belleghem, le seul Belge champion du monde en aviron, est décédé (in French) ^ Paul Visser ^ Terry Yorath obituary ^ Iran executes a man convicted of spying for Israel's Mossad ^ Madjoulba Batocfetou, patron de l'ICAT s'est éteint (in French) ^ James Bernard, founding editor of ‘The Source’ and co-founder of ‘XXL,’ dies ^ Помер український композитор Блажков, Гордон, 8.1.2026, автор - Ельчін Садаєв (in Ukrainian) ^ Mort d'Albert Bourgi, professeur de droit et figure du socialisme en Afrique (in French) ^ È morta Raffaella Bragazzi, storica voce di «Ok, il prezzo è giusto», aveva 66 anni (in Italian) ^ Frank Stanley Cerveny ^ Muere "El Chiri", excompetidor de Calle y beisbolista chiricano (in Spanish) ^ Obituary | Martin Chivers ^ Falleció Ángel Coerezza, uno de los mejores árbitros argentinos y ejemplo de persona (in Spanish) ^ John Witt Derr ^ 北海道・前釧路市長の蝦名大也さん（67）死去 議員秘書や北海道議などを経て4期16年釧路市長 防災インフラの整備に尽力 関係者からも悼む声 (in Japanese) ^ Former Memphis Rogues soccer star Tony Field dies at 79 ^ Vera Frances dead: Child star dies surrounded by family as tributes pour in ^ Madhav Gadgil (1942-2026) ^ Woman killed by ICE in Minneapolis identified ^ Morto monsignor Domenico Graziani, fu vescovo di Cassano e arcivescovo di Crotone (in Italian) ^ Hall, ironman goaltender with record 502 consecutive starts, dies at 94 ^ Sidney de Jong ^ Rebecca, Becky, Roo: Missing Miss Kilgore ^ Jon Lindsay, the longest-serving Harris County judge, dies at 90 ^ Former Jerusalem mayor Uri Lupolianski dies at 74 ^ Obituary: Ian McCrae ^ Former Colts RB Randy McMillan dies at 67 ^ New Mexico remembers former lieutenant governor, musician ^ Kabindra Purkayastha, the Patriarch of Assam BJP Passes Away at 94 ^ Former State Rep. Howard Sanderford dies at 90 ^ Dietrich Stratmann (in German) ^ Death of Seydou Madani Sy, former Minister of Justice and first Senegalese rector of UCAD ^ Kim Thorson ^ Hall of Fame tight end Billy Truax dies at 82 ^ Muore a 84 anni la giornalista parmigiana Chiara Valentini, è stata la biografa di Berlinguer (in Italian) ^ وفاة المفكر والفيلسوف المصري مراد وهبة عن 100 عام (in Arabic) ^ Vale Athol Webb | Melbourne mourns premiership hero ^ 云南省民间文艺家协会第六届副主席昂自明逝世 (in Chinese) ^ Former MLA and mayor Joe Arlooktoo passes away at 86 ^ Elle avait risqué sa vie pour en sauver d'autres : Odette Bergoffen, Juste parmi les Nations, est morte à 101 ans (in French) ^ Odszedł Profesor Andrzej Bogusławski (in Polish) ^ Former Queensland senator Ron 'Bozzie' Boswell dies aged 85 ^ John Cunningham, Veteran Broadway Actor, Dies at 93 ^ Former Maryland AD Dick Dull Passes Away ^ V.K. Ebrahim Kunju, IUML leader and former Kerala Minister, passes away ^ Deggendorfs frühere Oberbürgermeisterin Anna Eder ist gestorben (in German) ^ Johannes Fabian (in Dutch) ^ В Ухте скончался 32-летний нападающий МФК «Норильский никель» Алекс Фелипе (in Russian) ^ Angella Ferguson ^ Edith Flanigen ^ Schengen signatory Robert Goebbels passes away at 81 ^ Former Union minister Suresh Kalmadi passes away at 81 after prolonged illness ^ Doug LaMalfa, California Republican congressman, dies aged 65 ^ Elhunyt Láyer József volt országgyűlési képviselő (in Hungarian) ^ Alabama Music Hall of Famer, Huntsville native Jim McBride, dies at 78 ^ Jack McGregor, original founder of Pittsburgh Penguins, dies at 91 ^ AfD-Landtagsabgeordnete Muxel gestorben (in German) ^ Bishop Raffaele Nogaro † ^ James E. O'Grady ^ Veteran Iranian actor Saeid Pirdoost passes away ^ Guinea ex-security chief convicted over crimes against humanity dies ^ Oud-burgemeester Jaap Pop overleden (in Dutch) ^ DA Gauteng mourns passing of former MPL David Quail ^ Obituary: Nihal Seneviratne ^ Bağır Süleymanov vəfat etdi (in Azerbaijani) ^ Meghalt Tarr Béla (in Hungarian) ^ Jerry Thomas, MVP of 1956 College World Series with Gophers, dies at 90 ^ Morto Gianpaolo Tosel, è stato per anni giudice sportivo della Serie A: aveva 85 anni (in Italian) ^ Le PSG en deuil, une figure historique du club s'est éteinte (in French) ^ Не стало Анатолия Евтушенко (in Russian) ^ 著名文艺理论家、北大中文系教授张少康逝世 (in Chinese) ^ 周立伟院士逝世：他“创立了自己的科学学派” (in Chinese) ^ South Korean Film Legend Ahn Sung-ki Dies at 75 ^ Aldrich Ames, CIA officer convicted of spying for Russia, dies at age 84 ^ Luto en el boxeo colombiano por la muerte del legendario 'Bony' Ávila (in Spanish) ^ Mustergültiger Aufklärer (in German) ^ Bassist Andrew Bodnar (o.a. Graham Parker & The Rumour) overleden (in Dutch) ^ Andrew Carter - In Memoriam ^ Tom Cherones, Emmy-Winning ‘Seinfeld’ Director and Producer, Dies at 86 ^ Fallece Beatriz de Lenclós, la gran vedette vitoriana que marcó época (in Spanish) ^ Jim Dennison, winningest football coach at Akron and Walsh, dies ^ Marian Diamond: Miriam Margolyes pays tribute to 'dear friend' after Jackanory star's death aged 89 ^ Meghalt Dudás Miki (in Hungarian) ^ Razor – Former Drummer Mike Embro Dead At 63 ^ 元グラドル藤乃あおいさんが死去、27歳 親族が発表 23年に希少がんを公表 闘病続けていた (in Japanese) ^ Bishop Paolo Gillet † ^ Morto Pier Francesco Guarguaglini, Crosetto: uomo di intelligenza e visione (in Italian) ^ Bruce Hammock: 1947-2026 ^ Acteur Ad van Kempen overleden op 81-jarige leeftijd (in Dutch) ^ Odszedł na Wieczną Wartę Druh harcmistrz Wiktor Kinecki (in Polish) ^ Fallece José Mingorance, leyenda de la época dorada del Córdoba CF en Primera División (in Spanish) ^ گزارش ههنگاو از جانباختن رضا مرادی عبدالوند ششمین جانباخته اعتراضات شهر ازنا (in Persian) ^ Jawann Oldham, a basketball star at Cleveland High, Seattle U, dies at 68 ^ “พระองค์หญิงอินทุรัตนา บริพัตร” (พระวรวงศ์เธอ พระองค์เจ้าอินทุรัตนา) สิ้นพระชนม์ สิริพระชันษา ๑๐๓ ปี (in Thai) ^ Artist and fashion writer Molly Parkin dies ^ Χρήστος Πολίτης: Πέθανε τη Δευτέρα και τον βρήκε ο αδελφός του νεκρό μια μέρα αργότερα (in Greek) ^ Pulford, 4-time Stanley Cup champion with Maple Leafs, dies at 89 ^ La città piange Cosimo Scaglioso. Fu docente emerito e senatore (in Italian) ^ Chef and food stylist Elle Simone Scott dies at 49 ^ Zemřel specialista na pokutové kopy. Brankář si zachytal za Slavii i Spartu (in Czech) ^ Karel-zangeres Elsje de Wijn overleden op 82-jarige leeftijd (in Dutch) ^ Tribute to Sutton Harrier Ken Wilcock, who has died aged 91 ^ Mike Wilson (1959-2026): The King of Karting takes his final bow ^ Po těžké nemoci zemřel bývalý rektor ČVUT Jiří Witzany, bylo mu 84 let (in Czech) ^ 105岁东北妇运工作开拓者之一、黑龙江省妇联原主任吴琳涛逝世 (in Chinese) ^ WKU Athletics Hall of Famer Forest "Frosty" Able Passes Away ^ رئيس الوزراء الأسبق علي ابو الراغب في ذمة الله (in Arabic) ^ Jamia Ashrafia head Maulana Ashrafi passes away ^ Pionnière du travail social sur l’itinérance et le profilage, la chercheuse Céline Bellot s’éteint (in French) ^ Ci ha lasciati coach Mario Blasone. Le condoglianze del presidente Petrucci. Disposto minuto di silenzio (in Italian) ^ Robert Gerald Boyer ^ OHL, CHL Mourn the Loss of David Branch, Transformative Commissioner and Hockey Visionary ^ Le rappeur Calbo, membre du duo emblématique Ärsenik, est mort à l’âge de 52 ans (in French) ^ Gardienne des remèdes d'antan, la Valaisanne Germaine Cousin-Zermatten s'est éteinte à 100 ans (in French) ^ Le magicien de bal Kamiel Dierckx est décédé à l’âge de 84 ans (in French) ^ Edinburgh's last star director has died, at 97 ^ Muere Manuel Fernández Ilarraza, expresidente del Parlamento (in Spanish) ^ Zemřel kněz Miloslav Fiala (in Czech) ^ Andy Friendly Dies: First ‘Entertainment Tonight’ Producer, Son Of Legendary CBS Newsman Fred Friendly Was 74 ^ Veteran Dravidian ideologue L. Ganesan no more ^ Anne-Claire Goulon, ex-dirigeante du groupe Livio, s'est éteinte à 51 ans (in French) ^ Vicki Gregory ^ Hommage à Michel Griffon (in French) ^ Hommage à Roger Guesnerie (in French) ^ Former Portland lawmaker Denise Harlow dies at 55 ^ Bobby Holmes ^ Mūžībā devusies rakstniece Nora Ikstena (in Latvian) ^ Erster Landtagspräsident von Sachsen-Anhalt ist verstorben (in German) ^ '원조 스턴트맨'…60년간 배우 활동한 김영인씨 별세 (in Korean) ^ Na svoj rođendan preminuo Milorad Kosanović (in Serbian) ^ Stade Rennais : l'ancien président du club Bernard Lemoux est décédé (in French) ^ George Lodge ^ Oscar Warren Lofton ^ Ayawaso East MP Mahama Naser Toure dies after short illness ^ Zemřel válečný veterán Miloslav Masopust (in Czech) ^ Έφυγε από τη ζωή ο Γιώργος Παπαδάκης ύστερα από έμφραγμα (in Greek) ^ La Louvière perd l'un de ses artistes emblématiques : Daniel Pelletti a tiré sa révérence à l'âge de 77 ans (in French) ^ Former mayor of Dunedin Jules Radich dies ^ Michael Reagan, Eldest Son Of Ronald Reagan, Has Died ^ ‘70s PHL tennis star Marissa Sanchez dies at 69 ^ Décès de Jacqueline Schaeffer (1934-2026) (in French) ^ Former Sheetz president and CEO Steve Sheetz dies at age 77 ^ Khadial King Jitamitra Prasad Singh Deo Passes Away at 80 ^ Ralph L. Thomas, ‘The Terry Fox Story’ Director and Journalist, Dies at 86 ^ Murió Horacio Usandizaga, histórico dirigente de la UCR y primer intendente de Rosario tras el regreso de la democracia (in Spanish) ^ ‘She was a force of nature’ – Mary White, former senator and founder of Lir Chocolates, dies aged 81 ^ 著名摄影家、新中国第一批女摄影记者晓庄逝世，享年94岁 (in Chinese) ^ Zmarła Pani Teresa Zalewska (in Polish) ^ Hushang Ansary (98) overleden (in Dutch) ^ S’ha mort el periodista Joan Armengol a 91 anys (in Catalan) ^ وفاة الإعلامي الأردني جميل عازر أحد مؤسسي قناة “الجزيرة” القطرية (in Arabic) ^ Langjähriger Tiroler ÖVP-Mandatar Bachmann 91-jährig verstorben (in German) ^ La comédienne genevoise Claude-Inga Barbey s'en est allée (in French) ^ Stephen Edward Braude ^ Morto a 94 anni l'ex senatore Natale Carlotto (in Italian) ^ Morto Francesco Paolo Casavola, il diritto come missione (in Italian) ^ Il prêtait sa voix à une légende du cinéma : le comédien français Frédéric Cerdal nous a quittés à l'âge de 81 ans (in French) ^ Mor Maria Eugènia Cuenca, la primera dona que va ser consellera de la Generalitat (in Catalan) ^ Obit: Former Windsor CFL receiver Tony Dennis dies after multiple organ failure ^ 著名民俗学家、教育家、北京师大教授董晓萍逝世，享年75岁 (in Chinese) ^ Gerry Gable (1937–2026) ^ Broadway Alum Bret Hanna-Shuford Passes Away at 46 ^ Franz Herre (in German) ^ Marvalene Hughes ^ Opera sanatçısı Prof. Dr. Mesut İktu vefat etti (in Turkish) ^ Bishop Hernán Giraldo Jaramillo † ^ Nālani Kanakaʻole, revered Kumu Hula and cultural matriarch, passes at 79 ^ گزارش ههنگاو از جانباختن لطیف کریمی با شلیک مستقیم نیروهای حکومتی/ تلاش حکومت برای مصادره و وارونهسازی واقعیت (in Persian) ^ Zum Tod des Fehlfarben-Bassisten Michael Kemner: Ohne Atempause Rockgeschichte gemacht (in German) ^ E-News — January 2026 ^ Goddur er látinn (in Icelandic) ^ Tributes flow for founding father of Australian beef industry, Sir Graham McCamley ^ John Meredith (1940 – 2026) ^ Former DA Federal Chairperson Errol Moorcroft Has Passed Away ^ Former Bangladesh footballer Golam Dostogir no more ^ Strongman turned hilarious Instagram star dies aged 40 ^ Sverre Anker Ousdal er død (in Norwegian) ^ Zmarł prof. Andrzej Paczkowski, jeden z najwybitniejszych polskich historyków (in Polish) ^ The great coach and football player Dimitar Penev has passed away ^ Jenny Plocki, rescapée de la rafle du Vél' d'Hiv et témoin du siècle, est morte à 100 ans (in French) ^ Komponist Rolf Riehm ist gestorben: Immer mit Einspruch (in German) ^ Randy Joseph Riley ^ In memoriam – Eva Schloss-Geiringer ^ Former Deputy Chief Counsel for the House Select Committee on Assassinations, Robert K. Tanenbaum, has died at the age of 83 ^ Nam Singh Thapa, Nepal's first Olympian, dies ^ Remembering Samuel O. Thier, IOM President (1985-1991) ^ В Тынде умер легендарный строитель БАМа Иван Варшавский (in Russian) ^ 海军原副政委王征中将逝世，享年64岁 (in Chinese) ^ Terry Wharton | 1942-2026 ^ Yohn, William Hendricks, Jr. ^ Pimpinan PMDG Gontor KH Amal Fathullah Zarkasyi wafat (in Indonesian) ^ Zmarł Mirosław Zdanowicz - przedsiębiorca i legenda sportu (in Polish) ^ 著名京剧表演艺术家、马连良先生入室弟子张克让逝世 (in Chinese) ^ Ihana ja ihmeellinen karjalainen, muistelee Sinikka Sokka tätiään Ritva Auvista (in Finnish) ^ Ian Balding, legendary trainer of Mill Reef, dies aged 87 ^ Rhymester Sukumar Barua passes away ^ Shyam Bihari Lal, BJP MLA, dies in Bareilly a day after celebrating his 60th birthday, CM Yogi expresses grief ^ In memoriam: Carmen Arnold-Biucchi, respected numismatist and educator ^ Ancien président de l'Assemblée de Corse et maire de Sartène, Dominique Bucchini est décédé (in French) ^ Tony Carr, Maltese jazz drummer to the stars, dies aged 98 ^ Jean-Max Causse, exploitant de cinémas et grand nom de la cinéphilie parisienne, est mort (in French) ^ Odesa reports the death of artist Bohdan Chufus ^ BBC Radio Merseyside founding member dies as tributes paid ^ Mor Miquel Contestí, històric expresident del RCE Mallorca (in Catalan) ^ Sir Patrick Duffy, Britain’s oldest living former MP, passes away at the age of 105 ^ 藤井俊男さん死去 元民主党参院議員 (in Japanese) ^ D-Day veteran who escorted allied troops landing in Normandy dies aged 101 ^ Diamond legend Steve Haggerty has died ^ 'He was awesome': Fans grieve death of beloved Island radio host ^ Sidney Kibrick, Last of the 'Our Gang' Kids, Dies at 97 ^ Kristi L. Kiick ^ Elbert Leon Kimbrough ^ Anna Kurek, medic of the 1944 Warsaw Uprising, has died ^ Paul Lambert ’46, Former Trustee, Dies at 97 ^ Daily Update: NJPW Wrestle Kingdom 20, CMLL Sin Salida, Johnny Legend ^ Преминуо проф. Владимир Лукић (in Serbian) ^ Former MLC Ashok Modak passes away at 85 ^ Con Pederson, ‘2001: A Space Odyssey’ Special Effects Supervisor, Dies at 91 ^ В Петербурге умер снимавший Высоцкого фотограф Валерий Плотников (in Russian) ^ Vale: Tim Robertson ^ Rovátkay Lajostól búcsúzunk (in Hungarian) ^ PM Mourns Former Deputy Prime Minister, Minister Saleh Irshaidat ^ Edith Renfrow Smith, a 'memory keeper' and living link to history, dies at 111 ^ Former AFL player Phoenix Spicer dies as heartbroken family and football figures pay tribute ^ Ivonne Trebbi è morta, addio alla partigiana Bruna. Aveva 97 anni (in Italian) ^ James Gladden Willis ^ Tragiczna śmierć polskiego olimpijczyka. Robert Wolski nie żyje (in Polish) ^ Remembering Nellie Wong ^ Former Speaker of Bishkek City Council Marat Amankulov passes away ^ Communiqué d'Action française – Un camelot du roi exemplaire (in French) ^ Walsall confirm death of former Saddlers and Aston Villa creative favourite Alan Baker ^ Allyn Bromley-Baron ^ Fallece Xesús Cañedo, referente del asturianismo político y cultural (in Spanish) ^ "Це велика втрата": на фронті загинула операторка дронів і мисткиня Лана Чорногорська (in Ukrainian) ^ Diane Crump, the first female jockey to race in the Kentucky Derby, dies at 77 ^ Figura e shquar e politikës dhe shkencës - liderët politikë shprehin dhimbjen dhe mirënjohjen për Nexhat Dacin (in Albanian) ^ Brian Doyle, celebrated Ottawa author, dies at age 90 ^ פרופסור יחזקאל דרור, חתן פרס ישראל, מת בגיל 98 (in Hebrew) ^ Ex-president Vīķe-Freiberga's husband Imants Freibergs dies ^ Obituary #8: James Grauerholz ^ وفاة مؤرخ الثورة الجزائرية محمد حربي (in Arabic) ^ 中国驻瓦努阿图原大使、驻美国芝加哥原总领事黄东璧逝世 (in Chinese) ^ Hyundai Dynasty's 2006 Win Rate King Jeon Joon-ho Dies ^ Victoria Jones, daughter of Tommy Lee Jones, found dead in San Francisco ^ Billionaire philanthropist Morris Kahn dies at 95 ^ Умер известный телеведущий Андрей Хорошев (in Russian) ^ Harvey C. Krautschun ^ Famed TV presenter Hiroshi Kume passes away at 81 ^ Remembering John Langdon ^ Suri Arno Talit kehastanud näitleja Arno Liiver (in Estonian) ^ 我国空气动力学界先驱、西北工业大学资深教授林超强逝世 (in Chinese) ^ Arnold Long (1940-2026) - Obituary ^ З глибоким сумом сповіщаємо, що 1 січня ц.р. на 104-му році пішов із життя видатний український математик та організатор науки академік НАН України Володимир Олександрович Марченко (in Ukrainian) ^ Ex-prefeito de Goiânia na década de 1970, Hélio Mauro Umbelino Lobo morre em Anápolis (in Portuguese) ^ Paul McCullagh Jr: Boxer dies age 25 as father confirms heartbreaking cause of death ^ Burnley pay tribute to their former great and England goalkeeper Colin McDonald ^ Fallece a los 89 años Enric Mestre, referente mundial de la cerámica (in Spanish) ^ Умер бывший футболист "Спартака" Мухсин Мухамадиев (in Russian) ^ Death of Sir James Munby ^ Skulpteur der Erinnerung (in German) ^ Monsieur Gregory, Peter de Polnay ^ Dame Karen Poutasi, first female director-general of health, dies aged 76 ^ Tributes paid to Australian actor Candy Raymond who has died aged 75 ^ Amit Saar, top IDF intelligence officer on Oct. 7, dies of cancer at 47 ^ 31 Jahre für Bergkamen: Früherer Bürgermeister Roland Schäfer gestorben (in German) ^ Bishop Serafim Shyngo-Ya-Hombo, O.F.M. Cap. † ^ Former Fayette County delegate and physician Dr. Margaret Staggers has passed away ^ Jewish woman whose baby photo was chosen by Goebbels as Aryan exemplar dies at 91 ^ Умер заслуженный летчик-испытатель Рубен Есаян, критиковавший «Сухой суперджет» (in Russian) ^ 港星病逝！享壽69歲 妻證實噩耗 (in Chinese) ^ Ушел из жизни первый советский фигурист – участник чемпионатов Европы и мира Захаров Валентин Дмитриевич (in Russian) External links The Guardian (UK) obituaries The Telegraph (UK) obituaries The Irish Times obituaries Obituaries, Irish Examiner Obituaries, Chicago Tribune Obituaries, Los Angeles Times The New York Times , obituaries The Washington Post obituaries The Sydney Morning Herald (Australia) obituaries .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e 2020s deaths by month v t e 2026 Jan 2025 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2024 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2023 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2022 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2021 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2020 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2026 Jan 2025 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2024 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2023 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2022 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2021 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2020 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2026 Jan Jan 2025 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2024 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2023 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2022 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2021 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2020 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2000s ← 2010s ← Lists of deaths by year 2026 deaths Lists of deaths in 2026 Articles with Croatian-language sources (hr) Articles with Azerbaijani-language sources (az) Articles with Spanish-language sources (es) Articles with Korean-language sources (ko) Articles with French-language sources (fr) Articles with Bengali-language sources (bn) Articles with Armenian-language sources (hy) Articles with Russian-language sources (ru) Articles with Italian-language sources (it) Articles with Ukrainian-language sources (uk) Articles with Finnish-language sources (fi) Articles with German-language sources (de) Articles with Portuguese-language sources (pt) Articles with Polish-language sources (pl) Articles with Chinese-language sources (zh) Articles with Estonian-language sources (et) 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Wikipedia : Butterfly effect Português Project page Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item This is a humorous essay . It contains humorous advice or opinions of one or more Wikipedia contributors and isn't meant to be taken seriously. This is not an encyclopedia article or one of Wikipedia's policies or guidelines and may not represent community consensus . .mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain{float:right;margin:0 0 0 1em;border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);background-color:var(--background-color-base,#fff);padding:0.3em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;text-align:center;font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxleft{float:left;margin:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutlist{display:inline-block;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);margin-bottom:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain ul{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutanchordiv{position:relative;top:-3em}.mw-parser-output li .module-shortcutanchordiv{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mbox-imageright .module-shortcutboxplain{padding:0.4em 1em;line-height:1.3;margin:0;float:initial} Shortcut .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} WP:BFE WP:BFE WP:BFE WP:BFE In the chaotic world of Wikipedia, the butterfly effect is often set into motion when one or more editors are sensitive to small changes in the environment , leading to large differences of opinion that may ultimately result in a fiery shitstorm . Though individual editors are largely deterministic they are in some respects stochastic , and the large number of possible interactions between different editors comprise a nonlinear system that is wholly unpredictable. For this reason, great care must be taken when dealing with even the most seemingly innocuous situations in order to avoid unintended consequences . If you sense a sudden rise or drop in temperature, or the wind begins to blow the other way , it is likely that the shit is about to hit the fan , so unless you brought an umbrella it's important to know when to stop arguing with people and simply let them be wrong. If another editor has led you here it's probably for the best if you step away from editing for the time being, enjoy one of your favourite beverages and think about how you might resolve any dispute you may be involved in, or think twice before getting involved, because things can take a turn for the worse surprisingly quickly. Incivility Wikipedia talk pages are not at all like YouTube comments sections , where even the most inoffensive posts are often met with aggressive, derogatory and foul-mouthed responses, because civility is part of Wikipedia's code of conduct and one of its five pillars . Moreover, most Wikipedians tend to observe the Golden Rule (also knows as the law of reciprocity ) — the principle of treating others as one would wish to be treated. However, it's human nature to sometimes reciprocate in kind , and when we take offense at something it's all too easy to fight fire with fire . In the words of Mahātmā Gandhi , "an eye for an eye will leave everyone blind", so when you are faced with incivility it's probably for the best if you just ignore it. Having said that, you'll probably still want to admonish them in some way, perhaps even take things as far as one of the so-called drama boards . After all, you're one of the good guys, right? But be warned; it's all-too-easy for this approach to backfire despite your best intentions. It's also worth noting that there are contentious editors who will deliberately try to goad you into reacting so that you're the one who ends up being punished, so don't take the bait . If you feel that you absolutely have to do something then try to aim for the middle ground; leave an appropriate warning on their talk page and if their behaviour continues to affect other editors rest assured that they will get their comeuppance and, most importantly, you won't get dragged through the mud along with them. Humour Many Wikipedia editors believe that, as an encyclopedia, the content should be very dry, and some of those editors fail to differentiate between article space and talk pages. The result of this is that good humour is often mistaken for incivility . Editors with a poor sense of humour, though rarely amused, are usually still aware when something funny is going on and interpret this as ridicule, which along with righteous indignation causes them to forget to assume good faith . You should also bear in mind that some editors are on the autism spectrum , and may require careful handling. One should be forgiving if they miss the joke. Conversely, if you are one of those editors and you're easily confused by witty repartee, it's important for you to try extra-hard to assume good faith. Administrators One of the most difficult areas of dispute resolution is dealing with The Administration . While uninvolved third-party admins are invaluable, if you're having conflicts with a particular admin even the smallest perturbation can have enormous knock-on effects. For this reason it is highly recommended that editors try to remain mindful of the " hierarchy of editor subservience " and aim at the top during disputes. Resist the urge to point out that ad hominem reasoning is not always fallacious and that, in some instances, questions of personal conduct, character, motives, etc., are legitimate and relevant to the issue. Do not attempt to refute their arguments or contradict them using logic, reasoning and/or supporting evidence. It is when backed into a corner that admins are at their most dangerous. See also Godwin's law Hanlon's razor Storm in a teacup (template) Who Moved My Cheese? Wikipedia:Advice for hotheads Wikipedia:Arguments to avoid in edit wars Wikipedia:Assume bad faith Wikipedia:Beware of the tigers Wikipedia:Candor Wikipedia:Don't be inconsiderate Wikipedia:Don't poke the bear Wikipedia:Don't throw your toys out of the pram Wikipedia:Explode Wikipedia:IPs are human too Wikipedia:Truce Wikipedia:WikiButterfly Wikipedia:1AM Zen Garden Award for Infinite Patience (template) .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Wikipedia essays (?) v t e Essays on building, editing, and deleting content Philosophy Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Article construction 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles Writing article content Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Removing or deleting content Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Essays on building, editing, and deleting content Philosophy Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Article construction 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles Writing article content Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Removing or deleting content Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Philosophy Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Article construction 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles Writing article content Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Removing or deleting content Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Essays on civility The basics Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Philosophy A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent Dos Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Don'ts Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE WikiRelations WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace Essays on civility The basics Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Philosophy A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent Dos Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Don'ts Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE WikiRelations WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace The basics Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Philosophy A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent Dos Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Don'ts Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE WikiRelations WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace Essays on neutrality Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Essays on neutrality Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Essays on notability Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Essays on notability Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Humorous essays Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? Case against LLM-generated articles Complete bollocks Counting forks Counting juntas Crap Delete the main page Diffusing conflict Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Don't abbreviate "Wikipedia" as "Wiki"! Don't delete the main page Editcountitis Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Editing under the influence Embrace Stop Signs Emerson Fart Five Fs of Wikipedia Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to get away with UPE How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle How to vandalize correctly How to win a citation war Ignore all essays Ignore all user warnings Ignore every single rule Is that even an essay? Keep beating the horse List of really, really, really stupid article ideas that you really, really, really should not create Mess with the templates My local pond Newcomers are delicious, so go ahead and bite them Legal vandalism List of jokes about Wikipedia LTTAUTMAOK No climbing the Reichstag dressed as Spider-Man No episcopal threats No one cares about your garage band No one really cares No, really No self attacks Notability is not eternal Oops Defense Play the game Please be a giant dick, so we can ban you Please bite the newbies Please do not murder the newcomers Pledge of Tranquility Project S.C.R.A.M. R-e-s-p-e-c-t Requests for medication Requirements for adminship Rouge admin Rouge editor Sarcasm is really helpful Sausages for tasting Spaling Muich? Template madness The Night Before Wikimas The first rule of Wikipedia The Five Pillars of Untruth Things that should not be surprising The WikiBible Watchlistitis We are deletionist! Why is BFDI on Wikipedia? Why you shouldn't write articles with ChatGPT, according to ChatGPT Wikipedia is an MMORPG WTF? OMG! TMD TLA. ARG! Yes, falsely Yes legal threats Yes personal attacks You don't have to be mad to work here, but You should not write meaningless lists Humorous essays Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? Case against LLM-generated articles Complete bollocks Counting forks Counting juntas Crap Delete the main page Diffusing conflict Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Don't abbreviate "Wikipedia" as "Wiki"! Don't delete the main page Editcountitis Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Editing under the influence Embrace Stop Signs Emerson Fart Five Fs of Wikipedia Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to get away with UPE How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle How to vandalize correctly How to win a citation war Ignore all essays Ignore all user warnings Ignore every single rule Is that even an essay? Keep beating the horse List of really, really, really stupid article ideas that you really, really, really should not create Mess with the templates My local pond Newcomers are delicious, so go ahead and bite them Legal vandalism List of jokes about Wikipedia LTTAUTMAOK No climbing the Reichstag dressed as Spider-Man No episcopal threats No one cares about your garage band No one really cares No, really No self attacks Notability is not eternal Oops Defense Play the game Please be a giant dick, so we can ban you Please bite the newbies Please do not murder the newcomers Pledge of Tranquility Project S.C.R.A.M. R-e-s-p-e-c-t Requests for medication Requirements for adminship Rouge admin Rouge editor Sarcasm is really helpful Sausages for tasting Spaling Muich? Template madness The Night Before Wikimas The first rule of Wikipedia The Five Pillars of Untruth Things that should not be surprising The WikiBible Watchlistitis We are deletionist! Why is BFDI on Wikipedia? Why you shouldn't write articles with ChatGPT, according to ChatGPT Wikipedia is an MMORPG WTF? OMG! TMD TLA. ARG! Yes, falsely Yes legal threats Yes personal attacks You don't have to be mad to work here, but You should not write meaningless lists Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? Case against LLM-generated articles Complete bollocks Counting forks Counting juntas Crap Delete the main page Diffusing conflict Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Don't abbreviate "Wikipedia" as "Wiki"! Don't delete the main page Editcountitis Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Editing under the influence Embrace Stop Signs Emerson Fart Five Fs of Wikipedia Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to get away with UPE How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle How to vandalize correctly How to win a citation war Ignore all essays Ignore all user warnings Ignore every single rule Is that even an essay? Keep beating the horse List of really, really, really stupid article ideas that you really, really, really should not create Mess with the templates My local pond Newcomers are delicious, so go ahead and bite them Legal vandalism List of jokes about Wikipedia LTTAUTMAOK No climbing the Reichstag dressed as Spider-Man No episcopal threats No one cares about your garage band No one really cares No, really No self attacks Notability is not eternal Oops Defense Play the game Please be a giant dick, so we can ban you Please bite the newbies Please do not murder the newcomers Pledge of Tranquility Project S.C.R.A.M. R-e-s-p-e-c-t Requests for medication Requirements for adminship Rouge admin Rouge editor Sarcasm is really helpful Sausages for tasting Spaling Muich? Template madness The Night Before Wikimas The first rule of Wikipedia The Five Pillars of Untruth Things that should not be surprising The WikiBible Watchlistitis We are deletionist! Why is BFDI on Wikipedia? Why you shouldn't write articles with ChatGPT, according to ChatGPT Wikipedia is an MMORPG WTF? OMG! TMD TLA. ARG! Yes, falsely Yes legal threats Yes personal attacks You don't have to be mad to work here, but You should not write meaningless lists Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? Case against LLM-generated articles Complete bollocks Counting forks Counting juntas Crap Delete the main page Diffusing conflict Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Don't abbreviate "Wikipedia" as "Wiki"! Don't delete the main page Editcountitis Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Editing under the influence Embrace Stop Signs Emerson Fart Five Fs of Wikipedia Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to get away with UPE How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle How to vandalize correctly How to win a citation war Ignore all essays Ignore all user warnings Ignore every single rule Is that even an essay? Keep beating the horse List of really, really, really stupid article ideas that you really, really, really should not create Mess with the templates My local pond Newcomers are delicious, so go ahead and bite them Legal vandalism List of jokes about Wikipedia LTTAUTMAOK No climbing the Reichstag dressed as Spider-Man No episcopal threats No one cares about your garage band No one really cares No, really No self attacks Notability is not eternal Oops Defense Play the game Please be a giant dick, so we can ban you Please bite the newbies Please do not murder the newcomers Pledge of Tranquility Project S.C.R.A.M. R-e-s-p-e-c-t Requests for medication Requirements for adminship Rouge admin Rouge editor Sarcasm is really helpful Sausages for tasting Spaling Muich? Template madness The Night Before Wikimas The first rule of Wikipedia The Five Pillars of Untruth Things that should not be surprising The WikiBible Watchlistitis We are deletionist! Why is BFDI on Wikipedia? Why you shouldn't write articles with ChatGPT, according to ChatGPT Wikipedia is an MMORPG WTF? OMG! TMD TLA. ARG! 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Definitions 2 Evolutionary history 3 Ecology Toggle Ecology subsection 3.1 Biodiversity 3.2 Vegetation 3.3 Fauna 3.1 Biodiversity 3.2 Vegetation 3.3 Fauna 4 Ecosystem services Toggle Ecosystem services subsection 4.1 Carbon sequestration 4.2 Other ecosystem services 4.1 Carbon sequestration 4.2 Other ecosystem services 5 Degradation Toggle Degradation subsection 5.1 Causes 5.1.1 Land use intensification 5.1.2 Climate change 5.1.3 Afforestation or introduction of invasive species 5.1.4 Management 5.2 Types of degradation 5.2.1 Land cover change 5.1 Causes 5.1.1 Land use intensification 5.1.2 Climate change 5.1.3 Afforestation or introduction of invasive species 5.1.4 Management 5.1.1 Land use intensification 5.1.2 Climate change 5.1.3 Afforestation or introduction of invasive species 5.1.4 Management 5.2 Types of degradation 5.2.1 Land cover change 5.2.1 Land cover change 6 Conservation and restoration 7 Types of grasslands Toggle Types of grasslands subsection 7.1 Classifications of grassland 7.2 General grasslands types 7.2.1 Tropical and subtropical 7.2.2 Temperate 7.2.3 Flooded 7.2.4 Montane 7.2.5 Tundra grasslands 7.2.6 Desert and xeric 7.1 Classifications of grassland 7.2 General grasslands types 7.2.1 Tropical and subtropical 7.2.2 Temperate 7.2.3 Flooded 7.2.4 Montane 7.2.5 Tundra grasslands 7.2.6 Desert and xeric 7.2.1 Tropical and subtropical 7.2.2 Temperate 7.2.3 Flooded 7.2.4 Montane 7.2.5 Tundra grasslands 7.2.6 Desert and xeric 8 Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands ecoregions 9 Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands ecoregions 10 See also 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External links Grassland Afrikaans العربية Asturianu বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Català Cebuano Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Magyar മലയാളം ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Polski Português Runa Simi Русский සිංහල Simple English Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska தமிழ் Taqbaylit ไทย Türkçe Українська Vahcuengh Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 粵語 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item A grassland is an area (or ecosystem) where the vegetation is dominated by grasses . However, sedges and rushes can also be found along with variable proportions of legumes such as clover , and other herbs . Grasslands occur naturally on all continents except Antarctica and are found in most ecoregions of the Earth . Furthermore, grasslands are one of the largest biomes on Earth and dominate the landscape worldwide. [ 1 ] There are different types of grasslands: natural grasslands, semi-natural grasslands, [ 2 ] and agricultural grasslands. [ 1 ] They cover 31–69% of the Earth's land area. [ 3 ] [ 4 ] Definitions Included among the variety of definitions for grasslands are: "...any plant community, including harvested forages, in which grasses and/or legumes make up the dominant vegetation." [ 1 ] "...terrestrial ecosystems dominated by herbaceous and shrub vegetation, and maintained by fire, grazing, drought and/or freezing temperatures." (Pilot Assessment of Global Ecosystems, 2000) [ 1 ] "A region with sufficient average annual precipitation (25-75 cm) to support grass..." (Stiling, 1999) [ 1 ] Semi-natural grasslands are a very common subcategory of the grasslands biome. [ 5 ] These can be defined as: Grassland existing as a result of human activity (mowing or livestock grazing), where environmental conditions and the species pool are maintained by natural processes. [ 6 ] They can also be described as the following: "Semi-natural grasslands are one of the world's most biodiverse habitats on a small spatial scales." [ 7 ] "Semi-natural grasslands belong to the most species rich ecosystems in the world." [ 8 ] "...have been formed over the course of centuries through extensive grazing and mowing." [ 7 ] "...without the use of pesticides or fertilisers in modern times." [ 9 ] There are many different types of semi-natural grasslands, e.g. hay meadows . [ 9 ] Evolutionary history The graminoids are among the most versatile life forms . They became widespread toward the end of the Cretaceous period, and coprolites of fossilized dinosaur feces have been found containing phytoliths of a variety of grasses that include grasses that are related to modern rice and bamboo . The appearance of mountains in the western United States during the Miocene and Pliocene epochs, a period of some 25 million years, created a continental climate favourable to the evolution of grasslands. [ 10 ] Around 5 million years ago during the Late Miocene in the New World and the Pliocene in the Old World, the first true grasslands occurred. Existing forest biomes declined, and grasslands became much more widespread. It is known that grasslands have existed in Europe throughout the Pleistocene (the last 1.8 million years). [ 9 ] Following the Pleistocene ice ages (with their glacials and interglacials ), grasslands expanded in the hotter, drier climates, and began to become the dominant land feature worldwide. [ 10 ] Since the grasslands have existed for over 1.8 million years, there is high variability. For example steppe-tundra dominated in Northern and Central Europe whereas a higher amount of xerothermic grasslands occurred in the Mediterranean area. [ 9 ] Within temperate Europe, the range of types is quite wide and also became unique due to the exchange of species and genetic material between different biomes. The semi-natural grasslands first appeared when humans started farming. So for the use of agriculture, forests got cleared in Europe. Ancient meadows and pastures were the parts that were suitable for cultivation. The semi-natural grasslands were formed from these areas. [ 9 ] However, there's also evidence for the local persistence of natural grasslands in Europe, originally maintained by wild herbivores, throughout the pre-Neolithic Holocene. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] The removal of the plants by the grazing animals and later the mowing farmers led to co-existence of other plant species around. In the following, the biodiversity of the plants evolve. Also, the species that already lived there adapted to the new conditions. [ 9 ] Most of the grassland areas have been turned to arable fields and disappeared again. The grasslands permanently became arable cropping fields due to the steady decrease in organic matter. [ 13 ] Nowadays, semi-natural grasslands are rather located in areas that are unsuitable for agricultural farming. [ 9 ] Ecology Biodiversity Grasslands dominated by unsown wild-plant communities ("unimproved grasslands") can be called either natural or "semi-natural" habitat. Although their plant communities are natural, their maintenance depends upon anthropogenic activities such as grazing and cutting regimes. The semi-natural grasslands contain many species of wild plants, including grasses, sedges, rushes, and herbs; 25 plant-species per 100 square centimeters can be found. [ 9 ] A European record that was found on a meadow in Estonia described 76 species of plants in one square meter. [ 9 ] Chalk downlands in England can support over 40 species per square meter. In many parts of the world, few examples have escaped agricultural improvement (fertilizing, weed killing, plowing, or re-seeding). For example, original North American prairie grasslands or lowland wildflower meadows in the UK are now rare and their associated wild flora equally threatened. Associated with the wild-plant diversity of the "unimproved" grasslands is usually a rich invertebrate fauna; there are also many species of birds that are grassland "specialists", such as the snipe and the little bustard . [ 14 ] Owing to semi-natural grasslands being referred to as one of the most-species rich ecosystems in the world and essential habitat for many specialists, also including pollinators, [ 8 ] there are many approaches to conservation activities lately. Agriculturally improved grasslands, which dominate modern intensive agricultural landscapes, are usually poor in wild plant species due to the original diversity of plants having been destroyed by cultivation and by the use of fertilizers. Almost 90% of the European semi-natural grasslands do not exist anymore due to political and economic reasons. This loss took place during the 20th century. [ 7 ] The ones in Western and Central Europe have almost disappeared completely. There are a few left in Northern Europe. [ 7 ] Unfortunately, a large amount of red-listed species are specialists of semi-natural grasslands and are affected by the landscape change due to agriculture of the last century. [ 15 ] The original wild-plant communities having been replaced by sown monocultures of cultivated varieties of grasses and clovers, such as perennial ryegrass and white clover . In many parts of the world, "unimproved" grasslands are one of the most threatened types of habitat, and a target for acquisition by wildlife conservation groups or for special grants to landowners who are encouraged to manage them appropriately. Vegetation Grassland vegetation can vary considerably depending on the grassland type and on how strong it is affected by human impact. Dominant trees for the semi-natural grassland are Quercus robur , Betula pendula , Corylus avellana , Crataegus and many kinds of herbs. [ 16 ] In chalk grassland , the plants can vary from very tall to very short. Quite tall grasses can be found in North American tallgrass prairie , South American grasslands, and African savanna . Woody plants, shrubs or trees may occur on some grasslands—forming savannas, scrubby grassland or semi-wooded grassland, such as the African savannas or the dehesa and montado , in Spain and Portugal respectively. [ 17 ] As flowering plants and trees, grasses grow in great concentrations in climates where annual rainfall ranges between 500 and 900 mm (20 and 35 in). [ 18 ] The root systems of perennial grasses and forbs form complex mats that hold the soil in place. Fauna Grasslands support the greatest aggregations of large animals on Earth, including jaguars, African wild dogs, pronghorn , black-footed ferret , plains bison , mountain plover , African elephant, Sunda tiger, black rhino, white rhino, savanna elephant, greater one-horned rhino, Indian elephant and swift fox . Grazing animals, herd animals, and predators in grasslands, like lions and cheetahs live in the grasslands of the African savanna. [ 19 ] Mites , insect larvae , nematodes , and earthworms inhabit deep soil, which can reach 6 metres (20 feet) underground in undisturbed grasslands on the richest soils of the world. These invertebrates, along with symbiotic fungi , extend the root systems, break apart hard soil, enrich it with urea and other natural fertilizers, trap minerals and water and promote growth. Some types of fungi make the plants more resistant to insect and microbial attacks. [ 20 ] Grassland in all its form supports a vast variety of mammals, reptiles, birds, and insects. Typical large mammals include the blue wildebeest , American bison , giant anteater , and Przewalski's horse . [ 21 ] The plants and animals that live in grasslands are connected through an unlimited web of interactions. But the removal of key species—such as buffalo and prairie dogs within the American West—and introduction of invasive species , like cane toads in northern Australia, have disrupted the balance in these ecosystems and damaged a number of other species. [ 19 ] Grasslands are home to a number of the foremost magnificent animals on the planet—elephants, bison, lions—and hunters have found them to be enticing prey. But when hunting is not controlled or is conducted illegally, species can become extinct. [ 19 ] Ecosystem services Grasslands provide a range of marketed and non-marketed ecosystem services that are fundamental to the livelihoods of an estimated one billion people globally. [ 22 ] Carbon sequestration Grasslands hold about twenty percent of global soil carbon stocks. [ 3 ] Herbaceous (non-wooded) vegetation dominates grasslands and carbon is stored in the roots and soil underground. Above-ground biomass carbon is relatively short-lived due to grazing, fire, and senescence . Grassland species have an extensive fibrous root system, with grasses often accounting for 60–80% of the biomass carbon in this ecosystem. This underground biomass can extend several meters below the surface and store abundant carbon into the soil, resulting in deep, fertile soils with high organic matter content. For this reason, soil carbon accounts for about 81% of the total ecosystem carbon in grasslands. The close link between soil carbon and underground biomass leads to similar responses of these carbon pools to fluctuations in annual precipitation and temperature on a broad spatial scale. Because plant productivity is limited by grassland precipitation, carbon stocks are highest in regions where precipitation is heaviest, such as the high grass prairie in the humid temperate region of the United States. Similarly, as annual temperatures rise, grassland carbon stocks decrease due to increased evapotranspiration . [ 23 ] Grasslands have suffered large losses of organic carbon due to soil disturbances, vegetation degradation, fires, erosion, nutrient deficiencies, and water shortages. The type, frequency and intensity of the disturbance can play a key role in the soil organic carbon ( SOC ) balance of grasslands. Bedrock , irrigation practices, soil acidification , liming , and pasture management can all have potential impacts on grassland organic carbon stocks. [ 24 ] Good grassland management can reverse historical soil carbon losses. [ 3 ] [ 25 ] The relationship of improved biodiversity with carbon storage is subject of research. [ 26 ] There is a lack of agreement on the amount of carbon that can be stored in grassland ecosystem. This is partly caused by different methodologies applied to measure soil organic carbon and limited respective datasets. Further, carbon accumulation in soils changes significantly over time and point in time measurements produce an insufficient evidence base. [ 27 ] Other ecosystem services promotion of genetic diversity weather amelioration [ 28 ] provision of wildlife habitat Degradation Grasslands are among the most threatened ecosystems. [ 29 ] Global losses from grassland degradation are estimated to be over $7 billion per year. [ 30 ] According to the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the most significant threat to grasslands is human land use, especially agriculture and mining. [ 31 ] The vulnerability of grasslands stems from a range of factors, such as misclassification, poor protection and cultivation. [ 22 ] Causes Land use intensification Grasslands have an extensive history of human activity and disturbance . [ 32 ] To feed a growing human population, most of the world's grasslands are converted from natural landscapes to fields of corn, wheat or other crops. Grasslands that have remained largely intact thus far, such as the East African savannas , are in danger of being lost to agriculture. [ 19 ] Grasslands are very sensitive to disturbances, such as people hunting and killing key species, or plowing the land to make more space for farms. Grassland vegetation is often a plagioclimax ; it remains dominant in a particular area usually due to grazing , cutting, or natural or man-made fires, all discouraging colonization by and survival of tree and shrub seedlings . [ 33 ] Some of the world's largest expanses of grassland are found in the African savanna, and these are maintained by wild herbivores as well as by nomadic pastoralists and their cattle , sheep or goats. Grasslands have an impact on climate change by slower decomposition rates of litter compared to forest environments. [ 34 ] Grasslands may occur naturally or as a result of human activity. Hunting cultures around the world often set regular fires to maintain and extend grasslands and prevent fire-intolerant trees and shrubs from taking hold. The tallgrass prairies in the U.S. Midwest may have been extended eastward into Illinois , Indiana , and Ohio by human agency. Much grassland in northwest Europe developed after the Neolithic Period when people gradually cleared the forest to create areas for raising their livestock. [ 35 ] Climate change Grasslands often occur in areas with annual precipitation is between 600 mm (24 in) and 1,500 mm (59 in) and average mean annual temperatures ranges from −5 and 20 °C. [ 36 ] However, some grasslands occur in colder (−20 °C) and hotter (30 °C) climatic conditions. Grassland can exist in habitats that are frequently disturbed by grazing or fire, as such disturbance prevents the encroachment of woody species . Species richness is particularly high in grasslands of low soil fertility such as serpentine barrens and calcareous grasslands, where woody encroachment is prevented as low nutrient levels in the soil may inhibit the growth of forest and shrub species. Another common predicament often experienced by the ill-fated grassland creatures is the constant burning of plants, fueled by oxygen and many expired photosynthesizing organisms, with the lack of rain pushing this problem to further heights. [ 37 ] When not limited by other factors, increasing CO 2 concentration in the air increases plant growth, similarly as water use efficiency, which is very important in drier regions. However, the advantages of elevated CO 2 are limited by factors including water availability and available nutrients , particularly nitrogen. Thus effects of elevated CO 2 on plant growth will vary with local climate patterns, species adaptations to water limitations, and nitrogen availability. Studies indicate that nutrient depletion may happen faster in drier regions, and with factors like plant community composition and grazing. Nitrogen deposition from air pollutants and increased mineralization from higher temperatures can increase plant productivity, but increases are often among a discount in biodiversity as faster-growing plants outcompete others. A study of a California grassland found that global change may speed reductions in diversity and forb species are most prone to this process. [ 23 ] Afforestation or introduction of invasive species Misguided afforestation efforts, for example as part of the global effort to increase carbon sequestration, can harm grasslands and their core ecosystem services. [ 38 ] [ 39 ] Forest centric restoration efforts can create the risk of misreading and misclassifying of landscapes. [ 22 ] A map created by the World Resources Institute in collaboration with the IUCN identifies 2 billion hectares for potential forest restoration . It is criticised for including 900 million hectares of grasslands. [ 40 ] [ 41 ] It is expected that non-native grasses will continue to outperform native species under warmer and drier conditions that occur in many grasslands due to climate change. [ 42 ] Management The type of land management used in grasslands can also lead to grassland loss or degradation. Many grasslands and other open ecosystems depend on disturbances such as wildfires , controlled burns or grazing to persist, although this subject is still controversial. [ 43 ] A study in Brazilian Subtropical Highland Grasslands found that grasslands without traditional land management—which uses fire every two years and extensive cattle grazing—can disappear within 30 years. [ 44 ] This study showed that grasslands inside protected areas , in which fire is not allowed and cattle grazing is banned, were quickly replaced by shrubs ( shrub encroachment ). Moreover, the absence of fire in grasslands can lead to an increase in the dominance of a few species and litter accumulation, resulting in a reduction in the number of herbaceous species and changes in herbaceous species composition. [ 45 ] Types of degradation Land cover change Land cover has always changed during the years. The following relates to the changes between 1960 and 2015. There has been a decrease in semi-natural grasslands and an increase in areas with arable land , forest and land used for infrastructure and buildings. The line style and relative thickness of the lines indicates the percentage of the total area that changed. Changes less than 1% and land-cover classes with all changes less than 1% (i.e. semi-natural wetlands and water) are not included. [ 15 ] In 1960 most of the land, 49.7%, was covered with forest and there was also more semi-natural grassland (18.8%) than arable land (15.8%). In 2015 this has changed drastically. The forest cover has increased (50.8%) and arable land has also increased (20.4%), but the semi-natural grassland cover has decreased. Although it still covers a large area of the earth (10.6%). [ 15 ] A quarter of semi-natural grassland was lost through intensification, i.e. it was converted into arable or pasture land and forests. [ 46 ] It is more likely that intensification will occur in flat semi-natural grasslands, especially if the soil is fertile. On the other hand, grasslands, where the land is drought-prone or less productive, are more likely to persist as semi-natural grasslands than grasslands with fertile soil and low gradient of the terrain. [ 47 ] Furthermore, the accessibility of the land is also important, as it is then easier to fertilize, for example. For instance, if it is located near a road. With the development of technology, it is becoming increasingly easy to cultivate land with a steeper gradient, to the detriment of grasslands. The management of grasslands is also changing permanently. There is increased use of mineral fertilizers, furthermore borders and field edges are removed to enlarge fields and leveling the terrain to facilitate the use of agricultural machinery. [ 15 ] The professional study of dry grasslands falls under the category of rangeland management , which focuses on ecosystem services associated with the grass-dominated arid and semi-arid rangelands of the world. Rangelands account for an estimated 70% of the earth's landmass; thus, many cultures including those of the United States are indebted to the economics that the world's grasslands have to offer, from producing grazing animals, tourism, ecosystems services such as clean water and air, and energy extraction. [ 48 ] Vast areas of grassland are affected by woody encroachment , which is the expansion of woody plants at the expense of the herbaceous layer. Woody encroachment is caused by a combination of human impact (e.g. fire exclusion, overstocking and resulting overgrazing ) and environmental factors (i.e. increased CO 2 levels in the atmosphere). It can have severe negative consequences on key ecosystem services, like land productivity and groundwater recharge. Conservation and restoration Despite growing recognition of the importance of grasslands, understanding of restoration options remains limited. [ 49 ] Cost of grassland restoration is highly variable and respective data is scarce. [ 50 ] Successful grassland restoration has several dimensions, including recognition in policy, standardisation of indicators of degradation, scientific innovation, knowledge transfer and data sharing. [ 51 ] Restoration methods and measures include the following: [ 52 ] prescribed fires appropriate management of livestock and wild herbivores: in light of land use intensification caused by global food demand, grassland land use practices may need to be adjusted to better support key ecosystem services. [ 53 ] tree cutting shrub removal invasive species control reintroduction of native grasses and forbs via seeding or transplant: a main challenge for grassland restoration is how to overcome seed limitation. [ 49 ] For the period 2021–2030 the United Nations General Assembly has proclaimed the UN Decade on Restoration, involving a joint resolution by over 70 countries. It is led by the United Nations Environment Programme and the Food and Agriculture Organization . [ 54 ] Types of grasslands Classifications of grassland Grassland types by Schimper (1898, 1903): [ 55 ] Meadow (hygrophilous or tropophilous grassland) Steppe (xerophilous grassland) Savannah (xerophilous grassland containing isolated trees) Steppe family: a common grassland animal, the swift fox Grassland types by Ellenberg and Mueller-Dombois (1967): [ 56 ] Formation-class V. Terrestrial herbaceous communities Savannas and related grasslands (tropical or subtropical grasslands and parklands) Steppes and related grasslands (e.g. North American "prairies" etc.) Meadows, pastures or related grasslands Sedge swamps and flushes Herbaceous and half-woody salt swamps Forb vegetation A hike through the Tallgrass Prairie Heritage Park in Canada Grassland types by Laycock (1979): [ 57 ] Tallgrass (true) prairie Shortgrass prairie Mixed-grass prairie Shrub steppe Annual grassland Desert (arid) grassland High mountain grassland General grasslands types Tropical and subtropical These grasslands can be classified as the tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas and shrublands biome . The rainfall level for that grassland type is between 90 and 150 centimeters per year. Grasses and scattered trees are common for that ecoregion, as well as large mammals , such as wildebeest ( Connochaetes taurinus ) and zebra ( Equus zebra ). Notable tropical and subtropical grasslands include the Llanos grasslands of South America . [ 58 ] Temperate Mid-latitude grasslands, including the prairie and Pacific grasslands of North America , the Pampas of Argentina , Brazil and Uruguay , calcareous downland , and the steppes of Europe . They are classified with temperate savannas and shrublands as the temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome . Temperate grasslands are the home to many large herbivores , such as bison , gazelles , zebras , rhinoceroses , and wild horses . Carnivores like lions , wolves , cheetahs and leopards are also found in temperate grasslands. Other animals of this region include deer , prairie dogs , mice , jack rabbits , skunks , coyotes , snakes , foxes , owls , badgers , blackbirds, grasshoppers , meadowlarks , sparrows , quails , hawks and hyenas . [ 59 ] Flooded Grasslands that are flooded seasonally or year-round, like the Everglades of Florida , the Pantanal of Brazil , Bolivia and Paraguay or the Esteros del Ibera in Argentina , are classified with flooded savannas as the flooded grasslands and savannas biome and occur mostly in the tropics and subtropics. The species that live in these grasslands are well adapted to the hydrologic regimes and soil conditions. The Everglades—the world's largest rain-fed flooded grassland—is rich in 11,000 species of seed-bearing plants, 25 species of orchids , 300 bird species, and 150 fish species. Water-meadows are grasslands that are deliberately flooded for short periods. [ 60 ] Montane High-altitude grasslands located on high mountain ranges around the world, like the Páramo of the Andes Mountains . They are part of the montane grasslands and shrublands biome and can be tropical, subtropical, and temperate. The plants and animals, that can be found in the tropical montane, are able to adapt to cool, wet conditions as well as intense sunlight. [ 61 ] Tundra grasslands Similar to montane grasslands, polar Arctic tundra can have grasses, but high soil moisture means that few tundras are grass-dominated today. However, during the Pleistocene glacial periods (commonly referred to as ice ages ), a grassland known as steppe-tundra or mammoth steppe occupied large areas of the Northern Hemisphere. These areas were very cold and arid and featured sub-surface permafrost (hence tundra) but were nevertheless productive grassland ecosystems supporting a wide variety of fauna. As the temperature increased and the climate became wetter at the beginning of the Holocene much of the mammoth steppe transitioned to forest, while the drier parts in central Eurasia remained as a grassland, becoming the modern Eurasian steppe . [ 62 ] Desert and xeric Also called desert grasslands, they are composed of sparse grassland ecoregions located in the deserts and xeric shrublands biome . Temperature extremes and low amounts of rainfall characterise these kinds of grasslands. Therefore, plants and animals are well adapted to minimize water loss. [ 63 ] Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands ecoregions The grassland ecoregions of the temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome are: .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands ecoregions v t e Afrotropical Al Hajar montane woodlands Amsterdam and Saint-Paul Islands temperate grasslands Tristan da Cunha–Gough Islands shrub and grasslands Bushveld Afrotropical Al Hajar montane woodlands Amsterdam and Saint-Paul Islands temperate grasslands Tristan da Cunha–Gough Islands shrub and grasslands Bushveld Al Hajar montane woodlands Amsterdam and Saint-Paul Islands temperate grasslands Tristan da Cunha–Gough Islands shrub and grasslands Bushveld Australasian Canterbury–Otago tussock grasslands Eastern Australia mulga shrublands Southeast Australia temperate savanna Australasian Canterbury–Otago tussock grasslands Eastern Australia mulga shrublands Southeast Australia temperate savanna Canterbury–Otago tussock grasslands Eastern Australia mulga shrublands Southeast Australia temperate savanna Nearctic California Central Valley grasslands Canadian aspen forests and parklands Central and Southern mixed grasslands Central forest–grasslands transition Central tall grasslands Columbia Plateau Edwards Plateau savanna Flint Hills tall grasslands Montana valley and foothill grasslands Nebraska Sand Hills mixed grasslands Northern mixed grasslands Northern short grasslands Northern tall grasslands Palouse grasslands Texas blackland prairies Western short grasslands Nearctic California Central Valley grasslands Canadian aspen forests and parklands Central and Southern mixed grasslands Central forest–grasslands transition Central tall grasslands Columbia Plateau Edwards Plateau savanna Flint Hills tall grasslands Montana valley and foothill grasslands Nebraska Sand Hills mixed grasslands Northern mixed grasslands Northern short grasslands Northern tall grasslands Palouse grasslands Texas blackland prairies Western short grasslands California Central Valley grasslands Canadian aspen forests and parklands Central and Southern mixed grasslands Central forest–grasslands transition Central tall grasslands Columbia Plateau Edwards Plateau savanna Flint Hills tall grasslands Montana valley and foothill grasslands Nebraska Sand Hills mixed grasslands Northern mixed grasslands Northern short grasslands Northern tall grasslands Palouse grasslands Texas blackland prairies Western short grasslands Neotropical Argentine Espinal Argentine Monte Humid Pampas Patagonian grasslands Patagonian steppe Semi-arid Pampas Neotropical Argentine Espinal Argentine Monte Humid Pampas Patagonian grasslands Patagonian steppe Semi-arid Pampas Argentine Espinal Argentine Monte Humid Pampas Patagonian grasslands Patagonian steppe Semi-arid Pampas Palearctic Ecoregion Location(s) Alai–Western Tian Shan steppe Kazakhstan , Tajikistan , Uzbekistan Altai steppe and semi-desert Kazakhstan Central Anatolian steppe Turkey Daurian forest steppe China , Mongolia , Russia Eastern Anatolian montane steppe Armenia , Azerbaijan , Georgia , Iran , Turkey Emin Valley steppe China , Kazakhstan Faroe Islands boreal grasslands Faroe Islands , Denmark Gissaro–Alai open woodlands Kyrgyzstan , Tajikistan , Uzbekistan Kazakh forest steppe Kazakhstan , Russia Kazakh steppe Kazakhstan , Russia Kazakh Uplands Kazakhstan Mongolian–Manchurian grassland China , Mongolia , Russia Pontic steppe Kazakhstan , Moldova , Romania , Russia , Ukraine , Bulgaria Sayan Intermontane steppe Russia Selenge–Orkhon forest steppe Mongolia , Russia South Siberian forest steppe Russia Syrian xeric grasslands and shrublands Iraq , Jordan , Syria Tian Shan foothill arid steppe China , Kazakhstan , Kyrgyzstan Palearctic Ecoregion Location(s) Alai–Western Tian Shan steppe Kazakhstan , Tajikistan , Uzbekistan Altai steppe and semi-desert Kazakhstan Central Anatolian steppe Turkey Daurian forest steppe China , Mongolia , Russia Eastern Anatolian montane steppe Armenia , Azerbaijan , Georgia , Iran , Turkey Emin Valley steppe China , Kazakhstan Faroe Islands boreal grasslands Faroe Islands , Denmark Gissaro–Alai open woodlands Kyrgyzstan , Tajikistan , Uzbekistan Kazakh forest steppe Kazakhstan , Russia Kazakh steppe Kazakhstan , Russia Kazakh Uplands Kazakhstan Mongolian–Manchurian grassland China , Mongolia , Russia Pontic steppe Kazakhstan , Moldova , Romania , Russia , Ukraine , Bulgaria Sayan Intermontane steppe Russia Selenge–Orkhon forest steppe Mongolia , Russia South Siberian forest steppe Russia Syrian xeric grasslands and shrublands Iraq , Jordan , Syria Tian Shan foothill arid steppe China , Kazakhstan , Kyrgyzstan Ecoregion Location(s) Alai–Western Tian Shan steppe Kazakhstan , Tajikistan , Uzbekistan Altai steppe and semi-desert Kazakhstan Central Anatolian steppe Turkey Daurian forest steppe China , Mongolia , Russia Eastern Anatolian montane steppe Armenia , Azerbaijan , Georgia , Iran , Turkey Emin Valley steppe China , Kazakhstan Faroe Islands boreal grasslands Faroe Islands , Denmark Gissaro–Alai open woodlands Kyrgyzstan , Tajikistan , Uzbekistan Kazakh forest steppe Kazakhstan , Russia Kazakh steppe Kazakhstan , Russia Kazakh Uplands Kazakhstan Mongolian–Manchurian grassland China , Mongolia , Russia Pontic steppe Kazakhstan , Moldova , Romania , Russia , Ukraine , Bulgaria Sayan Intermontane steppe Russia Selenge–Orkhon forest steppe Mongolia , Russia South Siberian forest steppe Russia Syrian xeric grasslands and shrublands Iraq , Jordan , Syria Tian Shan foothill arid steppe China , Kazakhstan , Kyrgyzstan Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands ecoregions v t e Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands ecoregions v t e Afrotropical Angolan miombo woodlands Angolan mopane woodlands Ascension scrub and grasslands Central Zambezian miombo woodlands East Sudanian savanna Eastern miombo woodlands Guinean forest–savanna mosaic Itigi–Sumbu thicket Kalahari Acacia-Baikiaea woodlands Mandara Plateau mosaic Northern Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets Northern Congolian forest–savanna mosaic Sahelian Acacia savanna Serengeti volcanic grasslands Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets South Arabian fog woodlands, shrublands, and dune Southern Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets Southern Africa bushveld Southern Congolian forest–savanna mosaic Southern miombo woodlands Saint Helena scrub and woodlands Victoria Basin forest–savanna mosaic West Sudanian savanna Western Congolian forest–savanna mosaic Western Zambezian grasslands Zambezian and mopane woodlands Zambezian Baikiaea woodlands Afrotropical Angolan miombo woodlands Angolan mopane woodlands Ascension scrub and grasslands Central Zambezian miombo woodlands East Sudanian savanna Eastern miombo woodlands Guinean forest–savanna mosaic Itigi–Sumbu thicket Kalahari Acacia-Baikiaea woodlands Mandara Plateau mosaic Northern Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets Northern Congolian forest–savanna mosaic Sahelian Acacia savanna Serengeti volcanic grasslands Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets South Arabian fog woodlands, shrublands, and dune Southern Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets Southern Africa bushveld Southern Congolian forest–savanna mosaic Southern miombo woodlands Saint Helena scrub and woodlands Victoria Basin forest–savanna mosaic West Sudanian savanna Western Congolian forest–savanna mosaic Western Zambezian grasslands Zambezian and mopane woodlands Zambezian Baikiaea woodlands Angolan miombo woodlands Angolan mopane woodlands Ascension scrub and grasslands Central Zambezian miombo woodlands East Sudanian savanna Eastern miombo woodlands Guinean forest–savanna mosaic Itigi–Sumbu thicket Kalahari Acacia-Baikiaea woodlands Mandara Plateau mosaic Northern Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets Northern Congolian forest–savanna mosaic Sahelian Acacia savanna Serengeti volcanic grasslands Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets South Arabian fog woodlands, shrublands, and dune Southern Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets Southern Africa bushveld Southern Congolian forest–savanna mosaic Southern miombo woodlands Saint Helena scrub and woodlands Victoria Basin forest–savanna mosaic West Sudanian savanna Western Congolian forest–savanna mosaic Western Zambezian grasslands Zambezian and mopane woodlands Zambezian Baikiaea woodlands Australasian Arnhem Land tropical savanna Brigalow tropical savanna Cape York Peninsula tropical savanna Carpentaria tropical savanna Einasleigh Uplands savanna Kimberley tropical savanna Mitchell grass downs Trans-Fly savanna and grasslands Victoria Plains tropical savanna Australasian Arnhem Land tropical savanna Brigalow tropical savanna Cape York Peninsula tropical savanna Carpentaria tropical savanna Einasleigh Uplands savanna Kimberley tropical savanna Mitchell grass downs Trans-Fly savanna and grasslands Victoria Plains tropical savanna Arnhem Land tropical savanna Brigalow tropical savanna Cape York Peninsula tropical savanna Carpentaria tropical savanna Einasleigh Uplands savanna Kimberley tropical savanna Mitchell grass downs Trans-Fly savanna and grasslands Victoria Plains tropical savanna Indomalayan Terai–Duar savanna and grasslands Indomalayan Terai–Duar savanna and grasslands Terai–Duar savanna and grasslands Nearctic Western Gulf coastal grasslands Nearctic Western Gulf coastal grasslands Western Gulf coastal grasslands Neotropical Beni savanna Campos rupestres Cerrado Clipperton Island shrub and grasslands Córdoba montane savanna Guianan savanna Humid Chaco Llanos Uruguayan savanna Neotropical Beni savanna Campos rupestres Cerrado Clipperton Island shrub and grasslands Córdoba montane savanna Guianan savanna Humid Chaco Llanos Uruguayan savanna Beni savanna Campos rupestres Cerrado Clipperton Island shrub and grasslands Córdoba montane savanna Guianan savanna Humid Chaco Llanos Uruguayan savanna Oceanian Hawaiian tropical high shrublands Hawaiian tropical low shrublands Northwestern Hawaii scrub Oceanian Hawaiian tropical high shrublands Hawaiian tropical low shrublands Northwestern Hawaii scrub Hawaiian tropical high shrublands Hawaiian tropical low shrublands Northwestern Hawaii scrub See also Meadow Forest Woody plant encroachment References ^ a b c d e .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Gibson, David J. 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Retrieved 2020-05-20 . ^ a b Buisson, Elise; Le Stradic, Soizig; Silveira, Fernando A. O.; Durigan, Giselda; Overbeck, Gerhard E.; Fidelis, Alessandra; Fernandes, G. Wilson; Bond, William J.; Hermann, Julia-Maria; Mahy, Gregory; Alvarado, Swanni T. (April 2019). "Resilience and restoration of tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and grassy woodlands: Tropical grassland resilience and restoration" . Biological Reviews . 94 (2): 590– 609. doi : 10.1111/brv.12470 . hdl : 2268/229154 . PMID 30251329 . S2CID 52816465 . ^ Knight, Michelle L.; Overbeck, Gerhard E. (2021-05-28). "How much does is cost to restore a grassland?" . Restoration Ecology . 29 (8) e13463. Bibcode : 2021ResEc..2913463K . doi : 10.1111/rec.13463 . ISSN 1061-2971 . S2CID 236416000 . ^ Bardgett, Richard D.; Bullock, James M.; Lavorel, Sandra; Manning, Peter; Schaffner, Urs; Ostle, Nicholas; Chomel, Mathilde; Durigan, Giselda; L. Fry, Ellen; Johnson, David; Lavallee, Jocelyn M. (2021-09-07). 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UN Decade on Restoration . Retrieved 2021-06-01 . ^ Schimper, A. F. W. (1903) [1898]. Pflanzen-Geographie auf physiologischer Grundlage [ Plant geography on a physiological basis ] (in German). Translated by Fisher, Jena. ^ Ellenberg, H. & D. Mueller-Dombois. 1967. Tentative physiognomic-ecological classification of plant formations of the Earth [based on a discussion draft of the UNESCO working group on vegetation classification and mapping.] Berichte des Geobotanischen Institutes der Eidg. Techn. Hochschule, Stiftung Rübel, Zürich 37 (1965-1966): 21—55, [1] Archived 2016-10-21 at the Wayback Machine . ^ Laycock, W.A. (1979). "Introduction". In French, N R. (ed.). Perspectives in Grassland Ecology . New York: Springer. pp. 1– 2. ISBN 978-1-4612-6182-7 – via Google Books . ^ "Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas and shrublands | Biomes | WWF" . World Wildlife Fund . Retrieved 2020-05-20 . ^ "Temperate grasslands, savannas and shrublands | Biomes | WWF" . World Wildlife Fund . Retrieved 2020-05-20 . ^ "Flooded grasslands and savannas | Biomes | WWF" . World Wildlife Fund . Retrieved 2020-05-20 . ^ "Montane grasslands and shrublands | Biomes | WWF" . World Wildlife Fund . Retrieved 2020-05-20 . ^ "Tundra | Biomes | WWF" . World Wildlife Fund . Retrieved 2020-05-20 . ^ "Deserts and xeric shrublands | Biomes | WWF" . World Wildlife Fund . Retrieved 2020-05-20 . Further reading Courtwright, Julie. 2011. Prairie Fire: A Great Plains History . University Press of Kansas. 274 pp. French, N. R. (ed.). 1979. Perspectives in Grassland Ecology . Springer, New York, 204 pp., Perspectives in Grassland Ecology: Results and Applications of the US/IBP Grassland Biome Study . Suttie, J. M.; Reynolds, S. G.; C. Batello. 2005. Grasslands of the world . Rome: FAO. Grassland of the world . Wilsey, B.J. 2018. Biology of Grasslands. Oxford University Press. External links @media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}} Media related to Grasslands at Wikimedia Commons v t e Phytogeography : Vegetation classification v t e Physiognomy Forests , tropical , seasonal tropical , woodlands , arboretum Shrublands , heath , scrubs, thickets , fruticetum Dwarf-shrubland , subshrublands , dwarf-scrubs, suffruticetum Herbaceous communities , grasslands , steppes , prairies , velds , herbetum Savannas , parklands Scarcely vegetated areas, desert vegetation ( Desert , Barren vegetation ) Forests , tropical , seasonal tropical , woodlands , arboretum Shrublands , heath , scrubs, thickets , fruticetum Dwarf-shrubland , subshrublands , dwarf-scrubs, suffruticetum Herbaceous communities , grasslands , steppes , prairies , velds , herbetum Savannas , parklands Scarcely vegetated areas, desert vegetation ( Desert , Barren vegetation ) Latitude Tropical Subtropical Temperate Subpolar Polar Tropical Subtropical Temperate Subpolar Polar Climatic regime Pluvial , rainy , ombrophilous Cloudy Seasonal Drought Pluvial , rainy , ombrophilous Cloudy Seasonal Drought Altitude Montane Polonyna Tundra Submontane Lowland Coastal Montane Polonyna Tundra Polonyna Tundra Submontane Lowland Coastal Leaves Loss of leaves Deciduous , caducifolious Semi-deciduous , semicaducifolious Evergreen , perennifolious Leaf hardness Sclerophyll , stiff leaves Orthophyll, hyptiophyll leaves Leaf form Aciculifolious, needle-leaved Latifolious, broad-leaved Loss of leaves Deciduous , caducifolious Semi-deciduous , semicaducifolious Evergreen , perennifolious Deciduous , caducifolious Semi-deciduous , semicaducifolious Evergreen , perennifolious Leaf hardness Sclerophyll , stiff leaves Orthophyll, hyptiophyll leaves Sclerophyll , stiff leaves Orthophyll, hyptiophyll leaves Leaf form Aciculifolious, needle-leaved Latifolious, broad-leaved Aciculifolious, needle-leaved Latifolious, broad-leaved Substrate Aquatic Riparian Mangrove Swampy Terrestrial Alpine Arctic Aquatic Riparian Mangrove Swampy Riparian Mangrove Swampy Terrestrial Alpine Arctic Alpine Arctic See also Biogeographic realms Biomes Floristic kingdoms Plant habits Plant life-forms Vegetation Biogeographic realms Biomes Floristic kingdoms Plant habits Plant life-forms Vegetation Authority control databases National United States Japan Czech Republic Israel United States Japan Czech Republic Israel Other NARA Yale LUX NARA Yale LUX Grasslands Agricultural land Ecoregions Grasses Plains Poaceae CS1 maint: location missing publisher CS1 errors: periodical ignored CS1 maint: others CS1 German-language sources (de) Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Commons category link is on Wikidata This page was last edited on 15 January 2026, at 22:03 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Overview 2 History Toggle History subsection 2.1 18th century 2.2 19th century 2.3 20th century 2.4 21st century 2.1 18th century 2.2 19th century 2.3 20th century 2.4 21st century 3 Women in Congress 4 Role Toggle Role subsection 4.1 Powers 4.1.1 Overview 4.1.2 Enumeration 4.1.3 Implicit, commerce clause 4.1.4 Territorial government 4.2 Checks and balances 4.1 Powers 4.1.1 Overview 4.1.2 Enumeration 4.1.3 Implicit, commerce clause 4.1.4 Territorial government 4.1.1 Overview 4.1.2 Enumeration 4.1.3 Implicit, commerce clause 4.1.4 Territorial government 4.2 Checks and balances 5 Structure Toggle Structure subsection 5.1 Committees 5.1.1 Specializations 5.1.2 Power 5.1.3 Officer 5.2 Support services 5.2.1 Library of Congress 5.2.1.1 Congressional Research Service 5.2.2 Congressional Budget Office 5.2.3 Government Accountability Office 5.2.4 Architect of the Capitol 5.2.5 United States Capitol Police 5.2.6 Lobbying 5.3 Partisanship versus bipartisanship 5.1 Committees 5.1.1 Specializations 5.1.2 Power 5.1.3 Officer 5.1.1 Specializations 5.1.2 Power 5.1.3 Officer 5.2 Support services 5.2.1 Library of Congress 5.2.1.1 Congressional Research Service 5.2.2 Congressional Budget Office 5.2.3 Government Accountability Office 5.2.4 Architect of the Capitol 5.2.5 United States Capitol Police 5.2.6 Lobbying 5.2.1 Library of Congress 5.2.1.1 Congressional Research Service 5.2.1.1 Congressional Research Service 5.2.2 Congressional Budget Office 5.2.3 Government Accountability Office 5.2.4 Architect of the Capitol 5.2.5 United States Capitol Police 5.2.6 Lobbying 5.3 Partisanship versus bipartisanship 6 Procedures Toggle Procedures subsection 6.1 Sessions 6.2 Joint sessions 6.3 Bills and resolutions 6.1 Sessions 6.2 Joint sessions 6.3 Bills and resolutions 7 Public interaction Toggle Public interaction subsection 7.1 Advantage of incumbency 7.1.1 Citizens and representatives 7.1.2 Expensive campaigns 7.1.3 Television and negative advertising 7.1.4 Perceptions 7.2 Smaller states and bigger states 7.3 Members and constituents 7.4 Motivation 7.1 Advantage of incumbency 7.1.1 Citizens and representatives 7.1.2 Expensive campaigns 7.1.3 Television and negative advertising 7.1.4 Perceptions 7.1.1 Citizens and representatives 7.1.2 Expensive campaigns 7.1.3 Television and negative advertising 7.1.4 Perceptions 7.2 Smaller states and bigger states 7.3 Members and constituents 7.4 Motivation 8 Privileges Toggle Privileges subsection 8.1 Outside income and gifts 8.2 Pay 8.3 Postage 8.4 Protection 8.1 Outside income and gifts 8.2 Pay 8.3 Postage 8.4 Protection 9 See also 10 Notes 11 Citations 12 References 13 Further reading 14 External links United States Congress Afrikaans Ænglisc العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Diné bizaad Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Galego Gĩkũyũ 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Қазақша Kernowek Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Lombard Magyar Македонски मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands नेपाली 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی پښتو Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Русский Shqip සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська اردو Vèneto Tiếng Việt 吴语 ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikibooks Wikinews Wikiquote Wikisource Wikiversity Wikidata item Page version status This is an accepted version of this page This article has multiple issues. 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Find sources: "United States Congress" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR ( January 2026 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) United States Congress 119th Congress Coat of arms of the United States Type Type Bicameral Houses Senate House of Representatives Senate House of Representatives History Founded March 4, 1789 (236 years ago) ( 1789-03-04 ) Preceded by Congress of the Confederation Leadership President of the Senate JD Vance ( R ) since January 20, 2025 ( 2025-01-20 ) President pro tempore of the Senate Chuck Grassley ( R ) since January 3, 2025 ( 2025-01-03 ) Speaker of the House Mike Johnson ( R ) since October 25, 2023 ( 2023-10-25 ) Structure Seats .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} 535 voting members 100 senators 435 representatives 6 non-voting members 535 voting members 100 senators 435 representatives 100 senators 435 representatives 6 non-voting members Senate political groups Majority (53) .mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{} Republican (53) Minority (47) Democratic (45) Independent (2) [ a ] .mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{} Republican (53) Minority (47) Democratic (45) Independent (2) [ a ] House of Representatives political groups Majority (218) Republican (218) Minority (213) Democratic (213) Vacant (4) Vacant (4) Republican (218) Minority (213) Democratic (213) Vacant (4) Vacant (4) Elections Last Senate election November 5, 2024 Last House of Representatives election November 5, 2024 Next Senate election November 3, 2026 Next House of Representatives election November 3, 2026 Meeting place United States Capitol Washington, D.C. United States of America Website congress .gov Constitution United States Constitution , Article I The United States Congress is the legislative branch of the federal government of the United States . It is a bicameral legislature, including a lower body , the U.S. House of Representatives , and an upper body , the U.S. Senate . They both meet in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C. Members of Congress are chosen through direct election , [ b ] though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a governor 's appointment. Congress has a total of 535 voting members, a figure which includes 100 senators and 435 representatives ; the House of Representatives has 6 additional non-voting members . The vice president of the United States , as president of the Senate, has a vote in the Senate only when there is a tie. [ 2 ] Congress [ c ] convenes for a two-year term (a Congress), commencing every other January. Each Congress is usually split into two sessions, one for each year. Elections are held every even-numbered year on Election Day . The members of the House of Representatives are elected for the two-year term of a Congress. The Reapportionment Act of 1929 established that there be 435 representatives, and the Uniform Congressional District Act requires that they be elected from single-member constituencies or districts . It is also required that the congressional districts be apportioned among states by population every ten years using the U.S. census results, provided that each state has at least one congressional representative. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a six-year term, with terms staggered , so every two years approximately one-third of the Senate is up for election. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, so currently, there are 100 senators for the 50 states. Article One of the U.S. Constitution requires that members of Congress be at least 25 years old for the House and at least 30 years old for the U.S. Senate, be a U.S. citizen for seven years for the House and nine years for the Senate, and be an inhabitant of the state which they represent. Members in both chambers may stand for re-election an unlimited number of times. Congress was created by the U.S. Constitution 's First Article and first met in 1789 , replacing the Congress of the Confederation in its legislative function. Although not legally mandated, in practice members of Congress since the late 19th century are typically affiliated with one of the two major parties , the Democratic Party or the Republican Party , and only rarely with a third party or independents affiliated with no party. Members can also switch parties at any time, though this is uncommon. Overview Article One of the United States Constitution states, "All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives." The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process – legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers. The Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue -raising bills. [ citation needed ] The House initiates and decides impeachment while the Senate votes on conviction and removal of office for impeachment cases. [ 4 ] A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before an impeached person can be removed from office. [ 4 ] The term Congress can also refer to a particular meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years; the current one, the 119th Congress , began on January 3, 2025, and will end on January 3, 2027. Since the adoption of the Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution , the Congress has started and ended at noon on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators, while members of the House of Representatives are commonly referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. [ citation needed ] Scholar and representative Lee H. Hamilton asserted that the "historic mission of Congress has been to maintain freedom" and insisted it was a "driving force in American government" [ 5 ] and a "remarkably resilient institution". [ 6 ] Congress is the "heart and soul of our democracy", according to this view, even though legislators rarely achieve the prestige or name recognition of presidents or Supreme Court justices ; one wrote that "legislators remain ghosts in America's historical imagination." One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played an active role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. [ 7 ] Several academics described Congress: Congress reflects us in all our strengths and all our weaknesses. It reflects our regional idiosyncrasies, our ethnic, religious, and racial diversity, our multitude of professions, and our shadings of opinion on everything from the value of war to the war over values. Congress is the government's most representative body ... Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the great public policy issues of the day. [ 5 ] Congress reflects us in all our strengths and all our weaknesses. It reflects our regional idiosyncrasies, our ethnic, religious, and racial diversity, our multitude of professions, and our shadings of opinion on everything from the value of war to the war over values. Congress is the government's most representative body ... Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the great public policy issues of the day. [ 5 ] Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux. [ 8 ] In recent times, the American South and West have gained House seats according to demographic changes recorded by the census and includes more women and minorities . [ 8 ] While power balances among the different parts of government continue to change, the internal structure of Congress is important to understand along with its interactions with so-called intermediary institutions such as political parties , civic associations , interest groups , and the mass media . [ 7 ] The Congress of the United States serves two distinct purposes that overlap: local representation to the federal government of a congressional district by representatives and a state's at-large representation to the federal government by senators . [ citation needed ] Most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent. [ 9 ] The historical records of the House of Representatives and the Senate are maintained by the Center for Legislative Archives, which is a part of the National Archives and Records Administration . [ 10 ] Congress is directly responsible for the governing of the District of Columbia , the current seat of the federal government. [ citation needed ] History 18th century The First Continental Congress was a gathering of representatives from twelve of the Thirteen Colonies . [ 11 ] On July 4, 1776, the Second Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence , referring to the new nation as the "United States of America". The Articles of Confederation in 1781 created the Congress of the Confederation , a unicameral body with equal representation among the states in which each state had a veto over most decisions. Congress had executive but not legislative authority, and the federal judiciary was confined to admiralty [ 12 ] and lacked authority to collect taxes, regulate commerce, or enforce laws. [ 13 ] [ 14 ] Government powerlessness led to the Convention of 1787 which proposed a revised constitution with a two-chamber or bicameral Congress. [ 15 ] Smaller states argued for equal representation for each state. [ 16 ] The two-chamber structure had functioned well in state governments. [ 17 ] A compromise plan, the Connecticut Compromise , was adopted with representatives chosen by population (benefiting larger states) and exactly two senators chosen by state governments (benefiting smaller states). [ 8 ] [ 18 ] The ratified constitution created a federal structure with two overlapping power centers so that each citizen as an individual is subject to the powers of state government and national government. [ 19 ] [ 20 ] [ 21 ] To protect against abuse of power, each branch of government – executive, legislative, and judicial – had a separate sphere of authority and could check other branches according to the principle of the separation of powers . [ 4 ] Furthermore, there were checks and balances within the legislature since there were two separate chambers. [ 22 ] The new government became active in 1789. [ 4 ] [ 23 ] Political scientist Julian E. Zelizer suggested there were four main congressional eras, with considerable overlap, and included the formative era (1780s–1820s), the partisan era (1830s–1900s), the committee era (1910s–1960s), and the contemporary era (1970–present). [ 24 ] Federalists and anti-federalists jostled for power in the early years as political parties became pronounced. With the passage of the Constitution and the Bill of Rights , the anti-federalist movement was exhausted. Some activists joined the Anti-Administration Party that James Madison and Thomas Jefferson were forming about 1790–1791 to oppose policies of Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton ; it soon became the Democratic-Republican Party or the Jeffersonian Republican Party [ 25 ] [ 26 ] and thus began the era of the First Party System . [ citation needed ] 19th century In 1800, Thomas Jefferson 's election to the presidency marked a peaceful transition of power between the parties. John Marshall , 4th chief justice of the Supreme Court , empowered the courts by establishing the principle of judicial review in law in the landmark case Marbury v. Madison in 1803, effectively giving the Supreme Court a power to nullify congressional legislation. [ 27 ] [ 28 ] The Civil War , which lasted from 1861 to 1865, resolved the slavery issue and unified the nation under federal authority but weakened the power of states' rights . The Gilded Age (1877–1901) was marked by Republican dominance of Congress. During this time, lobbying activity became more intense, particularly during the administration of President Ulysses S. Grant in which influential lobbies advocated for railroad subsidies and tariffs on wool. [ 29 ] Immigration and high birth rates swelled the ranks of citizens and the nation grew at a rapid pace. The Progressive Era was characterized by strong party leadership in both houses of Congress and calls for reform; sometimes reformers said lobbyists corrupted politics. [ 30 ] The position of Speaker of the House became extremely powerful under leaders such as Thomas Reed in 1890 and Joseph Gurney Cannon . [ citation needed ] 20th century By the beginning of the 20th century, party structures and leadership emerged as key organizers of Senate proceedings. [ 32 ] A system of seniority, in which long-time members of Congress gained more and more power, encouraged politicians of both parties to seek long terms. Committee chairmen remained influential in both houses until the reforms of the 1970s. [ 33 ] Important structural changes included the direct popular election of senators according to the Seventeenth Amendment , [ 18 ] ratified on April 8, 1913. Supreme Court decisions based on the Constitution's commerce clause expanded congressional power to regulate the economy. [ 34 ] One effect of popular election of senators was to reduce the difference between the House and Senate in terms of their link to the electorate. [ 35 ] Lame duck reforms according to the Twentieth Amendment reduced the power of defeated and retiring members of Congress to wield influence despite their lack of accountability. [ 36 ] The Great Depression ushered in President Franklin Roosevelt and strong control by Democrats [ 37 ] and historic New Deal policies. Roosevelt 's election in 1932 marked a shift in government power towards the executive branch. Numerous New Deal initiatives came from the White House rather initiated by Congress. [ 38 ] President Roosevelt pushed his agenda in Congress by detailing Executive Branch staff to friendly Senate committees, a practice that ended with the Legislative Reorganization Act of 1946. [ 39 ] The Democratic Party controlled both houses of Congress for many years. [ 40 ] [ 41 ] [ 42 ] During this time, Republicans and conservative southern Democrats [ 43 ] formed the Conservative Coalition . [ 42 ] [ 44 ] Democrats maintained control of Congress during World War II . [ 45 ] [ 46 ] Congress struggled with efficiency in the postwar era partly by reducing the number of standing congressional committees. [ 47 ] Southern Democrats became a powerful force in many influential committees although political power alternated between Republicans and Democrats during these years. More complex issues required greater specialization and expertise, such as space flight and atomic energy policy. [ 47 ] Senator Joseph McCarthy exploited the fear of communism during the Second Red Scare and conducted televised hearings. [ 48 ] [ 49 ] In 1960, Democratic candidate John F. Kennedy narrowly won the presidency and power shifted again to the Democrats who dominated both chambers of Congress from 1961 to 1980, and retained a consistent majority in the House from 1955 to 1994. [ 50 ] Congress enacted Johnson's Great Society program to fight poverty and hunger. The Watergate Scandal had a powerful effect of waking up a somewhat dormant Congress which investigated presidential wrongdoing and coverups; the scandal "substantially reshaped" relations between the branches of government, suggested political scientist Bruce J. Schulman . [ 51 ] Partisanship returned, particularly after 1994; one analyst attributes partisan infighting to slim congressional majorities which discouraged friendly social gatherings in meeting rooms such as the Board of Education . [ 7 ] Congress began reasserting its authority. [ 38 ] [ 52 ] Lobbying became a big factor despite the 1971 Federal Election Campaign Act . Political action committees or PACs could make substantive donations to congressional candidates via such means as soft money contributions. [ 53 ] While soft money funds were not given to specific campaigns for candidates, the money often benefited candidates substantially in an indirect way and helped reelect candidates. [ 53 ] Reforms such as the 2002 Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act limited campaign donations but did not limit soft money contributions. [ 54 ] One source suggests post-Watergate laws amended in 1974 meant to reduce the "influence of wealthy contributors and end payoffs" instead "legitimized PACs" since they "enabled individuals to band together in support of candidates". [ 55 ] From 1974 to 1984, PACs grew from 608 to 3,803 and donations leaped from $12.5 million to $120 million [ 55 ] [ 56 ] [ 57 ] along with concern over PAC influence in Congress. [ 58 ] [ 59 ] In 2009, there were 4,600 business, labor and special-interest PACs [ 60 ] including ones for lawyers , electricians , and real estate brokers . [ 61 ] From 2007 to 2008, 175 members of Congress received "half or more of their campaign cash" from PACs. [ 60 ] [ 62 ] [ 63 ] From 1970 to 2009, the House expanded delegates, along with their powers and privileges representing U.S. citizens in non-state areas, beginning with representation on committees for Puerto Rico's resident commissioner in 1970. In 1971, a delegate for the District of Columbia was authorized, and in 1972 new delegate positions were established for U.S. Virgin Islands and Guam . In 1978, an additional delegate for American Samoa were added. [ citation needed ] In the late 20th century, the media became more important in Congress's work. [ 64 ] Analyst Michael Schudson suggested that greater publicity undermined the power of political parties and caused "more roads to open up in Congress for individual representatives to influence decisions". [ 64 ] Norman Ornstein suggested that media prominence led to a greater emphasis on the negative and sensational side of Congress, and referred to this as the tabloidization of media coverage. [ 8 ] Others saw pressure to squeeze a political position into a thirty-second soundbite. [ 65 ] A report characterized Congress in 2013 as unproductive, gridlocked, and "setting records for futility". [ 66 ] In October 2013, with Congress unable to compromise, the government was shut down for several weeks and risked a serious default on debt payments, causing 60% of the public to say they would "fire every member of Congress" including their own representative. [ 67 ] One report suggested Congress posed the "biggest risk to the U.S. economy" because of its brinksmanship , "down-to-the-wire budget and debt crises" and "indiscriminate spending cuts", resulting in slowed economic activity and keeping up to two million people unemployed. [ 68 ] There has been increasing public dissatisfaction with Congress, [ 69 ] with extremely low approval ratings [ 70 ] [ 71 ] which dropped to 5% in October 2013. [ 72 ] 21st century In 2009, Congress authorized another delegate for the Northern Mariana Islands . These six members of Congress enjoy floor privileges to introduce bills and resolutions, and in recent Congresses they vote in permanent and select committees, in party caucuses and in joint conferences with the Senate. They have Capitol Hill offices, staff and two annual appointments to each of the four military academies. While their votes are constitutional when Congress authorizes their House Committee of the Whole votes, recent Congresses have not allowed for that, and they cannot vote when the House is meeting as the House of Representatives. [ 74 ] [ 75 ] On January 6, 2021, Congress gathered to confirm the election of Joe Biden, when supporters of the outgoing president Donald Trump attacked the building . The session of Congress ended prematurely, and Congress representatives evacuated. Trump supporters occupied Congress until D.C. police evacuated the area. The event was the first time since the Burning of Washington by the British during the War of 1812 that the United States Congress was forcefully occupied. [ 76 ] Despite the importance of Congress outlined in Article One , Congress has [ when? ] lost power to the executive and judiciary both intentionally and unintentionally. [ 77 ] [ 78 ] [ 79 ] [ 80 ] [ 81 ] Women in Congress Various social and structural barriers have prevented women from gaining seats in Congress. In the early 20th century, women's domestic roles and the inability to vote forestalled opportunities to run for and hold public office. The two party system and the lack of term limits favored incumbent white men, making the widow's succession – in which a woman temporarily took over a seat vacated by the death of her husband – the most common path to Congress for white women. [ 82 ] Women candidates began making substantial inroads in the later 20th century, due in part to new political support mechanisms and public awareness of their underrepresentation in Congress. [ 83 ] Recruitment and financial support for women candidates were rare until the second-wave feminism movement , when activists moved into electoral politics. Beginning in the 1970s, donors and political action committees like EMILY's List began recruiting, training and funding women candidates. Watershed political moments like the confirmation of Clarence Thomas and the 2016 presidential election created momentum for women candidates, resulting in the Year of the Woman and the election of members of The Squad , respectively. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] Women of color faced additional challenges that made their ascension to Congress even more difficult. Jim Crow laws , voter suppression and other forms of structural racism made it virtually impossible for women of color to reach Congress prior to 1965. The passage of the Voting Rights Act that year , and the elimination of race-based immigration laws in the 1960s opened the possibility for Black, Asian American, Latina and other non-white women candidates to run for Congress. [ 86 ] Racially polarized voting, racial stereotypes and lack of institutional support still prevent women of color from reaching Congress as easily as white people . Senate elections, which require victories in statewide electorates, have been particularly difficult for women of color. [ 87 ] Carol Moseley Braun became the first woman of color to reach the Senate in 1993. The second, Mazie Hirono , won in 2013. [ citation needed ] In 2021, Kamala Harris became the first female President of the Senate , which came with her role as the first female Vice President of the United States . [ citation needed ] Role Powers Overview Article One of the Constitution creates and sets forth the structure and most of the powers of Congress. Sections One through Six describe how Congress is elected and gives each House the power to create its own structure. Section Seven lays out the process for creating laws, and Section Eight enumerates numerous powers. Section Nine is a list of powers Congress does not have, and Section Ten enumerates powers of the state, some of which may only be granted by Congress. [ 88 ] Constitutional amendments have granted Congress additional powers. Congress also has implied powers derived from the Constitution's Necessary and Proper Clause . [ citation needed ] Congress has authority over financial and budgetary policy through the enumerated power to "lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States". There is vast authority over budgets, although analyst Eric Patashnik suggested that much of Congress's power to manage the budget has been lost when the welfare state expanded since "entitlements were institutionally detached from Congress's ordinary legislative routine and rhythm." [ 89 ] Another factor leading to less control over the budget was a Keynesian belief that balanced budgets were unnecessary. [ 89 ] The Sixteenth Amendment in 1913 extended congressional power of taxation to include income taxes without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration. [ 90 ] The Constitution also grants Congress the exclusive power to appropriate funds, and this power of the purse is one of Congress's primary checks on the executive branch. [ 90 ] Congress can borrow money on the credit of the United States, regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the states, and coin money. [ 91 ] Generally, the Senate and the House of Representatives have equal legislative authority, although only the House may originate revenue and appropriation bills . [ 4 ] Congress has an important role in national defense , including the exclusive power to declare war, to raise and maintain the armed forces , and to make rules for the military. [ 92 ] Some critics charge that the executive branch has usurped Congress's constitutionally defined task of declaring war. [ 93 ] While historically presidents initiated the process for going to war, they asked for and received formal war declarations from Congress for the War of 1812 , the Mexican–American War , the Spanish–American War , World War I , and World War II , [ 94 ] although President Theodore Roosevelt 's military move into Panama in 1903 did not get congressional approval. [ 94 ] In the early days after the North Korean invasion of 1950 , President Truman described the American response as a "police action". [ 95 ] According to Time magazine in 1970, "U.S. presidents [had] ordered troops into position or action without a formal congressional declaration a total of 149 times." [ 94 ] In 1993, Michael Kinsley wrote that "Congress's war power has become the most flagrantly disregarded provision in the Constitution," and that the "real erosion [of Congress's war power] began after World War II." [ 96 ] [ 97 ] [ 98 ] Disagreement about the extent of congressional versus presidential power regarding war has been present periodically throughout the nation's history. [ 99 ] Congress can establish post offices and post roads, issue patents and copyrights , fix standards of weights and measures, establish Courts inferior to the Supreme Court , and "make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof". Article Four gives Congress the power to admit new states into the Union. [ citation needed ] One of Congress's foremost non-legislative functions is the power to investigate and oversee the executive branch. [ 100 ] Congressional oversight is usually delegated to committees and is facilitated by Congress's subpoena power. [ 101 ] Some critics have charged that Congress has in some instances failed to do an adequate job of overseeing the other branches of government. In the Plame affair , critics including Representative Henry A. Waxman charged that Congress was not doing an adequate job of oversight in this case. [ 102 ] There have been concerns about congressional oversight of executive actions such as warrantless wiretapping , although others respond that Congress did investigate the legality of presidential decisions. [ 103 ] Political scientists Ornstein and Mann suggested that oversight functions do not help members of Congress win reelection. Congress also has the exclusive power of removal , allowing impeachment and removal of the president, federal judges and other federal officers. [ 104 ] There have been charges that presidents acting under the doctrine of the unitary executive have assumed important legislative and budgetary powers that should belong to Congress. [ 105 ] So-called signing statements are one way in which a president can "tip the balance of power between Congress and the White House a little more in favor of the executive branch", according to one account. [ 106 ] Past presidents, including Ronald Reagan , George H. W. Bush , Bill Clinton , and George W. Bush , [ 107 ] have made public statements when signing congressional legislation about how they understand a bill or plan to execute it, and commentators, including the American Bar Association , have described this practice as against the spirit of the Constitution. [ 108 ] [ 109 ] There have been concerns that presidential authority to cope with financial crises is eclipsing the power of Congress. [ 110 ] In 2008, George F. Will called the Capitol building a "tomb for the antiquated idea that the legislative branch matters". [ 111 ] Enumeration The Constitution enumerates the powers of Congress in detail. In addition, other congressional powers have been granted, or confirmed, by constitutional amendments. The Thirteenth (1865), Fourteenth (1868), and Fifteenth Amendments (1870) gave Congress authority to enact legislation to enforce rights of African Americans, including voting rights , due process , and equal protection under the law. [ 112 ] Generally militia forces are controlled by state governments, not Congress. [ 113 ] Implicit, commerce clause Congress also has implied powers deriving from the Constitution's Necessary and Proper Clause which permit Congress to "make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof". [ 114 ] Broad interpretations of this clause and of the Commerce Clause , the enumerated power to regulate commerce, in rulings such as McCulloch v. Maryland , have effectively widened the scope of Congress's legislative authority far beyond that prescribed in Section Eight. [ 115 ] [ 116 ] Territorial government Constitutional responsibility for the oversight of Washington, D.C. , the federal district and national capital, and the U.S. territories of Guam , American Samoa , Puerto Rico , the U.S. Virgin Islands , and the Northern Mariana Islands rests with Congress. [ 117 ] The republican form of government in territories is devolved by congressional statute to the respective territories including direct election of governors, the D.C. mayor and locally elective territorial legislatures. [ 118 ] Each territory and Washington, D.C., elects a non-voting delegate to the U.S. House of Representatives as they have throughout congressional history. They "possess the same powers as other members of the House, except that they may not vote when the House is meeting as the House of Representatives". They are assigned offices and allowances for staff, participate in debate, and appoint constituents to the four military service academies for the Army, Navy, Air Force and Coast Guard. [ 119 ] Washington, D.C., citizens alone among U.S. territories have the right to directly vote for the President of the United States, although the Democratic and Republican political parties nominate their presidential candidates at national conventions which include delegates from the five major territories. [ 120 ] Checks and balances Representative Lee H. Hamilton explained how Congress functions within the federal government: To me the key to understanding it is balance. The founders went to great lengths to balance institutions against each other – balancing powers among the three branches: Congress, the president, and the Supreme Court; between the House of Representatives and the Senate; between the federal government and the states; among states of different sizes and regions with different interests; between the powers of government and the rights of citizens, as spelled out in the Bill of Rights ... No one part of government dominates the other. [ 5 ] : 6 To me the key to understanding it is balance. The founders went to great lengths to balance institutions against each other – balancing powers among the three branches: Congress, the president, and the Supreme Court; between the House of Representatives and the Senate; between the federal government and the states; among states of different sizes and regions with different interests; between the powers of government and the rights of citizens, as spelled out in the Bill of Rights ... No one part of government dominates the other. [ 5 ] : 6 The Constitution provides checks and balances among the three branches of the federal government. Its authors expected the greater power to lie with Congress as described in Article One. [ 5 ] [ 121 ] The influence of Congress on the presidency has varied from period to period depending on factors such as congressional leadership, presidential political influence, historical circumstances such as war, and individual initiative by members of Congress. The impeachment of Andrew Johnson made the presidency less powerful than Congress for a considerable period afterwards. [ 122 ] The 20th and 21st centuries have seen the rise of presidential power under politicians such as Theodore Roosevelt , Woodrow Wilson , Franklin D. Roosevelt , Richard Nixon , Ronald Reagan , and George W. Bush . [ 123 ] Congress restricted presidential power with laws such as the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974 and the War Powers Resolution . The presidency remains considerably more powerful today than during the 19th century. [ 5 ] [ 123 ] Executive branch officials are often loath to reveal sensitive information to members of Congress because of concern that information could not be kept secret; in return, knowing they may be in the dark about executive branch activity, congressional officials are more likely to distrust their counterparts in executive agencies. [ 124 ] Many government actions require fast coordinated effort by many agencies, and this is a task that Congress is ill-suited for. Congress is slow, open, divided, and not well matched to handle more rapid executive action or do a good job of overseeing such activity, according to one analysis. [ 125 ] The Constitution concentrates removal powers in the Congress by empowering and obligating the House of Representatives to impeach executive or judicial officials for "Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors". Impeachment is a formal accusation of unlawful activity by a civil officer or government official. The Senate is constitutionally empowered and obligated to try all impeachments. A simple majority in the House is required to impeach an official; a two-thirds majority in the Senate is required for conviction. A convicted official is automatically removed from office; in addition, the Senate may stipulate that the defendant be banned from holding office in the future. Impeachment proceedings may not inflict more than this. A convicted party may face criminal penalties in a normal court of law. In the history of the United States, the House of Representatives has impeached sixteen officials, of whom seven were convicted. Another resigned before the Senate could complete the trial. Only three presidents have ever been impeached: Andrew Johnson in 1868, Bill Clinton in 1999, Donald Trump in 2019 and 2021. The trials of Johnson, Clinton, and the 2019 trial of Trump all ended in acquittal; in Johnson's case, the Senate fell one vote short of the two-thirds majority required for conviction . In 1974, Richard Nixon resigned from office after impeachment proceedings in the House Judiciary Committee indicated his removal from office. [ citation needed ] The Senate has an important check on the executive power by confirming Cabinet officials, judges, and other high officers "by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate". It confirms most presidential nominees, but rejections are not uncommon. Furthermore, treaties negotiated by the President must be ratified by a two-thirds majority vote in the Senate to take effect. As a result, presidential arm-twisting of senators can happen before a key vote; for example, President Obama's secretary of state, Hillary Clinton , urged her former senate colleagues to approve a nuclear arms treaty with Russia in 2010. [ 126 ] The House of Representatives has no formal role in either the ratification of treaties or the appointment of federal officials, other than in filling a vacancy in the office of the vice president; in such a case, a majority vote in each House is required to confirm a president's nomination of a vice president. [ 4 ] In 1803, the Supreme Court established judicial review of federal legislation in Marbury v. Madison , holding that Congress could not grant unconstitutional power to the Court itself. The Constitution did not explicitly state that the courts may exercise judicial review. The notion that courts could declare laws unconstitutional was envisioned by the founding fathers . Alexander Hamilton , for example, mentioned and expounded upon the doctrine in Federalist No. 78 . Originalists on the Supreme Court have argued that if the constitution does not say something explicitly it is unconstitutional to infer what it should, might, or could have said. [ 127 ] Judicial review means that the Supreme Court can nullify a congressional law. It is a huge check by the courts on the legislative authority and limits congressional power substantially. In 1857, for example, the Supreme Court struck down provisions of a congressional act of 1820 in its Dred Scott decision. [ 128 ] At the same time, the Supreme Court can extend congressional power through its constitutional interpretations. [ citation needed ] The congressional inquiry into St. Clair's Defeat of 1791 was the first congressional investigation of the executive branch. [ 129 ] Investigations are conducted to gather information on the need for future legislation, to test the effectiveness of laws already passed, and to inquire into the qualifications and performance of members and officials of the other branches. Committees may hold hearings, and, if necessary, subpoena people to testify when investigating issues over which it has the power to legislate. [ 130 ] [ 131 ] Witnesses who refuse to testify may be cited for contempt of Congress , and those who testify falsely may be charged with perjury . Most committee hearings are open to the public (the House and Senate intelligence committees are the exception); important hearings are widely reported in the mass media and transcripts published a few months afterwards. [ 131 ] Congress, in the course of studying possible laws and investigating matters, generates an incredible amount of information in various forms, and can be described as a publisher. [ 132 ] Indeed, it publishes House and Senate reports [ 132 ] and maintains databases which are updated irregularly with publications in a variety of electronic formats. [ 132 ] Congress also plays a role in presidential elections. Both Houses meet in joint session on the sixth day of January following a presidential election to count the electoral votes, and there are procedures to follow if no candidate wins a majority. [ 4 ] The main result of congressional activity is the creation of laws, [ 133 ] most of which are contained in the United States Code, arranged by subject matter alphabetically under fifty title headings to present the laws "in a concise and usable form". [ 4 ] Structure Congress is split into two chambers – House and Senate – and manages the task of writing national legislation by dividing work into separate committees which specialize in different areas. Some members of Congress are elected by their peers to be officers of these committees. Further, Congress has ancillary organizations such as the Government Accountability Office and the Library of Congress to help provide it with information, and members of Congress have staff and offices to assist them as well. In addition, a vast industry of lobbyists helps members write legislation on behalf of diverse corporate and labor interests. Committees Specializations The committee structure permits members of Congress to study a particular subject intensely. It is neither expected nor possible that a member be an expert on all subject areas before Congress. [ 134 ] As time goes by, members develop expertise in particular subjects and their legal aspects. Committees investigate specialized subjects and advise the entire Congress about choices and trade-offs. The choice of specialty may be influenced by the member's constituency, important regional issues, prior background and experience. [ 135 ] Senators often choose a different specialty from that of the other senator from their state to prevent overlap. [ 136 ] Some committees specialize in running the business of other committees and exert a powerful influence over all legislation; for example, the House Ways and Means Committee has considerable influence over House affairs. [ 137 ] Power Committees write legislation. While procedures, such as the House discharge petition process, can introduce bills to the House floor and effectively bypass committee input, they are exceedingly difficult to implement without committee action. Committees have power and have been called independent fiefdoms . Legislative, oversight, and internal administrative tasks are divided among about two hundred committees and subcommittees which gather information, evaluate alternatives, and identify problems. [ 138 ] They propose solutions for consideration by the full chamber. [ 138 ] In addition, they perform the function of oversight by monitoring the executive branch and investigating wrongdoing. [ 138 ] Officer At the start of each two-year session, the House elects a speaker who does not normally preside over debates but serves as the majority party's leader. In the Senate, the vice president is the ex officio president of the Senate. In addition, the Senate elects an officer called the president pro tempore . Pro tempore means for the time being and this office is usually held by the most senior member of the Senate's majority party and customarily keeps this position until there is a change in party control. Accordingly, the Senate does not necessarily elect a new president pro tempore at the beginning of a new Congress. In the House and Senate, the actual presiding officer is generally a junior member of the majority party who is appointed so that new members become acquainted with the rules of the chamber. [ citation needed ] Support services Library of Congress The Library of Congress (LOC) was established by an act of Congress in 1800. It is primarily housed in three buildings on Capitol Hill , but also includes several other sites: the National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped in Washington, D.C.; the National Audio-Visual Conservation Center in Culpeper, Virginia ; a large book storage facility located in Fort Meade, Maryland ; and multiple overseas offices. The Library had mostly law books when it was burnt by British forces in 1814 during the War of 1812 , but the library's collections were restored and expanded when Congress authorized the purchase of Thomas Jefferson 's private library. One of the library's missions is to serve Congress and its staff as well as the American public. It is the largest library in the world with nearly 150 million items including books, films, maps, photographs, music, manuscripts, graphics, and materials in 470 languages. [ 139 ] Congressional Research Service The Congressional Research Service (CRS), part of the Library of Congress, provides detailed, up-to-date and non-partisan research for senators, representatives, and their staff to help them carry out their official duties. It provides ideas for legislation, helps members analyze a bill, facilitates public hearings, makes reports, consults on matters such as parliamentary procedure, and helps the two chambers resolve disagreements. It has been called the "House's think tank" and has a staff of about 900 employees. [ 140 ] Congressional Budget Office The Congressional Budget Office (CBO) is a federal agency which provides economic data to Congress. [ 141 ] It was created as an independent non-partisan agency by the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974 . It helps Congress estimate revenue inflows from taxes and helps the budgeting process. It makes projections about such matters as the national debt [ 142 ] as well as likely costs of legislation. It prepares an annual Economic and Budget Outlook with a mid-year update and writes An Analysis of the President's Budgetary Proposals for the Senate's Appropriations Committee . The speaker of the House and the Senate's president pro tempore jointly appoint the CBO director for a four-year term. [ citation needed ] Government Accountability Office The Government Accountability Office (GAO), is a federal agency within the legislative branch that provides auditing , evaluative , and investigative services for the United States Congress in an independent and nonpartisan capacity. [ 143 ] The GAO is the supreme audit institution of the federal government of the United States . It identifies its core "mission values" as: accountability, integrity, and reliability. [ 144 ] It is also known as the "congressional watchdog". [ 145 ] Architect of the Capitol The Architect of the Capitol (AOC) is a federal agency within the legislative branch that is responsible for the maintenance , operation, development, construction , building preservation , and property management of the United States Capitol Complex [ 146 ] and is accountable directly to the United States Congress and the Supreme Court of the United States . [ 147 ] United States Capitol Police Lobbying Lobbyists represent diverse interests and often seek to influence congressional decisions to reflect their clients' needs. Lobby groups and their members sometimes write legislation and whip bills. In 2007, there were approximately 17,000 federal lobbyists in Washington, D.C. [ 148 ] They explain to legislators the goals of their organizations. Some lobbyists represent non-profit organizations and work pro bono for issues in which they are personally interested. [ citation needed ] Partisanship versus bipartisanship Congress has alternated between periods of constructive cooperation and compromise between parties, known as bipartisanship , and periods of deep political polarization and fierce infighting, known as partisanship . The period after the Civil War was marked by partisanship, as is the case today. It is generally easier for committees to reach accord on issues when compromise is possible. Some political scientists speculate that a prolonged period marked by narrow majorities in both chambers of Congress has intensified partisanship in the last few decades, but that an alternation of control of Congress between Democrats and Republicans may lead to greater flexibility in policies, as well as pragmatism and civility within the institution. [ 149 ] Procedures Sessions A term of Congress is divided into two " sessions ", one for each year; Congress has occasionally been called into an extra or special session . A new session commences on January 3 each year unless Congress decides differently. The Constitution requires Congress to meet at least once each year and forbids either house from meeting outside the Capitol without the consent of the other house. Joint sessions Joint sessions of the United States Congress occur on special occasions that require a concurrent resolution from House and Senate. These sessions include counting electoral votes after a presidential election and the president's State of the Union address. The constitutionally mandated report , normally given as an annual speech, is modeled on Britain's Speech from the Throne , was written by most presidents after Jefferson but personally delivered as a spoken oration beginning with Wilson in 1913. Joint Sessions and Joint Meetings are traditionally presided over by the speaker of the House, except when counting presidential electoral votes when the vice president (acting as the president of the Senate) presides. [ citation needed ] Bills and resolutions Ideas for legislation can come from members, lobbyists, state legislatures, constituents, legislative counsel, or executive agencies. Anyone can write a bill, but only members of Congress may introduce bills. Most bills are not written by Congress members, but originate from the Executive branch; interest groups often draft bills as well. The usual next step is for the proposal to be passed to a committee for review. [ 4 ] A proposal is usually in one of these forms: Bills are laws in the making. A House-originated bill begins with the letters "H.R." for "House of Representatives", followed by a number kept as it progresses. [ 133 ] Joint resolutions. There is little difference between a bill and a joint resolution since both are treated similarly; a joint resolution originating from the House, for example, begins "H.J.Res." followed by its number. [ 133 ] Concurrent Resolutions affect only the House and Senate and accordingly are not presented to the president. In the House, they begin with "H.Con.Res." [ 133 ] Simple resolutions concern only the House or only the Senate and begin with "H.Res." or "S.Res." [ 133 ] Representatives introduce a bill while the House is in session by placing it in the hopper on the Clerk's desk. [ 133 ] It is assigned a number and referred to a committee which studies each bill intensely at this stage. [ 133 ] Drafting statutes requires "great skill, knowledge, and experience" and sometimes take a year or more. [ 4 ] Sometimes lobbyists write legislation and submit it to a member for introduction. Joint resolutions are the normal way to propose a constitutional amendment or declare war. On the other hand, concurrent resolutions (passed by both houses) and simple resolutions (passed by only one house) do not have the force of law but express the opinion of Congress or regulate procedure . Bills may be introduced by any member of either house. The Constitution states: "All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives." While the Senate cannot originate revenue and appropriation bills , it has the power to amend or reject them. Congress has sought ways to establish appropriate spending levels. [ 4 ] Each chamber determines its own internal rules of operation unless specified in the Constitution or prescribed by law. In the House, a Rules Committee guides legislation; in the Senate, a Standing Rules committee is in charge. Each branch has its own traditions; for example, the Senate relies heavily on the practice of getting "unanimous consent" for noncontroversial matters. [ 4 ] House and Senate rules can be complex, sometimes requiring a hundred specific steps before a bill can become a law. [ 5 ] Members sometimes turn to outside experts to learn about proper congressional procedures. [ 150 ] Each bill goes through several stages in each house including consideration by a committee and advice from the Government Accountability Office . [ 4 ] Most legislation is considered by standing committees which have jurisdiction over a particular subject such as Agriculture or Appropriations. The House has twenty standing committees; the Senate has sixteen. Standing committees meet at least once each month. [ 4 ] Almost all standing committee meetings for transacting business must be open to the public unless the committee votes, publicly, to close the meeting. [ 4 ] A committee might call for public hearings on important bills. [ 4 ] Each committee is led by a chair who belongs to the majority party and a ranking member of the minority party. Witnesses and experts can present their case for or against a bill. [ 133 ] Then, a bill may go to what is called a mark-up session, where committee members debate the bill's merits and may offer amendments or revisions. [ 133 ] Committees may also amend the bill, but the full house holds the power to accept or reject committee amendments. After debate, the committee votes whether it wishes to report the measure to the full house. If a bill is tabled then it is rejected. If amendments are extensive, sometimes a new bill with amendments built in will be submitted as a so-called clean bill with a new number. [ 133 ] Both houses have procedures under which committees can be bypassed or overruled but they are rarely used. Generally, members who have been in Congress longer have greater seniority and therefore greater power. [ 151 ] A bill which reaches the floor of the full house can be simple or complex [ 133 ] and begins with an enacting formula such as "Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled ..." Consideration of a bill requires, itself, a rule which is a simple resolution specifying the particulars of debate – time limits, possibility of further amendments, and such. [ 133 ] Each side has equal time and members can yield to other members who wish to speak. [ 133 ] Sometimes opponents seek to recommit a bill which means to change part of it. [ 133 ] Generally, discussion requires a quorum , usually half of the total number of representatives, before discussion can begin, although there are exceptions. [ 152 ] The house may debate and amend the bill; the precise procedures used by the House and Senate differ. A final vote on the bill follows. Once a bill is approved by one house, it is sent to the other which may pass, reject, or amend it. For the bill to become law, both houses must agree to identical versions of the bill. [ 133 ] If the second house amends the bill, then the differences between the two versions must be reconciled in a conference committee , an ad hoc committee that includes senators and representatives [ 133 ] sometimes by using a reconciliation process to limit budget bills. [ 4 ] Both houses use a budget enforcement mechanism informally known as pay-as-you-go or paygo which discourages members from considering acts that increase budget deficits. [ 4 ] If both houses agree to the version reported by the conference committee, the bill passes, otherwise it fails. [ citation needed ] The Constitution specifies that a majority of members (a quorum ) be present before doing business in each house. The rules of each house assume that a quorum is present unless a quorum call demonstrates the contrary and debate often continues despite the lack of a majority. [ citation needed ] Voting within Congress can take many forms, including systems using lights and bells and electronic voting. [ 4 ] Both houses use voice voting to decide most matters in which members shout "aye" or "no" and the presiding officer announces the result. The Constitution requires a recorded vote if demanded by one-fifth of the members present or when voting to override a presidential veto. If the voice vote is unclear or if the matter is controversial, a recorded vote usually happens. The Senate uses roll-call voting , in which a clerk calls out the names of all the senators, each senator stating "aye" or "no" when their name is announced. In the Senate, the Vice President may cast the tie-breaking vote if present when the senators are equally divided. [ citation needed ] The House reserves roll-call votes for the most formal matters, as a roll call of all 435 representatives takes quite some time; normally, members vote by using an electronic device. In the case of a tie, the motion in question fails. Most votes in the House are done electronically, allowing members to vote yea or nay or present or open . [ 4 ] Members insert a voting ID card and can change their votes during the last five minutes if they choose; in addition, paper ballots are used occasionally ( yea indicated by green and nay by red). [ 4 ] One member cannot cast a proxy vote for another. [ 4 ] Congressional votes are recorded on an online database. [ 153 ] [ 154 ] After passage by both houses, a bill is enrolled and sent to the president for approval. [ 133 ] The president may sign it making it law or veto it, perhaps returning it to Congress with the president's objections. A vetoed bill can still become law if each house of Congress votes to override the veto with a two-thirds majority. Finally, the president may do nothing neither signing nor vetoing the bill and then the bill becomes law automatically after ten days (not counting Sundays) according to the Constitution. But if Congress is adjourned during this period, presidents may veto legislation passed at the end of a congressional session simply by ignoring it; the maneuver is known as a pocket veto , and cannot be overridden by the adjourned Congress. [ citation needed ] Public interaction Advantage of incumbency Citizens and representatives Senators face reelection every six years, and representatives every two. Reelections encourage candidates to focus their publicity efforts at their home states or districts. [ 64 ] Running for reelection can be a grueling process of distant travel and fund-raising which distracts senators and representatives from paying attention to governing, according to some critics. [ 155 ] Although others respond that the process is necessary to keep members of Congress in touch with voters. [ citation needed ] Incumbent members of Congress running for reelection have strong advantages over challengers. [ 53 ] They raise more money [ 58 ] because donors fund incumbents over challengers, perceiving the former as more likely to win, [ 56 ] [ 156 ] and donations are vital for winning elections. [ 157 ] One critic compared election to Congress to receiving life tenure at a university. [ 156 ] Another advantage for representatives is the practice of gerrymandering . [ 158 ] [ 159 ] After each ten-year census, states are allocated representatives based on population, and officials in power can choose how to draw the congressional district boundaries to support candidates from their party. As a result, reelection rates of members of Congress hover around 90 percent, [ 9 ] causing some critics to call them a privileged class. [ 8 ] Academics such as Princeton's Stephen Macedo have proposed solutions to fix gerrymandering in the U.S. Senators and representatives enjoy free mailing privileges, called franking privileges ; while these are not intended for electioneering, this rule is often skirted by borderline election-related mailings during campaigns. [ citation needed ] Expensive campaigns In 1971, the cost of running for Congress in Utah was $70,000 [ 160 ] but costs have climbed. [ 161 ] The biggest expense is television advertisements. [ 57 ] [ 156 ] [ 160 ] [ 162 ] [ 163 ] Today's races cost more than a million dollars for a House seat, and six million or more for a Senate seat. [ 8 ] [ 57 ] [ 162 ] [ 164 ] [ 165 ] Since fundraising is vital, "members of Congress are forced to spend ever-increasing hours raising money for their re-election", according to the Fair Elections Now coalition. [ 166 ] The Supreme Court has treated campaign contributions as a free speech issue. [ 161 ] Some see money as a good influence in politics since it "enables candidates to communicate with voters". [ 161 ] Few members retire from Congress without complaining about how much it costs to campaign for reelection. [ 8 ] Critics contend that members of Congress are more likely to attend to the needs of heavy campaign contributors than to ordinary citizens. [ 8 ] Elections are influenced by many variables. Some political scientists speculate there is a coattail effect (when a popular president or party position has the effect of reelecting incumbents who win by "riding on the president's coattails"), although there is some evidence that the coattail effect is irregular and possibly declining since the 1950s. [ 53 ] Some districts are so heavily Democratic or Republican that they are called a safe seat ; any candidate winning the primary will almost always be elected, and these candidates do not need to spend money on advertising. [ 167 ] [ 168 ] But some races can be competitive when there is no incumbent. If a seat becomes vacant in an open district, then both parties may spend heavily on advertising in these races; in California in 1992, only four of twenty races for House seats were considered highly competitive. [ 169 ] Television and negative advertising Since members of Congress must advertise heavily on television, this usually involves negative advertising , which smears an opponent's character without focusing on the issues. [ 170 ] Negative advertising is seen as effective because "the messages tend to stick." [ 171 ] These advertisements sour the public on the political process in general as most members of Congress seek to avoid blame. [ 172 ] One wrong decision or one damaging television image can mean defeat at the next election, which leads to a culture of risk avoidance, a need to make policy decisions behind closed doors, [ 172 ] [ 173 ] and concentrating publicity efforts in the members' home districts. [ 64 ] Perceptions Prominent Founding Fathers , writing in The Federalist Papers , felt that elections were essential to liberty, that a bond between the people and the representatives was particularly essential, [ 174 ] and that "frequent elections are unquestionably the only policy by which this dependence and sympathy can be effectually secured." [ 174 ] In 2009, few Americans were familiar with leaders of Congress. [ 175 ] [ 176 ] [ 177 ] The percentage of Americans eligible to vote who did, in fact, vote was 63% in 1960, but has been falling since, although there was a slight upward trend in the 2008 election. [ 178 ] Public opinion polls asking people if they approve of the job Congress is doing have, in the last few decades, hovered around 25% with some variation. [ 8 ] [ 179 ] [ 180 ] [ 181 ] [ 182 ] [ 183 ] [ 184 ] Scholar Julian Zeliger suggested that the "size, messiness, virtues, and vices that make Congress so interesting also create enormous barriers to our understanding the institution ... Unlike the presidency, Congress is difficult to conceptualize." [ 185 ] Other scholars suggest that despite the criticism, "Congress is a remarkably resilient institution ... its place in the political process is not threatened ... it is rich in resources" and that most members behave ethically. [ 6 ] They contend that "Congress is easy to dislike and often difficult to defend" and this perception is exacerbated because many challengers running for Congress run against Congress, which is an "old form of American politics" that further undermines Congress's reputation with the public: [ 8 ] The rough-and-tumble world of legislating is not orderly and civil, human frailties too often taint its membership, and legislative outcomes are often frustrating and ineffective ... Still, we are not exaggerating when we say that Congress is essential to American democracy. We would not have survived as a nation without a Congress that represented the diverse interests of our society, conducted a public debate on the major issues, found compromises to resolve conflicts peacefully, and limited the power of our executive, military, and judicial institutions ... The popularity of Congress ebbs and flows with the public's confidence in government generally ... the legislative process is easy to dislike – it often generates political posturing and grandstanding, it necessarily involves compromise, and it often leaves broken promises in its trail. Also, members of Congress often appear self-serving as they pursue their political careers and represent interests and reflect values that are controversial. Scandals, even when they involve a single member, add to the public's frustration with Congress and have contributed to the institution's low ratings in opinion polls. The rough-and-tumble world of legislating is not orderly and civil, human frailties too often taint its membership, and legislative outcomes are often frustrating and ineffective ... Still, we are not exaggerating when we say that Congress is essential to American democracy. We would not have survived as a nation without a Congress that represented the diverse interests of our society, conducted a public debate on the major issues, found compromises to resolve conflicts peacefully, and limited the power of our executive, military, and judicial institutions ... The popularity of Congress ebbs and flows with the public's confidence in government generally ... the legislative process is easy to dislike – it often generates political posturing and grandstanding, it necessarily involves compromise, and it often leaves broken promises in its trail. Also, members of Congress often appear self-serving as they pursue their political careers and represent interests and reflect values that are controversial. Scandals, even when they involve a single member, add to the public's frustration with Congress and have contributed to the institution's low ratings in opinion polls. — Smith, Roberts & Wielen [ 8 ] An additional factor that confounds public perceptions of Congress is that congressional issues are becoming more technical and complex and require expertise in subjects such as science, engineering and economics. [ 8 ] As a result, Congress often cedes authority to experts at the executive branch. [ 8 ] Since 2006, Congress has dropped ten points in the Gallup confidence poll with only nine percent having "a great deal" or "quite a lot" of confidence in their legislators. [ 186 ] Since 2011, Gallup poll has reported Congress's approval rating among Americans at 10% or below three times. [ 70 ] [ 71 ] Public opinion of Congress plummeted further to 5% in October 2013 after parts of the U.S. government deemed 'nonessential government' shut down. [ 72 ] Smaller states and bigger states When the Constitution was ratified in 1787, the ratio of the populations of large states to small states was roughly twelve to one. The Connecticut Compromise gave every state, large and small, an equal vote in the Senate. [ 187 ] Since each state has two senators, residents of smaller states have more clout in the Senate than residents of larger states. But since 1787, the population disparity between large and small states has grown; in 2006, for example, California had seventy times the population of Wyoming . [ 188 ] Critics, such as constitutional scholar Sanford Levinson , have suggested that the population disparity works against residents of large states and causes a steady redistribution of resources from "large states to small states". [ 189 ] [ 190 ] [ 191 ] Others argue that the Connecticut Compromise was deliberately intended by the Founding Fathers to construct the Senate so that each state had equal footing not based on population, [ 187 ] and contend that the result works well on balance. Members and constituents A major role for members of Congress is providing services to constituents . [ 192 ] Constituents request assistance with problems. [ 193 ] Providing services helps members of Congress win votes and elections [ 158 ] [ 194 ] [ 195 ] and can make a difference in close races. [ 196 ] Congressional staff can help citizens navigate government bureaucracies. [ 5 ] One academic described the complex intertwined relation between lawmakers and constituents as home style . [ 197 ] : 8 Motivation One way to categorize lawmakers, according to former University of Rochester political science professor Richard Fenno , is by their general motivation: Reelection: These are lawmakers who "never met a voter they didn't like" and provide excellent constituent services. Good public policy: Legislators who "burnish a reputation for policy expertise and leadership". Power in the chamber: Lawmakers who spend serious time along the "rail of the House floor or in the Senate cloakroom ministering to the needs of their colleagues". Famous legislator Henry Clay in the mid-19th century was described as an "issue entrepreneur" who looked for issues to serve his ambitions. [ 197 ] : 34 Privileges Outside income and gifts Representative Jim Cooper of Tennessee told Harvard professor Lawrence Lessig that a chief problem with Congress was that members focused on their future careers as lobbyists after serving – that Congress was a " Farm League for K Street ". [ 198 ] [ 199 ] Family members of active legislators have also been hired by lobbying firms, which while not allowed to lobby their family member, has drawn criticism as a conflict of interest. [ 200 ] Members of congress have been accused of insider trading , such as in the 2020 congressional insider trading scandal , where members of Congress or their family members have traded on stocks related to work on their committees. [ 201 ] One 2011 study concluded that portfolios of members of Congress outperformed both the market and hedge funds, which the authors suggested as evidence of insider trading. [ 202 ] Proposed solutions include putting stocks in blind trusts to prevent future insider trading. [ 203 ] Some members of Congress have gone on lavish trips paid for by outside groups, sometimes bringing family members, which are often legal even if in an ethical gray area. [ 204 ] [ 205 ] Pay Some critics complain congressional pay is high compared with a median American income . [ 206 ] Others have countered that congressional pay is consistent with other branches of government . [ 179 ] Another criticism is that members of Congress are insulated from the health care market due to their coverage. [ 207 ] Others have criticized the wealth of members of Congress. [ 160 ] [ 163 ] In January 2014, it was reported that for the first time over half of the members of Congress were millionaires. [ 208 ] Congress has been criticized for trying to conceal pay raises by slipping them into a large bill at the last minute. [ 209 ] Members elected since 1984 are covered by the Federal Employees Retirement System (FERS). Like other federal employees, congressional retirement is funded through taxes and participants' contributions. Members of Congress under FERS contribute 1.3% of their salary into the FERS retirement plan and pay 6.2% of their salary in Social Security taxes. And like federal employees, members contribute one-third of the cost of health insurance with the government covering the other two-thirds. [ 210 ] The size of a congressional pension depends on the years of service and the average of the highest three years of their salary. By law, the starting amount of a member's retirement annuity may not exceed 80% of their final salary. In 2018, the average annual pension for retired senators and representatives under the Civil Service Retirement System (CSRS) was $75,528, while those who retired under FERS, or in combination with CSRS, was $41,208. [ 211 ] Members of Congress make fact-finding missions to learn about other countries and stay informed, but these outings can cause controversy if the trip is deemed excessive or unconnected with the task of governing. For example, The Wall Street Journal reported in 2009 that lawmaker trips abroad at taxpayer expense had included spas, $300-per-night extra unused rooms, and shopping excursions. [ 212 ] Some lawmakers responded that "traveling with spouses compensates for being away from them a lot in Washington" and justify the trips as a way to meet officials in other nations. [ 212 ] By the Twenty-seventh Amendment , changes to congressional pay may not take effect before the next election to the House of the Representatives. [ 213 ] In Boehner v. Anderson , the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit ruled that the amendment does not affect cost-of-living adjustments . [ 214 ] [ 213 ] Postage The franking privilege allows members of Congress to send official mail to constituents at government expense. Though they are not permitted to send election materials, borderline material is often sent, especially in the run-up to an election by those in close races. [ 215 ] [ 216 ] Some academics consider free mailings as giving incumbents a big advantage over challengers. [ 9 ] [ failed verification ] [ 217 ] Protection Members of Congress enjoy parliamentary privilege , including freedom from arrest in all cases except for treason , felony , and breach of the peace , and freedom of speech in debate. This constitutionally derived immunity applies to members during sessions and when traveling to and from sessions. [ 218 ] The term "arrest" has been interpreted broadly, and includes any detention or delay in the course of law enforcement , including court summons and subpoenas . The rules of the House strictly guard this privilege; a member may not waive the privilege on their own but must seek the permission of the whole house to do so. Senate rules are less strict and permit individual senators to waive the privilege as they choose. [ 219 ] The Constitution guarantees absolute freedom of debate in both houses, providing in the Speech or Debate Clause of the Constitution that "for any Speech or Debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other Place." Accordingly, a member of Congress may not be sued in court for slander because of remarks made in either house, although each house has its own rules restricting offensive speeches, and may punish members who transgress. [ 220 ] Obstructing the work of Congress is a crime under federal law and is known as contempt of Congress . Each member has the power to cite people for contempt but can only issue a contempt citation – the judicial system pursues the matter like a normal criminal case. If convicted in court of contempt of Congress, a person may be imprisoned for up to one year. [ 221 ] See also Caucuses of the United States Congress Congressional archives – Records documenting the history and activities of the United States Congress Congressional Baseball Game – Annual baseball game played by members of the United States Congress Divided government in the United States – Divided control of the US government between political parties Elections in the United States § Congressional elections List of current United States representatives List of current United States senators List of United States Congresses Oath of office § United States Radio and Television Correspondents' Association United States congressional hearing Notes ^ Independent Sens. Angus King of Maine and Bernie Sanders of Vermont caucus with the Democratic Party. [ 1 ] ^ Before the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution in 1913, senators were chosen by state legislatures. ^ Congress does not take a grammatical article , except when referring to an individual Congress. [ 3 ] Citations ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Maine Independent Angus King To Caucus With Senate Democrats" . 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Retrieved December 17, 2009 . ^ a b "Constitutional Amendments – Amendment 27 – "Financial Compensation for the Congress" " . Ronald Reagan . Retrieved May 17, 2024 . ^ 30 F.3d 156 (D.C. Cir. 1994) ^ English (2003), pp. 24–25. ^ Simpson, G. R. (October 22, 1992). "Surprise! Top Frankers Also Have the Stiffest Challenges". Roll Call. ^ Steven S. Smith; Jason M. Roberts; Ryan J. Vander Wielen (2006). "The American Congress (Fourth Edition)" . Cambridge University Press. p. 79. ISBN 9781139446990 . Archived from the original on January 14, 2021 . Retrieved September 11, 2010 . ^ Davidson (2006), p. 17. ^ "Rules Of The Senate" . U.S. Senate Committee on Rules & Administration . Archived from the original on December 30, 2017 . Retrieved September 30, 2022 . ^ Brewer, F. M. (1952). "Congressional Immunity" . CQ Press . doi : 10.4135/cqresrre1952042500 . Archived from the original on January 25, 2021 . Retrieved January 16, 2021 . ^ "Contempt of Congress" . HeinOnline . The Jurist . January 1, 1957. ProQuest 1296619169 . Retrieved September 7, 2020 . References "How To Clean Up The Mess From Inside The System, A Plea – And A Plan – To Reform Campaign Finance Before It's Too" . Newsweek . October 28, 1996. Archived from the original on January 14, 2021 . Retrieved September 20, 2009 . "The Constitution and the Idea of Compromise" . PBS. October 10, 2009. Archived from the original on January 14, 2021 . Retrieved October 10, 2009 . Alexander Hamilton (1788). "Federalist No. 15 – The Insufficiency of the Present Confederation to Preserve the Union" . FoundingFathers.info. Archived from the original on January 14, 2021 . Retrieved October 10, 2009 . Bacon, Donald C.; Davidson, Roger H.; Keller, Morton, eds. (1995). Encyclopedia of the United States Congress (4 vols.) . Simon & Schuster. Collier, Christopher & Collier, James Lincoln (1986). Decision in Philadelphia: The Constitutional Convention of 1787 . Ballantine Books. ISBN 0-394-52346-6 . Davidson, Roger H. & Walter J. Oleszek (2006). Congress and Its Members (10th ed.). Congressional Quarterly (CQ) Press. ISBN 0-87187-325-7 . (Legislative procedure, informal practices, and other information) English, Ross M. (2003). The United States Congress . Manchester University Press. ISBN 0-7190-6309-4 . Francis-Smith, Janice (October 22, 2008). "Waging campaigns against incumbents in Oklahoma" . The Oklahoma City Journal Record. Archived from the original on May 10, 2010 . Retrieved September 20, 2009 . Herrnson, Paul S. (2004). Congressional Elections: Campaigning at Home and in Washington . CQ Press. ISBN 1-56802-826-1 . Huckabee, David C. (2003). Reelection Rates of Incumbents . Hauppauge, New York: Novinka Books, an imprint of Nova Science Publishers. p. 21. ISBN 1-59033-509-0 . Archived from the original on January 14, 2021 . Retrieved September 27, 2020 . Huckabee, David C. – Analyst in American National Government – Government Division (March 8, 1995). "Reelection rate of House Incumbents 1790–1990 Summary (page 2)" (PDF) . Congressional Research Service – The Library of Congress. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 29, 2011 . Retrieved September 20, 2009 . Maier, Pauline (book reviewer) (November 18, 2007). "HISTORY – The Framers' Real Motives (book review) Unruly Americans and the Origins of the Constitution book by Woody Holton" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on January 14, 2021 . Retrieved October 10, 2009 . Oleszek, Walter J. (2004). Congressional Procedures and the Policy Process . CQ Press. ISBN 0-87187-477-6 . Polsby, Nelson W. (2004). How Congress Evolves: Social Bases of Institutional Change . Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-516195-5 . Price, David E. (2000). The Congressional Experience . Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-1157-8 . Sanbonmatsu, Kira (2020). "Women's Underrepresentation in the U.S. Congress" . Daedalus . 149 : 40– 55. doi : 10.1162/daed_a_01772 . ISSN 0011-5266 . S2CID 209487865 . Archived from the original on April 24, 2021 . Retrieved April 6, 2021 . Struble, Robert Jr. (2007). Chapter seven, Treatise on Twelve Lights . TeLL. Archived from the original on April 14, 2016. Zelizer, Julian E. (2004). The American Congress: The Building of Democracy . Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-618-17906-2 . Further reading Ritchie, Donald A. (2022). The U.S. Congress: A Very Short Introduction . (History, representation, and legislative procedure) Smith, Steven S.; Roberts, Jason M.; Vander Wielen, Ryan (2007). The American Congress (5th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-19704-5 . (Legislative procedure, informal practices, and other information) Hamilton, Lee H. (2004) How Congress Works and Why You Should Care , Indiana University Press. Lee, Frances and Bruce Oppenheimer. (1999). Sizing Up the Senate: The Unequal Consequences of Equal Representation . University of Chicago Press: Chicago. (Equal representation in the Senate) Some information in this article has been provided by the Senate Historical Office . 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and racial African-American members Senate House Black Caucus Arab and Middle Eastern members Asian Pacific American members Asian Pacific American Caucus Hispanic and Latino members list Hispanic Caucus Hispanic Conference Jewish members Jewish Caucus Native American members Gender and sexual identity LGBTQ members Equality Caucus Women Senate House Issues Caucus current House Occupation Physicians Religion Buddhist members Hindu members Jewish members Mormon (LDS) members Muslim members Quaker members Sikh members Congressional caucus Caucuses of the United States Congress Caucuses of the United States Congress Ethnic and racial African-American members Senate House Black Caucus Arab and Middle Eastern members Asian Pacific American members Asian Pacific American Caucus Hispanic and Latino members list Hispanic Caucus Hispanic Conference Jewish members Jewish Caucus Native American members African-American members Senate House Black Caucus Senate House Black Caucus Arab and Middle 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service historically Current members by wealth From multiple states Died in office 1790–1899 1900–1949 1950–1999 2000–present 1790–1899 1900–1949 1950–1999 2000–present Killed or wounded in office Party switchers Slave owners Powers, privileges, procedure, committees, history, media Powers Article I Copyright Commerce (Dormant) Contempt of Congress Declaration of war Impeachment Inquiries Trial Naturalization "Necessary and Proper" Power of enforcement Taxing/spending Privileges Salaries Franking Immunity Procedure Act of Congress list Appropriation bill Bill Budget process Censure Closed sessions House Senate Cloture Concurrent resolution Continuing resolution Dear Colleague letter Discharge petition Enrolled bill Expulsion Joint resolution Joint session list Lame-duck session Magic minute Majority of the majority (Hastert Rule) Multiple referral House procedures Quorum call Reconciliation Rider Saxbe fix Sponsorship Suspension of the rules Unanimous consent Veto Line-item veto Pocket 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Copyright Commerce (Dormant) Contempt of Congress Declaration of war Impeachment Inquiries Trial Naturalization "Necessary and Proper" Power of enforcement Taxing/spending Privileges Salaries Franking Immunity Procedure Act of Congress list Appropriation bill Bill Budget process Censure Closed sessions House Senate Cloture Concurrent resolution Continuing resolution Dear Colleague letter Discharge petition Enrolled bill Expulsion Joint resolution Joint session list Lame-duck session Magic minute Majority of the majority (Hastert Rule) Multiple referral House procedures Quorum call Reconciliation Rider Saxbe fix Sponsorship Suspension of the rules Unanimous consent Veto Line-item veto Pocket veto Senate-specific Advice and consent Blue slip (U.S. Senate) Classes Executive communication Executive session Filibuster Jefferson's Manual Senate Journal Morning business Nuclear option Presiding Officer Recess appointment Reconciliation Riddick's Senate Procedure Senate hold Senatorial courtesy Seniority Standing Rules Tie-breaking votes Traditions Treaty Clause Committees Chairman and ranking member Of the Whole Conference Discharge petition Hearings Markup Oversight List (Joint) List (House) List (Senate) Select and special Standing Subcommittees Items Gavels Mace of the House Seal of the Senate History House history memoirs speaker elections Senate history election disputes memoirs Continental Congress Federal Hall (1789–1790) Congress Hall (1790–1800) Old Brick Capitol (1815–1819) Biographical Directory Divided government Party divisions Media C-SPAN Congressional Quarterly The Hill Politico Roll Call Powers Article I Copyright Commerce (Dormant) Contempt of Congress Declaration of war Impeachment Inquiries Trial Naturalization "Necessary and Proper" Power of enforcement Taxing/spending Article I Copyright Commerce (Dormant) Contempt of Congress Declaration of war Impeachment Inquiries Trial Inquiries Trial Naturalization "Necessary and Proper" Power of enforcement Taxing/spending Privileges Salaries Franking Immunity Salaries Franking Immunity Procedure Act of Congress list Appropriation bill Bill Budget process Censure Closed sessions House Senate Cloture Concurrent resolution Continuing resolution Dear Colleague letter Discharge petition Enrolled bill Expulsion Joint resolution Joint session list Lame-duck session Magic minute Majority of the majority (Hastert Rule) Multiple referral House procedures Quorum call Reconciliation Rider Saxbe fix Sponsorship Suspension of the rules Unanimous consent Veto Line-item veto Pocket veto Act of Congress list list Appropriation bill Bill Budget process Censure Closed sessions House Senate House Senate Cloture Concurrent resolution Continuing resolution Dear Colleague letter Discharge petition Enrolled bill Expulsion Joint resolution Joint session list list Lame-duck session Magic minute Majority of the majority (Hastert Rule) Multiple referral House procedures Quorum call Reconciliation Rider Saxbe fix Sponsorship Suspension of the rules Unanimous consent Veto Line-item veto Pocket veto Line-item veto Pocket veto Senate-specific Advice and consent Blue slip (U.S. Senate) Classes Executive communication Executive session Filibuster Jefferson's Manual Senate Journal Morning business Nuclear option Presiding Officer Recess appointment Reconciliation Riddick's Senate Procedure Senate hold Senatorial courtesy Seniority Standing Rules Tie-breaking votes Traditions Treaty Clause Advice and consent Blue slip (U.S. Senate) Classes Executive communication Executive session Filibuster Jefferson's Manual Senate Journal Morning business Nuclear option Presiding Officer Recess appointment Reconciliation Riddick's Senate Procedure Senate hold Senatorial courtesy Seniority Standing Rules Tie-breaking votes Traditions Treaty Clause Committees Chairman and ranking member Of the Whole Conference Discharge petition Hearings Markup Oversight List (Joint) List (House) List (Senate) Select and special Standing Subcommittees Chairman and ranking member Of the Whole Conference Discharge petition Hearings Markup Oversight List (Joint) List (House) List (Senate) Select and special Standing Subcommittees Items Gavels Mace of the House Seal of the Senate Gavels Mace of the House Seal of the Senate History House history memoirs speaker elections Senate history election disputes memoirs Continental Congress Federal Hall (1789–1790) Congress Hall (1790–1800) Old Brick Capitol (1815–1819) Biographical Directory Divided government Party divisions House history memoirs speaker elections Senate history election disputes memoirs Continental Congress Federal Hall (1789–1790) Congress Hall (1790–1800) Old Brick Capitol (1815–1819) Biographical Directory Divided government Party divisions House history memoirs speaker elections memoirs speaker elections Senate history election disputes memoirs election disputes memoirs Continental Congress Federal Hall (1789–1790) Congress Hall (1790–1800) Old Brick Capitol (1815–1819) Biographical Directory Divided government Party divisions Media C-SPAN Congressional Quarterly The Hill Politico Roll Call C-SPAN Congressional Quarterly The Hill Politico Roll Call Capitol Complex on Capitol Hill and other headquarters offices Legislative offices Congressional staff Gov. Accountability Office (GAO) Comptroller General GAO Building Architect of the Capitol Cap. Police Board Cap. Guide Service Congr. Budget Office (CBO) Congr. Workplace Rights (OCWR) Library of Congress Gov. Publishing Office (GPO) Technology Assessment Offices Senate Curator Historical Library House Congr. Ethics Emergency Planning, Preparedness, and Operations Interparliamentary Affairs Law Revision Counsel Legislative Counsel Library Employees Senate Secretary Chaplain Curator Historian Librarian Pages Parliamentarian Sergeant at Arms and Doorkeeper House Chaplain Chief Administrative Officer Clerk Doorkeeper Floor Operations Floor Services Chief Historian Pages Board Parliamentarian Postmaster Reading Clerk Sergeant at Arms Library of Congress Congressional Research Service reports Copyright Office Register of Copyrights Law Library Poet Laureate THOMAS Adams Building Jefferson Building Madison Building Gov. 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Manual Serial Set Statutes at Large United States Code Capitol Building List of artwork at the United States Capitol complex Brumidi Corridors Congressional Prayer Room Crypt Dome Statue of Freedom Rotunda Hall of Columns Statuary Hall Visitor Center The Apotheosis of Washington Statue of Freedom Declaration of Independence painting Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States Apotheosis of Democracy Progress of Civilization Pediment First Reading of the Emancipation Proclamation of President Lincoln Surrender of General Burgoyne Surrender of Lord Cornwallis George Washington and the Revolutionary War Door Revolutionary War Door Columbus Doors Washington at Princeton Westward the Course of Empire Takes Its Way Vice President's Room Vice Presidential Bust Collection Office buildings Senate Dirksen Hart Mountains and Clouds Russell House Building Commission office lottery Cannon Ford Longworth O'Neill Rayburn Other facilities Botanic Garden Health and Fitness Facility House Recording Studio Senate chamber Old Senate Chamber Old Supreme Court Chamber Power Plant Webster Page Residence Subway Related Capitol Hill United States Capitol cornerstone laying Legislative offices Congressional staff Gov. 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Ethics Emergency Planning, Preparedness, and Operations Interparliamentary Affairs Law Revision Counsel Legislative Counsel Library Employees Senate Secretary Chaplain Curator Historian Librarian Pages Parliamentarian Sergeant at Arms and Doorkeeper House Chaplain Chief Administrative Officer Clerk Doorkeeper Floor Operations Floor Services Chief Historian Pages Board Parliamentarian Postmaster Reading Clerk Sergeant at Arms Senate Secretary Chaplain Curator Historian Librarian Pages Parliamentarian Sergeant at Arms and Doorkeeper Secretary Chaplain Curator Historian Librarian Pages Parliamentarian Sergeant at Arms and Doorkeeper House Chaplain Chief Administrative Officer Clerk Doorkeeper Floor Operations Floor Services Chief Historian Pages Board Parliamentarian Postmaster Reading Clerk Sergeant at Arms Chaplain Chief Administrative Officer Clerk Doorkeeper Floor Operations Floor Services Chief Historian Pages Board Board Parliamentarian Postmaster Reading Clerk Sergeant at Arms Library of Congress Congressional Research Service reports Copyright Office Register of Copyrights Law Library Poet Laureate THOMAS Adams Building Jefferson Building Madison Building Congressional Research Service reports reports Copyright Office Register of Copyrights Register of Copyrights Law Library Poet Laureate THOMAS Adams Building Jefferson Building Madison Building Gov. 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Manual Serial Set Statutes at Large United States Code Capitol Building List of artwork at the United States Capitol complex Brumidi Corridors Congressional Prayer Room Crypt Dome Statue of Freedom Rotunda Hall of Columns Statuary Hall Visitor Center The Apotheosis of Washington Statue of Freedom Declaration of Independence painting Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States Apotheosis of Democracy Progress of Civilization Pediment First Reading of the Emancipation Proclamation of President Lincoln Surrender of General Burgoyne Surrender of Lord Cornwallis George Washington and the Revolutionary War Door Revolutionary War Door Columbus Doors Washington at Princeton Westward the Course of Empire Takes Its Way Vice President's Room Vice Presidential Bust Collection List of artwork at the United States Capitol complex Brumidi Corridors Congressional Prayer Room Crypt Dome Statue of Freedom Statue of Freedom Rotunda Hall of Columns Statuary Hall Visitor Center The Apotheosis of Washington Statue of Freedom Declaration of Independence painting Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States Apotheosis of Democracy Progress of Civilization Pediment First Reading of the Emancipation Proclamation of President Lincoln Surrender of General Burgoyne Surrender of Lord Cornwallis George Washington and the Revolutionary War Door Revolutionary War Door Columbus Doors Washington at Princeton Westward the Course of Empire Takes Its Way Vice President's Room Vice Presidential Bust Collection Office buildings Senate Dirksen Hart Mountains and Clouds Russell House Building Commission office lottery Cannon Ford Longworth O'Neill Rayburn Senate Dirksen Hart Mountains and Clouds Russell Dirksen Hart Mountains and Clouds Mountains and Clouds Russell House Building Commission office lottery Cannon Ford Longworth O'Neill Rayburn Building Commission office lottery Cannon Ford Longworth O'Neill Rayburn Other facilities Botanic Garden Health and Fitness Facility House Recording Studio Senate chamber Old Senate Chamber Old Supreme Court Chamber Power Plant Webster Page Residence Subway Botanic Garden Health and Fitness Facility House Recording Studio Senate chamber Old Senate Chamber Old Supreme Court Chamber Power Plant Webster Page Residence Subway Related Capitol Hill United States Capitol cornerstone laying Capitol Hill United States Capitol cornerstone laying Articles related to the United States Congress v t e United States congresses (and year convened) 1 (1789) 2 (1791) 3 (1793) 4 (1795) 5 (1797) 6 (1799) 7 (1801) 8 (1803) 9 (1805) 10 (1807) 11 (1809) 12 (1811) 13 (1813) 14 (1815) 15 (1817) 16 (1819) 17 (1821) 18 (1823) 19 (1825) 20 (1827) 21 (1829) 22 (1831) 23 (1833) 24 (1835) 25 (1837) 26 (1839) 27 (1841) 28 (1843) 29 (1845) 30 (1847) 31 (1849) 32 (1851) 33 (1853) 34 (1855) 35 (1857) 36 (1859) 37 (1861) 38 (1863) 39 (1865) 40 (1867) 41 (1869) 42 (1871) 43 (1873) 44 (1875) 45 (1877) 46 (1879) 47 (1881) 48 (1883) 49 (1885) 50 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Louisiana H S Maine H S Maryland H S Massachusetts H S Michigan H S Minnesota H S Mississippi H S Missouri H S Montana H S Nebraska H S Nevada H S New Hampshire H S New Jersey H S New Mexico H S New York H S North Carolina H S North Dakota H S Ohio H S Oklahoma H S Oregon H S Pennsylvania H S Rhode Island H S South Carolina H S South Dakota H S Tennessee H S Texas H S Utah H S Vermont H S Virginia H S Washington H S West Virginia H S Wisconsin H S Wyoming H S Others American Samoa District of Columbia Guam Northern Mariana Islands Puerto Rico U.S. Virgin Islands Proposed ( Cherokee ) Obsolete Dakota Territory Northwest Territory Orleans Territory Philippines Southwest Territory Lists of former representatives List of former senators v t e Lists of acts of the United States Congress By congress 74th 103rd 104th 105th 106th 107th 108th 109th 110th 111th 112th 113th 114th 115th 116th 117th 118th 119th By year 1789–1901 1901–2001 2001–present By topic African-Americans Education Energy Environment U.S. Forest Service Immigration Tariffs v t e Legislatures of the United States United States Congress United States House of Representatives United States Senate State legislatures Alabama ( H , S ) Alaska ( H , S ) Arizona ( H , S ) Arkansas ( H , S ) California ( A , S ) Colorado ( H , S ) Connecticut ( H , S ) Delaware ( H , S ) Florida ( H , S ) Georgia ( H , S ) Hawaii ( H , S ) Idaho ( H , S ) Illinois ( H , S ) Indiana ( H , S ) Iowa ( H , S ) Kansas ( H , S ) Kentucky ( H , S ) Louisiana ( H , S ) Maine ( H , S ) Maryland ( H , S ) Massachusetts ( H , S ) Michigan ( H , S ) Minnesota ( H , S ) Mississippi ( H , S ) Missouri ( H , S ) Montana ( H , S ) Nebraska Nevada ( A , S ) New Hampshire ( H , S ) New Jersey ( GA , S ) New Mexico ( H , S ) New York ( A , S ) North Carolina ( H , S ) North Dakota ( H , S ) Ohio ( H , S ) Oklahoma ( H , S ) Oregon ( H , S ) Pennsylvania ( H , S ) Rhode Island ( H , S ) South Carolina ( H , S ) South Dakota ( H , S ) Tennessee ( H , S ) Texas ( H , S ) Utah ( H , S ) Vermont ( H , S ) Virginia ( H , S ) Washington ( H , S ) West Virginia ( H , S ) Wisconsin ( A , S ) Wyoming ( H , S ) Other legislatures District of Columbia American Samoa ( H , S ) Guam Northern Mariana Islands ( H , S ) Puerto Rico ( H , S ) U.S. Virgin Islands Legislative elections 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 List of U.S. state legislators Lists of past U.S. state legislatures .mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal} v t e United States History By period 1776–1789 1789–1815 1815–1849 1849–1865 1865–1917 1917–1945 1945–1964 1964–1980 1980–1991 1991–2016 2016–present By event Pre-colonial era Colonial era Stamp Act Congress Thirteen Colonies Continental Congress Continental Association United Colonies military history Founding Fathers Halifax Resolves Lee Resolution Declaration of Independence American Revolution War Treaty of Paris Articles of Confederation Perpetual Union Confederation period American frontier Constitution drafting and ratification Bill of Rights Federalist Era War of 1812 Territorial evolution Mexican–American War Civil War Reconstruction era Indian Wars Native genocide Gilded Age Progressive Era Women's suffrage Civil rights movement 1865–1896 1896–1954 1954–1968 Spanish–American War Imperialism World War I Roaring Twenties Great Depression World War II home front American Century Cold War Korean War Space Race Feminist Movement LGBTQ Movement Vietnam War Post-Cold War (1991–2016) September 11 attacks War on Terror War in Afghanistan Iraq War Great Recession COVID-19 pandemic By topic Outline of U.S. history Demographic Discoveries Economic Inventions Military Postal Technological and industrial Geography Territory Contiguous United States counties federal district federal enclaves Indian reservations insular zones minor outlying islands populated places states Earthquakes Extreme points Islands Mountains peaks ranges Appalachian Rocky Sierra Nevada National Park Service National Parks Regions East Coast West Coast Great Plains Gulf Mid-Atlantic Midwestern New England Pacific Central Eastern Northern Northeastern Northwestern Southern Southeastern Southwestern Western Longest rivers Arkansas Colorado Columbia Mississippi Missouri Red (South) Rio Grande Yukon Time Water supply and sanitation World Heritage Sites Politics Federal Executive President of the United States powers Executive Office Vice President Cabinet Executive departments Independent agencies Intelligence Community Director of National Intelligence Central Intelligence Agency National Security Agency National Reconnaissance Office Law enforcement ATF CBP Diplomatic Security DEA FBI ICE Marshals Secret Service TSA Inspector generals Civil service Public policy Legislative House of Representatives current members Speaker Senate current members President pro tempore President Capitol Police Library of Congress Congressional Budget Office Government Accountability Office Government Publishing Office Judicial Supreme Court Chief Justice Associate Justices list Courts of appeals list of judges District courts / Territorial courts list of courts list of judges Other tribunals U.S. attorney Law Bill of Rights civil liberties Code of Federal Regulations Constitution federalism preemption separation of powers civil rights United States Code Uniformed Armed Forces Army Marine Corps Navy Air Force Space Force Coast Guard National Guard NOAA Corps Public Health Service Corps State , Federal District , and Territorial Executive Governor list Lieutenant governor list Secretary of state Attorney general Treasurer Auditor/Comptroller Agriculture commissioner Insurance commissioner Public utilities commission State police list Legislative List of legislatures List of legislators Judicial Supreme courts Chief justices District attorney list Law State constitutions Statutory codes Uniform act Comparison of governments Tribal Tribal sovereignty Native American recognition in the United States Federally recognized tribes Federally recognized Alaska Native tribes State-recognized tribes Indian reservation list Hawaiian home land Local County List of counties and county equivalents County executive Sheriff Clerk Cities Consolidated city-county Independent city Coterminous municipality Charter Mayor–council government Council–manager government City commission government Mayor City manager City council Minor divisions Township Town meeting Special district School district list Corruption Democratic backsliding Elections Electoral College Red states and blue states Foreign relations foreign policy Imperial presidency Ideologies Anti-Americanism exceptionalism nationalism Parties Democratic Republican Third parties Scandals Economy By sector Agriculture Banking Communications Companies Energy Insurance Manufacturing Mining Science and technology Tourism Trade by state Currency Exports Federal budget Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Federal Reserve System Financial position Labor unions Public debt Social welfare programs Taxation Unemployment Wall Street Transport Aviation Driving Public transportation Rail transportation Transportation policy Transportation safety Trucking industry Society Culture Americana Architecture Cinema Crime Cuisine Dance Demographics Economic issues affluence eviction homeownership household income income inequality middle class personal income poverty standard of living wealth working class Education attainment literacy Family Fashion Flag list Folklore Holidays Federal holidays Homelessness Housing Human rights Languages American English Indigenous languages ASL Literature Media journalism internet newspapers radio television Music Names National anthem National symbols Columbia Mount Rushmore Statue of Liberty Uncle Sam People Philosophy Political ideologies Race Religion Sexuality Social class Society Sports history Theater Transportation Video games Visual art Social class Affluence American Dream Educational attainment Homelessness Homeownership Household income Income inequality Middle class Personal income Poverty Standard of living Health Aging Healthcare Abortion Birth control Prenatal care Hospice care Immigrant health care Rationing Health care finance Health insurance costs Health care prices Prescription drug prices Disability Health insurance Food safety Physician shortage Poverty and health Race and health Obesity Medical deserts Women's reproductive health Life expectancy Issues Capital punishment Crime incarceration Criticism of government Discrimination affirmative action antisemitism intersex rights Islamophobia LGBTQ rights racism Native American African American Energy policy Environmental issues Environmental movement Climate change Gun politics Mass shootings Hunger Smoking Human rights Immigration illegal National security Terrorism Opioid epidemic Separation of church and state Xenophobia Outline Index Category Portal v t e National bicameral legislatures Federal Argentina Australia Austria Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Brazil Canada Ethiopia India Malaysia Mexico Nepal Nigeria Pakistan Russia Somalia South Sudan Sudan Switzerland United States Unitary Algeria Antigua and Barbuda Bahamas Bahrain Barbados Belarus Belize Bhutan Bolivia Burundi Cambodia Cameroon Chad Chile Colombia Democratic Republic of the Congo Republic of the Congo Czech Republic Dominican Republic Egypt Equatorial Guinea Eswatini France Gabon Grenada Haiti Indonesia Ireland Italy Ivory Coast Jamaica Japan Jordan Kazakhstan Kenya Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Morocco Myanmar Namibia Netherlands Oman Palau Paraguay Philippines Poland Romania Rwanda Saint Lucia Slovenia South Africa Spain Tajikistan Thailand Togo Trinidad and Tobago Tunisia United Kingdom Uruguay Uzbekistan Zimbabwe Dependent and other territories American Samoa Bermuda Isle of Man Northern Mariana Islands Puerto Rico Non-UN states Somaliland Historical Venezuela (1811–1999) Confederate States (1862–1865) Czechoslovakia (1920–1939) (1969–1992) Estonia (1938–1940) Serbia (1901–1903) Soviet Union (1938–1991) Texas (1836–1845) Yugoslavia (1931–1939, 1945–1963, 1974–1992) FR Yugoslavia (1992–2003) Ottoman Empire (1876–1878, 1908–1920) Related Unicameralism Tricameralism Multicameralism List of legislatures by country National unicameral legislatures National lower houses National upper houses v t e National legislative bodies of the Americas Sovereign states Antigua and Barbuda Argentina Bahamas Barbados Belize Bolivia Brazil Canada Chile Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador El Salvador France Grenada Guatemala Guyana Haiti Honduras Jamaica Mexico Nicaragua Panama Paraguay Peru Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Suriname Trinidad and Tobago United States Uruguay Venezuela Dependencies and other territories Anguilla Aruba Bermuda British Virgin Islands Cayman Islands Curaçao Falkland Islands Greenland Montserrat Puerto Rico Saint Barthélemy Saint Pierre and Miquelon Sint Maarten Turks and Caicos Islands US Virgin Islands v t e United States congresses (and year convened) v t e 1 (1789) 2 (1791) 3 (1793) 4 (1795) 5 (1797) 6 (1799) 7 (1801) 8 (1803) 9 (1805) 10 (1807) 11 (1809) 12 (1811) 13 (1813) 14 (1815) 15 (1817) 16 (1819) 17 (1821) 18 (1823) 19 (1825) 20 (1827) 21 (1829) 22 (1831) 23 (1833) 24 (1835) 25 (1837) 26 (1839) 27 (1841) 28 (1843) 29 (1845) 30 (1847) 31 (1849) 32 (1851) 33 (1853) 34 (1855) 35 (1857) 36 (1859) 37 (1861) 38 (1863) 39 (1865) 40 (1867) 41 (1869) 42 (1871) 43 (1873) 44 (1875) 45 (1877) 46 (1879) 47 (1881) 48 (1883) 49 (1885) 50 (1887) 51 (1889) 52 (1891) 53 (1893) 54 (1895) 55 (1897) 56 (1899) 57 (1901) 58 (1903) 59 (1905) 60 (1907) 61 (1909) 62 (1911) 63 (1913) 64 (1915) 65 (1917) 66 (1919) 67 (1921) 68 (1923) 69 (1925) 70 (1927) 71 (1929) 72 (1931) 73 (1933) 74 (1935) 75 (1937) 76 (1939) 77 (1941) 78 (1943) 79 (1945) 80 (1947) 81 (1949) 82 (1951) 83 (1953) 84 (1955) 85 (1957) 86 (1959) 87 (1961) 88 (1963) 89 (1965) 90 (1967) 91 (1969) 92 (1971) 93 (1973) 94 (1975) 95 (1977) 96 (1979) 97 (1981) 98 (1983) 99 (1985) 100 (1987) 101 (1989) 102 (1991) 103 (1993) 104 (1995) 105 (1997) 106 (1999) 107 (2001) 108 (2003) 109 (2005) 110 (2007) 111 (2009) 112 (2011) 113 (2013) 114 (2015) 115 (2017) 116 (2019) 117 (2021) 118 (2023) 119 (2025) 120 (2027) 1 (1789) 2 (1791) 3 (1793) 4 (1795) 5 (1797) 6 (1799) 7 (1801) 8 (1803) 9 (1805) 10 (1807) 1 (1789) 2 (1791) 3 (1793) 4 (1795) 5 (1797) 6 (1799) 7 (1801) 8 (1803) 9 (1805) 10 (1807) 11 (1809) 12 (1811) 13 (1813) 14 (1815) 15 (1817) 16 (1819) 17 (1821) 18 (1823) 19 (1825) 20 (1827) 11 (1809) 12 (1811) 13 (1813) 14 (1815) 15 (1817) 16 (1819) 17 (1821) 18 (1823) 19 (1825) 20 (1827) 21 (1829) 22 (1831) 23 (1833) 24 (1835) 25 (1837) 26 (1839) 27 (1841) 28 (1843) 29 (1845) 30 (1847) 21 (1829) 22 (1831) 23 (1833) 24 (1835) 25 (1837) 26 (1839) 27 (1841) 28 (1843) 29 (1845) 30 (1847) 31 (1849) 32 (1851) 33 (1853) 34 (1855) 35 (1857) 36 (1859) 37 (1861) 38 (1863) 39 (1865) 40 (1867) 31 (1849) 32 (1851) 33 (1853) 34 (1855) 35 (1857) 36 (1859) 37 (1861) 38 (1863) 39 (1865) 40 (1867) 41 (1869) 42 (1871) 43 (1873) 44 (1875) 45 (1877) 46 (1879) 47 (1881) 48 (1883) 49 (1885) 50 (1887) 41 (1869) 42 (1871) 43 (1873) 44 (1875) 45 (1877) 46 (1879) 47 (1881) 48 (1883) 49 (1885) 50 (1887) 51 (1889) 52 (1891) 53 (1893) 54 (1895) 55 (1897) 56 (1899) 57 (1901) 58 (1903) 59 (1905) 60 (1907) 51 (1889) 52 (1891) 53 (1893) 54 (1895) 55 (1897) 56 (1899) 57 (1901) 58 (1903) 59 (1905) 60 (1907) 61 (1909) 62 (1911) 63 (1913) 64 (1915) 65 (1917) 66 (1919) 67 (1921) 68 (1923) 69 (1925) 70 (1927) 61 (1909) 62 (1911) 63 (1913) 64 (1915) 65 (1917) 66 (1919) 67 (1921) 68 (1923) 69 (1925) 70 (1927) 71 (1929) 72 (1931) 73 (1933) 74 (1935) 75 (1937) 76 (1939) 77 (1941) 78 (1943) 79 (1945) 80 (1947) 71 (1929) 72 (1931) 73 (1933) 74 (1935) 75 (1937) 76 (1939) 77 (1941) 78 (1943) 79 (1945) 80 (1947) 81 (1949) 82 (1951) 83 (1953) 84 (1955) 85 (1957) 86 (1959) 87 (1961) 88 (1963) 89 (1965) 90 (1967) 81 (1949) 82 (1951) 83 (1953) 84 (1955) 85 (1957) 86 (1959) 87 (1961) 88 (1963) 89 (1965) 90 (1967) 91 (1969) 92 (1971) 93 (1973) 94 (1975) 95 (1977) 96 (1979) 97 (1981) 98 (1983) 99 (1985) 100 (1987) 91 (1969) 92 (1971) 93 (1973) 94 (1975) 95 (1977) 96 (1979) 97 (1981) 98 (1983) 99 (1985) 100 (1987) 101 (1989) 102 (1991) 103 (1993) 104 (1995) 105 (1997) 106 (1999) 107 (2001) 108 (2003) 109 (2005) 110 (2007) 101 (1989) 102 (1991) 103 (1993) 104 (1995) 105 (1997) 106 (1999) 107 (2001) 108 (2003) 109 (2005) 110 (2007) 111 (2009) 112 (2011) 113 (2013) 114 (2015) 115 (2017) 116 (2019) 117 (2021) 118 (2023) 119 (2025) 120 (2027) 111 (2009) 112 (2011) 113 (2013) 114 (2015) 115 (2017) 116 (2019) 117 (2021) 118 (2023) 119 (2025) 120 (2027) v t e Lists of United States congressional delegations v t e States Alabama H S Alaska H S Arizona H S Arkansas H S California H S Colorado H S Connecticut H S Delaware H S Florida H S Georgia H S Hawaii H S Idaho H S Illinois H S Indiana H S Iowa H S Kansas H S Kentucky H S Louisiana H S Maine H S Maryland H S Massachusetts H S Michigan H S Minnesota H S Mississippi H S Missouri H S Montana H S Nebraska H S Nevada H S New Hampshire H S New Jersey H S New Mexico H S New York H S North Carolina H S North Dakota H S Ohio H S Oklahoma H S Oregon H S Pennsylvania H S Rhode Island H S South Carolina H S South Dakota H S Tennessee H S Texas H S Utah H S Vermont H S Virginia H S Washington H S West Virginia H S Wisconsin H S Wyoming H S Alabama H S H S Alaska H S H S Arizona H S H S Arkansas H S H S California H S H S Colorado H S H S Connecticut H S H S Delaware H S H S Florida H S H S Georgia H S H S Hawaii H S H S Idaho H S H S Illinois H S H S Indiana H S H S Iowa H S H S Kansas H S H S Kentucky H S H S Louisiana H S H S Maine H S H S Maryland H S H S Massachusetts H S H S Michigan H S H S Minnesota H S H S Mississippi H S H S Missouri H S H S Montana H S H S Nebraska H S H S Nevada H S H S New Hampshire H S H S New Jersey H S H S New Mexico H S H S New York H S H S North Carolina H S H S North Dakota H S H S Ohio H S H S Oklahoma H S H S Oregon H S H S Pennsylvania H S H S Rhode Island H S H S South Carolina H S H S South Dakota H S H S Tennessee H S H S Texas H S H S Utah H S H S Vermont H S H S Virginia H S H S Washington H S H S West Virginia H S H S Wisconsin H S H S Wyoming H S H S Others American Samoa District of Columbia Guam Northern Mariana Islands Puerto Rico U.S. Virgin Islands Proposed ( Cherokee ) American Samoa District of Columbia Guam Northern Mariana Islands Puerto Rico U.S. Virgin Islands Proposed ( Cherokee ) Obsolete Dakota Territory Northwest Territory Orleans Territory Philippines Southwest Territory Dakota Territory Northwest Territory Orleans Territory Philippines Southwest Territory Lists of former representatives List of former senators Lists of former representatives List of former senators v t e Lists of acts of the United States Congress v t e By congress 74th 103rd 104th 105th 106th 107th 108th 109th 110th 111th 112th 113th 114th 115th 116th 117th 118th 119th 74th 103rd 104th 105th 106th 107th 108th 109th 110th 111th 112th 113th 114th 115th 116th 117th 118th 119th By year 1789–1901 1901–2001 2001–present 1789–1901 1901–2001 2001–present By topic African-Americans Education Energy Environment U.S. Forest Service Immigration Tariffs African-Americans Education Energy Environment U.S. Forest Service Immigration Tariffs v t e Legislatures of the United States v t e United States Congress United States House of Representatives United States Senate United States House of Representatives United States Senate State legislatures Alabama ( H , S ) Alaska ( H , S ) Arizona ( H , S ) Arkansas ( H , S ) California ( A , S ) Colorado ( H , S ) Connecticut ( H , S ) Delaware ( H , S ) Florida ( H , S ) Georgia ( H , S ) Hawaii ( H , S ) Idaho ( H , S ) Illinois ( H , S ) Indiana ( H , S ) Iowa ( H , S ) Kansas ( H , S ) Kentucky ( H , S ) Louisiana ( H , S ) Maine ( H , S ) Maryland ( H , S ) Massachusetts ( H , S ) Michigan ( H , S ) Minnesota ( H , S ) Mississippi ( H , S ) Missouri ( H , S ) Montana ( H , S ) Nebraska Nevada ( A , S ) New Hampshire ( H , S ) New Jersey ( GA , S ) New Mexico ( H , S ) New York ( A , S ) North Carolina ( H , S ) North Dakota ( H , S ) Ohio ( H , S ) Oklahoma ( H , S ) Oregon ( H , S ) Pennsylvania ( H , S ) Rhode Island ( H , S ) South Carolina ( H , S ) South Dakota ( H , S ) Tennessee ( H , S ) Texas ( H , S ) Utah ( H , S ) Vermont ( H , S ) Virginia ( H , S ) Washington ( H , S ) West Virginia ( H , S ) Wisconsin ( A , S ) Wyoming ( H , S ) Alabama ( H , S ) Alaska ( H , S ) Arizona ( H , S ) Arkansas ( H , S ) California ( A , S ) Colorado ( H , S ) Connecticut ( H , S ) Delaware ( H , S ) Florida ( H , S ) Georgia ( H , S ) Hawaii ( H , S ) Idaho ( H , S ) Illinois ( H , S ) Indiana ( H , S ) Iowa ( H , S ) Kansas ( H , S ) Kentucky ( H , S ) Louisiana ( H , S ) Maine ( H , S ) Maryland ( H , S ) Massachusetts ( H , S ) Michigan ( H , S ) Minnesota ( H , S ) Mississippi ( H , S ) Missouri ( H , S ) Montana ( H , S ) Nebraska Nevada ( A , S ) New Hampshire ( H , S ) New Jersey ( GA , S ) New Mexico ( H , S ) New York ( A , S ) North Carolina ( H , S ) North Dakota ( H , S ) Ohio ( H , S ) Oklahoma ( H , S ) Oregon ( H , S ) Pennsylvania ( H , S ) Rhode Island ( H , S ) South Carolina ( H , S ) South Dakota ( H , S ) Tennessee ( H , S ) Texas ( H , S ) Utah ( H , S ) Vermont ( H , S ) Virginia ( H , S ) Washington ( H , S ) West Virginia ( H , S ) Wisconsin ( A , S ) Wyoming ( H , S ) Other legislatures District of Columbia American Samoa ( H , S ) Guam Northern Mariana Islands ( H , S ) Puerto Rico ( H , S ) U.S. Virgin Islands District of Columbia American Samoa ( H , S ) Guam Northern Mariana Islands ( H , S ) Puerto Rico ( H , S ) U.S. Virgin Islands Legislative elections 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 List of U.S. state legislators Lists of past U.S. state legislatures List of U.S. state legislators Lists of past U.S. state legislatures v t e United States v t e History By period 1776–1789 1789–1815 1815–1849 1849–1865 1865–1917 1917–1945 1945–1964 1964–1980 1980–1991 1991–2016 2016–present By event Pre-colonial era Colonial era Stamp Act Congress Thirteen Colonies Continental Congress Continental Association United Colonies military history Founding Fathers Halifax Resolves Lee Resolution Declaration of Independence American Revolution War Treaty of Paris Articles of Confederation Perpetual Union Confederation period American frontier Constitution drafting and ratification Bill of Rights Federalist Era War of 1812 Territorial evolution Mexican–American War Civil War Reconstruction era Indian Wars Native genocide Gilded Age Progressive Era Women's suffrage Civil rights movement 1865–1896 1896–1954 1954–1968 Spanish–American War Imperialism World War I Roaring Twenties Great Depression World War II home front American Century Cold War Korean War Space Race Feminist Movement LGBTQ Movement Vietnam War Post-Cold War (1991–2016) September 11 attacks War on Terror War in Afghanistan Iraq War Great Recession COVID-19 pandemic By topic Outline of U.S. history Demographic Discoveries Economic Inventions Military Postal Technological and industrial By period 1776–1789 1789–1815 1815–1849 1849–1865 1865–1917 1917–1945 1945–1964 1964–1980 1980–1991 1991–2016 2016–present 1776–1789 1789–1815 1815–1849 1849–1865 1865–1917 1917–1945 1945–1964 1964–1980 1980–1991 1991–2016 2016–present By event Pre-colonial era Colonial era Stamp Act Congress Thirteen Colonies Continental Congress Continental Association United Colonies military history Founding Fathers Halifax Resolves Lee Resolution Declaration of Independence American Revolution War Treaty of Paris Articles of Confederation Perpetual Union Confederation period American frontier Constitution drafting and ratification Bill of Rights Federalist Era War of 1812 Territorial evolution Mexican–American War Civil War Reconstruction era Indian Wars Native genocide Gilded Age Progressive Era Women's suffrage Civil rights movement 1865–1896 1896–1954 1954–1968 Spanish–American War Imperialism World War I Roaring Twenties Great Depression World War II home front American Century Cold War Korean War Space Race Feminist Movement LGBTQ Movement Vietnam War Post-Cold War (1991–2016) September 11 attacks War on Terror War in Afghanistan Iraq War Great Recession COVID-19 pandemic Pre-colonial era Colonial era Stamp Act Congress Thirteen Colonies Continental Congress Continental Association United Colonies military history Founding Fathers Stamp Act Congress Thirteen Colonies Continental Congress Continental Association United Colonies military history Founding Fathers Halifax Resolves Lee Resolution Declaration of Independence American Revolution War Treaty of Paris War Treaty of Paris Articles of Confederation Perpetual Union Confederation period Perpetual Union Confederation period American frontier Constitution drafting and ratification Bill of Rights drafting and ratification Bill of Rights Federalist Era War of 1812 Territorial evolution Mexican–American War Civil War Reconstruction era Indian Wars Native genocide Gilded Age Progressive Era Women's suffrage Civil rights movement 1865–1896 1896–1954 1954–1968 1865–1896 1896–1954 1954–1968 Spanish–American War Imperialism World War I Roaring Twenties Great Depression World War II home front home front American Century Cold War Korean War Space Race Feminist Movement LGBTQ Movement Vietnam War Post-Cold War (1991–2016) September 11 attacks War on Terror War in Afghanistan Iraq War War in Afghanistan Iraq War Great Recession COVID-19 pandemic By topic Outline of U.S. history Demographic Discoveries Economic Inventions Military Postal Technological and industrial Outline of U.S. history Demographic Discoveries Economic Inventions Military Postal Technological and industrial Geography Territory Contiguous United States counties federal district federal enclaves Indian reservations insular zones minor outlying islands populated places states Earthquakes Extreme points Islands Mountains peaks ranges Appalachian Rocky Sierra Nevada National Park Service National Parks Regions East Coast West Coast Great Plains Gulf Mid-Atlantic Midwestern New England Pacific Central Eastern Northern Northeastern Northwestern Southern Southeastern Southwestern Western Longest rivers Arkansas Colorado Columbia Mississippi Missouri Red (South) Rio Grande Yukon Time Water supply and sanitation World Heritage Sites Territory Contiguous United States counties federal district federal enclaves Indian reservations insular zones minor outlying islands populated places states Earthquakes Extreme points Islands Mountains peaks ranges Appalachian Rocky Sierra Nevada National Park Service National Parks Regions East Coast West Coast Great Plains Gulf Mid-Atlantic Midwestern New England Pacific Central Eastern Northern Northeastern Northwestern Southern Southeastern Southwestern Western Longest rivers Arkansas Colorado Columbia Mississippi Missouri Red (South) Rio Grande Yukon Time Water supply and sanitation World Heritage Sites Territory Contiguous United States counties federal district federal enclaves Indian reservations insular zones minor outlying islands populated places states Contiguous United States counties federal district federal enclaves Indian reservations insular zones minor outlying islands populated places states Earthquakes Extreme points Islands Mountains peaks ranges Appalachian Rocky Sierra Nevada peaks ranges Appalachian Rocky Sierra Nevada National Park Service National Parks National Parks Regions East Coast West Coast Great Plains Gulf Mid-Atlantic Midwestern New England Pacific Central Eastern Northern Northeastern Northwestern Southern Southeastern Southwestern Western East Coast West Coast Great Plains Gulf Mid-Atlantic Midwestern New England Pacific Central Eastern Northern Northeastern Northwestern Southern Southeastern Southwestern Western Longest rivers Arkansas Colorado Columbia Mississippi Missouri Red (South) Rio Grande Yukon Arkansas Colorado Columbia Mississippi Missouri Red (South) Rio Grande Yukon Time Water supply and sanitation World Heritage Sites Politics Federal Executive President of the United States powers Executive Office Vice President Cabinet Executive departments Independent agencies Intelligence Community Director of National Intelligence Central Intelligence Agency National Security Agency National Reconnaissance Office Law enforcement ATF CBP Diplomatic Security DEA FBI ICE Marshals Secret Service TSA Inspector generals Civil service Public policy Legislative House of Representatives current members Speaker Senate current members President pro tempore President Capitol Police Library of Congress Congressional Budget Office Government Accountability Office Government Publishing Office Judicial Supreme Court Chief Justice Associate Justices list Courts of appeals list of judges District courts / Territorial courts list of courts list of judges Other tribunals U.S. attorney Law Bill of Rights civil liberties Code of Federal Regulations Constitution federalism preemption separation of powers civil rights United States Code Uniformed Armed Forces Army Marine Corps Navy Air Force Space Force Coast Guard National Guard NOAA Corps Public Health Service Corps State , Federal District , and Territorial Executive Governor list Lieutenant governor list Secretary of state Attorney general Treasurer Auditor/Comptroller Agriculture commissioner Insurance commissioner Public utilities commission State police list Legislative List of legislatures List of legislators Judicial Supreme courts Chief justices District attorney list Law State constitutions Statutory codes Uniform act Comparison of governments Tribal Tribal sovereignty Native American recognition in the United States Federally recognized tribes Federally recognized Alaska Native tribes State-recognized tribes Indian reservation list Hawaiian home land Local County List of counties and county equivalents County executive Sheriff Clerk Cities Consolidated city-county Independent city Coterminous municipality Charter Mayor–council government Council–manager government City commission government Mayor City manager City council Minor divisions Township Town meeting Special district School district list Corruption Democratic backsliding Elections Electoral College Red states and blue states Foreign relations foreign policy Imperial presidency Ideologies Anti-Americanism exceptionalism nationalism Parties Democratic Republican Third parties Scandals Federal Executive President of the United States powers Executive Office Vice President Cabinet Executive departments Independent agencies Intelligence Community Director of National Intelligence Central Intelligence Agency National Security Agency National Reconnaissance Office Law enforcement ATF CBP Diplomatic Security DEA FBI ICE Marshals Secret Service TSA Inspector generals Civil service Public policy Legislative House of Representatives current members Speaker Senate current members President pro tempore President Capitol Police Library of Congress Congressional Budget Office Government Accountability Office Government Publishing Office Judicial Supreme Court Chief Justice Associate Justices list Courts of appeals list of judges District courts / Territorial courts list of courts list of judges Other tribunals U.S. attorney Law Bill of Rights civil liberties Code of Federal Regulations Constitution federalism preemption separation of powers civil rights United States Code Uniformed Armed Forces Army Marine Corps Navy Air Force Space Force Coast Guard National Guard NOAA Corps Public Health Service Corps State , Federal District , and Territorial Executive Governor list Lieutenant governor list Secretary of state Attorney general Treasurer Auditor/Comptroller Agriculture commissioner Insurance commissioner Public utilities commission State police list Legislative List of legislatures List of legislators Judicial Supreme courts Chief justices District attorney list Law State constitutions Statutory codes Uniform act Comparison of governments Tribal Tribal sovereignty Native American recognition in the United States Federally recognized tribes Federally recognized Alaska Native tribes State-recognized tribes Indian reservation list Hawaiian home land Local County List of counties and county equivalents County executive Sheriff Clerk Cities Consolidated city-county Independent city Coterminous municipality Charter Mayor–council government Council–manager government City commission government Mayor City manager City council Minor divisions Township Town meeting Special district School district list Corruption Democratic backsliding Elections Electoral College Red states and blue states Foreign relations foreign policy Imperial presidency Ideologies Anti-Americanism exceptionalism nationalism Parties Democratic Republican Third parties Scandals Federal Executive President of the United States powers Executive Office Vice President Cabinet Executive departments Independent agencies Intelligence Community Director of National Intelligence Central Intelligence Agency National Security Agency National Reconnaissance Office Law enforcement ATF CBP Diplomatic Security DEA FBI ICE Marshals Secret Service TSA Inspector generals Civil service Public policy Legislative House of Representatives current members Speaker Senate current members President pro tempore President Capitol Police Library of Congress Congressional Budget Office Government Accountability Office Government Publishing Office Judicial Supreme Court Chief Justice Associate Justices list Courts of appeals list of judges District courts / Territorial courts list of courts list of judges Other tribunals U.S. attorney Law Bill of Rights civil liberties Code of Federal Regulations Constitution federalism preemption separation of powers civil rights United States Code Uniformed Armed Forces Army Marine Corps Navy Air Force Space Force Coast Guard National Guard NOAA Corps Public Health Service Corps Executive President of the United States powers Executive Office Vice President Cabinet Executive departments Independent agencies Intelligence Community Director of National Intelligence Central Intelligence Agency National Security Agency National Reconnaissance Office Law enforcement ATF CBP Diplomatic Security DEA FBI ICE Marshals Secret Service TSA Inspector generals Civil service Public policy President of the United States powers Executive Office powers Executive Office Vice President Cabinet Executive departments Independent agencies Intelligence Community Director of National Intelligence Central Intelligence Agency National Security Agency National Reconnaissance Office Director of National Intelligence Central Intelligence Agency National Security Agency National Reconnaissance Office Law enforcement ATF CBP Diplomatic Security DEA FBI ICE Marshals Secret Service TSA ATF CBP Diplomatic Security DEA FBI ICE Marshals Secret Service TSA Inspector generals Civil service Public policy Legislative House of Representatives current members Speaker Senate current members President pro tempore President Capitol Police Library of Congress Congressional Budget Office Government Accountability Office Government Publishing Office House of Representatives current members Speaker current members Speaker Senate current members President pro tempore President current members President pro tempore President Capitol Police Library of Congress Congressional Budget Office Government Accountability Office Government Publishing Office Judicial Supreme Court Chief Justice Associate Justices list Courts of appeals list of judges District courts / Territorial courts list of courts list of judges Other tribunals U.S. attorney Supreme Court Chief Justice Associate Justices list Chief Justice Associate Justices list Courts of appeals list of judges list of judges District courts / Territorial courts list of courts list of judges list of courts list of judges Other tribunals U.S. attorney Law Bill of Rights civil liberties Code of Federal Regulations Constitution federalism preemption separation of powers civil rights United States Code Bill of Rights civil liberties civil liberties Code of Federal Regulations Constitution federalism preemption separation of powers civil rights federalism preemption separation of powers civil rights United States Code Uniformed Armed Forces Army Marine Corps Navy Air Force Space Force Coast Guard National Guard NOAA Corps Public Health Service Corps Armed Forces Army Marine Corps Navy Air Force Space Force Coast Guard National Guard Army Marine Corps Navy Air Force Space Force Coast Guard National Guard NOAA Corps Public Health Service Corps State , Federal District , and Territorial Executive Governor list Lieutenant governor list Secretary of state Attorney general Treasurer Auditor/Comptroller Agriculture commissioner Insurance commissioner Public utilities commission State police list Legislative List of legislatures List of legislators Judicial Supreme courts Chief justices District attorney list Law State constitutions Statutory codes Uniform act Comparison of governments Executive Governor list Lieutenant governor list Secretary of state Attorney general Treasurer Auditor/Comptroller Agriculture commissioner Insurance commissioner Public utilities commission State police list Governor list list Lieutenant governor list list Secretary of state Attorney general Treasurer Auditor/Comptroller Agriculture commissioner Insurance commissioner Public utilities commission State police list list Legislative List of legislatures List of legislators List of legislatures List of legislators Judicial Supreme courts Chief justices District attorney list Supreme courts Chief justices Chief justices District attorney list list Law State constitutions Statutory codes Uniform act Comparison of governments State constitutions Statutory codes Uniform act Comparison of governments Tribal Tribal sovereignty Native American recognition in the United States Federally recognized tribes Federally recognized Alaska Native tribes State-recognized tribes Indian reservation list Hawaiian home land Tribal sovereignty Native American recognition in the United States Federally recognized tribes Federally recognized Alaska Native tribes State-recognized tribes Federally recognized tribes Federally recognized Alaska 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finance Health insurance costs Health care prices Prescription drug prices Disability Health insurance Food safety Physician shortage Poverty and health Race and health Obesity Medical deserts Women's reproductive health Life expectancy Issues Capital punishment Crime incarceration Criticism of government Discrimination affirmative action antisemitism intersex rights Islamophobia LGBTQ rights racism Native American African American Energy policy Environmental issues Environmental movement Climate change Gun politics Mass shootings Hunger Smoking Human rights Immigration illegal National security Terrorism Opioid epidemic Separation of church and state Xenophobia Culture Americana Architecture Cinema Crime Cuisine Dance Demographics Economic issues affluence eviction homeownership household income income inequality middle class personal income poverty standard of living wealth working class Education attainment literacy Family Fashion Flag list Folklore Holidays Federal holidays Homelessness Housing Human rights Languages American English Indigenous languages ASL Literature Media journalism internet newspapers radio television Music Names National anthem National symbols Columbia Mount Rushmore Statue of Liberty Uncle Sam People Philosophy Political ideologies Race Religion Sexuality Social class Society Sports history Theater Transportation Video games Visual art Americana Architecture Cinema Crime Cuisine Dance Demographics Economic issues affluence eviction homeownership household income income inequality middle class personal income poverty standard of living wealth working class affluence eviction homeownership household income income inequality middle class personal income poverty standard of living wealth working class Education attainment literacy attainment literacy Family Fashion Flag list list Folklore Holidays Federal holidays Federal holidays Homelessness Housing Human rights Languages American English Indigenous languages ASL American English Indigenous languages ASL Literature Media journalism internet newspapers radio television journalism internet newspapers radio television Music Names National anthem National symbols Columbia Mount Rushmore Statue of Liberty Uncle Sam Columbia Mount Rushmore Statue of Liberty Uncle Sam People Philosophy Political ideologies Race Religion Sexuality Social class Society Sports history history Theater Transportation Video games Visual art Social class Affluence American Dream Educational attainment Homelessness Homeownership Household income Income inequality Middle class Personal income Poverty Standard of living Affluence American Dream Educational attainment Homelessness Homeownership Household income Income inequality Middle class Personal income Poverty Standard of living Health Aging Healthcare Abortion Birth control Prenatal care Hospice care Immigrant health care Rationing Health care finance Health insurance costs Health care prices Prescription drug prices Disability Health insurance Food safety Physician shortage Poverty and health Race and health Obesity Medical deserts Women's reproductive health Life expectancy Aging Healthcare Abortion Birth control Prenatal care Hospice care Immigrant health care Rationing Abortion Birth control Prenatal care Hospice care Immigrant health care Rationing Health care finance Health insurance costs Health care prices Prescription drug prices Health insurance costs Health care prices Prescription drug prices Disability Health insurance Food safety Physician shortage Poverty and health Race and health Obesity Medical deserts Women's reproductive health Life expectancy Issues Capital punishment Crime incarceration Criticism of government Discrimination affirmative action antisemitism intersex rights Islamophobia LGBTQ rights racism Native American African American Energy policy Environmental issues Environmental movement Climate change Gun politics Mass shootings Hunger Smoking Human rights Immigration illegal National security Terrorism Opioid epidemic Separation of church and state Xenophobia Capital punishment Crime incarceration incarceration Criticism of government Discrimination affirmative action antisemitism intersex rights Islamophobia LGBTQ rights racism Native American African American affirmative action antisemitism intersex rights Islamophobia LGBTQ rights racism Native American African American Energy policy Environmental issues Environmental movement Climate change Environmental movement Climate change Gun politics Mass shootings Hunger Smoking Human rights Immigration illegal illegal National security Terrorism Terrorism Opioid epidemic Separation of church and state Xenophobia Outline Index Category Portal Outline Index Category Portal v t e National bicameral legislatures v t e Federal Argentina Australia Austria Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Brazil Canada Ethiopia India Malaysia Mexico Nepal Nigeria Pakistan Russia Somalia South Sudan Sudan Switzerland United States Argentina Australia Austria Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Brazil Canada Ethiopia India Malaysia Mexico Nepal Nigeria Pakistan Russia Somalia South Sudan Sudan Switzerland United States Unitary Algeria Antigua and Barbuda Bahamas Bahrain Barbados Belarus Belize Bhutan Bolivia Burundi Cambodia Cameroon Chad Chile Colombia Democratic Republic of the Congo Republic of the Congo Czech Republic Dominican Republic Egypt Equatorial Guinea Eswatini France Gabon Grenada Haiti Indonesia Ireland Italy Ivory Coast Jamaica Japan Jordan Kazakhstan Kenya Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Morocco Myanmar Namibia Netherlands Oman Palau Paraguay Philippines Poland Romania Rwanda Saint Lucia Slovenia South Africa Spain Tajikistan Thailand Togo Trinidad and Tobago Tunisia United Kingdom Uruguay Uzbekistan Zimbabwe Algeria Antigua and Barbuda Bahamas Bahrain Barbados Belarus Belize Bhutan Bolivia Burundi Cambodia Cameroon Chad Chile Colombia Democratic Republic of the Congo Republic of the Congo Czech Republic Dominican Republic Egypt Equatorial Guinea Eswatini France Gabon Grenada Haiti Indonesia Ireland Italy Ivory Coast Jamaica Japan Jordan Kazakhstan Kenya Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Morocco Myanmar Namibia Netherlands Oman Palau Paraguay Philippines Poland Romania Rwanda Saint Lucia Slovenia South Africa Spain Tajikistan Thailand Togo Trinidad and Tobago Tunisia United Kingdom Uruguay Uzbekistan Zimbabwe Dependent and other territories American Samoa Bermuda Isle of Man Northern Mariana Islands Puerto Rico American Samoa Bermuda Isle of Man Northern Mariana Islands Puerto Rico Non-UN states Somaliland Somaliland Historical Venezuela (1811–1999) Confederate States (1862–1865) Czechoslovakia (1920–1939) (1969–1992) Estonia (1938–1940) Serbia (1901–1903) Soviet Union (1938–1991) Texas (1836–1845) Yugoslavia (1931–1939, 1945–1963, 1974–1992) FR Yugoslavia (1992–2003) Ottoman Empire (1876–1878, 1908–1920) Venezuela (1811–1999) Confederate States (1862–1865) Czechoslovakia (1920–1939) (1969–1992) Estonia (1938–1940) Serbia (1901–1903) Soviet Union (1938–1991) Texas (1836–1845) Yugoslavia (1931–1939, 1945–1963, 1974–1992) FR Yugoslavia (1992–2003) Ottoman Empire (1876–1878, 1908–1920) Related Unicameralism Tricameralism Multicameralism List of legislatures by country Unicameralism Tricameralism Multicameralism List of legislatures by country National unicameral legislatures National lower houses National upper houses National unicameral legislatures National lower houses National upper houses v t e National legislative bodies of the Americas v t e Sovereign states Antigua and Barbuda Argentina Bahamas Barbados Belize Bolivia Brazil Canada Chile Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador El Salvador France Grenada Guatemala Guyana Haiti Honduras Jamaica Mexico Nicaragua Panama Paraguay Peru Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Suriname Trinidad and Tobago United States Uruguay Venezuela Antigua and Barbuda Argentina Bahamas Barbados Belize Bolivia Brazil Canada Chile Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador El Salvador France Grenada Guatemala Guyana Haiti Honduras Jamaica Mexico Nicaragua Panama Paraguay Peru Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Suriname Trinidad and Tobago United States Uruguay Venezuela Dependencies and other territories Anguilla Aruba Bermuda British Virgin Islands Cayman Islands Curaçao Falkland Islands Greenland Montserrat Puerto Rico Saint Barthélemy Saint Pierre and Miquelon Sint Maarten Turks and Caicos Islands US Virgin Islands Anguilla Aruba Bermuda British Virgin Islands Cayman Islands Curaçao Falkland Islands Greenland Montserrat Puerto Rico Saint Barthélemy Saint Pierre and Miquelon Sint Maarten Turks and Caicos Islands US Virgin Islands Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF GND ISNI VIAF GND National United States France BnF data Czech Republic Norway Latvia Korea Sweden Poland Vatican Israel United States France BnF data Czech Republic Norway Latvia Korea Sweden Poland Vatican Israel Academics CiNii CiNii Artists ULAN MusicBrainz ULAN MusicBrainz Other IdRef Yale LUX IdRef Yale LUX United States Law Politics Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Travel guides from Wikivoyage .mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap} 38°53′23″N 77°0′32″W / 38.88972°N 77.00889°W / 38.88972; -77.00889 Legislative branch of the United States government 1789 establishments in the United States Bicameral legislatures National legislatures Webarchive template wayback links Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas Articles with short description Short description is different from 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Main page Wikimedia News Translations Recent changes Special pages Random page Help Babel Wikimedia Forum Mailing lists Requests Babylon Reports Research Planet Wikimedia Meet Wikimedians Events Movement affiliates English Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents Beginning 1 Notes 2 All Wikipedias ordered by number of articles 3 Other Wikipedias Toggle Other Wikipedias subsection 3.1 Not yet created 3.2 Closed and read-only 3.3 Deleted but hosted elsewhere 3.4 Nonstandard language codes 3.5 Redirects 3.6 Non-language subdomains 3.1 Not yet created 3.2 Closed and read-only 3.3 Deleted but hosted elsewhere 3.4 Nonstandard language codes 3.5 Redirects 3.6 Non-language subdomains 4 See also Toggle See also subsection 4.1 Additional resources and statistics 4.2 Additional projects 4.1 Additional resources and statistics 4.2 Additional projects List of Wikipedias አማርኛ Aragonés العربية مصرى অসমীয়া Asturianu अवधी تۆرکجه Basa Bali भोजपुरी ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ বাংলা Català کوردی Чӑвашла Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti فارسی Français Galego Bahasa Hulontalo 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî हिन्दी Kreyòl ayisyen Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 한국어 کٲشُر Kurdî Limburgs मैथिली ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk bokmål ଓଡ଼ିଆ پنجابی پښتو Português Română Русский Саха тыла ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Sicilianu Simple English ChiShona Српски / srpski தமிழ் Tayal Тоҷикӣ Toki pona Татарча / tatarça Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 吴语 中文 粵語 Content page Discussion Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikipedia Wikidata item MediaWiki Meta-Wiki Wikibooks Wikidata Wikifunctions Wikimedia Commons Wikinews Wikiquote Wikipedia Wikisource Wikispecies Wiktionary Wikiversity Wikivoyage This page contains information about all 358 languages for which official Wikipedias have been created under the auspices of the Wikimedia Foundation . The table below, however, excludes 16 Wikipedias that were closed and 11 of them were moved to the Wikimedia Incubator for further development, leaving a current total of 342 active Wikipedias. Content in other languages is being developed at the Wikimedia Incubator; languages which meet certain criteria can get their own wikis . The table entries are ordered by current article count. Each entry gives the language name in English (linked to the English Wikipedia article for the language); its "local name" (i.e. in the language itself); the language code used in the wiki's URL address and in interwiki links to it (linked to the local Main Page); and statistics on articles, edits, administrators, users, active users, and images (each linked to an appropriate local special page). To start a Wikipedia in a new language, please see our language proposal policy and the Incubator manual . Note: Just adding a link here does not create a new Wikipedia, nor does it serve to request that one be created. If a wiki becomes active and is not listed here, please post a notice on this article's talk page , including a link to all the relevant Wikipedia pages, and help promote the effort by announcing it on the Wikipedia-L mailing list, and at Wikimedia News . The tables here are maintained automatically based on statistics collected by a bot four times a day, so it is not necessary to "manually" update the table. (The way this is being done makes that impossible, anyway.) If something is wrong with an entry other than simply having slightly outdated statistics, post about it on the talk page . More lists of Wikipedias by various criteria : [ edit ] List of Wikipedias by article count , users , file count and depth and its source (both updated every 6 hours) List of Wikipedias by edits per article and depth (both updated every 6 hours) List of Wikipedias by language group and family (both updated every 6 hours) and language families as a tree (not just Wikipedias) List of Wikipedias by country (updated manually) List of Wikipedias by speakers per article (updated every 6 hours) List of Wikipedias by sample of articles and expanded sample of articles (both updated monthly) List of Wikipedias by featured and good articles (both updated manually) List of Wikipedias by creation date (incomplete) List of Wikipedias in multiple writing systems List of Wikipedias having local media files and zero local media files (both updated manually) List of Wikipedia milestones or en:Wikipedia:Milestone statistics (tracking of major article-count milestones) List of largest wikis (not just Wikimedia wikis) Wikimedia News (announcements and tracking of milestones for all Wikimedia projects) Tell us about your Wikipedia Notes The " All pages " column refers to the number of pages in all namespaces, including both articles (the official article count of each wiki) and non-articles (user pages, images, talk pages, "project" pages, categories, and templates). " Active Users " are registered users who have made at least one edit in the last thirty days. " Files " is the number of locally uploaded files. Note that some large Wikipedias do not use local images or other media files and rely on Commons completely, so the value "0" is not a glitch (see also List of Wikipedias having zero local media files ). All Wikipedias ordered by number of articles The languages listed here are Wikipedias that have been created as separate subdomains of wikipedia.org, ordered by number of articles . The table can also be sorted by other columns. It excludes closed Wikipedias . Historical data of this table dating back to 2007 can be found in the history of this table or, after 15 October 2022, in the history of the current source of the data . № Language Language (local) Wiki Articles All pages Edits Admins Users Active users Files Depth 1 English English en 7,122,763 64,882,781 1,328,449,924 826 51,073,724 267,090 957,369 1,346 2 Cebuano Cebuano ceb 6,115,889 11,231,844 36,979,957 7 136,391 190 3 2 3 German Deutsch de 3,088,174 8,463,309 261,431,061 168 4,929,975 36,589 129,440 93 4 French français fr 2,732,651 13,818,295 232,001,276 143 5,577,407 37,192 77,917 276 5 Swedish svenska sv 2,621,894 6,352,915 58,838,782 65 1,000,065 4,471 0 18 6 Dutch Nederlands nl 2,209,177 4,754,780 70,374,347 30 1,501,358 8,625 20 19 7 Spanish español es 2,087,385 8,570,257 171,072,483 52 7,681,915 39,743 0 192 8 Russian русский ru 2,080,543 8,477,189 150,887,568 63 3,858,309 7,757 263,655 168 9 Italian italiano it 1,952,325 8,561,850 148,638,422 107 2,838,232 29,419 122,772 198 10 Polish polski pl 1,681,454 3,978,008 78,599,459 95 1,490,734 10,656 263 36 11 Egyptian Arabic مصرى arz 1,630,376 2,215,169 12,921,007 7 277,588 315 1,309 0 12 Chinese 中文 zh 1,520,328 8,295,253 90,821,984 66 3,959,976 15,656 69,438 217 13 Japanese 日本語 ja 1,486,306 4,368,643 107,816,677 40 2,527,400 25,795 6,160 92 14 Ukrainian українська uk 1,403,978 5,234,472 47,193,928 48 867,107 5,819 114,216 67 15 Vietnamese Tiếng Việt vi 1,297,325 9,221,254 74,687,178 17 1,029,908 4,071 27,406 302 16 Arabic العربية ar 1,294,750 9,039,211 73,019,240 26 2,857,667 6,616 55,897 289 17 Waray Winaray war 1,266,852 2,870,724 7,727,204 3 65,270 83 42 4 18 Portuguese português pt 1,163,273 6,034,677 71,365,924 51 3,346,515 7,398 66,993 207 19 Persian فارسی fa 1,066,733 6,013,723 43,212,030 38 1,487,790 8,546 97,366 154 20 Catalan català ca 787,329 1,977,445 36,663,257 26 545,294 2,103 11,401 42 21 Indonesian Bahasa Indonesia id 760,958 4,200,070 28,820,098 47 1,631,834 5,643 64,794 140 22 Korean 한국어 ko 735,558 3,496,430 41,134,095 23 972,752 6,329 15,113 165 23 Chechen нохчийн ce 722,581 1,357,032 11,167,243 3 44,300 69 334 6 24 Serbian српски / srpski sr 715,010 4,224,387 30,636,896 14 520,720 2,015 39,950 174 25 Norwegian norsk no 670,221 1,887,830 25,525,399 36 690,176 2,159 4 44 26 Turkish Türkçe tr 660,595 3,391,133 36,590,689 23 1,768,203 5,491 44,066 184 27 Finnish suomi fi 611,404 1,567,846 23,733,715 35 635,799 3,292 79,858 37 28 Tatar татарча / tatarça tt 609,658 1,358,783 5,482,579 9 58,661 113 6,924 6 29 Czech čeština cs 584,454 1,629,243 25,556,895 32 754,580 5,196 1 50 30 Hungarian magyar hu 565,172 1,606,386 28,656,242 23 614,722 3,482 9,422 60 31 Romanian română ro 538,311 2,974,543 17,368,070 18 729,988 1,995 120,055 119 32 Basque euskara eu 478,862 1,027,514 10,498,854 12 186,044 948 0 13 33 Serbo-Croatian srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски sh 461,339 4,627,517 42,528,852 8 318,872 343 9,986 749 34 Malay Bahasa Melayu ms 435,818 1,172,952 6,740,273 13 379,574 2,358 17,905 16 35 Minnan 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí zh-min-nan 433,880 1,075,633 3,257,253 3 71,304 108 292 6 36 Hebrew עברית he 389,067 1,636,029 42,468,154 27 1,274,661 8,463 86,843 266 37 Esperanto Esperanto eo 380,637 853,733 9,261,338 13 247,994 438 19,629 16 38 Uzbek oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча uz 325,698 1,187,038 5,870,097 10 232,912 725 3,825 34 39 Armenian հայերեն hy 323,545 1,189,389 10,643,749 10 163,405 729 12,390 64 40 Danish dansk da 312,173 979,108 12,172,434 25 546,427 1,593 0 56 41 Bulgarian български bg 307,223 696,142 12,772,155 20 379,141 2,109 13 29 42 Welsh Cymraeg cy 283,930 537,848 14,496,932 11 103,940 136 12,161 21 43 Simple English Simple English simple 278,907 925,864 10,690,871 23 1,704,813 3,717 36 62 44 Greek Ελληνικά el 263,243 740,376 11,430,361 22 483,307 2,592 19,679 50 45 Belarusian беларуская be 258,751 723,095 5,073,830 9 161,041 410 3,574 22 46 Slovak slovenčina sk 257,738 598,135 8,124,674 11 281,099 1,339 0 23 47 Estonian eesti et 257,128 606,587 7,059,361 36 218,887 1,238 669 21 48 South Azerbaijani تۆرکجه azb 244,520 580,038 1,582,704 4 59,802 116 551 5 49 Kazakh қазақша kk 242,028 660,045 3,536,032 16 172,849 398 8,632 15 50 Urdu اردو ur 237,970 2,320,522 9,320,722 8 205,197 423 8,444 307 51 Galician galego gl 229,210 564,248 7,282,721 6 163,331 434 34 27 52 Croatian hrvatski hr 229,047 495,320 7,354,766 14 346,124 1,052 21,160 20 53 Minangkabau Minangkabau min 228,738 473,829 3,342,473 6 22,883 72 180 8 54 Lithuanian lietuvių lt 224,717 561,506 7,722,763 9 208,909 742 27,059 30 55 Azerbaijani azərbaycanca az 211,000 646,721 8,428,367 13 330,462 1,139 14,563 55 56 Slovenian slovenščina sl 196,249 501,782 6,603,523 22 251,760 872 8,960 31 57 Georgian ქართული ka 189,327 585,510 5,049,384 6 176,478 426 15,936 37 58 Ladin Ladin lld 180,829 188,201 245,602 3 12,173 28 4 0 59 Bangla বাংলা bn 180,236 1,383,906 8,726,799 15 522,708 2,337 21,184 281 60 Tamil தமிழ் ta 180,127 612,853 4,433,229 32 253,118 534 9,594 41 61 Thai ไทย th 178,957 1,154,022 12,769,805 20 528,468 3,003 6,673 328 62 Norwegian Nynorsk norsk nynorsk nn 177,150 399,036 3,630,967 14 149,634 219 10 14 63 Hindi हिन्दी hi 167,163 1,383,651 6,498,145 7 886,649 1,251 4,652 248 64 Macedonian македонски mk 158,016 592,664 5,482,449 12 128,752 336 8,838 69 65 Cantonese 粵語 zh-yue 148,827 336,396 2,367,061 11 319,540 978 3,038 11 66 Latin Latina la 140,952 291,731 3,926,552 21 201,436 208 0 15 67 Latvian latviešu lv 140,302 561,077 4,388,469 14 139,035 622 28,225 70 68 Asturian asturianu ast 138,512 247,823 4,452,955 7 142,110 172 0 11 69 Afrikaans Afrikaans af 127,757 434,640 2,863,585 14 199,392 328 9,909 38 70 Telugu తెలుగు te 118,761 404,616 4,615,589 11 142,914 453 14,859 66 71 Tajik тоҷикӣ tg 116,333 284,256 1,449,135 7 106,243 157 537 10 72 Burmese မြန်မာဘာသာ my 109,962 263,112 960,970 4 135,960 335 2,934 7 73 Albanian shqip sq 105,069 322,246 2,885,831 6 180,690 460 3,434 38 74 Swahili Kiswahili sw 104,225 209,566 1,477,727 14 85,479 452 1,189 7 75 Malagasy Malagasy mg 101,864 259,827 1,127,135 2 38,046 63 3 10 76 Marathi मराठी mr 101,099 327,549 2,640,402 10 176,625 455 2,432 40 77 Bosnian bosanski bs 96,604 382,902 3,788,521 10 176,042 283 5,304 86 78 Kurdish kurdî ku 90,981 290,561 1,974,061 3 131,185 132 555 32 79 Occitan occitan oc 90,486 166,549 2,479,034 4 61,543 204 305 10 80 Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography) беларуская (тарашкевіца) be-tarask 90,389 264,905 2,645,380 4 94,365 212 2,220 37 81 Breton brezhoneg br 90,330 160,932 2,171,635 6 88,614 130 514 8 82 Hausa Hausa ha 88,326 128,552 784,193 16 40,959 261 0 1 83 Malayalam മലയാളം ml 87,567 549,834 4,342,256 13 199,344 489 7,425 220 84 Low German Plattdüütsch nds 85,785 185,559 1,047,806 3 60,146 53 0 7 85 Lombard lombard lmo 79,968 152,868 1,320,061 3 50,919 86 795 7 86 Central Kurdish کوردی ckb 79,469 252,185 1,557,601 7 72,829 195 2,985 29 87 Kyrgyz кыргызча ky 76,148 120,938 636,965 3 45,856 113 2,677 1 88 Western Punjabi پنجابی pnb 74,990 141,229 695,941 2 42,868 79 31 3 89 Javanese Jawa jv 74,876 185,850 1,739,323 5 70,048 130 4,343 20 90 Newari नेपाल भाषा new 73,273 248,877 1,024,675 2 30,480 24 0 23 91 Haitian Creole Kreyòl ayisyen ht 71,506 93,016 876,505 2 37,741 105 0 0 92 Piedmontese Piemontèis pms 70,829 103,250 879,684 4 30,829 47 1,841 1 93 Venetian vèneto vec 69,538 143,265 1,221,604 4 40,670 53 724 9 94 Luxembourgish Lëtzebuergesch lb 66,431 140,974 2,652,898 8 68,983 136 2,514 23 95 Mazanderani مازِرونی mzn 64,558 107,410 326,646 3 44,285 52 418 1 96 Bashkir башҡортса ba 63,921 183,971 1,289,714 4 46,341 96 1,430 24 97 Irish Gaeilge ga 62,833 112,843 1,291,389 7 70,415 123 1,008 7 98 Sundanese Sunda su 62,187 99,786 692,299 7 35,074 57 419 2 99 Icelandic íslenska is 61,068 159,369 1,938,135 11 111,132 281 3,320 31 100 Ido Ido io 60,656 92,630 1,099,615 4 44,161 72 0 3 101 Silesian ślůnski szl 59,764 76,217 382,366 3 28,678 50 0 0 102 Punjabi ਪੰਜਾਬੀ pa 59,336 191,302 827,558 10 57,194 145 1,863 21 103 Western Frisian Frysk fy 59,057 177,077 1,213,774 7 56,145 105 7,642 27 104 Chuvash чӑвашла cv 58,396 121,788 867,450 2 39,042 49 530 8 105 Aragonese aragonés an 51,069 185,901 2,352,867 9 86,246 105 2,078 88 106 Tagalog Tagalog tl 48,715 248,178 2,186,321 10 156,780 241 1,712 147 107 Gilaki گیلکی glk 48,301 57,670 154,974 2 18,062 26 811 0 108 Volapük Volapük vo 47,498 165,210 3,323,653 2 39,859 37 0 123 109 Wu 吴语 wuu 47,300 72,621 385,986 4 190,376 129 6 1 110 Igbo Igbo ig 44,187 61,003 360,426 4 35,437 55 0 0 111 Dimli Zazaki diq 42,601 64,186 546,849 3 32,674 85 193 2 112 Yoruba Yorùbá yo 36,447 61,320 608,849 4 32,972 80 160 4 113 Balinese Basa Bali ban 35,120 72,778 247,694 4 73,093 86 141 3 114 Kannada ಕನ್ನಡ kn 34,358 158,293 1,319,650 5 95,530 185 2,368 108 115 Scots Scots sco 34,277 138,219 904,520 3 124,714 125 423 60 116 Alemannic Alemannisch als 31,459 74,806 1,076,374 7 116,121 145 596 27 117 Gujarati ગુજરાતી gu 30,788 135,180 894,797 3 84,373 98 0 76 118 Interlingua interlingua ia 30,178 46,093 688,848 6 57,480 54 4 4 119 Kotava Kotava avk 29,900 36,352 146,499 6 7,849 22 0 0 120 Crimean Tatar qırımtatarca crh 29,641 57,705 241,695 2 60,911 45 0 3 121 Nepali नेपाली ne 29,391 112,325 1,329,658 6 75,389 215 1,474 94 122 Bavarian Boarisch bar 27,210 110,625 850,501 2 78,085 67 1,153 72 123 Mongolian монгол mn 26,914 114,122 844,607 4 100,850 282 1,341 77 124 Sicilian sicilianu scn 26,275 56,071 771,931 4 49,571 67 1,060 17 125 Bishnupriya বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী bpy 25,092 63,456 895,219 2 27,714 18 35 32 126 Sinhala සිංහල si 24,998 167,201 773,033 3 76,157 149 2,939 149 127 Quechua Runa Simi qu 24,421 58,550 682,969 1 33,647 38 0 22 128 Saraiki سرائیکی skr 24,341 28,877 65,818 2 4,008 21 0 0 129 Navajo Diné bizaad nv 22,664 36,579 308,564 2 20,226 20 736 3 130 Mingrelian მარგალური xmf 22,026 41,793 245,140 3 22,390 31 0 4 131 Ossetic ирон os 21,526 76,919 591,787 3 27,516 33 149 50 132 Central Bikol Bikol Central bcl 21,336 50,228 299,816 4 29,750 68 798 10 133 Assamese অসমীয়া as 21,115 118,517 569,960 6 47,810 178 2,394 102 134 Pashto پښتو ps 20,971 75,620 358,930 3 37,911 72 1,815 32 135 Northern Frisian Nordfriisk frr 20,756 51,483 275,898 4 23,568 26 1,482 11 136 Odia ଓଡ଼ିଆ or 20,244 85,821 574,743 4 40,549 61 170 70 137 Sindhi سنڌي sd 19,861 72,053 348,521 4 21,312 41 158 33 138 Tumbuka chiTumbuka tum 18,799 39,217 106,636 4 10,891 21 138 3 139 Yakut саха тыла sah 17,880 54,177 423,113 4 28,226 56 1,765 32 140 Samogitian žemaitėška bat-smg 17,275 30,075 362,432 4 28,475 27 109 6 141 Mindong 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ cdo 16,706 33,567 104,507 3 24,398 33 0 3 142 Scottish Gaelic Gàidhlig gd 16,023 32,646 579,855 5 31,474 49 290 19 143 Buginese Basa Ugi bug 15,952 20,451 209,840 1 14,986 18 0 0 144 Yiddish ייִדיש yi 15,645 44,436 598,291 3 59,127 58 985 45 145 Amharic አማርኛ am 15,517 46,510 388,374 1 54,150 111 1,357 33 146 Iloko Ilokano ilo 15,445 70,551 404,493 2 19,526 23 0 72 147 Limburgish Limburgs li 15,153 68,665 483,996 7 32,586 49 622 87 148 Gorontalo Bahasa Hulontalo gor 14,963 24,593 64,527 3 7,975 55 0 1 149 Neapolitan Napulitano nap 14,944 24,183 670,951 3 33,661 32 287 10 150 Shan တႆး shn 14,422 34,813 117,363 2 6,151 46 74 6 151 Santali ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ sat 14,385 30,600 182,631 3 10,436 35 0 7 152 Upper Sorbian hornjoserbsce hsb 14,230 36,418 388,881 4 27,672 32 126 25 153 Maithili मैथिली mai 14,225 45,473 271,370 4 16,593 38 126 28 154 Faroese føroyskt fo 14,181 41,068 386,204 3 33,801 35 0 33 155 Literary Chinese 文言 zh-classical 13,945 118,710 430,008 6 113,364 73 0 204 156 Banyumasan Basa Banyumasan map-bms 13,940 30,452 221,824 1 19,530 24 452 10 157 Emiliano-Romagnolo emiliàn e rumagnòl eml 13,828 37,004 166,122 3 30,151 33 2,841 12 158 Fula Fulfulde ff 13,498 28,085 137,015 3 12,529 28 0 5 159 Interlingue Interlingue ie 13,433 17,730 166,385 1 23,389 43 0 0 160 Dagbani dagbanli dag 13,431 24,426 127,587 1 7,210 43 0 3 161 Western Armenian Արեւմտահայերէն hyw 13,336 28,926 236,300 5 13,674 39 0 11 162 Acehnese Acèh ace 13,004 27,973 156,429 4 32,145 38 0 7 163 Walloon walon wa 12,850 30,774 421,372 4 27,775 47 742 26 164 Sanskrit संस्कृतम् sa 12,474 81,813 497,207 3 44,897 78 445 187 165 Fiji Hindi Fiji Hindi hif 12,123 55,592 330,677 3 38,451 79 187 76 166 Standard Moroccan Tamazight ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ zgh 12,090 44,896 164,722 4 27,967 84 0 27 167 Khmer ភាសាខ្មែរ km 11,917 36,864 330,534 2 48,904 177 808 39 168 Zulu isiZulu zu 11,855 26,227 117,999 1 24,894 33 0 6 169 Banjar Banjar bjn 11,550 35,249 108,198 3 16,843 39 2 12 170 Shona chiShona sn 11,498 20,499 112,451 1 20,268 25 0 3 171 Ligurian Ligure lij 11,473 28,187 266,693 7 19,130 38 30 20 172 Eastern Mari олык марий mhr 11,326 31,324 201,617 1 16,249 24 0 20 173 Kara-Kalpak Qaraqalpaqsha kaa 11,235 30,559 189,919 3 15,054 29 86 18 174 Moroccan Arabic الدارجة ary 11,006 91,778 462,381 3 18,771 58 337 271 175 Tachelhit Taclḥit shi 10,882 14,950 77,930 3 26,104 25 0 0 176 Manipuri ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ mni 10,459 17,441 60,084 3 30,842 35 0 1 177 Western Mari кырык мары mrj 10,429 21,254 107,560 1 12,098 11 0 5 178 Hakka Chinese 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî hak 10,388 19,933 132,961 1 36,025 33 0 5 179 Somali Soomaaliga so 10,316 30,960 293,655 1 43,758 146 0 37 180 Rusyn русиньскый rue 10,181 22,448 162,405 1 34,747 45 87 10 181 Pampanga Kapampangan pam 10,170 23,293 310,660 2 24,175 22 394 22 182 Talysh tolışi tly 10,078 13,890 124,006 2 31,655 27 1 1 183 Uyghur ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche ug 9,626 17,059 173,054 1 25,025 32 0 6 184 Tarantino tarandíne roa-tara 9,497 18,908 150,773 3 12,986 16 148 7 185 Kinyarwanda Ikinyarwanda rw 8,924 17,708 126,950 2 17,193 55 0 6 186 Bhojpuri भोजपुरी bh 8,873 80,874 786,259 2 39,192 35 54 640 187 Northern Sotho Sesotho sa Leboa nso 8,783 11,496 53,288 1 8,197 9 0 0 188 Corsican corsu co 8,628 17,967 398,533 2 26,516 32 0 25 189 Kashmiri کٲشُر ks 8,614 21,270 126,796 2 13,476 35 78 12 190 West Flemish West-Vlams vls 8,265 22,549 323,445 4 30,106 27 348 42 191 Low Saxon Nedersaksies nds-nl 8,075 21,976 331,699 6 34,154 50 561 44 192 Māori Māori mi 8,020 15,393 166,760 2 22,236 21 0 9 193 Northern Sami davvisámegiella se 7,905 21,146 305,591 5 32,847 23 0 40 194 Tibetan བོད་ཡིག bo 7,879 21,607 157,654 5 34,233 114 0 22 195 Erzya эрзянь myv 7,869 31,587 153,692 3 14,736 20 0 44 196 Sardinian sardu sc 7,747 17,513 187,574 4 28,411 35 157 17 197 Maltese Malti mt 7,694 23,570 326,765 4 26,833 55 697 59 198 Moksha мокшень mdf 7,620 23,811 101,987 2 11,454 23 0 19 199 Zeelandic Zeêuws zea 7,144 13,602 171,010 3 15,398 51 1 10 200 Cornish kernowek kw 7,098 14,805 223,960 3 18,090 31 6 17 201 Veps vepsän kel’ vep 7,082 38,306 184,253 1 17,919 30 0 93 202 Manx Gaelg gv 7,067 40,373 369,862 3 22,703 22 122 203 203 Turkmen Türkmençe tk 7,050 17,544 266,789 2 32,744 53 332 33 204 Kabyle Taqbaylit kab 7,014 17,913 114,418 1 16,022 28 0 15 205 Võro võro fiu-vro 6,883 13,054 183,930 4 16,174 19 50 11 206 Gan 贛語 gan 6,816 34,476 400,519 2 74,251 34 40 191 207 Inari Sami anarâškielâ smn 6,509 29,124 143,130 4 6,585 23 0 59 208 Abkhazian аԥсшәа ab 6,484 32,922 158,709 2 24,045 18 9 80 209 Picard Picard pcd 6,053 12,071 78,541 2 20,914 50 50 6 210 Guarani Avañe'ẽ gn 6,003 14,086 136,393 2 22,118 34 0 17 211 Udmurt удмурт udm 5,910 20,241 129,436 2 17,121 23 8 37 212 Arpitan arpetan frp 5,818 18,094 230,126 2 19,148 25 0 56 213 Komi коми kv 5,733 19,882 147,472 1 16,504 22 0 45 214 Kashubian kaszëbsczi csb 5,506 8,919 190,449 3 19,053 21 0 8 215 Lao ລາວ lo 5,289 15,649 123,756 3 22,308 64 39 30 216 Aymara Aymar aru ay 5,249 8,924 102,108 1 18,977 20 0 5 217 Papiamento Papiamentu pap 5,125 10,605 179,536 5 17,584 26 0 19 218 Old English Ænglisc ang 5,111 21,627 228,279 1 136,077 69 264 110 219 Norman Nouormand nrm 5,057 10,687 221,014 1 14,995 12 0 25 220 Friulian furlan fur 4,908 11,232 181,831 2 16,446 32 296 26 221 Lingala lingála ln 4,881 11,519 133,784 4 15,319 30 34 21 222 Livvi-Karelian livvinkarjala olo 4,666 14,117 39,006 2 8,384 13 0 11 223 Twi Twi tw 4,616 8,592 134,809 3 17,867 18 0 11 224 Lingua Franca Nova Lingua Franca Nova lfn 4,501 7,208 42,285 1 16,225 22 0 2 225 Ganda Luganda lg 4,455 8,777 44,600 1 10,612 28 0 4 226 Lezghian лезги lez 4,455 14,977 97,645 3 12,528 15 11 36 227 Nahuatl Nāhuatl nah 4,295 13,370 523,839 2 24,226 23 168 174 228 Mirandese Mirandés mwl 4,285 10,711 105,870 1 14,905 24 0 22 229 Ghanaian Pidgin Ghanaian Pidgin gpe 4,284 22,673 84,304 2 4,733 19 0 68 230 Madurese Madhurâ mad 4,141 14,304 51,906 4 4,397 64 0 21 231 Saterland Frisian Seeltersk stq 4,130 10,799 123,983 4 14,888 23 381 29 232 Extremaduran estremeñu ext 4,111 9,206 140,393 2 19,682 30 0 23 233 Tuvinian тыва дыл tyv 4,106 14,687 51,544 1 10,764 21 0 23 234 Avaric авар av 4,005 18,599 96,890 2 17,154 19 0 69 235 Ladino Ladino lad 3,923 12,678 215,715 4 24,186 27 21 84 236 Romansh rumantsch rm 3,813 9,788 168,024 2 22,903 28 48 42 237 Tswana Setswana tn 3,768 8,185 47,077 1 12,255 22 4 7 238 Goan Konkani गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni gom 3,643 8,909 214,037 4 11,524 15 0 50 239 Doteli डोटेली dty 3,634 22,294 246,239 2 7,968 17 3 291 240 Komi-Permyak перем коми koi 3,469 13,540 63,615 1 9,711 10 0 39 241 Toki Pona toki pona tok 3,464 9,177 52,646 6 2,801 125 0 15 242 Lower Sorbian dolnoserbski dsb 3,442 11,641 146,929 1 20,646 19 0 71 243 Fon fɔ̀ngbè fon 3,395 5,141 29,775 2 2,088 36 0 1 244 Chavacano Chavacano de Zamboanga cbk-zam 3,235 8,992 116,919 2 16,202 16 0 41 245 Divehi ދިވެހިބަސް dv 3,195 12,527 136,974 2 27,707 25 896 93 246 Betawi Betawi bew 3,138 7,552 33,211 6 2,879 24 0 8 247 Southern Dagaare Dagaare dga 3,046 6,580 58,537 1 1,473 20 0 11 248 Colognian Ripoarisch ksh 3,038 10,798 1,609,648 3 24,834 17 0 972 249 Gagauz Gagauz gag 3,013 7,655 74,850 1 16,279 23 0 23 250 Zhuang Vahcuengh za 3,006 5,576 42,811 1 12,271 10 0 5 251 Hawaiian Hawaiʻi haw 2,968 6,215 100,338 1 20,537 24 0 19 252 Tulu ತುಳು tcy 2,964 18,336 234,251 5 8,636 26 12 343 253 Russia Buriat буряад bxr 2,911 11,225 74,149 1 17,321 15 8 53 254 Pa'O ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ blk 2,910 8,837 32,825 1 2,765 9 0 15 255 Komering Kumoring kge 2,856 4,592 31,648 0 1,258 9 0 2 256 Palatine German Pälzisch pfl 2,836 7,081 92,844 4 13,628 15 0 29 257 Sakizaya Sakizaya szy 2,735 6,349 139,895 1 4,030 13 0 38 258 Karachay-Balkar къарачай-малкъар krc 2,715 16,880 121,729 2 11,776 21 0 196 259 Pangasinan Pangasinan pag 2,619 6,740 79,144 1 9,591 9 0 29 260 Awadhi अवधी awa 2,603 6,817 31,162 2 4,843 17 0 11 261 Atayal Tayal tay 2,582 3,315 64,001 1 2,600 10 0 1 262 Ingush гӀалгӀай inh 2,454 16,494 71,921 2 5,918 25 38 142 263 Xhosa isiXhosa xh 2,319 5,492 39,906 1 15,449 23 0 13 264 Atikamekw Atikamekw atj 2,078 3,291 16,810 7 5,876 10 0 1 265 Novial Novial nov 2,066 4,956 180,710 2 13,372 20 0 71 266 Pennsylvania German Deitsch pdc 2,051 5,929 107,300 1 38,212 31 0 64 267 Tongan lea faka-Tonga to 2,043 5,522 43,877 2 12,544 13 12 23 268 Kikuyu Gĩkũyũ ki 2,008 3,797 22,971 1 10,202 9 0 4 269 Iban Jaku Iban iba 1,976 5,428 16,552 2 1,855 20 0 9 270 Mon ဘာသာမန် mnw 1,971 6,813 47,552 3 5,035 13 0 42 271 Oromo Oromoo om 1,959 5,327 45,316 1 13,335 25 0 25 272 Aramaic ܐܪܡܝܐ arc 1,922 6,376 97,412 2 23,292 16 0 82 273 Nias Li Niha nia 1,767 4,468 27,083 2 2,689 8 0 14 274 Central Dusun Kadazandusun dtp 1,763 7,315 23,222 0 2,421 41 0 31 275 Fanti mfantse fat 1,757 4,722 25,374 1 2,313 11 0 15 276 Wolof Wolof wo 1,744 5,568 107,150 1 17,190 22 0 92 277 Jamaican Creole English Patois jam 1,730 3,134 22,689 1 11,809 13 0 4 278 Kabiye Kabɩyɛ kbp 1,715 3,450 18,586 1 5,682 7 0 5 279 Angika अंगिका anp 1,671 5,285 22,775 1 3,487 10 0 20 280 Fijian Na Vosa Vakaviti fj 1,657 4,426 38,273 1 10,547 15 0 24 281 Kabardian адыгэбзэ kbd 1,640 7,093 48,555 2 11,331 10 0 75 282 Central Kanuri Yerwa Kanuri knc 1,610 2,517 27,619 1 1,160 13 0 3 283 Southern Sotho Sesotho st 1,603 5,542 36,148 1 12,385 32 0 39 284 Kalmyk хальмг xal 1,594 12,401 92,373 1 11,138 19 0 342 285 N’Ko ߒߞߏ nqo 1,588 3,447 12,735 1 5,601 15 0 5 286 Kongo Kongo kg 1,578 4,043 48,344 2 12,597 24 0 29 287 Gun gungbe guw 1,564 2,784 43,283 3 2,286 8 0 9 288 Nigerian Pidgin Naijá pcm 1,534 2,793 30,555 4 3,280 14 0 7 289 Bislama Bislama bi 1,486 3,469 44,056 1 15,117 21 0 22 290 Tyap Tyap kcg 1,474 6,444 39,555 2 2,634 28 1 69 291 Batak Toba Batak Toba bbc 1,419 2,513 15,045 2 2,250 19 0 3 292 Tok Pisin Tok Pisin tpi 1,405 5,750 89,477 1 15,713 14 0 148 293 Aromanian armãneashti roa-rup 1,390 4,625 209,149 1 15,562 7 0 244 294 Tetum tetun tet 1,380 3,967 70,034 2 11,113 18 0 62 295 Lojban la .lojban. jbo 1,351 5,805 113,624 1 19,167 14 0 212 296 Frafra farefare gur 1,330 2,536 21,936 1 2,078 29 0 7 297 Church Slavic словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ cu 1,317 5,895 86,642 1 28,681 29 0 177 298 Mossi moore mos 1,309 2,093 31,519 0 1,370 7 0 5 299 Ewe eʋegbe ee 1,267 4,193 59,797 2 16,722 16 0 76 300 Kusaal Kʋsaal kus 1,257 1,851 14,460 0 1,015 10 0 1 301 Tahitian reo tahiti ty 1,249 3,069 54,134 1 8,523 7 0 37 302 Sylheti ꠍꠤꠟꠐꠤ syl 1,214 6,322 29,656 1 1,457 19 0 83 303 Samoan Gagana Samoa sm 1,207 6,178 47,681 1 11,946 12 0 130 304 Taroko Seediq trv 1,201 2,214 104,075 1 2,841 6 0 33 305 Batak Mandailing Batak Mandailing btm 1,199 2,703 12,123 1 1,352 10 0 7 306 Amis Pangcah ami 1,146 2,259 47,907 1 3,428 11 0 20 307 Swati SiSwati ss 1,132 3,461 42,360 3 10,100 14 0 51 308 Sranan Tongo Sranantongo srn 1,128 2,733 40,024 1 8,823 8 0 29 309 Latgalian latgaļu ltg 1,112 3,211 37,308 1 8,546 13 0 41 310 Southern Altai алтай тил alt 1,102 7,066 48,274 2 4,292 15 0 200 311 Nyanja Chi-Chewa ny 1,099 5,359 48,299 2 12,430 9 0 135 312 Lak лакку lbe 1,090 16,041 54,795 2 9,545 11 0 642 313 Arakanese ရခိုင် rki 1,086 3,233 16,337 2 824 17 0 19 314 Guianan Creole kriyòl gwiyannen gcr 1,076 2,674 17,621 1 4,197 11 0 14 315 Pannonian Rusyn руски rsk 1,064 2,376 14,979 1 1,762 16 0 9 316 Gothic 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 got 1,005 3,978 48,571 2 22,402 22 0 106 317 Cherokee ᏣᎳᎩ chr 1,003 4,035 51,148 1 30,300 28 0 115 318 Tsonga Xitsonga ts 950 4,225 39,815 2 12,299 13 0 111 319 Igala Igala igl 941 1,352 32,913 0 1,236 8 0 4 320 Bambara bamanankan bm 915 3,323 42,065 1 12,474 15 0 87 321 Venda Tshivenda ve 822 2,394 21,250 1 9,222 7 0 32 322 Vlax Romani romani čhib rmy 756 2,843 57,088 1 19,316 12 0 153 323 Cheyenne Tsetsêhestâhese chy 721 2,302 25,533 1 13,686 11 0 53 324 Rundi ikirundi rn 703 2,667 26,856 1 11,159 14 0 78 325 Wayuu wayuunaiki guc 694 1,359 17,956 2 2,453 8 0 12 326 Adyghe адыгабзэ ady 625 4,764 16,561 1 10,018 20 0 152 327 Inupiaq Iñupiatun ik 599 2,789 40,365 1 10,129 13 0 193 328 Nupe Nupe nup 579 1,258 18,386 2 922 27 0 20 329 Chamorro Chamoru ch 557 2,593 24,507 1 18,042 19 0 126 330 Pontic Ποντιακά pnt 539 2,474 37,342 1 12,258 14 0 194 331 Tai Nuea ᥖᥭᥰ ᥖᥬᥲ ᥑᥨᥒᥰ tdd 448 2,266 7,408 1 959 10 0 53 332 Obolo Obolo ann 434 896 4,883 1 1,067 5 0 6 333 Sango Sängö sg 431 2,033 21,691 1 7,691 13 0 147 334 Inuktitut ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut iu 425 2,944 48,673 2 36,652 27 0 580 335 Dzongkha ཇོང་ཁ dz 382 5,562 38,492 1 12,901 21 0 1,272 336 Paiwan pinayuanan pwn 376 636 13,014 1 2,515 3 0 9 337 Dinka Thuɔŋjäŋ din 372 1,115 9,085 1 7,508 9 0 32 338 Tigrinya ትግርኛ ti 335 3,035 25,633 2 11,092 9 0 548 339 Pali पालि pi 302 1,832 103,415 1 8,310 12 1 1,448 340 South Ndebele isiNdebele seSewula nr 282 869 5,896 0 1,285 15 0 29 341 West Coast Bajau Bajau Sama bdr 240 1,326 5,547 1 1,289 8 0 85 342 Tigre ትግሬ tig 43 484 6,521 1 1,277 16 0 1,417 Totals Articles All pages Edits Admins Users Active users Files All active Wikipedias 66,342,136 268,915,545 3,821,963,794 3,440 125,798,216 611,467 2,882,472 Other Wikipedias Not yet created Please visit the Wikimedia Incubator for new language versions (known as "tests") that may become stand-alone wikis in the future. See the Incubator Manual and FAQ for more information. Manually maintained list of test Wikipedias in the Incubator Search for a wiki in over 400 different languages (includes normal Wikipedias and test Wikipedias) Closed and read-only These Wikipedias are closed and in read-only status. Existing users can still log in and their user preferences are still effective, but they cannot edit any pages. Editiable copies of these Wikipedias can be found in the Incubator; for example, the page cho:Chahta at the closed Choctaw Wikipedia can be found (and edited) at incubator:Wp/cho/Chahta . aa: – The Afar Wikipedia was closed on 10 May 2008 . It is now found at incubator:Wp/aa . ak: – The Akan Wikipedia was closed on 1 April 2023 . It should be noted that Akan is now considered a family of languages, so the ak.wikipedia domain has been split into two separate projects (and potentially more): one for Twi at tw: , and another for Fante at fat: . cr: – The Cree Wikipedia was closed on 27 September 2025 . Due to dubious quality of pages, pages on the Cree Wikipedia were not imported into Incubator; users who are familiar with speaking Cree are free to re-start such a project from scratch. cho: – The Choctaw Wikipedia was closed on 3 July 2007 , following a community vote. It is now found at incubator:Wp/cho . ho: – The Hiri Motu Wikipedia was closed on 9 July 2007 . It is now found at incubator:Wp/ho . hz: – The Herero Wikipedia was closed on 24 July 2007 . The wiki has been emptied and locked, but the original user pages still exist. It is now re-incubated at incubator:Wp/hz . ii: – The Sichuan Yi Wikipedia was closed on 29 July 2007 . It is now found at incubator:Wp/ii . kj: – The Kwanyama Wikipedia was closed on 10 July 2007 . It is now found at incubator:Wp/kj . kl: – The Kalaallisut /Greenlandic Wikipedia was closed on 27 September 2025 . Due to dubious quality of pages, pages on the Kalaallisut/Greenlandic Wikipedia were not imported into Incubator; users who are familiar with speaking Kalaallisut are free to re-start such a project from scratch. kr: – The Kanuri Wikipedia was closed on 3 May 2007 , following a community vote. The reason was the absence of both content and community. As Kanuri is considered as a macrolanguage, where member language codes of the macro has lack of mutual intelligibility, a Central Kanuri (knc) Wikipedia was re-launched in 2025. lrc: – The Northern Luri Wikipedia was closed on 14 January 2021 . As almost all of the former contents were confirmed not written in proper Luri, they were not imported back into the Incubator. Users who speak the language are encouraged to re-start a test project . mh: – The Marshallese Wikipedia was closed on 4 May 2008 . It is now found at incubator:Wp/mh . mus: – The Muscogee Wikipedia was closed on 10 July 2007 . It is now found at incubator:Wp/mus . na: – The Nauruan Wikipedia was closed on 1 May 2023 . The contents of nawiki were imported into Incubator Wp/na , but deleted in 2025 due to a discussion that doubt the quality of imported-in contents; users who are familiar with speaking Nauruan are free to re-start such a project from scratch. ng: – The Ndonga Wikipedia was closed on 10 January 2010 . It is now found at incubator:Wp/ng . pih: – The Pitkern Wikipedia was closed on 19 March 2025 . Due to lack of useful contents, pages on pihwiki were not imported into Incubator; users who are familiar with speaking Pitkern are free to re-start such a project from scratch. See also our Special:SiteMatrix , where the closed Wikipedias are crossed out (and the red links indicate wikis that have never existed). There is also a configuration file listing all closed Wikimedia projects . Deleted but hosted elsewhere These Wikipedias are no longer hosted by Wikimedia. They have been moved to other hosts. tlh – The Klingon Wikipedia was permanently locked in August 2005, and was moved to Wikia (Fandom) as the Klingon Wiki . For details, see the history of the Klingon Wikipedia . ru-sib – The Siberian Wikipedia was deleted in 2007 after it became apparent that the creation of the wiki in 2006 was based on a hoax. The wiki's content was moved to the sibvolgota ( archive link ). mo: – The Moldovan Wikipedia in the Moldovan Cyrillic alphabet was deleted in November 2017 , a decade after being closed . It is now hosted by Fandom as Википедия . The mo: interlanguage prefix now points to the Romanian Wikipedia. This list previously included the Toki Pona Wikipedia ( tok: ), which was locked in 2004, officially closed in 2008 , and deleted in 2010 due to the lack of a valid ISO language code. After moving to Wikicities (later Wikia, then Fandom ) and thence to , it returned to Wikimedia servers in 2025 after receiving an ISO code. Nonstandard language codes These Wikipedias use language codes that do not conform to the ISO 639 standard (which is how wiki subdomains are chosen nowadays). als: – originally used for the Alsatian Wikipedia, which now encompasses the Alemannic dialects in general — the official code gsw is being considered as a replacement subdomain (note that als officially represents the unrelated language Tosk Albanian ) bat-smg: – invented code used for the Samogitian Wikipedia (not the official code sgs ) be-tarask: – invented code used for the Belarusian (Taraškievica) Wikipedia, combination of be for Belarusian and IETF language tag tarask for Taraškievica bh: - deprecated code used for the Bhojpuri Wikipedia ( bh is the deprecated ISO 639-1 code for the Bihari languages , which Bhojpuri is a part of. The official code for Bhojpuri is bho ) cbk-zam: – invented code used for the Zamboanga Chavacano Wikipedia (note that cbk is the correct code for the larger family of langugages Zamboanga Chavacano is a member of) fiu-vro: – invented code used for the Võro Wikipedia (not the official code vro — note that fiu is the official code for the family of languages Võro is a member of) ksh: – code used for the Ripuarian Wikipedia, even though ksh actually represents Kölsch (or Colognian) , a subset of Ripuarian map-bms: – invented code used for the Banyumasan Wikipedia (note that map does represent the family of languages the Banyumasan dialect falls within) nds-nl: – invented code used for Dutch Low Saxon Wikipedia would technically be the correct code for Low Saxon spoken in the Netherlands (i.e., nds-NL ), but is therefore redundant with nds: , the code used for the Low German/Low Saxon Wikipedia (note that nds is the correct code for the Low German/Low Saxon family of languages, which Dutch Low Saxon is a member of) nrm: – code used for the Norman Wikipedia (not the official code nrf — note that nrm is the official code for the completely unrelated language Narom ) roa-rup: – invented code used for the Aromanian Wikipedia (not the official code rup — note that roa is the standard code for the larger family of Romance languages that Aromanian is a member of) roa-tara: – invented code used for the Tarantino Wikipedia (again, roa is the standard code for the large family of Romance languages that the Tarantino dialect falls within) sh: – deprecated code used for the Serbo-Croatian Wikipedia (not the official code hbs ) simple: – invented code used for the Simple English Wikipedia (which is just an IETF language tag, not the formal code en-simple ) zh-classical: – invented code used for the Classical Chinese Wikipedia (not the official code lzh ) zh-min-nan: – invented code used for the Southern Min Wikipedia (not the official code nan ) zh-yue: – invented code used for the Cantonese Wikipedia (not the official code yue ) Note that renaming wiki subdomains is very difficult , which is why so many of these nonstandard codes are still in use despite the existence of alternatives. Redirects be-x-old: – redirects to be-tarask: (see above section) cz: – redirects to cs: (the Czech Wikipedia) dk: – redirects to da: (the Danish Wikipedia) jp: – redirects to ja: (the Japanese Wikipedia) mo: – redirects to ro: (as discussed above , the Moldovan Wikipedia now redirects to the Romanian Wikipedia) nan: – redirects to zh-min-nan: (the Southern Min Wikipedia) nb: – redirects to no: (the Norwegian Wikipedia using Bokmål orthography ) yue: – redirects to zh-yue: (the Cantonese Wikipedia) Non-language subdomains nostalgia: (alias: nost: ) – A read-only snapshot of English Wikipedia's early days. sep11: – The Sep11wiki existed with a .wikipedia.org URL from 2001 to 2008, despite its totally different scope and purpose from all other Wikipedias. It was made read-only in 2006 and closed two years later. ten: – Used for Wikipedia 10 , the 10th anniversary of Wikipedia celebration events. (Since " ten " is an ISO language code for the extinct Tama language in Colombia , the interwiki prefix " tenwiki: " is now used to refer to this site.) See also Article counts revisited Detailed notes (from 2015) about the subtleties of counting the number of articles There is also a Wikipedia in your language Additional resources and statistics Abstract Wikipedia – An upcoming Wikimedia project. Administrators of Wikimedia projects/Wikipedias – with the numbers of users Interlanguage links – MediaWiki software feature List of largest wikis – Only Includes Lists of the largest wikis Requests for new languages – A Proposal Used for new language versions. Proposals for closing projects – A Proposal used for Closing or Deleting the wikimedia projects. Proposals for new projects – A Proposal used for new wikimedia projects. List of Wikipedias/logarithmic chart – updated with {{ NUMBEROF/data }} List of Wikipedias/sortable – similar to tables here but in a single table for easier sorting Meta:Templates for translating language names – mostly deprecated by new features of the software Multilingual Wikipedia – A content page about the Communication of Wikipedia. Special:SiteMatrix – automatically generated table of languages for all projects (including wikis not yet created), ordered by language code Template:Active Wikipedias – just a list of all existing Wikipedias (with links) ordered by local language name Wikipedia article traffic stats – counts hits (views) for individual articles Wikipedia logo in each language , including the name "Wikipedia" in different languages Wikimedia Statistics – several statistical metrics for all Wikimedia projects Wikipedia:Multilingual coordination Wikipedia milestones (+ en:Wikipedia:Milestone statistics ) Wikipedias in multiple writing systems Additional projects Wikimedia projects – with a link to each "Village Pump" etc. Complete lists of Wikimedia projects: separate lists | table Lists of Wikipedias This page was last edited on 8 January 2026, at 03:05. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details. 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Paj prensipal Kouminoté Modifikasyon ki nòv Paj ké azò Lèd Paj èspésyal Fè roun donnasyon Kréyé roun kont Konnègté sokò Fè roun donnasyon Kréyé roun kont Konnègté sokò Baydivan Koumansman 1 Dis artik 2 Sours Wikipédja : Artik vital/Nivèl 1 অসমীয়া تۆرکجه Беларуская भोजपुरी বাংলা Català کوردی Ελληνικά English Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego עברית हिन्दी Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska 日本語 Kurdî Ladino മലയാളം नेपाली ଓଡ଼ିଆ ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Português தமிழ் Xitsonga Татарча / tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Tshivenda Tiếng Việt მარგალური 中文 粵語 Paj di projè Kozman Li Modifyé wikikod Afiché listorik Li Modifyé wikikod Afiché listorik Paj ki yannen Swivi di paj-ya ki yannen Enpòrté roun fiché Yannaj ki pèrmannan Lenfòrmasyon asou paj Obtenir l'URL raccourcie Télécharger le code QR Utiliser l'ancien analyseur Kréyé roun liv Téléchajé kou PDF Vèrsyon ki enprimab Éléman Wikidata Artik vital : Nivèl 1 - Nivèl 2 - Nivèl 3 - Nivèl 4 Sa lis ka prézanté 10 artik ki konsidéré kou artik vital-ya di nivèl 1. Li sa établi annan kad-a di Projè:Sélègsyon transvèrsal é sa isou di lis-a di 1000 artik ki envantoryé annan kad-a di Artik vital di Wikipédja. Sa lis ka prézanté 10 artik ki konsidéré kou artik vital-ya di nivèl 1. Li sa établi annan kad-a di Projè:Sélègsyon transvèrsal é sa isou di lis-a di 1000 artik ki envantoryé annan kad-a di Artik vital di Wikipédja. Dis artik [ Chanjé wikikod ] Kiltir Latè Istwè di monn Lanng Lavi Matématik Filozofi Syans Tèknoloji Tout lar Dis artik Kiltir Latè Istwè di monn Lanng Lavi Matématik Filozofi Syans Tèknoloji Tout lar Sours [ Chanjé wikikod ] (en) Sa artik sa parsyèlman oben an totalité isou di artik di Wikipédja an annglé ki entitilé « Wikipedia:Vital articles/Level/1 » ( wè lis-a di lotò-ya ). Sours (en) Sa artik sa parsyèlman oben an totalité isou di artik di Wikipédja an annglé ki entitilé « Wikipedia:Vital articles/Level/1 » ( wè lis-a di lotò-ya ). Wikipédja Dannyé modifikasyon-an di sa paj té fè 12 désanm 2019 pou 18:06. La page a été rendue avec Parsoid . Tègs-ya sa disponnib anba lisans Creative Commons Attribution-pataj annan menm kondisyon-yan ; ròt kondisyon pouvé apliké yékò. Wè kondisyon-yan di litilizasyon pou plis détay. Politik di konfidansyalité Apropo di Wikipédja Panga Code de conduite Dévlòpò Statistiques Déclaration sur les témoins (cookies) Vèrsyon mobil
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History of Indo-European linguistics 2 Classification Toggle Classification subsection 2.1 Tree versus wave model 2.2 Proposed subgroupings 2.3 Satem and centum languages 2.1 Tree versus wave model 2.2 Proposed subgroupings 2.3 Satem and centum languages 3 Proposed external relations 4 Evolution Toggle Evolution subsection 4.1 Proto-Indo-European 4.2 Diversification 4.3 Key languages for reconstruction 4.4 Sound changes 4.5 Comparison of conjugations 4.1 Proto-Indo-European 4.2 Diversification 4.3 Key languages for reconstruction 4.4 Sound changes 4.5 Comparison of conjugations 5 Comparison of cognates 6 Present distribution 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References Toggle References subsection 9.1 Citations 9.2 Sources 9.1 Citations 9.2 Sources 10 Further reading 11 External links Toggle External links subsection 11.1 Databases 11.2 Lexica 11.1 Databases 11.2 Lexica Indo-European languages Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ अंगिका Ænglisc Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն Armãneashti Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Авар Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Bikol Central Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština ChiShona Corsu Cymraeg Dansk Davvisámegiella Deitsch Deutsch Dolnoserbski डोटेली Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gàidhlig Galego ГӀалгӀай 贛語 گیلکی ગુજરાતી गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Ido Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული کٲشُر Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Ladin Ladino ລາວ Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala La .lojban. Lombard Magyar मैथिली Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Malti Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाली नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Олык марий Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Papiamentu پښتو Patois Picard Piemontèis Tok Pisin Plattdüütsch Polski Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Ripoarisch Română Romani čhib Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский संस्कृतम् ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ سرائیکی Sardu Scots Seeltersk Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ Soomaaliga کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Taqbaylit Татарча / tatarça తెలుగు ไทย Тоҷикӣ ᏣᎳᎩ ತುಳು Türkçe Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt Võro 文言 West-Vlams Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Betawi Jaku Iban Kumoring Yerwa Kanuri Tolışi Toki pona Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikiversity Wikidata item Indo-European Geographic distribution Worldwide Native speakers est. 3.4 billion Linguistic classification One of the world's primary language families Proto-language Proto-Indo-European Subdivisions Currently spoken: • Albanoid • Armenian • Balto-Slavic • Celtic • Germanic • Hellenic • Indo-Iranian • Italic Extinct: • Anatolian † • Tocharian † Unclassified or poorly attested: • Ancient Belgian † • Dacian † • Dardanian † • Elymian † • Liburnian † • Ligurian † • Lusitanian † • Paeonian † • Philistine ? † • Phrygian † • Thracian † • Venetic † Currently spoken: • Albanoid • Armenian • Balto-Slavic • Celtic • Germanic • Hellenic • Indo-Iranian • Italic Extinct: • Anatolian † • Tocharian † Unclassified or poorly attested: • Ancient Belgian † • Dacian † • Dardanian † • Elymian † • Liburnian † • Ligurian † • Lusitanian † • Paeonian † • Philistine ? † • Phrygian † • Thracian † • Venetic † Language codes ISO 639-2 / 5 ine Glottolog indo1319 Present-day distribution of Indo-European languages in Eurasia: .mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{} Albanoid ( Albanian ) Armenian Baltic ( East ) Slavic Celtic ( Brittonic and Goidelic ) Germanic ( North and West ) Hellenic ( Greek ) Iranian Indo-Aryan Nuristani Italic ( Romance ) Non-Indo-European languages Dotted/striped areas indicate where multilingualism is common (more visible upon full enlargement of the map). Notes † indicates this branch of the language family is extinct † indicates this branch of the language family is extinct Part of a series on Indo-European topics Languages List of Indo-European languages Extant Albanoid Albanian Armenian Balto-Slavic Baltic Slavic Celtic Germanic Hellenic Greek Indo-Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Nuristani Italic Romance Extinct Anatolian Tocharian Paleo-Balkan Dacian Illyrian Liburnian Messapic Mysian Paeonian Phrygian Thracian Reconstructed Proto-Indo-European language Phonology : Sound laws , Accent , Ablaut Hypothetical Balkanic Daco-Thracian Graeco-Albanian Graeco-Armenian Graeco-Aryan Graeco-Phrygian Indo-Hittite Italo-Celtic Thraco-Illyrian Grammar Vocabulary Root Verbs Nouns Pronouns Numerals Particles Other Proto-Albanian Proto-Anatolian Proto-Armenian Proto-Germanic ( Proto-Norse ) Proto-Italo-Celtic ( Proto-Celtic · Proto-Italic ) Proto-Greek Proto-Balto-Slavic ( Proto-Slavic · Proto-Baltic ) Proto-Indo-Iranian ( Proto-Indo-Aryan , Proto-Iranian , Proto-Nuristani ) List of Indo-European languages Extant Albanoid Albanian Albanian Armenian Balto-Slavic Baltic Slavic Baltic Slavic Celtic Germanic Hellenic Greek Greek Indo-Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Nuristani Indo-Aryan Iranian Nuristani Italic Romance Romance Extinct Anatolian Tocharian Paleo-Balkan Dacian Illyrian Liburnian Messapic Mysian Paeonian Phrygian Thracian Dacian Illyrian Liburnian Messapic Mysian Paeonian Phrygian Thracian Reconstructed Proto-Indo-European language Phonology : Sound laws , Accent , Ablaut Phonology : Sound laws , Accent , Ablaut Hypothetical Balkanic Daco-Thracian Graeco-Albanian Graeco-Armenian Graeco-Aryan Graeco-Phrygian Indo-Hittite Italo-Celtic Thraco-Illyrian Grammar Vocabulary Root Verbs Nouns Pronouns Numerals Particles Other Proto-Albanian Proto-Anatolian Proto-Armenian Proto-Germanic ( Proto-Norse ) Proto-Italo-Celtic ( Proto-Celtic · Proto-Italic ) Proto-Greek Proto-Balto-Slavic ( Proto-Slavic · Proto-Baltic ) Proto-Indo-Iranian ( Proto-Indo-Aryan , Proto-Iranian , Proto-Nuristani ) Philology Anitta text Hittite inscriptions Hieroglyphic Luwian Linear B Rigveda Avesta Homer Behistun Greek epigraphy Phrygian epigraphy Messapic epigraphy Latin epigraphy Gaulish epigraphy Runic epigraphy Ogham Gothic Bible Bible translations into Armenian Tocharian script Old Irish glosses Albanian Kanun Anitta text Hittite inscriptions Hieroglyphic Luwian Linear B Rigveda Avesta Homer Behistun Greek epigraphy Phrygian epigraphy Messapic epigraphy Latin epigraphy Gaulish epigraphy Runic epigraphy Ogham Gothic Bible Bible translations into Armenian Tocharian script Old Irish glosses Albanian Kanun Origins Homeland Proto-Indo-Europeans Society Religion Mainstream Kurgan hypothesis Indo-European migrations Eurasian nomads Alternative and fringe Anatolian hypothesis Armenian hypothesis Beech argument Indigenous Aryanism Baltic homeland Paleolithic continuity theory Homeland Proto-Indo-Europeans Society Religion Mainstream Kurgan hypothesis Indo-European migrations Eurasian nomads Alternative and fringe Anatolian hypothesis Armenian hypothesis Beech argument Indigenous Aryanism Baltic homeland Paleolithic continuity theory Archaeology Chalcolithic (Copper Age) Pontic Steppe Domestication of the horse Kurgan Kurgan stelae Kurgan culture Steppe cultures Bug–Dniester Sredny Stog Dnieper–Donets Samara Khvalynsk Yamnaya Mykhailivka culture Novotitarovskaya culture Caucasus Maykop East Asia Afanasievo Eastern Europe Usatove Cernavodă Cucuteni Northern Europe Corded ware Baden Middle Dnieper Bronze Age Pontic Steppe Chariot Yamnaya Catacomb Multi-cordoned ware Poltavka Srubnaya Northern/Eastern Steppe Abashevo culture Andronovo Sintashta Europe Globular Amphora Corded ware Bell Beaker Únětice Trzciniec Nordic Bronze Age Terramare Tumulus Urnfield Proto-Villanovan Lusatian Este South Asia Bishkent Vakhsh BMAC Ochre Coloured Pottery Copper Hoard Cemetery H Gandhara grave Iron Age Steppe Chernoles Europe Thraco-Cimmerian Hallstatt Latial Jastorf Caucasus Colchian Central Asia Yaz India Painted Grey Ware Northern Black Polished Ware Pontic Steppe Domestication of the horse Kurgan Kurgan stelae Kurgan stelae Kurgan culture Steppe cultures Bug–Dniester Sredny Stog Dnieper–Donets Samara Khvalynsk Yamnaya Mykhailivka culture Novotitarovskaya culture Bug–Dniester Sredny Stog Dnieper–Donets Samara Khvalynsk Yamnaya Mykhailivka culture Novotitarovskaya culture Mykhailivka culture Novotitarovskaya culture Caucasus Maykop East Asia Afanasievo Eastern Europe Usatove Cernavodă Cucuteni Northern Europe Corded ware Baden Middle Dnieper Baden Middle Dnieper Bronze Age Pontic Steppe Chariot Yamnaya Catacomb Multi-cordoned ware Poltavka Srubnaya Northern/Eastern Steppe Abashevo culture Andronovo Sintashta Europe Globular Amphora Corded ware Bell Beaker Únětice Trzciniec Nordic Bronze Age Terramare Tumulus Urnfield Proto-Villanovan Lusatian Este South Asia Bishkent Vakhsh BMAC Ochre Coloured Pottery Copper Hoard Cemetery H Gandhara grave Iron Age Steppe Chernoles Europe Thraco-Cimmerian Hallstatt Latial Jastorf Caucasus Colchian Central Asia Yaz India Painted Grey Ware Northern Black Polished Ware Peoples and societies Bronze Age Anatolian peoples ( Hittites ) Armenians Mycenaean Greeks Indo-Iranians Iron Age Indo-Aryans Indo-Aryans Iranians Iranians Nuristanis Nuristanis East Asia Wusun Yuezhi Europe Celts Gauls Celtiberians Insular Celts Cimmerians Hellenic peoples Italic peoples Germanic peoples Paleo-Balkan / Anatolia Thracians Dacians Illyrians Paeonians Phrygians Scythians Middle Ages East Asia Tocharians Europe Albanians Balts Slavs Norsemen / Medieval Scandinavians Middle Ages Indo-Aryan Medieval India Iranian Greater Iran Anatolian peoples ( Hittites ) Armenians Mycenaean Greeks Indo-Iranians Iron Age Indo-Aryans Indo-Aryans Iranians Iranians Nuristanis Nuristanis East Asia Wusun Yuezhi Europe Celts Gauls Celtiberians Insular Celts Gauls Celtiberians Insular Celts Cimmerians Hellenic peoples Italic peoples Germanic peoples Paleo-Balkan / Anatolia Thracians Dacians Illyrians Paeonians Phrygians Thracians Dacians Illyrians Paeonians Phrygians Scythians Middle Ages East Asia Tocharians Europe Albanians Balts Slavs Norsemen / Medieval Scandinavians Middle Ages Indo-Aryan Medieval India Iranian Greater Iran Religion and mythology Reconstructed Proto-Indo-European mythology Proto-Indo-Iranian religion Historical Vedic religion Ancient Iranian religion Historical Hittite Indo-Aryan Vedic Hinduism Buddhism Jainism Sikhism Iranian Persian Zoroastrianism Kurdish Yazidism Yarsanism Scythian Ossetian Others Armenian European Paleo-Balkan ( Albanian · Illyrian · Thracian · Dacian ) Greek Roman Celtic Irish Scottish Breton Welsh Cornish Germanic Anglo-Saxon Continental Norse Baltic Latvian Lithuanian Slavic Practices Fire rituals Horse sacrifice Sati Winter solstice / Yule Proto-Indo-European mythology Proto-Indo-Iranian religion Historical Vedic religion Ancient Iranian religion Historical Hittite Indo-Aryan Vedic Hinduism Hinduism Buddhism Jainism Sikhism Iranian Persian Zoroastrianism Zoroastrianism Kurdish Yazidism Yarsanism Yazidism Yarsanism Scythian Ossetian Ossetian Others Armenian European Paleo-Balkan ( Albanian · Illyrian · Thracian · Dacian ) Greek Roman Celtic Irish Scottish Breton Welsh Cornish Irish Scottish Breton Welsh Cornish Germanic Anglo-Saxon Continental Norse Anglo-Saxon Continental Norse Baltic Latvian Lithuanian Latvian Lithuanian Slavic Practices Fire rituals Horse sacrifice Sati Winter solstice / Yule Indo-European studies Scholars Marija Gimbutas J. P. Mallory Institutes Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European Publications Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture The Horse, the Wheel, and Language Journal of Indo-European Studies Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Marija Gimbutas J. P. Mallory Institutes Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European Publications Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture The Horse, the Wheel, and Language Journal of Indo-European Studies Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Category .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e The Indo-European languages are a language family native to the northern Indian subcontinent , most of Europe , and the Iranian plateau , with additional native branches found in regions such as parts of Central Asia (e.g., Tajikistan and Afghanistan ), southern Indian subcontinent ( Sri Lanka and the Maldives ) and Armenia . Historically, Indo-European languages were also spoken in Anatolia and Northwestern China . Some European languages of this family— English , French , Portuguese , Italian , Russian , Spanish , and Dutch —have expanded through colonialism in the modern period and are now spoken across several continents. The Indo-European family is divided into several branches or sub-families, including Albanian , Armenian , Balto-Slavic , Celtic , Germanic , Hellenic , Indo-Iranian , and Italic , all of which contain present-day living languages, as well as many more extinct branches. Today the individual Indo-European languages with the most native speakers are English, Spanish, Portuguese, Russian, Hindi , Bengali , Punjabi , French, and German ; many others spoken by smaller groups are in danger of extinction. Over 3.4 billion people (42% of the global population) speak an Indo-European language as a first language —by far the most of any language family. There are about 446 living Indo-European languages, according to an estimate by Ethnologue , of which 313 belong to the Indo-Iranian branch. [ 1 ] All Indo-European languages are descended from a single prehistoric language, linguistically reconstructed as Proto-Indo-European , spoken sometime during the Neolithic or early Bronze Age ( c. 3300 – c. 1200 BC ). The geographical location where it was spoken, the Proto-Indo-European homeland , has been the object of many competing hypotheses; the academic consensus supports the Kurgan hypothesis , which posits the homeland to be the Pontic–Caspian steppe in what is now Ukraine and Southern Russia , associated with the Yamnaya culture and other related archaeological cultures during the 4th and early 3rd millennia BC. By the time the first written records appeared, Indo-European had already evolved into numerous languages, spoken across much of Europe, South Asia , and part of Western Asia . Written evidence of Indo-European appeared during the Bronze Age in the form of Mycenaean Greek and the Anatolian languages of Hittite and Luwian . The oldest records are isolated Hittite words and names, interspersed in texts that are otherwise in the unrelated Akkadian language (a Semitic language ) found in texts of the Assyrian colony of Kültepe in eastern Anatolia dating to the 20th century BC. [ 2 ] Although no older written records of the original Proto-Indo-European population remain, some aspects of their culture and their religion can be reconstructed from later evidence in the daughter cultures. [ 3 ] The Indo-European family is significant to the field of historical linguistics as it possesses the second-longest recorded history of any known family after Egyptian and the Semitic languages , which belong to the Afroasiatic language family . The analysis of the family relationships between the Indo-European languages, and the reconstruction of their common source, was central to the development of the methodology of historical linguistics as an academic discipline in the 19th century. The Indo-European language family is not considered by the current academic consensus in the field of linguistics to have any genetic relationships with other language families, although several disputed hypotheses propose such relations. History of Indo-European linguistics During the 16th century, European visitors to the Indian subcontinent began to notice similarities among Indo-Aryan , Iranian , and European languages. In 1583, English Jesuit missionary and Konkani scholar Thomas Stephens wrote a letter from Goa to his brother (not published until the 20th century) [ 4 ] in which he noted similarities between North Indian languages and Greek and Latin . Another account was made by Filippo Sassetti , a merchant born in Florence in 1540, who travelled to the Indian subcontinent. Writing in 1585, he noted some word similarities between Sanskrit and Italian (these included devaḥ / dio 'God', sarpaḥ / serpe 'serpent', sapta / sette 'seven', aṣṭa / otto 'eight', and nava / nove 'nine'). [ 4 ] However, neither Stephens' nor Sassetti's observations led to further scholarly inquiry. [ 4 ] In 1647, Dutch linguist and scholar Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn noted the similarity among certain Asian and European languages and theorized that they were derived from a primitive common language that he called Scythian. [ 5 ] He included in his hypothesis Dutch , Albanian , Greek , Latin , Persian , and German , later adding Slavic , Celtic , and Baltic languages . However, Van Boxhorn's suggestions did not become widely known and did not stimulate further research. Ottoman Turkish traveller Evliya Çelebi visited Vienna in 1665–1666 as part of a diplomatic mission and noted a few similarities between words in German and in Persian. Gaston Coeurdoux and others made observations of the same type. Coeurdoux made a thorough comparison of Sanskrit, Latin, and Greek conjugations in the late 1760s to suggest a relationship among them. Meanwhile, Mikhail Lomonosov compared different language groups, including Slavic, Baltic (" Kurlandic "), Iranian (" Medic "), Finnish , Chinese , "Hottentot" ( Khoekhoe ), and others, noting that related languages (including Latin, Greek, German, and Russian) must have separated in antiquity from common ancestors. [ 6 ] The hypothesis reappeared in 1786 when Sir William Jones first lectured on the striking similarities among three of the oldest languages known in his time: Latin , Greek , and Sanskrit , to which he tentatively added Gothic , Celtic , and Persian , [ 7 ] though his classification contained some inaccuracies and omissions. [ 8 ] In one of the most famous quotations in linguistics, Jones made the following prescient statement in a lecture to the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1786, conjecturing the existence of an earlier ancestor language, which he called "a common source" but did not name: The Sanscrit [ sic ] language, whatever be its antiquity, is of a wonderful structure; more perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin, and more exquisitely refined than either, yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in the roots of verbs and the forms of grammar, than could possibly have been produced by accident; so strong indeed, that no philologer could examine them all three, without believing them to have sprung from some common source, which, perhaps, no longer exists. [ note 1 ] The Sanscrit [ sic ] language, whatever be its antiquity, is of a wonderful structure; more perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin, and more exquisitely refined than either, yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in the roots of verbs and the forms of grammar, than could possibly have been produced by accident; so strong indeed, that no philologer could examine them all three, without believing them to have sprung from some common source, which, perhaps, no longer exists. [ note 1 ] — Sir William Jones, Third Anniversary Discourse delivered 2 February 1786, ELIOHS [ 9 ] Thomas Young first used the term Indo-European in 1813, deriving it from the geographical extremes of the language family: from Western Europe to North India . [ 10 ] [ 11 ] A synonym is Indo-Germanic ( Idg. or IdG. ), specifying the family's southeasternmost and northwesternmost branches. This first appeared in French ( indo-germanique ) in 1810 in the work of Conrad Malte-Brun ; in most languages this term is now dated or less common than Indo-European , although in German indogermanisch remains the standard scientific term. A number of other synonymous terms have also been used. Franz Bopp wrote in 1816 On the conjugational system of the Sanskrit language compared with that of Greek, Latin, Persian and Germanic [ 12 ] and between 1833 and 1852 he wrote Comparative Grammar . This marks the beginning of Indo-European studies as an academic discipline. The classical phase of Indo-European comparative linguistics leads from this work to August Schleicher 's 1861 Compendium and up to Karl Brugmann 's Grundriss , published in the 1880s. Brugmann's neogrammarian reevaluation of the field and Ferdinand de Saussure 's development of the laryngeal theory may be considered the beginning of "modern" Indo-European studies. The generation of Indo-Europeanists active in the last third of the 20th century (such as Calvert Watkins , Jochem Schindler , and Helmut Rix ) developed a better understanding of morphology and of ablaut in the wake of Kuryłowicz 's 1956 Apophony in Indo-European , who in 1927 pointed out the existence of the Hittite consonant ḫ. [ 13 ] Kuryłowicz's discovery supported Ferdinand de Saussure's 1879 proposal of the existence of coefficients sonantiques , elements de Saussure reconstructed to account for vowel length alternations in Indo-European languages. This led to the so-called laryngeal theory , a major step forward in Indo-European linguistics and a confirmation of de Saussure's theory. [ citation needed ] Classification The various subgroups of the Indo-European language family include ten major branches, listed below in alphabetical order: Albanian , attested from the 13th century; [ 14 ] Proto-Albanian evolved from an ancient Paleo-Balkan language , traditionally thought to be Illyrian , or otherwise a totally unattested Balkan Indo-European language that was closely related to Illyrian and Messapic . [ 15 ] [ 16 ] [ 17 ] Anatolian , extinct by Late Antiquity , spoken in Anatolia , attested in isolated terms in Luwian / Hittite mentioned in Semitic Old Assyrian texts from the 20th and 19th centuries BC, Hittite texts from about 1650 BC. [ 18 ] [ 19 ] Among the text is the Anitta text in the Hittite language , which is also the oldest known text in an Indo-European language. It is dated to 1700 BCE. [ 20 ] [ 21 ] [ 22 ] Armenian , attested from the early 5th century AD. It evolved from the Proto-Armenian language which, according to the Armenian hypothesis , developed in situ from the Proto-Indo-European language of the 3rd millennium BC. [ 23 ] [ 24 ] Balto-Slavic , believed by most Indo-Europeanists [ 25 ] to form a phylogenetic unit, while a minority ascribes similarities to prolonged language-contact. Slavic (from Proto-Slavic ), attested from the 9th century AD ( possibly earlier ), earliest texts in Old Church Slavonic . Slavic languages include Bulgarian , Russian , Polish , Czech , Slovak , Silesian , Kashubian , Macedonian , Serbo-Croatian ( Bosnian , Croatian , Montenegrin , Serbian ), Sorbian , Slovenian , Ukrainian , Belarusian , and Rusyn . Baltic , attested from the 14th century; although attested relatively recently, they retain many archaic features attributed to Proto-Indo-European (PIE). Living examples are Lithuanian and Latvian . Slavic (from Proto-Slavic ), attested from the 9th century AD ( possibly earlier ), earliest texts in Old Church Slavonic . Slavic languages include Bulgarian , Russian , Polish , Czech , Slovak , Silesian , Kashubian , Macedonian , Serbo-Croatian ( Bosnian , Croatian , Montenegrin , Serbian ), Sorbian , Slovenian , Ukrainian , Belarusian , and Rusyn . Baltic , attested from the 14th century; although attested relatively recently, they retain many archaic features attributed to Proto-Indo-European (PIE). Living examples are Lithuanian and Latvian . Celtic (from Proto-Celtic ), attested since the 6th century BC; Lepontic inscriptions date as early as the 6th century BC; Celtiberian from the 2nd century BC; Primitive Irish Ogham inscriptions from the 4th or 5th century AD, earliest inscriptions in Old Welsh from the 7th century AD. Modern Celtic languages include Welsh , Cornish , Breton , Scottish Gaelic , Irish and Manx . Germanic (from Proto-Germanic ), earliest attestations in runic inscriptions from around the 2nd century AD, earliest coherent texts in Gothic , 4th century AD. Old English manuscript tradition from about the 8th century AD. Includes English , Frisian , German , Dutch , Scots , Danish , Swedish , Norwegian , Afrikaans , Yiddish , Low German , Icelandic , Elfdalian , and Faroese . Hellenic (from Proto-Greek , see also History of Greek ); fragmentary records in Mycenaean Greek from between 1450 and 1350 BC have been found. [ 26 ] Homeric texts date to the 8th century BC. Indo-Iranian , attested c. 1400 BC , descended from Proto-Indo-Iranian (dated to the late 3rd millennium BC). Indo-Aryan , attested from around 1400 BC in Hittite texts from Anatolia , showing traces of Indo-Aryan words. [ 27 ] [ 28 ] Epigraphically from the 3rd century BC in the form of Prakrit ( Edicts of Ashoka ). The Rigveda is assumed to preserve intact records via oral tradition dating from c. the mid-2nd millennium BC in the form of Vedic Sanskrit . Includes a wide range of modern languages from North India , Eastern Pakistan and Bangladesh, including Hindustani ( Hindi , Urdu ), Bengali , Odia , Assamese , Punjabi , Kashmiri , Gujarati , Marathi , Sindhi and Nepali , as well as Sinhala of Sri Lanka and Dhivehi of the Maldives and Minicoy . Iranian or Iranic, attested from roughly 1000 BC in the form of Avestan . Epigraphically from 520 BC in the form of Old Persian ( Behistun inscription ). Includes Persian , Pashto , Kurdish , Balochi , Luri , Tajik , and Ossetian . Nuristani , attested since the 20th century, are among the newest Indo-European languages to be studied. Includes Katë , Prasun , Ashkun , Nuristani Kalasha , Tregami , and Zemiaki . Indo-Aryan , attested from around 1400 BC in Hittite texts from Anatolia , showing traces of Indo-Aryan words. [ 27 ] [ 28 ] Epigraphically from the 3rd century BC in the form of Prakrit ( Edicts of Ashoka ). The Rigveda is assumed to preserve intact records via oral tradition dating from c. the mid-2nd millennium BC in the form of Vedic Sanskrit . Includes a wide range of modern languages from North India , Eastern Pakistan and Bangladesh, including Hindustani ( Hindi , Urdu ), Bengali , Odia , Assamese , Punjabi , Kashmiri , Gujarati , Marathi , Sindhi and Nepali , as well as Sinhala of Sri Lanka and Dhivehi of the Maldives and Minicoy . Iranian or Iranic, attested from roughly 1000 BC in the form of Avestan . Epigraphically from 520 BC in the form of Old Persian ( Behistun inscription ). Includes Persian , Pashto , Kurdish , Balochi , Luri , Tajik , and Ossetian . Nuristani , attested since the 20th century, are among the newest Indo-European languages to be studied. Includes Katë , Prasun , Ashkun , Nuristani Kalasha , Tregami , and Zemiaki . Italic (from Proto-Italic ), attested from the 7th century BC. Includes the ancient Osco-Umbrian languages , Faliscan , as well as Latin and its descendants, the Romance languages , such as Italian and French . Tocharian , with proposed links to the Afanasevo culture of Southern Siberia. [ 29 ] Extant in two dialects (Turfanian and Kuchean, or Tocharian A and B), attested during roughly the 6th–9th centuries AD. Marginalized by the Old Turkic Uyghur Khaganate and probably extinct by the 10th century. In addition to the classical ten branches listed above, several extinct and little-known languages and language-groups have existed or are proposed to have existed: Ancient Belgian : hypothetical language associated with the proposed Nordwestblock cultural area. Speculated to be connected to Italic or Venetic, and to have certain phonological features in common with Lusitanian. [ 30 ] [ 31 ] Cimmerian : possibly Iranic, Thracian, or Celtic Dacian : possibly very close to Thracian Elymian : Poorly-attested language spoken by the Elymians , one of the three indigenous (i.e. pre-Greek and pre-Punic) tribes of Sicily. Indo-European affiliation widely accepted, possibly related to Italic or Anatolian. [ 32 ] [ 33 ] Illyrian : possibly related to Albanian, Messapian, or both Liburnian : evidence too scant and uncertain to determine anything with certainty Ligurian : possibly close to or part of Celtic. [ 34 ] Lusitanian : possibly related to (or part of) Celtic, Ligurian, or Italic Ancient Macedonian : proposed relationship to Greek. Messapic : not conclusively deciphered, often considered to be related to Albanian as the available fragmentary linguistic evidence shows common characteristic innovations and a number of significant lexical correspondences between the two languages [ 35 ] [ 36 ] [ 37 ] Paionian : extinct language once spoken north of Macedon Phrygian : language of the ancient Phrygians . Very likely, but not certainly, a sister group to Hellenic. Sicel : an ancient language spoken by the Sicels (Greek Sikeloi, Latin Siculi), one of the three indigenous (i.e. pre-Greek and pre-Punic) tribes of Sicily. Proposed relationship to Latin or Proto-Illyrian (Pre-Indo-European) at an earlier stage. [ 38 ] Sorothaptic : proposed, pre-Celtic, Iberian language Thracian : possibly including Dacian Venetic : shares several similarities with Latin and the Italic languages, but also has some affinities with other IE languages, especially Germanic and Celtic. [ 39 ] [ 40 ] Membership of languages in the Indo-European language family is determined by genealogical relationships, meaning that all members are presumed descendants of a common ancestor, Proto-Indo-European . Membership in the various branches, groups, and subgroups of Indo-European is also genealogical, but here the defining factors are shared innovations among various languages, suggesting a common ancestor that split off from other Indo-European groups. For example, what makes the Germanic languages a branch of Indo-European is that much of their structure and phonology can be stated in rules that apply to all of them. Many of their common features are presumed innovations that took place in Proto-Germanic , the source of all the Germanic languages. In the 21st century, several attempts have been made to model the phylogeny of Indo-European languages using Bayesian methodologies similar to those applied to problems in biological phylogeny. [ 42 ] [ 43 ] [ 41 ] Although there are differences in absolute timing between the various analyses, there is much commonality between them, including the result that the first known language groups to diverge were the Anatolian and Tocharian language families, in that order. Tree versus wave model The " tree model " is considered an appropriate representation of the genealogical history of a language family if communities do not remain in contact after their languages have started to diverge. In this case, subgroups defined by shared innovations form a nested pattern. The tree model is not appropriate in cases where languages remain in contact as they diversify; in such cases subgroups may overlap, and the wave model is a more accurate representation. [ 44 ] Most approaches to Indo-European subgrouping to date have assumed that the tree model is by-and-large valid for Indo-European; [ 45 ] however, there is also a long tradition of wave-model approaches. [ 46 ] [ 47 ] [ 48 ] In addition to genealogical changes, many of the early changes in Indo-European languages can be attributed to language contact . It has been asserted, for example, that many of the more striking features shared by Italic languages (Latin, Oscan, Umbrian, etc.) might well be areal features . More certainly, very similar-looking alterations in the systems of long vowels in the West Germanic languages greatly postdate any possible notion of a proto-language innovation (and cannot readily be regarded as areal, either, because English and continental West Germanic were not a linguistic area). In a similar vein, there are many similar innovations in Germanic and Balto-Slavic that are far more likely areal features than traceable to a common proto-language, such as the uniform development of a high vowel (* u in the case of Germanic, * i/u in the case of Baltic and Slavic) before the PIE syllabic resonants * ṛ, *ḷ, *ṃ, *ṇ , unique to these two groups among IE languages, which is in agreement with the wave model. The Balkan sprachbund even features areal convergence among members of very different branches. An extension to the Ringe - Warnow model of language evolution suggests that early IE had featured limited contact between distinct lineages, with only the Germanic subfamily exhibiting a less treelike behaviour as it acquired some characteristics from neighbours early in its evolution. The internal diversification of especially West Germanic is cited to have been radically non-treelike. [ 49 ] Proposed subgroupings Hypothetical Indo-European phylogenetic clades Balkan Paleo-Balkan Graeco-Albanian Daco-Thracian Graeco-Armenian Graeco-Aryan Graeco-Phrygian Armeno-Phrygian Thraco-Illyrian Paleo-Balkan Graeco-Albanian Daco-Thracian Graeco-Armenian Graeco-Aryan Graeco-Phrygian Armeno-Phrygian Thraco-Illyrian Other Italo-Celtic Indo-Hittite Indo-Uralic Italo-Celtic Indo-Hittite Indo-Uralic v t e v t e Specialists have postulated the existence of higher-order subgroups such as Italo-Celtic , Graeco-Armenian , Graeco-Aryan or Graeco-Armeno-Aryan, and Balto-Slavo-Germanic. However, unlike the ten traditional branches, these are all controversial to a greater or lesser degree. [ 50 ] The Italo-Celtic subgroup was at one point uncontroversial, considered by Antoine Meillet to be even better established than Balto-Slavic. [ 51 ] The main lines of evidence included the genitive suffix -ī ; the superlative suffix -m̥mo ; the change of /p/ to /kʷ/ before another /kʷ/ in the same word (as in penkʷe > *kʷenkʷe > Latin quīnque , Old Irish cóic ); and the subjunctive morpheme -ā- . [ 52 ] This evidence was prominently challenged by Calvert Watkins , [ 53 ] while Michael Weiss has argued for the subgroup. [ 54 ] Evidence for a relationship between Greek and Armenian includes the regular change of the second laryngeal to a at the beginnings of words, as well as terms for "woman" and "sheep". [ 55 ] Greek and Indo-Iranian share innovations mainly in verbal morphology and patterns of nominal derivation. [ 56 ] Relations have also been proposed between Phrygian and Greek, [ 57 ] and between Thracian and Armenian. [ 58 ] [ 59 ] Some fundamental shared features, like the aorist (a verb form denoting action without reference to duration or completion) having the perfect active particle -s fixed to the stem, link this group closer to Anatolian languages [ 60 ] and Tocharian. Shared features with Balto-Slavic languages, on the other hand (especially present and preterit formations), might be due to later contacts. [ 61 ] The Indo-Hittite hypothesis proposes that the Indo-European language family consists of two main branches: one represented by the Anatolian languages and another branch encompassing all other Indo-European languages. Features that separate Anatolian from all other branches of Indo-European (such as the gender or the verb system) have been interpreted alternately as archaic debris or as innovations due to prolonged isolation. Points proffered in favour of the Indo-Hittite hypothesis are the (non-universal) Indo-European agricultural terminology in Anatolia [ 62 ] and the preservation of laryngeals. [ 63 ] However, in general this hypothesis is considered to attribute too much weight to the Anatolian evidence. According to another view, the Anatolian subgroup left the Indo-European parent language comparatively late, approximately at the same time as Indo-Iranian and later than the Greek or Armenian divisions. A third view, especially prevalent in the so-called French school of Indo-European studies, holds that extant similarities in non- satem languages in general, including Anatolian, might be due to their peripheral location in the Indo-European language-area and to early separation, rather than indicating a special ancestral relationship. [ 64 ] Hans J. Holm, based on lexical calculations, arrives at a picture roughly replicating the general scholarly opinion and refuting the Indo-Hittite hypothesis. [ 65 ] Satem and centum languages The division of the Indo-European languages into satem and centum groups was put forward by Peter von Bradke in 1890, although Karl Brugmann did propose a similar type of division in 1886. In the satem languages, which include the Balto-Slavic and Indo-Iranian branches, as well as (in most respects) Albanian and Armenian, the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European palatovelars remained distinct and were fricativized, while the labiovelars merged with the 'plain velars'. In the centum languages, the palatovelars merged with the plain velars, while the labiovelars remained distinct. The results of these alternative developments are exemplified by the words for "hundred" in Avestan ( satem ) and Latin ( centum )—the initial palatovelar developed into a fricative [s] in the former, but became an ordinary velar [k] in the latter. Rather than being a genealogical separation, the centum–satem division is commonly seen as resulting from innovative changes that spread across PIE dialect-branches over a particular geographical area; the centum–satem isogloss intersects a number of other isoglosses that mark distinctions between features in the early IE branches. It may be that the centum branches in fact reflect the original state of affairs in PIE, and only the satem branches shared a set of innovations, which affected all but the peripheral areas of the PIE dialect continuum. [ 66 ] Kortlandt proposes that the ancestors of Balts and Slavs took part in satemization before being drawn later into the western Indo-European sphere. [ 67 ] Proposed external relations This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. ( June 2021 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) From the very beginning of Indo-European studies, there have been attempts to link the Indo-European languages genealogically to other languages and language families. However, these theories remain highly controversial, and most specialists in Indo-European linguistics are sceptical or agnostic about such proposals. [ 68 ] Proposals linking the Indo-European languages with a single language family include: [ 68 ] Indo-Uralic , joining Indo-European with Uralic Pontic , postulated by John Colarusso , which joins Indo-European with Northwest Caucasian Other proposed families include: [ 68 ] Nostratic , comprising all or some of the Eurasiatic languages and the Kartvelian , Dravidian (or wider, Elamo-Dravidian ) and Afroasiatic language families Eurasiatic , a theory championed by Joseph Greenberg , comprising the Uralic , Altaic and various ' Paleosiberian ' families ( Ainu , Yukaghir , Nivkh , Chukotko-Kamchatkan , Eskimo–Aleut ) and possibly others Nostratic and Eurasiatic, in turn, have been included in even wider groupings, such as Borean , a language family separately proposed by Harold C. Fleming and Sergei Starostin that encompasses almost all of the world's natural languages with the exception of those native to sub-Saharan Africa , New Guinea , Australia , and the Andaman Islands . Evolution Proto-Indo-European The proposed Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Indo-European languages, spoken by the Proto-Indo-Europeans . From the 1960s, knowledge of Anatolian became certain enough to establish its relationship to PIE. Using the method of internal reconstruction , an earlier stage, called Pre-Proto-Indo-European, has been proposed. PIE is an inflected language , in which the grammatical relationships between words were signalled through inflectional morphemes (usually endings). The roots of PIE are basic morphemes carrying a lexical meaning. By addition of suffixes , they form stems , and by addition of endings , these form grammatically inflected words ( nouns or verbs ). The reconstructed Indo-European verb system is complex and, like the noun, exhibits a system of ablaut . Diversification The diversification of the parent language into the attested branches of daughter languages is historically unattested. The timeline of the evolution of the various daughter languages, on the other hand, is mostly undisputed, quite regardless of the question of Indo-European origins . Using a mathematical analysis borrowed from evolutionary biology, Donald Ringe and Tandy Warnow propose the following evolutionary tree of Indo-European branches: [ 69 ] Pre- Anatolian (before 3500 BC) Pre- Tocharian Pre-Italic and Pre-Celtic (before 2500 BC) Pre-Armenian and Pre-Greek (after 2500 BC) Proto- Indo-Iranian (2000 BC) Pre-Germanic and Pre-Balto-Slavic; [ 69 ] Proto-Germanic c. 500 BC [ 70 ] David Anthony proposes the following sequence: [ 71 ] Pre- Anatolian (4200 BC) Pre- Tocharian (3700 BC) Pre-Germanic (3300 BC) Pre-Italic and Pre-Celtic (3000 BC) Pre-Armenian (2800 BC) Pre-Balto-Slavic (2800 BC) Pre-Greek (2500 BC) Proto- Indo-Iranian (2200 BC); split into Iranian and Old Indic 1800 BC From 1500 BC the following sequence may be given: [ citation needed ] 1500–1000 BC: The Nordic Bronze Age of Scandinavia develops pre-Proto-Germanic , and the (pre-) Proto-Celtic Urnfield and Hallstatt cultures emerge in Central Europe, introducing the Iron Age . Migration of the Proto- Italic speakers into the Italian peninsula ( Bagnolo stele ). Migration of Aryans to India followed by the redaction of the Rigveda ; rise of the Vedic civilization and beginning of Iron Age in the Punjab . The Mycenaean civilization gives way to the Greek Dark Ages . Hittite goes extinct. Iranian speakers start migrating southwards to Greater Iran . Balto-Slavic splits into ancestors of modern Baltic and Slavic . 1000–500 BC: The Celtic languages spread over Central and Western Europe, including Britain . Baltic languages are spoken in a huge area from present-day Poland to Moscow . [ 72 ] Pre-Proto-Germanic gives rise to Proto-Germanic in southern Scandinavia. Homer and the beginning of Classical Antiquity . The Vedic civilization gives way to the Mahajanapadas as the Indo-Aryan tongue reaches eastwards, giving rise to the Greater Magadha cultural sphere, where Mahavira preaches Jainism and Siddhartha Gautama preaches Buddhism . Zoroaster composes the Gathas , rise of the Achaemenid Empire , replacing the Elamites and Babylonia . Separation of Proto-Italic into Osco-Umbrian , Latin-Faliscan , and possibly Venetic and Siculian . A variety of Paleo-Balkan languages besides Greek are spoken in Southern Europe, including Thracian , Dacian and Illyrian , and in Anatolia ( Phrygian ). Development of Prakrits across the northern Indian subcontinent, as well as migration of Indo-Aryan speakers to Sri Lanka and the Maldives . 500–1 BC: Classical Antiquity : spread of Greek and Latin throughout the Mediterranean and, during the Hellenistic period ( Indo-Greeks ), to Central Asia and the Hindukush . The Magadhan power and influence rises in ancient India, especially with the conquests of the Nandan and Mauryan empires . Germanic speakers start migrating southwards to occupy formerly Celtic territories. Scythian cultures extend from Eastern Europe ( Pontic Scythians ) to Northwest China ( Ordos culture ). 1 BC–AD 500: Late Antiquity , Gupta period ; attestation of Armenian . Proto-Slavic . The Roman Empire and then the Germanic migrations marginalize the Celtic languages to the British Isles. Sogdian , an eastern Iranian language , becomes the lingua franca of the Silk Road in Central Asia leading to China, due to the proliferation of Sogdian merchants there. Greek settlements and Byzantine rule make the last Anatolian languages extinct . Turkic languages start replacing Scythian languages . 500–1000: Early Middle Ages . The Viking Age forms an Old Norse koine spanning Scandinavia, the British Isles and Iceland. Phrygian becomes extinct. The Islamic conquests and the Turkic expansion result in the Arabization and Turkification of significant areas where Indo-European languages were spoken, but Persian still develops under Islamic rule and extends into Afghanistan and Tajikistan . Due to further Turkic migrations , Tocharian becomes fully extinct while Scythian languages are overwhelmingly replaced. Slavic languages spread over wide areas in central, eastern and southeastern Europe, largely replacing Romance in the Balkans (with the exception of Romanian) and whatever was left of the Paleo-Balkan languages with the exception of Albanian. Pannonian Basin is taken by the Magyars from the western Slavs . 1000–1500: Late Middle Ages : Attestation of Albanian and Baltic . Modern dialects of Indo-European languages start emerging. 1500–2000: early modern period to present: Colonialism results in the spread of Indo-European languages to every habitable continent, most notably Romance (North, Central and South America, North and Sub-Saharan Africa, West Asia), West Germanic ( English in North America, Sub-Saharan Africa, East Asia and Australia; to a lesser extent Dutch and German), and Russian to Central Asia and North Asia. Key languages for reconstruction In reconstructing the history of the Indo-European languages and the form of the Proto-Indo-European language , some languages have been of particular importance. These generally include the ancient Indo-European languages that are both well-attested and documented at an early date, although some languages from later periods are important if they are particularly linguistically conservative (most notably, Lithuanian ). Early poetry is of special significance because of the rigid poetic meter normally employed, which makes it possible to reconstruct a number of features (e.g. vowel length ) that were either unwritten or corrupted in the process of transmission down to the earliest extant written manuscripts . Most noticeably: [ 73 ] Vedic Sanskrit ( c. 1500–500 BC ). This language is unique in that its source documents were all composed orally, and were passed down through oral tradition ( shakha schools) for c. 2,000 years before ever being written down. The oldest documents are all in poetic form; oldest and most important of all is the Rigveda ( c. 1500 BC )). The oldest inscriptions in the language of the Rigveda , are found in northern Syria , where the Mitanni kingdom was located. [ 74 ] Ancient Greek ( c. 750–400 BC ). Mycenaean Greek ( c. 1450 BC ) is the oldest recorded form, but its value is lessened by the limited material, restricted subject matter, and highly ambiguous writing system. More important is Ancient Greek, documented extensively beginning with the two Homeric poems (the Iliad and the Odyssey , c. 750 BC ). Hittite ( c. 1700–1200 BC ). This is the earliest recorded of all Indo-European languages, and highly divergent from the others due to the early separation of the Anatolian languages from the remainder. It possesses some highly archaic features found only fragmentarily, if at all, in other languages. At the same time, however, it appears to have undergone many early phonological and grammatical changes which, combined with the ambiguities of its writing system, hinder its usefulness somewhat. Other primary sources: Latin , attested in a huge amount of poetic and prose material in the Classical period ( c. 200 BC – AD 100 ) and limited Old Latin material from as early as c. 600 BC . Gothic (the most archaic well-documented Germanic language , c. AD 350 ), along with the combined witness of the other old Germanic languages: most importantly, Old English ( c. 800–1000 ), Old High German ( c. 750–1000 ) and Old Norse ( c. 1100–1300 , with limited earlier sources dating to c. AD 200 ). Old Avestan ( c. 1700–1200 BC ) and Younger Avestan ( c. 900 BC )). Documentation is sparse, but nonetheless quite important due to its highly archaic nature. Modern Lithuanian , with limited records in Old Lithuanian ( c. 1500–1700 ). Old Church Slavonic ( c. 900–1000 ). Other secondary sources, due to poor attestation: Luwian , Lycian , Lydian and other Anatolian languages ( c. 1400–400 BC ). Oscan , Umbrian and other Old Italic languages ( c. 600–200 BC )). Old Persian ( c. 500 BC ). Old Prussian ( c. 1350–1600 ); even more archaic than Lithuanian. Other secondary sources, due to extensive phonological changes and relatively limited attestation: [ 75 ] Old Irish ( c. AD 700–850 ). Tocharian ( c. AD 500–800 ), underwent large phonetic shifts and mergers in the proto-language, and has an almost entirely reworked declension system. Classical Armenian ( c. AD 400–1000 ). Albanian ( c. 1284 – present). Sound changes As speakers of Proto-Indo-European (PIE) dispersed, the language's sound system diverged as well, changing according to various sound laws evidenced in the daughter languages . PIE is normally reconstructed with a complex system of 15 stop consonants , including an unusual three-way phonation ( voicing ) distinction between voiceless , voiced and " voiced aspirated " (i.e. breathy voiced ) stops, and a three-way distinction among velar consonants ( k -type sounds) between "palatal" ḱ ǵ ǵh , "plain velar" k g gh and labiovelar kʷ gʷ gʷh . (The correctness of the terms palatal and plain velar is disputed; see Proto-Indo-European phonology .) All daughter languages have reduced the number of distinctions among these sounds, often in divergent ways. As an example, in English , one of the Germanic languages , the following are some of the major changes that happened: As in other centum languages, the "plain velar" and "palatal" stops merged, reducing the number of stops from 15 to 12. As in the other Germanic languages, the Germanic sound shift changed the realization of all stop consonants, with each consonant shifting to a different one: * bʰ → * b → * p → * f * dʰ → * d → * t → * θ * gʰ → * g → * k → * x (Later initial * x → * h ) * gʷʰ → * gʷ → * kʷ → * xʷ (Later initial * xʷ → * hʷ ) Each original consonant shifted one position to the right. For example, original * dʰ became * d , while original * d became * t and original * t became * θ (written th in English). This is the original source of the English sounds written f , th , h and wh . Examples, comparing English with Latin, where the sounds largely remain unshifted: For PIE p : piscis vs. fish ; pēs, pēdis vs. foot ; pluvium "rain" vs. flow ; pater vs. father For PIE t : trēs vs. three ; māter vs. mother For PIE d : decem vs. ten ; pēdis vs. foot ; quid vs. what For PIE k : centum vs. hund(red) ; capere "to take" vs. have For PIE kʷ : quid vs. what ; quandō vs. when Each original consonant shifted one position to the right. For example, original * dʰ became * d , while original * d became * t and original * t became * θ (written th in English). This is the original source of the English sounds written f , th , h and wh . Examples, comparing English with Latin, where the sounds largely remain unshifted: Various further changes affected consonants in the middle or end of a word: The voiced stops resulting from the sound shift were softened to voiced fricatives (or perhaps the sound shift directly generated fricatives in these positions). Verner's law also turned some of the voiceless fricatives resulting from the sound shift into voiced fricatives or stops. This is why the t in Latin centum ends up as d in hund(red) rather than the expected th . Most remaining h sounds disappeared, while remaining f and th became voiced. For example, Latin decem ends up as ten with no h in the middle (but note taíhun "ten" in Gothic , an archaic Germanic language). Similarly, the words seven and have have a voiced v (compare Latin septem , capere ), while father and mother have a voiced th , although not spelled differently (compare Latin pater , māter ). The voiced stops resulting from the sound shift were softened to voiced fricatives (or perhaps the sound shift directly generated fricatives in these positions). Verner's law also turned some of the voiceless fricatives resulting from the sound shift into voiced fricatives or stops. This is why the t in Latin centum ends up as d in hund(red) rather than the expected th . Most remaining h sounds disappeared, while remaining f and th became voiced. For example, Latin decem ends up as ten with no h in the middle (but note taíhun "ten" in Gothic , an archaic Germanic language). Similarly, the words seven and have have a voiced v (compare Latin septem , capere ), while father and mother have a voiced th , although not spelled differently (compare Latin pater , māter ). None of the daughter-language families (except possibly Anatolian , particularly Luvian ) reflect the plain velar stops differently from the other two series, and there is even a certain amount of dispute whether this series existed at all in PIE. The major distinction between centum and satem languages corresponds to the outcome of the PIE plain velars: The "central" satem languages ( Indo-Iranian , Balto-Slavic , Albanian , and Armenian ) reflect both "plain velar" and labiovelar stops as plain velars, often with secondary palatalization before a front vowel ( e i ē ī ). The "palatal" stops are palatalized and often appear as sibilants (usually but not always distinct from the secondarily palatalized stops). The "peripheral" centum languages ( Germanic , Italic , Celtic , Greek , Anatolian and Tocharian ) reflect both "palatal" and "plain velar" stops as plain velars, while the labiovelars continue unchanged, often with later reduction into plain labial or velar consonants . The three-way PIE distinction between voiceless, voiced and voiced aspirated stops is considered extremely unusual from the perspective of linguistic typology —particularly in the existence of voiced aspirated stops without a corresponding series of voiceless aspirated stops. None of the various daughter-language families continue it unchanged, with numerous "solutions" to the apparently unstable PIE situation: The Indo-Aryan languages preserve the three series unchanged but have evolved a fourth series of voiceless aspirated consonants. The Iranian languages probably passed through the same stage, subsequently changing the aspirated stops into fricatives. Greek converted the voiced aspirates into voiceless aspirates. Italic probably passed through the same stage, but reflects the voiced aspirates as f or h (or sometimes plain voiced stops in Latin ). Celtic , Balto-Slavic , Anatolian , and Albanian merge the voiced aspirated into plain voiced stops. Germanic and Armenian change all three series in a chain shift (e.g. with bh b p becoming b p f (known as Grimm's law in Germanic)). Among the other notable changes affecting consonants are: The Ruki sound law ( s becomes /ʃ/ before r, u, k, i ) in the satem languages. Loss of prevocalic p in Proto-Celtic . Development of prevocalic s to h in Proto-Greek , with later loss of h between vowels. Verner's law in Proto-Germanic . Grassmann's law (dissimilation of aspirates) independently in Proto-Greek and Proto-Indo-Iranian. The following table shows the basic outcomes of PIE consonants in some of the most important daughter languages for the purposes of reconstruction. For a fuller table, see Indo-European sound laws . PIE Skr. O.C.S. Lith. Greek Latin Old Irish Gothic English Examples PIE Eng. Skr. Gk. Lat. Lith. etc. Prs . * p * p ; * ph H * p * Ø ; * ch T [x] * f ; `- * b - [β] * f ; - * v/f - *pṓds ~ *ped- foot pád- poús (podós) pēs (pedis) pãdas Pi á de * t * t ; * th H * t * t ; - * th - [θ] * þ [θ] ; `- * d - [ð] ; * t T- * th ; `- * d -; * t T- *tréyes three tráyas treĩs trēs trỹs thri (old Persian) * ḱ * ś [ɕ] * s * š [ʃ] * k * c [k] * c [k] ; - * ch - [x] * h ; `- * g - [ɣ] * h ; - * Ø -; `- * y - *ḱm̥tóm hund(red) śatám he-katón centum šimtas sad * k * k ; * c E [tʃ] ; * kh H * k ; * č E [tʃ] ; * c E' [ts] * k *kreuh₂ "raw meat" OE hrēaw raw kravíṣ- kréas cruor kraûjas xore š * kʷ * p ; * t E ; * k (u) * qu [kʷ] ; * c (O) [k] * ƕ [ʍ] ; `- * gw/w - * wh ; `- * w - *kʷid, kʷod what kím tí quid, quod kas , kad ce, ci *kʷekʷlom wheel cakrá- kúklos kãklas carx * b * b ; * bh H * b * b [b] ; - [β] - * p * d * d ; * dh H * d * d [d] ; - [ð] - * t *déḱm̥(t) ten , Goth. taíhun dáśa déka decem dẽšimt dah * ǵ * j [dʒ] ; * h H [ɦ] * z * ž [ʒ] * g * g [ɡ] ; - [ɣ] - * k * c / k ; * ch E' *ǵénu, *ǵnéu- OE cnēo knee jā́nu gónu genu z ánu * g * g ; * j E [dʒ] ; * gh H ; * h H,E [ɦ] * g ; * ž E [ʒ] ; * dz E' * g *yugóm yoke yugám zugón iugum jùngas yugh * gʷ * b ; * d e ; * g (u) * u [w > v] ; * gu n− [ɡʷ] * b [b] ; - [β] - * q [kʷ] * qu *gʷīw- quick "alive" jīvá- bíos , bíotos vīvus gývas ze- * bʰ * bh ; * b ..Ch * b * ph ; * p ..Ch * f -; * b * b [b] ; - [β] -; - * f * b ; - * v/f - (rl) *bʰéroh₂ bear "carry" bhar- phérō ferō OCS berǫ bar- * dʰ * dh ; * d ..Ch * d * th ; * t ..Ch * f -; * d ; * b (r),l,u- * d [d] ; - [ð] - * d [d] ; - [ð] -; - * þ * d *dʰwer-, dʰur- door dvā́raḥ thurā́ forēs dùrys dar * ǵʰ * h [ɦ] ; * j ..Ch * z * ž [ʒ] * kh ; * k ..Ch * h ; * h/g R * g [ɡ] ; - [ɣ] - * g ; - * g - [ɣ] ; - * g [x] * g ; - * y/w - (rl) *ǵʰans- goose , OHG gans haṁsáḥ khḗn (h)ānser žąsìs gh áz * gʰ * gh ; * h E [ɦ] ; * g ..Ch ; * j E..Ch * g ; * ž E [ʒ] ; * dz E' * g * gʷʰ * ph ; * th E ; * kh (u) ; * p ..Ch ; * t E..Ch ; * k (u)..Ch * f -; * g / - * u - [w] ; n * gu [ɡʷ] * g ; * b -; - * w -; n * gw * g ; * b -; - * w - *sneigʷʰ- snow sneha- nípha nivis sniẽgas barf *gʷʰerm- ?? warm gharmáḥ thermós formus Latv. gar̂me garm * s * s * h -; - * s ; * s (T) ; - * Ø -; [¯] (R) * s ; - * r - * s [s] ; - [h] - * s ; `- * z - * s ; `- * r - *septḿ̥ seven saptá heptá septem septynì haft * ṣ ruki- [ʂ] * x ruki- [x] * š ruki- [ʃ] *h₂eusōs "dawn" east uṣā́ḥ āṓs aurōra aušra b á xtar * m * m * m [m] ; - [w̃] - * m *mūs mouse mū́ṣ- mũs mūs OCS myšĭ mu š * -m - * m - * ˛ [˜] - * n - * m - * n - * Ø *ḱm̥tóm hund(red) śatám (he)katón centum OPrus simtan sad * n * n * n ; - * ˛ [˜] * n *nokʷt- night nákt- núkt- noct- naktis n áštá * l * r (dial. * l ) * l *leuk- light ruc- leukós lūx laũkas ruz * r * r *h₁reudʰ- red rudhirá- eruthrós ruber raũdas sorx * i̯ * y [j] * j [j] * z [dz > zd, z] / * h ; - * Ø - * i [j] ; - * Ø - * Ø * j * y *yugóm yoke yugám zugón iugum jùngas yugh * u̯ * v [ʋ] * v * v [ʋ] * w > h / Ø * u [w > v] * f ; - * Ø - * w *h₂weh₁n̥to- wind vā́taḥ áenta ventus vėtra b ád PIE Skr. O.C.S. Lith. Greek Latin Old Irish Gothic English C - At the beginning of a word. - C - Between vowels. - C At the end of a word. `- C - Following an unstressed vowel ( Verner's law ). - C - (rl) Between vowels, or between a vowel and * r, l (on either side). C T Before a (PIE) stop ( * p, t, k ). C T− After a (PIE) obstruent ( * p, t, k , etc.; * s ). C (T) Before or after an obstruent ( * p, t, k , etc.; * s ). C H Before an original laryngeal. C E Before a (PIE) front vowel ( * i, e ). C E' Before secondary (post-PIE) front-vowels. C e Before * e . C (u) Before or after a (PIE) * u ( boukólos rule ). C (O) Before or after a (PIE) * o, u ( boukólos rule ). C n− After * n . C R Before a sonorant ( * r, l, m, n ). C (R) Before or after a sonorant ( * r, l, m, n ). C (r),l,u− Before * r, l or after * r, u . C ruki− After * r, u, k, i ( Ruki sound law ). C ..Ch Before an aspirated consonant in the next syllable ( Grassmann's law , also known as dissimilation of aspirates ). C E..Ch Before a (PIE) front vowel ( * i, e ) as well as before an aspirated consonant in the next syllable ( Grassmann's law , also known as dissimilation of aspirates ). C (u)..Ch Before or after a (PIE) * u as well as before an aspirated consonant in the next syllable ( Grassmann's law , also known as dissimilation of aspirates ). Comparison of conjugations The following table presents a comparison of conjugations of the thematic present indicative of the verbal root * bʰer- of the English verb to bear and its reflexes in various early attested IE languages and their modern descendants or relatives, showing that all languages had in the early stage an inflectional verb system. Proto-Indo-European ( * bʰer- 'to carry, to bear') I (1st sg.) * bʰéroh₂ You (2nd sg.) * bʰéresi He/She/It (3rd sg.) * bʰéreti We two (1st dual ) * bʰérowos You two (2nd dual) * bʰéreth₁es They two (3rd dual) * bʰéretes We (1st pl.) * bʰéromos You (2nd pl.) * bʰérete They (3rd pl.) * bʰéronti Major subgroup Hellenic Indo-Iranian Italic Celtic Armenian Germanic Balto-Slavic Albanian Indo-Aryan Iranian Baltic Slavic Ancient representative Ancient Greek Vedic Sanskrit Avestan Latin Old Irish Classical Armenian Gothic Old Prussian Old Church Sl. Old Albanian I (1st sg.) phérō bʰárāmi barāmi ferō biru; berim berem baíra /bɛra/ *bera berǫ *berja You (2nd sg.) phéreis bʰárasi barahi fers biri; berir beres baíris *bera bereši *berje He/She/It (3rd sg.) phérei bʰárati baraiti fert berid berē baíriþ *bera beretъ *berjet We two (1st dual) — bʰárāvas barāvahi — — — baíros — berevě — You two (2nd dual) phéreton bʰárathas — — — — baírats — bereta — They two (3rd dual) phéreton bʰáratas baratō — — — — — berete — We (1st pl.) phéromen bʰárāmas barāmahi ferimus bermai beremkʿ baíram *beramai beremъ *berjame You (2nd pl.) phérete bʰáratha baraθa fertis beirthe berēkʿ baíriþ *beratei berete *berjeju They (3rd pl.) phérousi bʰáranti barəṇti ferunt berait beren baírand *bera berǫtъ *berjanti Modern representative Modern Greek Hindustani Persian Portuguese Irish Armenian (Eastern; Western) German Lithuanian Slovene Albanian I (1st sg.) férno (ma͠i) bʰarūm̥ (man) {mi}baram {con}firo beirim berum em; g'perem (ich) {ge}bäre beriu bérem (unë) bie You (2nd sg.) férnis (tū) bʰarē (tu) {mi}bari {con}feres beirir berum es; g'peres (du) {ge}bierst beri béreš (ti) bie He/She/It (3rd sg.) férni (ye/vo) bʰarē (ān) {mi}barad {con}fere beiridh berum ē; g'perē (er/sie/es) {ge}biert beria bére (ai/ajo) bie We two (1st dual) — — — — — — — beriava béreva — You two (2nd dual) — — — — — — — beriata béreta — They two (3rd dual) — — — — — — — beria béreta — We (1st pl.) férnume (ham) bʰarēm̥ (mā) {mi}barim {con}ferimos beirimid; beiream berum enkʿ; g'perenkʿ (wir) {ge}bären beriame béremo (ne) biem You (2nd pl.) férnete (tum) bʰaro (šomā) {mi}barid {con}feris beirthidh berum ekʿ; g'perekʿ (ihr) {ge}bärt beriate bérete (ju) bini They (3rd pl.) férnun (ye/vo) bʰarēm̥ (ānān) {mi}barand {con}ferem beirid berum en; g'peren (sie) {ge}bären beria bérejo; berọ́ (ata/ato) bien While similarities are still visible between the modern descendants and relatives of these ancient languages, the differences have increased over time. Some IE languages have moved from synthetic verb systems to largely periphrastic systems. In addition, the pronouns of periphrastic forms are in parentheses when they appear. Some of these verbs have undergone a change in meaning as well. In Modern Irish beir usually only carries the meaning to bear in the sense of bearing a child; its common meanings are to catch, grab . Apart from the first person, the forms given in the table above are dialectical or obsolete. The second and third person forms are typically instead conjugated periphrastically by adding a pronoun after the verb: beireann tú, beireann sé/sí, beireann sibh, beireann siad . The Hindustani ( Hindi and Urdu ) verb bʰarnā , the continuation of the Sanskrit verb, can have a variety of meanings, but the most common is "to fill". The forms given in the table, although etymologically derived from the present indicative , now have the meaning of future subjunctive . [ 76 ] The loss of the present indicative in Hindustani is roughly compensated by the periphrastic habitual indicative construction, using the habitual participle (etymologically from the Sanskrit present participle bʰarant- ) and an auxiliary: ma͠i bʰartā hū̃, tū bʰartā hai, vah bʰartā hai, ham bʰarte ha͠i, tum bʰarte ho, ve bʰarte ha͠i (masculine forms). German is not directly descended from Gothic, but the Gothic forms are a close approximation of what the early West Germanic forms of c. 400 AD would have looked like. The descendant of Proto-Germanic *beraną (English bear ) survives in German only in the compound gebären , meaning "bear (a child)". The Latin verb ferre is irregular, and not a good representative of a normal thematic verb. In most Romance languages such as Portuguese, other verbs now mean "to carry" (e.g. Pt. portar < Lat. portare ) and ferre was borrowed and nativized only in compounds such as sofrer "to suffer" (from Latin sub- and ferre ) and conferir "to confer" (from Latin con- and ferre ). In Modern Greek , phero φέρω (modern transliteration fero ) "to bear" is still used but only in specific contexts and is most common in such compounds as αναφέρω, διαφέρω, εισφέρω, εκφέρω, καταφέρω, προφέρω, προαναφέρω, προσφέρω etc. The form that is (very) common today is pherno φέρνω (modern transliteration ferno ) meaning "to bring". Additionally, the perfective form of pherno (used for the subjunctive voice and also for the future tense) is also phero . The dual forms are archaic in standard Lithuanian, and are now used only in some dialects (e.g. Samogitian ). Among modern Slavic languages, only Slovene continues to have a dual number in the standard variety. Comparison of cognates Present distribution Today, Indo-European languages are spoken by billions of native speakers across all inhabited continents, [ 77 ] the largest number by far for any recognized language family. Of the 20 languages with the largest numbers of speakers according to Ethnologue , 10 are Indo-European: English , Hindustani , Spanish , Bengali , French , Russian , Portuguese , German , Persian and Punjabi , each with 100 million speakers or more. [ 78 ] Additionally, hundreds of millions of persons worldwide study Indo-European languages as secondary or tertiary languages, including in cultures which have completely different language families and historical backgrounds—there are around 600 million [ 79 ] learners of English alone. The success of the language family, including the large number of speakers and the vast portions of the Earth that they inhabit, is due to several factors. The ancient Indo-European migrations and widespread dissemination of Indo-European culture throughout Eurasia , including that of the Proto-Indo-Europeans themselves, and that of their daughter cultures including the Indo-Aryans , Iranian peoples , Celts , Greeks , Romans , Germanic peoples , and Slavs , led to these peoples' branches of the language family already taking a dominant foothold in virtually all of Eurasia except for swathes of the Near East , North and East Asia , replacing many (but not all) of the previously-spoken pre-Indo-European languages of this extensive area. However Semitic languages remain dominant in much of the Middle East and North Africa , and Caucasian languages in much of the Caucasus region. Similarly in Europe and the Urals the Uralic languages (such as Hungarian, Finnish, Estonian etc.) remain, as does Basque , a pre-Indo-European isolate. Despite being unaware of their common linguistic origin, diverse groups of Indo-European speakers continued to culturally dominate and often replace the indigenous languages of the western two-thirds of Eurasia. By the beginning of the Common Era , Indo-European peoples controlled almost the entirety of this area: the Celts western and central Europe, the Romans southern Europe, the Germanic peoples northern Europe, the Slavs eastern Europe, the Iranian peoples most of western and central Asia and parts of eastern Europe, and the Indo-Aryan peoples in the Indian subcontinent , with the Tocharians inhabiting the Indo-European frontier in western China. By the medieval period, only the Semitic , Dravidian , Caucasian , and Uralic languages , and the language isolate Basque remained of the (relatively) indigenous languages of Europe and the western half of Asia. Despite medieval invasions by Eurasian nomads , a group to which the Proto-Indo-Europeans had once belonged, Indo-European expansion reached another peak in the early modern period with the dramatic increase in the population of the Indian subcontinent and European expansionism throughout the globe during the Age of Discovery , as well as the continued replacement and assimilation of surrounding non-Indo-European languages and peoples due to increased state centralization and nationalism . These trends compounded throughout the modern period due to the general global population growth and the results of European colonization of the Western Hemisphere and Oceania , leading to an explosion in the number of Indo-European speakers as well as the territories inhabited by them. Due to colonization and the modern dominance of Indo-European languages in the fields of politics, global science, technology, education, finance, and sports, even many modern countries whose populations largely speak non-Indo-European languages have Indo-European languages as official languages, and the majority of the global population speaks at least one Indo-European language. The overwhelming majority of languages used on the Internet are Indo-European, with English continuing to lead the group; English in general has in many respects become the lingua franca of global communication. See also Indo-European Swadesh lists Grammatical conjugation The Horse, the Wheel, and Language (book) Indo-European copula Indo-European sound laws Indo-European studies Indo-Semitic languages Indo-Uralic languages Eurasiatic languages Language family Languages of Asia Languages of Europe Languages of India Linguistics List of Indo-European languages Proto-Indo-European root Proto-Indo-European religion Notes ^ The sentence goes on to say, equally correctly as it turned out: "...here is a similar reason, though not quite so forcible, for supposing that both the Gothic and the Celtic, though blended with a very different idiom, had the same origin with the Sanscrit; and the old Persian might be added to the same family." References Citations ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "What are the largest language families?" . 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Grundriss der Vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen (in German). Vol. Erster Band. Strassburg: Karl J. Trübner. Collinge, N.E. (1985). The Laws of Indo-European . Amsterdam: John Benjamins. ISBN 9789027235305 . Fortson, Benjamin W. (2004). Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction . Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-0315-2 . Hamp, Eric (2007). Rexhep Ismajli (ed.). Studime krahasuese për shqipen [ Comparative studies on Albanian ] (in Albanian). Akademia e Shkencave dhe e Arteve e Kosovës, Prishtinë. Holm, Hans J. (2008). "The Distribution of Data in Word Lists and its Impact on the Subgrouping of Languages" . In Preisach, Christine; Burkhardt, Hans; Schmidt-Thieme, Lars; et al. (eds.). Data analysis, machine learning and applications . Proceedings of the 31st Annual Conference of the German Classification Society (GfKl), University of Freiburg, 7–9 March 2007. Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-540-78239-1 . Kortlandt, Frederik (1988). "The Thraco-Armenian consonant shift". Linguistique Balkanique . 31 : 71– 74. Kortlandt, Frederik (1990) [1989]. "The Spread of the Indo-Europeans" (PDF) . Journal of Indo-European Studies . 18 ( 1– 2): 131– 140. Lubotsky, Alexander (1988). "The Old Phrygian Areyastis-inscription" (PDF) . Kadmos . 27 : 9– 26. doi : 10.1515/kadmos-1988-0103 . hdl : 1887/2660 . S2CID 162944161 . Porzig, Walter (1954). Die Gliederung des indogermanischen Sprachgebiets . Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universitätsverlag. Renfrew, C. (2001). "The Anatolian origins of Proto-Indo-European and the autochthony of the Hittites". In Drews, R. (ed.). Greater Anatolia and the Indo-Hittite language family . Washington, DC: Institute for the Study of Man. ISBN 978-0-941694-77-3 . Ringe, Don (2006). From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic . A Linguistic History of English (1st ed.). New York City: Oxford University Press . ISBN 978-0-19-928413-9 . OCLC 64554645 . OL 7405151M . Wikidata Q131605459 . Schleicher, August (1861). Compendium der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen (in German). Weimar: Böhlau (reprinted by Minerva GmbH, Wissenschaftlicher Verlag). ISBN 978-3-8102-1071-5 . {{ cite book }} : ISBN / Date incompatibility ( help ) Schleicher, August (1874–1877). A Compendium of the Comparative Grammar of the Indo-European, Sanskrit, Greek and Latin languages . Part I and Part II. Translated by Bendall, Herbert. London: Trübner & Co. Part II via Internet Archive . Szemerényi, Oswald John Louis (1957). "The Problem of Balto-Slav Unity: A Critical Survey". Kratylos . 2 . O. Harrassowitz: 97– 123. Reprinted in Szemerényi, Oswald John Louis (1991). Considine, P.; Hooker, James T. (eds.). Scripta Minora: Selected Essays in Indo-European, Greek, and Latin . Innsbrucker Beiträge zur Sprachwissenschaft. Vol. IV: Indo-European Languages other than Latin and Greek. Institut für Sprachwissenschaft der Universität Innsbruck. pp. 2145– 2171. ISBN 978-3-85124-611-7 . ISSN 1816-3920 . Reprinted in Szemerényi, Oswald John Louis (1991). Considine, P.; Hooker, James T. (eds.). Scripta Minora: Selected Essays in Indo-European, Greek, and Latin . Innsbrucker Beiträge zur Sprachwissenschaft. Vol. IV: Indo-European Languages other than Latin and Greek. Institut für Sprachwissenschaft der Universität Innsbruck. pp. 2145– 2171. ISBN 978-3-85124-611-7 . ISSN 1816-3920 . Szemerényi, Oswald John Louis ; Jones, David; Jones, Irene (1999). Introduction to Indo-European Linguistics . Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-823870-6 . von Bradke, Peter (1890). Über Methode und Ergebnisse der arischen (indogermanischen) Alterthumswissenshaft (in German). Giessen: J. Ricker'che Buchhandlung. Further reading Bjørn, Rasmus G. (2022). "Indo-European Loanwords and Exchange in Bronze Age Central and East Asia" . Evolutionary Human Sciences . 4 e23. doi : 10.1017/ehs.2022.16 . PMC 10432883 . PMID 37599704 . S2CID 248358873 . Chakrabarti, Byomkes (1994). A Comparative Study of Santali and Bengali . Calcutta: K. P. Bagchi & Co. ISBN 978-81-7074-128-2 . Chantraine, Pierre (1968). Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue grecque . Paris: Klincksieck – via Internet Archive. Gimbutas, Marija (1997). Robbins Dexter, Miriam; Jones-Bley, Karlene (eds.). The Kurgan Culture and The Indo-Europeanization of Europe . JIES Monograph. Vol. 18. ISBN 0-941694-56-9 . Kroonen, Guus; Mallory, James P.; Comrie, Bernard, eds. (2018). Talking Neolithic: Proceedings of the Workshop on Indo-European Origins held at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, December 2–3, 2013 . JIES Monograph. Vol. 65. ISBN 978-0-9983669-2-0 . Mallory, J. P. (1989). In Search of the Indo-Europeans . London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-27616-7 – via Internet Archive. Markey, T. L.; Repanšek, Luka, eds. (2020). Revisiting Dispersions Celtic and Germanic ca. 400 BC–ca. 400 AD Proceedings of the International Interdisciplinary Conference held at Dolenjski muzej, Novo mesto, Slovenia; October 12th–14th, 2018 . JIES Monograph. Vol. 67. ISBN 978-0-9845353-7-8 . Meillet, Antoine (1936). Esquisse d'une grammaire comparée de l'arménien classique (2nd ed.). Vienna: Mekhitarist Monastery – via Internet Archive. Olander, Thomas, ed. (September 2022). The Indo-European Language Family: A Phylogenetic Perspective . Cambridge University Press. doi : 10.1017/9781108758666 . ISBN 978-1-108-75866-6 . S2CID 161016819 . Ramat, Paolo; Giacalone Ramat, Anna, eds. (1998). The Indo-European Languages . London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-06449-X . Remys, Edmund (17 December 2007). "General distinguishing features of various Indo-European languages and their relationship to Lithuanian". Indogermanische Forschungen . 112 (2007): 244– 276. doi : 10.1515/9783110192858.1.244 . ISBN 978-3-11-019285-8 . ISSN 0019-7262 . S2CID 169996117 . Strazny, Philip; Trask, R. L. , eds. (2000). Dictionary of Historical and Comparative Linguistics (1st ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-57958-218-0 . Watkins, Calvert (2000). The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots . Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-618-08250-6 . Asadpour, Hiwa, and Thomas Jügel, eds. Word Order Variation: Semitic, Turkic and Indo-European Languages in Contact. Vol. 31. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG, 2022. External links Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture (1997) Databases Dyen, Isidore; Kruskal, Joseph; Black, Paul (1997). "Comparative Indo-European" . wordgumbo. Archived from the original on 22 May 2010 . Retrieved 13 December 2009 . "Indo-European" . LLOW Languages of the World. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017 . Retrieved 14 December 2009 . "Indo-European Documentation Center" . Linguistics Research Center, University of Texas at Austin . 2009. Archived from the original on 3 September 2009 . Retrieved 14 December 2009 . Lewis, M. Paul, ed. (2009). "Language Family Trees: Indo-European". Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Online version (16th ed.). Dallas: SIL International. . "Thesaurus Indogermanischer Text- und Sprachmaterialien: TITUS" (in German). TITUS, University of Frankfurt. 2003 . Retrieved 13 December 2009 . "Indo-European Lexical Cognacy Database (IELex)" . Uppsala University. 2021. Glottothèque: Ancient Indo-European Grammars online , an online collection of introductory videos to Ancient Indo-European languages produced by the University of Göttingen Lexica "Indo-European Etymological Dictionary (IEED)" . Leiden, Netherlands: Department of Comparative Indo-European Linguistics, Leiden University. Archived from the original on 7 February 2006 . Retrieved 14 December 2009 . "Indo-European Roots Index" . The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (4th ed.). Internet Archive: Wayback Machine. 22 August 2008 [2000]. Archived from the original on 17 February 2009 . Retrieved 9 December 2009 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: publisher location ( link ) Köbler, Gerhard (2014). Indogermanisches Wörterbuch (in German) (5th ed.). Gerhard Köbler . Retrieved 29 March 2015 . Schalin, Johan (2009). "Lexicon of Early Indo-European Loanwords Preserved in Finnish" . Johan Schalin . Retrieved 9 December 2009 . v t e Indo-European languages ( list ) v t e Albanoid Albanian Messapic Illyrian ? Albanian Messapic Illyrian ? Anatolian Hittite Lydian Palaic Luwic Carian Luwian Lycian Milyan Pisidian Sidetic Kalasmaic ? Hittite Lydian Palaic Hittite Lydian Palaic Luwic Carian Luwian Lycian Milyan Pisidian Sidetic Kalasmaic ? Carian Luwian Lycian Milyan Pisidian Sidetic Kalasmaic ? Balto-Slavic Baltic Dnieper-Oka Golyad East Baltic West Baltic Slavic East Slavic South Slavic West Slavic Baltic Dnieper-Oka Golyad East Baltic West Baltic Dnieper-Oka Golyad Golyad East Baltic West Baltic Slavic East Slavic South Slavic West Slavic East Slavic South Slavic West Slavic Celtic Hispano-Celtic Celtiberian Gallaecian Nuclear Celtic Continental Celtic Insular Celtic Hispano-Celtic Celtiberian Gallaecian Celtiberian Gallaecian Nuclear Celtic Continental Celtic Insular Celtic Continental Celtic Insular Celtic Germanic East Germanic North Germanic West Germanic East Germanic North Germanic West Germanic Hellenic Ancient Macedonian Greek Ancient Macedonian Greek Indo-Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Nuristani Badeshi (unclassified) Indo-Aryan Iranian Nuristani Badeshi (unclassified) Italic Latino-Faliscan Romance Osco-Umbrian Siculian Belgic ? Latino-Faliscan Romance Romance Osco-Umbrian Siculian Belgic ? Tocharian Tocharian A Tocharian B Tocharian C Tocharian A Tocharian B Tocharian C Others Armenian Unclassified Dacian Dardanian Elymian Getaean Liburnian Lusitanian Moesian Mysian Paeonian Phrygian Thracian Venetic Wusun Ligurian ? Philistine ? Armenian Unclassified Dacian Dardanian Elymian Getaean Liburnian Lusitanian Moesian Mysian Paeonian Phrygian Thracian Venetic Wusun Ligurian ? Philistine ? Dacian Dardanian Elymian Getaean Liburnian Lusitanian Moesian Mysian Paeonian Phrygian Thracian Venetic Wusun Ligurian ? Philistine ? Proto-languages Proto-Indo-European Proto-Albanian Proto-Anatolian Proto-Armenian Proto-Balto-Slavic Proto-Baltic Proto-Slavic Proto-Celtic Proto-Germanic Proto-Norse Proto-Hellenic Proto-Indo-Iranian Proto-Indo-Aryan Proto-Iranian Proto-Nuristani Proto-Italic Proto-Romance Proto-Tocharian Proto-Indo-European Proto-Albanian Proto-Anatolian Proto-Armenian Proto-Balto-Slavic Proto-Baltic Proto-Slavic Proto-Baltic Proto-Slavic Proto-Celtic Proto-Germanic Proto-Norse Proto-Norse Proto-Hellenic Proto-Indo-Iranian Proto-Indo-Aryan Proto-Iranian Proto-Nuristani Proto-Indo-Aryan Proto-Iranian Proto-Nuristani Proto-Italic Proto-Romance Proto-Romance Proto-Tocharian Italics indicate extinct languages v t e Primary language families v t e Africa Afroasiatic Austronesian Khoe–Kwadi Kxʼa Niger–Congo ? Atlantic–Congo Dogon Ijoid Katloid Kru Lafofa Mande Rashad Siamou Talodi–Heiban ? Ubangian ? Nilo-Saharan ? Berta Bʼaga Central Sudanic Daju Eastern Jebel Furan Kadu Koman Gule Kresh Kuliak Kunama Nara Nilotic Nubian Nyima Maban Mimi of Decorse Saharan Songhay Surmic Taman Temein Tuu Isolates Bangime Hadza Jalaa Laal Meroitic ? Ongota Sandawe Shabo Afroasiatic Austronesian Khoe–Kwadi Kxʼa Niger–Congo ? Atlantic–Congo Dogon Ijoid Katloid Kru Lafofa Mande Rashad Siamou Talodi–Heiban ? Ubangian ? Nilo-Saharan ? Berta Bʼaga Central Sudanic Daju Eastern Jebel Furan Kadu Koman Gule Kresh Kuliak Kunama Nara Nilotic Nubian Nyima Maban Mimi of Decorse Saharan Songhay Surmic Taman Temein Tuu Afroasiatic Austronesian Khoe–Kwadi Kxʼa Niger–Congo ? Atlantic–Congo Dogon Ijoid Katloid Kru Lafofa Mande Rashad Siamou Talodi–Heiban ? Ubangian ? Atlantic–Congo Dogon Ijoid Katloid Kru Lafofa Mande Rashad Siamou Talodi–Heiban ? Ubangian ? Nilo-Saharan ? Berta Bʼaga Central Sudanic Daju Eastern Jebel Furan Kadu Koman Gule Kresh Kuliak Kunama Nara Nilotic Nubian Nyima Maban Mimi of Decorse Saharan Songhay Surmic Taman Temein Berta Bʼaga Central Sudanic Daju Eastern Jebel Furan Kadu Koman Gule Kresh Kuliak Kunama Nara Nilotic Nubian Nyima Maban Mimi of Decorse Saharan Songhay Surmic Taman Temein Tuu Isolates Bangime Hadza Jalaa Laal Meroitic ? Ongota Sandawe Shabo Bangime Hadza Jalaa Laal Meroitic ? Ongota Sandawe Shabo Eurasia ( Europe and Asia ) Afroasiatic Ainu Austroasiatic Austronesian Chukotko-Kamchatkan Dravidian Eskaleut Great Andamanese Hmong–Mien Hurro-Urartian Indo-European Japonic Kartvelian Koreanic Kra–Dai Mongolic Nivkh Northeast Caucasian Northwest Caucasian Ongan Sino-Tibetan Tungusic Turkic Tyrsenian Uralic Xiongnu Yeniseian Yukaghir Arunachal ? Digaro ? Kho-Bwa ? Mijiic ? Miju ? Siangic ? Isolates Basque Burushaski Elamite Hattic Kusunda Nihali Rutulian Sumerian Vedda Bugun ? Eteocretan ? Eteocypriot ? Hruso ? Kenaboi ? Minoan ? North Picene ? Philistine ? Puroik ? Shompen ? Tambora ? Afroasiatic Ainu Austroasiatic Austronesian Chukotko-Kamchatkan Dravidian Eskaleut Great Andamanese Hmong–Mien Hurro-Urartian Indo-European Japonic Kartvelian Koreanic Kra–Dai Mongolic Nivkh Northeast Caucasian Northwest Caucasian Ongan Sino-Tibetan Tungusic Turkic Tyrsenian Uralic Xiongnu Yeniseian Yukaghir Arunachal ? Digaro ? Kho-Bwa ? Mijiic ? Miju ? Siangic ? Afroasiatic Ainu Austroasiatic Austronesian Chukotko-Kamchatkan Dravidian Eskaleut Great Andamanese Hmong–Mien Hurro-Urartian Indo-European Japonic Kartvelian Koreanic Kra–Dai Mongolic Nivkh Northeast Caucasian Northwest Caucasian Ongan Sino-Tibetan Tungusic Turkic Tyrsenian Uralic Xiongnu Yeniseian Yukaghir Arunachal ? Digaro ? Kho-Bwa ? Mijiic ? Miju ? Siangic ? Digaro ? Kho-Bwa ? Mijiic ? Miju ? Siangic ? Isolates Basque Burushaski Elamite Hattic Kusunda Nihali Rutulian Sumerian Vedda Bugun ? Eteocretan ? Eteocypriot ? Hruso ? Kenaboi ? Minoan ? North Picene ? Philistine ? Puroik ? Shompen ? Tambora ? Basque Burushaski Elamite Hattic Kusunda Nihali Rutulian Sumerian Vedda Bugun ? Eteocretan ? Eteocypriot ? Hruso ? Kenaboi ? Minoan ? North Picene ? Philistine ? Puroik ? Shompen ? Tambora ? New Guinea and the Pacific Arai–Samaia Austronesian Binanderean–Goilalan Border Bulaka River Central Solomons Chimbu–Wahgi Demta–Sentani Doso–Turumsa East Geelvink Bay East New Britain East Strickland Eleman Engan Fas Foja Range Gogodala–Suki Hatam–Mansim Kaure–Kosare Kiwaian Kutubuan Lakes Plain Lower Mamberamo Lower Sepik Madang Mairasi Mantion–Meax North Bougainville North Halmahera Pauwasi Ramu Senagi Senu River Sepik Skou South Bougainville Teberan–Pawaian Torricelli Trans-Fly Trans–New Guinea Turama–Kikorian Upper Yuat West Bird's Head Yam Yawan Yuat Northwest Papuan ? Papuan Gulf ? West New Britain ? West Papuan ? Isolates Abinomn Abun Anêm Ata Burmeso Kol Kuot Maybrat Mpur Porome Sulka Taiap ? Tambora ? Yele ? Arai–Samaia Austronesian Binanderean–Goilalan Border Bulaka River Central Solomons Chimbu–Wahgi Demta–Sentani Doso–Turumsa East Geelvink Bay East New Britain East Strickland Eleman Engan Fas Foja Range Gogodala–Suki Hatam–Mansim Kaure–Kosare Kiwaian Kutubuan Lakes Plain Lower Mamberamo Lower Sepik Madang Mairasi Mantion–Meax North Bougainville North Halmahera Pauwasi Ramu Senagi Senu River Sepik Skou South Bougainville Teberan–Pawaian Torricelli Trans-Fly Trans–New Guinea Turama–Kikorian Upper Yuat West Bird's Head Yam Yawan Yuat Northwest Papuan ? Papuan Gulf ? West New Britain ? West Papuan ? Arai–Samaia Austronesian Binanderean–Goilalan Border Bulaka River Central Solomons Chimbu–Wahgi Demta–Sentani Doso–Turumsa East Geelvink Bay East New Britain East Strickland Eleman Engan Fas Foja Range Gogodala–Suki Hatam–Mansim Kaure–Kosare Kiwaian Kutubuan Lakes Plain Lower Mamberamo Lower Sepik Madang Mairasi Mantion–Meax North Bougainville North Halmahera Pauwasi Ramu Senagi Senu River Sepik Skou South Bougainville Teberan–Pawaian Torricelli Trans-Fly Trans–New Guinea Turama–Kikorian Upper Yuat West Bird's Head Yam Yawan Yuat Northwest Papuan ? Papuan Gulf ? West New Britain ? West Papuan ? Isolates Abinomn Abun Anêm Ata Burmeso Kol Kuot Maybrat Mpur Porome Sulka Taiap ? Tambora ? Yele ? Abinomn Abun Anêm Ata Burmeso Kol Kuot Maybrat Mpur Porome Sulka Taiap ? Tambora ? Yele ? Australia Bunuban Eastern Daly Eastern Tasmanian Garawan Gunwinyguan Iwaidjan Jarrakan Maningrida Mirndi Northeastern Tasmanian Northern Tasmanian Nyulnyulan Pama–Nyungan Southern Daly Tangkic Wagaydyic (Northern Daly?) Western Daly Western Tasmanian Worrorran Arnhem/Macro-Gunwinyguan ? Darwin Region ? Marrku–Wurrugu ? Yangmanic – Wagiman ? Isolates Giimbiyu Malak-Malak (Northern Daly?) Tiwi Wagiman Wardaman Gaagudju ? Kungarakany ? Bunuban Eastern Daly Eastern Tasmanian Garawan Gunwinyguan Iwaidjan Jarrakan Maningrida Mirndi Northeastern Tasmanian Northern Tasmanian Nyulnyulan Pama–Nyungan Southern Daly Tangkic Wagaydyic (Northern Daly?) Western Daly Western Tasmanian Worrorran Arnhem/Macro-Gunwinyguan ? Darwin Region ? Marrku–Wurrugu ? Yangmanic – Wagiman ? Bunuban Eastern Daly Eastern Tasmanian Garawan Gunwinyguan Iwaidjan Jarrakan Maningrida Mirndi Northeastern Tasmanian Northern Tasmanian Nyulnyulan Pama–Nyungan Southern Daly Tangkic Wagaydyic (Northern Daly?) Western Daly Western Tasmanian Worrorran Arnhem/Macro-Gunwinyguan ? Darwin Region ? Marrku–Wurrugu ? Yangmanic – Wagiman ? Isolates Giimbiyu Malak-Malak (Northern Daly?) Tiwi Wagiman Wardaman Gaagudju ? Kungarakany ? Giimbiyu Malak-Malak (Northern Daly?) Tiwi Wagiman Wardaman Gaagudju ? Kungarakany ? North America Algic Caddoan Chimakuan Chinookan Chumashan Comecrudan Coosan Eskaleut Iroquoian Kalapuyan Maiduan Muskogean Na-Dene Palaihnihan Plateau Penutian Pomoan Salishan Shastan Siouan Tanoan Tsimshianic Utian Uto-Aztecan Wakashan Wintuan Yuki–Wappo Yuman–Cochimí Isolates Alsea Atakapa Cayuse Chimariko Chitimacha Coahuilteco Cotoname Esselen Haida Karuk Kutenai Natchez Salinan Seri Siuslaw Takelma Timucua Tonkawa Tunica Waikuri Washo Yana Yuchi Zuni Keres ? Yokuts ? Algic Caddoan Chimakuan Chinookan Chumashan Comecrudan Coosan Eskaleut Iroquoian Kalapuyan Maiduan Muskogean Na-Dene Palaihnihan Plateau Penutian Pomoan Salishan Shastan Siouan Tanoan Tsimshianic Utian Uto-Aztecan Wakashan Wintuan Yuki–Wappo Yuman–Cochimí Algic Caddoan Chimakuan Chinookan Chumashan Comecrudan Coosan Eskaleut Iroquoian Kalapuyan Maiduan Muskogean Na-Dene Palaihnihan Plateau Penutian Pomoan Salishan Shastan Siouan Tanoan Tsimshianic Utian Uto-Aztecan Wakashan Wintuan Yuki–Wappo Yuman–Cochimí Isolates Alsea Atakapa Cayuse Chimariko Chitimacha Coahuilteco Cotoname Esselen Haida Karuk Kutenai Natchez Salinan Seri Siuslaw Takelma Timucua Tonkawa Tunica Waikuri Washo Yana Yuchi Zuni Keres ? Yokuts ? Alsea Atakapa Cayuse Chimariko Chitimacha Coahuilteco Cotoname Esselen Haida Karuk Kutenai Natchez Salinan Seri Siuslaw Takelma Timucua Tonkawa Tunica Waikuri Washo Yana Yuchi Zuni Keres ? Yokuts ? Mesoamerica Arawakan Chibchan Jicaquean Lencan Mayan Misumalpan Mixe–Zoque Oto-Manguean Tequistlatecan Totonacan Uto-Aztecan Xincan Isolates Cuitlatec Huave Purépecha Arawakan Chibchan Jicaquean Lencan Mayan Misumalpan Mixe–Zoque Oto-Manguean Tequistlatecan Totonacan Uto-Aztecan Xincan Arawakan Chibchan Jicaquean Lencan Mayan Misumalpan Mixe–Zoque Oto-Manguean Tequistlatecan Totonacan Uto-Aztecan Xincan Isolates Cuitlatec Huave Purépecha Cuitlatec Huave Purépecha South America Alacalufan Andoque–Urequena Araucanian Arawakan Arawan Aymaran Barbacoan Boran Bororoan Cahuapanan Cañari–Puruhá Cariban Chapacuran Charruan Chibchan Chicham Choco Chonan Guaicuruan Guajiboan Harákmbut–Katukinan Hibito–Cholón Huarpean Jirajaran Kakwa – Nukak Kariri Lule–Vilela Macro-Jê Mascoian Matacoan Nadahup Nambikwaran Otomákoan Pano-Tacanan Peba–Yaguan Piaroa–Saliban Quechuan Ticuna–Yuri Timotean Tiniguan Tucanoan Tupian Uru–Chipaya Witotoan Xukuruan Yanomaman Zamucoan Zaparoan Isolates Aikanã Arutani Betoi Camsá Candoshi-Shapra Canichana Cayubaba Chimane Chiquitano Chono Cofán Culle Esmeralda Guachí Guamo Guató Hodï/Joti Iatê Irantxe Itonama Kanoê Kunza Kwaza Leco Máku Matanawi Mochica Movima Munichi Mura-Pirahã Omurano Otí Páez Payaguá Puinave Purian Puquina Sape Sechura Tallán Taruma Taushiro Tequiraca Trumai Urarina Waorani/Huaorani Warao Yahgan Yaruro Yuracaré Yurumangui Alacalufan Andoque–Urequena Araucanian Arawakan Arawan Aymaran Barbacoan Boran Bororoan Cahuapanan Cañari–Puruhá Cariban Chapacuran Charruan Chibchan Chicham Choco Chonan Guaicuruan Guajiboan Harákmbut–Katukinan Hibito–Cholón Huarpean Jirajaran Kakwa – Nukak Kariri Lule–Vilela Macro-Jê Mascoian Matacoan Nadahup Nambikwaran Otomákoan Pano-Tacanan Peba–Yaguan Piaroa–Saliban Quechuan Ticuna–Yuri Timotean Tiniguan Tucanoan Tupian Uru–Chipaya Witotoan Xukuruan Yanomaman Zamucoan Zaparoan Alacalufan Andoque–Urequena Araucanian Arawakan Arawan Aymaran Barbacoan Boran Bororoan Cahuapanan Cañari–Puruhá Cariban Chapacuran Charruan Chibchan Chicham Choco Chonan Guaicuruan Guajiboan Harákmbut–Katukinan Hibito–Cholón Huarpean Jirajaran Kakwa – Nukak Kariri Lule–Vilela Macro-Jê Mascoian Matacoan Nadahup Nambikwaran Otomákoan Pano-Tacanan Peba–Yaguan Piaroa–Saliban Quechuan Ticuna–Yuri Timotean Tiniguan Tucanoan Tupian Uru–Chipaya Witotoan Xukuruan Yanomaman Zamucoan Zaparoan Isolates Aikanã Arutani Betoi Camsá Candoshi-Shapra Canichana Cayubaba Chimane Chiquitano Chono Cofán Culle Esmeralda Guachí Guamo Guató Hodï/Joti Iatê Irantxe Itonama Kanoê Kunza Kwaza Leco Máku Matanawi Mochica Movima Munichi Mura-Pirahã Omurano Otí Páez Payaguá Puinave Purian Puquina Sape Sechura Tallán Taruma Taushiro Tequiraca Trumai Urarina Waorani/Huaorani Warao Yahgan Yaruro Yuracaré Yurumangui Aikanã Arutani Betoi Camsá Candoshi-Shapra Canichana Cayubaba Chimane Chiquitano Chono Cofán Culle Esmeralda Guachí Guamo Guató Hodï/Joti Iatê Irantxe Itonama Kanoê Kunza Kwaza Leco Máku Matanawi Mochica Movima Munichi Mura-Pirahã Omurano Otí Páez Payaguá Puinave Purian Puquina Sape Sechura Tallán Taruma Taushiro Tequiraca Trumai Urarina Waorani/Huaorani Warao Yahgan Yaruro Yuracaré Yurumangui Sign languages Arab Australian Aboriginal BANZSL Chinese Francosign Germanosign Hand Talk Indo-Pakistani Japanese Mayan Original Thai Swedish Paraguay–Uruguay ? Providencia–Cayman ? Sudanese ? Tanzanian ? Vietnamese ? Isolates See list of sign languages Village sign languages Arab Australian Aboriginal BANZSL Chinese Francosign Germanosign Hand Talk Indo-Pakistani Japanese Mayan Original Thai Swedish Paraguay–Uruguay ? Providencia–Cayman ? Sudanese ? Tanzanian ? Vietnamese ? Arab Australian Aboriginal BANZSL Chinese Francosign Germanosign Hand Talk Indo-Pakistani Japanese Mayan Original Thai Swedish Paraguay–Uruguay ? Providencia–Cayman ? Sudanese ? Tanzanian ? Vietnamese ? Isolates See list of sign languages Village sign languages See list of sign languages Village sign languages See also Constructed languages Creoles Language isolates List of proposed language families Mixed languages Pidgins Spurious languages Unclassified languages Whistled languages Constructed languages Creoles Language isolates List of proposed language families Mixed languages Pidgins Spurious languages Unclassified languages Whistled languages Families with question marks (?) are disputed or controversial. Families in italics have no living members. Families with more than 30 languages are in bold . Families with question marks (?) are disputed or controversial. Families in italics have no living members. Families with more than 30 languages are in bold . v t e Language families of Eurasia v t e Widespread Indo-European Mongolic Turkic Indo-European Mongolic Turkic Europe Uralic Afroasiatic Basque Iberian Tartessian Paleo-Corsican Paleo-Sardinian Camunic Ligurian North Picene ? Rutulian Sicanian Tyrsenian Eteocretan Eteocypriot Minoan Uralic Afroasiatic Basque Iberian Tartessian Paleo-Corsican Paleo-Sardinian Camunic Ligurian North Picene ? Rutulian Sicanian Tyrsenian Eteocretan Eteocypriot Minoan West Asia Afroasiatic Elamite Gutian Hattic Hurro-Urartian Kaskian Kassite Sumerian Afroasiatic Elamite Gutian Hattic Hurro-Urartian Kaskian Kassite Sumerian Caucasus Kartvelian Northeast Caucasian Northwest Caucasian Kartvelian Northeast Caucasian Northwest Caucasian South Asia Dravidian Sino-Tibetan Austroasiatic Burushaski Nihali Kusunda Harappan ? Dravidian Sino-Tibetan Austroasiatic Burushaski Nihali Kusunda Harappan ? East Asia Sino-Tibetan Austroasiatic Austronesian Hmong–Mien Kra–Dai Japonic Koreanic Tungusic Gaya ? Han ? Puyŏ ? Sino-Tibetan Austroasiatic Austronesian Hmong–Mien Kra–Dai Japonic Koreanic Tungusic Gaya ? Han ? Puyŏ ? Indian Ocean rim Ongan Sentinelese ? Great Andamanese Kenaboi Ongan Sentinelese ? Great Andamanese Kenaboi North Asia " Paleosiberian " Chukotko-Kamchatkan Nivkh Yeniseian Yukaghir Ainu Other North Asia Uralic Tungusic Eskaleut Rouran ? Xiongnu ? " Paleosiberian " Chukotko-Kamchatkan Nivkh Yeniseian Yukaghir Ainu Chukotko-Kamchatkan Nivkh Yeniseian Yukaghir Ainu Other North Asia Uralic Tungusic Eskaleut Rouran ? Xiongnu ? Uralic Tungusic Eskaleut Rouran ? Xiongnu ? Proposed groupings Alarodian Altaic Borean Nostratic Dené–Caucasian Eurasiatic Dené–Yeniseian Dravido-Korean Elamo-Dravidian Ibero-Caucasian Indo-Hittite Indo-Pacific Indo-Semitic Indo-Uralic Karasuk North Caucasian Serbi–Mongolic Pontic Ural-Altaic Uralo-Siberian Uralic–Yukaghir Eskimo–Uralic Chukotko-Kamchatkan–Amuric Arunachal Greater Siangic Siangic Digaro Mijiic Miju Hrusish Kho-Bwa East and Southeast Asia Andamanese Austric Austro-Tai Austronesian–Ongan East Asian Sino-Austronesian Alarodian Altaic Borean Nostratic Dené–Caucasian Eurasiatic Dené–Yeniseian Dravido-Korean Elamo-Dravidian Ibero-Caucasian Indo-Hittite Indo-Pacific Indo-Semitic Indo-Uralic Karasuk North Caucasian Serbi–Mongolic Pontic Ural-Altaic Uralo-Siberian Uralic–Yukaghir Eskimo–Uralic Chukotko-Kamchatkan–Amuric Alarodian Altaic Borean Nostratic Dené–Caucasian Eurasiatic Nostratic Dené–Caucasian Eurasiatic Dené–Yeniseian Dravido-Korean Elamo-Dravidian Ibero-Caucasian Indo-Hittite Indo-Pacific Indo-Semitic Indo-Uralic Karasuk North Caucasian Serbi–Mongolic Pontic Ural-Altaic Uralo-Siberian Uralic–Yukaghir Eskimo–Uralic Chukotko-Kamchatkan–Amuric Arunachal Greater Siangic Siangic Digaro Mijiic Miju Hrusish Kho-Bwa Greater Siangic Siangic Digaro Siangic Digaro Mijiic Miju Hrusish Kho-Bwa East and Southeast Asia Andamanese Austric Austro-Tai Austronesian–Ongan East Asian Sino-Austronesian Andamanese Austric Austro-Tai Austronesian–Ongan East Asian Sino-Austronesian Substrata Atlantic Pre-Celtic Pre-Germanic Pre-Goidelic Pre-Greek Vasconic Pre-Vedic Pre-Finno-Ugric Paleo-Laplandic Proto-Euphratean Atlantic Pre-Celtic Pre-Germanic Pre-Goidelic Pre-Greek Vasconic Pre-Vedic Pre-Finno-Ugric Paleo-Laplandic Proto-Euphratean Families in italics have no living members. 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Dimensions and planes of existence Toggle Dimensions and planes of existence subsection 1.1 Matter/Object — Physical sciences 1.2 Life/Organism — Biological sciences 1.3 Mind/Animal — (Basic) psychological sciences 1.4 Culture/Person — Human social sciences 1.1 Matter/Object — Physical sciences 1.2 Life/Organism — Biological sciences 1.3 Mind/Animal — (Basic) psychological sciences 1.4 Culture/Person — Human social sciences 2 Theoretical joint points Toggle Theoretical joint points subsection 2.1 Quantum gravity 2.2 The modern synthesis 2.3 Behavioral investment theory 2.4 Justification systems theory 2.1 Quantum gravity 2.2 The modern synthesis 2.3 Behavioral investment theory 2.4 Justification systems theory 3 The "problem of psychology" Toggle The "problem of psychology" subsection 3.1 Solution 3.1 Solution 4 Consciousness and human behavior 5 Toward the integration of human knowledge 6 See also 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 External links Tree of knowledge system العربية Español فارسی Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . ( Learn how and when to remove these messages ) A major contributor to this article appears to have a close connection with its subject. It may require cleanup to comply with Wikipedia's content policies, particularly neutral point of view . Please discuss further on the talk page . See our advice if the article is about you and read our scam warning in case someone asks for money to edit this article. ( October 2020 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines . Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references . ( September 2022 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) A major contributor to this article appears to have a close connection with its subject. It may require cleanup to comply with Wikipedia's content policies, particularly neutral point of view . Please discuss further on the talk page . See our advice if the article is about you and read our scam warning in case someone asks for money to edit this article. ( October 2020 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines . Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references . ( September 2022 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) The tree of knowledge ( ToK ) system is a new [ when? ] map of Big History that traces cosmic evolution across four different planes of existence, identified as Matter, Life, Mind and Culture that are mapped respectively by the physical, biological, psychological and social domains of science. The Tree of Knowledge (ToK) System was developed by Gregg Henriques , who is a professor and core faculty member in the Combined-Integrated Doctoral Program in Clinical and School Psychology at James Madison University . [ 1 ] The ToK System is part of a larger Unified Theory of Knowledge that Henriques describes as a consilient scientific humanistic philosophy for the 21st Century. The official Unified Theory of Knowledge website describes the ToK System as: [ 2 ] [A] theory of scientific knowledge that defines the human knower in relation to the known. It achieves this novel accomplishment by solving the problem of psychology and giving rise to a truly consilient view of the scientific landscape. It accomplishes this via dividing the evolution of behavioral complexity into four different planes of existence...The ToK also characterizes modern empirical natural science as a kind of justification system that functions to map complexity and change. [A] theory of scientific knowledge that defines the human knower in relation to the known. It achieves this novel accomplishment by solving the problem of psychology and giving rise to a truly consilient view of the scientific landscape. It accomplishes this via dividing the evolution of behavioral complexity into four different planes of existence...The ToK also characterizes modern empirical natural science as a kind of justification system that functions to map complexity and change. The outline of the ToK System was first published in 2003 in Review of General Psychology . [ 3 ] Two special issues of the Journal of Clinical Psychology in December 2004 [ 4 ] and January 2005 [ 5 ] were devoted to the elaboration and evaluation of the model. In 2008, a special issue of Theory & Psychology [ 6 ] was devoted to the ToK System. In 2011, Henriques published A New Unified Theory of Psychology . That same year he also launched the blog Theory of Knowledge: A Unified Approach to Psychology and Philosophy on Psychology Today , which remains active. There is also a Theory Of Knowledge Society and discussion listserve that is devoted to discussing Henriques' work and other big picture viewpoints. In some ways, the ToK System reflects a fairly common hierarchy of nature and of the sciences that has been represented in one way or another since the time of Auguste Comte , who in the 19th century used a hierarchical conception of nature to argue for the existence of sociology. It also has clear parallels with Aristotle's conception of the scales of nature and the first four levels of the Great Chain of Being . Despite some overlap with a number of traditional schemes, the ToK System is properly thought of as a new theory of both ontic reality and our scientific knowledge of that reality. One of the most important and salient features of the Tree of Knowledge is how it represents reality as consisting of four different planes of existence. The theory is that, following Matter, Life, Mind and Culture each represent complex adaptive landscapes that are organized and mediated by novel emergent information processing and communication systems. Specifically, DNA/RNA store information that is processed by cells which then engage in intercellular communication to create the plane of existence called Life. Similarly, the brain and nervous system store and process information in animals which then engage in communication networks on the complex adaptive plane called Mind. Finally, linguistic storage and processing and communication between human beings generates the emergence of the Culture-Person plane of existence. The separable planes of existence or dimension of complexity argument is one of the most crucial aspects of the system. Many have argued nature is hierarchically leveled; for example, a list of such levels might be subatomic particles , atoms , molecules , cells , organ structures, multi-celled organisms, consciousness , and society is common. The ToK System embraces a view of nature as levels, but adds the notion that there are also separable dimensions of complexity . The difference becomes particularly clear in the extension of the ToK System into the Periodic Table of Behavior . The Periodic Table of Behavior (PTB) shows that natural science can be arranged in terms of the four fundamental dimensions (i.e., matter, life, mind, and culture) and three fundamental levels of analysis (i.e., part, whole, group). The PTB also demonstrates that behavior is a central concept in science. Epistemologically, natural scientists view the world via a third person behavioral lens. Ontologically, science is about mapping different kinds of behaviors that take place in nature at various levels and dimensions of analysis. The second central insight of the ToK System is that it shows how natural science is a particular kind of justification system that emerges out of Culture based on novel methods and specific epistemological commitments and assumptions (i.e., an exterior view point, quantification and experimentation). This epistemology and methodology functions to justify scientific ontology, which in turn maps the ontic reality. Specifically, the domains of the physical, biological, (basic) psychological and social sciences map the ontic dimensions of matter, life, mind and culture. The Periodic Table of Behavior further shows how science is a justification system that is arranged to map behavioral frequencies at different dimensions of complexity and levels of analysis. Dimensions and planes of existence This section relies largely or entirely on a single source . Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page . Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources at this section. ( April 2024 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) Matter/Object — Physical sciences The dimension of matter refers to the set of material objects and their behaviors through time. In accordance with modern cosmology , matter is theorized to have emerged from a pure energy singularity at the Big Bang . Space and time were also born at such a point. Nonliving material objects range in complexity from subatomic particles to large organic molecules. The physical sciences (i.e., physics , chemistry , geology, astronomy ) describe the behavior of material objects. [ 3 ] Life/Organism — Biological sciences The dimension of life refers to organisms and their behaviors through time. Living objects are considered a unique subset of material objects. Just as quantum particles form the fundamental units of material complexity, genes are the fundamental units of living information. Although many questions about the emergence of life remain unanswered, in accordance with modern biology, the ToK posits that natural selection operating on genetic combinations through time is the unified theory of biology and forms the foundational understanding for the emergence of organic complexity. [ 3 ] Mind/Animal — (Basic) psychological sciences Mind/cognition in the ToK system refers to the set of mental behaviors. Mental behaviors are behaviors of animals mediated by the nervous system that produce a functional effect on the animal-environment relationship. As such, Mind/cognition is essentially synonymous with what behavioral psychologists have meant when they use the term behavior. Thus, a fly avoiding a fly swatter, a rat pushing a bar or a human getting a drink of water are all mental behaviors. Mind is not synonymous with sentience or the capacity for mental experience, although such processes are presumed to emerge in the mental/cognitive dimension. Cognition , in the broad sense of the term is meaning bodily-neuro-social information processing, as in EEEE Cognition: Embodied, Embedded, Enactive, Extended. While cognitive science stands for naturalist study of mind, psychology is an approach grounded in the tradition of humanities, especially philosophy. Thus, by defining mind as mental behavior, Henriques argues that the ToK System provides a way to bridge the epistemological differences between cognitive and behavioral science . [ 3 ] Henriques argues that comparative psychology , ethology, and (animal) cognitive behavioral neuroscience should all be thought of as parts of the discipline that maps the animal-mental domain. Culture/Person — Human social sciences Culture in the ToK system refers to the set of sociolinguistic behaviors, which range from large scale nation states to individual human justifications for particular actions. Just as genetic information processing is associated with the Life dimension and neuronal information processing associated with the Mind dimension, symbolic information processing emerges with the Cultural dimension. [ 3 ] Henriques argues that human cognitive science, human psychology and the social sciences (i.e., anthropology, sociology, political science, and economics) work to map this domain. Theoretical joint points Quantum gravity Quantum gravity refers to the imagined merger between the twin pillars of physical science which are quantum mechanics , the study of the microscopic (e.g., electrons), and general relativity , the science of the macroscopic (e.g., galaxies ). Currently, these two great domains of science cannot be effectively interwoven into a single, physical Theory of Everything , yet progress is being made, most notably through string theory , loop quantum gravity , black hole thermodynamics and the study of the early universe. Some of the difficulties combining these two pillars of physical science are philosophical in nature and it is possible that the macro view of knowledge offered by the ToK may eventually aid in the construction of a coherent theory of quantum gravity. The reason the ToK might help is that it locates scientific knowledge in relationship to the physical universe. The modern synthesis The modern synthesis refers to the merger of genetics with natural selection which occurred in the 1930s and 1940s and offers a reasonably complete framework for understanding the emergence of biological complexity. Although there remain significant gaps in biological knowledge surrounding questions such as the origin of life and the emergence of sexual reproduction, the modern synthesis represents the most complete and well-substantiated joint point. Behavioral investment theory Behavioral investment theory (BIT) is a metatheoretical formulation for the mind, brain and animal behavioral sciences. Henriques proposes that it enables the merger of the selection science of behaviorism with the information science of cognitive neuroscience that has conceptual parallels with the modern synthesis. BIT posits that the nervous system evolved as an increasingly flexible computational control system that coordinates the behavioral expenditure of energy of the animal as a whole. Expenditure of behavioral energy is theorized to be computed on an investment value system built evolutionarily through natural selection operating on genetic combinations and ontogenetically through behavioral selection operating on neural combinations. As such, the current behavioral investments of the animal are conceptualized as the joint product of the two vectors of phylogeny and ontogeny . A unique element of BIT is that it finds a core of agreement and builds bridges between five brain-behavior paradigms: (1) cognitive science ; (2) behavioral science ; (3) evolutionary theory and genetics; (4) neuroscience; and (5) cybernetics / systems theory . David C. Geary noted the similarities between his "motive-to-control" hypothesis and Henriques' Behavioral Investment Theory, which were developed independently of each other. Furthermore, Geary suggested that his model "seem[ed] to fill in many of the proximate mechanisms and evolutionary pressures that define the life-mind joint point, and provided a framework for further development of the mind-culture joint point." [ 7 ] Justification systems theory The justification systems theory (JUST; formerly known as the justification hypothesis) posits that the evolution of language reached a tipping point with emergence of propositional claims. Specifically, propositional claims can be questioned, which generates the "question-answer" dynamic. This creates the problem of justification, which Henriques argues drives both the design of the human self-consciousness system as a mental organ of justification and gives rise to the evolution of the Culture-Person plane of existence. JUST is a novel proposal that allows for both the understanding of the evolution of culture and for identifying what makes humans distinct animals. A basic initial claim of JUST is that the process of justification is a crucial component of human mental behavior at both the individual and societal level. Unlike all other animals, humans everywhere ask for and give explanations for their actions. Arguments, debates, moral dictates, rationalizations, and excuses all involve the process of explaining why one's claims, thoughts or actions are warranted. In virtually every form of social exchange, from warfare to politics to family struggles to science, humans are constantly justifying their behavioral investments to themselves and others. JUST consists of three key postulates: The first is that the evolution of propositional language must have created the problem of justification, which involves three interlocking problems of deciphering what is (1) analytically true and what is (2) good for the group and (3) good for the individual. The second postulate is that the structure and functional design of human consciousness can be understood as a solution to the problem of justification. Specifically, the three domains of human consciousness that Henriques identifies in the Updated Tripartite Model of the (1) experiential; (2) private narrator; and (3) public narrator are directly consistent with adaptive pressures that arise from the logic of the problem of justification. This analysis deepens when one considers the dynamic relationships and filtering that takes place between these three domains. The third postulate is that culture can be understood as large scale justification systems that coordinate the behavior of human populations. Cultural systems are seen to evolve much in the same way as organisms do in biological evolution: there is a process of variation, selection and retention of belief systems. The "problem of psychology" The ToK System emerged as a consequence of Henriques wrestling with what he calls "the problem of psychology". Henriques argues that the most difficult problem in psychology as a discipline is that while there is incredible diversity offered by different approaches to psychology, and there is no consensus model of what psychology actually is. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] Specifically, Henriques argues that the field lacks a clear definition, an agreed upon subject matter, and a coherent conceptual framework . The problem has been long standing, identified as the "crisis" by Lev Vygotsky in the mid 1920s. Henriques further argues that the patent tendency of psychology has been toward theoretical and substantial fragmentation and increasing insularity among the "specialties." In other words, the discipline has fragmented into different schools of thought and methodology, with no overall framework to interpret and integrate the research of different areas. At its best, the different approaches are a strength of psychology; different approaches lead to novel ideas, and prevent psychologists from clinging to a paradigm that fails to explain a phenomenon. At its worst, adherents of one particular school cling to their beliefs concerning the relative importance of their research and disregard or are ignorant of different approaches. In most cases, individual psychologists have to determine for themselves which elements of which perspective to apply, and how to integrate them into their overall understanding. Henriques argues that the problem of psychology is a central feature of modern knowledge systems. In A New Unified Theory of Psychology , he described it as follows: The problem of psychology is the joint observation that the field cannot be coherently defined and yet it connects more deeply than any other discipline to the three great branches of learning. Taken together, these observations suggest that the problem of psychology is a profound problem in academia at large. This conclusion is bolstered by the fact that as psychology has lumbered along acquiring findings but not foundational clarity, the fragmentation of human knowledge has grown exponentially. All of this suggests that the question, "What is psychology?" is profoundly important, one of the central questions in all of philosophy. Asking the right questions is often the most important step in getting the right answer. My interest in psychotherapy integration ultimately led me to ask the question, "What is psychology?”. Although I had no idea at the time, it turns out that this is the right question. And, as startling as it sounds, because psychology connects to so many different domains, the correct answer to it opens up a whole new vision for integrating human knowledge. The problem of psychology is the joint observation that the field cannot be coherently defined and yet it connects more deeply than any other discipline to the three great branches of learning. Taken together, these observations suggest that the problem of psychology is a profound problem in academia at large. This conclusion is bolstered by the fact that as psychology has lumbered along acquiring findings but not foundational clarity, the fragmentation of human knowledge has grown exponentially. All of this suggests that the question, "What is psychology?" is profoundly important, one of the central questions in all of philosophy. Asking the right questions is often the most important step in getting the right answer. My interest in psychotherapy integration ultimately led me to ask the question, "What is psychology?”. Although I had no idea at the time, it turns out that this is the right question. And, as startling as it sounds, because psychology connects to so many different domains, the correct answer to it opens up a whole new vision for integrating human knowledge. The reason for psychology's fragmentation, according to the ToK System, is that there has been no meta-theoretical frame that allows scholars to agree on the basic questions that need to be addressed. As such, the different schools of thought in psychology are like the blind men who each grab a part of the elephant and proclaim they have discovered its true nature. With its novel depiction of evolving dimensions of complexity, the ToK allows scholars finally to see the elephant. In his 2003 Review of General Psychology paper, [ 8 ] Henriques used the ToK System with the attempt to clarify and align the views of B.F. Skinner and Sigmund Freud . These luminaries were chosen because when one considers their influence and historical opposition, it can readily be argued that they represent two schools of thought that are the most difficult to integrate. Henriques used the meta-perspective offered by the ToK to argue how one can retain the key insights from each school of thought, identify errors and points of confusion, and integrate the insights into a coherent whole. Cultural and personality psychologist, Michael Katzko, [ 10 ] however critiques Henriques' position on "the problem of psychology": There is a very good reason for skepticism regarding the repeated claims that the one unique problem of psychology, applicable across the entire discipline, has been identified and that the ToK System solves it. The reason is given by the detail with which alternatives have been worked out, be they historical studies of institutional development or critical commentaries on the rhetorical structure of psychology's literature. [ 11 ] There is a very good reason for skepticism regarding the repeated claims that the one unique problem of psychology, applicable across the entire discipline, has been identified and that the ToK System solves it. The reason is given by the detail with which alternatives have been worked out, be they historical studies of institutional development or critical commentaries on the rhetorical structure of psychology's literature. [ 11 ] Solution The problem of psychology, according to the ToK, is its conceptual incoherence, which Henriques identifies by the following: When the various conceptions of psychology (e.g., behavioral, humanistic, cognitive) are viewed through the lens of the ToK System, psychology spans two different dimensions of complexity: the mental and the cultural. In other words, the discipline has historically spanned two fundamentally separate problems: If, as previously thought, nature simply consisted of levels of complexity, psychology would not be crisply defined in relationship to biology or the social sciences. And, indeed, it is frequently suggested that psychology exists in an amorphous space between biology and the social sciences. However, with its dimension of complexity depiction, the ToK System suggests that psychology can be crisply defined as the science of mind, which is the third dimension of complexity. Furthermore, because human behavior exists in the fourth dimension, psychology must be divided into two broad scientific domains of Psychological formalism is defined as the science of mind and corresponds to the behavior of animal objects. Human psychology is considered to be a unique subset of psychological formalism that deals with human behavior at the level of the individual. Because human behavior is immersed in the larger socio-cultural context (level four in the ToK System), human psychology is considered a hybrid discipline that merges the pure science of psychology with the social sciences. It is important to point out that there are other disciplines the ToK System would classify as “hybrids.” Molecular genetics, for example, is a hybrid between chemistry and biology and neuroscience is a hybrid between biology and psychology. As with Henriques' proposed conception of human psychology, both of these disciplines adopt an object level perspective (molecular and cellular, respectively) on phenomena that simultaneously exist as part of meta-level system processes (life and mind, respectively). [ 9 ] Though David A. F. Haaga "congratulate[d] Dr. Henriques' ambitious, scholarly, provocative paper", and "found the Tree of Knowledge taxonomy, the theoretical joint points, the evolutionary history, and the levels of emergent properties highly illuminating", he asks the rhetorical questions, If it is so difficult to define terms such as 'psychology' with such precision, why bother? Why not just agree that we all have at least a rough idea of what psychology is, and take the rest of the afternoon off? After all, if theoretical or empirical work improves our understanding of some aspect of the world or our fellow people, or improves our ability to help people enhance their physical or emotional well being, what difference does it make whether this work is considered a part of psychology, of cognitive science, of behavioral neuroscience, of public health, or what have you? This raises the question of what definitions in general are good for. [ 12 ] If it is so difficult to define terms such as 'psychology' with such precision, why bother? Why not just agree that we all have at least a rough idea of what psychology is, and take the rest of the afternoon off? After all, if theoretical or empirical work improves our understanding of some aspect of the world or our fellow people, or improves our ability to help people enhance their physical or emotional well being, what difference does it make whether this work is considered a part of psychology, of cognitive science, of behavioral neuroscience, of public health, or what have you? This raises the question of what definitions in general are good for. [ 12 ] In a similar vein, Scott O. Lilienfeld, who described Henriques' effort as "thoughtful", contended that psychology is "an inherently fuzzy concept that resists precise definition" and that "attempts to define psychology [would be] likely to hamper rather than foster consilience across disciplines". Lilienfield went on further to suggest that the scientist-practitioner gap in psychology lies not in definitional issues, but in different "epistemic attitudes" between these two groups. He stated that scientists have an epistemic attitude of empiricism , (where questions regarding human nature are settled by scientific evidence), and that practitioners have an epistemic attitude of romanticism , (where questions of human nature are settled by intuition). Lilienfeld suggested that the solution to the scientist-practitioner gulf isn't definitional, but in "train[ing] future clinical scientists to appreciate the proper places of romanticism and empiricism within science". [ 13 ] Consciousness and human behavior A frequent question and point of confusion in the ToK System is the definition and meaning of consciousness . As mentioned above, mind is not synonymous with consciousness. And, to understand consciousness from a ToK vantage point, it is crucial to recognize that the term is often ambiguous in its meaning. Two primary meanings are sentience , which is the capacity for mental experience and self-awareness , which is the capacity to be aware of one's awareness. Sentience is conceptualized as a "level 3" phenomenon, possessed by many animals other than humans and is defined as a "perceived" electro-neuro-chemical representation of animal-environment relations. The ingredient of neurological behavior that allows for the emergence of mental experience is considered the "hard" problem of consciousness and the ToK System does not address this question explicitly. In contrast, through the Justification Hypothesis (see below), the ToK System involves a very direct analysis of the other issue of consciousness, that of self-awareness . Another frequent question that is raised is "Where does individual human behavior fall on the ToK?" To analyze human behavior from the context of the ToK, one uses the ToK like a prism to separate the dimensions of behavior into physiochemical, biogenetic, neuropsychological and sociolinguistic. Thus if we imagine a conversation between a husband and wife as follows: Wife: “You are late again.” Husband: “Please, not now. It was a stressful day, traffic was bad, and you know that if work needs to be done, I can’t just leave it.” Wife: “You are late again.” Husband: “Please, not now. It was a stressful day, traffic was bad, and you know that if work needs to be done, I can’t just leave it.” The words represent the sociolinguistic dimension and are understood as a function of justification. Justification systems are seen both at the level of individual, micro-social and societal (i.e., the context of justification in which men work and women stay at home). The actions of the husband and wife in terms of facial expression , body movement, etc. are seen as the mental dimension and are understood as a function of behavioral investment. The physiological make up of the organ systems and cells of each body is seen as the biogenetic dimension. Finally, the position, temperature, molecular make up is seen as the physiochemical dimension. Each of the more basic dimensions represent conditions of possibility that allow for the emergence of the higher dimension of process. Thus, insufficient oxygen disrupts organic processes which in turn renders neuropsychological and sociolinguistic processes impossible. Toward the integration of human knowledge As stated above, the ToK System proposes a new epistemology with the goal of moving academic knowledge toward what E.O. Wilson termed consilience . Consilience is the interlocking of fact and theory into a coherent, holistic view of knowledge. Henriques argues that the ToK affords new perspectives on how knowledge is obtained because it depicts how science emerges from culture and that the four dimensions of complexity correspond to four broad classes of science: the physical, biological, psychological and social sciences. Henriques further argues that developing such a system for integrating knowledge is not just an academic enterprise. He suggests that in an increasingly complex world, the fragmented state of knowledge can be seen as one of the most pressing social problems of our time. Henriques also believes that history seems to attest that the absence of a collective worldview ostensibly condemns humanity to an endless series of conflicts that inevitably stem from incompatible, partially correct, locally situated justification systems. Thus, from Henriques' perspective, there are good reasons for believing that if there was a shared, general background of explanation, humanity might be able to achieve much greater levels of harmonious relations. In a 2008 article on the ToK, [ 14 ] Henriques cites Oliver Reiser 's 1958 call for unifying scientific knowledge that Henriques implies is similar in theme to the ToK: With its depiction of the dimensions of complexity and interlocking theoretical joint points, Henriques' believes that his ToK System offers new avenues that might allow scholars to meet Reiser’s call for academic synthesis. Henriques, like Reiser, believes that with a shared sense of purpose and a common background of explanation, people might yet be able to integrate bodies of knowledge into a unified interpretation of humanity, with humanity's place in nature and its potentialities for creating the good society. See also Tree of knowledge (philosophy) by René Descartes Tinbergen's four questions Behavioral repertoire Consilience Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge – 1998 book by E.O. Wilson Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge – 1998 book by E.O. Wilson Descriptive psychology General System Theory Psychological behaviorism Social meaning-making The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution – 1959 book by C. P. Snow Unified theory of cognition Unity of science Metasystem transition References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} " "About Me" section of the ToK System website" . Archived from the original on 5 December 2008 . Retrieved 3 January 2009 . ^ " "The Tree of Knowledge System" section of the 8 key ideas in the Unified Theory of Knowledge website" . Archived from the original on 2 July 2022 . Retrieved 2 July 2022 . ^ a b c d e Henriques, G.R. (2003). The Tree of Knowledge System and the Theoretical Unification of Psychology. Archived 25 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine Review of General Psychology, 7, 150–182. ^ "Defining Psychology: Articles and Commentaries on a New Unified Theory (Part 1): Journal of Clinical Psychology: Vol 60, No 12" . Archived from the original on 3 March 2011 . Retrieved 30 July 2021 – via Wiley Online Library. ^ "Defining Psychology: Articles and Commentaries on a New Unified Theory (Part 2): Journal of Clinical Psychology: Vol 61, No 1" . Archived from the original on 16 December 2012 . Retrieved 30 July 2021 – via Wiley Online Library. ^ "Theory & Psychology - Volume 18, Number 6, Dec 01, 2008" . Sage Journals . ^ Geary, D. C. (2005). The motivation to control and the origin of mind: Exploring the life-mind joint point in the tree of knowledge. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 21–46. ^ a b Henriques, G.R. (2003). The tree of knowledge system and the theoretical unification of psychology. Archived 25 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine Review of General Psychology, 7, 150–182. ^ a b Henriques, G.R. (2004). Psychology Defined Archived 10 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine . Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1207–1221. ^ Homepage of Michael Katzko ^ Katzko, M. W. (2008). Pruning the Tree of Knowledge. Theory & Psychology , 18, 817–828. Abstract ^ Haaga, D.A.F. (2004). Defining psychology: What can it do for us? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1227–1230. ^ Lilienfeld, S.O. (2004). Defining psychology: Is it worth the trouble? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1249–1253. ^ Henriques, G.R. (2008). The problem of psychology and the integration of human knowledge: Contrasting Wilson's Consilience with the Tree of Knowledge System. Theory & Psychology, 18, 731–755. Final draft ^ Reiser, O.L. (1958). The integration of human knowledge. Boston: Porter Sargent. Bibliography Anchin, J.C. (2008). The critical role of the dialectic in viable metatheory: A commentary on Henriques' Tree of Knowledge System for integrating human knowledge. Theory & Psychology, 18, 801–816. Full text Calhoun, L.G. (2004). The unification of psychology: A noble quest. Journal of Clinical Psychology , 60, 1283–1289. Abstract Geary, D. C. (2005). The motivation to control and the origin of mind: Exploring the life-mind joint point in the tree of knowledge. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 21–46. Full text Gilbert, P. (2004). A much needed macro level view: A commentary on Henriques’ psychology defined. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1223–1226. Full text Goertzen, J.R. (2008). On the possibility of unification: The reality and nature of the crisis in psychology. Theory & Psychology, 18, 829–852. Full text Haaga, D.A.F. (2004). Defining psychology: What can it do for us? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1227–1230. Full text Hayes, S.C. (2004). Taxonomy as a contextualist views it. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1231–1236. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2008). The problem of psychology and the integration of human knowledge: Contrasting Wilson's Consilience with the Tree of Knowledge System. Theory & Psychology, 18, 731–755. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2005). A new vision for the field: Introduction to the second special issue on the unified theory. Journal of Clinical Psychology , 61, 3–6. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2005). Toward a useful mass movement. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 121–139. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2004). Psychology Defined. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1207–1221. Full text Archived 10 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine Henriques, G.R. (2004). The development of the unified theory and the future of psychotherapy. Psychotherapy Bulletin, 39, 16–21. Final draft Henriques, G.R., & Cobb, H.C. (2004). Introduction to the special issues on the unified theory. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1203–1205. Full text Henriques, G.R., & Sternberg, R. J. (2004). Unified professional psychology: Implications for combined-integrated doctoral training programs. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1051–1063. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2003). The Tree of Knowledge System and the Theoretical Unification of Psychology. Review of General Psychology, 7, 150–182. Full text Archived 25 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine . Henriques, G.R. (2002). The harmful dysfunction analysis and the differentiation between mental disorder and disease. Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice , 1, 157–173. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2000). Depression: Disease or behavioral shutdown mechanism? Journal of Science and Health Policy, 1, 152–165. Full text Jones, R. (2005). From that dirty little science grows a Tree of Knowledge. The Madison, 1, 36–45. Full text Katzko, M.W. (2008). Pruning the Tree of Knowledge. Theory & Psychology, 18, 817–828. Full text Katzko, M.W. (2004). Psychology's dilemma: An institutional neurosis? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1237–1242. Full text Kihlstrom, J.F. (2004). Unity within psychology, and unity between science and practice. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1243–1247. Full text Lilienfeld, S.O. (2004). Defining psychology: Is it worth the trouble? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1249–1253. Full text Mayer, J.D. (2004). How does psychotherapy influence personality? A theoretical integration. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1291–1315. Full text Presbury, J. (2004). Rooting the tree of knowledge: A response to Henriques’ psychology defined. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1255–1258. Full text Quackenbush, S.W. (2008). Theoretical unification as a practical project: Kant and the Tree of Knowledge System. Theory & Psychology, 18, 757–777. Full text Quackenbush, S.W. (2005). Remythologizing culture: Narrativity, justification, and the politics of personalization. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 67–80. Full text Archived 16 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine Rand, K.L., & Ilardi, S.S. (2005). Toward a consilient science of psychology. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 7–20. Full text Shaffer, L.S. (2008). Religion as a large-scale justification system: Does the Justification Hypothesis explain animistic attribution? Theory & Psychology, 18, 779–799. Full text Shaffer, L.S. (2006). Durkheim's aphorism, the Justification Hypothesis, and the nature of social facts. Sociological Viewpoints, fall issue, 57–70. Full text Shaffer, L.S. (2005). From mirror self-recognition to the looking glass self: Exploring the justification hypothesis. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 47–65 . Full text Shealy, C.N. (2005). Justifying the justification hypothesis: Scientific-humanism, Equilintegration (EI) Theory, and the Beliefs, Events, and Values Inventory (BEVI). Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 81–106. Full text Slife, B. (2005). Testing the limits of Henriques' proposal: Wittgensteinian lessons and hermenuetic dialogue. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 107–120. Full text Stam, H.J. (2004). Unifying psychology: Epistemological act or disciplinary maneuver? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1259–1262. Full text Stanovich, K.E. (2004). Metarepresentation and the great cognitive divide: A commentary on Henriques' "Psychology Defined". Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1263–1266. Full text Stricker, G. (2004). The unification of psychology and psychological organizations. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1267–1269. Full text Vazire, S., & Robins, R.W. (2004). Beyond the Justification Hypothesis: A Broader Theory of the Evolution of Self-Consciousness. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1271–1273. Full text Viney, W. (2004). Pluralism in the sciences is not easily dismissed. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1275–1278. Full text Yanchar, S.C. (2004). Some discontents with theoretical unification. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1279–1281. Full text External links The Official Tree of Knowledge Website Archived 6 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine Tree of Knowledge System/Expert article by Gregg Henriques at the Psychology Wiki This page uses content from the English-language version of Psychology Wiki . The original article was at Tree of Knowledge System/Expert article by Gregg Henriques . The list of authors can be seen in the page history . The text of both The Psychology Wiki and Wikipedia is available under the GNU Free Documentation License . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Glyphs, graphemes and characters 2 Representative glyph 3 See also 4 Notes 5 References 6 External links Glyph العربية বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Kreyòl ayisyen Македонски Nāhuatl Nederlands 日本語 Нохчийн Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 文言 粵語 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item A glyph ( / ɡ l ɪ f / GLIF ) is any kind of purposeful mark. In typography , a glyph is "the specific shape, design, or representation of a character". [ 1 ] It is a particular graphical representation, in a particular typeface (or computer font ), of an element of written language. (That 'element' is called a grapheme – the conceptual abstraction of some letter, number or symbol, which is independent of the glyph designed to represent it in a particular font.) Glyphs, graphemes and characters This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Glyph" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR ( September 2021 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) In modern English, each symbol (such as a letter or numerical digit) is a grapheme that can be represented by a single glyph that is unique to the font where it used. Detailed differences in the design of each glyph in the repertoire is the distinguishing feature of a typeface (or computer font ) but in each case the grapheme being represented is constant. In most languages written in any variety of the Latin alphabet except English, [ a ] the use of diacritics to signify a sound mutation is common. For example, the grapheme ⟨à⟩ requires two glyphs: the basic | a | and the grave accent | ` | . In general, a diacritic is regarded as a glyph, [ 2 ] even if it is contiguous with the rest of the character like a cedilla in French , Catalan or Portuguese , the ogonek in several languages, or the stroke on a Polish ⟨ Ł ⟩ . Although these marks originally had no independent meaning, they have since acquired meaning in the field of mathematics and computing, for instance. Conversely, in the languages of Western Europe, the dot (formally, tittle ) on a lower-case ⟨i⟩ is not a glyph in itself because it does not convey any distinction, and an | ı | in which the dot has been accidentally omitted is still likely to be recognized correctly. However, in Turkish and adjacent languages, this dot is a glyph because that language has two distinct versions of the letter i , with and without a dot . In Japanese syllabaries , some of the characters are made up of more than one separate mark, but in general these separate marks are not glyphs because they have no meaning by themselves. However, in some cases, additional marks fulfil the role of diacritics , to differentiate distinct characters. Such additional marks constitute glyphs. Some characters such as | æ | in Icelandic and | ß | in German may be regarded as glyphs. They were originally typographic ligatures , but over time have become characters in their own right; these languages treat them as unique letters. However, a ligature such as | fi | , that is treated in some typefaces as a single unit, is arguably not a glyph as this is just a design choice of that typeface, essentially an allographic feature, and includes more than one grapheme. [ 2 ] In normal handwriting, even long words are often written "joined up", without the pen leaving the paper, and the form of each written letter will often vary depending on which letters precede and follow it, but that does not make the whole word into a single glyph. Older models of typewriters required the use of multiple glyphs to depict a single character, as an overstruck apostrophe and full stop to create an exclamation mark . If there is more than one allograph of a unit of writing, and the choice between them depends on context or on the preference of the author, they now have to be treated as separate glyphs, because mechanical arrangements have to be available to differentiate between them and to print whichever of them is required. In computing as well as typography, the term character refers to a grapheme or grapheme-like unit of text, as found in writing systems ( scripts ). In typography and computing, the range of graphemes is broader than in a written language in other ways too: a typeface often has to cope with a range of different languages each of which contribute their own graphemes, and it may also be required to print non-linguistic symbols such as dingbats . The range of glyphs required increases correspondingly. In summary, in typography and computing, a glyph is a graphical unit. [ 2 ] Representative glyph In material about a grapheme, the author must select one of the range of glyphs that could be used for it, without intending to convey any implication that it is the "correct" one. This choice is called a representative glyph . [ 3 ] See also Character encoding – Using numbers to represent text characters Complex text layout – Neighbour-dependent grapheme positioning Glyph Bitmap Distribution Format – File format for storing bitmap fonts Hieroglyph – Ancient Egyptian writing system Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets International Phonetic Alphabet § Brackets and transcription delimiters Letter cutting – Form of inscriptional architectural lettering Palaeography – Study of handwriting and manuscripts Punchcutting – Craft used in traditional typography Sort (typesetting) – Block with a typographic character etched on it, which is lined up with others to print text Notes ^ ignoring special cases such as personal names and imported words References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Strizver, Ilene. "Confusing (and Frequently Misused) Type Terminology, Part 1" . fonts.com . Monotype Imaging. Archived from the original on 25 December 2011. ^ a b c Whistler, Ken; Davis, Mark; Freytag, Asmus (11 November 2008). "Characters Vs Glyphs" . Unicode Consortium. ^ "Chapter 24: About the Code Charts" . Unicode® 17.0.0 . Unicode Consortium . September 2025. A representative glyph is not a prescriptive form of the character, but rather one that enables recognition of the intended character to a knowledgeable user and facilitates lookup of the character in the code charts. In many cases, there are more or less well-established alternative glyphic representations for the same character. External links @media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}} The dictionary definition of glyph at Wiktionary Media related to Glyphs at Wikimedia Commons .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Lexicology v t e Major terms Lexical item Lexicon Lexis Word Lexical item Lexicon Lexis Word Elements Chereme Glyphs Grapheme Lemma Lexeme Morpheme Phoneme Seme Sememe Chereme Glyphs Grapheme Lemma Lexeme Morpheme Phoneme Seme Sememe Semantic relations Antonymy Hypernymy and hyponymy Meronymy and holonymy Idiom Lexical semantics Semantic network Synonym Troponymy Antonymy Hypernymy and hyponymy Meronymy and holonymy Idiom Lexical semantics Semantic network Synonym Troponymy Functions Function word Headword Function word Headword Fields Controlled vocabulary English lexicology and lexicography International scientific vocabulary Lexicographic error Lexicographic information cost Linguistic prescription Morphology Specialized lexicography Controlled vocabulary English lexicology and lexicography International scientific vocabulary Lexicographic error Lexicographic information cost Linguistic prescription Morphology Specialized lexicography Linguistics portal v t e Typography v t e Page Canons of page construction Column Even working Margin Page numbering Paper size Pagination Pull quote Recto and verso Intentionally blank page Canons of page construction Column Even working Margin Page numbering Paper size Pagination Pull quote Recto and verso Intentionally blank page Paragraph Alignment Leading Line length River Runaround Widows and orphans runt Alignment Leading Line length River Runaround Widows and orphans runt runt Character Typeface anatomy Counter Diacritics Dingbat Glyph Ink trap Ligature Rotation Subscript and superscript Swash Text figures Tittle Capitalization All caps Camel case Initial Letter case Small caps Snake case Title case Visual distinction Blackboard bold Bold Color printing Italics Oblique Underline Whitespace Horizontal aspects Figure space Kerning Letter spacing Pitch Sentence spacing Thin space Word spacing Vertical aspects Ascender Baseline Body height Cap height Descender Mean line Overshoot x-height Typeface anatomy Counter Diacritics Dingbat Glyph Ink trap Ligature Rotation Subscript and superscript Swash Text figures Tittle Counter Diacritics Dingbat Glyph Ink trap Ligature Rotation Subscript and superscript Swash Text figures Tittle Capitalization All caps Camel case Initial Letter case Small caps Snake case Title case All caps Camel case Initial Letter case Small caps Snake case Title case Visual distinction Blackboard bold Bold Color printing Italics Oblique Underline Whitespace Blackboard bold Bold Color printing Italics Oblique Underline Whitespace Horizontal aspects Figure space Kerning Letter spacing Pitch Sentence spacing Thin space Word spacing Figure space Kerning Letter spacing Pitch Sentence spacing Thin space Word spacing Vertical aspects Ascender Baseline Body height Cap height Descender Mean line Overshoot x-height Ascender Baseline Body height Cap height Descender Mean line Overshoot x-height Typeface classifications Roman type Serif Antiqua Didone slab serif Sans-serif Blackletter type Fraktur Rotunda Schwabacher Gaelic type Insular Uncial Specialist Record type Display typeface script fat face reverse-contrast Roman type Serif Antiqua Didone slab serif Sans-serif Serif Antiqua Didone slab serif Antiqua Didone slab serif Sans-serif Blackletter type Fraktur Rotunda Schwabacher Fraktur Rotunda Schwabacher Gaelic type Insular Uncial Insular Uncial Specialist Record type Display typeface script fat face reverse-contrast Record type Display typeface script fat face reverse-contrast script fat face reverse-contrast Punctuation ( List ) Bullet Dash Hanging punctuation Hyphen minus sign Interpunct Space Vertical bar Bullet Dash Hanging punctuation Hyphen minus sign minus sign Interpunct Space Vertical bar Typesetting Etaoin shrdlu Font computer monospaced Font catalog For position only Letterpress Lorem ipsum Microprinting Microtypography Movable type Pangram Phototypesetting Punchcutting Reversing type Sort Type color Type design Typeface list Etaoin shrdlu Font computer monospaced computer monospaced Font catalog For position only Letterpress Lorem ipsum Microprinting Microtypography Movable type Pangram Phototypesetting Punchcutting Reversing type Sort Type color Type design Typeface list list Typographic units Agate Cicero Em En Metric units Pica Point traditional point-size names Twip Agate Cicero Em En Metric units Pica Point traditional point-size names traditional point-size names Twip Digital typography Character encoding Hinting Text shaping Rasterization Typographic features Web typography Bézier curves Desktop publishing Character encoding Hinting Text shaping Rasterization Typographic features Web typography Bézier curves Desktop publishing Typography in other writing systems Arabic Cyrillic PT Fonts East Asian Thai National Fonts Arabic Cyrillic PT Fonts PT Fonts East Asian Thai National Fonts National Fonts Related articles Penmanship Handwriting Handwriting script Calligraphy Lettering Style guide Type design Type foundry History of Western typography Intellectual property protection of typefaces Technical lettering Vox-ATypI classification Penmanship Handwriting Handwriting script Calligraphy Lettering Handwriting Handwriting script Calligraphy Lettering Style guide Type design Type foundry History of Western typography Intellectual property protection of typefaces Technical lettering Vox-ATypI classification Related template Punctuation and other typographic symbols Punctuation and other typographic symbols Category Category Archaeological terminology Orthography Glyphs Typography Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from March 2025 Articles needing additional references from September 2021 All articles needing additional references Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets via Module:Annotated link Commons category link from Wikidata This page was last edited on 29 December 2025, at 15:15 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Meteorological history 2 Preparations and impact 3 See also 4 References Tropical Storm Brenda (1960) Español Français Português Română Tiếng Việt 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item Weather map of Brenda Meteorological history Formed July 28, 1960 Extratropical July 31 Dissipated August 1, 1960 Tropical storm 1-minute sustained ( SSHWS / NWS ) Highest winds 70 mph (110 km/h) Lowest pressure 991 mbar ( hPa ); 29.26 inHg Overall effects Fatalities ≥1 indirect Damage $5 million (1960 USD ) Areas affected Gulf Coast of the United States , East Coast of the United States , Eastern Canada IBTrACS Part of the 1960 Atlantic hurricane season Tropical Storm Brenda was the second named storm of the 1960 Atlantic hurricane season . It developed in the northeastern Gulf of Mexico on July 28, and after moving ashore over the Florida Peninsula, it attained tropical storm status. It accelerated northeast along the U.S. East Coast , ultimately peaking as a moderate storm with winds of 60 mph (97 km/h) before crossing the Mid-Atlantic states and New England ; it dissipated on July 31 over southern Canada . It inflicted moderate damage in Florida, the worst since Hurricane Easy of 1950, and dropped heavy rainfall as far north as New York City . Its total damage was estimated at US$5 million, and only indirect deaths were blamed on it. Meteorological history A weak low-pressure area that organized in the northeast Gulf of Mexico began to intensify on July 28, while located west of the Tampa Bay . [ 1 ] Early in its life, the system had a broad circulation with primarily light winds, similar to that of a subtropical storm . [ 2 ] The storm is estimated to have become a tropical depression earlier the previous day as it moved toward the northeast. [ 3 ] It made landfall along the Florida coast near Cross City and continued inland, gradually accelerating. [ 1 ] It likely attained tropical storm status at around 1200 UTC on July 28 while its center was situated west of Tampa. [ 3 ] The cyclone was named Brenda after reconnaissance aircraft confirmed that it had reached tropical storm strength. [ 1 ] Brenda tracked northward, hugging the Georgia and South Carolina coasts before moving inland over North Carolina on July 29. It attained its peak winds of 60 mph (97 km/h) late that evening, while situated south of Wilmington . [ 3 ] The next morning, the storm emerged over the Chesapeake Bay moving northeast at about 30 mph (48 km/h). [ 4 ] Brenda crossed the Delmarva Peninsula and rapidly tracked into southern New Jersey . The storm crossed the state and eventually made another landfall in Brooklyn , New York before making yet another landfall in coastal Connecticut . [ 3 ] At around 0000 UTC on July 31, Brenda moved into Massachusetts . Shortly thereafter, it lost its tropical characteristics and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . [ 3 ] It dissipated by August 1 over southern Canada . Because Brenda was in the vicinity of land for most of its course, it was not able to intensify beyond tropical storm status. [ 1 ] Preparations and impact In advance of the storm, tropical storm advisories and wind warnings were issued from Florida to Maine . [ 5 ] Rainfall from Tropical Storm Brenda affected at least 16 states. The heaviest precipitation fell in western Florida near Tampa , east of the storm's center; the Tampa International Airport recorded 14.57 in (370 mm) of rainfall. [ 2 ] Extensive flooding occurred in the west-central Florida Peninsula. Wind gusts exceeded 60 mph (97 km/h), and the storm produced 10 ft (3.0 m) high waves along the coast, leading to considerable erosion. However, storm tides were not severe. [ 1 ] Around the Naples area, Brenda's effects were primarily light, although small boat and dock facilities and roads sustained some damage. [ 6 ] A private seawall at Clearwater was breached in two places by the cyclone. [ 7 ] Brenda was considered the worst storm to strike the area since Hurricane Easy in 1950. [ 8 ] While no casualties are directly blamed on the storm, at least one traffic-related death took place. [ 1 ] According to an American Red Cross Disaster Service report encompassing eight Florida counties, 11 houses sustained significant damage, while 567 suffered more minor damage. Around 590 families were affected overall. Total monetary damage is placed at near $5 million. [ 9 ] Tides along the Outer Banks of North Carolina were generally reported at 2 ft (0.61 m) above-normal. In and around Wilmington, the storm caused minor damage to roofs and windows of some beachfront structures. Power was temporarily interrupted due to fallen tree limbs. Heavy rainfall caused flooding on streams and rivers, and in some areas the precipitation helped to end a serious drought. [ 10 ] Some boats were swamped, and the winds ripped the roof off a cottage at Long Beach . [ 11 ] The heavy rain and high tides flooded tobacco fields. [ 12 ] Moderate rains extended northward into the Mid-Atlantic states , with lighter totals reported farther north in New York . [ 2 ] At New York City, 4.79 in (122 mm) of precipitation fell, beating the one-day July record of 3.80 in (97 mm) set in 1872. The heavy rains flooded parts of LaGuardia Airport . Elsewhere, reports of 3 to 5 in (76 to 127 mm) were common throughout New Jersey , Delaware , Maryland and Virginia . [ 12 ] High winds also affected portions of the northeastern United States, gusting to 55 mph (89 km/h) across southern New England. Tides often ran 3 to 4 ft (0.91 to 1.22 m) above-normal throughout the region. The storm caused travel delays and ran several ships aground, but otherwise inflicted little serious damage. [ 13 ] The storm forced the cancellation of two American League baseball games and the postponement of several other sporting events around the area. [ 14 ] See also Tropical cyclones portal List of United States hurricanes List of Florida hurricanes List of New England hurricanes References ^ a b c d e f .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Gordon Dunn (March 1961). "The Hurricane Season of 1960" (PDF) . National Hurricane Center. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 25, 2011 . Retrieved January 5, 2010 . ^ a b c David Roth (December 16, 2009). "Tropical Storm Brenda – July 27–30, 1960" . Hydrometeorological Prediction Center . Retrieved January 5, 2010 . ^ a b c d e "Atlantic hurricane best track (HURDAT version 2)" (Database). United States National Hurricane Center . April 4, 2025. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain . Landsea, Chris (April 2022). "The revised Atlantic hurricane database (HURDAT2) - Chris Landsea – April 2022" (PDF) . Hurricane Research Division – NOAA /AOML . Miami : Hurricane Research Division – via Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory . Landsea, Chris (April 2022). "The revised Atlantic hurricane database (HURDAT2) - Chris Landsea – April 2022" (PDF) . Hurricane Research Division – NOAA /AOML . Miami : Hurricane Research Division – via Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory . ^ Forecaster Carlson (July 30, 1960). "July 30, 1960 7 AM EDT Local Statement on Tropical Storm Brenda" . National Hurricane Center . Retrieved January 5, 2010 . ^ Forecaster Sugg (July 29, 1960). "11 AM EST Friday 29 July 1960 Miami Weather Bureau Bulletin for Press Radio and Television" . National Hurricane Center . Retrieved January 5, 2010 . ^ Keith Butson (August 11, 1960). "Report from Coop. observer at Naples, Florida" . National Hurricane Center . Retrieved January 5, 2010 . ^ Martin Dyckman (August 2, 1960). "Clearwater to Repair Private Wall" . St. Petersburg Times . Retrieved January 5, 2010 . ^ Office of Climatology (August 11, 1960). "Report on incipient tropical storm Brenda, July 28–29, 1960" . National Hurricane Center . Retrieved January 5, 2010 . ^ Keith Butson (February 3, 1961). "Damages from tropical storm Brenda, July 28–29, 1960" . National Hurricane Center . Retrieved January 5, 2010 . ^ Albert Hardy (August 5, 1960). "Report on Tropical Storm Brenda in North Carolina" . National Hurricane Center . Retrieved January 5, 2010 . ^ Forecaster Duke. "Preliminary Report on Tropical Storm Brenda July 29–30, 1960" . National Hurricane Center . Retrieved January 5, 2010 . ^ a b Cox, Claire (July 31, 1960). "Brenda Storm Lashes Coast" . The Nashville Tennessean . Vol. 55, no. 94. Nashville, Tennessee. Associated Press. p. 2-A . Retrieved July 20, 2019 . ^ "Storm Rolls Along Coast" . The Reading Eagle . Associated Press. July 31, 1960 . Retrieved January 5, 2010 . ^ Staff writer (July 31, 1960). "Tropical Storm Brenda Apparently isn't a Sports Fan; Games Off" . The Hartford Courant . Archived from the original on July 13, 2012 . Retrieved January 5, 2010 . .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Tropical cyclones of the 1960 Atlantic hurricane season v t e TS One 1 Abby TS Brenda 1 Cleo 4 Donna 3 Ethel TS Florence Category Category 1960 Atlantic hurricane season Atlantic tropical storms Hurricanes in Florida 1960 in Canada 1960 natural disasters in the United States Hurricanes in Canada 1960 disasters in Canada Source attribution Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Pages using obsolete storm path colors Featured articles This page was last edited on 28 July 2024, at 18:40 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Etymology Toggle Etymology subsection 1.1 Chinese 1.2 English 1.3 Tibetan 1.1 Chinese 1.2 English 1.3 Tibetan 2 Geography 3 History Toggle History subsection 3.1 Geologic history 3.2 Early history 3.3 Age of steam 3.4 Navigation on the upper river 3.5 Navy ships 3.6 Contemporary events 3.1 Geologic history 3.2 Early history 3.3 Age of steam 3.4 Navigation on the upper river 3.5 Navy ships 3.6 Contemporary events 4 Hydrology Toggle Hydrology subsection 4.1 Periodic floods 4.2 Degradation of the river 4.3 Contribution to ocean pollution 4.4 Reconnecting lakes 4.5 Discharge 4.1 Periodic floods 4.2 Degradation of the river 4.3 Contribution to ocean pollution 4.4 Reconnecting lakes 4.5 Discharge 5 Major cities along the river 6 Crossings 7 Dams 8 Tributaries 9 Protected areas 10 Wildlife Toggle Wildlife subsection 10.1 Fish 10.2 Other animals 10.1 Fish 10.2 Other animals 11 Tourism 12 Gallery 13 See also 14 Notes 15 References 16 Further reading 17 External links Yangtze Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ العربية Aragonés অসমীয়া Asturianu अवधी Avañe'ẽ Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Cebuano Čeština Chi-Chewa Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Galego 贛語 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ Къарачай-малкъар ქართული Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Ladin ລາວ Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Lingua Franca Nova Lombard Magyar Македонски മലയാളം मराठी მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Na Vosa Vakaviti Nederlands नेपाली नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Олык марий Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Piemontèis Plattdüütsch Polski Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Română Rumantsch Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Scots Shqip සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Taqbaylit Tarandíne Татарча / tatarça తెలుగు ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Türkmençe Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vahcuengh Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt Walon 文言 Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש 粵語 Žemaitėška 中文 Toki pona Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikivoyage Wikidata item Yangtze River .mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal} 长江 Dusk on the middle reaches of the Yangtze River ( Three Gorges ), taken in July 2002. Map of the Yangtze River drainage basin Native name Cháng Jiāng ( Chinese ) Location Country China Provinces Sichuan , Hubei , Hunan , Anhui , Jiangsu Municipalities Chongqing , Shanghai Major cities Luzhou , Chongqing, Yichang , Jingzhou , Yueyang , Changsha , Wuhan , Jiujiang , Anqing , Tongling , Wuhu , Nanjing , Zhenjiang , Yangzhou , Nantong , Shanghai Physical characteristics Source Dam Qu ( Jari Hill ) • location Tanggula Mountains , Qinghai • coordinates .mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap} 32°36′14″N 94°30′44″E / 32.60389°N 94.51222°E / 32.60389; 94.51222 • elevation 5,170 m (16,960 ft) 2nd source Ulan Moron • coordinates 33°23′40″N 90°53′46″E / 33.39444°N 90.89611°E / 33.39444; 90.89611 3rd source Chuma'er River • coordinates 35°27′19″N 90°55′50″E / 35.45528°N 90.93056°E / 35.45528; 90.93056 4th source Muluwusu River • coordinates 33°22′13″N 91°10′29″E / 33.37028°N 91.17472°E / 33.37028; 91.17472 5th source Bi Qu • coordinates 33°16′58″N 91°23′29″E / 33.28278°N 91.39139°E / 33.28278; 91.39139 Mouth East China Sea • location Shanghai and Jiangsu • coordinates 31°23′37″N 121°58′59″E / 31.39361°N 121.98306°E / 31.39361; 121.98306 Length 6,300 km (3,900 mi) 6,374 km (3,961 mi) Yangtze – Jinsha – Tongtian – Dam Qu 6,300 km (3,900 mi) 6,374 km (3,961 mi) Yangtze – Jinsha – Tongtian – Dam Qu Basin size 1,808,500 km 2 (698,300 mi 2 ) [ 6 ] (Yangtze with Huai: 1,949,514.8 km² [ 7 ] ) Discharge • location Yangtze Estuary • average (Period: 1955–2021)995.8 km 3 /a (31,550 m 3 /s) [ 1 ] [ 2 ] 30,146 m 3 /s (1,064,600 cu ft/s) [ 3 ] • maximum 110,000 m 3 /s (3,900,000 cu ft/s) [ 4 ] [ 5 ] Discharge • location Datong hydrometric station, Anhui (Uppermost boundary of the ocean tide) (1980–2020) • average 905.7 km 3 /a (28,700 m 3 /s) [ 2 ] 30,708 m 3 /s (1,084,400 cu ft/s) (2019–2020) [ 8 ] Discharge • location Wuhan ( Hankou ) (1980–2020) • average 711.1 km 3 /a (22,530 m 3 /s) [ 2 ] Discharge • location Yichang ( Three Gorges Dam ) (1980–2020) • average 428.7 km 3 /a (13,580 m 3 /s) [ 2 ] Basin features Progression East China Sea River system Yangtze River Tributaries • left Yalong , Min , Tuo , Jialing , Han , Huai • right Wu , Yuan , Zi , Xiang , Gan , Huangpu Chang Jiang "Yangtze River ( Cháng jiāng )" in Simplified (top) and Traditional (bottom) Chinese characters Chinese name Simplified Chinese 长江 Traditional Chinese 長江 Literal meaning "Long River" Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Cháng Jiāng Wade–Giles Ch'ang 2 Chiang 1 IPA [ʈʂʰǎŋ tɕjáŋ] ⓘ Wu Romanization Zan 入 Kaon 平 Xiang IPA dɒŋ 13 kiɒŋ 44 Yue: Cantonese Yale Romanization Chèuhng Gōng Jyutping Coeng 4 Gong 1 IPA [tsʰœŋ˩ kɔŋ˥] Southern Min Tâi-lô Tiông Kang Middle Chinese Middle Chinese ɖjang kæwng Old Chinese Baxter–Sagart (2014) * Cə-[N]-traŋ kˤroŋ Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Cháng Jiāng Wade–Giles Ch'ang 2 Chiang 1 IPA [ʈʂʰǎŋ tɕjáŋ] ⓘ Wu Romanization Zan 入 Kaon 平 Xiang IPA dɒŋ 13 kiɒŋ 44 Yue: Cantonese Yale Romanization Chèuhng Gōng Jyutping Coeng 4 Gong 1 IPA [tsʰœŋ˩ kɔŋ˥] Southern Min Tâi-lô Tiông Kang Middle Chinese Middle Chinese ɖjang kæwng Old Chinese Baxter–Sagart (2014) * Cə-[N]-traŋ kˤroŋ Yangtze River Simplified Chinese 扬子江 Traditional Chinese 揚子江 Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Yángzǐ Jiāng ⓘ Wade–Giles Yang-tzu Chiang IPA [jǎŋtsì tɕjáŋ] Wu Romanization Yang 入 Tse 平 Kaon 平 Xiang IPA jɒŋ 13 tsɯ 31 kiɒŋ 44 Yue: Cantonese Jyutping Joeng 4 -zi 2 Gong 1 Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Yángzǐ Jiāng ⓘ Wade–Giles Yang-tzu Chiang IPA [jǎŋtsì tɕjáŋ] Wu Romanization Yang 入 Tse 平 Kaon 平 Xiang IPA jɒŋ 13 tsɯ 31 kiɒŋ 44 Yue: Cantonese Jyutping Joeng 4 -zi 2 Gong 1 Tibetan name Tibetan .mw-parser-output .uchen{font-family:"Jomolhari","DDC Uchen","DDC Jogyig","Uchen","Noto Serif Tibetan Medium","Noto Serif Tibetan","BabelStone Tibetan Slim","Yagpo Tibetan Uni","Noto Sans Tibetan","Microsoft Himalaya","Kailash","DDC Uchen","TCRC Youtso Unicode","Tibetan Machine Uni","Qomolangma-Uchen Sarchen","Qomolangma-Uchen Sarchung","Qomolangma-Uchen Suring","Qomolangma-Uchen Sutung","Qomolangma-Title","Qomolangma-Subtitle","DDC Rinzin","Qomolangma-Woodblock","Qomolangma-Dunhuang"}.mw-parser-output .ume{font-family:"Qomolangma-Betsu","Qomolangma-Chuyig","Qomolangma-Drutsa","Qomolangma-Edict","Qomolangma-Tsumachu","Qomolangma-Tsuring","Qomolangma-Tsutong","TibetanSambhotaYigchung","TibetanTsugRing","TibetanYigchung"} འབྲི་ཆུ། Transcriptions Wylie 'Bri Chu THL Dri Chu Tibetan Pinyin zhiqu Transcriptions Wylie 'Bri Chu THL Dri Chu Tibetan Pinyin zhiqu The Yangtze River , Yangzi River ( .mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%} English: / ˈ j æ ŋ t s i / or / ˈ j ɑː ŋ t s i / ) or Chang Jiang ( simplified Chinese : 长江 ; traditional Chinese : 長江 ; pinyin : Cháng Jiāng ; lit. 'long river') is the longest river in China and the third-longest river in the world. It rises at Jari Hill in the Tanggula Mountains of the Tibetan Plateau and flows, 6,374 km (3,961 mi) including the Dam Qu River , the longest source of the Yangtze, in a generally easterly direction to the East China Sea . [ 9 ] It is the fifth-largest primary river by discharge volume in the world . Its drainage basin comprises one-fifth of the land area of China , and is home to nearly one-third of the country's population . [ 10 ] The Yangtze has played a major role in the history , culture , and economy of China . For thousands of years, the river has been used for water, irrigation, sanitation, transportation, industry, boundary-marking, and war. The Yangtze Delta generates as much as 20% of China's GDP , and the Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze is the largest hydro-electric power station in the world . [ 11 ] [ 12 ] In mid-2014, the Chinese government announced it was building a multi-tier transport network , comprising railways, roads and airports to create a new economic belt alongside the river. [ 13 ] The Yangtze flows through a wide array of ecosystems and is habitat to several endemic and threatened species, including the Chinese alligator , the narrow-ridged finless porpoise , and also was the home of the now extinct Yangtze river dolphin (or baiji ) and Chinese paddlefish , as well as the Yangtze sturgeon , which is extinct in the wild . In recent years, the river has suffered from industrial pollution, plastic pollution , [ 14 ] agricultural runoff , siltation , and loss of wetland and lakes, which exacerbates seasonal flooding. Some sections of the river are now protected as nature reserves . A stretch of the upstream Yangtze flowing through deep gorges in western Yunnan is part of the Three Parallel Rivers of Yunnan Protected Areas , a UNESCO World Heritage Site . Etymology Chinese Cháng Jiāng ( 长江 ; 長江 ), meaning " Long River ", is the name for the river in Chinese . However, the Chinese have given different names to sections of the river (it is from an ancient name to only a part of the river that the modern English name derives – see below). [ 15 ] [ 16 ] In Old Chinese , the Yangtze was simply called Jiang/Kiang 江 , [ 17 ] a character of phono-semantic compound origin, combining the water radical 氵 with the homophone 工 (now pronounced gōng , but *kˤoŋ in Old Chinese [ 18 ] ). Kong was probably a word in the Austroasiatic language of local peoples such as the Yue . Similar to *krong in Proto-Vietnamese and krung in Mon , all meaning "river", it is related to modern Vietnamese sông (river) and Khmer krung (city on riverside), whence Thai krung (กรุง capital city), not kôngkea (water) which is from the Sanskrit root gáṅgā . [ 19 ] By the Han dynasty , Jiāng had come to mean any river in Chinese, and this river was distinguished as the "Great River" 大江 ( Dàjiāng ). The epithet 長 ( simplified version 长 ), meaning "long", was first formally applied to the river during the Six Dynasties period. [ citation needed ] Various sections of the Yangtze have local names. From Yibin to Yichang , the river through Sichuan and Chongqing Municipality is also known as the Chuān Jiāng ( 川江 ) or " Sichuan River ". In Hubei , the river is also called the Jīng Jiāng ( 荆江 ; 荊江 ) or the "Jing River" after Jingzhou , one of the Nine Provinces of ancient China. In Anhui , the river takes on the local name Wǎn Jiāng after the shorthand name for Anhui, wǎn (皖). Jinsha ("Gold Sands") River refers to the 2,308 km (1,434 mi) of the Yangtze from Yibin upstream to the confluence with the Batang River near Yushu in Qinghai, while the Tongtian ("Leading to Heaven") River describes the 813 km (505 mi) section from Yushu up to the confluence of the Tuotuo River and the Dangqu River . [ citation needed ] Yángzǐ Jiāng ( 揚子江 ; 扬子江 ) or the "Yangzi River", from which the English name Yangtze is derived, is the local name for the Lower Yangtze in the region of Yangzhou . The name likely comes from an ancient ferry crossing called Yángzǐ or Yángzǐjīn ( 揚子 / 揚子津 ). [ 20 ] Europeans who arrived in the Yangtze River Delta region applied this local name to the whole river. [ 15 ] English In the West, the river was called Quian ( 江 ) and Quianshui ( 江水 ) by Marco Polo , [ 21 ] and appeared on the earliest English maps as Kian or Kiam . [ 22 ] [ 23 ] [ 17 ] By the mid-19th century, these romanizations had standardized as Kiang . A related form also popularized in English was "Kian-ku," [ 24 ] also spelled "Keeang-Koo" [ 25 ] and "Kyang Kew", [ 26 ] derived from mistaking the Chinese term for the mouth of the Yangtze ( 江口 , Jiāngkǒu ) as the name of the river itself. The name Blue River began to be applied in the 18th century, [ 22 ] apparently owing to a former name of the Dam Chu [ 28 ] or Min [ 30 ] and to analogy with the Yellow River , [ 31 ] [ 32 ] but it was frequently explained in early English references as a 'translation' of Jiang , [ 33 ] [ 34 ] Jiangkou , [ 25 ] or Yangzijiang . [ 35 ] Very common in 18th- and 19th-century sources, the name fell out of favor due to growing awareness of its lack of any connection to the river's Chinese names [ 36 ] [ 37 ] and to the irony of its application to such a muddy waterway. [ 37 ] [ 38 ] Matteo Ricci 's 1615 Latin account included descriptions of the "Ianſu" and "Ianſuchian." [ 39 ] The posthumous account's translation of the name as Fils de la Mer ("Son of the Ocean") [ 39 ] [ 40 ] shows that Ricci, who by the end of his life was fluent in literary Chinese, was introduced to it as the homophonic 洋子江 rather than the usual 揚子江 . Further, although railroads and the Shanghai concessions subsequently turned it into a backwater, Yangzhou was the lower river's principal port for much of the Qing dynasty , directing Liangjiang 's important salt monopoly and connecting the Yangtze with the Grand Canal to Beijing. (That connection also made it one of the Yellow River 's principal ports between the floods of 1344 and the 1850s, during which time the Yellow River ran well south of Shandong and discharged into the ocean a mere few hundred kilometers from the mouth of the Yangtze. [ 36 ] [ 24 ] ) Yángzǐ Jiāng ( 揚子江 ; 扬子江 ), or the "Yangzi River", from which the English name Yangtze is derived, is the local name for the Lower Yangtze in the region of Yangzhou (see above). Europeans who arrived in the Yangtze River Delta region applied this local name to the whole river. [ 15 ] By 1800, English cartographers such as Aaron Arrowsmith had adopted the French style of the name [ 41 ] as Yang-tse or Yang-tse Kiang . [ 42 ] The British diplomat Thomas Wade emended this to Yang-tzu Chiang as part of his formerly popular romanization of Chinese , based on the Beijing dialect instead of Nanjing's and first published in 1867. The spellings Yangtze and Yangtze Kiang was a compromise between the two methods adopted at the 1906 Imperial Postal Conference in Shanghai, which established postal romanization . Hanyu Pinyin was adopted by the PRC's First Congress in 1958, but it was not widely employed in English outside mainland China prior to the normalization of diplomatic relations between the United States and the PRC in 1979; since that time, the spelling Yangzi has also been used. Tibetan The source and upper reaches of the Yangtze are located in ethnic Tibetan areas of Qinghai . [ 43 ] In Tibetan, the Tuotuo headwaters are the Machu ( Tibetan : རྨ་ཆུ་ , Wylie : rma-chu , lit. "Red Water"). The Tongtian is the Drichu ( འབྲི་ཆུ་ , 'Bri Chu'), literally "Water of the Female Yak "; transliterated into Chinese : 直曲 ; pinyin : Zhíqū ). Geography This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Yangtze" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR ( August 2024 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) The river originates from several tributaries in the eastern part of the Tibetan Plateau , two of which are commonly referred to as the "source." Traditionally, the Chinese government has recognized the source as the Tuotuo tributary at the base of a glacier lying on the west of Geladandong Mountain in the Tanggula Mountains . This source is found at 33°25′44″N 91°10′57″E / 33.42889°N 91.18250°E / 33.42889; 91.18250 and while not the furthest source of the Yangtze, it is the highest source at 5,342 m (17,526 ft) above sea level. The true source of the Yangtze, hydrologically the longest river distance from the sea, is at Jari Hill at the head of the Dam Qu tributary, approximately 365 km (227 mi) southeast of Geladandong. [ 44 ] This source was only discovered in the late 20th century and lies in wetlands at 32°36′14″N 94°30′44″E / 32.60389°N 94.51222°E / 32.60389; 94.51222 and 5,170 m (16,960 ft) above sea level just southeast of Chadan Township in Zadoi County , Yushu Prefecture , Qinghai. [ 45 ] As the historical spiritual source of the Yangtze, the Geladandong source is still commonly referred to as the source of the Yangtze since the discovery of the Jari Hill source. [ 44 ] These tributaries join and the river then runs eastward through Qinghai (Tsinghai), turning southward down a deep valley at the border of Sichuan (Szechwan) and Tibet to reach Yunnan . In the course of this valley, the river's elevation drops from above 5,000 m (16,000 ft) to less than 1,000 m (3,300 ft). Thus, over the first 2,600 km (1,600 mi) of its length, the river has fallen more than 5,200 m (17,100 ft). [ 46 ] It enters the basin of Sichuan at Yibin . While in the Sichuan basin, it receives several large tributaries, increasing its water volume significantly. It then cuts through Mount Wushan bordering Chongqing and Hubei to create the famous Three Gorges . Eastward of the Three Gorges, Yichang is the first city on the Yangtze Plain . After entering Hubei province, the Yangtze receives water from a number of lakes. The largest of these lakes is Dongting Lake , which is located on the border of Hunan and Hubei provinces, and is the outlet for most of the rivers in Hunan. At Wuhan , it receives its biggest tributary, the Han River , bringing water from its northern basin as far as Shaanxi . At the northern tip of Jiangxi province, Lake Poyang , the biggest freshwater lake in China, merges into the river. The river then runs through Anhui and Jiangsu , receiving more water from innumerable smaller lakes and rivers, and finally reaches the East China Sea at Shanghai. Four of China's five main freshwater lakes contribute their waters to the Yangtze River. Traditionally, the upstream part of the Yangtze River refers to the section from Yibin to Yichang; the middle part refers to the section from Yichang to Hukou County , where Lake Poyang meets the river; the downstream part is from Hukou to Shanghai. The origin of the Yangtze River has been dated by some geologists to about 45 million years ago in the Eocene , [ 47 ] but this dating has been disputed. [ 48 ] [ 49 ] History Geologic history Although the mouth of the Yellow River has fluctuated widely north and south of the Shandong peninsula within the historical record, the Yangtze has remained largely static. Based on studies of sedimentation rates , however, it is unlikely that the present discharge site predates the late Miocene ( c. 11 Ma ). [ 50 ] Prior to this, its headwaters drained south into the Gulf of Tonkin along or near the course of the present Red River . [ 51 ] Early history The Yangtze River is important to the cultural origins of southern China and Japan. [ 52 ] Human activity has been verified in the Three Gorges area as far back as 27,000 years ago, [ 53 ] and by the 5th millennium BC, the lower Yangtze was a major population center occupied by the Hemudu and Majiabang cultures , both among the earliest cultivators of rice. By the 3rd millennium BC, the successor Liangzhu culture showed evidence of influence from the Longshan peoples of the North China Plain . [ 54 ] What is now thought of as Chinese culture developed along the more fertile Yellow River basin; the " Yue " people of the lower Yangtze possessed very different traditions – blackening their teeth , cutting their hair short , tattooing their bodies, and living in small settlements among bamboo groves [ 55 ] – and were considered barbarous by the northerners. The Central Yangtze valley was home to sophisticated Neolithic cultures. [ 56 ] Later it became the earliest part of the Yangtze valley to be integrated into the North Chinese cultural sphere. (Northern Chinese were active there since the Bronze Age ). [ 57 ] In the lower Yangtze, two Yue tribes, the Gouwu in southern Jiangsu and the Yuyue in northern Zhejiang , display increasing Zhou (i.e., North Chinese) influence starting in the 9th century BC. Traditional accounts [ 58 ] credit these changes to northern refugees ( Taibo and Zhongyong in Wu and Wuyi in Yue) who assumed power over the local tribes, though these are generally assumed to be myths invented to legitimate them to other Zhou rulers. As the kingdoms of Wu and Yue , they were famed as fishers, shipwrights, and sword-smiths. Adopting Chinese characters , political institutions, and military technology, they were among the most powerful states during the later Zhou . In the middle Yangtze, the state of Jing seems to have begun in the upper Han River valley a minor Zhou polity, but it adapted to native culture as it expanded south and east into the Yangtze valley. In the process, it changed its name to Chu . [ 59 ] Whether native or nativizing, the Yangtze states held their own against the northern Chinese homeland: some lists credit them with three of the Spring and Autumn period 's Five Hegemons and one of the Warring States ' Four Lords . They fell in against themselves, however. Chu's growing power led its rival Jin to support Wu as a counter. Wu successfully sacked Chu's capital Ying in 506 BC, but Chu subsequently supported Yue in its attacks against Wu's southern flank. In 473 BC, King Goujian of Yue fully annexed Wu and moved his court to its eponymous capital at modern Suzhou. In 333 BC, Chu finally united the lower Yangtze by annexing Yue, whose royal family was said to have fled south and established the Minyue kingdom in Fujian . Qin was able to unite China by first subduing Ba and Shu on the upper Yangtze in modern Sichuan , giving them a strong base to attack Chu's settlements along the river. The state of Qin conquered the central Yangtze region, the previous heartland of Chu, in 278 BC, and incorporated the region into its expanding empire. Qin then used its connections along the Xiang River to expand into Hunan , Jiangxi and Guangdong , setting up military commanderies along the main lines of communication. At the collapse of the Qin Dynasty , these southern commanderies became the independent Nanyue Empire under Zhao Tuo while Chu and Han vied with each other for control of the north. Since the Han dynasty , the region of the Yangtze River grew ever more important to China's economy. The establishment of irrigation systems (the most famous one is Dujiangyan , northwest of Chengdu, built during the Warring States period) made agriculture very stable and productive, eventually exceeding even the Yellow River region. The Qin and Han empires were actively engaged in the agricultural colonization of the Yangtze lowlands, maintaining a system of dikes to protect farmland from seasonal floods. [ 60 ] By the Song dynasty, the area along the Yangtze had become among the wealthiest and most developed parts of the country, especially in the lower reaches of the river. Early in the Qing dynasty, the region called Jiangnan (that includes the southern part of Jiangsu , the northern part of Zhejiang and Jiangxi , and the southeastern part of Anhui ) provided .mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px} 1 ⁄ 3 – 1 ⁄ 2 of the nation's revenues. The Yangtze has long been the backbone of China's inland water transportation system, which remained particularly important for almost two thousand years, until the construction of the national railway network during the 20th century. The Grand Canal connects the lower Yangtze with the major cities of the Jiangnan region south of the river ( Wuxi , Suzhou , Hangzhou ) and with northern China (all the way from Yangzhou to Beijing). The less well known ancient Lingqu Canal , connecting the upper Xiang River with the headwaters of the Guijiang , allowed a direct water connection from the Yangtze Basin to the Pearl River Delta . [ 61 ] Historically, the Yangtze was the political boundary between north China and south China several times (see History of China ) because crossing the river was difficult. This occurred notably during the Southern and Northern Dynasties , and the Southern Song . Many battles took place along the river, the most famous being the Battle of Red Cliffs in 208 AD during the Three Kingdoms period. The Yangtze was the site of naval battles between the Song dynasty and Jurchen Jin during the Jin–Song wars . In the Battle of Caishi of 1161, the ships of the Jin emperor Wanyan Liang clashed with the Song fleet on the Yangtze. Song soldiers fired bombs of lime and sulfur using trebuchets at the Jurchen warships. The battle was a Song victory that halted the invasion by the Jin. [ 62 ] [ 63 ] The Battle of Tangdao was another Yangtze naval battle in the same year. Politically, Nanjing was the capital of China several times, although most of the time its territory only covered the southeastern part of China, such as the Wu kingdom in the Three Kingdoms period, the Eastern Jin Dynasty , and during the Southern and Northern Dynasties and Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms periods. Only the Ming occupied most parts of China from their capital at Nanjing , though it later moved the capital to Beijing. The ROC capital was located in Nanjing in the periods 1911–1912, 1927–1937, and 1945–1949. Age of steam The Jardine , the first steamship to sail the river, was built for the British firm Jardine, Matheson & Co. in 1835. This small vessel was to carry passengers and mail between Lintin Island , Macao , and Huangpu . However, the Chinese, draconian in their application of the rules relating to foreign vessels, were unhappy about a "fire-ship" steaming up the Canton River. The acting Viceroy of Liangguang issued an edict warning that she would be fired on if she attempted the trip. [ 64 ] On the Jardine's first trial run from Lintin Island the forts on both sides of the Bogue opened fire and she was forced to turn back. The Chinese authorities issued a further warning insisting that the ship leave Chinese waters. The Jardine in any case needed repairs and was sent to Singapore . [ 65 ] Subsequently, Lord Palmerston , the Foreign Secretary decided mainly on the "suggestions" of William Jardine to declare war on China. In mid-1840, a large fleet of warships appeared on the China coast, and with the first cannonball fired at a British ship, the Royal Saxon , the British started the first of the Opium Wars . Royal Navy warships destroyed numerous shore batteries and Chinese warships, laying waste to several coastal forts along the way. Eventually, they pushed their way up north close enough to threaten the Imperial Palace in Beijing itself. [ 64 ] The China Navigation Company was an early shipping company founded in 1876 in London, initially to trade up the Yangtze River from their Shanghai base with passengers and cargo. Chinese coastal trade started shortly after, and in 1883 a regular service to Australia was initiated. [ 64 ] Navigation on the upper river Steamers came late to the upper river, the section stretching from Yichang to Chongqing. Freshets from Himalayan snowmelt created treacherous seasonal currents. But summer was better navigationally and the three gorges , described as a "150-mile passage which is like the narrow throat of an hourglass," posed hazardous threats of crosscurrents, whirlpools and eddies, creating significant challenges to steamship efforts. Furthermore, Chongqing is 700 – 800 feet above sea level, requiring powerful engines to make the upriver climb. Junk travel accomplished the upriver feat by employing 70–80 trackers, men hitched to hawsers who physically pulled ships upriver through some of the most risky and deadly sections of the three gorges. [ 66 ] Archibald John Little took an interest in Upper Yangtze navigation when in 1876, the Chefoo Convention opened Chongqing to consular residence but stipulated that foreign trade might only commence once steamships had succeeded in ascending the river to that point. Little formed the Upper Yangtze Steam Navigation Co., Ltd. and built Kuling but his attempts to take the vessel further upriver than Yichang were thwarted by the Chinese authorities who were concerned about the potential loss of transit duties, competition to their native junk trade and physical damage to their craft caused by steamship wakes. Kuling was sold to China Merchants Steam Navigation Company for lower river service. In 1890, the Chinese government agreed to open Chongqing to foreign trade as long as it was restricted to native craft. In 1895, the Treaty of Shimonoseki provided a provision which opened Chongqing fully to foreign trade. Little took up residence in Chongqing and built Leechuan , to tackle the gorges in 1898. In March Leechuan completed the upriver journey to Chongqing but not without the assistance of trackers. Leechuan was not designed for cargo or passengers and if Little wanted to take his vision one step further, he required an expert pilot. [ 67 ] In 1898, Little persuaded Captain Samuel Cornell Plant to come out to China to lend his expertise. Captain Plant had just completed navigation of Persia 's Upper Karun River and took up Little's offer to assess the Upper Yangtze on Leechuan at the end of 1898. With Plant's design input, Little had SS Pioneer built with Plant in command. In June 1900, Plant was the first to successfully pilot a merchant steamer on the Upper Yangtze from Yichang to Chongqing. Pioneer was sold to Royal Navy after its first run due to threat from the Boxer Rebellion and renamed HMS Kinsha . Germany's steamship effort that same year on SS Suixing ended in catastrophe. On Suixing's maiden voyage, the vessel hit a rock and sunk, killing its captain and ending realistic hopes of regular commercial steam service on the Upper Yangtze. In 1908, local Sichuan merchants and their government partnered with Captain Plant to form Sichuan Steam Navigation Company becoming the first successful service between Yichang and Chongqing. Captain Plant designed and commanded its two ships, SS Shutung and SS Shuhun . Other Chinese vessels came onto the run and by 1915, foreign ships expressed their interest too. Plant was appointed by Chinese Maritime Customs Service as First Senior River Inspector in 1915. In this role, Plant installed navigational marks and established signaling systems. He also wrote Handbook for the Guidance of Shipmasters on the Ichang-Chungking Section of the Yangtze River , a detailed and illustrated account of the Upper Yangtze's currents, rocks, and other hazards with navigational instruction. Plant trained hundreds of Chinese and foreign pilots and issued licenses and worked with the Chinese government to make the river safer in 1917 by removing some of the most difficult obstacles and threats with explosives. In August 1917, British Asiatic Petroleum became the first foreign merchant steamship on the Upper Yangtze. Commercial firms, Robert Dollar Company, Jardine Matheson , Butterfield and Swire and Standard Oil added their own steamers on the river between 1917 and 1919. Between 1918 and 1919, Sichuan warlord violence and escalating civil war put Sichuan Steam Navigational Company out of business. [ 68 ] Shutung was commandeered by warlords and Shuhun was brought down river to Shanghai for safekeeping. [ 69 ] In 1921, when Captain Plant died at sea while returning home to England, a Plant Memorial Fund was established to perpetuate Plant's name and contributions to Upper Yangtze navigation. The largest shipping companies in service, Butterfield & Swire, Jardine Matheson, Standard Oil, Mackenzie & Co., Asiatic Petroleum, Robert Dollar, China Merchants S.N. Co. and British-American Tobacco Co., contributed alongside international friends and Chinese pilots. In 1924, a 50-foot granite pyramidal obelisk was erected in Xintan, on the site of Captain Plant's home, in a Chinese community of pilots and junk owners. One face of the monument is inscribed in Chinese and another in English. Though recently relocated to higher ground ahead of the Three Gorges Dam, the monument still stands overlooking the Upper Yangtze River near Yichang, a rare collective tribute to a westerner in China. [ 70 ] [ 71 ] Standard Oil ran the tankers Mei Ping, Mei An and Mei Hsia, which were collectively destroyed on December 12, 1937, when Japanese warplanes bombed and sank the U.S.S. Panay. One of the Standard Oil captains who survived this attack had served on the Upper River for 14 years. [ 72 ] Navy ships Contemporary events Chinese Communist Party chairman Mao Zedong took staged swims in the river in 1956 and 1966 at Wuhan in publicity stunts to demonstrate his health, also starting a swimming craze through party propaganda. [ 73 ] [ 74 ] In 2002, Danish adventurer and sailor Troels Kløvedal sailed up the Yangtze, from Shanghai to past the Three Gorges Dam, in the collectively owned "Nordkaperen" sailing ship . Kløvedal had spent 12 years preparing and gathering the required permissions, and with a crew of Danes, his family members, a Chinese interpreter and several local maritime pilots , he became the first foreigner since 1949 to navigate the Yangtze. [ 75 ] His months-long journey was documented both in his 2004 book "Kineserne syr med lang tråd" and the TV show "Kløvedal i Kina" by DR . [ 76 ] The Jetour Zongheng G700 became the first vehicle in history to successfully cross the Yangtze. The crossing took place on October 16, 2025 and took 22 minutes to complete. [ 77 ] Hydrology Periodic floods Tens of millions of people live in the floodplain of the Yangtze valley, an area that naturally floods every summer and is habitable only because it is protected by river dikes. The floods large enough to overflow the dikes have caused great distress to those who live and farm there. Floods of note include those of 1931, 1954, and 1998. The 1931 Central China floods or the Central China floods of 1931 were a series of floods that are generally considered among the deadliest natural disasters ever recorded, and almost certainly the deadliest of the 20th century (when pandemics and famines are discounted). Estimates of the total death toll range from 145,000 to between 3.7 million and 4 million. [ 78 ] [ 79 ] The Yangtze flooded again in 1935 , causing great loss of life. From June to September 1954, the Yangtze River Floods were a series of catastrophic floodings that occurred mostly in Hubei Province. Due to unusually high volume of precipitation as well as an extraordinarily long rainy season in the middle stretch of the Yangtze River late in the spring of 1954, the river started to rise above its usual level in around late June. Despite efforts to open three important flood gates to alleviate the rising water by diverting it, the flood level continued to rise until it hit the historic high of 44.67 m in Jingzhou, Hubei and 29.73 m in Wuhan. The number of dead from this flood was estimated at 33,000, including those who died of plague in the aftermath of the disaster. The 1998 Yangtze River floods were a series of major floods that lasted from middle of June to the beginning of September 1998 along the Yangtze. [ 80 ] In the summer of 1998, China experienced massive flooding of parts of the Yangtze River , resulting in 3,704 dead, 15 million homeless and $26 billion in economic loss. [ 81 ] Other sources report a total loss of 4150 people, and 180 million people were affected. [ 82 ] A staggering 25 million acres (100,000 km 2 ) were evacuated, 13.3 million houses were damaged or destroyed. The floods caused $26 billion in damages. [ 82 ] The 2016 China floods caused US$22 billion in damages. In 2020, the Yangtze river saw the heaviest rainfall since 1961, with a 79% increase in June and July compared to the average for the period over the previous 41 years. A new theory suggested that abrupt reduction in emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols, caused by shutdowns during the COVID-19 pandemic, was a key cause of the intense downpours. Over the past decades rainfall had decreased due to increase of aerosols in the atmosphere, and lower greenhouse gas emissions in 2020 caused the opposite effect – a major increase in rain. Such a dramatic reduction of aerosols caused a dramatic change in the various components of the climate system, but such sudden change of the climate system would be very different from changes in response to continuous but gradual policy-driven emissions reductions. [ 83 ] Degradation of the river Beginning in the 1950s, dams and dikes were built for flood control, land reclamation, irrigation, and control of diseases vectors such as blood flukes that caused Schistosomiasis . More than a hundred lakes were thusly cut off from the main river. [ 84 ] There were gates between the lakes that could be opened during floods. However, farmers and settlements encroached on the land next to the lakes although it was forbidden to settle there. When floods came, it proved impossible to open the gates since it would have caused substantial destruction. [ 85 ] Thus the lakes partially or completely dried up. For example, Baidang Lake shrunk from 100 square kilometers (39 sq mi) in the 1950s to 40 square kilometers (15 sq mi) in 2005. Zhangdu Lake dwindled to one quarter of its original size. Natural fisheries output in the two lakes declined sharply. Only a few large lakes, such as Poyang Lake and Dongting Lake , remained connected to the Yangtze. Cutting off the other lakes that had served as natural buffers for floods increased the damage done by floods further downstream. Furthermore, the natural flow of migratory fish was obstructed and biodiversity across the whole basin decreased dramatically. Intensive farming of fish in ponds spread using one type of carp who thrived in eutrophic water conditions and who feeds on algae, causing widespread pollution. The pollution was exacerbated by the discharge of waste from pig farms as well as of untreated industrial and municipal sewage. [ 84 ] [ 86 ] In September 2012, the Yangtze river near Chongqing turned red from pollution. [ 87 ] The erection of the Three Gorges Dam has created an impassable "iron barrier" that has led to a great reduction in the biodiversity of the river. Yangtze sturgeon use seasonal changes in the flow of the river to signal when is it time to migrate. However, these seasonal changes will be greatly reduced by dams and diversions. Other animals facing immediate threat of extinction are the baiji dolphin , narrow-ridged finless porpoise and the Yangtze alligator . These animals numbers went into freefall from the combined effects of accidental catches during fishing, river traffic, habitat loss and pollution. In 2006 the baiji dolphin became extinct; the world lost an entire genus. [ 88 ] In 2020, a sweeping law was passed by the Chinese government to protect the ecology of the river. The new laws include strengthening ecological protection rules for hydropower projects along the river, banning chemical plants within 1 kilometer of the river, relocating polluting industries, severely restricting sand mining as well as a complete fishing ban on all the natural waterways of the river, including all its major tributaries and lakes. [ 89 ] Contribution to ocean pollution The Yangtze River produces more ocean plastic pollution than any other, according to The Ocean Cleanup , a Dutch environmental research foundation that focuses on ocean pollution . Ten rivers transport 90% of all the plastic that reaches the oceans, with the Yangtze River being the biggest polluter. [ 90 ] [ 91 ] Reconnecting lakes In 2002 a pilot program was initiated to reconnect lakes to the Yangtze with the objective to increase biodiversity and to alleviate flooding. The first lakes to be reconnected in 2004 were Zhangdu Lake , Honghu Lake , and Tian'e-Zhou in Hubei on the middle Yangtze. In 2005, Baidang Lake in Anhui was also reconnected. [ 86 ] Reconnecting the lakes improved water quality and fish were able to migrate from the river into the lake, replenishing their numbers and genetic stock. The trial also showed that reconnecting the lake reduced flooding. The new approach also benefitted the farmers economically. Pond farmers switched to natural fish feed, which helped them breed better-quality fish that can be sold for more, increasing their income by 30%. Based on the successful pilot project, other provincial governments emulated the experience and also reestablished connections to lakes that had previously been cut off from the river. In 2005 a Yangtze Forum has been established bringing together 13 riparian provincial governments to manage the river from source to sea. [ 92 ] In 2006 China's Ministry of Agriculture made it a national policy to reconnect the Yangtze River with its lakes. As of 2010, provincial governments in five provinces and Shanghai set up a network of 40 effective protected areas, covering 16,500 km 2 (6,400 sq mi). As a result, populations of 47 threatened species increased, including the critically endangered Yangtze alligator. In the Shanghai area, reestablished wetlands now protect drinking water sources for the city. It is envisaged to extend the network throughout the entire Yangtze to eventually cover 102 areas and 185,000 km 2 (71,000 sq mi). The mayor of Wuhan announced that six huge, stagnating urban lakes including the East Lake (Wuhan) would be reconnected at the cost of US$2.3 billion creating China's largest urban wetland landscape. [ 84 ] [ 93 ] Discharge The Yangtze River is the longest and most economically important river in Asia and the fifth largest in the world in terms of flow. It is also the largest river entirely within a single country. Its estuary had an estimated annual flow of 995.8 km 3 /a (31,550 m 3 /s) between 1955 and 2021. The last gauging station on the river is at Datong ( 30°50′57.9192″N 117°43′47.4096″E / 30.849422000°N 117.729836000°E / 30.849422000; 117.729836000 ). At this location, the water flow is regularly monitored. The chart below is based on average flows between 1950 and 2020. [ 1 ] [ 94 ] [ 2 ] .mw-parser-output .bar-chart{margin:0.5em;background-color:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid #c0c0c0;border-spacing:0px}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart tbody{display:table;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart caption{display:block;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart th,.mw-parser-output .bar-chart td{padding:3px;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart tr:not(:first-child):hover{background-color:var(--background-color-base,#ffffff)}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart th[scope="col"]:not(.bar-chart-label-type){width:15em}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart th[scope="row"]:not(.bar-chart-total){font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart-bar{height:1.25em;width:40em}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart-bar-line{background-color:#cedff2;height:1.25em;margin:0 0 0 0;z-index:0}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart-bar-comment{font-size:90%;padding-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart-bar-numbers{position:relative;top:-1.4em;height:1.25em;padding:0 0 0 2em;z-index:10;width:40em}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart-caption{border-top:1px solid #aaa}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .bar-chart-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart-right{float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart-center{margin:0.5em auto}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .bar-chart-bar-line{background-color:#74497e}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .bar-chart-bar-line{background-color:#74497e}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .bar-chart-bar-line{border:dashed 1pt grey}} Year Average discharge (m 3 /s) 1950 30,880 1951 26,167 1952 33,456 1953 28,272 1954 43,062 1955 29,215 1956 26,388 1957 25,696 1958 26,860 1959 24,500 1960 24,282 1961 27,800 1962 29,403 1963 27,455 1964 32,513 1965 27,581 1966 24,376 1967 27,675 1968 29,340 1969 27,518 1970 31,100 Year Average discharge (m 3 /s) 1971 22,680 1972 22,021 1973 33,706 1974 26,450 1975 31,444 1976 26,262 1977 28,617 1978 21,415 1979 22,962 1980 32,065 1981 28,340 1982 30,737 1983 35,822 1984 28,178 1985 26,591 1986 23,190 1987 27,342 1988 27,596 1989 31,093 1990 27,430 Year Average discharge (m 3 /s) 1991 28,813 1992 25,325 1993 31,516 1994 24,697 1995 31,672 1996 30,133 1997 24,602 1998 45,970 1999 34,752 2000 28,908 2001 23,064 2002 32,489 2003 28,593 2004 23,283 2005 33,589 2006 17,376 2007 22,497 2008 25,640 2009 23,032 2010 37,266 2011 15,962 2012 36,386 2013 23,220 2014 29,567 2015 30,824 2016 33,878 2017 30,186 2018 21,150 2019 29,163 2020 34,763 Major cities along the river Qinghai Yushu Yushu Sichuan Panzhihua Yibin Luzhou Hejiang Panzhihua Yibin Luzhou Hejiang Hejiang Chongqing Fuling Fengdu Wanzhou Fuling Fengdu Wanzhou Hubei Yichang Yidu Jingzhou Shashi Shishou Xianning Wuhan Ezhou Huangshi Huanggang Yichang Yidu Yidu Jingzhou Shashi Shishou Shashi Shishou Xianning Wuhan Ezhou Huangshi Huanggang Hunan Yueyang Yueyang Anhui Chizhou Chizhou Jiangxi Jiujiang Jiujiang Anhui Anqing Tongling Wuhu Ma'anshan Anqing Tongling Wuhu Ma'anshan Jiangsu Nanjing Yangzhou Zhenjiang Taizhou Changzhou Nantong Nanjing Yangzhou Zhenjiang Taizhou Changzhou Nantong Shanghai Enters East China Sea Crossings Download coordinates as KML Download coordinates as: KML GPX (all coordinates) GPX (primary coordinates) GPX (secondary coordinates) Until 1957, there were no bridges across the Yangtze River from Yibin to Shanghai. For millennia, travelers crossed the river by ferry. On occasions, the crossing may have been dangerous, as evidenced by the Zhong'anlun disaster (October 15, 1945). The river stood as a major geographic barrier dividing northern and southern China. In the first half of the 20th century, rail passengers from Beijing to Guangzhou and Shanghai had to disembark, respectively, at Hanyang and Pukou , and cross the river by steam ferry before resuming journeys by train from Wuchang or Nanjing West . After the founding of the People's Republic in 1949, Soviet engineers assisted in the design and construction of the Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge , a dual-use road-rail bridge , built from 1955 to 1957. It was the first bridge across the Yangtze River. The second bridge across the river that was built was a single-track railway bridge built upstream in Chongqing in 1959. The Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge , also a road-rail bridge, was the first bridge to cross the lower reaches of the Yangtze, in Nanjing . It was built after the Sino-Soviet Split and did not receive foreign assistance. Road-rail bridges were then built in Zhicheng (1971) and Chongqing (1980). Bridge-building slowed in the 1980s before resuming in the 1990s and accelerating in the first decade of the 21st century. The Jiujiang Yangtze River Bridge was built in 1992 as part of the Beijing-Jiujiang Railway . A second bridge in Wuhan was completed in 1995. By 2005, there were a total of 56 bridges and one tunnel across the Yangtze River between Yibin and Shanghai. These include some of the longest suspension and cable-stayed bridges in the world on the Yangtze Delta: Jiangyin Suspension Bridge (1,385 m, opened in 1999), Runyang Bridge (1,490 m, opened 2005), Sutong Bridge (1,088 m, opened 2008). The rapid pace of bridge construction has continued. The city of Wuhan now has six bridges and one tunnel across the Yangtze. A number of power line crossings have also been built across the river. Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge , the first bridge crossing Yangtze, was completed in 1957. The Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge , a beam bridge, was completed in 1968. The Jiujiang Yangtze River Bridge , an arch bridge, was completed in 1992. The Yichang Yangtze Highway Bridge , a suspension bridge near the Gezhouba Dam lock, was completed in 1996. The Sutong Yangtze River Bridge , between Nantong and Suzhou , was one of the longest cable-stayed bridges in the world when it was completed in 2008. The Chaotianmen Bridge , an arch bridge in Chongqing, was completed in 2009. The Yangsigang Yangtze River Bridge in Wuhan , was completed in 2019. Wuhan Metro Line 2 is the first underground rail line crossing the Yangtze River. Dams As of 2007, there are two dams built on the Yangtze River: Three Gorges Dam and Gezhouba Dam . The Three Gorges Dam is the largest power station in the world by installed capacity, at 22.5 GW. Several dams are operating or are being constructed on the upper portion of the river, the Jinsha River . Among them, the Baihetan Dam is the second largest after the Three Gorges Dam, and the Xiluodu Dam is the 4th largest power station in the world. Tributaries The Yangtze River has over 700 tributaries . The major tributaries (listed from upstream to downstream) with the locations of where they join the Yangtze are: Yalong River ( Panzhihua , Sichuan) Min River ( Yibin , Sichuan) Tuo River ( Luzhou , Sichuan) Chishui River ( Hejiang , Sichuan) Jialing River ( Chongqing ) Wu River ( Fuling , Chongqing) Qing River ( Yidu , Hubei) Yuan River (via Dongting Lake ) Lishui River (via Dongting Lake ) Zi River (via Dongting Lake ) Xiang River ( Yueyang , Hunan) Han River ( Wuhan , Hubei) Gan River (near Jiujiang , Jiangxi) Shuiyang River ( Dangtu , Anhui) Qingyi River ( Wuhu , Anhui) Chao Lake water system ( Chaohu , Anhui) Lake Tai water system (Shanghai) The Huai River flowed into the Yellow Sea until the 20th century, but now primarily discharges into the Yangtze. Gan River in Jiangxi Han River in Hubei Lake Dongting and the Yuan , Zi , Li , and Xiang Rivers in Hunan Wu River in Guizhou Jialing River in eastern Sichuan and Chongqing Municipality Min River in central Sichuan Yalong River in western Sichuan Protected areas Sanjiangyuan ("Three Rivers' Sources") National Nature Reserve in Qinghai Three Parallel Rivers of Yunnan Wildlife The Yangtze River has a high species richness , including many endemics . A high percentage of these are seriously threatened by human activities. [ 95 ] Fish As of 2011 [update] , 416 fish species are known from the Yangtze basin , including 362 that strictly are freshwater species. The remaining are also known from salt or brackish waters, such as the river's estuary or the East China Sea . This makes it one of the most species-rich rivers in Asia and by far the most species-rich in China (in comparison, the Pearl River has almost 300 fish species and the Yellow River 160). [ 95 ] 178 fish species are endemic to the Yangtze River Basin. [ 95 ] Many are only found in some section of the river basin and especially the upper reach (above Yichang , but below the headwaters in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau ) is rich with 279 species, including 147 Yangtze endemics and 97 strict endemics (found only in this part of the basin). In contrast, the headwaters, where the average altitude is above 4,500 m (14,800 ft), are only home to 14 highly specialized species, but 8 of these are endemic to the river. [ 95 ] The largest orders in the Yangtze are Cypriniformes (280 species, including 150 endemics), Siluriformes (40 species, including 20 endemics), Perciformes (50 species, including 4 endemics), Tetraodontiformes (12 species, including 1 endemic) and Osmeriformes (8 species, including 1 endemic). No other order has more than four species in the river and one endemic. [ 95 ] Many Yangtze fish species have declined drastically and 65 were recognized as threatened in the 2009 Chinese red list . [ 96 ] Among these are three that are considered entirely extinct ( Chinese paddlefish , Anabarilius liui liui and Atrilinea macrolepis ), two that are extinct in the wild ( Anabarilius polylepis , Schizothorax parvus ), four that are critically endangered Euchiloglanis kishinouyei , Megalobrama elongata , Schizothorax longibarbus and Leiocassis longibarbus ). [ 96 ] [ 97 ] Additionally, both the Yangtze sturgeon and Chinese sturgeon are considered critically endangered by the IUCN . The survival of these two sturgeon may rely on the continued release of captive bred specimens. [ 98 ] [ 99 ] Although still listed as critically endangered rather than extinct by both the Chinese red list and IUCN, recent reviews have found that the Chinese paddlefish is extinct. [ 100 ] [ 101 ] Surveys conducted between 2006 and 2008 by ichthyologists failed to catch any, but two probable specimens were recorded with hydroacoustic signals. [ 102 ] The last definite record was an individual that was accidentally captured near Yibin in 2003 and released after having been radio tagged . [ 97 ] The Chinese sturgeon is the largest fish in the river and among the largest freshwater fish in the world, reaching a length of 5 m (16 ft); the extinct Chinese paddlefish reputedly reached as much as 7 m (23 ft), but its maximum size is labeled with considerable uncertainty. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] [ 105 ] The largest threats to the Yangtze native fish are overfishing and habitat loss (such as building of dams and land reclamation ), but pollution, destructive fishing practices (such as fishing with dynamite or poison) and introduced species also cause problems. [ 95 ] About 2 ⁄ 3 of the total freshwater fisheries in China are in the Yangtze Basin, [ 106 ] but a drastic decline in size of several important species has been recorded, as highlighted by data from lakes in the river basin. [ 95 ] In 2015, some experts recommend a 10-year fishing moratorium to allow the remaining populations to recover, [ 107 ] and in January 2020 China imposed a 10-year fishing moratorium on 332 sites along the Yangtze. [ 108 ] Dams present another serious problem, as several species in the river perform breeding migrations and most of these are non-jumpers, meaning that normal fish ladders designed for salmon are ineffective. [ 95 ] For example, the Gezhouba Dam blocked the migration of the paddlerfish and two sturgeon, [ 98 ] [ 99 ] [ 104 ] while also effectively splitting the Chinese high fin banded shark population into two [ 109 ] and causing the extirpation of the Yangtze population of the Japanese eel . [ 110 ] In an attempt of minimizing the effect of the dams, the Three Gorges Dam has released water to mimic the (pre-dam) natural flooding and trigger the breeding of carp species downstream. [ 111 ] In addition to dams already built in the Yangtze basin, several large dams are planned and these may present further problems for the native fauna. [ 111 ] While many fish species native to the Yangtze are seriously threatened, others have become important in fish farming and introduced widely outside their native range. A total of 26 native fish species of the Yangtze basin are farmed. [ 107 ] Among the most important are four Asian carp : grass carp , black carp , silver carp and bighead carp . Other species that support important fisheries include northern snakehead , Chinese perch , Takifugu pufferfish (mainly in the lowermost sections) and predatory carp . [ 95 ] Other animals Due to commercial use of the river, tourism, and pollution, the Yangtze is home to several seriously threatened species of large animals (in addition to fish): the narrow-ridged finless porpoise , baiji (Yangtze river dolphin), Chinese alligator , Yangtze giant softshell turtle and Chinese giant salamander . This is the only other place besides the United States that is native to an alligator and paddlefish species. In 2010, the Yangtze population of finless porpoise was 1000 individuals. In December 2006, the Yangtze river dolphin was declared functionally extinct after an extensive search of the river revealed no signs of the dolphin's inhabitance. [ 113 ] In 2007, a large, white animal was sighted and photographed in the lower Yangtze and was tentatively presumed to be a baiji . [ 114 ] However, as there have been no confirmed sightings since 2004, the baiji is presumed to be functionally extinct at this time. [ 115 ] "Baijis were the last surviving species of a large lineage dating back seventy million years and one of only six species of freshwater dolphins." It has been argued that the extinction of the Yangtze river dolphin was a result of the completion of the Three Gorges Dam, a project that has affected many species of animals and plant life found only in the gorges area. [ 116 ] Numerous species of land mammals are found in the Yangtze valley, but most of these are not directly associated with the river. Three exceptions are the semi-aquatic Eurasian otter , water deer and Père David's deer . [ 117 ] In addition to the very large and exceptionally rare Yangtze giant softshell turtle, several smaller turtle species are found in the Yangtze basin, its delta and valleys. These include the Chinese box turtle , yellow-headed box turtle , Pan's box turtle , Yunnan box turtle , yellow pond turtle , Chinese pond turtle , Chinese stripe-necked turtle and Chinese softshell turtle , which all are considered threatened. [ 119 ] More than 160 amphibian species are known from the Yangtze basin, including the world's largest, the critically endangered Chinese giant salamander. [ 120 ] It has declined drastically due to hunting (it is considered a delicacy ), habitat loss and pollution. [ 118 ] The polluted Dian Lake , which is part of the upper Yangtze watershed (via Pudu River ), is home to several highly threatened fish, but was also home to the Yunnan lake newt . This newt has not been seen since 1979 and is considered extinct. [ 121 ] [ 122 ] In contrast, the Chinese fire belly newt from the lower Yangtze basin is one of the few Chinese salamander species to remain common and it is considered least concern by the IUCN. [ 122 ] [ 123 ] [ 124 ] The Yangtze basin contains a large number of freshwater crab species, including several endemics. [ 127 ] A particularly rich genus in the river basin is the potamid Sinopotamon . [ 128 ] The Chinese mitten crab is catadromous (migrates between fresh and saltwater) and it has been recorded up to 1,400 km (870 mi) up the Yangtze, which is the largest river in its native range. [ 126 ] It is a commercially important species in its native range where it is farmed, [ 125 ] but the Chinese mitten crab has also been spread to Europe and North America where considered invasive . [ 126 ] The freshwater jellyfish Craspedacusta sowerbii , now an invasive species in large parts of the world, originates from the Yangtze. [ 129 ] Tourism The Yangtze River cruise , also called the "Three Gorges cruise", is a popular tourist attraction. [ 130 ] Gallery The glaciers of the Tanggula Mountains , the traditional source of the Yangtze River The Tuotuo River , a headwater stream of the Yangtze River, known in Tibetan as Maqu, or the "Red River" The first turn of the Yangtze at Shigu (石鼓) in Yunnan , where the river turns 180 degrees from southbound to northbound Tiger Leaping Gorge in Yunnan Narrowest point of the Tiger Leaping Gorge near Lijiang , downstream from Shigu The Jinsha , "Golden Sands River", in Yunnan Qutang Gorge, one of the Three Gorges Wu Gorge, one of the Three Gorges Xiling Gorge, one of the Three Gorges Three Gorges Dam in Hubei , the world's largest hydroelectric project Golden Island on the Yangtze near Zhenjiang in Jiangsu , as it was in the mid-19th century [ 131 ] See also Category: Tributaries of the Yangtze River List of direct tributaries of the Yangtze by size List of rivers in China List of most-polluted rivers Northern and Southern China , traditionally divided by the Huai River but sometimes considered to separate at the Yangtze Rediscovering the Yangtze River Ship lifts in China South-North Water Transfer Project Yangtze River Crossing Yangtze Service Medal Zhangjinggao Yangtze River Bridge Notes References ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Jinyou, Lu; Yonghui, Zhu; Zhongwu, Jin; Xiaohu, Guo; Chao, Guo; Peng, Chen; Yanjun, Wang; Chengwei, Hu; Yuan, Yuan (2023). 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December 13, 2006. Archived from the original on January 4, 2007 . Retrieved December 13, 2006 . ^ "Sciencemode.com – Home page" . Archived from the original on December 21, 2007. ^ Rare river dolphin 'now extinct' Archived August 28, 2012, at the Wayback Machine . BBC News. ^ Ellen Wohl, [A World of Rivers: Environmental Changes on Ten of the World's Great Rivers], p.287. ^ Smith, A.T.; and Xie, Y. (2008). A Guide to the Mammals of China . Princeton University Press, New Jersey. ISBN 978-0-691-09984-2 ^ a b AmphibiaWeb (2013). Andrias davidianus. Archived September 27, 2011, at the Wayback Machine Retrieved November 13, 2015. ^ van Dijk, P.P.; Iverson, J.B.; Rhodin, A.G.J.; Shaffer, H.B.; and Bour, R. (2014). Turtles of the World, 7th Edition: Annotated Checklist of Taxonomy, Synonymy, Distribution with Maps, and Conservation Status. Archived July 15, 2014, at the Wayback Machine IUCN/SSC Turtle Taxonomy Working Group . ^ WWF Global: Yangtze River. Archived December 10, 2017, at the Wayback Machine Retrieved November 12, 2015. ^ IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group (2020). " Cynops wolterstorffi " . IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2020 e.T59445A63869216. doi : 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T59445A63869216.en . Retrieved November 12, 2021 . ^ a b Stuart, S.; Hoffman, M.; Chanson, J.; Cox, N.; Berridge, R.; Ramani, P., and Young, B. (2008). Threatened Amphibians of the World . Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. ISBN 978-84-96553-41-5 ^ IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group (2020). " Cynops orientalis " . IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2020 e.T59442A63868627. doi : 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-1.RLTS.T59442A63868627.en . Retrieved November 12, 2021 . ^ AmphibiaWeb (2008). Cynops orientalis . Archived October 25, 2010, at the Wayback Machine Retrieved November 12, 2015. ^ a b Wang, H.-Z.; Wang, H.-J.; Liang, X.-M.; Cui, Y.-D. (2003). "Stocking models of Chinese mitten crab (Eriocheir japonica sinensis) in Yangtze lakes" . Aquaculture . 255 (1): 456– 465. doi : 10.1016/j.aquaculture.2006.01.005 . Archived from the original on March 18, 2020. ^ a b c Veilleux, É; and de Lafontaine, Y. (2007). Biological Synopsis of the Chinese Mitten Crab (Eriocheir sinensis) . Canadian Manuscript Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 2812. ^ Neil Cumberlidge, N.; Ng, P.K.L.; Yeo, D.C.J.; Naruse, T.; Meyer, K.S.; Esser, L.J. (2011). "Diversity, endemism and conservation of the freshwater crabs of China (Brachyura: Potamidae and Gecarcinucidae)" . Integrative Zoology . 6 (1): 45– 55. doi : 10.1111/j.1749-4877.2010.00228.x . PMID 21392361 . ^ Fang, F.; Sun, H.; Zhao, Q.; Lin, C.; Sun, Y.; Gao, W.; Xu, J.; Zhou, J.; Ge, F.; Liu, N. (2013). "Patterns of diversity, areas of endemism, and multiple glacial refuges for freshwater crabs of the genus Sinopotamon in China (Decapoda: Brachyura: Potamidae)" . PLOS ONE . 8 (1) e53143. Bibcode : 2013PLoSO...853143F . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0053143 . PMC 3537761 . PMID 23308152 . ^ Didžiulis, Viktoras. "NOBANIS – Invasive Alien Species Fact Sheet – Craspedacusta sowerbyi " (PDF) . Archived (PDF) from the original on May 17, 2014 . Retrieved September 28, 2016 . ^ "Three Gorges Cruise: Sailing China Yangtze River Three Gorges" . www.yangtze-river-cruises.com . Retrieved May 19, 2024 . ^ London Missionary Society (1869). Fruits of Toil in the London Missionary Society . London: John Snow & Co. p. 64. Archived from the original on March 31, 2019 . Retrieved September 12, 2016 . Further reading Carles, William Richard, "The Yangtse Chiang" , The Geographical Journal , Vol. 12, No. 3 (Sep. 1898), pp. 225–240; Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of The Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers) Danielson, Eric N. 2004. Nanjing and the Lower Yangzi, From Past to Present, The New Yangzi River Trilogy, Vol. II . Singapore: Times Editions/Marshall Cavendish. ISBN 981-232-598-0 . Danielson, Eric N. 2005. The Three Gorges and The Upper Yangzi, From Past to Present, The New Yangzi River Trilogy, Vol. III . Singapore: Times Editions/Marshall Cavendish. ISBN 981-232-599-9 . Grover, David H. 1992 American Merchant Ships on the Yangtze, 1920–1941 . Wesport, Conn.: Praeger Publishers. Van Slyke, Lyman P. 1988. Yangtze: nature, history, and the river . A Portable Stanford Book. ISBN 0-201-08894-0 Winchester, Simon . 1996. The River at the Center of the World: A Journey Up the Yangtze and Back in Chinese Time , Holt, Henry & Company, 1996, hardcover, ISBN 0-8050-3888-4 ; trade paperback, Owl Publishing, 1997, ISBN 0-8050-5508-8 ; trade paperback, St. Martins, 2004, 432 pages, ISBN 0-312-42337-3 Plant, Cornell. Glimpses of the Yangze Gorges ; illustrations by Ivon A. Donnelly. Kelly & Walsh, Limited, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Singapore, 1926. External links Geographic data related to Yangtze at OpenStreetMap Video of walking along the Yangtze River in Yichang City, Hubei Province .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Major rivers of China v t e Yangtze system Tuotuo Dangqu Chumar Tongtian Jinsha Yalong Baishui Min Dadu Qingyi (Sichuan) Tuo Qi (Chongqing) Jialing Bailong Fu (Sichuan) Qu Wu Qingshui Hanshui Muma Chi Du Bao Qing Chishui Xiang Xiao Lei Qi (Hunan) Mi Zi Yuan Lishui Miluo Gan Fu (Jiangxi) Xin Qingyi (Anhui) Qinhuai Xitiao Huangpu Suzhou Creek Tuotuo Dangqu Chumar Tongtian Jinsha Yalong Baishui Min Dadu Qingyi (Sichuan) Dadu Qingyi (Sichuan) Tuo Qi (Chongqing) Jialing Bailong Fu (Sichuan) Qu Bailong Fu (Sichuan) Qu Wu Qingshui Qingshui Hanshui Muma Chi Du Bao Qing Chishui Xiang Xiao Lei Qi (Hunan) Mi Xiao Lei Qi (Hunan) Mi Zi Yuan Lishui Miluo Gan Fu (Jiangxi) Xin Qingyi (Anhui) Qinhuai Xitiao Huangpu Suzhou Creek Suzhou Creek Yellow system Kariqu Yuegu Zonglie Daxia Tao Huangshui Datong Wuding Fen Wei Jing Luo (Shaanxi) Luo (Henan) Qin Muwen Dawen Kariqu Yuegu Zonglie Daxia Tao Huangshui Datong Datong Wuding Fen Wei Jing Luo (Shaanxi) Jing Luo (Shaanxi) Luo (Henan) Qin Muwen Dawen Dawen Pearl system North East West Yujiang Yong Xun Qian Hongshui Nanpan Beipan Rong Li (Guangxi) Gui Liu North East West Yujiang Yong Xun Qian Hongshui Nanpan Beipan Rong Li (Guangxi) Gui Liu Heilongjiang system Songhua 2nd Songhua Nen Mudan Ussuri Argun Kherlen Woken Huifa Songhua 2nd Songhua Nen Mudan Ussuri Argun Kherlen Woken Huifa Huai system Guo Ying Shiguan Quan Hui Hong [all flow into Yangtze] Guo Ying Shiguan Quan Hui Hong [all flow into Yangtze] Hai system Chaobai Yongding Hutuo Ziya Daqing Wenyu Juma Sanggan Fuyang Wei Ju Jiyunhe Chaobai Yongding Hutuo Ziya Daqing Wenyu Juma Sanggan Fuyang Wei Ju Jiyunhe Liao system Hun Taizi Xar Moron Xinkai Western Liao Eastern Liao Hun Taizi Xar Moron Xinkai Western Liao Eastern Liao Endorheic systems Tarim Ejin Karatash Ili Shule Dang Tarim Ejin Karatash Ili Shule Dang Dang Other major rivers Tumen Yalu Luan Red Minjiang Longjiang Lancang Beilun Nujiang Sengge Zangbo Elephant Spring Yarlung Tsangpo Nyang Subansiri Irtysh Suifen Qiantang Puyang Cao'e Jiao (Shandong) Dai Si Shu Jiao (Zhejiang) Ou Mulan Jin (Fujian) Han (Guangdong) Mei Ting Nandu Changhua Wanquan Taping Xiaoqing Tumen Yalu Luan Red Minjiang Longjiang Lancang Beilun Nujiang Sengge Zangbo Elephant Spring Elephant Spring Yarlung Tsangpo Nyang Subansiri Nyang Subansiri Irtysh Suifen Qiantang Puyang Cao'e Puyang Cao'e Jiao (Shandong) Dai Si Shu Jiao (Zhejiang) Ou Mulan Jin (Fujian) Han (Guangdong) Mei Ting Mei Ting Nandu Changhua Wanquan Taping Xiaoqing Major canals Grand Canal Lingqu North Jiangsu Main Irrigation Canal Eastern Zhejiang Canal Red Flag Zhengguo Grand Canal Lingqu North Jiangsu Main Irrigation Canal Eastern Zhejiang Canal Red Flag Zhengguo v t e Cities along the Yangtze v t e Province-level Cities (from upper reaches to lower reaches) Yunnan Lijiang (Sichuan see below ) Dongchuan Lijiang (Sichuan see below ) Dongchuan Sichuan Panzhihua (Yunnan see above ) Yibin Luzhou Panzhihua (Yunnan see above ) Yibin Luzhou Chongqing Jiangjin Central Chongqing Fuling Wanzhou Jiangjin Central Chongqing Fuling Wanzhou Hubei Yichang Yidu Zhijiang Songzi Jingzhou Shishou (Hunan see below ) Honghu Chibi Wuhan Ezhou Huangshi Huanggang Wuxue Yichang Yidu Zhijiang Songzi Jingzhou Shishou (Hunan see below ) Honghu Chibi Wuhan Ezhou Huangshi Huanggang Wuxue Hunan Yueyang Linxiang Yueyang Linxiang Jiangxi Ruichang Jiujiang Ruichang Jiujiang Anhui Anqing Chizhou Tongling Wuhu Ma'anshan Anqing Chizhou Tongling Wuhu Ma'anshan Jiangsu Nanjing Yizheng Jurong Zhenjiang Yangzhou Taizhou Yangzhong Taixing Danyang Changzhou Jingjiang Jiangyin Zhangjiagang Rugao Nantong Changshu Taicang Haimen Qidong Nanjing Yizheng Jurong Zhenjiang Yangzhou Taizhou Yangzhong Taixing Danyang Changzhou Jingjiang Jiangyin Zhangjiagang Rugao Nantong Changshu Taicang Haimen Qidong Shanghai Baoshan Pudong Baoshan Pudong Major cities along the Pearl River · Major cities along the Yellow River v t e Hydroelectric dams on the Yangtze v t e Liyuan Ahai Jinanqiao Longkaikou Ludila Guanyinyan Wudongde Baihetan Xiluodu Xiangjiaba Three Gorges Gezhouba Liyuan Ahai Jinanqiao Longkaikou Ludila Guanyinyan Wudongde Baihetan Xiluodu Xiangjiaba Three Gorges Gezhouba Category Category Authority control databases International VIAF GND FAST VIAF GND FAST National United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Israel United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Israel Other IdRef NARA Yale LUX IdRef NARA Yale LUX Yangtze River Drainage basins of the Pacific Ocean Geography of Central China Geography of East China Geography of Western China Rivers of Anhui Rivers of Chongqing Rivers of China Rivers of Hubei Rivers of Jiangsu Rivers of Qinghai Rivers of Shanghai Rivers of Sichuan Rivers of Tibet Rivers of Yunnan Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas Pages using the Phonos extension Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Webarchive template wayback links CS1 uses Chinese-language script (zh) CS1 Simplified Chinese-language sources (zh-hans) All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from July 2017 Articles with permanently dead external links Articles containing Mongolian-language text Articles containing Chinese-language text Articles with Latin-language sources (la) CS1: unfit URL Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use American English from November 2021 All Wikipedia articles written in American English Use mdy dates from November 2021 Coordinates on Wikidata Pages with plain IPA Articles containing simplified Chinese-language text Articles containing traditional Chinese-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early life 2 Journalism and non-fiction 3 Fiction Toggle Fiction subsection 3.1 Romantic novels series 3.2 The Rutshire Chronicles 3.3 Little Mabel series 3.1 Romantic novels series 3.2 The Rutshire Chronicles 3.3 Little Mabel series 4 Personal life 5 Death and tributes 6 Honours, awards and recognition 7 Film and television productions Toggle Film and television productions subsection 7.1 Screenwriting and appearances 7.2 Adaptations 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 7.1 Screenwriting and appearances 7.2 Adaptations 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 8 Analysis 9 List of works Toggle List of works subsection 9.1 Fiction 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.2 Non-fiction 9.1 Fiction 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.2 Non-fiction 10 References 11 External links Jilly Cooper العربية Български Cymraeg Deutsch Español فارسی Français کٲشُر مصرى Polski Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska Türkçe Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item Dame Jilly Cooper DBE Cooper in 1974 Born Jill Sallitt ( 1937-02-21 ) 21 February 1937 Hornchurch , Essex, England Died 5 October 2025 (2025-10-05) (aged 88) Gloucester , England Occupation Author Genre Erotic , romance Notable works Rutshire Chronicles Spouse .mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-inline{display:inline} Leo Cooper ( m. 1961; died 2013) Children 2 Website jillycooper .co .uk Dame Jilly Cooper (born Jill Sallitt ; 21 February 1937 – 5 October 2025) was an English author and journalist, best known for her long-running Rutshire Chronicles series. She began her career in journalism and published several works of non-fiction, including books on class, animals and marriage, before turning to fiction. Her first book was How to Stay Married , which was published in 1969. She published several collections of journalism, alongside other non-fiction volumes throughout much of her career. Cooper's first novel to be published was the romance , Emily , which appeared in 1975 and was followed by five more, as well as a volume of short stories. Cooper was also an anthologist and wrote the Little Mabel series of children's books. Cooper went on to become a prominent figure in British popular literature, noted for her witty social commentary and depictions of upper-middle-class life. Her best-known works are the Rutshire Chronicles of which the 1985 novel Riders was the first; it was followed by ten more volumes with the latest installment Tackle! published in 2023. The series is known for its humour, sexuality and depictions of upper-class life; several of the volumes feature the character Rupert Campbell-Black as a key protagonist. Whilst Riders alone sold over one million copies, and her romance novels compared to those of Nancy Mitford and Barbara Cartland , not all reviews were positive. Private Eye lampooned Cooper and gave her the nickname 'Super Cooper', which she later used as a title for one of her own books. Nevertheless Cooper is recognised as one of the key writers of the bonkbuster novel, along with Jackie Collins , Shirley Conran and Judith Krantz . Whilst few academics have analysed her work, those that have, recognise her ability to portray large cast of characters and her focus on pleasure as a literary theme. Academic Ian Patterson compared her to Anthony Trollope and Charles Dickens . In 2025, the Jilly Cooper Prize was established as part of the Comedy Women in Print Awards to honour her contribution to comic fiction. After Cooper's death in the same year, Queen Camilla described her as a "wonderfully witty and compassionate friend". Cooper had received several honours during her lifetime, including that of Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2024 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity. Several of her works were adapted for television and radio, including the second Rutshire Chronicles volume, Rivals , which was adapted by Disney+ and released in 2024. It starred David Tennant and Aidan Turner . Early life Jill Sallitt was born in Hornchurch , Essex, on 21 February 1937 to Mary Elaine ( née Whincup) and Brigadier W. B. Sallitt. [ 1 ] She grew up in Ilkley , Yorkshire, and in Surrey . Cooper was educated at Moorfield School in Ilkley and Godolphin School in Salisbury , Wiltshire. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] She subsequently learnt to type in Oxford. [ 3 ] Journalism and non-fiction Aged 20, Cooper became a junior reporter for The Middlesex Independent , based in Brentford . [ 3 ] She worked for the paper from 1957 to 1959. Subsequently, she worked as an account executive, copywriter , publisher's reader and receptionist . [ 4 ] Her break came with a chance meeting at a dinner party with Godfrey Smith , the editor of The Sunday Times Magazine , who asked her to write a feature about her experiences as a young married woman. [ 4 ] This led to a column in which Cooper wrote about marriage , sex and housework . [ 3 ] That column ran from 1969 to 1982, when she moved to The Mail on Sunday , where she worked as a columnist for a further five years. [ 3 ] In parallel to her journalism, Cooper wrote several humorous and satirical books: her earliest columns led to the publication of her first book, the satirical How to Stay Married , in 1969, which was quickly followed by another satirical guide to working life, How to Survive from Nine to Five , in 1970. [ 5 ] Further satirical works were Men and Super Men , published in 1972, [ 6 ] and Women and Super Women , published in 1974. [ 7 ] The former has mixed reviews, with the Liverpool Daily Post describing the puns as bad, but that Cooper's writing had a "knowing adolescence". [ 6 ] In contrast the Evening Dispatch instructed all its readers to immediately buy it, as a guide to "men and sex". [ 8 ] Women and Super Women was reviewed positively by Clive James in The Observer , [ 9 ] whereas other reviews described the book as cruel (if funny) in its discussions of a wide range of women. [ 7 ] Cooper's journalism was first collected into a single volume, Jolly Super , in 1971. [ 5 ] That collection took its title from the nickname given to Cooper by Private Eye . [ 10 ] A further collection Jolly Super Too was published in 1973. [ 11 ] The Birmingham Evening Mail compared Cooper to Mick McManus as someone the public loved to hate, and stated that the book would deliver "a snigger a minute" to readers. [ 12 ] Jolly Superlative was published in 1975 and largely included pieces from The Sunday Times , but also Vogue , and was praised by The Daily Telegraph for its "limitless comic invention". [ 13 ] In 1977 another collection of journalism, Super Jilly, was reviewed by Clive James in the The Observer as "another breathless year-book by the Sunday Times' head-girl". [ 14 ] The same year How to Stay Married and How to Survive from Nine to Five were republished together in a single volume in 1977 under the revised title How To Survive Work and Wedlock. [ 15 ] The combined volume had mixed reviews from "saucy, but relevant" according to the Sydney Morning Herald , [ 16 ] to the Evening Standard describing how "Women's Lib must hate her insouciant approach to the woman's world". [ 17 ] The theme of class dominated much of her writing and her non-fiction with her work written from an explicitly upper-middle-class British perspective, with emphasis on the relationships between men and women and matters of social class in contemporary Britain. [ 2 ] Upon the publication of 1979's book Class , Ralf Dahrendorf reviewed it for the London Review of Books , describing the work as one where "the characters are fun, the observations acute". [ 18 ] Published in 2000 David Cannadine 's Class in Britain assessed Cooper's book, pointing out that Cooper herself had felt that it did not fully describe the intricacies of the British class system. [ 19 ] Another republication during this period was 1980's Super Cooper , which was a volume of excerpts from her earlier books Men and Super Men and Women and Super Women. [ 20 ] This was described the Sydney Morning Herald as a "brilliant guide to the sexes" and by the Liverpool as a volume "that never disappoints the reader". [ 20 ] [ 21 ] Jolly Marsupial another volume of journalism, this time focussing on Cooper's 1980 tour of Australia to promote the book Class , was published in 1982. [ 22 ] In 1981 Cooper published Intelligent and Loyal , which is a book about mongrels . [ 23 ] In it Cooper created her own humorous typology for mongrels. [ 24 ] To gather stories about mongrels for the book, Cooper put an advert in newspapers asking people to share stories about their pets for the book. [ 23 ] [ 25 ] As a result of the book's success Cooper and her dogs subsequently made public appearances, including on The Animals Roadshow in 1989. [ 26 ] In 1983 she published Animals in War , a book that recorded the contributions a variety of species made to the military. [ 27 ] Public response to the book led to a campaign, supported by Cooper, to establish the Animals in War Memorial . [ 28 ] [ 29 ] Cooper edited an anthology of prose and poetry entitled The British in Love . [ 30 ] With Tom Hartman she also co-edited a dictionary of quotations purely sourced from women entitled Violets and Vinegar . [ 31 ] In 2020, some of her writings on sex and marriage from the 1970s were republished as Between the Covers and praised for their honesty . [ 32 ] Fiction Cooper has been described as "the queen of the bonkbuster ", [ 33 ] however her first novels were romances. [ 34 ] [ 35 ] These were followed by the Rutshire Chronicles series, where dogs and horses featured heavily. [ 36 ] Cooper described the research she undertook for each novel as "like studying for an A-level". [ 37 ] Quoted in the Evening Standard in 1994, Cooper stated that she thought that product placement in literary works was acceptable and discussed how she had received thank you gifts as a result of unsolicited mentions in her novels. [ 38 ] Romantic novels series Cooper was encouraged to write romantic fiction by the editor Desmond Elliott , who had read the short stories she had written previously for teenage magazines. [ 34 ] At the time she was working in publicity for HarperCollins ; Elliott commissioned her with a six-book contract and the paperback rights were subsequently sold to Corgi Books . [ 34 ] The series sold in the 100,000s. [ 34 ] The contract was for Cooper to publish a novel every six months. [ 39 ] The first novel in the series was Emily , which was published in 1975. [ 40 ] Set on a remote Scottish island, its storyline follows Emily who moves to the island after a short courtship and marriage to a volatile artist. [ 41 ] Reviews were complimentary, [ 42 ] [ 43 ] although Auberon Waugh noted similarity between Emily and Devil's Cub by Georgette Heyer . [ 44 ] The work was compared to that of Nancy Mitford and Barbara Cartland . [ 39 ] Emily was followed by Harriet and then Bella , both published in 1976. [ 45 ] [ 46 ] In Harriet , the titular character becomes pregnant whilst at university and subsequently works as a nanny for an irascible screenwriter so she can take the baby with her. [ 47 ] In review, Barbara Cartland disliked the novel. [ 48 ] The novel Bella ' s storyline revolves around an actress whose fiancé is super-wealthy, but his family do not approve of Bella. [ 49 ] The novel mixes romance and mystery, as Bella is kidnapped. [ 49 ] Auberon Waugh praised the emotional engagement of the novel, but The Guardian described disappointment since good jokes were lost in the prose. [ 44 ] [ 50 ] In October 1993, seven years after Private Eye had pointed out the similarities, Cooper admitted that sections of Emily and Bella were plagiarised from The Dud Avocado (1958) by Elaine Dundy , but said that it was not deliberate. [ 51 ] The next novel in the series was Octavia , which was published in 1977, set in Britain during the 1970s. [ 52 ] Reviews were less positive than the previous novels, but Cooper's word-play continued to be praised. [ 53 ] In a review Auberon Waugh expressed frustration with the novel as he felt Cooper could write much better than the text. [ 54 ] Octavia was followed by the novel Prudence , which was set in the Lake District in England during a house party. [ 55 ] [ 56 ] The novel had a mixed reception upon publication, including from one reviewer who hoped it was the last in the series. [ 57 ] In response, Cooper's publisher, Desmond Elliott, wrote to the paper announcing that the next novel, Imogen , was due that same year and it too was likely to be enjoyed by hundreds of thousands of readers. [ 57 ] The final novel in the series is Imogen , which was published in 1978. [ 58 ] At the time of publication, the preceding five novels had sold 340,000 copies. [ 59 ] Set between Yorkshire and the south of France, it follows Imogen as she is seduced by a tennis player, who takes her on holiday, but ultimately falls in love with his best friend. [ 58 ] The novel was mostly received favourably, [ 60 ] although the character of Imogen was described in one review as "spineless". [ 61 ] It is cited as an example in academic texts on a variety of themes, including the allure of the French Riviera for Anglo-American culture, [ 62 ] and a cultural analysis of cohabitation in the 1970s. [ 63 ] Also grouped in the romance series is the short story collection Lisa & Co ; each story is based on some of Cooper's earliest writings for women's magazines in the 1960s. [ 64 ] [ 65 ] In 2017 in her book The Gender Games , transgender writer Juno Dawson described how her obsession with the "ultra-glam" covers of these romances as a child gave her a sense that she was not "very good at being a boy". [ 66 ] The Rutshire Chronicles The best-known of Cooper's works, each book of the Rutshire Chronicles is set in a glamorous and wealthy milieu , such as the worlds of show jumping or classical music . [ 67 ] [ 68 ] These books were noted for the luxurious lifestyles portrayed, the proliferation of animals and their wit. [ 69 ] The first in the series was Riders (1985), an international bestseller, which sold over one million copies. [ 70 ] The first version of Riders was written by 1970, but shortly after Cooper had finished it, she took it with her into the West End of London , but left the manuscript on a bus. The London Evening Standard put out an appeal, but it was never found. She was, she says, "devastated" and it took her more than a decade to start it again. [ 71 ] Set in the world of show-jumping, the novel is the first appearance of Cooper's ongoing central character Rupert Campbell-Black . [ 72 ] The novel centres on his rivalry with fellow show-jumper Jake Lovell and the novel's denouement is set in the Los Angeles Olympics . [ 73 ] The follow-up novel to Riders was Rivals , set in the world of commercial television. [ 74 ] Still featuring Campbell-Black, he joins forces with television presenter Declan O'Hara and other characters to take over the local television station. [ 75 ] [ 76 ] Despite some initial scepticism from her publisher about the setting, [ 77 ] the novel debuted at #2 on the Sunday Times bestseller list for hardback fiction on June 12, 1988. [ 78 ] The next novel in the series was Polo , published in 1991, and was a return to the horse-focussed settings that Cooper became known for. [ 79 ] Cooper researched the book by travelling to Palm Beach and to Argentina, meeting polo players there. [ 80 ] [ 81 ] The novel went to number 1 in the UK hardback bestseller list, on its first entry. [ 82 ] Based on a rivalry between British polo player Ricky France-Lynch and an American millionaire Bart Alderton, the novel follows the teams associated with the two figures as they compete around the world. [ 83 ] It also features Rupert Campbell-Black's illegitimate daughter Perdita as a key protagonist. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] [ 86 ] Following Polo , the next novel in the series was The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous , which followed the life of Lysander Hawkley, a man who rich women employed to encourage their unfaithful husbands to return to their marriages. [ 87 ] It was the first novel to feature Roberto Rannaldini, a conductor and sworn enemy of Rupert Campbell-Black. [ 88 ] The novel received a range of reviews, but was praised for its "plain" heroine and a sub-plot relating to miscarriage. [ 89 ] [ 90 ] The next in the series was Appassionata , which was based in the world of classical music and followed the career of soloist, then conductor, Abigail Rosen. [ 91 ] Cooper spent three years researching the novel and travelled on tour to Spain, twice, with the Royal Scottish National Orchestra (RSNO). [ 91 ] The novel was a bestseller, and a soundtrack to the novel was released in parallel to the book. [ 92 ] [ 93 ] Reviews were mixed, with praise for Cooper's research [ 93 ] balanced by suggestions that the cast of characters was too large and contrived plots. [ 94 ] [ 95 ] Cooper remained largely in the world of classical music for her next novel, Score! , but this time focussing on a production of the opera Don Carlos . [ 86 ] In it Rannaldini is directing a film of the production, but is murdered on set, leading to a police investigation. [ 96 ] The novel was a Number 1 bestseller upon its release. The book received mixed reviews, [ 97 ] [ 86 ] as well as the accusation that at some moments the book seemed to suggest "that the death of a dog is rather more grief-worthy than the death of a human". [ 98 ] Her following novel Pandora was set in the art world, [ 99 ] and followed the Belvedon family of dealers and artists, based in the neighbouring county of Larkshire. [ 100 ] Reviewing the novel in The Observer , Robert Macfarlane described how it depicted and lampooned Britart , conceptual art and the Turner Prize . [ 99 ] This theme was continued by the New Statesman , where a reviewer described one scene where a woman who is raped is also menstruating as "very Jake and Dinos Chapman ". [ 101 ] The next volume in the series was Wicked! which was published in 2006 and was set in a boarding school, going to No. 1 in the fiction charts on its release. [ 102 ] [ 103 ] The novel had mixed reviews with some writers sharing unease at the depictions of teenage sex and romance. [ 104 ] [ 86 ] The Guardian stated that running at over 800 pages, the book needed a thorough edit since it was "as long as Anna Karenina and that, surely, is a mistake". [ 105 ] Returning to the world of horses, the ninth novel Jump! was released in 2010. [ 106 ] It features characters from the Rutshire Chronicles in the world of National Hunt steeplechase racing and tells the transformation of a mutilated horse (Mrs Wilkinson) into a successful racehorse. [ 106 ] After publication, it was revealed that Cooper had named a goat in the book (Chisolm) in order to hit back at the critic Anne Chisholm. [ 107 ] The tenth novel in the series Jump! was set in the world of flat racing . [ 108 ] Whilst Cooper's descriptions of the Cotswolds and her descriptions of racing were praised, some reviewers criticised the characterisation and "depraved and ridiculous" sex scenes. [ 109 ] [ 110 ] [ 111 ] The eleventh book in the series was Tackle! , published in 2023 it was set in the world of football. [ 112 ] It was named by The Week as one of the best novels of 2023. [ 113 ] The novel features Rupert Campbell-Black becoming the director of a local football club, based on Cooper's local side Forest Green Rovers . [ 114 ] [ 115 ] The sexual content of the novel received mixed reviews, with praise for the oral sex featured, but dismay that other scenes felt "lacklustre". [ 116 ] Little Mabel series Cooper also wrote a series of four children's books based on the misadventures of a young mongrel puppy called Mabel. [ 117 ] The Little Mabel series comprised Little Mabel, Little Mabel's Great Escape, Little Mabel Wins and Little Mabel Saves the Day. [ 117 ] When interviewed in 2013 to discuss the inclusion of a new class for mongrels at Crufts , Cooper described her book Little Mabel Wins as "prophetic" since it featured a protest against mongrel discrimination at that dog show. [ 118 ] Two of the books featured in the British children's television series Jackanory , read by Victoria Wood and Liza Goddard . [ 119 ] [ 120 ] Personal life In 1961, she married Leo Cooper , a publisher of military history books. [ 121 ] The couple had met when she was aged eight and Cooper aged 10, although they did not marry until she was 24 and he was 27. [ 122 ] [ 3 ] The couple adopted two children and had five grandchildren. [ 123 ] [ 124 ] In 1982, the couple left Putney , south-west London, for an old manor house near Stroud , Gloucestershire. [ 121 ] [ 125 ] As she told The Field in 2002, "I loved London, but I used to cry because I missed the countryside. We did the usual married run: Earl’s Court ; Fulham ; Putney ; Move To The Country." [ 126 ] The Coopers' marriage was greatly disrupted in 1990 when publisher Sarah Johnson revealed that she and Leo had had an affair for several years. [ 127 ] [ 128 ] Leo was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease in 2002. He died on 29 November 2013, at the age of 80. [ 121 ] In 2010, Cooper [ which? ] suffered a minor stroke. [ 129 ] Cooper was a passenger in one of the derailed carriages in the Ladbroke Grove rail crash of 1999, in which 31 people died, [ 123 ] and crawled through a window to escape. She later spoke of feeling that her "number was up". [ 3 ] Cooper was a supporter of the Conservative Party , [ 130 ] and was also in favour of the Iraq War (2003 to 2011). [ 131 ] In a 2007 interview with The Guardian she said, "I loved Mrs Thatcher , I adored her, she was very very nice to me". [ 132 ] By 2012, however, she had grown disillusioned with the Conservatives, telling The Spectator that she was "disappointed with this government" and that the party was "full of terrible people now". [ 133 ] In 2018 Cooper said that because of the #MeToo movement , young men and women no longer feel free to flirt with one another and that she enjoyed being the subject of wolf whistles . [ 134 ] Cooper stated that she was a football fan and supported Leeds United when she lived in Yorkshire. [ 135 ] She was also a Manchester City fan. [ 136 ] Cooper campaigned for the preservation of limestone grasslands in Gloucestershire with the Trust for Nature Conservation. [ 137 ] Death and tributes On 4 October 2025, Cooper was attended to by paramedics after suffering a fall at her home in Bisley , Gloucestershire, which caused a fatal head injury. She was transported to Gloucestershire Royal Hospital , where her condition deteriorated. She died there on 5 October, aged 88, surrounded by family. [ 138 ] Queen Camilla , a long-term friend, led the tributes to Cooper, describing her as a legend and a "wonderfully witty and compassionate friend to me and so many", adding: "May her hereafter be filled with impossibly handsome men and devoted dogs." [ 139 ] The official spokesman of the prime minister, Keir Starmer , said: "Dame Jilly Cooper was a literary force whose wit, warmth and wisdom shaped British culture for over half a century and brought joy to millions." Famously a fan of Cooper's novels, former prime minister Rishi Sunak wrote on X : "Sad to hear of the passing of Dame Jilly Cooper, a storyteller whose wit and love of character brought joy to millions. My thoughts are with her family and fellow readers." [ 140 ] Others paying tribute to Cooper included comedian Helen Lederer , who wrote on X: "Trail blazer, wit, optimist and the giver of the greatest summer parties – you made it look simple." Broadcaster Gyles Brandreth wrote that she was "simply adorable". [ 141 ] Television presenter Kirstie Allsopp said Cooper was "a British institution, funny, enthusiastic and self deprecating, we don't see enough of it these days". [ 142 ] Piers Morgan posted: "Such a fabulously fun, mischievous, warm-hearted lady. If she was in a room, everyone would feel instantly cheerier." [ 142 ] Fellow broadcaster Russell Grant wrote on X: "Jilly was one of the most kind, courteous, generous, warm-hearted and smiley people I ever met when I worked on breakfast and morning TV." [ 143 ] Actress Dame Joanna Lumley , who starred in Cooper's early 1970s sitcom It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling , told BBC News: "She was entirely generous, hugely talented, prolific, enthusiastic, meticulous and wholly loveable: a darling friend and a brilliant person." [ 144 ] A number of authors have also recognised her and her legacy, including Jill Mansell who credited Cooper for inspiring her to be a writer. The Australian-British author Kathy Lette said: "A twinkle has gone out of the world." [ 144 ] Author and former doctor Adam Kay recalled being Cooper's "perhaps unlikely penpal", adding: "We have lost one of the greats." [ 139 ] Honours, awards and recognition Cooper was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2004 Birthday Honours for services to literature, Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2018 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity and Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2024 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity. [ 145 ] On 13 November 2009, Cooper was awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Letters by the University of Gloucestershire at a ceremony in Gloucester Cathedral . [ 146 ] In 2011, She was also awarded an Honorary Doctor of Letters at Anglia Ruskin University . [ 147 ] In 2024 she was named Harper's Bazaar ' s Author of the Year. [ 148 ] In 1997 local councillors in Ilkley , West Yorkshire, rejected a housing developers' proposal to name a street after Cooper. [ 149 ] Located on the site of the tennis courts of Ilkley Hall, where Cooper spent some of her childhood, the street was ultimately named after Thomas Maufe , who was awarded a Victoria Cross . Cooper stated that "[Maufe] is much more deserving than me." [ 149 ] A racehorse was named after Cooper, but it had to be euthanised in 2024 after a racing accident. [ 150 ] [ 151 ] In 2025, the Jilly Cooper Prize was established as part of the Comedy Women in Print Awards to honour her contribution to comic fiction. [ 152 ] The prize recognises works of fiction by women and non-binary authors that demonstrate a distinctive sense of humour, irreverence, and comic narrative voice. The award was introduced following Cooper’s death in 2024, with the intention of acknowledging her influence on contemporary comic fiction and her long-standing reputation for comedic prose, romantic satire, and portrayals of British high society. [ 153 ] The inaugural winner of the prize was Sara Pascoe , who received the award in 2025 for her novel Weirdo . [ 154 ] Film and television productions Screenwriting and appearances In 1971 Cooper wrote the comedy series It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling with Christopher Bond , about four posh young women sharing a flat in London, featuring Joanna Lumley and airing on BBC1 . [ 155 ] [ 156 ] In the 1980s she was a regular guest on the BBC television programme What's My Line? [ 157 ] According to a 2016 interview with Cooper, she was also the subject of a Spitting Image puppet, whose only line was "Sex sex sex sex sex sex". [ 5 ] Adaptations Romance series Emily was adapted by Eleanor Bron for Thames Television in 1976 as part of a six-part romance series. [ 158 ] [ 159 ] Directed by Alastair Reid , [ 160 ] it was broadcast on 6 April 1977. [ 161 ] Prudence was adapted for radio in 1979 by Capital Radio , starring Felicity Kendal as Prudence, [ 162 ] alongside Nigel Davenport and Gerald Harper . [ 163 ] In 2007 a television adaptation of four of the romance novels was proposed. [ 164 ] This was suggested as one of a four-part series focusing on Harriet , Bella , Octavia and one unspecified; the only episode to be filmed was Octavia . [ 164 ] The screenplay was written by Jonathan Harvey . [ 165 ] As of 2009 there was no date for its screening. [ 166 ] In 2013 The Telegraph reported that Harriet was being adapted into a musical by Eva Rice, novelist and daughter of Tim Rice . [ 167 ] Rutshire Chronicles Television adaptations of Cooper's novels were produced for ITV and Disney+. Other productions include the television mini-series The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous , starring Hugh Bonneville , produced by Sarah Lawson ; Riders ; [ 168 ] and, in 2024, Rivals , starring David Tennant , Aidan Turner and Alex Hassell , produced by Eliza Mellor. [ 169 ] The latter was renewed for a second series, which is expected to be released in 2026. [ 170 ] Analysis Cooper has been identified as one of the key writers of the bonkbuster novel, along with Jackie Collins , Shirley Conran and Judith Krantz . [ 70 ] Riders in particular is seen as a key text for the genre, embodying its themes of sex (sometimes coercive) and romance (sometimes unfulfilled). [ 70 ] Indeed, academic Emma Parker has described how the novel "exemplified" the genre. [ 171 ] Ian Patterson , writing for the London Review of Books is one of the few academics to seriously consider Cooper's literary oeuvre. [ 172 ] In his critique of her work, Patterson described how Cooper had a "propensity for subplots worthy of Trollope or Dickens". [ 97 ] Moreover, that her books are "worth thinking about" because they cover "pleasure, that most ticklish of subjects". [ 97 ] Patterson goes on to describe the themes of pleasure that Cooper deals with: "pleasure delayed and deferred, guilty pleasure, the pleasure of repetition and the problems of it", as well as "good pleasures, in various degrees, wrong but permissible pleasures, and unequivocally bad pleasures". [ 97 ] He praised Cooper's use of language, in particular "puns and other forms of verbal humour", which give the reader the impression that Cooper, as writer, is never far away. [ 97 ] On the Romance series, Patterson described the novels as "tightly structured, agreeably predictable wish-fulfilment narratives named for their heroines". [ 97 ] Beyond Cooper's novels, Patterson praised her portrait of Margaret Thatcher, and her Sunday Times columns. [ 97 ] Patterson compared Cooper to Ali Smith since in their writing they share a "fondness for both wordplay and wise children". [ 97 ] Cooper's use of humour as part of erotic writing has been discussed by Tim Miles, who described how there was "is little or no separation" of the two, especially in Riders. [ 173 ] In his analysis of the career of Mary Ward , academic Alan Deyermond describes how she was described as "the Jilly Cooper of her day", which became part of her professional denigration. [ 174 ] Cooper's use of horses as a repeated trope across many of her novels has been considered by academic Gail Cunningham, who described how Riders and Polo provided "women readers with an adult version of the pony book ". [ 175 ] List of works Fiction The Rutshire Chronicles Riders (1985) [ 176 ] Rivals (1988; also known as Players ) [ 177 ] Polo (1991) [ 178 ] The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous (1993) [ 179 ] Appassionata (1996) [ 180 ] Score! (1999) [ 181 ] Pandora (2002) [ 182 ] Wicked! (2006) [ 183 ] Jump! (2010) [ 184 ] Mount! (2016) [ 185 ] Tackle! (2023) [ 186 ] Romances Emily (1975) [ 187 ] Bella (1976) [ 188 ] Harriet (1976) [ 189 ] Octavia (1977) [ 190 ] Prudence (1978) [ 191 ] Imogen (1978) [ 192 ] Lisa & Co . (1981) [ 193 ] "Little Mabel" series Little Mabel (1980) [ 194 ] Little Mabel's Great Escape (1981) [ 195 ] Little Mabel Wins (1982) [ 196 ] Little Mabel Saves the Day (1985) [ 197 ] Other Araminta's Wedding (1993) [ 198 ] Non-fiction How to Stay Married (1969) [ 199 ] How To Survive from Nine To Five (1970) [ 200 ] Jolly Super (1971) [ 201 ] Men and Super Men (1972) [ 202 ] Jolly Super Too (1973) [ 203 ] Women and Super Women (1974) [ 204 ] Jolly Superlative (1975) [ 205 ] Supermen and Superwomen (1976) [ 206 ] How to Survive Work and Wedlock (1977); republication of earlier works [ 207 ] Superjilly (1977) [ 208 ] The British in Love (1979) [ 209 ] Class: A View from Middle England (1979) [ 210 ] Supercooper (1980) [ 211 ] Violets and Vinegar: An Anthology of Women's Writings and Sayings (1980) [ 212 ] Intelligent and Loyal (1981) [ 213 ] Jolly Marsupial (1982) [ 214 ] Animals in War (1983) [ 215 ] The Common Years (1984) [ 216 ] On Rugby (1984; with Leo Cooper ) [ 217 ] On Cricket (1985; with Leo Cooper) [ 218 ] Hotfoot to Zabriskie Point (1985; with Patrick Lichfield ) [ 219 ] Horse Mania! (1986; with Leo Cooper) [ 220 ] How To Survive Christmas (1986) [ 221 ] Turn Right at the Spotted Dog (1987) [ 222 ] Angels Rush In (1990) [ 223 ] Between the Covers (2020) [ 32 ] References ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Biography with magazine quotations" . 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"Between the Covers by Jilly Cooper review – as fresh as ever" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 14 December 2025 . ^ Moses, Claire (17 October 2024). "Jilly Cooper on Adapting Her Naughty Romance, 'Rivals,' for Disney+" . The New York Times . Retrieved 22 January 2025 . ^ a b c d "Desmond Elliott" . The Daily Telegraph . 30 August 2003. p. 29 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Harrison, Bernice (25 May 2013). "Jilly the filly buster" . The Irish Times . ^ "Jilly Cooper loved Hay so much she wants to base her next novel in Wales" . Hay Festival. 31 May 2018. ^ Matthews, Rachel (15 February 2020). "Mount! author Jilly Cooper: 'When I was younger, I ricocheted from one unsuitable man to another' " . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 15 February 2020 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ Fendley, Alison (9 March 1994). "And, after the break, Chapter Four..." Evening Standard . p. 191 . Retrieved 7 July 2025 . ^ a b King, Francis (16 November 1975). "Jungle warfare in the block" . Sunday Telegraph . p. 14 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Salutes to her". Evening Standard . 30 December 1975. p. 15. ^ "Emily by Jilly Cooper" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Archived from the original on 21 May 2025 . Retrieved 12 August 2025 . ^ Berridge, Elizabeth (6 November 1975). "Recent Fiction" . The Daily Telegraph . p. 13. Archived from the original on 22 June 2025 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Butler, Tony (12 November 1976). "Cooking ... for the love of it!" . Evening Herald . p. 13 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ a b Waugh, Auberon (6 July 1976). "Bella won't let you down!" . Evening Standard . p. 18 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper: Harriet" . The Bookseller . 10 July 1976. p. 7. ^ Monks, John (23 July 1976). "Jolly hockey sticks, it's Jilly" . Western Daily Press . p. 8. Archived from the original on 21 June 2025 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ "Harriet by Jilly Cooper" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . 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Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ "High drama at sea" . Burton Observer and Chronicle . 1 December 1978. p. 9 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ a b Elliott, Desmond (28 March 1978). "Just a rumour" . Liverpool Daily Post (Merseyside ed.) . p. 2. Archived from the original on 21 June 2025 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ a b Cooper, Jilly (1978). Imogen . Corgi Books. pp. frontispiece. ^ "New in paperback". The Bookseller . 7 July 1979. p. 84. ^ "Novels in brief" . The Observer . 31 December 1978. p. 25 . Retrieved 8 June 2025 . ^ "Books of the Times" . Wokingham Times . 18 October 1979. p. 33. Archived from the original on 7 June 2025 . Retrieved 7 June 2025 . ^ Dark Allure of the Côte d'Azur: Beauty, Leisure and Violence on the French Riviera since the Eighteenth Century . Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. 27 January 2025. ISBN 978-3-11-145132-9 . Archived from the original on 17 July 2025 . Retrieved 12 August 2025 . ^ Probert, Rebecca (6 September 2012). The Changing Legal Regulation of Cohabitation: From Fornicators to Family, 1600–2010 . Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-02084-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). "Introduction". Lisa & Co (PDF) . Corgi. p. 13. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 May 2024 . Retrieved 2 August 2025 . ^ "Frothy romance" . Manchester Evening News . 5 November 1981. p. 14 . Retrieved 30 June 2025 . ^ Dawson, Juno (1 June 2017). The Gender Games: The Problem With Men and Women, From Someone Who Has Been Both . John Murray Press. ISBN 978-1-4736-4861-6 . ^ "BBC Radio 4 - Radio 4 in Four - Why we all adore Jilly Cooper" . BBC . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ Loughrey, Clarisse (30 January 2019). "Jilly Cooper says #MeToo movement has 'diminished' men" . The Independent . Retrieved 4 May 2023 . ^ Risbridger, Ella (28 October 2025). "Could there ever be another Jilly?" . The Bookseller . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ a b c Burge, Amy; McAlister, Jodi; Ireland, Charlotte (31 August 2023). " "Prince Charming with an Erection": The Sensational Pleasures of the Bonkbuster" . Contemporary Women's Writing . 17 (2): 137– 155. doi : 10.1093/cww/vpae002 . ISSN 1754-1484 . ^ Day, Elizabeth (24 April 2011). "Jilly Cooper: 'I'm a reasonable writer but I'm much too colloquial' " . The Guardian . Retrieved 4 May 2023 . ^ Saltzer, Bernice (1 May 1993). "Riders' Rivalry Reaches Boiling Point ." Hartlepool Mail . p. 11. ^ Laing, Olivia (10 November 2023). " 'Sex, puns and labradors': How Olivia Laing fell for Jilly Cooper's bonkbusters" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 14 November 2025 . ^ "Why you should read Rivals as literary fiction" . Varsity Online . Retrieved 15 May 2025 . ^ "Aidan Turner based Rivals character on his dad" . Yahoo News . 15 October 2024 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Venn, Lydia (18 October 2024). "What a Gen Z writer thought reading Jilly Cooper's Rivals for the first time" . Cosmopolitan . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Turner, Graham (27 March 1994). "How to Write a Best-Seller" . Sunday Telegraph . p. 37 . Retrieved 28 May 2025 . ^ "Hardbacks." Books. Sunday Times , June 12, 1988, 15[S5]. The Sunday Times Historical Archive. ^ Lewis, Tim (29 September 2024). " 'Are you good in bed?' Jilly Cooper on horses, lefties and which fictional character she would like to sleep with" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Bell, Jane (13 May 1992). "Jilly Makes a Mint". Aberdeen Evening Express . p. 6. ^ "Judging a Book by its Bonk" . Avidly . 19 February 2013 . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ Flood, Alison (10 September 2016). "Jilly Cooper: 'People were always coming up to us at parties and asking us to bed' " . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 7 April 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1992). Polo: A Legend of Fair Women and Brave Men . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-13552-8 . ^ Vlietstra, Amanda (13 September 2016). "5 (slightly naughty) reasons we're overexcited about Jilly Cooper's new book" . Horse & Hound . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ "A love letter to Jilly Cooper" . Red Online . 7 August 2018. Archived from the original on 31 January 2025 . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ a b c d Flood, Alison (9 August 2010). "Jilly Cooper: Queen of the bonkbuster" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ Walter, Natascha (22 May 1993). "The art of coarse litrutshire" . The Independent . Archived from the original on 7 July 2022 . Retrieved 27 May 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). The Man who Made Husbands Jealous . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15639-4 . ^ Oates, Quentin (30 April 1993). "Jilly goes solo – super". The Bookseller . p. 46. ^ Agg, Jennie (9 February 2023). Life, Almost: Miscarriage, Misconceptions and a Search for Answers from the Brink of Motherhood . Random House. ISBN 978-1-5291-9294-0 . ^ a b "Classical Music: Sex, Chopin and subterfuge - Music, Arts & Entertainment - The Independent" . Independent.co.uk . 26 December 2010. Archived from the original on 26 December 2010 . Retrieved 13 April 2025 . ^ Rasmussen, Sonja. "24 May 1996". Aberdeen Evening Express . p. 25. ^ a b Morley, Christopher (11 April 1996). "A wild tale of sex and drugs and barcarolles". Birmingham Daily Post . p. 14. ^ Campbell-Alexander, Melanie (25 April 1996). "Appassionata". Country Life . p. 85. ^ Ryan, Liz (19 April 1996). "Pointless orchestra tale is the pits". Evening Herald . p. 22. ^ Roberts, Gabriel (14 May 1999). "Jolly Jilly scores with new bonkbuster". Gloucester Citizen . p. 11. ^ a b c d e f g h Patterson, Ian (17 May 2017). "Miss Dior, Prodigally Applied" . London Review of Books . Vol. 39, no. 10. ISSN 0260-9592 . Retrieved 14 October 2025 . ^ Barker, Christine (15 May 1999). "True blue Jilly scores another winner". Birmingham Daily Post . p. 60. ^ a b MacFarlane, Robert (5 May 2002). "Laughing all the way to the bonk" . The Observer . ISSN 0029-7712 . Retrieved 15 April 2025 . ^ Letts, Quentin (11 April 2012). "Fumbling for right touch in Larkshire" . The Standard . Archived from the original on 22 April 2025 . Retrieved 15 April 2025 . ^ Holden, Wendy (13 May 2002). "Foreskin Saga". New Statesman . Vol. 131, no. 4587. ISSN 1364-7431 . ^ Elliott, Giles. "Da Vinci doubles up: Dan Brown's novel takes the top two spots in the chart with sales of his books set to pass 10 million in the UK this week." The Bookseller , no. 5230, 19 May 2006, p. 17. ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 April 2006). "Jilly Cooper goes back to school" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 7 July 2016 . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ Martin, Tim (20 May 2006). "Wicked! by Jilly Cooper" . The Independent . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ Briscoe, Joanna (13 May 2006). "Larks with toffs and oiks!" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ a b Laing, Olivia (12 September 2010). "Jump! by Jilly Cooper" . The Observer . Retrieved 26 April 2021 . ^ "Jilly Cooper takes revenge on critic by naming goat after her" . The Daily Telegraph . London. 11 October 2010. Archived from the original on 2 December 2023 . Retrieved 3 April 2018 . ^ "Jilly Cooper - Meet the Author - Suffolk Libraries" . www.suffolklibraries.co.uk . Archived from the original on 25 November 2024 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ Radloff, Lili. "Book review: Mount by Jilly Cooper" . Life . Archived from the original on 22 April 2025 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper's ninth 'bonkbuster' falls short" . www.stuff.co.nz . Archived from the original on 15 July 2023 . Retrieved 25 May 2025 . ^ Bird, Orlando (8 September 2016). "Mount! by Jilly Cooper, review – 'back to basics' " . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 24 May 2024 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ Williams, Zoe (8 November 2023). "Bonk hard and start a business! 10 life lessons I learned from Jilly Cooper" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ "The best novels of 2023" . The Week . 10 February 2023 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Thorp, Clare. "From Riders to Tackle! – how Britain loves Jilly Cooper's raunchy novels" . www.bbc.com . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Silver, Madeleine (20 April 2024). " 'Bonkbuster' queen Jilly Cooper to swap horses for football" . Horse & Hound . Archived from the original on 20 April 2024 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Cooke, Rachel (12 November 2023). "Tackle! review – Jilly Cooper takes on the beautiful game" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ a b "Jilly's age of anxiety" . The Gloucestershire Echo . 13 December 1993. p. 9 . Retrieved 23 August 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Williamson, Charlotte (3 March 2013). "Why our mongrels are a dying breed" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 23 March 2021 . Retrieved 23 August 2025 . ^ "Leafing through the history of Jackanory on World Book Day" . BBC . Archived from the original on 18 August 2025 . Retrieved 18 August 2025 . ^ St Claire, Lynne (23 January 1987). "24 hour TV" . Evening Post . p. 2 . Retrieved 23 August 2025 . ^ a b c Obituary: Leo Cooper , The Daily Telegraph , 2 December 2013. ^ "About Jilly" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ a b Cooper, Jilly (17 September 2010). "Jilly Cooper interview" . The Daily Telegraph . Interviewed by Grice, Elizabeth. Archived from the original on 29 March 2019 . Retrieved 15 January 2026 . ^ Barber, Richard (7 April 2017). "Jilly Cooper: 'My books are my babies' " . The Guardian . Retrieved 29 March 2019 . ^ Horwell, Veronica (6 October 2025). "Dame Jilly Cooper obituary" . The Guardian . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "A Sporting Life – Dame Jilly Cooper" . The Field . 14 October 2024 . Retrieved 8 October 2025 . ^ Barber, Michael (3 December 2013). "Leo Cooper obituary: Publisher of military history books and husband of Jilly Cooper" . The Guardian . Retrieved 7 May 2020 . ^ Davies, Karin (2 September 1990). "Fiction into fact" . UPI . ^ Kennedy, Philippa (26 September 2010). "Jilly Cooper is still riding high" . The National . ^ "Women and gender in the Conservative party archive" . 24 November 2015. ^ Cooper, Jilly (16 February 2003). "Cover story: The voices for and against war" . The Sunday Times . Archived from the original on 5 March 2016 . Retrieved 29 February 2016 . ^ Pool, Hannah; Pool, Hannah Azieb (26 April 2007). "Question time" . The Guardian . ^ "The end is neigh: even Jilly Cooper has dumped Dave" . 3 December 2012. ^ Butterworth, Benjamin (29 July 2018). "Jilly Cooper says she loves being wolf-whistled as she criticises #MeToo movement" . The i Paper . Retrieved 28 February 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper: why I will write just one more novel" . Yorkshire Post . 25 October 2016 [8 October 2016]. Archived from the original on 4 May 2023 . Retrieved 4 May 2023 . ^ Glancy, Josh (28 July 2024). "Jilly Cooper: 'Upper classes are unbelievable, they just love sex' " . The Times . Archived from the original on 28 July 2024 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Clegg, Harry (24 June 1991). "Novelist is riding to rescue of wildlife heritage" . The Citizen . p. 8 . Retrieved 8 July 2025 . ^ De la Mare, Tess (11 November 2025). "Jilly Cooper died from head injury, says coroner" . BBC News . Retrieved 11 November 2025 . ^ a b "Jilly Cooper: Best-selling author of Rivals and Riders dies at 88" . BBC News . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "Camilla's tribute to 'legend' Dame Jilly Cooper after author's death aged 88" . The Independent . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "Author Jilly Cooper has passed away at 88" . Euro Weekly News . 6 October 2025. ^ a b "Queen pays tribute to 'legend' Jilly Cooper after author dies aged 88 – live updates" . BBC News . ^ Grant, Russell (6 October 2025). "Jilly was one of the most kind, courteous, generous, warm-hearted and smiley people I ever met when I worked on breakfast and morning TV" . X . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ a b "Tributes pour in from Rivals cast in honour of Dame Jilly Cooper" . The Independent . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "No. 64269" . The London Gazette (Supplement). 30 December 2023. p. N9. ^ University Announces Honorary Awards Archived 19 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine University of Gloucestershire ^ "Dame Jilly Cooper (1937-2025) - ARU" . www.aru.ac.uk . Retrieved 11 November 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper is our author of the year" . Harper's BAZAAR . 5 December 2024 . Retrieved 6 June 2025 . ^ a b Oldham, Nick (17 January 1997). "Jilly's Street? It's not such a novel idea" . Telegraph and Argus . p. 3 . Retrieved 7 June 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper (IRE) | Race Record & Form" . Racing Post . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper (IRE) | Horse Profile" . Sky Sports . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Kerridge, Jake (12 July 2019). "Jilly Cooper on the Comedy Women in Print Prize: 'Men are funnier than women? Rubbish!' " . The Telegraph . ISSN 0307-1235 . Retrieved 11 November 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper honoured with Comedy Women In Print prize" . Irish Independent . 10 July 2019 . Retrieved 9 November 2025 . ^ Loffhagen, Emma (4 November 2025). "Sara Pascoe's novel wins inaugural Jilly Cooper award" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 9 November 2025 . ^ "It's Awfully Bad For Your Eyes, Darling (Production)" . www.phill.co.uk . Archived from the original on 8 October 2025 . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ Storah, Peter (18 November 1971). "Jilly gets her own laugh show". Lancashire Telegraph . No. 23646. p. 2. ^ "You're a glamorous lot, says author Jilly ..." Western Daily Press . 22 February 1985. p. 7. Archived from the original on 8 July 2025 . Retrieved 8 July 2025 . ^ Macdonald, Keith (6 April 1977). "Eleanor misses out on Romance" . Manchester Evening News . p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Mitchell, Linton (17 February 1977). "Return to romance" . Reading Evening Post . p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Things go so wrong for Emily" . Evening Sentinel . 6 April 1977. p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Television and radio" . Scunthorpe Evening Telegraph . 6 April 1977. p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Drama for the 80s" . The Observer . 2 September 1979. p. 35 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ Howard, Geoffrey (31 August 1979). "Highlights on radio" . Ealing and Acton Gazette . p. 15 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ a b Richardson, Anna (27 July 2007). "Jilly romps to ITV" . The Bookseller . p. 34. ^ Coming Up Archived 28 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine thecustard.tv ^ Dowell, Ben (12 February 2009). "ITV delays single dramas in downturn" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 28 April 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper sets the stage for her West End debut" . The Daily Telegraph . 19 October 2018. Archived from the original on 19 October 2018 . Retrieved 17 May 2025 . ^ "Riders (1993)" . Archived from the original on 21 September 2019 . Retrieved 21 September 2019 . ^ Cormack, Morgan. "David Tennant, Aidan Turner to star in Jilly Cooper adaptation Rivals | Radio Times" . www.radiotimes.com . Retrieved 25 October 2025 . ^ Garden, House & (8 October 2024). "Rivals season 2: Hayley Atwell and Rupert Everett join the cast of the Disney+ adaptation of Jilly Cooper's novel" . House & Garden . Retrieved 25 October 2025 . ^ Parker, Emma (1 December 2006). "Sex Changes: The Politics of Pleasure in the Novels of Michèle Roberts" . Lit: Literature Interpretation Theory . 17 ( 3– 4): 325– 351. doi : 10.1080/10436920601000336 . ISSN 1043-6928 . ^ "Jilly Cooper compared to Charles Dickens and Anthony Trollope by Cambridge academic" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 13 May 2017 . Retrieved 14 October 2025 . ^ Miles, Tim (2011). "Sex, pies and Jilly Cooper: An online, cooperative analysis of humour and the erotic" . Comedy Studies . 2 (1): 63– 71. doi : 10.1386/cost.2.1.63_1 . ISSN 2040-610X . ^ Deyermond, Alan (2004). "Mary Ward, or the Incremental Denigration of a Hispanist" . Hispanic Research Journal . 5 (2): 177– 179. doi : 10.1179/hrj.2004.5.2.177 . ISSN 1468-2737 . ^ Cunningham G. 'Seizing the reins: women, girls and horses' in: Sceats, S. and Cunnigham, G. 2014. Image and Power : Women in Fiction in the Twentieth Century [Online]. Taylor & Francis. ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Riders . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15617-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Rivals . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15637-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (11 March 2025). Polo . Grand Central Publishing. ISBN 978-1-5387-7355-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). The Man who Made Husbands Jealous . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15639-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Appassionata. Jilly Cooper . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15638-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2000). Score! . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14579-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Pandora . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15640-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Wicked! . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15156-6 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2010). Jump! . Bantam Press. ISBN 978-0-593-06153-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (25 October 2016). Mount! . National Geographic Books. ISBN 978-0-593-07291-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2001). Tackle! . Ulverscroft, Charnwood. ISBN 978-1-4448-5217-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Emily . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15249-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Bella: A Deliciously Upbeat and Laugh-out-loud Romance from the Inimitable Multimillion-copy Bestselling Jilly Cooper . Transworld Publishers Limited. ISBN 978-0-552-15250-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Harriet . Transworld Publishers Limited. ISBN 978-0-552-15251-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Octavia: A light-hearted and hilarious romcom from the Sunday Times bestselling author of Rivals . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3218-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Prudence: The feel-good romance from the Sunday Times bestselling author of Rivals . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3228-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1979). Imogen . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11149-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1982). Lisa & Co . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-12041-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1980). Little Mabel . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11158-6 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Little Mabel's Great Escape . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11160-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1982). Little Mabel Wins . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11159-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1985). Little Mabel Saves the Day . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-12291-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (30 June 2012). Araminta's Wedding . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-5252-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 September 2011). How To Stay Married . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4464-9798-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 February 2012). How To Survive From Nine To Five . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0772-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Jolly Super . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11751-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 October 2011). Men and Supermen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0813-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1973). Jolly Super Too . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-30530-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 January 2012). Women And Superwomen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-3505-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Jolly Superlative . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11801-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Super Men and Super Women, by Jilly Cooper . ISBN 978-0-417-05370-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Work and Wedlock . London: Magnum Books. ISBN 978-0417018201 . Retrieved 9 October 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Superjilly . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-38620-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). The British in Love . Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-005650-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1999). Class: A View from Middle England . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14662-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Supercooper . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11832-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Hartman, Tom (1982). Violets and Vinegar: An Anthology of Women's Writings and Sayings . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11869-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Intelligent and Loyal: A Celebration of the Mongrel . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-48000-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 February 2012). Jolly Marsupial . Transworld. ISBN 978-1-4481-0902-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Animals In War . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3190-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1999). The Common Years . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14663-0 . ^ Cooper, Leo; Cooper, Jilly (1984). Leo & Jilly Cooper on Rugby . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2411-6 . ^ Cooper, Leo (1985). Leo & Jilly Cooper on Cricket . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2537-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Lichfield, Patrick (1985). Hotfoot to Zabriskie Point . Constable. ISBN 978-0-09-466760-0 . ^ Cooper, Leo; Cooper, Jilly (1986). Horse Mania! . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2665-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1986). How to Survive Christmas: An Xmasochist's Guide to the Darkest Days of the Year . Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-59780-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1988). Turn Right at the Spotted Dog: And Other Diversions . Chivers. ISBN 978-0-7451-0744-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (24 April 2012). Angels Rush In . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0810-7 . External links Official website Jilly Cooper at IMDb Jilly Cooper at the British Film Institute Portraits of Jilly Cooper at the National Portrait Gallery, London "The queen of chick lit" article , The Guardian , 15 June 2004 An interview with Cooper recorded in 2000 by meettheauthor.co.uk .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Jilly Cooper v t e Fiction Rutshire Chronicles Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Romance series Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Short stories Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Children's stories Little Mabel (series) Rutshire Chronicles Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Romance series Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Short stories Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Children's stories Little Mabel (series) Little Mabel (series) Non-fiction How to Stay Married How To Survive From Nine To Five Jolly Super Jolly Super Too Jolly Superlative Class Violets and Vinegar Intelligent and Loyal Jolly Marsupial Animals in War The Common Years How To Survive Christmas Turn Right at the Spotted Dog Angels Rush In Between the Covers How to Stay Married How To Survive From Nine To Five Jolly Super Jolly Super Too Jolly Superlative Class Violets and Vinegar Intelligent and Loyal Jolly Marsupial Animals in War The Common Years How To Survive Christmas Turn Right at the Spotted Dog Angels Rush In Between the Covers Adaptations It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling Riders The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Rivals It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling Riders The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Rivals Fictional characters Rupert Campbell-Black Rupert Campbell-Black Related Leo Cooper Leo Cooper Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Greece Poland Israel United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Greece Poland Israel Academics CiNii CiNii Artists MusicBrainz MusicBrainz People Trove Trove Other IdRef Open Library Yale LUX IdRef Open Library Yale LUX 1937 births 2025 deaths 20th-century English non-fiction writers 20th-century English novelists 20th-century English women writers 21st-century English non-fiction writers 21st-century English novelists 21st-century English women writers Accidental deaths from falls in the United Kingdom Accidental deaths in England British Book Award winners British women romantic fiction writers British women columnists Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire English romantic fiction writers English women journalists English women non-fiction writers English women novelists People educated at Godolphin School People from Hornchurch Survivors of railway accidents or incidents 21st-century British women novelists 20th-century British women novelists British children's writers British women children's writers Deaths from head injury CS1 maint: publisher location Pages containing London Gazette template with parameter supp set to y Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Use British English from October 2016 All Wikipedia articles written in British English Use dmy dates from October 2025 All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from January 2026 Commons category link from Wikidata National Portrait Gallery (London) person ID same as Wikidata This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 06:20 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Events Toggle Events subsection 1.1 January 1.2 February 1.3 March 1.4 April 1.5 May 1.6 June 1.7 July 1.8 August 1.9 September 1.10 October 1.11 November 1.12 December 1.13 Date unknown 1.1 January 1.2 February 1.3 March 1.4 April 1.5 May 1.6 June 1.7 July 1.8 August 1.9 September 1.10 October 1.11 November 1.12 December 1.13 Date unknown 2 Births Toggle Births subsection 2.1 January 2.2 February 2.3 March 2.4 April 2.5 May 2.6 June 2.7 July 2.8 August 2.9 September 2.10 October 2.11 November 2.12 December 2.1 January 2.2 February 2.3 March 2.4 April 2.5 May 2.6 June 2.7 July 2.8 August 2.9 September 2.10 October 2.11 November 2.12 December 3 Deaths Toggle Deaths subsection 3.1 January 3.2 February 3.3 March 3.4 April 3.5 May 3.6 June 3.7 July 3.8 August 3.9 September 3.10 October 3.11 November 3.12 December 3.1 January 3.2 February 3.3 March 3.4 April 3.5 May 3.6 June 3.7 July 3.8 August 3.9 September 3.10 October 3.11 November 3.12 December 4 Nobel Prizes 5 References 6 Further reading 1945 Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն Arpetan Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali বাংলা Banjar 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Български Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deutsch Dolnoserbski Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego ГӀалгӀай 贛語 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Ido Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Коми Kotava Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Кырык мары Latgaļu Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Livvinkarjala La .lojban. Lombard Magyar मैथिली Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu Minangkabau 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Мокшень Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nāhuatl Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Nouormand Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Papiamentu Tok Pisin Plattdüütsch Polski Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Reo tahiti Ripoarisch Română Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sardu Scots Seeltersk Sesotho sa Leboa Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Ślůnski کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Tarandíne Татарча / tatarça တႆး తెలుగు Tetun ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Türkmençe Удмурт Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vahcuengh Vèneto Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon 文言 West-Vlams Winaray ייִדיש 粵語 Zazaki Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Tolışi Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item Years Millennium 2nd millennium Centuries 19th century 20th century 21st century 19th century 20th century 21st century Decades 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s Years 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e 1945 by topic Subject Animation Archaeology Architecture Art Aviation Awards Comics Film Literature Poetry Meteorology Music Country Jazz Rail transport Radio Science Spaceflight Sports Football Television American British Animation Archaeology Architecture Art Aviation Awards Comics Film Literature Poetry Poetry Meteorology Music Country Jazz Country Jazz Rail transport Radio Science Spaceflight Sports Football Television American American British British By country Afghanistan Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria Canada China Denmark France Germany India Indonesia Ireland Italy Japan Malaya Netherlands New Zealand Norway Palestine Mandate Philippines Portugal South Africa South Korea Soviet Union Spain Sweden Switzerland Thailand Turkey United Kingdom United States Venezuela Afghanistan Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria Canada China Denmark France Germany India Indonesia Ireland Italy Japan Malaya Netherlands New Zealand Norway Palestine Mandate Philippines Portugal South Africa South Korea Soviet Union Spain Sweden Switzerland Thailand Turkey United Kingdom United States Venezuela Lists of leaders Sovereign states Sovereign state leaders Territorial governors Religious leaders Law Sovereign states Sovereign state leaders Territorial governors Religious leaders Law Birth and death categories Births Deaths Births Deaths Establishments and disestablishments categories Establishments Disestablishments Establishments Disestablishments Works category Works Introductions Works Introductions v t e v t e Gregorian calendar 1945 MCMXLV Ab urbe condita 2698 Armenian calendar 1394 ԹՎ ՌՅՂԴ Assyrian calendar 6695 Baháʼí calendar 101–102 Balinese saka calendar 1866–1867 Bengali calendar 1351–1352 Berber calendar 2895 British Regnal year 9 Geo. 6 – 10 Geo. 6 Buddhist calendar 2489 Burmese calendar 1307 Byzantine calendar 7453–7454 Chinese calendar 甲申 年 (Wood Monkey ) 4642 or 4435 — to — 乙酉年 (Wood Rooster ) 4643 or 4436 Coptic calendar 1661–1662 Discordian calendar 3111 Ethiopian calendar 1937–1938 Hebrew calendar 5705–5706 Hindu calendars - Vikram Samvat 2001–2002 - Shaka Samvat 1866–1867 - Kali Yuga 5045–5046 Holocene calendar 11945 Igbo calendar 945–946 Iranian calendar 1323–1324 Islamic calendar 1364–1365 Japanese calendar Shōwa 20 (昭和２０年) Javanese calendar 1875–1876 Juche calendar 34 Julian calendar Gregorian minus 13 days Korean calendar 4278 Minguo calendar ROC 34 民國34年 Nanakshahi calendar 477 Thai solar calendar 2488 Tibetan calendar ཤིང་ཕོ་སྤྲེ་ལོ་ (male Wood- Monkey ) 2071 or 1690 or 918 — to — ཤིང་མོ་བྱ་ལོ་ (female Wood- Bird ) 2072 or 1691 or 919 1945 ( MCMXLV ) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar , the 1945th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 945th year of the 2nd millennium , the 45th year of the 20th century , and the 6th year of the 1940s decade. A turning point [ 1 ] in human history , 1945 marked the end of World War II , ending with the defeat and occupation of Nazi Germany and the Empire of Japan by the United States and the Soviet Union in the world of two superpowers which has led the beginning of the Cold War (1945–1991). It is also the year the Nazi concentration camps were liberated and the only year in which atomic weapons have been used in warfare . Events World War II will be abbreviated as "WWII" January January 1 – WWII: Germany begins Operation Bodenplatte , an attempt by the Luftwaffe to cripple Allied air forces in the Low Countries . [ 2 ] Chenogne massacre : German prisoners are allegedly killed by American forces near the village of Chenogne, Belgium. Germany begins Operation Bodenplatte , an attempt by the Luftwaffe to cripple Allied air forces in the Low Countries . [ 2 ] Chenogne massacre : German prisoners are allegedly killed by American forces near the village of Chenogne, Belgium. January 6 – WWII: A German offensive recaptures Esztergom , Hungary from the Soviets. January 9 – WWII: American and Australian troops land at Lingayen Gulf on western coast of the largest Philippine island of Luzon , occupied by Japan since 1942. January 12 – WWII: The Soviet Union begins the Vistula–Oder Offensive in Eastern Europe, against the German Army . [ 3 ] January 13 – WWII: The Soviet Union begins the East Prussian Offensive , to eliminate German forces in East Prussia . January 16 – WWII: Adolf Hitler takes residence in the Führerbunker in Berlin. [ 4 ] January 17 WWII: The Soviet Union occupies Warsaw , Poland. The Holocaust : Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg , who has saved thousands of Jews, is taken into custody by a Soviet patrol during the Siege of Budapest and is never again seen publicly. [ 5 ] WWII: The Soviet Union occupies Warsaw , Poland. The Holocaust : Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg , who has saved thousands of Jews, is taken into custody by a Soviet patrol during the Siege of Budapest and is never again seen publicly. [ 5 ] January 18 – The Holocaust : The SS begins the evacuation of Auschwitz concentration camp . Nearly 60,000 prisoners, mostly Jews, are forced to march to other locations in Germany; as many as 15,000 die. The 7,000 too sick to move are left without supplies being distributed. January 19 – The Holocaust : Soviet forces liberate the Łódź Ghetto ; only 877 Jews of the initial population of 164,000 remain at this time. [ 6 ] January 20 – Germany begins the Evacuation of East Prussia . January 21 – 22 (night) – At the Grünhagen railroad station, located in East Prussia at this date, two trains, heading for Elbing , collide. At dawn the station is reached by Soviet Army infantry and tanks which destroy the station, killing between 140 and 150 people. January 23 – WWII: Hungary agrees to an armistice with the Allies . German Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz orders the start of Operation Hannibal , the mass evacuation by sea of German troops and civilians from the Courland Pocket , East Prussia and the Polish Corridor , evacuating an estimated 800,000-900,000 German civilians and 350,000 soldiers from advancing Soviet forces. Evacuation of Germans from Grünhagen . Hungary agrees to an armistice with the Allies . German Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz orders the start of Operation Hannibal , the mass evacuation by sea of German troops and civilians from the Courland Pocket , East Prussia and the Polish Corridor , evacuating an estimated 800,000-900,000 German civilians and 350,000 soldiers from advancing Soviet forces. Evacuation of Germans from Grünhagen . January 24 – WWII: AP war correspondent Joseph Morton , nine OSS men, and four SOE agents are executed by the Germans at Mauthausen concentration camp under Hitler's Commando Order of 1942, which stipulates the immediate execution of all captured Allied commandos or saboteurs without trial, even those in proper uniforms. Morton is the only Allied correspondent to be executed by the Axis during the war. January 25 – WWII: Hitler appoints Heinrich Himmler as commander of the hastily formed Army Group Vistula ( Heeresgruppe Weichsel ) to halt the Soviet Red Army 's Vistula–Oder offensive into Pomerania , despite Himmler's lack of military experience. [ 7 ] January 26 – WWII: 19-year-old U.S. Army Staff Sergeant Audie Murphy sees action at Holtzwihr , France, for which is awarded the Medal of Honor . January 27 The Holocaust : The Soviet Red Army liberates the Auschwitz and Birkenau concentration camps. WWII: The Soviet Red Army reaches to Wolf's Lair former Hitler headquarter [ 8 ] The Holocaust : The Soviet Red Army liberates the Auschwitz and Birkenau concentration camps. WWII: The Soviet Red Army reaches to Wolf's Lair former Hitler headquarter [ 8 ] January 30 – WWII: MV Wilhelm Gustloff , with over 10,000 mainly civilian Germans from Gotenhafen ( Gdynia ) is sunk in Gdańsk Bay by three torpedoes from Soviet submarine S-13 in the Baltic Sea ; up to 9,400, 5,000 of whom are children, are thought to have died – the greatest loss of life in a single ship sinking in history. Raid at Cabanatuan : 121 American soldiers and 800 Filipino guerrillas free 813 American prisoners of war from the Japanese-held camp in the city of Cabanatuan , in the Philippines . Adolf Hitler makes his last public speech, on broadcast radio, expressing the belief that Germany will triumph. MV Wilhelm Gustloff , with over 10,000 mainly civilian Germans from Gotenhafen ( Gdynia ) is sunk in Gdańsk Bay by three torpedoes from Soviet submarine S-13 in the Baltic Sea ; up to 9,400, 5,000 of whom are children, are thought to have died – the greatest loss of life in a single ship sinking in history. Raid at Cabanatuan : 121 American soldiers and 800 Filipino guerrillas free 813 American prisoners of war from the Japanese-held camp in the city of Cabanatuan , in the Philippines . Adolf Hitler makes his last public speech, on broadcast radio, expressing the belief that Germany will triumph. January 31 – WWII: The Battle of Hill 170 in the Burma Campaign ends with the British 3rd Commando Brigade defeating the Imperial Japanese Army 54th Division , causing the Japanese Twenty-Eighth Army to withdraw from the Arakan Peninsula. February February – Raymond L. Libby of American Cyanamid 's research laboratories, at Stamford, Connecticut , announces a method of orally administering the antibiotic penicillin . [ 9 ] February 3 – WWII: Battle of Manila : United States forces enter the outskirts of Manila to capture it from the Japanese Imperial Army , starting the battle. On February 4, U.S. Army forces liberate Santo Tomas Internment Camp in the city. The Soviet Union agrees to enter the Pacific War against Japan, once hostilities against Germany are concluded. Battle of Manila : United States forces enter the outskirts of Manila to capture it from the Japanese Imperial Army , starting the battle. On February 4, U.S. Army forces liberate Santo Tomas Internment Camp in the city. The Soviet Union agrees to enter the Pacific War against Japan, once hostilities against Germany are concluded. February 4 – 11 – WWII: President Franklin D. Roosevelt , Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Winston Churchill and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin hold the Yalta Conference . February 7 – WWII: General Douglas MacArthur returns to Manila . February 8 – The Alaska Anti-Discrimination Act of 1945, championed by charismatic native leader Elizabeth Peratrovich , is passed by the territorial Senate, after the legislature defeated a previous bill in 1943. February 9 Walter Ulbricht becomes leader of the German Communists in Moscow. WWII: " Black Friday ": A force of Allied Bristol Beaufighter aircraft suffers heavy casualties in an unsuccessful attack on German destroyer Z33 and escorting vessels sheltering in Førde Fjord , Norway. Walter Ulbricht becomes leader of the German Communists in Moscow. WWII: " Black Friday ": A force of Allied Bristol Beaufighter aircraft suffers heavy casualties in an unsuccessful attack on German destroyer Z33 and escorting vessels sheltering in Førde Fjord , Norway. February 10 – WWII: German troopship SS General von Steuben is sunk by the Soviet submarine S-13 ; 3,608 drown. [ 10 ] February 10 – 20 – WWII: Operation Kita : The Imperial Japanese Navy returns "Completion Force", containing both its Ise -class battleships , safely from Singapore to Kure in Japan despite Allied attacks. February 12 – A devastating tornado outbreak in Mississippi and Alabama kills 45 people and injures 427 others. [ 11 ] February 13 – WWII: The Budapest Offensive and the Siege of Budapest end with Nazi troops surrendering Budapest (Hungary) to Soviet -Romanian forces. Bombing of Dresden (Germany) by the British Royal Air Force and United States Army Air Forces ; 25,000-35,000 are estimated to have died. The Budapest Offensive and the Siege of Budapest end with Nazi troops surrendering Budapest (Hungary) to Soviet -Romanian forces. Bombing of Dresden (Germany) by the British Royal Air Force and United States Army Air Forces ; 25,000-35,000 are estimated to have died. February 16 – WWII: The Bombing of Wesel begins, destroying 97% of the town over three days. American and Filipino ground forces land on Corregidor Island in the Philippines . Combined American and Filipino forces recapture the Bataan Peninsula. Venezuela declares war on Germany. The Bombing of Wesel begins, destroying 97% of the town over three days. American and Filipino ground forces land on Corregidor Island in the Philippines . Combined American and Filipino forces recapture the Bataan Peninsula. Venezuela declares war on Germany. February 18 – March 5 – WWII: American and Brazilian troops kick off Operation Encore in Northern Italy, a successful limited action in the Northern Apennines that prepares for the western portion of the Allied Spring offensive . [ 12 ] February 19 – 20 – 980 (actual figure is disputed) [ 13 ] Japanese soldiers die as a result of being attacked by long saltwater crocodiles in Ramree, Burma . [ 14 ] February 19 – WWII: Battle of Iwo Jima – About 30,000 United States Marines land on Iwo Jima . February 21 – The last V-2 rocket is launched from Peenemünde . February 22 – WWII: Italian Front : The Battle of Monte Castello ends after nearly three months of fighting when the Brazilian Expeditionary Force expels German forces from a pivot point in the (Tuscan) North Apennines where their artillery was impeding the advance of the British Eighth Army toward Bologna . Uruguay declares war on Germany and Japan. Italian Front : The Battle of Monte Castello ends after nearly three months of fighting when the Brazilian Expeditionary Force expels German forces from a pivot point in the (Tuscan) North Apennines where their artillery was impeding the advance of the British Eighth Army toward Bologna . Uruguay declares war on Germany and Japan. February 23 – WWII: Battle of Iwo Jima : A group of United States Marines reach the top of Mount Suribachi on the island, and are photographed raising the American flag . The photo, Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima (taken by Joe Rosenthal ), later wins a Pulitzer Prize . The 11th Airborne Division , with Filipino guerrillas, free the captives of the Los Baños internment camp. The capital of the Philippines , Manila, is liberated by combined American and Filipino ground troops. The suburb of Intramuros is devastated. [ 15 ] The German garrison in Poznań capitulates to Red Army and Polish troops. Bombing of Pforzheim : The heaviest of a series of bombing raids on Pforzheim , Germany by Allied aircraft is carried out by the British Royal Air Force . As many as 17,600 people, or 31.4% of the town's population, are killed in the raid and about 83% of the town's buildings destroyed, two-thirds of its complete area and between 80 and 100% of the inner city. Turkey joins the war on the side of the Allies . Battle of Iwo Jima : A group of United States Marines reach the top of Mount Suribachi on the island, and are photographed raising the American flag . The photo, Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima (taken by Joe Rosenthal ), later wins a Pulitzer Prize . The 11th Airborne Division , with Filipino guerrillas, free the captives of the Los Baños internment camp. The capital of the Philippines , Manila, is liberated by combined American and Filipino ground troops. The suburb of Intramuros is devastated. [ 15 ] The German garrison in Poznań capitulates to Red Army and Polish troops. Bombing of Pforzheim : The heaviest of a series of bombing raids on Pforzheim , Germany by Allied aircraft is carried out by the British Royal Air Force . As many as 17,600 people, or 31.4% of the town's population, are killed in the raid and about 83% of the town's buildings destroyed, two-thirds of its complete area and between 80 and 100% of the inner city. Turkey joins the war on the side of the Allies . February 24 – Egyptian premier Ahmad Mahir Pasha is assassinated in Parliament after declaring war on Germany and Japan. February 27 – The Bombing of Mainz results in 1,209 confirmed dead; 80% of the city is destroyed. February 28 – In Bucharest , a violent demonstration takes place, during which the Bolşevic group opens fire on the army and protesters. In response, Andrei Y. Vishinsky , USSR vice commissioner of foreign affairs and president of the Allied Control Commission for Romania , travels to Bucharest to compel Nicolae Rădescu to resign as premier. March March 1 – President Franklin D. Roosevelt gives what will be his last address to a joint session of the United States Congress , reporting on the Yalta Conference . March 2 Former U.S. vice-president Henry A. Wallace starts his term of office as United States Secretary of Commerce , serving under President Franklin D. Roosevelt . The rocket-propelled Bachem Ba 349 Natter is first test launched at Stetten am kalten Markt . The launch fails and the pilot, Lothar Sieber , dies. [ 16 ] WWII: Allied troops lead by 10th Armored Division captures Trier oldest city in Germany. [ 17 ] Former U.S. vice-president Henry A. Wallace starts his term of office as United States Secretary of Commerce , serving under President Franklin D. Roosevelt . The rocket-propelled Bachem Ba 349 Natter is first test launched at Stetten am kalten Markt . The launch fails and the pilot, Lothar Sieber , dies. [ 16 ] WWII: Allied troops lead by 10th Armored Division captures Trier oldest city in Germany. [ 17 ] March 3 – WWII: Finland declares war on the Axis powers . United States and Filipino troops take Manila , Philippines . Pawłokoma massacre : A Polish Home Army unit massacres between 150 and 500 Ukrainian civilians in the Polish village of Pawłokoma . Bombing of the Bezuidenhout : The British Royal Air Force accidentally bombs the Bezuidenhout neighbourhood in The Hague , Netherlands, killing 511 people. Finland declares war on the Axis powers . United States and Filipino troops take Manila , Philippines . Pawłokoma massacre : A Polish Home Army unit massacres between 150 and 500 Ukrainian civilians in the Polish village of Pawłokoma . Bombing of the Bezuidenhout : The British Royal Air Force accidentally bombs the Bezuidenhout neighbourhood in The Hague , Netherlands, killing 511 people. March 4 In the United Kingdom, Princess Elizabeth (later Queen Elizabeth II), joins the Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS) as a truck driver/mechanic in London. The Swiss cities of Basel and Zürich are accidentally bombed by the United States. [ 18 ] In the United Kingdom, Princess Elizabeth (later Queen Elizabeth II), joins the Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS) as a truck driver/mechanic in London. The Swiss cities of Basel and Zürich are accidentally bombed by the United States. [ 18 ] March 5 – WWII: Brazilian troops take Castelnuovo ( Vergato ), in the last operations of the Allied Operation Encore . March 6 A Communist-led government is formed in Romania under Petru Groza , following Soviet intervention. Resistance fighters accidentally ambush and attempt to execute SS general Hanns Albin Rauter , the arch-persecutor of the Dutch. A Communist-led government is formed in Romania under Petru Groza , following Soviet intervention. Resistance fighters accidentally ambush and attempt to execute SS general Hanns Albin Rauter , the arch-persecutor of the Dutch. March 7 WWII: At the end of Operation Lumberjack , American troops seize the Ludendorff Bridge over the Rhine at Remagen , Germany and begin to cross; in the next 10 days, 25,000 troops with equipment are able to cross. 10th Armored Division captures city of Cologne [ 19 ] WWII: At the end of Operation Lumberjack , American troops seize the Ludendorff Bridge over the Rhine at Remagen , Germany and begin to cross; in the next 10 days, 25,000 troops with equipment are able to cross. 10th Armored Division captures city of Cologne [ 19 ] March 8 Josip Broz Tito forms a Provisional Government of the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia , in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . Nazi authorities kill 117 Dutch men, in reprisal for the attempted murder of Hanns Albin Rauter . Operation Sunrise : Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff meets with Allen Welsh Dulles of the United States Office of Strategic Services at Lucerne , Switzerland, to negotiate the surrender of the Axis forces in Italy to the Allies . Josip Broz Tito forms a Provisional Government of the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia , in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . Nazi authorities kill 117 Dutch men, in reprisal for the attempted murder of Hanns Albin Rauter . Operation Sunrise : Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff meets with Allen Welsh Dulles of the United States Office of Strategic Services at Lucerne , Switzerland, to negotiate the surrender of the Axis forces in Italy to the Allies . March 9 – 10 – WWII: Bombing of Tokyo : USAAF B-29 bombers attack Tokyo, Japan, with incendiary bombs , killing 100,000 citizens in the firebombing. It is the single most destructive conventional air attack of the war. March 11 The Empire of Japan establishes the Empire of Vietnam , a puppet state which will last only until August 23, with Bảo Đại as its ruler. The Sammarinese general election gives San Marino the world's first democratically elected communist government, which will hold power until 1957 . [ 20 ] The Empire of Japan establishes the Empire of Vietnam , a puppet state which will last only until August 23, with Bảo Đại as its ruler. The Sammarinese general election gives San Marino the world's first democratically elected communist government, which will hold power until 1957 . [ 20 ] March 12 – WWII: Swinemünde is destroyed by the USAAF, killing an estimated 8,000 to 23,000 civilians, mostly refugees saved by Operation Hannibal . March 15 – 31 – WWII: The Soviet Red Army carries out the Upper Silesian Offensive . March 15 – The 17th Academy Awards ceremony is held, broadcast via radio in the United States for the first time. Best Picture goes to Going My Way . March 16 – WWII: The Battle of Iwo Jima unofficially ends. The Bombing of Würzburg , as part of the Allied strategic bombing campaign against Nazi Germany, destroys 89% of the city and causes 4,000 deaths. The Battle of Iwo Jima unofficially ends. The Bombing of Würzburg , as part of the Allied strategic bombing campaign against Nazi Germany, destroys 89% of the city and causes 4,000 deaths. March 17 – WWII: Kobe , Japan is fire-bombed by 331 B-29 bombers, killing over 8,000 people. March 18 – WWII: The 40th Infantry Division, spearheaded by the 185th US Infantry Regiment, lands unopposed in Tigbauan forcing the Japanese forces to surrender and General Macario Peralta and Gen. Gen. Eichelberger to declare the Liberation of Panay, Romblon and Guimaras . [ 21 ] 1,250 American bombers attack Berlin. [ 22 ] Battle of Kolberg concludes with the Baltic seaport (designated a key Festung (fortress) by the Germans) taken by Polish and Soviet forces and ethnic Germans evacuated or expelled. [ 23 ] The 40th Infantry Division, spearheaded by the 185th US Infantry Regiment, lands unopposed in Tigbauan forcing the Japanese forces to surrender and General Macario Peralta and Gen. Gen. Eichelberger to declare the Liberation of Panay, Romblon and Guimaras . [ 21 ] 1,250 American bombers attack Berlin. [ 22 ] Battle of Kolberg concludes with the Baltic seaport (designated a key Festung (fortress) by the Germans) taken by Polish and Soviet forces and ethnic Germans evacuated or expelled. [ 23 ] March 19 – WWII: Adolf Hitler issues the " Nero Decree " ordering that all industries, military installations, machine shops, transportation facilities and communications facilities in Germany be destroyed ahead of Allied advances, but Albert Speer , placed in charge of the implementation, deliberately disobeys it. Off the coast of Japan, bombers hit the aircraft carrier USS Franklin , killing about 800 of her crewmen and crippling the ship. Adolf Hitler issues the " Nero Decree " ordering that all industries, military installations, machine shops, transportation facilities and communications facilities in Germany be destroyed ahead of Allied advances, but Albert Speer , placed in charge of the implementation, deliberately disobeys it. Off the coast of Japan, bombers hit the aircraft carrier USS Franklin , killing about 800 of her crewmen and crippling the ship. March 20 – WWII: Hitler dismisses Heinrich Himmler from his military command. [ 3 ] March 21 – WWII: British troops liberate Mandalay , Burma . Bulgarian and Soviet troops successfully defend the north bank of the Drava River , as the Battle of the Transdanubian Hills concludes. British troops liberate Mandalay , Burma . Bulgarian and Soviet troops successfully defend the north bank of the Drava River , as the Battle of the Transdanubian Hills concludes. March 22 The Arab League is formed, with the adoption of a charter in Cairo , Egypt. The Cathedral and the historic centre of Hildesheim in Germany are destroyed in a bombing of the city . The Arab League is formed, with the adoption of a charter in Cairo , Egypt. The Cathedral and the historic centre of Hildesheim in Germany are destroyed in a bombing of the city . March 24 WWII: Operation Varsity – Two airborne divisions capture bridges across the river Rhine to aid the Allied advance. The cartoon character Sylvester the cat debuts in Life with Feathers . WWII: Operation Varsity – Two airborne divisions capture bridges across the river Rhine to aid the Allied advance. The cartoon character Sylvester the cat debuts in Life with Feathers . March 26 – WWII: The Battle of Iwo Jima officially ends, with the destruction of the remaining areas of Japanese resistance, although there are Japanese holdouts here until 1949. March 27 – WWII: The United States Army Air Forces begins Operation Starvation , laying naval mines in many of Japan's seaways. Argentina declares war on Germany and Japan . The United States Army Air Forces begins Operation Starvation , laying naval mines in many of Japan's seaways. Argentina declares war on Germany and Japan . March 29 WWII: The Red Army almost destroys the German 4th Army , in the Heiligenbeil Pocket in East Prussia . WWII: American troops lead by 5th Infantry Division and 6th Armored Division captures city of Frankfurt after three days of battle [ 24 ] The "Clash of Titans": George Mikan and Bob Kurland duel at Madison Square Garden in New York, as Oklahoma State University defeats DePaul 52–44 in basketball . WWII: The Red Army almost destroys the German 4th Army , in the Heiligenbeil Pocket in East Prussia . WWII: American troops lead by 5th Infantry Division and 6th Armored Division captures city of Frankfurt after three days of battle [ 24 ] The "Clash of Titans": George Mikan and Bob Kurland duel at Madison Square Garden in New York, as Oklahoma State University defeats DePaul 52–44 in basketball . March 30 – WWII: The Red Army pushes most of the Axis forces out of Hungary into Austria. American official Alger Hiss is congratulated in Moscow for his part in bringing the positions of the Western powers and the Soviet Union closer to each other, at the Yalta Conference . The Red Army pushes most of the Axis forces out of Hungary into Austria. American official Alger Hiss is congratulated in Moscow for his part in bringing the positions of the Western powers and the Soviet Union closer to each other, at the Yalta Conference . April April 1 – WWII: Battle of Okinawa : The Tenth United States Army lands on Okinawa . April 4 – WWII: American troops liberate their first Nazi concentration camp, Ohrdruf extermination camp in Germany. The Soviet Red Army enters Bratislava and pushes to the outskirts of Vienna , taking it on April 13, after several days of intense fighting. American troops liberate their first Nazi concentration camp, Ohrdruf extermination camp in Germany. The Soviet Red Army enters Bratislava and pushes to the outskirts of Vienna , taking it on April 13, after several days of intense fighting. April 6 – WWII: Sarajevo is liberated from Nazi Germany and the Independent State of Croatia (a fascist puppet state ) by Yugoslav Partisans . The Battle of Slater's Knoll on Bougainville Island concludes with a decisive victory for the Australian Army 's 7th Brigade . Allied forces reach Merkers Salt Mines in Thuringia where gold reserves of the Nazi German Reichsbank and art treasures are stored. Sarajevo is liberated from Nazi Germany and the Independent State of Croatia (a fascist puppet state ) by Yugoslav Partisans . The Battle of Slater's Knoll on Bougainville Island concludes with a decisive victory for the Australian Army 's 7th Brigade . Allied forces reach Merkers Salt Mines in Thuringia where gold reserves of the Nazi German Reichsbank and art treasures are stored. April 7 – WWII: The only flight of the German ramming unit known as Sonderkommando Elbe takes place, resulting in the loss of some 24 B-17s and B-24s of the United States Eighth Air Force . Japanese battleship Yamato and nine other warships take part in Operation Ten-Go , a suicide attack on Allied forces engaged in the Battle of Okinawa. Yamato is sunk by U.S. Navy aircraft in the East China Sea 200 miles (320 km) north of Okinawa with the loss of 2,055 of 2,332 crew, together with five other Japanese warships. Kantarō Suzuki becomes Prime Minister of Japan . The only flight of the German ramming unit known as Sonderkommando Elbe takes place, resulting in the loss of some 24 B-17s and B-24s of the United States Eighth Air Force . Japanese battleship Yamato and nine other warships take part in Operation Ten-Go , a suicide attack on Allied forces engaged in the Battle of Okinawa. Yamato is sunk by U.S. Navy aircraft in the East China Sea 200 miles (320 km) north of Okinawa with the loss of 2,055 of 2,332 crew, together with five other Japanese warships. Kantarō Suzuki becomes Prime Minister of Japan . April 8 – The SS begins to evacuate the Buchenwald concentration camp ; inmates in the Buchenwald Resistance call for American aid, and overpower and kill the remaining guards. April 9 WWII: The Battle of Königsberg , in East Prussia , ends with Soviet forces capturing the city. Abwehr conspirators Wilhelm Canaris , Hans Oster and Hans von Dohnányi are hanged at Flossenberg concentration camp, along with pastor Dietrich Bonhoeffer . Johann Georg Elser , would-be assassin of Adolf Hitler , is executed at Dachau concentration camp . WWII: The Battle of Königsberg , in East Prussia , ends with Soviet forces capturing the city. Abwehr conspirators Wilhelm Canaris , Hans Oster and Hans von Dohnányi are hanged at Flossenberg concentration camp, along with pastor Dietrich Bonhoeffer . Johann Georg Elser , would-be assassin of Adolf Hitler , is executed at Dachau concentration camp . April 10 – WWII: Visoko is liberated by the 7th, 9th and 17th Krajina Brigades from the Tenth Division of Yugoslav Partisan forces. American troops lead by 84th Division captures city of Hanover after thousands of German troops surrenders [ 25 ] Visoko is liberated by the 7th, 9th and 17th Krajina Brigades from the Tenth Division of Yugoslav Partisan forces. American troops lead by 84th Division captures city of Hanover after thousands of German troops surrenders [ 25 ] April 11 – Buchenwald concentration camp is liberated by the United States Army . April 12 Vice President Harry S. Truman becomes the 33rd president of the United States upon the death of President Franklin D. Roosevelt at the Little White House in Warm Springs, Georgia of an intracerebral hemorrhage . President Truman is sworn in later this evening in the White House . A devastating tornado outbreak occurs across the United States, which kills 128 people and injures over 1,000 others. This is heavily overshadowed by the death of President Roosevelt. [ 26 ] WWII: The U.S. Ninth Army under General William H. Simpson crosses the Elbe River astride Magdeburg , and reaches Tangermünde — only 50 miles from Berlin . Richard Strauss completes composition of his Metamorphosen . Vice President Harry S. Truman becomes the 33rd president of the United States upon the death of President Franklin D. Roosevelt at the Little White House in Warm Springs, Georgia of an intracerebral hemorrhage . President Truman is sworn in later this evening in the White House . A devastating tornado outbreak occurs across the United States, which kills 128 people and injures over 1,000 others. This is heavily overshadowed by the death of President Roosevelt. [ 26 ] WWII: The U.S. Ninth Army under General William H. Simpson crosses the Elbe River astride Magdeburg , and reaches Tangermünde — only 50 miles from Berlin . Richard Strauss completes composition of his Metamorphosen . April 14 – WWII: The First Canadian Army assumes military control of the Netherlands, where German forces are trapped in the Atlantic Wall fortifications along the coastline. [ 27 ] Razing of Friesoythe : The 4th Canadian (Armoured) Division deliberately destroys the German town of Friesoythe , on the orders of Major General Christopher Vokes . Bombing of Potsdam The First Canadian Army assumes military control of the Netherlands, where German forces are trapped in the Atlantic Wall fortifications along the coastline. [ 27 ] Razing of Friesoythe : The 4th Canadian (Armoured) Division deliberately destroys the German town of Friesoythe , on the orders of Major General Christopher Vokes . Bombing of Potsdam April 15 – WWII: The Bergen-Belsen concentration camp is liberated by British and Canadian forces. The Canadian First Army reaches the coast in the northern Netherlands , and captures Arnhem . The Bergen-Belsen concentration camp is liberated by British and Canadian forces. The Canadian First Army reaches the coast in the northern Netherlands , and captures Arnhem . April 16 – WWII: The Battle of Berlin begins, opening with the Red Army launching the Battle of the Oder–Neisse and the Battle of the Seelow Heights . Canadian forces take Harlingen and occupy Leeuwarden and Groningen in the Netherlands. MV Goya is sunk by Soviet submarine L-3 in the Baltic Sea while evacuating German troops and civilians as part of Operation Hannibal ; 7,000–8,000 drown. Death marches from Flossenbürg concentration camp begin. The Battle of Berlin begins, opening with the Red Army launching the Battle of the Oder–Neisse and the Battle of the Seelow Heights . Canadian forces take Harlingen and occupy Leeuwarden and Groningen in the Netherlands. MV Goya is sunk by Soviet submarine L-3 in the Baltic Sea while evacuating German troops and civilians as part of Operation Hannibal ; 7,000–8,000 drown. Death marches from Flossenbürg concentration camp begin. April 17 – WWII: Battle of Montese : Brazilian forces liberate the town of Montese , Italy, from German forces. Inundation of the Wieringermeer in the Netherlands by occupying German forces. Battle of Montese : Brazilian forces liberate the town of Montese , Italy, from German forces. Inundation of the Wieringermeer in the Netherlands by occupying German forces. April 18 – American war correspondent Ernie Pyle is killed by Japanese machine gun fire on the island of Ie Shima off Okinawa . April 19 – Rodgers and Hammerstein 's Carousel , a musical play based on Ferenc Molnár 's Liliom , opens on Broadway , and becomes their second long-running stage classic. It includes the standard " You'll Never Walk Alone ". April 20 – WWII: On his 56th birthday, Adolf Hitler leaves his Führerbunker , to decorate a group of Hitler Youth soldiers in Berlin. It will be his last trip to the surface from his underground bunker. The German city of Nuremberg , previously the site of the Nuremberg rallies , is occupied by American troops. American troops lead by 2nd Infantry Division and 69th Infantry Division captures city of Leipzig [ 28 ] " Morotai Mutiny ": members of the Australian First Tactical Air Force based on the island of Morotai in the Dutch East Indies tender their resignations to protest their belief that they are being assigned to missions of no military importance and in which they are not specialists; a subsequent inquiry effectively vindicates them. [ 29 ] On his 56th birthday, Adolf Hitler leaves his Führerbunker , to decorate a group of Hitler Youth soldiers in Berlin. It will be his last trip to the surface from his underground bunker. The German city of Nuremberg , previously the site of the Nuremberg rallies , is occupied by American troops. American troops lead by 2nd Infantry Division and 69th Infantry Division captures city of Leipzig [ 28 ] " Morotai Mutiny ": members of the Australian First Tactical Air Force based on the island of Morotai in the Dutch East Indies tender their resignations to protest their belief that they are being assigned to missions of no military importance and in which they are not specialists; a subsequent inquiry effectively vindicates them. [ 29 ] April 22 – WWII: Heinrich Himmler , through Folke Bernadotte , Count of Wisborg, puts forth an offer of German surrender to the Western Allies, but not the Soviet Union. Adolf Hitler finally concedes that "everything is lost" [ 30 ] at a meeting in the Führerbunker after learning that SS-Obergruppenführer Felix Steiner cannot mobilize enough men to launch a counterattack on the Soviet forces which are surrounding Berlin. Heinrich Himmler , through Folke Bernadotte , Count of Wisborg, puts forth an offer of German surrender to the Western Allies, but not the Soviet Union. Adolf Hitler finally concedes that "everything is lost" [ 30 ] at a meeting in the Führerbunker after learning that SS-Obergruppenführer Felix Steiner cannot mobilize enough men to launch a counterattack on the Soviet forces which are surrounding Berlin. April 23 – WWII: Hermann Göring sends the Göring telegram to Hitler, seeking confirmation that he should take over leadership of Germany, in accordance with the decree of June 29, 1941. Hitler regards this as treason. The main Flossenbürg concentration camp is liberated by the United States Army. Hermann Göring sends the Göring telegram to Hitler, seeking confirmation that he should take over leadership of Germany, in accordance with the decree of June 29, 1941. Hitler regards this as treason. The main Flossenbürg concentration camp is liberated by the United States Army. April 24 – WWII: Battle of Berlin : Red Army troops complete encirclement of Berlin. [ 31 ] Retreating German troops destroy all the bridges over the Adige in Verona , including the historic Ponte di Castelvecchio and Ponte Pietra . Battle of Berlin : Red Army troops complete encirclement of Berlin. [ 31 ] Retreating German troops destroy all the bridges over the Adige in Verona , including the historic Ponte di Castelvecchio and Ponte Pietra . April 25 Founding negotiations for the United Nations begin in San Francisco . WWII – Elbe Day : United States and Soviet troops link up at the river Elbe , cutting Germany in two. Founding negotiations for the United Nations begin in San Francisco . WWII – Elbe Day : United States and Soviet troops link up at the river Elbe , cutting Germany in two. April 25 – 26 – WWII: The last major strategic bombing raid by RAF Bomber Command , the destruction of the oil refinery at Tønsberg in southern Norway, is carried out by 107 Avro Lancasters . April 26 – WWII: Battle of Bautzen : The last "successful" German panzer-offensive in Bautzen ends with the city recaptured. The British 3rd Infantry Division , under General Whistler , captures Bremen. [ 32 ] Nazi surrenders mean the British and Canadians now control the German border with Switzerland, from Basel to Lake Constance . Battle of Bautzen : The last "successful" German panzer-offensive in Bautzen ends with the city recaptured. The British 3rd Infantry Division , under General Whistler , captures Bremen. [ 32 ] Nazi surrenders mean the British and Canadians now control the German border with Switzerland, from Basel to Lake Constance . April 27 The last German formations withdraw from Finland to Norway. The Lapland War and thus, World War II in Finland , comes to an end and the Raising the Flag on the Three-Country Cairn photograph is taken. The provisional government of Austria headed by Karl Renner asserts its independence from Germany. [ 33 ] U.S. Ordnance troops find the coffins of Frederick William I of Prussia , Frederick the Great , Paul von Hindenburg and his wife in a salt mine in Germany. [ 34 ] The last German formations withdraw from Finland to Norway. The Lapland War and thus, World War II in Finland , comes to an end and the Raising the Flag on the Three-Country Cairn photograph is taken. The provisional government of Austria headed by Karl Renner asserts its independence from Germany. [ 33 ] U.S. Ordnance troops find the coffins of Frederick William I of Prussia , Frederick the Great , Paul von Hindenburg and his wife in a salt mine in Germany. [ 34 ] April 28 The bodies of Benito Mussolini , his mistress, Clara Petacci , and other followers are hung by their heels at a gas station in the public square of Milan , Piazzale Loreto, following their execution by Italian partisans after an attempt to flee the country. The Canadian First Army captures Emden and Wilhelmshaven . The bodies of Benito Mussolini , his mistress, Clara Petacci , and other followers are hung by their heels at a gas station in the public square of Milan , Piazzale Loreto, following their execution by Italian partisans after an attempt to flee the country. The Canadian First Army captures Emden and Wilhelmshaven . April 29 At the royal palace in Caserta , Lieutenant-Colonel Viktor von Schweinitz (representing General Heinrich von Vietinghoff ) and SS- Obersturmbannführer Eugen Wenner (representing Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff ) sign an unconditional instrument of surrender for all Axis powers forces in Italy, taking effect on May 2 . Italian General Rodolfo Graziani orders the Esercito Nazionale Repubblicano forces under his command to lay down their arms. [ 35 ] Dachau concentration camp is surrendered to U.S. forces, who kill SS guards at the camp and the nearby hamlet of Webling. [ 36 ] Brazilian forces liberate the commune of Fornovo di Taro , Italy, from German forces. Operation Manna : British Avro Lancaster bombers drop food into the Netherlands to prevent the starvation of the civilian population. Soviet soldiers hoist the Red flag over the Reich Chancellery in Berlin. Adolf Hitler marries his longtime mistress Eva Braun , in a closed civil ceremony in the Berlin Führerbunker , and signs his last will and testament . At the royal palace in Caserta , Lieutenant-Colonel Viktor von Schweinitz (representing General Heinrich von Vietinghoff ) and SS- Obersturmbannführer Eugen Wenner (representing Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff ) sign an unconditional instrument of surrender for all Axis powers forces in Italy, taking effect on May 2 . Italian General Rodolfo Graziani orders the Esercito Nazionale Repubblicano forces under his command to lay down their arms. [ 35 ] Dachau concentration camp is surrendered to U.S. forces, who kill SS guards at the camp and the nearby hamlet of Webling. [ 36 ] Brazilian forces liberate the commune of Fornovo di Taro , Italy, from German forces. Operation Manna : British Avro Lancaster bombers drop food into the Netherlands to prevent the starvation of the civilian population. Soviet soldiers hoist the Red flag over the Reich Chancellery in Berlin. Adolf Hitler marries his longtime mistress Eva Braun , in a closed civil ceremony in the Berlin Führerbunker , and signs his last will and testament . April 30 – WWII: Death of Adolf Hitler : Adolf Hitler and his wife of one day, Eva Braun , commit suicide as the Red Army approaches the Führerbunker in Berlin. Großadmiral Karl Dönitz succeeds Hitler as Reichspräsident (President of Germany) and Joseph Goebbels succeeds as Reichskanzler (Chancellor of Germany) , in accordance with Hitler's political testament the day earlier. American forces enter the Bavarian capital of Munich . Death of Adolf Hitler : Adolf Hitler and his wife of one day, Eva Braun , commit suicide as the Red Army approaches the Führerbunker in Berlin. Großadmiral Karl Dönitz succeeds Hitler as Reichspräsident (President of Germany) and Joseph Goebbels succeeds as Reichskanzler (Chancellor of Germany) , in accordance with Hitler's political testament the day earlier. American forces enter the Bavarian capital of Munich . May May – Interpol (being headquartered in Berlin) effectively ceases to exist (it is recreated on June 3 , 1946 ). May 1 – WWII: Reichssender Hamburg 's Flensburg radio station announces that Hitler has died in battle, "fighting up to his last breath against Bolshevism ." Joseph Goebbels carries out his sole official act as Chancellor of Germany, dictating a letter to the Soviet commander in Berlin advising of Hitler's death and requesting a ceasefire. When the latter is refused, he and his wife Magda kill their six children and commit suicide themselves. Karl Dönitz appoints Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk as the new de facto Chancellor of Germany , in the Flensburg Government . Troops of the Yugoslav 4th Army, together with the Slovene 9th Corpus NOV, enter Trieste . Mass suicide in Demmin : An estimated 700–2,500 suicides take place, after 80% of the town has been destroyed by the Soviets during the past three days. Reichssender Hamburg 's Flensburg radio station announces that Hitler has died in battle, "fighting up to his last breath against Bolshevism ." Joseph Goebbels carries out his sole official act as Chancellor of Germany, dictating a letter to the Soviet commander in Berlin advising of Hitler's death and requesting a ceasefire. When the latter is refused, he and his wife Magda kill their six children and commit suicide themselves. Karl Dönitz appoints Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk as the new de facto Chancellor of Germany , in the Flensburg Government . Troops of the Yugoslav 4th Army, together with the Slovene 9th Corpus NOV, enter Trieste . Mass suicide in Demmin : An estimated 700–2,500 suicides take place, after 80% of the town has been destroyed by the Soviets during the past three days. May 2 – WWII: The Soviet Union announces the fall of Berlin . The famous picture of Raising a Flag over the Reichstag was taken at this date. Lübeck is liberated by the British Army . The surrender of Axis troops in Italy comes into effect. A Holocaust death march from Dachau to the Austrian border is halted under two kilometers west of Waakirchen by the segregated, all- Nisei 522nd Field Artillery Battalion of the U.S. Army in southern Bavaria, saving several hundred prisoners. [ 37 ] Troops of the New Zealand Army 2nd Division enter Trieste a day after the Yugoslavs ; the German Army in Trieste surrenders to the New Zealand Army . Following the death or resignation of the Hitler Cabinet in Germany, the Schwerin von Krosigk cabinet first meets. Neuengamme concentration camp near Hamburg is evacuated at about this date. Expatriate American poet Ezra Pound is arrested by the Italian resistance movement but soon released by them as of no interest; on May 5 he turns himself in to the United States Army and is imprisoned as a traitor. The Soviet Union announces the fall of Berlin . The famous picture of Raising a Flag over the Reichstag was taken at this date. Lübeck is liberated by the British Army . The surrender of Axis troops in Italy comes into effect. A Holocaust death march from Dachau to the Austrian border is halted under two kilometers west of Waakirchen by the segregated, all- Nisei 522nd Field Artillery Battalion of the U.S. Army in southern Bavaria, saving several hundred prisoners. [ 37 ] Troops of the New Zealand Army 2nd Division enter Trieste a day after the Yugoslavs ; the German Army in Trieste surrenders to the New Zealand Army . Following the death or resignation of the Hitler Cabinet in Germany, the Schwerin von Krosigk cabinet first meets. Neuengamme concentration camp near Hamburg is evacuated at about this date. Expatriate American poet Ezra Pound is arrested by the Italian resistance movement but soon released by them as of no interest; on May 5 he turns himself in to the United States Army and is imprisoned as a traitor. May 3 – WWII: The prison ships Cap Arcona (5,000 dead), Thielbek (2,750 dead) and Deutschland (all survive) are sunk by the British Royal Air Force in Lübeck Bay. Rocket scientist Wernher von Braun and 120 members of his team surrender to U.S. forces (later going on to help start the U.S. space program). German Protestant theologian Gerhard Kittel is arrested by the French forces in Tübingen, Germany. Operation Dracula : British troops liberate the Burmese capital of Rangoon from Japanese forces. Capture of Hamburg : British troops of VIII Corps and XII Corps capture city of Hamburg [ 38 ] The prison ships Cap Arcona (5,000 dead), Thielbek (2,750 dead) and Deutschland (all survive) are sunk by the British Royal Air Force in Lübeck Bay. Rocket scientist Wernher von Braun and 120 members of his team surrender to U.S. forces (later going on to help start the U.S. space program). German Protestant theologian Gerhard Kittel is arrested by the French forces in Tübingen, Germany. Operation Dracula : British troops liberate the Burmese capital of Rangoon from Japanese forces. Capture of Hamburg : British troops of VIII Corps and XII Corps capture city of Hamburg [ 38 ] May 4 – WWII: German surrender at Lüneburg Heath : All German armed forces in northwest Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands surrender unconditionally to Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery , effective on May 5 at 08:00 hours British Double (and German) Summer Time. The Netherlands is liberated by British and Canadian troops. [ 39 ] Denmark is liberated. [ 40 ] Admiral Karl Dönitz orders all U-boats to cease offensive operations and return to bases in Norway. [ 41 ] The Holy Crown of Hungary is found in Mattsee , Austria, by the United States Army 86th Infantry Division . The U.S. government keeps the crown in Fort Knox for safekeeping from the Soviets until it is returned to Hungary on January 6 1978 . [ 42 ] German auxiliary cruiser Orion is sunk on her way to Copenhagen carrying refugees, with a loss of over 3,800 lives. American troops captures city of Salzburg [ 43 ] German surrender at Lüneburg Heath : All German armed forces in northwest Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands surrender unconditionally to Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery , effective on May 5 at 08:00 hours British Double (and German) Summer Time. The Netherlands is liberated by British and Canadian troops. [ 39 ] Denmark is liberated. [ 40 ] Admiral Karl Dönitz orders all U-boats to cease offensive operations and return to bases in Norway. [ 41 ] The Holy Crown of Hungary is found in Mattsee , Austria, by the United States Army 86th Infantry Division . The U.S. government keeps the crown in Fort Knox for safekeeping from the Soviets until it is returned to Hungary on January 6 1978 . [ 42 ] German auxiliary cruiser Orion is sunk on her way to Copenhagen carrying refugees, with a loss of over 3,800 lives. American troops captures city of Salzburg [ 43 ] May 5 – WWII: Prague uprising : Prague rises up against occupying Nazi forces, encouraged by radio broadcasts (giving rise to the Battle for Czech Radio ). The US 11th Armored Division liberates the prisoners of Mauthausen concentration camp , including Simon Wiesenthal . Canadian soldiers liberate the city of Amsterdam from Nazi occupation. A Japanese fire balloon kills six people, Elsie Mitchell and five children, near Bly, Oregon , when it explodes as they drag it from the woods. These are the only people killed by an enemy attack on the American mainland during WWII. Prague uprising : Prague rises up against occupying Nazi forces, encouraged by radio broadcasts (giving rise to the Battle for Czech Radio ). The US 11th Armored Division liberates the prisoners of Mauthausen concentration camp , including Simon Wiesenthal . Canadian soldiers liberate the city of Amsterdam from Nazi occupation. A Japanese fire balloon kills six people, Elsie Mitchell and five children, near Bly, Oregon , when it explodes as they drag it from the woods. These are the only people killed by an enemy attack on the American mainland during WWII. May 6 WWII: Mildred Gillars ("Axis Sally") delivers her last propaganda broadcast to Allied troops (the first was on December 11, 1941 ). Holocaust : Ebensee concentration camp in Austria is liberated by troops of the 80th Division (United States) . WWII: American troops of 16th Armored Division reaches city of Plzeň in Czech [ 44 ] WWII: Mildred Gillars ("Axis Sally") delivers her last propaganda broadcast to Allied troops (the first was on December 11, 1941 ). Holocaust : Ebensee concentration camp in Austria is liberated by troops of the 80th Division (United States) . WWII: American troops of 16th Armored Division reaches city of Plzeň in Czech [ 44 ] May 6 – 7 – The government of the Independent State of Croatia , the Nazi-affiliated fascist puppet state established in occupied Yugoslavia , flees Zagreb for a location near Klagenfurt in Austria, but is captured in the Bleiburg repatriations that then leads to mass executions. [ 45 ] May 7 – WWII: At 02:41, General Alfred Jodl signs the unconditional German Instrument of Surrender in SHAEF HQ at Reims , France, to end Germany's participation in the war. Surrender is effective on May 8 at 23:01 hours Central European Time (00:01 hours May 9 German Summer Time). This afternoon Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk , Leading Minister in the rump Flensburg Government , makes a broadcast announcing the German surrender and American journalist Edward Kennedy breaks an Allied embargo on news of the signing. [ 46 ] Numerous RAF Lancasters land in Germany to repatriate British prisoners of war. Some 4,500 ex-POWs are flown back to Great Britain over the next 24 hours. At 02:41, General Alfred Jodl signs the unconditional German Instrument of Surrender in SHAEF HQ at Reims , France, to end Germany's participation in the war. Surrender is effective on May 8 at 23:01 hours Central European Time (00:01 hours May 9 German Summer Time). This afternoon Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk , Leading Minister in the rump Flensburg Government , makes a broadcast announcing the German surrender and American journalist Edward Kennedy breaks an Allied embargo on news of the signing. [ 46 ] Numerous RAF Lancasters land in Germany to repatriate British prisoners of war. Some 4,500 ex-POWs are flown back to Great Britain over the next 24 hours. May 8 – WWII: Victory in Europe Day (VE Day) is observed by the western European powers as Nazi Germany surrenders, marking the end of WWII in Europe. Shortly before midnight (May 9 Moscow time) the final German Instrument of Surrender is signed at the seat of the Soviet Military Administration in Berlin- Karlshorst , attended by Allied representatives. Canadian troops move into Amsterdam , after German troops surrender. The surrender of the Dodecanese is signed in Symi . The Prague uprising ends with a ceasefire. The Eighth British Army , together with Slovene partisan troops and a motorized detachment of the Yugoslav 4th Army, arrives in Carinthia and Klagenfurt . The Croatian Armed Forces of the Independent State of Croatia are ordered by their commanders not to surrender to the Yugoslav Partisans , but to attempt to retreat to Austria and surrender to the British, part of the events leading to the Bleiburg repatriations . Hermann Göring surrenders himself to the United States Army near Radstadt . [ 47 ] Victory in Europe Day (VE Day) is observed by the western European powers as Nazi Germany surrenders, marking the end of WWII in Europe. Shortly before midnight (May 9 Moscow time) the final German Instrument of Surrender is signed at the seat of the Soviet Military Administration in Berlin- Karlshorst , attended by Allied representatives. Canadian troops move into Amsterdam , after German troops surrender. The surrender of the Dodecanese is signed in Symi . The Prague uprising ends with a ceasefire. The Eighth British Army , together with Slovene partisan troops and a motorized detachment of the Yugoslav 4th Army, arrives in Carinthia and Klagenfurt . The Croatian Armed Forces of the Independent State of Croatia are ordered by their commanders not to surrender to the Yugoslav Partisans , but to attempt to retreat to Austria and surrender to the British, part of the events leading to the Bleiburg repatriations . Hermann Göring surrenders himself to the United States Army near Radstadt . [ 47 ] May 8 – 29 – Sétif and Guelma massacre : in Algeria , thousands die as French troops and released Italian POWs kill an estimated 6,000 to 40,000 Algerian citizens. May 9 – WWII: The Soviet Union marks VE Day as the Red Army enters Prague. [ 48 ] Vidkun Quisling and other members of the collaborationist Quisling regime in Norway surrender to the Resistance ( Milorg ) and police at Møllergata 19 in Oslo, as part of the legal purge in Norway after World War II . General Alexander Löhr , Commander of German Army Group E near Topolšica, Slovenia , signs the capitulation of German occupation troops. Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : British forces take the surrender of the occupying troops, with Royal Navy ships HMS Bulldog arriving in St Peter Port , Guernsey , and HMS Beagle in St Helier , Jersey . The Soviet Union marks VE Day as the Red Army enters Prague. [ 48 ] Vidkun Quisling and other members of the collaborationist Quisling regime in Norway surrender to the Resistance ( Milorg ) and police at Møllergata 19 in Oslo, as part of the legal purge in Norway after World War II . General Alexander Löhr , Commander of German Army Group E near Topolšica, Slovenia , signs the capitulation of German occupation troops. Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : British forces take the surrender of the occupying troops, with Royal Navy ships HMS Bulldog arriving in St Peter Port , Guernsey , and HMS Beagle in St Helier , Jersey . May 10 – WWII: Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : Occupation of Sark ends, with British forces taking the surrender of the occupying troops and leaving them under the orders of Dame Sibyl Hathaway . May 12 Argentinian labour leader José Peter declares the Meat Industry Workers Federation dissolved. Rev. W. V. Awdry 's children's book The Three Railway Engines , first of The Railway Series , is published in England. Argentinian labour leader José Peter declares the Meat Industry Workers Federation dissolved. Rev. W. V. Awdry 's children's book The Three Railway Engines , first of The Railway Series , is published in England. May 14 – 15 – WWII: Battle of Poljana : The last battle of the War in Europe is fought at Poljana near Slovenj Gradec , Slovenia . May 15 – WWII: Surrender at Bleiburg – Retreating troops of the Croatian Armed Forces of the former puppet Independent State of Croatia (intermingled with fleeing civilians) attempt to surrender to the British Army at Bleiburg , but are directed to surrender to Yugoslav Partisans , who open fire on them. The remainder, after orders are given by Tito , are force-marched through Croatia and Serbia , interned or massacred, with thousands dying. [ 49 ] May 16 – WWII: Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : Occupation of Alderney ends, with British forces taking the surrender of the occupying troops, the civilian population having been evacuated. May 18 – WWII: Operation Unthinkable – British prime minister Winston Churchill secretly requests his military chiefs of staff to consider a plan for British, American and reactivated German forces to attack the Soviet Red Army on July 1 to preserve the independence of Poland. The operation is ruled militarily unfeasible. [ 50 ] May 23 The Flensburg Government is dissolved by the Allies, and German president Karl Dönitz and German chancellor Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk are arrested by British RAF Regiment personnel at Flensburg . They are respectively the last German head of state and head of government until 1949 . Heinrich Himmler , former head of the Nazi SS , commits suicide in British custody. The Flensburg Government is dissolved by the Allies, and German president Karl Dönitz and German chancellor Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk are arrested by British RAF Regiment personnel at Flensburg . They are respectively the last German head of state and head of government until 1949 . Heinrich Himmler , former head of the Nazi SS , commits suicide in British custody. May 28 – U.S.-born Irish-raised William Joyce (" Lord Haw-Haw ") is captured on the German border. He is later charged in London with high treason for his earlier English-language wartime broadcasts from German radio, convicted, and then hanged in January 1946. May 29 German communists, led by Walter Ulbricht , arrive in Berlin. Dutch painter Han van Meegeren is arrested for collaboration with the Nazis, but the "Dutch Golden Age" paintings he has sold to Hermann Göring (Koch) are later proved to be his own fakes. German communists, led by Walter Ulbricht , arrive in Berlin. Dutch painter Han van Meegeren is arrested for collaboration with the Nazis, but the "Dutch Golden Age" paintings he has sold to Hermann Göring (Koch) are later proved to be his own fakes. May 30 – The Iranian government demands that all Soviet and British troops leave the country. June June 1 – The British take over Lebanon and Syria . June 5 – The Allied Control Council , the military occupation governing body of Germany, formally takes power. June 7 – King Haakon VII of Norway returns to Norway five years to the day after leaving for exile in Britain. June 11 William Lyon Mackenzie King is re-elected as Canadian prime minister. The Franck Committee recommends against a surprise nuclear bombing of Japan. [ 51 ] William Lyon Mackenzie King is re-elected as Canadian prime minister. The Franck Committee recommends against a surprise nuclear bombing of Japan. [ 51 ] June 12 – The Yugoslav Army leaves Trieste , leaving the New Zealand Army in control. June 21 – WWII: The Battle of Okinawa ends, with U.S. occupation of the island until 1972 . June 24 – WWII: A victory parade is held in Red Square in Moscow. June 25 – Seán T. O'Kelly is elected the second president of Ireland . June 26 – The United Nations Charter is signed in San Francisco. June 29 – Czechoslovakia cedes Carpathian Ruthenia to the Soviet Union . June 30 – John von Neumann 's First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC is distributed, containing the first published description of the logical design of a computer, with stored-program and instruction data stored in the same address space within the memory ( von Neumann architecture ). July July 1 WWII: Germany is divided between the Allied occupation forces. WWII: Australian and other Allied forces launch an invasion of the east coast of Japanese-occupied Borneo near Balikpapan . WWII: Germany is divided between the Allied occupation forces. WWII: Australian and other Allied forces launch an invasion of the east coast of Japanese-occupied Borneo near Balikpapan . July 2 – The 1945 Sheikh Bashir rebellion breaks out in Burao and Erigavo in British Somaliland , led by Sheikh Bashir , a Somali religious leader. [ 52 ] July 4 – Brazilian cruiser Bahia is sunk by an accidentally induced explosion, killing more than 300 and stranding the survivors in shark-infested waters. July 5 The 1945 United Kingdom general election is held, though some constituencies delay their polls for local holiday reasons. Counting of votes and declaration of results are delayed until July 26 to allow for voting by the large number of service personnel still overseas. John Curtin , 14th Prime Minister of Australia , dies in office from heart failure at the age of 60. He is briefly replaced by his deputy Frank Forde , who serves as the 15th Prime Minister until a Labor Party leadership election is held to replace Curtin. WWII: The Philippines are declared liberated. The 1945 United Kingdom general election is held, though some constituencies delay their polls for local holiday reasons. Counting of votes and declaration of results are delayed until July 26 to allow for voting by the large number of service personnel still overseas. John Curtin , 14th Prime Minister of Australia , dies in office from heart failure at the age of 60. He is briefly replaced by his deputy Frank Forde , who serves as the 15th Prime Minister until a Labor Party leadership election is held to replace Curtin. WWII: The Philippines are declared liberated. July 6 – 7 – Schio massacre : 54 prisoners, mostly fascist sympathisers, are killed by members of the Italian resistance movement in Schio . July 8 – WWII: Harry S. Truman is informed that Japan will talk peace if it can retain the reign of the Emperor. [ 51 ] July 12 – Ben Chifley is elected leader of the Labor Party , and consequently becomes the 16th Prime Minister of Australia , defeating Frank Forde as well as Norman Makin and H.V. Evatt . As a result, Forde becomes the shortest-serving prime minister in Australian history; nevertheless, he retains his post as deputy leader. July 14 – WWII: Italy declares war on Japan. July 16 The Trinity Test , the first of an atomic bomb , using about six kilograms of plutonium , succeeds in unleashing an explosion equivalent to that of 22 kilotons of TNT. A train collision near Munich , Germany kills 102 war prisoners. The Trinity Test , the first of an atomic bomb , using about six kilograms of plutonium , succeeds in unleashing an explosion equivalent to that of 22 kilotons of TNT. A train collision near Munich , Germany kills 102 war prisoners. July 17 – August 2 – WWII: Potsdam Conference – At Potsdam , the three main Allied leaders hold their final summit of the war. President Truman officially informs Stalin that the U.S. has a powerful new weapon. July 21 – WWII: President Harry S. Truman approves the order for atomic bombs to be used against Japan. [ 51 ] July 23 – WWII: French marshal Philippe Pétain , who headed the Vichy government during WWII, goes on trial for treason. July 26 Winston Churchill resigns as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , after his Conservative Party is soundly defeated by the Labour Party in the 1945 general election . Clement Attlee becomes the new prime minister. It is the first time that Labour has governed Britain with a majority in the House of Commons . [ 53 ] The Potsdam Declaration demands Japan's unconditional surrender; Article 12, permitting Japan to retain the reign of the Emperor, has been deleted by President Truman. [ 51 ] Winston Churchill resigns as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , after his Conservative Party is soundly defeated by the Labour Party in the 1945 general election . Clement Attlee becomes the new prime minister. It is the first time that Labour has governed Britain with a majority in the House of Commons . [ 53 ] The Potsdam Declaration demands Japan's unconditional surrender; Article 12, permitting Japan to retain the reign of the Emperor, has been deleted by President Truman. [ 51 ] July 27 – WWII: Bombing of Aomori – Two USAAF B-29s drop a total of 60,000 leaflets on the city of Aomori , Japan, warning civilians of an air raid and urging them to leave immediately. The city was firebombed the next day, killing more than 1,700 people. July 28 WWII: Japan ambiguously rejects the Potsdam Declaration . [ 51 ] A North American B-25 Mitchell crashes into The Empire State Building , killing 14 people. [ 54 ] WWII: Japan ambiguously rejects the Potsdam Declaration . [ 51 ] A North American B-25 Mitchell crashes into The Empire State Building , killing 14 people. [ 54 ] July 29 The BBC Light Programme radio station is launched in the United Kingdom, aimed at mainstream light entertainment and music . WWII: Bombing of Aomori : The Japanese city of Aomori is firebombed by 63 USAAF B-29 heavy bombers , killing 1,767 civilians and destroying 18,045 homes. The BBC Light Programme radio station is launched in the United Kingdom, aimed at mainstream light entertainment and music . WWII: Bombing of Aomori : The Japanese city of Aomori is firebombed by 63 USAAF B-29 heavy bombers , killing 1,767 civilians and destroying 18,045 homes. July 30 – WWII: Heavy cruiser USS Indianapolis is hit and sunk by torpedoes from the Japanese submarine I-58 in the Philippine Sea . Some 900 survivors jump into the sea and are adrift for up to four days. Nearly 600 die before help arrives. Captain Charles B. McVay III of the cruiser is later court-martialed and convicted; in 2000, he is posthumously exonerated. [ 55 ] August August 6 – WWII: Atomic bombing of Hiroshima : United States Boeing B-29 Superfortress Enola Gay drops a uranium-235 atomic bomb , codenamed " Little Boy ", on the Japanese city of Hiroshima at 8:15 a.m. local time, resulting in between 90,000 and 146,000 deaths. August 7 – U.S. President Harry Truman announces the successful atomic bombing of Hiroshima, while he is returning from the Potsdam Conference aboard the U.S. Navy heavy cruiser USS Augusta (CA-31) , in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean. August 8 The United Nations Charter is ratified by the United States Senate, and this nation becomes the third to join the new international organization. WWII: The Soviet Union declares war on Japan. The United Nations Charter is ratified by the United States Senate, and this nation becomes the third to join the new international organization. WWII: The Soviet Union declares war on Japan. August 9 – WWII: Atomic bombing of Nagasaki : United States B-29 Bockscar drops a plutonium-239 atomic bomb, codenamed " Fat Man ", on the Japanese city of Nagasaki at 11:02 a.m. local time, resulting in between 39,000 and 80,000 deaths. The Soviet–Japanese War opens: The Soviet Union begins its army offensive against Japan, in the northern part of the Japanese-held puppet region of Manchuria including the northern peninsula of Korea that became involved with the 25th Army . [ 56 ] Atomic bombing of Nagasaki : United States B-29 Bockscar drops a plutonium-239 atomic bomb, codenamed " Fat Man ", on the Japanese city of Nagasaki at 11:02 a.m. local time, resulting in between 39,000 and 80,000 deaths. The Soviet–Japanese War opens: The Soviet Union begins its army offensive against Japan, in the northern part of the Japanese-held puppet region of Manchuria including the northern peninsula of Korea that became involved with the 25th Army . [ 56 ] August 10 – WWII: Japan offers to surrender to the Allies, "provided this does not prejudice the sovereignty of the Emperor". August 11 WWII: The Allies reply to the Japanese surrender offer by stating that Emperor Hirohito will be subject to the authority of the Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces . The Holocaust : Kraków pogrom – Róża Berger is shot dead by Polish militia. WWII: The Allies reply to the Japanese surrender offer by stating that Emperor Hirohito will be subject to the authority of the Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces . The Holocaust : Kraków pogrom – Róża Berger is shot dead by Polish militia. August 11 – 25 – Soviet troops complete the occupation of Sakhalin . August 13 – The Zionist World Congress approaches the British government to discuss the founding of the country of Israel . August 14 – WWII: Emperor Hirohito accepts the terms of the Potsdam Declaration . His recorded announcement of this is smuggled out of the Tokyo Imperial Palace . At 19:00 hrs in Washington, D.C. (23:00 GMT ), U.S. president Harry S. Truman announces the Japanese surrender. August 15 WWII: Bombing of Kumagaya , Japan, by the United States using conventional bombs, beginning at 00:23. Hirohito surrender broadcast (Gyokuon-hōsō) : Emperor Hirohito 's announcement of the unconditional surrender of Japan is broadcast on the radio a little after noon (12:00 Japan Standard Time is 03:00 GMT). This is probably the first time an Emperor of Japan has been heard by the common people. Delivered in formal classical Japanese , without directly referring to surrender and following official censorship of the country's weak position, the recorded speech is not immediately easily understood by ordinary people. The Allies call this day Victory over Japan Day (V-J Day). This ends the period of Japanese expansionism , and begins the period of the Occupation of Japan and sets the stage for Korean independence. The August Revolution in Vietnam begins, with the Viet Minh taking over the capital Hanoi , taking advantage of the collapse of Japanese power. The Provisional International Civil Aviation Organization is founded, as a specialized agency of the United Nations . WWII: Bombing of Kumagaya , Japan, by the United States using conventional bombs, beginning at 00:23. Hirohito surrender broadcast (Gyokuon-hōsō) : Emperor Hirohito 's announcement of the unconditional surrender of Japan is broadcast on the radio a little after noon (12:00 Japan Standard Time is 03:00 GMT). This is probably the first time an Emperor of Japan has been heard by the common people. Delivered in formal classical Japanese , without directly referring to surrender and following official censorship of the country's weak position, the recorded speech is not immediately easily understood by ordinary people. The Allies call this day Victory over Japan Day (V-J Day). This ends the period of Japanese expansionism , and begins the period of the Occupation of Japan and sets the stage for Korean independence. Bombing of Kumagaya , Japan, by the United States using conventional bombs, beginning at 00:23. Hirohito surrender broadcast (Gyokuon-hōsō) : Emperor Hirohito 's announcement of the unconditional surrender of Japan is broadcast on the radio a little after noon (12:00 Japan Standard Time is 03:00 GMT). This is probably the first time an Emperor of Japan has been heard by the common people. Delivered in formal classical Japanese , without directly referring to surrender and following official censorship of the country's weak position, the recorded speech is not immediately easily understood by ordinary people. The Allies call this day Victory over Japan Day (V-J Day). This ends the period of Japanese expansionism , and begins the period of the Occupation of Japan and sets the stage for Korean independence. The August Revolution in Vietnam begins, with the Viet Minh taking over the capital Hanoi , taking advantage of the collapse of Japanese power. The Provisional International Civil Aviation Organization is founded, as a specialized agency of the United Nations . August 17 Philippines President José P. Laurel issues an Executive Proclamation putting an end to the Second Philippine Republic , thus ending his term as President of the Philippines. Proclamation of Indonesian Independence : Indonesian nationalists Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declare the independence of the Republic of Indonesia , with Sukarno as president and Mohammad Hatta as vice-president, igniting the Indonesian National Revolution against the Dutch Empire . Philippines President José P. Laurel issues an Executive Proclamation putting an end to the Second Philippine Republic , thus ending his term as President of the Philippines. Proclamation of Indonesian Independence : Indonesian nationalists Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declare the independence of the Republic of Indonesia , with Sukarno as president and Mohammad Hatta as vice-president, igniting the Indonesian National Revolution against the Dutch Empire . August 18 – WWII: Death of Subhas Chandra Bose : Indian nationalist leader Subhas Chandra Bose is killed as a result of his overloaded Japanese plane crashing in Japanese Taiwan . August 19 – Chinese Civil War : Mao Zedong and Chiang Kai-shek meet in Chongqing to discuss an end to hostilities between the Communists and the Nationalists . August 22 – Kim Il Sung as the guerilla fighter returned to the Soviet-occupied capital Pyongyang after the Red Army entered the northern peninsula of Korea . August 23 – Soviet–Japanese War : Joseph Stalin orders the detention of Japanese prisoners of war in the Soviet Union . August 25 – Bảo Đại abdicates as Emperor of Vietnam , ending 2,000 years of dynastic and monarchic rule in the country and 143 years of the Nguyễn dynasty , Paris marked the first anniversary of liberation from Nazi rule by the French Resistance as a momentous event at the Battle of Normandy against Dietrich von Choltitz . August 30 – WWII: Vietnam 's capital Hanoi is taken by the Viet Minh , which ends the French occupation in what becomes North Vietnam , and thus the southern provinces become South Vietnam . This ends the August Revolution . August 31 WWII: Allied troops arrest German field marshal Walther von Brauchitsch . A team at American Cyanamid 's Lederle Laboratories, Pearl River, New York , led by Yellapragada Subbarow , announces they have obtained folic acid in a pure crystalline form. [ 57 ] This vitamin is abundant in green leaf vegetables , liver , kidney , and yeast . [ 58 ] WWII: Allied troops arrest German field marshal Walther von Brauchitsch . A team at American Cyanamid 's Lederle Laboratories, Pearl River, New York , led by Yellapragada Subbarow , announces they have obtained folic acid in a pure crystalline form. [ 57 ] This vitamin is abundant in green leaf vegetables , liver , kidney , and yeast . [ 58 ] September September 2 – World War II ends: Japanese general Tomoyuki Yamashita surrenders to Philippine and American forces at Kiangan, Ifugao . The final official Japanese Instrument of Surrender is accepted by the Supreme Allied Commander, General Douglas MacArthur , and Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz for the United States, and delegates from the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, the Netherlands, China, and others from a Japanese delegation led by Mamoru Shigemitsu , on board the American battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay . General Douglas MacArthur is given the title of Supreme Commander Allied Powers , and is also tasked with the occupation of Japan. [ 59 ] The Democratic Republic of Vietnam is officially established, by Ho Chi Minh . [ 59 ] Japanese general Tomoyuki Yamashita surrenders to Philippine and American forces at Kiangan, Ifugao . The final official Japanese Instrument of Surrender is accepted by the Supreme Allied Commander, General Douglas MacArthur , and Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz for the United States, and delegates from the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, the Netherlands, China, and others from a Japanese delegation led by Mamoru Shigemitsu , on board the American battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay . General Douglas MacArthur is given the title of Supreme Commander Allied Powers , and is also tasked with the occupation of Japan. [ 59 ] The Democratic Republic of Vietnam is officially established, by Ho Chi Minh . [ 59 ] September 4 – WWII: Japanese forces surrender on Wake Island , after hearing word of their country's surrender. September 5 Iva Toguri D'Aquino , a Japanese American suspected of being wartime radio propagandist " Tokyo Rose ", is arrested in Yokohama . Russian code clerk Igor Gouzenko comes forward with numerous documents implicating the Soviet Union in many spy rings in North America, both in the United States and in Canada. Iva Toguri D'Aquino , a Japanese American suspected of being wartime radio propagandist " Tokyo Rose ", is arrested in Yokohama . Russian code clerk Igor Gouzenko comes forward with numerous documents implicating the Soviet Union in many spy rings in North America, both in the United States and in Canada. September 8 U.S. troops arrive in Southern Korea , while the Soviet Union occupies the north , with the dividing line being the 38th parallel of latitude. This arrangement proves to be the indirect beginning of a divided Korea, which will lead to the Korean War when North Korea invades in 1950 . The Afghan government defeats a rebel force at Kunar Khas ; Gerald Crichton, the British Charge de 'affairs in Kabul, later describes the victory as the "turning point" of the Afghan tribal revolts of 1944–1947 . [ 60 ] U.S. troops arrive in Southern Korea , while the Soviet Union occupies the north , with the dividing line being the 38th parallel of latitude. This arrangement proves to be the indirect beginning of a divided Korea, which will lead to the Korean War when North Korea invades in 1950 . The Afghan government defeats a rebel force at Kunar Khas ; Gerald Crichton, the British Charge de 'affairs in Kabul, later describes the victory as the "turning point" of the Afghan tribal revolts of 1944–1947 . [ 60 ] September 9 Chairman of the Nationalist Government of China Chiang Kai-shek officially accepts the Japanese capitulation at Nanking . [ 59 ] Japanese troops in Keijō (present day Seoul ) formally relinquish control over Southern Korea to the United States, effectively ending Japan's 35-year rule of Korea. [ 61 ] Chairman of the Nationalist Government of China Chiang Kai-shek officially accepts the Japanese capitulation at Nanking . [ 59 ] Japanese troops in Keijō (present day Seoul ) formally relinquish control over Southern Korea to the United States, effectively ending Japan's 35-year rule of Korea. [ 61 ] September 10 – Vidkun Quisling is sentenced to death for being a Nazi collaborator in Norway. [ 59 ] September 11 Hideki Tojo , Japanese prime minister during most of World War II, attempts to commit suicide to avoid facing an Allied war crimes tribunal. Radio Republik Indonesia starts broadcasting. The Batu Lintang camp in Sarawak , Borneo is liberated by Australian forces. Hideki Tojo , Japanese prime minister during most of World War II, attempts to commit suicide to avoid facing an Allied war crimes tribunal. Radio Republik Indonesia starts broadcasting. The Batu Lintang camp in Sarawak , Borneo is liberated by Australian forces. September 12 Operation Tiderace : The Japanese Army formally surrenders to the British in Singapore . The office of governor-general of Korea is disbanded by the United States Army Military Government in Korea, formally ending Japan's 35-year rule in Korea. Operation Tiderace : The Japanese Army formally surrenders to the British in Singapore . The office of governor-general of Korea is disbanded by the United States Army Military Government in Korea, formally ending Japan's 35-year rule in Korea. September 18 Typhoon Makurazaki kills 3,746 people in Japan. The Japanese Army in Central China officially surrenders to the Chinese, in Wuhan . Typhoon Makurazaki kills 3,746 people in Japan. The Japanese Army in Central China officially surrenders to the Chinese, in Wuhan . September 20 – Mohandas Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru demand that all British troops depart India. September 24 – Postwar anti-Jewish violence in Slovakia : The Topoľčany pogrom is carried out in Czechoslovakia. October October – Arthur C. Clarke puts forward the idea of a geosynchronous communications satellite , in a Wireless World magazine article. October 1 – 15 – Operation Backfire : Three A4 rockets are launched near Cuxhaven , in a demonstration to Allied forces. October 2 – George Albert Smith becomes president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints . October 4 – The Partizan Belgrade sports club is founded in Belgrade , Serbia . October 5 – Hollywood Black Friday : A strike by the Set Decorator's Union in Hollywood results in a riot. October 8 – 15 – Hadamar Trial: Personnel of the Hadamar Euthanasia Centre , now in the American zone of Allied-occupied Germany , are the first to be tried for systematic extermination in Nazi Germany . October 9 – Former prime minister Pierre Laval is sentenced to death, for collaboration with the Nazis in Vichy France . [ 59 ] October 10 – The Nazi Party is dissolved by the Allied Powers. October 14 – Czechoslovakia : A new provisional national assembly is elected, Kim Il Sung made his first major public appearance in Pyongyang as the celebration of liberation where he was officially introduced to the public by the Soviet authorities as a national hero, a legendary guerrilla fighter and leader. [ 59 ] October 15 – 21 – The Fifth Pan-African Congress is held in Manchester . October 16 – The Food and Agriculture Organization is established at a meeting in Quebec City , as a specialized agency of the United Nations , Syngman Rhee returned to the southern peninsula of Korea as he arrived in Seoul by becoming a prominent figure under the U.S. occupation. October 17 – A massive number of people, headed for the General Confederation of Labour (Argentina) , gather in the Plaza de Mayo in Buenos Aires to demand Juan Perón 's release. This is known to the Peronists as the Día de la lealtad ( Loyalty Day ) and considered the founding day of Peronism . October 18 – Isaías Medina Angarita , president of Venezuela , is overthrown by a military coup . [ 59 ] October 19 – Members of the Indonesian People's Army attack Anglo-Dutch forces in Indonesia . [ 59 ] October 20 – Mongolians vote for independence from China. [ 59 ] October 21 – Women's suffrage : Women are allowed to vote in the French Legislative Election for the first time. October 22 – Rómulo Betancourt is named provisional president of Venezuela . [ 59 ] October 24 The United Nations is founded by ratification of its Charter , by 29 nations such as the United Kingdom , the United States , France , Canada , Egypt , Brazil , Haiti , Luxembourg , Russia (former USSR ) and others. [ 59 ] The International Court of Justice ("World Court") is established by the United Nations Charter . Norwegian Nazi leader Vidkun Quisling is executed by firing squad , for treason against Norway. [ 59 ] The United Nations is founded by ratification of its Charter , by 29 nations such as the United Kingdom , the United States , France , Canada , Egypt , Brazil , Haiti , Luxembourg , Russia (former USSR ) and others. [ 59 ] The International Court of Justice ("World Court") is established by the United Nations Charter . Norwegian Nazi leader Vidkun Quisling is executed by firing squad , for treason against Norway. [ 59 ] October 25 WWII: Japanese armed forces in Taiwan surrender to the Allies. Getúlio Vargas is deposed as president in Brazil; José Linhares is named temporary president. [ 59 ] Osijek prison massacre by Yugoslav secret police. WWII: Japanese armed forces in Taiwan surrender to the Allies. Getúlio Vargas is deposed as president in Brazil; José Linhares is named temporary president. [ 59 ] Osijek prison massacre by Yugoslav secret police. October 27 – November 20 – Indonesian National Revolution : Battle of Surabaya – Pro-independence Indonesian soldiers and militia fight British and British Indian troops in Surabaya . October 29 Getúlio Vargas resigns as president of Brazil. At Gimbels Department Store in New York City, the first ballpoint pens go on sale at $12.50 each. Getúlio Vargas resigns as president of Brazil. At Gimbels Department Store in New York City, the first ballpoint pens go on sale at $12.50 each. October 30 – The undivided country of India joins the United Nations . November November 1 International Labour Organization 's new constitution comes into effect. Telechron introduces the model 8H59 Musalarm, the first clock radio . Australia joins the United Nations . International Labour Organization 's new constitution comes into effect. Telechron introduces the model 8H59 Musalarm, the first clock radio . Australia joins the United Nations . November 5 – Colombia joins the United Nations . November 6 – Indonesians reject an offer of autonomy from the Dutch . [ 59 ] November 7 – South Africa and Mexico both joined the United Nations . November 9 – Soo Bahk Do and Moo Duk Kwan martial arts are founded in Korea . November 10 – Indonesian National Revolution : Battle of Surabaya – Following the killing of British officer Brigadier A. W. S. Mallaby on October 30, the British Indian Army (in support of its allied Dutch colonial administration) begins an advance on Surabaya in the Dutch East Indies against Indonesian nationalists; although most of the city is retaken in 3 days of heavy fighting, the strength of the resistance leads to today being celebrated as Heroes' Day (Hari Pahlawan) in Indonesia. November 11 – 1945 Yugoslavian parliamentary election : Marshal Josip Broz Tito and the People's Front win a decisive majority (90%) in the Yugoslavian Assembly. [ 59 ] November 15 Harry S. Truman , Clement Attlee and Mackenzie King share nuclear information with the U.N. and call for a United Nations Atomic Energy Commission . [ 51 ] [ 59 ] An offensive is begun in Manchuria by the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalists) against further infiltration by the Chinese Communist Party . [ 59 ] Harry S. Truman , Clement Attlee and Mackenzie King share nuclear information with the U.N. and call for a United Nations Atomic Energy Commission . [ 51 ] [ 59 ] An offensive is begun in Manchuria by the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalists) against further infiltration by the Chinese Communist Party . [ 59 ] November 16 Charles de Gaulle is unanimously elected president of France by the provisional government . [ 59 ] The United States controversially imports 88 German scientists to help in the production of rocket technology. The foundation of UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) is agreed at a meeting in London. Charles de Gaulle is unanimously elected president of France by the provisional government . [ 59 ] The United States controversially imports 88 German scientists to help in the production of rocket technology. The foundation of UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) is agreed at a meeting in London. November 18 – The Tudeh party starts a bloodless coup, and will form Azerbaijan within days. Soviet troops prevent Iranian troops from getting involved. November 20 – The Nuremberg trials begin: Trials against 22 Nazis for war crimes of World War II start at the Palace of Justice, Nuremberg . [ 59 ] November 26 – U.S. ambassador to China Patrick J. Hurley resigns after he is unable to broker a deal between Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Tse-tung . [ 59 ] November 28 The 1945 Balochistan earthquake causes a tsunami and kills 4,000. British fascist John Amery pleads guilty to treason, and is condemned to death. [ 62 ] The 1945 Balochistan earthquake causes a tsunami and kills 4,000. British fascist John Amery pleads guilty to treason, and is condemned to death. [ 62 ] November 29 The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is declared (this day is celebrated as Republic Day until the 1990s). Marshal Tito is named president. Assembly of the world's first general purpose electronic computer, the Electronic Numerical Integrator Analyzer and Computer ( ENIAC ), is completed in the United States, covering 1,800 square feet (170 m 2 ) of floor space, and the first set of calculations is run on it. The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is declared (this day is celebrated as Republic Day until the 1990s). Marshal Tito is named president. Assembly of the world's first general purpose electronic computer, the Electronic Numerical Integrator Analyzer and Computer ( ENIAC ), is completed in the United States, covering 1,800 square feet (170 m 2 ) of floor space, and the first set of calculations is run on it. December December 1 – German general Anton Dostler is executed by firing squad in Italy for the war crime of ordering the summary execution of captured U.S. commandos. The U.S. military tribunal which has tried him has not accepted his plea of " superior orders ", setting a precedent for future Allied war crimes trials . [ 63 ] December 2 General Eurico Gaspar Dutra is elected president of Brazil. French banks ( Bank of France , BNCI , CNEP , Crédit Lyonnais and Société Générale ) are nationalized. General Eurico Gaspar Dutra is elected president of Brazil. French banks ( Bank of France , BNCI , CNEP , Crédit Lyonnais and Société Générale ) are nationalized. December 3 – Communist demonstrations in Athens presage the Greek Civil War . December 4 – The United States Senate approves the entry of the United States into the United Nations by a vote of 65–7. December 5 – Flight 19 of United States Navy Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bombers disappears on a training exercise from Naval Air Station Fort Lauderdale . December 9 – American General George S. Patton is involved in a car accident in Germany, resulting in his death on December 21. December 21 – Iraq joins the United Nations . December 27 – Twenty-one nations ratify the articles creating the World Bank . [ 64 ] Date unknown A team at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (led by Charles D. Coryell ) discovers chemical element 61, the only one still missing between 1 and 96 on the periodic table , which they will name promethium . [ 65 ] Found by analysis of fission products of irradiated uranium fuel, its discovery is not made public until 1947. The Australian government introduces an Assisted Passage Migration Scheme to encourage the immigration of British subjects, at a fare of £ 10, hence they become known as " Ten Pound Poms ". [ 66 ] The first geothermal milk pasteurization is done in Klamath Falls, Oregon , United States. Births Births January · February · March · April · May · June · July · August · September · October · November · December January January 1 Pietro Grasso , Italian politician Jacky Ickx , Belgian racing driver Pietro Grasso , Italian politician Jacky Ickx , Belgian racing driver January 3 – Stephen Stills , American rock singer-songwriter ( Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young ) January 4 Sima Bina , Iranian vocalist Richard R. Schrock , American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate Sima Bina , Iranian vocalist Richard R. Schrock , American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate January 5 Júlio Isidro , Portuguese television presenter Robert Pindyck , American economist Júlio Isidro , Portuguese television presenter Robert Pindyck , American economist January 7 Shulamith Firestone , Canadian American feminist, writer (d. 2012 ) Raila Odinga , prime minister of Kenya (d. 2025 ) Shulamith Firestone , Canadian American feminist, writer (d. 2012 ) Raila Odinga , prime minister of Kenya (d. 2025 ) January 10 – Sir Rod Stewart , British rock singer January 12 – André Bicaba , Burkinabé sprinter January 14 – Einar Hákonarson , Icelandic painter January 15 Vince Foster , American deputy White House counsel during the first term of President Bill Clinton (d. 1993 ) Princess Michael of Kent , German-born member of the British Royal Family Vince Foster , American deputy White House counsel during the first term of President Bill Clinton (d. 1993 ) Princess Michael of Kent , German-born member of the British Royal Family January 17 – Javed Akhtar , Indian political activist, poet, lyricist and screenwriter January 20 – Robert Olen Butler , American writer January 21 Arthur Beetson , Australian rugby league player and coach (d. 2011 ) Martin Shaw , British actor Arthur Beetson , Australian rugby league player and coach (d. 2011 ) Martin Shaw , British actor January 24 – Subhash Ghai , Indian film director, producer and screenwriter January 25 – Leigh Taylor-Young , American actress January 26 Jacqueline du Pré , English cellist (d. 1987 ) Graham Williams , New Zealand rugby union player (d. 2018 ) Jacqueline du Pré , English cellist (d. 1987 ) Graham Williams , New Zealand rugby union player (d. 2018 ) January 27 – Harold Cardinal , Cree political leader, writer and lawyer (d. 2005 ) January 28 Karen Lynn Gorney , American actress ( Saturday Night Fever ) Chuck Pyle , American country-folk singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) Karen Lynn Gorney , American actress ( Saturday Night Fever ) Chuck Pyle , American country-folk singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) January 29 Jim Nicholson , Northern Irish politician Tom Selleck , American actor ( Magnum, P.I. ) Jim Nicholson , Northern Irish politician Tom Selleck , American actor ( Magnum, P.I. ) January 31 – Joseph Kosuth , American artist February February 1 – Yasuhiro Takai , Japanese professional baseball player (d. 2019 ) February 3 Bob Griese , American football player Philip Waruinge , Kenyan boxer Bob Griese , American football player Philip Waruinge , Kenyan boxer February 4 – John P. Jumper , United States Air Force general February 5 – Sarah Weddington , American attorney (d. 2021 ) February 6 – Bob Marley , Jamaican reggae singer-songwriter and musician (d. 1981 ) February 7 – Gerald Davies , Welsh rugby player February 9 Mia Farrow , American actress Yoshinori Ohsumi , Japanese cell biologist [ 67 ] Mia Farrow , American actress Yoshinori Ohsumi , Japanese cell biologist [ 67 ] February 10 – Koo Bon-moo , South Korean business executive (d. 2018 ) February 12 Luiz Carlos Alborghetti , Italian-Brazilian radio commenter, showman and political figure (d. 2009 ) Maud Adams , Swedish actress David D. Friedman , American economist Luiz Carlos Alborghetti , Italian-Brazilian radio commenter, showman and political figure (d. 2009 ) Maud Adams , Swedish actress David D. Friedman , American economist February 13 – Simon Schama , English historian [ 68 ] February 14 Adiss Harmandian , Lebanese-Armenian pop singer (d. 2019 ) Hans-Adam II, Prince of Liechtenstein Adiss Harmandian , Lebanese-Armenian pop singer (d. 2019 ) Hans-Adam II, Prince of Liechtenstein February 15 – Douglas Hofstadter , American cognitive scientist February 17 – Brenda Fricker , Irish actress [ 69 ] February 18 – Hashem Mahameed , Israeli politician (d. 2018 ) February 22 – Oliver , American singer ( Good Morning Starshine ) (d. 2000 ) February 24 – Barry Bostwick , American actor February 25 – Roy Saari , American swimmer (d. 2008 ) February 26 – Marta Kristen , Norwegian actress ( Lost In Space ) February 27 – Carl Anderson , American singer, actor ( Jesus Christ Superstar ) (d. 2004 ) February 28 Alexey Ekimov , Russian-born chemist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 70 ] Bubba Smith , American football player and actor (d. 2011 ) Alexey Ekimov , Russian-born chemist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 70 ] Bubba Smith , American football player and actor (d. 2011 ) March March 1 – Dirk Benedict , American actor March 3 – George Miller , Australian film director March 4 Dieter Meier , Swiss singer, writer Tommy Svensson , Swedish football manager, player Dieter Meier , Swiss singer, writer Tommy Svensson , Swedish football manager, player March 7 – Arthur Lee , American musician (d. 2006 ) March 8 Micky Dolenz , American actor, director and rock musician ( The Monkees ) Anselm Kiefer , German painter Micky Dolenz , American actor, director and rock musician ( The Monkees ) Anselm Kiefer , German painter March 9 Katja Ebstein , German singer Dennis Rader , American serial killer Katja Ebstein , German singer Dennis Rader , American serial killer March 10 – Nobuhiko Higashikuni , Japanese Imperial prince (d. 2019 ) March 13 Othman Abdullah , Malaysian footballer (d. 2015 ) Anatoly Fomenko , Russian mathematician Othman Abdullah , Malaysian footballer (d. 2015 ) Anatoly Fomenko , Russian mathematician March 14 – Michael Martin Murphey , American country singer-songwriter March 16 – Douglas Ahlstedt , American tenor March 17 Hassan Bechara , Lebanese wrestler (d. 2017 ) Hassan Bechara , Lebanese wrestler (d. 2017 ) March 18 Michael Reagan , American television personality, political commentator and Republican strategist Marta Suplicy , Brazilian politician and psychologist Michael Reagan , American television personality, political commentator and Republican strategist Marta Suplicy , Brazilian politician and psychologist March 20 Jay Ingram , Canadian television host, author and journalist Bobby Jameson , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) Pat Riley , American basketball coach Jay Ingram , Canadian television host, author and journalist Bobby Jameson , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) Pat Riley , American basketball coach March 21 – Charles Greene , American Olympic athlete (d. 2022 ) March 26 – Mikhail Voronin , Russian gymnast (d. 2004 ) March 27 – Władysław Stachurski , Polish football player, manager (d. 2013 ) March 28 Rodrigo Duterte , 16th President of the Philippines Raine Loo , Estonian actress Rodrigo Duterte , 16th President of the Philippines Raine Loo , Estonian actress March 29 Walt Frazier , African-American basketball player Willem Ruis , Dutch game show host (d. 1986 ) Walt Frazier , African-American basketball player Willem Ruis , Dutch game show host (d. 1986 ) March 30 – Eric Clapton , English rock guitarist and singer-songwriter [ 71 ] March 31 Nana Ampadu , Ghanaian musician (d. 2021 ) [ 72 ] Edwin Catmull , American computer scientist, President of Walt Disney Animation Studios [ 73 ] Nana Ampadu , Ghanaian musician (d. 2021 ) [ 72 ] Edwin Catmull , American computer scientist, President of Walt Disney Animation Studios [ 73 ] April April 2 – Linda Hunt , American actress [ 74 ] April 4 – Daniel Cohn-Bendit , French political activist [ 75 ] April 5 Cem Karaca , Turkish musician (d. 2004 ) Tommy Smith , English footballer (d. 2019 ) Cem Karaca , Turkish musician (d. 2004 ) Tommy Smith , English footballer (d. 2019 ) April 12 – Lee Jong-wook , South Korean Director-General of the World Health Organization (d. 2006 ) April 13 Lucha Corpi , Mexican poet Tony Dow , American actor, producer and director (d. 2022 ) Lowell George , American rock musician ( Little Feat ) (d. 1979 ) Lucha Corpi , Mexican poet Tony Dow , American actor, producer and director (d. 2022 ) Lowell George , American rock musician ( Little Feat ) (d. 1979 ) April 14 Ritchie Blackmore , English rock guitarist Tuilaʻepa Saʻilele Malielegaoi , 6th Prime Minister of Samoa Ritchie Blackmore , English rock guitarist Tuilaʻepa Saʻilele Malielegaoi , 6th Prime Minister of Samoa April 20 – Naftali Temu , Kenyan Olympic long-distance runner (d. 2003 ) April 21 – Ana Lúcia Torre , Brazilian actress April 24 – Larry Tesler , American computer scientist (cut, copy, paste) (d. 2020 ) April 25 – Björn Ulvaeus , Swedish rock songwriter ( ABBA ) April 29 – Tammi Terrell , African-American soul singer (d. 1970 ) April 30 – Lara Saint Paul , Eritrean-born Italian singer (d. 2018 ) May May 1 – Rita Coolidge , American pop singer May 2 – Bianca Jagger , Nicaraguan social activist [ 76 ] May 3 – Jeffrey C. Hall , American geneticist and chronobiologist, Nobel Prize laureate May 4 David Magson , Australian-British mathematician and businessman Narasimhan Ram , Indian journalist David Magson , Australian-British mathematician and businessman Narasimhan Ram , Indian journalist May 6 – Bob Seger , American rock singer May 7 – Robin Strasser , American actress May 8 – Keith Jarrett , American musician [ 77 ] May 9 – Jupp Heynckes , German footballer and manager May 11 Mary Cooney , American politician Hilda Pérez Carvajal , Venezuelan biologist Mary Cooney , American politician Hilda Pérez Carvajal , Venezuelan biologist May 13 – Tammam Salam , 34th Prime Minister of Lebanon May 14 – Yochanan Vollach , Israeli footballer and president of Maccabi Haifa, CEO May 15 – Duarte Pio, Duke of Braganza , heir to the Portuguese crown May 17 – Tony Roche , Australian tennis player May 19 – Pete Townshend , English rock guitarist, lyricist ( The Who ) May 20 – Anton Zeilinger , Austrian quantum physicist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 78 ] May 21 Richard Hatch , American actor ( Battlestar Galactica ) (d. 2017 ) Ernst Messerschmid , German physicist, astronaut Richard Hatch , American actor ( Battlestar Galactica ) (d. 2017 ) Ernst Messerschmid , German physicist, astronaut May 22 – Victoria Wyndham , American actress ( Another World ) May 23 Lauren Chapin , American child actress, evangelist Doris Mae Oulton , Canadian community developer Lauren Chapin , American child actress, evangelist Doris Mae Oulton , Canadian community developer May 24 – Priscilla Presley , American actress, businesswoman May 28 Patch Adams , American physician, comedian, social activist, clown and author John Fogerty , American rock singer ( Creedence Clearwater Revival ) Patch Adams , American physician, comedian, social activist, clown and author John Fogerty , American rock singer ( Creedence Clearwater Revival ) May 29 Gary Brooker , English rock keyboardist and singer-songwriter ( Procol Harum ) (d. 2022 ) [ 79 ] Jean-Pierre Van Rossem , Belgian businessman, fraudster and politician (d. 2018 ) Gary Brooker , English rock keyboardist and singer-songwriter ( Procol Harum ) (d. 2022 ) [ 79 ] Jean-Pierre Van Rossem , Belgian businessman, fraudster and politician (d. 2018 ) May 30 Andrea Bronfman , American philanthropist (d. 2006 ) Gladys Horton , American singer ( The Marvelettes ) (d. 2011 ) Andrea Bronfman , American philanthropist (d. 2006 ) Gladys Horton , American singer ( The Marvelettes ) (d. 2011 ) May 31 Rainer Werner Fassbinder , German film director (d. 1982 ) Laurent Gbagbo , President of Côte d'Ivoire Rainer Werner Fassbinder , German film director (d. 1982 ) Laurent Gbagbo , President of Côte d'Ivoire June June 1 – Frederica von Stade , American mezzo-soprano June 2 – Jon Peters , American film producer June 3 – Hale Irwin , American professional golfer June 4 – Anthony Braxton , American composer and musical instrumentalist June 5 John Carlos , American athlete Théophile Georges Kassab , Catholic prelate (d. 2013 ) Nechama Rivlin , Israeli socialite, 10th First lady of Israel (d. 2019 ) John Carlos , American athlete Théophile Georges Kassab , Catholic prelate (d. 2013 ) Nechama Rivlin , Israeli socialite, 10th First lady of Israel (d. 2019 ) June 6 – David Dukes , American actor (d. 2000 ) June 7 – Wolfgang Schüssel , Chancellor of Austria June 9 – Nike Wagner , German woman of the theater June 10 – Benny Gallagher , Scottish singer-songwriter and multi-instrumentalist, half of duo Gallagher and Lyle June 11 – Adrienne Barbeau , American actress, television personality and author ( Maude ) June 12 – Pat Jennings , Northern Irish footballer June 14 – Jörg Immendorff , German painter June 15 Françoise Chandernagor , French writer Miriam Defensor Santiago , Filipino politician (d. 2016 ) Françoise Chandernagor , French writer Miriam Defensor Santiago , Filipino politician (d. 2016 ) June 16 Claire Alexander , Canadian ice hockey player Ivan Lins , Latin Grammy-winning Brazilian musician Claire Alexander , Canadian ice hockey player Ivan Lins , Latin Grammy-winning Brazilian musician June 17 P. D. T. Acharya , Secretary General, Indian Lok Sabha Art Bell , American radio talk show host ( Coast to Coast AM ) (d. 2018 ) Ken Livingstone , British politician Eddy Merckx , Belgian cyclist P. D. T. Acharya , Secretary General, Indian Lok Sabha Art Bell , American radio talk show host ( Coast to Coast AM ) (d. 2018 ) Ken Livingstone , British politician Eddy Merckx , Belgian cyclist June 19 Radovan Karadžić , Serbian politician Aung San Suu Kyi , Myanmar politician and poet, Nobel Peace Prize recipient Radovan Karadžić , Serbian politician Aung San Suu Kyi , Myanmar politician and poet, Nobel Peace Prize recipient June 20 – Anne Murray , Canadian singer June 21 Roberto D'Angelo , Italian slalom canoeist Luis Castañeda Lossio , Peruvian politician Thiagarajan , Indian actor, director and producer Nirmalendu Goon , Bangladeshi poet Marijana Lubej , Slovenian sprinter Roberto D'Angelo , Italian slalom canoeist Luis Castañeda Lossio , Peruvian politician Thiagarajan , Indian actor, director and producer Nirmalendu Goon , Bangladeshi poet Marijana Lubej , Slovenian sprinter June 22 Juma Kapuya , Tanzanian politician Dieter Versen , German football defender (d. 2025 ) Juma Kapuya , Tanzanian politician Dieter Versen , German football defender (d. 2025 ) June 23 Ana Chumachenco , Italian violinist Kim Småge , Norwegian novelist, crime fiction writer, writer of short stories and children's writer Ana Chumachenco , Italian violinist Kim Småge , Norwegian novelist, crime fiction writer, writer of short stories and children's writer June 24 George Pataki , Governor of New York Betty Stöve , Dutch tennis player [ 80 ] Ali Akbar Velayati , Iranian physician, politician George Pataki , Governor of New York Betty Stöve , Dutch tennis player [ 80 ] Ali Akbar Velayati , Iranian physician, politician June 25 Lali Armengol , Spanish playwright, professor and theater director [ 81 ] Mohammed Bakar , Malaysian footballer Carolyn Cheeks Kilpatrick , American politician Baba Gana Kingibe , Nigerian politician Guillermo Mendoza , Mexican cyclist Chaiyasit Shinawatra , commander-in-chief of the Royal Thai Army Lali Armengol , Spanish playwright, professor and theater director [ 81 ] Mohammed Bakar , Malaysian footballer Carolyn Cheeks Kilpatrick , American politician Baba Gana Kingibe , Nigerian politician Guillermo Mendoza , Mexican cyclist Chaiyasit Shinawatra , commander-in-chief of the Royal Thai Army June 26 – Paul Chun , Hong Kong actor June 27 Jose Miguel Arroyo , First Gentleman of the Philippines Ami Ayalon , Israeli politician Norma Kamali , American fashion designer Catherine Lacoste , French amateur golfer Lu Sheng-yen , Taiwanese leader of the True Buddha School Jose Miguel Arroyo , First Gentleman of the Philippines Ami Ayalon , Israeli politician Norma Kamali , American fashion designer Catherine Lacoste , French amateur golfer Lu Sheng-yen , Taiwanese leader of the True Buddha School June 28 Ken Buchanan , Scottish undisputed world lightweight boxing champion (d. 2023 ) Raul Seixas , Brazilian rock singer (d. 1989 ) Ken Buchanan , Scottish undisputed world lightweight boxing champion (d. 2023 ) Raul Seixas , Brazilian rock singer (d. 1989 ) June 29 – Chandrika Kumaratunga , 5th President of Sri Lanka June 30 Kevin Jackman , Australian rules footballer Jerry Kenney , American Major League Baseball infielder Sean Scully , Irish-American-based painter, printmaker James Snyder Jr. , American author, attorney and politician Kevin Jackman , Australian rules footballer Jerry Kenney , American Major League Baseball infielder Sean Scully , Irish-American-based painter, printmaker James Snyder Jr. , American author, attorney and politician July July 1 Jane Cederqvist , Swedish freestyle swimmer Visu , Indian writer, director, stage, actor and talk-show host (d. 2020 ) Billy Rohr , American Major League Baseball player Debbie Harry , American rock singer ( Blondie ) Jane Cederqvist , Swedish freestyle swimmer Visu , Indian writer, director, stage, actor and talk-show host (d. 2020 ) Billy Rohr , American Major League Baseball player Debbie Harry , American rock singer ( Blondie ) July 2 – Linda Warren , American author July 3 – Thomas Mapfumo , Zimbabwean musician July 4 Tiong Thai King , Malaysian politician Steinar Amundsen , Norwegian sprint canoeist Tiong Thai King , Malaysian politician Steinar Amundsen , Norwegian sprint canoeist July 5 Nurul Islam Nahid , Bangladeshi politician Miroslav Mišković , Serbian business magnate, investor Nurul Islam Nahid , Bangladeshi politician Miroslav Mišković , Serbian business magnate, investor July 6 – Burt Ward , American actor ( Batman ) July 7 Heloísa Pinheiro , Brazilian model, businesswoman Moncef Marzouki , Tunisian politician; 4th President of Tunisia Li Chi-an , North Korean football striker Matti Salminen , Finnish bass singer Heloísa Pinheiro , Brazilian model, businesswoman Moncef Marzouki , Tunisian politician; 4th President of Tunisia Li Chi-an , North Korean football striker Matti Salminen , Finnish bass singer July 8 – Micheline Calmy-Rey , Swiss Federal Councilor July 9 Dean Koontz , American writer Mohammad Reza Nematzadeh , Iranian politician, engineer Dean Koontz , American writer Mohammad Reza Nematzadeh , Iranian politician, engineer July 10 Zlatko Tomčić , Croatian politician Daniel Ona Ondo , Gabonese politician Virginia Wade , English professional tennis player Ron Glass , African-American actor (d. 2016 ) Zlatko Tomčić , Croatian politician Daniel Ona Ondo , Gabonese politician Virginia Wade , English professional tennis player Ron Glass , African-American actor (d. 2016 ) July 11 – Richard Wesley , American playwright, screenwriter July 12 Leopoldo Mastelloni , Italian actor, comedian and singer Thor Martinsen , Norwegian ice hockey player Leopoldo Mastelloni , Italian actor, comedian and singer Thor Martinsen , Norwegian ice hockey player July 14 – Antun Vujić , Croatian politician, philosopher, political analyst, lexicographer and author July 15 Hong Ra-hee , South Korean billionaire businesswoman, philanthropist Jürgen Möllemann , German politician (d. 2003 ) Jan-Michael Vincent , American actor (d. 2019 ) Hong Ra-hee , South Korean billionaire businesswoman, philanthropist Jürgen Möllemann , German politician (d. 2003 ) Jan-Michael Vincent , American actor (d. 2019 ) July 16 Victor Sloan , Irish artist Çetin Tekindor , Turkish actor Roy Ho Ten Soeng , Dutch politician Jos Stelling , Dutch film director, screenwriter Victor Sloan , Irish artist Çetin Tekindor , Turkish actor Roy Ho Ten Soeng , Dutch politician Jos Stelling , Dutch film director, screenwriter July 17 Eduardo Olivera , Mexican modern pentathlete Kim Won-hong , North Korean politician, military leader Alexander, Crown Prince of Yugoslavia Eduardo Olivera , Mexican modern pentathlete Kim Won-hong , North Korean politician, military leader Alexander, Crown Prince of Yugoslavia July 19 Oleg Fotin , Russian swimmer Richard Henderson , Scottish molecular biologist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 82 ] Uri Rosenthal , Dutch politician Oleg Fotin , Russian swimmer Richard Henderson , Scottish molecular biologist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 82 ] Uri Rosenthal , Dutch politician July 20 Kim Carnes , American singer-songwriter ( Bette Davis Eyes ) Lothar Koepsel , German sailor Simbarashe Mumbengegwi , Zimbabwean politician and diplomat Kim Carnes , American singer-songwriter ( Bette Davis Eyes ) Lothar Koepsel , German sailor Simbarashe Mumbengegwi , Zimbabwean politician and diplomat July 21 John Lowe , English darts player Barry Richards , South African batsman John Lowe , English darts player Barry Richards , South African batsman July 23 – Edie McClurg , American actress July 24 – Azim Premji , Indian businessman July 26 Helen Mirren , British actress Helen Mirren , British actress July 28 – Jim Davis , American cartoonist ( Garfield ) July 30 Roger Dobkowitz , American producer Patrick Modiano , French novelist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 83 ] David Sanborn , American saxophonist (d. 2024 ) Roger Dobkowitz , American producer Patrick Modiano , French novelist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 83 ] David Sanborn , American saxophonist (d. 2024 ) August August 1 – Douglas Osheroff , American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate August 4 – Alan Mulally , American businessman, CEO of the Ford Motor Company August 5 – Loni Anderson , American actress ( WKRP in Cincinnati ) (d. 2025 ) August 8 – Julie Anne Robinson , British theatre, television, film director and producer August 9 – Posy Simmonds , English cartoonist August 12 Ron Mael , American musician ( Sparks ) [ 84 ] J. D. McClatchy , American poet and literary critic (d. 2018 ) Ron Mael , American musician ( Sparks ) [ 84 ] J. D. McClatchy , American poet and literary critic (d. 2018 ) August 14 Steve Martin , American actor and comedian Valeriy Shmarov , Ukrainian politician (d. 2018 ) Eliana Pittman , Brazilian singer, actress Faustin Twagiramungu , Prime Minister of Rwanda (d. 2023 ) Wim Wenders , German film director, producer Steve Martin , American actor and comedian Valeriy Shmarov , Ukrainian politician (d. 2018 ) Eliana Pittman , Brazilian singer, actress Faustin Twagiramungu , Prime Minister of Rwanda (d. 2023 ) Wim Wenders , German film director, producer August 15 Bobby Treviño , Mexican baseball player (d. 2018 ) Miyuki Matsuhisa , Japanese artistic gymnast Khaleda Zia , Bangladesh politician, Prime Minister of Bangladesh (d. 2025 ) [ 85 ] Bobby Treviño , Mexican baseball player (d. 2018 ) Miyuki Matsuhisa , Japanese artistic gymnast Khaleda Zia , Bangladesh politician, Prime Minister of Bangladesh (d. 2025 ) [ 85 ] August 17 – Katri Helena , Finnish singer August 19 – Ian Gillan , English rock singer ( Deep Purple ) August 22 David Chase , American writer, director and television producer Ron Dante , American rock singer-songwriter and record producer ( The Archies ) David Chase , American writer, director and television producer Ron Dante , American rock singer-songwriter and record producer ( The Archies ) August 24 – Vincent K. "Vince" McMahon , American professional wrestling promoter, chairman and CEO of WWE August 25 – Daniel Hulet , Belgian cartoonist (d. 2011 ) August 26 – Tom Ridge , American politician August 27 – Marianne Sägebrecht , German film actress August 29 Alyosha Abrahamyan , Armenian football player (d. 2018 ) Wyomia Tyus , American Olympic athlete Alyosha Abrahamyan , Armenian football player (d. 2018 ) Wyomia Tyus , American Olympic athlete August 31 Sir Van Morrison , Irish rock musician Itzhak Perlman , Israeli-born American violinist, conductor Sir Van Morrison , Irish rock musician Itzhak Perlman , Israeli-born American violinist, conductor September September 1 – Mustafa Balel , Turkish writer September 5 K. N. T. Sastry , Indian film critic, director and writer (d. 2018 ) Al Stewart , Scottish singer-songwriter ( Year of the Cat ) K. N. T. Sastry , Indian film critic, director and writer (d. 2018 ) Al Stewart , Scottish singer-songwriter ( Year of the Cat ) September 6 – Victor Ramahatra , 5th Prime Minister of Madagascar September 7 – Jacques Lemaire , Canadian ice hockey coach September 8 Ron "Pigpen" McKernan , American musician ( Grateful Dead ) (d. 1973 ) Rogatien Vachon , Canadian ice hockey player Ron "Pigpen" McKernan , American musician ( Grateful Dead ) (d. 1973 ) Rogatien Vachon , Canadian ice hockey player September 10 – José Feliciano , Puerto Rican-American singer (" Feliz Navidad ") September 11 – Franz Beckenbauer , German footballer and manager (d. 2024 ) September 12 – Richard Thaler , American economist September 14 – Benjamin Harjo Jr. , Native American artist September 15 – Jessye Norman , American soprano (d. 2019 ) September 16 – Pat Stevens , American voice actress (d. 2010 ) September 17 Phil Jackson , American basketball coach Bruce Spence , Australian actor Phil Jackson , American basketball coach Bruce Spence , Australian actor September 18 John McAfee , British-American computer programmer and businessman (d. 2021 ) [ 86 ] P. F. Sloan , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) John McAfee , British-American computer programmer and businessman (d. 2021 ) [ 86 ] P. F. Sloan , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) September 19 - Randolph Mantooth , American actor September 21 Shaw Clifton , Northern Ireland-born General of the Salvation Army Kay Ryan , American poet Shaw Clifton , Northern Ireland-born General of the Salvation Army Kay Ryan , American poet September 22 – Gonzaguinha , Brazilian singer, composer (d. 1991 ) September 24 – John Rutter , English choral composer, conductor September 26 – Bryan Ferry , English singer-songwriter and musician ( Roxy Music ) September 27 – Jack Goldstein , Canadian artist (d. 2003 ) September 29 – Nadezhda Chizhova , Russian athlete September 30 Ehud Olmert , 12th Prime Minister of Israel Ralph Siegel , German record producer, songwriter Ehud Olmert , 12th Prime Minister of Israel Ralph Siegel , German record producer, songwriter October October 1 Rod Carew , Panamanian-American baseball player Donny Hathaway , African-American soul singer-songwriter (d. 1979 ) Ram Nath Kovind , 14th President of India Rod Carew , Panamanian-American baseball player Donny Hathaway , African-American soul singer-songwriter (d. 1979 ) Ram Nath Kovind , 14th President of India October 2 Regina Torné , Mexican actress, singer and television presenter Don McLean , American singer-songwriter (" American Pie ") Regina Torné , Mexican actress, singer and television presenter Don McLean , American singer-songwriter (" American Pie ") October 3 – Viktor Saneyev , Soviet athlete and Olympic champion (d. 2022 ) October 6 – Ivan Graziani , Italian singer-songwriter (d. 1997 ) October 9 Vijaya Kumaratunga , Sri Lankan actor and politician (d. 1988 ) Archbishop Nikon of Boston , Albanian bishop (d. 2019 ) Vijaya Kumaratunga , Sri Lankan actor and politician (d. 1988 ) Archbishop Nikon of Boston , Albanian bishop (d. 2019 ) October 12 Aurore Clément , French actress Dusty Rhodes , American wrestler (d. 2015 ) Aurore Clément , French actress Dusty Rhodes , American wrestler (d. 2015 ) October 18 Norio Wakamoto , Japanese voice actor Yıldo , Turkish showman, footballer Norio Wakamoto , Japanese voice actor Yıldo , Turkish showman, footballer October 19 Angus Deaton , Scottish-born economist, recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences John Lithgow , American actor ( Third Rock from the Sun ) Angus Deaton , Scottish-born economist, recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences John Lithgow , American actor ( Third Rock from the Sun ) October 22 – Yvan Ponton , Canadian actor, sportscaster October 23 – Kim Larsen , Danish rock musician (d. 2018 ) October 24 Eugenie Scott , American Executive Director of the National Center for Science Education Sean Solomon , American Principal Investigator of NASA's MESSENGER mission to Mercury and director of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at the Carnegie Institution for Science Eugenie Scott , American Executive Director of the National Center for Science Education Sean Solomon , American Principal Investigator of NASA's MESSENGER mission to Mercury and director of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at the Carnegie Institution for Science October 25 Peter Ledger , Australian artist (d. 1994 ) David Schramm , American astrophysicist and educator (d. 1997 ) Keaton Yamada , Japanese voice actor Peter Ledger , Australian artist (d. 1994 ) David Schramm , American astrophysicist and educator (d. 1997 ) Keaton Yamada , Japanese voice actor October 26 Pat Conroy , American author (d. 2016 ) Jaclyn Smith , American actress, businesswoman ( Charlie's Angels ) Pat Conroy , American author (d. 2016 ) Jaclyn Smith , American actress, businesswoman ( Charlie's Angels ) October 27 Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva , 35th President of Brazil Carrie Snodgress , American actress (d. 2004 ) Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva , 35th President of Brazil Carrie Snodgress , American actress (d. 2004 ) October 29 Ching Li , Taiwanese actress (d. 2017 ) Melba Moore , African-American singer, actress Ching Li , Taiwanese actress (d. 2017 ) Melba Moore , African-American singer, actress October 30 – Henry Winkler , American actor, producer and director ( Happy Days ) November November 3 – Gerd Müller , German footballer (d. 2021 ) November 5 – Jacques Lanctôt , Canadian terrorist November 7 Bob Englehart , American editorial cartoonist Waljinah , Javanese singer Bob Englehart , American editorial cartoonist Waljinah , Javanese singer November 8 – Joseph James DeAngelo , American serial killer and serial rapist November 9 – Charlie Robinson , African-American actor (d. 2021 ) November 10 – Madeleine Juneau , Canadian museologist November 11 – Daniel Ortega , 58th and 62nd President of Nicaragua November 12 – Neil Young , Canadian singer-songwriter, musician November 15 – Anni-Frid Lyngstad , Norwegian-born rock singer ( ABBA ) November 17 Elvin Hayes , American basketball player Abdelmadjid Tebboune , President of Algeria Elvin Hayes , American basketball player Abdelmadjid Tebboune , President of Algeria November 18 Wilma Mankiller , Chief of the Cherokee Nation (d. 2010 ) Mahinda Rajapaksa , Sri Lankan politician, 6th President of Sri Lanka Wilma Mankiller , Chief of the Cherokee Nation (d. 2010 ) Mahinda Rajapaksa , Sri Lankan politician, 6th President of Sri Lanka November 21 – Goldie Hawn , American actress Kalervo Kummola – Finnish ice hockey executive, businessman, and politician Kalervo Kummola – Finnish ice hockey executive, businessman, and politician November 22 – Kari Tapio , Finnish singer (d. 2010 ) November 23 – Dennis Nilsen , Scottish serial killer (d. 2018 ) [ 87 ] November 24 – Nuruddin Farah , Somali novelist November 25 – Mary Jo Deschanel , American actress November 26 – John McVie , English rock musician ( Fleetwood Mac ) November 27 Barbara Anderson , American actress James Avery , African-American actor (d. 2013 ) Barbara Anderson , American actress James Avery , African-American actor (d. 2013 ) November 30 Roger Glover , English rock musician ( Deep Purple ) Radu Lupu , Romanian classical pianist (d. 2022 ) Roger Glover , English rock musician ( Deep Purple ) Radu Lupu , Romanian classical pianist (d. 2022 ) December December 1 Lyle Bien , American vice admiral [ 88 ] Bette Midler , American actress, comedian and singer Lyle Bien , American vice admiral [ 88 ] Bette Midler , American actress, comedian and singer December 2 – Tex Watson , American multiple murderer, 'Manson Family' member December 3 – Bozhidar Dimitrov , Bulgarian historian, politician and polemicist (d. 2018 ) December 4 – Geoff Emerick , English recording engineer (d. 2018 ) December 7 – Clive Russell , English actor December 8 – Julie Heldman , American tennis player [ 89 ] December 10 – John Ankerberg , American Christian television host, author and speaker December 11 – Sharafuddin of Selangor , Sultan of Selangor December 12 René Pétillon , French satirical, political cartoonist (d. 2018 ) Portia Simpson-Miller , 2-time Prime Minister of Jamaica Kathy Garver , American actress, author and online radio hostess Donald Pandiangan , Indonesian archery athlete (d. 2008 ) Heather North , American actress (d. 2017 ) René Pétillon , French satirical, political cartoonist (d. 2018 ) Portia Simpson-Miller , 2-time Prime Minister of Jamaica Kathy Garver , American actress, author and online radio hostess Donald Pandiangan , Indonesian archery athlete (d. 2008 ) Heather North , American actress (d. 2017 ) December 15 Michael King , New Zealand popular historian, author and biographer (d. 2004 ) Thaao Penghlis , Australian actor Michael King , New Zealand popular historian, author and biographer (d. 2004 ) Thaao Penghlis , Australian actor December 16 – Patti Deutsch , American voice actress (d. 2017 ) December 17 – Ernie Hudson , African-American actor December 18 – Carolyn Wood , American professional swimmer December 19 – Elaine Joyce , American actress, game show panelist December 20 Peter Criss , American rock drummer ( KISS ) Sivakant Tiwari , senior legal officer of the Singapore Legal Service (d. 2010 ) Peter Criss , American rock drummer ( KISS ) Sivakant Tiwari , senior legal officer of the Singapore Legal Service (d. 2010 ) December 21 – Mari Lill , Estonian actress December 22 – Diane Sawyer , American news journalist December 23 – Donald A. Ritchie , American historian December 24 Lemmy , British singer, bassist ( Motörhead ) (d. 2015 ) [ 90 ] Nicholas Meyer , American screenwriter, producer, director and novelist Sharafuddin of Selangor , Sultan of Selangor Steve Smith , Canadian actor, comedian and writer Lemmy , British singer, bassist ( Motörhead ) (d. 2015 ) [ 90 ] Nicholas Meyer , American screenwriter, producer, director and novelist Sharafuddin of Selangor , Sultan of Selangor Steve Smith , Canadian actor, comedian and writer December 25 – Noel Redding , English musician (d. 2003 ) [ 91 ] December 29 – Birendra of Nepal , King of Nepal (d. 2001 ) December 30 – Davy Jones , English-born pop singer, actor ( The Monkees ) (d. 2012 ) December 31 Barbara Carrera , Nicaraguan-American actress Vernon Wells , Australian actor [ 92 ] Connie Willis , American fiction writer Barbara Carrera , Nicaraguan-American actress Vernon Wells , Australian actor [ 92 ] Connie Willis , American fiction writer Deaths January January 2 – Sir Bertram Ramsay , British admiral (b. 1883 ) January 3 – Edgar Cayce , American mystic (b. 1877 ) January 4 – Ricardo Jiménez Oreamuno , 3-time President of Costa Rica (b. 1859 ) January 6 Josefa Llanes Escoda , Filipino women's suffrage advocate, founder of the Girl Scouts of the Philippines (b. 1898 ) Edith Frank , German-Dutch mother of Anne Frank (b. 1900 ) [ 93 ] Herbert Lumsden , British general (killed in action) (b. 1897 ) [ 94 ] Vladimir Vernadsky , Soviet mineralogist, geochemist (b. 1863 ) Josefa Llanes Escoda , Filipino women's suffrage advocate, founder of the Girl Scouts of the Philippines (b. 1898 ) Edith Frank , German-Dutch mother of Anne Frank (b. 1900 ) [ 93 ] Herbert Lumsden , British general (killed in action) (b. 1897 ) [ 94 ] Vladimir Vernadsky , Soviet mineralogist, geochemist (b. 1863 ) January 7 Alexander Stirling Calder , American sculptor (b. 1870 ) Thomas McGuire , American World War II fighter ace (killed in action) (b. 1920 ) Prince Rainer of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) Alexander Stirling Calder , American sculptor (b. 1870 ) Thomas McGuire , American World War II fighter ace (killed in action) (b. 1920 ) Prince Rainer of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) January 9 – Jüri Uluots , 8th Prime Minister of Estonia (b. 1890 ) January 10 – Pēteris Juraševskis , 8th Prime Minister of Latvia (b. 1872 ) January 12 – Teresio Olivelli , Italian Roman Catholic soldier and venerable (b. 1916 ) January 15 – Pedro Abad Santos , Filipino politician, brother of José Abad Santos (b. 1876 ) January 16 – José Fabella , Filipino physician (b. 1888 ) January 19 Petar Bojović , Serbian field marshal (b. 1858 ) Gustave Mesny , French Army general (b. 1886 ) Petar Bojović , Serbian field marshal (b. 1858 ) Gustave Mesny , French Army general (b. 1886 ) January 20 – Federico Pedrocchi , Italian artist, writer (killed on active service) (b. 1907 ) January 21 Francisco Moreno Fernández , Spanish admiral (b. 1883 ) [ 95 ] Sir Archibald Murray , British Army general (b. 1860 ) Francisco Moreno Fernández , Spanish admiral (b. 1883 ) [ 95 ] Sir Archibald Murray , British Army general (b. 1860 ) January 22 – Else Lasker-Schüler , German poet, author (b. 1869 ) January 23 Eugen Bolz , German politician, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1881 ) Nikolaus Gross , German Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1898 ) Newton E. Mason , United States Navy rear admiral (b. 1850 ) Eugen Bolz , German politician, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1881 ) Nikolaus Gross , German Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1898 ) Newton E. Mason , United States Navy rear admiral (b. 1850 ) January 29 – Hans Conrad Leipelt , Austrian member of the White Rose resistance movement in Nazi Germany (executed) (b. 1921 ) January 30 Sir William Goodenough , British admiral (b. 1867 ) Pedro Paulet , Peruvian scientist (b. 1874 ) Sir William Goodenough , British admiral (b. 1867 ) Pedro Paulet , Peruvian scientist (b. 1874 ) January 31 – Eddie Slovik , American soldier (executed for desertion) (b. 1920 ) [ 96 ] February February (or March) – Anne Frank , German-born Jewish diarist, writer (typhus in Bergen-Belsen concentration camp ) (b. 1929 ) [ 97 ] February 1 Ivan Bagryanov , 30th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1891 ) Dobri Bozhilov , 29th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1884 ) Bogdan Filov , Bulgarian archaeologist, historian and politician, 28th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1883 ) Petar Gabrovski , acting Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1898 ) Johan Huizinga , Dutch cultural historian (b. 1872 ) Prince Kiril of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1895 ) Ivan Bagryanov , 30th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1891 ) Dobri Bozhilov , 29th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1884 ) Bogdan Filov , Bulgarian archaeologist, historian and politician, 28th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1883 ) Petar Gabrovski , acting Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1898 ) Johan Huizinga , Dutch cultural historian (b. 1872 ) Prince Kiril of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1895 ) February 2 Adolf Brand , German campaigner for homosexuality (air raid victim) (b. 1874 ) Alfred Delp , German Jesuit priest and philosopher of the German Resistance, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1907 ) Carl Friedrich Goerdeler , German politician, civil servant, executive and economist, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1884 ) Gustav Heistermann von Ziehlberg , German general, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1898 ) Joe Hunt , American tennis champion (military aircraft crash) (b. 1919 ) Adolf Brand , German campaigner for homosexuality (air raid victim) (b. 1874 ) Alfred Delp , German Jesuit priest and philosopher of the German Resistance, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1907 ) Carl Friedrich Goerdeler , German politician, civil servant, executive and economist, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1884 ) Gustav Heistermann von Ziehlberg , German general, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1898 ) Joe Hunt , American tennis champion (military aircraft crash) (b. 1919 ) February 3 – Roland Freisler , Nazi German judge (air raid victim) (b. 1893 ) February 5 Denise Bloch , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1916 ) Lilian Rolfe , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1914 ) Violette Szabo , French/British World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1921 ) Denise Bloch , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1916 ) Lilian Rolfe , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1914 ) Violette Szabo , French/British World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1921 ) February 6 – Robert Brasillach , French writer (executed) (b. 1909 ) [ 98 ] February 8 – Robert Mallet-Stevens , French architect, designer (b. 1886 ) February 11 – Al Dubin , Swiss-born American songwriter (b. 1891 ) February 13 – Maria Orosa , Filipino technologist, chemist, humanitarian and WWII heroine (air raid victim) (b. 1893 ) February 16 – Otto Kittel , German fighter ace (killed in action) (b. 1917 ) [ 99 ] February 18 – Ivan Chernyakhovsky , Soviet general (died of wounds) (b. 1906 ) February 19 – John Basilone , American war hero (killed in action) (b. 1916 ) February 21 – Eric Liddell , British Olympic athlete (in internment camp) (b. 1902 ) February 22 – Sara Josephine Baker , American physician (b. 1873 ) February 23 José María Moncada , 19th President of Nicaragua (b. 1870 ) Aleksei Nikolaevich Tolstoy , Russian writer (b. 1883 ) [ 100 ] José María Moncada , 19th President of Nicaragua (b. 1870 ) Aleksei Nikolaevich Tolstoy , Russian writer (b. 1883 ) [ 100 ] February 24 – Josef Mayr-Nusser , Italian Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1910 ) February 25 – Mário de Andrade , Brazilian writer, photographer (b. 1893 ) February 26 – Millard Harmon , American general (b. 1888 ) [ 101 ] March March 2 – Emily Carr , Canadian painter (b. 1871 ) March 3 Gheorghe Avramescu , Romanian general (in custody) (b. 1884 ) Aleksandra Samusenko , Soviet WWII tank commander (died of wounds) (b. 1922 ) Gheorghe Avramescu , Romanian general (in custody) (b. 1884 ) Aleksandra Samusenko , Soviet WWII tank commander (died of wounds) (b. 1922 ) March 4 Harry Chauvel , Australian Army general (b. 1865 ) [ 102 ] Lucille La Verne , American actress (b. 1872 ) [ 103 ] Mark Sandrich , American film director (b. 1900 ) Harry Chauvel , Australian Army general (b. 1865 ) [ 102 ] Lucille La Verne , American actress (b. 1872 ) [ 103 ] Mark Sandrich , American film director (b. 1900 ) March 5 – George Alan Vasey , Australian general (killed in military aircraft accident) (b. 1895 ) March 12 – Friedrich Fromm , German Nazi official (executed) (b. 1888 ) March 14 – Francisco Braga , Brazilian composer (b. 1868 ) March 15 – Sava Caracaș , Romanian general (b. 1890 ) March 18 – William Grover-Williams , British/French racing driver, war hero (executed) (b. 1903 ) [ 104 ] March 19 – Marcel Callo , French Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (in concentration camp) (b. 1921 ) March 20 – Lord Alfred Douglas , English poet (b. 1870 ) March 22 Enrico Caviglia , Italian marshal (b. 1862 ) Heinrich Maier , Austrian Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1908 ) Takeichi Nishi , Japanese equestrian gold medalist (1932), tank commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1902 ) Enrico Caviglia , Italian marshal (b. 1862 ) Heinrich Maier , Austrian Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1908 ) Takeichi Nishi , Japanese equestrian gold medalist (1932), tank commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1902 ) March 23 – Élisabeth de Rothschild , French WWII heroine (b. 1902 ) March 26 David Lloyd George , British politician and statesman, 51st Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1863 ) Tadamichi Kuribayashi , Imperial Japanese Army general, commander of the battle of Iwo Jima (probably killed in action) (b. 1891 ) Boris Shaposhnikov , Soviet military leader, Marshal of the Soviet Union (b. 1882 ) Ichimaru Toshinosuke , Japanese naval aviator, commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1891 ) David Lloyd George , British politician and statesman, 51st Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1863 ) Tadamichi Kuribayashi , Imperial Japanese Army general, commander of the battle of Iwo Jima (probably killed in action) (b. 1891 ) Boris Shaposhnikov , Soviet military leader, Marshal of the Soviet Union (b. 1882 ) Ichimaru Toshinosuke , Japanese naval aviator, commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1891 ) March 27 – Halid Ziya Uşaklıgil , Turkish author (b. 1867 ) March 29 – Ferenc Csik , Hungarian swimmer (air raid victim) (b. 1913 ) March 30 – Maurice Rose , American general (killed in action) (b. 1899 ) [ 105 ] March 31 Hans Fischer , German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (suicide) (b. 1881 ) Torgny Segerstedt , Swedish newspaper editor, publicist (b. 1876 ) Maria Skobtsova , Soviet Orthodox nun and saint (killed by poison) (b. 1891 ) Natalia Tulasiewicz , Polish teacher and Roman Catholic blessed (murdered in concentration camp) (b. 1906 ) Hans Fischer , German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (suicide) (b. 1881 ) Torgny Segerstedt , Swedish newspaper editor, publicist (b. 1876 ) Maria Skobtsova , Soviet Orthodox nun and saint (killed by poison) (b. 1891 ) Natalia Tulasiewicz , Polish teacher and Roman Catholic blessed (murdered in concentration camp) (b. 1906 ) April April 7 Seiichi Itō , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1890 ) Aruga Kōsaku , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1897 ) Seiichi Itō , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1890 ) Aruga Kōsaku , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1897 ) April 9 Dietrich Bonhoeffer , German theologian (executed) (b. 1906 ) Wilhelm Canaris , German admiral, head of the Abwehr (executed) (b. 1887 ) Hans von Dohnanyi , Hungarian-born German lawyer, member of the German Resistance, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1902 ) Georg Elser , German carpenter and attempted assassin of Adolf Hitler (executed) (b. 1903 ) [ 106 ] Dietrich Bonhoeffer , German theologian (executed) (b. 1906 ) Wilhelm Canaris , German admiral, head of the Abwehr (executed) (b. 1887 ) Hans von Dohnanyi , Hungarian-born German lawyer, member of the German Resistance, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1902 ) Georg Elser , German carpenter and attempted assassin of Adolf Hitler (executed) (b. 1903 ) [ 106 ] April 10 Gloria Dickson , American actress (fire victim) (b. 1917 ) Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman , Dutch artist and printer (b. 1882 ) [ 107 ] Gloria Dickson , American actress (fire victim) (b. 1917 ) Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman , Dutch artist and printer (b. 1882 ) [ 107 ] April 11 – Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard , British colonial administrator (b. 1858 ) April 12 – Franklin D. Roosevelt , American political leader and statesman, 32nd President of the United States (b. 1882 ) April 13 – Ernst Cassirer , German philosopher (b. 1874 ) April 15 – Joachim Albrecht Eggeling , German SS general (suicide) (b. 1884 ) April 18 Sir Ambrose Fleming , British electrical engineer and physicist (b. 1849 ) Ernie Pyle , American journalist (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm, Prince of Albania (b. 1876 ) Sir Ambrose Fleming , British electrical engineer and physicist (b. 1849 ) Ernie Pyle , American journalist (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm, Prince of Albania (b. 1876 ) April 21 Pavle Đurišić , Montenegrin Serb army commander (b. 1909 ) [ citation needed ] Walter Model , German field marshal (suicide) (b. 1891 ) Pavle Đurišić , Montenegrin Serb army commander (b. 1909 ) [ citation needed ] Walter Model , German field marshal (suicide) (b. 1891 ) April 22 – Käthe Kollwitz , German artist (b. 1867 ) April 23 – Klaus Bonhoeffer , German resistance fighter, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1901 ) April 24 – Ernst-Robert Grawitz , German SS Reichsphysician (suicide) (b. 1899 ) April 28 Executed: Hermann Fegelein , German SS general (b. 1906 ) Benito Mussolini , Italian politician, journalist, 27th Prime Minister of Italy and Duce of Fascism (b. 1883 ) Clara Petacci , mistress of Benito Mussolini (b. 1912 ) Nicola Bombacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1879 ) Roberto Farinacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1892 ) Alessandro Pavolini , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1903 ) Executed: Hermann Fegelein , German SS general (b. 1906 ) Benito Mussolini , Italian politician, journalist, 27th Prime Minister of Italy and Duce of Fascism (b. 1883 ) Clara Petacci , mistress of Benito Mussolini (b. 1912 ) Nicola Bombacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1879 ) Roberto Farinacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1892 ) Alessandro Pavolini , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1903 ) Hermann Fegelein , German SS general (b. 1906 ) Benito Mussolini , Italian politician, journalist, 27th Prime Minister of Italy and Duce of Fascism (b. 1883 ) Clara Petacci , mistress of Benito Mussolini (b. 1912 ) Nicola Bombacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1879 ) Roberto Farinacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1892 ) Alessandro Pavolini , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1903 ) April 29 – Achille Starace , Italian Fascist politician (executed) (b. 1889 ) April 30 Luisa Ferida , Italian actress (executed) (b. 1914 ) Adolf Hitler , Austrian-born German politician, Führer of Germany (suicide) (b. 1889 ) Eva Braun , wife of Adolf Hitler (suicide) (b. 1912 ) Luisa Ferida , Italian actress (executed) (b. 1914 ) Adolf Hitler , Austrian-born German politician, Führer of Germany (suicide) (b. 1889 ) Eva Braun , wife of Adolf Hitler (suicide) (b. 1912 ) May May 1 Joseph Goebbels , Chancellor of Germany for 1 day and Reich Minister of Propaganda (suicide) (b. 1897 ) Magda Goebbels , wife of Joseph Goebbels (suicide) (b. 1901 ) Joseph Goebbels , Chancellor of Germany for 1 day and Reich Minister of Propaganda (suicide) (b. 1897 ) Magda Goebbels , wife of Joseph Goebbels (suicide) (b. 1901 ) May 2 Martin Bormann , Nazi Party leader and private secretary to Adolf Hitler (presumed suicide) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm Burgdorf , German general (suicide) (b. 1895 ) Hans Krebs , German general (suicide) (b. 1898 ) Prince Waldemar of Prussia (haemophilia) (b. 1889 ) Martin Bormann , Nazi Party leader and private secretary to Adolf Hitler (presumed suicide) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm Burgdorf , German general (suicide) (b. 1895 ) Hans Krebs , German general (suicide) (b. 1898 ) Prince Waldemar of Prussia (haemophilia) (b. 1889 ) May 3 – Mario Blasich , Italian physician, politician (b. 1878 ) May 4 – Fedor von Bock , German field marshal (killed in action) (b. 1880 ) [ 108 ] May 6 – Xhem Hasa , Albanian nationalist (assassinated) (b. 1908 ) May 7 – Vladimir Boyarsky , Soviet army officer (executed) (b. 1901 ) May 8 Francis Bruguière , American photographer (b. 1875 ) Julius Hirsch , German footballer (killed in Auschwitz concentration camp) (b. 1892 ) [ 109 ] Wilhelm Rediess , SS and Police Leader of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1900 ) Bernhard Rust , education minister of Nazi Germany (presumed suicide) (b. 1883 ) Josef Terboven , Reichskommissar of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1898 ) Francis Bruguière , American photographer (b. 1875 ) Julius Hirsch , German footballer (killed in Auschwitz concentration camp) (b. 1892 ) [ 109 ] Wilhelm Rediess , SS and Police Leader of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1900 ) Bernhard Rust , education minister of Nazi Germany (presumed suicide) (b. 1883 ) Josef Terboven , Reichskommissar of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1898 ) May 9 – Gustav Becking , German musicologist (b. 1894 ) May 10 – Konrad Henlein , Sudeten German Nazi leader (suicide) (b. 1898 ) May 11 Kiyoshi Ogawa , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1922 ) Seizō Yasunori , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1924 ) [ 110 ] Kiyoshi Ogawa , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1922 ) Seizō Yasunori , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1924 ) [ 110 ] May 14 Joseph Barthélemy , French jurist, politician and journalist (b. 1874 ) Heber J. Grant , 7th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b. 1856 ) Joseph Barthélemy , French jurist, politician and journalist (b. 1874 ) Heber J. Grant , 7th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b. 1856 ) May 15 Kenneth J. Alford , British soldier and composer (b. 1881 ) [ 111 ] Charles Williams , British author (b. 1886 ) Kenneth J. Alford , British soldier and composer (b. 1881 ) [ 111 ] Charles Williams , British author (b. 1886 ) May 16 – Kaju Sugiura , Japanese admiral (killed in action) (b. 1896 ) May 18 – William Joseph Simmons , American founder of the second Ku Klux Klan (b. 1880 ) May 19 – Philipp Bouhler , German Nazi leader and general (suicide) (b. 1899 ) May 21 – Prince Kan'in Kotohito , Japanese prince, member of the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office (b. 1865 ) May 23 – Heinrich Himmler , German politician, Reichsführer-SS (suicide) (b. 1900 ) May 24 – Robert Ritter von Greim , German field marshal (suicide) (b. 1892 ) May 25 Rafael Estrella Ureña , Dominican lawyer and politician, acting president of the Dominican Republic (b. 1889 ) Ishii Kikujirō , Japanese diplomat and politician (killed in bombing raid) (b. 1866 ) [ 112 ] Rafael Estrella Ureña , Dominican lawyer and politician, acting president of the Dominican Republic (b. 1889 ) Ishii Kikujirō , Japanese diplomat and politician (killed in bombing raid) (b. 1866 ) [ 112 ] May 31 Odilo Globocnik , Austrian Nazi leader (suicide) (b. 1904 ) Curt von Gottberg , German SS general (suicide) (b. 1896 ) Odilo Globocnik , Austrian Nazi leader (suicide) (b. 1904 ) Curt von Gottberg , German SS general (suicide) (b. 1896 ) June June 4 – Georg Kaiser , German dramatist (b. 1878 ) June 7 – Kitaro Nishida , Japanese philosopher (b. 1870 ) June 8 Robert Desnos , French poet, resistance fighter (typhoid) (b. 1900 ) Karl Hanke , German Nazi general and last Reichsführer-SS (killed) (b. 1903 ) Robert Desnos , French poet, resistance fighter (typhoid) (b. 1900 ) Karl Hanke , German Nazi general and last Reichsführer-SS (killed) (b. 1903 ) June 11 – Lurana W. Sheldon , American author and editor (b. 1862 ) June 13 – Minoru Ōta , Japanese admiral (suicide) (b. 1891 ) June 15 Carl Gustaf Ekman , Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1872 ) Amélie Rives Troubetzkoy , American author (b. 1863 ) Aris Velouchiotis , Greek World War II resistance leader (suicide) (b. 1905 ) Carl Gustaf Ekman , Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1872 ) Amélie Rives Troubetzkoy , American author (b. 1863 ) Aris Velouchiotis , Greek World War II resistance leader (suicide) (b. 1905 ) June 16 Nikolai Berzarin , Soviet Red Army general (b. 1904 ) Nils Edén , 15th Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1871 ) Nikolai Berzarin , Soviet Red Army general (b. 1904 ) Nils Edén , 15th Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1871 ) June 18 Florence Bascom , American geologist and educator (b. 1862 ) Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr. , American general (killed in action on Okinawa ) (b. 1886 ) Friedrich, Prince of Wied , German prince (b. 1872 ) Florence Bascom , American geologist and educator (b. 1862 ) Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr. , American general (killed in action on Okinawa ) (b. 1886 ) Friedrich, Prince of Wied , German prince (b. 1872 ) June 20 Robert Crewe-Milnes, 1st Marquess of Crewe , British politician (b. 1858 ) Luís Fernando de Orleans y Borbón , Spanish prince (b. 1888 ) Robert Crewe-Milnes, 1st Marquess of Crewe , British politician (b. 1858 ) Luís Fernando de Orleans y Borbón , Spanish prince (b. 1888 ) June 22 Isamu Chō , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1895 ) Mitsuru Ushijima , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) Isamu Chō , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1895 ) Mitsuru Ushijima , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) June 24 – José Gutiérrez Solana , Spanish painter (b. 1886 ) June 27 – Emil Hácha , 3rd President of Czechoslovakia , State President of Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (b. 1872 ) June 30 Germogen (Maximov) , Russian Orthodox Metropolitan (b. 1861 ) Gabriel El-Registan , Soviet poet (b. 1899 ) Germogen (Maximov) , Russian Orthodox Metropolitan (b. 1861 ) Gabriel El-Registan , Soviet poet (b. 1899 ) July July 1 – Félix Evaristo Mejía , Dominican diplomat, educator and writer (b. 1866 ) July 2 – Óscar R. Benavides , Peruvian field marshal, diplomat, politician and President of Peru (b. 1876 ) July 5 – John Curtin , 14th Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1885 ) July 7 – Peter To Rot , Papuan Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1912 ) July 9 – Luigi Aldrovandi Marescotti , Italian politician, diplomat (b. 1876 ) July 12 Boris Galerkin , Russian mathematician (b. 1871 ) [ 113 ] Wolfram von Richthofen , German field marshal (brain tumor) (b. 1895 ) Boris Galerkin , Russian mathematician (b. 1871 ) [ 113 ] Wolfram von Richthofen , German field marshal (brain tumor) (b. 1895 ) July 13 – Alla Nazimova , Russian-born American actress (b. 1879 ) July 17 – Ernst Busch , German field marshal, as prisoner of war (b. 1885 ) July 20 – Paul Valéry , French poet (b. 1871 ) July 24 – Arnold von Winckler , German general (b. 1856 ) July 25 – Malin Craig , United States Army general (b. 1875 ) July 28 – Margot Asquith, Countess of Oxford and Asquith (b. 1864 ) July 29 – Maria Pierina De Micheli , Italian Roman Catholic religious sister, mystic and blessed (b. 1890 ) July 31 – Artemio Ricarte , Filipino general (b. 1866 ) August August 1 – Blas Cabrera Felipe , Spanish physicist (b. 1878 ) August 2 – Pietro Mascagni , Italian composer (b. 1863 ) August 3 – Roman Kochanowski , Polish painter, illustrator (b. 1857 ) August 4 – Gerhard Gentzen , German mathematician and logician (starvation in prison camp) (b. 1909 ) August 5 – Nat Jaffe , American swing jazz pianist (b. 1918 ) August 7 – Jacques Vaillant de Guélis , British/French WWII hero (injuries received in automobile accident) (b. 1907 ) August 8 – Joseph Pujol, Le Pétomane , French flatulist (b. 1857 ) August 9 Harry Hillman , American track athlete (b. 1881 ) [ 114 ] Jun Tosaka , Japanese philosopher (in prison) (b. 1900 ) Harry Hillman , American track athlete (b. 1881 ) [ 114 ] Jun Tosaka , Japanese philosopher (in prison) (b. 1900 ) August 10 – Robert H. Goddard , American rocket scientist (b. 1882 ) August 12 – Karl Leisner , German Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1915 ) August 15 Korechika Anami , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) Matome Ugaki , Japanese admiral (killed in action) (b. 1890 ) Korechika Anami , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) Matome Ugaki , Japanese admiral (killed in action) (b. 1890 ) August 16 – Takijirō Ōnishi , Japanese admiral (ritual suicide) (b. 1891 ) August 18 Subhas Chandra Bose , Leader of Indian National Army (Third-degree burns from aircrash) (b. 1897 ) [ 115 ] Sarala Devi Chaudhurani , Indian educationist (b. 1872 ) Subhas Chandra Bose , Leader of Indian National Army (Third-degree burns from aircrash) (b. 1897 ) [ 115 ] Sarala Devi Chaudhurani , Indian educationist (b. 1872 ) August 24 – Shizuichi Tanaka , Japanese general (suicide) (b. 1887 ) August 25 – Willis Augustus Lee , American admiral, Olympic shooter (b. 1888 ) August 26 Pio Collivadino , Argentinian painter (b. 1869 ) Franz Werfel , Austrian writer (b. 1890 ) Pio Collivadino , Argentinian painter (b. 1869 ) Franz Werfel , Austrian writer (b. 1890 ) August 27 – Blessed María Pilar Izquierdo Albero , Spanish Roman Catholic religious professed (b. 1906 ) August 29 – Fritz Pfleumer , German engineer, inventor (b. 1881 ) August 30 – Florencio Harmodio Arosemena , 6th President of Panama (b. 1872 ) August 31 Stefan Banach , Polish mathematician (b. 1892 ) Pope Macarius III of Alexandria , Egyptian patriarch, saint (b. 1872 ) Stefan Banach , Polish mathematician (b. 1892 ) Pope Macarius III of Alexandria , Egyptian patriarch, saint (b. 1872 ) September September 6 Witold Leon Czartoryski , Polish nobleman (b. 1864 ) John S. McCain Sr. , American admiral (b. 1884 ) Witold Leon Czartoryski , Polish nobleman (b. 1864 ) John S. McCain Sr. , American admiral (b. 1884 ) September 9 – Aage Bertelsen , Danish painter (b. 1873 ) September 12 – Hajime Sugiyama , Japanese general (suicide) (b. 1880 ) September 15 Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer , German physician and bacteriologist (b. 1858 ) [ 116 ] André Tardieu , 3-time prime minister of France (b. 1876 ) Anton Webern , Austrian composer (b. 1883 ) Zhang Mingqi , Qing dynasty politician (b. 1875 ) Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer , German physician and bacteriologist (b. 1858 ) [ 116 ] André Tardieu , 3-time prime minister of France (b. 1876 ) Anton Webern , Austrian composer (b. 1883 ) Zhang Mingqi , Qing dynasty politician (b. 1875 ) September 16 – John McCormack , Irish tenor (b. 1884 ) September 18 José Agripino Barnet , Cuban politician and diplomat, acting president of Cuba (b. 1864 ) Blind Willie Johnson , American gospel blues singer (b. 1897 ) José Agripino Barnet , Cuban politician and diplomat, acting president of Cuba (b. 1864 ) Blind Willie Johnson , American gospel blues singer (b. 1897 ) September 20 Augusto Tasso Fragoso , Brazilian soldier, statesman and interim president of Brazil (b. 1869 ) Eduard Wirths , German doctor, chief SS doctor at Auschwitz concentration camp (suicide) (b. 1909 ) Augusto Tasso Fragoso , Brazilian soldier, statesman and interim president of Brazil (b. 1869 ) Eduard Wirths , German doctor, chief SS doctor at Auschwitz concentration camp (suicide) (b. 1909 ) September 24 – Hans Geiger , German physicist, inventor (b. 1882 ) September 26 Béla Bartók , Hungarian composer (b. 1881 ) [ 117 ] Leonhard Kaupisch , German general (b. 1878 ) [ 118 ] Kiyoshi Miki , Japanese philosopher (b. 1897 ) Béla Bartók , Hungarian composer (b. 1881 ) [ 117 ] Leonhard Kaupisch , German general (b. 1878 ) [ 118 ] Kiyoshi Miki , Japanese philosopher (b. 1897 ) October October 1 – Walter Bradford Cannon , American physiologist (b. 1871 ) [ 119 ] October 6 – Leonardo Conti , German physician, Nazi officer (suicide) (b. 1900 ) October 8 – Felix Salten , Austrian author (b. 1869 ) [ 120 ] October 10 – Joseph Darnand , Vichy French politician (executed) (b. 1897 ) October 12 – Dmytro Antonovych , Soviet politician (b. 1877 ) October 13 – Milton S. Hershey , American chocolate tycoon (b. 1857 ) October 15 – Pierre Laval , French politician, 2-time Prime Minister of France (executed) (b. 1883 ) [ 59 ] October 18 – Frederick Hovey , American tennis player (b. 1868 ) October 19 Plutarco Elías Calles , Mexican general, politician and 40th President of Mexico (b. 1877) N. C. Wyeth , American illustrator (b. 1882 ) Plutarco Elías Calles , Mexican general, politician and 40th President of Mexico (b. 1877) N. C. Wyeth , American illustrator (b. 1882 ) October 21 Henry Armetta , Italian actor (b. 1888 ) Felicija Bortkevičienė , Lithuanian politician and publisher (b. 1873 ) [ 121 ] Henry Armetta , Italian actor (b. 1888 ) Felicija Bortkevičienė , Lithuanian politician and publisher (b. 1873 ) [ 121 ] October 24 Franklin Carmichael , Canadian landscape painter and graphic designer (b. 1890 ) [ 122 ] Vidkun Quisling , Norwegian Nazi collaborator (executed) (b. 1887 ) Franklin Carmichael , Canadian landscape painter and graphic designer (b. 1890 ) [ 122 ] Vidkun Quisling , Norwegian Nazi collaborator (executed) (b. 1887 ) October 25 – Robert Ley , German Nazi politician (suicide) (b. 1890 ) October 26 Adolf von Brudermann , Austro-Hungarian general (b. 1854 ) Paul Pelliot , French explorer (b. 1878 ) Adolf von Brudermann , Austro-Hungarian general (b. 1854 ) Paul Pelliot , French explorer (b. 1878 ) October 30 – Xian Xinghai , Chinese composer (b. 1905 ) October 31 Henry Ainley , British actor (b. 1879 ) Ignacio Zuloaga , Basque Spanish painter (b. 1870 ) Henry Ainley , British actor (b. 1879 ) Ignacio Zuloaga , Basque Spanish painter (b. 1870 ) November November 8 – August von Mackensen , German field marshal (b. 1849 ) November 11 – Jerome Kern , American composer (b. 1885 ) [ 123 ] November 13 – Sir Edwyn Alexander-Sinclair , British admiral (b. 1865 ) [ 124 ] November 16 – Sigurður Eggerz , Minister for Iceland during World War I and 2nd Prime Minister of Iceland (b. 1875 ) November 17 – Frederick Francis IV, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (b. 1882 ) November 20 – Francis William Aston , British chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1877 ) November 21 Robert Benchley , American humorist, theater critic and actor (b. 1889 ) [ 125 ] Ellen Glasgow , American novelist (b. 1873 ) [ 126 ] Alexander Patch , United States Army lieutenant general, World War II army commander (b. 1889 ) Jimmy Quinn , Scottish footballer (b. 1878 ) [ 127 ] Robert Benchley , American humorist, theater critic and actor (b. 1889 ) [ 125 ] Ellen Glasgow , American novelist (b. 1873 ) [ 126 ] Alexander Patch , United States Army lieutenant general, World War II army commander (b. 1889 ) Jimmy Quinn , Scottish footballer (b. 1878 ) [ 127 ] November 23 – Charles Coborn , British singer (b. 1852 ) November 27 – Josep Maria Sert , Spanish Catalan muralist (b. 1874 ) November 28 – Dwight F. Davis , American tennis player (b. 1879 ) November 30 – Shigeru Honjō , Japanese general (suicide) (b. 1876 ) December December 1 – Anton Dostler , German general (executed) (b. 1891 ) December 4 Thomas Hunt Morgan , American biologist, geneticist, embryologist and Nobel Prize in Physiology recipient (b. 1866 ) Richárd Weisz , Hungarian Olympic champion wrestler (b. 1879 ) [ 128 ] Thomas Hunt Morgan , American biologist, geneticist, embryologist and Nobel Prize in Physiology recipient (b. 1866 ) Richárd Weisz , Hungarian Olympic champion wrestler (b. 1879 ) [ 128 ] December 5 – Cosmo Gordon Lang , Archbishop of Canterbury (b. 1864 ) December 8 – Gabriellino D'Annunzio , Italian actor, director and screenwriter (b. 1886 ) December 12 – Prince Frederick of Schaumburg-Lippe (b. 1868 ) December 13 Johanna Bormann , German Nazi concentration camp guard (executed) (b. 1893 ) Henri Dentz , French general (b. 1881 ) Irma Grese , German camp guard at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1923 ) Josef Kramer , German commandant of Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1906 ) Elisabeth Volkenrath , German supervisor at Nazi concentration camps (executed) (b. 1919 ) Johanna Bormann , German Nazi concentration camp guard (executed) (b. 1893 ) Henri Dentz , French general (b. 1881 ) Irma Grese , German camp guard at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1923 ) Josef Kramer , German commandant of Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1906 ) Elisabeth Volkenrath , German supervisor at Nazi concentration camps (executed) (b. 1919 ) December 14 – Forrester Harvey , Irish actor (b. 1884 ) December 16 Giovanni Agnelli , Italian entrepreneur, founder of Fiat (b. 1866 ) Fumimaro Konoe , Japanese general, politician, and 23rd Prime Minister of Japan (suicide) (b. 1891 ) Giovanni Agnelli , Italian entrepreneur, founder of Fiat (b. 1866 ) Fumimaro Konoe , Japanese general, politician, and 23rd Prime Minister of Japan (suicide) (b. 1891 ) December 19 – Leonard F. Wing , American general and politician (b. 1893 ) [ 129 ] December 21 – George S. Patton , American general (injuries from automobile accident) (b. 1885 ) [ 130 ] December 22 – Otto Neurath , Austrian philosopher, political economist (b. 1892 ) December 26 Duy Tân , Emperor of Vietnam (b. 1900 ) Roger Keyes, 1st Baron Keyes , British admiral (b. 1872 ) Duy Tân , Emperor of Vietnam (b. 1900 ) Roger Keyes, 1st Baron Keyes , British admiral (b. 1872 ) December 28 – Theodore Dreiser , American novelist (b. 1871 ) [ 131 ] Nobel Prizes Physics – Wolfgang Pauli Chemistry – Artturi Ilmari Virtanen Physiology or Medicine – Sir Alexander Fleming , Ernst Chain , Howard Florey Literature – Gabriela Mistral Peace – Cordell Hull References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "What Was 1945 a Turning Point - 1377 Words | Bartleby" . ^ Girbig, Werner (1975). 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January 6, 2024. ^ "LIEUTENANT GENERAL MILLARD F. HARMON" . Air Force . [ dead link ] ^ Hill, Alec (1979). " 'Chauvel, Sir Henry George (Harry) (1865–1945)' " . Australian Dictionary of Biography . National Centre of Biography, Australian National University . ISBN 978-0-522-84459-7 . ISSN 1833-7538 . OCLC 70677943 . Retrieved January 11, 2010 . ^ "Preview unavailable" . ProQuest . ProQuest 107039613 . ^ "Casualty Details | CWGC" . www.cwgc.org . Retrieved March 8, 2021 . ^ MG Maurice Rose ^ "Georg Elser" . www.gdw-berlin.de . Retrieved January 4, 2025 . ^ "Ontdek amateurschilder, drukker, fotograaf Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman" . rkd.nl . ^ Evans, Richard J. (2008). The Third Reich at War: 1939–1945 . London: Allen Lane. p. 750. ISBN 978-0-7139-9742-2 . ^ Wallace, Sam (January 25, 2020). "The imperishable story of Julius Hirsch: the great goalscorer murdered at Auschwitz who adorns Stamford Bridge mural" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on January 12, 2022. ^ Maxwell Taylor Kennedy (November 3, 2009). Danger's Hour: The Story of the USS Bunker Hill and the Kamikaze Pilot Who Crippled Her . Simon and Schuster. p. 257. ISBN 978-0-7432-6081-7 . ^ "AAFA Bio - Kenneth J. Alford" . ^ "Ishii Kikujiro | Biography & Facts | Britannica" . www.britannica.com . March 15, 2024. ^ "Boris Galerkin" . TheFreeDictionary.com . ^ Harry Hillman Taken by Death, Cumberland News , August 10, 1945 ^ Firoz Alam (October 1, 2009). Subhas Chandra Bose . Sahni Publications. p. 121. ISBN 978-81-7564-242-3 . ^ Fildes, P. (February 13, 1956). "Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer, 1858-1945" . Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society . 2 (2): 237– 247. doi : 10.1098/rsbm.1956.0016 . S2CID 73380545 . ^ .mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)} Stevens, Halsey. 2018. " Béla Bartók: Hungarian Composer ". Encyclopædia Britannica online (accessed 27 September 2018). ^ "Kaupisch, Leonhard" (in German). lexikon-der-wehrmacht.de . Retrieved September 7, 2025 . ^ "Dr. W.B. Cannon, 73, Neurologist, Dead. Harvard Psychology Professor for 36 Years Noted for His Work on Traumatic Shock Became Professor in 1906" . New York Times . October 2, 1945 . Retrieved October 5, 2010 . ^ "Felix Salten | Austrian novelist | Britannica" . www.britannica.com . September 2, 2023. ^ "Felicija Bortkevičienė" . www.vle.lt . ^ Franklin Carmichael ^ Hugh Fordin, Stephen Sondheim (1995). Getting to Know Him: A Biography of Oscar Hammerstein II . Da Capo Press. p. 237. ISBN 0-306-80668-1 . [ permanent dead link ] ^ [Sinclair, Sir Edwyn Sinclair Alexander-, of Freswick (1865–1945)] ^ Billy Altman, Laughter's Gentle Soul: The Life of Robert Benchley . (New York City: W. W. Norton , 1997. ISBN 0-393-03833-5 ) Pages 352–362 ^ Inge, Tonette Bond. Encyclopedia of Southern Culture , ed. Charles Reagan Wilson and William R. Ferris. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989. Page 884. ^ FC, Celtic. "Jimmy Quinn" . Celtic FC . ^ Siegman, Joseph (2020). Jewish Sports Legends: The International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame . U of Nebraska Press. ISBN 9781496222121 . ^ Wing, Leonard Fish ^ Axelrod, Alan (2006), Patton: A Biography , London : Palgrave Macmillan , pp. 168– 9, ISBN 978-1-4039-7139-5 ^ Theodore Dreiser Recalled . Clemson University Press. 2017. p. 311. ISBN 9781942954446 . Further reading Ian Buruma . Year Zero: A History of 1945 (Penguin Press; 2013) 368 pages; covers liberation, revenge, decolonization, and the rise of the United Nations. excerpt International News Service, It Happened In 1945 The Essential Year Book (1946) Keith Lowe. Savage Continent: Europe in the Aftermath of World War II (2012) excerpt and text search McDannald, A. H. ed. The Americana Annual 1946 (1946) events of 1945 online ; encyclopedia yearbook global coverage in 950pp Walter Yust, ed. 10 Eventful Years, 1937 – 1946 Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 1947, 4 vol., encyclopedia yearbook online v t e Events by month v t e 1949 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1948 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1947 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1946 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1945 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1944 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1943 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1942 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1941 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1940 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Authority control databases National United States Czech Republic Israel United States Czech Republic Israel Other Yale LUX Yale LUX 1945 All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from May 2022 Articles with permanently dead external links CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown CS1 Polish-language sources (pl) CS1 maint: location missing publisher Articles with dead external links from February 2023 CS1 Spanish-language sources (es) Articles with dead external links from March 2025 CS1 German-language sources (de) Use mdy dates from August 2019 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Commons category link from Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2026 This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 01:14 (UTC) . 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Pàjina prinsipałe Canbiaminti in ùltema Pàjina a òcio Vetrina Ciàcołe Modełi racomandai Coordenamento Convension de scritura Comunità El Wikipedian Chat IRC Juto Sondaji Contati Donasion Donasion Crea utensa Lòghite Donasion Crea utensa Lòghite Wikipedia : Prinsipio Pajina prinçipałe Discusion Lexi Varda el testo Varda l'istorego Lexi Varda el testo Varda l'istorego Pajine che łe ponta cuà Canbiamenti ligài a sta pàjina Lingambo parmanente Informasion so sta pajina Ciapa un URL scurcià Descarga el còdese QR Crea on libro Descarga come PDF Version par la stanpa Wikimedia Commons Wikimedia Foundation MediaWiki Meta-Wiki Wikimedia Outreach Wikisource multilingue Wikispecies Wikidata Wikifunctions Wikimania Wikisource Wikisionario Ełemento Wikidata Benvegnesti inte ła Wikipedia Vèneta L'ençiclopedia lìbara andove tuti i połe cołaborar. Co 69 536 voxe en łéngua Vèneta e 40 627 utense notae Come notarse Portałi temàdeghi Guida Jùtame Ciàcołe Istòria Regio X Venetia et Histria Ła Regio X Venetia et Histria ła zera una de łe regiones co łe cuałe Augusto el ga dividesto ła Itàlia sirca inte el 7 d.C. Łe denominasion de łe rejon augustee łe zera solché numarałi, e soło łe fonte acadèmeghe del dì de uncò łe costuma atribuir al nome uficiałe roman on ajetivo che dizegna el teritorio. A ła rejon ghe zé stà zontà l'ajetivo Venetia , par via dei vèneti , ła popołasion che vivea inte ła zona oncora prima dei romani, mentre Histria el ze on nome de chel divien da ła tribù iłìrega dei histri. El teritorio se stendea dal' Ada al Tajamento , oltre che mucia parta del Carso , l' Istria . Ła Venetia ła jera ła parta abità dal pópoło pałeovèneto dal cual ła tołe el nome, on pópoło zà conosesto ai greghi Lezi ła voze... Cervantes Jáuregui Cervantes Jáuregui Cervantes Jáuregui Cervantes Jáuregui Imàzene in rezalto Ła definision de Repùblega marinara ła se dòpara in rełasion a serte sità costiere (de ła penìzoła italiana ma anca no), che intrà el z e el zII secolo łe ga godesto de on perìodo de prosperità econòmega par via de łe so atività comersałi, inte on cuadro de larga autonomia pułìtega . In zènere, la definision ła se rifarise in partegołar a cuatro sità italiane: Amalfi , zènoa , Piza e Venèsia . Oltre che ste cuatro, che le ze le pi famose, ghe zera anca altre sità che łe godea inte ła istesa manjiera de l'indipendensa (co on goerno autònomo soto forma de repùblega ołigàrchega , un so scheo , un so ezèrsito, etc.), łe gavea partesipà a łe Crozade , łe gavea na flota de navi e la gavea fònteghi (o sia boteghe-magazini andove véndar łe merse) inte i vari porti del Mediteràneo , e par tute ste motivasion łe połe èsar ritegneste anca łore repùbleghe marinare. Intrà ste cuà, ghe ze Gaeta , Ancona , Trani , Raguza e Noli . Par Venèsia la denomenasion de Repùblega Marinara ła ze seguramente scursadiva, ma efetivamente ła ze stà una de ste cuà, siben che anca cavedałe de on inpero. imàzene del dia Cervantes Jáuregui imàzene del dia Cervantes Jáuregui Zughi Scachi I scachi i ze un zugo da toła stratèzego par do persone che el se zuga so na scachiera . Cadaun zugador el ga sedaze pedine: uno łe ga bianche (cheło che el move par primo), che l'altro łe ga negre. Par vìnsare on zugador el ga da darghe scaco mato a che l'altro. El tèrmano el divien da ła łéngua ositana e catełana escac , che el deriva a so olta dal persian شاه, Shah , "re", pasà forsi traerso on indatamento arabo eš-šāq , co ła zonta de l' articoło e ła trasformasion de ła fricativa persiana in ocluziva. Lezi ła voze.. imàzene del dia Cervantes Jáuregui imàzene del dia Cervantes Jáuregui Lo savéito che? Lexi la voxe ... On provèrbio a ócio On testo a ócio “ La Biondina in gondoleta L'altra sera gò menà, Dal piacer la povereta La s'à in bota indormenzà. La dormiva su sto brazzo, Mi ogni tanto la svegiava; Ma la barca che ninava La tornava a indormenzar. „ “ La Biondina in gondoleta L'altra sera gò menà, Dal piacer la povereta La s'à in bota indormenzà. La dormiva su sto brazzo, Mi ogni tanto la svegiava; Ma la barca che ninava La tornava a indormenzar. La Biondina in gondoleta L'altra sera gò menà, Dal piacer la povereta La s'à in bota indormenzà. La dormiva su sto brazzo, Mi ogni tanto la svegiava; Ma la barca che ninava La tornava a indormenzar. „ Anton Maria Lamberti , La biondina in gondoleta Trevizo :Pałaso dei Trezento in Piasa dei Siori Siense juste Astronomìa · Biologìa · Chìmega · Fìxega · Anatomia · Matemàtega · Siense naturaƚi · Siense de ła tera · Statìstega Astronomìa · Biologìa · Chìmega · Fìxega · Anatomia · Matemàtega · Siense naturaƚi · Siense de ła tera · Statìstega Arte , literatura , łéngue , mùxega Arte · Cine · Bało · Fumeto · Literatura · Lenguìstega · Mùxega · Pitura · Teatro Arte · Cine · Bało · Fumeto · Literatura · Lenguìstega · Mùxega · Pitura · Teatro Siense sociaƚi Archiołoxìa · Derito · Economia · Finansa · Educasion · Fiłoxofìa · Ziografia · Mitołozia · Pułìtega · Psicołozia · Socioƚoxìa · Istòria · Studio de l'omo · Teołozia · Rełijon Archiołoxìa · Derito · Economia · Finansa · Educasion · Fiłoxofìa · Ziografia · Mitołozia · Pułìtega · Psicołozia · Socioƚoxìa · Istòria · Studio de l'omo · Teołozia · Rełijon Tenpo libaro Bricolage · Cuxina · Xughi · Entratenimento · Midia de l'informasion · Spòr · Teƚevixion · Torismo Bricolage · Cuxina · Xughi · Entratenimento · Midia de l'informasion · Spòr · Teƚevixion · Torismo Tecnołoxia, Siense aplegae Agricultura · Architetura · Comunicasion · Elitrònega · Endustria · Enformàdega · Engegnerìa · Medexina · Tenoƚoxia · Trasporti · Nanotenoƚoxìa Agricultura · Architetura · Comunicasion · Elitrònega · Endustria · Enformàdega · Engegnerìa · Medexina · Tenoƚoxia · Trasporti · Nanotenoƚoxìa Venèsie e ła so xente Storia del Vèneto · Łéngua vèneta · Ła Serenìsima · Trè Venèsie : Vèneto ( Belun · Pàdoa · Rovigo · Trevixo · Venèsia · Verona · Vicensa ), Trentin ( Trento ), Friul e Venèsia Julia ( Istria · Fiume · Pola · Trieste ) · Oròbia ( Bresa · Bèrgamo ) · Vèneti inte el mondo : ( Chipilo · Rio Grando del Sud · Santa Catarina · Tulcea · San Poło · Espírito Santo · Paraná ) Storia del Vèneto · Łéngua vèneta · Ła Serenìsima · Trè Venèsie : Vèneto ( Belun · Pàdoa · Rovigo · Trevixo · Venèsia · Verona · Vicensa ), Trentin ( Trento ), Friul e Venèsia Julia ( Istria · Fiume · Pola · Trieste ) · Oròbia ( Bresa · Bèrgamo ) · Vèneti inte el mondo : ( Chipilo · Rio Grando del Sud · Santa Catarina · Tulcea · San Poło · Espírito Santo · Paraná ) Indaxi Alfabètego · Alternativo (Aa - Zz) · Biografie · Portałi · Projeti · Juto · Vetrina · Categorìe Alfabètego · Alternativo (Aa - Zz) · Biografie · Portałi · Projeti · Juto · Vetrina · Categorìe Ócio! : Premetindo che ła łéngua vèneta no ła ga oncora on stàndar bel-ché definio e che ła ga de consevensa pì de na variante , par capirse tuti mejo e réndar i artìcułi de Wikipèdia na cołesion de conceti ai cuałi tuti i połe farghe ingreso, se ga fato-sù de łe convension de scritura che, tegnendo fede a ła Grafia Vèneta Internasionałe Moderna, łe rende ła ensiclopedia pì omozènea. 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History Toggle History subsection 1.1 Spanish colonialization (1521–1898) 1.2 Philippine–American War (1898–1902) 1.3 American and Japanese colonization; World War II (1902–1946) 1.4 Marcos's dictatorship era (1965-1986) 1.4.1 Deforestation during Martial Law and the Sag-od Massacre 1.4.2 Construction of the San Juanico Bridge 1.4.3 The New People's Army conflict 1.5 Contemporary history (1986–present) 1.1 Spanish colonialization (1521–1898) 1.2 Philippine–American War (1898–1902) 1.3 American and Japanese colonization; World War II (1902–1946) 1.4 Marcos's dictatorship era (1965-1986) 1.4.1 Deforestation during Martial Law and the Sag-od Massacre 1.4.2 Construction of the San Juanico Bridge 1.4.3 The New People's Army conflict 1.4.1 Deforestation during Martial Law and the Sag-od Massacre 1.4.2 Construction of the San Juanico Bridge 1.4.3 The New People's Army conflict 1.5 Contemporary history (1986–present) 2 Geography Toggle Geography subsection 2.1 Flora and fauna 2.1 Flora and fauna 3 Demographics 4 Administrative divisions and politics 5 Economy Toggle Economy subsection 5.1 Tourism 5.1 Tourism 6 Infrastructure Toggle Infrastructure subsection 6.1 Transportation 6.2 Power and telecommunication 6.3 Education 6.4 Healthcare 6.1 Transportation 6.2 Power and telecommunication 6.3 Education 6.4 Healthcare 7 See also 8 References Toggle References subsection 8.1 Bibliography 8.1 Bibliography 9 External links Samar Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Bikol Central Български Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Ирон Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Кырык мары Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Malagasy مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikivoyage Wikidata item Location within the Philippines Geography Coordinates .mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap} 12°00′N 125°00′E / 12.000°N 125.000°E / 12.000; 125.000 Archipelago Visayas Adjacent to .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Leyte Gulf Philippine Sea Samar Sea San Bernardino Strait San Juanico Strait Leyte Gulf Philippine Sea Samar Sea San Bernardino Strait San Juanico Strait Area 13,428.8 km 2 (5,184.9 sq mi) [ 1 ] Area rank 63rd Coastline 800.6 km (497.47 mi) [ 2 ] Highest elevation 890 m (2920 ft) Highest point Mount Huraw Administration Philippines Region Eastern Visayas Provinces Eastern Samar Northern Samar (Western) Samar Eastern Samar Northern Samar (Western) Samar Largest settlement Calbayog (pop. 187,848) Demographics Population 1,924,651 (2024) [ 3 ] Pop. density 140/km 2 (360/sq mi) Ethnic groups Visayans ( Waray-Waray ) Samar ( / ˈ s ɑː m ɑːr / SAH -mar ) is the third largest island in the Philippines . It has a population of 1,924,651 as of the 2024 census. It is located in the Eastern Visayas region of the Visayas islands. Since 1965, the island is divided into three provinces : Western Samar , Northern Samar , and Eastern Samar . The capitals of these provinces are, respectively, Catarman , Catbalogan , and Borongan . In commemoration of the establishment of these provinces, June 19 is celebrated as an annual holiday. Its main language and ethnicity is Waray and its main religion is Roman Catholic . The island was first sighted by Ferdinand Magellan on March 16, 1521. Although he did not land, other expeditions were made. Many names, such as Samal , Ibabao , and Tandaya , were given to the island prior to the arrival of the Spaniards in 1596. During the early days of Spanish occupation , Samar was under the jurisdiction of Cebu . In the Philippine–American War , Eugenio Daza led a successful attack against the United States Army, later called the Balangiga massacre . This attack led to the Pacification of Samar and deaths of 2,000 people. During the American colonization of the Philippines, two uprisings occurred, including the Pulajan movement which caused massacres in the country. The Battle off Samar was held off the island during World War II. During martial law under Ferdinand Marcos , the Sag-od massacre happened in 1981. The New People's Army rebellion is ongoing. Samar is the easternmost island in the Visayas archipelago, lying to the northeast of Leyte and southeast of the Bicol Peninsula on Luzon . To the west is the Samar Sea , and to the north and east of Samar lies the Philippine Sea . The island has the Samar Island Natural Park and numerous biological discoveries and forests. The island has major copra and fishery industries and also produces rice, corn, vegetables, and abaca . The island also has a major tourism industry. The island has numerous major highways and has a portion of the Pan-Philippine Highway . The island has four major ports and three airports servicing flights to Cebu City and Metro Manila . The island has six Department of Education divisions and numerous universities with satellite campuses. History Spanish colonialization (1521–1898) Samar was the first island of the Philippines as a Spanish expedition led by Ferdinand Magellan revealed the island, originally transcribed Zamal in the journal of Antonio Pigafetta . He sighted it on March 16, 1521, traveling from the Mariana Islands . [ 4 ] [ 5 ] Having found an archipelago , Pigafetta named the islands San Lazaro ( transl. Saint Lazarus ) due to their sightings on Lazarus Saturday . Eventually, Filipinas was the perceived name for the archipelago. Although Samar was the first island of the Philippines seen by Magellan, he did not land there. He traversed south and laid anchor at Suluan Island, then landed on Homonhon Island on March 17, 1521. [ 6 ] Later in the 1700s, Samar was recorded to have about 103 Spanish Filipino families and 3,042 native families. [ 7 ] Other Spaniards eventually landed in the island. William Henry Scott, a historian, recognized that a "Samar datu by the name of Iberein was rowed out to a Spanish vessel anchored in his harbor in 1543 by oarsmen collared in gold; while wearing on his own person earrings and chains." He recounted a Samarnon saga, which was called siday , about Bingi of Lawan, a settlement in Samar. [ 8 ] Samar had names which are recorded in early Spanish sources, including Ibabao (or Cibabao ), Achan , Camlaya , and Taridola . The Spanish captain Miguel Lopez de Legaspi also called the island Tandaya , after mistaking the name of a lord with the name of the island. This was spelled by Miguel de Loarca as Candaya . [ 5 ] During the early years of the Spanish colonialization, the province was placed in the jurisdiction of Cebu but was eventually separated into its own province. A rebellion was sparked in 1649 which was centered in Palapag , causing an uprising in Visayas and parts of Mindanao . The uprising was not suppressed until the next year. This caused rebels to migrate to the mountains and create a new settlement. In 1735, the province and Leyte merged into a singular province; Carigara was declared as the capital. In 1768, Samar was separated from Leyte. In 1860, the government structure was reorganized and was maintained until the end of the regime. [ 4 ] Philippine–American War (1898–1902) On September 28, 1901, Eugenio Daza–Area Commander of Southeastern Samar–and Valeriano Abanador, the town's police chief, [ 9 ] attacked the U.S. Army Company 9th Infantry Regiment who were occupying Balangiga. This action, commonly known as the Balangiga massacre, was a rare Filipino win and a bad loss for American soldiers. [ 10 ] In 1989, "Balangiga Encounter Day" was made a provincial holiday in Eastern Samar in lieu of the victory. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] In retaliation for the massacre, General Jacob H. Smith ordered his men to "kill and burn", further stating that "the more you kill and burn, the better it will please me". [ 13 ] [ 14 ] This command led to the deaths of 2,000 Filipino insurgents and civilians while sparking outrage in the United States. [ 13 ] [ 15 ] In his historical account of the war, Brian McAllister Linn asserts "Samar cast a pall on the army's achievement and, for generations, has been associated in the public mind as typifying the Philippine War." [ 16 ] American and Japanese colonization; World War II (1902–1946) After the war, the archipelago was peaceful except the island of Samar, which was a "dark and bloody" isle according to James Henderson Blount . [ 17 ] In 1904, the Pulajans in Samar caused powerful massacres to the extent of Governor-General Luke Edward Wright 's concern. [ 18 ] Numerous civilians joined the uprising due to the feeling of "unprotection". [ 19 ] The rebellion was discussed by many American politicians and military officers and caused court cases just before the 1904 United States presidential election . [ 20 ] Four days after the election, Wright visited Samar, where troops increased to 2,000 from 700. [ 21 ] After battles and negotiations, the uprising eventually ended in 1906. [ 22 ] When the rebellion ended, the island, according to Blount, started becoming "peaceful". [ 23 ] More revolts were made by religious associations in the 1920s to 1930s. [ 24 ] In World War II , the ocean east of the island hosted the Battle off Samar in October 1944 wherein an unarmored force of United States Navy escorts defended attacks from the main force of the Imperial Japanese Navy , including the Japanese battleship Yamato . [ 25 ] When Japan colonized the Philippines, the Pulajan uprising became active again. Japan left the Philippines in 1945. [ 26 ] Marcos's dictatorship era (1965-1986) The beginning months of the 1970s [ 27 ] marked a period of turmoil and change in the Philippines as well as in Samar, as unprecedented number of foreign debt-funded public works projects during Ferdinand Marcos' 1969 reelection campaign led to the 1969 Philippine balance of payments crisis [ 28 ] [ 29 ] and resulting inflation triggered the First Quarter Storm protests. [ 30 ] [ 31 ] [ 32 ] [ 33 ] : "43" Three years later and with only a year left in his last constitutionally allowed term as president, Ferdinand Marcos placed the Philippines under Martial Law in September 1972 and thus retained the Presidency for fourteen more years. [ 34 ] This period in Philippine history is remembered for the Marcos administration's record of human rights abuses , [ 35 ] [ 36 ] particularly targeting political opponents, student activists, journalists, religious workers, farmers, and others who fought against the Marcos dictatorship. [ 37 ] Deforestation during Martial Law and the Sag-od Massacre The Marcos era was a time of significant deforestation in Samar and throughout the Philippines, with the forest cover of the Philippines shrinking until only 8% remained. [ 38 ] [ 39 ] [ 40 ] On the island of Samar, whose forest cover had been at 86% of the island in 1972, forest cover went down to 45% in 1978, and then a mere 10% by 1987. Twelve companies were given Timber License Agreements (TLAs) on the island, including Dolores Timber in the Province of Samar and San Jose Timber in the province of Northern Samar, which were both owned by Juan Ponce Enrile , [ 40 ] [ 41 ] the government official Ferdinand Marcos had put in place to approve Timber License Agreements during Martial Law. [ 40 ] One of the infamous incidents of the Marcos dictatorship era was the Sag-od massacre in Las Navas, Northern Samar , which took place on September 15, 1981. [ 42 ] Numerous security personnel of Juan Ponce Enrile 's San Jose Timber Corporation allied with a paramilitary group called "the Lost Command" and ordered residents of Barrio Sag-od out of their homes, then opened fire on them. Forty-five people were killed, leaving only 13 inhabitants of Barrio Sag-od alive. [ 42 ] Construction of the San Juanico Bridge This era also saw the construction of the San Juanico Bridge between Samar and Leyte, which began as one of the high-visibility foreign-loan funded projects of Ferdinand Marcos' 1969 reelection campaign , and finished four years later in time to be inaugurated on then- First Lady Imelda Marcos ' birthday on July 2, 1973. [ 43 ] The project was initially criticised as a white elephant by officials at the National Economic and Development Authority , noting that it was "useless and expensive to maintain", [ 44 ] because its average daily traffic was too low to justify the cost of its construction. [ 44 ] As a result, its construction has been associated with what has been called the Marcoses' " edifice complex " [ 45 ] [ 46 ] although economic activity in Samar and Leyte has since finally caught up with the bridge's intended function. [ 46 ] At the time, its name was used as a slang term for one of the torture methods used by the Marcos dictatorship , in which a person is being beaten while the victim's head and feet lay on separate beds and the body is suspended as though to form a bridge. [ 47 ] [ 48 ] The New People's Army conflict Although the Communist Party of the Philippines and its armed wing, the New People's Army, was newly-formed and relatively still very small throughout Marcos' second term, the Marcos administration hyped up its formation, [ 49 ] : "43" supposedly because this would help build up political and monetary support from the US, [ 49 ] : "43" [ 50 ] which was caught up in red scare paranoia at the time. [ 51 ] When Marcos declared Martial Law, however, the CPP grew rapidly. [ 49 ] On the island of Samar, Marcos' military forces were assigned to protect the logging concessions, and there were frequent encounters between the military and the New People's Army. As a result the towns of Taft , Dolores , Can-avid , and Oras in Eastern Samar were declared by the Military as "no-man's-land" areas from 1978 to 1982. [ 41 ] Since then, the island had numerous human rights cases due to the New People's Army rebellion. [ 52 ] [ failed verification ] In May 2024, the Department of the Interior and Local Government announced that the three provinces on the island of Samar were "free of NPA influence" with no single village in three Samar provinces is under the influence of NPA [that] year. [ 53 ] Contemporary history (1986–present) In 2013, the provinces of Samar, Eastern Samar, and the City of Tacloban were among the localities most severely impacted by Typhoon Haiyan . [ 54 ] In 2020, Samar was also heavily impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic in Eastern Visayas , with the first case in the region reported on March 23, 2020. [ 55 ] Geography Samar is the third-largest island in the Philippines by area, after the islands of Luzon and Mindanao . [ 56 ] Mount Huraw is Samar's highest point, with an elevation of 2,920 ft (890 m). [ 57 ] Samar is the easternmost island in the Visayas. It lies to the northeast of Leyte, separated from it by the San Juanico Strait . The island lies to the southeast of the Bicol Peninsula on Luzon , separated from it by the San Bernardino Strait . To the west is the Samar Sea, and to the north and east of Samar lies the Philippine Sea. The island is hilly yet has lower altitude than the mountainous terrain in the rest of the Visayas. Lowlands are mostly found near the coast and along rivers; the rivers themselves are small and flow in a radial pattern. [ 56 ] The island, along with the region of Eastern Visayas, is rainy most of the year, ranging from seven to ten months of rain. [ 58 ] Numerous typhoons are formed in the area. Eastern Samar, specifically, has a Type II climate without a dry season with an increase in rainfall. [ 56 ] A portion of the Philippine Trench rests near Samar, capable of generating a magnitude 8.1 earthquake. [ 59 ] The island, particularly parts of Paranas , contains many volcanic rocks, including karst bauxite , common throughout the island. [ 60 ] Flora and fauna The Samar Island Natural Park is a 300,000-hectare (740,000-acre) forest on the island, encompassing all three provinces. It contains the largest tract of intact lowland forest in the Philippines. The park has a population of Dipterocarpaceae species, six of them are endangered, and contains the rare Philippine eagle . The park contains six ecological forest types and has numerous waterfalls. Species in the island itself include the Philippine sailfin lizard , the Draco mindanensis , the Philippine hawk-eagle , the Giant golden-crowned flying fox , the Red-vented cockatoo , and the Philippine crocodile . [ 61 ] The municipality of Basey contains Karst forests with a total of 67 vascular plant species. In these forests, Dipterocarpaceae is the most prominent plant family. [ 62 ] Out of 2,400 flower species throughout the Philippines, 40 are only found in the island. In 2018, three new species of Begonia were found in the isle. [ 63 ] The province of Northern Samar was described by Tiffany Neri of SunStar as one of the Philippines' "best-kept secrets" with numerous rock formations and wildlife sanctuaries. [ 64 ] On June 9, 2025, the Biri Rock Formations in Northern Samar were declared to be a National Geological Monument according to the Department of Environment and Natural Resources . [ 65 ] Demographics Population of Samar Year Pop. ±% 1903 266,237 — 1918 379,575 +42.6% 1939 546,306 +43.9% 1948 757,212 +38.6% 1960 867,994 +14.6% 1970 1,019,358 +17.4% 1975 1,120,192 +9.9% 1980 1,200,592 +7.2% Year Pop. ±% 1903 266,237 — 1918 379,575 +42.6% 1939 546,306 +43.9% 1948 757,212 +38.6% 1960 867,994 +14.6% 1970 1,019,358 +17.4% 1975 1,120,192 +9.9% 1980 1,200,592 +7.2% Year Pop. ±% 1990 1,246,722 +3.8% 1995 1,405,892 +12.8% 2000 1,517,585 +7.9% 2007 1,650,022 +8.7% 2010 1,751,267 +6.1% 2015 1,880,020 +7.4% 2020 1,909,537 +1.6% 2024 1,924,651 +0.8% Year Pop. ±% 1990 1,246,722 +3.8% 1995 1,405,892 +12.8% 2000 1,517,585 +7.9% 2007 1,650,022 +8.7% 2010 1,751,267 +6.1% 2015 1,880,020 +7.4% 2020 1,909,537 +1.6% 2024 1,924,651 +0.8% Source: Philippine Statistics Authority [ 66 ] As of the 2024 census, the population of the island's three provinces was 1,924,651. [ 66 ] The main language in all three provinces of Samar Island is Waray . The second most popular language in Samar province is Bisaya, while the second most popular in Eastern Samar and Northern Samar is Cebuano . Samar province and Northern Samar both have a scale of 0.13 in the Linguistic diversity index while Eastern Samar has a scale of 0.02. [ 67 ] Many people in the island are part of the Waray people: in Eastern Samar, 97.78 percent of people were Waray while in Samar, 91.45 classified themselves as Waray. Other ethnic groups include Bisaya , Cebuano , and Tagalog . Males were more populated in both provinces than women. [ 68 ] [ 69 ] As of the 2020 census, 1790014 people in the island are Roman Catholic, 1573 are Islam , and 14643 are part of the Iglesia ni Cristo church. In all three provinces, more than 90% of the population are followers of the Roman Catholic Church. [ 70 ] [ 71 ] Administrative divisions and politics The island originally used to be a single province. On June 19, 1965, a law passed splitting the province into three: Western Samar, Eastern Samar, and Northern Samar. [ 72 ] Since there are three provinces, there are three provincial governments each with a governor. [ 73 ] For the House of Representatives , Eastern Samar has one congressional district while Western and Northern Samar has two each, causing the island to have five districts. [ 74 ] The Philippines's 9th senatorial district encompassed Samar and Leyte which had two senators representing in the Senate of the Philippines with 24 representatives. The system was abolished in the early 1940s when the country was the Commonwealth of the Philippines . [ 75 ] [ 76 ] Name Capital Area (ha) [ 77 ] (ha) [ 77 ] Population (2024) [ 66 ] (2024) [ 66 ] Western Samar Catbalogan 604,803 806,179 Eastern Samar Borongan 466,047 472,683 Northern Samar Catarman 369,293 645,789 Economy The island has a major copra industry: of the six provinces in Eastern Visayas, all three of the Samar provinces were placed in the top four based on copra production, just behind Leyte. [ 78 ] Western Samar's industry recorded a 6.1 percent increase from 2018 to 2023. The top three industries in the province are food service activities, transportation, and electricity, steam, water, and waste management. As of 2023, the gross domestic product of the province is PHP 61.35 billion. [ 79 ] The island has rice and root crops, including sweet potatoes and cassava . Abacá and dairy from native carabaos are found in the island. [ 56 ] [ 80 ] In Eastern Samar, two house bills were filed to establish two separate coconut oil refineries. [ 81 ] Palay and banana crops are also made in the province; agro-industries are actively promoted. Fishery is a major livelihood in Eastern Samar's coastal communities, but it is experiencing a decline. [ 82 ] Northern Samar, meanwhile, has rice, corn, vegetables, and abaca. Municipal fisheries and tuna operations are also present in the province. [ 83 ] A commercial complex owned by Metro Retail Stores Group was planned to be created in 2019 in Catbalogan from a contract and was opened on August 30, 2024. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] Samar is separated from the main island shipping routes. Iron ore , made from the southeast portion of the isle, is shipped from General MacArthur . There are also coal , phosphate , and chromite industries. Since Samar has many forests, logging and sawmill operations are also done in the eastern coastal towns. Catbalogan is a major commercial center in the island, serving as an important coastal port with fishing centers. [ 56 ] Tourism In 2015, the Samar Tourism Council encouraged tourists to visit attractions in Catbalogan as Governor Sharee Ann Tan held meetings with agency partners and the private sector to further boost tourism in Western Samar. [ 86 ] A One Town One Product (OTOP) center from the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) was launched in Calbayog on June 12, 2024. [ 87 ] During the "Benchmarking Tour" held by Eastern Samar officials in Cebu on February 9, 2023, the two provincial governments made a deal to organize a "tourism circuit" to increase tourism in the two provinces. [ 88 ] A DTI "Heritage Month Trade Fair" was held by the DTI provincial office of Northern Samar in Robinsons North Tacloban . [ 89 ] Infrastructure Transportation A segment of the Pan-Philippine Highway is present in Samar, stretching from Northern Samar to Leyte in the western coast of the isle. [ 90 ] [ 91 ] The N670 highway traverses through the northern and eastern coasts in the island, stretching through all three provinces, starting and ending from the Pan-Philippine Highway. Two other highways connect from the Pan-Philippine Highway to the N670 highway: the Catarman-Calbayog Road, which originates in Catarman and ends in Calbayog, and the Wright–Taft Road , stretching from Paranas to Taft . Another highway extends from the N670 highway to Guiuan . [ 91 ] Four major ports are in the island, namely the Port of Calbayog, the Port of Borongan, the Port of Guiuan, and the Port of San Isidro . [ 92 ] A flight route from Cebu to Catarman National Airport was launched on March 4, 2025, serviced by the Philippine Airlines . [ 93 ] Two weekly flight routes from Cebu to Borongan Airport were also launched in December 2022, also serviced by the Philippine Airlines. [ 94 ] Two airlines service at the Calbayog Airport , namely Philippine Airlines and Cebu Pacific ; the former flies to Manila three times a week while the latter flies to Cebu two times a week. [ 95 ] Power and telecommunication Eastern Samar's electric distribution utility is the Eastern Samar Electric Cooperative (ESAMELCO). [ 96 ] Two electric cooperatives serve Western Samar, namely: the Samar I and Samar II Electric Cooperative (SAMELCO). [ 97 ] Northern Samar's electric cooperative is the Northern Samar Electric Cooperative (NORSAMELCO). [ 98 ] The Philippines' first tidal plant is planned to be built in Catarman, Northern Samar by a private electricity firm, harnessing currents from the San Benardino Strait. [ 99 ] A Singaporean firm invested in a planned wind farm in the borders of the Western and Northern Samar provinces. [ 100 ] Solar power projects were planned in two towns in Western Samar. [ 101 ] In Taft, Eastern Samar, a hydropower plant is operated, with possibilities of it being a tourist site. [ 102 ] The main telecommunication companies serviced in the island are Smart Communications and Globe Telecom . New cell sites from both of the telecommunication operations were planned to be built in Northern Samar. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] Over 100 cell sites were planned to be built in Northern Samar following a deal with Governor Edwin Ongchuan and PhilTower Consortium, an infrastructure provider. [ 105 ] Education Six Department of Education divisions are present in the island: three for each of the provinces, and one each for Borongan, Calbayog, and Catbalogan. [ 106 ] Major universities in Eastern Samar include the Eastern Samar State University and four other satellite campuses. In Northern Samar, the University of Eastern Philippines and two other satellite campuses are in the province. For Western Samar, two major universities are placed: the Samar State University with three satellite campuses, and the Northwest Samar State University with one satellite campus. Other local colleges are also in the three provinces. [ 107 ] For the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority , three provincial training centers and five schools are placed in the island. [ 108 ] Healthcare Eastern Samar has 18 hospitals, most significantly the Eastern Samar Provincial Hospital, a hospital with two levels and 100 beds. Northern Samar has 11 hospitals including their provincial hospital with 100 beds too. Western Samar has 11 hospitals also, with the Samar Provincial Hospital and the Catbalogan Doctors Hospital both with 100 beds. [ 109 ] A Senate bill created by Juan Miguel Zubiri was introduced in the 18th Congress of the Philippines , establishing a teritiary level hospital to be known as the Samar Island Medical Center due to the lack of teritiary level hospitals in the island, the nearest being the Eastern Visayas Medical Center . [ 110 ] The law was signed on April 19, 2022, and construction started in 2024. 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February 22, 2015 . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ "Otop Hub in Calbayog City opens to showcase unique local offerings from Samar" . SunStar Publishing Inc . June 21, 2024 . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ "Cebu, Eastern Samar execs explore 'tourism circuit' " . SunStar Publishing Inc . February 9, 2023 . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ "DTI Northern Samar products takes center stage in trade fair" . SunStar Publishing Inc . May 30, 2024 . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ Gabieta, Joey (March 18, 2024). "Maharlika Highway in Eastern Visayas to get needed rehab" . Philippine Daily Inquirer . Retrieved October 24, 2025 . ^ a b Road and Bridge Inventory (Map). Department of Public Works and Highways . Retrieved October 24, 2025 . ^ "List of Ports" (PDF) . Philippine Ports Authority . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ "Cebu-Catarman flights seen to bring growth to Northern Samar" . SunStar Publishing Inc . March 10, 2025 . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ Meniano, Sarwell (September 13, 2024). "PAL launches 3rd Cebu-Borongan weekly flight" . Philippine News Agency . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ Meniano, Sarwell (August 9, 2024). "Lapid to secure funds for Calbayog Airport's night rating" . Philippine News Agency . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ University of Illinois 2005 , p. 405. ^ Republic of the Philippines 1990 , p. 148. ^ "NORSAMELCO" . Department of Energy . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ Recuerdo, Elmer (February 18, 2024). "N. Samar unveils pioneer tidal power" . Daily Tribune . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ Meniano, Sarwell (November 8, 2024). "Singaporean firm bares P19-B expansion of energy investment in Samar" . Philippine News Agency . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ Amazona, Roel (October 21, 2024). "Solar power projects up for 2 Samar towns" . Philippine News Agency . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ Amazona, Roel; Abella, Lizbeth Ann (April 27, 2023). "E. Samar hydropower plant eyed as tourist site" . Philippine News Agency . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ Recuerdo, Elmer (May 5, 2024). "Telco beefs up N. Samar network" . Daily Tribune . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ "TELECOM | Smart LTE expansion keeps Northern Samar island town connected" . TechSabado . August 13, 2022 . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ Meniano, Sarwell (January 25, 2024). "Over 100 cell sites to rise in Northern Samar" . Philippine News Agency . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ "Schools Division Offices Directory | DepEd Region VIII" . Department of Education . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ "List of Higher Education Institutions" . Commission on Higher Education . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ "List of TESDA Administered Schools and Training Centers in Region VIII - Eastern Samar" . TESDA Online Program . February 15, 2024 . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ "List of Accredited Hospitals and Infirmaries for CY 2025 Updated as of October 31, 2025" (PDF) . PhilHealth . October 31, 2025 . Retrieved December 4, 2025 . ^ Zubiri, Juan Miguel F. (March 21, 2022). "An act establishing a tertiary hospital under the control, supervision, and management of the Department of Health in the City of Calbayog, Samar, to be known as the Samar Island Medical Center, appropriating funds therefor, and for other purposes" (PDF) . Senate of the Philippines . Retrieved December 4, 2025 . ^ Reyes, Ronald O. (April 19, 2022). "Duterte signs law establishing Samar Island Medical Center" . SunStar Publishing Inc . Retrieved December 4, 2025 . ^ Recuerdo, Elmer (March 17, 2024). "Samar tertiary hospital construction kicked off" . Daily Tribune . Retrieved December 4, 2025 . Bibliography Villamor, Ignacio; Buencamino, Felipe (1920). Census of the Philippine Islands Taken Under the Direction of the Philippine Legislature in the Year 1918 . University of California, Berkeley . Ocampo, Ambeth (2012). Looking Back: Volume 1 . Anvil Publishing, Inc. ISBN 978-971-27-3608-7 . Parr, Charles McKew; Crowell, Thomas Y. (1953). So Noble a Captain: The Life and Times of Ferdinand Magellan . Scott, William Henry (1985). Cracks in the parchment curtain and other essays in Philippine history . New Day Publishers. ISBN 978-971-10-0073-8 . Tucker, Spencer (2009). The Encyclopedia of the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars: A Political, Social, and Military History . Bloomsbury Academic . ISBN 978-1-85109-951-1 . Clodfelter, Micheal (2017). Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492–2015, 4th ed . McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-7470-7 . Linn, Brian McAllister (2000). The Philippine War 1899-1902 . Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 0-70061225-4 . Blount, James Henderson (1912). The American Occupation of the Philippines, 1898-1912 . G. P. Putnam's Sons. Borrinaga, George Emmanuel R. (April 2019). "Solidarity and Crisis-Derived Identities in Samar and Leyte, Philippines, 1565 to Present" (PDF) . University of Hull . {{ cite journal }} : CS1 maint: ref duplicates default ( link ) Villanueva, Elaine Loreen C.; Fernandez, Desamarie Antoinette P.; Tolentino, Paul John S.; Obeña, Ren Divien R.; Buot, Inocencio E. Jr. (December 31, 2021). "Checklist of the Flora and Fauna of the Karst Forests in Basey, Samar, Philippines" (PDF) . The Thailand Natural History Museum Journal . 15 (2) – via National Research Council of Thailand . United States Congressional Serial Set . U.S. Government Printing Office. 1918. Platts International Directory of Electric Power Producers and Distributors . McGraw Hill Companies . 2005. Provincial Profile: Samar . Republic of the Philippines . 1990. Arenque, L. A.; Gabo-Ratio, J. A.; Payot, B. D.; Guzman, J. T.; Yonezu, K. (2025). "Mineralogy and geochemistry of the Paranas karst bauxite deposit of Samar Island, Philippines" . IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science . 1517 (1) 012040. Bibcode : 2025E&ES.1517a2040A . doi : 10.1088/1755-1315/1517/1/012040 . 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We gratefully acknowledge support from the Simons Foundation, member institutions , and all contributors. Donate Help | Advanced Search Showing 1–49 of 49 results for author: De Giacomo, G Show abstracts Hide abstracts arXiv:2601.10651 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.LO Multi-Property Synthesis Authors: Christoph Weinhuber , Yannik Schnitzer , Alessandro Abate , David Parker , Giuseppe De Giacomo , Moshe Y. Vardi Abstract : We study LTLf synthesis with multiple properties, where satisfying all properties may be impossible. Instead of enumerating subsets of properties, we compute in one fixed-point computation the relation between product-game states and the goal sets that are realizable from them, and we synthesize strategies achieving maximal realizable sets. We develop a fully symbolic algorithm that introduces Boo… ▽ More We study LTLf synthesis with multiple properties, where satisfying all properties may be impossible. Instead of enumerating subsets of properties, we compute in one fixed-point computation the relation between product-game states and the goal sets that are realizable from them, and we synthesize strategies achieving maximal realizable sets. We develop a fully symbolic algorithm that introduces Boolean goal variables and exploits monotonicity to represent exponentially many goal combinations compactly. Our approach substantially outperforms enumeration-based baselines, with speedups of up to two orders of magnitude. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10651 [ pdf , ps , other ] Multi-Property Synthesis Authors: Christoph Weinhuber , Yannik Schnitzer , Alessandro Abate , David Parker , Giuseppe De Giacomo , Moshe Y. Vardi Abstract : We study LTLf synthesis with multiple properties, where satisfying all properties may be impossible. Instead of enumerating subsets of properties, we compute in one fixed-point computation the relation between product-game states and the goal sets that are realizable from them, and we synthesize strategies achieving maximal realizable sets. We develop a fully symbolic algorithm that introduces Boo… ▽ More We study LTLf synthesis with multiple properties, where satisfying all properties may be impossible. Instead of enumerating subsets of properties, we compute in one fixed-point computation the relation between product-game states and the goal sets that are realizable from them, and we synthesize strategies achieving maximal realizable sets. We develop a fully symbolic algorithm that introduces Boolean goal variables and exploits monotonicity to represent exponentially many goal combinations compactly. Our approach substantially outperforms enumeration-based baselines, with speedups of up to two orders of magnitude. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2511.09073 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.FL cs.AI cs.GT Good-for-MDP State Reduction for Stochastic LTL Planning Authors: Christoph Weinhuber , Giuseppe De Giacomo , Yong Li , Sven Schewe , Qiyi Tang Abstract : We study stochastic planning problems in Markov Decision Processes (MDPs) with goals specified in Linear Temporal Logic (LTL). The state-of-the-art approach transforms LTL formulas into good-for-MDP (GFM) automata, which feature a restricted form of nondeterminism. These automata are then composed with the MDP, allowing the agent to resolve the nondeterminism during policy synthesis. A major facto… ▽ More We study stochastic planning problems in Markov Decision Processes (MDPs) with goals specified in Linear Temporal Logic (LTL). The state-of-the-art approach transforms LTL formulas into good-for-MDP (GFM) automata, which feature a restricted form of nondeterminism. These automata are then composed with the MDP, allowing the agent to resolve the nondeterminism during policy synthesis. A major factor affecting the scalability of this approach is the size of the generated automata. In this paper, we propose a novel GFM state-space reduction technique that significantly reduces the number of automata states. Our method employs a sophisticated chain of transformations, leveraging recent advances in good-for-games minimisation developed for adversarial settings. In addition to our theoretical contributions, we present empirical results demonstrating the practical effectiveness of our state-reduction technique. Furthermore, we introduce a direct construction method for formulas of the form $\mathsf{G}\mathsf{F}\varphi$, where $\varphi$ is a co-safety formula. This construction is provably single-exponential in the worst case, in contrast to the general doubly-exponential complexity. Our experiments confirm the scalability advantages of this specialised construction. △ Less Submitted 14 November, 2025; v1 submitted 12 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: 16 pages including appendices, accepted to AAAI 2026; fixed some typoes ACM Class: F.4.3; I.2.4; I.2.8 arXiv:2511.09073 [ pdf , ps , other ] Good-for-MDP State Reduction for Stochastic LTL Planning Authors: Christoph Weinhuber , Giuseppe De Giacomo , Yong Li , Sven Schewe , Qiyi Tang Abstract : We study stochastic planning problems in Markov Decision Processes (MDPs) with goals specified in Linear Temporal Logic (LTL). The state-of-the-art approach transforms LTL formulas into good-for-MDP (GFM) automata, which feature a restricted form of nondeterminism. These automata are then composed with the MDP, allowing the agent to resolve the nondeterminism during policy synthesis. A major facto… ▽ More We study stochastic planning problems in Markov Decision Processes (MDPs) with goals specified in Linear Temporal Logic (LTL). The state-of-the-art approach transforms LTL formulas into good-for-MDP (GFM) automata, which feature a restricted form of nondeterminism. These automata are then composed with the MDP, allowing the agent to resolve the nondeterminism during policy synthesis. A major factor affecting the scalability of this approach is the size of the generated automata. In this paper, we propose a novel GFM state-space reduction technique that significantly reduces the number of automata states. Our method employs a sophisticated chain of transformations, leveraging recent advances in good-for-games minimisation developed for adversarial settings. In addition to our theoretical contributions, we present empirical results demonstrating the practical effectiveness of our state-reduction technique. Furthermore, we introduce a direct construction method for formulas of the form $\mathsf{G}\mathsf{F}\varphi$, where $\varphi$ is a co-safety formula. This construction is provably single-exponential in the worst case, in contrast to the general doubly-exponential complexity. Our experiments confirm the scalability advantages of this specialised construction. △ Less Submitted 14 November, 2025; v1 submitted 12 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: 16 pages including appendices, accepted to AAAI 2026; fixed some typoes ACM Class: F.4.3; I.2.4; I.2.8 arXiv:2510.08870 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL Quality Estimation Reranking for Document-Level Translation Authors: Krzysztof Mrozinski , Minji Kang , Ahmed Khota , Vincent Michael Sutanto , Giovanni Gatti De Giacomo Abstract : Quality estimation (QE) reranking is a form of quality-aware decoding which aims to improve machine translation (MT) by scoring and selecting the best candidate from a pool of generated translations. While known to be effective at the sentence level, its application to the increasingly prominent domain of document-level translation remains underexplored. In this work, we evaluate QE reranking perf… ▽ More Quality estimation (QE) reranking is a form of quality-aware decoding which aims to improve machine translation (MT) by scoring and selecting the best candidate from a pool of generated translations. While known to be effective at the sentence level, its application to the increasingly prominent domain of document-level translation remains underexplored. In this work, we evaluate QE reranking performance on document-level (rather than the typical sentence-level) translation, using various learned and large language model (LLM)-based QE metrics. We find that with our best learned metric, SLIDE, BLEURT-20 scores improve by +2.00 with only two candidates, and by +5.09 with 32, across both decoder-only LLM models and encoder-decoder neural machine translation (NMT) models. Using the best LLM-based metric, GEMBA-DA, gains of +1.63 and +4.30 are achieved under the same conditions. Although gains shrink with longer inputs, reranking with 32 candidates yields improvements of +2.34 (SLIDE) and +1.40 (GEMBA-DA) on our longest documents (512-1024 source tokens). These findings demonstrate the practical value of document-level QE, with minimal runtime overhead given suitable translation models and hardware. △ Less Submitted 9 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: 9 pages, 4 figures arXiv:2510.08870 [ pdf , ps , other ] Quality Estimation Reranking for Document-Level Translation Authors: Krzysztof Mrozinski , Minji Kang , Ahmed Khota , Vincent Michael Sutanto , Giovanni Gatti De Giacomo Abstract : Quality estimation (QE) reranking is a form of quality-aware decoding which aims to improve machine translation (MT) by scoring and selecting the best candidate from a pool of generated translations. While known to be effective at the sentence level, its application to the increasingly prominent domain of document-level translation remains underexplored. In this work, we evaluate QE reranking perf… ▽ More Quality estimation (QE) reranking is a form of quality-aware decoding which aims to improve machine translation (MT) by scoring and selecting the best candidate from a pool of generated translations. While known to be effective at the sentence level, its application to the increasingly prominent domain of document-level translation remains underexplored. In this work, we evaluate QE reranking performance on document-level (rather than the typical sentence-level) translation, using various learned and large language model (LLM)-based QE metrics. We find that with our best learned metric, SLIDE, BLEURT-20 scores improve by +2.00 with only two candidates, and by +5.09 with 32, across both decoder-only LLM models and encoder-decoder neural machine translation (NMT) models. Using the best LLM-based metric, GEMBA-DA, gains of +1.63 and +4.30 are achieved under the same conditions. Although gains shrink with longer inputs, reranking with 32 candidates yields improvements of +2.34 (SLIDE) and +1.40 (GEMBA-DA) on our longest documents (512-1024 source tokens). These findings demonstrate the practical value of document-level QE, with minimal runtime overhead given suitable translation models and hardware. △ Less Submitted 9 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: 9 pages, 4 figures arXiv:2510.08042 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL ChatGPT as a Translation Engine: A Case Study on Japanese-English Authors: Vincent Michael Sutanto , Giovanni Gatti De Giacomo , Toshiaki Nakazawa , Masaru Yamada Abstract : This study investigates ChatGPT for Japanese-English translation, exploring simple and enhanced prompts and comparing against commercially available translation engines. Performing both automatic and MQM-based human evaluations, we found that document-level translation outperforms sentence-level translation for ChatGPT. On the other hand, we were not able to determine if enhanced prompts performed… ▽ More This study investigates ChatGPT for Japanese-English translation, exploring simple and enhanced prompts and comparing against commercially available translation engines. Performing both automatic and MQM-based human evaluations, we found that document-level translation outperforms sentence-level translation for ChatGPT. On the other hand, we were not able to determine if enhanced prompts performed better than simple prompts in our experiments. We also discovered that ChatGPT-3.5 was preferred by automatic evaluation, but a tradeoff exists between accuracy (ChatGPT-3.5) and fluency (ChatGPT-4). Lastly, ChatGPT yields competitive results against two widely-known translation systems. △ Less Submitted 9 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.08042 [ pdf , ps , other ] ChatGPT as a Translation Engine: A Case Study on Japanese-English Authors: Vincent Michael Sutanto , Giovanni Gatti De Giacomo , Toshiaki Nakazawa , Masaru Yamada Abstract : This study investigates ChatGPT for Japanese-English translation, exploring simple and enhanced prompts and comparing against commercially available translation engines. Performing both automatic and MQM-based human evaluations, we found that document-level translation outperforms sentence-level translation for ChatGPT. On the other hand, we were not able to determine if enhanced prompts performed… ▽ More This study investigates ChatGPT for Japanese-English translation, exploring simple and enhanced prompts and comparing against commercially available translation engines. Performing both automatic and MQM-based human evaluations, we found that document-level translation outperforms sentence-level translation for ChatGPT. On the other hand, we were not able to determine if enhanced prompts performed better than simple prompts in our experiments. We also discovered that ChatGPT-3.5 was preferred by automatic evaluation, but a tradeoff exists between accuracy (ChatGPT-3.5) and fluency (ChatGPT-4). Lastly, ChatGPT yields competitive results against two widely-known translation systems. △ Less Submitted 9 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2508.14725 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LO cs.AI cs.FL Emerson-Lei and Manna-Pnueli Games for LTLf+ and PPLTL+ Synthesis Authors: Daniel Hausmann , Shufang Zhu , Gianmarco Parretti , Christoph Weinhuber , Giuseppe De Giacomo , Nir Piterman Abstract : Recently, the Manna-Pnueli Hierarchy has been used to define the temporal logics LTLfp and PPLTLp, which allow to use finite-trace LTLf/PPLTL techniques in infinite-trace settings while achieving the expressiveness of full LTL. In this paper, we present the first actual solvers for reactive synthesis in these logics. These are based on games on graphs that leverage DFA-based techniques from LTLf/P… ▽ More Recently, the Manna-Pnueli Hierarchy has been used to define the temporal logics LTLfp and PPLTLp, which allow to use finite-trace LTLf/PPLTL techniques in infinite-trace settings while achieving the expressiveness of full LTL. In this paper, we present the first actual solvers for reactive synthesis in these logics. These are based on games on graphs that leverage DFA-based techniques from LTLf/PPLTL to construct the game arena. We start with a symbolic solver based on Emerson-Lei games, which reduces lower-class properties (guarantee, safety) to higher ones (recurrence, persistence) before solving the game. We then introduce Manna-Pnueli games, which natively embed Manna-Pnueli objectives into the arena. These games are solved by composing solutions to a DAG of simpler Emerson-Lei games, resulting in a provably more efficient approach. We implemented the solvers and practically evaluated their performance on a range of representative formulas. The results show that Manna-Pnueli games often offer significant advantages, though not universally, indicating that combining both approaches could further enhance practical performance. △ Less Submitted 20 August, 2025; originally announced August 2025. arXiv:2508.14725 [ pdf , ps , other ] Emerson-Lei and Manna-Pnueli Games for LTLf+ and PPLTL+ Synthesis Authors: Daniel Hausmann , Shufang Zhu , Gianmarco Parretti , Christoph Weinhuber , Giuseppe De Giacomo , Nir Piterman Abstract : Recently, the Manna-Pnueli Hierarchy has been used to define the temporal logics LTLfp and PPLTLp, which allow to use finite-trace LTLf/PPLTL techniques in infinite-trace settings while achieving the expressiveness of full LTL. In this paper, we present the first actual solvers for reactive synthesis in these logics. These are based on games on graphs that leverage DFA-based techniques from LTLf/P… ▽ More Recently, the Manna-Pnueli Hierarchy has been used to define the temporal logics LTLfp and PPLTLp, which allow to use finite-trace LTLf/PPLTL techniques in infinite-trace settings while achieving the expressiveness of full LTL. In this paper, we present the first actual solvers for reactive synthesis in these logics. These are based on games on graphs that leverage DFA-based techniques from LTLf/PPLTL to construct the game arena. We start with a symbolic solver based on Emerson-Lei games, which reduces lower-class properties (guarantee, safety) to higher ones (recurrence, persistence) before solving the game. We then introduce Manna-Pnueli games, which natively embed Manna-Pnueli objectives into the arena. These games are solved by composing solutions to a DAG of simpler Emerson-Lei games, resulting in a provably more efficient approach. We implemented the solvers and practically evaluated their performance on a range of representative formulas. The results show that Manna-Pnueli games often offer significant advantages, though not universally, indicating that combining both approaches could further enhance practical performance. △ Less Submitted 20 August, 2025; originally announced August 2025. arXiv:2508.07790 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.LO Best-Effort Policies for Robust Markov Decision Processes Authors: Alessandro Abate , Thom Badings , Giuseppe De Giacomo , Francesco Fabiano Abstract : We study the common generalization of Markov decision processes (MDPs) with sets of transition probabilities, known as robust MDPs (RMDPs). A standard goal in RMDPs is to compute a policy that maximizes the expected return under an adversarial choice of the transition probabilities. If the uncertainty in the probabilities is independent between the states, known as s-rectangularity, such optimal r… ▽ More We study the common generalization of Markov decision processes (MDPs) with sets of transition probabilities, known as robust MDPs (RMDPs). A standard goal in RMDPs is to compute a policy that maximizes the expected return under an adversarial choice of the transition probabilities. If the uncertainty in the probabilities is independent between the states, known as s-rectangularity, such optimal robust policies can be computed efficiently using robust value iteration. However, there might still be multiple optimal robust policies, which, while equivalent with respect to the worst-case, reflect different expected returns under non-adversarial choices of the transition probabilities. Hence, we propose a refined policy selection criterion for RMDPs, drawing inspiration from the notions of dominance and best-effort in game theory. Instead of seeking a policy that only maximizes the worst-case expected return, we additionally require the policy to achieve a maximal expected return under different (i.e., not fully adversarial) transition probabilities. We call such a policy an optimal robust best-effort (ORBE) policy. We prove that ORBE policies always exist, characterize their structure, and present an algorithm to compute them with a manageable overhead compared to standard robust value iteration. ORBE policies offer a principled tie-breaker among optimal robust policies. Numerical experiments show the feasibility of our approach. △ Less Submitted 19 November, 2025; v1 submitted 11 August, 2025; originally announced August 2025. arXiv:2508.07790 [ pdf , ps , other ] Best-Effort Policies for Robust Markov Decision Processes Authors: Alessandro Abate , Thom Badings , Giuseppe De Giacomo , Francesco Fabiano Abstract : We study the common generalization of Markov decision processes (MDPs) with sets of transition probabilities, known as robust MDPs (RMDPs). A standard goal in RMDPs is to compute a policy that maximizes the expected return under an adversarial choice of the transition probabilities. If the uncertainty in the probabilities is independent between the states, known as s-rectangularity, such optimal r… ▽ More We study the common generalization of Markov decision processes (MDPs) with sets of transition probabilities, known as robust MDPs (RMDPs). A standard goal in RMDPs is to compute a policy that maximizes the expected return under an adversarial choice of the transition probabilities. If the uncertainty in the probabilities is independent between the states, known as s-rectangularity, such optimal robust policies can be computed efficiently using robust value iteration. However, there might still be multiple optimal robust policies, which, while equivalent with respect to the worst-case, reflect different expected returns under non-adversarial choices of the transition probabilities. Hence, we propose a refined policy selection criterion for RMDPs, drawing inspiration from the notions of dominance and best-effort in game theory. Instead of seeking a policy that only maximizes the worst-case expected return, we additionally require the policy to achieve a maximal expected return under different (i.e., not fully adversarial) transition probabilities. We call such a policy an optimal robust best-effort (ORBE) policy. We prove that ORBE policies always exist, characterize their structure, and present an algorithm to compute them with a manageable overhead compared to standard robust value iteration. ORBE policies offer a principled tie-breaker among optimal robust policies. Numerical experiments show the feasibility of our approach. △ Less Submitted 19 November, 2025; v1 submitted 11 August, 2025; originally announced August 2025. arXiv:2507.02491 [ pdf , other ] cs.FL Engineering an LTLf Synthesis Tool Authors: Alexandre Duret-Lutz , Shufang Zhu , Nir Piterman , Giuseppe de Giacomo , Moshe Y Vardi Abstract : The problem of LTLf reactive synthesis is to build a transducer, whose output is based on a history of inputs, such that, for every infinite sequence of inputs, the conjoint evolution of the inputs and outputs has a prefix that satisfies a given LTLf specification. We describe the implementation of an LTLf synthesizer that outperforms existing tools on our benchmark suite. This is based on a new,… ▽ More The problem of LTLf reactive synthesis is to build a transducer, whose output is based on a history of inputs, such that, for every infinite sequence of inputs, the conjoint evolution of the inputs and outputs has a prefix that satisfies a given LTLf specification. We describe the implementation of an LTLf synthesizer that outperforms existing tools on our benchmark suite. This is based on a new, direct translation from LTLf to a DFA represented as an array of Binary Decision Diagrams (MTBDDs) sharing their nodes. This MTBDD-based representation can be interpreted directly as a reachability game that is solved on-the-fly during its construction. △ Less Submitted 3 July, 2025; originally announced July 2025. Journal ref: 29th International Conference on Implementation and Applications of Automata (CIAA'25), Sep 2025, Palermo, Italy arXiv:2507.02491 [ pdf , other ] Engineering an LTLf Synthesis Tool Authors: Alexandre Duret-Lutz , Shufang Zhu , Nir Piterman , Giuseppe de Giacomo , Moshe Y Vardi Abstract : The problem of LTLf reactive synthesis is to build a transducer, whose output is based on a history of inputs, such that, for every infinite sequence of inputs, the conjoint evolution of the inputs and outputs has a prefix that satisfies a given LTLf specification. We describe the implementation of an LTLf synthesizer that outperforms existing tools on our benchmark suite. This is based on a new,… ▽ More The problem of LTLf reactive synthesis is to build a transducer, whose output is based on a history of inputs, such that, for every infinite sequence of inputs, the conjoint evolution of the inputs and outputs has a prefix that satisfies a given LTLf specification. We describe the implementation of an LTLf synthesizer that outperforms existing tools on our benchmark suite. This is based on a new, direct translation from LTLf to a DFA represented as an array of Binary Decision Diagrams (MTBDDs) sharing their nodes. This MTBDD-based representation can be interpreted directly as a reachability game that is solved on-the-fly during its construction. △ Less Submitted 3 July, 2025; originally announced July 2025. Journal ref: 29th International Conference on Implementation and Applications of Automata (CIAA'25), Sep 2025, Palermo, Italy arXiv:2505.17264 [ pdf , other ] cs.FL cs.LO Solving MDPs with LTLf+ and PPLTL+ Temporal Objectives Authors: Giuseppe De Giacomo , Yong Li , Sven Schewe , Christoph Weinhuber , Pian Yu Abstract : The temporal logics LTLf+ and PPLTL+ have recently been proposed to express objectives over infinite traces. These logics are appealing because they match the expressive power of LTL on infinite traces while enabling efficient DFA-based techniques, which have been crucial to the scalability of reactive synthesis and adversarial planning in LTLf and PPLTL over finite traces. In this paper, we demon… ▽ More The temporal logics LTLf+ and PPLTL+ have recently been proposed to express objectives over infinite traces. These logics are appealing because they match the expressive power of LTL on infinite traces while enabling efficient DFA-based techniques, which have been crucial to the scalability of reactive synthesis and adversarial planning in LTLf and PPLTL over finite traces. In this paper, we demonstrate that these logics are also highly effective in the context of MDPs. Introducing a technique tailored for probabilistic systems, we leverage the benefits of efficient DFA-based methods and compositionality. This approach is simpler than its non-probabilistic counterparts in reactive synthesis and adversarial planning, as it accommodates a controlled form of nondeterminism (``good for MDPs") in the automata when transitioning from finite to infinite traces. Notably, by exploiting compositionality, our solution is both implementation-friendly and well-suited for straightforward symbolic implementations. △ Less Submitted 22 May, 2025; originally announced May 2025. Comments: Accepted by IJCAI 2025, the 34th International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence arXiv:2505.17264 [ pdf , other ] Solving MDPs with LTLf+ and PPLTL+ Temporal Objectives Authors: Giuseppe De Giacomo , Yong Li , Sven Schewe , Christoph Weinhuber , Pian Yu Abstract : The temporal logics LTLf+ and PPLTL+ have recently been proposed to express objectives over infinite traces. These logics are appealing because they match the expressive power of LTL on infinite traces while enabling efficient DFA-based techniques, which have been crucial to the scalability of reactive synthesis and adversarial planning in LTLf and PPLTL over finite traces. In this paper, we demon… ▽ More The temporal logics LTLf+ and PPLTL+ have recently been proposed to express objectives over infinite traces. These logics are appealing because they match the expressive power of LTL on infinite traces while enabling efficient DFA-based techniques, which have been crucial to the scalability of reactive synthesis and adversarial planning in LTLf and PPLTL over finite traces. In this paper, we demonstrate that these logics are also highly effective in the context of MDPs. Introducing a technique tailored for probabilistic systems, we leverage the benefits of efficient DFA-based methods and compositionality. This approach is simpler than its non-probabilistic counterparts in reactive synthesis and adversarial planning, as it accommodates a controlled form of nondeterminism (``good for MDPs") in the automata when transitioning from finite to infinite traces. Notably, by exploiting compositionality, our solution is both implementation-friendly and well-suited for straightforward symbolic implementations. △ Less Submitted 22 May, 2025; originally announced May 2025. Comments: Accepted by IJCAI 2025, the 34th International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence arXiv:2504.20983 [ pdf , other ] cs.AI LTLf Adaptive Synthesis for Multi-Tier Goals in Nondeterministic Domains Authors: Giuseppe De Giacomo , Gianmarco Parretti , Shufang Zhu Abstract : We study a variant of LTLf synthesis that synthesizes adaptive strategies for achieving a multi-tier goal, consisting of multiple increasingly challenging LTLf objectives in nondeterministic planning domains. Adaptive strategies are strategies that at any point of their execution (i) enforce the satisfaction of as many objectives as possible in the multi-tier goal, and (ii) exploit possible cooper… ▽ More We study a variant of LTLf synthesis that synthesizes adaptive strategies for achieving a multi-tier goal, consisting of multiple increasingly challenging LTLf objectives in nondeterministic planning domains. Adaptive strategies are strategies that at any point of their execution (i) enforce the satisfaction of as many objectives as possible in the multi-tier goal, and (ii) exploit possible cooperation from the environment to satisfy as many as possible of the remaining ones. This happens dynamically: if the environment cooperates (ii) and an objective becomes enforceable (i), then our strategies will enforce it. We provide a game-theoretic technique to compute adaptive strategies that is sound and complete. Notably, our technique is polynomial, in fact quadratic, in the number of objectives. In other words, it handles multi-tier goals with only a minor overhead compared to standard LTLf synthesis. △ Less Submitted 29 April, 2025; originally announced April 2025. arXiv:2504.20983 [ pdf , other ] LTLf Adaptive Synthesis for Multi-Tier Goals in Nondeterministic Domains Authors: Giuseppe De Giacomo , Gianmarco Parretti , Shufang Zhu Abstract : We study a variant of LTLf synthesis that synthesizes adaptive strategies for achieving a multi-tier goal, consisting of multiple increasingly challenging LTLf objectives in nondeterministic planning domains. Adaptive strategies are strategies that at any point of their execution (i) enforce the satisfaction of as many objectives as possible in the multi-tier goal, and (ii) exploit possible cooper… ▽ More We study a variant of LTLf synthesis that synthesizes adaptive strategies for achieving a multi-tier goal, consisting of multiple increasingly challenging LTLf objectives in nondeterministic planning domains. Adaptive strategies are strategies that at any point of their execution (i) enforce the satisfaction of as many objectives as possible in the multi-tier goal, and (ii) exploit possible cooperation from the environment to satisfy as many as possible of the remaining ones. This happens dynamically: if the environment cooperates (ii) and an objective becomes enforceable (i), then our strategies will enforce it. We provide a game-theoretic technique to compute adaptive strategies that is sound and complete. Notably, our technique is polynomial, in fact quadratic, in the number of objectives. In other words, it handles multi-tier goals with only a minor overhead compared to standard LTLf synthesis. △ Less Submitted 29 April, 2025; originally announced April 2025. arXiv:2412.14728 [ pdf , other ] cs.AI cs.LO LTLf Synthesis Under Unreliable Input Authors: Christian Hagemeier , Giuseppe de Giacomo , Moshe Y. Vardi Abstract : We study the problem of realizing strategies for an LTLf goal specification while ensuring that at least an LTLf backup specification is satisfied in case of unreliability of certain input variables. We formally define the problem and characterize its worst-case complexity as 2EXPTIME-complete, like standard LTLf synthesis. Then we devise three different solution techniques: one based on direct au… ▽ More We study the problem of realizing strategies for an LTLf goal specification while ensuring that at least an LTLf backup specification is satisfied in case of unreliability of certain input variables. We formally define the problem and characterize its worst-case complexity as 2EXPTIME-complete, like standard LTLf synthesis. Then we devise three different solution techniques: one based on direct automata manipulation, which is 2EXPTIME, one disregarding unreliable input variables by adopting a belief construction, which is 3EXPTIME, and one leveraging second-order quantified LTLf (QLTLf), which is 2EXPTIME and allows for a direct encoding into monadic second-order logic, which in turn is worst-case nonelementary. We prove their correctness and evaluate them against each other empirically. Interestingly, theoretical worst-case bounds do not translate into observed performance; the MSO technique performs best, followed by belief construction and direct automata manipulation. As a byproduct of our study, we provide a general synthesis procedure for arbitrary QLTLf specifications. △ Less Submitted 19 December, 2024; originally announced December 2024. Comments: 8 pages, to appear at AAAI2025 arXiv:2412.14728 [ pdf , other ] LTLf Synthesis Under Unreliable Input Authors: Christian Hagemeier , Giuseppe de Giacomo , Moshe Y. Vardi Abstract : We study the problem of realizing strategies for an LTLf goal specification while ensuring that at least an LTLf backup specification is satisfied in case of unreliability of certain input variables. We formally define the problem and characterize its worst-case complexity as 2EXPTIME-complete, like standard LTLf synthesis. Then we devise three different solution techniques: one based on direct au… ▽ More We study the problem of realizing strategies for an LTLf goal specification while ensuring that at least an LTLf backup specification is satisfied in case of unreliability of certain input variables. We formally define the problem and characterize its worst-case complexity as 2EXPTIME-complete, like standard LTLf synthesis. Then we devise three different solution techniques: one based on direct automata manipulation, which is 2EXPTIME, one disregarding unreliable input variables by adopting a belief construction, which is 3EXPTIME, and one leveraging second-order quantified LTLf (QLTLf), which is 2EXPTIME and allows for a direct encoding into monadic second-order logic, which in turn is worst-case nonelementary. We prove their correctness and evaluate them against each other empirically. Interestingly, theoretical worst-case bounds do not translate into observed performance; the MSO technique performs best, followed by belief construction and direct automata manipulation. As a byproduct of our study, we provide a general synthesis procedure for arbitrary QLTLf specifications. △ Less Submitted 19 December, 2024; originally announced December 2024. Comments: 8 pages, to appear at AAAI2025 arXiv:2411.09366 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LO cs.AI cs.FL LTLf+ and PPLTL+: Extending LTLf and PPLTL to Infinite Traces Authors: Benjamin Aminof , Giuseppe De Giacomo , Sasha Rubin , Moshe Y. Vardi Abstract : We introduce LTLf+ and PPLTL+, two logics to express properties of infinite traces, that are based on the linear-time temporal logics LTLf and PPLTL on finite traces. LTLf+/PPLTL+ use levels of Manna and Pnueli's LTL safety-progress hierarchy, and thus have the same expressive power as LTL. However, they also retain a crucial characteristic of the reactive synthesis problem for the base logics: th… ▽ More We introduce LTLf+ and PPLTL+, two logics to express properties of infinite traces, that are based on the linear-time temporal logics LTLf and PPLTL on finite traces. LTLf+/PPLTL+ use levels of Manna and Pnueli's LTL safety-progress hierarchy, and thus have the same expressive power as LTL. However, they also retain a crucial characteristic of the reactive synthesis problem for the base logics: the game arena for strategy extraction can be derived from deterministic finite automata (DFA). Consequently, these logics circumvent the notorious difficulties associated with determinizing infinite trace automata, typical of LTL reactive synthesis. We present DFA-based synthesis techniques for LTLf+/PPLTL+, and show that synthesis is 2EXPTIME-complete for LTLf+ (matching LTLf) and EXPTIME-complete for PPLTL+ (matching PPLTL). Notably, while PPLTL+ retains the full expressive power of LTL, reactive synthesis is EXPTIME-complete instead of 2EXPTIME-complete. The techniques are also adapted to optimally solve satisfiability, validity, and model-checking, to get EXPSPACE-complete for LTLf+ (extending a recent result for the guarantee level using LTLf), and PSPACE-complete for PPLTL+. △ Less Submitted 14 November, 2024; originally announced November 2024. arXiv:2411.09366 [ pdf , ps , other ] LTLf+ and PPLTL+: Extending LTLf and PPLTL to Infinite Traces Authors: Benjamin Aminof , Giuseppe De Giacomo , Sasha Rubin , Moshe Y. Vardi Abstract : We introduce LTLf+ and PPLTL+, two logics to express properties of infinite traces, that are based on the linear-time temporal logics LTLf and PPLTL on finite traces. LTLf+/PPLTL+ use levels of Manna and Pnueli's LTL safety-progress hierarchy, and thus have the same expressive power as LTL. However, they also retain a crucial characteristic of the reactive synthesis problem for the base logics: th… ▽ More We introduce LTLf+ and PPLTL+, two logics to express properties of infinite traces, that are based on the linear-time temporal logics LTLf and PPLTL on finite traces. LTLf+/PPLTL+ use levels of Manna and Pnueli's LTL safety-progress hierarchy, and thus have the same expressive power as LTL. However, they also retain a crucial characteristic of the reactive synthesis problem for the base logics: the game arena for strategy extraction can be derived from deterministic finite automata (DFA). Consequently, these logics circumvent the notorious difficulties associated with determinizing infinite trace automata, typical of LTL reactive synthesis. We present DFA-based synthesis techniques for LTLf+/PPLTL+, and show that synthesis is 2EXPTIME-complete for LTLf+ (matching LTLf) and EXPTIME-complete for PPLTL+ (matching PPLTL). Notably, while PPLTL+ retains the full expressive power of LTL, reactive synthesis is EXPTIME-complete instead of 2EXPTIME-complete. The techniques are also adapted to optimally solve satisfiability, validity, and model-checking, to get EXPSPACE-complete for LTLf+ (extending a recent result for the guarantee level using LTLf), and PSPACE-complete for PPLTL+. △ Less Submitted 14 November, 2024; originally announced November 2024. arXiv:2410.14712 [ pdf , other ] cs.LO cs.AI Abstracting Situation Calculus Action Theories Authors: Bita Banihashemi , Giuseppe De Giacomo , Yves Lespérance Abstract : We develop a general framework for agent abstraction based on the situation calculus and the ConGolog agent programming language. We assume that we have a high-level specification and a low-level specification of the agent, both represented as basic action theories. A refinement mapping specifies how each high-level action is implemented by a low-level ConGolog program and how each high-level flue… ▽ More We develop a general framework for agent abstraction based on the situation calculus and the ConGolog agent programming language. We assume that we have a high-level specification and a low-level specification of the agent, both represented as basic action theories. A refinement mapping specifies how each high-level action is implemented by a low-level ConGolog program and how each high-level fluent can be translated into a low-level formula. We define a notion of sound abstraction between such action theories in terms of the existence of a suitable bisimulation between their respective models. Sound abstractions have many useful properties that ensure that we can reason about the agent's actions (e.g., executability, projection, and planning) at the abstract level, and refine and concretely execute them at the low level. We also characterize the notion of complete abstraction where all actions (including exogenous ones) that the high level thinks can happen can in fact occur at the low level. To facilitate verifying that one has a sound/complete abstraction relative to a mapping, we provide a set of necessary and sufficient conditions. Finally, we identify a set of basic action theory constraints that ensure that for any low-level action sequence, there is a unique high-level action sequence that it refines. This allows us to track/monitor what the low-level agent is doing and describe it in abstract terms (i.e., provide high-level explanations, for instance, to a client or manager). △ Less Submitted 9 October, 2024; originally announced October 2024. Comments: 60 pages, 1 figure ACM Class: I.2.4 arXiv:2410.14712 [ pdf , other ] Abstracting Situation Calculus Action Theories Authors: Bita Banihashemi , Giuseppe De Giacomo , Yves Lespérance Abstract : We develop a general framework for agent abstraction based on the situation calculus and the ConGolog agent programming language. We assume that we have a high-level specification and a low-level specification of the agent, both represented as basic action theories. A refinement mapping specifies how each high-level action is implemented by a low-level ConGolog program and how each high-level flue… ▽ More We develop a general framework for agent abstraction based on the situation calculus and the ConGolog agent programming language. We assume that we have a high-level specification and a low-level specification of the agent, both represented as basic action theories. A refinement mapping specifies how each high-level action is implemented by a low-level ConGolog program and how each high-level fluent can be translated into a low-level formula. We define a notion of sound abstraction between such action theories in terms of the existence of a suitable bisimulation between their respective models. Sound abstractions have many useful properties that ensure that we can reason about the agent's actions (e.g., executability, projection, and planning) at the abstract level, and refine and concretely execute them at the low level. We also characterize the notion of complete abstraction where all actions (including exogenous ones) that the high level thinks can happen can in fact occur at the low level. To facilitate verifying that one has a sound/complete abstraction relative to a mapping, we provide a set of necessary and sufficient conditions. Finally, we identify a set of basic action theory constraints that ensure that for any low-level action sequence, there is a unique high-level action sequence that it refines. This allows us to track/monitor what the low-level agent is doing and describe it in abstract terms (i.e., provide high-level explanations, for instance, to a client or manager). △ Less Submitted 9 October, 2024; originally announced October 2024. Comments: 60 pages, 1 figure ACM Class: I.2.4 arXiv:2410.14544 [ pdf , other ] cs.AI Computational Grounding of Responsibility Attribution and Anticipation in LTLf Authors: Giuseppe De Giacomo , Emiliano Lorini , Timothy Parker , Gianmarco Parretti Abstract : Responsibility is one of the key notions in machine ethics and in the area of autonomous systems. It is a multi-faceted notion involving counterfactual reasoning about actions and strategies. In this paper, we study different variants of responsibility in a strategic setting based on LTLf. We show a connection with notions in reactive synthesis, including synthesis of winning, dominant, and best-e… ▽ More Responsibility is one of the key notions in machine ethics and in the area of autonomous systems. It is a multi-faceted notion involving counterfactual reasoning about actions and strategies. In this paper, we study different variants of responsibility in a strategic setting based on LTLf. We show a connection with notions in reactive synthesis, including synthesis of winning, dominant, and best-effort strategies. This connection provides the building blocks for a computational grounding of responsibility including complexity characterizations and sound, complete, and optimal algorithms for attributing and anticipating responsibility. △ Less Submitted 18 October, 2024; originally announced October 2024. arXiv:2410.14544 [ pdf , other ] Computational Grounding of Responsibility Attribution and Anticipation in LTLf Authors: Giuseppe De Giacomo , Emiliano Lorini , Timothy Parker , Gianmarco Parretti Abstract : Responsibility is one of the key notions in machine ethics and in the area of autonomous systems. It is a multi-faceted notion involving counterfactual reasoning about actions and strategies. In this paper, we study different variants of responsibility in a strategic setting based on LTLf. We show a connection with notions in reactive synthesis, including synthesis of winning, dominant, and best-e… ▽ More Responsibility is one of the key notions in machine ethics and in the area of autonomous systems. It is a multi-faceted notion involving counterfactual reasoning about actions and strategies. In this paper, we study different variants of responsibility in a strategic setting based on LTLf. We show a connection with notions in reactive synthesis, including synthesis of winning, dominant, and best-effort strategies. This connection provides the building blocks for a computational grounding of responsibility including complexity characterizations and sound, complete, and optimal algorithms for attributing and anticipating responsibility. △ Less Submitted 18 October, 2024; originally announced October 2024. arXiv:2409.12397 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI Learning to Coordinate without Communication under Incomplete Information Authors: Shenghui Chen , Shufang Zhu , Giuseppe De Giacomo , Ufuk Topcu Abstract : Achieving seamless coordination in cooperative games is a crucial challenge in artificial intelligence, particularly when players operate under incomplete information. While communication helps, it is not always feasible. In this paper, we explore how effective coordination can be achieved without verbal communication, relying solely on observing each other's actions. Our method enables an agent t… ▽ More Achieving seamless coordination in cooperative games is a crucial challenge in artificial intelligence, particularly when players operate under incomplete information. While communication helps, it is not always feasible. In this paper, we explore how effective coordination can be achieved without verbal communication, relying solely on observing each other's actions. Our method enables an agent to develop a strategy by interpreting its partner's action sequences as intent signals, constructing a finite-state transducer built from deterministic finite automata, one for each possible action the agent can take. Experiments show that these strategies significantly outperform uncoordinated ones and closely match the performance of coordinating via direct communication. △ Less Submitted 31 August, 2025; v1 submitted 18 September, 2024; originally announced September 2024. arXiv:2409.12397 [ pdf , ps , other ] Learning to Coordinate without Communication under Incomplete Information Authors: Shenghui Chen , Shufang Zhu , Giuseppe De Giacomo , Ufuk Topcu Abstract : Achieving seamless coordination in cooperative games is a crucial challenge in artificial intelligence, particularly when players operate under incomplete information. While communication helps, it is not always feasible. In this paper, we explore how effective coordination can be achieved without verbal communication, relying solely on observing each other's actions. Our method enables an agent t… ▽ More Achieving seamless coordination in cooperative games is a crucial challenge in artificial intelligence, particularly when players operate under incomplete information. While communication helps, it is not always feasible. In this paper, we explore how effective coordination can be achieved without verbal communication, relying solely on observing each other's actions. Our method enables an agent to develop a strategy by interpreting its partner's action sequences as intent signals, constructing a finite-state transducer built from deterministic finite automata, one for each possible action the agent can take. Experiments show that these strategies significantly outperform uncoordinated ones and closely match the performance of coordinating via direct communication. △ Less Submitted 31 August, 2025; v1 submitted 18 September, 2024; originally announced September 2024. arXiv:2404.16163 [ pdf , other ] cs.RO cs.FL The Trembling-Hand Problem for LTLf Planning Authors: Pian Yu , Shufang Zhu , Giuseppe De Giacomo , Marta Kwiatkowska , Moshe Vardi Abstract : Consider an agent acting to achieve its temporal goal, but with a "trembling hand". In this case, the agent may mistakenly instruct, with a certain (typically small) probability, actions that are not intended due to faults or imprecision in its action selection mechanism, thereby leading to possible goal failure. We study the trembling-hand problem in the context of reasoning about actions and pla… ▽ More Consider an agent acting to achieve its temporal goal, but with a "trembling hand". In this case, the agent may mistakenly instruct, with a certain (typically small) probability, actions that are not intended due to faults or imprecision in its action selection mechanism, thereby leading to possible goal failure. We study the trembling-hand problem in the context of reasoning about actions and planning for temporally extended goals expressed in Linear Temporal Logic on finite traces (LTLf), where we want to synthesize a strategy (aka plan) that maximizes the probability of satisfying the LTLf goal in spite of the trembling hand. We consider both deterministic and nondeterministic (adversarial) domains. We propose solution techniques for both cases by relying respectively on Markov Decision Processes and on Markov Decision Processes with Set-valued Transitions with LTLf objectives, where the set-valued probabilistic transitions capture both the nondeterminism from the environment and the possible action instruction errors from the agent. We formally show the correctness of our solution techniques and demonstrate their effectiveness experimentally through a proof-of-concept implementation. △ Less Submitted 24 April, 2024; originally announced April 2024. Comments: The paper is accepted by IJCAI 2024 arXiv:2404.16163 [ pdf , other ] The Trembling-Hand Problem for LTLf Planning Authors: Pian Yu , Shufang Zhu , Giuseppe De Giacomo , Marta Kwiatkowska , Moshe Vardi Abstract : Consider an agent acting to achieve its temporal goal, but with a "trembling hand". In this case, the agent may mistakenly instruct, with a certain (typically small) probability, actions that are not intended due to faults or imprecision in its action selection mechanism, thereby leading to possible goal failure. We study the trembling-hand problem in the context of reasoning about actions and pla… ▽ More Consider an agent acting to achieve its temporal goal, but with a "trembling hand". In this case, the agent may mistakenly instruct, with a certain (typically small) probability, actions that are not intended due to faults or imprecision in its action selection mechanism, thereby leading to possible goal failure. We study the trembling-hand problem in the context of reasoning about actions and planning for temporally extended goals expressed in Linear Temporal Logic on finite traces (LTLf), where we want to synthesize a strategy (aka plan) that maximizes the probability of satisfying the LTLf goal in spite of the trembling hand. We consider both deterministic and nondeterministic (adversarial) domains. We propose solution techniques for both cases by relying respectively on Markov Decision Processes and on Markov Decision Processes with Set-valued Transitions with LTLf objectives, where the set-valued probabilistic transitions capture both the nondeterminism from the environment and the possible action instruction errors from the agent. We formally show the correctness of our solution techniques and demonstrate their effectiveness experimentally through a proof-of-concept implementation. △ Less Submitted 24 April, 2024; originally announced April 2024. Comments: The paper is accepted by IJCAI 2024 arXiv:2311.18114 [ pdf , other ] cs.LO cs.AI Composition of Nondeterministic and Stochastic Services for LTLf Task Specifications Authors: Giuseppe De Giacomo , Marco Favorito , Luciana Silo Abstract : In this paper, we study the composition of services so as to obtain runs satisfying a task specification in Linear Temporal Logic on finite traces (LTLf). We study the problem in the case services are nondeterministic and the LTLf specification can be exactly met, and in the case services are stochastic, where we are interested in maximizing the probability of satisfaction of the LTLf specificatio… ▽ More In this paper, we study the composition of services so as to obtain runs satisfying a task specification in Linear Temporal Logic on finite traces (LTLf). We study the problem in the case services are nondeterministic and the LTLf specification can be exactly met, and in the case services are stochastic, where we are interested in maximizing the probability of satisfaction of the LTLf specification and, simultaneously, minimizing the utilization cost of the services. To do so, we combine techniques from LTLf synthesis, service composition à la Roman Model, reactive synthesis, and bi-objective lexicographic optimization on MDPs. This framework has several interesting applications, including Smart Manufacturing and Digital Twins. △ Less Submitted 29 November, 2023; originally announced November 2023. Comments: 23 pages, 1 figure ACM Class: I.2 arXiv:2311.18114 [ pdf , other ] Composition of Nondeterministic and Stochastic Services for LTLf Task Specifications Authors: Giuseppe De Giacomo , Marco Favorito , Luciana Silo Abstract : In this paper, we study the composition of services so as to obtain runs satisfying a task specification in Linear Temporal Logic on finite traces (LTLf). We study the problem in the case services are nondeterministic and the LTLf specification can be exactly met, and in the case services are stochastic, where we are interested in maximizing the probability of satisfaction of the LTLf specificatio… ▽ More In this paper, we study the composition of services so as to obtain runs satisfying a task specification in Linear Temporal Logic on finite traces (LTLf). We study the problem in the case services are nondeterministic and the LTLf specification can be exactly met, and in the case services are stochastic, where we are interested in maximizing the probability of satisfaction of the LTLf specification and, simultaneously, minimizing the utilization cost of the services. To do so, we combine techniques from LTLf synthesis, service composition à la Roman Model, reactive synthesis, and bi-objective lexicographic optimization on MDPs. This framework has several interesting applications, including Smart Manufacturing and Digital Twins. △ Less Submitted 29 November, 2023; originally announced November 2023. Comments: 23 pages, 1 figure ACM Class: I.2 arXiv:2308.15188 [ pdf , other ] cs.AI cs.FL cs.GT cs.RO LTLf Best-Effort Synthesis in Nondeterministic Planning Domains Authors: Giuseppe De Giacomo , Gianmarco Parretti , Shufang Zhu Abstract : We study best-effort strategies (aka plans) in fully observable nondeterministic domains (FOND) for goals expressed in Linear Temporal Logic on Finite Traces (LTLf). The notion of best-effort strategy has been introduced to also deal with the scenario when no agent strategy exists that fulfills the goal against every possible nondeterministic environment reaction. Such strategies fulfill the goal… ▽ More We study best-effort strategies (aka plans) in fully observable nondeterministic domains (FOND) for goals expressed in Linear Temporal Logic on Finite Traces (LTLf). The notion of best-effort strategy has been introduced to also deal with the scenario when no agent strategy exists that fulfills the goal against every possible nondeterministic environment reaction. Such strategies fulfill the goal if possible, and do their best to do so otherwise. We present a game-theoretic technique for synthesizing best-effort strategies that exploit the specificity of nondeterministic planning domains. We formally show its correctness and demonstrate its effectiveness experimentally, exhibiting a much greater scalability with respect to a direct best-effort synthesis approach based on re-expressing the planning domain as generic environment specifications. △ Less Submitted 29 August, 2023; originally announced August 2023. Comments: To appear at ECAI2023 arXiv:2308.15188 [ pdf , other ] LTLf Best-Effort Synthesis in Nondeterministic Planning Domains Authors: Giuseppe De Giacomo , Gianmarco Parretti , Shufang Zhu Abstract : We study best-effort strategies (aka plans) in fully observable nondeterministic domains (FOND) for goals expressed in Linear Temporal Logic on Finite Traces (LTLf). The notion of best-effort strategy has been introduced to also deal with the scenario when no agent strategy exists that fulfills the goal against every possible nondeterministic environment reaction. Such strategies fulfill the goal… ▽ More We study best-effort strategies (aka plans) in fully observable nondeterministic domains (FOND) for goals expressed in Linear Temporal Logic on Finite Traces (LTLf). The notion of best-effort strategy has been introduced to also deal with the scenario when no agent strategy exists that fulfills the goal against every possible nondeterministic environment reaction. Such strategies fulfill the goal if possible, and do their best to do so otherwise. We present a game-theoretic technique for synthesizing best-effort strategies that exploit the specificity of nondeterministic planning domains. We formally show its correctness and demonstrate its effectiveness experimentally, exhibiting a much greater scalability with respect to a direct best-effort synthesis approach based on re-expressing the planning domain as generic environment specifications. △ Less Submitted 29 August, 2023; originally announced August 2023. Comments: To appear at ECAI2023 arXiv:2308.15184 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LO cs.AI cs.FL eess.SY LTLf Synthesis Under Environment Specifications for Reachability and Safety Properties Authors: Benjamin Aminof , Giuseppe De Giacomo , Antonio Di Stasio , Hugo Francon , Sasha Rubin , Shufang Zhu Abstract : In this paper, we study LTLf synthesis under environment specifications for arbitrary reachability and safety properties. We consider both kinds of properties for both agent tasks and environment specifications, providing a complete landscape of synthesis algorithms. For each case, we devise a specific algorithm (optimal wrt complexity of the problem) and prove its correctness. The algorithms comb… ▽ More In this paper, we study LTLf synthesis under environment specifications for arbitrary reachability and safety properties. We consider both kinds of properties for both agent tasks and environment specifications, providing a complete landscape of synthesis algorithms. For each case, we devise a specific algorithm (optimal wrt complexity of the problem) and prove its correctness. The algorithms combine common building blocks in different ways. While some cases are already studied in literature others are studied here for the first time. △ Less Submitted 29 August, 2023; originally announced August 2023. Comments: To appear at EUMAS2023 arXiv:2308.15184 [ pdf , ps , other ] LTLf Synthesis Under Environment Specifications for Reachability and Safety Properties Authors: Benjamin Aminof , Giuseppe De Giacomo , Antonio Di Stasio , Hugo Francon , Sasha Rubin , Shufang Zhu Abstract : In this paper, we study LTLf synthesis under environment specifications for arbitrary reachability and safety properties. We consider both kinds of properties for both agent tasks and environment specifications, providing a complete landscape of synthesis algorithms. For each case, we devise a specific algorithm (optimal wrt complexity of the problem) and prove its correctness. The algorithms comb… ▽ More In this paper, we study LTLf synthesis under environment specifications for arbitrary reachability and safety properties. We consider both kinds of properties for both agent tasks and environment specifications, providing a complete landscape of synthesis algorithms. For each case, we devise a specific algorithm (optimal wrt complexity of the problem) and prove its correctness. The algorithms combine common building blocks in different ways. While some cases are already studied in literature others are studied here for the first time. △ Less Submitted 29 August, 2023; originally announced August 2023. Comments: To appear at EUMAS2023 arXiv:2308.15178 [ pdf , other ] cs.AI cs.FL cs.GT cs.LO cs.RO Symbolic LTLf Best-Effort Synthesis Authors: Giuseppe De Giacomo , Gianmarco Parretti , Shufang Zhu Abstract : We consider an agent acting to fulfil tasks in a nondeterministic environment. When a strategy that fulfills the task regardless of how the environment acts does not exist, the agent should at least avoid adopting strategies that prevent from fulfilling its task. Best-effort synthesis captures this intuition. In this paper, we devise and compare various symbolic approaches for best-effort synthesi… ▽ More We consider an agent acting to fulfil tasks in a nondeterministic environment. When a strategy that fulfills the task regardless of how the environment acts does not exist, the agent should at least avoid adopting strategies that prevent from fulfilling its task. Best-effort synthesis captures this intuition. In this paper, we devise and compare various symbolic approaches for best-effort synthesis in Linear Temporal Logic on finite traces (LTLf). These approaches are based on the same basic components, however they change in how these components are combined, and this has a significant impact on the performance of the approaches as confirmed by our empirical evaluations. △ Less Submitted 29 August, 2023; originally announced August 2023. Comments: To appear at EUMAS2023 arXiv:2308.15178 [ pdf , other ] Symbolic LTLf Best-Effort Synthesis Authors: Giuseppe De Giacomo , Gianmarco Parretti , Shufang Zhu Abstract : We consider an agent acting to fulfil tasks in a nondeterministic environment. When a strategy that fulfills the task regardless of how the environment acts does not exist, the agent should at least avoid adopting strategies that prevent from fulfilling its task. Best-effort synthesis captures this intuition. In this paper, we devise and compare various symbolic approaches for best-effort synthesi… ▽ More We consider an agent acting to fulfil tasks in a nondeterministic environment. When a strategy that fulfills the task regardless of how the environment acts does not exist, the agent should at least avoid adopting strategies that prevent from fulfilling its task. Best-effort synthesis captures this intuition. In this paper, we devise and compare various symbolic approaches for best-effort synthesis in Linear Temporal Logic on finite traces (LTLf). These approaches are based on the same basic components, however they change in how these components are combined, and this has a significant impact on the performance of the approaches as confirmed by our empirical evaluations. △ Less Submitted 29 August, 2023; originally announced August 2023. Comments: To appear at EUMAS2023 arXiv:2306.08680 [ pdf , other ] cs.AI Temporally Extended Goal Recognition in Fully Observable Non-Deterministic Domain Models Authors: Ramon Fraga Pereira , Francesco Fuggitti , Felipe Meneguzzi , Giuseppe De Giacomo Abstract : Goal Recognition is the task of discerning the correct intended goal that an agent aims to achieve, given a set of goal hypotheses, a domain model, and a sequence of observations (i.e., a sample of the plan executed in the environment). Existing approaches assume that goal hypotheses comprise a single conjunctive formula over a single final state and that the environment dynamics are deterministic… ▽ More Goal Recognition is the task of discerning the correct intended goal that an agent aims to achieve, given a set of goal hypotheses, a domain model, and a sequence of observations (i.e., a sample of the plan executed in the environment). Existing approaches assume that goal hypotheses comprise a single conjunctive formula over a single final state and that the environment dynamics are deterministic, preventing the recognition of temporally extended goals in more complex settings. In this paper, we expand goal recognition to temporally extended goals in Fully Observable Non-Deterministic (FOND) planning domain models, focusing on goals on finite traces expressed in Linear Temporal Logic (LTLf) and Pure Past Linear Temporal Logic (PLTLf). We develop the first approach capable of recognizing goals in such settings and evaluate it using different LTLf and PLTLf goals over six FOND planning domain models. Empirical results show that our approach is accurate in recognizing temporally extended goals in different recognition settings. △ Less Submitted 14 June, 2023; originally announced June 2023. Comments: arXiv admin note: substantial text overlap with arXiv:2103.11692 arXiv:2306.08680 [ pdf , other ] Temporally Extended Goal Recognition in Fully Observable Non-Deterministic Domain Models Authors: Ramon Fraga Pereira , Francesco Fuggitti , Felipe Meneguzzi , Giuseppe De Giacomo Abstract : Goal Recognition is the task of discerning the correct intended goal that an agent aims to achieve, given a set of goal hypotheses, a domain model, and a sequence of observations (i.e., a sample of the plan executed in the environment). Existing approaches assume that goal hypotheses comprise a single conjunctive formula over a single final state and that the environment dynamics are deterministic… ▽ More Goal Recognition is the task of discerning the correct intended goal that an agent aims to achieve, given a set of goal hypotheses, a domain model, and a sequence of observations (i.e., a sample of the plan executed in the environment). Existing approaches assume that goal hypotheses comprise a single conjunctive formula over a single final state and that the environment dynamics are deterministic, preventing the recognition of temporally extended goals in more complex settings. In this paper, we expand goal recognition to temporally extended goals in Fully Observable Non-Deterministic (FOND) planning domain models, focusing on goals on finite traces expressed in Linear Temporal Logic (LTLf) and Pure Past Linear Temporal Logic (PLTLf). We develop the first approach capable of recognizing goals in such settings and evaluate it using different LTLf and PLTLf goals over six FOND planning domain models. Empirical results show that our approach is accurate in recognizing temporally extended goals in different recognition settings. △ Less Submitted 14 June, 2023; originally announced June 2023. Comments: arXiv admin note: substantial text overlap with arXiv:2103.11692 arXiv:2305.14222 [ pdf , other ] cs.LO cs.AI Abstraction of Nondeterministic Situation Calculus Action Theories -- Extended Version Authors: Bita Banihashemi , Giuseppe De Giacomo , Yves Lespérance Abstract : We develop a general framework for abstracting the behavior of an agent that operates in a nondeterministic domain, i.e., where the agent does not control the outcome of the nondeterministic actions, based on the nondeterministic situation calculus and the ConGolog programming language. We assume that we have both an abstract and a concrete nondeterministic basic action theory, and a refinement ma… ▽ More We develop a general framework for abstracting the behavior of an agent that operates in a nondeterministic domain, i.e., where the agent does not control the outcome of the nondeterministic actions, based on the nondeterministic situation calculus and the ConGolog programming language. We assume that we have both an abstract and a concrete nondeterministic basic action theory, and a refinement mapping which specifies how abstract actions, decomposed into agent actions and environment reactions, are implemented by concrete ConGolog programs. This new setting supports strategic reasoning and strategy synthesis, by allowing us to quantify separately on agent actions and environment reactions. We show that if the agent has a (strong FOND) plan/strategy to achieve a goal/complete a task at the abstract level, and it can always execute the nondeterministic abstract actions to completion at the concrete level, then there exists a refinement of it that is a (strong FOND) plan/strategy to achieve the refinement of the goal/task at the concrete level. △ Less Submitted 20 May, 2023; originally announced May 2023. Comments: 20 pages, 2 figures arXiv:2305.14222 [ pdf , other ] Abstraction of Nondeterministic Situation Calculus Action Theories -- Extended Version Authors: Bita Banihashemi , Giuseppe De Giacomo , Yves Lespérance Abstract : We develop a general framework for abstracting the behavior of an agent that operates in a nondeterministic domain, i.e., where the agent does not control the outcome of the nondeterministic actions, based on the nondeterministic situation calculus and the ConGolog programming language. We assume that we have both an abstract and a concrete nondeterministic basic action theory, and a refinement ma… ▽ More We develop a general framework for abstracting the behavior of an agent that operates in a nondeterministic domain, i.e., where the agent does not control the outcome of the nondeterministic actions, based on the nondeterministic situation calculus and the ConGolog programming language. We assume that we have both an abstract and a concrete nondeterministic basic action theory, and a refinement mapping which specifies how abstract actions, decomposed into agent actions and environment reactions, are implemented by concrete ConGolog programs. This new setting supports strategic reasoning and strategy synthesis, by allowing us to quantify separately on agent actions and environment reactions. We show that if the agent has a (strong FOND) plan/strategy to achieve a goal/complete a task at the abstract level, and it can always execute the nondeterministic abstract actions to completion at the concrete level, then there exists a refinement of it that is a (strong FOND) plan/strategy to achieve the refinement of the goal/task at the concrete level. △ Less Submitted 20 May, 2023; originally announced May 2023. Comments: 20 pages, 2 figures arXiv:2303.00516 [ pdf , other ] cs.LG cs.AI doi 10.1609/aaai.v37i6.25881 Exploiting Multiple Abstractions in Episodic RL via Reward Shaping Authors: Roberto Cipollone , Giuseppe De Giacomo , Marco Favorito , Luca Iocchi , Fabio Patrizi Abstract : One major limitation to the applicability of Reinforcement Learning (RL) to many practical domains is the large number of samples required to learn an optimal policy. To address this problem and improve learning efficiency, we consider a linear hierarchy of abstraction layers of the Markov Decision Process (MDP) underlying the target domain. Each layer is an MDP representing a coarser model of the… ▽ More One major limitation to the applicability of Reinforcement Learning (RL) to many practical domains is the large number of samples required to learn an optimal policy. To address this problem and improve learning efficiency, we consider a linear hierarchy of abstraction layers of the Markov Decision Process (MDP) underlying the target domain. Each layer is an MDP representing a coarser model of the one immediately below in the hierarchy. In this work, we propose a novel form of Reward Shaping where the solution obtained at the abstract level is used to offer rewards to the more concrete MDP, in such a way that the abstract solution guides the learning in the more complex domain. In contrast with other works in Hierarchical RL, our technique has few requirements in the design of the abstract models and it is also tolerant to modeling errors, thus making the proposed approach practical. We formally analyze the relationship between the abstract models and the exploration heuristic induced in the lower-level domain. Moreover, we prove that the method guarantees optimal convergence and we demonstrate its effectiveness experimentally. △ Less Submitted 4 August, 2023; v1 submitted 28 February, 2023; originally announced March 2023. Comments: This is an extended version of the paper presented at AAAI 2023, ACM Class: I.2 arXiv:2303.00516 [ pdf , other ] Exploiting Multiple Abstractions in Episodic RL via Reward Shaping Authors: Roberto Cipollone , Giuseppe De Giacomo , Marco Favorito , Luca Iocchi , Fabio Patrizi Abstract : One major limitation to the applicability of Reinforcement Learning (RL) to many practical domains is the large number of samples required to learn an optimal policy. To address this problem and improve learning efficiency, we consider a linear hierarchy of abstraction layers of the Markov Decision Process (MDP) underlying the target domain. Each layer is an MDP representing a coarser model of the… ▽ More One major limitation to the applicability of Reinforcement Learning (RL) to many practical domains is the large number of samples required to learn an optimal policy. To address this problem and improve learning efficiency, we consider a linear hierarchy of abstraction layers of the Markov Decision Process (MDP) underlying the target domain. Each layer is an MDP representing a coarser model of the one immediately below in the hierarchy. In this work, we propose a novel form of Reward Shaping where the solution obtained at the abstract level is used to offer rewards to the more concrete MDP, in such a way that the abstract solution guides the learning in the more complex domain. In contrast with other works in Hierarchical RL, our technique has few requirements in the design of the abstract models and it is also tolerant to modeling errors, thus making the proposed approach practical. We formally analyze the relationship between the abstract models and the exploration heuristic induced in the lower-level domain. Moreover, we prove that the method guarantees optimal convergence and we demonstrate its effectiveness experimentally. △ Less Submitted 4 August, 2023; v1 submitted 28 February, 2023; originally announced March 2023. Comments: This is an extended version of the paper presented at AAAI 2023, ACM Class: I.2 arXiv:2302.03384 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI Act for Your Duties but Maintain Your Rights Authors: Shufang Zhu , Giuseppe De Giacomo Abstract : Most of the synthesis literature has focused on studying how to synthesize a strategy to fulfill a task. This task is a duty for the agent. In this paper, we argue that intelligent agents should also be equipped with rights, that is, tasks that the agent itself can choose to fulfill (e.g., the right of recharging the battery). The agent should be able to maintain these rights while acting for its… ▽ More Most of the synthesis literature has focused on studying how to synthesize a strategy to fulfill a task. This task is a duty for the agent. In this paper, we argue that intelligent agents should also be equipped with rights, that is, tasks that the agent itself can choose to fulfill (e.g., the right of recharging the battery). The agent should be able to maintain these rights while acting for its duties. We study this issue in the context of LTLf synthesis: we give duties and rights in terms of LTLf specifications, and synthesize a suitable strategy to achieve the duties that can be modified on-the-fly to achieve also the rights, if the agent chooses to do so. We show that handling rights does not make synthesis substantially more difficult, although it requires a more sophisticated solution concept than standard LTLf synthesis. We also extend our results to the case in which further duties and rights are given to the agent while already executing. △ Less Submitted 7 February, 2023; originally announced February 2023. Journal ref: International Conference on Principles of Knowledge Representation and Reasoning (KR), 2022 arXiv:2302.03384 [ pdf , ps , other ] Act for Your Duties but Maintain Your Rights Authors: Shufang Zhu , Giuseppe De Giacomo Abstract : Most of the synthesis literature has focused on studying how to synthesize a strategy to fulfill a task. This task is a duty for the agent. In this paper, we argue that intelligent agents should also be equipped with rights, that is, tasks that the agent itself can choose to fulfill (e.g., the right of recharging the battery). The agent should be able to maintain these rights while acting for its… ▽ More Most of the synthesis literature has focused on studying how to synthesize a strategy to fulfill a task. This task is a duty for the agent. In this paper, we argue that intelligent agents should also be equipped with rights, that is, tasks that the agent itself can choose to fulfill (e.g., the right of recharging the battery). The agent should be able to maintain these rights while acting for its duties. We study this issue in the context of LTLf synthesis: we give duties and rights in terms of LTLf specifications, and synthesize a suitable strategy to achieve the duties that can be modified on-the-fly to achieve also the rights, if the agent chooses to do so. We show that handling rights does not make synthesis substantially more difficult, although it requires a more sophisticated solution concept than standard LTLf synthesis. We also extend our results to the case in which further duties and rights are given to the agent while already executing. △ Less Submitted 7 February, 2023; originally announced February 2023. Journal ref: International Conference on Principles of Knowledge Representation and Reasoning (KR), 2022 arXiv:2211.14028 [ pdf , other ] cs.FL cs.AI cs.LG Automata Cascades: Expressivity and Sample Complexity Authors: Alessandro Ronca , Nadezda Alexandrovna Knorozova , Giuseppe De Giacomo Abstract : Every automaton can be decomposed into a cascade of basic prime automata. This is the Prime Decomposition Theorem by Krohn and Rhodes. Guided by this theory, we propose automata cascades as a structured, modular, way to describe automata as complex systems made of many components, each implementing a specific functionality. Any automaton can serve as a component; using specific components allows f… ▽ More Every automaton can be decomposed into a cascade of basic prime automata. This is the Prime Decomposition Theorem by Krohn and Rhodes. Guided by this theory, we propose automata cascades as a structured, modular, way to describe automata as complex systems made of many components, each implementing a specific functionality. Any automaton can serve as a component; using specific components allows for a fine-grained control of the expressivity of the resulting class of automata; using prime automata as components implies specific expressivity guarantees. Moreover, specifying automata as cascades allows for describing the sample complexity of automata in terms of their components. We show that the sample complexity is linear in the number of components and the maximum complexity of a single component, modulo logarithmic factors. This opens to the possibility of learning automata representing large dynamical systems consisting of many parts interacting with each other. It is in sharp contrast with the established understanding of the sample complexity of automata, described in terms of the overall number of states and input letters, which implies that it is only possible to learn automata where the number of states is linear in the amount of data available. Instead our results show that one can learn automata with a number of states that is exponential in the amount of data available. △ Less Submitted 6 March, 2023; v1 submitted 25 November, 2022; originally announced November 2022. Comments: Full version with appendix of a paper with the same title that appears in the proceedings of AAAI 2023 arXiv:2211.14028 [ pdf , other ] Automata Cascades: Expressivity and Sample Complexity Authors: Alessandro Ronca , Nadezda Alexandrovna Knorozova , Giuseppe De Giacomo Abstract : Every automaton can be decomposed into a cascade of basic prime automata. This is the Prime Decomposition Theorem by Krohn and Rhodes. Guided by this theory, we propose automata cascades as a structured, modular, way to describe automata as complex systems made of many components, each implementing a specific functionality. Any automaton can serve as a component; using specific components allows f… ▽ More Every automaton can be decomposed into a cascade of basic prime automata. This is the Prime Decomposition Theorem by Krohn and Rhodes. Guided by this theory, we propose automata cascades as a structured, modular, way to describe automata as complex systems made of many components, each implementing a specific functionality. Any automaton can serve as a component; using specific components allows for a fine-grained control of the expressivity of the resulting class of automata; using prime automata as components implies specific expressivity guarantees. Moreover, specifying automata as cascades allows for describing the sample complexity of automata in terms of their components. We show that the sample complexity is linear in the number of components and the maximum complexity of a single component, modulo logarithmic factors. This opens to the possibility of learning automata representing large dynamical systems consisting of many parts interacting with each other. It is in sharp contrast with the established understanding of the sample complexity of automata, described in terms of the overall number of states and input letters, which implies that it is only possible to learn automata where the number of states is linear in the amount of data available. Instead our results show that one can learn automata with a number of states that is exponential in the amount of data available. △ Less Submitted 6 March, 2023; v1 submitted 25 November, 2022; originally announced November 2022. Comments: Full version with appendix of a paper with the same title that appears in the proceedings of AAAI 2023 arXiv:2205.09201 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI Mimicking Behaviors in Separated Domains Authors: Giuseppe De Giacomo , Dror Fried , Fabio Patrizi , Shufang Zhu Abstract : Devising a strategy to make a system mimicking behaviors from another system is a problem that naturally arises in many areas of Computer Science. In this work, we interpret this problem in the context of intelligent agents, from the perspective of LTLf, a formalism commonly used in AI for expressing finite-trace properties. Our model consists of two separated dynamic domains, D_A and D_B, and an… ▽ More Devising a strategy to make a system mimicking behaviors from another system is a problem that naturally arises in many areas of Computer Science. In this work, we interpret this problem in the context of intelligent agents, from the perspective of LTLf, a formalism commonly used in AI for expressing finite-trace properties. Our model consists of two separated dynamic domains, D_A and D_B, and an LTLf specification that formalizes the notion of mimicking by mapping properties on behaviors (traces) of D_A into properties on behaviors of D_B. The goal is to synthesize a strategy that step-by-step maps every behavior of D_A into a behavior of D_B so that the specification is met. We consider several forms of mapping specifications, ranging from simple ones to full LTLf, and for each we study synthesis algorithms and computational properties. △ Less Submitted 18 May, 2022; originally announced May 2022. arXiv:2205.09201 [ pdf , ps , other ] Mimicking Behaviors in Separated Domains Authors: Giuseppe De Giacomo , Dror Fried , Fabio Patrizi , Shufang Zhu Abstract : Devising a strategy to make a system mimicking behaviors from another system is a problem that naturally arises in many areas of Computer Science. In this work, we interpret this problem in the context of intelligent agents, from the perspective of LTLf, a formalism commonly used in AI for expressing finite-trace properties. Our model consists of two separated dynamic domains, D_A and D_B, and an… ▽ More Devising a strategy to make a system mimicking behaviors from another system is a problem that naturally arises in many areas of Computer Science. In this work, we interpret this problem in the context of intelligent agents, from the perspective of LTLf, a formalism commonly used in AI for expressing finite-trace properties. Our model consists of two separated dynamic domains, D_A and D_B, and an LTLf specification that formalizes the notion of mimicking by mapping properties on behaviors (traces) of D_A into properties on behaviors of D_B. The goal is to synthesize a strategy that step-by-step maps every behavior of D_A into a behavior of D_B so that the specification is met. We consider several forms of mapping specifications, ranging from simple ones to full LTLf, and for each we study synthesis algorithms and computational properties. △ Less Submitted 18 May, 2022; originally announced May 2022. arXiv:2205.01053 [ pdf , other ] cs.LG cs.AI Markov Abstractions for PAC Reinforcement Learning in Non-Markov Decision Processes Authors: Alessandro Ronca , Gabriel Paludo Licks , Giuseppe De Giacomo Abstract : Our work aims at developing reinforcement learning algorithms that do not rely on the Markov assumption. We consider the class of Non-Markov Decision Processes where histories can be abstracted into a finite set of states while preserving the dynamics. We call it a Markov abstraction since it induces a Markov Decision Process over a set of states that encode the non-Markov dynamics. This phenomeno… ▽ More Our work aims at developing reinforcement learning algorithms that do not rely on the Markov assumption. We consider the class of Non-Markov Decision Processes where histories can be abstracted into a finite set of states while preserving the dynamics. We call it a Markov abstraction since it induces a Markov Decision Process over a set of states that encode the non-Markov dynamics. This phenomenon underlies the recently introduced Regular Decision Processes (as well as POMDPs where only a finite number of belief states is reachable). In all such kinds of decision process, an agent that uses a Markov abstraction can rely on the Markov property to achieve optimal behaviour. We show that Markov abstractions can be learned during reinforcement learning. Our approach combines automata learning and classic reinforcement learning. For these two tasks, standard algorithms can be employed. We show that our approach has PAC guarantees when the employed algorithms have PAC guarantees, and we also provide an experimental evaluation. △ Less Submitted 18 May, 2022; v1 submitted 29 April, 2022; originally announced May 2022. Comments: IJCAI 2022 arXiv:2205.01053 [ pdf , other ] Markov Abstractions for PAC Reinforcement Learning in Non-Markov Decision Processes Authors: Alessandro Ronca , Gabriel Paludo Licks , Giuseppe De Giacomo Abstract : Our work aims at developing reinforcement learning algorithms that do not rely on the Markov assumption. We consider the class of Non-Markov Decision Processes where histories can be abstracted into a finite set of states while preserving the dynamics. We call it a Markov abstraction since it induces a Markov Decision Process over a set of states that encode the non-Markov dynamics. This phenomeno… ▽ More Our work aims at developing reinforcement learning algorithms that do not rely on the Markov assumption. We consider the class of Non-Markov Decision Processes where histories can be abstracted into a finite set of states while preserving the dynamics. We call it a Markov abstraction since it induces a Markov Decision Process over a set of states that encode the non-Markov dynamics. This phenomenon underlies the recently introduced Regular Decision Processes (as well as POMDPs where only a finite number of belief states is reachable). In all such kinds of decision process, an agent that uses a Markov abstraction can rely on the Markov property to achieve optimal behaviour. We show that Markov abstractions can be learned during reinforcement learning. Our approach combines automata learning and classic reinforcement learning. For these two tasks, standard algorithms can be employed. We show that our approach has PAC guarantees when the employed algorithms have PAC guarantees, and we also provide an experimental evaluation. △ Less Submitted 18 May, 2022; v1 submitted 29 April, 2022; originally announced May 2022. Comments: IJCAI 2022 arXiv:2204.09960 [ pdf , other ] cs.AI Planning for Temporally Extended Goals in Pure-Past Linear Temporal Logic: A Polynomial Reduction to Standard Planning Authors: Giuseppe De Giacomo , Marco Favorito , Francesco Fuggitti Abstract : We study temporally extended goals expressed in Pure-Past LTL (PPLTL). PPLTL is particularly interesting for expressing goals since it allows to express sophisticated tasks as in the Formal Methods literature, while the worst-case computational complexity of Planning in both deterministic and nondeterministic domains (FOND) remains the same as for classical reachability goals. However, while the t… ▽ More We study temporally extended goals expressed in Pure-Past LTL (PPLTL). PPLTL is particularly interesting for expressing goals since it allows to express sophisticated tasks as in the Formal Methods literature, while the worst-case computational complexity of Planning in both deterministic and nondeterministic domains (FOND) remains the same as for classical reachability goals. However, while the theory of planning for PPLTL goals is well understood, practical tools have not been specifically investigated. In this paper, we make a significant leap forward in the construction of actual tools to handle PPLTL goals. We devise a technique to polynomially translate planning for PPLTL goals into standard planning. We show the formal correctness of the translation, its complexity, and its practical effectiveness through some comparative experiments. As a result, our translation enables state-of-the-art tools, such as FD or MyND, to handle PPLTL goals seamlessly, maintaining the impressive performances they have for classical reachability goals. △ Less Submitted 31 May, 2022; v1 submitted 21 April, 2022; originally announced April 2022. Comments: 26 pages, 8 figures, 2 tables arXiv:2204.09960 [ pdf , other ] Planning for Temporally Extended Goals in Pure-Past Linear Temporal Logic: A Polynomial Reduction to Standard Planning Authors: Giuseppe De Giacomo , Marco Favorito , Francesco Fuggitti Abstract : We study temporally extended goals expressed in Pure-Past LTL (PPLTL). PPLTL is particularly interesting for expressing goals since it allows to express sophisticated tasks as in the Formal Methods literature, while the worst-case computational complexity of Planning in both deterministic and nondeterministic domains (FOND) remains the same as for classical reachability goals. However, while the t… ▽ More We study temporally extended goals expressed in Pure-Past LTL (PPLTL). PPLTL is particularly interesting for expressing goals since it allows to express sophisticated tasks as in the Formal Methods literature, while the worst-case computational complexity of Planning in both deterministic and nondeterministic domains (FOND) remains the same as for classical reachability goals. However, while the theory of planning for PPLTL goals is well understood, practical tools have not been specifically investigated. In this paper, we make a significant leap forward in the construction of actual tools to handle PPLTL goals. We devise a technique to polynomially translate planning for PPLTL goals into standard planning. We show the formal correctness of the translation, its complexity, and its practical effectiveness through some comparative experiments. As a result, our translation enables state-of-the-art tools, such as FD or MyND, to handle PPLTL goals seamlessly, maintaining the impressive performances they have for classical reachability goals. △ Less Submitted 31 May, 2022; v1 submitted 21 April, 2022; originally announced April 2022. Comments: 26 pages, 8 figures, 2 tables arXiv:2204.04322 [ pdf , other ] cs.AI Iterative Depth-First Search for Fully Observable Non-Deterministic Planning Authors: Ramon Fraga Pereira , André G. Pereira , Frederico Messa , Giuseppe De Giacomo Abstract : Fully Observable Non-Deterministic (FOND) planning models uncertainty through actions with non-deterministic effects. Existing FOND planning algorithms are effective and employ a wide range of techniques. However, most of the existing algorithms are not robust for dealing with both non-determinism and task size. In this paper, we develop a novel iterative depth-first search algorithm that solves F… ▽ More Fully Observable Non-Deterministic (FOND) planning models uncertainty through actions with non-deterministic effects. Existing FOND planning algorithms are effective and employ a wide range of techniques. However, most of the existing algorithms are not robust for dealing with both non-determinism and task size. In this paper, we develop a novel iterative depth-first search algorithm that solves FOND planning tasks and produces strong cyclic policies. Our algorithm is explicitly designed for FOND planning, addressing more directly the non-deterministic aspect of FOND planning, and it also exploits the benefits of heuristic functions to make the algorithm more effective during the iterative searching process. We compare our proposed algorithm to well-known FOND planners, and show that it has robust performance over several distinct types of FOND domains considering different metrics. △ Less Submitted 20 June, 2022; v1 submitted 8 April, 2022; originally announced April 2022. arXiv:2204.04322 [ pdf , other ] Iterative Depth-First Search for Fully Observable Non-Deterministic Planning Authors: Ramon Fraga Pereira , André G. Pereira , Frederico Messa , Giuseppe De Giacomo Abstract : Fully Observable Non-Deterministic (FOND) planning models uncertainty through actions with non-deterministic effects. Existing FOND planning algorithms are effective and employ a wide range of techniques. However, most of the existing algorithms are not robust for dealing with both non-determinism and task size. In this paper, we develop a novel iterative depth-first search algorithm that solves F… ▽ More Fully Observable Non-Deterministic (FOND) planning models uncertainty through actions with non-deterministic effects. Existing FOND planning algorithms are effective and employ a wide range of techniques. However, most of the existing algorithms are not robust for dealing with both non-determinism and task size. In this paper, we develop a novel iterative depth-first search algorithm that solves FOND planning tasks and produces strong cyclic policies. Our algorithm is explicitly designed for FOND planning, addressing more directly the non-deterministic aspect of FOND planning, and it also exploits the benefits of heuristic functions to make the algorithm more effective during the iterative searching process. We compare our proposed algorithm to well-known FOND planners, and show that it has robust performance over several distinct types of FOND domains considering different metrics. △ Less Submitted 20 June, 2022; v1 submitted 8 April, 2022; originally announced April 2022. arXiv:2202.07817 [ pdf , other ] cs.CV cs.RO Cross-view and Cross-domain Underwater Localization based on Optical Aerial and Acoustic Underwater Images Authors: Matheus M. Dos Santos , Giovanni G. De Giacomo , Paulo L. J. Drews-Jr , Silvia S. C. Botelho Abstract : Cross-view image matches have been widely explored on terrestrial image localization using aerial images from drones or satellites. This study expands the cross-view image match idea and proposes a cross-domain and cross-view localization framework. The method identifies the correlation between color aerial images and underwater acoustic images to improve the localization of underwater vehicles th… ▽ More Cross-view image matches have been widely explored on terrestrial image localization using aerial images from drones or satellites. This study expands the cross-view image match idea and proposes a cross-domain and cross-view localization framework. The method identifies the correlation between color aerial images and underwater acoustic images to improve the localization of underwater vehicles that travel in partially structured environments such as harbors and marinas. The approach is validated on a real dataset acquired by an underwater vehicle in a marina. The results show an improvement in the localization when compared to the dead reckoning of the vehicle. △ Less Submitted 15 February, 2022; originally announced February 2022. Comments: This work has been submitted to the IEEE Robotics and Automation Letters (RA-L) for possible publication arXiv:2202.07817 [ pdf , other ] Cross-view and Cross-domain Underwater Localization based on Optical Aerial and Acoustic Underwater Images Authors: Matheus M. Dos Santos , Giovanni G. De Giacomo , Paulo L. J. Drews-Jr , Silvia S. C. Botelho Abstract : Cross-view image matches have been widely explored on terrestrial image localization using aerial images from drones or satellites. This study expands the cross-view image match idea and proposes a cross-domain and cross-view localization framework. The method identifies the correlation between color aerial images and underwater acoustic images to improve the localization of underwater vehicles th… ▽ More Cross-view image matches have been widely explored on terrestrial image localization using aerial images from drones or satellites. This study expands the cross-view image match idea and proposes a cross-domain and cross-view localization framework. The method identifies the correlation between color aerial images and underwater acoustic images to improve the localization of underwater vehicles that travel in partially structured environments such as harbors and marinas. The approach is validated on a real dataset acquired by an underwater vehicle in a marina. The results show an improvement in the localization when compared to the dead reckoning of the vehicle. △ Less Submitted 15 February, 2022; originally announced February 2022. Comments: This work has been submitted to the IEEE Robotics and Automation Letters (RA-L) for possible publication arXiv:2201.12855 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.SE doi 10.1145/3576047 AI-Augmented Business Process Management Systems: A Research Manifesto Authors: Marlon Dumas , Fabiana Fournier , Lior Limonad , Andrea Marrella , Marco Montali , Jana-Rebecca Rehse , Rafael Accorsi , Diego Calvanese , Giuseppe De Giacomo , Dirk Fahland , Avigdor Gal , Marcello La Rosa , Hagen Völzer , Ingo Weber Abstract : AI-Augmented Business Process Management Systems (ABPMSs) are an emerging class of process-aware information systems, empowered by trustworthy AI technology. An ABPMS enhances the execution of business processes with the aim of making these processes more adaptable, proactive, explainable, and context-sensitive. This manifesto presents a vision for ABPMSs and discusses research challenges that nee… ▽ More AI-Augmented Business Process Management Systems (ABPMSs) are an emerging class of process-aware information systems, empowered by trustworthy AI technology. An ABPMS enhances the execution of business processes with the aim of making these processes more adaptable, proactive, explainable, and context-sensitive. This manifesto presents a vision for ABPMSs and discusses research challenges that need to be surmounted to realize this vision. To this end, we define the concept of ABPMS, we outline the lifecycle of processes within an ABPMS, we discuss core characteristics of an ABPMS, and we derive a set of challenges to realize systems with these characteristics. △ Less Submitted 4 November, 2022; v1 submitted 30 January, 2022; originally announced January 2022. Comments: 19 pages, 1 figure Journal ref: ACM Transactions on Management Information Systems, 31 January 2023 Volume 14, Issue 1, Article No.: 11, pp 1-19 arXiv:2201.12855 [ pdf , ps , other ] AI-Augmented Business Process Management Systems: A Research Manifesto Authors: Marlon Dumas , Fabiana Fournier , Lior Limonad , Andrea Marrella , Marco Montali , Jana-Rebecca Rehse , Rafael Accorsi , Diego Calvanese , Giuseppe De Giacomo , Dirk Fahland , Avigdor Gal , Marcello La Rosa , Hagen Völzer , Ingo Weber Abstract : AI-Augmented Business Process Management Systems (ABPMSs) are an emerging class of process-aware information systems, empowered by trustworthy AI technology. An ABPMS enhances the execution of business processes with the aim of making these processes more adaptable, proactive, explainable, and context-sensitive. This manifesto presents a vision for ABPMSs and discusses research challenges that nee… ▽ More AI-Augmented Business Process Management Systems (ABPMSs) are an emerging class of process-aware information systems, empowered by trustworthy AI technology. An ABPMS enhances the execution of business processes with the aim of making these processes more adaptable, proactive, explainable, and context-sensitive. This manifesto presents a vision for ABPMSs and discusses research challenges that need to be surmounted to realize this vision. To this end, we define the concept of ABPMS, we outline the lifecycle of processes within an ABPMS, we discuss core characteristics of an ABPMS, and we derive a set of challenges to realize systems with these characteristics. △ Less Submitted 4 November, 2022; v1 submitted 30 January, 2022; originally announced January 2022. Comments: 19 pages, 1 figure Journal ref: ACM Transactions on Management Information Systems, 31 January 2023 Volume 14, Issue 1, Article No.: 11, pp 1-19 arXiv:2105.06784 [ pdf , other ] cs.AI cs.LG Efficient PAC Reinforcement Learning in Regular Decision Processes Authors: Alessandro Ronca , Giuseppe De Giacomo Abstract : Recently regular decision processes have been proposed as a well-behaved form of non-Markov decision process. Regular decision processes are characterised by a transition function and a reward function that depend on the whole history, though regularly (as in regular languages). In practice both the transition and the reward functions can be seen as finite transducers. We study reinforcement learn… ▽ More Recently regular decision processes have been proposed as a well-behaved form of non-Markov decision process. Regular decision processes are characterised by a transition function and a reward function that depend on the whole history, though regularly (as in regular languages). In practice both the transition and the reward functions can be seen as finite transducers. We study reinforcement learning in regular decision processes. Our main contribution is to show that a near-optimal policy can be PAC-learned in polynomial time in a set of parameters that describe the underlying decision process. We argue that the identified set of parameters is minimal and it reasonably captures the difficulty of a regular decision process. △ Less Submitted 18 May, 2022; v1 submitted 14 May, 2021; originally announced May 2021. Comments: IJCAI 2021 arXiv:2105.06784 [ pdf , other ] Efficient PAC Reinforcement Learning in Regular Decision Processes Authors: Alessandro Ronca , Giuseppe De Giacomo Abstract : Recently regular decision processes have been proposed as a well-behaved form of non-Markov decision process. Regular decision processes are characterised by a transition function and a reward function that depend on the whole history, though regularly (as in regular languages). In practice both the transition and the reward functions can be seen as finite transducers. We study reinforcement learn… ▽ More Recently regular decision processes have been proposed as a well-behaved form of non-Markov decision process. Regular decision processes are characterised by a transition function and a reward function that depend on the whole history, though regularly (as in regular languages). In practice both the transition and the reward functions can be seen as finite transducers. We study reinforcement learning in regular decision processes. Our main contribution is to show that a near-optimal policy can be PAC-learned in polynomial time in a set of parameters that describe the underlying decision process. We argue that the identified set of parameters is minimal and it reasonably captures the difficulty of a regular decision process. △ Less Submitted 18 May, 2022; v1 submitted 14 May, 2021; originally announced May 2021. Comments: IJCAI 2021 arXiv:2103.11692 [ pdf , other ] cs.AI Recognizing LTLf/PLTLf Goals in Fully Observable Non-Deterministic Domain Models Authors: Ramon Fraga Pereira , Francesco Fuggitti , Giuseppe De Giacomo Abstract : Goal Recognition is the task of discerning the correct intended goal that an agent aims to achieve, given a set of possible goals, a domain model, and a sequence of observations as a sample of the plan being executed in the environment. Existing approaches assume that the possible goals are formalized as a conjunction in deterministic settings. In this paper, we develop a novel approach that is ca… ▽ More Goal Recognition is the task of discerning the correct intended goal that an agent aims to achieve, given a set of possible goals, a domain model, and a sequence of observations as a sample of the plan being executed in the environment. Existing approaches assume that the possible goals are formalized as a conjunction in deterministic settings. In this paper, we develop a novel approach that is capable of recognizing temporally extended goals in Fully Observable Non-Deterministic (FOND) planning domain models, focusing on goals on finite traces expressed in Linear Temporal Logic (LTLf) and (Pure) Past Linear Temporal Logic (PLTLf). We empirically evaluate our goal recognition approach using different LTLf and PLTLf goals over six common FOND planning domain models, and show that our approach is accurate to recognize temporally extended goals at several levels of observability. △ Less Submitted 22 March, 2021; originally announced March 2021. arXiv:2103.11692 [ pdf , other ] Recognizing LTLf/PLTLf Goals in Fully Observable Non-Deterministic Domain Models Authors: Ramon Fraga Pereira , Francesco Fuggitti , Giuseppe De Giacomo Abstract : Goal Recognition is the task of discerning the correct intended goal that an agent aims to achieve, given a set of possible goals, a domain model, and a sequence of observations as a sample of the plan being executed in the environment. Existing approaches assume that the possible goals are formalized as a conjunction in deterministic settings. In this paper, we develop a novel approach that is ca… ▽ More Goal Recognition is the task of discerning the correct intended goal that an agent aims to achieve, given a set of possible goals, a domain model, and a sequence of observations as a sample of the plan being executed in the environment. Existing approaches assume that the possible goals are formalized as a conjunction in deterministic settings. In this paper, we develop a novel approach that is capable of recognizing temporally extended goals in Fully Observable Non-Deterministic (FOND) planning domain models, focusing on goals on finite traces expressed in Linear Temporal Logic (LTLf) and (Pure) Past Linear Temporal Logic (PLTLf). We empirically evaluate our goal recognition approach using different LTLf and PLTLf goals over six common FOND planning domain models, and show that our approach is accurate to recognize temporally extended goals at several levels of observability. △ Less Submitted 22 March, 2021; originally announced March 2021. arXiv:2102.11184 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LO Behavioral QLTL Authors: Giuseppe De Giacomo , Giuseppe Perelli Abstract : In this paper we introduce Behavioral QLTL, which is a ``behavioral'' variant of linear-time temporal logic on infinite traces with second-order quantifiers. Behavioral QLTL is characterized by the fact that the functions that assign the truth value of the quantified propositions along the trace can only depend on the past. In other words such functions must be``processes''. This gives to the logi… ▽ More In this paper we introduce Behavioral QLTL, which is a ``behavioral'' variant of linear-time temporal logic on infinite traces with second-order quantifiers. Behavioral QLTL is characterized by the fact that the functions that assign the truth value of the quantified propositions along the trace can only depend on the past. In other words such functions must be``processes''. This gives to the logic a strategic flavor that we usually associate to planning. Indeed we show that temporally extended planning in nondeterministic domains, as well as LTL synthesis, are expressed in Behavioral QLTL through formulas with a simple quantification alternation. While, as this alternation increases, we get to forms of planning/synthesis in which conditional and conformant planning aspects get mixed. We study this logic from the computational point of view and compare it to the original QLTL (with non-behavioral semantics) and with simpler forms of behavioral semantics. △ Less Submitted 22 February, 2021; originally announced February 2021. arXiv:2102.11184 [ pdf , ps , other ] Behavioral QLTL Authors: Giuseppe De Giacomo , Giuseppe Perelli Abstract : In this paper we introduce Behavioral QLTL, which is a ``behavioral'' variant of linear-time temporal logic on infinite traces with second-order quantifiers. Behavioral QLTL is characterized by the fact that the functions that assign the truth value of the quantified propositions along the trace can only depend on the past. In other words such functions must be``processes''. This gives to the logi… ▽ More In this paper we introduce Behavioral QLTL, which is a ``behavioral'' variant of linear-time temporal logic on infinite traces with second-order quantifiers. Behavioral QLTL is characterized by the fact that the functions that assign the truth value of the quantified propositions along the trace can only depend on the past. In other words such functions must be``processes''. This gives to the logic a strategic flavor that we usually associate to planning. Indeed we show that temporally extended planning in nondeterministic domains, as well as LTL synthesis, are expressed in Behavioral QLTL through formulas with a simple quantification alternation. While, as this alternation increases, we get to forms of planning/synthesis in which conditional and conformant planning aspects get mixed. We study this logic from the computational point of view and compare it to the original QLTL (with non-behavioral semantics) and with simpler forms of behavioral semantics. △ Less Submitted 22 February, 2021; originally announced February 2021. arXiv:2004.01859 [ pdf , other ] cs.LO Monitoring Constraints and Metaconstraints with Temporal Logics on Finite Traces Authors: Giuseppe De Giacomo , Riccardo De Masellis , Fabrizio Maria Maggi , Marco Montali Abstract : Runtime monitoring is one of the central tasks in the area of operational decision support for business process management. In particular, it helps process executors to check on-the-fly whether a running process instance satisfies business constraints of interest, providing an immediate feedback when deviations occur. We study runtime monitoring of properties expressed in LTL on finite traces (LTL… ▽ More Runtime monitoring is one of the central tasks in the area of operational decision support for business process management. In particular, it helps process executors to check on-the-fly whether a running process instance satisfies business constraints of interest, providing an immediate feedback when deviations occur. We study runtime monitoring of properties expressed in LTL on finite traces (LTLf), and in its extension LDLf. LDLf is a powerful logic that captures all monadic second order logic on finite traces, and that is obtained by combining regular expressions with LTLf, adopting the syntax of propositional dynamic logic (PDL). Interestingly, in spite of its greater expressivity, \LDLf has exactly the same computational complexity of LTLf. We show that LDLf is able to declaratively express, in the logic itself, not only the constraints to be monitored, but also the de-facto standard RV-LTL monitors. On the one hand, this enables us to directly employ the standard characterization of LDLf based on finite-state automata to monitor constraints in a fine-grained way. On the other hand, it provides the basis for declaratively expressing sophisticated metaconstraints that predicate on the monitoring state of other constraints, and to check them by relying on standard logical services instead of ad-hoc algorithms. In addition, we devise a direct translation of LDLf formulae into nondeterministic finite-state automata, avoiding to detour to Buchi automata or alternating automata. We then report on how this approach has been effectively implemented using Java to manipulate LDLf formulae and their corresponding monitors, and the well-known ProM process mining suite as underlying operational decision support infrastructure. △ Less Submitted 7 April, 2020; v1 submitted 4 April, 2020; originally announced April 2020. arXiv:2004.01859 [ pdf , other ] Monitoring Constraints and Metaconstraints with Temporal Logics on Finite Traces Authors: Giuseppe De Giacomo , Riccardo De Masellis , Fabrizio Maria Maggi , Marco Montali Abstract : Runtime monitoring is one of the central tasks in the area of operational decision support for business process management. In particular, it helps process executors to check on-the-fly whether a running process instance satisfies business constraints of interest, providing an immediate feedback when deviations occur. We study runtime monitoring of properties expressed in LTL on finite traces (LTL… ▽ More Runtime monitoring is one of the central tasks in the area of operational decision support for business process management. In particular, it helps process executors to check on-the-fly whether a running process instance satisfies business constraints of interest, providing an immediate feedback when deviations occur. We study runtime monitoring of properties expressed in LTL on finite traces (LTLf), and in its extension LDLf. LDLf is a powerful logic that captures all monadic second order logic on finite traces, and that is obtained by combining regular expressions with LTLf, adopting the syntax of propositional dynamic logic (PDL). Interestingly, in spite of its greater expressivity, \LDLf has exactly the same computational complexity of LTLf. We show that LDLf is able to declaratively express, in the logic itself, not only the constraints to be monitored, but also the de-facto standard RV-LTL monitors. On the one hand, this enables us to directly employ the standard characterization of LDLf based on finite-state automata to monitor constraints in a fine-grained way. On the other hand, it provides the basis for declaratively expressing sophisticated metaconstraints that predicate on the monitoring state of other constraints, and to check them by relying on standard logical services instead of ad-hoc algorithms. In addition, we devise a direct translation of LDLf formulae into nondeterministic finite-state automata, avoiding to detour to Buchi automata or alternating automata. We then report on how this approach has been effectively implemented using Java to manipulate LDLf formulae and their corresponding monitors, and the well-known ProM process mining suite as underlying operational decision support infrastructure. △ Less Submitted 7 April, 2020; v1 submitted 4 April, 2020; originally announced April 2020. arXiv:1912.11203 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.FL Stochastic Fairness and Language-Theoretic Fairness in Planning on Nondeterministic Domains Authors: Benjamin Aminof , Giuseppe De Giacomo , Sasha Rubin Abstract : We address two central notions of fairness in the literature of planning on nondeterministic fully observable domains. The first, which we call stochastic fairness, is classical, and assumes an environment which operates probabilistically using possibly unknown probabilities. The second, which is language-theoretic, assumes that if an action is taken from a given state infinitely often then all it… ▽ More We address two central notions of fairness in the literature of planning on nondeterministic fully observable domains. The first, which we call stochastic fairness, is classical, and assumes an environment which operates probabilistically using possibly unknown probabilities. The second, which is language-theoretic, assumes that if an action is taken from a given state infinitely often then all its possible outcomes should appear infinitely often (we call this state-action fairness). While the two notions coincide for standard reachability goals, they diverge for temporally extended goals. This important difference has been overlooked in the planning literature, and we argue has led to confusion in a number of published algorithms which use reductions that were stated for state-action fairness, for which they are incorrect, while being correct for stochastic fairness. We remedy this and provide an optimal sound and complete algorithm for solving state-action fair planning for LTL/LTLf goals, as well as a correct proof of the lower bound of the goal-complexity (our proof is general enough that it provides new proofs also for the no-fairness and stochastic-fairness cases). Overall, we show that stochastic fairness is better behaved than state-action fairness. △ Less Submitted 23 December, 2019; originally announced December 2019. arXiv:1912.11203 [ pdf , ps , other ] Stochastic Fairness and Language-Theoretic Fairness in Planning on Nondeterministic Domains Authors: Benjamin Aminof , Giuseppe De Giacomo , Sasha Rubin Abstract : We address two central notions of fairness in the literature of planning on nondeterministic fully observable domains. The first, which we call stochastic fairness, is classical, and assumes an environment which operates probabilistically using possibly unknown probabilities. The second, which is language-theoretic, assumes that if an action is taken from a given state infinitely often then all it… ▽ More We address two central notions of fairness in the literature of planning on nondeterministic fully observable domains. The first, which we call stochastic fairness, is classical, and assumes an environment which operates probabilistically using possibly unknown probabilities. The second, which is language-theoretic, assumes that if an action is taken from a given state infinitely often then all its possible outcomes should appear infinitely often (we call this state-action fairness). While the two notions coincide for standard reachability goals, they diverge for temporally extended goals. This important difference has been overlooked in the planning literature, and we argue has led to confusion in a number of published algorithms which use reductions that were stated for state-action fairness, for which they are incorrect, while being correct for stochastic fairness. We remedy this and provide an optimal sound and complete algorithm for solving state-action fair planning for LTL/LTLf goals, as well as a correct proof of the lower bound of the goal-complexity (our proof is general enough that it provides new proofs also for the no-fairness and stochastic-fairness cases). Overall, we show that stochastic fairness is better behaved than state-action fairness. △ Less Submitted 23 December, 2019; originally announced December 2019. arXiv:1912.07804 [ pdf , other ] cs.AI cs.FL cs.GT cs.LO LTLf Synthesis with Fairness and Stability Assumptions Authors: Shufang Zhu , Giuseppe De Giacomo , Geguang Pu , Moshe Vardi Abstract : In synthesis, assumptions are constraints on the environment that rule out certain environment behaviors. A key observation here is that even if we consider systems with LTLf goals on finite traces, environment assumptions need to be expressed over infinite traces, since accomplishing the agent goals may require an unbounded number of environment action. To solve synthesis with respect to finite-t… ▽ More In synthesis, assumptions are constraints on the environment that rule out certain environment behaviors. A key observation here is that even if we consider systems with LTLf goals on finite traces, environment assumptions need to be expressed over infinite traces, since accomplishing the agent goals may require an unbounded number of environment action. To solve synthesis with respect to finite-trace LTLf goals under infinite-trace assumptions, we could reduce the problem to LTL synthesis. Unfortunately, while synthesis in LTLf and in LTL have the same worst-case complexity (both 2EXPTIME-complete), the algorithms available for LTL synthesis are much more difficult in practice than those for LTLf synthesis. In this work we show that in interesting cases we can avoid such a detour to LTL synthesis and keep the simplicity of LTLf synthesis. Specifically, we develop a BDD-based fixpoint-based technique for handling basic forms of fairness and of stability assumptions. We show, empirically, that this technique performs much better than standard LTL synthesis. △ Less Submitted 16 December, 2019; originally announced December 2019. arXiv:1912.07804 [ pdf , other ] LTLf Synthesis with Fairness and Stability Assumptions Authors: Shufang Zhu , Giuseppe De Giacomo , Geguang Pu , Moshe Vardi Abstract : In synthesis, assumptions are constraints on the environment that rule out certain environment behaviors. A key observation here is that even if we consider systems with LTLf goals on finite traces, environment assumptions need to be expressed over infinite traces, since accomplishing the agent goals may require an unbounded number of environment action. To solve synthesis with respect to finite-t… ▽ More In synthesis, assumptions are constraints on the environment that rule out certain environment behaviors. A key observation here is that even if we consider systems with LTLf goals on finite traces, environment assumptions need to be expressed over infinite traces, since accomplishing the agent goals may require an unbounded number of environment action. To solve synthesis with respect to finite-trace LTLf goals under infinite-trace assumptions, we could reduce the problem to LTL synthesis. Unfortunately, while synthesis in LTLf and in LTL have the same worst-case complexity (both 2EXPTIME-complete), the algorithms available for LTL synthesis are much more difficult in practice than those for LTLf synthesis. In this work we show that in interesting cases we can avoid such a detour to LTL synthesis and keep the simplicity of LTLf synthesis. Specifically, we develop a BDD-based fixpoint-based technique for handling basic forms of fairness and of stability assumptions. We show, empirically, that this technique performs much better than standard LTL synthesis. △ Less Submitted 16 December, 2019; originally announced December 2019. arXiv:1909.12135 [ pdf , other ] cs.AI cs.LO Generalized Planning: Non-Deterministic Abstractions and Trajectory Constraints Authors: Blai Bonet , Giuseppe De Giacomo , Hector Geffner , Sasha Rubin Abstract : We study the characterization and computation of general policies for families of problems that share a structure characterized by a common reduction into a single abstract problem. Policies $μ$ that solve the abstract problem P have been shown to solve all problems Q that reduce to P provided that $μ$ terminates in Q. In this work, we shed light on why this termination condition is needed and how… ▽ More We study the characterization and computation of general policies for families of problems that share a structure characterized by a common reduction into a single abstract problem. Policies $μ$ that solve the abstract problem P have been shown to solve all problems Q that reduce to P provided that $μ$ terminates in Q. In this work, we shed light on why this termination condition is needed and how it can be removed. The key observation is that the abstract problem P captures the common structure among the concrete problems Q that is local (Markovian) but misses common structure that is global. We show how such global structure can be captured by means of trajectory constraints that in many cases can be expressed as LTL formulas, thus reducing generalized planning to LTL synthesis. Moreover, for a broad class of problems that involve integer variables that can be increased or decreased, trajectory constraints can be compiled away, reducing generalized planning to fully observable non-deterministic planning. △ Less Submitted 26 September, 2019; originally announced September 2019. Comments: Proceedings IJCAI-17 arXiv:1909.12135 [ pdf , other ] Generalized Planning: Non-Deterministic Abstractions and Trajectory Constraints Authors: Blai Bonet , Giuseppe De Giacomo , Hector Geffner , Sasha Rubin Abstract : We study the characterization and computation of general policies for families of problems that share a structure characterized by a common reduction into a single abstract problem. Policies $μ$ that solve the abstract problem P have been shown to solve all problems Q that reduce to P provided that $μ$ terminates in Q. In this work, we shed light on why this termination condition is needed and how… ▽ More We study the characterization and computation of general policies for families of problems that share a structure characterized by a common reduction into a single abstract problem. Policies $μ$ that solve the abstract problem P have been shown to solve all problems Q that reduce to P provided that $μ$ terminates in Q. In this work, we shed light on why this termination condition is needed and how it can be removed. The key observation is that the abstract problem P captures the common structure among the concrete problems Q that is local (Markovian) but misses common structure that is global. We show how such global structure can be captured by means of trajectory constraints that in many cases can be expressed as LTL formulas, thus reducing generalized planning to LTL synthesis. Moreover, for a broad class of problems that involve integer variables that can be increased or decreased, trajectory constraints can be compiled away, reducing generalized planning to fully observable non-deterministic planning. △ Less Submitted 26 September, 2019; originally announced September 2019. Comments: Proceedings IJCAI-17 arXiv:1807.06777 [ pdf , other ] cs.LO cs.AI Planning and Synthesis Under Assumptions Authors: Benjamin Aminof , Giuseppe De Giacomo , Aniello Murano , Sasha Rubin Abstract : In Reasoning about Action and Planning, one synthesizes the agent plan by taking advantage of the assumption on how the environment works (that is, one exploits the environment's effects, its fairness, its trajectory constraints). In this paper we study this form of synthesis in detail. We consider assumptions as constraints on the possible strategies that the environment can have in order to resp… ▽ More In Reasoning about Action and Planning, one synthesizes the agent plan by taking advantage of the assumption on how the environment works (that is, one exploits the environment's effects, its fairness, its trajectory constraints). In this paper we study this form of synthesis in detail. We consider assumptions as constraints on the possible strategies that the environment can have in order to respond to the agent's actions. Such constraints may be given in the form of a planning domain (or action theory), as linear-time formulas over infinite or finite runs, or as a combination of the two. We argue though that not all assumption specifications are meaningful: they need to be consistent, which means that there must exist an environment strategy fulfilling the assumption in spite of the agent actions. For such assumptions, we study how to do synthesis/planning for agent goals, ranging from a classical reachability to goal on traces specified in \LTL and \LTLf/\LDLf, characterizing the problem both mathematically and algorithmically. △ Less Submitted 21 May, 2019; v1 submitted 18 July, 2018; originally announced July 2018. arXiv:1807.06777 [ pdf , other ] Planning and Synthesis Under Assumptions Authors: Benjamin Aminof , Giuseppe De Giacomo , Aniello Murano , Sasha Rubin Abstract : In Reasoning about Action and Planning, one synthesizes the agent plan by taking advantage of the assumption on how the environment works (that is, one exploits the environment's effects, its fairness, its trajectory constraints). In this paper we study this form of synthesis in detail. We consider assumptions as constraints on the possible strategies that the environment can have in order to resp… ▽ More In Reasoning about Action and Planning, one synthesizes the agent plan by taking advantage of the assumption on how the environment works (that is, one exploits the environment's effects, its fairness, its trajectory constraints). In this paper we study this form of synthesis in detail. We consider assumptions as constraints on the possible strategies that the environment can have in order to respond to the agent's actions. Such constraints may be given in the form of a planning domain (or action theory), as linear-time formulas over infinite or finite runs, or as a combination of the two. We argue though that not all assumption specifications are meaningful: they need to be consistent, which means that there must exist an environment strategy fulfilling the assumption in spite of the agent actions. For such assumptions, we study how to do synthesis/planning for agent goals, ranging from a classical reachability to goal on traces specified in \LTL and \LTLf/\LDLf, characterizing the problem both mathematically and algorithmically. △ Less Submitted 21 May, 2019; v1 submitted 18 July, 2018; originally announced July 2018. arXiv:1807.06333 [ pdf , other ] cs.LG cs.AI stat.ML Foundations for Restraining Bolts: Reinforcement Learning with LTLf/LDLf restraining specifications Authors: Giuseppe De Giacomo , Luca Iocchi , Marco Favorito , Fabio Patrizi Abstract : In this work we investigate on the concept of "restraining bolt", envisioned in Science Fiction. Specifically we introduce a novel problem in AI. We have two distinct sets of features extracted from the world, one by the agent and one by the authority imposing restraining specifications (the "restraining bolt"). The two sets are apparently unrelated since of interest to independent parties, howeve… ▽ More In this work we investigate on the concept of "restraining bolt", envisioned in Science Fiction. Specifically we introduce a novel problem in AI. We have two distinct sets of features extracted from the world, one by the agent and one by the authority imposing restraining specifications (the "restraining bolt"). The two sets are apparently unrelated since of interest to independent parties, however they both account for (aspects of) the same world. We consider the case in which the agent is a reinforcement learning agent on the first set of features, while the restraining bolt is specified logically using linear time logic on finite traces LTLf/LDLf over the second set of features. We show formally, and illustrate with examples, that, under general circumstances, the agent can learn while shaping its goals to suitably conform (as much as possible) to the restraining bolt specifications. △ Less Submitted 11 November, 2019; v1 submitted 17 July, 2018; originally announced July 2018. Journal ref: ICAPS 2019: 128-136 arXiv:1807.06333 [ pdf , other ] Foundations for Restraining Bolts: Reinforcement Learning with LTLf/LDLf restraining specifications Authors: Giuseppe De Giacomo , Luca Iocchi , Marco Favorito , Fabio Patrizi Abstract : In this work we investigate on the concept of "restraining bolt", envisioned in Science Fiction. Specifically we introduce a novel problem in AI. We have two distinct sets of features extracted from the world, one by the agent and one by the authority imposing restraining specifications (the "restraining bolt"). The two sets are apparently unrelated since of interest to independent parties, howeve… ▽ More In this work we investigate on the concept of "restraining bolt", envisioned in Science Fiction. Specifically we introduce a novel problem in AI. We have two distinct sets of features extracted from the world, one by the agent and one by the authority imposing restraining specifications (the "restraining bolt"). The two sets are apparently unrelated since of interest to independent parties, however they both account for (aspects of) the same world. We consider the case in which the agent is a reinforcement learning agent on the first set of features, while the restraining bolt is specified logically using linear time logic on finite traces LTLf/LDLf over the second set of features. We show formally, and illustrate with examples, that, under general circumstances, the agent can learn while shaping its goals to suitably conform (as much as possible) to the restraining bolt specifications. △ Less Submitted 11 November, 2019; v1 submitted 17 July, 2018; originally announced July 2018. Journal ref: ICAPS 2019: 128-136 arXiv:1807.04861 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI Hybrid Temporal Situation Calculus Authors: Vitaliy Batusov , Giuseppe De Giacomo , Mikhail Soutchanski Abstract : The ability to model continuous change in Reiter's temporal situation calculus action theories has attracted a lot of interest. In this paper, we propose a new development of his approach, which is directly inspired by hybrid systems in control theory. Specifically, while keeping the foundations of Reiter's axiomatization, we propose an elegant extension of his approach by adding a time argument t… ▽ More The ability to model continuous change in Reiter's temporal situation calculus action theories has attracted a lot of interest. In this paper, we propose a new development of his approach, which is directly inspired by hybrid systems in control theory. Specifically, while keeping the foundations of Reiter's axiomatization, we propose an elegant extension of his approach by adding a time argument to all fluents that represent continuous change. Thereby, we insure that change can happen not only because of actions, but also due to the passage of time. We present a systematic methodology to derive, from simple premises, a new group of axioms which specify how continuous fluents change over time within a situation. We study regression for our new temporal basic action theories and demonstrate what reasoning problems can be solved. Finally, we formally show that our temporal basic action theories indeed capture hybrid automata. △ Less Submitted 12 July, 2018; originally announced July 2018. arXiv:1807.04861 [ pdf , ps , other ] Hybrid Temporal Situation Calculus Authors: Vitaliy Batusov , Giuseppe De Giacomo , Mikhail Soutchanski Abstract : The ability to model continuous change in Reiter's temporal situation calculus action theories has attracted a lot of interest. In this paper, we propose a new development of his approach, which is directly inspired by hybrid systems in control theory. Specifically, while keeping the foundations of Reiter's axiomatization, we propose an elegant extension of his approach by adding a time argument t… ▽ More The ability to model continuous change in Reiter's temporal situation calculus action theories has attracted a lot of interest. In this paper, we propose a new development of his approach, which is directly inspired by hybrid systems in control theory. Specifically, while keeping the foundations of Reiter's axiomatization, we propose an elegant extension of his approach by adding a time argument to all fluents that represent continuous change. Thereby, we insure that change can happen not only because of actions, but also due to the passage of time. We present a systematic methodology to derive, from simple premises, a new group of axioms which specify how continuous fluents change over time within a situation. We study regression for our new temporal basic action theories and demonstrate what reasoning problems can be solved. Finally, we formally show that our temporal basic action theories indeed capture hybrid automata. △ Less Submitted 12 July, 2018; originally announced July 2018. arXiv:1807.04561 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI Situation Calculus for Synthesis of Manufacturing Controllers Authors: Giuseppe De Giacomo , Brian Logan , Paolo Felli , Fabio Patrizi , Sebastian Sardina Abstract : Manufacturing is transitioning from a mass production model to a manufacturing as a service model in which manufacturing facilities 'bid' to produce products. To decide whether to bid for a complex, previously unseen product, a manufacturing facility must be able to synthesize, 'on the fly', a process plan controller that delegates abstract manufacturing tasks in the supplied process recipe to the… ▽ More Manufacturing is transitioning from a mass production model to a manufacturing as a service model in which manufacturing facilities 'bid' to produce products. To decide whether to bid for a complex, previously unseen product, a manufacturing facility must be able to synthesize, 'on the fly', a process plan controller that delegates abstract manufacturing tasks in the supplied process recipe to the appropriate manufacturing resources, e.g., CNC machines, robots etc. Previous work in applying AI behaviour composition to synthesize process plan controllers has considered only finite state ad-hoc representations. Here, we study the problem in the relational setting of the Situation Calculus. By taking advantage of recent work on abstraction in the Situation Calculus, process recipes and available resources are represented by ConGolog programs over, respectively, an abstract and a concrete action theory. This allows us to capture the problem in a formal, general framework, and show decidability for the case of bounded action theories. We also provide techniques for actually synthesizing the controller. △ Less Submitted 12 July, 2018; originally announced July 2018. arXiv:1807.04561 [ pdf , ps , other ] Situation Calculus for Synthesis of Manufacturing Controllers Authors: Giuseppe De Giacomo , Brian Logan , Paolo Felli , Fabio Patrizi , Sebastian Sardina Abstract : Manufacturing is transitioning from a mass production model to a manufacturing as a service model in which manufacturing facilities 'bid' to produce products. To decide whether to bid for a complex, previously unseen product, a manufacturing facility must be able to synthesize, 'on the fly', a process plan controller that delegates abstract manufacturing tasks in the supplied process recipe to the… ▽ More Manufacturing is transitioning from a mass production model to a manufacturing as a service model in which manufacturing facilities 'bid' to produce products. To decide whether to bid for a complex, previously unseen product, a manufacturing facility must be able to synthesize, 'on the fly', a process plan controller that delegates abstract manufacturing tasks in the supplied process recipe to the appropriate manufacturing resources, e.g., CNC machines, robots etc. Previous work in applying AI behaviour composition to synthesize process plan controllers has considered only finite state ad-hoc representations. Here, we study the problem in the relational setting of the Situation Calculus. By taking advantage of recent work on abstraction in the Situation Calculus, process recipes and available resources are represented by ConGolog programs over, respectively, an abstract and a concrete action theory. This allows us to capture the problem in a formal, general framework, and show decidability for the case of bounded action theories. We also provide techniques for actually synthesizing the controller. △ Less Submitted 12 July, 2018; originally announced July 2018. arXiv:1706.08100 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI Specifying Non-Markovian Rewards in MDPs Using LDL on Finite Traces (Preliminary Version) Authors: Ronen Brafman , Giuseppe De Giacomo , Fabio Patrizi Abstract : In Markov Decision Processes (MDPs), the reward obtained in a state depends on the properties of the last state and action. This state dependency makes it difficult to reward more interesting long-term behaviors, such as always closing a door after it has been opened, or providing coffee only following a request. Extending MDPs to handle such non-Markovian reward function was the subject of two pr… ▽ More In Markov Decision Processes (MDPs), the reward obtained in a state depends on the properties of the last state and action. This state dependency makes it difficult to reward more interesting long-term behaviors, such as always closing a door after it has been opened, or providing coffee only following a request. Extending MDPs to handle such non-Markovian reward function was the subject of two previous lines of work, both using variants of LTL to specify the reward function and then compiling the new model back into a Markovian model. Building upon recent progress in the theories of temporal logics over finite traces, we adopt LDLf for specifying non-Markovian rewards and provide an elegant automata construction for building a Markovian model, which extends that of previous work and offers strong minimality and compositionality guarantees. △ Less Submitted 25 June, 2017; originally announced June 2017. arXiv:1706.08100 [ pdf , ps , other ] Specifying Non-Markovian Rewards in MDPs Using LDL on Finite Traces (Preliminary Version) Authors: Ronen Brafman , Giuseppe De Giacomo , Fabio Patrizi Abstract : In Markov Decision Processes (MDPs), the reward obtained in a state depends on the properties of the last state and action. This state dependency makes it difficult to reward more interesting long-term behaviors, such as always closing a door after it has been opened, or providing coffee only following a request. Extending MDPs to handle such non-Markovian reward function was the subject of two pr… ▽ More In Markov Decision Processes (MDPs), the reward obtained in a state depends on the properties of the last state and action. This state dependency makes it difficult to reward more interesting long-term behaviors, such as always closing a door after it has been opened, or providing coffee only following a request. Extending MDPs to handle such non-Markovian reward function was the subject of two previous lines of work, both using variants of LTL to specify the reward function and then compiling the new model back into a Markovian model. Building upon recent progress in the theories of temporal logics over finite traces, we adopt LDLf for specifying non-Markovian rewards and provide an elegant automata construction for building a Markovian model, which extends that of previous work and offers strong minimality and compositionality guarantees. △ Less Submitted 25 June, 2017; originally announced June 2017. arXiv:1509.08979 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.DB cs.LO Fixpoint Node Selection Query Languages for Trees Authors: Diego Calvanese , Giuseppe De Giacomo , Maurizio Lenzerini , Moshe Y. Vardi Abstract : The study of node selection query languages for (finite) trees has been a major topic in the recent research on query languages for Web documents. On one hand, there has been an extensive study of XPath and its various extensions. On the other hand, query languages based on classical logics, such as first-order logic (FO) or Monadic Second-Order Logic (MSO), have been considered. Results in this a… ▽ More The study of node selection query languages for (finite) trees has been a major topic in the recent research on query languages for Web documents. On one hand, there has been an extensive study of XPath and its various extensions. On the other hand, query languages based on classical logics, such as first-order logic (FO) or Monadic Second-Order Logic (MSO), have been considered. Results in this area typically relate an XPath-based language to a classical logic. What has yet to emerge is an XPath-related language that is as expressive as MSO, and at the same time enjoys the computational properties of XPath, which are linear time query evaluation and exponential time query-containment test. In this paper we propose muXPath, which is the alternation-free fragment of XPath extended with fixpoint operators. Using two-way alternating automata, we show that this language does combine desired expressiveness and computational properties, placing it as an attractive candidate for the definite node-selection query language for trees. △ Less Submitted 14 November, 2018; v1 submitted 29 September, 2015; originally announced September 2015. arXiv:1509.08979 [ pdf , ps , other ] Fixpoint Node Selection Query Languages for Trees Authors: Diego Calvanese , Giuseppe De Giacomo , Maurizio Lenzerini , Moshe Y. Vardi Abstract : The study of node selection query languages for (finite) trees has been a major topic in the recent research on query languages for Web documents. On one hand, there has been an extensive study of XPath and its various extensions. On the other hand, query languages based on classical logics, such as first-order logic (FO) or Monadic Second-Order Logic (MSO), have been considered. Results in this a… ▽ More The study of node selection query languages for (finite) trees has been a major topic in the recent research on query languages for Web documents. On one hand, there has been an extensive study of XPath and its various extensions. On the other hand, query languages based on classical logics, such as first-order logic (FO) or Monadic Second-Order Logic (MSO), have been considered. Results in this area typically relate an XPath-based language to a classical logic. What has yet to emerge is an XPath-related language that is as expressive as MSO, and at the same time enjoys the computational properties of XPath, which are linear time query evaluation and exponential time query-containment test. In this paper we propose muXPath, which is the alternation-free fragment of XPath extended with fixpoint operators. Using two-way alternating automata, we show that this language does combine desired expressiveness and computational properties, placing it as an attractive candidate for the definite node-selection query language for trees. △ Less Submitted 14 November, 2018; v1 submitted 29 September, 2015; originally announced September 2015. arXiv:1509.02012 [ pdf , other ] cs.AI Bounded Situation Calculus Action Theories Authors: Giuseppe De Giacomo , Yves Lespérance , Fabio Patrizi Abstract : In this paper, we investigate bounded action theories in the situation calculus. A bounded action theory is one which entails that, in every situation, the number of object tuples in the extension of fluents is bounded by a given constant, although such extensions are in general different across the infinitely many situations. We argue that such theories are common in applications, either because… ▽ More In this paper, we investigate bounded action theories in the situation calculus. A bounded action theory is one which entails that, in every situation, the number of object tuples in the extension of fluents is bounded by a given constant, although such extensions are in general different across the infinitely many situations. We argue that such theories are common in applications, either because facts do not persist indefinitely or because the agent eventually forgets some facts, as new ones are learnt. We discuss various classes of bounded action theories. Then we show that verification of a powerful first-order variant of the mu-calculus is decidable for such theories. Notably, this variant supports a controlled form of quantification across situations. We also show that through verification, we can actually check whether an arbitrary action theory maintains boundedness. △ Less Submitted 7 September, 2015; originally announced September 2015. Comments: 51 pages ACM Class: I.2.4 arXiv:1509.02012 [ pdf , other ] Bounded Situation Calculus Action Theories Authors: Giuseppe De Giacomo , Yves Lespérance , Fabio Patrizi Abstract : In this paper, we investigate bounded action theories in the situation calculus. A bounded action theory is one which entails that, in every situation, the number of object tuples in the extension of fluents is bounded by a given constant, although such extensions are in general different across the infinitely many situations. We argue that such theories are common in applications, either because… ▽ More In this paper, we investigate bounded action theories in the situation calculus. A bounded action theory is one which entails that, in every situation, the number of object tuples in the extension of fluents is bounded by a given constant, although such extensions are in general different across the infinitely many situations. We argue that such theories are common in applications, either because facts do not persist indefinitely or because the agent eventually forgets some facts, as new ones are learnt. We discuss various classes of bounded action theories. Then we show that verification of a powerful first-order variant of the mu-calculus is decidable for such theories. Notably, this variant supports a controlled form of quantification across situations. We also show that through verification, we can actually check whether an arbitrary action theory maintains boundedness. △ Less Submitted 7 September, 2015; originally announced September 2015. Comments: 51 pages ACM Class: I.2.4 arXiv:1405.0054 [ pdf , other ] cs.AI cs.SE LTLf and LDLf Monitoring: A Technical Report Authors: Giuseppe De Giacomo , Riccardo De Masellis , Marco Grasso , Fabrizio Maggi , Marco Montali Abstract : Runtime monitoring is one of the central tasks to provide operational decision support to running business processes, and check on-the-fly whether they comply with constraints and rules. We study runtime monitoring of properties expressed in LTL on finite traces (LTLf) and in its extension LDLf. LDLf is a powerful logic that captures all monadic second order logic on finite traces, which is obtain… ▽ More Runtime monitoring is one of the central tasks to provide operational decision support to running business processes, and check on-the-fly whether they comply with constraints and rules. We study runtime monitoring of properties expressed in LTL on finite traces (LTLf) and in its extension LDLf. LDLf is a powerful logic that captures all monadic second order logic on finite traces, which is obtained by combining regular expressions and LTLf, adopting the syntax of propositional dynamic logic (PDL). Interestingly, in spite of its greater expressivity, LDLf has exactly the same computational complexity of LTLf. We show that LDLf is able to capture, in the logic itself, not only the constraints to be monitored, but also the de-facto standard RV-LTL monitors. This makes it possible to declaratively capture monitoring metaconstraints, and check them by relying on usual logical services instead of ad-hoc algorithms. This, in turn, enables to flexibly monitor constraints depending on the monitoring state of other constraints, e.g., "compensation" constraints that are only checked when others are detected to be violated. In addition, we devise a direct translation of LDLf formulas into nondeterministic automata, avoiding to detour to Buechi automata or alternating automata, and we use it to implement a monitoring plug-in for the PROM suite. △ Less Submitted 30 April, 2014; originally announced May 2014. arXiv:1405.0054 [ pdf , other ] LTLf and LDLf Monitoring: A Technical Report Authors: Giuseppe De Giacomo , Riccardo De Masellis , Marco Grasso , Fabrizio Maggi , Marco Montali Abstract : Runtime monitoring is one of the central tasks to provide operational decision support to running business processes, and check on-the-fly whether they comply with constraints and rules. We study runtime monitoring of properties expressed in LTL on finite traces (LTLf) and in its extension LDLf. LDLf is a powerful logic that captures all monadic second order logic on finite traces, which is obtain… ▽ More Runtime monitoring is one of the central tasks to provide operational decision support to running business processes, and check on-the-fly whether they comply with constraints and rules. We study runtime monitoring of properties expressed in LTL on finite traces (LTLf) and in its extension LDLf. LDLf is a powerful logic that captures all monadic second order logic on finite traces, which is obtained by combining regular expressions and LTLf, adopting the syntax of propositional dynamic logic (PDL). Interestingly, in spite of its greater expressivity, LDLf has exactly the same computational complexity of LTLf. We show that LDLf is able to capture, in the logic itself, not only the constraints to be monitored, but also the de-facto standard RV-LTL monitors. This makes it possible to declaratively capture monitoring metaconstraints, and check them by relying on usual logical services instead of ad-hoc algorithms. This, in turn, enables to flexibly monitor constraints depending on the monitoring state of other constraints, e.g., "compensation" constraints that are only checked when others are detected to be violated. In addition, we devise a direct translation of LDLf formulas into nondeterministic automata, avoiding to detour to Buechi automata or alternating automata, and we use it to implement a monitoring plug-in for the PROM suite. △ Less Submitted 30 April, 2014; originally announced May 2014. arXiv:1402.0569 [ pdf ] cs.AI cs.LO doi 10.1613/jair.3826 Description Logic Knowledge and Action Bases Authors: Babak Bagheri Hariri , Diego Calvanese , Marco Montali , Giuseppe De Giacomo , Riccardo De Masellis , Paolo Felli Abstract : Description logic Knowledge and Action Bases (KAB) are a mechanism for providing both a semantically rich representation of the information on the domain of interest in terms of a description logic knowledge base and actions to change such information over time, possibly introducing new objects. We resort to a variant of DL-Lite where the unique name assumption is not enforced and where equality b… ▽ More Description logic Knowledge and Action Bases (KAB) are a mechanism for providing both a semantically rich representation of the information on the domain of interest in terms of a description logic knowledge base and actions to change such information over time, possibly introducing new objects. We resort to a variant of DL-Lite where the unique name assumption is not enforced and where equality between objects may be asserted and inferred. Actions are specified as sets of conditional effects, where conditions are based on epistemic queries over the knowledge base (TBox and ABox), and effects are expressed in terms of new ABoxes. In this setting, we address verification of temporal properties expressed in a variant of first-order mu-calculus with quantification across states. Notably, we show decidability of verification, under a suitable restriction inspired by the notion of weak acyclicity in data exchange. △ Less Submitted 3 February, 2014; originally announced February 2014. Journal ref: Journal Of Artificial Intelligence Research, Volume 46, pages 651-686, 2013 arXiv:1402.0569 [ pdf ] Description Logic Knowledge and Action Bases Authors: Babak Bagheri Hariri , Diego Calvanese , Marco Montali , Giuseppe De Giacomo , Riccardo De Masellis , Paolo Felli Abstract : Description logic Knowledge and Action Bases (KAB) are a mechanism for providing both a semantically rich representation of the information on the domain of interest in terms of a description logic knowledge base and actions to change such information over time, possibly introducing new objects. We resort to a variant of DL-Lite where the unique name assumption is not enforced and where equality b… ▽ More Description logic Knowledge and Action Bases (KAB) are a mechanism for providing both a semantically rich representation of the information on the domain of interest in terms of a description logic knowledge base and actions to change such information over time, possibly introducing new objects. We resort to a variant of DL-Lite where the unique name assumption is not enforced and where equality between objects may be asserted and inferred. Actions are specified as sets of conditional effects, where conditions are based on epistemic queries over the knowledge base (TBox and ABox), and effects are expressed in terms of new ABoxes. In this setting, we address verification of temporal properties expressed in a variant of first-order mu-calculus with quantification across states. Notably, we show decidability of verification, under a suitable restriction inspired by the notion of weak acyclicity in data exchange. △ Less Submitted 3 February, 2014; originally announced February 2014. Journal ref: Journal Of Artificial Intelligence Research, Volume 46, pages 651-686, 2013 arXiv:1203.0024 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.DB Verification of Relational Data-Centric Dynamic Systems with External Services Authors: Babak Bagheri Hariri , Diego Calvanese , Giuseppe De Giacomo , Alin Deutsch , Marco Montali Abstract : Data-centric dynamic systems are systems where both the process controlling the dynamics and the manipulation of data are equally central. In this paper we study verification of (first-order) mu-calculus variants over relational data-centric dynamic systems, where data are represented by a full-fledged relational database, and the process is described in terms of atomic actions that evolve the dat… ▽ More Data-centric dynamic systems are systems where both the process controlling the dynamics and the manipulation of data are equally central. In this paper we study verification of (first-order) mu-calculus variants over relational data-centric dynamic systems, where data are represented by a full-fledged relational database, and the process is described in terms of atomic actions that evolve the database. The execution of such actions may involve calls to external services, providing fresh data inserted into the system. As a result such systems are typically infinite-state. We show that verification is undecidable in general, and we isolate notable cases, where decidability is achieved. Specifically we start by considering service calls that return values deterministically (depending only on passed parameters). We show that in a mu-calculus variant that preserves knowledge of objects appeared along a run we get decidability under the assumption that the fresh data introduced along a run are bounded, though they might not be bounded in the overall system. In fact we tie such a result to a notion related to weak acyclicity studied in data exchange. Then, we move to nondeterministic services where the assumption of data bounded run would result in a bound on the service calls that can be invoked during the execution and hence would be too restrictive. So we investigate decidability under the assumption that knowledge of objects is preserved only if they are continuously present. We show that if infinitely many values occur in a run but do not accumulate in the same state, then we get again decidability. We give syntactic conditions to avoid this accumulation through the novel notion of "generate-recall acyclicity", which takes into consideration that every service call activation generates new values that cannot be accumulated indefinitely. △ Less Submitted 29 February, 2012; originally announced March 2012. arXiv:1203.0024 [ pdf , ps , other ] Verification of Relational Data-Centric Dynamic Systems with External Services Authors: Babak Bagheri Hariri , Diego Calvanese , Giuseppe De Giacomo , Alin Deutsch , Marco Montali Abstract : Data-centric dynamic systems are systems where both the process controlling the dynamics and the manipulation of data are equally central. In this paper we study verification of (first-order) mu-calculus variants over relational data-centric dynamic systems, where data are represented by a full-fledged relational database, and the process is described in terms of atomic actions that evolve the dat… ▽ More Data-centric dynamic systems are systems where both the process controlling the dynamics and the manipulation of data are equally central. In this paper we study verification of (first-order) mu-calculus variants over relational data-centric dynamic systems, where data are represented by a full-fledged relational database, and the process is described in terms of atomic actions that evolve the database. The execution of such actions may involve calls to external services, providing fresh data inserted into the system. As a result such systems are typically infinite-state. We show that verification is undecidable in general, and we isolate notable cases, where decidability is achieved. Specifically we start by considering service calls that return values deterministically (depending only on passed parameters). We show that in a mu-calculus variant that preserves knowledge of objects appeared along a run we get decidability under the assumption that the fresh data introduced along a run are bounded, though they might not be bounded in the overall system. In fact we tie such a result to a notion related to weak acyclicity studied in data exchange. Then, we move to nondeterministic services where the assumption of data bounded run would result in a bound on the service calls that can be invoked during the execution and hence would be too restrictive. So we investigate decidability under the assumption that knowledge of objects is preserved only if they are continuously present. We show that if infinitely many values occur in a run but do not accumulate in the same state, then we get again decidability. We give syntactic conditions to avoid this accumulation through the novel notion of "generate-recall acyclicity", which takes into consideration that every service call activation generates new values that cannot be accumulated indefinitely. △ Less Submitted 29 February, 2012; originally announced March 2012. arXiv:1003.1179 [ pdf , other ] cs.DB View Synthesis from Schema Mappings Authors: Diego Calvanese , Giuseppe De Giacomo , Maurizio Lenzerini , Moshe Y. Vardi Abstract : In data management, and in particular in data integration, data exchange, query optimization, and data privacy, the notion of view plays a central role. In several contexts, such as data integration, data mashups, and data warehousing, the need arises of designing views starting from a set of known correspondences between queries over different schemas. In this paper we deal with the issue of au… ▽ More In data management, and in particular in data integration, data exchange, query optimization, and data privacy, the notion of view plays a central role. In several contexts, such as data integration, data mashups, and data warehousing, the need arises of designing views starting from a set of known correspondences between queries over different schemas. In this paper we deal with the issue of automating such a design process. We call this novel problem "view synthesis from schema mappings": given a set of schema mappings, each relating a query over a source schema to a query over a target schema, automatically synthesize for each source a view over the target schema in such a way that for each mapping, the query over the source is a rewriting of the query over the target wrt the synthesized views. We study view synthesis from schema mappings both in the relational setting, where queries and views are (unions of) conjunctive queries, and in the semistructured data setting, where queries and views are (two-way) regular path queries, as well as unions of conjunctions thereof. We provide techniques and complexity upper bounds for each of these cases. △ Less Submitted 4 March, 2010; originally announced March 2010. arXiv:1003.1179 [ pdf , other ] View Synthesis from Schema Mappings Authors: Diego Calvanese , Giuseppe De Giacomo , Maurizio Lenzerini , Moshe Y. Vardi Abstract : In data management, and in particular in data integration, data exchange, query optimization, and data privacy, the notion of view plays a central role. In several contexts, such as data integration, data mashups, and data warehousing, the need arises of designing views starting from a set of known correspondences between queries over different schemas. In this paper we deal with the issue of au… ▽ More In data management, and in particular in data integration, data exchange, query optimization, and data privacy, the notion of view plays a central role. In several contexts, such as data integration, data mashups, and data warehousing, the need arises of designing views starting from a set of known correspondences between queries over different schemas. In this paper we deal with the issue of automating such a design process. We call this novel problem "view synthesis from schema mappings": given a set of schema mappings, each relating a query over a source schema to a query over a target schema, automatically synthesize for each source a view over the target schema in such a way that for each mapping, the query over the source is a rewriting of the query over the target wrt the synthesized views. We study view synthesis from schema mappings both in the relational setting, where queries and views are (unions of) conjunctive queries, and in the semistructured data setting, where queries and views are (two-way) regular path queries, as well as unions of conjunctions thereof. We provide techniques and complexity upper bounds for each of these cases. △ Less Submitted 4 March, 2010; originally announced March 2010. arXiv:cs/0507067 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.DB cs.AI Conjunctive Query Containment and Answering under Description Logics Constraints Authors: Diego Calvanese , Giuseppe De Giacomo , Maurizio Lenzerini Abstract : Query containment and query answering are two important computational tasks in databases. While query answering amounts to compute the result of a query over a database, query containment is the problem of checking whether for every database, the result of one query is a subset of the result of another query. In this paper, we deal with unions of conjunctive queries, and we address query conta… ▽ More Query containment and query answering are two important computational tasks in databases. While query answering amounts to compute the result of a query over a database, query containment is the problem of checking whether for every database, the result of one query is a subset of the result of another query. In this paper, we deal with unions of conjunctive queries, and we address query containment and query answering under Description Logic constraints. Every such constraint is essentially an inclusion dependencies between concepts and relations, and their expressive power is due to the possibility of using complex expressions, e.g., intersection and difference of relations, special forms of quantification, regular expressions over binary relations, in the specification of the dependencies. These types of constraints capture a great variety of data models, including the relational, the entity-relationship, and the object-oriented model, all extended with various forms of constraints, and also the basic features of the ontology languages used in the context of the Semantic Web. We present the following results on both query containment and query answering. We provide a method for query containment under Description Logic constraints, thus showing that the problem is decidable, and analyze its computational complexity. We prove that query containment is undecidable in the case where we allow inequalities in the right-hand side query, even for very simple constraints and queries. We show that query answering under Description Logic constraints can be reduced to query containment, and illustrate how such a reduction provides upper bound results with respect to both combined and data complexity. △ Less Submitted 28 July, 2005; originally announced July 2005. ACM Class: I.2.4; F.4.1 arXiv:cs/0507067 [ pdf , ps , other ] Conjunctive Query Containment and Answering under Description Logics Constraints Authors: Diego Calvanese , Giuseppe De Giacomo , Maurizio Lenzerini Abstract : Query containment and query answering are two important computational tasks in databases. While query answering amounts to compute the result of a query over a database, query containment is the problem of checking whether for every database, the result of one query is a subset of the result of another query. In this paper, we deal with unions of conjunctive queries, and we address query conta… ▽ More Query containment and query answering are two important computational tasks in databases. While query answering amounts to compute the result of a query over a database, query containment is the problem of checking whether for every database, the result of one query is a subset of the result of another query. In this paper, we deal with unions of conjunctive queries, and we address query containment and query answering under Description Logic constraints. Every such constraint is essentially an inclusion dependencies between concepts and relations, and their expressive power is due to the possibility of using complex expressions, e.g., intersection and difference of relations, special forms of quantification, regular expressions over binary relations, in the specification of the dependencies. These types of constraints capture a great variety of data models, including the relational, the entity-relationship, and the object-oriented model, all extended with various forms of constraints, and also the basic features of the ontology languages used in the context of the Semantic Web. We present the following results on both query containment and query answering. We provide a method for query containment under Description Logic constraints, thus showing that the problem is decidable, and analyze its computational complexity. We prove that query containment is undecidable in the case where we allow inequalities in the right-hand side query, even for very simple constraints and queries. We show that query answering under Description Logic constraints can be reduced to query containment, and illustrate how such a reduction provides upper bound results with respect to both combined and data complexity. △ Less Submitted 28 July, 2005; originally announced July 2005. ACM Class: I.2.4; F.4.1 About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack
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https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&query=De+Giacomo,+G
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early life and illness 2 Battle with schools 3 National spokesman 4 Death 5 Legacy Toggle Legacy subsection 5.1 Ryan White and public perception of AIDS 5.2 Ryan White CARE Act 5.1 Ryan White and public perception of AIDS 5.2 Ryan White CARE Act 6 See also 7 References 8 External links Ryan White العربية Azərbaycanca Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Kiswahili Magyar Македонски Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Polski Português Русский Simple English Српски / srpski Suomi ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Wikidata item Ryan White White in 1989 Born Ryan Wayne White ( 1971-12-06 ) December 6, 1971 Kokomo, Indiana , U.S. Died April 8, 1990 (1990-04-08) (aged 18) Indianapolis , Indiana, U.S. Cause of death AIDS -related pneumonia Resting place Cicero, Indiana Occupation Student Ryan Wayne White (December 6, 1971 – April 8, 1990) [ 1 ] was an American teenager from Kokomo, Indiana , who became a national poster child for HIV/AIDS in the United States after his school barred him from attending classes following a diagnosis of AIDS. As a hemophiliac , White became infected with HIV from a contaminated factor VIII blood treatment and, when diagnosed in December 1984, was given six months to live. Doctors said he posed no risk to other students, as AIDS is not an airborne disease and spreads solely through bodily fluids , but AIDS was poorly understood by the general public at the time. When White tried to return to school, irate parents and teachers in Howard County rallied against his attendance due to unwarranted concerns of the disease spreading to other students and staff. A lengthy administrative appeal process ensued, and news of the conflict turned White into a popular celebrity and advocate for AIDS research and public education . Surprising his doctors, White lived five years longer than predicted. He died on April 8, 1990, one month before his high school graduation . During the 1980s, AIDS was largely stigmatized as an illness impacting the gay community . In the U.S., that perception shifted with the media focus placed on White and other prominent heterosexual HIV-infected people such as Magic Johnson , Arthur Ashe and the Ray brothers , although these cases were often framed as "innocent"—a contrast to gay men who were seen as "guilty" subjects. The U.S. Congress passed a major piece of AIDS legislation, the Ryan White CARE Act , shortly after White's death, which was signed into law by President George H. W. Bush in August 1990 and reauthorized twice. Through the "Ryan White programs" which it funds, the Act has become the largest provider of services for people living with HIV/AIDS in the United States. Early life and illness Ryan White was born at St. Joseph Memorial Hospital in Kokomo, Indiana , to Hubert Wayne and Jeanne Elaine (née Hale) White. When he was circumcised , the bleeding would not stop; when he was three days old, doctors diagnosed him with severe hemophilia A , a hereditary blood coagulation disorder associated with the X chromosome , which causes even minor injuries to result in severe bleeding. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] For treatment, he received weekly infusions of factor VIII , a blood product created from pooled plasma of non-hemophiliacs, an increasingly common treatment for hemophiliacs at the time. [ 4 ] Healthy for most of his childhood, White became extremely ill with pneumonia in December 1984. On December 17, 1984, during a lung biopsy, White was diagnosed with AIDS . By this time, the scientific community had studied the epidemic in great detail. Earlier that year, HTLV-III was identified and isolated by American research scientists, confirming the work done by French research scientists who called it LAV. A lengthy public battle to determine who should be recognized as the discoverer of the human retrovirus delayed development of a test for what would later be called HIV. White had apparently received a contaminated treatment of factor VIII that was infected with HIV, as did thousands of other Americans with hemophilia and hemophiliacs around the world. At that time, because the virus had only recently been identified and there was no screening of blood products, much of the pooled factor VIII concentrate was tainted. Blood banks and pharmaceutical companies dismissed calls by the CDC to use a hepatitis B test as a surrogate until an HIV test could be developed. Later plasma products were screened and heat-treated to deactivate both HIV and hepatitis. Among hemophiliacs treated with blood-clotting factors between 1979 and 1984, nearly 90% became infected with HIV and/or hepatitis C . [ 4 ] At the time of his diagnosis, White's T-cell count had dropped to 25 per cubic millimeter (a healthy individual without HIV will have around 500–1,200; below 200 is AIDS-defining in the U.S.). [ 5 ] Doctors predicted Ryan White had only six months to live. [ 3 ] After the diagnosis, White was too ill to return to school, but, by early 1985, he began to feel better. His mother asked if he could return to school but was told by school officials that he could not. On June 30, 1985, a formal request to permit re-admittance to school was denied by Western School Corporation superintendent James O. Smith, sparking an administrative appeal process that lasted for over nine months. [ 6 ] Battle with schools June 30 Superintendent James O. Smith denies Ryan White admittance to school. [ 7 ] Aug 26 First day of school. White is allowed to listen to his classes via telephone. [ 8 ] Oct 2 School principal upholds decision to prohibit White. [ 9 ] Nov 25 Indiana Department of Education rules that White must be admitted. [ 10 ] Dec 17 The school board votes 7–0 to appeal the ruling. [ 11 ] Feb 6 Indiana DOE again rules White can attend school, after inspection by Howard County health officers. [ 12 ] Feb 13 Howard County health officer determines White is fit for school. [ 13 ] Feb 19 Howard County judge refuses to issue an injunction against White. [ 14 ] Feb 21 White returns to school. A different judge grants a restraining order that afternoon to again bar him. [ 15 ] Mar 2 White's opponents hold an auction in the school gymnasium to raise money to keep White out. [ 16 ] April 9 White's case is presented in Circuit Court. [ 17 ] April 10 Circuit Court Judge Jack R. O'Neill dissolves restraining order. White returns to school. [ 18 ] July 18 Indiana Court of Appeals declines to hear any further appeals. [ 19 ] Western Middle School in Russiaville faced enormous pressure from many parents and faculty to prevent White from returning to the campus after his diagnosis became widely known. In the school of 360 total students, 117 parents and 50 teachers signed a petition encouraging school leaders to ban White from school. Due to the widespread fear and ignorance of AIDS, the principal and later the school board succumbed to this pressure and prohibited re-admittance. The White family filed a lawsuit seeking to overturn the decision. The Whites initially filed suit in the U.S. District Court in Indianapolis . The court, however, declined to hear the case until administrative appeals had been resolved. [ 20 ] On November 25, an Indiana Department of Education officer ruled that the school must follow the Indiana Board of Health guidelines and that White must be allowed to attend school. [ 21 ] The means of transmission of HIV had not yet been fully understood by the mid- to late 1980s. Scientists knew it spread via blood and was not transmittable by any sort of casual contact (such as shaking hands or being in the same room), but as recently as 1983, the American Medical Association had thought that "Evidence Suggests Household Contact May Transmit AIDS", and the belief that the disease could easily spread persisted. [ 22 ] Children with AIDS were still rare; at the time of White's rejection from school, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention knew of only 148 cases of pediatric AIDS in the United States. [ 7 ] Many families in Kokomo believed his presence posed an unacceptable risk. [ 23 ] When White was permitted to return to school for one day in February 1986, 151 of 360 students stayed home. He also worked as a paperboy , and many of the people on his route canceled their subscriptions, believing that HIV could be transmitted through newsprint. [ 6 ] The Indiana state health commissioner, Dr. Woodrow Myers , who had extensive experience treating AIDS patients in San Francisco, and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention both notified the board that White posed no risk to other students, but the school board and many parents ignored their statements. [ 6 ] In February 1986, The New England Journal of Medicine published a study of 101 people who had spent three months living in close but non-sexual contact with people with AIDS. The study concluded that the risk of infection was "minimal to nonexistent," even when contact included sharing toothbrushes, razors, clothing, combs, and drinking glasses; sleeping in the same bed; and hugging and kissing. [ 24 ] When White was finally readmitted in April, a group of families withdrew their children and started an alternative school. [ 25 ] Threats of violence and lawsuits persisted. According to White's mother, people on the street would often yell, "we know you're queer" at White. [ 23 ] The editors and publishers of the Kokomo Tribune , which supported White both editorially and financially, were also ridiculed by members of the community and threatened with death for their actions. [ 23 ] White attended Western Middle School for eighth grade during the 1985–1986 school year. He was deeply unhappy and had few friends. The school required him to eat with disposable utensils, use separate bathrooms, and waived his requirement to enroll in a gym class. [ 26 ] Threats continued. When a bullet was fired through the Whites' living room window (no one was home at the time), the family decided to leave Kokomo. [ 3 ] After finishing the school year, his family moved to Cicero, Indiana , where he began ninth grade at Hamilton Heights High School , in Arcadia, Indiana . On August 31, 1986, a "very nervous" White was greeted by school principal Tony Cook, school system superintendent Bob G. Carnal, and a handful of students who had been educated about AIDS and were unafraid to shake White's hand. [ 27 ] National spokesman The publicity of White's story catapulted him into the national spotlight, amidst a growing wave of AIDS coverage in the news media. Between 1985 and 1987, the number of news stories about AIDS in the American media doubled. [ 28 ] While isolated in middle school, White appeared frequently on national television and in newspapers to discuss his tribulations with the disease. Eventually, he became known as a poster child for the AIDS crisis, appearing in fundraising and educational campaigns for the syndrome. White participated in numerous public benefits for children with AIDS. Many celebrities appeared with him, starting during his trial and continuing for the rest of his life, to help publicly destigmatize socializing with people with AIDS. Singers John Mellencamp , Elton John and Michael Jackson , actor Matt Frewer , diver Greg Louganis , President Ronald Reagan and First Lady Nancy Reagan , Surgeon General Dr. C. Everett Koop , Indiana University basketball coach Bob Knight and basketball player Kareem Abdul-Jabbar all befriended White. He also was a friend to many children with AIDS or other potentially debilitating conditions. [ 3 ] For the rest of his life, White appeared frequently on Phil Donahue 's talk show. His celebrity crush, Alyssa Milano of the then-popular TV show Who's the Boss? , met White and gave him a friendship bracelet and a kiss. [ 3 ] Elton John loaned Jeanne White $16,500 to put toward a down payment on the Cicero home, and, rather than accept repayment, placed the repaid money into a college fund for White's sister. [ 29 ] In high school, White drove a red 1988 Ford Mustang LX 5.0, a gift from Michael Jackson. [ 30 ] Despite the fame and donations, White stated that he disliked the public spotlight, loathed remarks that seemingly blamed his parents or his upbringing for his illness, and emphasized that he would be willing at any moment to trade his fame for freedom from the disease. [ 30 ] In 1988, White spoke before the President's Commission on the HIV Epidemic . White told the commission of the discrimination he had faced when he first tried to return to school, but how education about the disease had made him welcome in the town of Cicero. White emphasized his differing experiences in Kokomo and Cicero as an example of the power and importance of AIDS education. [ 26 ] In 1989, ABC aired the television movie The Ryan White Story , starring Lukas Haas as White, Judith Light as Jeanne and Nikki Cox as his sister Andrea. White had a small cameo appearance as "Chad" in the film, playing a boy who also has HIV and later befriends Haas. [ 31 ] Others in the film included Sarah Jessica Parker as a sympathetic nurse, George Dzundza as his doctor, and George C. Scott as White's attorney, who legally argued against school board authorities. [ 32 ] Nielsen estimated that the movie was seen by 15 million viewers. [ 33 ] Some residents of Kokomo felt that the movie was condemning of them for their actions against White. After the film aired, the office of Kokomo mayor Robert F. Sargent was flooded with complaints from across the country, although Sargent had not been mayor during the time of the controversy. [ 32 ] [ 33 ] By early 1990, White's health was deteriorating rapidly. In his final public appearance, he hosted an after- Oscars party with former president Ronald Reagan and his wife Nancy in California. [ 34 ] Despite his declining health, White spoke to the Reagans about his date to the prom and his hopes of attending college. [ 35 ] Death "We owe it to Ryan to make sure that the fear and ignorance that chased him from his home and his school will be eliminated. We owe it to Ryan to open our hearts and our minds to those with AIDS. We owe it to Ryan to be compassionate, caring, and tolerant toward those with AIDS, their families, and friends. It's the disease that's frightening, not the people who have it." "We owe it to Ryan to make sure that the fear and ignorance that chased him from his home and his school will be eliminated. We owe it to Ryan to open our hearts and our minds to those with AIDS. We owe it to Ryan to be compassionate, caring, and tolerant toward those with AIDS, their families, and friends. It's the disease that's frightening, not the people who have it." On March 29, 1990, White entered Riley Hospital for Children in Indianapolis with a respiratory tract infection . As his condition deteriorated, he was sedated and placed on a ventilator. Elton John paid him a visit and the hospital was deluged with calls from well-wishers. White died on April 8, 1990. [ 30 ] Over 1,500 people attended White's funeral on April 11, a standing-room only event held at the Second Presbyterian Church on Meridian Street in Indianapolis . [ 34 ] White's pallbearers included Elton John, football star Howie Long and Phil Donahue . Elton John performed " Skyline Pigeon " at the funeral. The funeral was also attended by singer Michael Jackson , and then-First Lady Barbara Bush . On the day of the funeral, Ronald Reagan wrote a tribute to White that appeared in The Washington Post . [ 34 ] [ 35 ] Reagan's statement about AIDS and White's funeral were seen as indicators of how greatly White had helped change perceptions of AIDS. [ 34 ] White is buried in Cicero, close to the former home of his mother. In the year following his death, his grave was vandalized on four occasions. [ 36 ] As time passed, White's grave became a shrine for his admirers. [ 37 ] Legacy White was one of a handful of highly visible people with AIDS in the 1980s and early 1990s who helped change the public perception of the disease. White, along with actor Rock Hudson , was one of the earliest public faces of AIDS. Other public figures who were infected with HIV included Keith Haring , Holly Johnson , Freddie Mercury , the Ray brothers , Magic Johnson , Greg Louganis , Arthur Ashe , Liberace , Eazy-E , Tim Richmond , Anthony Perkins , Randy Shilts , Ricky Wilson , Robert Reed , and Jerry Smith . White helped to increase public awareness that HIV/AIDS was a significant epidemic. [ 28 ] Numerous charities formed around White's death. The Indiana University Dance Marathon , started in 1991, raises money for the Riley Hospital for Children. Between 1991 and 2022, this event helped raise over $50 million for children at Riley. [ 38 ] The money raised has also helped fund the Ryan White Infectious Disease Clinic at the hospital to take care of the nation's sickest children. White's personal physician, with whom he was close friends, Dr. Martin Kleiman, became the Ryan White Professor of Pediatrics at Indiana University School of Medicine in Indianapolis. In a 1993 interview, prominent gay rights and AIDS activist Larry Kramer said, "I think little Ryan White probably did more to change the face of this illness and to move people than anyone. And he continues to be a presence through his mom, Jeanne White. She has an incredibly moving presence as she speaks around the world." [ 39 ] In 1992, White's mother founded the national nonprofit Ryan White Foundation. The foundation worked to increase awareness of HIV/AIDS-related issues, with a focus on hemophiliacs like White, and on families caring for relatives with the disease. [ 40 ] The foundation was active throughout the 1990s, with donations reaching $300,000 a year in 1997. Between 1997 and 2000, however, AIDS donations declined nationwide by 21%, and the Ryan White Foundation saw its donation level drop to $100,000 a year. In 2000, White's mother closed the foundation, and merged its remaining assets with AIDS Action, a larger charity. She became a spokeswoman for AIDS activism and continued to arrange speaking events through the site devoted to her son, ryanwhite.com (no longer online as of October 2020). [ 41 ] White's high school, Hamilton Heights, has had a student–government-sponsored annual AIDS Walk, with proceeds going to a Ryan White Scholarship Fund. [ 42 ] Elton John has cited White's death as the major impetus behind his decision to fight his long-standing alcohol and cocaine addiction; he went into rehab shortly afterwards and later created the Elton John AIDS Foundation . [ 43 ] White also became the inspiration for a handful of popular songs. Elton John donated proceeds from " The Last Song ," which appears on his album The One , to a Ryan White fund at Riley Hospital. [ 44 ] Michael Jackson dedicated the song " Gone Too Soon " from his Dangerous album to White, [ 45 ] as did 1980s pop star Tiffany with the song " Here in My Heart " on her New Inside album. [ 46 ] In November 2007, The Children's Museum of Indianapolis opened an exhibit called " The Power of Children: Making a Difference ," which features White's bedroom and belongings alongside similar tributes to Anne Frank and Ruby Bridges . [ 47 ] After White died, Greg Louganis gave his Olympic gold medal to White's mother, and it is now part of the display about White at the Children's Museum. In April 2015, Louganis visited The Power of Children exhibit with Jeanne to see his medal in White's recreated room. He said then, "The thing I’ll always remember about Ryan is his courage, strength, and sense of humor...The way Ryan lived his life continues to give me the strength and courage to do things I might not otherwise feel comfortable doing." [ 48 ] Ryan White and public perception of AIDS In the early 1980s, AIDS was known as gay-related immune deficiency , because the disease had first been identified among primarily homosexual communities in Los Angeles, New York City, and San Francisco. At the start of the HIV/AIDS epidemic in the United States , the disease was thought to be a "homosexual problem" and was largely ignored by policymakers. [ 22 ] White's diagnosis demonstrated to many that AIDS was not exclusive to homosexual men. Lesser criticisms had been made that the disease was a punishment for drug abuse and heterosexual promiscuity, citing "an expensive price to pay for drugs and casual sex". In his advocacy for AIDS research, White, not gay himself, always rejected any criticism of homosexuality. White was seen by some as an "innocent victim" of the AIDS epidemic. [ 40 ] White and his family strongly rejected the language of "innocent victim" because the phrase was often used to imply that gays with AIDS were "guilty". His mother told The New York Times , .mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}} Ryan always said, "I'm just like everyone else with AIDS, no matter how I got it." And he would never have lived as long as he did without the gay community. The people we knew in New York made sure we knew about the latest treatments way before we would have known in Indiana. I hear mothers today say they're not gonna work with no gay community on anything. Well, if it comes to your son's life, you better start changing your heart and your attitude around. [ 40 ] Ryan always said, "I'm just like everyone else with AIDS, no matter how I got it." And he would never have lived as long as he did without the gay community. The people we knew in New York made sure we knew about the latest treatments way before we would have known in Indiana. I hear mothers today say they're not gonna work with no gay community on anything. Well, if it comes to your son's life, you better start changing your heart and your attitude around. [ 40 ] Ryan White CARE Act In August 1990, four months after White's death, Congress enacted The Ryan White Comprehensive AIDS Resources Emergency (CARE) Act (often known simply as the Ryan White CARE Act), in his honor. The act is the United States' largest federally funded program for people living with HIV/AIDS. The Ryan White CARE Act funds several different programs to improve availability of care for low-income, uninsured and underinsured victims of AIDS and their families. [ 49 ] Ryan White programs are "payers of last resort," which subsidize treatment when no other resources are available. The Act provided some level of care for around 500,000 people a year and, in 2004, provided funds to 2,567 organizations. Ryan White programs also provide funding and technical assistance to local and state primary medical care providers, support services, healthcare providers and training programs. [ 49 ] [ 50 ] The act was reauthorized in 1996, 2000, 2006, and 2009. Since the Affordable Care Act of 2010 prohibited discrimination on the basis of health status and expanded access to insurance coverage, some experts debated the need for programs like the Ryan White Act. [ 51 ] The Ryan White CARE Act expired in 2013, but individual programs continue to receive congressional funding. [ 51 ] In 2024, over half of the people diagnosed with HIV in the United States (more than 550,000) were provided care and treatment from the funded programs, and 57,000 health care professionals treating people with HIV received education and training. [ 52 ] See also Biography portal Viruses portal Indiana portal Eve van Grafhorst – an Australian preschooler who received HIV via a blood transfusion and was subsequently banned from her preschool in fears of spreading the illness References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "A Timeline of Key Events in Ryan's Life" . 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"AIDS Victim Begins School By Phone". Associated Press . ^ "Official Recommends AIDS Victim Stay Home for School". Associated Press. October 2, 1985. ^ Perlman, Lisa (November 25, 1985). "Rule Teen-ager Can Attend Classes". Associated Press. ^ Perlman, Lisa (December 18, 1985). "School Board Votes to Appeal Decision Allowing AIDS Victim in Classes". Associated Press. ^ Strauss, John (February 6, 1986). "Boy Can Return To School If Health Officer Approves, Board Says". Associated Press. ^ Perlman, Lisa (February 13, 1986). "Health Officer Says AIDS Victim Ryan White Can Return To School". Associated Press. ^ "Judge Denies Motion To Bar Indiana AIDS Victim From Classes". Associated Press. February 19, 1986. ^ Strauss, John (February 21, 1986). "AIDS Schoolboy Back in Classroom But Judge Rules Against Him". Associated Press. ^ "Opposition Group Raises Needed Funds For Bond". Associated Press. March 3, 1986. ^ Strauss, John (April 9, 1986). "Judge Delays Ruling In Ryan White Case". Associated Press. ^ Kusmer, Ken (April 10, 1986). "Teen-Age AIDS Victim Returns To School after Lengthy Court Battle". Associated Press. ^ Huddleston, Susan (July 18, 1986). "Parents Drop Effort to Keep AIDS Victim Out of School". Associated Press. ^ "Chronology of Ryan White's Fight to Attend School". United Press International. November 25, 1985. ^ "Ruling sends AIDS victim back to class". The Eugene Register-Guard . November 26, 1985. ^ a b Shilts, Randy (1987). And the Band Played On: Politics, People, and the AIDS Epidemic . St. Martin's Press . ISBN 978-0-312-00994-6 . ^ a b c Cohen, Sharon (April 28, 1986). " 'City Of Firsts' Struggles with Division over AIDS in School". Associated Press. ^ Friedland GH, Saltzman BR, Rogers MF, Kahl PA, Lesser ML, Mayers MM, Klein RS (February 6, 1986). "Lack of Transmission of HTLV-III/LAV Infection to Household Contacts of Patients with AIDS or AIDS-Related Complex with Oral Candidiasis". New England Journal of Medicine . 314 (6): 344– 349. doi : 10.1056/NEJM198602063140604 . PMID 3456076 . ^ "Alternative School Opens in AIDS Scare". The Washington Post . April 23, 1986. ^ a b Franklin, Tim (March 3, 1988). "Teen's Story of AIDS Prejudice Wins Hearts". The Chicago Tribune . ^ Richardson, Fran (August 31, 1986). "AIDS Schoolboy Says First Day At New School Went 'Great' ". Associated Press. ^ a b Brodie, Mollyann; et al. (2004). AIDS at 21: Media Coverage of the HIV Epidemic 1981–2002 (PDF) . Kaiser Family Foundation . Archived from the original (PDF) on March 26, 2009. Retrieved on September 9, 2007. ^ Cohen, Charles E. (April 8, 1991). "A Year After Ryan White's Death, His Mother, Jeanne, Picks Up the Pieces and Carries on His Fight" . People . Archived from the original on November 13, 2009 . Retrieved June 14, 2010 . ^ a b c Johnson, Dirk (April 9, 1990). "Ryan White Dies of AIDS at 18; His Struggle Helped Pierce Myths" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on April 12, 2010 . Retrieved June 14, 2010 . ^ White, Ryan (1992). Ryan White My Own Story . Penguin Publishing. ISBN 978-0451173225 . ^ a b O'Connor, John J (January 16, 1989). "Review/Television; AIDS and Hemophilia" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on June 16, 2013 . Retrieved June 14, 2010 . ^ a b "Kokomo Mayor Swamped With Angry Calls Following Ryan White TV Movie" . Associated Press . January 18, 1989. Archived from the original on October 17, 2021 . Retrieved January 16, 2023 . ^ a b c d "1,500 Say Goodbye to AIDS Victim Ryan White" . Associated Press . April 11, 1990. Archived from the original on April 7, 2023 . Retrieved January 16, 2023 . ^ a b c Reagan, Ronald (April 11, 1990). "We Owe It to Ryan" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on December 8, 2021 . Retrieved December 15, 2023 . ^ "Indiana: Ryan White's Grave Vandalized Again" . July 9, 1991. Archived from the original on October 26, 2016 . Retrieved October 25, 2016 – via Los Angeles Times. ^ "Ryan White Admirers Leave Notes, Mementos at his Grave". Associated Press . December 10, 1992. ^ "IU Dance Marathon Raises Record $2.6 Million for Riley Hospital for Children." Archived November 12, 2016, at the Wayback Machine IU Newsroom. Indiana University. November 18, 2013. Web. Retrieved May 20, 2014. ^ Nimmons, David (September 1993). "Larry Kramer; AIDS activist; Interview". Playboy . ^ a b c Witchel, Alex (September 24, 1992). "At Home With Jeanne White-Ginder; A Son's AIDS, and a Legacy" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on December 15, 2023 . Retrieved December 15, 2023 . . Retrieved on January 30, 2008. ^ Schindehette, Susan; Breu, Giovanna (May 15, 2000). "Ten years after her son's death, Jeanne White shuts down his foundation but carries on the fight against AIDS". People . ^ "Hamilton Heights student government sponsors AIDS Walk" . Noblesville Daily Times . Archived from the original on August 5, 2016 . Retrieved May 18, 2008 . ^ "Elton John Opens Up About How Ryan White's Funeral Served as a 'Catalyst' for Him to Get Sober" . Peoplemag . Retrieved September 11, 2022 . ^ Newman, Melinda (October 17, 1992). "Elton John Assisting AIDS Research; Donating Future Singles Sales Royalties". Billboard . ^ Harrington, Richard (November 24, 1991). "Jackson's 'Dangerous' Departures; Stylistic Shifts Mar His First Album in 4 Years". The Washington Post . ^ von Metzke, Ron (July 9, 2007). "Ten Minutes with Tiffany" . Gay Wired . Archived from the original on February 8, 2009 . Retrieved January 27, 2008 . ^ "The Power of Children" . The Children's Museum of Indianapolis . Archived from the original on May 13, 2008 . Retrieved April 8, 2008 . ^ "Ryan's Fans | the Ryan White Letters Transcription Project" . Archived from the original on November 3, 2022 . Retrieved November 3, 2022 . ^ a b "The Ryan White HIV/AIDS Program" . Health Resources and Services Administration , HHS . Archived from the original on November 27, 2001 . Retrieved September 11, 2007 . ^ Taylor, Jessamy (August 22, 2005). Caring for "Ryan White": The Fundamentals of HIV/AIDS Treatment Policy (PDF) . The George Washington University . Archived from the original (PDF) on March 8, 2021 . Retrieved February 20, 2015 . Retrieved on September 9, 2007. ^ a b Weiss, Gretchen (August 21, 2015). "NACCHO Commemorates the 25th Anniversary of the Ryan White CARE Act" . National Association of County and City Health Officials. ^ "Ryan White HIV/AIDS Program" . Health Resources & Services Administration, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Archived from the original on November 1, 2022 . Retrieved April 9, 2024 . External links Media from Commons Texts from Wikisource Data from Wikidata Ryan White Photos and essay by photographer Taro Yamasaki, who documented White's life Ryan White Letters digital collection from The Children's Museum of Indianapolis , hosted by Indiana University Indianapolis University Library Ryan White at Find a Grave .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e NAACP Image Award – President's Award v t e 1980s Ella Fitzgerald (1986) Rev. Jesse Jackson (1987) Jheryl Busby (1988) Antoinette Stroman & Ryan White (1989) Ella Fitzgerald (1986) Rev. Jesse Jackson (1987) Jheryl Busby (1988) Antoinette Stroman & Ryan White (1989) 1990s Kent Amos & Carmen Amos (1995) Bryant Gumbel (1996) Alexis Herman (1997) Lauryn Hill (1998) Tavis Smiley & Tom Joyner (1999) Kent Amos & Carmen Amos (1995) Bryant Gumbel (1996) Alexis Herman (1997) Lauryn Hill (1998) Tavis Smiley & Tom Joyner (1999) 2000s Bill Clinton (2000) Condoleezza Rice (2001) Venus & Serena Williams (2002) T. D. Jakes (2003) Susan L. Taylor (2005) Soledad O'Brien (2006) Ruby Dee (2007) Muhammad Ali (2008) Van Jones (2009) Bill Clinton (2000) Condoleezza Rice (2001) Venus & Serena Williams (2002) T. D. Jakes (2003) Susan L. 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Huvudsida Introduktion Deltagarportalen Bybrunnen Senaste ändringarna Slumpartikel Ladda upp filer Kontakta Wikipedia Hjälp Specialsidor Stöd Wikipedia Skapa konto Logga in Stöd Wikipedia Skapa konto Logga in Portal : Huvudsida Huvudsida Diskussion Läs Visa källa Visa historik Läs Visa källa Visa historik Sidor som länkar hit Relaterade ändringar Permanent länk Sidinformation Hämta förkortad url Ladda ner QR-kod Skapa en bok Ladda ned som PDF Utskriftsvänlig version Commons Wikimedia Foundation MediaWiki Meta-wiki Wikimedia Outreach Flerspråkiga Wikisource Wikispecies Wikibooks Wikidata Wikifunctions Wikimania Wikinews Wikiquote Wikisource Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wiktionary Wikidata-objekt Välkommen till Wikipedia – den fria encyklopedin som alla kan redigera . I dag är det fredag den 16 januari 2026 (vecka 3). Just nu finns det 2 621 879 artiklar på svenska . Anfallet mot Nya Älvsborg var en kortvarig dansk-norsk belägring av den svenska fästningen Nya Älvsborg i Göteborgs hamninlopp. Den ägde rum under några sommardagar år 1719, i slutet av Stora nordiska kriget . Under våren 1719 utförde danska flottstyrkor en blockad av Göteborgs hamninlopp. Som en del av ett större dansk-norskt anfall mot Bohuslän anfölls först Karlsten i Marstrand, och därefter fästningen Nya Älvsborg vid Göteborg av danska fartyg i juli 1719. Under fyra dagar utkämpades artilleristrider mellan fästningen, danska fartyg och mörsarbatterier. Efter att ha placerat svenskt artilleri på södra stranden av Hisingen kunde anfallet slås tillbaka genom att de danska styrkorna nordväst om fästningen tvingades att utrymma sina ställningar. Det beslutsamma försvaret av Nya Älvsborg verkade moralhöjande på civilbefolkningen under slutet av kriget. ► Läs mer Senast visade utmärkta artiklar: Termodynamik – Goulburn Roundhouse – Stockholms regeringskvarter ... Camp Century ( se bild ) installerades inuti Grönlandsisen , komplett med toalettproblem och ett litet kärnkraftverk ? ... Hirsi Ige gjorde karriär genom att låta sig beskådas på "människoutställningar" i olika europeiska länder? ... Clara Ingram Judson 13 år efter sin debutbok blev en av de första kvinnliga programledarna i radio? ... flytten av det medeltida Kalmar påskyndades av stadsbranden 1647 ? ... Linacre College i Oxford var det första college som antog män och kvinnor på lika villkor? Länk till äldre artikelpuffar 16 januari Namnsdag: Hjalmar , Helmer (Sverige) • Gudmund , Germund (finlandssvenska) Denna dag i historien: 1547 – Den 16-årige Ivan IV "den förskräcklige" kröns till Rysslands tsar . 1909 – Ernest Shackletons expedition finner den magnetiska sydpolen . 1920 – Förbudstiden i USA inleds då förbudet mot försäljning av alkoholdrycker träder i kraft ( se bild ). Förbudet upphävs först 1933 . 1936 – Barnhjälpsstiftelsen Solstickan lanserar sina tändsticksaskar med en berömd barnbild skapad av Einar Nerman . 1992 – Militären och de styrande i Algeriet ställer in andra omgången av de val som islamistiska Front islamique du salut (FIS) håller på att vinna och organisationen förbjuds. Det leder till ett efterföljande inbördeskrig . 2001 – Kongo-Kinshasas president Laurent-Désiré Kabila skjuts vid ett attentat och avlider två dagar senare . Gribbkarakara ( Caracara plancus ) er ein rovfugl i falkefamilien, Falconidae. Han lever frå det sørlege og søraustlege USA (Texas, Arizona og Florida) gjennom Mexico, der han finst i alle delstatar, og i store delar av Sentral- og Sør-Amerika, og dessutan på Cuba. Han er generelt ikkje i regnskogen i Amazonas har fråvære frå det indre av Peru og indre Nord-Chile. Dette er ein rovfugl som ofte er sett på bakken der han søkjer opportunistisk etter mat. Han lever hovudsakleg av kadaver av daude dyr. Han stel mat frå andre rovfuglar, åtakar fuglereir og krypdyr, og tar levande byttedyr viss moglegheita byr seg, for det meste insekt eller små pattedyr, småfuglar, amfibium, krypdyr, fisk, krabbar, andre skaldyr, flugelarver og makk. Han kan også ete frukt. Les meir … Vill du förbättra Wikipedia? Behöver du hjälp? Vill du ha idéer om vad du kan göra? Så här är Wikipedia uppbyggt. Landsomfattande protester i Iran blossar upp där demonstranter kräver regimskifte och Reza Pahlavis återkomst (se bild) . ( 6 januari ) Sveriges herrjuniorlandslag i ishockey vinner världsmästerskapet över Tjeckien . ( 6 januari ) USA genomför flyganfall mot flera platser i Venezuela och tillfångatar landets president Nicolás Maduro . ( 3 januari ) En brand bryter ut på en bar under nyårsfirandet i skidorten Crans-Montana i Schweiz , där minst 40 personer omkommer. ( 1 januari ) Bulgarien blir en del av euroområdet när landet byter sin nationella valuta från lev till euro . 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Help | Advanced Search quick links Login Help Pages About Computer Science > Artificial Intelligence Title: MMPG: MoE-based Adaptive Multi-Perspective Graph Fusion for Protein Representation Learning Abstract: Graph Neural Networks (GNNs) have been widely adopted for Protein Representation Learning (PRL), as residue interaction networks can be naturally represented as graphs. Current GNN-based PRL methods typically rely on single-perspective graph construction strategies, which capture partial properties of residue interactions, resulting in incomplete protein representations. To address this limitation, we propose MMPG, a framework that constructs protein graphs from multiple perspectives and adaptively fuses them via Mixture of Experts (MoE) for PRL. MMPG constructs graphs from physical, chemical, and geometric perspectives to characterize different properties of residue interactions. To capture both perspective-specific features and their synergies, we develop an MoE module, which dynamically routes perspectives to specialized experts, where experts learn intrinsic features and cross-perspective interactions. We quantitatively verify that MoE automatically specializes experts in modeling distinct levels of interaction from individual representations, to pairwise inter-perspective synergies, and ultimately to a global consensus across all perspectives. Through integrating this multi-level information, MMPG produces superior protein representations and achieves advanced performance on four different downstream protein tasks. Subjects: Artificial Intelligence (cs.AI) Cite as: arXiv:2601.10157 [cs.AI] (or arXiv:2601.10157v1 [cs.AI] for this version) Focus to learn more arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite Submission history Access Paper: View PDF HTML (experimental) TeX Source References & Citations NASA ADS Google Scholar Semantic Scholar BibTeX formatted citation Bookmark Bibliographic and Citation Tools Code, Data and Media Associated with this Article Demos Recommenders and Search Tools Author Venue Institution Topic arXivLabs: experimental projects with community collaborators arXivLabs is a framework that allows collaborators to develop and share new arXiv features directly on our website. Both individuals and organizations that work with arXivLabs have embraced and accepted our values of openness, community, excellence, and user data privacy. arXiv is committed to these values and only works with partners that adhere to them. Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? Learn more about arXivLabs . About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status arXiv Operational Status
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Definitions 2 Evolutionary history 3 Ecology Toggle Ecology subsection 3.1 Biodiversity 3.2 Vegetation 3.3 Fauna 3.1 Biodiversity 3.2 Vegetation 3.3 Fauna 4 Ecosystem services Toggle Ecosystem services subsection 4.1 Carbon sequestration 4.2 Other ecosystem services 4.1 Carbon sequestration 4.2 Other ecosystem services 5 Degradation Toggle Degradation subsection 5.1 Causes 5.1.1 Land use intensification 5.1.2 Climate change 5.1.3 Afforestation or introduction of invasive species 5.1.4 Management 5.2 Types of degradation 5.2.1 Land cover change 5.1 Causes 5.1.1 Land use intensification 5.1.2 Climate change 5.1.3 Afforestation or introduction of invasive species 5.1.4 Management 5.1.1 Land use intensification 5.1.2 Climate change 5.1.3 Afforestation or introduction of invasive species 5.1.4 Management 5.2 Types of degradation 5.2.1 Land cover change 5.2.1 Land cover change 6 Conservation and restoration 7 Types of grasslands Toggle Types of grasslands subsection 7.1 Classifications of grassland 7.2 General grasslands types 7.2.1 Tropical and subtropical 7.2.2 Temperate 7.2.3 Flooded 7.2.4 Montane 7.2.5 Tundra grasslands 7.2.6 Desert and xeric 7.1 Classifications of grassland 7.2 General grasslands types 7.2.1 Tropical and subtropical 7.2.2 Temperate 7.2.3 Flooded 7.2.4 Montane 7.2.5 Tundra grasslands 7.2.6 Desert and xeric 7.2.1 Tropical and subtropical 7.2.2 Temperate 7.2.3 Flooded 7.2.4 Montane 7.2.5 Tundra grasslands 7.2.6 Desert and xeric 8 Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands ecoregions 9 Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands ecoregions 10 See also 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External links Grassland Afrikaans العربية Asturianu বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Català Cebuano Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Magyar മലയാളം ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Polski Português Runa Simi Русский සිංහල Simple English Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska தமிழ் Taqbaylit ไทย Türkçe Українська Vahcuengh Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 粵語 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item A grassland is an area (or ecosystem) where the vegetation is dominated by grasses . However, sedges and rushes can also be found along with variable proportions of legumes such as clover , and other herbs . Grasslands occur naturally on all continents except Antarctica and are found in most ecoregions of the Earth . Furthermore, grasslands are one of the largest biomes on Earth and dominate the landscape worldwide. [ 1 ] There are different types of grasslands: natural grasslands, semi-natural grasslands, [ 2 ] and agricultural grasslands. [ 1 ] They cover 31–69% of the Earth's land area. [ 3 ] [ 4 ] Definitions Included among the variety of definitions for grasslands are: "...any plant community, including harvested forages, in which grasses and/or legumes make up the dominant vegetation." [ 1 ] "...terrestrial ecosystems dominated by herbaceous and shrub vegetation, and maintained by fire, grazing, drought and/or freezing temperatures." (Pilot Assessment of Global Ecosystems, 2000) [ 1 ] "A region with sufficient average annual precipitation (25-75 cm) to support grass..." (Stiling, 1999) [ 1 ] Semi-natural grasslands are a very common subcategory of the grasslands biome. [ 5 ] These can be defined as: Grassland existing as a result of human activity (mowing or livestock grazing), where environmental conditions and the species pool are maintained by natural processes. [ 6 ] They can also be described as the following: "Semi-natural grasslands are one of the world's most biodiverse habitats on a small spatial scales." [ 7 ] "Semi-natural grasslands belong to the most species rich ecosystems in the world." [ 8 ] "...have been formed over the course of centuries through extensive grazing and mowing." [ 7 ] "...without the use of pesticides or fertilisers in modern times." [ 9 ] There are many different types of semi-natural grasslands, e.g. hay meadows . [ 9 ] Evolutionary history The graminoids are among the most versatile life forms . They became widespread toward the end of the Cretaceous period, and coprolites of fossilized dinosaur feces have been found containing phytoliths of a variety of grasses that include grasses that are related to modern rice and bamboo . The appearance of mountains in the western United States during the Miocene and Pliocene epochs, a period of some 25 million years, created a continental climate favourable to the evolution of grasslands. [ 10 ] Around 5 million years ago during the Late Miocene in the New World and the Pliocene in the Old World, the first true grasslands occurred. Existing forest biomes declined, and grasslands became much more widespread. It is known that grasslands have existed in Europe throughout the Pleistocene (the last 1.8 million years). [ 9 ] Following the Pleistocene ice ages (with their glacials and interglacials ), grasslands expanded in the hotter, drier climates, and began to become the dominant land feature worldwide. [ 10 ] Since the grasslands have existed for over 1.8 million years, there is high variability. For example steppe-tundra dominated in Northern and Central Europe whereas a higher amount of xerothermic grasslands occurred in the Mediterranean area. [ 9 ] Within temperate Europe, the range of types is quite wide and also became unique due to the exchange of species and genetic material between different biomes. The semi-natural grasslands first appeared when humans started farming. So for the use of agriculture, forests got cleared in Europe. Ancient meadows and pastures were the parts that were suitable for cultivation. The semi-natural grasslands were formed from these areas. [ 9 ] However, there's also evidence for the local persistence of natural grasslands in Europe, originally maintained by wild herbivores, throughout the pre-Neolithic Holocene. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] The removal of the plants by the grazing animals and later the mowing farmers led to co-existence of other plant species around. In the following, the biodiversity of the plants evolve. Also, the species that already lived there adapted to the new conditions. [ 9 ] Most of the grassland areas have been turned to arable fields and disappeared again. The grasslands permanently became arable cropping fields due to the steady decrease in organic matter. [ 13 ] Nowadays, semi-natural grasslands are rather located in areas that are unsuitable for agricultural farming. [ 9 ] Ecology Biodiversity Grasslands dominated by unsown wild-plant communities ("unimproved grasslands") can be called either natural or "semi-natural" habitat. Although their plant communities are natural, their maintenance depends upon anthropogenic activities such as grazing and cutting regimes. The semi-natural grasslands contain many species of wild plants, including grasses, sedges, rushes, and herbs; 25 plant-species per 100 square centimeters can be found. [ 9 ] A European record that was found on a meadow in Estonia described 76 species of plants in one square meter. [ 9 ] Chalk downlands in England can support over 40 species per square meter. In many parts of the world, few examples have escaped agricultural improvement (fertilizing, weed killing, plowing, or re-seeding). For example, original North American prairie grasslands or lowland wildflower meadows in the UK are now rare and their associated wild flora equally threatened. Associated with the wild-plant diversity of the "unimproved" grasslands is usually a rich invertebrate fauna; there are also many species of birds that are grassland "specialists", such as the snipe and the little bustard . [ 14 ] Owing to semi-natural grasslands being referred to as one of the most-species rich ecosystems in the world and essential habitat for many specialists, also including pollinators, [ 8 ] there are many approaches to conservation activities lately. Agriculturally improved grasslands, which dominate modern intensive agricultural landscapes, are usually poor in wild plant species due to the original diversity of plants having been destroyed by cultivation and by the use of fertilizers. Almost 90% of the European semi-natural grasslands do not exist anymore due to political and economic reasons. This loss took place during the 20th century. [ 7 ] The ones in Western and Central Europe have almost disappeared completely. There are a few left in Northern Europe. [ 7 ] Unfortunately, a large amount of red-listed species are specialists of semi-natural grasslands and are affected by the landscape change due to agriculture of the last century. [ 15 ] The original wild-plant communities having been replaced by sown monocultures of cultivated varieties of grasses and clovers, such as perennial ryegrass and white clover . In many parts of the world, "unimproved" grasslands are one of the most threatened types of habitat, and a target for acquisition by wildlife conservation groups or for special grants to landowners who are encouraged to manage them appropriately. Vegetation Grassland vegetation can vary considerably depending on the grassland type and on how strong it is affected by human impact. Dominant trees for the semi-natural grassland are Quercus robur , Betula pendula , Corylus avellana , Crataegus and many kinds of herbs. [ 16 ] In chalk grassland , the plants can vary from very tall to very short. Quite tall grasses can be found in North American tallgrass prairie , South American grasslands, and African savanna . Woody plants, shrubs or trees may occur on some grasslands—forming savannas, scrubby grassland or semi-wooded grassland, such as the African savannas or the dehesa and montado , in Spain and Portugal respectively. [ 17 ] As flowering plants and trees, grasses grow in great concentrations in climates where annual rainfall ranges between 500 and 900 mm (20 and 35 in). [ 18 ] The root systems of perennial grasses and forbs form complex mats that hold the soil in place. Fauna Grasslands support the greatest aggregations of large animals on Earth, including jaguars, African wild dogs, pronghorn , black-footed ferret , plains bison , mountain plover , African elephant, Sunda tiger, black rhino, white rhino, savanna elephant, greater one-horned rhino, Indian elephant and swift fox . Grazing animals, herd animals, and predators in grasslands, like lions and cheetahs live in the grasslands of the African savanna. [ 19 ] Mites , insect larvae , nematodes , and earthworms inhabit deep soil, which can reach 6 metres (20 feet) underground in undisturbed grasslands on the richest soils of the world. These invertebrates, along with symbiotic fungi , extend the root systems, break apart hard soil, enrich it with urea and other natural fertilizers, trap minerals and water and promote growth. Some types of fungi make the plants more resistant to insect and microbial attacks. [ 20 ] Grassland in all its form supports a vast variety of mammals, reptiles, birds, and insects. Typical large mammals include the blue wildebeest , American bison , giant anteater , and Przewalski's horse . [ 21 ] The plants and animals that live in grasslands are connected through an unlimited web of interactions. But the removal of key species—such as buffalo and prairie dogs within the American West—and introduction of invasive species , like cane toads in northern Australia, have disrupted the balance in these ecosystems and damaged a number of other species. [ 19 ] Grasslands are home to a number of the foremost magnificent animals on the planet—elephants, bison, lions—and hunters have found them to be enticing prey. But when hunting is not controlled or is conducted illegally, species can become extinct. [ 19 ] Ecosystem services Grasslands provide a range of marketed and non-marketed ecosystem services that are fundamental to the livelihoods of an estimated one billion people globally. [ 22 ] Carbon sequestration Grasslands hold about twenty percent of global soil carbon stocks. [ 3 ] Herbaceous (non-wooded) vegetation dominates grasslands and carbon is stored in the roots and soil underground. Above-ground biomass carbon is relatively short-lived due to grazing, fire, and senescence . Grassland species have an extensive fibrous root system, with grasses often accounting for 60–80% of the biomass carbon in this ecosystem. This underground biomass can extend several meters below the surface and store abundant carbon into the soil, resulting in deep, fertile soils with high organic matter content. For this reason, soil carbon accounts for about 81% of the total ecosystem carbon in grasslands. The close link between soil carbon and underground biomass leads to similar responses of these carbon pools to fluctuations in annual precipitation and temperature on a broad spatial scale. Because plant productivity is limited by grassland precipitation, carbon stocks are highest in regions where precipitation is heaviest, such as the high grass prairie in the humid temperate region of the United States. Similarly, as annual temperatures rise, grassland carbon stocks decrease due to increased evapotranspiration . [ 23 ] Grasslands have suffered large losses of organic carbon due to soil disturbances, vegetation degradation, fires, erosion, nutrient deficiencies, and water shortages. The type, frequency and intensity of the disturbance can play a key role in the soil organic carbon ( SOC ) balance of grasslands. Bedrock , irrigation practices, soil acidification , liming , and pasture management can all have potential impacts on grassland organic carbon stocks. [ 24 ] Good grassland management can reverse historical soil carbon losses. [ 3 ] [ 25 ] The relationship of improved biodiversity with carbon storage is subject of research. [ 26 ] There is a lack of agreement on the amount of carbon that can be stored in grassland ecosystem. This is partly caused by different methodologies applied to measure soil organic carbon and limited respective datasets. Further, carbon accumulation in soils changes significantly over time and point in time measurements produce an insufficient evidence base. [ 27 ] Other ecosystem services promotion of genetic diversity weather amelioration [ 28 ] provision of wildlife habitat Degradation Grasslands are among the most threatened ecosystems. [ 29 ] Global losses from grassland degradation are estimated to be over $7 billion per year. [ 30 ] According to the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the most significant threat to grasslands is human land use, especially agriculture and mining. [ 31 ] The vulnerability of grasslands stems from a range of factors, such as misclassification, poor protection and cultivation. [ 22 ] Causes Land use intensification Grasslands have an extensive history of human activity and disturbance . [ 32 ] To feed a growing human population, most of the world's grasslands are converted from natural landscapes to fields of corn, wheat or other crops. Grasslands that have remained largely intact thus far, such as the East African savannas , are in danger of being lost to agriculture. [ 19 ] Grasslands are very sensitive to disturbances, such as people hunting and killing key species, or plowing the land to make more space for farms. Grassland vegetation is often a plagioclimax ; it remains dominant in a particular area usually due to grazing , cutting, or natural or man-made fires, all discouraging colonization by and survival of tree and shrub seedlings . [ 33 ] Some of the world's largest expanses of grassland are found in the African savanna, and these are maintained by wild herbivores as well as by nomadic pastoralists and their cattle , sheep or goats. Grasslands have an impact on climate change by slower decomposition rates of litter compared to forest environments. [ 34 ] Grasslands may occur naturally or as a result of human activity. Hunting cultures around the world often set regular fires to maintain and extend grasslands and prevent fire-intolerant trees and shrubs from taking hold. The tallgrass prairies in the U.S. Midwest may have been extended eastward into Illinois , Indiana , and Ohio by human agency. Much grassland in northwest Europe developed after the Neolithic Period when people gradually cleared the forest to create areas for raising their livestock. [ 35 ] Climate change Grasslands often occur in areas with annual precipitation is between 600 mm (24 in) and 1,500 mm (59 in) and average mean annual temperatures ranges from −5 and 20 °C. [ 36 ] However, some grasslands occur in colder (−20 °C) and hotter (30 °C) climatic conditions. Grassland can exist in habitats that are frequently disturbed by grazing or fire, as such disturbance prevents the encroachment of woody species . Species richness is particularly high in grasslands of low soil fertility such as serpentine barrens and calcareous grasslands, where woody encroachment is prevented as low nutrient levels in the soil may inhibit the growth of forest and shrub species. Another common predicament often experienced by the ill-fated grassland creatures is the constant burning of plants, fueled by oxygen and many expired photosynthesizing organisms, with the lack of rain pushing this problem to further heights. [ 37 ] When not limited by other factors, increasing CO 2 concentration in the air increases plant growth, similarly as water use efficiency, which is very important in drier regions. However, the advantages of elevated CO 2 are limited by factors including water availability and available nutrients , particularly nitrogen. Thus effects of elevated CO 2 on plant growth will vary with local climate patterns, species adaptations to water limitations, and nitrogen availability. Studies indicate that nutrient depletion may happen faster in drier regions, and with factors like plant community composition and grazing. Nitrogen deposition from air pollutants and increased mineralization from higher temperatures can increase plant productivity, but increases are often among a discount in biodiversity as faster-growing plants outcompete others. A study of a California grassland found that global change may speed reductions in diversity and forb species are most prone to this process. [ 23 ] Afforestation or introduction of invasive species Misguided afforestation efforts, for example as part of the global effort to increase carbon sequestration, can harm grasslands and their core ecosystem services. [ 38 ] [ 39 ] Forest centric restoration efforts can create the risk of misreading and misclassifying of landscapes. [ 22 ] A map created by the World Resources Institute in collaboration with the IUCN identifies 2 billion hectares for potential forest restoration . It is criticised for including 900 million hectares of grasslands. [ 40 ] [ 41 ] It is expected that non-native grasses will continue to outperform native species under warmer and drier conditions that occur in many grasslands due to climate change. [ 42 ] Management The type of land management used in grasslands can also lead to grassland loss or degradation. Many grasslands and other open ecosystems depend on disturbances such as wildfires , controlled burns or grazing to persist, although this subject is still controversial. [ 43 ] A study in Brazilian Subtropical Highland Grasslands found that grasslands without traditional land management—which uses fire every two years and extensive cattle grazing—can disappear within 30 years. [ 44 ] This study showed that grasslands inside protected areas , in which fire is not allowed and cattle grazing is banned, were quickly replaced by shrubs ( shrub encroachment ). Moreover, the absence of fire in grasslands can lead to an increase in the dominance of a few species and litter accumulation, resulting in a reduction in the number of herbaceous species and changes in herbaceous species composition. [ 45 ] Types of degradation Land cover change Land cover has always changed during the years. The following relates to the changes between 1960 and 2015. There has been a decrease in semi-natural grasslands and an increase in areas with arable land , forest and land used for infrastructure and buildings. The line style and relative thickness of the lines indicates the percentage of the total area that changed. Changes less than 1% and land-cover classes with all changes less than 1% (i.e. semi-natural wetlands and water) are not included. [ 15 ] In 1960 most of the land, 49.7%, was covered with forest and there was also more semi-natural grassland (18.8%) than arable land (15.8%). In 2015 this has changed drastically. The forest cover has increased (50.8%) and arable land has also increased (20.4%), but the semi-natural grassland cover has decreased. Although it still covers a large area of the earth (10.6%). [ 15 ] A quarter of semi-natural grassland was lost through intensification, i.e. it was converted into arable or pasture land and forests. [ 46 ] It is more likely that intensification will occur in flat semi-natural grasslands, especially if the soil is fertile. On the other hand, grasslands, where the land is drought-prone or less productive, are more likely to persist as semi-natural grasslands than grasslands with fertile soil and low gradient of the terrain. [ 47 ] Furthermore, the accessibility of the land is also important, as it is then easier to fertilize, for example. For instance, if it is located near a road. With the development of technology, it is becoming increasingly easy to cultivate land with a steeper gradient, to the detriment of grasslands. The management of grasslands is also changing permanently. There is increased use of mineral fertilizers, furthermore borders and field edges are removed to enlarge fields and leveling the terrain to facilitate the use of agricultural machinery. [ 15 ] The professional study of dry grasslands falls under the category of rangeland management , which focuses on ecosystem services associated with the grass-dominated arid and semi-arid rangelands of the world. Rangelands account for an estimated 70% of the earth's landmass; thus, many cultures including those of the United States are indebted to the economics that the world's grasslands have to offer, from producing grazing animals, tourism, ecosystems services such as clean water and air, and energy extraction. [ 48 ] Vast areas of grassland are affected by woody encroachment , which is the expansion of woody plants at the expense of the herbaceous layer. Woody encroachment is caused by a combination of human impact (e.g. fire exclusion, overstocking and resulting overgrazing ) and environmental factors (i.e. increased CO 2 levels in the atmosphere). It can have severe negative consequences on key ecosystem services, like land productivity and groundwater recharge. Conservation and restoration Despite growing recognition of the importance of grasslands, understanding of restoration options remains limited. [ 49 ] Cost of grassland restoration is highly variable and respective data is scarce. [ 50 ] Successful grassland restoration has several dimensions, including recognition in policy, standardisation of indicators of degradation, scientific innovation, knowledge transfer and data sharing. [ 51 ] Restoration methods and measures include the following: [ 52 ] prescribed fires appropriate management of livestock and wild herbivores: in light of land use intensification caused by global food demand, grassland land use practices may need to be adjusted to better support key ecosystem services. [ 53 ] tree cutting shrub removal invasive species control reintroduction of native grasses and forbs via seeding or transplant: a main challenge for grassland restoration is how to overcome seed limitation. [ 49 ] For the period 2021–2030 the United Nations General Assembly has proclaimed the UN Decade on Restoration, involving a joint resolution by over 70 countries. It is led by the United Nations Environment Programme and the Food and Agriculture Organization . [ 54 ] Types of grasslands Classifications of grassland Grassland types by Schimper (1898, 1903): [ 55 ] Meadow (hygrophilous or tropophilous grassland) Steppe (xerophilous grassland) Savannah (xerophilous grassland containing isolated trees) Steppe family: a common grassland animal, the swift fox Grassland types by Ellenberg and Mueller-Dombois (1967): [ 56 ] Formation-class V. Terrestrial herbaceous communities Savannas and related grasslands (tropical or subtropical grasslands and parklands) Steppes and related grasslands (e.g. North American "prairies" etc.) Meadows, pastures or related grasslands Sedge swamps and flushes Herbaceous and half-woody salt swamps Forb vegetation A hike through the Tallgrass Prairie Heritage Park in Canada Grassland types by Laycock (1979): [ 57 ] Tallgrass (true) prairie Shortgrass prairie Mixed-grass prairie Shrub steppe Annual grassland Desert (arid) grassland High mountain grassland General grasslands types Tropical and subtropical These grasslands can be classified as the tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas and shrublands biome . The rainfall level for that grassland type is between 90 and 150 centimeters per year. Grasses and scattered trees are common for that ecoregion, as well as large mammals , such as wildebeest ( Connochaetes taurinus ) and zebra ( Equus zebra ). Notable tropical and subtropical grasslands include the Llanos grasslands of South America . [ 58 ] Temperate Mid-latitude grasslands, including the prairie and Pacific grasslands of North America , the Pampas of Argentina , Brazil and Uruguay , calcareous downland , and the steppes of Europe . They are classified with temperate savannas and shrublands as the temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome . Temperate grasslands are the home to many large herbivores , such as bison , gazelles , zebras , rhinoceroses , and wild horses . Carnivores like lions , wolves , cheetahs and leopards are also found in temperate grasslands. Other animals of this region include deer , prairie dogs , mice , jack rabbits , skunks , coyotes , snakes , foxes , owls , badgers , blackbirds, grasshoppers , meadowlarks , sparrows , quails , hawks and hyenas . [ 59 ] Flooded Grasslands that are flooded seasonally or year-round, like the Everglades of Florida , the Pantanal of Brazil , Bolivia and Paraguay or the Esteros del Ibera in Argentina , are classified with flooded savannas as the flooded grasslands and savannas biome and occur mostly in the tropics and subtropics. The species that live in these grasslands are well adapted to the hydrologic regimes and soil conditions. The Everglades—the world's largest rain-fed flooded grassland—is rich in 11,000 species of seed-bearing plants, 25 species of orchids , 300 bird species, and 150 fish species. Water-meadows are grasslands that are deliberately flooded for short periods. [ 60 ] Montane High-altitude grasslands located on high mountain ranges around the world, like the Páramo of the Andes Mountains . They are part of the montane grasslands and shrublands biome and can be tropical, subtropical, and temperate. The plants and animals, that can be found in the tropical montane, are able to adapt to cool, wet conditions as well as intense sunlight. [ 61 ] Tundra grasslands Similar to montane grasslands, polar Arctic tundra can have grasses, but high soil moisture means that few tundras are grass-dominated today. However, during the Pleistocene glacial periods (commonly referred to as ice ages ), a grassland known as steppe-tundra or mammoth steppe occupied large areas of the Northern Hemisphere. These areas were very cold and arid and featured sub-surface permafrost (hence tundra) but were nevertheless productive grassland ecosystems supporting a wide variety of fauna. As the temperature increased and the climate became wetter at the beginning of the Holocene much of the mammoth steppe transitioned to forest, while the drier parts in central Eurasia remained as a grassland, becoming the modern Eurasian steppe . [ 62 ] Desert and xeric Also called desert grasslands, they are composed of sparse grassland ecoregions located in the deserts and xeric shrublands biome . Temperature extremes and low amounts of rainfall characterise these kinds of grasslands. Therefore, plants and animals are well adapted to minimize water loss. [ 63 ] Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands ecoregions The grassland ecoregions of the temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome are: .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands ecoregions v t e Afrotropical Al Hajar montane woodlands Amsterdam and Saint-Paul Islands temperate grasslands Tristan da Cunha–Gough Islands shrub and grasslands Bushveld Afrotropical Al Hajar montane woodlands Amsterdam and Saint-Paul Islands temperate grasslands Tristan da Cunha–Gough Islands shrub and grasslands Bushveld Al Hajar montane woodlands Amsterdam and Saint-Paul Islands temperate grasslands Tristan da Cunha–Gough Islands shrub and grasslands Bushveld Australasian Canterbury–Otago tussock grasslands Eastern Australia mulga shrublands Southeast Australia temperate savanna Australasian Canterbury–Otago tussock grasslands Eastern Australia mulga shrublands Southeast Australia temperate savanna Canterbury–Otago tussock grasslands Eastern Australia mulga shrublands Southeast Australia temperate savanna Nearctic California Central Valley grasslands Canadian aspen forests and parklands Central and Southern mixed grasslands Central forest–grasslands transition Central tall grasslands Columbia Plateau Edwards Plateau savanna Flint Hills tall grasslands Montana valley and foothill grasslands Nebraska Sand Hills mixed grasslands Northern mixed grasslands Northern short grasslands Northern tall grasslands Palouse grasslands Texas blackland prairies Western short grasslands Nearctic California Central Valley grasslands Canadian aspen forests and parklands Central and Southern mixed grasslands Central forest–grasslands transition Central tall grasslands Columbia Plateau Edwards Plateau savanna Flint Hills tall grasslands Montana valley and foothill grasslands Nebraska Sand Hills mixed grasslands Northern mixed grasslands Northern short grasslands Northern tall grasslands Palouse grasslands Texas blackland prairies Western short grasslands California Central Valley grasslands Canadian aspen forests and parklands Central and Southern mixed grasslands Central forest–grasslands transition Central tall grasslands Columbia Plateau Edwards Plateau savanna Flint Hills tall grasslands Montana valley and foothill grasslands Nebraska Sand Hills mixed grasslands Northern mixed grasslands Northern short grasslands Northern tall grasslands Palouse grasslands Texas blackland prairies Western short grasslands Neotropical Argentine Espinal Argentine Monte Humid Pampas Patagonian grasslands Patagonian steppe Semi-arid Pampas Neotropical Argentine Espinal Argentine Monte Humid Pampas Patagonian grasslands Patagonian steppe Semi-arid Pampas Argentine Espinal Argentine Monte Humid Pampas Patagonian grasslands Patagonian steppe Semi-arid Pampas Palearctic Ecoregion Location(s) Alai–Western Tian Shan steppe Kazakhstan , Tajikistan , Uzbekistan Altai steppe and semi-desert Kazakhstan Central Anatolian steppe Turkey Daurian forest steppe China , Mongolia , Russia Eastern Anatolian montane steppe Armenia , Azerbaijan , Georgia , Iran , Turkey Emin Valley steppe China , Kazakhstan Faroe Islands boreal grasslands Faroe Islands , Denmark Gissaro–Alai open woodlands Kyrgyzstan , Tajikistan , Uzbekistan Kazakh forest steppe Kazakhstan , Russia Kazakh steppe Kazakhstan , Russia Kazakh Uplands Kazakhstan Mongolian–Manchurian grassland China , Mongolia , Russia Pontic steppe Kazakhstan , Moldova , Romania , Russia , Ukraine , Bulgaria Sayan Intermontane steppe Russia Selenge–Orkhon forest steppe Mongolia , Russia South Siberian forest steppe Russia Syrian xeric grasslands and shrublands Iraq , Jordan , Syria Tian Shan foothill arid steppe China , Kazakhstan , Kyrgyzstan Palearctic Ecoregion Location(s) Alai–Western Tian Shan steppe Kazakhstan , Tajikistan , Uzbekistan Altai steppe and semi-desert Kazakhstan Central Anatolian steppe Turkey Daurian forest steppe China , Mongolia , Russia Eastern Anatolian montane steppe Armenia , Azerbaijan , Georgia , Iran , Turkey Emin Valley steppe China , Kazakhstan Faroe Islands boreal grasslands Faroe Islands , Denmark Gissaro–Alai open woodlands Kyrgyzstan , Tajikistan , Uzbekistan Kazakh forest steppe Kazakhstan , Russia Kazakh steppe Kazakhstan , Russia Kazakh Uplands Kazakhstan Mongolian–Manchurian grassland China , Mongolia , Russia Pontic steppe Kazakhstan , Moldova , Romania , Russia , Ukraine , Bulgaria Sayan Intermontane steppe Russia Selenge–Orkhon forest steppe Mongolia , Russia South Siberian forest steppe Russia Syrian xeric grasslands and shrublands Iraq , Jordan , Syria Tian Shan foothill arid steppe China , Kazakhstan , Kyrgyzstan Ecoregion Location(s) Alai–Western Tian Shan steppe Kazakhstan , Tajikistan , Uzbekistan Altai steppe and semi-desert Kazakhstan Central Anatolian steppe Turkey Daurian forest steppe China , Mongolia , Russia Eastern Anatolian montane steppe Armenia , Azerbaijan , Georgia , Iran , Turkey Emin Valley steppe China , Kazakhstan Faroe Islands boreal grasslands Faroe Islands , Denmark Gissaro–Alai open woodlands Kyrgyzstan , Tajikistan , Uzbekistan Kazakh forest steppe Kazakhstan , Russia Kazakh steppe Kazakhstan , Russia Kazakh Uplands Kazakhstan Mongolian–Manchurian grassland China , Mongolia , Russia Pontic steppe Kazakhstan , Moldova , Romania , Russia , Ukraine , Bulgaria Sayan Intermontane steppe Russia Selenge–Orkhon forest steppe Mongolia , Russia South Siberian forest steppe Russia Syrian xeric grasslands and shrublands Iraq , Jordan , Syria Tian Shan foothill arid steppe China , Kazakhstan , Kyrgyzstan Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands ecoregions v t e Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands ecoregions v t e Afrotropical Angolan miombo woodlands Angolan mopane woodlands Ascension scrub and grasslands Central Zambezian miombo woodlands East Sudanian savanna Eastern miombo woodlands Guinean forest–savanna mosaic Itigi–Sumbu thicket Kalahari Acacia-Baikiaea woodlands Mandara Plateau mosaic Northern Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets Northern Congolian forest–savanna mosaic Sahelian Acacia savanna Serengeti volcanic grasslands Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets South Arabian fog woodlands, shrublands, and dune Southern Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets Southern Africa bushveld Southern Congolian forest–savanna mosaic Southern miombo woodlands Saint Helena scrub and woodlands Victoria Basin forest–savanna mosaic West Sudanian savanna Western Congolian forest–savanna mosaic Western Zambezian grasslands Zambezian and mopane woodlands Zambezian Baikiaea woodlands Afrotropical Angolan miombo woodlands Angolan mopane woodlands Ascension scrub and grasslands Central Zambezian miombo woodlands East Sudanian savanna Eastern miombo woodlands Guinean forest–savanna mosaic Itigi–Sumbu thicket Kalahari Acacia-Baikiaea woodlands Mandara Plateau mosaic Northern Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets Northern Congolian forest–savanna mosaic Sahelian Acacia savanna Serengeti volcanic grasslands Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets South Arabian fog woodlands, shrublands, and dune Southern Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets Southern Africa bushveld Southern Congolian forest–savanna mosaic Southern miombo woodlands Saint Helena scrub and woodlands Victoria Basin forest–savanna mosaic West Sudanian savanna Western Congolian forest–savanna mosaic Western Zambezian grasslands Zambezian and mopane woodlands Zambezian Baikiaea woodlands Angolan miombo woodlands Angolan mopane woodlands Ascension scrub and grasslands Central Zambezian miombo woodlands East Sudanian savanna Eastern miombo woodlands Guinean forest–savanna mosaic Itigi–Sumbu thicket Kalahari Acacia-Baikiaea woodlands Mandara Plateau mosaic Northern Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets Northern Congolian forest–savanna mosaic Sahelian Acacia savanna Serengeti volcanic grasslands Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets South Arabian fog woodlands, shrublands, and dune Southern Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets Southern Africa bushveld Southern Congolian forest–savanna mosaic Southern miombo woodlands Saint Helena scrub and woodlands Victoria Basin forest–savanna mosaic West Sudanian savanna Western Congolian forest–savanna mosaic Western Zambezian grasslands Zambezian and mopane woodlands Zambezian Baikiaea woodlands Australasian Arnhem Land tropical savanna Brigalow tropical savanna Cape York Peninsula tropical savanna Carpentaria tropical savanna Einasleigh Uplands savanna Kimberley tropical savanna Mitchell grass downs Trans-Fly savanna and grasslands Victoria Plains tropical savanna Australasian Arnhem Land tropical savanna Brigalow tropical savanna Cape York Peninsula tropical savanna Carpentaria tropical savanna Einasleigh Uplands savanna Kimberley tropical savanna Mitchell grass downs Trans-Fly savanna and grasslands Victoria Plains tropical savanna Arnhem Land tropical savanna Brigalow tropical savanna Cape York Peninsula tropical savanna Carpentaria tropical savanna Einasleigh Uplands savanna Kimberley tropical savanna Mitchell grass downs Trans-Fly savanna and grasslands Victoria Plains tropical savanna Indomalayan Terai–Duar savanna and grasslands Indomalayan Terai–Duar savanna and grasslands Terai–Duar savanna and grasslands Nearctic Western Gulf coastal grasslands Nearctic Western Gulf coastal grasslands Western Gulf coastal grasslands Neotropical Beni savanna Campos rupestres Cerrado Clipperton Island shrub and grasslands Córdoba montane savanna Guianan savanna Humid Chaco Llanos Uruguayan savanna Neotropical Beni savanna Campos rupestres Cerrado Clipperton Island shrub and grasslands Córdoba montane savanna Guianan savanna Humid Chaco Llanos Uruguayan savanna Beni savanna Campos rupestres Cerrado Clipperton Island shrub and grasslands Córdoba montane savanna Guianan savanna Humid Chaco Llanos Uruguayan savanna Oceanian Hawaiian tropical high shrublands Hawaiian tropical low shrublands Northwestern Hawaii scrub Oceanian Hawaiian tropical high shrublands Hawaiian tropical low shrublands Northwestern Hawaii scrub Hawaiian tropical high shrublands Hawaiian tropical low shrublands Northwestern Hawaii scrub See also Meadow Forest Woody plant encroachment References ^ a b c d e .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Gibson, David J. 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"Ecosystem type and resource quality are more important than global change drivers in regulating early stages of litter decomposition". Soil Biology and Biochemistry . 129 : 144– 152. Bibcode : 2019SBiBi.129..144O . doi : 10.1016/j.soilbio.2018.11.009 . hdl : 10261/336676 . S2CID 92606851 . ^ Liu, Jun; Feng, Chao; Wang, Deli; Wang, Ling; Wilsey, Brian J.; Zhong, Zhiwei (August 2015). Firn, Jennifer (ed.). "Impacts of grazing by different large herbivores in grassland depend on plant species diversity" . Journal of Applied Ecology . 52 (4): 1053– 1062. Bibcode : 2015JApEc..52.1053L . doi : 10.1111/1365-2664.12456 . ^ "Grasslands Information and Facts" . National Geographic . 2019-03-15. Archived from the original on March 10, 2017 . Retrieved 2020-05-20 . ^ "EO Experiments: Grassland Biome" . Earthobservatory.nasa.gov . 29 April 1999. Archived from the original on 2000-10-27 . 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Retrieved 2020-05-20 . ^ a b Buisson, Elise; Le Stradic, Soizig; Silveira, Fernando A. O.; Durigan, Giselda; Overbeck, Gerhard E.; Fidelis, Alessandra; Fernandes, G. Wilson; Bond, William J.; Hermann, Julia-Maria; Mahy, Gregory; Alvarado, Swanni T. (April 2019). "Resilience and restoration of tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and grassy woodlands: Tropical grassland resilience and restoration" . Biological Reviews . 94 (2): 590– 609. doi : 10.1111/brv.12470 . hdl : 2268/229154 . PMID 30251329 . S2CID 52816465 . ^ Knight, Michelle L.; Overbeck, Gerhard E. (2021-05-28). "How much does is cost to restore a grassland?" . Restoration Ecology . 29 (8) e13463. Bibcode : 2021ResEc..2913463K . doi : 10.1111/rec.13463 . ISSN 1061-2971 . S2CID 236416000 . ^ Bardgett, Richard D.; Bullock, James M.; Lavorel, Sandra; Manning, Peter; Schaffner, Urs; Ostle, Nicholas; Chomel, Mathilde; Durigan, Giselda; L. Fry, Ellen; Johnson, David; Lavallee, Jocelyn M. (2021-09-07). 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UN Decade on Restoration . Retrieved 2021-06-01 . ^ Schimper, A. F. W. (1903) [1898]. Pflanzen-Geographie auf physiologischer Grundlage [ Plant geography on a physiological basis ] (in German). Translated by Fisher, Jena. ^ Ellenberg, H. & D. Mueller-Dombois. 1967. Tentative physiognomic-ecological classification of plant formations of the Earth [based on a discussion draft of the UNESCO working group on vegetation classification and mapping.] Berichte des Geobotanischen Institutes der Eidg. Techn. Hochschule, Stiftung Rübel, Zürich 37 (1965-1966): 21—55, [1] Archived 2016-10-21 at the Wayback Machine . ^ Laycock, W.A. (1979). "Introduction". In French, N R. (ed.). Perspectives in Grassland Ecology . New York: Springer. pp. 1– 2. ISBN 978-1-4612-6182-7 – via Google Books . ^ "Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas and shrublands | Biomes | WWF" . World Wildlife Fund . Retrieved 2020-05-20 . ^ "Temperate grasslands, savannas and shrublands | Biomes | WWF" . World Wildlife Fund . Retrieved 2020-05-20 . ^ "Flooded grasslands and savannas | Biomes | WWF" . World Wildlife Fund . Retrieved 2020-05-20 . ^ "Montane grasslands and shrublands | Biomes | WWF" . World Wildlife Fund . Retrieved 2020-05-20 . ^ "Tundra | Biomes | WWF" . World Wildlife Fund . Retrieved 2020-05-20 . ^ "Deserts and xeric shrublands | Biomes | WWF" . World Wildlife Fund . Retrieved 2020-05-20 . Further reading Courtwright, Julie. 2011. Prairie Fire: A Great Plains History . University Press of Kansas. 274 pp. French, N. R. (ed.). 1979. Perspectives in Grassland Ecology . Springer, New York, 204 pp., Perspectives in Grassland Ecology: Results and Applications of the US/IBP Grassland Biome Study . Suttie, J. M.; Reynolds, S. G.; C. Batello. 2005. Grasslands of the world . Rome: FAO. Grassland of the world . Wilsey, B.J. 2018. Biology of Grasslands. Oxford University Press. External links @media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}} Media related to Grasslands at Wikimedia Commons v t e Phytogeography : Vegetation classification v t e Physiognomy Forests , tropical , seasonal tropical , woodlands , arboretum Shrublands , heath , scrubs, thickets , fruticetum Dwarf-shrubland , subshrublands , dwarf-scrubs, suffruticetum Herbaceous communities , grasslands , steppes , prairies , velds , herbetum Savannas , parklands Scarcely vegetated areas, desert vegetation ( Desert , Barren vegetation ) Forests , tropical , seasonal tropical , woodlands , arboretum Shrublands , heath , scrubs, thickets , fruticetum Dwarf-shrubland , subshrublands , dwarf-scrubs, suffruticetum Herbaceous communities , grasslands , steppes , prairies , velds , herbetum Savannas , parklands Scarcely vegetated areas, desert vegetation ( Desert , Barren vegetation ) Latitude Tropical Subtropical Temperate Subpolar Polar Tropical Subtropical Temperate Subpolar Polar Climatic regime Pluvial , rainy , ombrophilous Cloudy Seasonal Drought Pluvial , rainy , ombrophilous Cloudy Seasonal Drought Altitude Montane Polonyna Tundra Submontane Lowland Coastal Montane Polonyna Tundra Polonyna Tundra Submontane Lowland Coastal Leaves Loss of leaves Deciduous , caducifolious Semi-deciduous , semicaducifolious Evergreen , perennifolious Leaf hardness Sclerophyll , stiff leaves Orthophyll, hyptiophyll leaves Leaf form Aciculifolious, needle-leaved Latifolious, broad-leaved Loss of leaves Deciduous , caducifolious Semi-deciduous , semicaducifolious Evergreen , perennifolious Deciduous , caducifolious Semi-deciduous , semicaducifolious Evergreen , perennifolious Leaf hardness Sclerophyll , stiff leaves Orthophyll, hyptiophyll leaves Sclerophyll , stiff leaves Orthophyll, hyptiophyll leaves Leaf form Aciculifolious, needle-leaved Latifolious, broad-leaved Aciculifolious, needle-leaved Latifolious, broad-leaved Substrate Aquatic Riparian Mangrove Swampy Terrestrial Alpine Arctic Aquatic Riparian Mangrove Swampy Riparian Mangrove Swampy Terrestrial Alpine Arctic Alpine Arctic See also Biogeographic realms Biomes Floristic kingdoms Plant habits Plant life-forms Vegetation Biogeographic realms Biomes Floristic kingdoms Plant habits Plant life-forms Vegetation Authority control databases National United States Japan Czech Republic Israel United States Japan Czech Republic Israel Other NARA Yale LUX NARA Yale LUX Grasslands Agricultural land Ecoregions Grasses Plains Poaceae CS1 maint: location missing publisher CS1 errors: periodical ignored CS1 maint: others CS1 German-language sources (de) Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Commons category link is on Wikidata This page was last edited on 15 January 2026, at 22:03 (UTC) . 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Renée Good (photo) , citoyenne américaine , est tuée par balle par un agent de l' ICE à Minneapolis ; après une offensive gouvernementale et saoudienne , le Conseil de transition du Sud perd l'ensemble des territoires qu'il contrôlait au Yémen . 5 janvier : Faustin-Archange Touadéra est réélu président de la République centrafricaine . 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Arts et culture 28 mai 2025 : ALI D (FOREALID) et Marouane Guerouabi aperçus ensemble au Festival International du Cinéma de Sétif 17 février 2025 : Concours Eurovision de la chanson 2023 : la première demi-finale 17 février 2025 : France Bleu Occitanie supprime l’émission Conta Monde de son antenne, une pétition est lancée 17 février 2025 : Concours Eurovision de la chanson 2023 : la deuxième demi-finale 17 février 2025 : Décès de Yamini Krishnamurthy 17 février 2025 : Concours Eurovision de la chanson 2023 : la finale aura lieu le 13 mai 2023 17 février 2025 : Le YouTubeur Kian Brose annonce vouloir poursuivre Minecraft en justice 17 février 2025 : Concours Eurovision de la chanson 2023 : ordre de passage de la finale 17 février 2025 : Julien Poulin, figure emblématique du cinéma québécois, est mort 17 février 2025 : Concours Eurovision de la chanson 2023 : la Suède remporte le concours Robotique 3 mars 2019 - Le prêtre-robot Kannon , semi-humanoforme, enseigne le bouddhisme dans le temple Kodaiji à Kyoto . 25 octobre 2017 - Sophia devient le premier robot à avoir une nationalité, en obtenant la nationalité saoudienne . 24 février 2015 - Bruno Maisonnier , fondateur et PDG d' Aldebaran Robotics , a annoncé sa démission. Il sera remplacé par le président de SoftBank Robotics. La société japonaise SoftBank possède à présent 95 % du capital de l'entreprise. [1] 9 février 2015 - Boston Dynamics , racheté en 2013 par Google , présente Spot, son nouveau chien robot [2] . 21 aout 2014 - Le robot auto-stoppeur HitchBOT achève sa traversée du Canada , [3] . 12 juin 2014 - Le coup d'envoi de la Coupe du Monde de football au Brésil est lancé par un jeune paraplégique équipé d'un exosquelette , youtube.com (en) . Astronomie 17 février 2025 : Gaia, le satellite d'astrométrie de l'ESA, fête ses 10 ans dans l'espace 17 février 2025 : La NASA lance une sonde pour étudier un astéroïde riche en métaux 17 février 2025 : Oldřich Pelčák est mort à 79 ans 17 février 2025 : Inde : deuxième tentative d'alunissage lancée 17 février 2025 : Le télescope spatial Euclid de l'ESA envoyé dans l'espace à bord d'une fusée Falcon 9 de SpaceX Sport 15 juillet 2025 : Cyclisme : Oda Aune Gissinger remporte le premier Tour de l'Abitibi Femmes 18 février 2025 : Jacob Kiplimo bat le record du monde du semi-marathon 17 février 2025 : Football : le Real Madrid se met en danger après son faux pas à Osasuna 17 février 2025 : Italie : Carlo Tavecchio est mort à l'âge de 79 ans 17 février 2025 : Lewis Hamilton remporte le Grand Prix automobile de Grande-Bretagne 17 février 2025 : Jeux olympiques d'été de 2024 : les Fidji remportent le match de rugby à sept masculin contre l'Uruguay 17 février 2025 : Marathon de Chicago : Ruth 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Help | Advanced Search quick links Login Help Pages About Computer Science > Artificial Intelligence Title: MHub.ai: A Simple, Standardized, and Reproducible Platform for AI Models in Medical Imaging Abstract: Artificial intelligence (AI) has the potential to transform medical imaging by automating image analysis and accelerating clinical research. However, research and clinical use are limited by the wide variety of AI implementations and architectures, inconsistent documentation, and reproducibility issues. Here, we introduce this http URL , an open-source, container-based platform that standardizes access to AI models with minimal configuration, promoting accessibility and reproducibility in medical imaging. this http URL packages models from peer-reviewed publications into standardized containers that support direct processing of DICOM and other formats, provide a unified application interface, and embed structured metadata. Each model is accompanied by publicly available reference data that can be used to confirm model operation. this http URL includes an initial set of state-of-the-art segmentation, prediction, and feature extraction models for different modalities. The modular framework enables adaptation of any model and supports community contributions. We demonstrate the utility of the platform in a clinical use case through comparative evaluation of lung segmentation models. To further strengthen transparency and reproducibility, we publicly release the generated segmentations and evaluation metrics and provide interactive dashboards that allow readers to inspect individual cases and reproduce or extend our analysis. By simplifying model use, this http URL enables side-by-side benchmarking with identical execution commands and standardized outputs, and lowers the barrier to clinical translation. Comments: 41 pages, 15 figures, 6 tables Subjects: Artificial Intelligence (cs.AI) ; Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (cs.CV); Emerging Technologies (cs.ET); Machine Learning (cs.LG); Software Engineering (cs.SE) Cite as: arXiv:2601.10154 [cs.AI] (or arXiv:2601.10154v1 [cs.AI] for this version) Focus to learn more arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite (pending registration) Submission history Access Paper: View PDF References & Citations NASA ADS Google Scholar Semantic Scholar BibTeX formatted citation Bookmark Bibliographic and Citation Tools Code, Data and Media Associated with this Article Demos Recommenders and Search Tools Author Venue Institution Topic arXivLabs: experimental projects with community collaborators arXivLabs is a framework that allows collaborators to develop and share new arXiv features directly on our website. Both individuals and organizations that work with arXivLabs have embraced and accepted our values of openness, community, excellence, and user data privacy. arXiv is committed to these values and only works with partners that adhere to them. Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? Learn more about arXivLabs . About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status arXiv Operational Status
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https://arxiv.org/abs/2601.10154
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Fuula duraa Ummataf Bana Jijjirama Dhiho Fuula Garagara Gargaarsa Fuula Adaa Ta'e Keena Eenyummeessa uumi Saaqii seeni Keena Eenyummeessa uumi Saaqii seeni Contents Beginning 1 Lafjoolee Sirna Biiftuu Fuula Dura Fuula duraa Marii Dubbisi View source Seenaa laali Dubbisi View source Seenaa laali Mannin akka asiin walitti qabatte Jijjiiramoota walidhihaatan Faayila fe'i Yero Hunda Asiin Kaan Walitti Qabatte Odeeffannoo fuulaa Kutaa Kan Barbada Get shortened URL Download QR code Switch to legacy parser Kitaaba uumi PDF dhaan buusi Gosa Print Godhamu Danda'u Wikimedia Commons Wikimedia Foundation MediaWiki Meta-Wiki Wikimedia Outreach Multilingual Wikisource Wikispecies Wikidata Wikifunctions Wikimania Wiktionary Mi'a Wikidata Anaadhufu gara Wikipiidiyaa Galmee Beekumsaa bilisaa kan namuu gulaaluu danda'u . Barruu 1,961 Afaan Oromoon Tarree Fuula Hundaa · Jijjiirama Dhihoo · Gargaarsa · Barreessuu 10 Amajjii 2026 Mata Duree Har'aa Rammaddiwwan Mirkanbeekii | Herrega | Xiinnaannoo • Fiiziksii • Xinsootra(Keemistirii) Xinjiree | Xiinannoo Mahaandisummaa • Informaatiiksi Saayinsii Hawaasaa | Siyaasa | Category:Seera Heera Amantii | Og-Fakkii | Og-sagalee | Ximmadda | Xinwaadurii | Dinagdee Afaan | | Xinqooqa | Xinsammuu Seenaa | Lafxii | Falaasama Oromo Aartii Oromoo • Afaan Oromoo • Ispoortii Oromoo • Nyaata aadaa Oromoo • Ogbarruu Oromoo • Fereersa Oromoo Falka Matangoo(internet) • Hoji Mahandisaa • Geejjiba • Oomisha • Qonna Oromiyaa Aanolee Oromiyaa • Godinaalee Oromiyaa • Magaalota Oromiyaa Oromiyaan kutaalee Itoophiyaa kurnan keessaa tokkodha. Ballina lafa bahaa hanga kibba-dhihaa biyya keessatti 353,632 km² ta'e qabaatee, baayyina uummataa bara 2002 tilmamee hanga miliyoona digdamii-afurii qabdi, kunis ballina lafaa fi baay'ina ummataan biyyaa keessaa tokkofaa ishee tasisaa. Isheenis kan ofii keessa qabduu: kutaa Arsii , Baalee , Harargee , Iluu Abbaa Booraa , Kafaa , Shawaa , Sidaamoo fi Wallagga of keessaa qabdi, Booranaa fi Gujiin Sidaamoo jalatti walitti qabama turan. Magaalaan guddoon Oromiyaa durii Finfinnee yoo taatu, kan ammaa garuu Adaamaadha . Bara booda gaaffii mirgaa sabni Oromoo gaafateen booda gara Finfinneetti deebbite. Magaallan gugguddoon biraa Oromiyaa keessatti argaman Adaamaa , Amboo , Asallaa , Bishooftuu , Dambidoolloo , Fiichee , Gimbii , Gobbaa , magaalaa Jimmaa , Mattuu , Nagallee Booranaa , Naqamtee , Shaashamannee fi Walisoo dha. Barruu saayiinsawaa Lafjoolee Sirna Biiftuu (Tbd) Damee Poortaalii:Seenaa jireenyaa Poortaalii:Ispoortii Poortaalii:Saayinsii Category:Xin-hawaa Seenaa jireenyaa Ispoortii ' Saayinsii Xin-hawaa Poortaalii:Aadaa Oromoo Poortaalii:Oromiyaa Poortaalii:Afrikaa Aadaa Oromoo Oromiyaa Afrikaa Wiikipiidiyaa Afaanota Afrikaa kan Biraatin Afrikaans · አማርኛ · Bamanankan · Chi-Chewa · chiShona · chiTumbuka · Eʋegbe · Fulfulde · Gĩkũyũ · Hausa · Ìgbo · isiXhosa · Kinyarwanda · Kirundi · Kiswahili · Kongo · Lingala · Luganda · Malagasy · Oromoo · Sängö · seSotho · Setswana · SiSwati · Soomaaliga · ትግርኛ · Tshivenda · Twi · Wolof · Yorùbá · Zulu Odeeffannoo Wiikipidiyaa Afaan Oromootin... Anaadhufu gara Wikipiidiyaa Galmee Beekumsaa bilisaa kan namuu gulaaluu danda'u . Barruu 1,961 Afaan Oromoon Tarree Fuula Hundaa · Jijjiirama Dhihoo · Gargaarsa · Barreessuu 10 Amajjii 2026 Mata Duree Har'aa Rammaddiwwan Mirkanbeekii | Herrega | Xiinnaannoo • Fiiziksii • Xinsootra(Keemistirii) Xinjiree | Xiinannoo Mahaandisummaa • Informaatiiksi Saayinsii Hawaasaa | Siyaasa | Category:Seera Heera Amantii | Og-Fakkii | Og-sagalee | Ximmadda | Xinwaadurii | Dinagdee Afaan | | Xinqooqa | Xinsammuu Seenaa | Lafxii | Falaasama Oromo Aartii Oromoo • Afaan Oromoo • Ispoortii Oromoo • Nyaata aadaa Oromoo • Ogbarruu Oromoo • Fereersa Oromoo Falka Matangoo(internet) • Hoji Mahandisaa • Geejjiba • Oomisha • Qonna Oromiyaa Aanolee Oromiyaa • Godinaalee Oromiyaa • Magaalota Oromiyaa Oromiyaan kutaalee Itoophiyaa kurnan keessaa tokkodha. Ballina lafa bahaa hanga kibba-dhihaa biyya keessatti 353,632 km² ta'e qabaatee, baayyina uummataa bara 2002 tilmamee hanga miliyoona digdamii-afurii qabdi, kunis ballina lafaa fi baay'ina ummataan biyyaa keessaa tokkofaa ishee tasisaa. Isheenis kan ofii keessa qabduu: kutaa Arsii , Baalee , Harargee , Iluu Abbaa Booraa , Kafaa , Shawaa , Sidaamoo fi Wallagga of keessaa qabdi, Booranaa fi Gujiin Sidaamoo jalatti walitti qabama turan. Magaalaan guddoon Oromiyaa durii Finfinnee yoo taatu, kan ammaa garuu Adaamaadha . Bara booda gaaffii mirgaa sabni Oromoo gaafateen booda gara Finfinneetti deebbite. Magaallan gugguddoon biraa Oromiyaa keessatti argaman Adaamaa , Amboo , Asallaa , Bishooftuu , Dambidoolloo , Fiichee , Gimbii , Gobbaa , magaalaa Jimmaa , Mattuu , Nagallee Booranaa , Naqamtee , Shaashamannee fi Walisoo dha. Barruu saayiinsawaa Lafjoolee Sirna Biiftuu (Tbd) Damee Poortaalii:Seenaa jireenyaa Poortaalii:Ispoortii Poortaalii:Saayinsii Category:Xin-hawaa Seenaa jireenyaa Ispoortii ' Saayinsii Xin-hawaa Poortaalii:Aadaa Oromoo Poortaalii:Oromiyaa Poortaalii:Afrikaa Aadaa Oromoo Oromiyaa Afrikaa Wiikipiidiyaa Afaanota Afrikaa kan Biraatin Afrikaans · አማርኛ · Bamanankan · Chi-Chewa · chiShona · chiTumbuka · Eʋegbe · Fulfulde · Gĩkũyũ · Hausa · Ìgbo · isiXhosa · Kinyarwanda · Kirundi · Kiswahili · Kongo · Lingala · Luganda · Malagasy · Oromoo · Sängö · seSotho · Setswana · SiSwati · Soomaaliga · ትግርኛ · Tshivenda · Twi · Wolof · Yorùbá · Zulu Odeeffannoo Wiikipidiyaa Afaan Oromootin... Anaadhufu gara Wikipiidiyaa Galmee Beekumsaa bilisaa kan namuu gulaaluu danda'u . Barruu 1,961 Afaan Oromoon Barruu 1,961 Afaan Oromoon Tarree Fuula Hundaa · Jijjiirama Dhihoo · Gargaarsa · Barreessuu 10 Amajjii 2026 Rammaddiwwan Mirkanbeekii | Herrega | Xiinnaannoo • Fiiziksii • Xinsootra(Keemistirii) Xinjiree | Xiinannoo Mahaandisummaa • Informaatiiksi Saayinsii Hawaasaa | Siyaasa | Category:Seera Heera Amantii | Og-Fakkii | Og-sagalee | Ximmadda | Xinwaadurii | Dinagdee Afaan | | Xinqooqa | Xinsammuu Seenaa | Lafxii | Falaasama Oromo Aartii Oromoo • Afaan Oromoo • Ispoortii Oromoo • Nyaata aadaa Oromoo • Ogbarruu Oromoo • Fereersa Oromoo Falka Matangoo(internet) • Hoji Mahandisaa • Geejjiba • Oomisha • Qonna Oromiyaa Aanolee Oromiyaa • Godinaalee Oromiyaa • Magaalota Oromiyaa Mirkanbeekii | Herrega | Xiinnaannoo • Fiiziksii • Xinsootra(Keemistirii) Xinjiree | Xiinannoo Mahaandisummaa • Informaatiiksi Saayinsii Hawaasaa | Siyaasa | Heera Amantii | Og-Fakkii | Og-sagalee | Ximmadda | Xinwaadurii | Dinagdee Afaan | | Xinqooqa | Xinsammuu Seenaa | Lafxii | Falaasama Oromo Aartii Oromoo • Afaan Oromoo • Ispoortii Oromoo • Nyaata aadaa Oromoo • Ogbarruu Oromoo • Fereersa Oromoo Falka Matangoo(internet) • Hoji Mahandisaa • Geejjiba • Oomisha • Qonna Oromiyaa Aanolee Oromiyaa • Godinaalee Oromiyaa • Magaalota Oromiyaa Lafjoolee Sirna Biiftuu (Tbd) Damee Poortaalii:Seenaa jireenyaa Poortaalii:Ispoortii Poortaalii:Saayinsii Category:Xin-hawaa Seenaa jireenyaa Ispoortii ' Saayinsii Xin-hawaa Poortaalii:Aadaa Oromoo Poortaalii:Oromiyaa Poortaalii:Afrikaa Aadaa Oromoo Oromiyaa Afrikaa Wiikipiidiyaa Afaanota Afrikaa kan Biraatin Afrikaans · አማርኛ · Bamanankan · Chi-Chewa · chiShona · chiTumbuka · Eʋegbe · Fulfulde · Gĩkũyũ · Hausa · Ìgbo · isiXhosa · Kinyarwanda · Kirundi · Kiswahili · Kongo · Lingala · Luganda · Malagasy · Oromoo · Sängö · seSotho · Setswana · SiSwati · Soomaaliga · ትግርኛ · Tshivenda · Twi · Wolof · Yorùbá · Zulu Odeeffannoo Wiikipidiyaa Afaan Oromootin... Lafjoolee Sirna Biiftuu Poortaalii:Seenaa jireenyaa Poortaalii:Ispoortii Poortaalii:Saayinsii Category:Xin-hawaa Seenaa jireenyaa Ispoortii ' Saayinsii Xin-hawaa Poortaalii:Aadaa Oromoo Poortaalii:Oromiyaa Poortaalii:Afrikaa Aadaa Oromoo Oromiyaa Afrikaa Afrikaans · አማርኛ · Bamanankan · Chi-Chewa · chiShona · chiTumbuka · Eʋegbe · Fulfulde · Gĩkũyũ · Hausa · Ìgbo · isiXhosa · Kinyarwanda · Kirundi · Kiswahili · Kongo · Lingala · Luganda · Malagasy · Oromoo · Sängö · seSotho · Setswana · SiSwati · Soomaaliga · ትግርኛ · Tshivenda · Twi · Wolof · Yorùbá · Zulu Xin-hawaa Fuula Dura Аԥсшәа Acèh Адыгабзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch Алтай тил አማርኛ Pangcah Aragonés Ænglisc Obolo अंगिका العربية ܐܪܡܝܐ الدارجة مصرى অসমীয়া Asturianu Atikamekw Авар Kotava अवधी Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Башҡортса Basa Bali Boarisch Žemaitėška Batak Toba Bikol Central Bajau Sama Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Betawi Български भोजपुरी Bislama Banjar ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ Bamanankan বাংলা བོད་ཡིག বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Brezhoneg Bosanski Batak Mandailing Basa Ugi Буряад Català Chavacano de Zamboanga 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Нохчийн Cebuano Chamoru ᏣᎳᎩ Tsetsêhestâhese کوردی Corsu Nēhiyawēwin / ᓀᐦᐃᔭᐍᐏᐣ Qırımtatarca Čeština Kaszëbsczi Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ Чӑвашла Cymraeg Dansk Dagbanli Deutsch Dagaare Thuɔŋjäŋ Zazaki Dolnoserbski Kadazandusun डोटेली ދިވެހިބަސް ཇོང་ཁ Eʋegbe Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Mfantse Fulfulde Suomi Võro Na Vosa Vakaviti Føroyskt Fɔ̀ngbè Français Arpetan Nordfriisk Furlan Frysk Gaeilge Gagauz 贛語 Kriyòl gwiyannen Gàidhlig Galego گیلکی Avañe'ẽ गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni Bahasa Hulontalo 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 Ghanaian Pidgin ગુજરાતી Wayuunaiki Farefare Gungbe Gaelg Hausa 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî Hawaiʻi עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Hornjoserbsce Kreyòl ayisyen Magyar Հայերեն Արեւմտահայերէն Interlingua Jaku Iban Bahasa Indonesia Interlingue Igbo Igala Iñupiatun Ilokano ГӀалгӀай Ido Íslenska Italiano ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut 日本語 Patois La .lojban. Jawa ქართული Qaraqalpaqsha Taqbaylit Адыгэбзэ Kabɩyɛ Tyap Kongo Kumoring Gĩkũyũ Қазақша Kalaallisut ភាសាខ្មែរ ಕನ್ನಡ Yerwa Kanuri 한국어 Перем коми Къарачай-малкъар کٲشُر Ripoarisch Kurdî Kʋsaal Коми Kernowek Кыргызча Latina Ladino Lëtzebuergesch Лакку Лезги Lingua Franca Nova Luganda Limburgs Ligure Ladin Lombard Lingála ລາວ Lietuvių Latgaļu Latviešu Madhurâ मैथिली Basa Banyumasan Мокшень Malagasy Олык марий Māori Minangkabau Македонски മലയാളം Монгол ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ ဘာသာမန် Moore मराठी Кырык мары Bahasa Melayu Malti Mirandés မြန်မာဘာသာ Эрзянь مازِرونی Nāhuatl Napulitano Plattdüütsch Nedersaksies नेपाली नेपाल भाषा Li Niha Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Novial ߒߞߏ IsiNdebele seSewula Nouormand Sesotho sa Leboa Nupe Diné bizaad Chi-Chewa Occitan Livvinkarjala ଓଡ଼ିଆ Ирон ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Pangasinan Kapampangan Papiamentu Picard Naijá Deitsch Pälzisch पालि Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Ποντιακά پښتو Português Pinayuanan Runa Simi ရခိုင် Rumantsch Romani čhib Ikirundi Română Armãneashti Tarandíne Руски Русский Русиньскый Ikinyarwanda संस्कृतम् Саха тыла ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Sardu Sicilianu Scots سنڌي Davvisámegiella Sängö Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Taclḥit တႆး සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina سرائیکی Slovenščina Gagana Samoa Anarâškielâ ChiShona Soomaaliga Shqip Српски / srpski Sranantongo SiSwati Sesotho Seeltersk Sunda Svenska Kiswahili ꠍꠤꠟꠐꠤ Ślůnski Sakizaya தமிழ் Tayal ತುಳು ᥖᥭᥰ ᥖᥬᥲ ᥑᥨᥒᥰ తెలుగు Tetun Тоҷикӣ ไทย ትግርኛ ትግሬ Türkmençe Tagalog Tolışi Setswana Lea faka-Tonga Toki pona Tok Pisin Türkçe Seediq Xitsonga Татарча / tatarça ChiTumbuka Twi Reo tahiti Тыва дыл Удмурт ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Tshivenda Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt West-Vlams Volapük Walon Winaray Wolof 吴语 Хальмг IsiXhosa მარგალური ייִדיש Yorùbá Vahcuengh Zeêuws ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ 中文 文言 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí 粵語 IsiZulu Fuulli kun dhumarratti kan gulaalame guyyaa 17 Onkoloolessa 2025, sa'aa 20:21 irratti. 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Start and end dates 2 Background Toggle Background subsection 2.1 Aftermath of World War I 2.2 Germany and Italy 2.3 European treaties 2.4 Asia 2.1 Aftermath of World War I 2.2 Germany and Italy 2.3 European treaties 2.4 Asia 3 Pre-war events Toggle Pre-war events subsection 3.1 Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) 3.2 Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) 3.3 Japanese invasion of China (1937) 3.4 Soviet–Japanese border conflicts 3.5 European occupations and agreements 3.1 Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) 3.2 Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) 3.3 Japanese invasion of China (1937) 3.4 Soviet–Japanese border conflicts 3.5 European occupations and agreements 4 Course of the war Toggle Course of the war subsection 4.1 War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) 4.2 Western Europe (1940–1941) 4.3 Mediterranean (1940–1941) 4.4 Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) 4.5 War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) 4.6 Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) 4.7 Pacific (1942–1943) 4.8 Eastern Front (1942–1943) 4.9 Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) 4.10 Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) 4.11 Allies Offensives (1944) 4.12 Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) 4.1 War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) 4.2 Western Europe (1940–1941) 4.3 Mediterranean (1940–1941) 4.4 Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) 4.5 War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) 4.6 Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) 4.7 Pacific (1942–1943) 4.8 Eastern Front (1942–1943) 4.9 Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) 4.10 Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) 4.11 Allies Offensives (1944) 4.12 Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) 5 Aftermath 6 Impact Toggle Impact subsection 6.1 Casualties and war crimes 6.2 Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour 6.3 Occupation 6.4 Home fronts and production 6.5 Advances in technology and its application 6.1 Casualties and war crimes 6.2 Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour 6.3 Occupation 6.4 Home fronts and production 6.5 Advances in technology and its application 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References Toggle References subsection 9.1 Sources 9.1 Sources 10 Further reading 11 External links World War II Адыгэбзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ Ænglisc العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Bislama Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Chavacano de Zamboanga Chi-Chewa ChiShona Corsu Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deitsch Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Diné bizaad Dolnoserbski डोटेली Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gàidhlig Galego 贛語 گیلکی ગુજરાતી 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Hausa Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Ido Igbo Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Коми Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Ladin Ladino Лакку ລາວ Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala La .lojban. Lombard Magyar Madhurâ मैथिली Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Malti Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu Minangkabau 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Mirandés Мокшень Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाली नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano ߒߞߏ Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Pälzisch پنجابی ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ Papiamentu پښتو Patois ភាសាខ្មែរ Picard Piemontèis Plattdüütsch Polski Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Ripoarisch Română Rumantsch Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sakizaya Gagana Samoa संस्कृतम् ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Sardu Scots Seeltersk Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ Ślůnski Soomaaliga کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Taclḥit Taqbaylit Tarandíne Татарча / tatarça తెలుగు ไทย Thuɔŋjäŋ Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Türkmençe Tyap Тыва дыл Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vahcuengh Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon 文言 West-Vlams Winaray Wolof 吴语 ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Batak Mandailing Jaku Iban Yerwa Kanuri Tolışi Toki pona Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikinews Wikiquote Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wikidata item This article contains one or more duplicated citations . 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( January 2026 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) (refs: 141, 198) World War II .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti 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("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} German Stuka dive bombers on the Eastern Front , 1943 British Matilda II tanks during the North African campaign , 1941 US atomic bombing of Nagasaki in Japan, 1945 Soviet troops at the Battle of Stalingrad , 1943 Soviet soldier raising a flag over the Reichstag after the Battle of Berlin , 1945 US warships in Lingayen Gulf in the Philippines , 1945 German Stuka dive bombers on the Eastern Front , 1943 British Matilda II tanks during the North African campaign , 1941 US atomic bombing of Nagasaki in Japan, 1945 Soviet troops at the Battle of Stalingrad , 1943 Soviet soldier raising a flag over the Reichstag after the Battle of Berlin , 1945 US warships in Lingayen Gulf in the Philippines , 1945 Date 1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945 [ a ] (6 years, 1 day) Location Global Result .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Allied victory Date 1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945 [ a ] (6 years, 1 day) Location Global Result .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Allied victory Allied victory Participants Allies Axis Commanders and leaders Main Allied leaders : Joseph Stalin Franklin D. Roosevelt Winston Churchill Chiang Kai-shek Joseph Stalin Franklin D. Roosevelt Winston Churchill Chiang Kai-shek Main Axis leaders : Adolf Hitler Hirohito Benito Mussolini Adolf Hitler Hirohito Benito Mussolini Casualties and losses 60 million to over 75 million deaths (military and civilian) .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Theatres of World War II v t e Europe Poland Soviet invasion Phoney War Saar Offensive Finland Winter War Karelia Lapland Weserübung Denmark Norway Western Front Luxembourg Netherlands Belgium France Alps 1944–1945 Britain Eastern Front Barbarossa Leningrad Crimea Rzhev Case Blue Stalingrad Kursk Dnieper–Carpaths Bagration Romania Hungary Vistula–Oder Berlin Liberation of France Overlord Dragoon Siegfried Line Market Garden Bulge Western Germany Asia-Pacific China Marco Polo Bridge Shanghai Taiyuan Nanjing Xuzhou and Taierzhuang Wuhan Winter Offensive Hundred Regiments Offensive Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Ichi-Go 1945 Hunan Burma 1941–1942 1942–1943 1944 1944–1945 South-East Asia Indochina Franco-Thai War Thailand Hong Kong Malaya and Singapore South West Pacific Philippines 1941–1942 1944–1945 Dutch East Indies Borneo 1945 Coral Sea Solomon Islands Guadalcanal New Georgia Bougainville New Guinea Kokoda Track Salamaua–Lae Markham, Ramu and Finisterre Huon Peninsula New Britain Admiralty Islands Western New Guinea Pacific Ocean Midway Gilberts and Marshalls Mariana and Palau Volcano and Ryukyu Soviet-Japanese War(Mainland) Manchuria and Northern Korea pre-war border conflicts Japan Volcano and Ryukyu South Sakhalin Kurils Mediterranean and Middle East Balkans Greco-Italian War Greece Crete Albania Yugoslavia Mediterranean Sea Adriatic Malta Dodecanese East Africa Guerrilla war Middle East Iraq Syria–Lebanon Iran North Africa Libya-Egypt Morocco-Algeria Tunisia Italy Sicily Mainland Italy Winter Line Gothic Line Spring Offensive Other campaigns Air warfare Strategic bombing Americas Aleuts Antarctica Atlantic Australia Arctic French West Africa Indian Ocean 1940–1945 Madagascar Coups Uruguay Norway Baltic Nations Yugoslavia Romania 1941 Iraq Italy Argentina Germany Croatia Romania 1944 Bulgaria Hungary French Indochina Japan Matsue Slovak National Uprising Resistance movements Albanian resistance Baltic states Belgian Resistance Czechoslovak Resistance Danish resistance Dutch resistance Ethiopian resistance French Resistance Greek resistance Italian Resistance Malayan resistance Norwegian resistance Filipino resistance Polish resistance Romanian resistance Slovak partisans Soviet partisans Free Thai Movement Yugoslav Partisans Poland Soviet invasion Soviet invasion Phoney War Saar Offensive Saar Offensive Finland Winter War Karelia Lapland Winter War Karelia Lapland Weserübung Denmark Norway Denmark Norway Western Front Luxembourg Netherlands Belgium France Luxembourg Netherlands Belgium France Alps 1944–1945 1944–1945 Britain Eastern Front Barbarossa Leningrad Crimea Rzhev Case Blue Stalingrad Kursk Dnieper–Carpaths Bagration Romania Hungary Vistula–Oder Berlin Barbarossa Leningrad Crimea Rzhev Case Blue Stalingrad Kursk Dnieper–Carpaths Bagration Romania Hungary Vistula–Oder Berlin Liberation of France Overlord Dragoon Siegfried Line Market Garden Bulge Western Germany Overlord Dragoon Siegfried Line Market Garden Bulge Western Germany China Marco Polo Bridge Shanghai Taiyuan Nanjing Xuzhou and Taierzhuang Wuhan Winter Offensive Hundred Regiments Offensive Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Ichi-Go 1945 Hunan Marco Polo Bridge Shanghai Taiyuan Nanjing Xuzhou and Taierzhuang Wuhan Winter Offensive Hundred Regiments Offensive Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Ichi-Go 1945 Hunan Burma 1941–1942 1942–1943 1944 1944–1945 1941–1942 1942–1943 1944 1944–1945 South-East Asia Indochina Franco-Thai War Thailand Hong Kong Malaya and Singapore Indochina Franco-Thai War Thailand Hong Kong Malaya and Singapore South West Pacific Philippines 1941–1942 1944–1945 1944–1945 Dutch East Indies Borneo 1945 Borneo 1945 Coral Sea Solomon Islands Guadalcanal New Georgia Bougainville Guadalcanal New Georgia Bougainville New Guinea Kokoda Track Salamaua–Lae Markham, Ramu and Finisterre Huon Peninsula New Britain Admiralty Islands Western New Guinea Kokoda Track Salamaua–Lae Markham, Ramu and Finisterre Huon Peninsula New Britain Admiralty Islands Western New Guinea Pacific Ocean Midway Gilberts and Marshalls Mariana and Palau Volcano and Ryukyu Midway Gilberts and Marshalls Mariana and Palau Volcano and Ryukyu Soviet-Japanese War(Mainland) Manchuria and Northern Korea pre-war border conflicts Manchuria and Northern Korea pre-war border conflicts Japan Volcano and Ryukyu South Sakhalin Kurils Volcano and Ryukyu South Sakhalin Kurils Balkans Greco-Italian War Greece Crete Albania Yugoslavia Greco-Italian War Greece Crete Crete Albania Yugoslavia Mediterranean Sea Adriatic Malta Dodecanese Adriatic Malta Dodecanese East Africa Guerrilla war Guerrilla war Middle East Iraq Syria–Lebanon Iran Iraq Syria–Lebanon Iran North Africa Libya-Egypt Morocco-Algeria Tunisia Libya-Egypt Morocco-Algeria Tunisia Italy Sicily Mainland Italy Winter Line Gothic Line Spring Offensive Sicily Mainland Italy Winter Line Gothic Line Spring Offensive Air warfare Strategic bombing Strategic bombing Americas Aleuts Aleuts Antarctica Atlantic Australia Arctic French West Africa Indian Ocean 1940–1945 Madagascar Madagascar Uruguay Norway Baltic Nations Yugoslavia Romania 1941 Iraq Italy Argentina Germany Croatia Romania 1944 Bulgaria Hungary French Indochina Japan Matsue Slovak National Uprising Albanian resistance Baltic states Belgian Resistance Czechoslovak Resistance Danish resistance Dutch resistance Ethiopian resistance French Resistance Greek resistance Italian Resistance Malayan resistance Norwegian resistance Filipino resistance Polish resistance Romanian resistance Slovak partisans Soviet partisans Free Thai Movement Yugoslav Partisans World War II Navigation Campaigns Countries Equipment Timeline Outline Lists Historiography Category Bibliography Campaigns Countries Equipment Campaigns Countries Equipment Timeline Outline Lists Historiography Timeline Outline Lists Historiography Category Bibliography Category Bibliography v t e v t e World War II [ b ] or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a global conflict between two coalitions : the Allies and the Axis powers . Nearly all of the world's countries participated, with many nations mobilising their resources in pursuit of total war . Tanks and aircraft played major roles , enabling the strategic bombing of cities and delivery of the first and only nuclear weapons ever used in war. World War II is the deadliest conflict in history, causing the death of over 60 million people. Millions died in genocides , including the Holocaust , and by massacres, starvation, and disease. After the Allied victory, Germany , Austria , Japan , and Korea were occupied, and German and Japanese leaders were put on trial for war crimes . The causes of World War II included unresolved tensions in the aftermath of World War I , the rise of fascism in Europe and militarism in Japan . Key events preceding the war included Japan's invasion of Manchuria in 1931, the Spanish Civil War , the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, and Germany's annexations of Austria and the Sudetenland . World War II is generally considered to have begun on 1 September 1939, when Nazi Germany , under Adolf Hitler , invaded Poland , after which the United Kingdom and France declared war on Germany. Poland was also invaded by the Soviet Union in mid-September, and was partitioned between Germany and the Soviet Union under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact . In 1940, the Soviet Union annexed the Baltic states and parts of Finland and Romania , while Germany conquered Norway , Belgium , Luxembourg and the Netherlands . After the fall of France in June 1940, the war continued mainly between Germany, now assisted by Fascist Italy , and the British Empire / British Commonwealth , with fighting in the Balkans , Mediterranean, and Middle East , East Africa , the aerial Battle of Britain and the Blitz , and the naval Battle of the Atlantic . By mid-1941 Yugoslavia and Greece had also been defeated by Axis countries. In June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union , opening the Eastern Front and initially making large territorial gains along with Axis allies. In December 1941, Japan attacked American and British territories in Asia and the Pacific , including Pearl Harbor in Hawaii , leading the United States to enter the war against the Axis. Japan conquered much of coastal China and Southeast Asia , but its advances in the Pacific were halted in June 1942 at the Battle of Midway . In early 1943, Axis forces were defeated in North Africa and at Stalingrad in the Soviet Union. An Allied invasion of Italy in July resulted in the fall of its fascist regime , and Allied offensives in the Pacific and the Soviet Union forced the Axis to retreat on all fronts. In 1944, the Western Allies invaded France at Normandy , and the Soviet Union advanced into Central Europe. During the same period, Japan suffered major setbacks, including the crippling of its navy by the United States, the loss of key Western Pacific islands, and defeats in South-Central China and Burma . The war in Europe concluded with the liberation of German-occupied territories and the invasion of Germany by the Allies which culminated in the fall of Berlin to Soviet troops, and Germany's unconditional surrender on 8 May 1945 . On 6 and 9 August, the US dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan. Faced with an imminent Allied invasion , the prospect of further atomic bombings, and a Soviet declaration of war and invasion of Manchuria , Japan announced its unconditional surrender on 15 August, and signed a surrender document on 2 September 1945 . World War II transformed the political, economic, and social structures of the world, and established the foundation of international relations for the rest of the 20th century and into the 21st century. The United Nations was created to foster international cooperation and prevent future conflicts, with the victorious great powers—China, France, the Soviet Union, the UK, and the US—becoming the permanent members of its security council . The Soviet Union and the US emerged as rival superpowers , setting the stage for the half-century Cold War . In the wake of Europe's devastation, the influence of its great powers waned, triggering the decolonisation of Africa and of Asia . Many countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery and expansion . Start and end dates Timelines of World War II Chronological Prelude Events ( in Asia in Europe ) Aftermath Events ( in Asia in Europe ) Aftermath 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Aftermath 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Aftermath By topic Causes ( Diplomacy ) Declarations of war Battles Operations Causes ( Diplomacy ) Causes ( Diplomacy ) Declarations of war Battles Operations Battles Operations By theatre Battle of Europe air operations Eastern Front Manhattan Project United Kingdom home front Surrender of the Axis armies Battle of Europe air operations Eastern Front Manhattan Project Eastern Front Manhattan Project United Kingdom home front Surrender of the Axis armies v t e v t e Most historians agree that World War II began with the German invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939 [ 1 ] [ 2 ] and the United Kingdom and France 's declaration of war on Germany two days later. Dates for the beginning of the Pacific War include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, [ 3 ] [ 4 ] or the earlier Japanese invasion of Manchuria , on 18 September 1931. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Other proposed starting dates for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. [ 7 ] The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939. [ 8 ] Others view the Spanish Civil War as the start or prelude to World War II. [ 9 ] [ 10 ] The exact date of the war's end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 15 August 1945 ( V-J Day ), rather than with the formal surrender of Japan on 2 September 1945, which officially ended the war in Asia . A peace treaty between Japan and the Allies was signed in 1951. [ 11 ] A 1990 treaty regarding Germany's future allowed the reunification of East and West Germany to take place. [ 12 ] No formal peace treaty between Japan and the Soviet Union was ever signed, [ 13 ] although the state of war between the two countries was terminated by the Soviet–Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956 , which also restored full diplomatic relations between them. [ 14 ] Background Aftermath of World War I World War I had radically altered the political European map with the defeat of the Central Powers —including Austria-Hungary, Germany, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire —and the 1917 Bolshevik seizure of power in Russia , which led to the founding of the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, the victorious Allies of World War I , such as France, Belgium, Italy, Romania, and Greece, gained territory, and new nation-states were created out of the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian , Ottoman , and Russian Empires . [ 15 ] [ failed verification ] To prevent a future world war, the League of Nations was established in 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference . The organisation's primary goals were to prevent armed conflict through collective security, military, and naval disarmament , as well as settling international disputes through peaceful negotiations and arbitration. [ 16 ] Despite strong pacifist sentiment after World War I , [ 17 ] irredentist and revanchist nationalism had emerged in several European states. These sentiments were especially pronounced in Germany due to the significant territorial, colonial, and financial losses imposed by the Treaty of Versailles . Under the treaty, Germany lost around 13 percent of its home territory and all its overseas possessions , while German annexation of other states was prohibited, reparations were imposed, and limits were placed on the size and capability of the country's armed forces . [ 18 ] Germany and Italy The German Empire was dissolved in the German revolution of 1918–1919 , and a democratic government, later known as the Weimar Republic , was created. The interwar period saw strife between supporters of the new republic and hardline opponents on both the political right and left. Italy, as an Entente ally, had made some post-war territorial gains; however, Italian nationalists were angered that the promises made by the United Kingdom and France to secure Italian entrance into the war were not fulfilled in the peace settlement. From 1922 to 1925, the fascist movement led by Benito Mussolini seized power in Italy with a nationalist, totalitarian , and class collaborationist agenda that abolished representative democracy , repressed socialist, left-wing, and liberal forces, and pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at making Italy a world power, promising the creation of a "New Roman Empire". [ 19 ] Adolf Hitler , after an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German government in 1923, eventually became the chancellor of Germany in 1933 when President Paul von Hindenburg and the Reichstag appointed him. Following Hindenburg's death in 1934, Hitler proclaimed himself Führer of Germany and abolished democracy, espousing a radical, racially motivated revision of the world order , and soon began a massive rearmament campaign . [ 20 ] France, seeking to secure its alliance with Italy, allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia , which Italy desired as a colonial possession. The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when the Territory of the Saar Basin was legally reunited with Germany, and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles, accelerated his rearmament programme, and introduced conscription. [ 21 ] European treaties The United Kingdom, France and Italy formed the Stresa Front in April 1935 in order to contain Germany, a key step towards military globalisation ; however, that June, the United Kingdom made an independent naval agreement with Germany, easing prior restrictions. The Soviet Union, concerned by Germany's goals of capturing vast areas of Eastern Europe , drafted a treaty of mutual assistance with France. Before taking effect, though, the Franco-Soviet pact was required to go through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations, which rendered it essentially toothless. [ 22 ] The United States, concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed the Neutrality Act in August of the same year. [ 23 ] Hitler defied the Versailles and Locarno Treaties by remilitarising the Rhineland in March 1936, encountering little opposition due to the policy of appeasement . [ 24 ] In October 1936, Germany and Italy formed the Rome–Berlin Axis . A month later, Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact , which Italy joined the following year. [ 25 ] Asia The Kuomintang party in China launched a unification campaign against regional warlords and nominally unified China in the mid-1920s, but was soon embroiled in a civil war against its former Chinese Communist Party (CCP) allies [ 26 ] and new regional warlords . In 1931, an increasingly militaristic Empire of Japan , which had long sought influence in China [ 27 ] as the first step of what its government saw as the country's right to rule Asia , staged the Mukden incident as a pretext to invade Manchuria and establish the puppet state of Manchukuo . [ 28 ] China appealed to the League of Nations to stop the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations after being condemned for its incursion into Manchuria. The two nations then fought several battles, in Shanghai , Rehe , and Hebei , until the Tanggu Truce was signed in 1933. Thereafter, Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to Japanese aggression in Manchuria , and Chahar and Suiyuan . [ 29 ] After the 1936 Xi'an Incident , the Kuomintang and CCP forces agreed on a ceasefire to present a united front to oppose Japan. [ 30 ] Pre-war events Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) The Second Italo-Ethiopian War was a colonial war that began in October 1935 and ended in May 1936. The war began with the invasion of the Ethiopian Empire (also known as Abyssinia ) by the armed forces of the Kingdom of Italy ( Regno d'Italia ), which was launched from Italian Somaliland and Eritrea . [ 31 ] The war resulted in the military occupation of Ethiopia and its annexation into the newly created colony of Italian East Africa ( Africa Orientale Italiana ); in addition it exposed the weakness of the League of Nations as a force to preserve peace. Both Italy and Ethiopia were member nations, but the League did little when the former clearly violated Article X of the League's Covenant . [ 32 ] The United Kingdom and France supported imposing sanctions on Italy for the invasion, but the sanctions were not fully enforced and failed to end the Italian invasion. [ 33 ] Italy subsequently dropped its objections to Germany's goal of absorbing Austria . [ 34 ] Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) When civil war broke out in Spain, Hitler and Mussolini lent military support to the Nationalist rebels , led by General Francisco Franco . Italy supported the Nationalists to a greater extent than the Nazis: Mussolini sent more than 70,000 ground troops, 6,000 aviation personnel, and 720 aircraft to Spain. [ 35 ] The Soviet Union supported the existing government of the Spanish Republic . More than 30,000 foreign volunteers, known as the International Brigades , also fought against the Nationalists. Both Germany and the Soviet Union used this proxy war as an opportunity to test in combat their most advanced weapons and tactics. The Nationalists won the civil war in April 1939; Franco, now dictator, remained officially neutral during World War II but generally favoured the Axis . [ 36 ] His greatest collaboration with Germany was the sending of volunteers to fight on the Eastern Front . [ 37 ] Japanese invasion of China (1937) In July 1937, Japan captured the former Chinese imperial capital of Peking after instigating the Marco Polo Bridge incident , which culminated in the Japanese campaign to invade all of China following years of tension and low-level conflicts . [ 38 ] The Soviets quickly signed a non-aggression pact with China to lend materiel support, effectively ending China's prior cooperation with Germany . [ 39 ] From September to November, the Japanese attacked Taiyuan , engaged the Kuomintang Army around Xinkou , [ 40 ] fought Communist forces in Pingxingguan [ 41 ] [ 42 ] , and wrestled control over China's northern railway network. [ 43 ] Nationalist Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek deployed his best army to defend Shanghai , but after three months of heavy fighting, Shanghai fell. The Japanese continued to push Chinese forces back, capturing the capital Nanking in December 1937. [ 44 ] [ 45 ] [ 46 ] In March 1938, Nationalist Chinese forces won their first major victory at Taierzhuang , but ultimately lost control of the city of Xuzhou in May. [ 47 ] In June 1938, Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance by flooding the Yellow River ; buying time for the Chinese to prepare their defences at Wuhan at heavy cost to the local civilian population, but the city was taken by October after heavy fighting along the Yangtze River. [ 48 ] Japanese military victories did not destroy Chinese resistance; instead, the Chinese government relocated inland to Chongqing and continued the war. [ 49 ] [ 50 ] Aiming to break Chinese morale, Japanese aircraft began striking cities in the Sichuan basin in a bombing campaign, killing tens of thousands of civilians. [ 51 ] [ 52 ] Soviet–Japanese border conflicts In the mid-to-late 1930s, Japanese forces in Manchukuo had sporadic border clashes with the Soviet Union and Mongolia . The Japanese doctrine of Hokushin-ron , which emphasised Japan's expansion northward, was favoured by the Imperial Army during this time. This policy would prove difficult to maintain in light of the Japanese defeat at Khalkin Gol in 1939, the ongoing Second Sino-Japanese War [ 53 ] and ally Nazi Germany pursuing neutrality with the Soviets. Japan and the Soviet Union eventually signed a Neutrality Pact in April 1941, and Japan adopted the doctrine of Nanshin-ron , promoted by the Navy, which took its focus southward and eventually led to war with the United States and the Western Allies. [ 54 ] [ 55 ] European occupations and agreements In Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming more aggressive. In March 1938, Germany annexed Austria , again provoking little response from other European powers. [ 56 ] Encouraged, Hitler began pressing German claims on the Sudetenland , an area of Czechoslovakia with a predominantly ethnic German population. Soon the United Kingdom and France followed the appeasement policy of British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and conceded this territory to Germany in the Munich Agreement , which was made against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government, in exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands. [ 57 ] Soon afterwards, Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia to cede additional territory to Hungary, and Poland annexed the Trans-Olza region of Czechoslovakia. [ 58 ] Although all of Germany's stated demands had been satisfied by the agreement, privately Hitler was furious that British interference had prevented him from seizing all of Czechoslovakia in one operation. In subsequent speeches Hitler attacked British and Jewish "war-mongers" and in January 1939 secretly ordered a major build-up of the German navy to challenge British naval supremacy. In March 1939, Germany invaded the remainder of Czechoslovakia and subsequently split it into the German Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and a pro-German client state , the Slovak Republic . [ 59 ] Hitler also delivered an ultimatum to Lithuania on 20 March 1939, forcing the concession of the Klaipėda Region , formerly the German Memelland . [ 60 ] Greatly alarmed and with Hitler making further demands on the Free City of Danzig , the United Kingdom and France guaranteed their support for Polish independence ; when Italy conquered Albania in April 1939, the same guarantee was extended to the Kingdoms of Romania and Greece . [ 61 ] Shortly after the Franco - British pledge to Poland, Germany and Italy formalised their own alliance with the Pact of Steel . [ 62 ] Hitler accused the United Kingdom and Poland of trying to "encircle" Germany and renounced the Anglo-German Naval Agreement and the German–Polish declaration of non-aggression . [ 63 ] The situation became a crisis in late August as German troops continued to mobilise against the Polish border. On 23 August the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact with Germany, [ 64 ] after tripartite negotiations for a military alliance between France, the United Kingdom, and Soviet Union had stalled. [ 65 ] This pact had a secret protocol that defined German and Soviet "spheres of influence" (western Poland and Lithuania for Germany; eastern Poland , Finland, Estonia , Latvia and Bessarabia for the Soviet Union), and raised the question of continuing Polish independence. [ 66 ] The pact neutralised the possibility of Soviet opposition to a campaign against Poland and assured that Germany would not have to face the prospect of a two-front war, as it had in World War I . Immediately afterwards, Hitler ordered the attack to proceed on 26 August, but upon hearing that the United Kingdom had concluded a formal mutual assistance pact with Poland and that Italy would maintain neutrality, he decided to delay it. [ 67 ] In response to British requests for direct negotiations to avoid war, Germany made demands on Poland, which served as a pretext to worsen relations. [ 68 ] On 29 August, Hitler demanded that a Polish plenipotentiary immediately travel to Berlin to negotiate the handover of Danzig , and to allow a plebiscite in the Polish Corridor in which the German minority would vote on secession. [ 68 ] The Poles refused to comply with the German demands, and on the night of 30–31 August in a confrontational meeting with the British ambassador Nevile Henderson , Ribbentrop declared that Germany considered its claims rejected. [ 69 ] Course of the war War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland after having staged several false flag border incidents as a pretext to initiate the invasion. [ 71 ] The first German attack of the war came against the Polish defences at Westerplatte . [ 72 ] The United Kingdom responded with an ultimatum for Germany to cease military operations, and on 3 September, after the ultimatum was ignored, Britain and France declared war on Germany. [ c ] During the Phoney War period, the alliance provided no direct military support to Poland, outside of a cautious French probe into the Saarland . [ 73 ] The Western Allies also began a naval blockade of Germany , which aimed to damage the country's economy and war effort. [ 74 ] Germany responded by ordering U-boat warfare against Allied merchant and warships, which would later escalate into the Battle of the Atlantic . [ 75 ] On 8 September, German troops reached the suburbs of Warsaw . The Polish counter-offensive to the west halted the German advance for several days, but it was outflanked and encircled by the Wehrmacht . Remnants of the Polish army broke through to besieged Warsaw . On 17 September 1939, two days after signing a cease-fire with Japan , the Soviet Union invaded Poland [ 76 ] under the supposed pretext that the Polish state had ceased to exist. [ 77 ] On 27 September, the Warsaw garrison surrendered to the Germans, and the last large operational unit of the Polish Army surrendered on 6 October . Despite the military defeat, Poland never surrendered; instead, it formed the Polish government-in-exile and a clandestine state apparatus remained in occupied Poland. [ 78 ] A significant part of Polish military personnel evacuated to Romania and Latvia; many of them later fought against the Axis in other theatres of the war. [ 79 ] Germany annexed western Poland and occupied central Poland ; the Soviet Union annexed eastern Poland . Small shares of Polish territory were transferred to Lithuania and Slovakia . On 6 October, Hitler made a public peace overture to the United Kingdom and France but said that the future of Poland was to be determined exclusively by Germany and the Soviet Union. The proposal was rejected [ 69 ] and Hitler ordered an immediate offensive against France, [ 80 ] which was postponed until the spring of 1940 due to bad weather. [ 81 ] [ 82 ] [ 83 ] After the outbreak of war in Poland, Stalin threatened Estonia , Latvia , and Lithuania with military invasion, forcing the three Baltic countries to sign pacts allowing the creation of Soviet military bases in these countries; in October 1939, significant Soviet military contingents were moved there. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] [ 86 ] Finland refused to sign a similar pact and rejected ceding part of its territory to the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union invaded Finland in November 1939, [ 87 ] and was subsequently expelled from the League of Nations for this crime of aggression. [ 88 ] Despite overwhelming numerical superiority, Soviet military success during the Winter War was modest, and the Finno–Soviet war ended in March 1940 with some Finnish concessions of territory . [ 89 ] In June 1940, the Soviet Union occupied the entire territories of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, [ 85 ] as well as the Romanian regions of Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and the Hertsa region . In August 1940, Hitler imposed the Second Vienna Award on Romania which led to the transfer of Northern Transylvania to Hungary. [ 90 ] In September 1940, Bulgaria demanded Southern Dobruja from Romania with German and Italian support, leading to the Treaty of Craiova . [ 91 ] The loss of one-third of Romania's 1939 territory caused a coup against King Carol II , turning Romania into a fascist dictatorship under Marshal Ion Antonescu , with a course set towards the Axis in the hopes of a German guarantee. [ 92 ] Meanwhile, German–Soviet political relations and economic co-operation [ 93 ] [ 94 ] gradually stalled, [ 95 ] [ 96 ] and both states began preparations for war. [ 97 ] Western Europe (1940–1941) In April 1940, Germany invaded Denmark and Norway to protect shipments of iron ore from Sweden , which the Allies were attempting to cut off . [ 98 ] Denmark capitulated after six hours , and despite Allied support , Norway was conquered within two months. [ 99 ] British discontent over the Norwegian campaign led to the resignation of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain , who was replaced by Winston Churchill on 10 May 1940. [ 100 ] On the same day, Germany launched an offensive against France . To circumvent the strong Maginot Line fortifications on the Franco-German border, Germany directed its attack at the neutral nations of Belgium , the Netherlands , and Luxembourg . [ 101 ] The Germans carried out a flanking manoeuvre through the Ardennes region, [ 102 ] which was mistakenly perceived by the Allies as an impenetrable natural barrier against armoured vehicles. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] By successfully implementing new Blitzkrieg tactics, the Wehrmacht rapidly advanced to the Channel and cut off the Allied forces in Belgium, trapping the bulk of the Allied armies in a cauldron on the Franco-Belgian border near Lille. The United Kingdom was able to evacuate a significant number of Allied troops from the continent by early June, although they had to abandon almost all their equipment. [ 105 ] On 10 June, Italy invaded France , declaring war on both France and the United Kingdom. [ 106 ] The Germans turned south against the weakened French army, and Paris fell to them on 14 June. Eight days later France signed an armistice with Germany ; it was divided into German and Italian occupation zones , [ 107 ] and an unoccupied rump state under the Vichy Regime , which, though officially neutral, was generally aligned with Germany. France kept its fleet, which the United Kingdom attacked on 3 July in an attempt to prevent its seizure by Germany. [ 108 ] The air Battle of Britain [ 109 ] began in early July with Luftwaffe attacks on shipping and harbours . [ 110 ] The German campaign for air superiority started in August but its failure to defeat RAF Fighter Command forced the indefinite postponement of the proposed German invasion of Britain . The German strategic bombing offensive intensified with night attacks on London and other cities in the Blitz , but largely ended in May 1941 [ 111 ] after failing to significantly disrupt the British war effort. [ 110 ] Using newly captured French ports, the German Navy enjoyed success against an over-extended Royal Navy , using U-boats against British shipping in the Atlantic . [ 112 ] The British Home Fleet scored a significant victory on 27 May 1941 by sinking the German battleship Bismarck . [ 113 ] In November 1939, the United States was assisting China and the Western Allies, and had amended the Neutrality Act to allow " cash and carry " purchases by the Allies. [ 114 ] In 1940, following the German capture of Paris, the size of the United States Navy was significantly increased . In September the United States further agreed to a trade of American destroyers for British bases . [ 115 ] Still, a large majority of the American public continued to oppose any direct military intervention in the conflict well into 1941. [ 116 ] In December 1940, President Franklin D. Roosevelt accused Hitler of planning world conquest and ruled out any negotiations as useless, calling for the United States to become an " arsenal of democracy " and promoting Lend-Lease programmes of military and humanitarian aid to support the British war effort; Lend-Lease was later extended to the other Allies, including the Soviet Union after it was invaded by Germany. [ 117 ] The United States started strategic planning to prepare for a full-scale offensive against Germany. [ 118 ] At the end of September 1940, the Tripartite Pact formally united Japan, Italy, and Germany as the Axis powers . The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country—with the exception of the Soviet Union—that attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three. [ 119 ] The Axis expanded in November 1940 when Hungary , Slovakia , and Romania joined. [ 120 ] Romania and Hungary later made major contributions to the Axis war against the Soviet Union, in Romania's case partially to recapture territory ceded to the Soviet Union . [ 121 ] Mediterranean (1940–1941) In early June 1940, the Italian Regia Aeronautica attacked and besieged Malta , a British possession. From late summer to early autumn, Italy conquered British Somaliland and made an incursion into British-held Egypt . In October, Italy attacked Greece , but the attack was repulsed with heavy Italian casualties; the campaign ended within months with minor territorial changes. [ 122 ] To assist Italy and prevent Britain from gaining a foothold, Germany prepared to invade the Balkans, which would threaten Romanian oil fields and strike against British dominance of the Mediterranean. [ 123 ] In December 1940, British Empire forces began counter-offensives against Italian forces in Egypt and Italian East Africa . [ 124 ] The offensives were successful; by early February 1941, Italy had lost control of eastern Libya, and large numbers of Italian troops had been taken prisoner. The Italian Navy also suffered significant defeats, with the Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission after a carrier attack at Taranto , and neutralising several more warships at the Battle of Cape Matapan . [ 125 ] Italian defeats prompted Germany to deploy an expeditionary force to North Africa; at the end of March 1941, Rommel 's Afrika Korps launched an offensive which drove back Commonwealth forces. [ 126 ] In less than a month, Axis forces advanced to western Egypt and besieged the port of Tobruk . [ 127 ] By late March 1941, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia signed the Tripartite Pact ; however, the Yugoslav government was overthrown two days later by pro-British nationalists. Germany and Italy responded with simultaneous invasions of both Yugoslavia and Greece , commencing on 6 April 1941 with a massive bombing of Belgrade ; both nations were forced to surrender within the month. [ 128 ] The airborne invasion of the Greek island of Crete at the end of May completed the German conquest of the Balkans. [ 129 ] Partisan warfare subsequently broke out against the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia , which continued until the end of the war. [ 130 ] In the Middle East in May, Commonwealth forces quashed an uprising in Iraq which had been supported by German aircraft from bases within Vichy-controlled Syria . [ 131 ] Between June and July, British-led forces invaded and occupied the French possessions of Syria and Lebanon , assisted by the Free French . [ 132 ] Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) With the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable, Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union made preparations for war. With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with Germany, and the Japanese planning to take advantage of the European War by seizing resource-rich European possessions in Southeast Asia , the two powers signed the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1941. [ 133 ] By contrast, the Germans were steadily making preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, massing forces on the Soviet border. [ 134 ] Hitler believed that the United Kingdom's refusal to end the war was based on the hope that the United States and the Soviet Union would enter the war against Germany. [ 135 ] On 31 July 1940, Hitler decided that the Soviet Union should be eliminated and aimed for the conquest of Ukraine , the Baltic states and Byelorussia . [ 136 ] However, other senior German officials like Ribbentrop saw an opportunity to create a Euro-Asian bloc against the British Empire by inviting the Soviet Union into the Tripartite Pact. [ 137 ] In November 1940, negotiations took place to determine if the Soviet Union would join the pact. The Soviets showed some interest but asked for concessions from Finland, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Japan that Germany considered unacceptable. On 18 December 1940, Hitler issued the directive to prepare for an invasion of the Soviet Union. [ 138 ] On 22 June 1941, Germany, supported by Italy and Romania, invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa , with Germany accusing the Soviets of plotting against them ; they were joined shortly by Finland and Hungary. [ 139 ] The primary targets of this surprise offensive [ 140 ] were the Baltic region , Moscow and Ukraine, with the ultimate goal of ending the 1941 campaign near the Arkhangelsk–Astrakhan line —from the Caspian to the White Seas . Hitler's objectives were to eliminate the Soviet Union as a military power, exterminate communism , generate Lebensraum ("living space") [ 141 ] by dispossessing the native population , [ 142 ] and guarantee access to the strategic resources needed to defeat Germany's remaining rivals. [ 143 ] Although the Red Army was preparing for strategic counter-offensives before the war, [ 144 ] Operation Barbarossa forced the Soviet supreme command to adopt strategic defence . During the summer, the Axis made significant gains into Soviet territory, inflicting immense losses in both personnel and materiel, mainly in massive encirclements around Minsk , Smolensk , and Uman .. Nazi policy entailed that Wehrmacht subject Soviet POWs to murderous treatment, executing all Jewish and Communist POWs immediately per the Commissar Order , and subjecting the remainder to forced marches to open-air concentration camps, where they were to be deliberately starved to death . By the end of the winter of 1941, 2.8 million Soviet POWs had died in German captivity. Some 3.3 million Soviet POWs would die in German captivity by the war's end in total, a nearly 60% mortality rate. [ 145 ] By mid-August, however, the German Army High Command decided to suspend the offensive of a considerably depleted Army Group Centre , and to divert the 2nd Panzer Group to reinforce troops advancing towards central Ukraine and Leningrad. [ 146 ] The Kiev offensive was overwhelmingly successful, resulting in encirclement and elimination of four Soviet armies, and made possible further advance into Crimea and industrially-developed eastern Ukraine (the First Battle of Kharkov ). [ 147 ] The diversion of three-quarters of the Axis troops and the majority of their air forces from France and the central Mediterranean to the Eastern Front [ 148 ] prompted the United Kingdom to reconsider its grand strategy . [ 149 ] In July, the UK and the Soviet Union formed a military alliance against Germany [ 150 ] and in August, the United Kingdom and the United States jointly issued the Atlantic Charter , which outlined British and American goals for the post-war world. [ 151 ] In late August the British and Soviets invaded neutral Iran to secure the Persian Corridor , Iran's oil fields , and preempt any Axis advances through Iran toward the Baku oil fields or India. [ 152 ] By October, Axis powers had achieved operational objectives in Ukraine and the Baltic region, with only the sieges of Leningrad [ 153 ] and Sevastopol continuing. [ 154 ] A major offensive against Moscow was renewed; after two months of fierce battles in increasingly harsh weather, the German army almost reached the outer suburbs of Moscow, where the exhausted troops [ 155 ] were forced to suspend the offensive. [ 156 ] Large territorial gains were made by Axis forces, but their campaign had failed to achieve its main objectives: two key cities remained in Soviet hands, the Soviet capability to resist was not broken, and the Soviet Union retained a considerable part of its military potential. The blitzkrieg phase of the war in Europe had ended. [ 157 ] By early December, freshly mobilised reserves [ 158 ] allowed the Soviets to achieve numerical parity with Axis troops. [ 159 ] This, as well as intelligence data which established that a minimal number of Soviet troops in the East would be sufficient to deter any attack by the Japanese Kwantung Army , [ 160 ] allowed the Soviets to begin a massive counter-offensive that started on 5 December all along the front and pushed German troops 100–250 kilometres (62–155 mi) west. [ 161 ] War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) Following the Japanese false flag Mukden incident in 1931, the Japanese shelling of the American gunboat USS Panay in 1937, and the 1937–1938 Nanjing Massacre , Japanese-American relations deteriorated . In 1939, the United States notified Japan that it would not be extending its trade treaty and American public opinion opposing Japanese expansionism led to a series of economic sanctions—the Export Control Acts —which banned US exports of chemicals, minerals and military parts to Japan, and increased economic pressure on the Japanese regime. [ 117 ] [ 162 ] [ 163 ] During 1939 Japan launched its first attack against Changsha , but was repulsed by late September. [ 164 ] Despite several offensives by both sides, by 1940 the war between China and Japan was at a stalemate. To increase pressure on China by blocking supply routes, and to better position Japanese forces in the event of a war with the Western powers, Japan invaded and occupied northern Indochina in September 1940. [ 165 ] Chinese nationalist forces launched a large-scale counter-offensive in early 1940. In August, Chinese communists launched an offensive in Central China ; [ 166 ] in retaliation, Japanese armies in North China implemented the Three Alls Policy , a massive scorched earth initiative to depopulate regions deemed hostile to Japanese occupation.. [ 167 ] [ 168 ] Continued antipathy between Chinese communist and nationalist forces culminated in armed clashes in January 1941 , effectively ending their co-operation. [ 169 ] In March, the Japanese 11th army attacked the headquarters of the nationalist Chinese 19th army but was repulsed during the Battle of Shanggao . [ 170 ] In September, Japan attempted to take the city of Changsha again and clashed with Chinese nationalist forces. [ 171 ] German successes in Europe prompted Japan to increase pressure on European governments in Southeast Asia . The Dutch government agreed to provide Japan with oil supplies from the Dutch East Indies , but negotiations for additional access to their resources ended in failure in June 1941. [ 172 ] In July 1941 Japan sent troops to southern Indochina, threatening British and Dutch possessions in the Far East. The United States, the United Kingdom, and other Western governments reacted to this move with a freeze on Japanese assets and a total oil embargo . [ 173 ] [ 174 ] At the same time, Japan was planning an invasion of the Soviet Far East , intending to take advantage of the German invasion in the west, but abandoned the operation after the sanctions. [ 175 ] Since early 1941, the United States and Japan had been engaged in negotiations in an attempt to improve their strained relations and end the war in China. Japan advanced a number of proposals which were dismissed by the Americans as inadequate. [ 176 ] At the same time the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands engaged in secret discussions for the joint defence of their territories, in the event of a Japanese attack against any of them. [ 177 ] Roosevelt reinforced the Philippines (an American protectorate scheduled for independence in 1946) and warned Japan that the United States would react to Japanese attacks against any "neighboring countries". [ 177 ] Frustrated at the lack of progress and pressured by American–British–Dutch sanctions, especially in oil, Japan prepared for war. Emperor Hirohito , after initial hesitation about Japan's chances of victory, [ 178 ] began to favour Japan's entry into the war. [ 179 ] As a result, Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe resigned. [ 180 ] [ 181 ] Hirohito refused the recommendation to appoint Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni in his place, choosing War Minister Hideki Tojo instead. [ 182 ] On 3 November, Nagano explained in detail the plan of the attack on Pearl Harbor to the Emperor. [ 183 ] On 5 November, Hirohito approved in imperial conference the operations plan for the war. [ 184 ] On 20 November, the new government presented an interim proposal as its final offer. It called for the end of American aid to China and for lifting the embargo on the supply of oil and other resources to Japan. In exchange, Japan promised not to launch any attacks in Southeast Asia and to withdraw its forces from southern Indochina. [ 176 ] The American counter-proposal of 26 November required that Japan evacuate all of China without conditions and conclude non-aggression pacts with all Pacific powers. [ 185 ] That meant Japan was essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions in China, or seizing the natural resources it needed in the Dutch East Indies by force; [ 186 ] [ 187 ] the Japanese military did not consider the former an option, and many officers considered the oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war. [ 188 ] Japan planned to seize European colonies in Asia to create a large defensive perimeter stretching into the Central Pacific. The Japanese would then be free to exploit the resources of Southeast Asia while exhausting the over-stretched Allies by fighting a defensive war. [ 189 ] To prevent American intervention while securing the perimeter, it was further planned to neutralise the United States Pacific Fleet and the American military presence in the Philippines from the outset. [ 190 ] On 7 December 1941 (8 December in Asian time zones), Japan attacked British and American holdings with near-simultaneous offensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific . [ 191 ] These included an attack on the American fleets at Pearl Harbor and the Philippines , as well as invasions of Guam , Wake Island , Malaya , [ 191 ] Thailand , and Hong Kong . [ 192 ] These attacks led the United States , United Kingdom , China, Australia, and several other states to formally declare war on Japan, whereas the Soviet Union, being heavily involved in large-scale hostilities with European Axis countries, maintained its neutrality agreement with Japan. [ 193 ] Germany, followed by the other Axis states, declared war on the United States [ 194 ] in solidarity with Japan, citing as justification the American attacks on German war vessels that had been ordered by Roosevelt. [ 139 ] [ 195 ] Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) On 1 January 1942, the Allied Big Four [ 196 ] —the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, and the United States—and 22 smaller or exiled governments issued the Declaration by United Nations , thereby affirming the Atlantic Charter [ 197 ] and agreeing not to sign a separate peace with the Axis powers. [ 198 ] During 1942, Allied officials debated on the appropriate grand strategy to pursue. All agreed that defeating Germany was the primary objective. The Americans favoured a straightforward, large-scale attack on Germany through France. The Soviets demanded a second front. The British argued that military operations should target peripheral areas to wear out German strength, leading to increasing demoralisation, and bolstering resistance forces ; Germany itself would be subject to a heavy bombing campaign. An offensive against Germany would then be launched primarily by Allied armour, without using large-scale armies. [ 199 ] Eventually, the British persuaded the Americans that a landing in France was infeasible in 1942 and they should instead focus on driving the Axis out of North Africa. [ 200 ] At the Casablanca Conference in early 1943, the Allies reiterated the statements issued in the 1942 Declaration and demanded the unconditional surrender of their enemies. The British and Americans agreed to continue to press the initiative in the Mediterranean by invading Sicily to fully secure the Mediterranean supply routes. [ 201 ] Although the British argued for further operations in the Balkans to bring Turkey into the war, in May 1943, the Americans extracted a British commitment to limit Allied operations in the Mediterranean to an invasion of the Italian mainland, and to invade France in 1944. [ 202 ] Pacific (1942–1943) By the end of April 1942, Japan and its ally Thailand had almost conquered Burma , Malaya , the Dutch East Indies , Singapore , and Rabaul , inflicting severe losses on Allied troops and taking a large number of prisoners. Japanese advances were accompanied by numerous atrocities, including the Sook Ching Massacre in Singapore. [ 203 ] Despite stubborn resistance by Filipino and US forces , the Philippine Commonwealth was eventually captured in May 1942, forcing its government into exile. Following the capture of Bataan, Japanese armies forced some 75,000 Filipino and American prisoners on a 42km death march , resulting in thousands of deaths. [ 204 ] On 16 April, in Burma, 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during the Battle of Yenangyaung and rescued by the Chinese 38th Division. [ 205 ] Japanese forces achieved naval victories in the South China Sea , Java Sea , and Indian Ocean , [ 206 ] and bombed the Allied naval base at Darwin , Australia. In January 1942, the only Allied success against Japan was a Chinese victory at Changsha . [ 207 ] These easy victories over the unprepared US and European opponents left Japan overconfident, and overextended. [ 208 ] In early May 1942, Japan initiated operations to capture Port Moresby by amphibious assault and thus sever communications and supply lines between the United States and Australia. The planned invasion was thwarted when an Allied task force, centred on two American fleet carriers, fought Japanese naval forces to a draw in the Battle of the Coral Sea . [ 209 ] Japan's next plan, motivated by the earlier Doolittle Raid , was to seize Midway Atoll and lure American carriers into battle to be eliminated; as a diversion, Japan would also send forces to occupy the Aleutian Islands in Alaska. [ 210 ] In mid-May, Japan started the Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign in China, with the goal of inflicting retribution on the Chinese who aided the surviving American airmen in the Doolittle Raid by destroying Chinese air bases and fighting against the Chinese 23rd and 32nd Army Groups. [ 211 ] [ 212 ] In early June, Japan put its operations into action, but the Americans had broken Japanese naval codes in late May and were fully aware of the plans and order of battle, and used this knowledge to achieve a decisive victory at Midway over the Imperial Japanese Navy . [ 213 ] With its capacity for aggressive action greatly diminished as a result of the Midway battle, Japan attempted to capture Port Moresby by an overland campaign in the Territory of Papua . [ 214 ] The Americans planned a counterattack against Japanese positions in the southern Solomon Islands , primarily Guadalcanal , as a first step towards capturing Rabaul , the main Japanese base in Southeast Asia. [ 215 ] Both plans started in July, but by mid-September, the Battle for Guadalcanal took priority for the Japanese, and troops in New Guinea were ordered to withdraw from the Port Moresby area to the northern part of the island , where they faced Australian and United States troops in the Battle of Buna–Gona . [ 216 ] Guadalcanal soon became a focal point for both sides with heavy commitments of troops and ships in the battle for Guadalcanal, with Japanese forces suffering massive losses in the attrition, especially amongst their elite pilots. [ 217 ] By the start of 1943, the Japanese were defeated on the island and withdrew their troops . [ 218 ] In Burma, Commonwealth forces mounted two operations. The first was a disastrous offensive into the Arakan region in late 1942 that forced a retreat back to India by May 1943. [ 219 ] The second was the insertion of irregular forces behind Japanese frontlines in February which, by the end of April, had achieved mixed results. [ 220 ] Eastern Front (1942–1943) Despite considerable losses, in early 1942 Germany and its allies stopped a major Soviet offensive in central and southern Russia , keeping most territorial gains they had achieved during the previous year. [ 221 ] In May, the Germans defeated Soviet offensives in the Kerch Peninsula and at Kharkov . [ 222 ] The fortress city of Sevastopol, which the Red Army had held out against Axis siege for nearly 250 days, was finally seized with the use of massive artillery bombardments and poison gas. [ 223 ] In June 1942 launched their main summer offensive against southern Russia, to seize the oil fields of the Caucasus and occupy the Kuban steppe , while maintaining positions on the northern and central areas of the front. The Germans split Army Group South into two groups: Army Group A advanced to the lower Don River and struck south-east to the Caucasus, while Army Group B headed towards the Volga River . The Soviets decided to make their stand at Stalingrad on the Volga. [ 224 ] By mid-November, the Germans had nearly taken Stalingrad in bitter street fighting . The Soviets began their second winter counter-offensive, starting with an encirclement of the German Sixth Army at Stalingrad , [ 225 ] and an assault on the Rzhev salient near Moscow , though the latter failed. [ 226 ] By early February 1943, the German army had taken tremendous losses; German troops at Stalingrad had been defeated, [ 227 ] and the front-line had been pushed back beyond its position before the summer offensive. In mid-February, after the Soviet push had tapered off, the Germans launched another attack on Kharkov , creating a salient in their front line around the Soviet city of Kursk . [ 228 ] Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) Exploiting poor American naval command decisions, the German navy ravaged Allied shipping off the American Atlantic coast . [ 229 ] By November 1941, Commonwealth forces had launched a counter-offensive in North Africa, Operation Crusader , and reclaimed all the gains the Germans and Italians had made. [ 230 ] The Germans also launched a North African offensive in January, pushing the British back to positions at the Gazala line by early February, [ 231 ] followed by a temporary lull in combat which Germany used to prepare for their upcoming offensives. [ 232 ] Concerns that the Japanese might use bases in Vichy-held Madagascar caused the British to invade the island in early May 1942. [ 233 ] An Axis offensive in Libya forced an Allied retreat deep inside Egypt until Axis forces were stopped at El Alamein . [ 234 ] On the Continent, raids of Allied commandos on strategic targets, culminating in the failed Dieppe Raid , [ 235 ] demonstrated the Western Allies' inability to launch an invasion of continental Europe without much better preparation, equipment, and operational security. [ 236 ] In August 1942, the Allies succeeded in repelling a second attack against El Alamein [ 237 ] and, at a high cost, managed to deliver desperately needed supplies to the besieged Malta . [ 238 ] A few months later, the Allies commenced an attack of their own in Egypt, dislodging the Axis forces and beginning a drive west across Libya. [ 239 ] This attack was followed up shortly after by Anglo-American landings in French North Africa , which resulted in the region joining the Allies. [ 240 ] Hitler responded to the French colony's defection by ordering the occupation of Vichy France ; [ 240 ] although Vichy forces did not resist this violation of the armistice, they managed to scuttle their fleet to prevent its capture by German forces. [ 240 ] [ 241 ] Axis forces in Africa withdrew into Tunisia , which was conquered by the Allies in May 1943. [ 240 ] [ 242 ] In June 1943, the British and Americans began a strategic bombing campaign against Germany with a goal to disrupt the war economy, reduce morale, and " de-house " the civilian population. [ 243 ] The firebombing of Hamburg was among the first attacks in this campaign, inflicting significant casualties and considerable losses on infrastructure of this important industrial centre. [ 244 ] Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) After the Guadalcanal campaign, the Allies initiated several operations against Japan in the Pacific. In May 1943, Canadian and US forces were sent to eliminate Japanese forces from the Aleutians . [ 245 ] Soon after, the United States, with support from Australia, New Zealand and Pacific Islander forces, began major ground, sea and air operations to isolate Rabaul by capturing surrounding islands , and breach the Japanese Central Pacific perimeter at the Gilbert and Marshall Islands . [ 246 ] By the end of March 1944, the Allies had completed both of these objectives and had also neutralised the major Japanese base at Truk in the Caroline Islands . In April, the Allies launched an operation to retake Western New Guinea . [ 247 ] In the Soviet Union, both the Germans and the Soviets spent the spring and early summer of 1943 preparing for large offensives in central Russia . On 5 July 1943, Germany attacked Soviet forces around the Kursk Bulge . Within a week, German forces had exhausted themselves against the Soviets' well-constructed defences, [ 248 ] and for the first time in the war, Hitler cancelled an operation before it had achieved tactical or operational success. [ 249 ] This decision was partially affected by the Western Allies' invasion of Sicily launched on 9 July, which, combined with previous Italian failures, resulted in the ousting and arrest of Mussolini later that month. [ 250 ] On 12 July 1943, the Soviets launched their own counter-offensives , thereby nearly completely dispelling any chance of German victory or even stalemate in the east. The Soviet victory at Kursk marked the end of German superiority, [ 251 ] giving the Soviet Union the initiative on the Eastern Front. [ 252 ] [ 253 ] The Germans tried to stabilise their eastern front along the hastily fortified Panther–Wotan line , but the Soviets broke through it at Smolensk and the Lower Dnieper Offensive . [ 254 ] On 3 September 1943, the Western Allies invaded the Italian mainland , following Italy's armistice with the Allies and the ensuing German occupation of Italy. [ 255 ] Germany, with the help of the fascists, responded to the armistice by disarming Italian forces that were in many places without superior orders, seizing military control of Italian areas, [ 256 ] and creating a series of defensive lines. [ 257 ] German special forces then rescued Mussolini , who then soon established a new client state in German-occupied Italy named the Italian Social Republic , [ 258 ] causing an Italian civil war . The Western Allies fought through several lines until reaching the main German defensive line in mid-November. [ 259 ] German operations in the Atlantic also suffered. By May 1943, as Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective , the resulting sizeable German submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic naval campaign. [ 260 ] In November 1943, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill met with Chiang Kai-shek in Cairo and then with Joseph Stalin in Tehran . [ 261 ] The former conference determined the post-war return of Japanese territory [ 262 ] and the military planning for the Burma campaign , [ 263 ] while the latter included agreement that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany's defeat. [ 264 ] From November 1943, during the seven-week Battle of Changde , the Chinese awaited Allied relief as they forced Japan to fight a costly war of attrition. [ 265 ] [ 266 ] [ 267 ] In January 1944, the Allies launched a series of attacks in Italy against the line at Monte Cassino and tried to outflank it with landings at Anzio . [ 268 ] On 27 January 1944, Soviet troops launched a major offensive that expelled German forces from the Leningrad region , thereby ending the most lethal siege in history . [ 269 ] The following Soviet offensive was halted on the pre-war Estonian border by the German Army Group North aided by Estonians hoping to re-establish national independence . This delay slowed subsequent Soviet operations in the Baltic Sea region. [ 270 ] By late May 1944, the Soviets had liberated Crimea , largely expelled Axis forces from Ukraine , and made incursions into Romania , which were repulsed by the Axis troops. [ 271 ] The Allied offensives in Italy had succeeded and, at the cost of allowing several German divisions to retreat, Rome was captured on 4 June. [ 272 ] The Allies had mixed success in mainland Asia. In March 1944, the Japanese launched the first of two invasions, an operation against Allied positions in Assam, India , [ 273 ] and soon besieged Commonwealth positions at Imphal and Kohima . [ 274 ] In May 1944, British and Indian forces mounted a counter-offensive that drove Japanese troops back to Burma by July, [ 274 ] and Chinese forces that had invaded northern Burma in late 1943 besieged Japanese troops in Myitkyina . [ 275 ] The second Japanese invasion of China aimed to destroy China's main fighting forces, secure railways between Japanese-held territory and capture Allied airfields. [ 276 ] By June, the Japanese had conquered the province of Henan and begun a new attack on Changsha . [ 277 ] Allies Offensives (1944) On 6 June 1944 (commonly known as D-Day ), after three years of Soviet pressure, [ 278 ] the Western Allies invaded northern France . After reassigning several Allied divisions from Italy, they also attacked southern France . [ 279 ] These landings were successful and led to the defeat of the German Army units in France . Paris was liberated on 25 August by the local resistance assisted by the Free French Forces , both led by General Charles de Gaulle , [ 280 ] and the Western Allies continued to push back German forces in western Europe during the latter part of the year. An attempt to advance into northern Germany spearheaded by a major airborne operation in the Netherlands failed. [ 281 ] After that, the Western Allies slowly pushed into Germany, but failed to cross the Roer river . In Italy, the Allied advance slowed due to the last major German defensive line . [ 282 ] On 22 June, the Soviets launched a strategic offensive in Belarus that nearly destroyed the German Army Group Centre . [ 283 ] Soon after that, another Soviet strategic offensive forced German troops from Western Ukraine and Eastern Poland. The Soviet Red Army however halted in the Praga district on the other side of the Vistula as the Germans quelled the Warsaw Uprising initiated by the Home Army (the main faction of the Polish resistance , loyal to the non-communist government-in exile), killing over 150,000 Poles. [ 284 ] [ 285 ] The national uprising in Slovakia was also quelled by the Germans. [ 286 ] The Soviet Red Army 's strategic offensive in eastern Romania cut off and destroyed the considerable German troops there and triggered a successful coup d'état in Romania and in Bulgaria , followed by those countries' shift to the Allied side. [ 287 ] In September 1944, Soviet troops advanced into Yugoslavia and forced the rapid withdrawal of German Army Groups E and F in Greece , Albania , and Yugoslavia to rescue them from being cut off. [ 288 ] By this point, the communist-led Partisans under Marshal Josip Broz Tito , who had led an increasingly successful guerrilla campaign against the occupation since 1941, controlled much of the territory of Yugoslavia and engaged in delaying efforts against German forces further south. In northern Serbia , the Soviet Red Army , with limited support from Bulgarian forces, assisted the Partisans in a joint liberation of the capital city of Belgrade on 20 October. A few days later, the Soviets launched a massive assault against German-occupied Hungary that lasted until the fall of Budapest in February 1945. [ 289 ] Unlike rapid Soviet victories in the Balkans, bitter Finnish resistance to the Soviet offensive in the Karelian Isthmus denied the Soviets occupation of Finland and led to a Soviet-Finnish armistice on relatively mild conditions, [ 290 ] although Finland was obligated to fight their German former allies . [ 291 ] By the start of July 1944, Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges in Assam , pushing the Japanese back to the Chindwin River [ 292 ] while the Chinese captured Myitkyina. In September 1944, Chinese forces captured Mount Song and reopened the Burma Road . [ 293 ] In China, the Japanese had more successes, having finally captured Changsha in mid-June and the city of Hengyang by early August. [ 294 ] Soon after, they invaded the province of Guangxi , winning major engagements against Chinese forces at Guilin and Liuzhou by the end of November [ 295 ] and successfully linking up their forces in China and Indochina by mid-December. [ 296 ] In the Pacific, US forces continued to push back the Japanese perimeter. In mid-June 1944, they began their offensive against the Mariana and Palau islands and decisively defeated Japanese forces in the Battle of the Philippine Sea . These defeats led to the resignation of the Japanese Prime Minister, Hideki Tojo , and provided the United States with air bases to launch intensive heavy bomber attacks on the Japanese home islands. In late October, American forces invaded the Filipino island of Leyte ; soon after, Allied naval forces scored another large victory in the Battle of Leyte Gulf , one of the largest naval battles in history. [ 297 ] Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) On 16 December 1944, Germany made a last attempt to split the Allies on the Western Front by using most of its remaining reserves to launch a massive counter-offensive in the Ardennes and along the French-German border , hoping to encircle large portions of Western Allied troops and prompt a political settlement after capturing their primary supply port at Antwerp . By 16 January 1945, this offensive had been repulsed with no strategic objectives fulfilled. [ 298 ] In Italy, the Western Allies remained stalemated at the German defensive line. In mid-January 1945, the Red Army attacked in Poland, pushing from the Vistula to the Oder river in Germany, and overran East Prussia . [ 299 ] On 4 February Soviet, British, and US leaders met for the Yalta Conference . They agreed on the occupation of post-war Germany, and on when the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan. [ 300 ] In February, the Soviets entered Silesia and Pomerania , while the Western Allies entered western Germany and closed to the Rhine river. By March, the Western Allies crossed the Rhine north and south of the Ruhr , encircling the German Army Group B . [ 301 ] In early March, in an attempt to protect its last oil reserves in Hungary and retake Budapest, Germany launched its last major offensive against Soviet troops near Lake Balaton . Within two weeks, the offensive had been repulsed, the Soviets advanced to Vienna , and captured the city. In early April, Soviet troops captured Königsberg , while the Western Allies finally pushed forward in Italy and swept across western Germany capturing Hamburg and Nuremberg . American and Soviet forces met at the Elbe river on 25 April, leaving unoccupied pockets in southern Germany and around Berlin. Soviet troops stormed and captured Berlin in late April. [ 302 ] In Italy, German forces surrendered on 29 April, while the Italian Social Republic capitulated two days later. On 30 April, the Reichstag was captured, signalling the military defeat of Nazi Germany. [ 303 ] Major changes in leadership occurred on both sides during this period. On 12 April, President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by his vice president, Harry S. Truman . [ 304 ] Benito Mussolini was killed by Italian partisans on 28 April. [ 305 ] On 30 April, Hitler committed suicide in his headquarters , and was succeeded by Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz (as President of the Reich ) and Joseph Goebbels (as Chancellor of the Reich ). Goebbels also committed suicide on the following day and was replaced by Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk , in what would later be known as the Flensburg Government . Total and unconditional surrender in Europe was signed on 7 and 8 May , to be effective by the end of 8 May . [ 306 ] German Army Group Centre resisted in Prague until 11 May. [ 307 ] On 23 May all remaining members of the German government were arrested by Allied forces in Flensburg . On 5 June all German political and military institutions were placed under Allied control through the Berlin Declaration . [ 308 ] In the Pacific theatre, American forces accompanied by the forces of the Philippine Commonwealth advanced in the Philippines , clearing Leyte by the end of April 1945. They landed on Luzon in January 1945 and recaptured Manila in March, during which Japanese forces killed 100,000 Filipino civilians in the city. Fighting continued on Luzon, Mindanao , and other islands of the Philippines until the end of the war . [ 309 ] Meanwhile, the United States Army Air Forces launched a massive firebombing campaign of strategic cities in Japan in an effort to destroy Japanese war industry and civilian morale. A devastating bombing raid on Tokyo of 9–10 March was the deadliest conventional bombing raid in history. [ 310 ] In May 1945, Australian troops landed in Borneo , overrunning the oilfields there. British, American, and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northern Burma in March, and the British pushed on to reach Rangoon by 3 May. [ 311 ] Chinese forces started a counterattack in the Battle of West Hunan that occurred between 6 April and 7 June 1945. American naval and amphibious forces also moved towards Japan, taking Iwo Jima by March, and Okinawa by the end of June. [ 312 ] At the same time, a naval blockade by submarines was strangling Japan's economy and drastically reducing its ability to supply overseas forces. [ 313 ] [ 314 ] On 11 July, Allied leaders met in Potsdam, Germany . They confirmed earlier agreements about Germany, [ 315 ] and the American, British and Chinese governments reiterated the demand for unconditional surrender of Japan, specifically stating that " the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction ". [ 316 ] During this conference, the United Kingdom held its general election , and Clement Attlee replaced Churchill as Prime Minister. [ 317 ] The call for unconditional surrender was rejected by the Japanese government, which believed it would be capable of negotiating for more favourable surrender terms. [ 318 ] In early August, the United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . Between the two bombings, the Soviets, pursuant to the Yalta agreement, declared war on Japan , invaded Japanese-held Manchuria and quickly defeated the Kwantung Army , which was the largest Japanese fighting force. [ 319 ] These two events persuaded previously adamant Imperial Army leaders to accept surrender terms. [ 320 ] The Red Army also captured the southern part of Sakhalin Island and the Kuril Islands . On the night of 9–10 August 1945, Emperor Hirohito announced his decision to accept the terms demanded by the Allies in the Potsdam Declaration . [ 321 ] On 15 August, the Emperor communicated this decision to the Japanese people through a speech broadcast on the radio ( Gyokuon-hōsō , literally "broadcast in the Emperor's voice"). [ 322 ] On 15 August 1945, Japan surrendered , with the surrender documents finally signed at Tokyo Bay on the deck of the American battleship USS Missouri on 2 September 1945, ending the war. [ 323 ] Aftermath The Allies established occupation administrations in Austria and Germany , both initially divided between western and eastern occupation zones controlled by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union, respectively. However, their paths soon diverged. In Germany, the western and eastern occupation zones officially ended in 1949, with the respective zones becoming separate countries, West Germany and East Germany . [ 324 ] In Austria, however, occupation continued until 1955, when a joint settlement between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union permitted the reunification of Austria as a democratic state officially non-aligned with any political bloc (although in practice having better relations with the Western Allies). A denazification program in Germany led to the prosecution of Nazi war criminals in the Nuremberg trials and the removal of ex-Nazis from power, although this policy moved towards amnesty and re-integration of ex-Nazis into West German society. [ 325 ] Germany lost a quarter of its pre-war (1937) territory. Among the eastern territories, Silesia , Neumark and most of Pomerania were taken over by Poland, [ 326 ] and East Prussia was divided between Poland and the Soviet Union, followed by the expulsion to Germany of the nine million Germans from these provinces, [ 327 ] [ 328 ] as well as three million Germans from the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia. By the 1950s, one-fifth of West Germans were refugees from the east. The Soviet Union also took over the Polish provinces east of the Curzon Line , [ 329 ] from which two million Poles were expelled . [ 328 ] [ 330 ] North-east Romania, [ 331 ] [ 332 ] parts of eastern Finland, [ 333 ] and the Baltic states were annexed into the Soviet Union . [ 334 ] [ 335 ] Italy lost its monarchy , colonial empire , and some European territories . [ 336 ] In an effort to maintain world peace , [ 337 ] the Allies formed the United Nations , [ 338 ] which officially came into existence on 24 October 1945, [ 339 ] and adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 as a common standard for all member nations . [ 340 ] The great powers that were the victors of the war—France, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and the United States—became the permanent members of the UN's Security Council . [ 341 ] The five permanent members remain so to the present, although there have been two seat changes, between the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China in 1971, and between the Soviet Union and its successor state , the Russian Federation , following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. The alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate even before the war was over. [ 342 ] Besides Germany, the rest of Europe was also divided into Western and Soviet spheres of influence . [ 343 ] Most eastern and central European countries fell into the Soviet sphere , which led to the establishment of Communist-led regimes, with full or partial support of the Soviet occupation authorities. As a result, East Germany , [ 344 ] Poland , Hungary , Romania , Bulgaria , Czechoslovakia , and Albania [ 345 ] became Soviet satellite states . Communist Yugoslavia conducted a fully independent policy , causing tension with the Soviet Union . [ 346 ] A communist uprising in Greece was put down with Anglo-American support and the country remained aligned with the West. [ 347 ] Post-war division of the world was formalised by two international military alliances, the United States-led NATO and the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact . [ 348 ] The long period of political tensions and military competition between them—the Cold War —would be accompanied by an unprecedented arms race and number of proxy wars throughout the world. [ 349 ] In Asia, the United States led the occupation of Japan and administered Japan's former islands in the Western Pacific, while the Soviets annexed South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands . [ 350 ] Korea , formerly under Japanese colonial rule , was divided and occupied by the Soviet Union in the North and the United States in the South between 1945 and 1948. Separate republics emerged on both sides of the 38th parallel in 1948, each claiming to be the legitimate government for all of Korea, which led ultimately to the Korean War . [ 351 ] In China, nationalist and communist forces resumed the civil war in June 1946. Communist forces prevailed and established the People's Republic of China on the mainland, while nationalist forces retreated to Taiwan in 1949. [ 352 ] In the Middle East, the Arab rejection of the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine and the creation of Israel marked the escalation of the Arab–Israeli conflict . While European powers attempted to retain some or all of their colonial empires , their losses of prestige and resources during the war rendered this unsuccessful, leading to decolonisation . [ 353 ] [ 354 ] The global economy suffered heavily from the war, although participating nations were affected differently. The United States emerged much richer than any other nation, leading to a baby boom , and by 1950 its gross domestic product per person was much greater than that of any of the other powers, and it dominated the world economy. [ 355 ] The Allied occupational authorities pursued a policy of industrial disarmament in Western Germany from 1945 to 1948. [ 356 ] Due to international trade interdependencies, this policy led to an economic stagnation in Europe and delayed European recovery from the war for several years. [ 357 ] [ 358 ] At the Bretton Woods Conference in July 1944, the Allied nations drew up an economic framework for the post-war world. The agreement created the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), which later became part of the World Bank Group . The Bretton Woods system lasted until 1973. [ 359 ] Recovery began with the mid-1948 currency reform in West Germany , and was sped up by the liberalisation of European economic policy that the US Marshall Plan economic aid (1948–1951) both directly and indirectly caused. [ 360 ] [ 361 ] The post-1948 West German recovery has been called the German economic miracle . [ 362 ] Italy also experienced an economic boom [ 363 ] and the French economy rebounded . [ 364 ] By contrast, the United Kingdom was in a state of economic ruin, [ 365 ] and although receiving a quarter of the total Marshall Plan assistance, more than any other European country, [ 366 ] it continued in relative economic decline for decades. [ 367 ] The Soviet Union, despite enormous human and material losses, also experienced rapid increases in production in the immediate post-war era, [ 368 ] having seized and transferred most of Germany's industrial plants and exacted war reparations from its satellite states. [ d ] [ 369 ] Japan recovered much later. [ 370 ] China returned to its pre-war industrial production by 1952. [ 371 ] Impact Casualties and war crimes An estimated 60 million to more than 75 million people died in the war including at least 20 million who died from deprivation, famine and disease. [ 372 ] [ 373 ] [ 374 ] [ 375 ] The majority of these deaths were on the Eastern Front and the Chinese Theatre . [ 376 ] The Soviet Union lost around 27 million people [ 377 ] including 8.7 million military and 19 million civilian deaths. [ 378 ] A quarter of the Soviet population were wounded or killed. [ 379 ] Germany sustained 5.3 million military losses, mostly on the Eastern Front and during the final battles in Germany. [ 380 ] An estimated 11 [ 381 ] to 17 million [ 382 ] civilians died as a direct or as an indirect result of Hitler's racist policies , including mass killing of around 6 million Jews , along with Roma , homosexuals , at least 1.9 million ethnic Poles [ 383 ] [ 384 ] and millions of other Slavs (including Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians), and other ethnic and minority groups . [ 385 ] [ 382 ] Between 1941 and 1945, more than 1,200,000 Yugoslavians died. [ 386 ] 200,000 were ethnic Serbs , along with Roma and Jews, were persecuted and killed by the Axis-aligned Croatian Ustaše in Yugoslavia . [ 387 ] Concurrently, Muslims and Croats were persecuted and killed by Serb nationalist Chetniks , [ 388 ] with an estimated 50,000–68,000 victims (of which 41,000 were civilians). [ 389 ] Also, more than 100,000 Poles were massacred by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army in the Volhynia massacres , between 1943 and 1945. [ 390 ] At the same time, about 10,000–15,000 Ukrainians were killed by the Polish Home Army and other units in reprisal attacks. [ 391 ] The number of deaths resulting from the war in Asia and the Pacific is contested. Estimates of Chinese deaths range from 8 million to over 20 million. [ e ] Arne Westad estimates 14 million Chinese died directly from war, of which 2 million were soldiers and the rest civilians. [ 394 ] Rana Mitter considers Westad's figures conservative. [ 398 ] An estimated 500,000 died as a result of Nationalist forces flooding the Yellow River . [ 399 ] In the Nanking Massacre , between 100,000 and 200,000 Chinese civilians and POWs were killed by Japanese forces, while another 20,000 were raped. [ 44 ] Another 2.7 million Chinese civilians were killed by Japanese forces during the Three Alls policy . [ 400 ] Japanese forces killed between 5 million and 10 million civilians in Southeast Asia. [ 401 ] [ 402 ] At least a million civilians died in Indochina , while as many as 4 million died in the Dutch East Indies, 3 million of which died on Java from famine. Between 500,000 and 1,000,000 Filipino civilians died during the Japanese occupation and American liberation. [ 403 ] [ 404 ] Estimates of the number of people killed by Japanese forces in all theatres are as high as 30 million. [ 405 ] Axis forces employed biological and chemical weapons . The Imperial Japanese Army used a variety of such weapons during its invasion and occupation of China ( see Unit 731 ) [ 406 ] [ 407 ] and in early conflicts against the Soviets . [ 408 ] Both the Germans and the Japanese tested such weapons against civilians, [ 409 ] and sometimes on prisoners of war . [ 410 ] The Soviet Union was responsible for the Katyn massacre of 22,000 Polish officers, [ 411 ] and the imprisonment or execution of hundreds of thousands of political prisoners by the NKVD secret police, along with mass civilian deportations to Siberia , in the Baltic states and eastern Poland annexed by the Red Army. [ 412 ] Soviet soldiers committed mass rapes in occupied territories, especially in Germany . [ 413 ] [ 414 ] The exact number of German women and girls raped by Soviet troops during the war and occupation is uncertain, but historians estimate their numbers are likely in the hundreds of thousands, and possibly as many as two million, [ 415 ] while figures for women raped by German soldiers in the Soviet Union go as far as ten million. [ 416 ] [ 417 ] The mass bombing of cities in Europe and Asia has often been called a war crime, although no positive or specific customary international humanitarian law with respect to aerial warfare existed before or during World War II. [ 418 ] The USAAF bombed a total of 67 Japanese cities , killing 393,000 civilians, including the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki , and destroying 65% of built-up areas. [ 419 ] Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour Nazi Germany , under the dictatorship of Adolf Hitler, was responsible for killing about 6 million Jews in what is now known as the Holocaust . They also killed an additional 4 million others who were deemed " unworthy of life " (including the disabled and mentally ill , Soviet prisoners of war , Romani , homosexuals , Freemasons , and Jehovah's Witnesses ) as part of a program of deliberate extermination, in effect becoming a " genocidal state". [ 420 ] Soviet POWs were kept in especially unbearable conditions , and 3.6 million Soviet POWs out of 5.7 million died in Nazi camps during the war. [ 421 ] [ 422 ] In addition to concentration camps , death camps were created in Nazi Germany to exterminate people on an industrial scale. Nazi Germany extensively used forced labourers ; about 12 million Europeans from German-occupied countries were abducted and used as a slave work force in German industry, agriculture and war economy. [ 423 ] The Soviet Gulag became a de facto system of deadly camps during 1942–1943, when wartime privation and hunger caused numerous deaths of inmates, [ 425 ] including foreign citizens of Poland and other countries occupied in 1939–1940 by the Soviet Union, as well as Axis POWs . [ 426 ] By the end of the war, most Soviet POWs liberated from Nazi camps and many repatriated civilians were detained in special filtration camps where they were subjected to NKVD evaluation, and 226,127 were sent to the Gulag as real or perceived Nazi collaborators. [ 427 ] Japanese prisoner-of-war camps , many of which were used as labour camps, also had high death rates. The International Military Tribunal for the Far East found the death rate of Western prisoners was 27 percent (for American POWs, 37 percent), [ 428 ] seven times that of POWs under the Germans and Italians. [ 429 ] While 37,583 prisoners from the UK, 28,500 from the Netherlands, and 14,473 from the United States were released after the surrender of Japan , the number of Chinese released was only 56. [ 430 ] At least five million Chinese civilians from northern China and Manchukuo were enslaved between 1935 and 1941 by the East Asia Development Board , or Kōain , for work in mines and war industries. After 1942, the number reached 10 million. [ 431 ] In Java , between 4 and 10 million rōmusha (Japanese: "manual labourers"), were forced to work by the Japanese military. About 270,000 of these Javanese labourers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in Southeast Asia, and only 52,000 were repatriated to Java. [ 432 ] Occupation In Europe, occupation came under two forms. In Western, Northern, and Central Europe (France, Norway, Denmark, the Low Countries, and the annexed portions of Czechoslovakia ) Germany established economic policies through which it collected roughly 69.5 billion reichsmarks (27.8 billion US dollars) by the end of the war; this figure does not include the plunder of industrial products, military equipment, raw materials and other goods. [ 433 ] Thus, the income from occupied nations was over 40 percent of the income Germany collected from taxation, a figure which increased to nearly 40 percent of total German income as the war went on. [ 434 ] In the East, the intended gains of Lebensraum were never attained as fluctuating front-lines and Soviet scorched earth policies denied resources to the German invaders. [ 435 ] Unlike in the West, the Nazi racial policy encouraged extreme brutality against what it considered to be the " inferior people " of Slavic descent; most German advances were thus followed by mass atrocities and war crimes . [ 436 ] The Nazis killed an estimated 2.8 million ethnic Poles in addition to Polish-Jewish victims of the Holocaust . [ 437 ] Although by 1942 resistance groups formed in most occupied territories, [ 438 ] the assessments of the effectiveness of Soviet partisans [ 439 ] and French Resistance [ 440 ] suggests that they did not significantly hamper German operations until late 1943. In Asia, Japan termed nations under its occupation as being part of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere , essentially a Japanese hegemony which it claimed was for purposes of liberating colonised peoples. [ 441 ] Although Japanese forces were sometimes welcomed as liberators from European domination, Japanese war crimes frequently turned local public opinion against them. [ 442 ] During Japan's initial conquest, it captured 4,000,000 barrels (640,000 m 3 ) of oil (~550,000 tonnes) left behind by retreating Allied forces; and by 1943, was able to get production in the Dutch East Indies up to 50 million barrels (7,900,000 m 3 ) of oil (~6.8 million tonnes), 76 percent of its 1940 output rate. [ 442 ] Home fronts and production In the 1930s, Britain and the United States together controlled almost 75% of world mineral output—essential for projecting military power. [ 443 ] In Europe, before the outbreak of the war, the Allies had significant advantages in both population and economics. In 1938, the Western Allies (United Kingdom, France, Poland and the British Dominions) had a 30 percent larger population and a 30 percent higher gross domestic product than the European Axis powers (Germany and Italy); including colonies, the Allies had more than a 5:1 advantage in population and a nearly 2:1 advantage in GDP. [ 444 ] In Asia at the same time, China had roughly six times the population of Japan but only an 89 percent higher GDP; this reduces to three times the population and only a 38 percent higher GDP if Japanese colonies are included. [ 444 ] The United States produced about two-thirds of all munitions used by the Allies in World War II, including warships, transports, warplanes, artillery, tanks, trucks, and ammunition. [ 445 ] Although the Allies' economic and population advantages were largely mitigated during the initial rapid blitzkrieg attacks of Germany and Japan, they became the decisive factor by 1942, after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies and the war evolved into one of attrition . [ 446 ] While the Allies' ability to out-produce the Axis was partly due to more access to natural resources, other factors, such as Germany and Japan's reluctance to employ women in the labour force , [ 447 ] Allied strategic bombing , [ 448 ] and Germany's late shift to a war economy [ 449 ] contributed significantly. Additionally, neither Germany nor Japan planned to fight a protracted war, and had not equipped themselves to do so. [ 450 ] To improve their production, Germany and Japan used millions of slave labourers ; [ 451 ] Germany enslaved about 12 million people, mostly from Eastern Europe, [ 423 ] while Japan used more than 18 million people in Far East Asia. [ 431 ] [ 432 ] Advances in technology and its application Aircraft were used for reconnaissance , as fighters , bombers , and ground-support , and each role developed considerably. Innovations included airlift (the capability to quickly move limited high-priority supplies, equipment, and personnel); [ 452 ] and strategic bombing (the bombing of enemy industrial and population centres to destroy the enemy's ability to wage war). [ 453 ] Anti-aircraft weaponry also advanced, including defences such as radar and surface-to-air artillery, in particular the introduction of the proximity fuze . The use of the jet aircraft was pioneered and led to jets becoming standard in air forces worldwide. [ 454 ] Advances were made in nearly every aspect of naval warfare , most notably with aircraft carriers and submarines . Although aeronautical warfare had relatively little success at the start of the war, actions at Taranto , Pearl Harbor , and the Coral Sea established the carrier as the dominant capital ship (in place of the battleship). [ 455 ] [ 456 ] [ 457 ] In the Atlantic, escort carriers became a vital part of Allied convoys, increasing the effective protection radius and helping to close the Mid-Atlantic gap . [ 458 ] Carriers were also more economical than battleships due to the relatively low cost of aircraft [ 459 ] and because they are not required to be as heavily armoured. [ 460 ] Submarines, which had proved to be an effective weapon during the First World War , [ 461 ] were expected by all combatants to be important in the second. The British focused development on anti-submarine weaponry and tactics, such as sonar and convoys, while Germany focused on improving its offensive capability, with designs such as the Type VII submarine and wolfpack tactics. [ 462 ] Gradually, improving Allied technologies such as the Leigh Light , Hedgehog , Squid , and homing torpedoes proved effective against German submarines. [ 463 ] Land warfare changed from the static frontlines of trench warfare of World War I, which had relied on improved artillery that outmatched the speed of both infantry and cavalry , to increased mobility and combined arms . The tank , which had been used predominantly for infantry support in the First World War, had evolved into the primary weapon. [ 464 ] In the late 1930s, tank design was considerably more advanced than it had been during World War I, [ 465 ] and advances continued throughout the war with increases in speed, armour and firepower. [ 466 ] [ 467 ] At the start of the war, most commanders thought enemy tanks should be met by tanks with superior specifications. [ 468 ] This idea was challenged by the poor performance of the relatively light early tank guns against armour, and German doctrine of avoiding tank-versus-tank combat. This, along with Germany's use of combined arms, were among the key elements of their highly successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and France. [ 464 ] Many means of destroying tanks , including indirect artillery , anti-tank guns (both towed and self-propelled ), mines , short-ranged infantry antitank weapons, and other tanks were used. [ 468 ] Even with large-scale mechanisation, infantry remained the backbone of all forces, [ 469 ] and throughout the war, most infantry were equipped similarly to World War I. [ 470 ] The portable machine gun spread, a notable example being the German MG 34 , and various submachine guns which were suited to close combat in urban and jungle settings. [ 470 ] The assault rifle , a late war development incorporating many features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the standard post-war infantry weapon for most armed forces. [ 471 ] Most major belligerents attempted to solve the problems of complexity and security involved in using large codebooks for cryptography by designing ciphering machines, the most well-known being the German Enigma machine . [ 472 ] Development of SIGINT ( sig nals int elligence) and cryptanalysis enabled the countering process of decryption. Notable examples were the Allied decryption of Japanese naval codes [ 473 ] and British Ultra , a pioneering method for decoding Enigma that benefited from information given to the United Kingdom by the Polish Cipher Bureau , which had been decoding early versions of Enigma before the war. [ 474 ] Another component of military intelligence was deception , which the Allies used to great effect in operations such as Mincemeat and Bodyguard . [ 473 ] [ 475 ] Other technological and engineering feats achieved during, or as a result of, the war include the world's first programmable computers ( Z3 , Colossus , and ENIAC ), guided missiles and modern rockets , the Manhattan Project 's development of nuclear weapons , operations research , the development of artificial harbours , and oil pipelines under the English Channel . [ 476 ] [ 477 ] Although penicillin was discovered before the war, the development ] of industrial production technology as well as the mass production and use began during the war. [ 478 ] See also Greatest Generation – Cohort born from 1901 to 1927 Opposition to World War II World War III – Hypothetical future global conflict Notes ^ While various other dates have been proposed as the date on which World War II began or ended, this is the period most frequently cited. ^ Often abbreviated as WWII or WW2 ^ The UK declared war on Germany at 11 am. France followed 6 hours later at 5 pm. ^ Reparations were exacted from East Germany , Hungary , Romania , and Bulgaria using Soviet-dominated joint enterprises. The Soviet Union also instituted trading arrangements deliberately designed to favour the country. Moscow controlled the Communist parties that ruled the satellite states, and they followed orders from the Kremlin. Historian Mark Kramer concludes: "The net outflow of resources from eastern Europe to the Soviet Union was approximately $15 billion to $20 billion in the first decade after World War II, an amount roughly equal to the total aid provided by the United States to western Europe under the Marshall Plan ." ^ Multiple sources: [ 392 ] [ 393 ] [ 394 ] [ 395 ] [ 396 ] [ 397 ] References ^ Weinberg 2005 , p. 6. ^ Wells, Anne Sharp (2014) Historical Dictionary of World War II: The War against Germany and Italy . Rowman & Littlefield . p. 7. ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Ferris, John; Mawdsley, Evan (2015). 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Thomas, Nigel; Andrew, Stephen (1998). German Army 1939–1945 (2): North Africa & Balkans . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-85532-640-8 . Thompson, John Herd; Randall, Stephen J. (2008). Canada and the United States: Ambivalent Allies (4th ed.). Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press . ISBN 978-0-8203-3113-3 . Trachtenberg, Marc (1999). A Constructed Peace: The Making of the European Settlement, 1945–1963 . Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press . ISBN 978-0-691-00273-6 . Tucker, Spencer C. ; Roberts, Priscilla Mary (2004). Encyclopedia of World War II: A Political, Social, and Military History . ABC-CIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-999-7 . Umbreit, Hans (1991). "The Battle for Hegemony in Western Europe". In P. S. Falla (ed.). Germany and the Second World War – Germany's Initial Conquests in Europe . Vol. 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press . pp. 227– 326. ISBN 978-0-19-822885-1 . United States Army (1986) [1953]. The German Campaigns in the Balkans (Spring 1941) . Washington, D.C.: Department of the Army . Archived from the original on 17 January 2022 . Retrieved 17 February 2022 . Waltz, Susan (2002). "Reclaiming and Rebuilding the History of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights". Third World Quarterly . 23 (3): 437– 448. doi : 10.1080/01436590220138378 . JSTOR 3993535 . S2CID 145398136 . Ward, Thomas A. (2010). Aerospace Propulsion Systems . Singapore: John Wiley & Sons . ISBN 978-0-470-82497-9 . Watson, William E. (2003). Tricolor and Crescent: France and the Islamic World . Westport, Connecticut: Praeger . ISBN 978-0-275-97470-1 . Weinberg, Gerhard L. (2005). A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-0-521-85316-3 . ; comprehensive overview with emphasis on diplomacy Wettig, Gerhard (2008). Stalin and the Cold War in Europe: The Emergence and Development of East-West Conflict, 1939–1953 . Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield . ISBN 978-0-7425-5542-6 . Wiest, Andrew; Barbier, M. K. (2002). Strategy and Tactics: Infantry Warfare . St Paul, Minnesota: MBI Publishing Company . ISBN 978-0-7603-1401-2 . Williams, Andrew (2006). Liberalism and War: The Victors and the Vanquished . Abingdon & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-35980-1 . Wilt, Alan F. (1981). "Hitler's Late Summer Pause in 1941". Military Affairs . 45 (4): 187– 191. doi : 10.2307/1987464 . JSTOR 1987464 . Wohlstetter, Roberta (1962). Pearl Harbor: Warning and Decision . Palo Alto, California: Stanford University Press . Wolf, Holger C. (1993). "The Lucky Miracle: Germany 1945–1951". In Rudiger Dornbusch; Wilhelm Nölling; Richard Layard (eds.). Postwar Economic Reconstruction and Lessons for the East Today . Cambridge: MIT Press . pp. 29– 56. ISBN 978-0-262-04136-2 . Wood, James B. (2007). Japanese Military Strategy in the Pacific War: Was Defeat Inevitable? . Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield . ISBN 978-0-7425-5339-2 . Yoder, Amos (1997). The Evolution of the United Nations System (3rd ed.). London & Washington, D.C.: Taylor & Francis . ISBN 978-1-56032-546-8 . Zalampas, Michael (1989). Adolf Hitler and the Third Reich in American magazines, 1923–1939 . Bowling Green University Popular Press. ISBN 978-0-87972-462-7 . Zaloga, Steven J. (1996). Bagration 1944: The Destruction of Army Group Centre . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-85532-478-7 . ——— (2002). Poland 1939: The Birth of Blitzkrieg . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84176-408-5 . Zeiler, Thomas W. (2004). Unconditional Defeat: Japan, America, and the End of World War II . Wilmington, Delaware: Scholarly Resources. ISBN 978-0-8420-2991-9 . Zetterling, Niklas; Tamelander, Michael (2009). Bismarck : The Final Days of Germany's Greatest Battleship . Drexel Hill, Pennsylvania: Casemate . ISBN 978-1-935149-04-0 . Further reading Buchanan, Andrew (7 February 2023). "Globalizing the Second World War". Past & Present (258): 246– 281. doi : 10.1093/pastj/gtab042 . ISSN 0031-2746 . also see online review Archived 4 May 2024 at the Wayback Machine Gerlach, Christian (2024). Conditions of Violence . Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. ISBN 978-3-1115-6873-7 . External links Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Travel information from Wikivoyage West Point Maps of the European War . Archived 23 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine . West Point Maps of the Asian-Pacific War . Archived 23 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine . Atlas of the World Battle Fronts (July 1943 – August 1945) v t e World War II v t e Outline Battles Operations Leaders Allied Axis Commanders Casualties Conferences Outline Battles Operations Operations Leaders Allied Axis Commanders Allied Axis Commanders Casualties Conferences General Topics Air warfare of World War II In Europe Blitzkrieg Comparative military ranks Cryptography Declarations of war Diplomacy Governments in exile Home front Australian United Kingdom United States Lend-Lease Manhattan Project British contribution Military awards Military equipment Military production Naval history Nazi plunder Opposition Technology Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Total war Strategic bombing Puppet states Women Art and World War II Music in World War II Weather events during World War II Theaters Asia and Pacific China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean Europe Western Front Eastern Front Mediterranean and Middle East North Africa East Africa Italy West Africa Atlantic timeline Americas Aftermath Chinese Civil War Cold War Decolonization Division of Korea First Indochina War Expulsion of Germans Greek Civil War Indonesian National Revolution Keelhaul Marshall Plan Occupation of Germany Occupation of Japan Osoaviakhim Paperclip Soviet occupations Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Territorial changes of Germany Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany United Nations War crimes Allied war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes German war crimes forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials Italian war crimes Japanese war crimes Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Croatian war crimes Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Romanian war crimes Sexual violence German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate Topics Air warfare of World War II In Europe Blitzkrieg Comparative military ranks Cryptography Declarations of war Diplomacy Governments in exile Home front Australian United Kingdom United States Lend-Lease Manhattan Project British contribution Military awards Military equipment Military production Naval history Nazi plunder Opposition Technology Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Total war Strategic bombing Puppet states Women Art and World War II Music in World War II Weather events during World War II Air warfare of World War II In Europe In Europe Blitzkrieg Comparative military ranks Cryptography Declarations of war Diplomacy Governments in exile Home front Australian United Kingdom United States Australian United Kingdom United States Lend-Lease Manhattan Project British contribution British contribution Military awards Military equipment Military production Naval history Nazi plunder Opposition Technology Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Total war Strategic bombing Puppet states Women Art and World War II Music in World War II Weather events during World War II Theaters Asia and Pacific China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean Europe Western Front Eastern Front Mediterranean and Middle East North Africa East Africa Italy West Africa Atlantic timeline Americas Asia and Pacific China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean Europe Western Front Eastern Front Western Front Eastern Front Mediterranean and Middle East North Africa East Africa Italy North Africa East Africa Italy West Africa Atlantic timeline timeline Americas Aftermath Chinese Civil War Cold War Decolonization Division of Korea First Indochina War Expulsion of Germans Greek Civil War Indonesian National Revolution Keelhaul Marshall Plan Occupation of Germany Occupation of Japan Osoaviakhim Paperclip Soviet occupations Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Territorial changes of Germany Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany United Nations Chinese Civil War Cold War Decolonization Division of Korea First Indochina War Expulsion of Germans Greek Civil War Indonesian National Revolution Keelhaul Marshall Plan Occupation of Germany Occupation of Japan Osoaviakhim Paperclip Soviet occupations Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Territorial changes of Germany Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany United Nations War crimes Allied war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes German war crimes forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials Italian war crimes Japanese war crimes Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Croatian war crimes Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Romanian war crimes Sexual violence German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate Allied war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes German war crimes forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials Italian war crimes Japanese war crimes Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Croatian war crimes Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Romanian war crimes Sexual violence German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate Participants Allies Algeria Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria ( from September 1944 ) Canada China Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Ethiopia Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) Finland ( from September 1944 ) France Free France Greece India ( Indian Army ) Italy ( from September 1943 ) Liberia Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Newfoundland New Zealand Norway Philippines Poland Romania ( from August 1944 ) Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Soviet Union Tuva United Kingdom British Empire United States Puerto Rico Yugoslavia Axis Albania protectorate Bulgaria (until September 1944) State of Burma Republic of China (Wang Jingwei) Independent State of Croatia Finland (until September 1944) German Reich Hungary Azad Hind Iraq Italy (until September 1943) Italian Social Republic Empire of Japan Manchukuo Mengjiang Philippines Romania (until August 1944) Slovak Republic Thailand Vichy France Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Collaboration Neutral Afghanistan Andorra Bhutan Ireland Liechtenstein Monaco Portugal San Marino Saudi Arabia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tibet Turkey Vatican City Yemen Resistance Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech lands Denmark Dutch East Indies Estonia Ethiopia France Germany Greece Hong Kong Italy Japan Jews Korea Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malaya Netherlands Northeast China Norway Philippines Poland Romania Thailand Soviet Union Slovakia Western Ukraine Vietnam Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Yugoslavia POWs Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union German prisoners Soviet Union Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners Soviet Union German atrocities against Polish POWs Soviet prisoners Finland atrocities by Germans Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union Allies Algeria Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria ( from September 1944 ) Canada China Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Ethiopia Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) Finland ( from September 1944 ) France Free France Greece India ( Indian Army ) Italy ( from September 1943 ) Liberia Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Newfoundland New Zealand Norway Philippines Poland Romania ( from August 1944 ) Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Soviet Union Tuva United Kingdom British Empire United States Puerto Rico Yugoslavia Algeria Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria ( from September 1944 ) Canada China Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Ethiopia Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) Finland ( from September 1944 ) France Free France Greece India ( Indian Army ) Italy ( from September 1943 ) Liberia Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Newfoundland New Zealand Norway Philippines Poland Romania ( from August 1944 ) Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Soviet Union Tuva United Kingdom British Empire British Empire United States Puerto Rico Puerto Rico Yugoslavia Axis Albania protectorate Bulgaria (until September 1944) State of Burma Republic of China (Wang Jingwei) Independent State of Croatia Finland (until September 1944) German Reich Hungary Azad Hind Iraq Italy (until September 1943) Italian Social Republic Empire of Japan Manchukuo Mengjiang Philippines Romania (until August 1944) Slovak Republic Thailand Vichy France Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Collaboration Albania protectorate Bulgaria (until September 1944) State of Burma Republic of China (Wang Jingwei) Independent State of Croatia Finland (until September 1944) German Reich Hungary Azad Hind Iraq Italy (until September 1943) Italian Social Republic Italian Social Republic Empire of Japan Manchukuo Mengjiang Philippines Romania (until August 1944) Slovak Republic Thailand Vichy France Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Collaboration Neutral Afghanistan Andorra Bhutan Ireland Liechtenstein Monaco Portugal San Marino Saudi Arabia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tibet Turkey Vatican City Yemen Afghanistan Andorra Bhutan Ireland Liechtenstein Monaco Portugal San Marino Saudi Arabia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tibet Turkey Vatican City Yemen Resistance Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech lands Denmark Dutch East Indies Estonia Ethiopia France Germany Greece Hong Kong Italy Japan Jews Korea Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malaya Netherlands Northeast China Norway Philippines Poland Romania Thailand Soviet Union Slovakia Western Ukraine Vietnam Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Yugoslavia Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech lands Denmark Dutch East Indies Estonia Ethiopia France Germany Greece Hong Kong Italy Japan Jews Korea Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malaya Netherlands Northeast China Norway Philippines Poland Romania Thailand Soviet Union Slovakia Western Ukraine Vietnam Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Yugoslavia POWs Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union German prisoners Soviet Union Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners Soviet Union German atrocities against Polish POWs Soviet prisoners Finland atrocities by Germans Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union German prisoners Soviet Union Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Soviet Union Azerbaijan Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners Soviet Union Soviet Union German atrocities against Polish POWs Soviet prisoners Finland atrocities by Germans Finland atrocities by Germans Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union Timeline Prelude Africa Second Italo-Ethiopian War Asia Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Europe Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania 1939 Invasion of Poland Battle of the Atlantic Phoney War First Battle of Changsha Battle of South Guangxi Winter War 1939–1940 Winter Offensive 1940 Norwegian campaign German invasion of Denmark Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang German invasion of Luxembourg German invasion of the Netherlands German invasion of Belgium Battle of France Dunkirk evacuation Battle of Britain Battle of the Mediterranean North Africa West Africa British Somaliland Hundred Regiments Offensive Baltic states Eastern Romania Japanese invasion of French Indochina Italian invasion of Greece Compass 1941 Battle of South Henan Battle of Shanggao Invasion of Yugoslavia German invasion of Greece Battle of Crete Anglo-Iraqi War Battle of South Shanxi Syria–Lebanon campaign East African campaign Invasion of the Soviet Union Summer War Finland ( Silver Fox ) Lithuania Battle of Kiev Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran Second Battle of Changsha Siege of Leningrad Battle of Moscow Bombing of Gorky Siege of Sevastopol Attack on Pearl Harbor Niʻihau incident Japanese invasion of Thailand Fall of Hong Kong Fall of the Philippines Battle of Guam Battle of Wake Island Malayan campaign Battle of Borneo Japanese invasion of Burma Third Battle of Changsha Greek famine of 1941–1944 1942 Fall of Singapore Battle of the Java Sea St Nazaire Raid Battle of Christmas Island Battle of the Coral Sea Battle of Madagascar Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign Battle of Gazala Battle of Dutch Harbor Battle of Midway Aleutian Islands campaign Kiska Attu Blue First Battle of El Alamein Battle of Stalingrad Kokoda Track campaign Rzhev Jubilee Second Battle of El Alamein Guadalcanal campaign Torch Chinese famine of 1942–1943 1943 Black May Tunisian campaign Battle of West Hubei Battle of Attu Bombing of Gorky Battle of Kursk Allied invasion of Sicily Smolensk Solomon Islands campaign Cottage Battle of the Dnieper Allied invasion of Italy Armistice of Cassibile Burma Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Changde Second Battle of Kiev Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign Tarawa Makin Bengal famine of 1943 1944 Tempest Monte Cassino / Anzio Korsun–Cherkassy Narva U-Go Imphal Ichi-Go Kohima Overlord Neptune Mariana and Palau Bagration Western Ukraine Second Battle of Guam Tannenberg Line Warsaw Uprising Eastern Romania Liberation of Paris Dragoon Gothic Line Belgrade offensive Battle of San Marino Lapland Market Garden Estonia Crossbow Pointblank Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945 Philippines (1944–1945) Leyte Syrmian Front Hungary Budapest Burma (1944–1945) Ardennes Bodenplatte Dutch famine of 1944–1945 1945 Vistula–Oder Battle of Manila Battle of Iwo Jima Indochina Vienna offensive Project Hula Western invasion of Germany Bratislava–Brno offensive Battle of Okinawa Second Guangxi campaign West Hunan Italy (Spring 1945) Battle of Berlin Prague offensive Surrender of Germany document Borneo Taipei Naval bombardment of Japan Manchuria Atomic bombings Debate South Sakhalin Kuril Islands Shumshu Surrender of Japan Potsdam Declaration document End of World War II in Asia Prelude Africa Second Italo-Ethiopian War Asia Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Europe Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania Africa Second Italo-Ethiopian War Second Italo-Ethiopian War Asia Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Europe Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania 1939 Invasion of Poland Battle of the Atlantic Phoney War First Battle of Changsha Battle of South Guangxi Winter War 1939–1940 Winter Offensive Invasion of Poland Battle of the Atlantic Phoney War First Battle of Changsha Battle of South Guangxi Winter War 1939–1940 Winter Offensive 1940 Norwegian campaign German invasion of Denmark Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang German invasion of Luxembourg German invasion of the Netherlands German invasion of Belgium Battle of France Dunkirk evacuation Battle of Britain Battle of the Mediterranean North Africa West Africa British Somaliland Hundred Regiments Offensive Baltic states Eastern Romania Japanese invasion of French Indochina Italian invasion of Greece Compass Norwegian campaign German invasion of Denmark Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang German invasion of Luxembourg German invasion of the Netherlands German invasion of Belgium Battle of France Dunkirk evacuation Battle of Britain Battle of the Mediterranean North Africa West Africa British Somaliland Hundred Regiments Offensive Baltic states Eastern Romania Japanese invasion of French Indochina Italian invasion of Greece Compass 1941 Battle of South Henan Battle of Shanggao Invasion of Yugoslavia German invasion of Greece Battle of Crete Anglo-Iraqi War Battle of South Shanxi Syria–Lebanon campaign East African campaign Invasion of the Soviet Union Summer War Finland ( Silver Fox ) Lithuania Battle of Kiev Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran Second Battle of Changsha Siege of Leningrad Battle of Moscow Bombing of Gorky Siege of Sevastopol Attack on Pearl Harbor Niʻihau incident Japanese invasion of Thailand Fall of Hong Kong Fall of the Philippines Battle of Guam Battle of Wake Island Malayan campaign Battle of Borneo Japanese invasion of Burma Third Battle of Changsha Greek famine of 1941–1944 Battle of South Henan Battle of Shanggao Invasion of Yugoslavia German invasion of Greece Battle of Crete Battle of Crete Anglo-Iraqi War Battle of South Shanxi Syria–Lebanon campaign East African campaign Invasion of the Soviet Union Summer War Summer War Finland ( Silver Fox ) Lithuania Battle of Kiev Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran Second Battle of Changsha Siege of Leningrad Battle of Moscow Bombing of Gorky Siege of Sevastopol Attack on Pearl Harbor Niʻihau incident Niʻihau incident Japanese invasion of Thailand Fall of Hong Kong Fall of the Philippines Battle of Guam Battle of Wake Island Malayan campaign Battle of Borneo Japanese invasion of Burma Third Battle of Changsha Greek famine of 1941–1944 1942 Fall of Singapore Battle of the Java Sea St Nazaire Raid Battle of Christmas Island Battle of the Coral Sea Battle of Madagascar Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign Battle of Gazala Battle of Dutch Harbor Battle of Midway Aleutian Islands campaign Kiska Attu Blue First Battle of El Alamein Battle of Stalingrad Kokoda Track campaign Rzhev Jubilee Second Battle of El Alamein Guadalcanal campaign Torch Chinese famine of 1942–1943 Fall of Singapore Battle of the Java Sea St Nazaire Raid Battle of Christmas Island Battle of the Coral Sea Battle of Madagascar Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign Battle of Gazala Battle of Dutch Harbor Battle of Midway Aleutian Islands campaign Kiska Attu Kiska Attu Blue First Battle of El Alamein Battle of Stalingrad Kokoda Track campaign Rzhev Jubilee Second Battle of El Alamein Guadalcanal campaign Torch Chinese famine of 1942–1943 1943 Black May Tunisian campaign Battle of West Hubei Battle of Attu Bombing of Gorky Battle of Kursk Allied invasion of Sicily Smolensk Solomon Islands campaign Cottage Battle of the Dnieper Allied invasion of Italy Armistice of Cassibile Burma Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Changde Second Battle of Kiev Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign Tarawa Makin Bengal famine of 1943 Black May Tunisian campaign Battle of West Hubei Battle of Attu Bombing of Gorky Battle of Kursk Allied invasion of Sicily Smolensk Solomon Islands campaign Cottage Battle of the Dnieper Allied invasion of Italy Armistice of Cassibile Armistice of Cassibile Burma Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Changde Second Battle of Kiev Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign Tarawa Makin Tarawa Makin Bengal famine of 1943 1944 Tempest Monte Cassino / Anzio Korsun–Cherkassy Narva U-Go Imphal Ichi-Go Kohima Overlord Neptune Mariana and Palau Bagration Western Ukraine Second Battle of Guam Tannenberg Line Warsaw Uprising Eastern Romania Liberation of Paris Dragoon Gothic Line Belgrade offensive Battle of San Marino Lapland Market Garden Estonia Crossbow Pointblank Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945 Philippines (1944–1945) Leyte Syrmian Front Hungary Budapest Burma (1944–1945) Ardennes Bodenplatte Dutch famine of 1944–1945 Tempest Monte Cassino / Anzio Korsun–Cherkassy Narva U-Go Imphal Ichi-Go Kohima Overlord Neptune Mariana and Palau Bagration Western Ukraine Second Battle of Guam Tannenberg Line Warsaw Uprising Eastern Romania Liberation of Paris Dragoon Gothic Line Belgrade offensive Battle of San Marino Lapland Market Garden Estonia Crossbow Pointblank Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945 Philippines (1944–1945) Leyte Syrmian Front Hungary Budapest Budapest Burma (1944–1945) Ardennes Bodenplatte Bodenplatte Dutch famine of 1944–1945 1945 Vistula–Oder Battle of Manila Battle of Iwo Jima Indochina Vienna offensive Project Hula Western invasion of Germany Bratislava–Brno offensive Battle of Okinawa Second Guangxi campaign West Hunan Italy (Spring 1945) Battle of Berlin Prague offensive Surrender of Germany document Borneo Taipei Naval bombardment of Japan Manchuria Atomic bombings Debate South Sakhalin Kuril Islands Shumshu Surrender of Japan Potsdam Declaration document End of World War II in Asia Vistula–Oder Battle of Manila Battle of Iwo Jima Indochina Vienna offensive Project Hula Western invasion of Germany Bratislava–Brno offensive Battle of Okinawa Second Guangxi campaign West Hunan Italy (Spring 1945) Battle of Berlin Prague offensive Surrender of Germany document document Borneo Taipei Naval bombardment of Japan Manchuria Atomic bombings Debate Debate South Sakhalin Kuril Islands Shumshu Shumshu Surrender of Japan Potsdam Declaration document End of World War II in Asia Potsdam Declaration document End of World War II in Asia World portal Bibliography Category World portal Bibliography Category v t e History of World War II by region and country v t e Africa Belgian Congo British Somaliland Egypt Ethiopia French Somaliland French West Africa The Gambia Gold Coast Kenya Liberia Madagascar North Africa Tunisia Morocco Nyasaland Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Uganda Belgian Congo British Somaliland Egypt Ethiopia French Somaliland French West Africa The Gambia Gold Coast Kenya Liberia 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Cambodia Iran Iraq Japan Malaya Mongolia Nepal Philippines Sarawak, Brunei, Labuan, and British North Borneo Singapore Thailand Tibet Turkey Tuva Europe Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czechoslovakia Denmark Estonia Finland France Military history Basque Country Germany Greece Hungary ( Carpathian Ruthenia ) Iceland Ireland Italy Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Soviet Union Azerbaijan Byelorussia Ukraine Spain Basque Country Catalonia Galicia Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom British Empire Wales Channel Islands Gibraltar Vatican City Yugoslavia ( Slovenia ) Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czechoslovakia Denmark Estonia Finland France Military history Basque Country Military history Basque Country Germany Greece Hungary ( Carpathian Ruthenia ) Iceland Ireland Italy Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Soviet Union Azerbaijan Byelorussia Ukraine Azerbaijan Byelorussia 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Background Toggle Background subsection 1.1 Definitions of genocide and legal challenges 1.1 Definitions of genocide and legal challenges 2 Genocidal intent and incitement 3 Onset 4 Genocidal acts Toggle Genocidal acts subsection 4.1 Direct killings 4.2 Indirect deaths 4.3 Starvation and blockade 4.4 Deliberate destruction of civilian infrastructure 4.5 Forced displacement 4.6 Attacks on healthcare 4.7 Preventing births 4.8 Destruction of cultural, religious and educational sites 4.9 Serious bodily and mental harm, and sexual violence 4.10 Ecocide 4.1 Direct killings 4.2 Indirect deaths 4.3 Starvation and blockade 4.4 Deliberate destruction of civilian infrastructure 4.5 Forced displacement 4.6 Attacks on healthcare 4.7 Preventing births 4.8 Destruction of cultural, religious and educational sites 4.9 Serious bodily and mental harm, and sexual violence 4.10 Ecocide 5 Academic and legal discourse Toggle Academic and legal discourse subsection 5.1 Relationship to the Nakba, the broader Palestinian genocide accusation, and Israeli ideology 5.2 Genocide and Holocaust studies 5.3 Legal and human rights experts 5.4 Other scholars 5.1 Relationship to the Nakba, the broader Palestinian genocide accusation, and Israeli ideology 5.2 Genocide and Holocaust studies 5.3 Legal and human rights experts 5.4 Other scholars 6 Legal proceedings Toggle Legal proceedings subsection 6.1 International Court of Justice application 6.2 International Criminal Court 6.3 Other proceedings 6.1 International Court of Justice application 6.2 International Criminal Court 6.3 Other proceedings 7 Responsibility of third states and other entities Toggle Responsibility of third states and other entities subsection 7.1 United States 7.2 United Kingdom 7.2.1 Lawsuit over export licences 7.3 Germany 7.4 European Union 7.5 Egypt 7.6 Italy 7.7 Private sector and media 7.1 United States 7.2 United Kingdom 7.2.1 Lawsuit over export licences 7.2.1 Lawsuit over export licences 7.3 Germany 7.4 European Union 7.5 Egypt 7.6 Italy 7.7 Private sector and media 8 Political discourse Toggle Political discourse subsection 8.1 World leaders and governments 8.2 Non-governmental organisations and intergovernmental organisations 8.1 World leaders and governments 8.2 Non-governmental organisations and intergovernmental organisations 9 Cultural discourse Toggle Cultural discourse subsection 9.1 Public opinion in Israel and abroad 9.1 Public opinion in Israel and abroad 10 Impact 11 See also 12 Notes 13 References Toggle References subsection 13.1 Works cited 13.1 Works cited 14 External links Gaza genocide Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা Български Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Magyar മലയാളം Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Română Русский Simple English سنڌي Српски / srpski ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Gaza genocide Part of the Gaza war , the Israeli occupation of the Gaza Strip , and the Israeli–Palestinian conflict .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}} .mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}} Photographs of the Gaza genocide .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Top : Gazans receiving treatment on the floor at the overcrowded emergency ward of Al-Shifa Hospital in Gaza City, October 2023 Middle left : A destroyed ambulance of the Palestinian Red Crescent, January 2024 Middle right :Destruction in northern Gaza, February 2025 Bottom left : A destroyed mosque, February 2025 Bottom right : Children collecting food aid, August 2024 Top : Gazans receiving treatment on the floor at the overcrowded emergency ward of Al-Shifa Hospital in Gaza City, October 2023 Middle left : A destroyed ambulance of the Palestinian Red Crescent, January 2024 Middle right :Destruction in northern Gaza, February 2025 Bottom left : A destroyed mosque, February 2025 Bottom right : Children collecting food aid, August 2024 Location Gaza Strip Date On or after 7 October 2023 ( 2023-10-07 ) – present [ a ] [ 1 ] Target Palestinians Attack type Genocide , massacres , ethnic cleansing , forced displacement , bombardment , blockade , war crimes , targeted killings , starvation , torture , rape and sexual violence , attacks on healthcare , birth prevention , [ 2 ] [ 3 ] ecocide , [ 4 ] urbicide Deaths 71,400 direct deaths (recorded figure, January 2026) [ b ] 463 famine deaths (confirmed, November 2025) [ 11 ] [ 12 ] c. 10,000+ famine deaths (estimated) [ 13 ] 71,400 direct deaths (recorded figure, January 2026) [ b ] 463 famine deaths (confirmed, November 2025) [ 11 ] [ 12 ] c. 10,000+ famine deaths (estimated) [ 13 ] Injured At least 171,300 [ 5 ] [ 14 ] Perpetrator Israel Litigation South Africa v. Israel Nicaragua v. Germany South Africa v. Israel Nicaragua v. Germany South Africa v. Israel Nicaragua v. Germany Part of a series on the Gaza genocide Genocidal acts Attacks on Cemeteries Cultural heritage sites Designated civilian safe zones Evacuating civilians Health facilities Refugee camps Religious sites Schools Blockade Aid delivery Evacuations Humanitarian crisis Famine Gaza Humanitarian Foundation Healthcare collapse Killings Aid distribution Bombings AI targeting Children Civilians Health workers Rafah paramedic massacre World Central Kitchen aid convoy attack Journalists List Mass detentions Torture Mass graves Sexual and gender-based violence Preterm births War crimes Women Attacks on Cemeteries Cultural heritage sites Designated civilian safe zones Evacuating civilians Health facilities Refugee camps Religious sites Schools Cemeteries Cultural heritage sites Designated civilian safe zones Evacuating civilians Health facilities Refugee camps Religious sites Schools Blockade Aid delivery Aid delivery Evacuations Humanitarian crisis Famine Gaza Humanitarian Foundation Healthcare collapse Famine Gaza Humanitarian Foundation Healthcare collapse Killings Aid distribution Bombings AI targeting Children Civilians Health workers Rafah paramedic massacre World Central Kitchen aid convoy attack Journalists List Aid distribution Bombings AI targeting AI targeting Children Civilians Health workers Rafah paramedic massacre World Central Kitchen aid convoy attack Rafah paramedic massacre World Central Kitchen aid convoy attack Journalists List List Mass detentions Torture Torture Mass graves Sexual and gender-based violence Preterm births War crimes Women Genocidal intent Intent and incitement List of statements Palestinians as animals Intent and incitement List of statements Palestinians as animals List of statements Palestinians as animals Intervention Arms embargoes Artists4Ceasefire BDS movement Boycotts of Israel ICC arrest warrants Benjamin Netanyahu Yoav Gallant Film Workers for Palestine Freedom flotillas Hague Group Bogotá conference Gaza war protests Hind Rajab Foundation Humanitarian aid List of sanctions No Music For Genocide No Tech for Apartheid Palestine Action Writers Against the War on Gaza Arms embargoes Artists4Ceasefire BDS movement Boycotts of Israel ICC arrest warrants Benjamin Netanyahu Yoav Gallant Benjamin Netanyahu Yoav Gallant Film Workers for Palestine Freedom flotillas Hague Group Bogotá conference Bogotá conference Gaza war protests Hind Rajab Foundation Humanitarian aid List of sanctions No Music For Genocide No Tech for Apartheid Palestine Action Writers Against the War on Gaza Legal cases International Criminal Court (ICC) Defense for Children International – Palestine v. Biden Nicaragua v. Germany South Africa v. Israel International Criminal Court (ICC) Defense for Children International – Palestine v. Biden Nicaragua v. Germany South Africa v. Israel Recognition and denial Recognition Academic and legal responses List of humanitarian and human rights groups Palestinian genocide accusation Special Committee UNHRC COI 2025 report Denial Pallywood Recognition Academic and legal responses List of humanitarian and human rights groups Palestinian genocide accusation Special Committee UNHRC COI 2025 report Academic and legal responses List of humanitarian and human rights groups Palestinian genocide accusation Special Committee UNHRC COI 2025 report Special Committee UNHRC COI 2025 report 2025 report Denial Pallywood Pallywood Support to Israel Countries Germany United Kingdom United States Lists Companies involved Countries supplying arms Military aid Foundations Gaza Humanitarian Foundation Countries Germany United Kingdom United States Germany United Kingdom United States Lists Companies involved Countries supplying arms Military aid Companies involved Countries supplying arms Military aid Foundations Gaza Humanitarian Foundation Gaza Humanitarian Foundation Related topics Anti-Palestinianism Cultural discourse Far-right politics in Israel Gaza peace plan Eightieth session of the UNGA Israel and weapons of mass destruction Eurovision Song Contest 2024 UNRWA and Israel Wikipedia Anti-Palestinianism Cultural discourse Far-right politics in Israel Gaza peace plan Eightieth session of the UNGA Israel and weapons of mass destruction Eurovision Song Contest 2024 UNRWA and Israel Wikipedia .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e The Gaza genocide is the ongoing, [ 15 ] [ 16 ] intentional , and systematic destruction of the Palestinian people in the Gaza Strip carried out by Israel during the Gaza war . It encompasses mass killings , deliberate starvation , infliction of serious bodily and mental harm, and prevention of births . Other acts include blockading , destroying civilian infrastructure , destroying healthcare facilities , killing healthcare workers and aid-seekers , causing mass forced displacement , committing sexual violence , and destroying educational , religious , and cultural sites . [ 17 ] The genocide has been recognised by a United Nations special committee [ 18 ] and commission of inquiry , [ 17 ] the International Association of Genocide Scholars , [ 19 ] [ 20 ] multiple human rights groups , [ c ] numerous genocide studies and international law scholars, [ 26 ] [ 27 ] and other experts. [ 28 ] By December 2025, the Gaza Health Ministry had reported that at least 70,117 people in Gaza had been killed . [ 29 ] The vast majority of the victims were civilians, [ 30 ] [ 31 ] and around 50% were women and children. [ 32 ] [ 33 ] Compared to other recent global conflicts, the numbers of known deaths of journalists , humanitarian and health workers , and children are among the highest. [ 34 ] Thousands more uncounted bodies are thought to be under the rubble of destroyed buildings. [ 31 ] [ 35 ] A study in the medical journal The Lancet estimated that traumatic injury deaths were undercounted by June 2024, while noting an even larger potential death toll when "indirect" deaths are included. [ 36 ] The number of injured is greater than 171,000. [ 5 ] [ 14 ] [ 37 ] Gaza has the most child amputees per capita in the world; [ 38 ] the Gaza war caused more than 21,000 children to be disabled . [ 39 ] An Israeli blockade heavily contributed to starvation and confirmed famine . As of August 2025, projections show about 641,000 people experiencing catastrophic levels and that "the number of people facing emergency levels will likely increase to 1.14 million". [ 40 ] [ 41 ] Early in the conflict, Israel cut off Gaza's water and electricity, but it later partially restored the water. [ 42 ] As of May 2024, 84% of Gaza's health centres have been destroyed or damaged . [ 43 ] Israel also destroyed numerous cultural heritage sites , including all 12 of Gaza's universities, and 80% of its schools. [ 44 ] [ 45 ] Over 1.9 million Palestinians—85% of Gaza's population—were forcibly displaced. [ 46 ] In December 2023, the government of South Africa instituted proceedings, South Africa v. Israel , against Israel at the International Court of Justice (ICJ), alleging a violation of the Genocide Convention . [ 47 ] In January 2024, the court ordered Israel to take all measures within its power to prevent the commission of acts of genocide, to prevent and punish incitement to genocide , and to allow basic humanitarian service, aid and supplies into Gaza. [ 48 ] [ 49 ] [ 50 ] The court later ordered Israel to increase humanitarian aid into Gaza and to halt its Rafah offensive . [ 51 ] [ 52 ] Israel did not fully comply with the court's orders. [ 53 ] [ 54 ] [ 55 ] Israel and its supporters maintain that its actions do not constitute genocide . [ 50 ] [ 56 ] The Israeli government maintains that its military actions were a response to the Hamas -led October 7 attacks on Israel and that it sought to destroy Hamas and free Israeli hostages . [ 57 ] [ 50 ] [ 58 ] There is increasing consensus among genocide and international legal scholars on the genocide assessment, [ 26 ] though some academics challenge it. [ 59 ] [ 60 ] Background Israel's occupation of the Gaza Strip began in 1967. In 2005, Israel withdrew its ground forces in the context of the Oslo Accords and the Second Intifada . [ 61 ] The International Court of Justice subsequently issued an advisory opinion that despite the withdrawal Israel is still illegally occupying the Gaza Strip. [ 62 ] Since 2007, the Gaza Strip has been governed by Hamas , an Islamist militant group, while the West Bank remained under the control of the Palestinian Authority . After Hamas took over, Israel intensified its blockade of the Gaza Strip , citing security concerns; [ 63 ] [ 64 ] international rights groups have called the blockade a form of collective punishment . [ 65 ] [ 66 ] [ 67 ] UNRWA reported that, due to the blockade, 81% of Gazans were living below the poverty level in 2023, with 63% food insecure and dependent on international assistance. [ 68 ] [ 69 ] Since 2007, Israel and Hamas (and other Palestinian militias in Gaza) have engaged in conflict, [ 64 ] [ 70 ] [ 71 ] including four wars in 2008–2009 , 2012 , 2014 , and 2021 . [ 72 ] [ 73 ] On 7 October 2023 Hamas led an attack into Israel from Gaza, [ 74 ] [ 75 ] [ 76 ] killing at least 1,139 [ 77 ] [ 78 ] [ d ] people, most of them civilians . [ 85 ] The attack included grave acts of violence, including sexual violence . [ 79 ] During the attack, Palestinian militant groups abducted 251 people from Israel to the Gaza Strip . [ 86 ] Israel responded with a highly destructive [ 87 ] bombing campaign followed by an invasion of the Gaza Strip on 27 October. [ 88 ] Hamas officials said the attack was a response to the Israeli occupation of the West Bank , the blockade of Gaza , Israeli settler violence against Palestinians, restrictions on the movement of Palestinians , and the detainment of thousands of Palestinians, many without charges , whom Hamas sought to release by taking Israeli hostages. [ 89 ] [ 90 ] [ 91 ] Numerous commentators have identified Israeli occupation as a cause of the war. [ 92 ] Several human rights organisations, including Amnesty International , [ 93 ] B'Tselem , [ 94 ] and Human Rights Watch , [ 95 ] have likened the Israeli occupation to apartheid ; Israel's supporters dispute this characterisation. [ 96 ] [ 97 ] A July 2024 advisory opinion by the International Court of Justice affirmed the occupation as illegal and said it violated the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination . [ 98 ] During the first 48 hours of Israel's retaliatory attack, IDF chief Herzi Halevi reported that the IDF attacked 1,000 targets. According to his wife, he told her that "Gaza will be destroyed". Reportedly, Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu subsequently said he wanted 5,000 targets to be attacked, even though the IDF had not confirmed 5,000 enemy targets. Artificial intelligence was used to generate a list of targets, in many cases based on unconfirmed or outdated intelligence. About 10,000 Palestinians were killed in a month, including entire families. Shmuel Lederman called this "as criminal as it gets". [ 99 ] The Israeli government has said that the military actions it has undertaken are in response to the October 7 attacks and sought to destroy Hamas, overthrow its governance of the Gaza Strip , and free Israeli hostages. It has denied that its military operations constitute genocide. [ 57 ] [ 50 ] [ 58 ] Multiple commentators argue that part of the motive is retaliation for the 7 October attacks. [ 100 ] [ 101 ] [ 102 ] Nimer Sultany argues that anti-Palestinianism is also a motive. [ 103 ] Definitions of genocide and legal challenges The 1948 United Nations Genocide Convention defines genocide as acts committed "with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnic, racial, or religious group", and as such, "causing harm, preventing births, and forcibly transferring children". [ 104 ] [ 105 ] The International Court of Justice has never held a state liable for genocide. [ 106 ] The legal threshold for genocidal intent remains a major barrier to prosecution. [ 106 ] The original definition coined by Raphael Lemkin was broader than that used by the Genocide Convention and included cultural and social destruction . In contrast, orthodox scholarly definitions emphasise actions targeting a group's physical survival. [ 107 ] [ 108 ] No minimum number of victims [ 109 ] [ 110 ] [ 111 ] or intended victims [ 112 ] is required to establish the crime, nor is complete destruction of the group. [ 113 ] In the Rohingya genocide case , several states contended that the ICJ should "adopt a balanced approach that recognizes the special gravity of the crime of genocide, without rendering the threshold for inferring genocidal intent so difficult to meet so as to make findings of genocide near-impossible." [ 114 ] Genocidal intent and incitement Experts affirm that statements by Israeli political and military leaders [ 115 ] [ 116 ] [ 117 ] —coupled with eliminationist media rhetoric and Israel's conduct in Gaza—indicate genocidal intent and incitement against the Palestinian people in Gaza. [ 117 ] Israeli officials and journalists [ 115 ] [ 118 ] [ 119 ] have made verbal statements that dehumanise Palestinians and incite , justify , or praise atrocities against them as a group. [ 120 ] [ 121 ] Genocidal intent is also evidenced by the scale and systematic nature of actions that exceed any legitimate military objective [ 122 ] [ 117 ] —including the extensive targeting of children, [ 57 ] [ 117 ] [ 20 ] widespread sexual violence, [ 123 ] destruction of cultural heritage , [ 124 ] [ 125 ] [ 126 ] and imposition of life-destroying conditions [ 127 ] [ 128 ] —together with the persistence of these practices despite awareness of their catastrophic effects. [ 129 ] [ 130 ] "I have ordered a complete siege on the Gaza Strip. There will be no electricity, no food, no fuel, everything is closed. We are fighting human animals, and we are acting accordingly." [ e ] "I have ordered a complete siege on the Gaza Strip. There will be no electricity, no food, no fuel, everything is closed. We are fighting human animals, and we are acting accordingly." [ e ] Both a United Nations commission of inquiry and Amnesty International documented a "pattern of conduct" by Israeli authorities, concluding that genocidal intent is the "only reasonable inference" that can be drawn from the evidence. [ 134 ] [ 135 ] Other organisations that have attributed genocidal intent to the actions or statements of Israeli officials include a United Nations panel [ 118 ] [ 136 ] and Genocide Watch . [ 137 ] [ 138 ] As part of Defense for Children International – Palestine v. Biden , the historian Barry Trachtenberg said that the rhetoric used by Israeli officials underlies the consensus among genocide historians that the situation in Gaza constitutes genocide. [ 121 ] Navi Pillay , the chair of the UN commission of inquiry, compared the statements of Israeli politicians to the genocidal incitement during the Rwandan genocide . [ 139 ] In September 2025, Israeli prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu, president Isaac Herzog , and former defence minister Yoav Gallant were found by a United Nations commission of inquiry to have engaged in "direct and public incitement to commit genocide ". [ 140 ] Israeli leaders' repeated references to Amalek — the biblical enemy of Israelites whose annihilation is commanded by God — have been considered evidence of genocidal intent by many critics, [ 141 ] [ 142 ] including South Africa. [ 143 ] [ 144 ] Onset B'Tselem , the South African case against Israel, and some scholars who argue Israel is committing genocide argument give 7 October as its start date. [ 145 ] [ 146 ] [ 147 ] According to B'Tselem, "The genocidal assault on the residents of Gaza, and on all Palestinians as a group, cannot be understood without acknowledging the impact of the 7 October attack on Israeli society. The shock, fear and humiliation elicited by the attack, and the societal upheaval it triggered, served as a driving force for a shift in government policy toward the Palestinians—from oppression and control to destruction and annihilation." [ 79 ] Martin Shaw and A. Dirk Moses argue that this "front-loaded violence" makes it harder to argue that the genocide began after the initial Israeli attack on Gaza. [ 148 ] [ 149 ] On 13 October 2023, the historian Raz Segal said Israel was committing a "textbook case of genocide". He was one of the first scholars to do so. [ 150 ] Others argue that the war was initially legitimate and the genocide started later, in 2024 or 2025. [ 148 ] [ 149 ] In September 2024, a UN Special Committee concluded, "the policies and practices of Israel during the reporting period [i.e. October 2023 to July 2024] are consistent with the characteristics of genocide." [ 151 ] Genocidal acts A newborn baby killed as a result of an Israeli airstrike Palestinians injured by an Israeli airstrike in Deir el-Balah, Gaza Strip Video interviews conducted with several survivors of October 2023 Israeli airstrikes An injured child receives treatment at Al-Aqsa Martyrs Hospital after Israeli airstrike in the Nuseirat refugee camp , Gaza Strip Direct killings UN experts and human rights organisations have characterised Israel's actions in Gaza as extermination , [ 152 ] a crime against humanity that involves "the act of killing on a large scale". During the first two months of bombing , Israel dropped 25,000 tonnes of explosives on the Gaza Strip. Many of these were unguided bombs dropped in densely populated areas, obliterating entire neighbourhoods. [ 153 ] Since 7 October 2023, the IDF has been accused of extrajudicial killing of unarmed Palestinians [ 154 ] [ 155 ] and healthcare personnel. [ 156 ] Israeli soldiers have killed Palestinian civilians, with a December 2023 UN report stating that they allegedly shot them in front of their families. [ 157 ] In January 2024, Israeli soldiers shot at civilians waving white flags , killing one. [ 157 ] [ 158 ] Doctors have identified numerous Palestinian children with single gunshot wounds to the head and chest, consistent with intentional targeting by Israeli forces. [ 159 ] In April 2024, mass graves were found containing over 300 corpses, [ 160 ] [ 161 ] allegedly including older people, women and wounded, [ 161 ] and others with their hands tied. [ 161 ] The IDF said accusations that it caused the killings were "baseless and unfounded", [ 162 ] and that during its operation "in the area of Nasser Hospital, in accordance to the effort to locate hostages and missing persons, corpses buried by Palestinians in the area of Nasser Hospital were examined." [ 163 ] It added, "Bodies examined, which did not belong to Israeli hostages , were returned to their place." [ 163 ] [ 164 ] At least 14,000 Palestinians had been killed in Gaza by December 2023. [ 165 ] In late 2024, a study limited only to those fatalities confirmed by at least three independent sources, and only from November 2023 to April 2024 (about 8,100 people), corroborated previous reports by the UN and news outlets that 70% of fatalities were women and children. [ 166 ] [ f ] As of 31 August 2024, data from the Ministry of Health (only for those of the dead who were fully identified, about 34,000 people at the time) showed that 60% of those killed were women, children, and the elderly. [ 168 ] Eleven months later (31 July 2025) the number of those of the dead who were fully identified reached 60,199, 52.6% of whom were women, children, and the elderly. [ 169 ] [ 170 ] [ g ] By 14 January 2024, over 23,900 Gazans had been confirmed killed. [ 171 ] By 10 May, deaths had topped 35,000, a third of them unidentified, with over 10,000 more estimated to be buried under the rubble. [ 172 ] Within the first three weeks, the Israeli assault killed more children in Gaza than were killed worldwide across all conflict zones in any year since 2019. [ 173 ] [ 174 ] Over 52,000 people had been wounded by December 2023, [ 175 ] [ 176 ] and by May 2024 this number had risen to over 77,700. [ 177 ] [ 178 ] As of 10 October 2025, the Gaza Health Ministry reports that at least 67,194 Gazans were killed, which is between 3% and 4% of Gaza's total population. [ 179 ] +972 Magazine and Local Call reported that the IDF decided early in the war to authorise killing up to 15 to 20 civilians per low-ranking militant, while for a senior militant killing more than 100 civilians was authorised. An intelligence officer said that Israel was not interested in killing Palestinian operatives in a military context only, but preferred to bomb them in their family homes, saying "It's much easier to bomb a family's home" where they are easier to target. [ 180 ] Another intelligence officer said that in targeting junior militants, Israel used only dumb bombs , which can destroy entire buildings, to not "waste expensive bombs on unimportant people". [ 181 ] In March 2024, Haaretz reported that some Israeli commanders had set up "kill zones" in which soldiers were commanded to kill anyone on sight, even if they were unarmed. [ 182 ] [ 183 ] According to an Israeli officer, "in practice, a terrorist is anyone the IDF has killed in the areas in which its forces operate." [ 182 ] [ h ] In June, the Associated Press found that Israel's campaign in Gaza was killing entire bloodlines of Palestinians to a "degree never seen before". [ 185 ] According to testimony given to the Israeli Knesset , Israeli soldiers driving armoured bulldozers had been ordered to "run over terrorists, dead and alive, in the hundreds". [ 186 ] The proportion of women and children among the dead is disputed, [ 187 ] [ 188 ] but the names, gender, and age of 60,000+ of the victims are known and published. [ 189 ] On 7 May 2024, total deaths quoted by the UN were 34,735, of which 24,686 are fully identified: 52% women and children, 8% elderly of all genders, and 40% men. [ 187 ] In November 2024, the UN published an analysis covering 8,119 fatalities that were verified by at least three independent sources, between November 2023 and April 2024, with 70% of them women and children. [ 190 ] As of 31 August 2024, per the Gaza Ministry of Health, the number of fatalities had risen to 40,691, 34,344 identified by name: 17,652 (51%) women and children, 2,955 (9%) elderly of all genders (defined as those aged 60 or older), and 13,737 (40%) men. [ 191 ] [ 168 ] [ 192 ] A year later (31 July 2025), per the Gaza Ministry of Health, the number of fatalities identified by name reached 60,199: 28,728 (48%) were women and children, 2,928 (5%) were elderly of all genders (defined as those aged 65 or older), and 28,543 (47%) were men. A minimum of 18,457 children had been killed since October 2023. [ 189 ] In November 2024, the Gaza Health Ministry reported that 1,410 Gazan families had been completely erased from the civil registry as a result of Israeli bombings. [ 193 ] Data collection has become increasingly difficult for the Gaza Health Ministry due to the destruction of infrastructure. [ 172 ] The ministry has had to supplement its usual reporting based on hospital dead with other sources of information, [ 172 ] including reports by the media and first responders as well as families and widows, who must formally register their husbands' deaths to qualify for government assistance. [ 194 ] Professor Mike Spagat found an urgent need for a transparent methodology to reconcile its top-line death numbers—34,535 as of 30 April 2024—with its detailed breakdowns, including only those of the dead who were fully identified, summing to 24,653 on the same date. [ 32 ] By August 2025, this gap between the number of victims and the number of fully identified vicitms became smaller (about 62,000 vs. about 60,000), as more victims were identified. [ 195 ] The ministry's figures for the total number killed have been contested by Israeli authorities but accepted as accurate by Israeli intelligence services, the UN, and the World Health Organization . [ 172 ] More recently, The Guardian has reported that a classified IDF database registered 8,900 killed militants. This and GHM's data imply a civilian death rate of 83%, which exceeds that of any conflict since 1989 except the Rwandan genocide , the Siege of Mariupol , and the Siege of Srebrenica . [ 196 ] The IDF denied this, saying the figures were inaccurate and inconsistent with its data. [ 197 ] A 2025 paper on the Gaza war estimated 64,260 deaths from traumatic injury between October 2023 and 30 June 2024, and likely exceeding 70,000 by October 2024, with 59.1% being women, children and the elderly. It concluded that the GHM undercounted trauma-related deaths by 41% in its report, and also noted that its findings "underestimate the full impact of the military operation in Gaza, as they do not account for non-trauma-related deaths resulting from health service disruption, food insecurity, and inadequate water and sanitation." [ 198 ] A comparable estimate for traumatic injury deaths was around 80,000 for January 2025. [ 199 ] A February study in The Lancet estimated that life expectancy in the Gaza Strip between October 2023 and September 2024 decreased by 34.9 years, excluding indirect deaths. The study also used census and registration data to assess the reliability of the Gaza Health Ministry's death count, and found no substantial errors. [ 200 ] In May 2025, finance minister Bezalel Smotrich claimed that Israel was targeting Hamas's civilian workers, saying, "We're eliminating ministers, bureaucrats, money handlers—everyone who holds up Hamas's civilian rule." [ 201 ] Killing civilian members of Hamas is in itself illegal. [ 202 ] [ page needed ] Starting in June 2025, IDF soldiers said they were ordered to shoot at crowds of Palestinians near Gaza Humanitarian Foundation aid sites, [ 203 ] killing over 1,000 people. [ 204 ] Amnesty International alleged Israel was trying to restrict aid to starve and inflict genocide upon the Palestinians. [ 205 ] In November 2025, a study by the Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research estimated that the total number of violent deaths in Gaza was between 100,000 and 126,000, of which 27% were children under 15 years old, and 24% women. [ 206 ] [ 207 ] [ 208 ] Indirect deaths Rasha Khatib, Martin McKee , and Salim Yusuf published an estimate of the number of deaths, directly or indirectly caused by the conflict, that as of July 2024 had already occurred or would occur in the coming months and years. Indirect Palestinian deaths from disease are expected to be much higher due to the intensity of the conflict, destruction of healthcare infrastructure, lack of food, water, shelter, and safe places for civilians to flee, and reduction in UNRWA funding. They estimated that the total conflict-related deaths in Gaza will likely be four to 16 times higher than the reported death toll. By multiplying the reported deaths by five, they argued that "186,000 or even more deaths could be attributable to the current conflict in Gaza". [ 172 ] Spagat wrote that their estimate "lacks a solid foundation and is implausible", [ 209 ] [ 210 ] but it was "fair to call attention to the fact that not all of the deaths are going to be direct violent ones", and has called the death toll in Gaza "staggeringly high". [ 187 ] [ 210 ] Donald Bloxham also notes that most deaths have been "indirect deaths" in various wars and that the "systematic obstruction of supplies into Gaza" is an Israeli policy, which makes calling these deaths "indirect" incorrect. [ 211 ] An October 2024 letter by US healthcare workers who had served in Gaza since 7 October 2023 tried to estimate the number of Gazans who had died of starvation based on publicly available IPC reports. [ 212 ] It said the most conservative estimate was that at least 62,413 people in Gaza had died from starvation, most of them young children; this estimate was based on the assumption that catastrophic (level 5) food insecurity results in a death rate of at least 2 deaths per 10,000 people per day. [ i ] The physicians also estimated that at least 5,000 people had died from lack of access to care for chronic diseases. [ 213 ] [ 214 ] [ 215 ] The indirect death estimates in two studies reviewed by The Economist implied that the life expectancy in Gaza has fallen by 35 years, rivalling the Rwandan genocide in absolute terms. [ 216 ] [ 217 ] Starvation and blockade A four-year-old Palestinian girl who died due to malnutrition and lack of treatment Displaced Palestinians gather to receive food from a charity in Deir el-Balah, Gaza Strip Displaced Palestinians receive food from charitable Tekiya during Ramadan in Deir el-Balah, Gaza Strip In February 2024, Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International both released statements declaring Israel had failed to comply with the ICJ's 26 January ruling to prevent genocide by blocking aid from entering Gaza. [ 54 ] [ 53 ] [ 218 ] A Refugees International report found that Israel had "consistently and groundlessly impeded aid operations within Gaza". [ 219 ] The historian Melanie Tanielian argues that starvation and blockade should be foregrounded as methods of genocide alongside mass bombing. [ 220 ] In an April report, B'Tselem called the unfolding famine "the product of a deliberate and conscious Israeli policy". [ 221 ] [ 222 ] In October 2023, the World Food Program warned of Gaza's dwindling food supply, [ 223 ] and in December, alongside the UN, it reported that more than half of Gaza's population was "starving", fewer than one in ten were eating every day, and 48% were suffering "extreme hunger". [ 224 ] [ 225 ] [ 226 ] Palestinian Foreign Minister Riyad al-Maliki referred to "Israel's deliberate use of starvation as a weapon of war against the people it occupied"; an Israeli official called the charge "blood-libellous" and "delusional". [ 227 ] In December 2023, Human Rights Watch found that Israel was using starvation as a weapon of war by deliberately denying access to food and water. [ 228 ] In January 2024, UN experts accused Israel of "destroying Gaza's food system and using food as a weapon against the Palestinian people". [ 229 ] In February 2024, finance minister Bezalel Smotrich personally blocked US-funded shipments of flour from entering Gaza, in violation of promises Israel had made to the US government. [ 230 ] In early 2024, the United Nations special rapporteur on the right to food Michael Fakhri said that Israel is "culpable" of genocide because "Israel has announced its intention to destroy the Palestinian people, in whole or in part, simply for being Palestinian" and because Israel was denying food to Palestinians by halting humanitarian aid and "intentionally" destroying small-scale fishing vessels, greenhouses and orchards in Gaza ... We have never seen a civilian population made to go so hungry so quickly and so completely, that is the consensus among starvation experts. Israel is not just targeting civilians, it is trying to damn the future of the Palestinian people by harming their children. [ 231 ] small-scale fishing vessels, greenhouses and orchards in Gaza ... We have never seen a civilian population made to go so hungry so quickly and so completely, that is the consensus among starvation experts. Israel is not just targeting civilians, it is trying to damn the future of the Palestinian people by harming their children. [ 231 ] After the ICJ ruling, the number of aid trucks Israel allowed into Gaza dropped by 40%. [ 232 ] In the ICJ's March reaffirmation of provisional measures, the court highlighted the "unprecedented levels of food insecurity experienced by Palestinians in the Gaza Strip over recent weeks, as well as the increasing risks of epidemics", [ 233 ] acknowledging that since the Court's January order there had been a "lack of Israeli compliance" resulting in "the catastrophic living conditions" deteriorating further. [ 234 ] In March 2024, 12 Israeli human rights organisations signed an open letter accusing Israel of failing to abide by the ICJ ruling to prevent genocide by facilitating the delivery of humanitarian aid. [ 235 ] [ 236 ] In April the UN special rapporteur on the right to health Tlaleng Mofokeng said Israel was "killing and causing irreparable harm against Palestinian civilians with its bombardments", adding, "They are also knowingly and intentionally imposing famine " and accusing Israel of "genocide". [ 237 ] In October 2024, Israel had reportedly adopted a modified version of the Generals' Plan . [ 238 ] [ 239 ] [ j ] The proposed plan included orders for all residents of northern Gaza to leave within a week; a full siege on water, food, and fuel; and then the arrest or killing of all who remained. [ 241 ] [ 242 ] By mid-October 2024, Israel had ordered the evacuation of northern Gaza and prevented the entry of humanitarian aid for almost two weeks. [ 243 ] [ 244 ] According to Stephen Devereux, avoidable deaths due to starvation as a result of Israeli policies "almost certainly constitutes a war crime and a crime against humanity". [ 245 ] On 21 November 2024, the International Criminal Court issued arrest warrants for Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and the former defence minister Yoav Gallant, asserting that the two "bear criminal responsibility for the war crime of starvation as a method of warfare". [ 246 ] [ 247 ] [ 248 ] Israel lifted restrictions on aid into Gaza in January–February 2025 during the first stage of the January ceasefire . But on 2 March, Israel announced that all humanitarian aid would be blocked indefinitely unless Hamas agreed to alter the terms of the ceasefire deal, which Hamas refused to do. [ 249 ] [ 250 ] Within four days, food supplies in Gaza had rapidly depleted while the price of food had more than doubled. Aid agencies such as Oxfam and UNICEF warned of mass starvation if the aid freeze continued. Oxfam policy lead Bushra Khalidi predicted "the total collapse of systems that sustain life". [ 251 ] Lawyer Salah Abdel-Ati said Israel's actions were illegal under the Geneva Conventions , which prohibits the destruction or withholding of essentials such as food in combat zones. [ 252 ] In May 2025, after blocking the import of all food, medicine, and fuel for two and a half months, [ 253 ] Netanyahu announced that Israel would allow "minimal humanitarian aid" into Gaza due to international pressure. [ 201 ] Israel has proposed using private companies to distribute aid to the south of Gaza only. The plan is backed by the US, which has created the Gaza Humanitarian Foundation (GHF) to deliver aid without "Hamas stealing, looting or leveraging this assistance for its own ends". The United Nations aid chief Tom Fletcher criticised the plan, saying it "forces further displacement" and "makes aid conditional on political and military aims". [ 254 ] Numerous Palestinians have been killed by Israeli forces while approaching GHF aid distribution points. [ 255 ] In August 2025, it was reported that Israel planned to surge aid to other parts of Gaza while cutting off all aid to Gaza City to force residents to evacuate while Israel takes over the city. [ 256 ] As of August 2025, projections show the entire population is experiencing "high levels of acute food insecurity", with about 641,000 people experiencing catastrophic levels . [ 40 ] The IPC confirmed famine is taking place in the Gaza Governorate . [ 40 ] [ 257 ] Two weeks after the October 2025 ceasefire came into effect, dozens of NGOs, including the Norwegian Refugee Council and Doctors Without Borders , announced that Israel was arbitrarily blocking their shipments of aid to Gaza. World Health Organisation head Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus said, "the situation still remains catastrophic because what's entering is not enough" and "there is no dent in hunger because there is not enough food". [ 258 ] [ 259 ] By December 2025, the food situation improved, with famine and catastrophic food insecurity (level 5) no longer happening; but 27% of the population still experienced emergency-level food insecurity (level 4) and another 50% of the population experienced crisis-level food insecurity (level 3). [ 260 ] [ 261 ] At the turn of the year, Israel's expulsion of Doctors Without Borders and several other humanitarian organizations from Gaza raised fears that the effects of malnutrition on the population would not be adequately treated or monitored; these organizations helped alleviate effects of famine/malnutrition by treating children with severe acute malnutrition. [ 262 ] [ 263 ] Deliberate destruction of civilian infrastructure An aerial view showing destruction in Rafah after Israeli forces withdrawal and as the ceasefire took hold, Gaza Strip Damage following an Israeli airstrike on the El-Remal aera in Gaza City on 9 October 2023. Smoke and flames billow after Israeli forces struck a high-rise tower in Gaza City Mark Levene and Elyse Semerdjian locate the mass destruction of infrastructure within Israel's Dahiya doctrine , implemented against Gaza since 2006, with Levene calling it urbicide and a tool of genocide. [ 264 ] [ 265 ] In October 2024, Forensic Architecture concluded, "Israel's military campaign in Gaza is organised, systematic, and intended to destroy conditions of life and life-sustaining infrastructure". [ 266 ] In July 2025, The Guardian reported that "about 70% of the structures in Gaza are either completely destroyed or severely damaged". Israel was reportedly paying contractors up to 5,000 shekels per building demolished. [ 267 ] In February 2025 it was reported that at least 15 children had died of hypothermia over the winter due to Israel's destruction of housing and power facilities. [ 268 ] In May 2025, Netanyahu said, "we are destroying more and more homes, and Gazans have nowhere to return to. The only inevitable outcome will be the wish of Gazans to emigrate outside of the Gaza Strip." [ 269 ] In a December 2024 report, Human Rights Watch accused Israel of committing acts of genocide in Gaza by targeting water and sanitation infrastructure and depriving Palestinians of adequate access to water. The report alleges that Israel intentionally damaged solar panels powering treatment plants, a reservoir, and warehouses, while blocking repair materials and fuel for generators, cutting electricity supplies, and attacking workers. [ 270 ] [ 271 ] According to B'Tselem, Israel has destroyed 84% of Gaza's water facilities, [ 272 ] while in a report authored and published by the World Bank , European Union , and United Nations it was reported that 89% of Gaza's water, sanitation, and hygiene facilities had been destroyed or damaged. [ 273 ] UN Special Rapporteur Pedro Arrojo-Agudo called these attacks "an important part of a genocidal strategy." [ 274 ] Rafah, a city in the southern Gaza Strip, has been razed; [ 275 ] this has been mostly carried out by bulldozing and controlled demolitions of buildings, rather than by aerial bombardment. [ 276 ] In July 2025, the BBC reported that Israel had engaged in controlled demolitions of civilian infrastructure, potentially in violation of the Geneva Convention. [ 277 ] The BBC reported an IDF spokesperson saying, "Hamas and other terrorist organizations conceal military assets in densely populated civilian areas. The IDF identifies and destroys terrorist infrastructure located, among other places, within buildings in these areas." [ 277 ] In November 2025, the BBC reported that Israel had demolished over 1,500 more buildings in Gaza since the ceasefire with Hamas. [ 278 ] A spokesperson for the IDF said it was acting "in accordance with the ceasefire framework" as the demolitions occurred behind the Yellow Line , in the portion of Gaza under Israeli military control, which comprises 53% of Gaza. [ 278 ] Forced displacement Return of displaced people via Al-Rasheed Street after ceasefire, January 2025, Gaza Strip An aerial photo of displaced Palestinians waiting in northern Nuseirat to return to their homes in Gaza An aerial view of Al-Mawasi area where displaced Palestinians live in tents, Gaza Strip Since October 2023, Israel's evacuation orders have displaced 1.9 million people—nearly Gaza's entire population—through unclear, inconsistent directives, often issued amid bombings, leaving civilians with no safe routes or destinations. Humanitarian zones were repeatedly attacked, while Israel blocked aid, leading to starvation, destroyed infrastructure, and uninhabitable conditions. Senior Israeli officials openly declared intentions to reduce Gaza's territory and push Palestinians out, reinforcing policies of ethnic cleansing and permanent displacement. Human Rights Watch reported that Israel's systematic forced displacement of Palestinians in Gaza amounts to war crimes and crimes against humanity . [ 279 ] [ 280 ] [ 37 ] South Africa and others criticised the Gaza Strip evacuations as a key component of the genocide. [ 281 ] B'Tselem mentions statements by Israeli high-ranking officials that a "central objective of the war" was ethnic cleansing. [ 269 ] On 6 October 2024, Israel designated northern Gaza as a combat zone and ordered the civilian population to evacuate. [ 282 ] [ 283 ] Both Israeli military analysts and the Al Mezan Center for Human Rights alleged that this was the first stage of the " Generals' Plan ", a policy proposed by the former Israeli general Giora Eiland to force Palestinians out of Gaza. [ 284 ] The UN Human Rights Office said that Israel may have caused the "destruction of the Palestinian population in Gaza's northernmost governorate through death and displacement." [ 285 ] During the January 2025 ceasefire , displaced persons were able to return to their homes in northern Gaza. After Israel broke the ceasefire in March 2025, displacement orders resumed. The 2025 Gaza City offensive led to further evacuation orders for 1.2 million people. [ 286 ] Attacks on healthcare Destruction of UNRWA el-Sheikh Radwan health centre, February 2024 Palestinian Red Crescent Personnel inspect a destroyed ambulance in Deir el-Balah, Gaza Strip In November 2023 in The Lancet and in February 2024 in BMJ Global Health , multiple doctors detailed how the targeting of Gazan health infrastructure and medical personnel, coupled with rhetoric used by Israeli politicians, amounts to genocide. [ 287 ] Legal scholars have supported this assessment. [ 288 ] [ 183 ] Gaza's healthcare system faced humanitarian crises as a result of Israel's assault: hospitals began shutting down by 23 October as they ran out of fuel. [ 289 ] When hospitals lost power, multiple premature babies in NICUs died. [ 290 ] [ 291 ] [ 292 ] Israeli airstrikes have killed numerous medical staffers, and ambulances and health institutions have been destroyed. [ 293 ] Médecins Sans Frontières reported that scores of ambulances and medical facilities were damaged or destroyed, [ 294 ] [ 295 ] and that its own staff were killed. [ 296 ] [ 297 ] The Gaza Health Ministry said the healthcare system had "totally collapsed". [ 298 ] In April 2024, UN special rapporteur on the right to health Tlaleng Mofokeng said, "The destruction of healthcare facilities continues to catapult to proportions yet to be fully quantified." [ 237 ] As of February 2025, at least 160 healthcare workers from Gaza are believed to be detained by Israel, with another 24 missing after being taken from Gaza hospitals. Al-Shifa hospital director Mohammed Abu Salmiya , detained for seven months and released without charges, detailed the abuses he faced and said that in Israeli prisons "no day passes without torture". [ 299 ] Preventing births In March 2025, a UN investigation concluded that Israel had committed genocidal acts in Gaza by systematically destroying its reproductive healthcare facilities while imposing a siege preventing necessary medications for deliveries, pregnancies, and neonatal care , causing "irreversible" harm to Palestinians' reproductive prospects in Gaza. The commission also found that Israeli forces intentionally destroyed Gaza's main in-vitro fertility clinic , Al-Basma IVF Centre, which served 2,000 to 3,000 patients a month. Israel destroyed about 4,000 embryos and 1,000 specimens of sperm and unfertilised eggs in the attack. [ 300 ] [ 301 ] No evidence that the building was used for military purposes was found. The commission concluded that the destruction of the clinic "was a measure intended to prevent births among Palestinians in Gaza, which is a genocidal act". [ 302 ] [ 303 ] [ 304 ] UN experts reported that they had found that Israel had systematically destroyed women's health care facilities and used sexual violence as a war strategy, thereby carrying out genocidal acts against Palestinians. [ 303 ] [ 304 ] According to statistics from the Gaza Ministry of Health reported by Physicians for Human Rights , the birth rate in Gaza in May and June 2025 had fallen 41% from the same months in 2022. The ministry also reported an increase in infant mortality, miscarriages, and premature births in Gaza during this time. [ 305 ] Destruction of cultural, religious and educational sites A mosque in Gaza destroyed in an Israeli airstrike, 20 February 2025. The wreckage of the Rashad Shawa Cultural Center A mosque in Khan Younis, 8 October 2023 Amnesty International notes that "while the destruction of historical, cultural and religious property or heritage is not considered a prohibited act under the Genocide Convention, the ICJ has established that such destruction can provide evidence of intent to physically destroy the group when carried out deliberately." [ 306 ] The Lemkin Institute for Genocide Prevention has said that Israel's deliberate destruction of cemeteries in Gaza indicates genocidal intent because it enacts the " erasure of a people's...historical presence ". [ 125 ] Since 7 October 2023, the IDF has been accused of using excessive force against dozens of schools; [ 307 ] [ 308 ] theft; [ 309 ] desecration and mutilation of deceased Palestinians; [ 156 ] and making no, or an inadequate, distinction between Hamas forces and civilians. [ 310 ] The targeting of cultural and educational sites have also been cited as genocidal acts, as has the use of white phosphorus . [ k ] [ 312 ] On 18 April 2024, UN experts in Geneva condemned Israel for its " scholasticide " in Gaza, finding that it had destroyed more than 80% of schools and killed 5,000 students, 261 teachers, and dozens of professors. [ 44 ] Amnesty International identified at least four instances in which there was "no imperative military necessity" for the deliberate destruction of Gazan cultural and religious sites: [ 313 ] the destruction of the Al-Mughraqa campus of Al-Azhar University , the Al-Zahra campus of Israa University , the Al-Dhilal mosque and Bani Suheila cemetery in Khan Younis, and the Al-Istiqlal mosque in Khan Younis. [ 314 ] Amnesty International pointed to the attitudes and behaviour of Israeli soldiers involved in the demolitions of these sites in videos posted on social media as evidence that these actions demonstrated genocidal intent. Amnesty International also noted the overall volume of destruction of Gazan cultural, historical and religious sites, including Gaza's central archives. [ 315 ] As of January 2025, Israel had destroyed 815 mosques and 19 cemeteries during the Gaza war. [ 316 ] In June 2025, UN experts published a report saying Israel had committed the crime against humanity of extermination for "killing civilians sheltering in schools and religious sites". According to the report, Israel has destroyed over 90% of educational buildings in Gaza. [ 317 ] Serious bodily and mental harm, and sexual violence Yamen was injured in his leg during his sixth displacement in Jabalia refugee camp, and he was forced to flee while wounded. A Palestinian refugee carries his injured grandchildren from the Israeli bombing of Nuseirat Camp, Gaza Strip The number of injured since 7 October 2023 due to Israeli military actions is greater than 170,000, [ 5 ] [ 14 ] and Gaza has the most child amputees per capita worldwide. [ 38 ] In the same period over 1,000 Palestinians have been killed in the West Bank. [ 318 ] Israel has been accused of indiscriminate mass detentions [ 319 ] [ 320 ] and has been documented making threats of mutilation, [ 321 ] death, arson, and rape, [ 322 ] and torturing Palestinians detained without charges. [ 323 ] By March 2024, an estimated 17,000 children were " wounded children, no surviving family " (WCNSF), a new medical term. [ 324 ] [ 159 ] In August 2024, the UN OHCHR reported receiving testimony from Palestinians imprisoned at Sde Teiman detention camp about rape and sexual assault perpetrated on detainees. [ 3 ] The Lemkin Institute considers this and similar reports to be indicative of "Sexualized Violence During Genocide", or sexual violence being used to destroy a group. [ 325 ] As of 25 August 2024, the UN estimates that most of Gaza's 2.2 million people are confined to roughly 15 square miles (39 km 2 ), causing a critical lack of basic services, like clean water, and diseases spreading widely, such as Hepatitis C . [ 326 ] Amnesty International reported that the pattern of abuses inside Israeli prisons "underscores the systematic dehumanization and mental and physical abuse of Palestinians in Gaza and may also be taken into account with a view to inferring genocidal intent from pattern of conduct." [ 327 ] According to the Independent International Commission of Inquiry , gender-based and sexual violence were committed "to dominate, oppress and destroy the Palestinian people in whole or in part." [ 328 ] According to a UN committee, the Gaza war has resulted in disabilities for more than 21,000 children as of September 2025. [ 39 ] Ecocide Israel's bombing in Gaza caused severe environmental devastation , destroying vegetation, water, sanitation, and waste infrastructure and contaminating air, soil, and water. The UN and environmental groups report damage consistent with " ecocide ", citing massive debris, untreated sewage, and toxic pollution. These conditions have triggered disease outbreaks, respiratory illnesses, and long-term health risks. [ 329 ] [ 4 ] [ 330 ] Multiple commentators have argued that deliberate ecocide is a central component of Israel's genocide in Gaza. [ 331 ] [ 332 ] [ 333 ] Scholars have argued that the destruction of the environment sustaining a population including its water, land, and food systems constitutes a genocidal act, as it inflicts conditions of life calculated to destroy the group, in whole or in part. [ l ] [ 335 ] [ 336 ] Academic and legal discourse Genocide (46%) Major war crimes akin to genocide (36%) Major war crimes but not akin to genocide (9%) Unjustified actions but not major war crimes (4%) Justified actions under the right to self-[defence] (4%) I don't know (2%) There is a growing consensus among genocide and Holocaust scholars, international legal experts, human rights organisations, and governments that Israel's actions in Gaza constitute genocide. Israel and its supporters deny the accusation. [ 338 ] [ 339 ] [ 337 ] Relationship to the Nakba, the broader Palestinian genocide accusation, and Israeli ideology Some scholars say the Gaza genocide is merely the latest stage of a "slow-motion genocide" of Palestinians that began with the Nakba and the expulsion of hundreds of thousands of Palestinians upon Israel's founding in 1948. [ 340 ] [ 341 ] [ 342 ] According to B'Tselem and others, the Gaza genocide is occurring in the context of over 75 years of Zionist settler colonial violence and Jewish supremacy targeting Palestinians. [ 79 ] [ 343 ] Multiple genocide scholars argue that settler colonialism is an important motive for Israel's actions. [ 344 ] Raz Segal and B'Tselem also highlight the increasing influence of Jewish supremacy in Israeli politics, [ 345 ] [ 79 ] while reports by Francesca Albanese and Amos Goldberg highlight the project of Greater Israel . [ 346 ] [ 347 ] [ 348 ] Genocide and Holocaust studies In May 2025, NRC wrote that leading scholars in genocide studies are "surprisingly unanimous" that Israel is committing genocide. [ 349 ] Some scholars of Holocaust studies , such as Norman J. W. Goda and Jeffrey Herf , have said that Israel is not committing genocide. [ 350 ] Others, such as Israeli professors Raz Segal and Shira Klein [ he ] , have argued that Israel's actions should be analysed as a case of genocide, [ 349 ] [ 351 ] [ 352 ] citing, among other things, attacks on infrastructure, food, and water as genocidal. [ 353 ] Omer Bartov , professor of Holocaust and genocide studies at Brown University and an Israel Defense Forces veteran, has said: "intent has been publicly expressed by numerous officials and leaders. But intent can also be derived from a pattern of operations on the ground, and this pattern became clear by May 2024". [ 354 ] Amos Goldberg and Daniel Blatman , historians of the Holocaust and genocide studies at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem , noted that "most acts of genocide are perceived by their perpetrators as acts of self-defense against their victims" and the Gaza war "falls into this category." [ 355 ] On 31 August 2025, the International Association of Genocide Scholars (IAGS), the world's biggest academic association of genocide scholars, passed a resolution saying that Israel has committed genocide in Gaza. [ 19 ] [ 20 ] [ 356 ] Legal and human rights experts This section contains an excessive amount of intricate detail . Specifically, from the overview detailing grouped positions, the section has quadrupled in size, seeking to include quotes from every person who has commented . Please help improve it by spinning off or relocating relevant information and removing excessive detail that goes against Wikipedia's inclusion policy . ( December 2025 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) In December 2023, former International Criminal Court chief prosecutor Luis Moreno Ocampo told Al Jazeera that the siege of Gaza was a form of genocide due to Israel's imposing conditions that would lead to the deaths of Palestinians. [ 357 ] In December, in correspondence published in The Lancet , multiple specialists in international medicine and humanitarian aid reiterated warnings of the risk of genocide, while detailing how Israel's blocking of humanitarian support and aid were leading to unnecessary deaths, and how the death rate would continue to worsen. They called on signatories to the Genocide Convention to enforce a ceasefire on Israel. [ 358 ] Nimer Sultany argues that, by mid-2024, a growing consensus among legal scholars suggested that Israel was committing genocide in Gaza. [ 359 ] Multiple public declarations from journals and academic organisations have warned of a potential genocide and declared opposition to an ongoing genocide. [ 138 ] [ 360 ] [ 361 ] In January 2024, a number of prominent Israelis, represented by the human-rights lawyer Michael Sfard , sent Israel's attorney general and state prosecutor an open letter detailing examples of "the discourse of annihilation, expulsion and revenge". [ 362 ] The signatories said the Israeli judiciary was ignoring incitement to genocide in Gaza. [ 362 ] In January 2024, the American political scientist and international relations scholar John Mearsheimer wrote that, while he had believed during the first two months of the war that Israel was "guilty of serious war crimes", once the 2023 Gaza war ceasefire ended, it "became clear" to him "that Israeli leaders were in fact seeking to physically destroy a substantial portion of Gaza's Palestinian population". [ 363 ] William Schabas , an expert in international criminal law , [ 364 ] said that South Africa's case was the strongest of all recent genocide cases at the International Court of Justice , citing the destruction of Gazan infrastructure and statements by Israeli politicians that Gazans are "human animals" and that Israel would deny them electricity, water, and medical care. [ 365 ] [ 366 ] [ 367 ] On 26 January 2024, the ICJ issued a preliminary ruling finding that the rights asserted in South Africa's filing were "plausible", and an order requiring that Israel take all measures in its power to prevent acts of genocide, prevent and punish incitement to genocide, and allow basic humanitarian services into Gaza. [ 48 ] [ 368 ] Judge ad hoc Aharon Barak dissented from the majority's view that genocide-related rights were "plausible", writing that South Africa had not demonstrated genocidal intent on Israel's part. [ 369 ] On 15 May 2024, a report by the University Network for Human Rights , Boston University School of Law , Cornell Law School , University of Pretoria , and the Yale Law School found that "Israel has committed genocidal acts". [ 339 ] [ 370 ] In a May 2024 interview, Human Rights Watch co-founder Aryeh Neier detailed how Israel's blocking of aid and the subsequent starvation of Gaza's population is indicative of genocide. [ 371 ] On 1 June 2024, professor of international law Daniel-Erasmus Khan [ de ] said there was no clear evidence of a special intent among Israeli leadership. [ 372 ] A June 2024 report by the University Network for Human Rights and Boston University School of Law found that "Israel has committed genocidal acts". [ 339 ] In an August 2024 op-ed, Eli Rosenbaum , a lawyer and former director of the United States Department of Justice's Office of Special Investigations , wrote that Israel's actions in Gaza were not genocidal since it was aiming to "prevent genocide" by Hamas. [ 373 ] In October 2024, Professor Conor Gearty called Israel genocidal, pointing to the continued attacks on schools and hospitals and the lack of internal investigations by Israeli authorities into potential crimes. [ 374 ] Some scholars, particularly those associated with Third World approaches to international law , have argued that the international community's failure to treat Israel's actions in Gaza as genocide and respond accordingly has harmed the principles of the international order and international law itself, and exposed the deficiencies of international governance. [ 375 ] [ 376 ] [ 377 ] [ page needed ] José Manuel Barreto [ who? ] argues that "the Palestinian genocide has unveiled the deep colonial structure of the international legal order" and identifies events in Gaza with the history of genocides in the colonised world, which he says the Westphalian system has historically failed to prevent. [ 376 ] In December 2024, Amnesty International published a report accusing Israel of committing genocide. [ 378 ] [ 379 ] [ 380 ] After the Amnesty report, Human Rights Watch also said Israel had committed "genocidal acts" and that Israeli officials statements may indicate genocidal intent. [ 381 ] In April 2025, the barrister Michael Mansfield said there was "no question" that genocide was occurring. [ 382 ] In May 2025, Luigi Daniele, a lecturer at Nottingham Law School , noted a link between the IDF's justification for its conduct in Gaza and the Rapid Support Forces rationale in the Sudanese civil war , saying it "reveals the emergence of a template to commit mass extermination and even genocide". [ 383 ] In May 2024 the scholar Nimer Sultany supported Forensic Architecture 's assessment that Israel had weaponised international humanitarian law into "humanitarian violence". [ 384 ] This was supported in July by Professor Neve Gordon and the anthropologist Nicola Perugini , who argued that Israel used "the law itself as a tool legitimizing genocide". [ 385 ] In June 2025, Ambos and scholar Stefanie Bock [ de ] wrote that it has become more difficult to deny genocidal intent. [ 386 ] In July 2025, 1,300 professionals and academics in public health, health care, and the social sciences signed a letter acknowledging the Gaza genocide. [ 387 ] According to professor Ernesto Verdeja, even by "the most inflexible interpretation of genocide, Gaza qualifies as genocidal". [ 388 ] In July 2025, Le Monde reported that legal experts remained divided on the question, with some agreeing that Israel was committing genocide and others viewing the charge as unsubstantiated. [ 60 ] Bartov wrote that the silence of many scholars of the Holocaust and Holocaust commemoration institutions and their disbelief that Israel could commit war crimes, crimes against humanity, ethnic cleansing, or genocide threatens universalist interpretations of Holocaust studies and Holocaust commemoration and may lead to a decline in the relevance of Holocaust education. [ 389 ] [ 390 ] Journalist Colin Jones interviewed lawyers affiliated with the US military and concluded that they see Gaza as a test case for what military conduct might be acceptable in a hypothetical war between the US and a peer power such as China. [ 391 ] In August 2025, according to Mia Swart, a growing consensus was emerging "in international legal circles that Israel is committing genocide". [ 392 ] Craig Mokhiber , a retired UN human rights lawyer, wrote, "Never, in the modern era, have we seen such a clear-cut, article-by-article violation of the United Nations Genocide Convention, so broad a consensus in the identification of the crime". [ 393 ] Other scholars In March 2024, the Middle East Studies Association condemned the "accelerating scale of genocidal violence being inflicted on the Palestinian population of Gaza", saying that Israel's conduct constituted cultural genocide . [ 394 ] Surveys of 758 Middle East scholars by the Brookings Institution indicated a growing consensus that Israel's military campaign in Gaza was genocide. [ 395 ] [ 396 ] [ 337 ] In 2025, John Spencer , chair of urban warfare studies at the Modern War Institute at the United States Military Academy , argued that Israel had not demonstrated genocidal intent, based on what he called "evidence of what Israel is doing to preserve infrastructure, civilian life, to provide services". [ 397 ] Robert Satloff of the Washington Institute for Near East Policy criticized the IAGS genocide resolution for its sourcing and for lacking independent research, noting that it passed with the support of "only one-fifth ... of the organization’s membership", though he wrote that his "critique of the IAGS resolution should not be misread as endorsement of Israeli strategy and tactics in Gaza or indifference to the terrible human toll in this conflict". [ 398 ] Legal proceedings International Court of Justice application In December 2023, South Africa instituted proceedings at the International Court of Justice pursuant to the Genocide Convention , accusing Israel of committing genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity against Palestinians in Gaza. [ 399 ] [ 47 ] [ 400 ] South African president Cyril Ramaphosa compared Israel's actions to apartheid . [ 401 ] Several international organisations and other nations supported South Africa's suit. [ 402 ] [ 403 ] In its application, South Africa argued that Israel's actions "are genocidal in character because they are intended to bring about the destruction of a substantial part of the Palestinian national, racial and ethnical group". [ 47 ] [ 404 ] South Africa requested that the ICJ issue an interim order requiring Israel to "immediately suspend its military operations in and against Gaza". [ 47 ] [ 404 ] On 26 January 2024, the ICJ issued a preliminary ruling finding that the rights asserted in South Africa's filing were "plausible" and issued an order requiring that Israel take all measures in its power to prevent acts of genocide, prevent and punish incitement to genocide, and allow basic humanitarian services into Gaza. [ 48 ] [ 368 ] Later that year, South Africa asked the ICJ to order additional measures against Israel, [ 405 ] and in May, the court issued what some experts considered to be an ambiguous order but which was widely understood as requiring Israel to immediately halt its offensive in Rafah . [ 406 ] Israel rejected this interpretation and continued its offensive. [ 51 ] The Israeli government spokesman Eylon Levy rejected the allegations "with disgust" [ 400 ] and accused South Africa of cooperating with Hamas, [ 399 ] calling South Africa's claims " blood libel ". [ 407 ] On 2 January 2024, Israel decided to appear before the ICJ in response to South Africa's case, despite a history of ignoring international tribunals. [ 404 ] On 13 January, Netanyahu said, "No one will stop us. Not The Hague, not the Axis of Evil , no one." [ 408 ] Israeli officials accused the court of antisemitic bias. [ 409 ] [ 410 ] Israel asserted that that it had taken all possible measures to safeguard civilians during its military campaign in Gaza. [ 411 ] [ 412 ] Some left-wing Israeli politicians , including Ofer Cassif , supported South Africa's case. [ 413 ] International Court of Justice Vice President Julia Sebutinde was one of the 17 judges ruling on provisional measures in South Africa's genocide case against Israel . She voted against all the provisional measures, and was the only permanent judge to vote against any of the measures. [ 414 ] [ 415 ] In her dissenting opinion, Sebutinde wrote, "multiple concrete actions were taken by Israel to facilitate the provision of humanitarian aid for the civilian population of Gaza." [ 416 ] International Criminal Court In May 2024, Khan applied for arrest warrants against Israeli Prime Minister Netanyahu and Minister of Defence Yoav Gallant, saying he had reasonable grounds to believe they bore criminal responsibility for war crimes and crimes against humanity committed in Gaza. [ 417 ] The list of crimes did not include genocide, which is legally distinct from extermination . [ 418 ] The warrants were issued in November 2024. [ 248 ] As part of a December 2024 report accusing Israel of genocide, Amnesty International called on the ICC "to urgently consider the commission of the crime of genocide by Israeli officials since 7 October 2023 in the ongoing investigation into the situation in the State of Palestine". [ 419 ] [ 420 ] Also in December 2024, the Israeli law professor Omer Shatz filed a complaint with the ICC naming eight Israeli political and media figures he believed were responsible for incitement to genocide. [ 421 ] On 1 October 2025, a complaint was filed with the ICC accusing Italian Prime Minister Giorgia Meloni and other officials of genocide for their support of Israel. [ 422 ] [ 423 ] The US and Israel have politically pressured and imposed sanctions on the ICC due to its positions during the war. [ 424 ] Other proceedings In November 2023, the Center for Constitutional Rights sued US President Joe Biden , Secretary of State Antony Blinken , and Secretary of Defence Lloyd Austin , [ 425 ] [ 426 ] [ 88 ] alleging that Israel's "mass killings", targeting of civilian infrastructure, and forced expulsions amount to genocide, [ 144 ] [ 425 ] and that the US was capable of deterring Israel from committing these acts due to the countries' close relationship. [ 144 ] A federal judge dismissed the case in January 2024, ruling that the US Constitution prevented his court from determining foreign policy, but writing that "as the ICJ has found, it is plausible that Israel's conduct amounts to genocide". [ 427 ] The judge also commented that he would have preferred to have issued the injunction and urged Biden to rethink US policy. [ 428 ] [ 429 ] [ 425 ] In February 2024, lawyers representing Palestinians in Germany filed a criminal complaint against politicians including Chancellor Olaf Scholz , Foreign Minister Annalena Baerbock , Economic Minister Robert Habeck , and Finance Minister Christian Lindner for "aiding and abetting" genocide in Gaza. [ 430 ] [ 431 ] The Public Prosecutor General dismissed the complaint due to lack of reasonable suspicion . [ 432 ] The lawyers filed a similar complaint against current and former German government members in September 2025. [ 432 ] [ 433 ] In March 2024, the Nicaraguan government initiated proceedings against Germany at the ICJ under the Genocide Convention concerning Germany's support for Israel in the Gaza war. [ 434 ] [ 435 ] It sought provisional measures of protection , including resumption of suspended German funding of the UNRWA and cessation of military supplies to Israel. [ 435 ] In March 2024, Birchgrove Legal referred Australian Prime Minister Anthony Albanese , Foreign Minister Penny Wong , Opposition Leader Peter Dutton , and others to the ICC as accessories to genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity, citing the defunding of UNRWA, the provision of military aid, and "unequivocal political support" for Israel's actions during the Gaza war. [ 436 ] [ 437 ] [ importance? ] In November 2025, the Chief Public Prosecutor's Office in Turkey issued arrest warrants for 37 Israeli suspects on charges of genocide and crimes against humanity. Officials named in the Turkish indictment included Netanyahu, security minister Itamar Ben-Gvir , defence minister Israel Katz (who had replaced Gallant), and IDF chief of staff Eyal Zamir . [ 438 ] Responsibility of third states and other entities All UN states that are signatories to the Genocide Convention are obliged "to employ all means reasonably available to them, so as to prevent genocide so far as possible" and must not provide "means to enable or facilitate the commission of the crime". [ 439 ] Multiple scholars argue that the inaction of the international community to confirmed atrocities in Gaza expose the irrelevance and weakness of the Responsibility to Protect (R2P) doctrine . [ 440 ] [ 441 ] [ 442 ] Many Western countries, especially the United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom, have supported Israel by offering diplomatic, military, and intelligence support. [ 443 ] The Independent International Commission of Inquiry on Palestine said, "States may be complicit in failing to prevent genocide if they do not act in compliance" with the International Court of Justice's orders or if they directly aid or assist in "the commission of genocide". [ 444 ] Other journalists and scholars have written that the actions of the US and other Western countries implicitly give permission for genocide. [ 445 ] [ 446 ] In January 2024, the former UNRWA spokesperson Chris Gunness said that the US and UK are complicit in genocide against Gaza. [ 447 ] In March Oxfam released a statement detailing its intention, alongside several other non-governmental organisations, [ m ] to sue Denmark to prevent arms sales to Israel, warning that by selling arms Denmark is "complicit in violations of international humanitarian law ... and a plausible genocide". [ 448 ] [ 449 ] UN Commission of Inquiry on the Occupied Palestinian Territory chair Navi Pillay has said that states that provide weapons to Israel, including the US, are complicit in genocide. [ 450 ] A UN Special Committee wrote, "Failing to act now ... will tear apart the very foundation of the international rule of law we have collectively built to protect peace, security, and the well-being of all. Our inaction today is setting a perilous precedent for tomorrow." [ 18 ] United States The United States has been a key provider of diplomatic and material support before and during the Gaza war. [ 451 ] [ 452 ] It pays for around 15% of Israel's military budget and is its largest supplier of arms; it provided more than $22.8 billion to the war effort in its first year. [ 453 ] According to the Quincy Institute , the destruction of Gaza is "in large part, the result of unconditional U.S. assistance and diplomatic cover". [ 454 ] Both the Biden and Trump administrations have denied genocide in Gaza; [ 455 ] Biden's support of Israel earned him the nickname "Genocide Joe". [ 456 ] In February 2025, Trump proposed an American takeover of Gaza and displacing the people living there, though he no longer supports this. [ 455 ] According to an August opinion poll, half of US voters believe Israel is committing genocide in Gaza and 60% oppose further military assistance. [ 457 ] Six members of the US Congress have recognised the genocide: Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez , Rashida Tlaib , Summer Lee , Marjorie Taylor Greene , Becca Balint and Bernie Sanders . [ 458 ] United Kingdom The British government does not give weapons to Israel directly but rather issues licences for British companies to sell them . [ 459 ] On 12 December 2023 Human Rights Watch said that selling weapons to Israel could make the UK complicit in war crimes. UK law says licences cannot be granted when there is a clear risk the items might be used to commit or facilitate a serious violation of international humanitarian law. [ 460 ] James Denselow of Save the Children UK said, "By failing to push for a permanent end to the fighting or speak out against the weaponisation of aid, Rishi Sunak and his government are complicit in the horror that is unfolding." [ 461 ] In December 2023, Scottish First Minister Humza Yousaf condemned the UK's abstention from a draft UN resolution calling for a ceasefire in Gaza, saying this would lead to the deaths of more children. [ 462 ] In April 2024, Guy Goodwin-Gill , a professor of international law at Oxford University, said: "There is a serious risk of genocide, as the International Court of Justice has found. If the UK, with that knowledge in mind, carries on exporting arms to Israel, there is a risk that those arms will be used in the conduct of aggressive activities and in the conduct of genocide." [ 463 ] The same month, hundreds of lawyers and legal academics published a legal opinion warning that the government risked complicity in genocide by continuing to arm Israel. [ 464 ] [ 465 ] On 2 September 2024, Foreign Secretary David Lammy announced he was suspending approximately 30 arms export licences to Israel after a government review concluded there was a high risk these exports were being used for severe violations of international humanitarian law. [ 466 ] At the time of the suspension, Israel had around 350 arms export licences in the UK. [ 467 ] On 3 September 2025, the Scottish Government announced a ban on funding to "arms companies whose products or services are provided to countries where there is plausible evidence of genocide being committed", including Israel. [ 468 ] The Scottish Parliament also voted for a boycott of Israel and any companies providing it military support. [ 469 ] Lawsuit over export licences The human rights groups Al-Haq and Global Legal Action Network took legal action against the British government in December 2023, saying that the government risked violating the Genocide Convention by granting export licences for the sale of military equipment to Israel. [ 470 ] In May 2025, a hearing began at the High Court of Justice to determine whether the UK had violated arms export control laws by continuing to supply Israel with components for F-35 fighter jets even after other licences were suspended. At the hearing, government lawyers argued that UK-made parts enter a global spares pool rather than being shipped directly to Israel, where it is "generally not possible to determine who the end user would be" and that suspending them "would have a critical impact on international peace and security, including NATO's defence and deterrence". [ 471 ] [ 472 ] On 30 June 2025, the court dismissed the claim, holding the "F-35 carve out" lawful; it added that some aspects of the challenge were "not for a domestic court to decide" and that the carve-out's "true nature" was that the UK would "not cease to participate in the F-35 Programme", even though some UK components would ultimately reach Israel. [ 473 ] Germany In October 2023, political analyst Lena Obermaier argued that Germany is complicit in Israel's war crimes against Gaza. [ 474 ] She detailed how most of Germany's most prominent news outlets have "been silent on Israeli genocidal policies". She also highlighted police suppression of pro-Palestine protests [ 475 ] as evidence of state complicity. [ 474 ] According to Germany's Federal Commissioner for the Fight against Antisemitism , accusing Israel of genocide is antisemitic. [ 476 ] Publicly accusing Israel of genocide can lead to arrest in Germany, even when the accusers are Jewish or Israeli. [ 477 ] [ 478 ] In February 2024 a criminal complaint was filed in German courts accusing various senior politicians of complicity in genocide. [ 430 ] In March, Nicaragua sued Germany for complicity at the ICJ . [ 434 ] European Union The European Union was accused of potential complicity after it did not suspend the EU-Israel Association Agreement . Secretary General of Amnesty International Agnès Callamard said the EU was giving Israel a "green light" to continue its genocide and was at "risk of complicity in Israel's actions". [ 479 ] [ 480 ] The Rights Forum [ nl ] said the decision was "shameless complicity in genocide". [ 481 ] Egypt Egypt has been accused of complicity in genocide for its enforcement of the blockade on Gaza and refusal to open the Rafah Border Crossing . [ 482 ] [ 483 ] In April 2025, Cage and five other African advocacy organisations filed a complaint with the African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights . [ 484 ] Egypt is not permitted to turn people away at its borders if doing so would expose them to life-threatening conditions or collective punishment, as this would violate its obligations under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the Convention Against Torture . [ 485 ] [ 486 ] Egypt was also accused of complicity with Israel for its crackdown on the Global March to Gaza . [ 487 ] Egypt has said that its closure of the Rafah crossing is done in opposition to Israeli plans to displace Palestinians. [ 482 ] Egypt rejected an Israeli proposal for Gaza to be returned to Egypt for up to 15 years [ 488 ] and formally supported South Africa's genocide case against Israel. [ 489 ] Italy On 7 October 2025, Prime Minister Giorgia Meloni said in an interview with RAI – Radiotelevisione italiana that a pro-Palestinian advocacy group had reported her, Defence Minister Guido Crosetto , Foreign Minister Antonio Tajani , and Leonardo director Roberto Cingolani to the International Criminal Court for alleged complicity in the genocide. [ 490 ] [ 491 ] The complaint, which was signed by 50 people, including law professors, lawyers, and several public figures, was filed on 1 October. It accused Meloni's government of complicity for supplying arms to Israel and urged the ICC to evaluate whether a formal investigation into the allegation could be initiated. [ 492 ] As of May 2025, Italy was the third-largest supplier of weaponry to Israel, representing around 1% of Israel's weaponry imports. [ 493 ] [ 494 ] Despite the Italian government's claims that weaponry supplement to Israel had been interrupted, Leonardo , one of Italy's biggest arms companies, confirmed that the Italian government and Italian companies still export arms to Israel. [ 495 ] Francesca Albanese directly called Italy an accomplice in the Gaza genocide. [ 496 ] Private sector and media Multiple corporations have been accused of profiting from the Gaza genocide. [ 497 ] [ 498 ] Executives from Lockheed Martin , General Dynamics , and RTX Corporation have described the war in Gaza as a source of increased profits. [ 499 ] [ 500 ] On 20 June 2024, UN experts warned that continued arms transfers to Israel could amount to violations of international law and risk state and corporate complicity in potential genocide. They called for an immediate halt to all weapons transfers to Israel, including by such major arms manufacturers as BAE Systems , Boeing , Lockheed Martin, and Caterpillar . They also warned institutions investing in these companies, such as Bank of America , BlackRock , Citigroup , and Wells Fargo . [ 501 ] In June 2025, a UN expert's report named Alphabet , Amazon , Microsoft , and IBM as "central to Israel's surveillance apparatus and the ongoing Gaza destruction", and Palantir as a source of AI tools for the Israeli military. [ 502 ] The report also named Allianz , Barclays , BlackRock, and BNP Paribas for underwriting and purchasing Israeli government bonds, which the UN said are the main source of financing for Israel's military expenditures. [ 503 ] Scholars, journalists, media analysts and human rights advocates have accused various media outlets of complicity through media imperialism . [ 504 ] Political discourse World leaders and governments Several Western governments (notably the United States, United Kingdom, and Germany) reject calling Israel's actions in Gaza a genocide. [ 505 ] [ 506 ] [ 507 ] Belgium, Norway, and Canada have said they will abide by or await the ICJ's judgment rather than take a definitive stance. [ 508 ] [ 509 ] [ 510 ] A large group of states, especially in the Islamic world , most of Africa, Latin America, and some European countries, explicitly describe Israel's actions as genocide and/or have joined or supported South Africa's ICJ case. [ 511 ] These include Ghana, [ 512 ] Turkey, [ 513 ] Malaysia, [ 514 ] Egypt, [ 515 ] Brazil, [ 516 ] Chile, [ 517 ] Colombia, [ 518 ] Spain, [ 519 ] Ireland, [ 520 ] and Slovenia. [ 521 ] On November 7, 2025, Turkey issued arrest warrants for genocide against Netanyahu and 36 colleagues. [ 522 ] The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), the Arab League , and the African Union have collectively endorsed the characterisation of Israel's actions as genocide and called for accountability and measures such as ending arms transfers. [ 523 ] In January 2025, the Hague Group convened in Bogotá with the aim to uphold international rulings on Gaza, end arms shipments to Israel and build a pathway to broader recognition of Palestinian statehood. [ 524 ] Non-governmental organisations and intergovernmental organisations Numerous non-governmental organisations and intergovernmental organisations have accused Israel of genocide. Among the first to warn of a risk of genocide, in mid-October 2023, were Genocide Watch and the Lemkin Institute for Genocide Prevention . [ 525 ] [ 526 ] Several Palestinian human rights groups, including Defence for Children International (DCI), [ 527 ] Al-Haq , Al Mezan , and the Palestinian Centre for Human Rights , have filed lawsuits alleging a genocide. [ 528 ] Some Israeli human rights organisations, such as B'Tselem [ 529 ] and Physicians for Human Rights–Israel , released reports calling Israel's campaign in Gaza a genocide. [ 24 ] [ 530 ] [ 531 ] International human rights groups condemning Israel's genocide include the International Federation for Human Rights , [ 25 ] Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights Monitor , [ 532 ] Amnesty International , [ 419 ] [ 533 ] [ 21 ] the European Center for Constitutional and Human Rights , [ 534 ] and Human Rights Watch . [ 271 ] In October 2024, Oxfam and 37 other humanitarian organisations warned that Israel was failing to comply with the Genocide Convention as it wiped Northern Gaza "off the map". [ 535 ] Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) has also found that Israel is committing genocide. [ 536 ] [ 537 ] [ 538 ] The American activist group Jewish Voice for Peace has stated that Israel is committing genocide. [ 539 ] [ 540 ] [ 541 ] In September 2025, the UN Human Rights Council 's Independent International Commission of Inquiry issued a report concluding that Israel is committing genocide against Palestinians in Gaza. The Commission found reasonable grounds to determine that Israeli authorities and security forces have committed, and continue to commit, four of the five genocidal acts defined under the 1948 Genocide Convention: killing members of the group; causing serious bodily or mental harm; deliberately inflicting conditions of life calculated to bring about the group's physical destruction in whole or in part; and imposing measures intended to prevent births. [ 17 ] [ 542 ] Cultural discourse Israel's genocide against the Palestinian people in Gaza has been a contentious topic in cultural discourse. Celebrities, athletes, public intellectuals, activists, cultural institutions and ordinary people have weighed in on the events in Gaza, as well as on the cultural and societal implications of viewing those events through the framework of genocide. [ 543 ] Public opinion in Israel and abroad Multiple surveys have found broad support among Jewish Israelis for the government's policies toward Gaza. [ 544 ] [ 545 ] [ 546 ] An August 2025 Accord Center poll found that 76% of Jewish Israelis agreed with the statement "there are no innocent people in Gaza". [ 547 ] A May 2025 survey found that 82% supported expelling Gazans, while 56% favoured also expelling Palestinians from Israel. [ 544 ] Another August 2025 poll found that 79% of Jewish Israelis were untroubled by reports of famine in Gaza. [ 545 ] According to the Lemkin Institute for Genocide Prevention , "the vast majority of Israelis agree with...[Israel's] plan and clearly will support anything to see it realized – from apartheid to extermination." [ 548 ] A September 2025 AP-NORC poll found that the number of Americans who believe that Israel's military actions in Gaza have "gone too far" was increasing. [ 549 ] Impact British sociologist Martin Shaw has called the Gaza genocide "the genocide that changed the world" because of mass mobilisation against genocide. He also highlights some political victories by Israel, but "at huge cost to its global legitimacy and that of the West". [ 551 ] Israeli journalist and author Gideon Levy wrote an article in Haaretz insisting that the people of Gaza will never forget the massacres, bombardments, destruction, and trauma. [ 552 ] Some scholars, particularly those associated with Third World approaches to international law , have argued that the international community's failure to treat Israel's actions in Gaza as a genocide and respond accordingly has harmed the principles of the international order and international law and exposed the deficiencies of international governance. [ 375 ] [ 376 ] [ 377 ] [ page needed ] José Manuel Barreto argues that "the Palestinian genocide has unveiled the deep colonial structure of the international legal order", placing the Gaza genocide in a long list of colonial genocides the international system has tolerated. [ 376 ] Historian Mark LeVine argues that Israel's actions have destroyed respect for international law and weakened the taboo against large-scale violence in response to perceived threats. [ 553 ] Dutch lawyer and professor of international law André Nollkaemper [ nl ] has said that the United States' rejection of international law is a unique feature of the Gaza war. [ 554 ] The journalist Colin Jones interviewed lawyers affiliated with the US military and concluded that they see Gaza as a test case for what military conduct might be acceptable in a hypothetical war between the US and a peer power such as China. [ 391 ] See also Israel portal Palestine portal Society portal Allegations of genocide in the October 7 attacks – Characterization of massacres by Hamas Casualties of the Gaza war Comparisons between Israel and Nazi Germany Effect of the Gaza war on children in the Gaza Strip Gaza genocide denial Gaza Strip mass graves – Mass graves found during the Gaza War Gaza–Israel conflict – Part of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict Human rights violations against Palestinians by Israel Israeli invasion of the Gaza Strip – Israeli military operation since 2023 Israeli war crimes in the Gaza war – Violations of laws of war List of genocides Palestinians as animals in Israeli discourse Timeline of the Gaza war Notes ^ This start date is the beginning of the war. Sources disagree on when the genocide started, see Background . ^ Overall deaths since October 7th per the Gaza Health Ministry , [ 5 ] which has been deemed reliable by independent organisations. [ 6 ] [ 7 ] [ 8 ] [ 9 ] The Ministry's public totals are aggregate and include both civilians and combatants. [ 9 ] [ 10 ] ^ Amnesty International , [ 21 ] Médecins Sans Frontières , [ 22 ] B'Tselem , [ 23 ] Physicians for Human Rights–Israel , [ 24 ] International Federation for Human Rights . [ 25 ] ^ A small number of these deaths (it is unclear exactly how many) were a result of friendly fire , including civilians killed by Israeli military fire while attempting to prevent their abduction by armed Palestinians and combatants killed as a result of the Hannibal Directive . [ 79 ] [ 80 ] [ 81 ] There are up to 15 known civilian deaths from these causes: up to 13 in Be'eri, one from helicopter gunfire on a vehicle carrying a hostage, [ 82 ] and one in Kibbutz Alumim. [ 83 ] According to Ynet , there was an "immense and complex quantity" of friendly-fire incidents on the part of IDF during the 7 October attack, accounting for a fifth of the 105 military deaths then recorded. [ 84 ] ^ Hebrew : ״הוריתי להטיל מצור מוחלט על רצועת עזה. לא יהיה חשמל, לא יהיה מזון, לא יהיה דלק הכל סגור. אנחנו נלחמים בחיות אדם ואנחנו נוהגים בהתאם״ ^ Per the Gaza Health Ministry and Government Information Office by 3 January 2024, over 22,300 people had been confirmed dead. [ 167 ] ^ 47.4% were non-elderly men, 30.7% were children, 17.1% were non-elderly women, 3.0% were elderly men and 1.9% were elderly women. ^ In the original Hebrew article the Haaretz reporter used the term "Extermination Zones" ( שטחי ההשמדה , Shtachei Hashmada ) [ 184 ] instead of the English version term "Kill Zone". ^ Per the IPC manual, the starvation death rate does not necessarily have to be that high (does not have to be at least 2 deaths per 10,000 people per day) to declare catastrophic (level 5) food insecurity. However, it does need to be that high to declare famine. ^ Some Israeli officials denied the plan had been adopted; however, an official familiar with the situation stated that some aspects of the plan were already in progress. [ 240 ] ^ The use of white phosphorus against military targets located among civilians is contrary to Protocol III of the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons , of which Israel is not a signatory. [ 311 ] ^ Article II of the Genocide Convention defines genocide as "any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy , in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group" through acts such as (a) murder, (b) inflicting serious bodily or mental harm, (c) inflicting conditions of life calculated to destroy the group, (d) imposing measures intended to prevent births, and (e) forcibly transferring children of the group to another group. [ 334 ] ^ Amnesty International Mellemfolkeligt Samvirke Al-Haq Amnesty International Mellemfolkeligt Samvirke Al-Haq References ^ Amnesty International report 2024 , p. 37. ^ Independent International Commission of Inquiry 2025 , pp. 1, 37, 39. ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Israel's escalating use of torture against Palestinians in custody a preventable crime against humanity: UN experts" . Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights . 5 August 2024. Archived from the original on 8 December 2024 . Retrieved 17 December 2024 . ^ a b Ahmed, Kaamil; Gayle, Damien; Mousa, Aseel (29 March 2024). " 'Ecocide in Gaza': does scale of environmental destruction amount to a war crime?" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on 1 January 2026 . Retrieved 11 October 2025 . ^ a b c d "Reported impact snapshot – Gaza Strip (14 January 2026)" . Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs . 14 January 2026. Archived from the original on 15 January 2026 . Retrieved 15 January 2026 . ^ Gómez-Ugarte et al. 2025 , p. 2. ^ Maad 2024 . ^ Prothero 2024 . ^ a b Debre, Isabel (6 November 2023). "What is Gaza's Ministry of Health and how does it calculate the war's death toll?" . Associated Press . Archived from the original on 7 October 2025. ^ Hofmann, Sarah Judith (3 July 2025). "Gaza: What is the actual death toll, and how can we be sure?" . Deutsche Welle . Archived from the original on 10 July 2025 . Retrieved 13 December 2025 . ^ "Key statistics – November 13, 2025" . Documenting the Targeting and Destruction of the Health Sector in the Gaza Strip . Institute for Palestine Studies . 13 November 2025. Archived from the original on 19 December 2025 . Retrieved 8 December 2025 . ^ "Gaza Health Ministry: 151 Martyrs in the Last 24 Hours" . Sada News Agency . 11 October 2025. Archived from the original on 9 December 2025 . Retrieved 8 December 2025 . ^ de Waal, Alex (28 August 2025). "How Many People Have Died of Famine in Gaza? (Updated)" . World Peace Foundation . Archived from the original on 23 November 2025. ^ a b c Burke, Jason (27 August 2025). "A third of outpatients treated for wounds at MSF's Gaza hospitals in 2024 were children, figures show" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on 15 September 2025. ^ "Israel's genocide against Palestinians 'not over' despite ceasefire - new Amnesty briefing" . Amnesty International . 27 November 2025. Archived from the original on 28 November 2025 . Retrieved 4 January 2026 . ^ Segal, Raz (28 November 2025). "The genocide in Gaza is far from over" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on 28 November 2025 . Retrieved 4 January 2026 . ^ a b c "Israel has committed genocide in the Gaza Strip, UN Commission finds" . Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights . 16 September 2025. Archived from the original on 25 September 2025 . Retrieved 21 September 2025 . ^ a b Pieris, Mohan (19 November 2024). A genocide is unfolding before our eyes: History will not forgive our inaction, UN Special Committee warns General Assembly 4th Committee report (Speech). Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights . Archived from the original on 14 April 2025 . Retrieved 9 April 2025 . Our findings conclude that Israel's methods of war align with the characteristics of genocide ... Our report leaves no room for ambiguity. A genocide is unfolding before our eyes. Failing to act now—failing to put an end to this atrocity crime—will tear apart the very foundation of the international rule of law we have collectively built to protect peace, security, and the well-being of all. Our inaction today is setting a perilous precedent for tomorrow. Think about it. ^ a b van den Berg, Stephanie (1 September 2025). "Israel is committing genocide in Gaza, scholars' association says" . Reuters . Archived from the original on 17 September 2025 . Retrieved 1 September 2025 . ^ a b c "IAGS Resolution on the Situation in Gaza" (PDF) . International Association of Genocide Scholars . 31 August 2025. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 September 2025 . Retrieved 1 September 2025 . ^ a b Amnesty International report 2024 , p. 13: "This report focuses on the Israeli authorities' policies and actions in Gaza as part of the military offensive they launched in the wake of the Hamas-led attacks on 7 October 2023 while situating them within the broader context of Israel's unlawful occupation, and system of apartheid against Palestinians in Gaza, the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and Israel. It assesses allegations of violations and crimes under international law by Israel in Gaza within the framework of genocide under international law, concluding that there is sufficient evidence to believe that Israel's conduct in Gaza following 7 October 2023 amounts to genocide." ^ Médecins Sans Frontières 2025 : "Our decision to describe what's happening in Gaza as a 'genocide' is based on nearly two years of extensive, firsthand information from our teams, who are witnessing massive levels of death and destruction by Israeli forces, a campaign of ethnic cleansing and the almost total dismantling of the health care system." ^ B'Tselem 2025 , p. 86: "The review presented in this report leaves no room for doubt: since October 2023, the Israeli regime has been responsible for carrying out genocide against the Palestinians in the Gaza Strip. Killing tens of thousands of people; causing bodily or mental harm to hundreds of thousands more; destroying homes and civilian infrastructure on a massive scale; starvation, displacement, and denying humanitarian aid—all this is being perpetrated systematically, as part of a coordinated attack aimed at annihilating all facets of life in the Gaza Strip." ^ a b Kottasová, Ivana; Salman, Abeer (28 July 2025). "For first time, two leading Israeli human rights groups accuse Israel of genocide in Gaza" . CNN . Archived from the original on 28 July 2025 . Retrieved 28 July 2025 . ^ a b "The unfolding genocide against the Palestinians must stop immediately" . International Federation for Human Rights . 12 December 2023. Archived from the original on 16 December 2023 . Retrieved 13 December 2023 . ^ a b Sultany 2024 , p. 4 : "Although legal scholars and commentators were slow to recognize the severity and urgency of the situation, this article sought to show that there is an emerging consensus that Israel's actions in Gaza are not another instance of armed conflict but instead amount to genocide" Swart 2025 , p. 3: "South Africa's actions led to an ever-growing consensus in international legal circles that Israel is committing genocide" Lederman 2025 , p. 1: "Roughly since mid-2024, there seems to have emerged a broad agreement among genocide scholars—at least those who have expressed their views on the matter—that this is indeed the case ... What followed seems to be a similar broad agreement emerging among legal scholars that this is indeed a genocide, and even those who are still hesitating find the genocide charges much more convincing." Shaw 2025b , p. 3: "By the end of 2024, when Amnesty International published a comprehensively evidenced and legally argued case,17 the consensus that Israel was committing genocide was becoming overwhelming" Gessen 2024 : "Trachtenberg testified to a consensus opinion among historians of genocide that what is happening in Gaza can indeed be called a genocide, largely because the intent to cause death on a massive scale has been so clear in the statements of Israeli officials" Bouranova 2024 : "The opposition is political, as there is consensus amongst the international human rights legal community, many other legal and political experts, including many Holocaust scholars, that Israel is committing genocide in Gaza." Sultany 2024 , p. 4 : "Although legal scholars and commentators were slow to recognize the severity and urgency of the situation, this article sought to show that there is an emerging consensus that Israel's actions in Gaza are not another instance of armed conflict but instead amount to genocide" Swart 2025 , p. 3: "South Africa's actions led to an ever-growing consensus in international legal circles that Israel is committing genocide" Lederman 2025 , p. 1: "Roughly since mid-2024, there seems to have emerged a broad agreement among genocide scholars—at least those who have expressed their views on the matter—that this is indeed the case ... What followed seems to be a similar broad agreement emerging among legal scholars that this is indeed a genocide, and even those who are still hesitating find the genocide charges much more convincing." Shaw 2025b , p. 3: "By the end of 2024, when Amnesty International published a comprehensively evidenced and legally argued case,17 the consensus that Israel was committing genocide was becoming overwhelming" Gessen 2024 : "Trachtenberg testified to a consensus opinion among historians of genocide that what is happening in Gaza can indeed be called a genocide, largely because the intent to cause death on a massive scale has been so clear in the statements of Israeli officials" Bouranova 2024 : "The opposition is political, as there is consensus amongst the international human rights legal community, many other legal and political experts, including many Holocaust scholars, that Israel is committing genocide in Gaza." ^ Mohyeldin & Hamdan 2024 De Vogli et al. 2025 , pp. 688–689 van Laarhoven, Peek & Walters 2025 Tharoor 2025 "Genocide Emergency: Gaza 11 July 2025" . Genocide Watch . 14 July 2025. Archived from the original on 31 August 2025 . Retrieved 8 September 2025 . Israel has engaged in all of the processes of genocide described in Genocide Watch's powerful model of the genocidal process, the Ten Stages of genocide: classification, symbolization, discrimination, dehumanization, organization, polarization, preparation, persecution, extermination, and denial. "Statement on Why We Call the Israeli Attack on Gaza Genocide" . Lemkin Institute for Genocide Prevention . 29 December 2023. Archived from the original on 20 August 2025 . Retrieved 8 September 2025 . Mohyeldin & Hamdan 2024 De Vogli et al. 2025 , pp. 688–689 van Laarhoven, Peek & Walters 2025 Tharoor 2025 "Genocide Emergency: Gaza 11 July 2025" . Genocide Watch . 14 July 2025. Archived from the original on 31 August 2025 . Retrieved 8 September 2025 . Israel has engaged in all of the processes of genocide described in Genocide Watch's powerful model of the genocidal process, the Ten Stages of genocide: classification, symbolization, discrimination, dehumanization, organization, polarization, preparation, persecution, extermination, and denial. "Statement on Why We Call the Israeli Attack on Gaza Genocide" . Lemkin Institute for Genocide Prevention . 29 December 2023. Archived from the original on 20 August 2025 . Retrieved 8 September 2025 . ^ Albanese 2024a , p. 1: "By analysing the patterns of violence and Israeli policies in its onslaught on Gaza, the present report concludes that there are reasonable grounds to believe that the threshold indicating that Israel has committed genocide has been met" Burga 2023 Corder 2024 Dumper & Badran 2024 , p. 2: "In this context we should not overlook the latest turning point in the history of Palestine—the attack by Hamas on 7th October 2023 on Israeli settlements adjacent to Gaza and the subsequent genocidal war that the state of Israel has carried out in the Gaza Strip." Gritten 2025 International Federation for Human Rights 2024 : "One year ago, the FIDH International Board, its governing body elected by all its member organisations, recognised, after extensive debate and examination, that Israel was carrying out genocide against the Palestinian people in Gaza" " 'It Is Important to Call a Genocide a Genocide,' Consider Suspending Israel's Credential as UN Member State, Experts Tell Palestinian Rights Committee" . UN News . United Nations . 31 October 2024. Archived from the original on 5 November 2024. Lawless 2024 Narea 2024 Quigley 2024b "Rights expert finds 'reasonable grounds' genocide is being committed in Gaza" . UN News . United Nations . 26 March 2024. Archived from the original on 28 March 2025 . Retrieved 2 April 2025 . Speri 2024 "UN Special Committee finds Israel's warfare methods in Gaza consistent with genocide, including use of starvation as weapon of war" . Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights . 14 November 2024. Archived from the original on 8 May 2025 . Retrieved 13 May 2025 . Albanese 2024a , p. 1: "By analysing the patterns of violence and Israeli policies in its onslaught on Gaza, the present report concludes that there are reasonable grounds to believe that the threshold indicating that Israel has committed genocide has been met" Burga 2023 Corder 2024 Dumper & Badran 2024 , p. 2: "In this context we should not overlook the latest turning point in the history of Palestine—the attack by Hamas on 7th October 2023 on Israeli settlements adjacent to Gaza and the subsequent genocidal war that the state of Israel has carried out in the Gaza Strip." 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Associated Press and Reuters . 8 October 2023. Archived from the original on 18 October 2023. The leader of Hamas' military wing, Mohammed Deif, said Saturday's assault was in response to the 16-year blockade of Gaza, Israeli raids inside West Bank cities over the past year, violence at Al-Aqsa and increasing attacks by settlers on Palestinians, and growth of settlements. ^ "Hundreds dead as war erupts after surprise Hamas attack catches Israel off guard" . CBC News . Associated Press . 7 October 2023. Archived from the original on 10 January 2024. ^ Shaw 2024 , p. 1. ^ Semerdjian 2024a , p. 1. ^ Marsi & Siddiqui 2024 . ^ a b c d e B'Tselem 2025 , p. 5. ^ Bergman, Ronen ; Zitun, Yoav (10 January 2024). "hahor'a: lemanoa mimchavlim lechzor le'eza tavivkel mechir, gam am yesh itam hatofim" ההוראה: למנוע ממחבלים לחזור לעזה 'בכל מחיר', גם אם יש איתם חטופים [The instructions: prevent terrorists from returning to Gaza "at all costs" even if there are hostages with them]. Ynet (in Hebrew). Archived from the original on 24 February 2024 . Retrieved 12 January 2024 . haha'arkot hen ki beshtach shvin yishuvi ha'otef lirtzu'a nehargu ke'elef mechavlim vemistananim. le brur beshlav ze kma mehachatofim nehargu beshel hifalet hapkuda hazu. ההערכות הן כי בשטח שבין יישובי העוטף לרצועה נהרגו כאלף מחבלים ומסתננים. לא ברור בשלב זה כמה מהחטופים נהרגו בשל הפעלת הפקודה הזו. [It is estimated that about a thousand terrorists and infiltrators were killed in the area between the settlements of the encirclement and the Strip. It is not clear at this stage how many of the hostages were killed as a result of the operation of this order.] ^ Bergman, Ronen ; Zitun, Yoav (12 January 2024). "hashe'ot ha'roshonot shel hashevet hischura" השעות הראשונות של השבת השחורה [The first hours of Black Saturday]. Yedioth Ahronoth (in Hebrew). Archived from the original on 18 January 2024 . Retrieved 19 January 2024 . hora'ot lefetuch bash al rakvi mechavlim shadheru le'eza, gam am yesh hashesh shish behem hatofim—me'in garsa mechodshet le "nohel haniva'al" הוראות לפתוח באש על רכבי מחבלים שדהרו לעזה, גם אם יש חשש שיש בהם חטופים—מעין גרסה מחודשת ל"נוהל חניבעל" [orders to open fire on terrorist vehicles that were racing to Gaza, even if there were concerns that they contained hostages—a kind of renewed version of the "Hannibal Procedure"] ^ "Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Occupied Palestinian Territory, including East Jerusalem, and Israel – Advance unedited version (A/HRC/56/26)" . United Nations . 27 May 2024. Archived from the original on 13 June 2024. ^ Breiner, Josh; Peleg, Bar (22 February 2024). "Israeli Nova partygoer was misidentified as Hamas terrorist on October 7 and killed by Israel forces" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on 25 February 2024. ^ Zitun, Yoav (12 December 2023). "One-fifth of troop fatalities in Gaza due to friendly fire or accidents, IDF reports" . Ynet . Archived from the original on 14 December 2023 . Retrieved 15 December 2023 . Casualties fell as a result of friendly fire on October 7, but the IDF believes that beyond the operational investigations of the events, it would not be morally sound to investigate these incidents due to the immense and complex quantity of them that took place in the kibbutzim and southern Israeli communities due to the challenging situations the soldiers were in at the time. ^ "Israel social security data reveals true picture of Oct 7 deaths" . France 24 . 15 December 2023. Archived from the original on 4 March 2024. ^ Sherwood 2023 "Images of the Mass Kidnapping of Israelis by Hamas" . The Atlantic . 9 October 2023. Archived from the original on 10 October 2023 . Retrieved 10 October 2023 . Vinograd & Kershner 2023 Kellman 2023 Jones & Fidler 2023 Sherwood 2023 "Images of the Mass Kidnapping of Israelis by Hamas" . The Atlantic . 9 October 2023. Archived from the original on 10 October 2023 . Retrieved 10 October 2023 . Vinograd & Kershner 2023 Kellman 2023 Jones & Fidler 2023 ^ Dyer, Evan (30 December 2023). "Israel's Gaza bombing campaign is the most destructive of this century, analysts say" . CBC News . Archived from the original on 30 June 2024. ^ a b Segal & Daniele 2024 , p. 6. ^ "Fears of a ground invasion of Gaza grow as Israel vows 'mighty vengeance' " . Al Jazeera . 7 October 2023. Archived from the original on 8 October 2023 . Retrieved 8 October 2023 . ^ McKernan et al. 2023 . ^ Pacchiani, Luca (7 October 2023). "Hamas deputy chief anticipates hostages will be swapped for Palestinian prisoners" . The Times of Israel . Archived from the original on 26 November 2024 . Retrieved 25 October 2023 . ^ Matar 2023 Schenker 2023 Barghouti 2023 Federman & Adwan 2023 Matar 2023 Schenker 2023 Barghouti 2023 Federman & Adwan 2023 ^ Amnesty International 2022 , pp. 266–267. ^ B'Tselem 2021 : "A regime that uses laws, practices and organized violence to cement the supremacy of one group over another is an apartheid regime. Israeli apartheid, which promotes the supremacy of Jews over Palestinians, was not born in one day or of a single speech. It is a process that has gradually grown more institutionalized and explicit, with mechanisms introduced over time in law and practice to promote Jewish supremacy. These accumulated measures, their pervasiveness in legislation and political practice, and the public and judicial support they receive—all form the basis for our conclusion that the bar for labeling the Israeli regime as apartheid has been met." ^ Holmes, Oliver (27 April 2021). "Israel is committing the crime of apartheid, rights group says" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on 2 February 2022 . Retrieved 6 November 2023 . ^ "Israël: l'Assemblée nationale rejette une résolution communiste dénonçant un "régime d'apartheid" " [Israel: National Assembly rejects communist resolution denouncing 'apartheid regime']. Le Figaro (in French). 4 May 2023. Archived from the original on 14 June 2023 . Retrieved 8 December 2023 . ^ Hutzler, Alexandra; Peller, Lauren (19 July 2023). "House passes resolution saying Israel isn't a 'racist or apartheid state' " . ABC News . Archived from the original on 30 October 2023 . Retrieved 15 November 2023 . ^ Siddique, Haroon (19 July 2024). "UN court orders Israel to end its occupation of Palestinian territories" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on 22 July 2024 . Retrieved 25 September 2024 . ^ Lederman 2025 , p. 7. ^ Fassin 2024 , pp. 1–2; Semerdjian 2024a , pp. 1, 3; Levene 2024 , pp. 1–2 ^ Mackenzie & Lubell 2023 : "Israel has tightened its blockade on and bombarded Gaza for three weeks after the Islamist group Hamas' Oct. 7 assault killed 1,400 Israelis ... Abbas ... said, 'Our people in the Gaza Strip are facing a war of genocide and massacres committed by the Israeli occupation forces in full view of the entire world. ' " Antonio 2023 : "Israeli Ambassador to the Philippines Ilan Fluss rejected the notion that his country is committing genocide in Gaza City, where a two-week war has erupted ... their measures were targeting Hamas members, and they were 'taking all measures to avoid having civilians affected" by attacks. 'We are informing civilians even before attacks: keep away from Hamas' infrastructure and Hamas' facilities,' ... Hamas attacked Israel on Oct. 7, and killed at least 1,400 people, mostly civilians." Chacar 2023 Smith et al. 2023 Nichols 2023 Bishara 2023 Mackenzie & Lubell 2023 : "Israel has tightened its blockade on and bombarded Gaza for three weeks after the Islamist group Hamas' Oct. 7 assault killed 1,400 Israelis ... Abbas ... said, 'Our people in the Gaza Strip are facing a war of genocide and massacres committed by the Israeli occupation forces in full view of the entire world. ' " Antonio 2023 : "Israeli Ambassador to the Philippines Ilan Fluss rejected the notion that his country is committing genocide in Gaza City, where a two-week war has erupted ... their measures were targeting Hamas members, and they were 'taking all measures to avoid having civilians affected" by attacks. 'We are informing civilians even before attacks: keep away from Hamas' infrastructure and Hamas' facilities,' ... Hamas attacked Israel on Oct. 7, and killed at least 1,400 people, mostly civilians." Chacar 2023 Smith et al. 2023 Nichols 2023 Bishara 2023 ^ Abraham 2024 : ' "There was a completely permissive policy regarding the casualties of [bombing] operations—so permissive that in my opinion it had an element of revenge," D., an intelligence source, claimed. ... A. also used the word "revenge" to describe the atmosphere inside the army after October 7.' ^ Sultany 2024 , pp. 2–3. ^ United Nations 2014 . ^ "United Nations Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect" . United Nations . Archived from the original on 1 December 2023 . Retrieved 3 January 2024 . ^ a b Gehani, Brishna (16 February 2024). "Is the ICJ's standard of proof for genocide unattainable?" . Research Society of International Law . Archived from the original on 19 December 2024 . Retrieved 27 February 2025 . ^ Semerdjian 2024b , p. 14. ^ McDoom 2024 , p. 3. ^ "Legal concepts and questions" . Independent Investigative Mechanism for Myanmar . Archived from the original on 8 August 2024. "There is no minimum number of victims, but the part of the group targeted must be significant enough that its destruction would impact the group as a whole." ^ "Large number of victims" . ICTR/ICTY/IRMCT Case Law Database . International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals . Archived from the original on 25 August 2024. ^ UNHR 2024 , pp. 24–25. ^ Stanton, Gregory H (25 May 2025). "Israel's Twelve Tactics of Denial" . Genocide Watch . Retrieved 23 September 2025 . Many who have not read the Genocide Convention think genocide can only be proven if the intent is to destroy a whole people. But the Convention clearly states that intent to destroy part of a people is enough to prove genocide. ^ Ohlin, Jens (15 October 2009). "Attempt to Commit Genocide". In Gaeta, Paola (ed.). The UN Genocide Convention . Oxford University Press . pp. 193– 206. doi : 10.1093/law/9780199570218.003.0009 . ISBN 978-0-19-957021-8 . ^ Jamshidi 2024a , p. 13. ^ a b Segal & Daniele 2024 , pp. 1–2. ^ Lederman 2024 , pp. 1–2. ^ a b c d Asem, Sondos (14 August 2025). "Israel's war on Gaza: Why do legal experts say it's genocide?" . Middle East Eye . Archived from the original on 19 August 2025. ^ a b Kulkarni 2023 . ^ B'Tselem 2025 , p. 67. ^ UN Commission of Inquiry report 2025 , p. 54: "The Commission finds that many statements made by Israeli officials contain dehumanising sentiments that encourage hatred toward Palestinians and violence against Palestinians and are consistent with the pattern of conduct...that point to an intent to destroy Palestinians in Gaza as a group. The Commission considers that these statements by Israeli officials are reasonably interpreted as statements expressing an intent to destroy the Palestinian group in Gaza and they have been acted on as such by Israeli security forces in the Gaza Strip. They are direct evidence of dolus specialis." Amnesty International report 2024 , pp. 26–35: "Bearing in mind that...the othering and dehumanization of the protected group and that the use of derogatory language...can provide evidence of genocidal intent, Amnesty International examined Israeli officials' use of dehumanizing, racist and derogatory rhetoric against Palestinians.... It reviewed 102 statements made by Israeli government officials, high-ranking military officers and members of the Knesset made between 7 October 2023 and 30 June 2024 which dehumanized Palestinians, or called for, or justified, genocidal acts or other crimes under international law against them." Kulkarni 2023 : "Army's spokesperson Daniel Hagari, who bragged of dropping 'thousands of tons of munitions'...had no qualms admitting that 'we're focused on what causes maximum damage', rather than 'accuracy'. Referring to Palestinians as 'human animals', Defense Minister Yoav Gallant, who prided in having 'released all the restraints' on the military, had said in the early days of the war that 'we will eliminate everything' in Gaza...Legitimizing the mass killing of civilians in Gaza, Israeli President Isaac Herzog had declared that 'an entire nation out there is responsible' for the October 7 attack on Israel by Hamas, arguing that the 'rhetoric' about innocent civilians is 'absolutely not true.'... 'This practice of casting an entire population as enemies, as legitimate military targets, is a common genocidal mechanism,' Raz Segal, a prominent Jewish Israeli scholar of Holocaust and Genocide Studies, said in his remarks at the panel discussion." UN Commission of Inquiry report 2025 , p. 54: "The Commission finds that many statements made by Israeli officials contain dehumanising sentiments that encourage hatred toward Palestinians and violence against Palestinians and are consistent with the pattern of conduct...that point to an intent to destroy Palestinians in Gaza as a group. The Commission considers that these statements by Israeli officials are reasonably interpreted as statements expressing an intent to destroy the Palestinian group in Gaza and they have been acted on as such by Israeli security forces in the Gaza Strip. They are direct evidence of dolus specialis." Amnesty International report 2024 , pp. 26–35: "Bearing in mind that...the othering and dehumanization of the protected group and that the use of derogatory language...can provide evidence of genocidal intent, Amnesty International examined Israeli officials' use of dehumanizing, racist and derogatory rhetoric against Palestinians.... It reviewed 102 statements made by Israeli government officials, high-ranking military officers and members of the Knesset made between 7 October 2023 and 30 June 2024 which dehumanized Palestinians, or called for, or justified, genocidal acts or other crimes under international law against them." Kulkarni 2023 : "Army's spokesperson Daniel Hagari, who bragged of dropping 'thousands of tons of munitions'...had no qualms admitting that 'we're focused on what causes maximum damage', rather than 'accuracy'. Referring to Palestinians as 'human animals', Defense Minister Yoav Gallant, who prided in having 'released all the restraints' on the military, had said in the early days of the war that 'we will eliminate everything' in Gaza...Legitimizing the mass killing of civilians in Gaza, Israeli President Isaac Herzog had declared that 'an entire nation out there is responsible' for the October 7 attack on Israel by Hamas, arguing that the 'rhetoric' about innocent civilians is 'absolutely not true.'... 'This practice of casting an entire population as enemies, as legitimate military targets, is a common genocidal mechanism,' Raz Segal, a prominent Jewish Israeli scholar of Holocaust and Genocide Studies, said in his remarks at the panel discussion." ^ a b Gessen 2024 . ^ Al-Waheidi 2025 : "Fyfe, the Washington and Lee University legal scholar, said, 'Genocide can occur within or outside of war. But it is never permissible, even if the war itself is. So war is not a defense...If a military leader intends to gain land and removing a group is the only way to do it, that's not necessarily genocide. But if the only reasonable inference from a siege or campaign is that the group itself is being destroyed as such, then that is genocidal intent...I do not think it is reasonable to claim that the siege is a military objective, given that Hamas is already crippled." " Gurmendi Dunkelberg 2025 , p. 21 Jamshidi 2024b Al-Waheidi 2025 : "Fyfe, the Washington and Lee University legal scholar, said, 'Genocide can occur within or outside of war. But it is never permissible, even if the war itself is. So war is not a defense...If a military leader intends to gain land and removing a group is the only way to do it, that's not necessarily genocide. But if the only reasonable inference from a siege or campaign is that the group itself is being destroyed as such, then that is genocidal intent...I do not think it is reasonable to claim that the siege is a military objective, given that Hamas is already crippled." " Gurmendi Dunkelberg 2025 , p. 21 Jamshidi 2024b ^ UN Commission of Inquiry report 2025 , p. 25: "Whether targeting women, men, boys or girls, sexual violence was conducted not just to degrade and humiliate profoundly the direct victims but to punish the Palestinian group as a whole." ^ Amnesty International report 2024 , p. 32: ^ a b "Statement on Why We Call the Israeli Attack on Gaza Genocide" . Lemkin Institute for Genocide Prevention . 29 December 2023. Archived from the original on 30 December 2023 . Retrieved 23 September 2025 . ^ "Widescale destruction of cultural heritage in Gaza" . Museums Association . 30 January 2024. Archived from the original on 18 August 2025 . Retrieved 29 September 2025 . The destruction of cultural heritage, which Palestinians have accused Israel of targeting deliberately, was cited as evidence in South Africa's case to the UN International Court of Justice that the state is committing acts of genocide in Gaza. ^ Amnesty International report 2024 , p. 213: "The nature of the conditions of life that Israel imposed on Palestinians in Gaza following 7 October 2023 indicates that the destruction of the group, as such, was their intended outcome. The Israeli authorities decided to impose a total siege on Gaza on 9 October 2023...fully aware that this would necessarily cause and exacerbate malnutrition, hunger, the outbreak of multiple diseases and, ultimately, bring Gaza to the brink of famine. Indeed, Israel must have been aware of the 'objective probability' that these conditions of life would lead to the physical destruction of Palestinians in Gaza, a factor identified as probative of intent." ^ Quigley 2024a . ^ UN Commission of Inquiry report 2025 , p. 62: "The Commission finds that the Israeli authorities were aware that, by destroying the healthcare system throughout Gaza, their actions would lead to the destruction of Palestinians as a group... the systematic and complete destruction of the healthcare system in Gaza, the siege-induced deprivation of medical necessities... were part of the intent to destroy Palestinians in Gaza by preventing their capacity and possibility to heal, recover and live" ^ Lederman 2025 , p. 2: "The case of Gaza...shows us again why the meaning of intent in the Genocide Convention should be reinterpreted...to include the foreseeable consequences of a given policy when its meaning is the genocidal destruction of a group or a severe harm to it as a group—a knowledge-based rather than purpose-based concept of genocide. Such a concept points to...moving away from the focus on obscure mental states of individual perpetrators to the collective process that leads to genocide." ^ "mediniot nikma yetza'a lidrach; yisral mivtza'at pashe'i milchama be'eza" מדיניות נקמה יצאה לדרך; ישראל מבצעת פשעי מלחמה בעזה [A policy of revenge is underway; Israel is committing war crimes in Gaza]. B'Tselem (in Hebrew). 10 October 2023. Archived from the original on 19 January 2025 . Retrieved 30 September 2025 . ^ "Gaza/Palestine: States have a Duty to Prevent Genocide" . International Commission of Jurists . 2023. Archived from the original on 24 September 2025 . Retrieved 30 September 2025 . ^ Gallant, Yoav (9 October 2023). horiti lehatil metzur muchlat al aza. anachanu nilchmim bechayot adam, venohagim behitam הוריתי להטיל מצור מוחלט על עזה. אנחנו נלחמים בחיות אדם, ונוהגים בהתאם. [ I have ordered a complete blockade of Gaza. We are fighting human beings, and we are acting accordingly. ] (in Hebrew). Archived from the original on 23 November 2025 . Retrieved 30 September 2025 – via www.facebook.com. ^ Amnesty International report 2024 , p. 35: "The evidence presented in the report clearly shows that the destruction of Palestinians in Gaza, as such, was Israel's intent—either in addition to or as a means to achieve its military aims. There is only one reasonable inference that can be drawn from the evidence presented: genocidal intent has been part and parcel of Israel's conduct in Gaza since 7 October 2023, including its military campaign." ^ UN Commission of Inquiry report 2025 , p. 64: "On the basis of fully conclusive evidence, the Commission finds that statements made by Israeli authorities are direct evidence of genocidal intent. Additionally, on the basis of circumstantial evidence, the Commission finds that genocidal intent was the only reasonable inference that could be drawn, based on the pattern of conduct of the Israeli authorities. Thus, the Commission concludes that the Israeli authorities and Israeli security forces have the genocidal intent to destroy, in whole or in part, the Palestinians in the Gaza Strip." ^ Condon & Condon 2024 . ^ Stanton 2025b Condon & Condon 2024 Kulkarni 2023 Stanton 2025b Condon & Condon 2024 Kulkarni 2023 ^ a b "Public Statement: Scholars Warn" 2023 ^ Doherty, Ben (3 November 2025). "World must fight Israel's genocide in Gaza like it did apartheid, pioneering South African judge says" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on 5 November 2025 . Retrieved 3 November 2025 . ^ UN Commission of Inquiry report 2025 , pp. 64–67. ^ Bartov 2023 ; Jones 2024 ; Levene 2024 , pp. 4–5; Coghill 2024 ^ Marin & West 2024 Bybelezer 2023 Jones 2024 Netanyahu 2023 Marin & West 2024 Bybelezer 2023 Jones 2024 Netanyahu 2023 ^ Goldenberg 2024 Schmitz 2024 Coghill 2024 Bartov 2023 Goldenberg 2024 Schmitz 2024 Coghill 2024 Bartov 2023 ^ a b c McGreal, Chris (13 November 2023). "US rights group sues Biden for alleged 'failure to prevent genocide' in Gaza" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on 21 November 2023 . Retrieved 14 November 2023 . ^ Jamshidi 2024a , pp. 1–4: "In its application to the ICJ, South Africa describes Israel's entire campaign inside Gaza since 7 October as genocidal." ^ Semerdjian 2024a , pp. 3–4. ^ B'Tselem 2025 , p. 82. ^ a b Shaw 2025b , p. 3. ^ a b Moses 2025 , p. 12. ^ Klein 2025 . ^ OHCHR 2024d , pp. 1, 25–26. ^ Murphy 2025 : "U.N. experts said in a report on Tuesday that Israel committed the crime against humanity of 'extermination' by killing civilians sheltering in schools and religious sites in Gaza, part of a 'concerted campaign to obliterate Palestinian life. ' " "Israel's Crime of Extermination, Acts of Genocide in Gaza" . Human Rights Watch . 19 December 2024. Archived from the original on 18 September 2025 . Retrieved 16 September 2025 . Condon & Condon 2024 Bayoumi 2025 : "...today it is Israel's acts of extermination and genocide of Palestinians in Gaza, funded and enabled at every turn by a complicit west..." Nashed 2025 : " 'The fact that the claims made by the RSF in Sudan resemble the claims Israel is making in Gaza … reveals the emergence of a template to commit mass extermination and even genocide,' said Luigi Daniele, a senior lecturer on IHL at Nottingham Law School." Murphy 2025 : "U.N. experts said in a report on Tuesday that Israel committed the crime against humanity of 'extermination' by killing civilians sheltering in schools and religious sites in Gaza, part of a 'concerted campaign to obliterate Palestinian life. ' " "Israel's Crime of Extermination, Acts of Genocide in Gaza" . Human Rights Watch . 19 December 2024. Archived from the original on 18 September 2025 . Retrieved 16 September 2025 . Condon & Condon 2024 Bayoumi 2025 : "...today it is Israel's acts of extermination and genocide of Palestinians in Gaza, funded and enabled at every turn by a complicit west..." Nashed 2025 : " 'The fact that the claims made by the RSF in Sudan resemble the claims Israel is making in Gaza … reveals the emergence of a template to commit mass extermination and even genocide,' said Luigi Daniele, a senior lecturer on IHL at Nottingham Law School." ^ Albanese 2024a , pp. 6–7. ^ Debre, Isabel; Shurafa, Wafaa (14 December 2023). "Hungry, thirsty and humiliated: Israel's mass arrest campaign sows fear in northern Gaza" . Associated Press . Archived from the original on 18 January 2024 . Retrieved 2 February 2024 . ^ Frankel, Julia (15 December 2023). "Israeli military opens probe after videos show Israeli forces killing 2 Palestinians at close range" . Associated Press . Archived from the original on 24 January 2024 . Retrieved 2 February 2024 . ^ a b Salman, Abeer; Khadder, Kareem (23 December 2023). "Doctors accuse Israeli troops of desecrating bodies and shooting civilians at hospital Israel says was Hamas 'command center' " . CNN . Archived from the original on 5 February 2024 . Retrieved 2 February 2024 . ^ a b UNHR 2024 , pp. 37–38. ^ "Video shows Gaza civilian shot and killed in group waving white flag" . NBC News . 24 January 2024. Archived from the original on 26 September 2025 . Retrieved 21 November 2025 . ... video of a group of unarmed civilians waving a white flag in a designated Khan Younis "safe zone" being fired on, apparently by Israeli troops positioned nearby. One of the men was fatally wounded in the incident. ^ a b Effting, Maud; Feenstra, Willem (13 September 2025). "What the Wounds Are Telling Us" . De Volkskrant . Archived from the original on 13 September 2025 . Retrieved 14 September 2025 . ^ UNHR 2024 , p. 40. ^ a b c "Mass graves in Gaza show victims' hands were tied, says UN rights office" . UN News . United Nations . 23 April 2024. Archived from the original on 3 May 2024 . Retrieved 21 November 2025 . A total of 283 bodies were recovered at Nasser Hospital ... 'Among the deceased were allegedly older people, women and wounded, while others were found tied with their hands…tied and stripped of their clothes' ... 'Reports suggest that there were 30 Palestinian bodies buried in two graves in the courtyard of Al-Shifa Hospital in Gaza City ... There are reports that the hands of some of these bodies were also tied' ^ Fabian, Emanuel (23 April 2024). "IDF rejects 'baseless' claim it dug mass graves at Gaza hospital; analysts also doubt charge" . The Times of Israel . Archived from the original on 23 April 2024 . Retrieved 24 April 2024 . ^ a b Salman, Abeer; Dahman, Ibrahim; Lister, Tim (22 April 2024). "More than 300 bodies found in mass grave at Gaza hospital, says Gaza Civil Defense" . CNN . Archived from the original on 24 April 2024 . Retrieved 24 April 2024 . ^ Stack, Liam; Yazbek, Hiba; Cumming-Bruce, Nick (23 April 2024). "U.N. Calls for Inquiry Into Mass Graves at 2 Gaza Hospitals" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 24 April 2024 . Retrieved 24 April 2024 . ^ "Israeli authorities identify Gaza hostages dead captivity" . Reuters . 1 December 2023. Archived from the original on 10 November 2025 . Retrieved 10 November 2025 . ^ Faddoul et al. 2024 , pp. 25–26 Saric 2024 Thomas 2023 Associated Press 2023a Sawafta & Fick 2023 "Nearly 25,000 Palestinians killed during 70-day Israeli genocide in Gaza" . Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights Monitor . 15 December 2023. Archived from the original on 20 December 2023 . Retrieved 25 December 2023 . Burga 2023 Faddoul et al. 2024 , pp. 25–26 Saric 2024 Thomas 2023 Associated Press 2023a Sawafta & Fick 2023 "Nearly 25,000 Palestinians killed during 70-day Israeli genocide in Gaza" . Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights Monitor . 15 December 2023. Archived from the original on 20 December 2023 . Retrieved 25 December 2023 . Burga 2023 ^ "Health Ministry In Hamas-run Gaza Says War Death Toll Hits 22,313" . Barron's . 3 January 2024. Archived from the original on 3 January 2024 . Retrieved 3 January 2024 . ^ a b Graham-Harrison 2024b . ^ "Killed in Gaza" . Tech for Palestine . 17 August 2025. Archived from the original on 24 December 2025. ^ "UNRWA Situation Report #184" . United Nations . 15 August 2025. Archived from the original on 17 August 2025. ^ Nashed, Mat; Cordall, Simon Speakman (14 January 2024). "Israel's 100 days of relentless war on Gaza" . Al Jazeera . Archived from the original on 29 February 2024. ^ a b c d e Khatib, McKee & Yusuf 2024 : "Armed conflicts have indirect health implications beyond the direct harm from violence. Even if the conflict ends immediately, there will continue to be many indirect deaths in the coming months and years from causes such as reproductive, communicable, and non-communicable diseases. The total death toll is expected to be large given the intensity of this conflict; destroyed health-care infrastructure; severe shortages of food, water, and shelter; the population's inability to flee to safe places; and the loss of funding to UNRWA, one of the very few humanitarian organisations still active in the Gaza Strip. In recent conflicts, such indirect deaths range from three to 15 times the number of direct deaths. Applying a conservative estimate of four indirect deaths per one direct death to the 37,396 deaths reported, it is not implausible to estimate that up to 186,000 or even more deaths could be attributable to the current conflict in Gaza. Using the 2022 Gaza Strip population estimate of 2,375,259, this would translate to 7.9% of the total population in the Gaza Strip." ^ "Gaza: 3,195 Children Killed in Three Weeks Surpasses Annual Number of Children Killed in Conflict Zones Since 2019" . Save the Children . 29 October 2023. Archived from the original on 3 November 2023. ^ Qutami 2023 , p. 531. ^ Thomas 2023 . ^ Associated Press 2023a . ^ United Nations in Palestine 2024 . ^ Adler, Nils; Uras, Umut (5 May 2024). "Israel's war on Gaza live: Netanyahu accused of 'sabotaging' truce talks – Gaza death toll reaches 34,683 as Israeli offensive continues" . Al Jazeera . Archived from the original on 5 May 2024. ^ "Gaza tracker" . Al Jazeera . 18 March 2025. Archived from the original on 9 October 2025. ^ Abraham 2024 : " 'It was very surprising for me that we were asked to bomb a house to kill a ground soldier, whose importance in the fighting was so low' said one source." ^ Abraham 2024 . ^ a b Kubovich 2024a . ^ a b Sultany 2024 , p. 11. ^ Kubovich 2024b . ^ El Deeb, Sara (17 June 2024). "Investigation identifies entire Palestinian families killed by Israeli strikes in Gaza" . PBS News Hour . Associated Press . Archived from the original on 19 June 2024 . Retrieved 25 June 2024 . ^ "Israeli soldiers returning from war struggle with trauma and suicide" . The Jerusalem Post . 24 October 2024. Archived from the original on 24 October 2024 . Retrieved 28 October 2024 . Cook 2024 Ebrahim 2024 "Not the Onion: CNN highlights 'suffering' of Israeli army bulldozer driver who ran over so many people in Gaza it made him turn vegetarian" . The New Arab . 24 October 2024. Archived from the original on 2 November 2024 . Retrieved 28 October 2024 . "Israeli soldiers returning from war struggle with trauma and suicide" . The Jerusalem Post . 24 October 2024. Archived from the original on 24 October 2024 . Retrieved 28 October 2024 . Cook 2024 Ebrahim 2024 "Not the Onion: CNN highlights 'suffering' of Israeli army bulldozer driver who ran over so many people in Gaza it made him turn vegetarian" . The New Arab . 24 October 2024. Archived from the original on 2 November 2024 . Retrieved 28 October 2024 . ^ a b c Horton, Jake; Sardarizadeh, Shayan; Durbin, Adam (16 May 2024). "Gaza war: Why is the UN citing lower death toll for women and children?" . BBC News . Archived from the original on 11 July 2024 . Retrieved 12 July 2024 . ^ Ioanes, Ellen (17 May 2024). "The controversy over Gaza's death toll, explained" . Vox . Archived from the original on 25 June 2024 . Retrieved 12 July 2024 . ^ a b "Killed in Gaza" . Tech for Palestine . Archived from the original on 31 December 2025. ^ Saric 2024 . ^ Zerrouky, Madjid (21 September 2024). 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Retrieved 30 July 2025 . ^ "Gaza: Evidence points to Israel's continued use of starvation to inflict genocide against Palestinians" . Amnesty International . 3 July 2025. Archived from the original on 4 July 2025 . Retrieved 14 July 2025 . ^ "Gaza: study reveals unprecedented losses of life and life expectancy" . Max-Planck-Gesellschaft . 25 November 2025. Archived from the original on 22 December 2025 . Retrieved 2 December 2025 . ^ Endt, Christian (24 November 2025). "Kriegstote im Gazastreifen: Mehr als 100.000 Tote im Gazakrieg" [War deaths in the Gaza Strip: More than 100,000 dead in the Gaza war]. Die Zeit (in German). Archived from the original on 12 December 2025 . Retrieved 21 December 2025 . ^ Hauenstein, Hanno (1 December 2025). "Max-Planck-Institut zählt 126.000 Gaza-Tote: Was heißt das für den Genozid?" [Max Planck Institute counts 126,000 Gaza dead: What does that mean for the genocide?]. Der Freitag (in German). Archived from the original on 10 December 2025 . Retrieved 2 December 2025 . ^ Spagat, Mike (10 July 2024). "A critical analysis of The Lancet's letter "Counting the Dead in Gaza: Difficult but Essential". Professor Mike Spagat reviews the claim the total Gaza death toll may reach upwards of 186,000" . Action On Armed Violence . Archived from the original on 10 July 2024 . Retrieved 10 July 2024 . ^ a b Bigg, Matthew Mpoke (11 July 2024). "Fighting Isn't the Only Killer of Gazans Amid the War, Researchers Say" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 12 July 2024 . Retrieved 11 July 2024 . ^ Bloxham 2025 , pp. 23–24: "When considering the total 'excess mortality,' we need to add the Palestinians who have died because of the blockade in combination with the IDF's destruction of health and sanitation and food infrastructure. As public health experts noted, in many wars, 'most deaths' are 'due to the indirect [sic] impacts of war: malnutrition, communicable disease, exacerbations of noncommunicable disease, [and] maternal and infant disorders.'117 'Indirect' would be the wrong word for this conflict given the nature of Israeli policies, including the systematic obstruction of supplies into Gaza." ^ "USA Letter" . Gaza Healthcare Letters . 2 October 2024. Archived from the original on 9 October 2024 . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ Hurwitz, Sophie (8 October 2024). "Report: In One Year, More Than 100,000 Deaths in Gaza—Aided by $17.9 Billion From the US" . Mother Jones . Archived from the original on 10 October 2024 . Retrieved 17 October 2024 . Brown University's Costs of War Project calculated "the money that's spent on war, and the toll on human lives" after a year of war in Gaza. The numbers are staggering. ^ Stamatopoulou-Robbins 2024 : "In addition to killing people directly through traumatic injuries, wars cause "indirect deaths" by destroying, damaging, or causing deterioration of economic, social, psychological and health conditions. Most expansively, this report describes the causal pathways that can be expected to lead to far larger numbers of indirect deaths. These deaths result from diseases and other population-level health effects that stem from war's destruction of public infrastructure and livelihood sources, reduced access to water and sanitation, environmental damage, and other such factors. This report builds on a foundation of previous Costs of War research for its framework and methodology in covering the most significant chains of impact, or causal pathways, to indirect war deaths in Gaza and the West Bank. 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" Debunking the Genocide Allegations: A Reexamination of the Israel-Hamas War from October 7, 2023 to June 1, 2025 " – by Danny Orbach, Jonathan Boxman, Yagil Henkin and Jonathan Braverman v t e Gaza genocide v t e Ongoing genocide against Palestinians in the Gaza Strip carried out by Israel Genocidal acts Blockade aid delivery Bombings AI targeting Effects on children Executions and assassinations Evacuations Humanitarian crisis Gaza Humanitarian Foundation Famine Healthcare collapse Preterm births Mass Detentions Graves Sexual and gender-based violence Torture War crimes Women Attacks on Cemeteries Civilian safe zones Cultural heritage sites Evacuating civilians Health facilities Refugee camps Religious sites Schools Killings Aid distribution Rafah paramedic massacre World Central Kitchen convoy airstrikes Children Civilians Health workers Journalists list Blockade aid delivery Bombings AI targeting Effects on children Executions and assassinations Evacuations Humanitarian crisis Gaza Humanitarian Foundation Famine Healthcare collapse Preterm births Mass Detentions Graves Sexual and gender-based violence Torture War crimes Women Blockade aid delivery aid delivery Bombings AI targeting AI targeting Effects on children Executions and assassinations Evacuations Humanitarian crisis Gaza Humanitarian Foundation Famine Healthcare collapse Preterm births Gaza Humanitarian Foundation Famine Healthcare collapse Preterm births Mass Detentions Graves Detentions Graves Sexual and gender-based violence Torture War crimes Women Attacks on Cemeteries Civilian safe zones Cultural heritage sites Evacuating civilians Health facilities Refugee camps Religious sites Schools Cemeteries Civilian safe zones Cultural heritage sites Evacuating civilians Health facilities Refugee camps Religious sites Schools Killings Aid distribution Rafah paramedic massacre World Central Kitchen convoy airstrikes Children Civilians Health workers Journalists list Aid distribution Rafah paramedic massacre World Central Kitchen convoy airstrikes Rafah paramedic massacre World Central Kitchen convoy airstrikes Children Civilians Health workers Journalists list list Intent and inctiment American officials Israeli officials Palestinians as animals in Israeli discourse American officials Israeli officials Palestinians as animals in Israeli discourse Recognition and denial Academic and legal responses Humanitarian and human rights groups Palestinian genocide accusation Special Committee to Investigate Israeli Practices UNHRC Commission of Inquiry 2025 report Pallywood Academic and legal responses Humanitarian and human rights groups Palestinian genocide accusation Special Committee to Investigate Israeli Practices UNHRC Commission of Inquiry 2025 report Special Committee to Investigate Israeli Practices UNHRC Commission of Inquiry 2025 report 2025 report Pallywood Support to Israel Countries United States Germany Egypt United Kingdom Lists Companies involved Countries supplying arms Military aid Countries United States Germany Egypt United Kingdom United States Germany Egypt United Kingdom Lists Companies involved Countries supplying arms Military aid Companies involved Countries supplying arms Military aid Humanitarian aid Flotilla Coalition Freedom Flotillas 2024 2025 May June July Global Sumud Flotilla Coalition Freedom Flotillas 2024 2025 May June July Global Sumud 2024 2025 May June July Global Sumud May June July Global Sumud Advocacy Artists4Ceasefire Film Workers for Palestine Hind Rajab Foundation LGBTQ No Music For Genocide No Tech for Apartheid Palestine Action Writers Against the War on Gaza Artists4Ceasefire Film Workers for Palestine Hind Rajab Foundation LGBTQ No Music For Genocide No Tech for Apartheid Palestine Action Writers Against the War on Gaza Protests Global March to Gaza Soumoud Convoy March for Gaza March for the Republic and Against Antisemitism March on Washington for Gaza National March on Washington Protest votes Self-immolation of Aaron Bushnell Countries Australia Israel Italy Gaza Strip New Zealand Spain United Kingdom United States Universities 2024 List of protests Netherlands United States California Reactions 2025 Netherlands Global March to Gaza Soumoud Convoy March for Gaza March for the Republic and Against Antisemitism March on Washington for Gaza National March on Washington Protest votes Self-immolation of Aaron Bushnell Global March to Gaza Soumoud Convoy Soumoud Convoy March for Gaza March for the Republic and Against Antisemitism March on Washington for Gaza National March on Washington Protest votes Self-immolation of Aaron Bushnell Countries Australia Israel Italy Gaza Strip New Zealand Spain United Kingdom United States Australia Israel Italy Gaza Strip New Zealand Spain United Kingdom United States Universities 2024 List of protests Netherlands United States California Reactions 2025 Netherlands 2024 List of protests Netherlands United States California Reactions List of protests Netherlands United States California Netherlands United States California California Reactions 2025 Netherlands Netherlands Intervention Arms embargoes BDS movement Boycotts of Israel Sports ICC arrest warrant for Israeli officials Benjamin Netanyahu Yoav Gallant Hague Group Bogotá conference Houthi attacks on shipping List of sanctions Arms embargoes BDS movement Boycotts of Israel Sports Sports ICC arrest warrant for Israeli officials Benjamin Netanyahu Yoav Gallant Benjamin Netanyahu Yoav Gallant Hague Group Bogotá conference Bogotá conference Houthi attacks on shipping List of sanctions Legal cases Defense for Children International – Palestine v. Biden Nicaragua v. Germany South Africa v. Israel Defense for Children International – Palestine v. Biden Nicaragua v. Germany South Africa v. Israel Related topics Anti-Palestinianism Cultural discourse Death, death to the IDF Far-right politics in Israel Gaza peace plan General debate of the eightieth session of the United Nations General Assembly Israel and weapons of mass destruction Israel in the Eurovision Song Contest 2024 UNRWA and Israel Wikipedia Anti-Palestinianism Cultural discourse Death, death to the IDF Far-right politics in Israel Gaza peace plan General debate of the eightieth session of the United Nations General Assembly Israel and weapons of mass destruction Israel in the Eurovision Song Contest 2024 UNRWA and Israel Wikipedia Part of List of genocides , the Gaza–Israel conflict , the Israeli–Palestinian conflict , and the Middle Eastern crisis (2023–present) Category Part of List of genocides , the Gaza–Israel conflict , the Israeli–Palestinian conflict , and the Middle Eastern crisis (2023–present) Category v t e Gaza war v t e Part of the Gaza–Israel conflict , the Israeli–Palestinian conflict , and the Middle Eastern crisis (2023–present) Overview General Outline Timeline Gaza genocide Academic and legal responses Cultural discourse Intent and incitement NGO positions State positions Background History of Gaza Zionism Israeli–Palestinian conflict History of Hamas Blockade of the Gaza Strip 2023 ceasefire January 2025 ceasefire Children in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict COGAT Dahiya doctrine Effect on children in Gaza Hannibal Directive Humanitarian aid International recognition of Palestine Israeli blockade of the Gaza Strip (2023–present) Israeli interrogations LGBTQ advocacy in the Gaza war Women Wikipedia Historical context Arab–Israeli conflict International law Gaza–Israel conflict Casualties of Israeli attacks on the Gaza Strip Human rights violations Human shields Israeli demolition of Palestinian property Israeli settlement Legality of Israeli settlements Israeli outpost Israeli settler violence Israeli disengagement from the Gaza Strip Legitimacy of the State of Israel Palestinian freedom of movement Palestinian rocket attacks Palestinian tunnel warfare anti-tunnel barrier Israeli assassinations Overview General Outline Timeline Gaza genocide Academic and legal responses Cultural discourse Intent and incitement NGO positions State positions Background History of Gaza Zionism Israeli–Palestinian conflict History of Hamas Blockade of the Gaza Strip 2023 ceasefire January 2025 ceasefire Children in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict COGAT Dahiya doctrine Effect on children in Gaza Hannibal Directive Humanitarian aid International recognition of Palestine Israeli blockade of the Gaza Strip (2023–present) Israeli interrogations LGBTQ advocacy in the Gaza war Women Wikipedia Outline Timeline Gaza genocide Academic and legal responses Cultural discourse Intent and incitement NGO positions State positions Academic and legal responses Cultural discourse Intent and incitement NGO positions State positions Background History of Gaza Zionism Israeli–Palestinian conflict History of Hamas Blockade of the Gaza Strip History of Gaza Zionism Israeli–Palestinian conflict History of Hamas Blockade of the Gaza Strip 2023 ceasefire January 2025 ceasefire Children in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict COGAT Dahiya doctrine Effect on children in Gaza Hannibal Directive Humanitarian aid International recognition of Palestine Israeli blockade of the Gaza Strip (2023–present) Israeli interrogations LGBTQ advocacy in the Gaza war Women Wikipedia Historical context Arab–Israeli conflict International law Gaza–Israel conflict Casualties of Israeli attacks on the Gaza Strip Human rights violations Human shields Israeli demolition of Palestinian property Israeli settlement Legality of Israeli settlements Israeli outpost Israeli settler violence Israeli disengagement from the Gaza Strip Legitimacy of the State of Israel Palestinian freedom of movement Palestinian rocket attacks Palestinian tunnel warfare anti-tunnel barrier Israeli assassinations Arab–Israeli conflict International law International law Gaza–Israel conflict Casualties of Israeli attacks on the Gaza Strip Casualties of Israeli attacks on the Gaza Strip Human rights violations Human shields Israeli demolition of Palestinian property Israeli settlement Legality of Israeli settlements Israeli outpost Israeli settler violence Israeli disengagement from the Gaza Strip Legality of Israeli settlements Israeli outpost Israeli settler violence Israeli disengagement from the Gaza Strip Legitimacy of the State of Israel Palestinian freedom of movement Palestinian rocket attacks Palestinian tunnel warfare anti-tunnel barrier anti-tunnel barrier Israeli assassinations Military engagements Hamas-led attack on Israel Attacks on civilians Netiv HaAsara Alumim Be'eri Elhanan Team Holit Kfar Aza Kissufim Nir Oz Nir Yitzhak Nahal Oz Nirim Nova music festival Death Shelters Psyduck music festival Battles Nir Am Re'im Sderot Sufa Zikim Israeli female tank crew fight General topics Allegations of genocide Allegations of involvement of UNRWA employees Baby beheading hoax Denial Sexual and gender-based violence " Screams Without Words " Israeli invasion of Gaza Beit Hanoun Gaza City Khan Yunis Netzarim Corridor Rafah Background Shuja'iyya May 2025 Gaza offensive Deir al-Balah Gaza City Attacks on refugee camps Jabalia 31 October Al-Shati Al-Shati and Tuffah dual airstrikes Al-Maghazi Tel al-Sultan attack Al-Mawasi (May) Nuseirat rescue and massacre Al-Mawasi (June) Al-Shati (July) Deir el-Balah (August) Al-Mawasi (September) Nuseirat (December) Attacks on schools Al-Fakhoora Al-Sardi Al-Awda Khadija Hamama Al-Tabaeen Al-Jawni Rufaida Abu Hussein Fahmi al-Jarjawi Al-Farabi Attacks on health facilities Al-Ahli Arab Hospital explosion Al-Shifa Hospital siege alleged military use Gaza Strip mass graves Kamal Adwan Hospital sieges Detention of Hussam Abu Safiya Killing of health workers Nasser Hospital siege Nasser Hospital mass graves 14 October 2024 Al-Aqsa Hospital attack 2025 Gaza European Hospital strikes 2025 Nasser Hospital strikes Other attacks Airstrikes on municipal services in Gaza Attacks on religious sites Central Archives Destruction Engineer's Building airstrike Flour Massacre Kuwait Roundabout mass killings Palestinians evacuating Gaza City World Central Kitchen aid convoy attack 13 July 2024 al-Mawasi attack Khan Yunis Deir al-Balah mosque Beit Lahia attacks Beit Lahia airstrike Kerem Shalom aid convoy looting March 2025 Israeli strikes Rafah paramedic massacre April 2025 Shuja'iyya airstrike Al-Najjar family killings 2025 Gaza Strip aid distribution killings Al-Baqa Cafe airstrike General topics AI-assisted targeting Bombing of the Gaza Strip Companies involved Destruction of cultural heritage Environmental impact Hamas-Doghmush conflict Hamas–Popular Forces conflict Popular Forces administration Israeli generals' plan Torture Other theaters Israel Lehi Street bombing Givat Shaul shooting 2024 Jaffa shooting 2025 Gush Etzion stabbing West Bank Israeli incursions in the West Bank Tulkarm 2024 military operation 2024 Tulkarm Camp airstrike 2025 military operation 2024–2025 Palestinian Authority operation in Jenin Killing of Benjamin Achimeir April 2024 Israeli settler rampages al-Funduq shooting Detention of Mohammed Ibrahim Iran 2024 conflict Israeli airstrike on the Iranian consulate in Damascus 2024 Iranian strikes in Israel April October 2024 Israeli strikes on Iran April October Assassination of Ismail Haniyeh 2025 war Casualties Weizmann Institute of Science strikes Evin prison strikes U.S. strikes on Iranian nuclear sites Al Udeid Air Base strikes Ceasefire Israel–Hezbollah conflict ( Timeline ) Attacks on journalists Lebanese displacement Assassinations Hezbollah headquarters Fuad Shukr Ibrahim Aqil Saleh al-Arouri Haytham Ali Tabatabai Majdal Shams attack August 2024 Nabatieh attack August 2024 Israel–Lebanon strikes 2024 Lebanon electronic device attacks September 2024 Israeli attacks against Lebanon Israeli invasion of Lebanon ceasefire Israeli attacks on the Lebanese health sector Destruction of cultural heritage during the Israeli invasion of Lebanon January 2025 southern Lebanon attack 2025 Sidon airstrike Red Sea crisis ( Timeline ) Operation Prosperity Guardian Houthi attacks on commercial vessels Attacks on the MV Maersk Hangzhou Marlin Luanda missile strike Attacks on the Sounion Operation Poseidon Archer 2024 Houthi drone attack on Israel Israeli attack on Yemen (July 2024) Israeli attacks on Yemen (September 2024) March–May 2025 United States attacks in Yemen 2025 United States–Houthi ceasefire Israeli attacks on Yemen (May 2025–present) Syria 2024 Masyaf raid Israeli invasion of Syria Southern Syria clashes (April–May 2025) Southern Syria clashes (July 2025–present) July 2025 Damascus airstrikes Jordan Tower 22 drone attack Qatar Israeli strike on Hamas headquarters Military engagements Hamas-led attack on Israel Attacks on civilians Netiv HaAsara Alumim Be'eri Elhanan Team Holit Kfar Aza Kissufim Nir Oz Nir Yitzhak Nahal Oz Nirim Nova music festival Death Shelters Psyduck music festival Battles Nir Am Re'im Sderot Sufa Zikim Israeli female tank crew fight General topics Allegations of genocide Allegations of involvement of UNRWA employees Baby beheading hoax Denial Sexual and gender-based violence " Screams Without Words " Attacks on civilians Netiv HaAsara Alumim Be'eri Elhanan Team Holit Kfar Aza Kissufim Nir Oz Nir Yitzhak Nahal Oz Nirim Nova music festival Death Shelters Psyduck music festival Netiv HaAsara Alumim Be'eri Elhanan Team Elhanan Team Holit Kfar Aza Kissufim Nir Oz Nir Yitzhak Nahal Oz Nirim Nova music festival Death Shelters Death Shelters Psyduck music festival Battles Nir Am Re'im Sderot Sufa Zikim Israeli female tank crew fight Nir Am Re'im Sderot Sufa Zikim Israeli female tank crew fight General topics Allegations of genocide Allegations of involvement of UNRWA employees Baby beheading hoax Denial Sexual and gender-based violence " Screams Without Words " Allegations of genocide Allegations of involvement of UNRWA employees Baby beheading hoax Denial Sexual and gender-based violence " Screams Without Words " Israeli invasion of Gaza Beit Hanoun Gaza City Khan Yunis Netzarim Corridor Rafah Background Shuja'iyya May 2025 Gaza offensive Deir al-Balah Gaza City Attacks on refugee camps Jabalia 31 October Al-Shati Al-Shati and Tuffah dual airstrikes Al-Maghazi Tel al-Sultan attack Al-Mawasi (May) Nuseirat rescue and massacre Al-Mawasi (June) Al-Shati (July) Deir el-Balah (August) Al-Mawasi (September) Nuseirat (December) Attacks on schools Al-Fakhoora Al-Sardi Al-Awda Khadija Hamama Al-Tabaeen Al-Jawni Rufaida Abu Hussein Fahmi al-Jarjawi Al-Farabi Attacks on health facilities Al-Ahli Arab Hospital explosion Al-Shifa Hospital siege alleged military use Gaza Strip mass graves Kamal Adwan Hospital sieges Detention of Hussam Abu Safiya Killing of health workers Nasser Hospital siege Nasser Hospital mass graves 14 October 2024 Al-Aqsa Hospital attack 2025 Gaza European Hospital strikes 2025 Nasser Hospital strikes Other attacks Airstrikes on municipal services in Gaza Attacks on religious sites Central Archives Destruction Engineer's Building airstrike Flour Massacre Kuwait Roundabout mass killings Palestinians evacuating Gaza City World Central Kitchen aid convoy attack 13 July 2024 al-Mawasi attack Khan Yunis Deir al-Balah mosque Beit Lahia attacks Beit Lahia airstrike Kerem Shalom aid convoy looting March 2025 Israeli strikes Rafah paramedic massacre April 2025 Shuja'iyya airstrike Al-Najjar family killings 2025 Gaza Strip aid distribution killings Al-Baqa Cafe airstrike General topics AI-assisted targeting Bombing of the Gaza Strip Companies involved Destruction of cultural heritage Environmental impact Hamas-Doghmush conflict Hamas–Popular Forces conflict Popular Forces administration Israeli generals' plan Torture Beit Hanoun Gaza City Khan Yunis Netzarim Corridor Rafah Background Shuja'iyya May 2025 Gaza offensive Deir al-Balah Gaza City Beit Hanoun Gaza City Khan Yunis Netzarim Corridor Rafah Background Background Shuja'iyya May 2025 Gaza offensive Deir al-Balah Gaza City Deir al-Balah Gaza City Attacks on refugee camps Jabalia 31 October Al-Shati Al-Shati and Tuffah dual airstrikes Al-Maghazi Tel al-Sultan attack Al-Mawasi (May) Nuseirat rescue and massacre Al-Mawasi (June) Al-Shati (July) Deir el-Balah (August) Al-Mawasi (September) Nuseirat (December) Jabalia 31 October 31 October Al-Shati Al-Shati and Tuffah dual airstrikes Al-Shati and Tuffah dual airstrikes Al-Maghazi Tel al-Sultan attack Al-Mawasi (May) Nuseirat rescue and massacre Al-Mawasi (June) Al-Shati (July) Deir el-Balah (August) Al-Mawasi (September) Nuseirat (December) Attacks on schools Al-Fakhoora Al-Sardi Al-Awda Khadija Hamama Al-Tabaeen Al-Jawni Rufaida Abu Hussein Fahmi al-Jarjawi Al-Farabi Al-Fakhoora Al-Sardi Al-Awda Khadija Hamama Al-Tabaeen Al-Jawni Rufaida Abu Hussein Fahmi al-Jarjawi Al-Farabi Attacks on health facilities Al-Ahli Arab Hospital explosion Al-Shifa Hospital siege alleged military use Gaza Strip mass graves Kamal Adwan Hospital sieges Detention of Hussam Abu Safiya Killing of health workers Nasser Hospital siege Nasser Hospital mass graves 14 October 2024 Al-Aqsa Hospital attack 2025 Gaza European Hospital strikes 2025 Nasser Hospital strikes Al-Ahli Arab Hospital explosion Al-Shifa Hospital siege alleged military use alleged military use Gaza Strip mass graves Kamal Adwan Hospital sieges Detention of Hussam Abu Safiya Detention of Hussam Abu Safiya Killing of health workers Nasser Hospital siege Nasser Hospital mass graves Nasser Hospital mass graves 14 October 2024 Al-Aqsa Hospital attack 2025 Gaza European Hospital strikes 2025 Nasser Hospital strikes Other attacks Airstrikes on municipal services in Gaza Attacks on religious sites Central Archives Destruction Engineer's Building airstrike Flour Massacre Kuwait Roundabout mass killings Palestinians evacuating Gaza City World Central Kitchen aid convoy attack 13 July 2024 al-Mawasi attack Khan Yunis Deir al-Balah mosque Beit Lahia attacks Beit Lahia airstrike Kerem Shalom aid convoy looting March 2025 Israeli strikes Rafah paramedic massacre April 2025 Shuja'iyya airstrike Al-Najjar family killings 2025 Gaza Strip aid distribution killings Al-Baqa Cafe airstrike Airstrikes on municipal services in Gaza Attacks on religious sites Central Archives Destruction Engineer's Building airstrike Flour Massacre Kuwait Roundabout mass killings Palestinians evacuating Gaza City World Central Kitchen aid convoy attack 13 July 2024 al-Mawasi attack Khan Yunis Deir al-Balah mosque Beit Lahia attacks Beit Lahia airstrike Kerem Shalom aid convoy looting March 2025 Israeli strikes Rafah paramedic massacre April 2025 Shuja'iyya airstrike Al-Najjar family killings 2025 Gaza Strip aid distribution killings Al-Baqa Cafe airstrike General topics AI-assisted targeting Bombing of the Gaza Strip Companies involved Destruction of cultural heritage Environmental impact Hamas-Doghmush conflict Hamas–Popular Forces conflict Popular Forces administration Israeli generals' plan Torture AI-assisted targeting Bombing of the Gaza Strip Companies involved Destruction of cultural heritage Environmental impact Hamas-Doghmush conflict Hamas–Popular Forces conflict Popular Forces administration Popular Forces administration Israeli generals' plan Torture Other theaters Israel Lehi Street bombing Givat Shaul shooting 2024 Jaffa shooting 2025 Gush Etzion stabbing West Bank Israeli incursions in the West Bank Tulkarm 2024 military operation 2024 Tulkarm Camp airstrike 2025 military operation 2024–2025 Palestinian Authority operation in Jenin Killing of Benjamin Achimeir April 2024 Israeli settler rampages al-Funduq shooting Detention of Mohammed Ibrahim Iran 2024 conflict Israeli airstrike on the Iranian consulate in Damascus 2024 Iranian strikes in Israel April October 2024 Israeli strikes on Iran April October Assassination of Ismail Haniyeh 2025 war Casualties Weizmann Institute of Science strikes Evin prison strikes U.S. strikes on Iranian nuclear sites Al Udeid Air Base strikes Ceasefire Israel–Hezbollah conflict ( Timeline ) Attacks on journalists Lebanese displacement Assassinations Hezbollah headquarters Fuad Shukr Ibrahim Aqil Saleh al-Arouri Haytham Ali Tabatabai Majdal Shams attack August 2024 Nabatieh attack August 2024 Israel–Lebanon strikes 2024 Lebanon electronic device attacks September 2024 Israeli attacks against Lebanon Israeli invasion of Lebanon ceasefire Israeli attacks on the Lebanese health sector Destruction of cultural heritage during the Israeli invasion of Lebanon January 2025 southern Lebanon attack 2025 Sidon airstrike Red Sea crisis ( Timeline ) Operation Prosperity Guardian Houthi attacks on commercial vessels Attacks on the MV Maersk Hangzhou Marlin Luanda missile strike Attacks on the Sounion Operation Poseidon Archer 2024 Houthi drone attack on Israel Israeli attack on Yemen (July 2024) Israeli attacks on Yemen (September 2024) March–May 2025 United States attacks in Yemen 2025 United States–Houthi ceasefire Israeli attacks on Yemen (May 2025–present) Syria 2024 Masyaf raid Israeli invasion of Syria Southern Syria clashes (April–May 2025) Southern Syria clashes (July 2025–present) July 2025 Damascus airstrikes Jordan Tower 22 drone attack Qatar Israeli strike on Hamas headquarters Israel Lehi Street bombing Givat Shaul shooting 2024 Jaffa shooting 2025 Gush Etzion stabbing Lehi Street bombing Givat Shaul shooting 2024 Jaffa shooting 2025 Gush Etzion stabbing West Bank Israeli incursions in the West Bank Tulkarm 2024 military operation 2024 Tulkarm Camp airstrike 2025 military operation 2024–2025 Palestinian Authority operation in Jenin Killing of Benjamin Achimeir April 2024 Israeli settler rampages al-Funduq shooting Detention of Mohammed Ibrahim Israeli incursions in the West Bank Tulkarm 2024 military operation 2024 Tulkarm Camp airstrike 2025 military operation Tulkarm 2024 military operation 2024 Tulkarm Camp airstrike 2025 military operation 2024–2025 Palestinian Authority operation in Jenin Killing of Benjamin Achimeir April 2024 Israeli settler rampages al-Funduq shooting Detention of Mohammed Ibrahim Iran 2024 conflict Israeli airstrike on the Iranian consulate in Damascus 2024 Iranian strikes in Israel April October 2024 Israeli strikes on Iran April October Assassination of Ismail Haniyeh 2025 war Casualties Weizmann Institute of Science strikes Evin prison strikes U.S. strikes on Iranian nuclear sites Al Udeid Air Base strikes Ceasefire 2024 conflict Israeli airstrike on the Iranian consulate in Damascus 2024 Iranian strikes in Israel April October 2024 Israeli strikes on Iran April October Assassination of Ismail Haniyeh Israeli airstrike on the Iranian consulate in Damascus 2024 Iranian strikes in Israel April October April October 2024 Israeli strikes on Iran April October April October Assassination of Ismail Haniyeh 2025 war Casualties Weizmann Institute of Science strikes Evin prison strikes U.S. strikes on Iranian nuclear sites Al Udeid Air Base strikes Ceasefire Casualties Weizmann Institute of Science strikes Evin prison strikes U.S. strikes on Iranian nuclear sites Al Udeid Air Base strikes Ceasefire Israel–Hezbollah conflict ( Timeline ) Attacks on journalists Lebanese displacement Assassinations Hezbollah headquarters Fuad Shukr Ibrahim Aqil Saleh al-Arouri Haytham Ali Tabatabai Majdal Shams attack August 2024 Nabatieh attack August 2024 Israel–Lebanon strikes 2024 Lebanon electronic device attacks September 2024 Israeli attacks against Lebanon Israeli invasion of Lebanon ceasefire Israeli attacks on the Lebanese health sector Destruction of cultural heritage during the Israeli invasion of Lebanon January 2025 southern Lebanon attack 2025 Sidon airstrike Attacks on journalists Lebanese displacement Assassinations Hezbollah headquarters Fuad Shukr Ibrahim Aqil Saleh al-Arouri Haytham Ali Tabatabai Hezbollah headquarters Fuad Shukr Ibrahim Aqil Saleh al-Arouri Haytham Ali Tabatabai Majdal Shams attack August 2024 Nabatieh attack August 2024 Israel–Lebanon strikes 2024 Lebanon electronic device attacks September 2024 Israeli attacks against Lebanon Israeli invasion of Lebanon ceasefire ceasefire Israeli attacks on the Lebanese health sector Destruction of cultural heritage during the Israeli invasion of Lebanon January 2025 southern Lebanon attack 2025 Sidon airstrike Red Sea crisis ( Timeline ) Operation Prosperity Guardian Houthi attacks on commercial vessels Attacks on the MV Maersk Hangzhou Marlin Luanda missile strike Attacks on the Sounion Operation Poseidon Archer 2024 Houthi drone attack on Israel Israeli attack on Yemen (July 2024) Israeli attacks on Yemen (September 2024) March–May 2025 United States attacks in Yemen 2025 United States–Houthi ceasefire Israeli attacks on Yemen (May 2025–present) Operation Prosperity Guardian Houthi attacks on commercial vessels Attacks on the MV Maersk Hangzhou Marlin Luanda missile strike Attacks on the Sounion Attacks on the MV Maersk Hangzhou Marlin Luanda missile strike Attacks on the Sounion Operation Poseidon Archer 2024 Houthi drone attack on Israel Israeli attack on Yemen (July 2024) Israeli attacks on Yemen (September 2024) March–May 2025 United States attacks in Yemen 2025 United States–Houthi ceasefire 2025 United States–Houthi ceasefire Israeli attacks on Yemen (May 2025–present) Syria 2024 Masyaf raid Israeli invasion of Syria Southern Syria clashes (April–May 2025) Southern Syria clashes (July 2025–present) July 2025 Damascus airstrikes 2024 Masyaf raid Israeli invasion of Syria Southern Syria clashes (April–May 2025) Southern Syria clashes (July 2025–present) July 2025 Damascus airstrikes July 2025 Damascus airstrikes Jordan Tower 22 drone attack Tower 22 drone attack Qatar Israeli strike on Hamas headquarters Israeli strike on Hamas headquarters Hostages and casualties of the Gaza war Hostages ( list ) 2024 Rafah hostage raid Kidnapped from Israel Hostages and Missing Families Forum Hostages Square Rescued Rachel Edry Ori Megidish Noa Argamani ( rescue ) Qaid Farhan Al-Qadi Rescue of Fernando Marman & Luis Har Released Yarden Roman-Gat Mia Schem Naama Levy Liri Albag Eli Sharabi Edan Alexander Omer Shem Tov Agam Berger Emily Damari Evyatar David Hanna Katzir Gadi Moses Arbel Yehoud Alon Ohel Rom Braslavski Shoshan Haran Bar Kupershtein Elkana Bohbot Avigail Idan Avinatan Or Nimrod Cohen Matan Angrest Gali Berman Ziv Berman David Cunio Ariel Cunio Romi Gonen Eitan Mor Amit Soussana Deceased Alex Dancyg Hersh Goldberg-Polin Alon Shamriz, Yotam Haim, and Samer Talalka Oded Lifshitz Shani Louk Bibas family Nattapong Pinta Bipin Joshi Chaim Peri Omer Neutra Noa Marciano Casualties Israel Security forces Jayar Davidov Asaf Hamami Roi Levy Izhar Peled Yonatan Steinberg Eli Ginsberg Alim Abdallah Salman Habaka Yitzhak Ben-Bashat Yitzhar Hofman Ehsan Daxa Civilians Lior Asulin Hayim Katsman Ofir Libstein Aner Shapira Vivian Silver Yahav Winner Palestine Hamas Ismail Haniyeh Yahya Sinwar Abdul Fatah Dukhan Ali Al Qadi Osama Mazini Fouad Abu Butihan Ayman Nofal Jamila al-Shanti Jihad Shehadeh Ahmed Ghandour Mohammed Dababish Fursan Khalifa Wissam Farhat Saleh al-Arouri Marwan Issa Faiq Al-Mabhouh Alaa Shreiteh Mohammed Deif Rafa Salama Rawhi Mushtaha Fatah Sharif Mohammed Sinwar Abu Obaida Civilians 2023 Omar Abu Shawish Hani Al-Masdar Awni El-Dous Hiba Abu Nada Omar Ferwana Refaat Alareer Hammam Alloh Ibrahim Qusaya Mohammed Shabir Ibrahim al-Astal Jamila al-Shanti Sufian Tayeh Mohamed al-Dalou Wael Al Zard Nahida and Samar Anton 2024 Medo Halimy Khaled Nabhan Mahasen al-Khateeb Fathi Ghaben Ihab al-Ghussein Nagham Abu Samra Hind Rajab Sidra Hassouna Mohammed Barakat Adnan al-Bursh Majed Abu Maraheel Mohammad Bhar Rashad Abu Sakhila Shaban al-Dalou 2025 Ismail Abu Hatab Sayfollah Musallet Awdah Hathaleen al-Najjar children Yaqeen Hammad Suleiman Obeid Spillover Mushtaq Talib Al-Saeedi Waibhav Anil Kale Ahmed al-Rahawi Hezbollah Wissam al-Tawil Ali Hussein Barji Fuad Shukr Ibrahim Aqil Hassan Nasrallah Ali Karaki Nabil Qaouk Hashem Safieddine Mohammad Afif Iran Razi Mousavi Sadegh Omidzadeh Mohammad Reza Zahedi Abbas Nilforoushan Journalists Issam Abdallah Belal Jadallah Samer Abu Daqqa Adel Zorob Ismail al-Ghoul Wafa Al-Udaini Hossam Shabat Fatima Hassouna Yahya Sobeih Hassan Aslih Ismail Abu Hatab Awdah Hathaleen Anas Al-Sharif Hussam al-Masri Mariam Dagga Mohammed Salama Moaz Abu Taha Ahmed Abu Aziz Saleh al-Jafarawi Ahmed Abu Mutair Hostages and casualties of the Gaza war Hostages ( list ) 2024 Rafah hostage raid Kidnapped from Israel Hostages and Missing Families Forum Hostages Square Rescued Rachel Edry Ori Megidish Noa Argamani ( rescue ) Qaid Farhan Al-Qadi Rescue of Fernando Marman & Luis Har Released Yarden Roman-Gat Mia Schem Naama Levy Liri Albag Eli Sharabi Edan Alexander Omer Shem Tov Agam Berger Emily Damari Evyatar David Hanna Katzir Gadi Moses Arbel Yehoud Alon Ohel Rom Braslavski Shoshan Haran Bar Kupershtein Elkana Bohbot Avigail Idan Avinatan Or Nimrod Cohen Matan Angrest Gali Berman Ziv Berman David Cunio Ariel Cunio Romi Gonen Eitan Mor Amit Soussana Deceased Alex Dancyg Hersh Goldberg-Polin Alon Shamriz, Yotam Haim, and Samer Talalka Oded Lifshitz Shani Louk Bibas family Nattapong Pinta Bipin Joshi Chaim Peri Omer Neutra Noa Marciano 2024 Rafah hostage raid Kidnapped from Israel Hostages and Missing Families Forum Hostages Square 2024 Rafah hostage raid Kidnapped from Israel Hostages and Missing Families Forum Hostages Square Rescued Rachel Edry Ori Megidish Noa Argamani ( rescue ) Qaid Farhan Al-Qadi Rescue of Fernando Marman & Luis Har Rachel Edry Ori Megidish Noa Argamani ( rescue ) Qaid Farhan Al-Qadi Rescue of Fernando Marman & Luis Har Released Yarden Roman-Gat Mia Schem Naama Levy Liri Albag Eli Sharabi Edan Alexander Omer Shem Tov Agam Berger Emily Damari Evyatar David Hanna Katzir Gadi Moses Arbel Yehoud Alon Ohel Rom Braslavski Shoshan Haran Bar Kupershtein Elkana Bohbot Avigail Idan Avinatan Or Nimrod Cohen Matan Angrest Gali Berman Ziv Berman David Cunio Ariel Cunio Romi Gonen Eitan Mor Amit Soussana Yarden Roman-Gat Mia Schem Naama Levy Liri Albag Eli Sharabi Edan Alexander Omer Shem Tov Agam Berger Emily Damari Evyatar David Hanna Katzir Gadi Moses Arbel Yehoud Alon Ohel Rom Braslavski Shoshan Haran Bar Kupershtein Elkana Bohbot Avigail Idan Avinatan Or Nimrod Cohen Matan Angrest Gali Berman Ziv Berman David Cunio Ariel Cunio Romi Gonen Eitan Mor Amit Soussana Deceased Alex Dancyg Hersh Goldberg-Polin Alon Shamriz, Yotam Haim, and Samer Talalka Oded Lifshitz Shani Louk Bibas family Nattapong Pinta Bipin Joshi Chaim Peri Omer Neutra Noa Marciano Alex Dancyg Hersh Goldberg-Polin Alon Shamriz, Yotam Haim, and Samer Talalka Oded Lifshitz Shani Louk Bibas family Nattapong Pinta Bipin Joshi Chaim Peri Omer Neutra Noa Marciano Casualties Israel Security forces Jayar Davidov Asaf Hamami Roi Levy Izhar Peled Yonatan Steinberg Eli Ginsberg Alim Abdallah Salman Habaka Yitzhak Ben-Bashat Yitzhar Hofman Ehsan Daxa Civilians Lior Asulin Hayim Katsman Ofir Libstein Aner Shapira Vivian Silver Yahav Winner Palestine Hamas Ismail Haniyeh Yahya Sinwar Abdul Fatah Dukhan Ali Al Qadi Osama Mazini Fouad Abu Butihan Ayman Nofal Jamila al-Shanti Jihad Shehadeh Ahmed Ghandour Mohammed Dababish Fursan Khalifa Wissam Farhat Saleh al-Arouri Marwan Issa Faiq Al-Mabhouh Alaa Shreiteh Mohammed Deif Rafa Salama Rawhi Mushtaha Fatah Sharif Mohammed Sinwar Abu Obaida Civilians 2023 Omar Abu Shawish Hani Al-Masdar Awni El-Dous Hiba Abu Nada Omar Ferwana Refaat Alareer Hammam Alloh Ibrahim Qusaya Mohammed Shabir Ibrahim al-Astal Jamila al-Shanti Sufian Tayeh Mohamed al-Dalou Wael Al Zard Nahida and Samar Anton 2024 Medo Halimy Khaled Nabhan Mahasen al-Khateeb Fathi Ghaben Ihab al-Ghussein Nagham Abu Samra Hind Rajab Sidra Hassouna Mohammed Barakat Adnan al-Bursh Majed Abu Maraheel Mohammad Bhar Rashad Abu Sakhila Shaban al-Dalou 2025 Ismail Abu Hatab Sayfollah Musallet Awdah Hathaleen al-Najjar children Yaqeen Hammad Suleiman Obeid Spillover Mushtaq Talib Al-Saeedi Waibhav Anil Kale Ahmed al-Rahawi Hezbollah Wissam al-Tawil Ali Hussein Barji Fuad Shukr Ibrahim Aqil Hassan Nasrallah Ali Karaki Nabil Qaouk Hashem Safieddine Mohammad Afif Iran Razi Mousavi Sadegh Omidzadeh Mohammad Reza Zahedi Abbas Nilforoushan Journalists Issam Abdallah Belal Jadallah Samer Abu Daqqa Adel Zorob Ismail al-Ghoul Wafa Al-Udaini Hossam Shabat Fatima Hassouna Yahya Sobeih Hassan Aslih Ismail Abu Hatab Awdah Hathaleen Anas Al-Sharif Hussam al-Masri Mariam Dagga Mohammed Salama Moaz Abu Taha Ahmed Abu Aziz Saleh al-Jafarawi Ahmed Abu Mutair Israel Security forces Jayar Davidov Asaf Hamami Roi Levy Izhar Peled Yonatan Steinberg Eli Ginsberg Alim Abdallah Salman Habaka Yitzhak Ben-Bashat Yitzhar Hofman Ehsan Daxa Civilians Lior Asulin Hayim Katsman Ofir Libstein Aner Shapira Vivian Silver Yahav Winner Security forces Jayar Davidov Asaf Hamami Roi Levy Izhar Peled Yonatan Steinberg Eli Ginsberg Alim Abdallah Salman Habaka Yitzhak Ben-Bashat Yitzhar Hofman Ehsan Daxa Jayar Davidov Asaf Hamami Roi Levy Izhar Peled Yonatan Steinberg Eli Ginsberg Alim Abdallah Salman Habaka Yitzhak Ben-Bashat Yitzhar Hofman Ehsan Daxa Civilians Lior Asulin Hayim Katsman Ofir Libstein Aner Shapira Vivian Silver Yahav Winner Lior Asulin Hayim Katsman Ofir Libstein Aner Shapira Vivian Silver Yahav Winner Palestine Hamas Ismail Haniyeh Yahya Sinwar Abdul Fatah Dukhan Ali Al Qadi Osama Mazini Fouad Abu Butihan Ayman Nofal Jamila al-Shanti Jihad Shehadeh Ahmed Ghandour Mohammed Dababish Fursan Khalifa Wissam Farhat Saleh al-Arouri Marwan Issa Faiq Al-Mabhouh Alaa Shreiteh Mohammed Deif Rafa Salama Rawhi Mushtaha Fatah Sharif Mohammed Sinwar Abu Obaida Civilians 2023 Omar Abu Shawish Hani Al-Masdar Awni El-Dous Hiba Abu Nada Omar Ferwana Refaat Alareer Hammam Alloh Ibrahim Qusaya Mohammed Shabir Ibrahim al-Astal Jamila al-Shanti Sufian Tayeh Mohamed al-Dalou Wael Al Zard Nahida and Samar Anton 2024 Medo Halimy Khaled Nabhan Mahasen al-Khateeb Fathi Ghaben Ihab al-Ghussein Nagham Abu Samra Hind Rajab Sidra Hassouna Mohammed Barakat Adnan al-Bursh Majed Abu Maraheel Mohammad Bhar Rashad Abu Sakhila Shaban al-Dalou 2025 Ismail Abu Hatab Sayfollah Musallet Awdah Hathaleen al-Najjar children Yaqeen Hammad Suleiman Obeid Hamas Ismail Haniyeh Yahya Sinwar Abdul Fatah Dukhan Ali Al Qadi Osama Mazini Fouad Abu Butihan Ayman Nofal Jamila al-Shanti Jihad Shehadeh Ahmed Ghandour Mohammed Dababish Fursan Khalifa Wissam Farhat Saleh al-Arouri Marwan Issa Faiq Al-Mabhouh Alaa Shreiteh Mohammed Deif Rafa Salama Rawhi Mushtaha Fatah Sharif Mohammed Sinwar Abu Obaida Ismail Haniyeh Yahya Sinwar Abdul Fatah Dukhan Ali Al Qadi Osama Mazini Fouad Abu Butihan Ayman Nofal Jamila al-Shanti Jihad Shehadeh Ahmed Ghandour Mohammed Dababish Fursan Khalifa Wissam Farhat Saleh al-Arouri Marwan Issa Faiq Al-Mabhouh Alaa Shreiteh Mohammed Deif Rafa Salama Rawhi Mushtaha Fatah Sharif Mohammed Sinwar Abu Obaida Civilians 2023 Omar Abu Shawish Hani Al-Masdar Awni El-Dous Hiba Abu Nada Omar Ferwana Refaat Alareer Hammam Alloh Ibrahim Qusaya Mohammed Shabir Ibrahim al-Astal Jamila al-Shanti Sufian Tayeh Mohamed al-Dalou Wael Al Zard Nahida and Samar Anton 2024 Medo Halimy Khaled Nabhan Mahasen al-Khateeb Fathi Ghaben Ihab al-Ghussein Nagham Abu Samra Hind Rajab Sidra Hassouna Mohammed Barakat Adnan al-Bursh Majed Abu Maraheel Mohammad Bhar Rashad Abu Sakhila Shaban al-Dalou 2025 Ismail Abu Hatab Sayfollah Musallet Awdah Hathaleen al-Najjar children Yaqeen Hammad Suleiman Obeid 2023 Omar Abu Shawish Hani Al-Masdar Awni El-Dous Hiba Abu Nada Omar Ferwana Refaat Alareer Hammam Alloh Ibrahim Qusaya Mohammed Shabir Ibrahim al-Astal Jamila al-Shanti Sufian Tayeh Mohamed al-Dalou Wael Al Zard Nahida and Samar Anton Omar Abu Shawish Hani Al-Masdar Awni El-Dous Hiba Abu Nada Omar Ferwana Refaat Alareer Hammam Alloh Ibrahim Qusaya Mohammed Shabir Ibrahim al-Astal Jamila al-Shanti Sufian Tayeh Mohamed al-Dalou Wael Al Zard Nahida and Samar Anton 2024 Medo Halimy Khaled Nabhan Mahasen al-Khateeb Fathi Ghaben Ihab al-Ghussein Nagham Abu Samra Hind Rajab Sidra Hassouna Mohammed Barakat Adnan al-Bursh Majed Abu Maraheel Mohammad Bhar Rashad Abu Sakhila Shaban al-Dalou Medo Halimy Khaled Nabhan Mahasen al-Khateeb Fathi Ghaben Ihab al-Ghussein Nagham Abu Samra Hind Rajab Sidra Hassouna Mohammed Barakat Adnan al-Bursh Majed Abu Maraheel Mohammad Bhar Rashad Abu Sakhila Shaban al-Dalou 2025 Ismail Abu Hatab Sayfollah Musallet Awdah Hathaleen al-Najjar children Yaqeen Hammad Suleiman Obeid Ismail Abu Hatab Sayfollah Musallet Awdah Hathaleen al-Najjar children Yaqeen Hammad Suleiman Obeid Spillover Mushtaq Talib Al-Saeedi Waibhav Anil Kale Ahmed al-Rahawi Hezbollah Wissam al-Tawil Ali Hussein Barji Fuad Shukr Ibrahim Aqil Hassan Nasrallah Ali Karaki Nabil Qaouk Hashem Safieddine Mohammad Afif Iran Razi Mousavi Sadegh Omidzadeh Mohammad Reza Zahedi Abbas Nilforoushan Mushtaq Talib Al-Saeedi Waibhav Anil Kale Ahmed al-Rahawi Mushtaq Talib Al-Saeedi Waibhav Anil Kale Ahmed al-Rahawi Hezbollah Wissam al-Tawil Ali Hussein Barji Fuad Shukr Ibrahim Aqil Hassan Nasrallah Ali Karaki Nabil Qaouk Hashem Safieddine Mohammad Afif Wissam al-Tawil Ali Hussein Barji Fuad Shukr Ibrahim Aqil Hassan Nasrallah Ali Karaki Nabil Qaouk Hashem Safieddine Mohammad Afif Iran Razi Mousavi Sadegh Omidzadeh Mohammad Reza Zahedi Abbas Nilforoushan Razi Mousavi Sadegh Omidzadeh Mohammad Reza Zahedi Abbas Nilforoushan Journalists Issam Abdallah Belal Jadallah Samer Abu Daqqa Adel Zorob Ismail al-Ghoul Wafa Al-Udaini Hossam Shabat Fatima Hassouna Yahya Sobeih Hassan Aslih Ismail Abu Hatab Awdah Hathaleen Anas Al-Sharif Hussam al-Masri Mariam Dagga Mohammed Salama Moaz Abu Taha Ahmed Abu Aziz Saleh al-Jafarawi Ahmed Abu Mutair Issam Abdallah Belal Jadallah Samer Abu Daqqa Adel Zorob Ismail al-Ghoul Wafa Al-Udaini Hossam Shabat Fatima Hassouna Yahya Sobeih Hassan Aslih Ismail Abu Hatab Awdah Hathaleen Anas Al-Sharif Hussam al-Masri Mariam Dagga Mohammed Salama Moaz Abu Taha Ahmed Abu Aziz Saleh al-Jafarawi Ahmed Abu Mutair Reactions States and official entities General Arab–Islamic extraordinary summit Beijing Declaration Calls for a ceasefire September 2024 Israel hostage deal protests Gaza war peace plan Cancellation of the 2023 MTV EMA Conference on the Implementation of the Two-State Solution Diplomatic impact 2025 Donald Trump Gaza Strip takeover proposal Egypt European Union Film Workers for Palestine Hague Group Bogotá conference Islamic Summit Conference Together for Palestine United Kingdom University donors Writers Against the War on Gaza The New York War Crimes Colombia's UNGA military intervention speech Military aid US support for Israel German support for Israel United Nations Resolutions A/RES/ES-10/21 S/RES/2712 A/RES/ES-10/22 S/RES/2720 S/RES/2728 A/RES/ES-10/23 S/RES/2735 Inquiry Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Occupied Palestinian Territory UNHRC Commission of Inquiry on Gaza genocide Courts Global courts South Africa v. Israel (Genocide Convention) Nicaragua v. Germany Legal Consequences of Israeli Policies and Practices ICC investigation in Palestine Arrest warrants for Israeli leaders United States Defense for Children International – Palestine v. Biden Public Protests 2024 University campuses List of protests Netherlands United States California Reactions 2025 University campuses Netherlands Australia Bangladesh March for Gaza France March for the Republic and Against Antisemitism Indonesia 2023 Bitung clashes Israel Humanitarian aid blockade Italy 2025 general strikes and protests for Gaza Netherlands Red line demonstrations New Zealand Spain 2024 pro-Palestinian strike United Kingdom List United States Artists4Ceasefire DNC protests March on Washington for Gaza March for Israel National March on Washington: Free Palestine Protest votes Self-immolation of Aaron Bushnell Pakistan Hurmat-e-Masjid Aqsa Conference D-Chowk Dharna 2024 Faizabad sit-in 2025 Tehreek-e-Labbaik Pakistan protests Gaza Strip 2025 Gaza Strip anti-Hamas protests Discrimination Antisemitism Riots in the North Caucasus Anti-Palestinianism Islamophobia Violent incidents Murder of Wadea al-Fayoume Death of Paul Kessler Vermont student shooting Killing of Israeli Embassy workers Boulder fire attack Reactions States and official entities General Arab–Islamic extraordinary summit Beijing Declaration Calls for a ceasefire September 2024 Israel hostage deal protests Gaza war peace plan Cancellation of the 2023 MTV EMA Conference on the Implementation of the Two-State Solution Diplomatic impact 2025 Donald Trump Gaza Strip takeover proposal Egypt European Union Film Workers for Palestine Hague Group Bogotá conference Islamic Summit Conference Together for Palestine United Kingdom University donors Writers Against the War on Gaza The New York War Crimes Colombia's UNGA military intervention speech Military aid US support for Israel German support for Israel United Nations Resolutions A/RES/ES-10/21 S/RES/2712 A/RES/ES-10/22 S/RES/2720 S/RES/2728 A/RES/ES-10/23 S/RES/2735 Inquiry Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Occupied Palestinian Territory UNHRC Commission of Inquiry on Gaza genocide Courts Global courts South Africa v. Israel (Genocide Convention) Nicaragua v. Germany Legal Consequences of Israeli Policies and Practices ICC investigation in Palestine Arrest warrants for Israeli leaders United States Defense for Children International – Palestine v. Biden General Arab–Islamic extraordinary summit Beijing Declaration Calls for a ceasefire September 2024 Israel hostage deal protests Gaza war peace plan Cancellation of the 2023 MTV EMA Conference on the Implementation of the Two-State Solution Diplomatic impact 2025 Donald Trump Gaza Strip takeover proposal Egypt European Union Film Workers for Palestine Hague Group Bogotá conference Islamic Summit Conference Together for Palestine United Kingdom University donors Writers Against the War on Gaza The New York War Crimes Colombia's UNGA military intervention speech Arab–Islamic extraordinary summit Beijing Declaration Calls for a ceasefire September 2024 Israel hostage deal protests Gaza war peace plan September 2024 Israel hostage deal protests Gaza war peace plan Cancellation of the 2023 MTV EMA Conference on the Implementation of the Two-State Solution Diplomatic impact 2025 Donald Trump Gaza Strip takeover proposal Egypt European Union Film Workers for Palestine Hague Group Bogotá conference Bogotá conference Islamic Summit Conference Together for Palestine United Kingdom University donors Writers Against the War on Gaza The New York War Crimes The New York War Crimes Colombia's UNGA military intervention speech Military aid US support for Israel German support for Israel US support for Israel German support for Israel United Nations Resolutions A/RES/ES-10/21 S/RES/2712 A/RES/ES-10/22 S/RES/2720 S/RES/2728 A/RES/ES-10/23 S/RES/2735 Inquiry Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Occupied Palestinian Territory UNHRC Commission of Inquiry on Gaza genocide Resolutions A/RES/ES-10/21 S/RES/2712 A/RES/ES-10/22 S/RES/2720 S/RES/2728 A/RES/ES-10/23 S/RES/2735 A/RES/ES-10/21 S/RES/2712 A/RES/ES-10/22 S/RES/2720 S/RES/2728 A/RES/ES-10/23 S/RES/2735 Inquiry Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Occupied Palestinian Territory UNHRC Commission of Inquiry on Gaza genocide Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Occupied Palestinian Territory UNHRC Commission of Inquiry on Gaza genocide Courts Global courts South Africa v. Israel (Genocide Convention) Nicaragua v. Germany Legal Consequences of Israeli Policies and Practices ICC investigation in Palestine Arrest warrants for Israeli leaders United States Defense for Children International – Palestine v. Biden Global courts South Africa v. Israel (Genocide Convention) Nicaragua v. Germany Legal Consequences of Israeli Policies and Practices ICC investigation in Palestine Arrest warrants for Israeli leaders South Africa v. Israel (Genocide Convention) Nicaragua v. Germany Legal Consequences of Israeli Policies and Practices ICC investigation in Palestine Arrest warrants for Israeli leaders Arrest warrants for Israeli leaders United States Defense for Children International – Palestine v. Biden Defense for Children International – Palestine v. Biden Public Protests 2024 University campuses List of protests Netherlands United States California Reactions 2025 University campuses Netherlands Australia Bangladesh March for Gaza France March for the Republic and Against Antisemitism Indonesia 2023 Bitung clashes Israel Humanitarian aid blockade Italy 2025 general strikes and protests for Gaza Netherlands Red line demonstrations New Zealand Spain 2024 pro-Palestinian strike United Kingdom List United States Artists4Ceasefire DNC protests March on Washington for Gaza March for Israel National March on Washington: Free Palestine Protest votes Self-immolation of Aaron Bushnell Pakistan Hurmat-e-Masjid Aqsa Conference D-Chowk Dharna 2024 Faizabad sit-in 2025 Tehreek-e-Labbaik Pakistan protests Gaza Strip 2025 Gaza Strip anti-Hamas protests Discrimination Antisemitism Riots in the North Caucasus Anti-Palestinianism Islamophobia Violent incidents Murder of Wadea al-Fayoume Death of Paul Kessler Vermont student shooting Killing of Israeli Embassy workers Boulder fire attack Protests 2024 University campuses List of protests Netherlands United States California Reactions 2025 University campuses Netherlands Australia Bangladesh March for Gaza France March for the Republic and Against Antisemitism Indonesia 2023 Bitung clashes Israel Humanitarian aid blockade Italy 2025 general strikes and protests for Gaza Netherlands Red line demonstrations New Zealand Spain 2024 pro-Palestinian strike United Kingdom List United States Artists4Ceasefire DNC protests March on Washington for Gaza March for Israel National March on Washington: Free Palestine Protest votes Self-immolation of Aaron Bushnell Pakistan Hurmat-e-Masjid Aqsa Conference D-Chowk Dharna 2024 Faizabad sit-in 2025 Tehreek-e-Labbaik Pakistan protests Gaza Strip 2025 Gaza Strip anti-Hamas protests 2024 University campuses List of protests Netherlands United States California Reactions List of protests Netherlands United States California Netherlands United States California California Reactions 2025 University campuses Netherlands Netherlands Australia Bangladesh March for Gaza March for Gaza France March for the Republic and Against Antisemitism March for the Republic and Against Antisemitism Indonesia 2023 Bitung clashes 2023 Bitung clashes Israel Humanitarian aid blockade Humanitarian aid blockade Italy 2025 general strikes and protests for Gaza 2025 general strikes and protests for Gaza Netherlands Red line demonstrations Red line demonstrations New Zealand Spain 2024 pro-Palestinian strike 2024 pro-Palestinian strike United Kingdom List List United States Artists4Ceasefire DNC protests March on Washington for Gaza March for Israel National March on Washington: Free Palestine Protest votes Self-immolation of Aaron Bushnell Artists4Ceasefire DNC protests March on Washington for Gaza March for Israel National March on Washington: Free Palestine Protest votes Self-immolation of Aaron Bushnell Pakistan Hurmat-e-Masjid Aqsa Conference D-Chowk Dharna 2024 Faizabad sit-in 2025 Tehreek-e-Labbaik Pakistan protests Hurmat-e-Masjid Aqsa Conference D-Chowk Dharna 2024 Faizabad sit-in 2025 Tehreek-e-Labbaik Pakistan protests Gaza Strip 2025 Gaza Strip anti-Hamas protests 2025 Gaza Strip anti-Hamas protests Discrimination Antisemitism Riots in the North Caucasus Anti-Palestinianism Islamophobia Violent incidents Murder of Wadea al-Fayoume Death of Paul Kessler Vermont student shooting Killing of Israeli Embassy workers Boulder fire attack Antisemitism Riots in the North Caucasus Riots in the North Caucasus Anti-Palestinianism Islamophobia Violent incidents Murder of Wadea al-Fayoume Death of Paul Kessler Vermont student shooting Killing of Israeli Embassy workers Boulder fire attack Murder of Wadea al-Fayoume Death of Paul Kessler Vermont student shooting Killing of Israeli Embassy workers Boulder fire attack Impacts General Economic impact Evacuations Gaza Strip evacuations Impact on Palestinian sports Israeli government response Israeli war cabinet Israeli public diplomacy Mass detentions Media coverage Violence against journalists Misinformation Palestine exception Pallywood Palestinian genocide accusation Sexual violence against Palestinians War crimes Hamas Israeli Cemetery destruction and necroviolence Israeli torture in the occupied territories Proposed Israeli resettlement of Gaza Humanitarian crisis Famine Gaza floating pier Gaza Humanitarian Foundation Global March to Gaza Soumoud Convoy Healthcare collapse Polio epidemic Premature baby crisis Societal breakdown WCNSF Flotillas 2024 2025 Conscience 2025 Madleen 2025 Handala 2025 Global Sumud Flotilla participants Freedom Flotilla Coalition Impacts General Economic impact Evacuations Gaza Strip evacuations Impact on Palestinian sports Israeli government response Israeli war cabinet Israeli public diplomacy Mass detentions Media coverage Violence against journalists Misinformation Palestine exception Pallywood Palestinian genocide accusation Sexual violence against Palestinians War crimes Hamas Israeli Cemetery destruction and necroviolence Israeli torture in the occupied territories Proposed Israeli resettlement of Gaza Economic impact Evacuations Gaza Strip evacuations Gaza Strip evacuations Impact on Palestinian sports Israeli government response Israeli war cabinet Israeli war cabinet Israeli public diplomacy Mass detentions Media coverage Violence against journalists Misinformation Palestine exception Pallywood Violence against journalists Misinformation Palestine exception Pallywood Palestinian genocide accusation Sexual violence against Palestinians War crimes Hamas Israeli Cemetery destruction and necroviolence Israeli torture in the occupied territories Proposed Israeli resettlement of Gaza Hamas Israeli Cemetery destruction and necroviolence Israeli torture in the occupied territories Proposed Israeli resettlement of Gaza Cemetery destruction and necroviolence Israeli torture in the occupied territories Proposed Israeli resettlement of Gaza Humanitarian crisis Famine Gaza floating pier Gaza Humanitarian Foundation Global March to Gaza Soumoud Convoy Healthcare collapse Polio epidemic Premature baby crisis Societal breakdown WCNSF Flotillas 2024 2025 Conscience 2025 Madleen 2025 Handala 2025 Global Sumud Flotilla participants Freedom Flotilla Coalition Famine Gaza floating pier Gaza Humanitarian Foundation Global March to Gaza Soumoud Convoy Healthcare collapse Polio epidemic Premature baby crisis Societal breakdown WCNSF Famine Gaza floating pier Gaza Humanitarian Foundation Global March to Gaza Soumoud Convoy Soumoud Convoy Healthcare collapse Polio epidemic Premature baby crisis Societal breakdown WCNSF Flotillas 2024 2025 Conscience 2025 Madleen 2025 Handala 2025 Global Sumud Flotilla participants Freedom Flotilla Coalition 2024 2025 Conscience 2025 Madleen 2025 Handala 2025 Global Sumud Flotilla participants Freedom Flotilla Coalition participants Freedom Flotilla Coalition Related people Israelis Sofie Berzon MacKie Batia Holin Nimrod Aloni Rachel Goldberg-Polin Einav Zangauker Yonatan Shamriz Omri Ronen Eitan Okun Yagel Oshri Inbal Rabin-Lieberman Amir Tibon Andrey X Palestinians Mosab Abu Toha Wael Al-Dahdouh Plestia Alaqad Motaz Azaiza Bisan Owda Mustafa Moien Ayyash Hind Khoudary Other Ahmed Abdel Khalek Related people Israelis Sofie Berzon MacKie Batia Holin Nimrod Aloni Rachel Goldberg-Polin Einav Zangauker Yonatan Shamriz Omri Ronen Eitan Okun Yagel Oshri Inbal Rabin-Lieberman Amir Tibon Andrey X Sofie Berzon MacKie Batia Holin Nimrod Aloni Rachel Goldberg-Polin Einav Zangauker Yonatan Shamriz Omri Ronen Eitan Okun Yagel Oshri Inbal Rabin-Lieberman Amir Tibon Andrey X Palestinians Mosab Abu Toha Wael Al-Dahdouh Plestia Alaqad Motaz Azaiza Bisan Owda Mustafa Moien Ayyash Hind Khoudary Mosab Abu Toha Wael Al-Dahdouh Plestia Alaqad Motaz Azaiza Bisan Owda Mustafa Moien Ayyash Hind Khoudary Other Ahmed Abdel Khalek Ahmed Abdel Khalek Other topics General 2024 Israeli secret document leak scandal Al-Saqqa House Al Qarara Cultural Museum Attacks on US bases during the Gaza war Blockout 2024 Gaza Daily Hind Rajab Foundation No Music For Genocide No Tech for Apartheid " Options for a policy regarding Gaza's civilian population " Project Nimbus Together for Palestine Terms, phrases " All Eyes on Rafah " " Death, death to the IDF " " From the river to the sea " " Globalize the intifada " Popular culture Songs " Harbu Darbu " " Hind's Hall " " Hurricane " " Leve Palestina " " Rajieen " Films Bearing Witness to the October 7th Massacre (2023) Screams Before Silence (2024) From Ground Zero (2024) The Children of October 7 (2024) The Encampments (2025) Gaza: Doctors Under Attack (2025) Gaza: How to Survive a Warzone (2025) Holding Liat (2025) Yes! (2025) Louis Theroux: The Settlers (2025) Put Your Soul on Your Hand and Walk (2025) Close Your Eyes Hind (2025) The Road Between Us: The Ultimate Rescue (2025) The Voice of Hind Rajab (2025) Hind Under Siege (2025) TV shows Red Alert One Day in October Other topics General 2024 Israeli secret document leak scandal Al-Saqqa House Al Qarara Cultural Museum Attacks on US bases during the Gaza war Blockout 2024 Gaza Daily Hind Rajab Foundation No Music For Genocide No Tech for Apartheid " Options for a policy regarding Gaza's civilian population " Project Nimbus Together for Palestine 2024 Israeli secret document leak scandal Al-Saqqa House Al Qarara Cultural Museum Attacks on US bases during the Gaza war Blockout 2024 Gaza Daily Hind Rajab Foundation No Music For Genocide No Tech for Apartheid " Options for a policy regarding Gaza's civilian population " Project Nimbus Together for Palestine Terms, phrases " All Eyes on Rafah " " Death, death to the IDF " " From the river to the sea " " Globalize the intifada " " All Eyes on Rafah " " Death, death to the IDF " " From the river to the sea " " Globalize the intifada " Popular culture Songs " Harbu Darbu " " Hind's Hall " " Hurricane " " Leve Palestina " " Rajieen " Films Bearing Witness to the October 7th Massacre (2023) Screams Before Silence (2024) From Ground Zero (2024) The Children of October 7 (2024) The Encampments (2025) Gaza: Doctors Under Attack (2025) Gaza: How to Survive a Warzone (2025) Holding Liat (2025) Yes! (2025) Louis Theroux: The Settlers (2025) Put Your Soul on Your Hand and Walk (2025) Close Your Eyes Hind (2025) The Road Between Us: The Ultimate Rescue (2025) The Voice of Hind Rajab (2025) Hind Under Siege (2025) TV shows Red Alert One Day in October Songs " Harbu Darbu " " Hind's Hall " " Hurricane " " Leve Palestina " " Rajieen " " Harbu Darbu " " Hind's Hall " " Hurricane " " Leve Palestina " " Rajieen " Films Bearing Witness to the October 7th Massacre (2023) Screams Before Silence (2024) From Ground Zero (2024) The Children of October 7 (2024) The Encampments (2025) Gaza: Doctors Under Attack (2025) Gaza: How to Survive a Warzone (2025) Holding Liat (2025) Yes! (2025) Louis Theroux: The Settlers (2025) Put Your Soul on Your Hand and Walk (2025) Close Your Eyes Hind (2025) The Road Between Us: The Ultimate Rescue (2025) The Voice of Hind Rajab (2025) Hind Under Siege (2025) Bearing Witness to the October 7th Massacre (2023) Screams Before Silence (2024) From Ground Zero (2024) The Children of October 7 (2024) The Encampments (2025) Gaza: Doctors Under Attack (2025) Gaza: How to Survive a Warzone (2025) Holding Liat (2025) Yes! (2025) Louis Theroux: The Settlers (2025) Put Your Soul on Your Hand and Walk (2025) Close Your Eyes Hind (2025) The Road Between Us: The Ultimate Rescue (2025) The Voice of Hind Rajab (2025) Hind Under Siege (2025) TV shows Red Alert One Day in October Red Alert One Day in October Category Category v t e Gaza–Israel conflict v t e History 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight Palestinian refugees History of the Gaza Strip History of Ashkelon History of Hamas 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight Palestinian refugees History of the Gaza Strip History of Ashkelon History of Ashkelon History of Hamas Pre-2006 1956 Khan Yunis massacre Rafah massacre 1967–71 Gazan insurgency First Intifada Second Intifada and aftermath in 2000–2005 Killing of Muhammad al-Durrah 2004 Israeli operation in Rafah 2004 Beit Hanoun raid 2004 Israeli operation Israeli disengagement 1956 Khan Yunis massacre Rafah massacre Khan Yunis massacre Rafah massacre 1967–71 Gazan insurgency First Intifada Second Intifada and aftermath in 2000–2005 Killing of Muhammad al-Durrah 2004 Israeli operation in Rafah 2004 Beit Hanoun raid 2004 Israeli operation Israeli disengagement Killing of Muhammad al-Durrah 2004 Israeli operation in Rafah 2004 Beit Hanoun raid 2004 Israeli operation Israeli disengagement 2006 Jan Palestinian legislative election Jun Gaza beach explosion Gaza cross-border raid Jun–Nov 2006 Gaza–Israel conflict Oct–Nov 2006 Israeli operation in Beit Hanoun Nov Beit Hanoun shelling Jan Palestinian legislative election Palestinian legislative election Jun Gaza beach explosion Gaza cross-border raid Gaza beach explosion Gaza cross-border raid Jun–Nov 2006 Gaza–Israel conflict 2006 Gaza–Israel conflict Oct–Nov 2006 Israeli operation in Beit Hanoun 2006 Israeli operation in Beit Hanoun Nov Beit Hanoun shelling Beit Hanoun shelling 2008 Jan–Feb Egypt–Gaza border breach Feb–Mar Operation Hot Winter Apr Jun–Dec Israel–Hamas ceasefire Dec Gaza War (2008–2009) Jan–Feb Egypt–Gaza border breach Egypt–Gaza border breach Feb–Mar Operation Hot Winter Operation Hot Winter Apr Jun–Dec Israel–Hamas ceasefire Israel–Hamas ceasefire Dec Gaza War (2008–2009) Gaza War (2008–2009) 2009 Jan Gaza War (2008–2009) Timeline Incidents Casualties Effects Feb–Mar Israeli attacks Apr UN Fact Finding Mission on the Gaza Conflict Jan Gaza War (2008–2009) Timeline Incidents Casualties Effects Gaza War (2008–2009) Timeline Incidents Casualties Effects Timeline Incidents Casualties Effects Feb–Mar Israeli attacks Israeli attacks Apr UN Fact Finding Mission on the Gaza Conflict UN Fact Finding Mission on the Gaza Conflict 2010 Mar Israel–Gaza clashes May Gaza Freedom Flotilla 2010 Gaza flotilla raid Mar Israel–Gaza clashes Israel–Gaza clashes May Gaza Freedom Flotilla 2010 Gaza flotilla raid Gaza Freedom Flotilla 2010 Gaza flotilla raid 2011 Jul Freedom Flotilla II Aug 2011 southern Israel cross-border attacks Jul Freedom Flotilla II Freedom Flotilla II Aug 2011 southern Israel cross-border attacks 2011 southern Israel cross-border attacks 2012 Mar March 2012 Gaza–Israel clashes Nov 2012 Gaza War Timeline Reactions Mar March 2012 Gaza–Israel clashes March 2012 Gaza–Israel clashes Nov 2012 Gaza War Timeline Reactions 2012 Gaza War Timeline Reactions Timeline Reactions 2014 July 2014 Gaza War List of Israeli strikes and Palestinian casualties in the 2014 Gaza War August UN Fact Finding Mission on the 2014 conflict July 2014 Gaza War List of Israeli strikes and Palestinian casualties in the 2014 Gaza War List of Israeli strikes and Palestinian casualties in the 2014 Gaza War August UN Fact Finding Mission on the 2014 conflict UN Fact Finding Mission on the 2014 conflict 2015 May–Jun Freedom Flotilla III May–Jun Freedom Flotilla III Freedom Flotilla III 2018 Mar Gaza border protests Palestinian airborne arson attacks Nov Gaza–Israel clashes Mar Gaza border protests Palestinian airborne arson attacks Gaza border protests Palestinian airborne arson attacks Nov Gaza–Israel clashes Gaza–Israel clashes 2019 May Gaza–Israel clashes November Gaza–Israel clashes May Gaza–Israel clashes Gaza–Israel clashes November Gaza–Israel clashes Gaza–Israel clashes 2020 Feb Killing and dismemberment of Muhammad al-Na'im Feb Killing and dismemberment of Muhammad al-Na'im Killing and dismemberment of Muhammad al-Na'im 2021 May Israel–Palestine crisis May Israel–Palestine crisis Israel–Palestine crisis 2022 Aug 2022 Gaza–Israel clashes Aug 2022 Gaza–Israel clashes 2022 Gaza–Israel clashes 2023 Apr Al-Aqsa clashes May Clashes October October 7 attacks Gaza war Apr Al-Aqsa clashes Al-Aqsa clashes May Clashes Clashes October October 7 attacks Gaza war October 7 attacks Gaza war 2024 Proposed Israeli resettlement of the Gaza Strip Lists Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel 2001 2002–2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel 2001 2002–2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2001 2002–2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 Related topics Gaza Strip Israeli–Palestinian conflict Gaza–Israel barrier Gaza Strip under Hamas Fatah–Hamas conflict Iran–Israel proxy conflict Gaza Strip blockade (since 2007) Israeli support for Hamas Gaza genocide International Criminal Court investigation in Palestine Gaza Strip Israeli–Palestinian conflict Gaza–Israel barrier Gaza Strip under Hamas Fatah–Hamas conflict Iran–Israel proxy conflict Gaza Strip blockade (since 2007) Israeli support for Hamas Gaza genocide International Criminal Court investigation in Palestine v t e Genocide v t e Genocides ( chronological list ) Before 1490 Destruction of Carthage (146 BCE) Asiatic Vespers (88 BCE) Gauls (50s BCE) Eburones Bar Kokhba (132–136) Ancestral Puebloans (800s) Harrying of the North (1069–1070) Mongol conquests (1200s–1360s) Cathars (1209–1229) Mongols in the Delhi Sultanate (1311) Timurid conquests (1393–1394) Guanches (1402–1496) 1490 to 1912 Taíno (1493–1550) Jaragua massacre (1503) Ainu (1500s–) Indigenous peoples in Brazil 11th Parallel massacre (1963) Tanaru (1970s–2009) Helmet massacre (1988) Akuntsu (1990) Haximu (1993) Yanomami (2019–2023) Aztecs (1521) Kashmiri Shias (1548–1872) Huguenots (1572) Kalinago (1626) Indigenous peoples in the United States Pequots (1636–1638) Beaver Wars (1609–1701) Huron Sullivan Expedition (1779) Indian removal (1830–1847) Trail of Tears (1830–1850) California (1846–1873) Dakota (1862) Osage Indian murders (1918–1931) Cultural genocide Indigenous peoples in Canada Beaver Wars (1609–1701) Beothuk (1700s–1800s) Residential school system (1874–1996) Sixties Scoop (1951–1985) Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women Jews in the Cossack Hetmanate (1648–1657) 1740 Batavia massacre (1740) Great Gypsy Round-up (1749) Dzungars (1750s) Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II (1780–1783) Chechens (1785–2017) French Hatians (1804) Meiteis (1819–1826) Indigenous peoples in Australia Black War (1825–1832) Stolen Generations (1869–1977) Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women Pacification of Algeria (1830–1875) El Ouffia Charrúa (1831) Moriori (1835) Assyrians in Hakkari (1843–1846) Manchus (1850–1864) Circassians (1860s) Mapuche (1870s–1884) Indigenous peoples in Putumayo (1879–1913) Congolese (1885–1908) Hazaras (1888–1893) Selknam (1890s–1900s) Hamidian massacres (1894–1896) Herero and Nama (1904–1907) Ukame (1905–1907) Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction Albanians in the Balkan Wars (1912–1913) 1913 to 1945 Late Ottoman genocides Greeks (1913–1923) Pontic Greeks Thracian Bulgarians (1913) Assyrians (1915–1919) Armenians (1915–1917) Christians in Diyarbekir (1915) Kurds (1916–1934) Indigenous peoples in Venezuela Pemon Kyrgyz (1916–1917) Jews during the Russian Civil War (1917–1920) Russian White Terror Cossacks (1919–1933) Ingrian Finns (1920s–1930s) Volga Tatars and Germans (1921–1922) Kantō Massacre (1923) Napalpí massacre (1924) Swiss Yenish, Sinti, and Manouche (1926–1973) Japanese war crimes in the Pacific War Manchukuo (1931–1945) Nanjing Massacre (1937–1938) Three Alls policy (1940–1942) Sook Ching (1942) Nanshitou massacre (1942–1945) Libyan Arabs (1929–1934) Kazakhs (1930–1933) La Matanza (1932) Holodomor (1932–1933) Simele massacre (1933) Romani Holocaust (1935–1945) Spanish White Terror (1936–1947) Yekatit 12 (1937) Polish Operation (1937–1938) Alevi Kurds (1937–1938) Parsley massacre (1937) Generalplan Ost (1939–1945) Poland Baltic lands Croatia Czech lands Ukraine Hunger Plan The Holocaust (1941–1945) German atrocities committed against Soviet POWs (1941–1945) Serbs in Croatia (1941–1945) Muslims and Croats in Serbia (1941–1945) Volhynian and Eastern Galician Poles (1943–1945) Chechens and Ingush (1944–1948) Crimean Tatars (1944–1948) 1946 to 1999 Hyderabadi Muslims (1948) Indigenous peoples in Paraguay (1956–1989) Maya (1962–1996) Papua (1962–) Arab and Indian Zanzibaris (1964) 1966 anti-Igbo pogrom (1966) Biafra (1966–1970) Equatoguinean (1969–1979) Feyli Kurds (1970–2003) Bangladesh (1971) Acholi and Lango (1972–1979) Burundi 1972 1993 East Timor (1974–1999) Cambodian (1975–1979) Jummas (1977–1997) Afghans (1979–1989) Baganda (1981–1985) Iran massacres 1981–1982 1988 Hama massacre (1982) Sabra and Shatila massacre (1982) Sri Lankan Tamils (1983–2009) Gukurahundi (1983–1987) Anfal (1986–1989) Isaaq (1987–1989) National Population Program (1987–2002) Ahwaris (1991–2003) Bosnian (1992–1995) Srebrenica massacre Rwandan (1994) Hutus during the First Congo War (1996–1997) 21st century Effacer le tableau (2002–2003) Darfur genocide 2003–2005 2023– Masalit genocide (2023–) Iraqi Sunni Arabs (2003–) Iraqi Turkmen (2014–2017) Yazidis (2014–2017) Shias under ISIS (2014–) Christians under ISIS (2014–) Rohingyas, Kachins, and other Burmese Muslims (2017–) Tigrayans, Kunamas, and Irobs (2020–2022) Ukrainians, Crimean Tatars, and other Ukrainian nationals (2022–) Bucha massacre (2022) Gaza genocide (2023–) Before 1490 Destruction of Carthage (146 BCE) Asiatic Vespers (88 BCE) Gauls (50s BCE) Eburones Bar Kokhba (132–136) Ancestral Puebloans (800s) Harrying of the North (1069–1070) Mongol conquests (1200s–1360s) Cathars (1209–1229) Mongols in the Delhi Sultanate (1311) Timurid conquests (1393–1394) Guanches (1402–1496) Before 1490 Destruction of Carthage (146 BCE) Asiatic Vespers (88 BCE) Gauls (50s BCE) Eburones Bar Kokhba (132–136) Ancestral Puebloans (800s) Harrying of the North (1069–1070) Mongol conquests (1200s–1360s) Cathars (1209–1229) Mongols in the Delhi Sultanate (1311) Timurid conquests (1393–1394) Guanches (1402–1496) Destruction of Carthage (146 BCE) Asiatic Vespers (88 BCE) Gauls (50s BCE) Eburones Eburones Bar Kokhba (132–136) Ancestral Puebloans (800s) Harrying of the North (1069–1070) Mongol conquests (1200s–1360s) Cathars (1209–1229) Mongols in the Delhi Sultanate (1311) Timurid conquests (1393–1394) Guanches (1402–1496) 1490 to 1912 Taíno (1493–1550) Jaragua massacre (1503) Ainu (1500s–) Indigenous peoples in Brazil 11th Parallel massacre (1963) Tanaru (1970s–2009) Helmet massacre (1988) Akuntsu (1990) Haximu (1993) Yanomami (2019–2023) Aztecs (1521) Kashmiri Shias (1548–1872) Huguenots (1572) Kalinago (1626) Indigenous peoples in the United States Pequots (1636–1638) Beaver Wars (1609–1701) Huron Sullivan Expedition (1779) Indian removal (1830–1847) Trail of Tears (1830–1850) California (1846–1873) Dakota (1862) Osage Indian murders (1918–1931) Cultural genocide Indigenous peoples in Canada Beaver Wars (1609–1701) Beothuk (1700s–1800s) Residential school system (1874–1996) Sixties Scoop (1951–1985) Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women Jews in the Cossack Hetmanate (1648–1657) 1740 Batavia massacre (1740) Great Gypsy Round-up (1749) Dzungars (1750s) Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II (1780–1783) Chechens (1785–2017) French Hatians (1804) Meiteis (1819–1826) Indigenous peoples in Australia Black War (1825–1832) Stolen Generations (1869–1977) Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women Pacification of Algeria (1830–1875) El Ouffia Charrúa (1831) Moriori (1835) Assyrians in Hakkari (1843–1846) Manchus (1850–1864) Circassians (1860s) Mapuche (1870s–1884) Indigenous peoples in Putumayo (1879–1913) Congolese (1885–1908) Hazaras (1888–1893) Selknam (1890s–1900s) Hamidian massacres (1894–1896) Herero and Nama (1904–1907) Ukame (1905–1907) Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction Albanians in the Balkan Wars (1912–1913) 1490 to 1912 Taíno (1493–1550) Jaragua massacre (1503) Ainu (1500s–) Indigenous peoples in Brazil 11th Parallel massacre (1963) Tanaru (1970s–2009) Helmet massacre (1988) Akuntsu (1990) Haximu (1993) Yanomami (2019–2023) Aztecs (1521) Kashmiri Shias (1548–1872) Huguenots (1572) Kalinago (1626) Indigenous peoples in the United States Pequots (1636–1638) Beaver Wars (1609–1701) Huron Sullivan Expedition (1779) Indian removal (1830–1847) Trail of Tears (1830–1850) California (1846–1873) Dakota (1862) Osage Indian murders (1918–1931) Cultural genocide Indigenous peoples in Canada Beaver Wars (1609–1701) Beothuk (1700s–1800s) Residential school system (1874–1996) Sixties Scoop (1951–1985) Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women Jews in the Cossack Hetmanate (1648–1657) 1740 Batavia massacre (1740) Great Gypsy Round-up (1749) Dzungars (1750s) Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II (1780–1783) Chechens (1785–2017) French Hatians (1804) Meiteis (1819–1826) Indigenous peoples in Australia Black War (1825–1832) Stolen Generations (1869–1977) Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women Pacification of Algeria (1830–1875) El Ouffia Charrúa (1831) Moriori (1835) Assyrians in Hakkari (1843–1846) Manchus (1850–1864) Circassians (1860s) Mapuche (1870s–1884) Indigenous peoples in Putumayo (1879–1913) Congolese (1885–1908) Hazaras (1888–1893) Selknam (1890s–1900s) Hamidian massacres (1894–1896) Herero and Nama (1904–1907) Ukame (1905–1907) Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction Albanians in the Balkan Wars (1912–1913) Taíno (1493–1550) Jaragua massacre (1503) Jaragua massacre (1503) Ainu (1500s–) Indigenous peoples in Brazil 11th Parallel massacre (1963) Tanaru (1970s–2009) Helmet massacre (1988) Akuntsu (1990) Haximu (1993) Yanomami (2019–2023) 11th Parallel massacre (1963) Tanaru (1970s–2009) Helmet massacre (1988) Akuntsu (1990) Haximu (1993) Yanomami (2019–2023) Aztecs (1521) Kashmiri Shias (1548–1872) Huguenots (1572) Kalinago (1626) Indigenous peoples in the United States Pequots (1636–1638) Beaver Wars (1609–1701) Huron Sullivan Expedition (1779) Indian removal (1830–1847) Trail of Tears (1830–1850) California (1846–1873) Dakota (1862) Osage Indian murders (1918–1931) Cultural genocide Pequots (1636–1638) Beaver Wars (1609–1701) Huron Huron Sullivan Expedition (1779) Indian removal (1830–1847) Trail of Tears (1830–1850) California (1846–1873) Dakota (1862) Osage Indian murders (1918–1931) Cultural genocide Indigenous peoples in Canada Beaver Wars (1609–1701) Beothuk (1700s–1800s) Residential school system (1874–1996) Sixties Scoop (1951–1985) Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women Beaver Wars (1609–1701) Beothuk (1700s–1800s) Residential school system (1874–1996) Sixties Scoop (1951–1985) Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women Jews in the Cossack Hetmanate (1648–1657) 1740 Batavia massacre (1740) Great Gypsy Round-up (1749) Dzungars (1750s) Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II (1780–1783) Chechens (1785–2017) French Hatians (1804) Meiteis (1819–1826) Indigenous peoples in Australia Black War (1825–1832) Stolen Generations (1869–1977) Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women Black War (1825–1832) Stolen Generations (1869–1977) Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women Pacification of Algeria (1830–1875) El Ouffia El Ouffia Charrúa (1831) Moriori (1835) Assyrians in Hakkari (1843–1846) Manchus (1850–1864) Circassians (1860s) Mapuche (1870s–1884) Indigenous peoples in Putumayo (1879–1913) Congolese (1885–1908) Hazaras (1888–1893) Selknam (1890s–1900s) Hamidian massacres (1894–1896) Herero and Nama (1904–1907) Ukame (1905–1907) Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction Albanians in the Balkan Wars (1912–1913) Albanians in the Balkan Wars (1912–1913) 1913 to 1945 Late Ottoman genocides Greeks (1913–1923) Pontic Greeks Thracian Bulgarians (1913) Assyrians (1915–1919) Armenians (1915–1917) Christians in Diyarbekir (1915) Kurds (1916–1934) Indigenous peoples in Venezuela Pemon Kyrgyz (1916–1917) Jews during the Russian Civil War (1917–1920) Russian White Terror Cossacks (1919–1933) Ingrian Finns (1920s–1930s) Volga Tatars and Germans (1921–1922) Kantō Massacre (1923) Napalpí massacre (1924) Swiss Yenish, Sinti, and Manouche (1926–1973) Japanese war crimes in the Pacific War Manchukuo (1931–1945) Nanjing Massacre (1937–1938) Three Alls policy (1940–1942) Sook Ching (1942) Nanshitou massacre (1942–1945) Libyan Arabs (1929–1934) Kazakhs (1930–1933) La Matanza (1932) Holodomor (1932–1933) Simele massacre (1933) Romani Holocaust (1935–1945) Spanish White Terror (1936–1947) Yekatit 12 (1937) Polish Operation (1937–1938) Alevi Kurds (1937–1938) Parsley massacre (1937) Generalplan Ost (1939–1945) Poland Baltic lands Croatia Czech lands Ukraine Hunger Plan The Holocaust (1941–1945) German atrocities committed against Soviet POWs (1941–1945) Serbs in Croatia (1941–1945) Muslims and Croats in Serbia (1941–1945) Volhynian and Eastern Galician Poles (1943–1945) Chechens and Ingush (1944–1948) Crimean Tatars (1944–1948) 1913 to 1945 Late Ottoman genocides Greeks (1913–1923) Pontic Greeks Thracian Bulgarians (1913) Assyrians (1915–1919) Armenians (1915–1917) Christians in Diyarbekir (1915) Kurds (1916–1934) Indigenous peoples in Venezuela Pemon Kyrgyz (1916–1917) Jews during the Russian Civil War (1917–1920) Russian White Terror Cossacks (1919–1933) Ingrian Finns (1920s–1930s) Volga Tatars and Germans (1921–1922) Kantō Massacre (1923) Napalpí massacre (1924) Swiss Yenish, Sinti, and Manouche (1926–1973) Japanese war crimes in the Pacific War Manchukuo (1931–1945) Nanjing Massacre (1937–1938) Three Alls policy (1940–1942) Sook Ching (1942) Nanshitou massacre (1942–1945) Libyan Arabs (1929–1934) Kazakhs (1930–1933) La Matanza (1932) Holodomor (1932–1933) Simele massacre (1933) Romani Holocaust (1935–1945) Spanish White Terror (1936–1947) Yekatit 12 (1937) Polish Operation (1937–1938) Alevi Kurds (1937–1938) Parsley massacre (1937) Generalplan Ost (1939–1945) Poland Baltic lands Croatia Czech lands Ukraine Hunger Plan The Holocaust (1941–1945) German atrocities committed against Soviet POWs (1941–1945) Serbs in Croatia (1941–1945) Muslims and Croats in Serbia (1941–1945) Volhynian and Eastern Galician Poles (1943–1945) Chechens and Ingush (1944–1948) Crimean Tatars (1944–1948) Late Ottoman genocides Greeks (1913–1923) Pontic Greeks Thracian Bulgarians (1913) Assyrians (1915–1919) Armenians (1915–1917) Christians in Diyarbekir (1915) Kurds (1916–1934) Greeks (1913–1923) Pontic Greeks Pontic Greeks Thracian Bulgarians (1913) Assyrians (1915–1919) Armenians (1915–1917) Christians in Diyarbekir (1915) Kurds (1916–1934) Indigenous peoples in Venezuela Pemon Pemon Kyrgyz (1916–1917) Jews during the Russian Civil War (1917–1920) Russian White Terror Russian White Terror Cossacks (1919–1933) Ingrian Finns (1920s–1930s) Volga Tatars and Germans (1921–1922) Kantō Massacre (1923) Napalpí massacre (1924) Swiss Yenish, Sinti, and Manouche (1926–1973) Japanese war crimes in the Pacific War Manchukuo (1931–1945) Nanjing Massacre (1937–1938) Three Alls policy (1940–1942) Sook Ching (1942) Nanshitou massacre (1942–1945) Manchukuo (1931–1945) Nanjing Massacre (1937–1938) Three Alls policy (1940–1942) Sook Ching (1942) Nanshitou massacre (1942–1945) Libyan Arabs (1929–1934) Kazakhs (1930–1933) La Matanza (1932) Holodomor (1932–1933) Simele massacre (1933) Romani Holocaust (1935–1945) Spanish White Terror (1936–1947) Yekatit 12 (1937) Polish Operation (1937–1938) Alevi Kurds (1937–1938) Parsley massacre (1937) Generalplan Ost (1939–1945) Poland Baltic lands Croatia Czech lands Ukraine Hunger Plan Poland Baltic lands Croatia Czech lands Ukraine Hunger Plan The Holocaust (1941–1945) German atrocities committed against Soviet POWs (1941–1945) Serbs in Croatia (1941–1945) Muslims and Croats in Serbia (1941–1945) Volhynian and Eastern Galician Poles (1943–1945) Chechens and Ingush (1944–1948) Crimean Tatars (1944–1948) 1946 to 1999 Hyderabadi Muslims (1948) Indigenous peoples in Paraguay (1956–1989) Maya (1962–1996) Papua (1962–) Arab and Indian Zanzibaris (1964) 1966 anti-Igbo pogrom (1966) Biafra (1966–1970) Equatoguinean (1969–1979) Feyli Kurds (1970–2003) Bangladesh (1971) Acholi and Lango (1972–1979) Burundi 1972 1993 East Timor (1974–1999) Cambodian (1975–1979) Jummas (1977–1997) Afghans (1979–1989) Baganda (1981–1985) Iran massacres 1981–1982 1988 Hama massacre (1982) Sabra and Shatila massacre (1982) Sri Lankan Tamils (1983–2009) Gukurahundi (1983–1987) Anfal (1986–1989) Isaaq (1987–1989) National Population Program (1987–2002) Ahwaris (1991–2003) Bosnian (1992–1995) Srebrenica massacre Rwandan (1994) Hutus during the First Congo War (1996–1997) 1946 to 1999 Hyderabadi Muslims (1948) Indigenous peoples in Paraguay (1956–1989) Maya (1962–1996) Papua (1962–) Arab and Indian Zanzibaris (1964) 1966 anti-Igbo pogrom (1966) Biafra (1966–1970) Equatoguinean (1969–1979) Feyli Kurds (1970–2003) Bangladesh (1971) Acholi and Lango (1972–1979) Burundi 1972 1993 East Timor (1974–1999) Cambodian (1975–1979) Jummas (1977–1997) Afghans (1979–1989) Baganda (1981–1985) Iran massacres 1981–1982 1988 Hama massacre (1982) Sabra and Shatila massacre (1982) Sri Lankan Tamils (1983–2009) Gukurahundi (1983–1987) Anfal (1986–1989) Isaaq (1987–1989) National Population Program (1987–2002) Ahwaris (1991–2003) Bosnian (1992–1995) Srebrenica massacre Rwandan (1994) Hutus during the First Congo War (1996–1997) Hyderabadi Muslims (1948) Indigenous peoples in Paraguay (1956–1989) Maya (1962–1996) Papua (1962–) Arab and Indian Zanzibaris (1964) 1966 anti-Igbo pogrom (1966) Biafra (1966–1970) Equatoguinean (1969–1979) Feyli Kurds (1970–2003) Bangladesh (1971) Acholi and Lango (1972–1979) Burundi 1972 1993 1972 1993 East Timor (1974–1999) Cambodian (1975–1979) Jummas (1977–1997) Afghans (1979–1989) Baganda (1981–1985) Iran massacres 1981–1982 1988 1981–1982 1988 Hama massacre (1982) Sabra and Shatila massacre (1982) Sri Lankan Tamils (1983–2009) Gukurahundi (1983–1987) Anfal (1986–1989) Isaaq (1987–1989) National Population Program (1987–2002) Ahwaris (1991–2003) Bosnian (1992–1995) Srebrenica massacre Srebrenica massacre Rwandan (1994) Hutus during the First Congo War (1996–1997) 21st century Effacer le tableau (2002–2003) Darfur genocide 2003–2005 2023– Masalit genocide (2023–) Iraqi Sunni Arabs (2003–) Iraqi Turkmen (2014–2017) Yazidis (2014–2017) Shias under ISIS (2014–) Christians under ISIS (2014–) Rohingyas, Kachins, and other Burmese Muslims (2017–) Tigrayans, Kunamas, and Irobs (2020–2022) Ukrainians, Crimean Tatars, and other Ukrainian nationals (2022–) Bucha massacre (2022) Gaza genocide (2023–) 21st century Effacer le tableau (2002–2003) Darfur genocide 2003–2005 2023– Masalit genocide (2023–) Iraqi Sunni Arabs (2003–) Iraqi Turkmen (2014–2017) Yazidis (2014–2017) Shias under ISIS (2014–) Christians under ISIS (2014–) Rohingyas, Kachins, and other Burmese Muslims (2017–) Tigrayans, Kunamas, and Irobs (2020–2022) Ukrainians, Crimean Tatars, and other Ukrainian nationals (2022–) Bucha massacre (2022) Gaza genocide (2023–) Effacer le tableau (2002–2003) Darfur genocide 2003–2005 2023– Masalit genocide (2023–) 2003–2005 2023– Masalit genocide (2023–) Masalit genocide (2023–) Iraqi Sunni Arabs (2003–) Iraqi Turkmen (2014–2017) Yazidis (2014–2017) Shias under ISIS (2014–) Christians under ISIS (2014–) Rohingyas, Kachins, and other Burmese Muslims (2017–) Tigrayans, Kunamas, and Irobs (2020–2022) Ukrainians, Crimean Tatars, and other Ukrainian nationals (2022–) Bucha massacre (2022) Bucha massacre (2022) Gaza genocide (2023–) Terms Cultural genocide Democide Autogenocide Domicide Ecocide Ethnocide Eugenics Gendercide Androcide Femicide Transfemicide Transgender genocide Genocide Convention Genocide of indigenous peoples Memoricide Policide Politicide Classicide Eliticide Utilitarian genocide War of annihilation Cultural genocide Democide Autogenocide Autogenocide Domicide Ecocide Ethnocide Eugenics Gendercide Androcide Femicide Transfemicide Transgender genocide Androcide Femicide Transfemicide Transgender genocide Genocide Convention Genocide of indigenous peoples Memoricide Policide Politicide Classicide Eliticide Classicide Eliticide Eliticide Utilitarian genocide War of annihilation Methods Death marches Death squads Ethnic cleansing Extermination camp Forced adoption Forced assimilation Forced conversion Incitement Massacres Killing Fields Pogroms Mass killing Rape Settler colonialism Urbicide Death marches Death squads Ethnic cleansing Extermination camp Forced adoption Forced assimilation Forced conversion Incitement Massacres Killing Fields Pogroms Killing Fields Pogroms Mass killing Rape Settler colonialism Urbicide Denial The Holocaust Trivialization Armenian Japanese history textbook controversies Nanjing Serbian Bosnian Rwandan Holodomor Cambodian Indigenous Gaza The Holocaust Trivialization Trivialization Armenian Japanese history textbook controversies Nanjing Serbian Bosnian Rwandan Holodomor Cambodian Indigenous Gaza Issues Definitions Names of the Holocaust Terminology of the Armenian genocide Holocaust terminology Genocide law Prevention Effects on young survivors Politics of recognition Justification Mass killings under communist regimes Anti-communist mass killings Definitions Names of the Holocaust Terminology of the Armenian genocide Holocaust terminology Names of the Holocaust Terminology of the Armenian genocide Holocaust terminology Genocide law Prevention Effects on young survivors Politics of recognition Justification Mass killings under communist regimes Anti-communist mass killings Legal proceedings Holocaust trials (1943–2022) Krasnodar trial (1943) Kharkov trial (1943) Épuration légale (1944–1951) Majdanek trials (1944–1989) Chełmno trials (1945–2001) Dachau trials (1945–1947) Belsen trials (1945–1948) Euthanasia trials (1945–1949) Nuremberg trial (1945–1946) Minsk trial (1945–1946) Riga trial (1946) Stutthof trials (1946–1947) Post–World War II Romanian war crime trials (1946–1953) Supreme National Tribunal (1946–1948) Hamburg Ravensbrück trials (1946–1948) Nuremberg Military Tribunals (1946–1949) Erich von Manstein (1949) Ulm Einsatzkommando trial (1958) War crimes trials in Soviet Estonia (1961–1962) Eichmann trial (1961) Belzec trial (1963–1965) Frankfurt Auschwitz trials (1963–1989) Treblinka trials (1964–1970) Sobibor trial (1965–1966) Deschênes Commission (1985–1986) Fedorenko trial (1986) Demjanjuk trials (1986–2012) Polyukhovich v Commonwealth (1991–1992) Finta trial (1994) R v Finta Gröning trial (2014–2015) 20th century Budak trial (1945) International Military Tribunal for the Far East (1946–1948) Belgrade Process (1946) Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal (1946–1948) Bosnian genocide case (1993–2007) International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (1993–2017) Milošević trial (2002–2006) Karadžić trial (2008–2016) Mladić trial (2011–2017) Trials of the Derg members (1994–2008) International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (1994–2015) Khmer Rouge Tribunal (1997–2022) Croatia–Serbia genocide case (1999–2015) 21st century International Criminal Court investigation in Darfur (2005–) Permanent Peoples' Tribunal on Sri Lanka (2010–2023) International Crimes Tribunal of Bangladesh (2012–) Mohammad Salimullah v. Union of India (2017) Rohingya genocide case (2019–) International Criminal Court investigation in Bangladesh/Myanmar (2019–) Uyghur Tribunal (2020–2021) Nouri trial International Criminal Court investigation in Ukraine (2022–) Ukraine v. Russian Federation (2022–) South Africa v. Israel (2023–) Defense for Children International – Palestine et al v. Biden et al (2023–2024) Nicaragua v. Germany (2024) Holocaust trials (1943–2022) Krasnodar trial (1943) Kharkov trial (1943) Épuration légale (1944–1951) Majdanek trials (1944–1989) Chełmno trials (1945–2001) Dachau trials (1945–1947) Belsen trials (1945–1948) Euthanasia trials (1945–1949) Nuremberg trial (1945–1946) Minsk trial (1945–1946) Riga trial (1946) Stutthof trials (1946–1947) Post–World War II Romanian war crime trials (1946–1953) Supreme National Tribunal (1946–1948) Hamburg Ravensbrück trials (1946–1948) Nuremberg Military Tribunals (1946–1949) Erich von Manstein (1949) Ulm Einsatzkommando trial (1958) War crimes trials in Soviet Estonia (1961–1962) Eichmann trial (1961) Belzec trial (1963–1965) Frankfurt Auschwitz trials (1963–1989) Treblinka trials (1964–1970) Sobibor trial (1965–1966) Deschênes Commission (1985–1986) Fedorenko trial (1986) Demjanjuk trials (1986–2012) Polyukhovich v Commonwealth (1991–1992) Finta trial (1994) R v Finta Gröning trial (2014–2015) Holocaust trials (1943–2022) Krasnodar trial (1943) Kharkov trial (1943) Épuration légale (1944–1951) Majdanek trials (1944–1989) Chełmno trials (1945–2001) Dachau trials (1945–1947) Belsen trials (1945–1948) Euthanasia trials (1945–1949) Nuremberg trial (1945–1946) Minsk trial (1945–1946) Riga trial (1946) Stutthof trials (1946–1947) Post–World War II Romanian war crime trials (1946–1953) Supreme National Tribunal (1946–1948) Hamburg Ravensbrück trials (1946–1948) Nuremberg Military Tribunals (1946–1949) Erich von Manstein (1949) Ulm Einsatzkommando trial (1958) War crimes trials in Soviet Estonia (1961–1962) Eichmann trial (1961) Belzec trial (1963–1965) Frankfurt Auschwitz trials (1963–1989) Treblinka trials (1964–1970) Sobibor trial (1965–1966) Deschênes Commission (1985–1986) Fedorenko trial (1986) Demjanjuk trials (1986–2012) Polyukhovich v Commonwealth (1991–1992) Finta trial (1994) R v Finta Gröning trial (2014–2015) Krasnodar trial (1943) Kharkov trial (1943) Épuration légale (1944–1951) Majdanek trials (1944–1989) Chełmno trials (1945–2001) Dachau trials (1945–1947) Belsen trials (1945–1948) Euthanasia trials (1945–1949) Nuremberg trial (1945–1946) Minsk trial (1945–1946) Riga trial (1946) Stutthof trials (1946–1947) Post–World War II Romanian war crime trials (1946–1953) Supreme National Tribunal (1946–1948) Hamburg Ravensbrück trials (1946–1948) Nuremberg Military Tribunals (1946–1949) Erich von Manstein (1949) Ulm Einsatzkommando trial (1958) War crimes trials in Soviet Estonia (1961–1962) Eichmann trial (1961) Belzec trial (1963–1965) Frankfurt Auschwitz trials (1963–1989) Treblinka trials (1964–1970) Sobibor trial (1965–1966) Deschênes Commission (1985–1986) Fedorenko trial (1986) Demjanjuk trials (1986–2012) Polyukhovich v Commonwealth (1991–1992) Finta trial (1994) R v Finta R v Finta Gröning trial (2014–2015) 20th century Budak trial (1945) International Military Tribunal for the Far East (1946–1948) Belgrade Process (1946) Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal (1946–1948) Bosnian genocide case (1993–2007) International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (1993–2017) Milošević trial (2002–2006) Karadžić trial (2008–2016) Mladić trial (2011–2017) Trials of the Derg members (1994–2008) International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (1994–2015) Khmer Rouge Tribunal (1997–2022) Croatia–Serbia genocide case (1999–2015) 20th century Budak trial (1945) International Military Tribunal for the Far East (1946–1948) Belgrade Process (1946) Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal (1946–1948) Bosnian genocide case (1993–2007) International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (1993–2017) Milošević trial (2002–2006) Karadžić trial (2008–2016) Mladić trial (2011–2017) Trials of the Derg members (1994–2008) International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (1994–2015) Khmer Rouge Tribunal (1997–2022) Croatia–Serbia genocide case (1999–2015) Budak trial (1945) International Military Tribunal for the Far East (1946–1948) Belgrade Process (1946) Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal (1946–1948) Bosnian genocide case (1993–2007) International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (1993–2017) Milošević trial (2002–2006) Karadžić trial (2008–2016) Mladić trial (2011–2017) Milošević trial (2002–2006) Karadžić trial (2008–2016) Mladić trial (2011–2017) Trials of the Derg members (1994–2008) International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (1994–2015) Khmer Rouge Tribunal (1997–2022) Croatia–Serbia genocide case (1999–2015) 21st century International Criminal Court investigation in Darfur (2005–) Permanent Peoples' Tribunal on Sri Lanka (2010–2023) International Crimes Tribunal of Bangladesh (2012–) Mohammad Salimullah v. Union of India (2017) Rohingya genocide case (2019–) International Criminal Court investigation in Bangladesh/Myanmar (2019–) Uyghur Tribunal (2020–2021) Nouri trial International Criminal Court investigation in Ukraine (2022–) Ukraine v. Russian Federation (2022–) South Africa v. Israel (2023–) Defense for Children International – Palestine et al v. Biden et al (2023–2024) Nicaragua v. Germany (2024) 21st century International Criminal Court investigation in Darfur (2005–) Permanent Peoples' Tribunal on Sri Lanka (2010–2023) International Crimes Tribunal of Bangladesh (2012–) Mohammad Salimullah v. Union of India (2017) Rohingya genocide case (2019–) International Criminal Court investigation in Bangladesh/Myanmar (2019–) Uyghur Tribunal (2020–2021) Nouri trial International Criminal Court investigation in Ukraine (2022–) Ukraine v. Russian Federation (2022–) South Africa v. Israel (2023–) Defense for Children International – Palestine et al v. Biden et al (2023–2024) Nicaragua v. Germany (2024) International Criminal Court investigation in Darfur (2005–) Permanent Peoples' Tribunal on Sri Lanka (2010–2023) International Crimes Tribunal of Bangladesh (2012–) Mohammad Salimullah v. Union of India (2017) Rohingya genocide case (2019–) International Criminal Court investigation in Bangladesh/Myanmar (2019–) Uyghur Tribunal (2020–2021) Nouri trial International Criminal Court investigation in Ukraine (2022–) Ukraine v. Russian Federation (2022–) South Africa v. Israel (2023–) Defense for Children International – Palestine et al v. Biden et al (2023–2024) Nicaragua v. Germany (2024) v t e Massacres against Palestinians v t e Surafend (1918) Al-Bassa (1938) Al-Khisas (1947) Balad al-Shaykh (1947–48) Deir Yassin (1948) Ein al-Zeitun (1948) Abu Shusha (1948) Al-Kabri (1948) Lydda (1948) Al-Dawayima (1948) Tantura (1948) Safsaf (1948) Saliha (1948) Eilabun (1948) Jish (1948) Arab al-Mawasi (1948) Sa'sa' (1948) Qibya (1953) Kafr Qasim (1956) Khan Yunis (1956) Rafah (1956) Beirut (1975) Karantina (1976) Tel al-Zaatar (1976) Sabra and Shatila (1982) Oyoun Qara (1990) Al Aqsa (1990) Cave of the Patriarchs (1994) Wehda Street (2021) Flour (2024) Tel al-Sultan (2024) Nuseirat refugee camp (2024) Rafah paramedics (2025) Surafend (1918) Al-Bassa (1938) Al-Khisas (1947) Balad al-Shaykh (1947–48) Deir Yassin (1948) Ein al-Zeitun (1948) Abu Shusha (1948) Al-Kabri (1948) Lydda (1948) Al-Dawayima (1948) Tantura (1948) Safsaf (1948) Saliha (1948) Eilabun (1948) Jish (1948) Arab al-Mawasi (1948) Sa'sa' (1948) Qibya (1953) Kafr Qasim (1956) Khan Yunis (1956) Rafah (1956) Beirut (1975) Karantina (1976) Tel al-Zaatar (1976) Sabra and Shatila (1982) Oyoun Qara (1990) Al Aqsa (1990) Cave of the Patriarchs (1994) Wehda Street (2021) Flour (2024) Tel al-Sultan (2024) Nuseirat refugee camp (2024) Rafah paramedics (2025) Gaza genocide 2020s in the Gaza Strip 2020s in Israel 21st-century genocides 21st-century mass murders in the Gaza Strip Anti-Islam sentiment in Israel Anti-Palestinian sentiment in Israel Gaza war Genocide of indigenous peoples in Asia Genocides in Asia Incitement to genocide of Palestinians Israel–South Africa relations Israeli invasion of the Gaza Strip Israeli massacres of Palestinians Israeli war crimes in the Gaza war Linguistic controversies Reactions to the Gaza war Massacres committed by Israel Articles containing Hebrew-language text CS1 uses Hebrew-language script (he) CS1 Hebrew-language sources (he) CS1 French-language sources (fr) CS1 German-language sources (de) Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from October 2025 CS1 interwiki-linked names CS1 Dutch-language sources (nl) CS1 Italian-language sources (it) CS1 Norwegian-language sources (no) CS1 European Spanish-language sources (es-es) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia extended-confirmed-protected pages Use dmy dates from October 2025 Use British English from December 2024 All Wikipedia articles written in British English Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Articles containing French-language text Wikipedia articles that are excessively detailed from December 2025 All articles that are excessively detailed Wikipedia articles with style issues from December 2025 All articles with style issues Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from August 2025 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from January 2026 Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from September 2025 Articles containing video clips This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 02:31 (UTC) . 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Cerwjena armeja jo Barliń dobyła a Nimcow póbiła. 30. apryla : Hitler jo sebjemordaŕstwo wugbał w swójom bunkru. 7. maja : Kapitulacija nimskego wójska na wšyknych frontach, kóńc wójny w Europje. 6. awgusta : Prědne chytanje amerikańskeje atomoweje bomby (Little Boy) na Hirošima. 80.000 luźi jo pśi tom wumrěło. 9. awgusta : Druge chytanje amerikańskeje atomoweje bomby (Fat Man) na Nagasaki. 60.000 luźi jo pśi tom wumrěło. 2. septembra : Pódpisanje kapitulacije Japańskeje. Globalny kóńc wójny . 16. nowembra : W Londonje 37 statow jo załožyło Organizaciju Zjadnośonych Narodow, OZN. Tšojenja 27. januara : Cerwjena armeja jo wulichowała koncentraciskej lěgwje Auschwitz a Birkenau 13. februara : Wjelike angloamerikańske bombarděrowanje Drježdźan . 15. februara : Wjelike angloamerikańske bombarděrowanje Chóśebuza . 16.–30. apryla: Bitwa wó Budyšyn mjazy Cerwjeneju armeju a nimskim wójskom. 16. apryla - 2. maja: Bitwa wó Barliń . Cerwjena armeja jo Barliń dobyła a Nimcow póbiła. 30. apryla : Hitler jo sebjemordaŕstwo wugbał w swójom bunkru. 7. maja : Kapitulacija nimskego wójska na wšyknych frontach, kóńc wójny w Europje. 6. awgusta : Prědne chytanje amerikańskeje atomoweje bomby (Little Boy) na Hirošima. 80.000 luźi jo pśi tom wumrěło. 9. awgusta : Druge chytanje amerikańskeje atomoweje bomby (Fat Man) na Nagasaki. 60.000 luźi jo pśi tom wumrěło. 2. septembra : Pódpisanje kapitulacije Japańskeje. Globalny kóńc wójny . 16. nowembra : W Londonje 37 statow jo załožyło Organizaciju Zjadnośonych Narodow, OZN. Narodniny [ wobźěłaś | žrědłowy tekst wobźěłaś ] 0 9. januara : Lewon Ter-Petrosjan – prezident Armeńskeje 10. januara : Rod Stewart – britiski spiwaŕ 26. januara : Helga Böhnisch - nimska politikaŕka († 2014 ) 0 6. februara : Bob Marley – jamaiski reggaejowy muzikaŕ († 1981 ) 0 9. měrca : Katja Ebstein – nimska spiwaŕka a filmowa grajaŕka 30. měrca : Eric Clapton – britiski rockowy a bluesowy gitarist 25. apryla : Björn Ulvaeus – šwedski spiwaŕ, cłonk kupki ABBA 14. maja : Wladislaw Ardzinba – prědny prezident mjazynarodnje njepśipóznateje republiki Abchaziskeje († 2010 ) 19. maja : Pete Townshend – britiski rockowy muzikaŕ skupiny The Who 31. maja : Rainer Werner Fassbinder – nimski režiser, filmowy producent a jawišćowy awtor († 1982 ) 31. maja : Laurent Gbagbo – prezident Słonowinowego pśibrjoga 19. junija : Aung San Suu Kyi – burmaska politikaŕka, nosaŕka Nobelowego myta 19. junija : Radovan Karadžić – bosnisko-serbiski politikaŕ a wójnski złosnik 24. julija : Alfons Wićaz – serbski žurnalist 26. julija : Helen Mirren – britiska filmowa grajaŕka 31. awgusta : Van Morrison – irski rockowy muzikaŕ 27. oktobra : Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva – brazilski politikaŕ a prezident 11. nowembra : Daniel Ortega – nikaraguwaski politikaŕ a prezident 12. nowembra : Neil Young – kanadiski rockowy muzikaŕ 28. nowembra : Majka Kowarjec – serbska źiwadłownica 10. decembra : Marek Grechuta – pólski pěsnjaŕ 24. decembra : Lemmy Kilmister – britiski rockowy muzikaŕ, załožaŕ skupiny Motörhead († 2015 ) 28. decembra : Birendra – kral Nepala († 2001 ) Narodniny 0 9. januara : Lewon Ter-Petrosjan – prezident Armeńskeje 10. januara : Rod Stewart – britiski spiwaŕ 26. januara : Helga Böhnisch - nimska politikaŕka († 2014 ) 0 6. februara : Bob Marley – jamaiski reggaejowy muzikaŕ († 1981 ) 0 9. měrca : Katja Ebstein – nimska spiwaŕka a filmowa grajaŕka 30. měrca : Eric Clapton – britiski rockowy a bluesowy gitarist 25. apryla : Björn Ulvaeus – šwedski spiwaŕ, cłonk kupki ABBA 14. maja : Wladislaw Ardzinba – prědny prezident mjazynarodnje njepśipóznateje republiki Abchaziskeje († 2010 ) 19. maja : Pete Townshend – britiski rockowy muzikaŕ skupiny The Who 31. maja : Rainer Werner Fassbinder – nimski režiser, filmowy producent a jawišćowy awtor († 1982 ) 31. maja : Laurent Gbagbo – prezident Słonowinowego pśibrjoga 19. junija : Aung San Suu Kyi – burmaska politikaŕka, nosaŕka Nobelowego myta 19. junija : Radovan Karadžić – bosnisko-serbiski politikaŕ a wójnski złosnik 24. julija : Alfons Wićaz – serbski žurnalist 26. julija : Helen Mirren – britiska filmowa grajaŕka 31. awgusta : Van Morrison – irski rockowy muzikaŕ 27. oktobra : Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva – brazilski politikaŕ a prezident 11. nowembra : Daniel Ortega – nikaraguwaski politikaŕ a prezident 12. nowembra : Neil Young – kanadiski rockowy muzikaŕ 28. nowembra : Majka Kowarjec – serbska źiwadłownica 10. decembra : Marek Grechuta – pólski pěsnjaŕ 24. decembra : Lemmy Kilmister – britiski rockowy muzikaŕ, załožaŕ skupiny Motörhead († 2015 ) 28. decembra : Birendra – kral Nepala († 2001 ) Wumrěśa [ wobźěłaś | žrědłowy tekst wobźěłaś ] 22. januara : Jan Skala – serbski žurnalist, basnikaŕ, narodny procowaŕ a narodnostny politikaŕ (* 1889 ) 13. februara : Pětr Kowar – serbski ludowy spisowaśel a molaŕ (* 1875 ) 23. februara : Aleksej Tolstoj – ruski spisowaśel (* 1883 ) 12. apryla : Franklin D. Roosevelt – 32. prezident Zjednośonych statow (* 1882 ) 22. apryla : Jan Nalij – serbski pismostajaŕ a ludowy spisowaśel (* 1887 ) 30. apryla : Adolf Hitler – nimski mócnarstwowy kanclaŕ a diktator (* 1889 ) 29. junija : Jurij Słodeńk – serbski wucabnik, muzikaŕ, spisowaśel a narodny procowaŕ (* 1873 ) 0 2. julija : Romuald Domaška – serbski radny duchowny, spisowaśel a kulturny procowaŕ (* 1869 ) 31. awgusta : Stefan Banach – pólski matematikaŕ (* 1892 ) 26. septembra : Benjamin Běgaŕ – dolnoserbski faraŕ (* 1873 ) 31. oktobra : Arnošt Ota Dučman – serbski žurnalist (* 1896 ) 27. nowembra : Jurij Kral – serbski faraŕ, słownikaŕ a gramatikaŕ (* 1864 ) 0 2. decembra : Wilhelm Buk – sakski politikaŕ, ministaŕski prezident (* 1869 ) dokładny datum njeznaty: Jurij Šewčik – serbski bur a ludowy basnikaŕ (* 1903 ) dokładny datum njeznaty: Korla Gustaw Wowčerk – serbski knigłyśišćaŕ a wuměłski wjednik spiwarskich towaristwow (* 1863 ) Wumrěśa 22. januara : Jan Skala – serbski žurnalist, basnikaŕ, narodny procowaŕ a narodnostny politikaŕ (* 1889 ) 13. februara : Pětr Kowar – serbski ludowy spisowaśel a molaŕ (* 1875 ) 23. februara : Aleksej Tolstoj – ruski spisowaśel (* 1883 ) 12. apryla : Franklin D. Roosevelt – 32. prezident Zjednośonych statow (* 1882 ) 22. apryla : Jan Nalij – serbski pismostajaŕ a ludowy spisowaśel (* 1887 ) 30. apryla : Adolf Hitler – nimski mócnarstwowy kanclaŕ a diktator (* 1889 ) 29. junija : Jurij Słodeńk – serbski wucabnik, muzikaŕ, spisowaśel a narodny procowaŕ (* 1873 ) 0 2. julija : Romuald Domaška – serbski radny duchowny, spisowaśel a kulturny procowaŕ (* 1869 ) 31. awgusta : Stefan Banach – pólski matematikaŕ (* 1892 ) 26. septembra : Benjamin Běgaŕ – dolnoserbski faraŕ (* 1873 ) 31. oktobra : Arnošt Ota Dučman – serbski žurnalist (* 1896 ) 27. nowembra : Jurij Kral – serbski faraŕ, słownikaŕ a gramatikaŕ (* 1864 ) 0 2. decembra : Wilhelm Buk – sakski politikaŕ, ministaŕski prezident (* 1869 ) dokładny datum njeznaty: Jurij Šewčik – serbski bur a ludowy basnikaŕ (* 1903 ) dokładny datum njeznaty: Korla Gustaw Wowčerk – serbski knigłyśišćaŕ a wuměłski wjednik spiwarskich towaristwow (* 1863 ) Wótkaz [ wobźěłaś | žrědłowy tekst wobźěłaś ] Commons: 1945 – Zběrka wobrazow, widejow a audio-datajow Wótkaz 1945 Lěto (20. lětstotk) Slědna změna boka: 12. awgusta 2024 w 17:25 góź. 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Sources 2 Early life Toggle Early life subsection 2.1 In the East 2.2 In the West 2.1 In the East 2.2 In the West 3 Reign Toggle Reign subsection 3.1 Maxentius's rebellion 3.2 Maximian's rebellion 3.3 Civil wars 3.3.1 War against Maxentius 3.3.2 Milvian Bridge 3.3.3 In Rome 3.3.4 Wars against Licinius 3.4 Later rule 3.4.1 Foundation of Constantinople 3.4.2 Religion and religious policy 3.4.3 Administrative reforms 3.4.4 Monetary reforms 3.4.5 Executions of Crispus and Fausta 3.4.6 Later campaigns 3.4.7 Illness and death 3.1 Maxentius's rebellion 3.2 Maximian's rebellion 3.3 Civil wars 3.3.1 War against Maxentius 3.3.2 Milvian Bridge 3.3.3 In Rome 3.3.4 Wars against Licinius 3.3.1 War against Maxentius 3.3.2 Milvian Bridge 3.3.3 In Rome 3.3.4 Wars against Licinius 3.4 Later rule 3.4.1 Foundation of Constantinople 3.4.2 Religion and religious policy 3.4.3 Administrative reforms 3.4.4 Monetary reforms 3.4.5 Executions of Crispus and Fausta 3.4.6 Later campaigns 3.4.7 Illness and death 3.4.1 Foundation of Constantinople 3.4.2 Religion and religious policy 3.4.3 Administrative reforms 3.4.4 Monetary reforms 3.4.5 Executions of Crispus and Fausta 3.4.6 Later campaigns 3.4.7 Illness and death 4 Assessment and legacy Toggle Assessment and legacy subsection 4.1 Veneration as a saint 4.2 Historiography 4.3 Donation of Constantine 4.4 Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia 4.1 Veneration as a saint 4.2 Historiography 4.3 Donation of Constantine 4.4 Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia 5 Family tree 6 See also 7 Notes 8 Citations Toggle Citations subsection 8.1 Bibliography 8.1.1 Ancient sources 8.1.2 Modern sources 8.1 Bibliography 8.1.1 Ancient sources 8.1.2 Modern sources 8.1.1 Ancient sources 8.1.2 Modern sources 9 Further reading 10 External links Constantine the Great Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն অসমীয়া Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Limburgs Lingua Franca Nova Lombard Magyar Madhurâ Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी მარგალური مصرى Bahasa Melayu Mirandés Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی پښتو Piemontèis Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sakizaya संस्कृतम् Sardu Scots Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça తెలుగు ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt 文言 Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki Žemaitėška 中文 Betawi Batak Mandailing Yerwa Kanuri ရခိုင် Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Wikidata item Constantine I Head of the Colossus of Constantine , Capitoline Museums Roman emperor Reign 25 July 306 – 22 May 337 (alone from 19 September 324) Predecessor Constantius I (in the West) Successor .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Co-rulers .mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal} See list Galerius (306–311) [ a ] Severus II (306–307) [ b ] Maxentius (306–312) [ c ] Maximian (306–308, 310) [ c ] Licinius (308–324) [ d ] Maximinus II (310–313) [ a ] Valens (316–317) [ e ] Martinian (324) [ e ] Galerius (306–311) [ a ] Severus II (306–307) [ b ] Maxentius (306–312) [ c ] Maximian (306–308, 310) [ c ] Licinius (308–324) [ d ] Maximinus II (310–313) [ a ] Valens (316–317) [ e ] Martinian (324) [ e ] Born Flavius Constantinus 27 February 272 Naissus , Moesia Superior , Roman Empire Died 22 May 337 (aged 65) Achyron, Nicomedia , Bithynia , Roman Empire Burial Church of the Holy Apostles , Constantinople (remains now lost) Spouses Minervina [ f ] Fausta Minervina [ f ] Fausta Issue Detail Crispus Constantine II Constantius II Constantina Constans I Helena Crispus Constantine II Constantius II Constantina Constans I Helena Names Flavius Valerius Constantinus Regnal name Imperator Caesar Flavius Valerius Constantinus Augustus Names Flavius Valerius Constantinus Regnal name Imperator Caesar Flavius Valerius Constantinus Augustus Dynasty Constantinian Father Constantius Chlorus Mother Helena Religion Ancient Roman religion (until 312) Christianity (from 312) Ancient Roman religion (until 312) Christianity (from 312) Constantine I [ g ] (27 February 272 – 22 May 337), also known as Constantine the Great , or known mononymously as Constantine , was Roman emperor from AD 306 to 337 and the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity . [ h ] He played a pivotal role in elevating the status of Christianity in Rome, the Edict of Milan decriminalising Christian practice and ceasing Christian persecution . This was a turning point in the Christianisation of the Roman Empire . He founded the city of Constantinople (now Istanbul ) and made it the capital of the Empire, which it remained for over a millennium. Born in Naissus , a city located in the province of Moesia Superior (now Niš , Serbia), Constantine was the son of Flavius Constantius , a Roman army officer from Moesia Superior, who would become one of the four emperors of the Tetrarchy . His mother, Helena , was a woman of low birth, probably from Bithynia . Later canonised as a saint , she is credited for the conversion of her son in some traditions, though others believe that Constantine converted her. He served with distinction under emperors Diocletian and Galerius . He began his career by campaigning in the eastern provinces against the Persians , before being recalled to the west in AD 305 to fight with his father in the province of Britannia . After his father's death in 306, Constantine was proclaimed as augustus (emperor) by his army at Eboracum ( York , England). He eventually emerged victorious in Civil wars of the Tetrarchy against the emperors Maxentius and Licinius to become the sole ruler of the Roman Empire by 324. Upon his accession, Constantine enacted many reforms to strengthen the empire. He restructured the government, separating civil and military authorities. To combat inflation, he introduced the solidus , a new gold coin that became the standard for Byzantine and European currencies for more than a thousand years. The Roman army was reorganised to consist of mobile units ( comitatenses ), often around the emperor, to serve on campaigns against external enemies or Roman rebels, and frontier-garrison troops ( limitanei ) which were capable of countering barbarian raids, but less and less capable of countering full-scale barbarian invasions . Constantine pursued campaigns against the tribes on the Roman frontiers —such as the Franks , the Alemanni , the Goths , and the Sarmatians —and resettled territories abandoned by his predecessors during the Crisis of the Third Century with citizens of Roman society. Although Constantine lived much of his life as a pagan , he later became a catechumen , as he began to favour Christianity in 312, finally being baptised by Eusebius of Nicomedia , an Arian bishop. He played an influential role in the proclamation of the Edict of Milan in 313, which legalized Christianity in the Roman Empire. He convoked the First Council of Nicaea in 325, which produced the Christian statement of belief known as the Nicene Creed . On his orders, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was built at the site claimed to be the tomb of Jesus in Jerusalem and was deemed the holiest place in Christendom . He has historically been referred to as the "First Christian Emperor" but while he did favour the Christian Church, some modern scholars debate his beliefs and even his comprehension of Christianity. [ i ] He is venerated as a saint in Eastern Christianity , and he did much to push Christianity towards the mainstream of Roman culture. The age of Constantine marked a distinct epoch in the history of the Roman Empire and a pivotal moment in the evolution from classical antiquity to the Middle Ages . He built a new imperial residence in the city of Byzantium , which was officially renamed New Rome , while also taking on the name Constantinople in his honour. It subsequently served as the capital of the empire for more than a thousand years—with the Eastern Roman Empire for most of that period commonly referred to retrospectively as the Byzantine Empire in English. In leaving the empire to his sons and other members of the Constantinian dynasty , Constantine's immediate political legacy was the replacement of Diocletian's Tetrarchy with the principle of dynastic succession . His memory was held in high regard during the lifetime of his children and for centuries after his reign. The medieval church held him up as a paragon of virtue, while secular rulers invoked him as a symbol of imperial legitimacy. The rediscovery of anti-Constantinian sources in the early Renaissance engendered more critical appraisals of his reign, with modern and contemporary scholarship often seeking to balance the extremes of earlier accounts. Sources Constantine was a ruler of major importance and has always been a controversial figure. [ 4 ] The fluctuations in his reputation reflect the nature of the ancient sources for his reign. These are abundant and detailed, but they have been strongly influenced by the official propaganda of the period and are often one-sided. [ 5 ] No contemporaneous histories or biographies dealing with his life and rule have survived; the nearest alternative is Eusebius 's Vita Constantini , which offers a mixture of eulogy and hagiography [ 6 ] written between 335 and 339 [ 7 ] to extol Constantine's moral and religious virtues. [ 8 ] The Vita creates a contentiously positive image of Constantine, [ 9 ] and modern historians have frequently challenged its reliability. [ 10 ] The fullest secular life of Constantine is the anonymous Origo Constantini , a work of uncertain date which focuses on military and political events to the neglect of cultural and religious matters. [ 11 ] Lactantius ' De mortibus persecutorum , a political Christian pamphlet on the reigns of Diocletian and the Tetrarchy , provides valuable but tendentious detail on Constantine's predecessors and early life. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] The ecclesiastical histories of Socrates , Sozomen , and Theodoret describe the ecclesiastic disputes of Constantine's later reign. Written during the reign of Theodosius II (r. 402–450), a century after Constantine's reign, these ecclesiastical historians obscure the events and theologies of the Constantinian period through misdirection, misrepresentation, and deliberate obscurity. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] [ 14 ] The contemporary writings of the orthodox Christian Athanasius of Alexandria and the ecclesiastical history of the Arian Philostorgius also survive, though their biases are no less firm. [ 15 ] The epitomes of Aurelius Victor ( De Caesaribus ), Eutropius ( Breviarium ), Festus ( Breviarium ), and the anonymous author of the Epitome de Caesaribus offer compressed secular political and military histories of the period. Although not Christian, the epitomes paint a favourable image of Constantine but omit reference to Constantine's religious policies. [ 12 ] [ 16 ] The Panegyrici Latini , a collection of panegyrics from the late 3rd and early 4th centuries, provides valuable information on the politics and ideology of the tetrarchic period and the early life of Constantine. [ 12 ] [ 17 ] In addition, contemporary architecture—such as the Arch of Constantine in Rome and palaces in Gamzigrad and Córdoba [ 18 ] — epigraphic remains, and the coinage of the era complement the literary sources. [ 12 ] [ 17 ] Early life Constantine was born on 27 February 272. [ 19 ] While his official birthday is recorded in sources, his year of birth is not, and scholars have given several estimates between 271 and 280, with most leaning for 272 or 273. However, the evidence points to 272 being the correct year. [ 19 ] [ j ] He was born inside the city of Naissus, during a time when the unity of the Empire was threatened by the breakaway wars of the Palmyrene Empire . The city (modern Niš , Serbia) was located in Dardania within the province of Moesia Superior . [ 21 ] [ 22 ] His father was Flavius Constantius , [ k ] an Illyrian [ 26 ] [ 27 ] [ 23 ] [ l ] or, according to his nephew, Julian The Apostate , a Thracian . [ 29 ] His original full name, as well as that of his father, is not known. [ 30 ] [ 31 ] His praenomen is variously given as Lucius , Marcus and Gaius . [ 31 ] [ m ] Whatever the case, praenomina had already disappeared from most public records by this time. [ 33 ] He also adopted the name "Valerius", the nomen of emperor Diocletian , following his father's ascension as caesar . [ 31 ] [ 30 ] Constantine probably spent little time with his father [ 34 ] who was an officer in the Roman army, part of Emperor Aurelian 's imperial bodyguard. Being described as a tolerant and politically skilled man, [ 35 ] [ 36 ] Constantius advanced through the ranks, earning the governorship of Dalmatia from Emperor Diocletian, another of Aurelian's companions from Illyricum , in 284 or 285. [ 37 ] Constantine's mother was Helena , a woman of low social standing, possibly from Drepanum (later renamed Helenopolis ) of Bithynia , which would likely have made her a Greek -speaker. [ 38 ] [ 39 ] [ 40 ] It is uncertain whether she was legally married to Constantius or merely his concubine . [ 41 ] Constantine's own language was Latin , and during his public speeches in the church councils, which were held in Greek, he needed Greek translators. [ 42 ] In April 286 Diocletian declared Maximian , another colleague from Illyricum, his co-emperor. Each emperor would have his own court, his own military and administrative faculties, and each would rule with a separate praetorian prefect as chief lieutenant. [ 43 ] Maximian ruled in the West, from his capitals at Mediolanum ( Milan , Italy) or Augusta Treverorum ( Trier , Germany), while Diocletian ruled in the East, from Nicomedia ( İzmit , Turkey). The division was merely pragmatic: the empire was called "indivisible" in official panegyric, and both emperors could move freely throughout the empire. [ 44 ] In 288, Maximian appointed Constantius to serve as his praetorian prefect in Gaul . Constantius left Helena to marry Maximian's stepdaughter Theodora in 288 or 289. [ 45 ] Diocletian divided the empire again in 293, appointing two caesars to rule over further subdivisions of East and West. Each would be subordinate to his respective augustus but would act with supreme authority in his assigned lands. This system would later be called the Tetrarchy. Diocletian's first appointee for the office of Caesar was Constantius ; his second was Galerius , a native of Felix Romuliana . According to Lactantius , Galerius was a brutal, animalistic man. Although he shared the paganism of Rome's aristocracy, he seemed to them an alien figure, a semi-barbarian. [ 46 ] On 1 March, Constantius was promoted to the office of Caesar , and dispatched to Gaul to fight the rebels Carausius and Allectus . In spite of meritocratic overtones, the Tetrarchy retained vestiges of hereditary privilege, and Constantine became the prime candidate for future appointment as Caesar as soon as his father took the position. Constantine went to the court of Diocletian, where he lived as his father's heir presumptive . [ 47 ] In the East Constantine received a formal education at Diocletian's court, where he learned Latin literature, Greek, and philosophy. [ 48 ] The cultural environment in Nicomedia was open, fluid, and socially mobile; in it, Constantine could mix with intellectuals both pagan and Christian. He may have attended the lectures of Lactantius, a Christian scholar of Latin in the city. [ 49 ] Because Diocletian did not completely trust Constantius—none of the Tetrarchs fully trusted their colleagues—Constantine was held as something of a hostage, a tool to ensure Constantius' best behavior. Constantine was nonetheless a prominent member of the court: he fought for Diocletian and Galerius in Asia and served in a variety of tribunates ; he campaigned against barbarians on the Danube in 296 and fought the Persians under Diocletian in Syria in 297, as well as under Galerius in Mesopotamia in 298–299. [ 50 ] [ 51 ] By late 305, according to some, he had become a tribune of the first order, a tribunus ordinis primi . [ 51 ] [ 52 ] Constantine had returned to Nicomedia from the eastern front by the spring of 303, in time to witness the beginnings of Diocletian's " Great Persecution ", the most severe persecution of Christians in Roman history. [ 53 ] [ 54 ] In late 302, Diocletian and Galerius sent a messenger to the oracle of Apollo at Didyma with an inquiry about Christians. [ 55 ] [ 56 ] Constantine could recall his presence at the palace when the messenger returned and Diocletian accepted the imperial court's demands for universal persecution. [ 57 ] [ 58 ] On 23 February 303, Diocletian ordered the destruction of Nicomedia s new church, condemned its scriptures to the flames, and had its treasures seized. In the months that followed, churches and scriptures were destroyed, Christians were deprived of official ranks, and priests were imprisoned. [ 59 ] It is unlikely that Constantine played any role in the persecution. [ 60 ] In his later writings, he attempted to present himself as an opponent of Diocletian's "sanguinary edicts" against the "Worshippers of God", [ 61 ] [ 62 ] but nothing indicates that he opposed it effectively at the time. Although no contemporary Christian challenged Constantine for his inaction during the persecutions, it remained a political liability throughout his life. [ 63 ] On 1 May 305 Diocletian, as a result of a debilitating sickness taken in the winter of 304–305, announced his resignation. In a parallel ceremony in Milan , Maximian did the same. [ 64 ] Lactantius states that Galerius manipulated the weakened Diocletian into resigning and forced him to accept Galerius' allies in the imperial succession. According to Lactantius, the crowd listening to Diocletian's resignation speech believed, until the last moment, that Diocletian would choose Constantine and Maxentius (Maximian's son) as his successors. [ 65 ] [ 66 ] It was not to be: Constantius and Galerius were promoted to augusti , while Severus and Maximinus , Galerius' nephew, were appointed their caesars respectively. Constantine and Maxentius were ignored. [ 67 ] Some of the ancient sources detail plots that Galerius made on Constantine's life in the months following Diocletian's abdication. They assert that Galerius assigned Constantine to lead an advance unit in a cavalry charge through a swamp on the middle Danube, made him enter into single combat with a lion, and attempted to kill him in hunts and wars. Constantine always emerged victorious: the lion emerged from the contest in a poorer condition than Constantine; Constantine returned to Nicomedia from the Danube with a Sarmatian captive to drop at Galerius' feet. [ 68 ] [ 69 ] It is uncertain how much these tales can be trusted. [ 70 ] In the West Constantine recognised the implicit danger in remaining at Galerius' court, where he was held as a virtual hostage. His career depended on being rescued by his father in the West. Constantius was quick to intervene. In the late spring or early summer of 305, Constantius requested leave for his son to help him campaign in Britain. After a long evening of drinking, Galerius granted the request. Constantine's later propaganda describes how he fled the court in the night, before Galerius could change his mind. He rode from post-house to post-house at high speed, hamstringing every horse in his wake. By the time Galerius awoke the following morning, Constantine had fled too far to be caught. Constantine joined his father in Gaul , at Bononia ( Boulogne ) before the summer of 305. [ 71 ] From Bononia they crossed the English Channel to Britain and made their way to Eboracum ( York ), capital of the province of Britannia Secunda and home to a large military base. Constantine was able to spend a year in northern Britain at his father's side, campaigning against the Picts beyond Hadrian's Wall in the summer and autumn. [ 72 ] Constantius' campaign, like that of Septimius Severus before it, probably advanced far into the north without achieving great success. [ 73 ] Constantius had become severely sick over the course of his reign and died on 25 July 306 in Eboracum. Before dying, he declared his support for raising Constantine as emperor. The Alamannic king Chrocus , a barbarian taken into service under Constantius, then proclaimed Constantine as augustus. The troops loyal to Constantius' memory followed him in acclamation. Gaul and Britain quickly accepted his rule; [ 74 ] Hispania , which had been in his father's domain for less than a year, rejected it. [ 75 ] Constantine sent Galerius an official notice of Constantius' death and his own acclamation. Along with the notice, he included a portrait of himself in the robes of an Augustus. [ 74 ] The portrait was wreathed in bay . [ 76 ] He requested recognition as heir to his father's throne and passed off responsibility for his unlawful ascension on his army, claiming they had "forced it upon him". [ 77 ] Galerius was put into a fury by the message; he almost set the portrait and messenger on fire. [ 78 ] His advisers calmed him and argued that outright denial of Constantine's claims would mean certain war. [ 79 ] Galerius was compelled to compromise: he granted Constantine the title "caesar" rather than "augustus" (the latter office went to Severus instead). Wishing to make it clear that he alone gave Constantine legitimacy, Galerius personally sent Constantine the emperor's traditional purple robes . Constantine accepted the decision, knowing that it would remove doubts as to his legitimacy. [ 80 ] Reign Constantine's share of the empire consisted of Britain, Gaul, and Spain, and he commanded one of the largest Roman armies which was stationed along the important Rhine frontier. [ 81 ] He remained in Britain after his promotion to emperor, driving back the tribes of the Picts and securing his control in the northwestern dioceses. He completed the reconstruction of military bases begun under his father's rule, and he ordered the repair of the region's roadways. [ 82 ] He then left for Augusta Treverorum ( Trier ) in Gaul, the Tetrarchic capital of the northwestern Roman Empire. [ 83 ] The Franks learned of Constantine's acclamation and invaded Gaul across the lower Rhine over the winter of 306–307. [ 84 ] He drove them back beyond the Rhine and captured kings Ascaric and Merogais ; the kings and their soldiers were fed to the beasts of Trier Amphitheater in the adventus (arrival) celebrations which followed. [ 85 ] Constantine began a major expansion of Trier. He strengthened the circuit wall around the city with military towers and fortified gates, and he began building a palace complex in the northeastern part of the city. To the south of his palace, he ordered the construction of a large formal audience hall and a massive imperial bathhouse. He sponsored many building projects throughout Gaul during his tenure as emperor of the West, especially in Augustodunum ( Autun ) and Arelate ( Arles ). [ 88 ] According to Lactantius, Constantine followed a tolerant policy towards Christianity, although he was not yet a Christian. He probably judged it a more sensible policy than open persecution [ 89 ] and a way to distinguish himself from the "great persecutor" Galerius. [ 90 ] He decreed a formal end to persecution and returned to Christians all that they had lost under the first of the persecuting edicts. [ 91 ] Constantine was largely untried and had a hint of illegitimacy about him; he relied on his father's reputation in his early propaganda, which gave as much coverage to his father's deeds as to his. [ 92 ] His military skill and building projects, however, soon gave the panegyrist the opportunity to comment favourably on the similarities between father and son, and Eusebius remarked that Constantine was a "renewal, as it were, in his own person, of his father's life and reign". [ 93 ] Constantinian coinage, sculpture, and oratory also show a tendency for disdain towards the "barbarians" beyond the frontiers. He minted a coin issue after his victory over the Alemanni which depicts weeping and begging Alemannic tribesmen, "the Alemanni conquered" beneath the phrase "Romans' rejoicing". [ 94 ] There was little sympathy for these enemies; as his panegyrist declared, "It is a stupid clemency that spares the conquered foe." [ 95 ] Maxentius's rebellion Following Galerius's recognition of Constantine as caesar, Constantine's portrait was brought to Rome, as was customary. Maxentius mocked the portrait's subject as the son of a harlot and lamented his own powerlessness. [ 96 ] Maxentius, envious of Constantine's authority, [ 97 ] seized the title of emperor on 28 October 306. Galerius refused to recognise him but failed to unseat him. Severus was sent against Maxentius in April 307, [ 98 ] but during the campaign, Severus' armies, previously under command of Maxentius' father Maximian, defected, and Severus was seized and imprisoned. [ 99 ] Maximian, brought out of retirement by his son's rebellion, left for Gaul to confer with Constantine. He offered to marry his daughter Fausta to Constantine and elevate him to augustan rank. In return, Constantine would reaffirm the old family alliance between Maximian and Constantius and offer support to Maxentius' cause in Italy. Constantine accepted and married Fausta in Trier in summer 307. [ n ] Constantine gave Maxentius his meagre support, offering Maxentius political recognition. [ 103 ] Constantine remained aloof from the Italian conflict, however. Over the spring and summer of 307 he had left Gaul for Britain to avoid any involvement in the Italian turmoil; [ 104 ] now, instead of giving Maxentius military aid, he sent his troops against Germanic tribes along the Rhine. In 308, he raided the territory of the Bructeri and made a bridge across the Rhine at Colonia Agrippinensium ( Cologne ). In 310, he marched to the northern Rhine and fought the Franks. When not campaigning, he toured his lands advertising his benevolence and supporting the economy and the arts. His refusal to participate in the war increased his popularity among his people and strengthened his power base in the West. [ 105 ] Maximian returned to Rome in the winter of 307–308 but soon fell out with his son. In early 308, after a failed attempt to usurp Maxentius' title, Maximian returned to Constantine's court. [ 106 ] On 11 November 308 Galerius called a general council at the military city of Carnuntum ( Petronell-Carnuntum , Austria) to resolve the instability in the western provinces. In attendance were Diocletian, briefly returned from retirement, Galerius, and Maximian. Maximian was forced to abdicate again and Constantine was again demoted to caesar. Licinius , one of Galerius' old military companions, was appointed augustus in the western regions. The new system did not last long: Constantine refused to accept the demotion and continued to style himself as augustus on his coinage, even as other members of the Tetrarchy referred to him as a caesar on theirs. Maximinus was frustrated that he had been passed over for promotion while the newcomer Licinius had been raised to the office of augustus and demanded that Galerius promote him. Galerius offered to call both Maximinus and Constantine "sons of the augusti", [ 107 ] but neither accepted the new title. By the spring of 310, Galerius was referring to both men as augusti. [ 108 ] Maximian's rebellion In 310 a dispossessed Maximian rebelled against Constantine while Constantine was away campaigning against the Franks. Maximian had been sent south to Arles with a contingent of Constantine's army, in preparation for any attacks by Maxentius in southern Gaul. He announced that Constantine was dead and took up the imperial purple. In spite of a large donative pledge to any who would support him as emperor, most of Constantine's army remained loyal to their emperor, and Maximian was soon compelled to leave. When Constantine heard of the rebellion, he abandoned his campaign against the Franks and marched his army up the Rhine. [ 110 ] At Cabillunum ( Chalon-sur-Saône ), he moved his troops onto waiting boats to row down the slow waters of the Saône to the quicker waters of the Rhone . He disembarked at Lugdunum ( Lyon ). [ 111 ] Maximian fled to Massilia ( Marseille ), a town better able to withstand a long siege than Arles. It made little difference, however, as loyal citizens opened the rear gates to Constantine. Maximian was captured and reproved for his crimes. Constantine granted some clemency but strongly encouraged his suicide. In July 310, Maximian hanged himself . [ 110 ] In spite of the earlier rupture in their relations, Maxentius was eager to present himself as his father's devoted son after his death. [ 112 ] He began minting coins with his father's deified image, proclaiming his desire to avenge Maximian's death. [ 113 ] Constantine initially presented the suicide as an unfortunate family tragedy. By 311, however, he was spreading another version. According to this, after Constantine had pardoned him, Maximian planned to murder Constantine in his sleep. Fausta learned of the plot and warned Constantine, who put a eunuch in his own place in bed. Maximian was apprehended when he killed the eunuch and was offered suicide, which he accepted. [ 114 ] Along with using propaganda, Constantine instituted a damnatio memoriae on Maximian, destroying all inscriptions referring to him and eliminating any public work bearing his image. [ 115 ] The death of Maximian required a shift in Constantine's public image. He could no longer rely on his connection to the elder Emperor Maximian and needed a new source of legitimacy. [ 116 ] In a speech delivered in Gaul on 25 July 310, the anonymous orator reveals a previously unknown dynastic connection to Claudius II , a 3rd-century emperor famed for defeating the Goths and restoring order to the empire. Breaking away from tetrarchic models, the speech emphasises Constantine's ancestral prerogative to rule, rather than principles of imperial equality. The new ideology expressed in the speech made Galerius and Maximian irrelevant to Constantine's right to rule. [ 117 ] Indeed, the orator emphasises ancestry to the exclusion of all other factors: "No chance agreement of men, nor some unexpected consequence of favour, made you emperor," the orator declares to Constantine. [ 118 ] The oration also moves away from the religious ideology of the Tetrarchy, with its focus on twin dynasties of Jupiter and Hercules . Instead, the orator proclaims that Constantine experienced a divine vision of Apollo and Victory granting him laurel wreaths of health and a long reign. In the likeness of Apollo, Constantine recognised himself as the saving figure to whom would be granted "rule of the whole world", [ 119 ] as the poet Virgil had once foretold. [ 120 ] The oration's religious shift is paralleled by a similar shift in Constantine's coinage. In his early reign, the coinage of Constantine advertised Mars as his patron. From 310 on, Mars was replaced by Sol Invictus , a god conventionally identified with Apollo. [ 121 ] There is little reason to believe that either the dynastic connection or the divine vision are anything other than fiction, but their proclamation strengthened Constantine's claims to legitimacy and increased his popularity among the citizens of Gaul. [ 122 ] Civil wars War against Maxentius .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Battles of Constantine I v t e Civil wars of the Tetrarchy Segusio Turin Brescia Verona Milvian Bridge Cibalae Mardia Adrianople Hellespont Byzantium Chrysopolis German and Sarmatian campaigns Segusio Turin Brescia Verona Milvian Bridge Cibalae Mardia Adrianople Hellespont Byzantium Chrysopolis By the middle of 310 Galerius had become too ill to involve himself in imperial politics. [ 123 ] His final act survives: a letter to provincials posted in Nicomedia on 30 April 311, proclaiming an end to the persecutions, and the resumption of religious toleration. [ 124 ] Eusebius maintains "divine providence [...] took action against the perpetrator of these crimes" and gives a graphic account of Galerius' demise: "Without warning suppurative inflammation broke out round the middle of his genitals, then a deep-seated fistula ulcer; these ate their way incurably into his innermost bowels. From them came a teeming indescribable mass of worms, and a sickening smell was given off, for the whole of his hulking body, thanks to over eating, had been transformed even before his illness into a huge lump of flabby fat, which then decomposed and presented those who came near it with a revolting and horrifying sight." [ 125 ] Galerius died soon after the edict's proclamation, [ 126 ] destroying what little remained of the Tetrarchy. [ 127 ] Maximinus mobilised against Licinius and seized Asia Minor . A hasty peace was signed on a boat in the middle of the Bosphorus . [ 128 ] While Constantine toured Britain and Gaul, Maxentius prepared for war. [ 129 ] He fortified northern Italy and strengthened his support in the Christian community by allowing it to elect Eusebius as bishop of Rome . [ 130 ] Maxentius' rule was nevertheless insecure. His early support dissolved in the wake of heightened tax rates and depressed trade; riots broke out in Rome and Carthage ; [ 132 ] and Domitius Alexander was able to briefly usurp his authority in Africa. [ 133 ] By 312, he was a man barely tolerated, not one actively supported, [ 134 ] even among Christian Italians. [ 135 ] In the summer of 311, Maxentius mobilised against Constantine while Licinius was occupied with affairs in the East. He declared war on Constantine, vowing to avenge his father's "murder". [ 136 ] To prevent Maxentius from forming an alliance against him with Licinius, [ 137 ] Constantine forged his own alliance with Licinius over the winter of 311–312 and offered him his sister Constantia in marriage. Maximinus considered Constantine's arrangement with Licinius an affront to his authority. In response, he sent ambassadors to Rome, offering political recognition to Maxentius in exchange for a military support, which Maxentius accepted. [ 138 ] According to Eusebius, inter-regional travel became impossible, and there was military buildup everywhere. There was "not a place where people were not expecting the onset of hostilities every day". [ 139 ] Constantine's advisers and generals cautioned against preemptive attack on Maxentius; [ 140 ] even his soothsayers recommended against it, stating that the sacrifices had produced unfavourable omens. [ 141 ] Constantine, with a spirit that left a deep impression on his followers, inspiring some to believe that he had some form of supernatural guidance, [ 142 ] ignored all these cautions. [ 143 ] Early in the spring of 312, [ 144 ] Constantine crossed the Cottian Alps with a quarter of his army, a force numbering about 40,000. [ 145 ] The first town his army encountered was Segusium ( Susa , Italy), a heavily fortified town that shut its gates to him. Constantine ordered his men to set fire to its gates and scale its walls. He took the town quickly. Constantine ordered his troops not to loot the town and advanced into northern Italy. [ 144 ] At the approach to the west of the important city of Augusta Taurinorum ( Turin , Italy), Constantine met a large force of heavily armed Maxentian cavalry. [ 146 ] In the ensuing Battle of Turin Constantine's army encircled Maxentius' cavalry, flanked them with his own cavalry, and dismounted them with blows from his soldiers' iron-tipped clubs. Constantine's armies emerged victorious. [ 147 ] Turin refused to give refuge to Maxentius' retreating forces, opening its gates to Constantine instead. [ 148 ] Other cities of the north Italian plain sent Constantine embassies of congratulation for his victory. He moved on to Milan, where he was met with open gates and jubilant rejoicing. Constantine rested his army in Milan until mid-summer 312, when he moved on to Brixia ( Brescia ). [ 149 ] Brescia's army was easily dispersed, [ 150 ] and Constantine quickly advanced to Verona where a large Maxentian force was camped. [ 151 ] Ruricius Pompeianus , general of the Veronese forces and Maxentius' praetorian prefect, [ 152 ] was in a strong defensive position since the town was surrounded on three sides by the Adige . Constantine sent a small force north of the town in an attempt to cross the river unnoticed. Ruricius sent a large detachment to counter Constantine's expeditionary force but was defeated. Constantine's forces successfully surrounded the town and laid siege. [ 153 ] Ruricius gave Constantine the slip and returned with a larger force to oppose Constantine. Constantine refused to let up on the siege and sent only a small force to oppose him. In the desperately fought encounter that followed, Ruricius was killed and his army destroyed. [ 154 ] Verona surrendered soon afterwards, followed by Aquileia , [ 155 ] Mutina ( Modena ), [ 156 ] and Ravenna . [ 157 ] The road to Rome was now wide open to Constantine. [ 158 ] Maxentius prepared for the same type of war he had waged against Severus and Galerius: he occupied Rome and prepared for a siege. [ 159 ] He still controlled Rome's Praetorian Guard , was well-stocked with African grain, and was surrounded on all sides by the seemingly impregnable Aurelian Walls . He ordered all bridges across the Tiber cut, reportedly on the counsel of the gods, [ 160 ] and left the rest of central Italy undefended; Constantine secured that region's support without challenge. [ 161 ] Constantine progressed slowly [ 162 ] along the Via Flaminia , [ 163 ] allowing the weakness of Maxentius to draw his regime further into turmoil. [ 162 ] Maxentius' support continued to weaken: at chariot races on 27 October, the crowd openly taunted Maxentius, shouting that Constantine was invincible. [ 164 ] Maxentius, no longer certain that he would emerge from a siege victorious, built a temporary boat bridge across the Tiber in preparation for a field battle against Constantine. [ 165 ] On 28 October 312, the sixth anniversary of his reign, he approached the keepers of the Sibylline Books for guidance. The keepers prophesied that, on that very day, "the enemy of the Romans" would die. Maxentius advanced north to meet Constantine in battle. [ 166 ] Milvian Bridge Maxentius' forces were still twice the size of Constantine's, and he organised them in long lines facing the battle plain with their backs to the river. [ 167 ] Constantine's army arrived on the field bearing unfamiliar symbols on their standards and their shields. [ 168 ] According to Lactantius "Constantine was directed in a dream to cause the heavenly sign to be delineated on the shields of his soldiers, and so to proceed to battle. He did as he had been commanded, and he marked on their shields the letter Χ, with a perpendicular line drawn through it and turned round thus at the top, being the cipher of Christ. Having this sign (☧), his troops stood to arms." [ 169 ] Eusebius describes a vision that Constantine had while marching at midday in which "he saw with his own eyes the trophy of a cross of light in the heavens, above the sun, and bearing the inscription, In Hoc Signo Vinces " ("In this sign thou shalt conquer"). [ 170 ] In Eusebius' account, Constantine had a dream the following night in which Christ appeared with the same heavenly sign and told him to make an army standard in the form of the labarum . [ 171 ] Eusebius is vague about when and where these events took place, [ 172 ] but it enters his narrative before the war begins against Maxentius. [ 173 ] He describes the sign as Chi (Χ) traversed by Rho (Ρ) to form ☧, representing the first two letters of the Greek word ΧΡΙΣΤΟΣ (Christos). [ 174 ] [ 175 ] A medallion was issued at Ticinum in 315 which shows Constantine wearing a helmet emblazoned with the Chi Rho , [ 176 ] and coins issued at Siscia in 317/318 repeat the image. [ 177 ] The figure was otherwise rare and is uncommon in imperial iconography and propaganda before the 320s. [ 178 ] It was not completely unknown, however, being an abbreviation of the Greek word chrēston (good), having previously appeared on the coins of Ptolemy III Euergetes in the 3rd century BC. Following Constantine, centuries of Christians invoked the miraculous or the supernatural when justifying or describing their warfare. [ 179 ] Constantine deployed his own forces along the whole length of Maxentius' line. He ordered his cavalry to charge, and they broke Maxentius' cavalry. He then sent his infantry against Maxentius' infantry, pushing many into the Tiber where they were slaughtered and drowned. [ 167 ] The battle was brief, [ 180 ] and Maxentius' troops were broken before the first charge. [ 181 ] His horse guards and praetorians initially held their position, but they broke under the force of a Constantinian cavalry charge; they also broke ranks and fled to the river. Maxentius rode with them and attempted to cross the bridge of boats ( Ponte Milvio ), but he was pushed into the Tiber and drowned by the mass of his fleeing soldiers. [ 182 ] In Rome Constantine entered Rome on 29 October 312 [ 184 ] [ 185 ] and staged a grand adventus in the city which was met with jubilation. [ 186 ] Maxentius' body was fished out of the Tiber and decapitated, and his head was paraded through the streets for all to see. [ 187 ] After the ceremonies, the disembodied head was sent to Carthage, and Carthage offered no further resistance. [ 188 ] Unlike his predecessors, Constantine neglected to make the trip to the Capitoline Hill and perform customary sacrifices at the Temple of Jupiter . [ 189 ] However, he did visit the Senatorial Curia Julia , [ 190 ] and he promised to restore its ancestral privileges and give it a secure role in his reformed government; there would be no revenge against Maxentius' supporters. [ 191 ] In response, the Senate decreed him "title of the first name", which meant that his name would be listed first in all official documents, [ 192 ] and they acclaimed him as "the greatest augustus". [ 193 ] He issued decrees returning property that was lost under Maxentius, recalling political exiles, and releasing Maxentius' imprisoned opponents. [ 194 ] An extensive propaganda campaign followed, during which Maxentius' image was purged from all public places. He was written up as a "tyrant" and set against an idealised image of Constantine the "liberator". Eusebius is the best representative of this strand of Constantinian propaganda. [ 195 ] Maxentius' rescripts were declared invalid, and the honours that he had granted to leaders of the Senate were also invalidated. [ 196 ] Constantine also attempted to remove Maxentius' influence on Rome's urban landscape. All structures built by him were rededicated to Constantine, including the Temple of Romulus and the Basilica of Maxentius . [ 197 ] At the focal point of the basilica, a stone statue was erected of Constantine holding the Christian labarum in its hand. Its inscription bore the message which the statue illustrated: "By this sign, Constantine had freed Rome from the yoke of the tyrant." [ 198 ] Constantine also sought to upstage Maxentius' achievements. For example, the Circus Maximus was redeveloped so that its seating capacity was 25 times larger than that of Maxentius' racing complex on the Via Appia . [ 199 ] Maxentius' strongest military supporters were neutralised when Constantine disbanded the Praetorian Guard and Imperial Horse Guard . [ 200 ] The tombstones of the Imperial Horse Guard were ground up and used in a basilica on the Via Labicana , [ 201 ] and their former base was redeveloped into the Lateran Basilica on 9 November 312—barely two weeks after Constantine captured the city. [ 202 ] The Legio II Parthica was removed from Albano Laziale , [ 196 ] and the remainder of Maxentius' armies were sent to do frontier duty on the Rhine. [ 203 ] Wars against Licinius In the following years, Constantine gradually consolidated his military superiority over his rivals in the crumbling Tetrarchy. In 313, he met Licinius in Milan to secure their alliance by the marriage of Licinius and Constantine's half-sister Constantia. During this meeting, the emperors agreed on the so-called Edict of Milan , [ 204 ] officially granting full tolerance to Christianity and all religions in the empire. [ 205 ] The document had special benefits for Christians, legalising their religion and granting them restoration for all property seized during Diocletian's persecution. It repudiates past methods of religious coercion and used only general terms to refer to the divine sphere—"Divinity" and "Supreme Divinity", summa divinitas . [ 206 ] The conference was cut short, however, when news reached Licinius that his rival Maximinus had crossed the Bosporus and invaded European territory. Licinius departed and eventually defeated Maximinus, gaining control over the entire eastern half of the Roman Empire. Relations between the two remaining emperors deteriorated, as Constantine suffered an assassination attempt at the hands of a character that Licinius wanted elevated to the rank of Caesar; [ 207 ] Licinius, for his part, had Constantine's statues in Emona destroyed. [ 208 ] In either 314 or 316 the two augusti fought against one another at the Battle of Cibalae , with Constantine being victorious. They clashed again at the Battle of Mardia in 317 and agreed to a settlement in which Constantine's sons Crispus and Constantine II , and Licinius' son Licinius Junior were made caesars . [ 209 ] After this arrangement, Constantine ruled the dioceses of Pannonia and Macedonia and took residence at Sirmium , whence he could wage war on the Goths and Sarmatians in 322, and on the Goths in 323, defeating and killing their leader Rausimod . [ 207 ] In 320 Licinius allegedly reneged on the religious freedom promised by the Edict of Milan and began to oppress Christians anew, [ 210 ] generally without bloodshed, but resorting to confiscations and sacking of Christian office-holders. [ 211 ] Although this characterisation of Licinius as anti-Christian is somewhat doubtful, the fact is that he seems to have been far less open in his support of Christianity than Constantine. Therefore, Licinius was prone to see the Church as a force more loyal to Constantine than to the Imperial system in general, [ 212 ] as the explanation offered by the Church historian Sozomen . [ 213 ] This dubious arrangement eventually became a challenge to Constantine in the West, climaxing in the great civil war of 324. Constantine's Christian eulogists present the war as a battle between Christianity and paganism; Licinius, aided by Gothic mercenaries, represented the past and ancient paganism, while Constantine and his Franks marched under the standard of the labarum . [ citation needed ] Outnumbered but fired by their zeal, Constantine's army emerged victorious in the Battle of Adrianople . Licinius fled across the Bosphorus and appointed Martinian , his magister officiorum , as nominal augustus in the West, but Constantine next won the Battle of the Hellespont and finally the Battle of Chrysopolis on 18 September 324. [ 214 ] Licinius and Martinian surrendered to Constantine at Nicomedia on the promise their lives would be spared: they were sent to live as private citizens in Thessalonica and Cappadocia respectively, but in 325 Constantine accused Licinius of plotting against him and had them both arrested and hanged; Licinius' son (the son of Constantine's half-sister) was killed in 326. [ 215 ] Thus Constantine became the sole emperor of the Roman Empire. [ 216 ] Later rule Foundation of Constantinople Diocletian had chosen Nicomedia in the East as his capital during the Tetrarchy [ 218 ] —not far from Byzantium, well situated to defend Thrace, Asia, and Egypt, all of which had required his military attention. [ 219 ] Constantine had recognised the shift of the empire from the remote and depopulated [ why? ] West to the richer cities of the East, and the military strategic importance of protecting the Danube from barbarian excursions and Asia from a hostile Persia in choosing his new capital [ 220 ] as well as being able to monitor shipping traffic between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. [ 221 ] Licinius' defeat came to represent the defeat of a rival centre of pagan and Greek-speaking political activity in the East, as opposed to the Christian and Latin-speaking Rome, and it was proposed that a new Eastern capital should represent the integration of the East into the Roman Empire as a whole, as a centre of learning, prosperity, and cultural preservation for the whole of the Eastern Roman Empire. [ 222 ] Among the various locations proposed for this alternative capital, Constantine appears to have toyed earlier with Serdica (present-day Sofia ), as he was reported saying that " Serdica is my Rome ". [ 223 ] Sirmium and Thessalonica were also considered. [ 224 ] Eventually, however, Constantine decided to work on the Greek city of Byzantium , which offered the advantage of having already been extensively rebuilt on Roman patterns of urbanism during the preceding century by Septimius Severus and Caracalla , who had already acknowledged its strategic importance. [ 225 ] The city was thus founded in 324, [ 226 ] dedicated on 11 May 330 [ 226 ] and renamed Constantinopolis ("Constantine's City" or Constantinople in English). Special commemorative coins were issued in 330 to honour the event. The new city was later protected by the relics of the True Cross , the Rod of Moses and other holy relics, though a cameo now at the Hermitage Museum also represented Constantine crowned by the tyche of the new city. [ 227 ] The figures of old gods were either replaced or assimilated into a framework of Christian symbolism . Generations later there was the story that a divine vision led Constantine to this spot, and an angel no one else could see led him on a circuit of the new walls. [ 228 ] The capital would often be compared to the 'old' Rome as Nova Roma Constantinopolitana , the "New Rome of Constantinople". [ 216 ] [ 229 ] Religion and religious policy Saint Constantine the Great Mosaic in the Hagia Sophia , section: Maria as patroness of Constantinople, detail: donor portrait of Emperor Constantine I with a model of the city Emperor and Equal to the Apostles Resting place Constantinople Venerated in Eastern Orthodoxy Eastern Catholicism Oriental Orthodoxy Anglican Communion Lutheran Church Eastern Orthodoxy Eastern Catholicism Oriental Orthodoxy Anglican Communion Lutheran Church Major shrine Church of the Holy Apostles , Constantinople Feast 21 May Constantine was the first emperor to stop the persecution of Christians and to legalise Christianity, along with all other religions and cults in the Roman Empire. In February 313, he met with Licinius in Milan and developed the Edict of Milan, which stated that Christians should be allowed to follow their faith without oppression. [ 230 ] This removed penalties for professing Christianity, under which many had been martyred previously , and it returned confiscated Church property. The edict protected all religions from persecution, not only Christianity, allowing anyone to worship any deity that they chose. A similar edict had been issued in 311 by Galerius, senior emperor of the Tetrarchy, which granted Christians the right to practise their religion but did not restore any property to them. [ 231 ] The Edict of Milan included several clauses which stated that all confiscated churches would be returned, as well as other provisions for previously persecuted Christians. Some scholars think that Helena adopted Christianity as an adult, and according to Eusebius she was converted by Constantine, [ 232 ] but other historians debate whether Constantine adopted his mother Helena's Christianity in his youth or whether he adopted it gradually over the course of his life. [ 233 ] Constantine possibly retained the title of pontifex maximus which emperors bore as heads of the ancient Roman religion until Gratian renounced the title. [ 234 ] [ 235 ] According to Christian writers, Constantine was over 40 years old when he finally declared himself a Christian, making it clear that he owed his successes only to the protection of the Christian God. [ 236 ] Despite these declarations of being a Christian, he waited to be baptised until on his deathbed, believing that the baptism would release him of any sins he committed in the course of carrying out his policies while emperor. [ 237 ] He supported the Church financially, built basilicas, granted privileges to clergy (such as exemption from certain taxes), promoted Christians to high office, and returned property confiscated during the long period of persecution. [ 238 ] His most famous building projects include the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and Old St. Peter's Basilica . In constructing the Old St. Peter's Basilica, Constantine went to great lengths to erect the basilica on top of St. Peter 's resting place, so much so that it even affected the design of the basilica, including the challenge of erecting it on the hill where St. Peter rested, making its complete construction time over 30 years from the date Constantine ordered it to be built. Constantine might not have patronised Christianity alone. A triumphal arch was built in 315 to celebrate his victory in the Battle of the Milvian Bridge which was decorated with images of the goddess Victoria , and sacrifices were made to pagan gods at its dedication, including Apollo , Diana , and Hercules . Absent from the arch are any depictions of Christian symbolism. However, the arch was commissioned by the Senate, so the absence of Christian symbols may reflect the role of the Curia at the time as a pagan redoubt. [ 239 ] In 321, he legislated that the venerable Sunday should be a day of rest for all citizens. [ 240 ] In 323, he issued a decree banning Christians from participating in state sacrifices. [ 241 ] After the pagan gods had disappeared from his coinage, Christian symbols appeared as Constantine's attributes, the chi rho between his hands or on his labarum, [ 242 ] as well on the coinage. [ 243 ] The reign of Constantine established a precedent for the emperor to have great influence and authority in the early Christian councils, most notably the dispute over Arianism. Constantine disliked the risks to societal stability that religious disputes and controversies brought with them, preferring to establish an orthodoxy. [ 244 ] His influence over the Church councils was to enforce doctrine, root out heresy, and uphold ecclesiastical unity; the Church's role was to determine proper worship, doctrines, and dogma. [ 245 ] North African bishops struggled with Christian bishops who had been ordained by Donatus in opposition to Caecilian from 313 to 316. The African bishops could not come to terms, and the Donatists asked Constantine to act as a judge in the dispute. Three regional Church councils and another trial before Constantine all ruled against Donatus and the Donatism movement in North Africa. In 317, Constantine issued an edict to confiscate Donatist church property and to send Donatist clergy into exile. [ 246 ] More significantly, in 325 he summoned the First Council of Nicaea, most known for its dealing with Arianism and for instituting the Nicene Creed . [ 247 ] He enforced the council's prohibition against celebrating the Lord's Supper on the day before the Jewish Passover , which marked a definite break of Christianity from the Judaic tradition. From then on, the solar Julian calendar was given precedence over the lunisolar Hebrew calendar among the Christian churches of the Roman Empire. [ 248 ] Constantine made some new laws regarding the Jews; some of them were unfavourable towards Jews, although they were not harsher than those of his predecessors. [ 249 ] It was made illegal for Jews to seek converts or to attack other Jews who had converted to Christianity. [ 249 ] They were forbidden to own Christian slaves or to circumcise their slaves. [ 250 ] [ 251 ] On the other hand, Jewish clergy were given the same exemptions as Christian clergy. [ 249 ] [ 252 ] Administrative reforms Beginning in the mid-3rd century, the emperors began to favour members of the equestrian order over senators, who had a monopoly on the most important offices of the state. Senators were stripped of the command of legions and most provincial governorships, as it was felt that they lacked the specialised military upbringing needed in an age of acute defense needs; [ 253 ] such posts were given to equestrians by Diocletian and his colleagues, following a practice enforced piecemeal by their predecessors. The emperors, however, still needed the talents and the help of the very rich, who were relied on to maintain social order and cohesion by means of a web of powerful influence and contacts at all levels. Exclusion of the old senatorial aristocracy threatened this arrangement. In 326 Constantine reversed this pro-equestrian trend, raising many administrative positions to senatorial rank and thus opening these offices to the old aristocracy; at the same time, he elevated the rank of existing equestrian office-holders to senator, degrading the equestrian order in the process (at least as a bureaucratic rank). [ 254 ] The title of perfectissimus was granted only to mid- or low-level officials by the end of the 4th century. By the new Constantinian arrangement, one could become a senator by being elected praetor or by fulfilling a function of senatorial rank. [ 255 ] From then on, holding actual power and social status were melded together into a joint imperial hierarchy. Constantine gained the support of the old nobility with this, [ 256 ] as the Senate was allowed to elect praetors and quaestors in place of the usual practice of the emperors directly creating magistrates ( adlectio ). An inscription in honour of city prefect Ceionius Rufus Albinus states that Constantine had restored the Senate "the auctoritas it had lost at Caesar's time". [ 257 ] The Senate as a body remained devoid of any significant power; nevertheless, the senators had been marginalised as potential holders of imperial functions during the 3rd century but could dispute such positions alongside more upstart bureaucrats. [ 258 ] Some modern historians see in those administrative reforms an attempt by Constantine at reintegrating the senatorial order into the imperial administrative elite to counter the possibility of alienating pagan senators from a Christianised imperial rule; [ 259 ] however, such an interpretation remains conjectural, given the fact that we do not have the precise numbers about pre-Constantine conversions to Christianity in the old senatorial milieu. Some historians suggest that early conversions among the old aristocracy were more numerous than previously supposed. [ 260 ] Constantine's reforms had to do only with the civilian administration. The military chiefs had risen from the ranks since the Crisis of the Third Century [ 261 ] but remained outside the Senate, in which they were included only by Constantine's children. [ 262 ] Monetary reforms In the 3rd century the production of fiat money to pay for public expenses resulted in runaway inflation , and Diocletian tried unsuccessfully to re-establish trustworthy minting of silver coins, as well as silver-bronze " billon " coins (the term "billon" meaning an alloy of precious and base metals that is mostly base metal). Silver currency was overvalued in terms of its actual metal content and therefore could only circulate at much discounted rates. Constantine stopped minting the Diocletianic "pure" silver argenteus soon after 305, while the "billon" currency continued to be used until the 360s. From the early 300s on, Constantine forsook any attempts at restoring the silver currency, preferring instead to concentrate on minting large quantities of the gold solidus , 72 of which made a pound of gold. New and highly debased silver pieces continued to be issued during his later reign and after his death, in a continuous process of retariffing, until this "billon" minting ceased in 367, and the silver piece was continued by various denominations of bronze coins, the most important being the centenionalis . [ 263 ] These bronze pieces continued to be devalued, assuring the possibility of keeping fiduciary minting alongside a gold standard. The author of De Rebus Bellicis held that the rift widened between classes because of this monetary policy; the rich benefited from the stability in purchasing power of the gold piece, while the poor had to cope with ever-degrading bronze pieces. [ 264 ] Later emperors such as Julian the Apostate insisted on trustworthy mintings of the bronze currency. [ 265 ] Constantine's monetary policies were closely associated with his religious policies; increased minting was associated with the confiscation of all gold, silver, and bronze statues from pagan temples between 331 and 336 which were declared to be imperial property. Two imperial commissioners for each province had the task of getting the statues and melting them for immediate minting, with the exception of a number of bronze statues that were used as public monuments in Constantinople. [ 266 ] Executions of Crispus and Fausta Constantine had his eldest son Crispus seized and put to death by "cold poison" at Pola ( Pula , Croatia) sometime between 15 May and 17 June 326. [ 267 ] In July, he had his wife Empress Fausta (stepmother of Crispus) killed in an overheated bath. [ 268 ] Their names were wiped from the face of many inscriptions, references to their lives were eradicated from the literary record, and their memory was condemned. Eusebius, for example, edited out any praise of Crispus from later copies of Historia Ecclesiastica , and his Vita Constantini contains no mention of Fausta or Crispus. [ 269 ] Few ancient sources are willing to discuss possible motives for the events, and the few that do are of later provenance and are generally unreliable. [ 270 ] At the time of the executions it was commonly believed that Empress Fausta was either in an illicit relationship with Crispus or was spreading rumours to that effect. A popular myth arose, modified to allude to the Hippolytus – Phaedra legend, with the suggestion that Constantine killed Crispus and Fausta for their immoralities; [ 271 ] the largely fictional Passion of Artemius explicitly makes this connection. [ 272 ] The myth rests on slim evidence as an interpretation of the executions; only late and unreliable sources allude to the relationship between Crispus and Fausta, and there is no evidence for the modern suggestion that Constantine's "godly" edicts of 326 and the irregularities of Crispus are somehow connected. [ 271 ] Although Constantine created his apparent heirs "caesars", following a pattern established by Diocletian, he gave his creations a hereditary character, alien to the tetrarchic system: Constantine's caesars were to be kept in the hope of ascending to empire and entirely subordinated to their augustus, as long as he was alive. [ 273 ] Adrian Goldsworthy speculates an alternative explanation for the execution of Crispus was Constantine's desire to keep a firm grip on his prospective heirs, this—and Fausta's desire for having her sons inheriting instead of their half-brother—being reason enough for killing Crispus; the subsequent execution of Fausta, however, was probably meant as a reminder to her children that Constantine would not hesitate in "killing his own relatives when he felt this was necessary". [ 274 ] Later campaigns Constantine considered Constantinople his capital and permanent residence. He lived there for a good portion of his later life. In 328, construction was completed on Constantine's Bridge at Sucidava , (today Celei in Romania ) [ 275 ] in hopes of reconquering Dacia , a province that had been abandoned under Aurelian. In the late winter of 332, Constantine campaigned with the Sarmatians against the Goths . The weather and lack of food reportedly cost the Goths dearly before they submitted to Rome. In 334, after Sarmatian commoners had overthrown their leaders, Constantine led a campaign against the tribe. He won a victory in the war and extended his control over the region, as remains of camps and fortifications in the region indicate. [ 276 ] Constantine resettled some Sarmatian exiles as farmers in Illyrian and Roman districts and conscripted the rest into the army. Constantine reconquered the South of Dacia and the new frontier in Dacia was along the wall and ditch called Brazda lui Novac line supported by new castra . [ 277 ] Constantine took the title Dacicus maximus in 336. [ 278 ] In the last years of his life, Constantine made plans for a campaign against Persia . In a letter written to the king of Persia, Shapur , Constantine had asserted his patronage over Persia's Christian subjects and urged Shapur to treat them well. [ 279 ] The letter is undatable. In response to border raids, Constantine sent Constantius to guard the eastern frontier in 335. In 336, Prince Narseh invaded Armenia (a Christian kingdom since 301) and installed a Persian client on the throne. Constantine then resolved to campaign against Persia. He treated the war as a Christian crusade, calling for bishops to accompany the army and commissioning a tent in the shape of a church to follow him everywhere. Constantine planned to be baptised in the Jordan River before crossing into Persia. Persian diplomats came to Constantinople over the winter of 336–337, seeking peace, but Constantine turned them away. The campaign was called off, however, when Constantine became sick in the spring of 337. [ 280 ] Illness and death From his recent illness, Constantine knew death would soon come. Within the Church of the Holy Apostles , which he had built in Constantinople, Constantine had secretly prepared a final resting-place for himself. [ 281 ] It came sooner than he had expected. Soon after the Feast of Easter 337, Constantine fell seriously ill. [ 282 ] He left Constantinople for the hot baths near his mother's city of Helenopolis ( Altınova ), on the southern shores of the Gulf of Nicomedia (present-day Gulf of İzmit ). Once in Helenopolis, in a church he had built in honour of Lucian the Martyr , he began to pray and offer supplications for God. He soon felt that his life was ending and desired to seek purification of the sins he had committed through baptism. Making his way to the suburbs of Nicomedia, where he summoned the local bishops. [ 283 ] He then told them of his hope to be baptised in the Jordan River , where Christ was baptised, yet praises God, knowing that it is fitting for him to receive the blessing here instead. He then professed the desire to live the rest of his life united with the people of God and His Church. The bishops, Eusebius records, "the prelates performed the sacred ceremonies in the usual manner". [ 284 ] He chose the Arian bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia , bishop of the city where he lay dying, as his baptiser. [ 285 ] It has been thought that Constantine put off baptism as long as he did to be absolved from as much of his sin as possible. [ 286 ] Constantine died soon after at a suburban villa called Achyron, on the last day of the fifty-day festival of Pentecost directly following Pascha (or Easter ), on 22 May 337. [ 287 ] Although Constantine's death follows the conclusion of the Persian campaign in Eusebius's account, most other sources report his death as occurring in its middle. Emperor Julian (a nephew of Constantine), writing in the mid-350s, observes that the Sassanians escaped punishment for their ill-deeds, because Constantine died "in the middle of his preparations for war". [ 288 ] Similar accounts are given in the Origo Constantini , an anonymous document composed while Constantine was still living, which has Constantine dying in Nicomedia ; [ 289 ] the Historiae abbreviatae of Sextus Aurelius Victor , written in 361, which has Constantine dying at an estate near Nicomedia called Achyrona while marching against the Persians; [ 290 ] and the Breviarium of Eutropius , a handbook compiled in 369 for the Emperor Valens , which has Constantine dying in a nameless state villa in Nicomedia . [ 291 ] From these and other accounts, some have concluded that Eusebius's Vita was edited to defend Constantine's reputation against what Eusebius saw as a less congenial version of the campaign. [ 292 ] Following his death, his body was transferred to Constantinople and buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles, [ 293 ] in a porphyry sarcophagus that was described in the 10th century by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in the De Ceremoniis . [ 294 ] His body survived the plundering of the city during the Fourth Crusade in 1204 but was destroyed at some point afterwards. [ 295 ] A fragment of a sarcophagus that is believed to be Constantine's is currently on display at the Istanbul Archaeology Museums . Constantine was succeeded by his three sons born of Fausta, Constantine II, Constantius II and Constans . His sons, along with his nephew Dalmatius , had already received one division of the empire each to administer as caesars; Constantine may have intended his successors to resume a structure akin to Diocletian's Tetrarchy. [ 296 ] A number of relatives were killed by followers of Constantius, notably Constantine's nephews Dalmatius (who held the rank of caesar) and Hannibalianus , presumably to eliminate possible contenders to an already complicated succession. He also had two daughters, Constantina and Helena , wife of Emperor Julian. [ 297 ] Assessment and legacy Constantine reunited the empire under one emperor, and he won major victories over the Franks and Alamanni in 306–308, the Franks again in 313–314, the Goths in 332, and the Sarmatians in 334. By 336, he had reoccupied most of the long-lost province of Dacia which Aurelian had been forced to abandon in 271. At the time of his death, he was planning a great expedition to end raids on the eastern provinces from the Persian Empire. [ 298 ] In the cultural sphere, Constantine revived the clean-shaven face fashion of earlier emperors, originally introduced among the Romans by Scipio Africanus (236–183 BC) and changed into the wearing of the beard by Hadrian (r. 117–138). With some departures, such as Julian the Apostate (r. 360–363), this new Roman imperial fashion lasted until the reign of Phocas (r. 602–610) in the 7th century. [ 299 ] [ 300 ] [ better source needed ] The Holy Roman Empire reckoned Constantine among the venerable figures of its tradition. In the later Byzantine state, it became a great honour for an emperor to be hailed as a "new Constantine"; ten emperors carried the name, including the last emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire. [ 301 ] Charlemagne used monumental Constantinian forms in his court to suggest that he was Constantine's successor and equal. Charlemagne, Henry VIII , Philip II of Spain , Godfrey of Bouillon , the House of Capet , the House of Habsburg , the House of Stuart , the Macedonian dynasty and the Phokas family claimed descent from Constantine. [ 302 ] [ 303 ] [ 304 ] Geoffrey of Monmouth embroidered a tale that the legendary king of Britain, King Arthur , was also a descendant of Constantine. [ 305 ] Constantine acquired a mythic role as a hero and warrior against heathens. His reception as a saint seems to have spread within the Byzantine empire during wars against the Sasanian Persians and the Muslims in the late 6th and 7th century. [ 306 ] The motif of the Romanesque equestrian, the mounted figure in the posture of a triumphant Roman emperor, became a visual metaphor in statuary in praise of local benefactors. The name "Constantine" enjoyed renewed popularity in western France in the 11th and 12th centuries. [ 307 ] During the Fascist period in Italy in the 20th century , parallels between Constantine and Mussolini became especially popular after the signing of the Lateran Pacts by the Italian State and the Catholic Church in 1929. Mussolini's perceived role in bringing about the historic agreement was sometimes even explicitly compared to Constantine's Edict of Milan. For example, the archbishop of Milan, Cardinal Ildefonso Schuster , claimed that, after sixteen centuries, a second March on Rome had occurred and a second 'religious pact' had been established, linking Mussolini to the spiriti magni of both Constantine and Augustus . [ 308 ] The Niš Constantine the Great Airport is named in honour of him. A large cross was planned to be built on a hill overlooking Niš, but the project was cancelled. [ 309 ] In 2012, a memorial was erected in Niš in his honour. The Commemoration of the Edict of Milan was held in Niš in 2013. [ 310 ] Constantine is sometimes associated with the religiopolitical ideology known as Caesaropapism , which epitomises the unity of church and state. However, his association with this ideology has been debated. [ 311 ] Veneration as a saint Constantine is commemorated annually as a saint by most, if not all, Eastern Christian Churches . The Eastern Orthodox Churches and the Greek Catholic Churches venerate Saint Constantine (Άγιος Κωνσταντίνος) as isapostolos (ισαπόστολος Κωνσταντίνος)—an equal of the Apostles . [ 312 ] He and his mother, Saint Helena, are commemorated on 21 May, [ 313 ] with liturgical propers composed for the Horologion (e.g., Great Vespers ) [ 314 ] and Divine Liturgy . [ 315 ] Several Orthodox monasteries, shrines and churches claim to have first-class relics of Constantine. [ 316 ] The Coptic Orthodox Church commemorates Saint Constantine on 28 Parmouti . [ 317 ] The Armenian Apostolic Church commemorates Saint Constantine and Saint Helena on the Tuesday of the fourth week after Pentecost. [ 318 ] The Armenian Catholic Church commemorates both on 1 July. Constantine is not recognized officially as a saint in the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church , although he had been referred to as piissimi Imperatoris (most pious Emperor) in editions of the Martyrologium Romanum up until the 1956 edition. Historiography During Constantine's lifetime, Praxagoras of Athens and Libanius , pagan authors, showered Constantine with praise, presenting him as a paragon of virtue. His nephew and son-in-law Julian the Apostate, however, wrote the satire Symposium, or the Saturnalia in 361, after the last of his sons died; it denigrated Constantine, calling him inferior to the great pagan emperors, and given over to luxury and greed. [ 319 ] Following Julian, Eunapius began – and Zosimus continued – a historiographic tradition that blamed Constantine for weakening the empire through his indulgence to the Christians. [ 320 ] During the Middle Ages , European and Near-East Byzantine writers presented Constantine as an ideal ruler, the standard against which any king or emperor could be measured. [ 320 ] The Renaissance rediscovery of anti-Constantinian sources prompted a re-evaluation of his career. German humanist Johannes Leunclavius discovered Zosimus' writings and published a Latin translation in 1576. In its preface, he argues that Zosimus' picture of Constantine offered a more balanced view than that of Eusebius and the Church historians. [ 321 ] Cardinal Caesar Baronius criticised Zosimus, favouring Eusebius' account of the Constantinian era. Baronius' Life of Constantine (1588) presents Constantine as the model of a Christian prince. [ 322 ] Edward Gibbon aimed to unite the two extremes of Constantinian scholarship in his work The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776–1789) by contrasting the portraits presented by Eusebius and Zosimus. [ 323 ] He presents a noble war hero who transforms into an Oriental despot in his old age, "degenerating into a cruel and dissolute monarch". [ 324 ] Modern interpretations of Constantine's rule begin with Jacob Burckhardt 's The Age of Constantine the Great (1853, rev. 1880). Burckhardt's Constantine is a scheming secularist, a politician who manipulates all parties in a quest to secure his own power. [ 325 ] Henri Grégoire followed Burckhardt's evaluation of Constantine in the 1930s, suggesting that Constantine developed an interest in Christianity only after witnessing its political usefulness. Grégoire was skeptical of the authenticity of Eusebius's Vita , and postulated a pseudo-Eusebius to assume responsibility for the vision and conversion narratives of that work. [ 326 ] Otto Seeck 's Geschichte des Untergangs der antiken Welt (1920–1923) and André Piganiol 's L'empereur Constantin (1932) go against this historiographic tradition. Seeck presents Constantine as a sincere war hero whose ambiguities were the product of his own naïve inconsistency. [ 327 ] Piganiol's Constantine is a philosophical monotheist, a child of his era's religious syncretism. [ 328 ] Related histories by Arnold Hugh Martin Jones ( Constantine and the Conversion of Europe , 1949) and Ramsay MacMullen ( Constantine , 1969) give portraits of a less visionary and more impulsive Constantine. [ 329 ] These later accounts were more willing to present Constantine as a genuine convert to Christianity. Norman H. Baynes began a historiographic tradition with Constantine the Great and the Christian Church (1929) which presents Constantine as a committed Christian, reinforced by Andreas Alföldi 's The Conversion of Constantine and Pagan Rome (1948), and Timothy Barnes 's Constantine and Eusebius (1981) is the culmination of this trend. Barnes' Constantine experienced a radical conversion which drove him on a personal crusade to convert his empire. [ 330 ] Charles Matson Odahl's Constantine and the Christian Empire (2004) takes much the same tack. [ 331 ] In spite of Barnes' work, arguments continue over the strength and depth of Constantine's religious conversion. [ 332 ] Certain themes in this school reached new extremes in T. G. Elliott's The Christianity of Constantine the Great (1996), which presented Constantine as a committed Christian from early childhood. [ 333 ] Paul Veyne 's 2007 work Quand notre monde est devenu chrétien holds a similar view which does not speculate on the origin of Constantine's Christian motivation, but presents him as a religious revolutionary who fervently believed that he was meant "to play a providential role in the millenary economy of the salvation of humanity". [ 334 ] Peter Heather argues that it is most plausible that Constantine had been a Christian considerably before 312 – possibly even for his entire life – with the public timeline of events instead reflecting his "coming out" as Christian in stages as doing so became politically viable. As a parallel illustrating the cogency of this interpretation, Heather gestures to the later conversion of Constantine's nephew Julian from Christianity to Hellenism, after which he practiced in secret for a decade. [ 335 ] Donation of Constantine Latin Christians considered it inappropriate that Constantine was baptised only on his death bed by an unorthodox bishop, and a legend emerged by the early 4th century that Pope Sylvester I had cured the pagan emperor from leprosy. According to this legend, Constantine was baptised and began the construction of a church in the Lateran Basilica . [ 336 ] [ 337 ] The Donation of Constantine appeared in the 8th century, most likely during the pontificate of Pope Stephen II , in which the freshly converted Constantine gives "the city of Rome and all the provinces, districts, and cities of Italy and the Western regions" to Sylvester and his successors. [ 338 ] In the High Middle Ages , [ 339 ] [ 340 ] this document was used and accepted as the basis for the pope's temporal power , though it was denounced as a forgery by Emperor Otto III [ 341 ] and lamented as the root of papal worldliness by Dante Alighieri . [ 342 ] Philologist and Catholic priest Lorenzo Valla proved in 1440 that the document was indeed a forgery. [ 343 ] Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia During the medieval period, Britons regarded Constantine as a king of their own people, particularly associating him with Caernarfon in Gwynedd . While some of this is owed to his fame and his proclamation as emperor in Britain , there was also confusion of his family with Magnus Maximus 's supposed wife Elen and her son, another Constantine ( Welsh : Custennin ) . In the 12th century Henry of Huntingdon included a passage in his Historia Anglorum that the Emperor Constantine's mother was a Briton, making her the daughter of King Cole of Colchester . [ 344 ] Geoffrey of Monmouth expanded this story in his highly fictionalised Historia Regum Britanniae , an account of the supposed Kings of Britain from their Trojan origins to the Anglo-Saxon invasion . [ 345 ] According to Geoffrey, Cole was King of the Britons when Constantius, here a senator, came to Britain. Afraid of the Romans, Cole submits to Roman law so long as he retains his kingship. However, he dies only a month later, and Constantius takes the throne himself, marrying Cole's daughter Helena. They have their son Constantine, who succeeds his father as King of Britain before becoming Roman emperor. Historically, this series of events is extremely improbable. Constantius had already left Helena by the time he left for Britain. [ 45 ] Additionally, no earlier source mentions that Helena was born in Britain, let alone that she was a princess. Henry's source for the story is unknown, though it may have been a lost hagiography of Helena. [ 345 ] Family tree v t e CONSTANTINIAN DYNASTY detailed family tree v t e Afranius Hannibalianus Eutropia Maximian Western emperor Theodora Constantius I Chlorus Western emperor 250-305-306 Helena 250–330 Maxentius Western emperor Constantia 293–330 ∞ Licinius 250-308-324-325 Flavius Dalmatius censor 1. Galla Julius Constantius d. 337 ∞ 2.Basilina Anastasia Eutropia Fausta 289–326 Constantine I the Great 272-306-337 Minervina Dalmatius caesar Hannibalianus (1) Constantius Gallus (2) Julian 331-360-363 Helena d. 360 Constantina ∞ 1. Hannibalianus 2. Constantius Gallus Constantius II 317-337-361 ∞ Faustina Constantine II Western emperor 316-337-340 Constans I Western emperor 320-337-350 (daughter) ∞ Justus Crispus d. 326 Jovian 331-363-364 Marina Severa Valentinian I Western emperor VALENTINIANIC DYNASTY Justina Constantia 361–383 Gratian Western emperor 359-367-383 Galla Theodosius I Eastern emperor THEODOSIAN DYNASTY Afranius Hannibalianus Eutropia Maximian Western emperor Theodora Constantius I Chlorus Western emperor 250-305-306 Helena 250–330 Maxentius Western emperor Constantia 293–330 ∞ Licinius 250-308-324-325 Flavius Dalmatius censor 1. Galla Julius Constantius d. 337 ∞ 2.Basilina Anastasia Eutropia Fausta 289–326 Constantine I the Great 272-306-337 Minervina Dalmatius caesar Hannibalianus (1) Constantius Gallus (2) Julian 331-360-363 Helena d. 360 Constantina ∞ 1. Hannibalianus 2. Constantius Gallus Constantius II 317-337-361 ∞ Faustina Constantine II Western emperor 316-337-340 Constans I Western emperor 320-337-350 (daughter) ∞ Justus Crispus d. 326 Jovian 331-363-364 Marina Severa Valentinian I Western emperor VALENTINIANIC DYNASTY Justina Constantia 361–383 Gratian Western emperor 359-367-383 Galla Theodosius I Eastern emperor THEODOSIAN DYNASTY Family of Constantine the Great Emperors are shown with a rounded-corner border with their dates as Augusti , names with a thicker border appear in both sections 1: Constantine's parents and half-siblings Claudius Gothicus 268–270 fabricated ancestry Julia Helena Constantius I 305–306 Maximiana Theodora Constantine I 306–337 Flavius Dalmatius Hannibalianus Flavia Julia Constantia Licinius 308–324 Anastasia Bassianus Galla Julius Constantius Basilina Licinius II Eutropia Virius Nepotianus Hannibalianus Constantina Constantius Gallus Julian 360–363 Helena Nepotianus 2: Constantine's children Minervina Constantine I 306–337 Fausta Crispus Constantine II 337–340 Constans 337–350 Hannibalianus Constantina Constantius Gallus Faustina Constantius II 337–361 Helena Julian 360–363 Gratian 367–383 Constantia Emperors are shown with a rounded-corner border with their dates as Augusti , names with a thicker border appear in both sections 1: Constantine's parents and half-siblings Claudius Gothicus 268–270 fabricated ancestry Claudius Gothicus 268–270 fabricated ancestry Julia Helena Constantius I 305–306 Constantius I 305–306 Maximiana Theodora Constantine I 306–337 Constantine I 306–337 Flavius Dalmatius Hannibalianus Flavia Julia Constantia Licinius 308–324 Licinius 308–324 Anastasia Bassianus Galla Julius Constantius Basilina Licinius II Eutropia Virius Nepotianus Hannibalianus Constantina Constantius Gallus Julian 360–363 Julian 360–363 Helena Nepotianus 2: Constantine's children Minervina Constantine I 306–337 Constantine I 306–337 Fausta Crispus Constantine II 337–340 Constantine II 337–340 Constans 337–350 Constans 337–350 Hannibalianus Constantina Constantius Gallus Faustina Constantius II 337–361 Constantius II 337–361 Helena Julian 360–363 Julian 360–363 Gratian 367–383 Gratian 367–383 Constantia See also Byzantine Empire portal Saints portal Bronze colossus of Constantine Colossus of Constantine Fifty Bibles of Constantine German and Sarmatian campaigns of Constantine Life of Constantine List of Byzantine emperors List of people known as the great Notes ^ a b Emperor of the East ^ Emperor of the West ^ a b In the West; unrecognised outside Italy ^ Originally emperor of the West; became emperor of the East after 313. ^ a b In the East; nominal emperor of the West. ^ Minervina may have been his concubine . ^ / ˈ k ɒ n s t ən t aɪ n , - t iː n / KON -stən-tyne, -teen ; Latin : Flāvius Valerius Cōnstantīnus , .mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%} Classical Latin : [konstanˈtiːnus] ; Koine Greek : Κωνσταντῖνος , romanized: Kōnstantînos ^ With the possible exception of Philip the Arab ( r. 244–249 ). See Philip the Arab and Christianity . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] ^ Constantine was not baptised until just before his death. [ 3 ] ^ Constantine's age at the time of his death was 65 years and 3 months, as recorded by Eustathius . Socrates , Sozomen , Zonaras , Skoutariotes , Theophanes , Symeon and Kedrenos all record 65 years. Eutropius and Jerome ( c. 380) give 66 years, as Latin writers often used inclusive counting . Aurelius Victor gives 62, likely a corruption of .mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%} lxvi into lxii , and his epitomer further corrupts the number into 63 ( lxiii ), while also computing his regnal years wrong. [ 19 ] [ 20 ] ^ The claim that Constantius descended from Claudius Gothicus , and thus also from the Flavian dynasty , is most certainly a fabrication. [ 23 ] [ 24 ] His family probably adopted the name "Flavius" after being granted citizenship by one of the Flavian emperors, as it was common for "new Romans" to adopt the names of their benefactors. [ 25 ] ^ On the other hand, Timothy Barnes argues that when ancient writers used the words Illyricum and Thrace / Thracians to describe where Constantius came from, they were speaking of broad geographic terms rather than precise origins. [ 28 ] ^ Constantius' regnal name is attested as both "Gaius Flavius Constantius" and "Marcus Flavius Constantius". However, the latter is almost certainly the correct form, as it was also the praenomen of his adopted father Maximian. [ 32 ] ^ The event is the focus of the Panegyrici Latini VI. The exact chronology of events is uncertain. Constantine and Fausta's wedding is sometimes dated to 31 March, but this is probably a mistake. It probably took place in September 307. [ 100 ] [ 101 ] [ 102 ] Citations ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Shahîd, Irfan (1984). "The First Christian Roman Emperor: Philip or Constantine?" . Rome and the Arabs . Dumbarton Oaks . pp. 65– 93. ^ Pohlsander, Hans A. (1980). "Philip the Arab and Christianity" . Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte . 29 (4): 463– 473. ISSN 0018-2311 . JSTOR 4435734 . ^ Harris, Jonathan (2017). Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium (2nd ed.). Bloomsbury. p. 38. ISBN 978-1-4742-5467-0 . ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 272. ^ Lenski et al. , pp. 2–3, 14, 23–25; Southern 2001 , p. 169; Cameron 2005 , pp. 90–91. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 265–268. ^ Drake 1988 . ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.11; cited in Odahl 2001 , p. 3 ^ Lenski et al. , p. 5; Storch 1971 . ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 265–271; Cameron 2005 , pp. 90–92; Elliott 1996 , pp. 162–171. ^ Lieu & Montserrat 1996 , pp. 39–40; Odahl 2001 , p. 3; Lenski et al. , p. 26. ^ a b c d e Lenski et al. , pp. 14–32; Odahl 2001 , pp. 6–14. ^ a b Barnes 1981 , pp. 12–14; MacKay 1999 , p. 207. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 225. ^ Odahl 2001 , pp. 6, 10. ^ Lieu & Montserrat 1996 , pp. 2–6; Warmington 1999 , pp. 166–167. ^ a b Wienand 2012 , pp. 26–86. ^ Lenski et al. , pp. 20–21, 288–291; Odahl 2001 , pp. 8–11. ^ a b c Doležal 2022 , pp. 221–237. ^ Bernard 2019 , p. 543. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 3, 39–42; Elliott 1996 , p. 17; Odahl 2001 , pp. 15–16; Pohlsander 2004b ; Southern 2001 , p. 169, 341; Barnes 1982 , pp. 39–42; Jones 1978 , pp. 13–14; Lenski et al. , p. 59; Pohlsander 2004a , p. 14; Rodgers 1989 ; Wright 1987 . ^ Wilkes, John (2012). "Dardani" . In Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (eds.). The Oxford Classical Dictionary . Oxford University Press. p. 414. ISBN 978-0-19-954556-8 . ^ a b Kazhdan 1991 , pp. 524–525. ^ Jones, Martindale & Morris , p. 223. ^ Salway, Benet (1994). "What's in a Name? A Survey of Roman Onomastic Practice from c. 700 B.C. to A.D. 700" (PDF) . Journal of Roman Studies . 84 : 124– 145. doi : 10.2307/300873 . ISSN 0075-4358 . JSTOR 300873 . S2CID 162435434 . Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 April 2020. ^ Stanislav Doležal, The Reign of Constantine, 306–337. Continuity and Change in the Late Roman Empire . Palgrave Macmillan Cham, 2022; pp. 2–3: "In a sense, this book is dedicated to the " Illyrian Emperors ", i.e. those emperors who were born in the Western Balkans and saved, stabilised, and reformed the empire. This line begins with Claudius II (268— 270) and then moves on to Quintillus (270), Aurelian (270—275), and Probus (276—282).3 After a brief interruption by the reigns of Carus and his two sons (282—284), whose birthplace we do not know, the Illyr-ians continued their run with Diocletian (284—305) and three of his colleagues: Maximian (285—305), Constantius (293—306), and Galerius (293—311). A 4th-century historian said of them: "Illyricum was actually the native land of all of them: so although they were deficient in culture, they had nevertheless been sufficiently schooled by the hardships of the countryside and of military service to be the best men for the state". 4 This is not the end of the Illyrian Emperors: Severus (305—307), Maximinus Daia (305—313), Licinius (308—324), and Constantine himself (306—337) can also be counted among them." ^ Odahl 2001 , pp. 36-41 . ^ Barnes 2011 , p. 30 . ^ Tougher, Shaun (2007). Julian the Apostate . Edinburgh University Press. doi : 10.1515/9781474473286 . ISBN 9780748618873 . ^ a b Otto Seeck : " Constantius 1 " (in German) . In: Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft (RE). Vol. IV,1, Stuttgart, 1900, col. 1013–1026. ^ a b c Conrad Benjamin: " Constantinus 2 " (in German) . In: Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft (RE). Vol. IV,1, Stuttgart, 1900, col. 1013–1026. ^ Barnes 1982 , p. 5. ^ Wilson, Steven (2003). The Means Of Naming: A Social History . Routledge . p. 47. ISBN 978-1-135-36836-4 . ^ MacMullen 1969 , p. 21. ^ Panegyrici Latini 8(5), 9(4); Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 8.7; Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.13.3 ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 13, 290. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 3; Lenski et al. , pp. 59–60; Odahl 2001 , pp. 16–17. ^ Hillner, Julia (2023). Helena Augusta: Mother of the Empire . Oxford University Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-19-087529-9 . ^ Drijvers, Jan Willem (1991). Helena Augusta . BRILL. pp. 9– 17. ISBN 978-90-04-24676-8 . ^ Stanton, Andrea L. (2012). Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia . SAGE. p. 25. ISBN 978-1-4129-8176-7 . Constantine's mother, Helena, was a Greek from Asia Minor and also a devoted Christian who seemed to have influenced his choices. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 3, 39–42; Barnes 1982 , p. 39–40; Elliott 1996 , p. 17; Lenski et al. , pp. 59, 83; Odahl 2001 , p. 16; Pohlsander 2004a , p. 14. ^ Tejirian, Eleanor H.; Simon, Reeva Spector (2012). Conflict, conquest, and conversion: two thousand years of Christian missions in the Middle East . New York: Columbia University Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-231-51109-4 . ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 8–14; Lenski et al. , pp. 46–50; Treadgold 1997 , pp. 14–15. ^ Bowman 2005 , p. 70; Potter 2004 , p. 283. ^ a b Barnes 1981 , p. 3; Elliott 1996 , p. 20; Lenski et al. , pp. 59–60; Odahl 2001 , pp. 47, 299; Pohlsander 2004a , p. 14. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 7.1; cited in Barnes 1981 , pp. 13, 290 ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 3, 8–9; Lenski et al. , pp. 40–43, 54; Elliott 1996 , p. 20; Odahl 2001 , pp. 46–47, 56–57; Pohlsander 2004a , pp. 8–9, 14; Treadgold 1997 , p. 17. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 73–74; Lenski et al. , pp. 60; Odahl 2001 , pp. 72, 301. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 73–74; Fowden 1988 , pp. 175–176. ^ Constantine, Oratio ad Sanctorum Coetum , 16.2 ^ a b Elliott 1996 , pp. 29–30; Lenski et al. , p. 60; Odahl 2001 , pp. 72–74. ^ Pohlsander 2004a , p. 15. ^ Constantine, Oratio ad Sanctorum Coetum 25 ^ Elliott 1996 , p. 30; Odahl 2001 , p. 73. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 10.6–11 ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 21; Elliott 1996 , pp. 35–36; MacMullen 1969 , p. 24; Odahl 2001 , p. 67; Potter 2004 , p. 338. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 2.49–52 ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 21; Odahl 2001 , pp. 67, 73, 304; Potter 2004 , p. 338. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 22–25; MacMullen 1969 , pp. 24–30; Odahl 2001 , pp. 67–69; Potter 2004 , p. 337. ^ MacMullen 1969 , pp. 24–25. ^ Oratio ad Sanctorum Coetum 25 ^ Odahl 2001 , p. 73. ^ Elliott 1987 , pp. 425–426; Lenski et al. , p. 126. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 25–27; Lenski et al. , p. 60; Odahl 2001 , pp. 69–72; Pohlsander 2004a , p. 15; Potter 2004 , pp. 341–342. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 19.2–6 ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 26; Potter 2004 , p. 342. ^ Lenski et al. , pp. 60–61; Odahl 2001 , pp. 72–74; Pohlsander 2004a , p. 15. ^ Origo 4; Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 24.3–9; Praxagoras fr. 1.2; Aurelius Victor 40.2–3; Epitome de Caesaribus 41.2; Zosimus 2.8.3; Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.21 ^ Lenski et al. , p. 61; MacMullen 1969 , p. 32; Odahl 2001 , p. 73. ^ Lenski et al. , p. 61. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 27; Elliott 1987 , pp. 39–40; Lenski et al. , p. 61; Odahl 2001 , p. 75–77; Pohlsander 2004a , pp. 15–16; Potter 2004 , pp. 344–345; Southern 2001 , pp. 169–170, 341; MacMullen 1969 , p. 32. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 27, 298; Elliott 1996 , p. 39; Odahl 2001 , p. 77–78, 309; Pohlsander 2004a , pp. 15–16. ^ Alföldi 1948 , pp. 233–234; Southern 2001 , pp. 170, 341. ^ a b Barnes 1981 , pp. 27–29; Jones 1978 , p. 59; Lenski et al. , pp. 61–62; Odahl 2001 , pp. 78–80. ^ Jones 1978 , p. 59. ^ Jones 1978 , p. 59; MacMullen 1969 , p. 39. ^ Treadgold 1997 , p. 28. ^ Gibbon, Edward (2018). History of The Decline and Fall of The Roman Empire . [Otbebookpublishing]. ISBN 978-3-96272-518-1 . OCLC 1059411020 . ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 28–29; Rees 2002 , p. 160; Lenski et al. , p. 62; Odahl 2001 , pp. 78–80. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 29; Elliott 1996 , p. 41; Jones 1978 , p. 41; MacMullen 1969 , p. 39; Odahl 2001 , pp. 79–80. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 16–17. ^ Odahl, 80–81. ^ Odahl, 81. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 39; Odahl, 81–82. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 29; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 41; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 63; MacMullen, Constantine , 39–40; Odahl, 81–83. ^ Odahl, 82–83. ^ "Detail :: Last Statues of Antiquity" . laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk . ^ Odahl, 82–83. See also: William E. Gwatkin, Jr. Roman Trier ." The Classical Journal 29 (1933): 3–12. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 24.9; Barnes, "Lactantius and Constantine", 43–46; Odahl, 85, 310–311. ^ Odahl, 86. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 28. ^ Rodgers, 236. ^ Panegyrici Latini 7(6)3.4; Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.22, qtd. and tr. Odahl, 83; Rodgers, 238. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 40. ^ Qtd. in MacMullen, Constantine , 40. ^ Zosimus, 2.9.2; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62; MacMullen, Constantine , 39. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 29; Odahl, 86; Potter, 346. ^ Barnes, New Empire , 5. Galerius and Maximinus ceased to be recognized as consuls at this time. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 30–31; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 41–42; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62–63; Odahl, 86–87; Potter, 348–349. ^ Nixon, C. E. V.; Rodgers, Barbara S. (2023). In Praise of Later Roman Emperors: The Panegyrici Latini . University of California Press. pp. 180– 185. ISBN 978-0-520-34282-8 . The ceremony took place after 25 July, as there are coins that refer to Constantine as caesar while also commemorating his dies imperii . ^ Rees 2002 , p. 165 . ^ Sang, J. C. (1979). Panegyrici Latini, VI and VII: Translated with Introductions and Commentary . University of Cape Town. pp. 6– 14, favouring late April/early May instead. ISBN 978-0-19-924918-3 . ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 31; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 64; Odahl, 87–88; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 15–16. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 30; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62–63; Odahl, 86–87. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 34; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 63–65; Odahl, 89; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 15–16. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 32; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 64; Odahl, 89, 93. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 32–34; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 42–43; Jones, 61; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 65; Odahl, 90–91; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 17; Potter, 349–350; Treadgold, 29. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 33; Jones, 61. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 36–37. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 34–35; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 43; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 65–66; Odahl, 93; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 17; Potter, 352. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 34. ^ Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 43; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 20. ^ Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 45; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 30.1; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 40–41, 305. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68. ^ Potter, 352. ^ Panegyrici Latini 6(7); Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 35–37, 301; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 66; Odahl, 94–95, 314–315; Potter, 352–353. ^ Panegyrici Latini 6(7)1. Qtd. in Potter, 353. ^ Panegyrici Latini 6(7).21.5. ^ Virgil, Ecologues 4.10. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 36–37; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 67; Odahl, 95. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 36–37; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 50–53; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 66–67; Odahl, 94–95. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 31–35; Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 8.16; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 43; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; Odahl, 95–96, 316. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 34; Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 8.17; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 304; Jones, 66. ^ Eusebius (1965). The History of the Church . Penguin Classics. p. 278. ISBN 0-14-044535-8 . ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 39; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 43–44; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; Odahl, 95–96. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 45; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 69; Odahl, 96. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 39–40; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 44; Odahl, 96. ^ Odahl, 96. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 38; Odahl, 96. ^ Hillner, Julia (2017). "Constantia, half-sister of Constantine and wife of Licinius". Constantia . Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics. doi : 10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.8065 . ISBN 978-0-19-938113-5 . ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 37; Curran, 66; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; MacMullen, Constantine , 62. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 37. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 37–39. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 38–39; MacMullen, Constantine , 62. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 40; Curran, 66. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 44–45; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 69; Odahl, 96. ^ Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 8.15.1–2, qtd. and tr. in MacMullen, Constantine , 65. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; MacMullen, Constantine , 71. ^ Panegyrici Latini 12(9)2.5; Curran, 67. ^ Curran, 67. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 70–71. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Odahl, 101. ^ Panegyrici Latini 12(9)5.1–3; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 101. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Jones, 70; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 101–102. ^ Panegyrici Latini 12(9)5–6; 4(10)21–24; Jones, 70–71; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 102, 317–318. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Jones, 71; Odahl, 102. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41–42; Odahl, 103. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Jones, 71; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 103. ^ Jones, 71; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 103. ^ Jones, 71; Odahl, 103. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Jones, 71; Odahl, 103. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Jones, 71; Odahl, 103–104. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Jones, 71; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 69; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 104. ^ Jones, 71; MacMullen, Constantine , 71. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 71. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Curran, 67; Jones, 71. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Jones, 71; Odahl, 105. ^ Jones, 71. ^ Odahl, 104. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 72; Odahl, 107. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Curran, 67; Jones, 71–72; Odahl, 107–108. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42–43; MacMullen, Constantine , 78; Odahl, 108. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 44.8; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43; Curran, 67; Jones, 72; Odahl, 108. ^ a b Odahl, 108. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43; Digeser, 122; Jones, 72; Odahl, 106. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 44.4–6, tr. J. L. Creed, Lactantius: De Mortibus Persecutorum (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984), qtd. in Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 71. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.28, tr. Odahl, 105. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43; Drake, "Impact of Constantine on Christianity" (CC), 113; Odahl, 105. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.27–29; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43, 306; Odahl, 105–106, 319–320. ^ Drake, "Impact of Constantine on Christianity" (CC), 113. ^ Cameron and Hall, 208. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 306; MacMullen, Constantine , 73; Odahl, 319. ^ Cameron and Hall, 206–207; Drake, "Impact of Constantine on Christianity" (CC), 114; Nicholson, 311. ^ Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 71, citing Roman Imperial Coinage 7 Ticinum 36. ^ R. Ross Holloway, Constantine and Rome (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004), 3, citing Kraft, "Das Silbermedaillon Constantins des Grosses mit dem Christusmonogram auf dem Helm", Jahrbuch für Numismatik und Geldgeschichte 5–6 (1954/55): 151–178. ^ Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 71. ^ Rowley, Matthew; Hodgson, Natasha R., eds. (2022). Miracles, political authority and violence in medieval and early modern history . Themes in medieval and early modern history. London New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN 978-0-367-76728-0 . ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43; Curran, 68. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 78. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43; Curran, 68; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 70; MacMullen, Constantine , 78; Odahl, 108. ^ Head of the bronze colossus , Capitoline Museums ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 44 . ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 81; Odahl, 108. ^ Cameron, 93; Curran, 71–74; Odahl, 110. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 44; Curran, 72; Jones, 72; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 70; MacMullen, Constantine , 78; Odahl, 108. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 44–45. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 44; MacMullen, Constantine , 81; Odahl, 111. Cf. also Curran, 72–75. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 45; Curran, 72; MacMullen, Constantine , 81; Odahl, 109. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 45–46; Odahl, 109. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 46; Odahl, 109. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 46. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 44. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 45–47; Cameron, 93; Curran, 76–77; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 70. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 45. ^ Curran, 80–83. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 47. ^ Curran, 83–85. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 45; Curran, 76; Odahl, 109. ^ Curran, 101. ^ Krautheimer, Corpus Basilicarum Christianarum Romanorum , 5.90, cited in Curran, 93–96. ^ Odahl, 109. ^ The term is a misnomer as the act of Milan was not an edict, while the subsequent edicts by Licinius—of which the edicts to the provinces of Bythinia and Palestine are recorded by Lactantius and Eusebius, respectively—were not issued in Milan. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 25. ^ Drake, "Impact", 121–123. ^ a b Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain , 229. ^ Byfield, Ted, ed. The Christians: Their First Two Thousand Years . vol. III. p. 148. "The sign in the sky that changed history" . Archived from the original on 19 January 2016 . Retrieved 5 February 2016 . ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , pp. 38–39. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , pp. 41–42. ^ Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain , pp. 229–230. ^ Timothy E. Gregory, A History of Byzantium . Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 2010, ISBN 978-1-4051-8471-7 , p. 54. ^ Philip Schaff, ed., Nicene and Post-nicene Fathers: Second Series . New York: Cosimo, 2007, ISBN 978-1-60206-508-6 , p. 418, footnote 6. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 42–43. ^ Scarre, Chronicle of the Roman Emperors , 215. ^ a b MacMullen, Constantine . ^ The Early Reception and Appropriation of the Apostle Peter (60-800 CE): The Anchors of the Fisherman . BRILL. 17 March 2020. p. 36. ISBN 978-90-04-42568-2 . ^ Sherrard, ed. Krieger, Byzantium , Silver Burdett Company, Morristown, New Jersey, 1966 p. 15. ^ Sinnigen & Boak, A History of Rome to A.D. 565 , 6th ed., Macmillan, New York, 1977 pp. 409–310. ^ Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries , Penguin Books, Middlesex, 1988, p. 40. ^ Sherrard, ed. Krieger, Byzantium , Silver Burdett Company, Morristown, New Jersey, 1966 p. 18. ^ Gilbert Dagron, Naissance d'une Capitale , 24. ^ Petrus Patricius excerpta Vaticana , 190: Κωνσταντίνος εβουλεύσατο πρώτον εν Σαρδική μεταγαγείν τά δημόσια· φιλών τε τήν πόλιν εκείνην συνεχώς έλεγεν "η εμή Ρώμη Σαρδική εστι." ^ Ramsey MacMullen, Constantine , Routledge ed., 1987, 149. ^ Dagron, Naissance d'une Capitale , 15/19. ^ a b "Constantinople" in The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium , Oxford University Press , Oxford, 1991, p. 508. ISBN 0-19-504652-8 ^ Sardonyx cameo depicting constantine the great crowned by Constantinople, 4th century AD Archived 16 March 2006 at the Wayback Machine at "The Road to Byzantium: Luxury Arts of Antiquity". The Hermitage Rooms at Somerset House (30 March 2006 – 3 September 2006). ^ Philostorgius, Historia Ecclesiastica 2.9. ^ According to the Reallexikon für Antike und Christentum , vol. 164 (Stuttgart: A. Hiersemann, 2005), column 442, there is no evidence for the tradition that Constantine officially dubbed the city "New Rome" ( Nova Roma or Nea Rhome ). Commemorative coins that were issued during the 330s already refer to the city as Constantinopolis (Michael Grant, The Climax of Rome (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1968), 133). It is possible that the emperor called the city "Second Rome" ( Deutera Rhome ) by official decree, as reported by the 5th-century church historian Socrates of Constantinople. ^ Bowder, Diana (1987). The Age of Constantine and Julian . Barnes & Noble Books. p. 28. ISBN 978-0-06-490601-2 . ^ See Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 34–35. ^ Young 2006 , p. 6 and n. 24. ^ R. Gerberding and J. H. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004) p. 55. ^ " Gratian " Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 3 February 2008. ^ Pontifex Maximus Archived 3 March 2013 at the Wayback Machine Livius article by Jona Lendering retrieved 21 August 2011. ^ Peter Brown , The Rise of Christendom 2nd edition (Oxford, Blackwell Publishing, 2003) p. 60. ^ Drake 2000 , p. 395. ^ R. Gerberding and J. H. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004) pp. 55–56. ^ Robin Lane Fox, apud Jonathan Bardill, Constantine, Divine Emperor of the Christian Golden Age . Cambridge University Press, 2011, ISBN 978-0-521-76423-0 , p. 307, note 27. ^ Codex Justinianeus 3.12.2. ^ Codex Theodosianus 16.2.5. ^ Cf. Paul Veyne, Quand notre monde est devenu chrétien , 163. ^ R. 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If a Jew has bought and circumcised a Christian slave or one belonging to any other religious community, he may under no circumstances keep the circumcised person in slavery; rather, whoever suffers such a thing shall obtain the privilege of freedom. ^ Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World . Routledge. p. 182. ISBN 978-1-134-40317-2 . Constantine forbade the circumcision of Christian slaves, and declared any slave circumcised despite this prohibition a free man ^ Cameron, 107. ^ Christol & Nony, Rome et son Empire , 241. ^ As equestrian order refers to people of equestrian census that had an actual position in the state bureaucracy, thousands of whom had no state function; cf. Claude Lepelley , "Fine delle' ordine equestre: le tappe delle'unificazione dela classe dirigente romana nel IV secolo", IN Giardina, ed., Società romana e impero tardoantico , Bari: Laterza, 1986, V. 1, quoted by Carrié & Rouselle, p. 660. ^ Christol & Nony, Rome et son Empire , 247; Carrié & Rousselle L'Empire Romain , 658. ^ Carrié & Rousselle L'Empire Romain , 658–659. ^ Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae , archived from the original on 20 July 2012 , retrieved 5 February 2016 ; Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain , p. 659 ^ Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain , 660. ^ Cf. Arnhein, The Senatorial Aristocracy in the Later Roman Empire , quoted by Perry Anderson, Passages from Antiquity to Feudalism , 101. ^ Carrié & Rousselle, p.657 citing T. D. Barnes, "Statistics and the Conversion of the Roman Aristocracy", Journal of Roman Studies , 85, 1995. ^ Cf. Paul Veyne, L'Empire Gréco-Romain , 49. ^ Christol & Nony, Rome et son Empire , 247. ^ Walter Scheidel, "The Monetary Systems of the Han and Roman Empires", 174/175. ^ De Rebus Bellicis , 2. ^ Sandro Mazzarino, according to Christol & Nony, Rome et son Empire , 246. ^ Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain , 245–246. ^ Guthrie, 325–326. ^ Guthrie, 326; Woods, "Death of the Empress", 70–72. ^ Guthrie, 326; Woods, "Death of the Empress", 72. ^ Encyclopedia of Roman Empire . MobileReference.com. 2008. ISBN 978-1-60501-314-5 . Retrieved 5 October 2014 . ^ a b Guthrie, 326–327. ^ Art. Pass 45; Woods, "Death of the Empress", 71–72. ^ Christol & Nony, Rome et son Empire , 237/238. ^ Cf. Adrian Goldsworthy, How Rome Fell , 189 & 191. ^ Madgearu, Alexandru (2008). Istoria Militară a Daciei Post Romane 275–376. Cetatea de Scaun. ISBN 978-973-8966-70-3 , pp. 64–126. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 250. ^ Madgearu, Alexandru(2008). Istoria Militară a Daciei Post Romane 275–376. Cetatea de Scaun. ISBN 978-973-8966-70-3 , pp. 64–126. ^ Odahl, 261. ^ Eusebius, VC 4.9ff, cited in Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 259. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 258–259. See also: Fowden, "Last Days", 146–148, and Wiemer, 515. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.58–60; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 259. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.61; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 259. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.62. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.62.4. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 75–76; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 82. ^ Amerise, Marilena (2005). Il battesimo di Costantino il Grande: storia di una scomoda eredità [ The baptism of Constantine the Great: The story of an uncomfortable legacy ]. Hermes: Bulletin for Classical Philology , supplements (in Italian). Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag. ISBN 978-3-515-08721-6 . ISSN 0341-0064 . 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"Viewing Rome in the Latin Literature of the Ventennio Fascista : Francesco Giammaria's Capitolium Novum " . Fascism . 8 (2). Brill: 172. doi : 10.1163/22116257-00802002 . hdl : 10852/76385 . ISSN 2211-6249 . ^ "Niš: Vinik osta pusto brdo" . NOVOSTI . ^ "Edict of Milan celebration to begin in Niš" . 17 January 2013. ^ Averil Cameron, "Introduction", in Constantine: History, Historiography, and Legend , ed. Samuel N. C. Lieu and Dominic Montserrat (New York: Routledge, 1998), 3; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 91 ^ Lieu, "Constantine in Legendary Literature" (CC), 305. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 92–93. ^ "Holy Great Rulers Constantine and Helen, Equal to the Apostles: Great Vespers" (PDF) . Liturgical Texts and Music: Part of the Royal Doors Family . Retrieved 9 August 2025 . ^ "Holy Great Rulers Constantine and Helen, Equal to the Apostles: Divine Liturgy" (PDF) . Liturgical Texts and Music: Part of the Royal Doors Family . Retrieved 9 August 2025 . ^ "530 - Λεἰψανα του Μεγάλου Κωνσταντίνου" . Η ΛΕΙΨΑΝΟΘΗΚΗ (in Greek) . Retrieved 9 August 2025 . ^ "Commemorations for Baramhat 28" . CopticChurch.Net . Retrieved 9 August 2025 . ^ Findikyan, Bishop Daniel. "Liturgical Year of the Armenian Apostolic Church" . Armenian Apostolic Church of Holy Resurrection . Retrieved 9 August 2025 . ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 272–223. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 273. ^ Johannes Leunclavius , Apologia pro Zosimo adversus Evagrii, Nicephori Callisti et aliorum acerbas criminationes ( Defence of Zosimus against the Unjustified Charges of Evagrius, Nicephorus Callistus, and Others ) (Basel, 1576), cited in Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 273, and Odahl, 282. ^ Caesar Baronius, Annales Ecclesiastici 3 (Antwerp, 1623), cited in Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 274, and Odahl, 282. ^ Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire Chapter 18, cited in Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 274, and Odahl, 282. See also Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 6–7. ^ Gibbon, Decline and Fall , 1.256; David P. Jordan, "Gibbon's 'Age of Constantine' and the Fall of Rome", History and Theory 8:1 (1969): 71–96. ^ Jacob Burckhardt, Die Zeit Constantins des Grossen (Basel, 1853; revised edition, Leipzig, 1880), cited in Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 274; Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 7. ^ Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 7. ^ Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 7–8. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 274. ^ Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 8. ^ Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 8–9; Odahl, 283. ^ Odahl, 283; Mark Humphries, "Constantine", review of Constantine and the Christian Empire , by Charles Odahl, Classical Quarterly 56:2 (2006), 449. ^ Averil Cameron, "Introduction", in Constantine: History, Historiography, and Legend , ed. Samuel N. C. Lieu and Dominic Montserrat (New York: Routledge, 1998), 3. ^ Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 10. ^ Quand notre monde est devenu chretien , Fabian E. Udoh, review, Theological Studies , June 2008. ^ Peter Heather, Christendom (London: Allen Lane, 2022), pp. 11–20. ^ Canella, Tessa. Gli Actus Silvestri fra Oriente e Occidente: Storia e diffusione di una leggenda Costantiniana . Academia. pp. 243– 244 . Retrieved 10 May 2021 . ^ Lieu, "Constantine in Legendary Literature" (CC), 298–301. ^ Constitutum Constantini 17, qtd. in Lieu, "Constantine in Legendary Literature" (CC), 301–303. ^ Gregory, A History of Byzantium , 49. ^ Van Dam, Remembering Constantine at the Milvian Bridge , 30. ^ Henry Charles Lea, "The 'Donation of Constantine'". The English Historical Review 10: 37 (1895), 86–87. ^ Inferno 19.115; Paradisio 20.55; cf. De Monarchia 3.10. ^ Fubini, 79–86; Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 6. ^ Henry of Huntingdon, Historia Anglorum , Book I, ch. 37. ^ a b Greenway, Diana (Ed.); Henry of Huntingdon (1996). Historia Anglorum: The History of the English People . Oxford University Press. p. civ. ISBN 978-0-19-822224-8 . 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ISBN 0-14-044535-8 McGiffert, Arthur Cushman, trans. Church History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 28 September 2009. Oratio de Laudibus Constantini ( Oration in Praise of Constantine , sometimes the Tricennial Oration ) 336. Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Oration in Praise of Constantine . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 16 August 2009. Vita Constantini ( The Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine ) c. 336 –339. Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Life of Constantine . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine . 2009. Reprint of Bagster edition [1845]. Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-93-0 . Cameron, Averil and Stuart Hall, trans. Life of Constantine . 1999. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814924-7 . Historia Ecclesiastica ( Church History ) first seven books c. 300 , eighth and ninth book c. 313 , tenth book c. 315 , epilogue c. 325 . Williamson, G. A., trans. Church History . London: Penguin, 1989. ISBN 0-14-044535-8 McGiffert, Arthur Cushman, trans. Church History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 28 September 2009. Williamson, G. A., trans. Church History . London: Penguin, 1989. ISBN 0-14-044535-8 McGiffert, Arthur Cushman, trans. Church History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 28 September 2009. Oratio de Laudibus Constantini ( Oration in Praise of Constantine , sometimes the Tricennial Oration ) 336. Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Oration in Praise of Constantine . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 16 August 2009. Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Oration in Praise of Constantine . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 16 August 2009. Vita Constantini ( The Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine ) c. 336 –339. Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Life of Constantine . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine . 2009. Reprint of Bagster edition [1845]. Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-93-0 . Cameron, Averil and Stuart Hall, trans. Life of Constantine . 1999. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814924-7 . Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Life of Constantine . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine . 2009. Reprint of Bagster edition [1845]. Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-93-0 . Cameron, Averil and Stuart Hall, trans. Life of Constantine . 1999. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814924-7 . Eutropius , Breviarium ab Urbe Condita ( Abbreviated History from the City's Founding ) c. 369 . Watson, John Henry, trans. Justin, Cornelius Nepos and Eutropius . London: George Bell & Sons, 1886. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 28 September 2009. Watson, John Henry, trans. Justin, Cornelius Nepos and Eutropius . London: George Bell & Sons, 1886. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 28 September 2009. Rufus Festus , Breviarium Festi ( The Abbreviated History of Festus ) c. 370 . Banchich, Thomas M., and Jennifer A. Meka, trans. Breviarium of the Accomplishments of the Roman People . Canisius College Translated Texts 2. Buffalo, New York: Canisius College, 2001. Online at De Imperatoribus Romanis . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Banchich, Thomas M., and Jennifer A. Meka, trans. Breviarium of the Accomplishments of the Roman People . Canisius College Translated Texts 2. Buffalo, New York: Canisius College, 2001. Online at De Imperatoribus Romanis . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Jerome , Chronicon ( Chronicle ) c. 380 . Pearse, Roger, et al. ., trans. The Chronicle of St. Jerome , in Early Church Fathers: Additional Texts . Tertullian, 2005. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 14 August 2009. Pearse, Roger, et al. ., trans. The Chronicle of St. Jerome , in Early Church Fathers: Additional Texts . Tertullian, 2005. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 14 August 2009. Jordanes , De origine actibusque Getarum [ Getica ] ( The Origin and Deeds of the Goths ) c. 551 . Mierow, Charles C. , trans. The Origins and Deeds of the Goths . Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1915. Online at the University of Calgary . Retrieved 28 September 2009. The Gothic History of Jordanes . 2006. Reprint of 1915 edition. Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-77-0 . The Christian Roman Empire series Mierow, Charles C. , trans. The Origins and Deeds of the Goths . Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1915. Online at the University of Calgary . Retrieved 28 September 2009. The Gothic History of Jordanes . 2006. Reprint of 1915 edition. Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-77-0 . The Christian Roman Empire series Online at the University of Calgary . Retrieved 28 September 2009. The Gothic History of Jordanes . 2006. Reprint of 1915 edition. Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-77-0 . The Christian Roman Empire series Lactantius , De mortibus persecutorum ( On the Deaths of the Persecutors ) c. 313–315 . Fletcher, William, trans. Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died . From Ante-Nicene Fathers , Vol. 7. Edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1886. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Fletcher, William, trans. Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died . From Ante-Nicene Fathers , Vol. 7. Edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1886. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Libanius , Orationes ( Orations ) c. 362 –365. Optatus , Libri VII de Schismate Donatistarum ( Seven Books on the Schism of the Donatists ) first edition c. 365 –367, second edition c. 385 . Vassall-Phillips, O. R., trans. The Work of St. Optatus Against the Donatists . London: Longmans, Green, & Co., 1917. Transcribed at The Tertullian Project by Roger Pearse, 2006. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Optatus (1997). Edwards, Mark (ed.). Optatus: Against the Donatists . Translated by Edwards, Mark. doi : 10.3828/978-0-85323-752-5 (inactive 1 July 2025). ISBN 978-0-85323-752-5 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 ( link ) Vassall-Phillips, O. R., trans. The Work of St. Optatus Against the Donatists . London: Longmans, Green, & Co., 1917. Transcribed at The Tertullian Project by Roger Pearse, 2006. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Optatus (1997). Edwards, Mark (ed.). Optatus: Against the Donatists . Translated by Edwards, Mark. doi : 10.3828/978-0-85323-752-5 (inactive 1 July 2025). ISBN 978-0-85323-752-5 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 ( link ) Origo Constantini Imperiatoris ( The Lineage of the Emperor Constantine ) c. 340 –390. Rolfe, J. C., trans. Excerpta Valesiana , in vol. 3 of Rolfe's translation of Ammianus Marcellinus' History . Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1952. Online at LacusCurtius . Retrieved 16 August 2009. Rolfe, J. C., trans. Excerpta Valesiana , in vol. 3 of Rolfe's translation of Ammianus Marcellinus' History . Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1952. Online at LacusCurtius . Retrieved 16 August 2009. Orosius , Historiarum Adversum Paganos Libri VII ( Seven Books of History Against the Pagans ) c. 417 . XII Panegyrici Latini ( Twelve Latin Panegyircs ) relevant panegyrics dated 289, 291, 297, 298, 307, 310, 311, 313 and 321. Philostorgius , Historia Ecclesiastica ( Church History ) c. 433 . Walford, Edward, trans. Epitome of the Ecclesiastical History of Philostorgius, Compiled by Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople . London: Henry G. Bohn, 1855. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Walford, Edward, trans. Epitome of the Ecclesiastical History of Philostorgius, Compiled by Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople . London: Henry G. Bohn, 1855. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Praxagoras of Athens , Historia ( History of Constantine the Great ) c. 337 . 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Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Hartranft, Chester D. Ecclesiastical History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 2. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Theodoret , Historia Ecclesiastica ( Church History ) c. 448 . Jackson, Blomfield, trans. Ecclesiastical History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 3. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Jackson, Blomfield, trans. Ecclesiastical History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 3. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Zosimus , Historia Nova ( New History ) c. 500 . Unknown, trans. The History of Count Zosimus . London: Green and Champlin, 1814. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Unknown, trans. The History of Count Zosimus . London: Green and Champlin, 1814. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Modern sources Alföldi, Andreas (1948) [1948]. The conversion of Constantine and pagan Rome . Translated by Harold Mattingly. Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814356-7 . {{ cite book }} : ISBN / Date incompatibility ( help ) CS1 maint: ref duplicates default ( link ) Anderson, Perry (2013) [1974]. Passages from Antiquity to Feudalism . Verso Books. ISBN 978-1-78168-008-7 . Armstrong, Gregory T. (1964). "Church and State Relations: The Changes Wrought by Constantine". Journal of the American Academy of Religion . XXXII : 1– 7. doi : 10.1093/jaarel/XXXII.1.1 . Armstrong, Gregory T. (1974). "Constantine's Churches: Symbol and Structure". Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians . 33 (1): 5– 16. doi : 10.2307/988835 . JSTOR 988835 . Barnes, T. D. (1973). "Lactantius and Constantine". Journal of Roman Studies . 63 : 29– 46. doi : 10.2307/299163 . JSTOR 299163 . S2CID 163051414 . Barnes, Timothy D. (1981). Constantine and Eusebius . Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-16531-1 . Barnes, Timothy D. (1982). The New Empire of Diocletian and Constantine . doi : 10.4159/harvard.9780674280670 . ISBN 978-0-674-28067-0 . S2CID 162343436 . Barnes, T. D. (1985). "Constantine and the Christians of Persia". Journal of Roman Studies . 75 : 126– 136. doi : 10.2307/300656 . JSTOR 300656 . S2CID 162744718 . Barnes, Timothy (2011). Constantine: Dynasty, Religion and Power in the Later Roman Empire . Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-1727-2 . Bernard, Outtier; et al. (2019). Armenia between Byzantium and the Orient . BRILL. pp. 230– 580. ISBN 978-90-04-39774-3 . Bowman, Alan K. (2005). "Diocletian and the first tetrarchy, a.d. 284–305". The Cambridge Ancient History . pp. 67– 89. doi : 10.1017/CHOL9780521301992.004 . ISBN 978-1-139-05392-1 . Cameron, Averil (2005). "The Reign of Constantine, a.d. 306–337" . The Cambridge Ancient History . Vol. 12. pp. 90– 109. doi : 10.1017/CHOL9780521301992.005 . ISBN 978-1-139-05392-1 . Carrié, Jean-Michel; Rouselle, Aline (1999). L'Empire Romain en mutation- des Sévères à Constantin, 192–337 . Paris: Seuil. ISBN 2-02-025819-6 . Christol, Michel ; Nony, D. (2003). Rome et son Empire . Paris: Hachette. ISBN 2-02-025819-6 . Corcoran, Simon (1996). The Empire of the Tetrarchs: Imperial Pronouncements and Government, AD 284–324 . Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-815304-X . Curran, John (2000). Pagan City and Christian Capital (Hardcover ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-815278-7 . Paperback ISBN 0-19-925420-6 Dagron, Gilbert (1984). Naissance d'une Capitale: Constantinople et ses institutions de 330 a 451 . Paris: Presses Universitaires de France. ISBN 2-13-038902-3 . Digeser, Elizabeth DePalma (2000). The Making of A Christian Empire: Lactantius and Rome . London: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-3594-3 . Doležal, Stanislav (2022). The Reign of Constantine, 306–337: Continuity and Change in the Late Roman Empire . Springer Nature. ISBN 978-3-030-97464-0 . Downey, Glanville (1957). "Education in the Christian Roman Empire: Christian and Pagan Theories under Constantine and His Successors". Speculum . 32 (1): 48– 61. doi : 10.2307/2849245 . JSTOR 2849245 . S2CID 161904593 . Drake, H. A. (1988). "What Eusebius Knew: The Genesis of the "Vita Constantini" ". Classical Philology . 83 : 20– 38. doi : 10.1086/367077 . S2CID 162370910 . Drake, H. A. (1995). "Constantine and Consensus". Church History . 64 (1): 1– 15. doi : 10.2307/3168653 . JSTOR 3168653 . S2CID 163129848 . Drake, H. A. (1996). "Lambs into Lions: Explaining Early Christian Intolerance". Past & Present (153): 3– 36. doi : 10.1093/past/153.1.3 . Drake, H. A. (2000). Constantine and the Bishops: The Politics of Intolerance . Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-6218-3 . Elliott, T. G. (1987). "Constantine's Conversion: Do We Really Need It?". Phoenix . 41 (4): 420– 438. doi : 10.2307/1088714 . JSTOR 1088714 . Elliott, T. G. (1991). "Eusebian Frauds in the "Vita Constantini" ". Phoenix . 45 (2): 162– 171. doi : 10.2307/1088553 . JSTOR 1088553 . Elliott, T. G. (1996). The Christianity of Constantine the Great . Scranton, Pennsylvania: University of Scranton Press. ISBN 0-940866-59-5 . Fowden, Garth (1988). "Between Pagans and Christians". Journal of Roman Studies . 78 : 173– 182. doi : 10.2307/301456 . JSTOR 301456 . S2CID 163374397 . Fowden, Garth (1994). "The Last Days of Constantine: Oppositional Versions and their Influence". Journal of Roman Studies . 84 : 146– 170. doi : 10.2307/300874 . JSTOR 300874 . S2CID 161959828 . Fubini, Riccardo (1996). "Humanism and Truth: Valla Writes Against the Donation of Constantine". Journal of the History of Ideas . 57 : 79– 86. doi : 10.1353/jhi.1996.0004 . S2CID 170927536 . Gibbon, Edward (1952) [1789]. Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire . Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. in 2 volumes. Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). How Rome Fell . Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-13719-4 . Grant, Robert M. (1975). "Religion and Politics at the Council at Nicaea". The Journal of Religion . 55 : 1– 12. doi : 10.1086/486406 . S2CID 170410226 . Guthrie, Patrick (1966). "The Execution of Crispus". Phoenix . 20 (4): 325– 331. doi : 10.2307/1087057 . JSTOR 1087057 . Helgeland, John (1974). "Christians and the Roman Army A.D. 173–337". Church History . 43 (2): 149– 163. doi : 10.2307/3163949 . JSTOR 3163949 . S2CID 162376477 . Jones, A. H. M. ; J. R. Martindale & J. Morris (1971). Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire . Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-07233-6 . Jordan, David P. (1969). "Gibbon's "Age of Constantine" and the Fall of Rome". History and Theory . 8 (1): 71– 96. doi : 10.2307/2504190 . JSTOR 2504190 . Kazhdan, Alexander P. , ed. (1991). Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium . Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6 . Jones, A. H. M. (1978) [1948]. Constantine and the Conversion of Europe . Buffalo: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-6369-4 . Lenski, Noel; et al. (2006). The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine . New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-52157-4 . Lieu, Samuel N. C. ; Montserrat, Dominic (1996). From Constantine to Julian: Pagan and Byzantine Views; A Source History . New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-09335-4 . MacKay, Christopher S. (1999). "Lactantius and the Succession to Diocletian". Classical Philology . 94 (2): 198– 209. doi : 10.1086/449431 . S2CID 161141658 . MacMullen, Ramsay (1969). Constantine . New York: Dial Press. ISBN 0-7099-4685-6 . Mattingly, David . An Imperial Possession: Britain in the Roman Empire . London: Penguin, 2007. ISBN 978-0-14-014822-0 McLay, Denis (2015), "An Examination of the Role of Ossius, Bishop of Córdoba, in the Arian Controversy" , Dissertation – Durham University Nicholson, Oliver (2000). "Constantine's Vision of the Ecross". Vigiliae Christianae . 54 (3): 309– 323. doi : 10.1163/157007200X00189 . Odahl, Charles M. (2001). Constantine and the Christian Empire . London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-17485-5 . Pears, Edwin (1909). "The Campaign against Paganism A.D. 824". The English Historical Review . XXIV (XCIII): 1– 17. doi : 10.1093/ehr/XXIV.XCIII.1 . Vaudour, Catherine (1984). "La céramique normande". Études Normandes . 33 (2): 79– 106. doi : 10.3406/etnor.1984.2597 . Pohlsander, Hans (2004a). The Emperor Constantine . London & New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-31937-4 . Paperback ISBN 0-415-31938-2 Pohlsander, Hans (2004b). "Constantine I (306–337)" . De Imperatoribus Romanis . Archived from the original on 2 April 2022. Potter, David S. (2004). The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395 (Hardcover ed.). New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10057-7 . Paperback ISBN 0-415-10058-5 Rees, Roger (2002). Layers of Loyalty in Latin Panegyric . doi : 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199249183.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-19-924918-3 . Rodgers, Barbara Saylor (1989). "The Metamorphosis of Constantine". The Classical Quarterly . 39 : 233– 246. doi : 10.1017/S0009838800040611 . S2CID 170720156 . Scheidel, Walter. "The Monetary Systems of the Han and Roman Empires". In Scheidel, ed., Rome and China: Comparative Perspectives on Ancient World Empires . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010, ISBN 978-0-19-975835-7 Seidel, Linda (1976). "Constantine 'and' Charlemagne". Gesta . 15 (1/2): 237– 239. doi : 10.2307/766771 . JSTOR 766771 . S2CID 193434433 . Southern, Pat. (2001). The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine . New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-23944-3 . Storch, Rudolph H. (1971). "The 'Eusebian Constantine' ". Church History . 40 (2): 145– 155. doi : 10.2307/3162367 . JSTOR 3162367 . S2CID 162937055 . Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society . Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-2630-6 . Udoh, Fabian E. "Quand notre monde est devenu chretien", review, Theological Studies , June 2008 Veyne, Paul . L'Empire Gréco-Romain , Paris: Seuil, 2005. ISBN 2-02-057798-4 Veyne, Paul . Quand notre monde est devenu chrétien , Paris: Albin Michel, 2007. ISBN 978-2-226-17609-7 Warmington, Brian (1999). "Some Constantinian References in Ammianus" . In Drijvers, J.W. (ed.). The Late Roman World and its Historian: Interpreting Ammianus Marcellinus . Routledge. pp. 166– 167. ISBN 0-415-20271-X . Weiss, Peter (2003). "The vision of Constantine". Journal of Roman Archaeology . 16 : 237– 259. doi : 10.1017/S1047759400013088 . S2CID 162396067 . Wiemer, Hans-Ulrich (1994). "Libanius on Constantine". The Classical Quarterly . 44 (2): 511– 524. doi : 10.1017/S0009838800043962 . S2CID 170876695 . Wienand, Johannes (2012). Der Kaiser als Sieger . doi : 10.1524/9783050059044 . ISBN 978-3-05-005904-4 . Wienand, Johannes (ed.). Contested Monarchy. Integrating the Roman Empire in the Fourth Century AD . Oxford: Oxford University Press 2015. Williams, Stephen (1997). Diocletian and the Roman Recovery . New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-91827-8 . Woods, David (1998). "On the Death of the Empress Fausta" . Greece and Rome . 45 : 70– 86. doi : 10.1093/gr/45.1.70 . Woods, D. (1997). "Where Did Constantine I Die?". The Journal of Theological Studies . 48 (2): 531– 535. doi : 10.1093/jts/48.2.531 . Wright, David H. (1987). "The True Face of Constantine the Great". Dumbarton Oaks Papers . 41 : 493– 507. doi : 10.2307/1291584 . JSTOR 1291584 . Young, Frances M. (2006). "Prelude: Jesus Christ, Foundation of Christianity". In Mitchell, Margaret M.; Young, Frances M. (eds.). Origins to Constantine . The Cambridge History of Christianity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1– 34. ISBN 978-1-107-42361-9 . Further reading Arjava, Antii. Women and Law in Late Antiquity . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. ISBN 0-19-815233-7 Barbero, Alessandro (2016). Costantino il vincitore [Constantine the victor]. Rome: Salerno, ISBN 978-88-6973-138-9 . Baynes, Norman H. (1930). Constantine the Great and the Christian Church . London: Milford. Burckhardt, Jacob (1949). The Age of Constantine the Great . London: Routledge. Cameron, Averil (1993). The later Roman empire: AD 284–430 . London: Fontana Press. ISBN 978-0-00-686172-0 . Cowan, Ross (2016). Milvian Bridge AD 312: Constantine's Battle for Empire and Faith . Oxford: Osprey Publishing. Demandt, Alexander ; Engemann, Josef (eds) (2006). Konstantin der Große. Geschichte – Archäologie – Rezeption [Constantine the Great. History – Archaeology – Reception]. Trier: Rheinisches Landesmuseum, ISBN 3-923319-67-3 . Doležal, Stanislav (2022). The Reign of Constantine, 306–337: Continuity and Change in the Late Roman Empire. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan. Eadie, John W., ed. (1971). The conversion of Constantine . New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. ISBN 978-0-03-083645-9 . Fourlas, Benjamin (2020). "St Constantine and the Army of Heroic Men Raised by Tiberius II Constantine in 574/575. Some Thoughts on the Historical Significance of the Early Byzantine Silver Hoard at Karlsruhe". Jahrbuch des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums 62, 2015 [published 2020], 341–375. doi : 10.11588/jrgzm.2015.1.77142 Girardet, Klaus Martin (2010). Der Kaiser und sein Gott. Das Christentum im Denken und in der Religionspolitik Konstantins des Großen [The Emperor and his God. Christianity in the Thought and Religious Policy of Constantine the Great]. Berlin/New York: De Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-022788-8 . Goltz, Andreas; Schlange-Schöningen, Heinrich (eds) (2008). Konstantin der Große. Das Bild des Kaisers im Wandel der Zeiten [Constantine the Great. The image of the emperor through the ages]. Köln: Böhlau, ISBN 978-3-412-20192-0 . Harries, Jill. Law and Empire in Late Antiquity . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004. Hardcover ISBN 0-521-41087-8 Paperback ISBN 0-521-42273-6 Hartley, Elizabeth. Constantine the Great: York's Roman Emperor . York: Lund Humphries, 2004. ISBN 978-0-85331-928-3 . Heather, Peter J. " Foedera and Foederati of the Fourth Century." In From Roman Provinces to Medieval Kingdoms , edited by Thomas F. X. Noble, 292–308. New York: Routledge, 2006. Hardcover ISBN 0-415-32741-5 Paperback ISBN 0-415-32742-3 Leithart, Peter J. Defending Constantine: The Twilight of an Empire and the Dawn of Christendom. Downers Grove: IL, InterVarsity Press 2010 MacMullen, Ramsay. Christianizing the Roman Empire A.D. 100–400 . New Haven, Connecticut; London: Yale University Press, 1984. ISBN 978-0-300-03642-8 MacMullen, Ramsay. Christianity and Paganism in the Fourth to Eighth Centuries . New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-300-07148-5 Pelikán, Jaroslav (1987). The excellent empire: the fall of Rome and the triumph of the church . San Francisco: Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0-06-254636-4 . Velikov, Yuliyan (2013). Imperator et Sacerdos . Veliko Turnovo University Press. ISBN 978-954-524-932-7 (in Bulgarian) External links Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Complete chronological list of Constantine's extant writings (archived 19 February 2013) Firth, John B. "Constantine the Great, the Reorganisation of the Empire and the Triumph of the Church" . Archived from the original on 15 March 2012 . Retrieved 19 February 2016 . Letters of Constantine: Book 1 , Book 2 , & Book 3 Encyclopædia Britannica, Constantine I Henry Stuart Jones (1911). " Constantine (emperors) ". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica . 6. (11th ed.), Cambridge University Press. pp. 988–992. Charles George Herbermann and Georg Grupp (1908). " Constantine the Great ". In Catholic Encyclopedia . 4. New York: Robert Appleton Company. BBC North Yorkshire's site on Constantine the Great Constantine's time in York on the 'History of York' Commemorations Roman Legionary AD 284–337: The Age of Diocletian and Constantine the Great Milvian Bridge AD 312: Constantine's Battle for Empire and Faith Constantine the Great Constantinian dynasty Born: 27 February 272 Died: 22 May 337 Regnal titles Preceded by Constantius Chlorus Roman emperor 306–337 With: Galerius , Severus II , Maxentius , Maximian , Licinius , Maximinus II , Valerius Valens & Martinian Succeeded by Constantine II Constantius II Constans Political offices Preceded by Constantius Chlorus Galerius Roman consul 307 with Maximian Succeeded by Diocletian Galerius Preceded by Galerius Maximinus Roman consul II–III 312–313 with Licinius Maximinus Succeeded by C. Ceionius Rufius Volusianus Petronius Annianus Preceded by C. Ceionius Rufius Volusianus Petronius Annianus Roman consul IV 315 with Licinius Succeeded by Antonius Caecina Sabinus Vettius Rufinus Preceded by Licinius Crispus Roman consul V–VI 319–320 with Licinius II Constantine II Succeeded by Crispus Constantine II Preceded by Sex. Anicius Paulinus Julius Julianus Roman consul VII 326 with Constantius II Succeeded by Flavius Constantius Valerius Maximus Preceded by Januarinus Vettius Iustus Roman consul VIII 329 with Constantine II Succeeded by Gallicanus Aurelius Valerius Symmachus Tullianus Legendary titles Preceded by Constantius Chlorus King of Britain Succeeded by Octavius v t e History of the Catholic Church v t e General History of the Catholic Church By country or region Ecclesiastical history Timeline Papacy Papal primacy Catholic ecumenical councils First seven Catholic Bible Biblical canon Vulgate Crusading movement History of the Roman Curia Religious institutes Christian monasticism Catholic culture Art Role in civilization Vatican City Papal States Latin Church Eastern Catholic Churches History of Catholic theology History of the Catholic Church By country or region By country or region Ecclesiastical history Timeline Papacy Papal primacy Papal primacy Catholic ecumenical councils First seven First 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Diadumenian ) Elagabalus Severus Alexander Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus (w. Diadumenian ) Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–284 Maximinus I Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip I (w. Philip II ) Decius (w. Herennius Etruscus ) Trebonianus Gallus (w. Hostilian & Volusianus ) Aemilianus Silbannacus (?) Valerian Gallienus (w. Saloninus ) Claudius II Quintillus Aurelian Tacitus Florianus Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Maximinus I Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip I (w. Philip II ) Decius (w. Herennius Etruscus ) Trebonianus Gallus (w. Hostilian & Volusianus ) Aemilianus Silbannacus (?) Valerian Gallienus (w. Saloninus ) Claudius II Quintillus Aurelian Tacitus Florianus Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Later Roman Empire 284–641 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus II Constantine I Maxentius Licinius Maximinus II Valerius Valens Martinian Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Nepotianus Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I Valens Procopius Gratian Theodosius I Valentinian II Magnus Maximus (w. Victor ) Eugenius Western Empire 395–476 Honorius Constantine III (w. Constans II ) Priscus Attalus Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Severus III Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern Empire 395–641 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus (w. Marcus ) Anastasius I Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice (w. Theodosius ) Phocas Heraclius Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus II Constantine I Maxentius Licinius Maximinus II Valerius Valens Martinian Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Nepotianus Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I Valens Procopius Gratian Theodosius I Valentinian II Magnus Maximus (w. Victor ) Eugenius Western Empire 395–476 Honorius Constantine III (w. Constans II ) Priscus Attalus Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Severus III Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Honorius Constantine III (w. Constans II ) Priscus Attalus Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Severus III Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern Empire 395–641 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus (w. Marcus ) Anastasius I Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice (w. Theodosius ) Phocas Heraclius Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus (w. Marcus ) Anastasius I Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice (w. Theodosius ) Phocas Heraclius Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 641–1453 Constantine III Heraclonas (w. Tiberius ) Constans II Constantine IV (w. Heraclius & Tiberius ) Justinian II Leontius Tiberius III Justinian II (w. Tiberius ) Philippicus Anastasius II Theodosius III Leo III Constantine V Artabasdos (w. Nikephoros ) Leo IV Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe (w. Theophylact & Staurakios ) Leo V (w. Constantine ) Michael II Theophilos (w. Constantine ) Michael III (w. Thekla ) Basil I (w. Constantine ) Leo VI Alexander Constantine VII Romanos I Lekapenos (w. Christopher , Romanos (?), Stephen & Constantine Lekapenos ) Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoe Romanos III Argyros Michael IV Michael V Constantine IX Monomachos Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Eudokia Makrembolitissa Romanos IV Diogenes (w. Leo & Nikephoros ) Michael VII Doukas (w. Andronikos , Konstantios & Constantine Doukas ) Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos (w. Constantine Doukas ) John II Komnenos (w. Alexios ) Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos (w. John ) Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Alexios V Doukas Theodore I Laskaris (w. Nicholas ) John III Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos (w. Irene ) Michael IX Palaiologos Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos (w. Anna ) John VI Kantakouzenos (w. Matthew ) Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos (w. Andronikos V ) Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Constantine III Heraclonas (w. Tiberius ) Constans II Constantine IV (w. Heraclius & Tiberius ) Justinian II Leontius Tiberius III Justinian II (w. Tiberius ) Philippicus Anastasius II Theodosius III Leo III Constantine V Artabasdos (w. Nikephoros ) Leo IV Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe (w. Theophylact & Staurakios ) Leo V (w. Constantine ) Michael II Theophilos (w. Constantine ) Michael III (w. Thekla ) Basil I (w. Constantine ) Leo VI Alexander Constantine VII Romanos I Lekapenos (w. Christopher , Romanos (?), Stephen & Constantine Lekapenos ) Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoe Romanos III Argyros Michael IV Michael V Constantine IX Monomachos Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Eudokia Makrembolitissa Romanos IV Diogenes (w. Leo & Nikephoros ) Michael VII Doukas (w. Andronikos , Konstantios & Constantine Doukas ) Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos (w. Constantine Doukas ) John II Komnenos (w. Alexios ) Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos (w. John ) Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Alexios V Doukas Theodore I Laskaris (w. Nicholas ) John III Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos (w. Irene ) Michael IX Palaiologos Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos (w. Anna ) John VI Kantakouzenos (w. Matthew ) Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos (w. Andronikos V ) Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos See also Gallic emperors (260–274) Palmyrene emperors (271–273) Britannic emperors (286–296) Trapezuntine emperors (1204–1461) Thessalonian emperors (1224–1242) Empresses Augustae Usurpers Classical Eastern Gallic emperors (260–274) Palmyrene emperors (271–273) Britannic emperors (286–296) Trapezuntine emperors (1204–1461) Thessalonian emperors (1224–1242) Empresses Augustae Usurpers Classical Eastern Classical Eastern Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, underlining indicates an emperor variously regarded as either legitimate or a usurper Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF 2 3 4 5 6 7 GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF 2 3 4 5 6 7 2 3 4 5 6 7 GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Japan Italy Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Croatia Greece Korea Sweden Poland Vatican Israel Finland Catalonia Belgium United States France BnF data Japan Italy Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Croatia Greece Korea Sweden Poland Vatican Israel Finland Catalonia Belgium Artists ULAN ULAN People Trove Deutsche Biographie DDB Trove Deutsche Biographie DDB Other IdRef Open Library SNAC Te Papa (New Zealand) RISM Yale LUX IdRef Open Library SNAC Te Papa (New Zealand) RISM Yale LUX Constantine the Great 272 births 337 deaths 3rd-century births 4th-century Christian saints 4th-century Roman consuls 4th-century Roman emperors Ancient Romans in Britain Angelic visionaries Burials at the Church of the Holy Apostles Byzantine royal saints City founders Constantinian dynasty Converts to Christianity from ancient Roman religions Deified Roman emperors Eastern Orthodox saints Filicides Flavii Gothicus Maximus Illyrian emperors Illyrian people Participants in the First Council of Nicaea People from Niš Sons of Roman emperors Tetrarchy Valerii Articles containing Latin-language text Pages with Classical Latin IPA Articles containing Koine Greek-language text Articles with German-language sources (de) Webarchive template wayback links CS1 Italian-language sources (it) CS1 Greek-language sources (el) Articles containing German-language text Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages Use British English from July 2022 All Wikipedia articles written in British English Use dmy dates from September 2025 Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2021 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from July 2024 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking reliable references from May 2025 Articles containing French-language text Articles containing Welsh-language text CS1 Latin-language sources (la) CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 CS1 errors: ISBN date CS1 maint: ref duplicates default Commons link is locally defined CS1: unfit URL This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 08:54 (UTC) . 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Il-Paġna prinċipali Bidliet riċenti Paġna kwalunkwe Dwar il-Wikipedija Kuntatt Paġni speċjali Avvenimenti riċenti Pjazza Għajnuna Donazzjonijiet Oħloq kont Idħol Donazzjonijiet Oħloq kont Idħol Kontenut Bidu 1 Kronoloġija 2 Deskrizzjoni tal-gwerra Uri jew aħbi s-sottosezzjoni Deskrizzjoni tal-gwerra 2.1 Il-gwerra fiċ-Ċina 2.2 Il-gwerra tibda fl-Ewropa 2.3 L-avvanzi tal-Assi 2.4 Il-Gwerra ssir globali (1941) 2.5 Idur ir-riħ 2.6 L-Alleati jibdew javvanzaw (1942) 2.7 L-Alleati jersqu qrib (1944) 2.8 Waqgħa tal-Assi, rebħa Alleata 2.1 Il-gwerra fiċ-Ċina 2.2 Il-gwerra tibda fl-Ewropa 2.3 L-avvanzi tal-Assi 2.4 Il-Gwerra ssir globali (1941) 2.5 Idur ir-riħ 2.6 L-Alleati jibdew javvanzaw (1942) 2.7 L-Alleati jersqu qrib (1944) 2.8 Waqgħa tal-Assi, rebħa Alleata 3 Wara l-gwerra 4 Impatt tal-gwerra Uri jew aħbi s-sottosezzjoni Impatt tal-gwerra 4.1 Mejtin u krimini ta' gwerra 4.2 Kampijiet ta' konċentrament u xogħol furzat 4.3 Front ċivili u produzzjoni 4.4 Okkupazzjoni waqt il-gwerra 4.5 Avvanzati fit-teknoloġija u fix-xjenza bellika 4.1 Mejtin u krimini ta' gwerra 4.2 Kampijiet ta' konċentrament u xogħol furzat 4.3 Front ċivili u produzzjoni 4.4 Okkupazzjoni waqt il-gwerra 4.5 Avvanzati fit-teknoloġija u fix-xjenza bellika It-Tieni Gwerra Dinjija Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Aragonés Ænglisc العربية الدارجة مصرى অসমীয়া Asturianu Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Башҡортса Basa Bali Boarisch Žemaitėška Bikol Central Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български भोजपुरी Bislama ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ বাংলা བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Batak Mandailing Буряад Català Chavacano de Zamboanga 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Нохчийн Cebuano کوردی Corsu Qırımtatarca Čeština Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ Чӑвашла Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Thuɔŋjäŋ Zazaki Dolnoserbski डोटेली ދިވެހިބަސް Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Võro Føroyskt Français Arpetan Nordfriisk Furlan Frysk Gaeilge 贛語 Kriyòl gwiyannen Gàidhlig Galego گیلکی Avañe'ẽ ગુજરાતી Gaelg Hausa 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Hornjoserbsce Kreyòl ayisyen Magyar Հայերեն Արեւմտահայերէն Interlingua Jaku Iban Bahasa Indonesia Interlingue Igbo Ilokano Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Patois La .lojban. Jawa ქართული Qaraqalpaqsha Taqbaylit Адыгэбзэ Kabɩyɛ Tyap Қазақша ភាសាខ្មែរ ಕನ್ನಡ Yerwa Kanuri 한국어 Къарачай-малкъар کٲشُر Ripoarisch Kurdî Коми Kernowek Кыргызча Latina Ladino Lëtzebuergesch Лакку Лезги Lingua Franca Nova Limburgs Ligure Ladin Lombard ລາວ Lietuvių Latviešu Madhurâ मैथिली Basa Banyumasan Мокшень Malagasy Олык марий Māori Minangkabau Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Mirandés မြန်မာဘာသာ مازِرونی Napulitano Plattdüütsch Nedersaksies नेपाली नेपाल भाषा Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål ߒߞߏ Diné bizaad Chi-Chewa Occitan Livvinkarjala ଓଡ଼ିଆ Ирон ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Papiamentu Picard Deitsch Pälzisch Polski Piemontèis پنجابی پښتو Português Runa Simi Rumantsch Română Tarandíne Русский Русиньскый संस्कृतम् Саха тыла ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Sardu Sicilianu Scots سنڌي Davvisámegiella Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Taclḥit සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Gagana Samoa Anarâškielâ ChiShona Soomaaliga Shqip Српски / srpski Seeltersk Sunda Svenska Kiswahili Ślůnski Sakizaya தமிழ் తెలుగు Тоҷикӣ ไทย Türkmençe Tagalog Tolışi Toki pona Türkçe Татарча / tatarça Тыва дыл ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt West-Vlams Volapük Walon Winaray Wolof 吴语 მარგალური ייִדיש Yorùbá Vahcuengh Zeêuws 中文 文言 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí 粵語 Paġna Diskussjoni Aqra Editja Immodifika s-sors Ara l-kronoloġija Aqra Editja Immodifika s-sors Ara l-kronoloġija Li jwasslu 'l hawn Tibdil relatat Tella' fajl Ħolqa permanenti Informazzjoni fuq il-paġna Iċċita dan l-artiklu Ikseb URL imqassar Niżżel il-kodiċi QR Switch to legacy parser Oħloq ktieb Niżżel bħala PDF Verżjoni għall-ipprintjar Wikimedia Commons Element ta' Wikidata It-Tieni Gwerra Dinjija Data 1 ta' Settembru 1939 – 2 ta' Settembru 1945 Post L- Ewropa , il- Paċifiku , ix-Xlokk Asjatiku, iċ- Ċina , il- Lvant Nofsani , il- Mediterran u l- Afrika . Riżultat Rebħa Alleata . Ħolqien tal- Ġnus Magħquda . Il-qawmien tal-Istati Uniti tal-Amerika u l-Unjoni Sovjetika bħala żewġ superpotenzi. Kreazzjoni tal-isferi tal-influwenza tal-Ewwel u t-Tieni dinja fl-Ewropa, li wassal għall-Gwerra l-Bierda. ( Aktar ) Belliġeranti Alleati . Qawwiet tal-Assi . Kmandanti Politiċi : Stalin Roosevelt Chiang Kai-shek Truman Churchill De Gaulle Michele I Militari : Žukov Eisenhower Montgomery Chiang Kai-shek Mao Zedong De Gaulle Politiċi : Hitler Hirohito Tojo Mussolini Badoglio Horthy Szalasi Militari : von Manstein Yamamoto Graziani Korruti Total : 50 miljun Militari: 17-il miljun Ċivili: 33 miljun Total : 12 miljun Militari: 8 miljuni Ċivili: 4 miljuni Dan l-artiklu għandu bżonn jiġi wikifikat biex jaqbel mal- istandard tal-Wikipedija . B'mod partikolari, dan l-artiklu huwa nieqes minn referenzi għal sorsi esterni li jivverifikaw il-fatti u perspettivi dwar is-suġġett. Jekk jogħġbok għin biex ittejjeb dan l-artiklu skont il-konvenzjonijiet tal-Wikipedija. It- Tieni Gwerra Dinjija kien kunflitt mondjali li involva l-maġġoranza tal-pajjiżi tad-dinja, b'mod speċjali l-pajjiżi l-iktar avvanzati maqsumin f'żewġ alleanzi militari opposti: L- Alleati u l- Qawwiet tal-Assi . Din il-gwerra involviet il-mobilitazzjoni ta' 'l fuq minn 100 miljun rekluta militari, b'hekk hi meqjusa bħala l-iktar gwerra mifruxa fl-istorja. Fi stat ta' " gwerra totali ", il-partiċipanti maġġuri poġġew il-kapaċitajiet ekonomiċi, industrijali, u xjentifiċi għas-servizz ta' isforz belliku, bl-injorar tad-distinzjoni bejn riżorsi militari u dawk ċivili. Iktar minn 70 miljun ruħ, il-maġġoranza tagħhom ċivili, inqatlu f'dan il-konflitt, li għalhekk jitqies bħala l-iktar imdemmi fl-istorja umana. In-nefqa finanzjarja totali tal-gwerra hi stimata li laħqet triljun dollaru amerikan, b'hekk hi ukoll l-iktar gwerra li swiet flus. Il-bidu tal-gwerra hu meqjus li hu Settembru 1939 bl-invażjoni tal-Polonja, u d-dikjarazzjoni ta'gwerra fuq il- Ġermanja mir- Renju Unit , Franza u d-Dominji Britanniċi. L-Allejati kienu rebbieħa, bil-Ġermanja ċċedi fit-8 ta' Mejju 1945, u r-rebħa fuq il-Ġappun fit-2 ta' Settembru. L- Unjoni Sovjetika u l- Istati Uniti ħarġu mill-kunflitt bħala ż-żewġ superpotenzi maġġuri. Din is-sitwazzjoni fetħet il- Gwerra l-Bierda , li damet 45 sena. Il- Ġnus Magħquda ġew iffurmati bit-tama li jiġi evitat kunflitt ieħor bħal dan. L-idea ta' determinazzjoni nazzjonali imbuttata mill-gwerra aċċelerat il-moviment ta' dekolonizazzjoni fl-Asja u l-Afrika, filwaqt li fl-Ewropa tal-Punent stess bdiet miexja lejn l-integrazzjoni. Wara l- Ewwel Gwerra Dinjija , it-telfa tal- Ġermanja , ffirmata fit-Trattat ta' Versailles imponiet fuq dan il-pajjiż it-telfien ta' parti mdaqqsa mit-territorju, ċaħdet l-annessjoni ta' stati oħra, llimitat id-daqs tal-forzi armati Ġermanizi, u imponiet reparazzjonijiet finanzjarji kbar ħafna. Ir- Rivoluzzjoni Russa tal- 1917 u l-gwerra ċivili li din ikkawżat, wasslu għall-ħolqien tal- Unjoni Sovjetika li malajr ġiet taħt il-ħakma ta' Joseph Stalin . Fl-Italja, Benito Mussolini ħataf il-poter bħala dittatur faxxist bil-wiegħda li joħloq " Imperu Ruman Ġdid ". Il-Partit Kuomintang fiċ-Ċina beda Spedizzjoni fit-Tramuntana (1926-1927) bħala programm ta' unifikazzjoni nazzjonali, kontra sinjuri tal-gwerra Ċiniżi tas-snin għoxrin, imma spiċċa mgħarraq fi gwerra ċivili kontra l-ex alleati, il-Partit Komunista Ċiniż . Fl-1931, l-Imperu Ġappuniż, li kien ilu ħafna jipprova jespandi l-influwenza tiegħu fiċ-Ċina, taħt il-kunċett tad- dritt li jaħkem fuq l-Asja , uża l- Inċident ta' Mukden bħala ġustifikazzjoni biex jinvadi l- Manċurja ; iż-żewġ nazzjonijiet tqabdu f'bosta kunflitti zgħar sad- Dikjarazzjoni Tanggu li ħabbret il-waqfien tal-gwerra fl-1933. In- Nazzjonal-Soċjalist Adolf Hitler sar il-mexxej tal-Ġermanja fl- 1933 u fis beda kampanja kbira ta'riarmament. Dan ħasseb lil Franza u r-Renju Unit, li kienu batew ħafna fl-aħħar gwerra, kif ukoll l-Italja, li rat l-ambizzjonijiet territorjali tagħha jiddalmu minħabba dawk tal-Ġermanja. Biex jiżgura l-alleanza, il- Franċiżi ħallew lill-Italja ħielsa fl-operazzjonijiet tagħha fl- Etjopja , li l-Italja xtaqet taħtaf. Din is-sitwazzjoni ġiet aggravata fl-1935 meta s- Saarland ingħaqdet legalment mal-Ġermanja, u Hitler rrinunzja t-Trattat ta' Versailles, għaġġel ir-remilitarizazzjoni u daħħal il-lieva. Bl-isperanza li tinżamm il-Ġermanja, ir-Renju Unit, Franza u l-Italja ffurmaw il- Front ta' Stresa . L-Unjoni Sovjetika, mbeżża mill- għanijiet tal-Ġermanja li taħtaf art fil-Lvant tal-Ewropa , kkonkluda trattat ta' assistenza militari ma' Franza. Qabel jieħu effett, dan il-patt Franco-Sovjetiku kellu jgħaddi mill-burokrazija tal- Lega tan-Nazzjonijiet , li spiċċa jagħmlu bla saħħa. Biex iktar tikkomplika s-sitwazzjoni, f'Ġunju tal-1935, ir-Renju Unit iffirma trattat Navali indipendenti mal-Ġermanja, jħoll ħafna mir-restrizzjonijiet ta' qabel. L-Istati Uniti, minħabba l-ġrajjiet fl-Ewropa u l-Asja, għadda l-Att tan-Newtralità' f'Awissu. F'Ottubru, l-Italja invadiet l-Ewropa, bil-Ġermanja tkun l-uniku pajjiż fl-Ewropa li ma kkundannatx dan l-att. L-Italja allura neħħiet kull objezzjoni tagħha fuq l-għan tal-Ġermanja li tagħmel mill- Awstrija stat-satellita. Bi vjolazzjoni diretta tat-Trattat ta' Versaille u dak ta' Lokarno , Hitler rremilitarizza r- Rhineland f'Marzu tal- 1936, u hawn bilkem irċieva tweġiba mil-potenzi l-oħra. Meta bdiet il- Gwerra Ċivili Spanjola f'Lulju, Hitler u Mussolini għenu l-fazzjoni faxxista mmexxija minn Ġeneralíssimu Francisco Franco u l-forzi nazzjonalisti tiegħu fil-gwerra ċivili kontra t-Tieni Repubblika Spanjola, megħjuna mill-Unjoni Sovjetika. Iż-żewġ naħat użaw il-kunflitt biex jisperimentaw armi u metodi ta' gwerra ġodda, bil-forzi nazzjonalisti spanjoli jirbhu fl-1939. Biż-żieda fit-tensjonijiet, bedw isiru sforzi ta' konsolidazzjoni ta' poter f'bosta pajjiżi. F'Ottubru, l-Ġermanja u l-Italja ffurmaw l- Assi Ruma-Berlin u xahar wara, il-Ġermanja u l-Ġappun, bil-ħsieb li l-Unjoni Sovjetika u l-komuniżmu kien l-ikbar periklu għalihom, iffirmaw il- Patt Anti-Komintern , li l-Italja daħlet fih sena wara. Fiċ-Ċina, il-Kuomintang u l-forzi komunisti, qablu fuq waqfien mil-ġlied biex jippreżentaw front magħqud kontra l-forzi ġappuniżi. It-Tieni Gwerra Dinjija Data 1 ta' Settembru 1939 – 2 ta' Settembru 1945 Post L- Ewropa , il- Paċifiku , ix-Xlokk Asjatiku, iċ- Ċina , il- Lvant Nofsani , il- Mediterran u l- Afrika . Riżultat Rebħa Alleata . Ħolqien tal- Ġnus Magħquda . Il-qawmien tal-Istati Uniti tal-Amerika u l-Unjoni Sovjetika bħala żewġ superpotenzi. Kreazzjoni tal-isferi tal-influwenza tal-Ewwel u t-Tieni dinja fl-Ewropa, li wassal għall-Gwerra l-Bierda. ( Aktar ) Data 1 ta' Settembru 1939 – 2 ta' Settembru 1945 Post L- Ewropa , il- Paċifiku , ix-Xlokk Asjatiku, iċ- Ċina , il- Lvant Nofsani , il- Mediterran u l- Afrika . Riżultat Rebħa Alleata . Ħolqien tal- Ġnus Magħquda . Il-qawmien tal-Istati Uniti tal-Amerika u l-Unjoni Sovjetika bħala żewġ superpotenzi. Kreazzjoni tal-isferi tal-influwenza tal-Ewwel u t-Tieni dinja fl-Ewropa, li wassal għall-Gwerra l-Bierda. ( Aktar ) Belliġeranti Alleati . Qawwiet tal-Assi . Kmandanti Politiċi : Stalin Roosevelt Chiang Kai-shek Truman Churchill De Gaulle Michele I Militari : Žukov Eisenhower Montgomery Chiang Kai-shek Mao Zedong De Gaulle Stalin Roosevelt Chiang Kai-shek Truman Churchill De Gaulle Michele I Militari : Militari : Žukov Eisenhower Montgomery Chiang Kai-shek Mao Zedong De Gaulle Politiċi : Hitler Hirohito Tojo Mussolini Badoglio Horthy Szalasi Militari : von Manstein Yamamoto Graziani Hitler Hirohito Tojo Mussolini Badoglio Horthy Szalasi Militari : Militari : von Manstein Yamamoto Graziani Korruti Total : 50 miljun Militari: 17-il miljun Ċivili: 33 miljun Total : 12 miljun Militari: 8 miljuni Ċivili: 4 miljuni Dan l-artiklu għandu bżonn jiġi wikifikat biex jaqbel mal- istandard tal-Wikipedija . B'mod partikolari, dan l-artiklu huwa nieqes minn referenzi għal sorsi esterni li jivverifikaw il-fatti u perspettivi dwar is-suġġett. Jekk jogħġbok għin biex ittejjeb dan l-artiklu skont il-konvenzjonijiet tal-Wikipedija. It- Tieni Gwerra Dinjija kien kunflitt mondjali li involva l-maġġoranza tal-pajjiżi tad-dinja, b'mod speċjali l-pajjiżi l-iktar avvanzati maqsumin f'żewġ alleanzi militari opposti: L- Alleati u l- Qawwiet tal-Assi . Din il-gwerra involviet il-mobilitazzjoni ta' 'l fuq minn 100 miljun rekluta militari, b'hekk hi meqjusa bħala l-iktar gwerra mifruxa fl-istorja. Fi stat ta' " gwerra totali ", il-partiċipanti maġġuri poġġew il-kapaċitajiet ekonomiċi, industrijali, u xjentifiċi għas-servizz ta' isforz belliku, bl-injorar tad-distinzjoni bejn riżorsi militari u dawk ċivili. Iktar minn 70 miljun ruħ, il-maġġoranza tagħhom ċivili, inqatlu f'dan il-konflitt, li għalhekk jitqies bħala l-iktar imdemmi fl-istorja umana. In-nefqa finanzjarja totali tal-gwerra hi stimata li laħqet triljun dollaru amerikan, b'hekk hi ukoll l-iktar gwerra li swiet flus. Il-bidu tal-gwerra hu meqjus li hu Settembru 1939 bl-invażjoni tal-Polonja, u d-dikjarazzjoni ta'gwerra fuq il- Ġermanja mir- Renju Unit , Franza u d-Dominji Britanniċi. L-Allejati kienu rebbieħa, bil-Ġermanja ċċedi fit-8 ta' Mejju 1945, u r-rebħa fuq il-Ġappun fit-2 ta' Settembru. L- Unjoni Sovjetika u l- Istati Uniti ħarġu mill-kunflitt bħala ż-żewġ superpotenzi maġġuri. Din is-sitwazzjoni fetħet il- Gwerra l-Bierda , li damet 45 sena. Il- Ġnus Magħquda ġew iffurmati bit-tama li jiġi evitat kunflitt ieħor bħal dan. L-idea ta' determinazzjoni nazzjonali imbuttata mill-gwerra aċċelerat il-moviment ta' dekolonizazzjoni fl-Asja u l-Afrika, filwaqt li fl-Ewropa tal-Punent stess bdiet miexja lejn l-integrazzjoni. Wara l- Ewwel Gwerra Dinjija , it-telfa tal- Ġermanja , ffirmata fit-Trattat ta' Versailles imponiet fuq dan il-pajjiż it-telfien ta' parti mdaqqsa mit-territorju, ċaħdet l-annessjoni ta' stati oħra, llimitat id-daqs tal-forzi armati Ġermanizi, u imponiet reparazzjonijiet finanzjarji kbar ħafna. Ir- Rivoluzzjoni Russa tal- 1917 u l-gwerra ċivili li din ikkawżat, wasslu għall-ħolqien tal- Unjoni Sovjetika li malajr ġiet taħt il-ħakma ta' Joseph Stalin . Fl-Italja, Benito Mussolini ħataf il-poter bħala dittatur faxxist bil-wiegħda li joħloq " Imperu Ruman Ġdid ". Il-Partit Kuomintang fiċ-Ċina beda Spedizzjoni fit-Tramuntana (1926-1927) bħala programm ta' unifikazzjoni nazzjonali, kontra sinjuri tal-gwerra Ċiniżi tas-snin għoxrin, imma spiċċa mgħarraq fi gwerra ċivili kontra l-ex alleati, il-Partit Komunista Ċiniż . Fl-1931, l-Imperu Ġappuniż, li kien ilu ħafna jipprova jespandi l-influwenza tiegħu fiċ-Ċina, taħt il-kunċett tad- dritt li jaħkem fuq l-Asja , uża l- Inċident ta' Mukden bħala ġustifikazzjoni biex jinvadi l- Manċurja ; iż-żewġ nazzjonijiet tqabdu f'bosta kunflitti zgħar sad- Dikjarazzjoni Tanggu li ħabbret il-waqfien tal-gwerra fl-1933. In- Nazzjonal-Soċjalist Adolf Hitler sar il-mexxej tal-Ġermanja fl- 1933 u fis beda kampanja kbira ta'riarmament. Dan ħasseb lil Franza u r-Renju Unit, li kienu batew ħafna fl-aħħar gwerra, kif ukoll l-Italja, li rat l-ambizzjonijiet territorjali tagħha jiddalmu minħabba dawk tal-Ġermanja. Biex jiżgura l-alleanza, il- Franċiżi ħallew lill-Italja ħielsa fl-operazzjonijiet tagħha fl- Etjopja , li l-Italja xtaqet taħtaf. Din is-sitwazzjoni ġiet aggravata fl-1935 meta s- Saarland ingħaqdet legalment mal-Ġermanja, u Hitler rrinunzja t-Trattat ta' Versailles, għaġġel ir-remilitarizazzjoni u daħħal il-lieva. Bl-isperanza li tinżamm il-Ġermanja, ir-Renju Unit, Franza u l-Italja ffurmaw il- Front ta' Stresa . L-Unjoni Sovjetika, mbeżża mill- għanijiet tal-Ġermanja li taħtaf art fil-Lvant tal-Ewropa , kkonkluda trattat ta' assistenza militari ma' Franza. Qabel jieħu effett, dan il-patt Franco-Sovjetiku kellu jgħaddi mill-burokrazija tal- Lega tan-Nazzjonijiet , li spiċċa jagħmlu bla saħħa. Biex iktar tikkomplika s-sitwazzjoni, f'Ġunju tal-1935, ir-Renju Unit iffirma trattat Navali indipendenti mal-Ġermanja, jħoll ħafna mir-restrizzjonijiet ta' qabel. L-Istati Uniti, minħabba l-ġrajjiet fl-Ewropa u l-Asja, għadda l-Att tan-Newtralità' f'Awissu. F'Ottubru, l-Italja invadiet l-Ewropa, bil-Ġermanja tkun l-uniku pajjiż fl-Ewropa li ma kkundannatx dan l-att. L-Italja allura neħħiet kull objezzjoni tagħha fuq l-għan tal-Ġermanja li tagħmel mill- Awstrija stat-satellita. Bi vjolazzjoni diretta tat-Trattat ta' Versaille u dak ta' Lokarno , Hitler rremilitarizza r- Rhineland f'Marzu tal- 1936, u hawn bilkem irċieva tweġiba mil-potenzi l-oħra. Meta bdiet il- Gwerra Ċivili Spanjola f'Lulju, Hitler u Mussolini għenu l-fazzjoni faxxista mmexxija minn Ġeneralíssimu Francisco Franco u l-forzi nazzjonalisti tiegħu fil-gwerra ċivili kontra t-Tieni Repubblika Spanjola, megħjuna mill-Unjoni Sovjetika. Iż-żewġ naħat użaw il-kunflitt biex jisperimentaw armi u metodi ta' gwerra ġodda, bil-forzi nazzjonalisti spanjoli jirbhu fl-1939. Biż-żieda fit-tensjonijiet, bedw isiru sforzi ta' konsolidazzjoni ta' poter f'bosta pajjiżi. F'Ottubru, l-Ġermanja u l-Italja ffurmaw l- Assi Ruma-Berlin u xahar wara, il-Ġermanja u l-Ġappun, bil-ħsieb li l-Unjoni Sovjetika u l-komuniżmu kien l-ikbar periklu għalihom, iffirmaw il- Patt Anti-Komintern , li l-Italja daħlet fih sena wara. Fiċ-Ċina, il-Kuomintang u l-forzi komunisti, qablu fuq waqfien mil-ġlied biex jippreżentaw front magħqud kontra l-forzi ġappuniżi. Kronoloġija [ immodifika | immodifika s-sors ] Dati oħra li huma kkunsidrati bħala l-bidu tal-kunflitt jinkludu l-invażjoni ġappuniża tal-Manċurja fl-1931, il-bidu tat-Tieni Gwerra Sino-Ġappuniża, fl-1937, jew bosta dati marbutin ma' avvenimenti oħrajn. Xi sorsi jimxu mal-idea ta' A. J. P. Taylor , li jemmen li kien hemm żewġ gwerer simultanei, il-Gwerra Sino-Ġappuniża fl-Asja tal-Lvant, u t-Tieni Gwerra Ewropea fl-Ewropa u fil-kolonji tagħha, imma dawn ma sarux gwerra dinjija sakemm ma ngħaqdux fl-1941 bid-daħla fil-gwerra tal-Unjoni Sovjetika; b'hekk il-gwerra kompliet sal-1945. Għat-tmiem tal-gwerra għandha bosta dati wkoll. Xi sorsi jgħidu li dan seħħ bl-armistizju tal-14 t'Awwissu 1945 , minflok fid-data li fiha l-Ġermanja ċediet b'mod uffiċjali; f'diskussjonijiet storiċi Ewropej, il-gwerra ntemmet f' Jum ir-Rebħ fl-Ewropa , il- V-E Day . It-trattat uffiċjali tat-tmiem tal-gwerra mal-Ġappun ġie iffirmat biss fl-1951, fit- Trattat ta' San Francisco . Kronoloġija Dati oħra li huma kkunsidrati bħala l-bidu tal-kunflitt jinkludu l-invażjoni ġappuniża tal-Manċurja fl-1931, il-bidu tat-Tieni Gwerra Sino-Ġappuniża, fl-1937, jew bosta dati marbutin ma' avvenimenti oħrajn. Xi sorsi jimxu mal-idea ta' A. J. P. Taylor , li jemmen li kien hemm żewġ gwerer simultanei, il-Gwerra Sino-Ġappuniża fl-Asja tal-Lvant, u t-Tieni Gwerra Ewropea fl-Ewropa u fil-kolonji tagħha, imma dawn ma sarux gwerra dinjija sakemm ma ngħaqdux fl-1941 bid-daħla fil-gwerra tal-Unjoni Sovjetika; b'hekk il-gwerra kompliet sal-1945. Għat-tmiem tal-gwerra għandha bosta dati wkoll. Xi sorsi jgħidu li dan seħħ bl-armistizju tal-14 t'Awwissu 1945 , minflok fid-data li fiha l-Ġermanja ċediet b'mod uffiċjali; f'diskussjonijiet storiċi Ewropej, il-gwerra ntemmet f' Jum ir-Rebħ fl-Ewropa , il- V-E Day . It-trattat uffiċjali tat-tmiem tal-gwerra mal-Ġappun ġie iffirmat biss fl-1951, fit- Trattat ta' San Francisco . Deskrizzjoni tal-gwerra [ immodifika | immodifika s-sors ] Il-gwerra fiċ-Ċina [ immodifika | immodifika s-sors ] Il-fdalijiet ta 'Guernica wara l-ibbumbardjar . F'nofs l-1937, wara l- Inċident fuq il-Pont Marku Polo , il-Ġappun beda invażjoni sħiħa taċ-Ċina. Is-Sovjetiċi mill-ewwel għenu liċ-Ċiniżi, fatt li ħassar il-kooperazjoni Ċiniża mal-Ġermanja. Wara assalt fuq Shanghai , il-Ġappuniżi tefgħu lura l-qawwiet Ċiniżi, bil-ħtif tal-kapitali Nanġing f'Diċembru. F'Ġunju tal- 1938, iċ-Ċiniżi żammew l-avvanzata Ġappuniża billi għarrqu x- Xmara s-Safra ; anki jekk dan ta' liċ-Ċiniżi biżżejjed ħin biex tiġi ffortifikata l-belt ta' Wuħan , il-belt xorta wagħet f'idejn Ġappuniżi sa Ottubru. F'dan iż-żmien, forzi ġappuniżi u sovetiċi ingaġġaw f'battalja minuri fuq l-Għadira Khasan; f'Mejju tal-1939, dawn ġew involuti f'battalja eħrex f'Khalkhin Gol, li spiċċat bi qbil ta' waqfien mill-ġlied fil- 15 ta' Settembru u r-restawr tal-istat ante bellum . Il-gwerra tibda fl-Ewropa [ immodifika | immodifika s-sors ] Ċiniż b'arma tan-nar ġo bejta fil- Battalja ta 'Shanghai , 1937. Fl-Ewropa, il-Ġermanja u l-Italja bdew jippreparaw għat-taqbid. F'Marzu tal-1938, il-Ġermanja permezz tal- Anschluss , għaqqdet lill-Awstrija mat-territorju tagħha, li ma tantx ġabet rekriminazzjonijiet mill-poetnzi Ewropej. Inkuraġġat, Hitler beda jesponi drittijiet ġermaniżi fuq is- Sudetenland ; Franza u l-Gran Brittanja ħallewh jannessi dawn l-artijiet fil- Qbil ta' Munich , bil-wiegħda li din kellha tkun l-aħħar domanda territorjali tal-Ġermanja. Hitler malajr ħarab mil-wiegħda tiegħu. F' Marzu tal-1939, il-Ġermanja u l-Ungerija okkupaw iċ-Ċekoslovakkja sħiħa, flimkien. Allarmat, u b'Hitler jiddikjara li ried jerġa' jagħqqad lil belt ta' Danżing, u allura kellu pretensjonijiet għal art Pollakka, Franza u r-Renju Unit ħarġu garanzija tal-indipendenza tal-Polonja; meta l-Italja invadiet l- Albanija f'April, l-istess garanzija ġiet estiża lir- Rumanija u l- Greċja . L-Unjoni Sovjetika pruvat tallea ruħha ma' Franza u r-Renju Unit, imma ġiet injorata minħabba suspetti fuq il-motivi tagħha u l-kapaċitajiet militari li kellha. Ftit wara l-garanziji Franko-Britanniċi lejn il-Polonja, il-Ġermanja u l-Italja fformalizzaw l-alleanza tagħhom bil- Patt tal-Azzar . Bit-twemmin li Franza u r-Renju Unit ma xtaqux jalleaw rwieħhom mal-Unjoni Sovjetika, minħabba l-biża li din setgħet tiżviluppa fi gwerra bejn Hitler u l-URSS bil-qawwiet tal-Punent jibqgħu newtrali jew jgħinu lil Hitler, l-Unjoni Sovjetika ddeċiedet li tidħol fi qbil li ma tattakkax lil Ġermanja permezz tal –Patt Molotov Ribbentrop. Dan il patt kien jinkludi qbil sigriet biex l-Ewropa tal-Lvant tinqasam bejniethom. Fl- 1 ta' Settembru, 1939, Adolf Hitler ħabbar l-invażjoni tal- Polonja u t-Tieni Gwerra Dinjija bdiet. Franza, l-Gran Brittanja, u l-Pajjiżi tal- Commonwealth ddikjaraw gwerra fuq il-Ġermanja, imma ftit li xejn wettqu operazzjonijiet belliċi apparti attakk zgħir Franċiż fis-Saarland. F' nofs Settembru, wara li ġie ffirmat armistizju mal-Ġappun, l-Unjoni Sovjetika bdiet l-invażjoni tagħha tal-Polonja. Sa' l-bidu t' Ottubru, il-Polonja nqasmet bejn il-Ġermanja u l-Unjoni Sovjetika. Matul il-battalji fil-Polonja, il-Ġappun beda l-ewwel attakk fuq il-belt ċiniża strateġikament importanti ta' Changsha; dan l-attakk falla sal-bidu t'Ottubru. Mix-xellug għal-lemin (quddiem): Chamberlain Wara l-invażjoni tal-Polonja, l-Unjoni Sovjetika bdiet l-okkupazzjoni tal- Pajjiżi Baltiċi . Reżistenza Finlandiża għal pressjonijiet mill-Unjoni Sovjetika f' l-aħħar ta' Novembru wassal għall- Gwerra tax-Xitwa li damet erba' xhur, u ntemmet bit- Trattat ta' Paċi ta' Moska b'konċessjonijiet Finlandiżi. Franza u r-Renju Unit trattaw l-attakk tal-Unjoni Sovjetika fuq il-Finlandja daqslikieku din daħlet fil-gwerra fuq in-naħa tal-Ġermanja, u rrispondew għal din l-invażjoni billi qablu mal-espulsjoni tas-Sovjetiċi mill-Lega tan-Nazzjonijiet. Anki jekk iċ-Ċina kellha l-saħħa timponi l-veto fuq din l-azzjoni, hi la riedet tinqata mill-potenzi tal-punent u wisq inqas mill-Unjoni Sovjetika u għalhekk iddeċidiet li tastjeni. L-Unjoni Sovjetika xorta ma qablitx ma' din l-azzjoni, u ssospendiet kull għajnuna militari għaċ-Ċina. Sa' Ġunju 1940, il-Forzi Armati Sovjetiċi lestew l- okkupazjoni tal-istati ta' mal-Baltiku . Fl-Ewropa tal-Punent, qawwiet Brittaniċi bdew l-ewwel jibagħtu l-ewwel truppi fuq il-kontinent, però la l-Ġermanja u lanqas l-Alleati ma bdew attakki diretti fuq l-għadu. F'April, il-Ġermanja invadiet id-Danimarka u n-Norveġja biex tiddefendi l-fornituri ta' minerali tal-ħadid mill-iSvezja, li l-Alleati żgur kienu ser jippruvaw iwaqqfu. Id- Danimarka ikkapitulat mill-ewwel, u minkejja s-support tal-Alleati , in- Norveġja intrebħet f'inqas minn xahrejn. Skuntentizza Brittanika fuq il-Kampanja Norveġjiża wasslet għall-waqgħa tal-Prim Ministru Neville Chamberlain , b' Winston Churchill jieħu postu fl-10 ta' Mejju, 1940. L-avvanzi tal-Assi [ immodifika | immodifika s-sors ] Il- Battalja tal-Brittanja ntemmet l-avvanz Ġermaniż Ewropa tal-Punent. Fl-istess jum, il-Ġermanja invadiet lil Franza u l-Pajjiżi l-Baxxi . L- Olanda u l- Belġju ġew assaltati u waqgħu fi ftit ġimgħat, permezz tat-tattiċi tal- blitzkrieg . Il- Linja Maġinot , ffortifikata mill-Franċiżi ddawret mill-Ġermaniżi b' manuvri fuq il-ġenb minn ġol Muntanji tal- Ardennes ; dawn kienu jitqiesu bħala barriera impenetrabli għall-karrijiet armati mill-Franċiżi. Truppi Brittaniċi kienu sfurzati jevakwaw il-kontinent f' Dunkirk , bit-telf ta' ħafna mill-materjal militari li kellhom, sa' l-aħħar tax-xahar. Fl-10 ta' Ġunju, l- Italja invadiet , u ddikjarat gwerra fuq Franza u r-Renju Unit ; tnax-il jum wara, Franza ċediet u mill-ewwel inqasmet f' żoni ta' okkupazzjoni Ġermaniza u Taljana , kif ukoll stat pupazz mhux okkupat taħt ir- Reġim ta' Vichy . Fil-bidu ta' Lulju, l-qawwiet Brittaniċi attakkaw il-flotta Franċiża fl- Alġerija biex jipprevjenu li din tingħaqad ma' dik Franċiża. paratruppi Ġermaniżi Bi Franza barra mill-kunflitt, il-Ġermanja bdiet kampanja ta' superjorita tal-ajru fuq l-Ingilterra bi preparazzjoni għall- invażjoni . Il-kampanja falliet u sa Settembru l-pjanijiet tal-invażjoni ġew kanċellati. Bl-użu ta' portijiet Franċiżi okkupati, il-Flotta Ġermaniża gawdiet suċċessi fuq Flotta Rjali li kienet estiża wisq, bl-użu ta' U-boats fil-linji ta' fornitura navali Brittaniċi. L-Italja bdiet l-operazzjonijiet fil-Mediterran, billi fetħet assedju f' Malta f'Ġunju, bir-rebħ tas-Somaliland Brittanika f'Awissu, u b' inkursjonijiet fl-Eġittu okkupat mill-Brittanja fil-bidu ta' Settembru. Il-Ġappun żied l-imblokk taċ-Ċina f'Settembru bil- ħtif ta' bosta bażijiet navali fit-tramuntana tal-kolonja iżolata tal- Indoċina Franċiża . Matul dan iż-żmien kollu, l-Istati Uniti newtrali ħadu xi miżuti biex jgħinu liċ-Ċina u l-Alleati tal-Punent. F'Novembru tal-1939, l-Att tan-Newtralità Amerikan ġie amendat biex iħalli x-xiri ta' munizzjonijiet mill-Alleati. Fl-1940, wara l-waqgħa ta' Franza, il-qies tal- Flotta Navali tal-Istati Uniti tkabbret ħafna u wara l-inkursjonijiet Ġappuniżi fl-Indoċina, l-Istati Uniti imblukkaw l-esportazzjoni ta' ħadid, azzar u partijiet mekkaniċi lejn il-Ġappun. F'Settembru, l-Istati Uniti qablu li jpartu ammont ta' destroyers qodma għal bażijiet Brittaniċi fil-Karibew. Fl-aħħar ta' Settembru il- Patt Tripartit bejn il-Ġappun, l-Italja u l-Ġermanja fformaliżżaw il- Qawwiet tal-Assi . Il-patt stipula li, b'eċċezzjoni tal-Unjoni Sovjetika, kull pajjiż li jattakka l-pajjiż tal-Assi ikollu jidħol fi gwerra ma' kull wieħed mill-pajjiżi msieħba. L-Unjoni Sovjetika wriet interess li tidħol f'din l-alleanza, u f'Novembru batgħet it-test tal-patt amendat; wara offriet ukoll għajnuna ekonomika li kienet tiffavorixxi ħafna lill-Ġermanja. Il-Ġermanja baqgħet siekta fuq l-ewwel proposta, iżda qablet mat-tieni waħda. Minkejja dan il-Patt, l-Istati Uniti komplew jgħinu r-Renju Unit u ċ-Ċina bl-introduzzjoni tal-qbil Lend-Lease . L-Istati Uniti ħolqu żona ta' sigurta tikkomprendi madwar nofs l- Oċean Atlantiku bil-flotta Amerikana teskorta konvojs Brittaniċi. F'Ottubru, l- Italja invadiet il-Greċja imma fi ftit jiem l-attakk twaqqaf mill-Griegi u ġie mbuttat lura fl-Albanija. Ftit wara, fl-Afrika, qawwiet tal-Commonwealth bdew attakki fuq l-Eġittu u l-Lvant Taljan tal-Afrika. Sal-bidu tal-1941, il-qawwiet taljani intefgħu lura fil-Libja mil-Commonwealth, Churchill ordna li jintbagħtu truppi biex isaħħu l-Griegi . Ir- Flotta Taljana tilfet bosta battalji navali, bil-Flotta Rjali taqla' tliet bastimenti tal-gwerra mill-kunflitt b'attakk fuq Taranto, u ħafna bastimenti oħra magħrrqa fil- Battalja ta' Kap Matapan . Il-Ġermanja malajr interveniet biex tgħin lill-Italja. Hitler bagħat qawwiet ġermaniżi fil-Libja fi Frar u sat-tmiem ta' Marzu bdew attakk fuq il-forzi tal-Commonwealth mnaqqsin ħabba l-isforz fil-Greċja. F'xahar, il-qawwiet tal-Commonwealth reġgħu intefgħu fl-Eġittu bl-eċċezzjoni tal- port mblokkat ta' Tobruk . Il-Commonwealth pruvat teħles mill-qawwiet tal-Assi f' Mejju u f' f'Ġunju , iżda falliet fiż-żewġ okkażjonijiet. Fil-bidu t'April il-Ġermaniżi intervjenew fil-Balkani, bl-invażjoni tal-Greċja u l- Jugoslavja ; hawnhekk l-attakk irnexxa, u l-Alleati ġew sfurzati jevakwaw il-Greċja, u l-gżira ta' Kreta sal-aħħar ta' Mejju. L-Alleati xorta kellhom xi rebħiet importanti f'dan iż-żmien ukoll. Fil-Lvant Nofsani, qawwiet tal-Commonwealth l-ewwel waqqfu kolp ta' stat fl-Iraq li kellu l-għajnuna ta' ajruplani Ġermaniżi minn bażijiet Franċiżi kkontrollati mir-reġim ta' Vichy fil-mandat Franċiż fis-Sirja , wara, bl-għajnuna tal- Forces Françaises Libres , invadiet is-Sirja u l-Libanu biex iżomm milli jerġgħu jinqalgħu l-istess problemi. Fl-Atlantiku, il-Brittaniċi irnexxielhom jgħollu l-moral pubbliku billi għerrqu l-bastiment amirral tal-Ġermanja, il-Bismarck. Forsi l-ikbar suċċess f'dan iż-żmien kien fil- Battalja tal-Brittanja , fejn ir- Royal Air Force irnexxiela tirreżisti attakki mill- Luftwaffe , tant li fl-10 ta' Mejju 1941, Hitler ħassar il-kampanja tal-bombardament fuq l-Ingilterra. Fl-Asja, minkejja bosta azzjonijiet offensivi miż-żewġ naħat, il-gwerra bejn iċ-Ċina u l-Ġappun ma wasslet suċċessi lil ebda naħa. F'Awissu ta' dik is-sena, il-Komunisti Ċiniżi bdew offensiva fiċ-Ċina ċentrali; b'retaljazzjoni, il-Ġappun iddeċiedi li jdaħħal miżuri ta' rappreżalja fit-territorji okkupati. Biex iktar tiġi ikkumplikata s-sitwazzjoni, bdew jiżdiedu t-tensjonijiet bejn il-qawwiet komunisti u dawk nazzjonalisti fiċ-Ċina, li laħqu 'l ogħla f'Jannar tal-1941 , tant li l-koperazzjoni bejn iż-żewġ fazzjonijiet ċiniżi waqfet. Bis-sitwazzjoni fl-Ewropa u l-Asja bejn wieħed u ieħor stabbli, il-Ġermanja, il-Ġappun u l-Unjoni Sovjetika bdew jippreparaw għal dak li seta' jiġri wara. Is-Sovjetiċi kienu qed jibżgħu mill-espansjoni Ġermaniża, kif ukoll minn dik Ġappuniża fil-possedimenti Ewropej mogħnija b'ħafna riżorsi minerali, b'hekk l-URSS u l-Ġappun iffirmaw qbil ta' newtralità f'April, 1941. Bil-kontra, il-Ġermanja kienet diġa qed tibgħat il-qawwiet tagħha fuq il-fruntiera Sovjetika Il-Gwerra ssir globali (1941) [ immodifika | immodifika s-sors ] Infanterija Ġermaniża u vetturi armati jiġġieldu mad-difensuri Sovjetiċi fit-toroq ta' Kharkov , Ottubru 1941. Fl-aħħar jiem ta' Ġunju, il-Ġermanja, flimkien ma' pajjiżi oħra membri tal-Assi u l-Finlandja, invadiet l-Unjoni Sovjetika . Dawn kisbu u okkupaw ħafna artijiet fir-Russja tal-Punent, u kkaġunaw ħafna mejtin, u saħansitra kważi waslu sa Moska , biss bl-ibliet ta' Leningrad u l- Sebastopli mhux mirbuħa, u wara l-linja tal-gwerra. Però bil-wasla tax-xitwa kiefra fir-Russja, l-offensiva tal-Assi waqfet ħesrem u s-Sovjetiċi wettqu kontro-offensiva bl-użu ta' truppi u riservi li nġiebu mill-fruntiera mal-istat satellita tal-Ġappun, il-Manċukwo. Wara l-attakk Ġermaniż fuq is-Sovjetiċi, ir-Renju Unit beda jirkupra. F'Lulju, ir-Renju Unit u l-Unjoni Sovjetika ffurmaw alleanza militari kontra l-Ġermanja u ftit wara invadew l-Iran biex jiżguraw il- Kuritur Persjan u l-fornituri ta' żejt Iranjan. F'Awissu, ir-Renju Unit u l-Istati Uniti ħarġu ċ- Ċarter Atlantiku , viżjoni li kienet tiggarantixxi "d-dritt ta' kull poplu li jagħżel il-forma ta' gvern li ried". F'Novembru, qawwiet tal-Commonwealth bdew kontro-offensiva fid-deżert , u rebħu lura kull avvanz li kienu għamlu l-qawwiet Ġermaniżi u Taljani. Animazzjoni tat-Teatru Ewropew WWII. Il-Ġappun, bl-isperanza li tgawdi mill-kontroll Ġermaniż tal-Olanda, għamlet bosta talbiet, fostom anke fornitura kostanti ta' żejt, mill- Indji Olandiżi tal-Lvant ; dawn il-laqgħat fallew f'Ġunju. F'Lulju, il-Ġappun ħatfu l-kontroll militari tal-Indoċina tan-nofsinhar għax mhux talli setgħet tinfluwenza l-Olanda aħjar, iżda kienet tkompli toħnoq liċ-Ċina; u jekk kien hemm bżonn ta' gwerra, kienet tipprovdi bosta bażijiet strateġiċi kontra l-Brittanja u l-Amerika. L-Istati Uniti, r-Renju Unit u l-pajjiżi l-ożra tal-punent u l-gvernijiet f'eżilju, wieġbu għal din l-inkursjoni Ġappuniża bil-friża tal-assi u l-beni Ġappuniżi, u l-Istati Uniti, li waħedha kienet tforni mat-80% taż-żejt tal-Ġappun, żiedet iż-żejt mal-lista ta' riżorsi fl-imblokk tal-Ġappun. B'dan l-imblokk mhux mistenni, il-Ġappun kien sfurzat li jew jirtita mill-aggressjoni fl-Asja, jew inkella jaħtaf iż-żejt li ried b'mod dirett; il-forzi militar ġappuniżi ma kienux jaqblu mal-ewwel għażla, u ħafna minnhom ikkunsidraw l-imblokk taż-żejt bħala dikjarazzjoni ta' gwerra siekta. Frar 1942 Battalja ta 'Singapor rat 80000 suldati alleati maqbudin mill-Ġappuniżi . Il- Kwartierġenerali Imperjali Ġappuniż iddeċieda li jespandi perimetru ta' gżejjer għal ġoċ-ċentru tal-Paċifiku biex jgħin fi gwerra difensiva u fl-istess ħin ikun jista' jiddisponi mir-riżorsi tax-Xlokk tal-Asja; biex jipprevjeni l-agressjoni u allura jiżgura l-perimetru, kien pjanat li tiġi newtraliżżata mill-bidu l- Flotta tal-Istati Uniti tal-Paċifiku . Fis-7 ta' Settembru, il-Ġappun attakka possedimenti Brittaniċi, Olandiżi u Amerikani b'offensivi kważi simultanei fl-Asja tax-xlokk u l-Paċifiku ċentrali, fostom attakk fuq il-bażi navali Amerikana ta' Pearl Harbor . Dawn l-attakki ġiegħlu lill-Istati Uniti, r- Renju Unit , ċ-Ċina, u l-Alleati l-oħra tal-punent biex jiddikjaraw gwerra fuq il-Ġappun. L-Italja, il-Ġermanja, u l-membri l-oħra tal-Patt Tripartit wieġbu billi jiddikjaraw gwerra fuq l-Istati Uniti. F'Jannar, l-Istati Uniti, r-Renju Unit, l-Unjoni Sovjetika u ċ-Ċina, flimkien ma' tnejn-u-għoxrin stat żgħir jew gvern f'eżilju, ħarġu d- Dikjarazzjoni mill-Ġnus Magħquda , bl-affirmazjoni mil-ġdid taċ-Ċarter Atlantiku u l-formaliżazzjoni tal-alleanza kontra l-qawwiet tal-Assi. L-Unjoni Sovjetika ma mexietx bi sħiħ ma' din id-dikjarazzjoni, billi żammet il-qbil li kellhom mal-Ġappun, kif ukoll astjeniet mill-prinċipju ta' determinazjoni poplari. Il-Qawwiet tal-Assi, però, rnexxew ikomplu l-offensivi tagħhom. Il-Ġappun kien kważi żataf ix-Xlokk tal-Asja sal-aħħar t'April, 1942, keċċew l-Alleati minn Burma, ħadu ħafna priġunieri fil-Filippini, fil-Malaja,fl-Indji tal-Lvant Olandiżi u f'Singapore. Ibbumbardaw il-bażi navali f'Darwin fl-Awstralja, u għerrqu bosta bastimenti Alleati, mhux biss f'Pearl Harbor, imma wkoll il-Prince of Wales u r-Repulse fil-Baħar Ċiniż tan-Nofsinhar, fil-Baħar ta' Java u l-Oċejan Indjan. L-uniku suċċessi ta' veru kontra l-Ġappun kienu r-rebħa fejn il-belt ta' Changsha fil-bidu ta' Jannar, 1942, u rebħa psikoloġika bil- bumbardament tal-kapitali ġappuniża, Tokyo f'April. Il-Ġermanja kienet kapaċi tieħu l-offensiva mill-ġdid ukoll. Il-Flotta Ġermaniża ndunat bl-inesperjenza Amerikana fil-kamp t' gwerra bis-sottomarini, u rnexxiela tgħarraq riżorsi importanti fejn il-kosta Amerikana. Fid-deżert, bdew offensiva f'Jannar, u mbuttaw il-qawwiet Brittaniċi lura lejn il Linja ta' Gazala sal-bidu ta' Frar. Fl-Unjoni Sovjetika, il-kontro-offensiva Sovjetika tax-xitwa kienet spiċċat sa' Marzu. Fid-deżert kien hemm kalma mhux tas-soltu fl-operazzjonijiet, li tat ċans lill-Ġermanja tipprepara għall-offensiva li jmiss Idur ir-riħ [ immodifika | immodifika s-sors ] Fil-bidu ta' Jannar, il-Ġappun beda jipprova jaħtaf Port Moresby permezz t' assalt amfibju biex tinqatal-linja ta' komunikazzjoni bejn l-Istati Uniti u l-Awstralja. L-Alleati, però, interċettaw il-messaġġ, u dawwru lura l-qawwiet navali , u waqqfu l-invażjoni. Il-pjan li jmiss tal-Ġappun, mmotivat mill-bombardament ta' Tokyo, kien li jinħataf l- Atoll ta' Midway biex jinġibdu l-aircraftcarriers Amerikani u jgħerrquhom hemm; bħala diverżjoni, il-Ġappun kellu jibgħat forzi ta' diverżjoni billi jokkupa l-gżejjer Alewzjani . Fil-bidu ta' Jannar, il-Ġappun beda jimxi ma' dawn il-pjanijiet iżda l-Amerikani, li rnexxielhom jiddeċifraw il-kodiċi sigrieti navali ġappuniżi, kienu jafu b'kollox u użaw din l-informazzjoni biex jirbħu vittorja deċiżiva fuq il- Flotta Imperjali Ġappuniża . Bil-kapaċità tagħhom drastikament mnaqqsa ħabba t-telfa f'Midway, il-Ġappun prova jikkonċentra l-attakki tiegħu billi jiffukaw fuq Port Moresby , b'kampanja minn fuq l- art fit- Territorju tal-Papua . L-Amerikani pjanaw kontro-attak fuq il-Ġappuniżi, b'pożizjonijiet fin-nofsinhar tal- Gżejjer Solomon , primarjament Guadalcanal , bħala l-ewwel pass biex jinħataf Rabaul , il-bażi navali ġappuniża prinċipali fix-Xlokk tal-Asja. Iż-żewġ pjanijiet bdew f'Lulju, però sa nofs Settembru, il-battalja ta' Guadalcanal ħadet prijorità, u t-truppi ta' New Guinea ġew ordnati li jirtiraw minn Port Moresby għall-provinċja ta' Oro. Guadalcanal malajr sar punt fokali għaż-żewġ naħat b'użu ta' truppi u materjal f' battalja t'attrizzjoni . Sal-bidu tal- 1943, il-Ġappuniżi tilfu l-gżira u rtiraw it-truppi . F'Burma, qawwiet tal-Commonwealth bdew żewġ operazzjonijiet. L-ewwel waħda, kienet offensiva fir-reġjun tal-Arakan fl-aħħar tal-1942, marret ħażin ħafna tant li kellha ssir irtitrata lura fl-India sa Mejju tal-1943. It-tieni kienet id-dħul ta' qawwiet irregolari wara l-linji Ġappuniżi fi Frar, li sal-aħħar t'April, kienet kisbet riżultati dubjużi ħafna. Fuq il-front tal-lvant tal-Ġermanja, l-Assi rebaħ f'offensiva Sovjetika fil- peniżola ta' kerch u f' Kharkov u wara bdew l- offensiva tas-sajf kontra r-Russja tan-nofsinhar f'Ġunju, 1942, bl-għan li jintrebaħ iż-żejt tal-Kawkażu. Is-Sovjetiċi ddeċidew li jwaqqfu l-irtirata tagħhom fi Stalingrad, u sa nofs Novembru l-Ġermaniżi kważi ħadu Stalingrad fi ġlied qalil fit-toroq. Meta s-Sovjetiċi bdew it- tieni kontro-offensiva tax-xitwa , bil- qtugħ tal-forzi ġermaniżi fi Stalingrad u attakk fuq il-qagħdiet Ġermaniżi fi Rzhev fejn Moska , fejn tal-aħħar falliet serjament. Sa' l-bidu ta' Frar, l-Armata Ġermaniża kienet soffriet telfiet qawwija; it-truppi fi Stalingrad kellhom iċedu u l-linja tal-front ġiet imbuttata lil hinn minn fejn bdiet l-offensiva Ġermaniża. F'nofs Frar, wara li attakk Sovjetiku batta fix-xejn, il-Ġermaniżi reġgħu attakkaw Kharkov, u dawwru l-belt russa ta' Kursk bil-qagħdiet tagħhom. Fil-punent, bil-biża li l-Ġappun seta' juża l-gżira ta' Madagaskar bħala bażi ġiegħel lil Brittaniċi jinvadu l-gżira f'Mejju, 1942. Dan is-suċċess malajr intesa meta offensiva Ġermaniża fil-Libja imbuttat il-qawwiet Alleati sa' r-raħal ta' El-Alamein, fejn irnexxielhom iwaqqfu l-qawwiet tal-Assi . Fil-kontinent, rejds ta' kommandos Alleati fuq objettivi strateġiċi, fostom ir- rejd diżastruż fuq Dieppe , wrew in-nuqqas ta' saħħa tal-Alleati tal-Punent biex jattwaw invażjoni tal-Ewropa kontinentali mingħajr preparazjoni bir-reqqa, materjal aħjar, u sigurtà operazjonali. F'Awissu l-Alleati rnexxielhom jimbuttaw t-tieni attakk fuq El Alamein u, b'telf qawwi ħafna, rnexxielhom iwasslu munizzjonijiet u għajnuna lill-gżira assedjata ta' Malta . Ftit xhur wara, l-Alleati bdew attakk tagħhom fl-Eġittu, qalgħu l-qawwiet tal-Assi mit-trunċieri u bdew javvanzaw minn ġol-Libja. Fuq ix-xtajta l-oħra tal-Afrika, invażjoni Anglo-Amerikana ta' t-Tramuntana Franċiż tal-Afrika , wasslet biex ir-reġjun daħlet fil-gwerra mal-Alleati. Hitler wieġeb għal din il-bidla ta' naħat billi okkupa l-bqija ta' Franza , anki jekk l-Ammiraljat ta' Vichy rnexxielu jgħarraq il-flotta Franċiża biex ma taqax f'idejn Ġermaniżi. Il-qawwiet tal-Assi f'dawn in-naħat irtiraw fit- Tuniżija , li kienet issa imdawra; din intrebħet mill-Alleati sa Mejju 1943. L-Alleati jibdew javvanzaw (1942) [ immodifika | immodifika s-sors ] bombi adsa Amerikani jeżerċitaw il- Mikuma fil- Battalja tal-Midway , Ġunju 1942 . Fl-Asja kontinentali, il-Ġappuniżi bdew żewġ offensivi serji. L-ewwel, li bdiet f'Marzu, 1944, kienet kontra l-qawwiet Brittaniċi f' Assam, fl-Indja u malajr wassal biex il-qawwiet ġermaniħi jassedjaw il-pożizzjonijiet tal-Commonwealth f' Imphal u Kohima ; imma sa Mejju, qawwiet ġappuniżi oħra kienu qed jiġu assedjati f' Myitkyina minn qawwiet ċiniżi li nvadew it-tramuntana ta' Burma fl-aħħar tal-1943. It- tieni kienet fiċ-Ċina , bl-għan li jitkissru l-forzi armati ċiniżi, jiżguraw il-ferroviji bejn it-territorju okkupat mill-Ġappun, u l-bażijiet tal-ajru Amerikani. Sa Ġunju, il-Ġappuniżi rebħu l-provinċja ta' Ħenan u reġgħu bdew l-attak għal Changshafil -provinċja tal- Ħunan . Wara l-kampanja fi Guadalcanal, l-Alleati bdew bosta operazzjonijiet kontra l-Ġappun fil-Paċifiku. F'Mejju, 1943, qawwiet Amerikani ntbagħtu fil-Gżejjer Alewzjani b'risposta għall-attakk ġappuniż ; ftit wara nbdew operazzjonijiet fejn Rabaul biex tiġi iżolata din il-bażi , u attentat biex jinfetaħ il-perimetru ġappuniż fil-Paċifiku fil-gżejjer Gilbert u Marshall . Sal-aħħar ta' Marzu, 1944, l-Alleati kienu laħqu dawn l-għanijiet, biż-żieda tan- newtraliżazzjoni ta' bażi ġappuniża kbira oħra fil- Gżejjer Caroline . F'April, l-Alleati bdew operazzjoni biex terġa tittieħed in-New Guinea tal-Punent . Suldati Sovjetiċi jattakkaw dar matul il- Battalja ta 'Stalingrad , 1943. Fil-Mediterran, qawwiet Alleati bdew invażjoni ta' Sqallija fil-bidu ta' Lulju, 1943. L-attakk fuq it-territorju taljan, biż-żieda tal-ħafna telfiet fil-gwerra, wasslet għall-waqgħa u l-arrest ta' Mussolini iktar tard matul ix-xahar. L-Alleati komplew din l-azzjoni meta invadew il-peniżola taljana fil-bidu ta' Settembru, u wkoll iffirmaw armistizju mal-Italja . Meta l-armistizju ġie dikjarat fit-8 ta' Settembru, il-Ġermanja wieġbet billi żarmat il-qawwiet Taljani, bil-ħtif ta' art Taljana, u l-bini ta' bosta linji difensivi. Fit-12 ta' Settembru qawwiet speċjali Ġermaniżi ħatfu l-Mussolini li waqqaf ir- stat satellita ġdid fit-territorju taljan okkupat mill-Ġermanja . L-Alleati ġġieldu bosta battalji u għaddew minn ħafna minn dawn il-linja, sakemm ma' waslu fejn il-linja difensiva prinċipali Ġermaniża f'nofs Novembru. F'Jannar 1944, l-Alleati attakkaw il-linja fejn Monte Cassino u pruvaw iduru l-linja bi żbarki f'Anzio .Sal-aħħar ta' Mejju, iż-żewġ offensivi rnexxew, però bosta diviżjonijiet ġermaniżi ħarbu; fl-4 ta' Ġunju Ruma ntrebħet. kanuni Kruċjati Britaniċi jiċċaqalqu biex jgħaddu mill-pożizzjonijiet matul il- Tramuntana Kampanja Afrika . Operazzjonijiet ġermaniżi fl-Atlantiku wkoll soffrew f'dan il-perijodu. Sa Mejju 1943, telfiet ta' sottomarini kienu tant għoljin li l-attakki kellhom jiġu sospiżi, għax il-kontro-miżuri Alleati bdew issiru iktar u iktar effettivi. Fl-Unjoni Sovjetika, il-Ġermaniżi użaw ir-rebbiegħa u l-bidu tas-sajf tal-1943 jagħmlu l-preparazzjonijiet għal attakk kbir madwar il-belt ta' Kursk; is-Sovjetiċi bdew ndunaw b'din l-azzjoni u użaw dak il-ħin biex jiffortifikaw dik l-area. Fl-4 ta' Lulju, il-Ġermaniżi bdew l-attakk , imma madwar ġimgħa wara Hitler ikkanċella l-operazzjoni. Is-Sovjetiċi kienu kapaċi jibdew kontro-offensiva, u sa Ġunju 1944, kienu keċċew il-qawwiet tal-Assi u għamlu inkursjonijiet fir-Rumanija . F'Novembru, 1943, Franklin Roosevelt uWinston Churchill iltaqgħu ma' Chiang Kai-shek fil-Kajr u wara ma' Joseph Stalin f' Tehran . Fl-ewwel konferenza ġie determinat ir-ritorn tal-artijiet okkupati mill-ġappuniżi, u fit-tieni, l-Alleati tal-Punent qablu li jinvadu l-Ewropa Kontinentali fl-1944 u li l-Unjoni Sovjetika kellha tiddikjara gwerra fuq il-Ġappun fi tlett xhur mir-rebħa fuq il-Ġermanja. L-Alleati jersqu qrib (1944) [ immodifika | immodifika s-sors ] Alleati Invażjoni tal-Normandija , Ġunju 6, 1944 Persunal Armata ħamra u tagħmir jaqsmu xmara waqt is-Sajf tramuntana tal-1944 Wara l-avvanzata Sovjetika u l-ħelsien tal-belt ta' Leningrad fi Frar 1944, il-kontro-offensiva inżammetfuq il-fruntiera tal-Estonja għal 8 xhur mill-forzi armati ġermanizi, megħjuna minn truppi Estoni maqbuda bil-lieva, u bl-isperanza li jerġgħu jwaqqfu l-istat sovran tal-Estonja. Fis-6 ta' Ġunju 1944, (magħrufa bħala D-Day ), l-Alleati tal-Punent invadew it-tramuntana ta' Franza u, wara li tmexxew ħafna diviżjonijiet mill-Italja, Operazzjoni Dragoonin -nofsinhar ta' Franza wkoll. Matul il-bqija tas-sena, l-Alleati tal-Punent imbuttaw il-qawwiet ġermaniżi fil-punent tal-Ewropa, u fl-Italja waslu sal- l-aħħar linja difensiva . Ribelli Pollakki matul il- Rivoluzzjoni Varsavja , li fih madwar 200,000 persuni ċivili jitmermru. Fit-22 ta' Ġunju, is-Sovjetiċi bdew attakk fil-Belarus (magħrufa bħala " Operazzjoni Bagration ") li wasslet għad-distruzzjoni totali tal-Grupp Ċentrali tal-Armata Ġermaniża. Ftit żmien wara, offensiva strateġika Sovjetika kbira tefgħet it-truppi Ġermaniżi fl-Ukrajna lura fil-Lvant tal-Polonja. Assalti oħra kontra l-Finlandja u r-Rumanija ġabu suċċessi oħra kbar,bil-Bulgaria, r-Rumanija u l-Finlandja jiffirmaw armistizji mal-Unjoni Sovjetika u wasslu biex qawwiet ta' reżistenza Pollakki biex jibdew bosta rvelli fil-Polonja , anki jekk l-ikbar wieħed minn dawn, f' Varsavja , ġie kondott mingħajr assistenza Sovjetika u twaqqaf wara ħafna taqbid mill-Ġermaniżi. F'Ottubru, is-Sovjetiċi bdew attakk aħrax fuq it-territorju Ungeriż okkupat mill-Ġermanja li damet għaddejja sal-waqgħa ta' Budapest fi Frar tal-1945. Sal-bidu ta' Lulju, qawwiet tal-Commonwealth fix-Xlokk tal-Asja ħelsu mill-assedju ġappuniż t'Assam, u tefgħu lil ġappuniżi lura fix-xmara Chindwin mentri ċ-Ċiniżi okkupaw lil Myitkyina. Fiċ-Ċina, il-Ġappuniżi kellhom iktar suċċessi, fejn irnexxielhom jirbħu l-belt ta' Changsha f'nofs Ġunju u dik ta' Ħengyang fil-bidu t'Awissu. Ftit wara, dawn daħlu fil-provinċja ta' Guangxi, u rebħu bosta battalji kontra qawwiet ċiniżi f'Guilin u Liuzhou f'Novembru, kif ukoll għaqqdu l-qawwiet tagħhom fiċ-Ċina u l-Indoċina sa nofs Diċembru. Fil-Paċifiku, il-qawwiet Amerikani komplew jimbuttaw il-perimetru tal-Paċifiku. F'nofs Ġunju, fl-1944, bdew offensiva kontra l-gżejjer Mariana u Palau, u rnexxielhom jagħmlu rebħa kbira fil- Baħar tal-Filippini fi ftit ġranet. Fl-aħħar t'Ottubru, qawwiet Amerikani invadew il-gżira filippina ta' Leyte ; ftit wara, forzi navali Alleati rebħu battalja oħra fil- Golf ta' Leyte . Waqgħa tal-Assi, rebħa Alleata [ immodifika | immodifika s-sors ] Fis-6 ta' Diċembru, 1944 qawwiet Ġermaniżi wettqu kontro-attakk fl-Ardennes kontra l-Alleati tal-Punent. L-Alleati damu sitt ġimgħat biex iwaqqfu dan l-attakk. Is-Sovjetiċi attakkaw minn ġol-Ungerija, filwaqt li l-Ġermaniżi telqu l-Greċja, l-Albanija u ġew imbuttati minn nofsinhar tal-Jugoslavja mill-partiġġjani. Fl-Italja, l-Alleati tal-Punent baqgħu mwaħħlin mal-aħħar linja difensiva. F'nofs Jannar tal-1945, is-Sovjetiċi attakkaw minn ġol-Polonja, u mbuttaw lura kważi sax-xmara Oder fil-Ġermanja, u ħatfu l-Prussja tal-Lvant . Fl-4 ta' Frar, mexxejja Amerikani, Brittaniċi, u Sovjetiċi iltaqgħu f' Yalta . Dawn qablu fuq l-okkupazzjoni tal-Ġermanja wara l-gwerra u kkonfermaw id-dħul tal-Unjoni Sovjetika kontra l-Ġappun x'ħin il-Ġermanja ċċedi. Fi Frar, qawwiet tal-Alleati tal-Punent daħlu fil-Ġermanja u waslu sax-xmara Renu , sakemm is-Sovjetiċi invadew il-Pomerania u s- Silesia . F'Marzu, l-Alleati tal-Punent daru r-reġjun industrijali tar- Ruhr , u qatgħu barra ħafna truppi Ġermaniżi, filwaqt li s-Sovjetiċi avvanzaw fuq Vjenna . Fil-bidu t'April, l-Alleati tal-Punent imbuttaw 'il quddiem fl-Italja u daħlu sew fil-Ġermanja tal-punent; f'dan iż-żmien, is-Sovjetiċi daħlu f'Berlin . F' Jum l-Elba , il-25 t'April, elementi minn forzi Amerikani u Sovjetiċi iltaqgħu flimkien fuq ix-xmara Elba, effetivament l-Alleati kienu qasmu l-Ġermanja fi tnejn. Ħafna tibdiliet fit-tmexxija tal-pajjiżi bdew jiġru f'dan iż-żmien. Fit-12 t'April, miet il-President Amerikan Roosevelt; li ġie segwit minn Harry Truman . Mussolini inqatel mill- partiġġjani taljani fit-28 t'April u jumejn wara, Hitler kkommetta swiċidju , u ġie segwit bħala mexxej tal-Ġermanja minn Karl Dönitz . Il-qawwiet Ġermaniżi ċedew fl-Italja fid-29 t'April u fl- Ewropa tal-Punent fis-7 ta' Mejju . Imma l-ġlied baqa' sejjer fuq il-front tal-lvant sakemm il-Ġermaniżi ċedew b'mod speċifiku lis-Sovjetiċi fit-8 ta' Mejju . Fi Praga , ir-reżistenza ta' elementi Ġermaniżi baqgħet għaddejja sal-11 ta' Mejju. Fit-teatru Paċifiku, qawwiet Amerikani bdew javvanzaw fuq il-Filippini u ħadu l-Leyte kollha f'1944. Wara niżlu f' Lużon f'Jannar 1945 u f' Mindanao f'Marzu.Qawwiet Ċiniżi u Brittaniċi rebħu lill-Ġappuniżi fit-tramuntana ta' Burma, u minn Ottubru sa Marzu bdew jimbuttaw sa Rangoon , li laħqu fit-3 ta' Mejju. Qawwiet Amerikani bdew jersqu lejn il-Ġappun, u ħadu lil Iwo Jima sa Marzu, u Okinawa sa Ġunju. Il-ħin kollu waqt dawn l-avvanzati, bombardamenti Amerikani mill-ajru ħassru bliet Ġappuniżi, u sottomarini Amerikani fgaw l-importazzjoni ta' kull tip ta' prodott lejn il-Ġappun. Fil-11 ta' Lulju, mexxejja Alleati ltaqgħu f'Potsdam, fejn Berlin . Dawn kkonfermaw il-qbil preċedenti fuq il-Ġermanja u reġgħu tennew li l-Ġappun kellu jċedi bla ebda kundizzjoni speċifikament bil-kliem li "l-alternattiva għall-Ġappun kienet distruzzjoni immedjata u kompleta " Matul din il-konferenza, ir-Renju Unit żamm elezzjoni ġenerali u Clement Attlee ħa post Churchill bħala Prim Ministru. Meta l-Ġappun kompla jmeri li jċedi bla kundizzjoni, l-Istati Uniti tefgħu bombi atomiċi fuq l-ibliet Ġappuniżi ta' Ħiroxima u Nagasaki fil-bidu t'Awissu. Bejniet dawn iż-żewġ bombi, is-Sovjetiċi invadiet it-territorju tal-Manċurja , okkupat mill-Ġappun, Kif miftiehem f'Yalta. Fil-15 t'Awissu, 1945 il-Ġappun ċeda, u l-gwerra ntemmet. Truppi Amerikani u Sovjetiċi jiltaqgħu April 1945 , lvant ta 'l- xmara-Elbe . Triq ġo Berlin qerdu fil-post ċentru tal-belt Battalja ta 'Berlin , meħud 3 lulju, 1945. splużjoni atomika fi Nagasaki , 9 Awissu, 1945. Deskrizzjoni tal-gwerra Il-gwerra fiċ-Ċina [ immodifika | immodifika s-sors ] Il-fdalijiet ta 'Guernica wara l-ibbumbardjar . F'nofs l-1937, wara l- Inċident fuq il-Pont Marku Polo , il-Ġappun beda invażjoni sħiħa taċ-Ċina. Is-Sovjetiċi mill-ewwel għenu liċ-Ċiniżi, fatt li ħassar il-kooperazjoni Ċiniża mal-Ġermanja. Wara assalt fuq Shanghai , il-Ġappuniżi tefgħu lura l-qawwiet Ċiniżi, bil-ħtif tal-kapitali Nanġing f'Diċembru. F'Ġunju tal- 1938, iċ-Ċiniżi żammew l-avvanzata Ġappuniża billi għarrqu x- Xmara s-Safra ; anki jekk dan ta' liċ-Ċiniżi biżżejjed ħin biex tiġi ffortifikata l-belt ta' Wuħan , il-belt xorta wagħet f'idejn Ġappuniżi sa Ottubru. F'dan iż-żmien, forzi ġappuniżi u sovetiċi ingaġġaw f'battalja minuri fuq l-Għadira Khasan; f'Mejju tal-1939, dawn ġew involuti f'battalja eħrex f'Khalkhin Gol, li spiċċat bi qbil ta' waqfien mill-ġlied fil- 15 ta' Settembru u r-restawr tal-istat ante bellum . Il-gwerra fiċ-Ċina F'nofs l-1937, wara l- Inċident fuq il-Pont Marku Polo , il-Ġappun beda invażjoni sħiħa taċ-Ċina. Is-Sovjetiċi mill-ewwel għenu liċ-Ċiniżi, fatt li ħassar il-kooperazjoni Ċiniża mal-Ġermanja. Wara assalt fuq Shanghai , il-Ġappuniżi tefgħu lura l-qawwiet Ċiniżi, bil-ħtif tal-kapitali Nanġing f'Diċembru. F'Ġunju tal- 1938, iċ-Ċiniżi żammew l-avvanzata Ġappuniża billi għarrqu x- Xmara s-Safra ; anki jekk dan ta' liċ-Ċiniżi biżżejjed ħin biex tiġi ffortifikata l-belt ta' Wuħan , il-belt xorta wagħet f'idejn Ġappuniżi sa Ottubru. F'dan iż-żmien, forzi ġappuniżi u sovetiċi ingaġġaw f'battalja minuri fuq l-Għadira Khasan; f'Mejju tal-1939, dawn ġew involuti f'battalja eħrex f'Khalkhin Gol, li spiċċat bi qbil ta' waqfien mill-ġlied fil- 15 ta' Settembru u r-restawr tal-istat ante bellum . Il-gwerra tibda fl-Ewropa [ immodifika | immodifika s-sors ] Ċiniż b'arma tan-nar ġo bejta fil- Battalja ta 'Shanghai , 1937. Fl-Ewropa, il-Ġermanja u l-Italja bdew jippreparaw għat-taqbid. F'Marzu tal-1938, il-Ġermanja permezz tal- Anschluss , għaqqdet lill-Awstrija mat-territorju tagħha, li ma tantx ġabet rekriminazzjonijiet mill-poetnzi Ewropej. Inkuraġġat, Hitler beda jesponi drittijiet ġermaniżi fuq is- Sudetenland ; Franza u l-Gran Brittanja ħallewh jannessi dawn l-artijiet fil- Qbil ta' Munich , bil-wiegħda li din kellha tkun l-aħħar domanda territorjali tal-Ġermanja. Hitler malajr ħarab mil-wiegħda tiegħu. F' Marzu tal-1939, il-Ġermanja u l-Ungerija okkupaw iċ-Ċekoslovakkja sħiħa, flimkien. Allarmat, u b'Hitler jiddikjara li ried jerġa' jagħqqad lil belt ta' Danżing, u allura kellu pretensjonijiet għal art Pollakka, Franza u r-Renju Unit ħarġu garanzija tal-indipendenza tal-Polonja; meta l-Italja invadiet l- Albanija f'April, l-istess garanzija ġiet estiża lir- Rumanija u l- Greċja . L-Unjoni Sovjetika pruvat tallea ruħha ma' Franza u r-Renju Unit, imma ġiet injorata minħabba suspetti fuq il-motivi tagħha u l-kapaċitajiet militari li kellha. Ftit wara l-garanziji Franko-Britanniċi lejn il-Polonja, il-Ġermanja u l-Italja fformalizzaw l-alleanza tagħhom bil- Patt tal-Azzar . Bit-twemmin li Franza u r-Renju Unit ma xtaqux jalleaw rwieħhom mal-Unjoni Sovjetika, minħabba l-biża li din setgħet tiżviluppa fi gwerra bejn Hitler u l-URSS bil-qawwiet tal-Punent jibqgħu newtrali jew jgħinu lil Hitler, l-Unjoni Sovjetika ddeċiedet li tidħol fi qbil li ma tattakkax lil Ġermanja permezz tal –Patt Molotov Ribbentrop. Dan il patt kien jinkludi qbil sigriet biex l-Ewropa tal-Lvant tinqasam bejniethom. Fl- 1 ta' Settembru, 1939, Adolf Hitler ħabbar l-invażjoni tal- Polonja u t-Tieni Gwerra Dinjija bdiet. Franza, l-Gran Brittanja, u l-Pajjiżi tal- Commonwealth ddikjaraw gwerra fuq il-Ġermanja, imma ftit li xejn wettqu operazzjonijiet belliċi apparti attakk zgħir Franċiż fis-Saarland. F' nofs Settembru, wara li ġie ffirmat armistizju mal-Ġappun, l-Unjoni Sovjetika bdiet l-invażjoni tagħha tal-Polonja. Sa' l-bidu t' Ottubru, il-Polonja nqasmet bejn il-Ġermanja u l-Unjoni Sovjetika. Matul il-battalji fil-Polonja, il-Ġappun beda l-ewwel attakk fuq il-belt ċiniża strateġikament importanti ta' Changsha; dan l-attakk falla sal-bidu t'Ottubru. Mix-xellug għal-lemin (quddiem): Chamberlain Wara l-invażjoni tal-Polonja, l-Unjoni Sovjetika bdiet l-okkupazzjoni tal- Pajjiżi Baltiċi . Reżistenza Finlandiża għal pressjonijiet mill-Unjoni Sovjetika f' l-aħħar ta' Novembru wassal għall- Gwerra tax-Xitwa li damet erba' xhur, u ntemmet bit- Trattat ta' Paċi ta' Moska b'konċessjonijiet Finlandiżi. Franza u r-Renju Unit trattaw l-attakk tal-Unjoni Sovjetika fuq il-Finlandja daqslikieku din daħlet fil-gwerra fuq in-naħa tal-Ġermanja, u rrispondew għal din l-invażjoni billi qablu mal-espulsjoni tas-Sovjetiċi mill-Lega tan-Nazzjonijiet. Anki jekk iċ-Ċina kellha l-saħħa timponi l-veto fuq din l-azzjoni, hi la riedet tinqata mill-potenzi tal-punent u wisq inqas mill-Unjoni Sovjetika u għalhekk iddeċidiet li tastjeni. L-Unjoni Sovjetika xorta ma qablitx ma' din l-azzjoni, u ssospendiet kull għajnuna militari għaċ-Ċina. Sa' Ġunju 1940, il-Forzi Armati Sovjetiċi lestew l- okkupazjoni tal-istati ta' mal-Baltiku . Fl-Ewropa tal-Punent, qawwiet Brittaniċi bdew l-ewwel jibagħtu l-ewwel truppi fuq il-kontinent, però la l-Ġermanja u lanqas l-Alleati ma bdew attakki diretti fuq l-għadu. F'April, il-Ġermanja invadiet id-Danimarka u n-Norveġja biex tiddefendi l-fornituri ta' minerali tal-ħadid mill-iSvezja, li l-Alleati żgur kienu ser jippruvaw iwaqqfu. Id- Danimarka ikkapitulat mill-ewwel, u minkejja s-support tal-Alleati , in- Norveġja intrebħet f'inqas minn xahrejn. Skuntentizza Brittanika fuq il-Kampanja Norveġjiża wasslet għall-waqgħa tal-Prim Ministru Neville Chamberlain , b' Winston Churchill jieħu postu fl-10 ta' Mejju, 1940. Il-gwerra tibda fl-Ewropa Fl-Ewropa, il-Ġermanja u l-Italja bdew jippreparaw għat-taqbid. F'Marzu tal-1938, il-Ġermanja permezz tal- Anschluss , għaqqdet lill-Awstrija mat-territorju tagħha, li ma tantx ġabet rekriminazzjonijiet mill-poetnzi Ewropej. Inkuraġġat, Hitler beda jesponi drittijiet ġermaniżi fuq is- Sudetenland ; Franza u l-Gran Brittanja ħallewh jannessi dawn l-artijiet fil- Qbil ta' Munich , bil-wiegħda li din kellha tkun l-aħħar domanda territorjali tal-Ġermanja. Hitler malajr ħarab mil-wiegħda tiegħu. F' Marzu tal-1939, il-Ġermanja u l-Ungerija okkupaw iċ-Ċekoslovakkja sħiħa, flimkien. Allarmat, u b'Hitler jiddikjara li ried jerġa' jagħqqad lil belt ta' Danżing, u allura kellu pretensjonijiet għal art Pollakka, Franza u r-Renju Unit ħarġu garanzija tal-indipendenza tal-Polonja; meta l-Italja invadiet l- Albanija f'April, l-istess garanzija ġiet estiża lir- Rumanija u l- Greċja . L-Unjoni Sovjetika pruvat tallea ruħha ma' Franza u r-Renju Unit, imma ġiet injorata minħabba suspetti fuq il-motivi tagħha u l-kapaċitajiet militari li kellha. Ftit wara l-garanziji Franko-Britanniċi lejn il-Polonja, il-Ġermanja u l-Italja fformalizzaw l-alleanza tagħhom bil- Patt tal-Azzar . Bit-twemmin li Franza u r-Renju Unit ma xtaqux jalleaw rwieħhom mal-Unjoni Sovjetika, minħabba l-biża li din setgħet tiżviluppa fi gwerra bejn Hitler u l-URSS bil-qawwiet tal-Punent jibqgħu newtrali jew jgħinu lil Hitler, l-Unjoni Sovjetika ddeċiedet li tidħol fi qbil li ma tattakkax lil Ġermanja permezz tal –Patt Molotov Ribbentrop. Dan il patt kien jinkludi qbil sigriet biex l-Ewropa tal-Lvant tinqasam bejniethom. Fl- 1 ta' Settembru, 1939, Adolf Hitler ħabbar l-invażjoni tal- Polonja u t-Tieni Gwerra Dinjija bdiet. Franza, l-Gran Brittanja, u l-Pajjiżi tal- Commonwealth ddikjaraw gwerra fuq il-Ġermanja, imma ftit li xejn wettqu operazzjonijiet belliċi apparti attakk zgħir Franċiż fis-Saarland. F' nofs Settembru, wara li ġie ffirmat armistizju mal-Ġappun, l-Unjoni Sovjetika bdiet l-invażjoni tagħha tal-Polonja. Sa' l-bidu t' Ottubru, il-Polonja nqasmet bejn il-Ġermanja u l-Unjoni Sovjetika. Matul il-battalji fil-Polonja, il-Ġappun beda l-ewwel attakk fuq il-belt ċiniża strateġikament importanti ta' Changsha; dan l-attakk falla sal-bidu t'Ottubru. Wara l-invażjoni tal-Polonja, l-Unjoni Sovjetika bdiet l-okkupazzjoni tal- Pajjiżi Baltiċi . Reżistenza Finlandiża għal pressjonijiet mill-Unjoni Sovjetika f' l-aħħar ta' Novembru wassal għall- Gwerra tax-Xitwa li damet erba' xhur, u ntemmet bit- Trattat ta' Paċi ta' Moska b'konċessjonijiet Finlandiżi. Franza u r-Renju Unit trattaw l-attakk tal-Unjoni Sovjetika fuq il-Finlandja daqslikieku din daħlet fil-gwerra fuq in-naħa tal-Ġermanja, u rrispondew għal din l-invażjoni billi qablu mal-espulsjoni tas-Sovjetiċi mill-Lega tan-Nazzjonijiet. Anki jekk iċ-Ċina kellha l-saħħa timponi l-veto fuq din l-azzjoni, hi la riedet tinqata mill-potenzi tal-punent u wisq inqas mill-Unjoni Sovjetika u għalhekk iddeċidiet li tastjeni. L-Unjoni Sovjetika xorta ma qablitx ma' din l-azzjoni, u ssospendiet kull għajnuna militari għaċ-Ċina. Sa' Ġunju 1940, il-Forzi Armati Sovjetiċi lestew l- okkupazjoni tal-istati ta' mal-Baltiku . Fl-Ewropa tal-Punent, qawwiet Brittaniċi bdew l-ewwel jibagħtu l-ewwel truppi fuq il-kontinent, però la l-Ġermanja u lanqas l-Alleati ma bdew attakki diretti fuq l-għadu. F'April, il-Ġermanja invadiet id-Danimarka u n-Norveġja biex tiddefendi l-fornituri ta' minerali tal-ħadid mill-iSvezja, li l-Alleati żgur kienu ser jippruvaw iwaqqfu. Id- Danimarka ikkapitulat mill-ewwel, u minkejja s-support tal-Alleati , in- Norveġja intrebħet f'inqas minn xahrejn. Skuntentizza Brittanika fuq il-Kampanja Norveġjiża wasslet għall-waqgħa tal-Prim Ministru Neville Chamberlain , b' Winston Churchill jieħu postu fl-10 ta' Mejju, 1940. L-avvanzi tal-Assi [ immodifika | immodifika s-sors ] Il- Battalja tal-Brittanja ntemmet l-avvanz Ġermaniż Ewropa tal-Punent. Fl-istess jum, il-Ġermanja invadiet lil Franza u l-Pajjiżi l-Baxxi . L- Olanda u l- Belġju ġew assaltati u waqgħu fi ftit ġimgħat, permezz tat-tattiċi tal- blitzkrieg . Il- Linja Maġinot , ffortifikata mill-Franċiżi ddawret mill-Ġermaniżi b' manuvri fuq il-ġenb minn ġol Muntanji tal- Ardennes ; dawn kienu jitqiesu bħala barriera impenetrabli għall-karrijiet armati mill-Franċiżi. Truppi Brittaniċi kienu sfurzati jevakwaw il-kontinent f' Dunkirk , bit-telf ta' ħafna mill-materjal militari li kellhom, sa' l-aħħar tax-xahar. Fl-10 ta' Ġunju, l- Italja invadiet , u ddikjarat gwerra fuq Franza u r-Renju Unit ; tnax-il jum wara, Franza ċediet u mill-ewwel inqasmet f' żoni ta' okkupazzjoni Ġermaniza u Taljana , kif ukoll stat pupazz mhux okkupat taħt ir- Reġim ta' Vichy . Fil-bidu ta' Lulju, l-qawwiet Brittaniċi attakkaw il-flotta Franċiża fl- Alġerija biex jipprevjenu li din tingħaqad ma' dik Franċiża. paratruppi Ġermaniżi Bi Franza barra mill-kunflitt, il-Ġermanja bdiet kampanja ta' superjorita tal-ajru fuq l-Ingilterra bi preparazzjoni għall- invażjoni . Il-kampanja falliet u sa Settembru l-pjanijiet tal-invażjoni ġew kanċellati. Bl-użu ta' portijiet Franċiżi okkupati, il-Flotta Ġermaniża gawdiet suċċessi fuq Flotta Rjali li kienet estiża wisq, bl-użu ta' U-boats fil-linji ta' fornitura navali Brittaniċi. L-Italja bdiet l-operazzjonijiet fil-Mediterran, billi fetħet assedju f' Malta f'Ġunju, bir-rebħ tas-Somaliland Brittanika f'Awissu, u b' inkursjonijiet fl-Eġittu okkupat mill-Brittanja fil-bidu ta' Settembru. Il-Ġappun żied l-imblokk taċ-Ċina f'Settembru bil- ħtif ta' bosta bażijiet navali fit-tramuntana tal-kolonja iżolata tal- Indoċina Franċiża . Matul dan iż-żmien kollu, l-Istati Uniti newtrali ħadu xi miżuti biex jgħinu liċ-Ċina u l-Alleati tal-Punent. F'Novembru tal-1939, l-Att tan-Newtralità Amerikan ġie amendat biex iħalli x-xiri ta' munizzjonijiet mill-Alleati. Fl-1940, wara l-waqgħa ta' Franza, il-qies tal- Flotta Navali tal-Istati Uniti tkabbret ħafna u wara l-inkursjonijiet Ġappuniżi fl-Indoċina, l-Istati Uniti imblukkaw l-esportazzjoni ta' ħadid, azzar u partijiet mekkaniċi lejn il-Ġappun. F'Settembru, l-Istati Uniti qablu li jpartu ammont ta' destroyers qodma għal bażijiet Brittaniċi fil-Karibew. Fl-aħħar ta' Settembru il- Patt Tripartit bejn il-Ġappun, l-Italja u l-Ġermanja fformaliżżaw il- Qawwiet tal-Assi . Il-patt stipula li, b'eċċezzjoni tal-Unjoni Sovjetika, kull pajjiż li jattakka l-pajjiż tal-Assi ikollu jidħol fi gwerra ma' kull wieħed mill-pajjiżi msieħba. L-Unjoni Sovjetika wriet interess li tidħol f'din l-alleanza, u f'Novembru batgħet it-test tal-patt amendat; wara offriet ukoll għajnuna ekonomika li kienet tiffavorixxi ħafna lill-Ġermanja. Il-Ġermanja baqgħet siekta fuq l-ewwel proposta, iżda qablet mat-tieni waħda. Minkejja dan il-Patt, l-Istati Uniti komplew jgħinu r-Renju Unit u ċ-Ċina bl-introduzzjoni tal-qbil Lend-Lease . L-Istati Uniti ħolqu żona ta' sigurta tikkomprendi madwar nofs l- Oċean Atlantiku bil-flotta Amerikana teskorta konvojs Brittaniċi. F'Ottubru, l- Italja invadiet il-Greċja imma fi ftit jiem l-attakk twaqqaf mill-Griegi u ġie mbuttat lura fl-Albanija. Ftit wara, fl-Afrika, qawwiet tal-Commonwealth bdew attakki fuq l-Eġittu u l-Lvant Taljan tal-Afrika. Sal-bidu tal-1941, il-qawwiet taljani intefgħu lura fil-Libja mil-Commonwealth, Churchill ordna li jintbagħtu truppi biex isaħħu l-Griegi . Ir- Flotta Taljana tilfet bosta battalji navali, bil-Flotta Rjali taqla' tliet bastimenti tal-gwerra mill-kunflitt b'attakk fuq Taranto, u ħafna bastimenti oħra magħrrqa fil- Battalja ta' Kap Matapan . Il-Ġermanja malajr interveniet biex tgħin lill-Italja. Hitler bagħat qawwiet ġermaniżi fil-Libja fi Frar u sat-tmiem ta' Marzu bdew attakk fuq il-forzi tal-Commonwealth mnaqqsin ħabba l-isforz fil-Greċja. F'xahar, il-qawwiet tal-Commonwealth reġgħu intefgħu fl-Eġittu bl-eċċezzjoni tal- port mblokkat ta' Tobruk . Il-Commonwealth pruvat teħles mill-qawwiet tal-Assi f' Mejju u f' f'Ġunju , iżda falliet fiż-żewġ okkażjonijiet. Fil-bidu t'April il-Ġermaniżi intervjenew fil-Balkani, bl-invażjoni tal-Greċja u l- Jugoslavja ; hawnhekk l-attakk irnexxa, u l-Alleati ġew sfurzati jevakwaw il-Greċja, u l-gżira ta' Kreta sal-aħħar ta' Mejju. L-Alleati xorta kellhom xi rebħiet importanti f'dan iż-żmien ukoll. Fil-Lvant Nofsani, qawwiet tal-Commonwealth l-ewwel waqqfu kolp ta' stat fl-Iraq li kellu l-għajnuna ta' ajruplani Ġermaniżi minn bażijiet Franċiżi kkontrollati mir-reġim ta' Vichy fil-mandat Franċiż fis-Sirja , wara, bl-għajnuna tal- Forces Françaises Libres , invadiet is-Sirja u l-Libanu biex iżomm milli jerġgħu jinqalgħu l-istess problemi. Fl-Atlantiku, il-Brittaniċi irnexxielhom jgħollu l-moral pubbliku billi għerrqu l-bastiment amirral tal-Ġermanja, il-Bismarck. Forsi l-ikbar suċċess f'dan iż-żmien kien fil- Battalja tal-Brittanja , fejn ir- Royal Air Force irnexxiela tirreżisti attakki mill- Luftwaffe , tant li fl-10 ta' Mejju 1941, Hitler ħassar il-kampanja tal-bombardament fuq l-Ingilterra. Fl-Asja, minkejja bosta azzjonijiet offensivi miż-żewġ naħat, il-gwerra bejn iċ-Ċina u l-Ġappun ma wasslet suċċessi lil ebda naħa. F'Awissu ta' dik is-sena, il-Komunisti Ċiniżi bdew offensiva fiċ-Ċina ċentrali; b'retaljazzjoni, il-Ġappun iddeċiedi li jdaħħal miżuri ta' rappreżalja fit-territorji okkupati. Biex iktar tiġi ikkumplikata s-sitwazzjoni, bdew jiżdiedu t-tensjonijiet bejn il-qawwiet komunisti u dawk nazzjonalisti fiċ-Ċina, li laħqu 'l ogħla f'Jannar tal-1941 , tant li l-koperazzjoni bejn iż-żewġ fazzjonijiet ċiniżi waqfet. Bis-sitwazzjoni fl-Ewropa u l-Asja bejn wieħed u ieħor stabbli, il-Ġermanja, il-Ġappun u l-Unjoni Sovjetika bdew jippreparaw għal dak li seta' jiġri wara. Is-Sovjetiċi kienu qed jibżgħu mill-espansjoni Ġermaniża, kif ukoll minn dik Ġappuniża fil-possedimenti Ewropej mogħnija b'ħafna riżorsi minerali, b'hekk l-URSS u l-Ġappun iffirmaw qbil ta' newtralità f'April, 1941. Bil-kontra, il-Ġermanja kienet diġa qed tibgħat il-qawwiet tagħha fuq il-fruntiera Sovjetika L-avvanzi tal-Assi Fl-istess jum, il-Ġermanja invadiet lil Franza u l-Pajjiżi l-Baxxi . L- Olanda u l- Belġju ġew assaltati u waqgħu fi ftit ġimgħat, permezz tat-tattiċi tal- blitzkrieg . Il- Linja Maġinot , ffortifikata mill-Franċiżi ddawret mill-Ġermaniżi b' manuvri fuq il-ġenb minn ġol Muntanji tal- Ardennes ; dawn kienu jitqiesu bħala barriera impenetrabli għall-karrijiet armati mill-Franċiżi. Truppi Brittaniċi kienu sfurzati jevakwaw il-kontinent f' Dunkirk , bit-telf ta' ħafna mill-materjal militari li kellhom, sa' l-aħħar tax-xahar. Fl-10 ta' Ġunju, l- Italja invadiet , u ddikjarat gwerra fuq Franza u r-Renju Unit ; tnax-il jum wara, Franza ċediet u mill-ewwel inqasmet f' żoni ta' okkupazzjoni Ġermaniza u Taljana , kif ukoll stat pupazz mhux okkupat taħt ir- Reġim ta' Vichy . Fil-bidu ta' Lulju, l-qawwiet Brittaniċi attakkaw il-flotta Franċiża fl- Alġerija biex jipprevjenu li din tingħaqad ma' dik Franċiża. Bi Franza barra mill-kunflitt, il-Ġermanja bdiet kampanja ta' superjorita tal-ajru fuq l-Ingilterra bi preparazzjoni għall- invażjoni . Il-kampanja falliet u sa Settembru l-pjanijiet tal-invażjoni ġew kanċellati. Bl-użu ta' portijiet Franċiżi okkupati, il-Flotta Ġermaniża gawdiet suċċessi fuq Flotta Rjali li kienet estiża wisq, bl-użu ta' U-boats fil-linji ta' fornitura navali Brittaniċi. L-Italja bdiet l-operazzjonijiet fil-Mediterran, billi fetħet assedju f' Malta f'Ġunju, bir-rebħ tas-Somaliland Brittanika f'Awissu, u b' inkursjonijiet fl-Eġittu okkupat mill-Brittanja fil-bidu ta' Settembru. Il-Ġappun żied l-imblokk taċ-Ċina f'Settembru bil- ħtif ta' bosta bażijiet navali fit-tramuntana tal-kolonja iżolata tal- Indoċina Franċiża . Matul dan iż-żmien kollu, l-Istati Uniti newtrali ħadu xi miżuti biex jgħinu liċ-Ċina u l-Alleati tal-Punent. F'Novembru tal-1939, l-Att tan-Newtralità Amerikan ġie amendat biex iħalli x-xiri ta' munizzjonijiet mill-Alleati. Fl-1940, wara l-waqgħa ta' Franza, il-qies tal- Flotta Navali tal-Istati Uniti tkabbret ħafna u wara l-inkursjonijiet Ġappuniżi fl-Indoċina, l-Istati Uniti imblukkaw l-esportazzjoni ta' ħadid, azzar u partijiet mekkaniċi lejn il-Ġappun. F'Settembru, l-Istati Uniti qablu li jpartu ammont ta' destroyers qodma għal bażijiet Brittaniċi fil-Karibew. Fl-aħħar ta' Settembru il- Patt Tripartit bejn il-Ġappun, l-Italja u l-Ġermanja fformaliżżaw il- Qawwiet tal-Assi . Il-patt stipula li, b'eċċezzjoni tal-Unjoni Sovjetika, kull pajjiż li jattakka l-pajjiż tal-Assi ikollu jidħol fi gwerra ma' kull wieħed mill-pajjiżi msieħba. L-Unjoni Sovjetika wriet interess li tidħol f'din l-alleanza, u f'Novembru batgħet it-test tal-patt amendat; wara offriet ukoll għajnuna ekonomika li kienet tiffavorixxi ħafna lill-Ġermanja. Il-Ġermanja baqgħet siekta fuq l-ewwel proposta, iżda qablet mat-tieni waħda. Minkejja dan il-Patt, l-Istati Uniti komplew jgħinu r-Renju Unit u ċ-Ċina bl-introduzzjoni tal-qbil Lend-Lease . L-Istati Uniti ħolqu żona ta' sigurta tikkomprendi madwar nofs l- Oċean Atlantiku bil-flotta Amerikana teskorta konvojs Brittaniċi. F'Ottubru, l- Italja invadiet il-Greċja imma fi ftit jiem l-attakk twaqqaf mill-Griegi u ġie mbuttat lura fl-Albanija. Ftit wara, fl-Afrika, qawwiet tal-Commonwealth bdew attakki fuq l-Eġittu u l-Lvant Taljan tal-Afrika. Sal-bidu tal-1941, il-qawwiet taljani intefgħu lura fil-Libja mil-Commonwealth, Churchill ordna li jintbagħtu truppi biex isaħħu l-Griegi . Ir- Flotta Taljana tilfet bosta battalji navali, bil-Flotta Rjali taqla' tliet bastimenti tal-gwerra mill-kunflitt b'attakk fuq Taranto, u ħafna bastimenti oħra magħrrqa fil- Battalja ta' Kap Matapan . Il-Ġermanja malajr interveniet biex tgħin lill-Italja. Hitler bagħat qawwiet ġermaniżi fil-Libja fi Frar u sat-tmiem ta' Marzu bdew attakk fuq il-forzi tal-Commonwealth mnaqqsin ħabba l-isforz fil-Greċja. F'xahar, il-qawwiet tal-Commonwealth reġgħu intefgħu fl-Eġittu bl-eċċezzjoni tal- port mblokkat ta' Tobruk . Il-Commonwealth pruvat teħles mill-qawwiet tal-Assi f' Mejju u f' f'Ġunju , iżda falliet fiż-żewġ okkażjonijiet. Fil-bidu t'April il-Ġermaniżi intervjenew fil-Balkani, bl-invażjoni tal-Greċja u l- Jugoslavja ; hawnhekk l-attakk irnexxa, u l-Alleati ġew sfurzati jevakwaw il-Greċja, u l-gżira ta' Kreta sal-aħħar ta' Mejju. L-Alleati xorta kellhom xi rebħiet importanti f'dan iż-żmien ukoll. Fil-Lvant Nofsani, qawwiet tal-Commonwealth l-ewwel waqqfu kolp ta' stat fl-Iraq li kellu l-għajnuna ta' ajruplani Ġermaniżi minn bażijiet Franċiżi kkontrollati mir-reġim ta' Vichy fil-mandat Franċiż fis-Sirja , wara, bl-għajnuna tal- Forces Françaises Libres , invadiet is-Sirja u l-Libanu biex iżomm milli jerġgħu jinqalgħu l-istess problemi. Fl-Atlantiku, il-Brittaniċi irnexxielhom jgħollu l-moral pubbliku billi għerrqu l-bastiment amirral tal-Ġermanja, il-Bismarck. Forsi l-ikbar suċċess f'dan iż-żmien kien fil- Battalja tal-Brittanja , fejn ir- Royal Air Force irnexxiela tirreżisti attakki mill- Luftwaffe , tant li fl-10 ta' Mejju 1941, Hitler ħassar il-kampanja tal-bombardament fuq l-Ingilterra. Fl-Asja, minkejja bosta azzjonijiet offensivi miż-żewġ naħat, il-gwerra bejn iċ-Ċina u l-Ġappun ma wasslet suċċessi lil ebda naħa. F'Awissu ta' dik is-sena, il-Komunisti Ċiniżi bdew offensiva fiċ-Ċina ċentrali; b'retaljazzjoni, il-Ġappun iddeċiedi li jdaħħal miżuri ta' rappreżalja fit-territorji okkupati. Biex iktar tiġi ikkumplikata s-sitwazzjoni, bdew jiżdiedu t-tensjonijiet bejn il-qawwiet komunisti u dawk nazzjonalisti fiċ-Ċina, li laħqu 'l ogħla f'Jannar tal-1941 , tant li l-koperazzjoni bejn iż-żewġ fazzjonijiet ċiniżi waqfet. Bis-sitwazzjoni fl-Ewropa u l-Asja bejn wieħed u ieħor stabbli, il-Ġermanja, il-Ġappun u l-Unjoni Sovjetika bdew jippreparaw għal dak li seta' jiġri wara. Is-Sovjetiċi kienu qed jibżgħu mill-espansjoni Ġermaniża, kif ukoll minn dik Ġappuniża fil-possedimenti Ewropej mogħnija b'ħafna riżorsi minerali, b'hekk l-URSS u l-Ġappun iffirmaw qbil ta' newtralità f'April, 1941. Bil-kontra, il-Ġermanja kienet diġa qed tibgħat il-qawwiet tagħha fuq il-fruntiera Sovjetika Il-Gwerra ssir globali (1941) [ immodifika | immodifika s-sors ] Infanterija Ġermaniża u vetturi armati jiġġieldu mad-difensuri Sovjetiċi fit-toroq ta' Kharkov , Ottubru 1941. Fl-aħħar jiem ta' Ġunju, il-Ġermanja, flimkien ma' pajjiżi oħra membri tal-Assi u l-Finlandja, invadiet l-Unjoni Sovjetika . Dawn kisbu u okkupaw ħafna artijiet fir-Russja tal-Punent, u kkaġunaw ħafna mejtin, u saħansitra kważi waslu sa Moska , biss bl-ibliet ta' Leningrad u l- Sebastopli mhux mirbuħa, u wara l-linja tal-gwerra. Però bil-wasla tax-xitwa kiefra fir-Russja, l-offensiva tal-Assi waqfet ħesrem u s-Sovjetiċi wettqu kontro-offensiva bl-użu ta' truppi u riservi li nġiebu mill-fruntiera mal-istat satellita tal-Ġappun, il-Manċukwo. Wara l-attakk Ġermaniż fuq is-Sovjetiċi, ir-Renju Unit beda jirkupra. F'Lulju, ir-Renju Unit u l-Unjoni Sovjetika ffurmaw alleanza militari kontra l-Ġermanja u ftit wara invadew l-Iran biex jiżguraw il- Kuritur Persjan u l-fornituri ta' żejt Iranjan. F'Awissu, ir-Renju Unit u l-Istati Uniti ħarġu ċ- Ċarter Atlantiku , viżjoni li kienet tiggarantixxi "d-dritt ta' kull poplu li jagħżel il-forma ta' gvern li ried". F'Novembru, qawwiet tal-Commonwealth bdew kontro-offensiva fid-deżert , u rebħu lura kull avvanz li kienu għamlu l-qawwiet Ġermaniżi u Taljani. Animazzjoni tat-Teatru Ewropew WWII. Il-Ġappun, bl-isperanza li tgawdi mill-kontroll Ġermaniż tal-Olanda, għamlet bosta talbiet, fostom anke fornitura kostanti ta' żejt, mill- Indji Olandiżi tal-Lvant ; dawn il-laqgħat fallew f'Ġunju. F'Lulju, il-Ġappun ħatfu l-kontroll militari tal-Indoċina tan-nofsinhar għax mhux talli setgħet tinfluwenza l-Olanda aħjar, iżda kienet tkompli toħnoq liċ-Ċina; u jekk kien hemm bżonn ta' gwerra, kienet tipprovdi bosta bażijiet strateġiċi kontra l-Brittanja u l-Amerika. L-Istati Uniti, r-Renju Unit u l-pajjiżi l-ożra tal-punent u l-gvernijiet f'eżilju, wieġbu għal din l-inkursjoni Ġappuniża bil-friża tal-assi u l-beni Ġappuniżi, u l-Istati Uniti, li waħedha kienet tforni mat-80% taż-żejt tal-Ġappun, żiedet iż-żejt mal-lista ta' riżorsi fl-imblokk tal-Ġappun. B'dan l-imblokk mhux mistenni, il-Ġappun kien sfurzat li jew jirtita mill-aggressjoni fl-Asja, jew inkella jaħtaf iż-żejt li ried b'mod dirett; il-forzi militar ġappuniżi ma kienux jaqblu mal-ewwel għażla, u ħafna minnhom ikkunsidraw l-imblokk taż-żejt bħala dikjarazzjoni ta' gwerra siekta. Frar 1942 Battalja ta 'Singapor rat 80000 suldati alleati maqbudin mill-Ġappuniżi . Il- Kwartierġenerali Imperjali Ġappuniż iddeċieda li jespandi perimetru ta' gżejjer għal ġoċ-ċentru tal-Paċifiku biex jgħin fi gwerra difensiva u fl-istess ħin ikun jista' jiddisponi mir-riżorsi tax-Xlokk tal-Asja; biex jipprevjeni l-agressjoni u allura jiżgura l-perimetru, kien pjanat li tiġi newtraliżżata mill-bidu l- Flotta tal-Istati Uniti tal-Paċifiku . Fis-7 ta' Settembru, il-Ġappun attakka possedimenti Brittaniċi, Olandiżi u Amerikani b'offensivi kważi simultanei fl-Asja tax-xlokk u l-Paċifiku ċentrali, fostom attakk fuq il-bażi navali Amerikana ta' Pearl Harbor . Dawn l-attakki ġiegħlu lill-Istati Uniti, r- Renju Unit , ċ-Ċina, u l-Alleati l-oħra tal-punent biex jiddikjaraw gwerra fuq il-Ġappun. L-Italja, il-Ġermanja, u l-membri l-oħra tal-Patt Tripartit wieġbu billi jiddikjaraw gwerra fuq l-Istati Uniti. F'Jannar, l-Istati Uniti, r-Renju Unit, l-Unjoni Sovjetika u ċ-Ċina, flimkien ma' tnejn-u-għoxrin stat żgħir jew gvern f'eżilju, ħarġu d- Dikjarazzjoni mill-Ġnus Magħquda , bl-affirmazjoni mil-ġdid taċ-Ċarter Atlantiku u l-formaliżazzjoni tal-alleanza kontra l-qawwiet tal-Assi. L-Unjoni Sovjetika ma mexietx bi sħiħ ma' din id-dikjarazzjoni, billi żammet il-qbil li kellhom mal-Ġappun, kif ukoll astjeniet mill-prinċipju ta' determinazjoni poplari. Il-Qawwiet tal-Assi, però, rnexxew ikomplu l-offensivi tagħhom. Il-Ġappun kien kważi żataf ix-Xlokk tal-Asja sal-aħħar t'April, 1942, keċċew l-Alleati minn Burma, ħadu ħafna priġunieri fil-Filippini, fil-Malaja,fl-Indji tal-Lvant Olandiżi u f'Singapore. Ibbumbardaw il-bażi navali f'Darwin fl-Awstralja, u għerrqu bosta bastimenti Alleati, mhux biss f'Pearl Harbor, imma wkoll il-Prince of Wales u r-Repulse fil-Baħar Ċiniż tan-Nofsinhar, fil-Baħar ta' Java u l-Oċejan Indjan. L-uniku suċċessi ta' veru kontra l-Ġappun kienu r-rebħa fejn il-belt ta' Changsha fil-bidu ta' Jannar, 1942, u rebħa psikoloġika bil- bumbardament tal-kapitali ġappuniża, Tokyo f'April. Il-Ġermanja kienet kapaċi tieħu l-offensiva mill-ġdid ukoll. Il-Flotta Ġermaniża ndunat bl-inesperjenza Amerikana fil-kamp t' gwerra bis-sottomarini, u rnexxiela tgħarraq riżorsi importanti fejn il-kosta Amerikana. Fid-deżert, bdew offensiva f'Jannar, u mbuttaw il-qawwiet Brittaniċi lura lejn il Linja ta' Gazala sal-bidu ta' Frar. Fl-Unjoni Sovjetika, il-kontro-offensiva Sovjetika tax-xitwa kienet spiċċat sa' Marzu. Fid-deżert kien hemm kalma mhux tas-soltu fl-operazzjonijiet, li tat ċans lill-Ġermanja tipprepara għall-offensiva li jmiss Il-Gwerra ssir globali (1941) Fl-aħħar jiem ta' Ġunju, il-Ġermanja, flimkien ma' pajjiżi oħra membri tal-Assi u l-Finlandja, invadiet l-Unjoni Sovjetika . Dawn kisbu u okkupaw ħafna artijiet fir-Russja tal-Punent, u kkaġunaw ħafna mejtin, u saħansitra kważi waslu sa Moska , biss bl-ibliet ta' Leningrad u l- Sebastopli mhux mirbuħa, u wara l-linja tal-gwerra. Però bil-wasla tax-xitwa kiefra fir-Russja, l-offensiva tal-Assi waqfet ħesrem u s-Sovjetiċi wettqu kontro-offensiva bl-użu ta' truppi u riservi li nġiebu mill-fruntiera mal-istat satellita tal-Ġappun, il-Manċukwo. Wara l-attakk Ġermaniż fuq is-Sovjetiċi, ir-Renju Unit beda jirkupra. F'Lulju, ir-Renju Unit u l-Unjoni Sovjetika ffurmaw alleanza militari kontra l-Ġermanja u ftit wara invadew l-Iran biex jiżguraw il- Kuritur Persjan u l-fornituri ta' żejt Iranjan. F'Awissu, ir-Renju Unit u l-Istati Uniti ħarġu ċ- Ċarter Atlantiku , viżjoni li kienet tiggarantixxi "d-dritt ta' kull poplu li jagħżel il-forma ta' gvern li ried". F'Novembru, qawwiet tal-Commonwealth bdew kontro-offensiva fid-deżert , u rebħu lura kull avvanz li kienu għamlu l-qawwiet Ġermaniżi u Taljani. Il-Ġappun, bl-isperanza li tgawdi mill-kontroll Ġermaniż tal-Olanda, għamlet bosta talbiet, fostom anke fornitura kostanti ta' żejt, mill- Indji Olandiżi tal-Lvant ; dawn il-laqgħat fallew f'Ġunju. F'Lulju, il-Ġappun ħatfu l-kontroll militari tal-Indoċina tan-nofsinhar għax mhux talli setgħet tinfluwenza l-Olanda aħjar, iżda kienet tkompli toħnoq liċ-Ċina; u jekk kien hemm bżonn ta' gwerra, kienet tipprovdi bosta bażijiet strateġiċi kontra l-Brittanja u l-Amerika. L-Istati Uniti, r-Renju Unit u l-pajjiżi l-ożra tal-punent u l-gvernijiet f'eżilju, wieġbu għal din l-inkursjoni Ġappuniża bil-friża tal-assi u l-beni Ġappuniżi, u l-Istati Uniti, li waħedha kienet tforni mat-80% taż-żejt tal-Ġappun, żiedet iż-żejt mal-lista ta' riżorsi fl-imblokk tal-Ġappun. B'dan l-imblokk mhux mistenni, il-Ġappun kien sfurzat li jew jirtita mill-aggressjoni fl-Asja, jew inkella jaħtaf iż-żejt li ried b'mod dirett; il-forzi militar ġappuniżi ma kienux jaqblu mal-ewwel għażla, u ħafna minnhom ikkunsidraw l-imblokk taż-żejt bħala dikjarazzjoni ta' gwerra siekta. . Il- Kwartierġenerali Imperjali Ġappuniż iddeċieda li jespandi perimetru ta' gżejjer għal ġoċ-ċentru tal-Paċifiku biex jgħin fi gwerra difensiva u fl-istess ħin ikun jista' jiddisponi mir-riżorsi tax-Xlokk tal-Asja; biex jipprevjeni l-agressjoni u allura jiżgura l-perimetru, kien pjanat li tiġi newtraliżżata mill-bidu l- Flotta tal-Istati Uniti tal-Paċifiku . Fis-7 ta' Settembru, il-Ġappun attakka possedimenti Brittaniċi, Olandiżi u Amerikani b'offensivi kważi simultanei fl-Asja tax-xlokk u l-Paċifiku ċentrali, fostom attakk fuq il-bażi navali Amerikana ta' Pearl Harbor . Dawn l-attakki ġiegħlu lill-Istati Uniti, r- Renju Unit , ċ-Ċina, u l-Alleati l-oħra tal-punent biex jiddikjaraw gwerra fuq il-Ġappun. L-Italja, il-Ġermanja, u l-membri l-oħra tal-Patt Tripartit wieġbu billi jiddikjaraw gwerra fuq l-Istati Uniti. F'Jannar, l-Istati Uniti, r-Renju Unit, l-Unjoni Sovjetika u ċ-Ċina, flimkien ma' tnejn-u-għoxrin stat żgħir jew gvern f'eżilju, ħarġu d- Dikjarazzjoni mill-Ġnus Magħquda , bl-affirmazjoni mil-ġdid taċ-Ċarter Atlantiku u l-formaliżazzjoni tal-alleanza kontra l-qawwiet tal-Assi. L-Unjoni Sovjetika ma mexietx bi sħiħ ma' din id-dikjarazzjoni, billi żammet il-qbil li kellhom mal-Ġappun, kif ukoll astjeniet mill-prinċipju ta' determinazjoni poplari. Il-Qawwiet tal-Assi, però, rnexxew ikomplu l-offensivi tagħhom. Il-Ġappun kien kważi żataf ix-Xlokk tal-Asja sal-aħħar t'April, 1942, keċċew l-Alleati minn Burma, ħadu ħafna priġunieri fil-Filippini, fil-Malaja,fl-Indji tal-Lvant Olandiżi u f'Singapore. Ibbumbardaw il-bażi navali f'Darwin fl-Awstralja, u għerrqu bosta bastimenti Alleati, mhux biss f'Pearl Harbor, imma wkoll il-Prince of Wales u r-Repulse fil-Baħar Ċiniż tan-Nofsinhar, fil-Baħar ta' Java u l-Oċejan Indjan. L-uniku suċċessi ta' veru kontra l-Ġappun kienu r-rebħa fejn il-belt ta' Changsha fil-bidu ta' Jannar, 1942, u rebħa psikoloġika bil- bumbardament tal-kapitali ġappuniża, Tokyo f'April. Il-Ġermanja kienet kapaċi tieħu l-offensiva mill-ġdid ukoll. Il-Flotta Ġermaniża ndunat bl-inesperjenza Amerikana fil-kamp t' gwerra bis-sottomarini, u rnexxiela tgħarraq riżorsi importanti fejn il-kosta Amerikana. Fid-deżert, bdew offensiva f'Jannar, u mbuttaw il-qawwiet Brittaniċi lura lejn il Linja ta' Gazala sal-bidu ta' Frar. Fl-Unjoni Sovjetika, il-kontro-offensiva Sovjetika tax-xitwa kienet spiċċat sa' Marzu. Fid-deżert kien hemm kalma mhux tas-soltu fl-operazzjonijiet, li tat ċans lill-Ġermanja tipprepara għall-offensiva li jmiss Idur ir-riħ [ immodifika | immodifika s-sors ] Fil-bidu ta' Jannar, il-Ġappun beda jipprova jaħtaf Port Moresby permezz t' assalt amfibju biex tinqatal-linja ta' komunikazzjoni bejn l-Istati Uniti u l-Awstralja. L-Alleati, però, interċettaw il-messaġġ, u dawwru lura l-qawwiet navali , u waqqfu l-invażjoni. Il-pjan li jmiss tal-Ġappun, mmotivat mill-bombardament ta' Tokyo, kien li jinħataf l- Atoll ta' Midway biex jinġibdu l-aircraftcarriers Amerikani u jgħerrquhom hemm; bħala diverżjoni, il-Ġappun kellu jibgħat forzi ta' diverżjoni billi jokkupa l-gżejjer Alewzjani . Fil-bidu ta' Jannar, il-Ġappun beda jimxi ma' dawn il-pjanijiet iżda l-Amerikani, li rnexxielhom jiddeċifraw il-kodiċi sigrieti navali ġappuniżi, kienu jafu b'kollox u użaw din l-informazzjoni biex jirbħu vittorja deċiżiva fuq il- Flotta Imperjali Ġappuniża . Bil-kapaċità tagħhom drastikament mnaqqsa ħabba t-telfa f'Midway, il-Ġappun prova jikkonċentra l-attakki tiegħu billi jiffukaw fuq Port Moresby , b'kampanja minn fuq l- art fit- Territorju tal-Papua . L-Amerikani pjanaw kontro-attak fuq il-Ġappuniżi, b'pożizjonijiet fin-nofsinhar tal- Gżejjer Solomon , primarjament Guadalcanal , bħala l-ewwel pass biex jinħataf Rabaul , il-bażi navali ġappuniża prinċipali fix-Xlokk tal-Asja. Iż-żewġ pjanijiet bdew f'Lulju, però sa nofs Settembru, il-battalja ta' Guadalcanal ħadet prijorità, u t-truppi ta' New Guinea ġew ordnati li jirtiraw minn Port Moresby għall-provinċja ta' Oro. Guadalcanal malajr sar punt fokali għaż-żewġ naħat b'użu ta' truppi u materjal f' battalja t'attrizzjoni . Sal-bidu tal- 1943, il-Ġappuniżi tilfu l-gżira u rtiraw it-truppi . F'Burma, qawwiet tal-Commonwealth bdew żewġ operazzjonijiet. L-ewwel waħda, kienet offensiva fir-reġjun tal-Arakan fl-aħħar tal-1942, marret ħażin ħafna tant li kellha ssir irtitrata lura fl-India sa Mejju tal-1943. It-tieni kienet id-dħul ta' qawwiet irregolari wara l-linji Ġappuniżi fi Frar, li sal-aħħar t'April, kienet kisbet riżultati dubjużi ħafna. Fuq il-front tal-lvant tal-Ġermanja, l-Assi rebaħ f'offensiva Sovjetika fil- peniżola ta' kerch u f' Kharkov u wara bdew l- offensiva tas-sajf kontra r-Russja tan-nofsinhar f'Ġunju, 1942, bl-għan li jintrebaħ iż-żejt tal-Kawkażu. Is-Sovjetiċi ddeċidew li jwaqqfu l-irtirata tagħhom fi Stalingrad, u sa nofs Novembru l-Ġermaniżi kważi ħadu Stalingrad fi ġlied qalil fit-toroq. Meta s-Sovjetiċi bdew it- tieni kontro-offensiva tax-xitwa , bil- qtugħ tal-forzi ġermaniżi fi Stalingrad u attakk fuq il-qagħdiet Ġermaniżi fi Rzhev fejn Moska , fejn tal-aħħar falliet serjament. Sa' l-bidu ta' Frar, l-Armata Ġermaniża kienet soffriet telfiet qawwija; it-truppi fi Stalingrad kellhom iċedu u l-linja tal-front ġiet imbuttata lil hinn minn fejn bdiet l-offensiva Ġermaniża. F'nofs Frar, wara li attakk Sovjetiku batta fix-xejn, il-Ġermaniżi reġgħu attakkaw Kharkov, u dawwru l-belt russa ta' Kursk bil-qagħdiet tagħhom. Fil-punent, bil-biża li l-Ġappun seta' juża l-gżira ta' Madagaskar bħala bażi ġiegħel lil Brittaniċi jinvadu l-gżira f'Mejju, 1942. Dan is-suċċess malajr intesa meta offensiva Ġermaniża fil-Libja imbuttat il-qawwiet Alleati sa' r-raħal ta' El-Alamein, fejn irnexxielhom iwaqqfu l-qawwiet tal-Assi . Fil-kontinent, rejds ta' kommandos Alleati fuq objettivi strateġiċi, fostom ir- rejd diżastruż fuq Dieppe , wrew in-nuqqas ta' saħħa tal-Alleati tal-Punent biex jattwaw invażjoni tal-Ewropa kontinentali mingħajr preparazjoni bir-reqqa, materjal aħjar, u sigurtà operazjonali. F'Awissu l-Alleati rnexxielhom jimbuttaw t-tieni attakk fuq El Alamein u, b'telf qawwi ħafna, rnexxielhom iwasslu munizzjonijiet u għajnuna lill-gżira assedjata ta' Malta . Ftit xhur wara, l-Alleati bdew attakk tagħhom fl-Eġittu, qalgħu l-qawwiet tal-Assi mit-trunċieri u bdew javvanzaw minn ġol-Libja. Fuq ix-xtajta l-oħra tal-Afrika, invażjoni Anglo-Amerikana ta' t-Tramuntana Franċiż tal-Afrika , wasslet biex ir-reġjun daħlet fil-gwerra mal-Alleati. Hitler wieġeb għal din il-bidla ta' naħat billi okkupa l-bqija ta' Franza , anki jekk l-Ammiraljat ta' Vichy rnexxielu jgħarraq il-flotta Franċiża biex ma taqax f'idejn Ġermaniżi. Il-qawwiet tal-Assi f'dawn in-naħat irtiraw fit- Tuniżija , li kienet issa imdawra; din intrebħet mill-Alleati sa Mejju 1943. Idur ir-riħ Fil-bidu ta' Jannar, il-Ġappun beda jipprova jaħtaf Port Moresby permezz t' assalt amfibju biex tinqatal-linja ta' komunikazzjoni bejn l-Istati Uniti u l-Awstralja. L-Alleati, però, interċettaw il-messaġġ, u dawwru lura l-qawwiet navali , u waqqfu l-invażjoni. Il-pjan li jmiss tal-Ġappun, mmotivat mill-bombardament ta' Tokyo, kien li jinħataf l- Atoll ta' Midway biex jinġibdu l-aircraftcarriers Amerikani u jgħerrquhom hemm; bħala diverżjoni, il-Ġappun kellu jibgħat forzi ta' diverżjoni billi jokkupa l-gżejjer Alewzjani . Fil-bidu ta' Jannar, il-Ġappun beda jimxi ma' dawn il-pjanijiet iżda l-Amerikani, li rnexxielhom jiddeċifraw il-kodiċi sigrieti navali ġappuniżi, kienu jafu b'kollox u użaw din l-informazzjoni biex jirbħu vittorja deċiżiva fuq il- Flotta Imperjali Ġappuniża . Bil-kapaċità tagħhom drastikament mnaqqsa ħabba t-telfa f'Midway, il-Ġappun prova jikkonċentra l-attakki tiegħu billi jiffukaw fuq Port Moresby , b'kampanja minn fuq l- art fit- Territorju tal-Papua . L-Amerikani pjanaw kontro-attak fuq il-Ġappuniżi, b'pożizjonijiet fin-nofsinhar tal- Gżejjer Solomon , primarjament Guadalcanal , bħala l-ewwel pass biex jinħataf Rabaul , il-bażi navali ġappuniża prinċipali fix-Xlokk tal-Asja. Iż-żewġ pjanijiet bdew f'Lulju, però sa nofs Settembru, il-battalja ta' Guadalcanal ħadet prijorità, u t-truppi ta' New Guinea ġew ordnati li jirtiraw minn Port Moresby għall-provinċja ta' Oro. Guadalcanal malajr sar punt fokali għaż-żewġ naħat b'użu ta' truppi u materjal f' battalja t'attrizzjoni . Sal-bidu tal- 1943, il-Ġappuniżi tilfu l-gżira u rtiraw it-truppi . F'Burma, qawwiet tal-Commonwealth bdew żewġ operazzjonijiet. L-ewwel waħda, kienet offensiva fir-reġjun tal-Arakan fl-aħħar tal-1942, marret ħażin ħafna tant li kellha ssir irtitrata lura fl-India sa Mejju tal-1943. It-tieni kienet id-dħul ta' qawwiet irregolari wara l-linji Ġappuniżi fi Frar, li sal-aħħar t'April, kienet kisbet riżultati dubjużi ħafna. Fuq il-front tal-lvant tal-Ġermanja, l-Assi rebaħ f'offensiva Sovjetika fil- peniżola ta' kerch u f' Kharkov u wara bdew l- offensiva tas-sajf kontra r-Russja tan-nofsinhar f'Ġunju, 1942, bl-għan li jintrebaħ iż-żejt tal-Kawkażu. Is-Sovjetiċi ddeċidew li jwaqqfu l-irtirata tagħhom fi Stalingrad, u sa nofs Novembru l-Ġermaniżi kważi ħadu Stalingrad fi ġlied qalil fit-toroq. Meta s-Sovjetiċi bdew it- tieni kontro-offensiva tax-xitwa , bil- qtugħ tal-forzi ġermaniżi fi Stalingrad u attakk fuq il-qagħdiet Ġermaniżi fi Rzhev fejn Moska , fejn tal-aħħar falliet serjament. Sa' l-bidu ta' Frar, l-Armata Ġermaniża kienet soffriet telfiet qawwija; it-truppi fi Stalingrad kellhom iċedu u l-linja tal-front ġiet imbuttata lil hinn minn fejn bdiet l-offensiva Ġermaniża. F'nofs Frar, wara li attakk Sovjetiku batta fix-xejn, il-Ġermaniżi reġgħu attakkaw Kharkov, u dawwru l-belt russa ta' Kursk bil-qagħdiet tagħhom. Fil-punent, bil-biża li l-Ġappun seta' juża l-gżira ta' Madagaskar bħala bażi ġiegħel lil Brittaniċi jinvadu l-gżira f'Mejju, 1942. Dan is-suċċess malajr intesa meta offensiva Ġermaniża fil-Libja imbuttat il-qawwiet Alleati sa' r-raħal ta' El-Alamein, fejn irnexxielhom iwaqqfu l-qawwiet tal-Assi . Fil-kontinent, rejds ta' kommandos Alleati fuq objettivi strateġiċi, fostom ir- rejd diżastruż fuq Dieppe , wrew in-nuqqas ta' saħħa tal-Alleati tal-Punent biex jattwaw invażjoni tal-Ewropa kontinentali mingħajr preparazjoni bir-reqqa, materjal aħjar, u sigurtà operazjonali. F'Awissu l-Alleati rnexxielhom jimbuttaw t-tieni attakk fuq El Alamein u, b'telf qawwi ħafna, rnexxielhom iwasslu munizzjonijiet u għajnuna lill-gżira assedjata ta' Malta . Ftit xhur wara, l-Alleati bdew attakk tagħhom fl-Eġittu, qalgħu l-qawwiet tal-Assi mit-trunċieri u bdew javvanzaw minn ġol-Libja. Fuq ix-xtajta l-oħra tal-Afrika, invażjoni Anglo-Amerikana ta' t-Tramuntana Franċiż tal-Afrika , wasslet biex ir-reġjun daħlet fil-gwerra mal-Alleati. Hitler wieġeb għal din il-bidla ta' naħat billi okkupa l-bqija ta' Franza , anki jekk l-Ammiraljat ta' Vichy rnexxielu jgħarraq il-flotta Franċiża biex ma taqax f'idejn Ġermaniżi. Il-qawwiet tal-Assi f'dawn in-naħat irtiraw fit- Tuniżija , li kienet issa imdawra; din intrebħet mill-Alleati sa Mejju 1943. L-Alleati jibdew javvanzaw (1942) [ immodifika | immodifika s-sors ] bombi adsa Amerikani jeżerċitaw il- Mikuma fil- Battalja tal-Midway , Ġunju 1942 . Fl-Asja kontinentali, il-Ġappuniżi bdew żewġ offensivi serji. L-ewwel, li bdiet f'Marzu, 1944, kienet kontra l-qawwiet Brittaniċi f' Assam, fl-Indja u malajr wassal biex il-qawwiet ġermaniħi jassedjaw il-pożizzjonijiet tal-Commonwealth f' Imphal u Kohima ; imma sa Mejju, qawwiet ġappuniżi oħra kienu qed jiġu assedjati f' Myitkyina minn qawwiet ċiniżi li nvadew it-tramuntana ta' Burma fl-aħħar tal-1943. It- tieni kienet fiċ-Ċina , bl-għan li jitkissru l-forzi armati ċiniżi, jiżguraw il-ferroviji bejn it-territorju okkupat mill-Ġappun, u l-bażijiet tal-ajru Amerikani. Sa Ġunju, il-Ġappuniżi rebħu l-provinċja ta' Ħenan u reġgħu bdew l-attak għal Changshafil -provinċja tal- Ħunan . Wara l-kampanja fi Guadalcanal, l-Alleati bdew bosta operazzjonijiet kontra l-Ġappun fil-Paċifiku. F'Mejju, 1943, qawwiet Amerikani ntbagħtu fil-Gżejjer Alewzjani b'risposta għall-attakk ġappuniż ; ftit wara nbdew operazzjonijiet fejn Rabaul biex tiġi iżolata din il-bażi , u attentat biex jinfetaħ il-perimetru ġappuniż fil-Paċifiku fil-gżejjer Gilbert u Marshall . Sal-aħħar ta' Marzu, 1944, l-Alleati kienu laħqu dawn l-għanijiet, biż-żieda tan- newtraliżazzjoni ta' bażi ġappuniża kbira oħra fil- Gżejjer Caroline . F'April, l-Alleati bdew operazzjoni biex terġa tittieħed in-New Guinea tal-Punent . Suldati Sovjetiċi jattakkaw dar matul il- Battalja ta 'Stalingrad , 1943. Fil-Mediterran, qawwiet Alleati bdew invażjoni ta' Sqallija fil-bidu ta' Lulju, 1943. L-attakk fuq it-territorju taljan, biż-żieda tal-ħafna telfiet fil-gwerra, wasslet għall-waqgħa u l-arrest ta' Mussolini iktar tard matul ix-xahar. L-Alleati komplew din l-azzjoni meta invadew il-peniżola taljana fil-bidu ta' Settembru, u wkoll iffirmaw armistizju mal-Italja . Meta l-armistizju ġie dikjarat fit-8 ta' Settembru, il-Ġermanja wieġbet billi żarmat il-qawwiet Taljani, bil-ħtif ta' art Taljana, u l-bini ta' bosta linji difensivi. Fit-12 ta' Settembru qawwiet speċjali Ġermaniżi ħatfu l-Mussolini li waqqaf ir- stat satellita ġdid fit-territorju taljan okkupat mill-Ġermanja . L-Alleati ġġieldu bosta battalji u għaddew minn ħafna minn dawn il-linja, sakemm ma' waslu fejn il-linja difensiva prinċipali Ġermaniża f'nofs Novembru. F'Jannar 1944, l-Alleati attakkaw il-linja fejn Monte Cassino u pruvaw iduru l-linja bi żbarki f'Anzio .Sal-aħħar ta' Mejju, iż-żewġ offensivi rnexxew, però bosta diviżjonijiet ġermaniżi ħarbu; fl-4 ta' Ġunju Ruma ntrebħet. kanuni Kruċjati Britaniċi jiċċaqalqu biex jgħaddu mill-pożizzjonijiet matul il- Tramuntana Kampanja Afrika . Operazzjonijiet ġermaniżi fl-Atlantiku wkoll soffrew f'dan il-perijodu. Sa Mejju 1943, telfiet ta' sottomarini kienu tant għoljin li l-attakki kellhom jiġu sospiżi, għax il-kontro-miżuri Alleati bdew issiru iktar u iktar effettivi. Fl-Unjoni Sovjetika, il-Ġermaniżi użaw ir-rebbiegħa u l-bidu tas-sajf tal-1943 jagħmlu l-preparazzjonijiet għal attakk kbir madwar il-belt ta' Kursk; is-Sovjetiċi bdew ndunaw b'din l-azzjoni u użaw dak il-ħin biex jiffortifikaw dik l-area. Fl-4 ta' Lulju, il-Ġermaniżi bdew l-attakk , imma madwar ġimgħa wara Hitler ikkanċella l-operazzjoni. Is-Sovjetiċi kienu kapaċi jibdew kontro-offensiva, u sa Ġunju 1944, kienu keċċew il-qawwiet tal-Assi u għamlu inkursjonijiet fir-Rumanija . F'Novembru, 1943, Franklin Roosevelt uWinston Churchill iltaqgħu ma' Chiang Kai-shek fil-Kajr u wara ma' Joseph Stalin f' Tehran . Fl-ewwel konferenza ġie determinat ir-ritorn tal-artijiet okkupati mill-ġappuniżi, u fit-tieni, l-Alleati tal-Punent qablu li jinvadu l-Ewropa Kontinentali fl-1944 u li l-Unjoni Sovjetika kellha tiddikjara gwerra fuq il-Ġappun fi tlett xhur mir-rebħa fuq il-Ġermanja. L-Alleati jibdew javvanzaw (1942) . Fl-Asja kontinentali, il-Ġappuniżi bdew żewġ offensivi serji. L-ewwel, li bdiet f'Marzu, 1944, kienet kontra l-qawwiet Brittaniċi f' Assam, fl-Indja u malajr wassal biex il-qawwiet ġermaniħi jassedjaw il-pożizzjonijiet tal-Commonwealth f' Imphal u Kohima ; imma sa Mejju, qawwiet ġappuniżi oħra kienu qed jiġu assedjati f' Myitkyina minn qawwiet ċiniżi li nvadew it-tramuntana ta' Burma fl-aħħar tal-1943. It- tieni kienet fiċ-Ċina , bl-għan li jitkissru l-forzi armati ċiniżi, jiżguraw il-ferroviji bejn it-territorju okkupat mill-Ġappun, u l-bażijiet tal-ajru Amerikani. Sa Ġunju, il-Ġappuniżi rebħu l-provinċja ta' Ħenan u reġgħu bdew l-attak għal Changshafil -provinċja tal- Ħunan . Wara l-kampanja fi Guadalcanal, l-Alleati bdew bosta operazzjonijiet kontra l-Ġappun fil-Paċifiku. F'Mejju, 1943, qawwiet Amerikani ntbagħtu fil-Gżejjer Alewzjani b'risposta għall-attakk ġappuniż ; ftit wara nbdew operazzjonijiet fejn Rabaul biex tiġi iżolata din il-bażi , u attentat biex jinfetaħ il-perimetru ġappuniż fil-Paċifiku fil-gżejjer Gilbert u Marshall . Sal-aħħar ta' Marzu, 1944, l-Alleati kienu laħqu dawn l-għanijiet, biż-żieda tan- newtraliżazzjoni ta' bażi ġappuniża kbira oħra fil- Gżejjer Caroline . F'April, l-Alleati bdew operazzjoni biex terġa tittieħed in-New Guinea tal-Punent . Fil-Mediterran, qawwiet Alleati bdew invażjoni ta' Sqallija fil-bidu ta' Lulju, 1943. L-attakk fuq it-territorju taljan, biż-żieda tal-ħafna telfiet fil-gwerra, wasslet għall-waqgħa u l-arrest ta' Mussolini iktar tard matul ix-xahar. L-Alleati komplew din l-azzjoni meta invadew il-peniżola taljana fil-bidu ta' Settembru, u wkoll iffirmaw armistizju mal-Italja . Meta l-armistizju ġie dikjarat fit-8 ta' Settembru, il-Ġermanja wieġbet billi żarmat il-qawwiet Taljani, bil-ħtif ta' art Taljana, u l-bini ta' bosta linji difensivi. Fit-12 ta' Settembru qawwiet speċjali Ġermaniżi ħatfu l-Mussolini li waqqaf ir- stat satellita ġdid fit-territorju taljan okkupat mill-Ġermanja . L-Alleati ġġieldu bosta battalji u għaddew minn ħafna minn dawn il-linja, sakemm ma' waslu fejn il-linja difensiva prinċipali Ġermaniża f'nofs Novembru. F'Jannar 1944, l-Alleati attakkaw il-linja fejn Monte Cassino u pruvaw iduru l-linja bi żbarki f'Anzio .Sal-aħħar ta' Mejju, iż-żewġ offensivi rnexxew, però bosta diviżjonijiet ġermaniżi ħarbu; fl-4 ta' Ġunju Ruma ntrebħet. Operazzjonijiet ġermaniżi fl-Atlantiku wkoll soffrew f'dan il-perijodu. Sa Mejju 1943, telfiet ta' sottomarini kienu tant għoljin li l-attakki kellhom jiġu sospiżi, għax il-kontro-miżuri Alleati bdew issiru iktar u iktar effettivi. Fl-Unjoni Sovjetika, il-Ġermaniżi użaw ir-rebbiegħa u l-bidu tas-sajf tal-1943 jagħmlu l-preparazzjonijiet għal attakk kbir madwar il-belt ta' Kursk; is-Sovjetiċi bdew ndunaw b'din l-azzjoni u użaw dak il-ħin biex jiffortifikaw dik l-area. Fl-4 ta' Lulju, il-Ġermaniżi bdew l-attakk , imma madwar ġimgħa wara Hitler ikkanċella l-operazzjoni. Is-Sovjetiċi kienu kapaċi jibdew kontro-offensiva, u sa Ġunju 1944, kienu keċċew il-qawwiet tal-Assi u għamlu inkursjonijiet fir-Rumanija . F'Novembru, 1943, Franklin Roosevelt uWinston Churchill iltaqgħu ma' Chiang Kai-shek fil-Kajr u wara ma' Joseph Stalin f' Tehran . Fl-ewwel konferenza ġie determinat ir-ritorn tal-artijiet okkupati mill-ġappuniżi, u fit-tieni, l-Alleati tal-Punent qablu li jinvadu l-Ewropa Kontinentali fl-1944 u li l-Unjoni Sovjetika kellha tiddikjara gwerra fuq il-Ġappun fi tlett xhur mir-rebħa fuq il-Ġermanja. L-Alleati jersqu qrib (1944) [ immodifika | immodifika s-sors ] Alleati Invażjoni tal-Normandija , Ġunju 6, 1944 Persunal Armata ħamra u tagħmir jaqsmu xmara waqt is-Sajf tramuntana tal-1944 Wara l-avvanzata Sovjetika u l-ħelsien tal-belt ta' Leningrad fi Frar 1944, il-kontro-offensiva inżammetfuq il-fruntiera tal-Estonja għal 8 xhur mill-forzi armati ġermanizi, megħjuna minn truppi Estoni maqbuda bil-lieva, u bl-isperanza li jerġgħu jwaqqfu l-istat sovran tal-Estonja. Fis-6 ta' Ġunju 1944, (magħrufa bħala D-Day ), l-Alleati tal-Punent invadew it-tramuntana ta' Franza u, wara li tmexxew ħafna diviżjonijiet mill-Italja, Operazzjoni Dragoonin -nofsinhar ta' Franza wkoll. Matul il-bqija tas-sena, l-Alleati tal-Punent imbuttaw il-qawwiet ġermaniżi fil-punent tal-Ewropa, u fl-Italja waslu sal- l-aħħar linja difensiva . Ribelli Pollakki matul il- Rivoluzzjoni Varsavja , li fih madwar 200,000 persuni ċivili jitmermru. Fit-22 ta' Ġunju, is-Sovjetiċi bdew attakk fil-Belarus (magħrufa bħala " Operazzjoni Bagration ") li wasslet għad-distruzzjoni totali tal-Grupp Ċentrali tal-Armata Ġermaniża. Ftit żmien wara, offensiva strateġika Sovjetika kbira tefgħet it-truppi Ġermaniżi fl-Ukrajna lura fil-Lvant tal-Polonja. Assalti oħra kontra l-Finlandja u r-Rumanija ġabu suċċessi oħra kbar,bil-Bulgaria, r-Rumanija u l-Finlandja jiffirmaw armistizji mal-Unjoni Sovjetika u wasslu biex qawwiet ta' reżistenza Pollakki biex jibdew bosta rvelli fil-Polonja , anki jekk l-ikbar wieħed minn dawn, f' Varsavja , ġie kondott mingħajr assistenza Sovjetika u twaqqaf wara ħafna taqbid mill-Ġermaniżi. F'Ottubru, is-Sovjetiċi bdew attakk aħrax fuq it-territorju Ungeriż okkupat mill-Ġermanja li damet għaddejja sal-waqgħa ta' Budapest fi Frar tal-1945. Sal-bidu ta' Lulju, qawwiet tal-Commonwealth fix-Xlokk tal-Asja ħelsu mill-assedju ġappuniż t'Assam, u tefgħu lil ġappuniżi lura fix-xmara Chindwin mentri ċ-Ċiniżi okkupaw lil Myitkyina. Fiċ-Ċina, il-Ġappuniżi kellhom iktar suċċessi, fejn irnexxielhom jirbħu l-belt ta' Changsha f'nofs Ġunju u dik ta' Ħengyang fil-bidu t'Awissu. Ftit wara, dawn daħlu fil-provinċja ta' Guangxi, u rebħu bosta battalji kontra qawwiet ċiniżi f'Guilin u Liuzhou f'Novembru, kif ukoll għaqqdu l-qawwiet tagħhom fiċ-Ċina u l-Indoċina sa nofs Diċembru. Fil-Paċifiku, il-qawwiet Amerikani komplew jimbuttaw il-perimetru tal-Paċifiku. F'nofs Ġunju, fl-1944, bdew offensiva kontra l-gżejjer Mariana u Palau, u rnexxielhom jagħmlu rebħa kbira fil- Baħar tal-Filippini fi ftit ġranet. Fl-aħħar t'Ottubru, qawwiet Amerikani invadew il-gżira filippina ta' Leyte ; ftit wara, forzi navali Alleati rebħu battalja oħra fil- Golf ta' Leyte . L-Alleati jersqu qrib (1944) Wara l-avvanzata Sovjetika u l-ħelsien tal-belt ta' Leningrad fi Frar 1944, il-kontro-offensiva inżammetfuq il-fruntiera tal-Estonja għal 8 xhur mill-forzi armati ġermanizi, megħjuna minn truppi Estoni maqbuda bil-lieva, u bl-isperanza li jerġgħu jwaqqfu l-istat sovran tal-Estonja. Fis-6 ta' Ġunju 1944, (magħrufa bħala D-Day ), l-Alleati tal-Punent invadew it-tramuntana ta' Franza u, wara li tmexxew ħafna diviżjonijiet mill-Italja, Operazzjoni Dragoonin -nofsinhar ta' Franza wkoll. Matul il-bqija tas-sena, l-Alleati tal-Punent imbuttaw il-qawwiet ġermaniżi fil-punent tal-Ewropa, u fl-Italja waslu sal- l-aħħar linja difensiva . Fit-22 ta' Ġunju, is-Sovjetiċi bdew attakk fil-Belarus (magħrufa bħala " Operazzjoni Bagration ") li wasslet għad-distruzzjoni totali tal-Grupp Ċentrali tal-Armata Ġermaniża. Ftit żmien wara, offensiva strateġika Sovjetika kbira tefgħet it-truppi Ġermaniżi fl-Ukrajna lura fil-Lvant tal-Polonja. Assalti oħra kontra l-Finlandja u r-Rumanija ġabu suċċessi oħra kbar,bil-Bulgaria, r-Rumanija u l-Finlandja jiffirmaw armistizji mal-Unjoni Sovjetika u wasslu biex qawwiet ta' reżistenza Pollakki biex jibdew bosta rvelli fil-Polonja , anki jekk l-ikbar wieħed minn dawn, f' Varsavja , ġie kondott mingħajr assistenza Sovjetika u twaqqaf wara ħafna taqbid mill-Ġermaniżi. F'Ottubru, is-Sovjetiċi bdew attakk aħrax fuq it-territorju Ungeriż okkupat mill-Ġermanja li damet għaddejja sal-waqgħa ta' Budapest fi Frar tal-1945. Sal-bidu ta' Lulju, qawwiet tal-Commonwealth fix-Xlokk tal-Asja ħelsu mill-assedju ġappuniż t'Assam, u tefgħu lil ġappuniżi lura fix-xmara Chindwin mentri ċ-Ċiniżi okkupaw lil Myitkyina. Fiċ-Ċina, il-Ġappuniżi kellhom iktar suċċessi, fejn irnexxielhom jirbħu l-belt ta' Changsha f'nofs Ġunju u dik ta' Ħengyang fil-bidu t'Awissu. Ftit wara, dawn daħlu fil-provinċja ta' Guangxi, u rebħu bosta battalji kontra qawwiet ċiniżi f'Guilin u Liuzhou f'Novembru, kif ukoll għaqqdu l-qawwiet tagħhom fiċ-Ċina u l-Indoċina sa nofs Diċembru. Fil-Paċifiku, il-qawwiet Amerikani komplew jimbuttaw il-perimetru tal-Paċifiku. F'nofs Ġunju, fl-1944, bdew offensiva kontra l-gżejjer Mariana u Palau, u rnexxielhom jagħmlu rebħa kbira fil- Baħar tal-Filippini fi ftit ġranet. Fl-aħħar t'Ottubru, qawwiet Amerikani invadew il-gżira filippina ta' Leyte ; ftit wara, forzi navali Alleati rebħu battalja oħra fil- Golf ta' Leyte . Waqgħa tal-Assi, rebħa Alleata [ immodifika | immodifika s-sors ] Fis-6 ta' Diċembru, 1944 qawwiet Ġermaniżi wettqu kontro-attakk fl-Ardennes kontra l-Alleati tal-Punent. L-Alleati damu sitt ġimgħat biex iwaqqfu dan l-attakk. Is-Sovjetiċi attakkaw minn ġol-Ungerija, filwaqt li l-Ġermaniżi telqu l-Greċja, l-Albanija u ġew imbuttati minn nofsinhar tal-Jugoslavja mill-partiġġjani. Fl-Italja, l-Alleati tal-Punent baqgħu mwaħħlin mal-aħħar linja difensiva. F'nofs Jannar tal-1945, is-Sovjetiċi attakkaw minn ġol-Polonja, u mbuttaw lura kważi sax-xmara Oder fil-Ġermanja, u ħatfu l-Prussja tal-Lvant . Fl-4 ta' Frar, mexxejja Amerikani, Brittaniċi, u Sovjetiċi iltaqgħu f' Yalta . Dawn qablu fuq l-okkupazzjoni tal-Ġermanja wara l-gwerra u kkonfermaw id-dħul tal-Unjoni Sovjetika kontra l-Ġappun x'ħin il-Ġermanja ċċedi. Fi Frar, qawwiet tal-Alleati tal-Punent daħlu fil-Ġermanja u waslu sax-xmara Renu , sakemm is-Sovjetiċi invadew il-Pomerania u s- Silesia . F'Marzu, l-Alleati tal-Punent daru r-reġjun industrijali tar- Ruhr , u qatgħu barra ħafna truppi Ġermaniżi, filwaqt li s-Sovjetiċi avvanzaw fuq Vjenna . Fil-bidu t'April, l-Alleati tal-Punent imbuttaw 'il quddiem fl-Italja u daħlu sew fil-Ġermanja tal-punent; f'dan iż-żmien, is-Sovjetiċi daħlu f'Berlin . F' Jum l-Elba , il-25 t'April, elementi minn forzi Amerikani u Sovjetiċi iltaqgħu flimkien fuq ix-xmara Elba, effetivament l-Alleati kienu qasmu l-Ġermanja fi tnejn. Ħafna tibdiliet fit-tmexxija tal-pajjiżi bdew jiġru f'dan iż-żmien. Fit-12 t'April, miet il-President Amerikan Roosevelt; li ġie segwit minn Harry Truman . Mussolini inqatel mill- partiġġjani taljani fit-28 t'April u jumejn wara, Hitler kkommetta swiċidju , u ġie segwit bħala mexxej tal-Ġermanja minn Karl Dönitz . Il-qawwiet Ġermaniżi ċedew fl-Italja fid-29 t'April u fl- Ewropa tal-Punent fis-7 ta' Mejju . Imma l-ġlied baqa' sejjer fuq il-front tal-lvant sakemm il-Ġermaniżi ċedew b'mod speċifiku lis-Sovjetiċi fit-8 ta' Mejju . Fi Praga , ir-reżistenza ta' elementi Ġermaniżi baqgħet għaddejja sal-11 ta' Mejju. Fit-teatru Paċifiku, qawwiet Amerikani bdew javvanzaw fuq il-Filippini u ħadu l-Leyte kollha f'1944. Wara niżlu f' Lużon f'Jannar 1945 u f' Mindanao f'Marzu.Qawwiet Ċiniżi u Brittaniċi rebħu lill-Ġappuniżi fit-tramuntana ta' Burma, u minn Ottubru sa Marzu bdew jimbuttaw sa Rangoon , li laħqu fit-3 ta' Mejju. Qawwiet Amerikani bdew jersqu lejn il-Ġappun, u ħadu lil Iwo Jima sa Marzu, u Okinawa sa Ġunju. Il-ħin kollu waqt dawn l-avvanzati, bombardamenti Amerikani mill-ajru ħassru bliet Ġappuniżi, u sottomarini Amerikani fgaw l-importazzjoni ta' kull tip ta' prodott lejn il-Ġappun. Fil-11 ta' Lulju, mexxejja Alleati ltaqgħu f'Potsdam, fejn Berlin . Dawn kkonfermaw il-qbil preċedenti fuq il-Ġermanja u reġgħu tennew li l-Ġappun kellu jċedi bla ebda kundizzjoni speċifikament bil-kliem li "l-alternattiva għall-Ġappun kienet distruzzjoni immedjata u kompleta " Matul din il-konferenza, ir-Renju Unit żamm elezzjoni ġenerali u Clement Attlee ħa post Churchill bħala Prim Ministru. Meta l-Ġappun kompla jmeri li jċedi bla kundizzjoni, l-Istati Uniti tefgħu bombi atomiċi fuq l-ibliet Ġappuniżi ta' Ħiroxima u Nagasaki fil-bidu t'Awissu. Bejniet dawn iż-żewġ bombi, is-Sovjetiċi invadiet it-territorju tal-Manċurja , okkupat mill-Ġappun, Kif miftiehem f'Yalta. Fil-15 t'Awissu, 1945 il-Ġappun ċeda, u l-gwerra ntemmet. Truppi Amerikani u Sovjetiċi jiltaqgħu April 1945 , lvant ta 'l- xmara-Elbe . Triq ġo Berlin qerdu fil-post ċentru tal-belt Battalja ta 'Berlin , meħud 3 lulju, 1945. splużjoni atomika fi Nagasaki , 9 Awissu, 1945. Waqgħa tal-Assi, rebħa Alleata Fis-6 ta' Diċembru, 1944 qawwiet Ġermaniżi wettqu kontro-attakk fl-Ardennes kontra l-Alleati tal-Punent. L-Alleati damu sitt ġimgħat biex iwaqqfu dan l-attakk. Is-Sovjetiċi attakkaw minn ġol-Ungerija, filwaqt li l-Ġermaniżi telqu l-Greċja, l-Albanija u ġew imbuttati minn nofsinhar tal-Jugoslavja mill-partiġġjani. Fl-Italja, l-Alleati tal-Punent baqgħu mwaħħlin mal-aħħar linja difensiva. F'nofs Jannar tal-1945, is-Sovjetiċi attakkaw minn ġol-Polonja, u mbuttaw lura kważi sax-xmara Oder fil-Ġermanja, u ħatfu l-Prussja tal-Lvant . Fl-4 ta' Frar, mexxejja Amerikani, Brittaniċi, u Sovjetiċi iltaqgħu f' Yalta . Dawn qablu fuq l-okkupazzjoni tal-Ġermanja wara l-gwerra u kkonfermaw id-dħul tal-Unjoni Sovjetika kontra l-Ġappun x'ħin il-Ġermanja ċċedi. Fi Frar, qawwiet tal-Alleati tal-Punent daħlu fil-Ġermanja u waslu sax-xmara Renu , sakemm is-Sovjetiċi invadew il-Pomerania u s- Silesia . F'Marzu, l-Alleati tal-Punent daru r-reġjun industrijali tar- Ruhr , u qatgħu barra ħafna truppi Ġermaniżi, filwaqt li s-Sovjetiċi avvanzaw fuq Vjenna . Fil-bidu t'April, l-Alleati tal-Punent imbuttaw 'il quddiem fl-Italja u daħlu sew fil-Ġermanja tal-punent; f'dan iż-żmien, is-Sovjetiċi daħlu f'Berlin . F' Jum l-Elba , il-25 t'April, elementi minn forzi Amerikani u Sovjetiċi iltaqgħu flimkien fuq ix-xmara Elba, effetivament l-Alleati kienu qasmu l-Ġermanja fi tnejn. Ħafna tibdiliet fit-tmexxija tal-pajjiżi bdew jiġru f'dan iż-żmien. Fit-12 t'April, miet il-President Amerikan Roosevelt; li ġie segwit minn Harry Truman . Mussolini inqatel mill- partiġġjani taljani fit-28 t'April u jumejn wara, Hitler kkommetta swiċidju , u ġie segwit bħala mexxej tal-Ġermanja minn Karl Dönitz . Il-qawwiet Ġermaniżi ċedew fl-Italja fid-29 t'April u fl- Ewropa tal-Punent fis-7 ta' Mejju . Imma l-ġlied baqa' sejjer fuq il-front tal-lvant sakemm il-Ġermaniżi ċedew b'mod speċifiku lis-Sovjetiċi fit-8 ta' Mejju . Fi Praga , ir-reżistenza ta' elementi Ġermaniżi baqgħet għaddejja sal-11 ta' Mejju. Fit-teatru Paċifiku, qawwiet Amerikani bdew javvanzaw fuq il-Filippini u ħadu l-Leyte kollha f'1944. Wara niżlu f' Lużon f'Jannar 1945 u f' Mindanao f'Marzu.Qawwiet Ċiniżi u Brittaniċi rebħu lill-Ġappuniżi fit-tramuntana ta' Burma, u minn Ottubru sa Marzu bdew jimbuttaw sa Rangoon , li laħqu fit-3 ta' Mejju. Qawwiet Amerikani bdew jersqu lejn il-Ġappun, u ħadu lil Iwo Jima sa Marzu, u Okinawa sa Ġunju. Il-ħin kollu waqt dawn l-avvanzati, bombardamenti Amerikani mill-ajru ħassru bliet Ġappuniżi, u sottomarini Amerikani fgaw l-importazzjoni ta' kull tip ta' prodott lejn il-Ġappun. Fil-11 ta' Lulju, mexxejja Alleati ltaqgħu f'Potsdam, fejn Berlin . Dawn kkonfermaw il-qbil preċedenti fuq il-Ġermanja u reġgħu tennew li l-Ġappun kellu jċedi bla ebda kundizzjoni speċifikament bil-kliem li "l-alternattiva għall-Ġappun kienet distruzzjoni immedjata u kompleta " Matul din il-konferenza, ir-Renju Unit żamm elezzjoni ġenerali u Clement Attlee ħa post Churchill bħala Prim Ministru. Meta l-Ġappun kompla jmeri li jċedi bla kundizzjoni, l-Istati Uniti tefgħu bombi atomiċi fuq l-ibliet Ġappuniżi ta' Ħiroxima u Nagasaki fil-bidu t'Awissu. Bejniet dawn iż-żewġ bombi, is-Sovjetiċi invadiet it-territorju tal-Manċurja , okkupat mill-Ġappun, Kif miftiehem f'Yalta. Fil-15 t'Awissu, 1945 il-Ġappun ċeda, u l-gwerra ntemmet. Truppi Amerikani u Sovjetiċi jiltaqgħu April 1945 , lvant ta 'l- xmara-Elbe . Triq ġo Berlin qerdu fil-post ċentru tal-belt Battalja ta 'Berlin , meħud 3 lulju, 1945. splużjoni atomika fi Nagasaki , 9 Awissu, 1945. Wara l-gwerra [ immodifika | immodifika s-sors ] Fi sforz biex tinżamm il-paċi, l-Alleati ffurmaw il- Ġnus Magħquda , li uffiċjalment bdew fl-24 t' Ottubru, 1945. Minkejja dan, l-alleanza bejn l-Unjoni Sovjetika u l-Alleati tal-Punent kienet diġa bdiet issofri, minn qabel ma spiċċat il-gwerra, u ż-żewġ kampijiet malajr waqqfu l-isferi t'influwenza tagħhom. Fl-Ewropa, il-kontinent kien maqsum fi tnejn, il-Punent u l-Lvant bil- Purtiera tal-Ħadid li kienet tgħaddi mill- Ġermanja okkupata u l- Awstrija okkupata . Fl-Asja, l-Istati Uniti okkupaw il-Ġappun u amministraw il-gżejjer Ġappuniżi fil-Paċifiku, filwaqt li s-Sovjetiċi ħatfu l-gżejjer ta' Sakhalin u Kuril ; iż-żewġ superpotenzi emerġenti qasmu l-Korea bejniethom. Tensjonijiet bejn l-Istati Uniti u l-Unjoni Sovjetika malajr evlovew fil-formazzjoni tal-alleanza NATO , mmexxija mill-Amerika u l-alleanza tal- Patt ta' Varsavja mmexxija mill-Unjoni Sovjetika; dan kien il-bidu tal- Gwerra l-Bierda bejniethom. F'ħafna partijiet tad-dinja, il-kunflitt reġa' beda taħt forma oħra ftit wara li ntemm uffiċjalment. Fiċ-Ċina, il-fazzjonijiet komunisti u nazzjonalisti malajr reġgħu bdew il-gwerra ċivili tagħhom. Il-komunisti ħarġu rebbieħa u waqqfu r- Repubblika Popolari Ċiniża fiċ-Ċina kontinentali, filwaqt li qawwiet nazzjonalisti rtiraw lura fuq il-gżira ta' Taiwan . Fil-Greċja, bdiet gwerra ċivili bejn qawwiet li jżommu mas-sultan, megħjuna mill-Anglo-Amerikani u l- qawwiet komunisti , bir-rebħa tal-qawwiet tas-sultan. Ftit wara li ntemmu dawn il-kunflitti, bdiet il-Gwerra tal-Korea bejn il- Korea tan-Nofsinhar , megħjuna mill-qawwiet tal-Punent, u l- Korea tat-Tramuntana , megħjuna mill-Unjoni Sovjetika u ċ-Ċina; din il-gwerra ntemmet bi qbil ta' waqfien t'attivitajiet militari, imma l-ebda trattat ta' paċi ma ġie iffirmat. Wara t-tmiem tal-gwerra, beda żmien twil ta' dekoloniżazzjoni fost il-bosta potenzi kolonjali Ewropej. Dan ġara minħabba bidliet fl-ideoloġiji politiċi, għejja ekonomika wara l-gwerra u x-xewqa tal-popli indiġeni li jkollhom rajhom f'idejhom. Fil-maġġoranza tald-drabi, dawn it-transizzjonijieti kienu paċifiċi anki jekk kien hemm eċċezzjonijiet bħall- Indoċina , Madagaskar , Indoneżja u l- Alġerija . F'ħafna reġjuni seħħu diviżjonijiet, minħabba raġjunijiet etniċi jew ta' reliġjon, minħabba t-tluq tal-qawwiet Ewropej; dan ġara b'mod prominenti fil- Mandat tal-Palestina , li wassal għall-kreazzjoni t' Iżrael u l- Palestina , kif ukoll fl- Indja , li ġab miegħu il-ħolqien tad- Dominju tal-Indja u d- Dominju tal-Pakistan . L-irkupru ekonomiku wara l-gwerra kien ivarja fid-diversi reġjuni tad-dinja , anki jekk b'mod ġenerali dan kien pożittiv. Fl-Ewropa, il- Ġermanja tal-Punent irkuprat malajr u sas-snin ħamsin kienet diġa rdupjat il-produzzjoni ekonomika tagħha. L-Italja ħarġet mill-gwerra b'ekonomija mfarrka imma, wkoll sal-ħamsinijiet, l-ekonomija Taljana kienet stabbli ferm u kienet qed tikber m'mod mgħaġġel. L-ekonomija tar-Renju Unit kienet fi stat ta' rovina, u baqgħet tesperjenza deklin ekonomiku relattiv għall-għexieren ta' snin wara l-gwerra. Franza reġgħet ġiet f'tagħha malajr, u malajr gawdiet minn tkabbir ekonomiku u moderniżazzjoni. L-Unjoni Sovjetika wkoll esperjenzat tkabbir ekonomiku qawwi ħafna fis-snin ta' wara l-gwerra. FL-Asja, il-Ġappun esperjenza tkabbir ekonomiku inkredibbli , li wassal biex sas-snin tmenin l-ekonomija Ġappuniża ssir waħda mill-potenzi ekonomiċi mondjali. Sal-1953, fiċ-Ċina r-restawrazzjoni ekonomika dehret li laħqet suċċess kbir, tant li l-produzzjoni kienet diġa laħqet il-livelli ta' qabel il-gwerra. Dan it-tkabbir kompla, anki jekk twaqqaf għal żmien qasir minħabba l-esperiment ekonomiku tal- Pass Kbir 'il Quddiem . Sa' l-aħħar tal-gwerra , l-Istati Uniti kienu jipproduċu madwar nofs il-produzzjoni industrijali mondjali; sa' l-aħħar tas-snin sebgħin, din id-dominazzjoni kienet naqset sew. Wara l-gwerra Fi sforz biex tinżamm il-paċi, l-Alleati ffurmaw il- Ġnus Magħquda , li uffiċjalment bdew fl-24 t' Ottubru, 1945. Minkejja dan, l-alleanza bejn l-Unjoni Sovjetika u l-Alleati tal-Punent kienet diġa bdiet issofri, minn qabel ma spiċċat il-gwerra, u ż-żewġ kampijiet malajr waqqfu l-isferi t'influwenza tagħhom. Fl-Ewropa, il-kontinent kien maqsum fi tnejn, il-Punent u l-Lvant bil- Purtiera tal-Ħadid li kienet tgħaddi mill- Ġermanja okkupata u l- Awstrija okkupata . Fl-Asja, l-Istati Uniti okkupaw il-Ġappun u amministraw il-gżejjer Ġappuniżi fil-Paċifiku, filwaqt li s-Sovjetiċi ħatfu l-gżejjer ta' Sakhalin u Kuril ; iż-żewġ superpotenzi emerġenti qasmu l-Korea bejniethom. Tensjonijiet bejn l-Istati Uniti u l-Unjoni Sovjetika malajr evlovew fil-formazzjoni tal-alleanza NATO , mmexxija mill-Amerika u l-alleanza tal- Patt ta' Varsavja mmexxija mill-Unjoni Sovjetika; dan kien il-bidu tal- Gwerra l-Bierda bejniethom. F'ħafna partijiet tad-dinja, il-kunflitt reġa' beda taħt forma oħra ftit wara li ntemm uffiċjalment. Fiċ-Ċina, il-fazzjonijiet komunisti u nazzjonalisti malajr reġgħu bdew il-gwerra ċivili tagħhom. Il-komunisti ħarġu rebbieħa u waqqfu r- Repubblika Popolari Ċiniża fiċ-Ċina kontinentali, filwaqt li qawwiet nazzjonalisti rtiraw lura fuq il-gżira ta' Taiwan . Fil-Greċja, bdiet gwerra ċivili bejn qawwiet li jżommu mas-sultan, megħjuna mill-Anglo-Amerikani u l- qawwiet komunisti , bir-rebħa tal-qawwiet tas-sultan. Ftit wara li ntemmu dawn il-kunflitti, bdiet il-Gwerra tal-Korea bejn il- Korea tan-Nofsinhar , megħjuna mill-qawwiet tal-Punent, u l- Korea tat-Tramuntana , megħjuna mill-Unjoni Sovjetika u ċ-Ċina; din il-gwerra ntemmet bi qbil ta' waqfien t'attivitajiet militari, imma l-ebda trattat ta' paċi ma ġie iffirmat. Wara t-tmiem tal-gwerra, beda żmien twil ta' dekoloniżazzjoni fost il-bosta potenzi kolonjali Ewropej. Dan ġara minħabba bidliet fl-ideoloġiji politiċi, għejja ekonomika wara l-gwerra u x-xewqa tal-popli indiġeni li jkollhom rajhom f'idejhom. Fil-maġġoranza tald-drabi, dawn it-transizzjonijieti kienu paċifiċi anki jekk kien hemm eċċezzjonijiet bħall- Indoċina , Madagaskar , Indoneżja u l- Alġerija . F'ħafna reġjuni seħħu diviżjonijiet, minħabba raġjunijiet etniċi jew ta' reliġjon, minħabba t-tluq tal-qawwiet Ewropej; dan ġara b'mod prominenti fil- Mandat tal-Palestina , li wassal għall-kreazzjoni t' Iżrael u l- Palestina , kif ukoll fl- Indja , li ġab miegħu il-ħolqien tad- Dominju tal-Indja u d- Dominju tal-Pakistan . L-irkupru ekonomiku wara l-gwerra kien ivarja fid-diversi reġjuni tad-dinja , anki jekk b'mod ġenerali dan kien pożittiv. Fl-Ewropa, il- Ġermanja tal-Punent irkuprat malajr u sas-snin ħamsin kienet diġa rdupjat il-produzzjoni ekonomika tagħha. L-Italja ħarġet mill-gwerra b'ekonomija mfarrka imma, wkoll sal-ħamsinijiet, l-ekonomija Taljana kienet stabbli ferm u kienet qed tikber m'mod mgħaġġel. L-ekonomija tar-Renju Unit kienet fi stat ta' rovina, u baqgħet tesperjenza deklin ekonomiku relattiv għall-għexieren ta' snin wara l-gwerra. Franza reġgħet ġiet f'tagħha malajr, u malajr gawdiet minn tkabbir ekonomiku u moderniżazzjoni. L-Unjoni Sovjetika wkoll esperjenzat tkabbir ekonomiku qawwi ħafna fis-snin ta' wara l-gwerra. FL-Asja, il-Ġappun esperjenza tkabbir ekonomiku inkredibbli , li wassal biex sas-snin tmenin l-ekonomija Ġappuniża ssir waħda mill-potenzi ekonomiċi mondjali. Sal-1953, fiċ-Ċina r-restawrazzjoni ekonomika dehret li laħqet suċċess kbir, tant li l-produzzjoni kienet diġa laħqet il-livelli ta' qabel il-gwerra. Dan it-tkabbir kompla, anki jekk twaqqaf għal żmien qasir minħabba l-esperiment ekonomiku tal- Pass Kbir 'il Quddiem . Sa' l-aħħar tal-gwerra , l-Istati Uniti kienu jipproduċu madwar nofs il-produzzjoni industrijali mondjali; sa' l-aħħar tas-snin sebgħin, din id-dominazzjoni kienet naqset sew. Impatt tal-gwerra [ immodifika | immodifika s-sors ] Mejtin u krimini ta' gwerra [ immodifika | immodifika s-sors ] Stimi għat-total ta' mejtin madwar id-dinja kollha jvarjaw,imma l-maġġoranza jsostnu li madwar 60 miljun ruħ mietu fil-gwerra, bejn wieħed u ieħor 20 miljun suldat u 40 miljun civil. Ħafna minn dawn tal-aħħar mietu minħabba mard, ġuħ, massakri u ġenoċidji. L-Unjoni Sovjetika waħedha tilfet madwar 27 miljun ruħ fil-gwerra, madwar nofs it-total ta' mejtin. Minn dan it-total, madwar 85% kien telf minn naħa tal-Alleati (il-maġġoranza kienu Sovjetiċi u Ċiniżi) u 15% kienu minn naħa tal-Assi. Stima waġda hi li madwar 12-il miljun ċivil mietu f'kampijiet ta' konċentrament Nażisti, miljun u nofs minn bombardamenti , 7 miljuni fl-Ewropa għal kawżi oħra, u 7 miljuni u nofs fiċ-Ċina għal raġunijiet oħra. Il-figuri totali ta' mewtiet u telfien ta' ħajja mhumiex magħrufa minħabba l-fatt li l-maġġoranza assoluta tagħhom qatt ma ġew dokumentati. Prim Ministru Winston Churchill jagħti is-sinjal tal Vitorja lil-folol f'Londra f' Jum il-Vitorja fl-Ewropa . Ħafna minn dawn il-mejtin irriżultaw minn atti ta' ġenoċidju magħmula f'territorji okkupati mill-Assi, kif ukoll krimini ta' gwerra oħra mill-qawwiet Ġermaniżi kif ukoll Ġappuniżi . L-iktar atroċità magħrufa u magħmula mill-Ġermaniżi kien l- Olokawst , il-ġenoċidju sistematiku tal- Lhud f'territorji kkontrollati mill-Ġermaniżi u l-alleati tagħhom. In-Nażisti wettqu krimini wkoll lejn popli oħra, fosthom ir- Roma (kif ukoll il- Porajmos ), l-i Slavi , u l-omosesswali]], sterminazzjoni ta' madwar ħames miljun ruħ. Għall-Ġappun, l-iktar massakru magħruf huwa l- Massakru ta' Nanking , fejn bosta mijiet t'eluf ċivili ċiniżi inqatlu u ġew abbużati. Il-Militar Ġappuniż qatel minn 3 miljun sa iktar minn 10 miljun ċivil, fil-maġġuranza tagħhom ċiniżi. Użu limitat ta' gwerra kimika u bioloġika minn qawwiet tal-Assi huwa wkoll magħruf. It-Taljani użaw il- gass mustarda fil-gwerra tal-Abbisinja, filwaqt li l- Armata Imperjali Ġappuniża użat varjetà minn dawn l-armi fl- invażjoni u okkupazjoni taċ-Ċina u f' kunflitti bikrin kontra s-Sovjetiċi . Kemm il-Ġermaniżi kif ukoll il-Ġappuniżi sperimentaw dawn l-armi fuq iċ-ċivili, u f'ċerti każi anki priġunieri ta' gwerra. Filwaqt li bosta krimini tal-Assi ingħataw prominenza fl-ewwel tribunal internazzjonali tad-dinja, krimini ta' gwerra tal-Alleati ma ġewx trattati bl-istess mod. Eżempji ta' dawn l-azzjonijiet jinkludu l-moviment furzat ta' nies fl-Unjoni Sovjetika, l-internament ta' ċittadini Amerikani b'dixxendenza ġappuniża fl-Istati Uniti, il- massakru Sovjetiku ta' ċittadini pollakki u l-użu kontroversjali ta' bombardamenti strateġiċi ta' zoni ċivili f'territorju tal-għadu, fosthom Dresden . Numru kbir ta' mewtiet jistgħu jiġu attributi, anki jekk parzjalment lill-gwerra, bħal-miżerja fil-Bengal tal-1943. Mappa tad-Dinja ta 'kolonizzazzjoni fl-1945. Bit-tmiem tal-gwerra, il- gwerer tal-liberazzjoni nazzjonali twettqet, li jwassal għall- ħolqien ta 'Iżrael , flimkien mal- dekolonizzazzjoni tal-Asja u l-Afrika. Il-Kmandanti Suprema 5 ta 'Ġunju 1945 f'Berlin: Kampijiet ta' konċentrament u xogħol furzat [ immodifika | immodifika s-sors ] World War II deaths In-Nażisti kienu responsabbli għall-qtil ta' madwar sitt miljun Lhudi (b'maġġoranza assoluta minnhom Axkenazi ) kif ukoll żewġ miljun pollakki etniċi, u madwar erba' miljun oħra li tqiesu "mingħajr dritt li jgħixu" (fosthom diżabbli, disturbi mentali, priġunieri ta' gwerra sovjetiċi, omosesswali, mażuni, xiehda ta' Jehovah, u nies Roma) bħala parti minn progamm ta' sterminazzjoni pjanat u eżegwit mill-Ġermanja Nażista. Madwar 12-il miljun, li l-biċċa l-kbira tagħhom kienu mil-Lvant tal-Ewropa, kienu jaħdmu fl-ekonomija ġermaniża bħala furzati. Lil hinn mill-kampijiet ta' konċentrament nażisti, il- Gulags Sovjetiċi, jew kampijiet ta' xogħol oħra,wasslu għall-mewt ta' ħafna ċittadini ta' pajjiżi okkupati, bħal Polonja, Litwanja , Latvja , u l- Estonja , kif ukoll priġunieri ta' gwerra Ġermaniżi u ċittadini sovjetiċi stess li tqiesu li kienu jżommu mal-Ġermanja. Sittin fil-mija ta' priġunieri ta' gwerra sovjetiċi mietu fil-gwerra. Ċivili Ċiniżi jiġu midfuna ħajjin minn suldati Ġappuniżi. Kampijiet ta' priġunerija Ġappuniżi wkoll kellhom rati għolja ta' mejtin, u ħafna mill-priġunieri kienu jintużaw ukoll għal xogħlijiet furzati. Ir-rati ta' priġunieri mejtin ċiniżi kien ħafna għola; filwaqt li 37,583 priġunier brittaniku, 28,500 olandiż u 14,473 Amerikan inħelsu wara li l-Ġappun ċeda, in-numru ta' ċiniżi meħlusa kien biss 56. Fid-19 ta' Frar, 1942 Roosevelt ffirma 'L-Ordni Eżekkutiv tal-Istati Uniti Numru 9066', li interna eluf ta' Amerikani-Ġappuniżi, Taljani emigrati fl-Amerika, kif ukoll dawk mill-Ġermanja, u xi emigranti mill-Ħawaii li ħarbu minn Pearl Harbor . 150,000 Ġappuniż ġew internati mill-gvernijiet tal-Kanada u tal-Istati Uniti, u madwar 11,000 Ġermaniż u Taljan li kienu residenti fl-Istati Uniti. L-użu ta' xogħol furzat mill-Alleati sar fil-maġġoranza tal-każi fil-Lvant, bħal Polonja, imma iktar minn miljun ġew użati wkoll fil-Punent. Sa Diċembru tal-1945 awtoritajiet Franċiżi kienu jistmaw li madwar 2,000 priġunier Ġermaniż kienu qed imutu jew jispiċċaw feruti f'inċident ma' attivitajiet ta' bonifika ta' mini. Front ċivili u produzzjoni [ immodifika | immodifika s-sors ] Fl-Ewropa, qabel il-bidu tal-Gwerra, l-Alleati kellhom vantaġġi kbar fil-kampijiet ta' popolazzjoni u ekonomija. Fl-1938, l-Alleati tal-Punent (Renju Unit, Franza, Polonja u d-Dominji Brittaniċi) kellhom popolazzjoni 30% ikbar u prodott gross domestiku (PGD) ta' 30% ikbar mill-Qawwiet tal-Assi ta' dawk iż-żminijiet (Ġermanja u Italja); jekk jingħaddu l-Kolonja, il-vantaġġi għall-Alleati kienu jiġu madwar 5:1 f'popolazzjoni u madwar 2:1 fil-PGD. Fl-Asja, iċ-Ċina kellha popolazzjoni sitt darbiet ogħla mill-Ġappun, imma PGD 89% ogħla biss; dan jiġi għal madwar tlett darbiet il-popolazzjoni u PGD 38% ogħla jekk wieħed jinkludi kolonji ġappuniżi. Anki jekk il-vantaġġi ekonomiċi u ta' popolazzjoni tal-Alleati ġew fgati bl-użu tat-tattika tal-Blitkrieg, dawn saru l-fatturi deċisivi fl-1942, u wara d-dħul tal-Istati Uniti u l-Unjoni Sovjetika fin-naħa tal-Alleati, il-gwerra intefgħet fuq linji t'attrizzjoni. Anki jekk il-kapaċità tal-Alleati li jipproduċu iktar mill-Assi is-soltu titqies li kienet minħabba l-ammont ta' riżorsi naturali li kellhom l-Alleati, fatturi oħra, bħar-riluttanza tal-Ġermanja u l-Ġappun li jħallu lin-nisa jidħlu fis-suq tax-xogħol, il-bombardament strateġiku tal-Alleati u d-dewmien biex il-Ġermanja taqleb għall-ekonomija bellika, ikkontribwew b'mod qawwi ħafna fil-gwerra. Mhux hekk biss, kemm il-Ġermanja u kif ukoll il-Ġappun, qatt ma pjanaw li jiġġieldu gwerra twila, u ma kienux ekwipaġġati għaliha. Biex itejbu l-produzjoni tagħhom, il-Ġermanja u l-Ġappun użaw miljun ta' nies bħala skjavi u furzati, il-Ġermanja użat adwar 12-il miljun persuna, il-maġġoranza tagħhom mil-Lvant tal-Ewropa, filwaqt li l-Ġappun uża 'l fuq minn 18-il miljun ruħ fil-Lvant Imbiegħed. Okkupazzjoni waqt il-gwerra [ immodifika | immodifika s-sors ] Fl-Ewropa, l-okkupazzjoni territorjali ġiet taħt żewġ forom differenti. Fil-punent, fit-tramuntana u fiċ-ċentru tal-Ewropa (Franza, Norveġja, Danimarka, l-Olanda, u l-Boħemja u l-Moravia anessi miċ-Ċekoslovakkja) il-Ġermanja stabbilixxiet politika ekonomika li ġabret madwar 69.5 biljun reichmark sal-aħħar tal-gwerra; din is-somma ma tinkludix is-sakkeġġ ta' prodotti industrijali, materjali belliċi, materja prima u prodotti oħra. Għalhekk, id-dħul minn pajjiżi okkupati kien iktar minn 40% tad-dħul minn taxxi fil-Ġermanja, figura li wara żdiedet għal 40% tad-dħul totali tal-Ġermanja għat-tul tal-gwerra. Fil-Lvant, ir-riżorsi naturali u l-materja prima mwiegħda mill-politika ta' lebensraum qatt ma nkisbu minħabba movimenti fil-frontijiet tal-gwerra u l-kunċett sovjetiku li wara irtirati ma jitħalla xejn li seta' jintuża mill-Ġermaniżi. Bil-kontra tat-territorji okkupati fil-punent, il-politika razzjali nażista kienet tinkoraġġixi brutalità lejn il-popolazzjonijiet Slavi tal-lvant, peress li dawn kienu jitqiesu inferjuri. Kienu ħafna għalhekk il-mejtin f'eżekuzzjonijiet tal-massa u massakri ta' tindif etniku. Minkejja li gruppi ta' reżistenza ġew iffurmati fit-territorji okkupati, dawn ma tantx fixklu attivitajiet ġermaniżi la fil-lvant u lanqas fil-punent, sa tmiem l-1943. Fl-Asja, il-Ġappun kien isejjaħ lil pajjiżi taħt okkupazzjoni bħala parti mill-i Sfera ta' ko-prosperità Asjatika , essenzjalment eġemonija ġappuniża f'isem il-liberazzjoni ta' popli kkoloniżati. Minkejja li l-qawwiet ġappuniżi kienu ngħataw merbħa bħala liberaturi minn dominanza Ewropea f'ħafna territorji, il-brutalità eċċesiva tagħhom dawret l-opinjoni pubblika kontrihom fi ftit ġimgħat. Fl-avvanzati inizjali tagħhom il-Ġappuniżi ħatfu madwar 4 miljun barmil żejt mitluqin fir-ritirata Alleata, u sal-1943 kienu kapaċi jżidu l-produzzjoni ta' żejt fl-Indji tal-Lvant Olandiżi għal iktar minn 50 miljun barmil, 76% tal-produzzjoni tal-1940 Avvanzati fit-teknoloġija u fix-xjenza bellika [ immodifika | immodifika s-sors ] Matul il-gwerra, l-ajruplani komplew fir-rwolijiet tagħom tal-Ewwel Gwerra Dinjija, dawk ta' rikonjizzjoni, fighters , bombardieri u għajnuna tat-truppi tal-art, imma kull kamp ġie avvanzat b'mod konsiderevoli. Żewġ żidiet importanti kienu dawk tat- trasport mill-ajru , il-kapaċità li tmexxi matejal militari, għodda u truppi, anki jekk f'numri modesti; u l-użu tal- bombardament strateġiku , l-użu ko-ordinat tal-bombardieri biex jattakaw bliet jew ċentri ċivili bl-għan li tbaxxi l-produzzjoni u twaqqa' l-moral. Armi ta' kontra l-ajru komplew javvanzaw, biż-żieda ta' difiżi bħar- radar u artillerija kontra l-ajru, bħall-kanun ta'88mm Ġermaniż. Ajruplani bi propulsjoni jet raw l-ewwel operazzjonijiet tagħhom matul din il-gwerra, u anki jekk id-dħul tard tagħhom fil-gwerra ftit li xejn kellu effet fuq ir-riżultat, il-ftit ajruplani li ntużaw matul il-gwerra wasslu għal tibdil enormi fil-flottot t'ajruplani militari u ċivili. Boeing B-17e Amerikani. L-Alleati tilfu 160,000 piloti u 33,700 ajruplani matul il-gwerra bl-ajru fl-Ewropa. U-995 Tip VIIC Ġermaniż. Bejn 1939 u 1945, 3500 vapuri merkantili Alleati kienu għerqU bi spiża ta '783 Ġermaniżi u dgħajjes. T-34 Sovjetika, il-kanun l-aktar prodott użat tal-gwerra. Aktar minn 57,000 kienu mibnija mill-1945. Fil-baħar, filwaqt li avvanzi saru f'kważi kull qasam navali, iż-żewġ żoni ta' żvilupp kkonċnetraw rwieħhom fuq l-aircraft carriers u s-sottomarini. Anki jekk fil-bidu tal-gwerra il-qasam militari ajrunawtiku kellu relattivament suċċessi modesti ħafna, azzjonijiet f' Taranto, Pearl Harbor, il-Baħar Ċiniż tan-Nofsinhar u l-Baħar tal-Koralli malajr stabilixxew lill-aircraft carriers bħala l-iktar bastiment importanti fi gwerra, iktar mill-bastimenti tal-gwerra. Fl-Atlantiku, escort carriers dehru bħala parti fundamentali tal-konvojs, b'żieda drammatika tar-radju ta' protezzjoni effettiva tal-vapuri u billi soddew it- toqba fl-Atlantiku ċentrali . Lil hinn mill-effikaċja tagħhom, il-carriers kienu ħafna iktar ekonomiċi mill-bastiment tal-gwerra minħabba r-roħs relattiv fil-press tal-ajruplani u l-fatt li ma kellhomx bżonn ta' ħxuna fl-armaturi ta' protezzjoni tagħhom. Kulħadd stenna li s-sottomarini, li dehru importanti ħafna fl-ewwel gwerra, kienu ser jerġgħu joħorġu bħala fundamentali fit-tieni waħda. Il-Brittaniċi ffokaw fuq l-iżvilupp ta' miżuri fi sfond ta' gwerra anti-sottomarina, b'tattiċi, għodda u vapuri, bħas- sonar u l-konvojs; il-Ġermanja ffokat iktar fuq l-iżvilupp offensiv ta' din l-arma, b'diżinji bħas- sottomarin Tip VII u t-tattika wolfsrudel . Bilmod il-mod, teknoloġiji żviluppati kontinwalment mill-Alleati, bħal Leigh light , qanfud , klamar , u t- torpedos intelliġenti ħarġu rebbieħa. Fuq l-art, il-gwerra mbidlet b'mod drastiku mill-frontijiet tal-gwerra statiċi tal-Ewwel Gwerra Dinjija, u saru ħafna iktar fluwdi u mobbli. Bidla importanti kienet il-kunċetti ta' armi kkumbinati , b'kordinazzjoni stretta ħafna bejn elementi differenti fil-gwerra; it- tank , li kien diġa ntuża fl-għajnuna tal-fanterija fl-ewwel gwerra, evolva biex sar l-arma primarja għal dawn il-qawwiet. Fl-aħħar tas-snin tletin, id-disinji tat-tankijiet tal-gwerra kienu diġa avvanzaw ħafna iktar minn dawk tal-ewwel gwerra, u l- avvanzati tkomplew matul is-snin tal-gwerra, b'żidiet fil-veloċità, armatura u qawwa. Sal-bidu tal-gwerra, ħafna armati kienu jikkunsidraw it-tank bħala l-aħjar arma kontriha nnifisha, u żviluppaw tankijiet għal dak l-iskop speċifiku. Dawn il-ħsibijiet ġew negati bl-attaki diżastrużi ta' tankijiet b'armaturi ħfief kontra xulxin, u bid-duttrina Ġermaniża li tevita ġlied dirett bejn it-tankijiet; dan tal-aħħar, flimkien mal-użu ġermaniż tal-armi kkumbinati, kienu fost l-elementi ta' suċċess fit-tattika tal- blitzkrieg fil-Polonja u Franza. Intużaw wkoll ħafna metodi biex jitkissru t-tankijiet, fosthom artillerija indiretta, u kanuni disinjati kontrihom (kemm miġbudin u mixjin b' saħħithom), mini, u suldati b'armi speċjali, u tankijiet oħrajn. Anki jekk ħafna armati kienu mekkaniżati, il-fanterija baqgħet tifformas-saħħa prinċipali tal-armati, u matul il-gwerra, ħafna mill-armi tal-fanterija kienu jixbħu jew disinjati fuq dawk tal-ewwel gwerra. Xi uħud mill-avvanzi primarji kienu fl-użu ta' machine guns mobbli, l-iktar eżempju famuż fosthom l- MG42 Ġermaniż, u ħafna submachine guns li kienu tajbin ħafna għal ġlied mill-qrib, f'ġungli jew ċentri urbani. L- assault rifle , kien żvilupp li sar fl-aħħar tal-gwerra, li kien jagħqqad l-aħjar fost il-vantaġġi tar- rifle u tas-submachine gun, sar l-istandard tal-armati wara l-gwerra. Fil-kamp ta' komunikazzjonijiet, ħafna mill-pajjiżi belliġġerenti kbar pruvaw isolvi l-problemi tal-kumplessità u s-sigurtà preżentati fl-użu ta' kodiċi fil-kriptografija billi ħolqu bosta magni apposta, l-iktar famuża fosthom il- magna Enigma tal-Ġermanja. SIGINT ( sig nals int elligence) kien il-proċess li jħassar id-dekriptazjoni, bl-iktar eżempji magħrufa jkunu l-Brittanika ULTRA u d-dekriptazzjoni alleata tal-kodiċi navali ġappuniżi. Aspett importanti ieħor tal- intelliġenza militari kien l-użu t'operazzjonijiet ta' taħwid tal-għadu, operazzjonijiet li l-Alleati użaw għal bosta drabi b'ħafna suċċessi, fosthom l-operazzjonijiet Mincemeat u Bodyguard , li dawwret l-attenzjoni Ġermaniża mill-invażjonijiet ta' Sqallija u n-Normandija, rispettivament. Riżultati importanti oħra milħuqa fil-kampijiet tal-inġinjerija u t-teknoloġija li waslu jew matul jew b'riżultat tal-gwerra jinkludu l- kompjuters ( Z3 , Colossus , u ENIAC ), missili gwidati u rokits moderni , il- Proġett Manhattan u l-iżvilupp tal- armi nukleari , l-iżvilupp ta' portijiet artifiċjali u pajpijiet taż-żejt taħt il-kanal ingliż . Impatt tal-gwerra Mejtin u krimini ta' gwerra [ immodifika | immodifika s-sors ] Stimi għat-total ta' mejtin madwar id-dinja kollha jvarjaw,imma l-maġġoranza jsostnu li madwar 60 miljun ruħ mietu fil-gwerra, bejn wieħed u ieħor 20 miljun suldat u 40 miljun civil. Ħafna minn dawn tal-aħħar mietu minħabba mard, ġuħ, massakri u ġenoċidji. L-Unjoni Sovjetika waħedha tilfet madwar 27 miljun ruħ fil-gwerra, madwar nofs it-total ta' mejtin. Minn dan it-total, madwar 85% kien telf minn naħa tal-Alleati (il-maġġoranza kienu Sovjetiċi u Ċiniżi) u 15% kienu minn naħa tal-Assi. Stima waġda hi li madwar 12-il miljun ċivil mietu f'kampijiet ta' konċentrament Nażisti, miljun u nofs minn bombardamenti , 7 miljuni fl-Ewropa għal kawżi oħra, u 7 miljuni u nofs fiċ-Ċina għal raġunijiet oħra. Il-figuri totali ta' mewtiet u telfien ta' ħajja mhumiex magħrufa minħabba l-fatt li l-maġġoranza assoluta tagħhom qatt ma ġew dokumentati. Prim Ministru Winston Churchill jagħti is-sinjal tal Vitorja lil-folol f'Londra f' Jum il-Vitorja fl-Ewropa . Ħafna minn dawn il-mejtin irriżultaw minn atti ta' ġenoċidju magħmula f'territorji okkupati mill-Assi, kif ukoll krimini ta' gwerra oħra mill-qawwiet Ġermaniżi kif ukoll Ġappuniżi . L-iktar atroċità magħrufa u magħmula mill-Ġermaniżi kien l- Olokawst , il-ġenoċidju sistematiku tal- Lhud f'territorji kkontrollati mill-Ġermaniżi u l-alleati tagħhom. In-Nażisti wettqu krimini wkoll lejn popli oħra, fosthom ir- Roma (kif ukoll il- Porajmos ), l-i Slavi , u l-omosesswali]], sterminazzjoni ta' madwar ħames miljun ruħ. Għall-Ġappun, l-iktar massakru magħruf huwa l- Massakru ta' Nanking , fejn bosta mijiet t'eluf ċivili ċiniżi inqatlu u ġew abbużati. Il-Militar Ġappuniż qatel minn 3 miljun sa iktar minn 10 miljun ċivil, fil-maġġuranza tagħhom ċiniżi. Użu limitat ta' gwerra kimika u bioloġika minn qawwiet tal-Assi huwa wkoll magħruf. It-Taljani użaw il- gass mustarda fil-gwerra tal-Abbisinja, filwaqt li l- Armata Imperjali Ġappuniża użat varjetà minn dawn l-armi fl- invażjoni u okkupazjoni taċ-Ċina u f' kunflitti bikrin kontra s-Sovjetiċi . Kemm il-Ġermaniżi kif ukoll il-Ġappuniżi sperimentaw dawn l-armi fuq iċ-ċivili, u f'ċerti każi anki priġunieri ta' gwerra. Filwaqt li bosta krimini tal-Assi ingħataw prominenza fl-ewwel tribunal internazzjonali tad-dinja, krimini ta' gwerra tal-Alleati ma ġewx trattati bl-istess mod. Eżempji ta' dawn l-azzjonijiet jinkludu l-moviment furzat ta' nies fl-Unjoni Sovjetika, l-internament ta' ċittadini Amerikani b'dixxendenza ġappuniża fl-Istati Uniti, il- massakru Sovjetiku ta' ċittadini pollakki u l-użu kontroversjali ta' bombardamenti strateġiċi ta' zoni ċivili f'territorju tal-għadu, fosthom Dresden . Numru kbir ta' mewtiet jistgħu jiġu attributi, anki jekk parzjalment lill-gwerra, bħal-miżerja fil-Bengal tal-1943. Mappa tad-Dinja ta 'kolonizzazzjoni fl-1945. Bit-tmiem tal-gwerra, il- gwerer tal-liberazzjoni nazzjonali twettqet, li jwassal għall- ħolqien ta 'Iżrael , flimkien mal- dekolonizzazzjoni tal-Asja u l-Afrika. Il-Kmandanti Suprema 5 ta 'Ġunju 1945 f'Berlin: Mejtin u krimini ta' gwerra Stimi għat-total ta' mejtin madwar id-dinja kollha jvarjaw,imma l-maġġoranza jsostnu li madwar 60 miljun ruħ mietu fil-gwerra, bejn wieħed u ieħor 20 miljun suldat u 40 miljun civil. Ħafna minn dawn tal-aħħar mietu minħabba mard, ġuħ, massakri u ġenoċidji. L-Unjoni Sovjetika waħedha tilfet madwar 27 miljun ruħ fil-gwerra, madwar nofs it-total ta' mejtin. Minn dan it-total, madwar 85% kien telf minn naħa tal-Alleati (il-maġġoranza kienu Sovjetiċi u Ċiniżi) u 15% kienu minn naħa tal-Assi. Stima waġda hi li madwar 12-il miljun ċivil mietu f'kampijiet ta' konċentrament Nażisti, miljun u nofs minn bombardamenti , 7 miljuni fl-Ewropa għal kawżi oħra, u 7 miljuni u nofs fiċ-Ċina għal raġunijiet oħra. Il-figuri totali ta' mewtiet u telfien ta' ħajja mhumiex magħrufa minħabba l-fatt li l-maġġoranza assoluta tagħhom qatt ma ġew dokumentati. Ħafna minn dawn il-mejtin irriżultaw minn atti ta' ġenoċidju magħmula f'territorji okkupati mill-Assi, kif ukoll krimini ta' gwerra oħra mill-qawwiet Ġermaniżi kif ukoll Ġappuniżi . L-iktar atroċità magħrufa u magħmula mill-Ġermaniżi kien l- Olokawst , il-ġenoċidju sistematiku tal- Lhud f'territorji kkontrollati mill-Ġermaniżi u l-alleati tagħhom. In-Nażisti wettqu krimini wkoll lejn popli oħra, fosthom ir- Roma (kif ukoll il- Porajmos ), l-i Slavi , u l-omosesswali]], sterminazzjoni ta' madwar ħames miljun ruħ. Għall-Ġappun, l-iktar massakru magħruf huwa l- Massakru ta' Nanking , fejn bosta mijiet t'eluf ċivili ċiniżi inqatlu u ġew abbużati. Il-Militar Ġappuniż qatel minn 3 miljun sa iktar minn 10 miljun ċivil, fil-maġġuranza tagħhom ċiniżi. Użu limitat ta' gwerra kimika u bioloġika minn qawwiet tal-Assi huwa wkoll magħruf. It-Taljani użaw il- gass mustarda fil-gwerra tal-Abbisinja, filwaqt li l- Armata Imperjali Ġappuniża użat varjetà minn dawn l-armi fl- invażjoni u okkupazjoni taċ-Ċina u f' kunflitti bikrin kontra s-Sovjetiċi . Kemm il-Ġermaniżi kif ukoll il-Ġappuniżi sperimentaw dawn l-armi fuq iċ-ċivili, u f'ċerti każi anki priġunieri ta' gwerra. Filwaqt li bosta krimini tal-Assi ingħataw prominenza fl-ewwel tribunal internazzjonali tad-dinja, krimini ta' gwerra tal-Alleati ma ġewx trattati bl-istess mod. Eżempji ta' dawn l-azzjonijiet jinkludu l-moviment furzat ta' nies fl-Unjoni Sovjetika, l-internament ta' ċittadini Amerikani b'dixxendenza ġappuniża fl-Istati Uniti, il- massakru Sovjetiku ta' ċittadini pollakki u l-użu kontroversjali ta' bombardamenti strateġiċi ta' zoni ċivili f'territorju tal-għadu, fosthom Dresden . Numru kbir ta' mewtiet jistgħu jiġu attributi, anki jekk parzjalment lill-gwerra, bħal-miżerja fil-Bengal tal-1943. Mappa tad-Dinja ta 'kolonizzazzjoni fl-1945. Bit-tmiem tal-gwerra, il- gwerer tal-liberazzjoni nazzjonali twettqet, li jwassal għall- ħolqien ta 'Iżrael , flimkien mal- dekolonizzazzjoni tal-Asja u l-Afrika. Il-Kmandanti Suprema 5 ta 'Ġunju 1945 f'Berlin: Kampijiet ta' konċentrament u xogħol furzat [ immodifika | immodifika s-sors ] World War II deaths In-Nażisti kienu responsabbli għall-qtil ta' madwar sitt miljun Lhudi (b'maġġoranza assoluta minnhom Axkenazi ) kif ukoll żewġ miljun pollakki etniċi, u madwar erba' miljun oħra li tqiesu "mingħajr dritt li jgħixu" (fosthom diżabbli, disturbi mentali, priġunieri ta' gwerra sovjetiċi, omosesswali, mażuni, xiehda ta' Jehovah, u nies Roma) bħala parti minn progamm ta' sterminazzjoni pjanat u eżegwit mill-Ġermanja Nażista. Madwar 12-il miljun, li l-biċċa l-kbira tagħhom kienu mil-Lvant tal-Ewropa, kienu jaħdmu fl-ekonomija ġermaniża bħala furzati. Lil hinn mill-kampijiet ta' konċentrament nażisti, il- Gulags Sovjetiċi, jew kampijiet ta' xogħol oħra,wasslu għall-mewt ta' ħafna ċittadini ta' pajjiżi okkupati, bħal Polonja, Litwanja , Latvja , u l- Estonja , kif ukoll priġunieri ta' gwerra Ġermaniżi u ċittadini sovjetiċi stess li tqiesu li kienu jżommu mal-Ġermanja. Sittin fil-mija ta' priġunieri ta' gwerra sovjetiċi mietu fil-gwerra. Ċivili Ċiniżi jiġu midfuna ħajjin minn suldati Ġappuniżi. Kampijiet ta' priġunerija Ġappuniżi wkoll kellhom rati għolja ta' mejtin, u ħafna mill-priġunieri kienu jintużaw ukoll għal xogħlijiet furzati. Ir-rati ta' priġunieri mejtin ċiniżi kien ħafna għola; filwaqt li 37,583 priġunier brittaniku, 28,500 olandiż u 14,473 Amerikan inħelsu wara li l-Ġappun ċeda, in-numru ta' ċiniżi meħlusa kien biss 56. Fid-19 ta' Frar, 1942 Roosevelt ffirma 'L-Ordni Eżekkutiv tal-Istati Uniti Numru 9066', li interna eluf ta' Amerikani-Ġappuniżi, Taljani emigrati fl-Amerika, kif ukoll dawk mill-Ġermanja, u xi emigranti mill-Ħawaii li ħarbu minn Pearl Harbor . 150,000 Ġappuniż ġew internati mill-gvernijiet tal-Kanada u tal-Istati Uniti, u madwar 11,000 Ġermaniż u Taljan li kienu residenti fl-Istati Uniti. L-użu ta' xogħol furzat mill-Alleati sar fil-maġġoranza tal-każi fil-Lvant, bħal Polonja, imma iktar minn miljun ġew użati wkoll fil-Punent. Sa Diċembru tal-1945 awtoritajiet Franċiżi kienu jistmaw li madwar 2,000 priġunier Ġermaniż kienu qed imutu jew jispiċċaw feruti f'inċident ma' attivitajiet ta' bonifika ta' mini. Kampijiet ta' konċentrament u xogħol furzat In-Nażisti kienu responsabbli għall-qtil ta' madwar sitt miljun Lhudi (b'maġġoranza assoluta minnhom Axkenazi ) kif ukoll żewġ miljun pollakki etniċi, u madwar erba' miljun oħra li tqiesu "mingħajr dritt li jgħixu" (fosthom diżabbli, disturbi mentali, priġunieri ta' gwerra sovjetiċi, omosesswali, mażuni, xiehda ta' Jehovah, u nies Roma) bħala parti minn progamm ta' sterminazzjoni pjanat u eżegwit mill-Ġermanja Nażista. Madwar 12-il miljun, li l-biċċa l-kbira tagħhom kienu mil-Lvant tal-Ewropa, kienu jaħdmu fl-ekonomija ġermaniża bħala furzati. Lil hinn mill-kampijiet ta' konċentrament nażisti, il- Gulags Sovjetiċi, jew kampijiet ta' xogħol oħra,wasslu għall-mewt ta' ħafna ċittadini ta' pajjiżi okkupati, bħal Polonja, Litwanja , Latvja , u l- Estonja , kif ukoll priġunieri ta' gwerra Ġermaniżi u ċittadini sovjetiċi stess li tqiesu li kienu jżommu mal-Ġermanja. Sittin fil-mija ta' priġunieri ta' gwerra sovjetiċi mietu fil-gwerra. Kampijiet ta' priġunerija Ġappuniżi wkoll kellhom rati għolja ta' mejtin, u ħafna mill-priġunieri kienu jintużaw ukoll għal xogħlijiet furzati. Ir-rati ta' priġunieri mejtin ċiniżi kien ħafna għola; filwaqt li 37,583 priġunier brittaniku, 28,500 olandiż u 14,473 Amerikan inħelsu wara li l-Ġappun ċeda, in-numru ta' ċiniżi meħlusa kien biss 56. Fid-19 ta' Frar, 1942 Roosevelt ffirma 'L-Ordni Eżekkutiv tal-Istati Uniti Numru 9066', li interna eluf ta' Amerikani-Ġappuniżi, Taljani emigrati fl-Amerika, kif ukoll dawk mill-Ġermanja, u xi emigranti mill-Ħawaii li ħarbu minn Pearl Harbor . 150,000 Ġappuniż ġew internati mill-gvernijiet tal-Kanada u tal-Istati Uniti, u madwar 11,000 Ġermaniż u Taljan li kienu residenti fl-Istati Uniti. L-użu ta' xogħol furzat mill-Alleati sar fil-maġġoranza tal-każi fil-Lvant, bħal Polonja, imma iktar minn miljun ġew użati wkoll fil-Punent. Sa Diċembru tal-1945 awtoritajiet Franċiżi kienu jistmaw li madwar 2,000 priġunier Ġermaniż kienu qed imutu jew jispiċċaw feruti f'inċident ma' attivitajiet ta' bonifika ta' mini. Front ċivili u produzzjoni [ immodifika | immodifika s-sors ] Fl-Ewropa, qabel il-bidu tal-Gwerra, l-Alleati kellhom vantaġġi kbar fil-kampijiet ta' popolazzjoni u ekonomija. Fl-1938, l-Alleati tal-Punent (Renju Unit, Franza, Polonja u d-Dominji Brittaniċi) kellhom popolazzjoni 30% ikbar u prodott gross domestiku (PGD) ta' 30% ikbar mill-Qawwiet tal-Assi ta' dawk iż-żminijiet (Ġermanja u Italja); jekk jingħaddu l-Kolonja, il-vantaġġi għall-Alleati kienu jiġu madwar 5:1 f'popolazzjoni u madwar 2:1 fil-PGD. Fl-Asja, iċ-Ċina kellha popolazzjoni sitt darbiet ogħla mill-Ġappun, imma PGD 89% ogħla biss; dan jiġi għal madwar tlett darbiet il-popolazzjoni u PGD 38% ogħla jekk wieħed jinkludi kolonji ġappuniżi. Anki jekk il-vantaġġi ekonomiċi u ta' popolazzjoni tal-Alleati ġew fgati bl-użu tat-tattika tal-Blitkrieg, dawn saru l-fatturi deċisivi fl-1942, u wara d-dħul tal-Istati Uniti u l-Unjoni Sovjetika fin-naħa tal-Alleati, il-gwerra intefgħet fuq linji t'attrizzjoni. Anki jekk il-kapaċità tal-Alleati li jipproduċu iktar mill-Assi is-soltu titqies li kienet minħabba l-ammont ta' riżorsi naturali li kellhom l-Alleati, fatturi oħra, bħar-riluttanza tal-Ġermanja u l-Ġappun li jħallu lin-nisa jidħlu fis-suq tax-xogħol, il-bombardament strateġiku tal-Alleati u d-dewmien biex il-Ġermanja taqleb għall-ekonomija bellika, ikkontribwew b'mod qawwi ħafna fil-gwerra. Mhux hekk biss, kemm il-Ġermanja u kif ukoll il-Ġappun, qatt ma pjanaw li jiġġieldu gwerra twila, u ma kienux ekwipaġġati għaliha. Biex itejbu l-produzjoni tagħhom, il-Ġermanja u l-Ġappun użaw miljun ta' nies bħala skjavi u furzati, il-Ġermanja użat adwar 12-il miljun persuna, il-maġġoranza tagħhom mil-Lvant tal-Ewropa, filwaqt li l-Ġappun uża 'l fuq minn 18-il miljun ruħ fil-Lvant Imbiegħed. Front ċivili u produzzjoni Fl-Ewropa, qabel il-bidu tal-Gwerra, l-Alleati kellhom vantaġġi kbar fil-kampijiet ta' popolazzjoni u ekonomija. Fl-1938, l-Alleati tal-Punent (Renju Unit, Franza, Polonja u d-Dominji Brittaniċi) kellhom popolazzjoni 30% ikbar u prodott gross domestiku (PGD) ta' 30% ikbar mill-Qawwiet tal-Assi ta' dawk iż-żminijiet (Ġermanja u Italja); jekk jingħaddu l-Kolonja, il-vantaġġi għall-Alleati kienu jiġu madwar 5:1 f'popolazzjoni u madwar 2:1 fil-PGD. Fl-Asja, iċ-Ċina kellha popolazzjoni sitt darbiet ogħla mill-Ġappun, imma PGD 89% ogħla biss; dan jiġi għal madwar tlett darbiet il-popolazzjoni u PGD 38% ogħla jekk wieħed jinkludi kolonji ġappuniżi. Anki jekk il-vantaġġi ekonomiċi u ta' popolazzjoni tal-Alleati ġew fgati bl-użu tat-tattika tal-Blitkrieg, dawn saru l-fatturi deċisivi fl-1942, u wara d-dħul tal-Istati Uniti u l-Unjoni Sovjetika fin-naħa tal-Alleati, il-gwerra intefgħet fuq linji t'attrizzjoni. Anki jekk il-kapaċità tal-Alleati li jipproduċu iktar mill-Assi is-soltu titqies li kienet minħabba l-ammont ta' riżorsi naturali li kellhom l-Alleati, fatturi oħra, bħar-riluttanza tal-Ġermanja u l-Ġappun li jħallu lin-nisa jidħlu fis-suq tax-xogħol, il-bombardament strateġiku tal-Alleati u d-dewmien biex il-Ġermanja taqleb għall-ekonomija bellika, ikkontribwew b'mod qawwi ħafna fil-gwerra. Mhux hekk biss, kemm il-Ġermanja u kif ukoll il-Ġappun, qatt ma pjanaw li jiġġieldu gwerra twila, u ma kienux ekwipaġġati għaliha. Biex itejbu l-produzjoni tagħhom, il-Ġermanja u l-Ġappun użaw miljun ta' nies bħala skjavi u furzati, il-Ġermanja użat adwar 12-il miljun persuna, il-maġġoranza tagħhom mil-Lvant tal-Ewropa, filwaqt li l-Ġappun uża 'l fuq minn 18-il miljun ruħ fil-Lvant Imbiegħed. Okkupazzjoni waqt il-gwerra [ immodifika | immodifika s-sors ] Fl-Ewropa, l-okkupazzjoni territorjali ġiet taħt żewġ forom differenti. Fil-punent, fit-tramuntana u fiċ-ċentru tal-Ewropa (Franza, Norveġja, Danimarka, l-Olanda, u l-Boħemja u l-Moravia anessi miċ-Ċekoslovakkja) il-Ġermanja stabbilixxiet politika ekonomika li ġabret madwar 69.5 biljun reichmark sal-aħħar tal-gwerra; din is-somma ma tinkludix is-sakkeġġ ta' prodotti industrijali, materjali belliċi, materja prima u prodotti oħra. Għalhekk, id-dħul minn pajjiżi okkupati kien iktar minn 40% tad-dħul minn taxxi fil-Ġermanja, figura li wara żdiedet għal 40% tad-dħul totali tal-Ġermanja għat-tul tal-gwerra. Fil-Lvant, ir-riżorsi naturali u l-materja prima mwiegħda mill-politika ta' lebensraum qatt ma nkisbu minħabba movimenti fil-frontijiet tal-gwerra u l-kunċett sovjetiku li wara irtirati ma jitħalla xejn li seta' jintuża mill-Ġermaniżi. Bil-kontra tat-territorji okkupati fil-punent, il-politika razzjali nażista kienet tinkoraġġixi brutalità lejn il-popolazzjonijiet Slavi tal-lvant, peress li dawn kienu jitqiesu inferjuri. Kienu ħafna għalhekk il-mejtin f'eżekuzzjonijiet tal-massa u massakri ta' tindif etniku. Minkejja li gruppi ta' reżistenza ġew iffurmati fit-territorji okkupati, dawn ma tantx fixklu attivitajiet ġermaniżi la fil-lvant u lanqas fil-punent, sa tmiem l-1943. Fl-Asja, il-Ġappun kien isejjaħ lil pajjiżi taħt okkupazzjoni bħala parti mill-i Sfera ta' ko-prosperità Asjatika , essenzjalment eġemonija ġappuniża f'isem il-liberazzjoni ta' popli kkoloniżati. Minkejja li l-qawwiet ġappuniżi kienu ngħataw merbħa bħala liberaturi minn dominanza Ewropea f'ħafna territorji, il-brutalità eċċesiva tagħhom dawret l-opinjoni pubblika kontrihom fi ftit ġimgħat. Fl-avvanzati inizjali tagħhom il-Ġappuniżi ħatfu madwar 4 miljun barmil żejt mitluqin fir-ritirata Alleata, u sal-1943 kienu kapaċi jżidu l-produzzjoni ta' żejt fl-Indji tal-Lvant Olandiżi għal iktar minn 50 miljun barmil, 76% tal-produzzjoni tal-1940 Okkupazzjoni waqt il-gwerra Fl-Ewropa, l-okkupazzjoni territorjali ġiet taħt żewġ forom differenti. Fil-punent, fit-tramuntana u fiċ-ċentru tal-Ewropa (Franza, Norveġja, Danimarka, l-Olanda, u l-Boħemja u l-Moravia anessi miċ-Ċekoslovakkja) il-Ġermanja stabbilixxiet politika ekonomika li ġabret madwar 69.5 biljun reichmark sal-aħħar tal-gwerra; din is-somma ma tinkludix is-sakkeġġ ta' prodotti industrijali, materjali belliċi, materja prima u prodotti oħra. Għalhekk, id-dħul minn pajjiżi okkupati kien iktar minn 40% tad-dħul minn taxxi fil-Ġermanja, figura li wara żdiedet għal 40% tad-dħul totali tal-Ġermanja għat-tul tal-gwerra. Fil-Lvant, ir-riżorsi naturali u l-materja prima mwiegħda mill-politika ta' lebensraum qatt ma nkisbu minħabba movimenti fil-frontijiet tal-gwerra u l-kunċett sovjetiku li wara irtirati ma jitħalla xejn li seta' jintuża mill-Ġermaniżi. Bil-kontra tat-territorji okkupati fil-punent, il-politika razzjali nażista kienet tinkoraġġixi brutalità lejn il-popolazzjonijiet Slavi tal-lvant, peress li dawn kienu jitqiesu inferjuri. Kienu ħafna għalhekk il-mejtin f'eżekuzzjonijiet tal-massa u massakri ta' tindif etniku. Minkejja li gruppi ta' reżistenza ġew iffurmati fit-territorji okkupati, dawn ma tantx fixklu attivitajiet ġermaniżi la fil-lvant u lanqas fil-punent, sa tmiem l-1943. Fl-Asja, il-Ġappun kien isejjaħ lil pajjiżi taħt okkupazzjoni bħala parti mill-i Sfera ta' ko-prosperità Asjatika , essenzjalment eġemonija ġappuniża f'isem il-liberazzjoni ta' popli kkoloniżati. Minkejja li l-qawwiet ġappuniżi kienu ngħataw merbħa bħala liberaturi minn dominanza Ewropea f'ħafna territorji, il-brutalità eċċesiva tagħhom dawret l-opinjoni pubblika kontrihom fi ftit ġimgħat. Fl-avvanzati inizjali tagħhom il-Ġappuniżi ħatfu madwar 4 miljun barmil żejt mitluqin fir-ritirata Alleata, u sal-1943 kienu kapaċi jżidu l-produzzjoni ta' żejt fl-Indji tal-Lvant Olandiżi għal iktar minn 50 miljun barmil, 76% tal-produzzjoni tal-1940 Avvanzati fit-teknoloġija u fix-xjenza bellika [ immodifika | immodifika s-sors ] Matul il-gwerra, l-ajruplani komplew fir-rwolijiet tagħom tal-Ewwel Gwerra Dinjija, dawk ta' rikonjizzjoni, fighters , bombardieri u għajnuna tat-truppi tal-art, imma kull kamp ġie avvanzat b'mod konsiderevoli. Żewġ żidiet importanti kienu dawk tat- trasport mill-ajru , il-kapaċità li tmexxi matejal militari, għodda u truppi, anki jekk f'numri modesti; u l-użu tal- bombardament strateġiku , l-użu ko-ordinat tal-bombardieri biex jattakaw bliet jew ċentri ċivili bl-għan li tbaxxi l-produzzjoni u twaqqa' l-moral. Armi ta' kontra l-ajru komplew javvanzaw, biż-żieda ta' difiżi bħar- radar u artillerija kontra l-ajru, bħall-kanun ta'88mm Ġermaniż. Ajruplani bi propulsjoni jet raw l-ewwel operazzjonijiet tagħhom matul din il-gwerra, u anki jekk id-dħul tard tagħhom fil-gwerra ftit li xejn kellu effet fuq ir-riżultat, il-ftit ajruplani li ntużaw matul il-gwerra wasslu għal tibdil enormi fil-flottot t'ajruplani militari u ċivili. Boeing B-17e Amerikani. L-Alleati tilfu 160,000 piloti u 33,700 ajruplani matul il-gwerra bl-ajru fl-Ewropa. U-995 Tip VIIC Ġermaniż. Bejn 1939 u 1945, 3500 vapuri merkantili Alleati kienu għerqU bi spiża ta '783 Ġermaniżi u dgħajjes. T-34 Sovjetika, il-kanun l-aktar prodott użat tal-gwerra. Aktar minn 57,000 kienu mibnija mill-1945. Fil-baħar, filwaqt li avvanzi saru f'kważi kull qasam navali, iż-żewġ żoni ta' żvilupp kkonċnetraw rwieħhom fuq l-aircraft carriers u s-sottomarini. Anki jekk fil-bidu tal-gwerra il-qasam militari ajrunawtiku kellu relattivament suċċessi modesti ħafna, azzjonijiet f' Taranto, Pearl Harbor, il-Baħar Ċiniż tan-Nofsinhar u l-Baħar tal-Koralli malajr stabilixxew lill-aircraft carriers bħala l-iktar bastiment importanti fi gwerra, iktar mill-bastimenti tal-gwerra. Fl-Atlantiku, escort carriers dehru bħala parti fundamentali tal-konvojs, b'żieda drammatika tar-radju ta' protezzjoni effettiva tal-vapuri u billi soddew it- toqba fl-Atlantiku ċentrali . Lil hinn mill-effikaċja tagħhom, il-carriers kienu ħafna iktar ekonomiċi mill-bastiment tal-gwerra minħabba r-roħs relattiv fil-press tal-ajruplani u l-fatt li ma kellhomx bżonn ta' ħxuna fl-armaturi ta' protezzjoni tagħhom. Kulħadd stenna li s-sottomarini, li dehru importanti ħafna fl-ewwel gwerra, kienu ser jerġgħu joħorġu bħala fundamentali fit-tieni waħda. Il-Brittaniċi ffokaw fuq l-iżvilupp ta' miżuri fi sfond ta' gwerra anti-sottomarina, b'tattiċi, għodda u vapuri, bħas- sonar u l-konvojs; il-Ġermanja ffokat iktar fuq l-iżvilupp offensiv ta' din l-arma, b'diżinji bħas- sottomarin Tip VII u t-tattika wolfsrudel . Bilmod il-mod, teknoloġiji żviluppati kontinwalment mill-Alleati, bħal Leigh light , qanfud , klamar , u t- torpedos intelliġenti ħarġu rebbieħa. Fuq l-art, il-gwerra mbidlet b'mod drastiku mill-frontijiet tal-gwerra statiċi tal-Ewwel Gwerra Dinjija, u saru ħafna iktar fluwdi u mobbli. Bidla importanti kienet il-kunċetti ta' armi kkumbinati , b'kordinazzjoni stretta ħafna bejn elementi differenti fil-gwerra; it- tank , li kien diġa ntuża fl-għajnuna tal-fanterija fl-ewwel gwerra, evolva biex sar l-arma primarja għal dawn il-qawwiet. Fl-aħħar tas-snin tletin, id-disinji tat-tankijiet tal-gwerra kienu diġa avvanzaw ħafna iktar minn dawk tal-ewwel gwerra, u l- avvanzati tkomplew matul is-snin tal-gwerra, b'żidiet fil-veloċità, armatura u qawwa. Sal-bidu tal-gwerra, ħafna armati kienu jikkunsidraw it-tank bħala l-aħjar arma kontriha nnifisha, u żviluppaw tankijiet għal dak l-iskop speċifiku. Dawn il-ħsibijiet ġew negati bl-attaki diżastrużi ta' tankijiet b'armaturi ħfief kontra xulxin, u bid-duttrina Ġermaniża li tevita ġlied dirett bejn it-tankijiet; dan tal-aħħar, flimkien mal-użu ġermaniż tal-armi kkumbinati, kienu fost l-elementi ta' suċċess fit-tattika tal- blitzkrieg fil-Polonja u Franza. Intużaw wkoll ħafna metodi biex jitkissru t-tankijiet, fosthom artillerija indiretta, u kanuni disinjati kontrihom (kemm miġbudin u mixjin b' saħħithom), mini, u suldati b'armi speċjali, u tankijiet oħrajn. Anki jekk ħafna armati kienu mekkaniżati, il-fanterija baqgħet tifformas-saħħa prinċipali tal-armati, u matul il-gwerra, ħafna mill-armi tal-fanterija kienu jixbħu jew disinjati fuq dawk tal-ewwel gwerra. Xi uħud mill-avvanzi primarji kienu fl-użu ta' machine guns mobbli, l-iktar eżempju famuż fosthom l- MG42 Ġermaniż, u ħafna submachine guns li kienu tajbin ħafna għal ġlied mill-qrib, f'ġungli jew ċentri urbani. L- assault rifle , kien żvilupp li sar fl-aħħar tal-gwerra, li kien jagħqqad l-aħjar fost il-vantaġġi tar- rifle u tas-submachine gun, sar l-istandard tal-armati wara l-gwerra. Fil-kamp ta' komunikazzjonijiet, ħafna mill-pajjiżi belliġġerenti kbar pruvaw isolvi l-problemi tal-kumplessità u s-sigurtà preżentati fl-użu ta' kodiċi fil-kriptografija billi ħolqu bosta magni apposta, l-iktar famuża fosthom il- magna Enigma tal-Ġermanja. SIGINT ( sig nals int elligence) kien il-proċess li jħassar id-dekriptazjoni, bl-iktar eżempji magħrufa jkunu l-Brittanika ULTRA u d-dekriptazzjoni alleata tal-kodiċi navali ġappuniżi. Aspett importanti ieħor tal- intelliġenza militari kien l-użu t'operazzjonijiet ta' taħwid tal-għadu, operazzjonijiet li l-Alleati użaw għal bosta drabi b'ħafna suċċessi, fosthom l-operazzjonijiet Mincemeat u Bodyguard , li dawwret l-attenzjoni Ġermaniża mill-invażjonijiet ta' Sqallija u n-Normandija, rispettivament. Riżultati importanti oħra milħuqa fil-kampijiet tal-inġinjerija u t-teknoloġija li waslu jew matul jew b'riżultat tal-gwerra jinkludu l- kompjuters ( Z3 , Colossus , u ENIAC ), missili gwidati u rokits moderni , il- Proġett Manhattan u l-iżvilupp tal- armi nukleari , l-iżvilupp ta' portijiet artifiċjali u pajpijiet taż-żejt taħt il-kanal ingliż . Avvanzati fit-teknoloġija u fix-xjenza bellika Matul il-gwerra, l-ajruplani komplew fir-rwolijiet tagħom tal-Ewwel Gwerra Dinjija, dawk ta' rikonjizzjoni, fighters , bombardieri u għajnuna tat-truppi tal-art, imma kull kamp ġie avvanzat b'mod konsiderevoli. Żewġ żidiet importanti kienu dawk tat- trasport mill-ajru , il-kapaċità li tmexxi matejal militari, għodda u truppi, anki jekk f'numri modesti; u l-użu tal- bombardament strateġiku , l-użu ko-ordinat tal-bombardieri biex jattakaw bliet jew ċentri ċivili bl-għan li tbaxxi l-produzzjoni u twaqqa' l-moral. Armi ta' kontra l-ajru komplew javvanzaw, biż-żieda ta' difiżi bħar- radar u artillerija kontra l-ajru, bħall-kanun ta'88mm Ġermaniż. Ajruplani bi propulsjoni jet raw l-ewwel operazzjonijiet tagħhom matul din il-gwerra, u anki jekk id-dħul tard tagħhom fil-gwerra ftit li xejn kellu effet fuq ir-riżultat, il-ftit ajruplani li ntużaw matul il-gwerra wasslu għal tibdil enormi fil-flottot t'ajruplani militari u ċivili. Boeing B-17e Amerikani. L-Alleati tilfu 160,000 piloti u 33,700 ajruplani matul il-gwerra bl-ajru fl-Ewropa. U-995 Tip VIIC Ġermaniż. Bejn 1939 u 1945, 3500 vapuri merkantili Alleati kienu għerqU bi spiża ta '783 Ġermaniżi u dgħajjes. T-34 Sovjetika, il-kanun l-aktar prodott użat tal-gwerra. Aktar minn 57,000 kienu mibnija mill-1945. Fil-baħar, filwaqt li avvanzi saru f'kważi kull qasam navali, iż-żewġ żoni ta' żvilupp kkonċnetraw rwieħhom fuq l-aircraft carriers u s-sottomarini. Anki jekk fil-bidu tal-gwerra il-qasam militari ajrunawtiku kellu relattivament suċċessi modesti ħafna, azzjonijiet f' Taranto, Pearl Harbor, il-Baħar Ċiniż tan-Nofsinhar u l-Baħar tal-Koralli malajr stabilixxew lill-aircraft carriers bħala l-iktar bastiment importanti fi gwerra, iktar mill-bastimenti tal-gwerra. Fl-Atlantiku, escort carriers dehru bħala parti fundamentali tal-konvojs, b'żieda drammatika tar-radju ta' protezzjoni effettiva tal-vapuri u billi soddew it- toqba fl-Atlantiku ċentrali . Lil hinn mill-effikaċja tagħhom, il-carriers kienu ħafna iktar ekonomiċi mill-bastiment tal-gwerra minħabba r-roħs relattiv fil-press tal-ajruplani u l-fatt li ma kellhomx bżonn ta' ħxuna fl-armaturi ta' protezzjoni tagħhom. Kulħadd stenna li s-sottomarini, li dehru importanti ħafna fl-ewwel gwerra, kienu ser jerġgħu joħorġu bħala fundamentali fit-tieni waħda. Il-Brittaniċi ffokaw fuq l-iżvilupp ta' miżuri fi sfond ta' gwerra anti-sottomarina, b'tattiċi, għodda u vapuri, bħas- sonar u l-konvojs; il-Ġermanja ffokat iktar fuq l-iżvilupp offensiv ta' din l-arma, b'diżinji bħas- sottomarin Tip VII u t-tattika wolfsrudel . Bilmod il-mod, teknoloġiji żviluppati kontinwalment mill-Alleati, bħal Leigh light , qanfud , klamar , u t- torpedos intelliġenti ħarġu rebbieħa. Fuq l-art, il-gwerra mbidlet b'mod drastiku mill-frontijiet tal-gwerra statiċi tal-Ewwel Gwerra Dinjija, u saru ħafna iktar fluwdi u mobbli. Bidla importanti kienet il-kunċetti ta' armi kkumbinati , b'kordinazzjoni stretta ħafna bejn elementi differenti fil-gwerra; it- tank , li kien diġa ntuża fl-għajnuna tal-fanterija fl-ewwel gwerra, evolva biex sar l-arma primarja għal dawn il-qawwiet. Fl-aħħar tas-snin tletin, id-disinji tat-tankijiet tal-gwerra kienu diġa avvanzaw ħafna iktar minn dawk tal-ewwel gwerra, u l- avvanzati tkomplew matul is-snin tal-gwerra, b'żidiet fil-veloċità, armatura u qawwa. Sal-bidu tal-gwerra, ħafna armati kienu jikkunsidraw it-tank bħala l-aħjar arma kontriha nnifisha, u żviluppaw tankijiet għal dak l-iskop speċifiku. Dawn il-ħsibijiet ġew negati bl-attaki diżastrużi ta' tankijiet b'armaturi ħfief kontra xulxin, u bid-duttrina Ġermaniża li tevita ġlied dirett bejn it-tankijiet; dan tal-aħħar, flimkien mal-użu ġermaniż tal-armi kkumbinati, kienu fost l-elementi ta' suċċess fit-tattika tal- blitzkrieg fil-Polonja u Franza. Intużaw wkoll ħafna metodi biex jitkissru t-tankijiet, fosthom artillerija indiretta, u kanuni disinjati kontrihom (kemm miġbudin u mixjin b' saħħithom), mini, u suldati b'armi speċjali, u tankijiet oħrajn. Anki jekk ħafna armati kienu mekkaniżati, il-fanterija baqgħet tifformas-saħħa prinċipali tal-armati, u matul il-gwerra, ħafna mill-armi tal-fanterija kienu jixbħu jew disinjati fuq dawk tal-ewwel gwerra. Xi uħud mill-avvanzi primarji kienu fl-użu ta' machine guns mobbli, l-iktar eżempju famuż fosthom l- MG42 Ġermaniż, u ħafna submachine guns li kienu tajbin ħafna għal ġlied mill-qrib, f'ġungli jew ċentri urbani. L- assault rifle , kien żvilupp li sar fl-aħħar tal-gwerra, li kien jagħqqad l-aħjar fost il-vantaġġi tar- rifle u tas-submachine gun, sar l-istandard tal-armati wara l-gwerra. Fil-kamp ta' komunikazzjonijiet, ħafna mill-pajjiżi belliġġerenti kbar pruvaw isolvi l-problemi tal-kumplessità u s-sigurtà preżentati fl-użu ta' kodiċi fil-kriptografija billi ħolqu bosta magni apposta, l-iktar famuża fosthom il- magna Enigma tal-Ġermanja. SIGINT ( sig nals int elligence) kien il-proċess li jħassar id-dekriptazjoni, bl-iktar eżempji magħrufa jkunu l-Brittanika ULTRA u d-dekriptazzjoni alleata tal-kodiċi navali ġappuniżi. Aspett importanti ieħor tal- intelliġenza militari kien l-użu t'operazzjonijiet ta' taħwid tal-għadu, operazzjonijiet li l-Alleati użaw għal bosta drabi b'ħafna suċċessi, fosthom l-operazzjonijiet Mincemeat u Bodyguard , li dawwret l-attenzjoni Ġermaniża mill-invażjonijiet ta' Sqallija u n-Normandija, rispettivament. Riżultati importanti oħra milħuqa fil-kampijiet tal-inġinjerija u t-teknoloġija li waslu jew matul jew b'riżultat tal-gwerra jinkludu l- kompjuters ( Z3 , Colossus , u ENIAC ), missili gwidati u rokits moderni , il- Proġett Manhattan u l-iżvilupp tal- armi nukleari , l-iżvilupp ta' portijiet artifiċjali u pajpijiet taż-żejt taħt il-kanal ingliż . It-Tieni Gwerra Dinjija Għall-wikifikazzjoni L-aħħar bidla fuq il-paġna: 13:44, 26 Mejju 2025. Page was rendered with Parsoid . It-test huwa disponibbli taħt il- Liċenzja Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike ; jistgħu japplikaw xi kundizzjonijiet oħra. Ara l- kundizzjonijiet tal-użu għal aktar dettalji. Politika dwar il-privatezza Dwar il-Wikipedija Ċaħdiet Kodiċi ta' Kondotta Żviluppaturi Statistika Stqarrija dwar il-cookies Verżjoni għall-mowbajl
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Category : Sound technology Afrikaans العربية Aragonés Azərbaycanca বাংলা Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Boarisch Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Gaelg Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Magyar Македонски Bahasa Melayu Монгол Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Slovenčina Slovenščina Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Võro 粵語 中文 Category Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Subcategories This category has the following 10 subcategories, out of 10 total. A Ambisonics (10 P) Audio electronics (15 C, 33 P) G Graphical sound (13 P) L Loudspeaker technology (39 P) M Music technology (9 C, 49 P) R Sound recording technology (8 C, 49 P) S Sound measurements (37 P) Sound production technology (15 C, 79 P) U Units of sound (2 P) Σ Sound technology stubs (141 P) Pages in category "Sound technology" The following 43 pages are in this category, out of 43 total. This list may not reflect recent changes . Sound technology * Sound recording and reproduction A A/B sound system Acoustic data transmission Acoustic location Acoustic radiometer AES64 Ambisonics Audio editing software Auro 11.1 Auro-3D B Bat detector C Center channel Channel strip Codec acceleration D Delivered Audio Quality Digital room correction E EBU R 128 Endless tape cartridge I Institute of Sound and Vibration Research Isolation booth L LUFS M MADI Measurement microphone calibration Monaural sound P Personal sound PMCD Producing Great Sound for Film and Video Professional audio Q Quadrafile R Rexonics Road case S Showco Sound limiter SoundBug Soundcheck Soundhawk Stethoscope Super Bit Mapping T Telegraph sounder Tinnitracks Tungsten (music) V Voice changer Sound Technology by type Commons category link from Wikidata Category main article does not match category title This page was last edited on 9 February 2025, at 10:23 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Sound_technology
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Cultural groups 2 Elements of culture 3 Types of cultures Toggle Types of cultures subsection 3.1 Cultures by aspect 3.2 Cultural cross-sections 3.3 Subcultures 3.3.1 Types of cultures 3.3.2 Specific subcultures 3.1 Cultures by aspect 3.2 Cultural cross-sections 3.3 Subcultures 3.3.1 Types of cultures 3.3.2 Specific subcultures 3.3.1 Types of cultures 3.3.2 Specific subcultures 4 Academic disciplines that study culture 5 Cultures of the world Toggle Cultures of the world subsection 5.1 Area studies 5.2 Cultures of continents and major geopolitical regions 5.3 Cultures by political divisions of the World 5.3.1 Cultures of Africa 5.3.2 Culture of Antarctica 5.3.3 Cultures of Asia 5.3.4 Cultures of the Caucasus 5.3.5 Cultures of Europe 5.3.6 Cultures of North America 5.3.7 Cultures of Oceania 5.3.8 Cultures of South America 5.3.9 Cultures of the South America 5.1 Area studies 5.2 Cultures of continents and major geopolitical regions 5.3 Cultures by political divisions of the World 5.3.1 Cultures of Africa 5.3.2 Culture of Antarctica 5.3.3 Cultures of Asia 5.3.4 Cultures of the Caucasus 5.3.5 Cultures of Europe 5.3.6 Cultures of North America 5.3.7 Cultures of Oceania 5.3.8 Cultures of South America 5.3.9 Cultures of the South America 5.3.1 Cultures of Africa 5.3.2 Culture of Antarctica 5.3.3 Cultures of Asia 5.3.4 Cultures of the Caucasus 5.3.5 Cultures of Europe 5.3.6 Cultures of North America 5.3.7 Cultures of Oceania 5.3.8 Cultures of South America 5.3.9 Cultures of the South America 6 History of culture Toggle History of culture subsection 6.1 Cultural histories 6.1.1 By period 6.1.2 By region 6.1.3 By subject 6.2 Historical cultures 6.1 Cultural histories 6.1.1 By period 6.1.2 By region 6.1.3 By subject 6.1.1 By period 6.1.2 By region 6.1.3 By subject 6.2 Historical cultures 7 Politics of culture 8 Sociology of culture 9 Research fields 10 See also 11 References Outline of culture Hrvatski Татарча / tatarça Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to culture: Culture ( / ˈ k ʌ l tʃ ər / KUL -chər ) is a concept that encompasses the social behavior , institutions , and norms found in human societies , as well as the knowledge , beliefs , arts , laws , customs , capabilities, attitudes , and habits of the individuals in these groups. Culture often originates from or is attributed to a specific region or location. Humans acquire culture through the learning processes of enculturation and socialization , which is shown by the diversity of cultures across societies. A cultural norm codifies acceptable conduct in society; it serves as a guideline for behavior, dress, language, and demeanor in a situation, which serves as a template for expectations in a social group. Accepting only a monoculture in a social group can bear risks, just as a single species can wither in the face of environmental change, for lack of functional responses to the change. Thus in military culture, valor is counted as a typical behavior for an individual, and duty, honor, and loyalty to the social group are counted as virtues or functional responses in the continuum of conflict . In religion, analogous attributes can be identified in a social group. Cultural groups Community – a social unit of any size that shares common values. Communities range in size and scope from neighbourhoods to national communities to international communities. They can be physical (face-to-face) or virtual (online). People – a plurality of persons considered as a whole, as is the case with an ethnic group or nation. Collectively, for example, the contemporary Frisians and Danes are two related Germanic peoples, while various Middle Eastern ethnic groups are often linguistically categorized as Semitic people. See the list of contemporary ethnic groups for more examples. Ethnic group – A socially defined category of people who identify with each other based on common ancestral, social, cultural, or national experience. Membership of an ethnic group tends to be defined by a shared cultural heritage, ancestry, origin myth, history, homeland, language and/or dialect, symbolic systems such as religion, mythology and ritual, cuisine, dressing style, physical appearance, etc. People – a plurality of persons considered as a whole, as is the case with an ethnic group or nation. Collectively, for example, the contemporary Frisians and Danes are two related Germanic peoples, while various Middle Eastern ethnic groups are often linguistically categorized as Semitic people. See the list of contemporary ethnic groups for more examples. Ethnic group – A socially defined category of people who identify with each other based on common ancestral, social, cultural, or national experience. Membership of an ethnic group tends to be defined by a shared cultural heritage, ancestry, origin myth, history, homeland, language and/or dialect, symbolic systems such as religion, mythology and ritual, cuisine, dressing style, physical appearance, etc. Society – a group of people involved in persistent interpersonal relationships, or a large social grouping sharing the same geographical or social territory, typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations. Human societies are characterized by patterns of relationships (social relations) between individuals who share a distinctive culture and institutions; a given society may be described as the total of such relationships among its constituent members. Civilization – any complex society characterized by urban development, social stratification, symbolic communication forms (typically, writing systems), and a perceived separation from and domination over the natural environment. Civilization – any complex society characterized by urban development, social stratification, symbolic communication forms (typically, writing systems), and a perceived separation from and domination over the natural environment. Elements of culture The arts – vast subdivision of culture, composed of many creative endeavors and disciplines. The arts encompasses visual arts, literary arts and the performing arts. Clothing – Fashion , jewelry Gastronomy – the art and science of good eating, [ 1 ] including the study of food and culture. Food preparation – act of preparing foods for eating. It encompasses a vast range of methods, tools, and combinations of ingredients to improve the flavour and digestibility of food. Food , human food and drink Cuisines – a cuisine is a specific set of cooking traditions and practices, often associated with a specific culture. Chocolate – raw or processed food produced from the seed of the Mars Theobroma cacao tree. Wine – alcoholic beverage, made of fermented fruit juice, usually from grapes. [ 2 ] Literature – the art of written works. Children's literature – stories, books, and poems for children. Fiction – any form of narrative which deals, in part or whole, with events that are not factual, but rather, imaginary and invented by its author(s). See below . Non-fiction – a form of any narrative, account, or other communicative work whose assertions and descriptions are understood to be factual. Poetry – literary art in which language is used for its aesthetic and evocative qualities in addition to, or instead of, its apparent meaning. Critical theory – examination and critique of society and culture, drawing from knowledge across the social sciences and humanities. Performing arts – those forms of art that use the artist's own body, face, and presence as a medium. Circus – performance of a company of clowns, acrobats, trained animals, trapeze artists, musicians, hoopers, tightrope walkers, jugglers, unicyclists and other object-manipulating and stunt-oriented artists, and a ringmaster. Comedy – any discourse or work generally intended to be humorous or to amuse by inducing laughter, especially in theatre, television, film and stand-up comedy. Stand-up comedy – performance by a comedian in front of a live audience, usually speaking directly to them. Dance – art form of movement of the body, usually rhythmic and to music, [ 3 ] used as a form of expression, social interaction, or presented in a spiritual or performance setting. Film – moving pictures, the art form that records performances visually. Theatre – a collaborative form of fine art that uses live performers to present the experience of a real or imagined event before a live audience in a specific place. Music – an art form the medium of which is sound and silence. Music genres Jazz – a musical style that originated at the beginning of the 20th century in African American communities in the Southern United States, mixing African and European music traditions. Opera – an art form in which singers and musicians perform a dramatic work combining text (called a libretto) and musical score. [ 4 ] Musical instruments – devices created or adapted to make musical sounds. Guitars – the guitar is a plucked string instrument, usually played with fingers or a pick. The guitar consists of a body with a rigid neck to which the strings, generally six in number, are attached. Guitars are traditionally constructed of various woods and strung with animal gut or, more recently, with either nylon or steel strings. Stagecraft – technical aspects of theatrical, film, and video production. It includes, but is not limited to, constructing and rigging scenery, hanging and focusing of lighting, design and procurement of costumes, makeup, procurement of props, stage management, and recording and mixing of sound. Visual arts – art forms that create primarily visual works. Architecture – The art and science of designing and erecting buildings and other physical structures. Classical architecture – the architecture of classical antiquity and later architectural styles influenced by it. Crafts – recreational activities and hobbies that involve making things with one's hands and skill. Design – the process for planning the overall look of an object Drawing – visual art that makes use of any number of drawing instruments to mark a two-dimensional medium. Film – moving pictures. Painting – the practice of applying paint, pigment, colour or another medium to a surface with a brush or other object. History of painting Photography – art, science, and practice of creating pictures by recording radiation on a radiation-sensitive medium, such as a photographic film, or electronic image sensors. Sculpture – three-dimensional artwork created by shaping or combining hard materials - typically stone such as marble - or metal, glass, or wood. Clothing – Fashion , jewelry Gastronomy – the art and science of good eating, [ 1 ] including the study of food and culture. Food preparation – act of preparing foods for eating. It encompasses a vast range of methods, tools, and combinations of ingredients to improve the flavour and digestibility of food. Food , human food and drink Cuisines – a cuisine is a specific set of cooking traditions and practices, often associated with a specific culture. Chocolate – raw or processed food produced from the seed of the Mars Theobroma cacao tree. Wine – alcoholic beverage, made of fermented fruit juice, usually from grapes. [ 2 ] Food preparation – act of preparing foods for eating. It encompasses a vast range of methods, tools, and combinations of ingredients to improve the flavour and digestibility of food. Food , human food and drink Cuisines – a cuisine is a specific set of cooking traditions and practices, often associated with a specific culture. Chocolate – raw or processed food produced from the seed of the Mars Theobroma cacao tree. Wine – alcoholic beverage, made of fermented fruit juice, usually from grapes. [ 2 ] Cuisines – a cuisine is a specific set of cooking traditions and practices, often associated with a specific culture. Chocolate – raw or processed food produced from the seed of the Mars Theobroma cacao tree. Wine – alcoholic beverage, made of fermented fruit juice, usually from grapes. [ 2 ] Literature – the art of written works. Children's literature – stories, books, and poems for children. Fiction – any form of narrative which deals, in part or whole, with events that are not factual, but rather, imaginary and invented by its author(s). See below . Non-fiction – a form of any narrative, account, or other communicative work whose assertions and descriptions are understood to be factual. Poetry – literary art in which language is used for its aesthetic and evocative qualities in addition to, or instead of, its apparent meaning. Critical theory – examination and critique of society and culture, drawing from knowledge across the social sciences and humanities. Children's literature – stories, books, and poems for children. Fiction – any form of narrative which deals, in part or whole, with events that are not factual, but rather, imaginary and invented by its author(s). See below . Non-fiction – a form of any narrative, account, or other communicative work whose assertions and descriptions are understood to be factual. Poetry – literary art in which language is used for its aesthetic and evocative qualities in addition to, or instead of, its apparent meaning. Critical theory – examination and critique of society and culture, drawing from knowledge across the social sciences and humanities. Performing arts – those forms of art that use the artist's own body, face, and presence as a medium. Circus – performance of a company of clowns, acrobats, trained animals, trapeze artists, musicians, hoopers, tightrope walkers, jugglers, unicyclists and other object-manipulating and stunt-oriented artists, and a ringmaster. Comedy – any discourse or work generally intended to be humorous or to amuse by inducing laughter, especially in theatre, television, film and stand-up comedy. Stand-up comedy – performance by a comedian in front of a live audience, usually speaking directly to them. Dance – art form of movement of the body, usually rhythmic and to music, [ 3 ] used as a form of expression, social interaction, or presented in a spiritual or performance setting. Film – moving pictures, the art form that records performances visually. Theatre – a collaborative form of fine art that uses live performers to present the experience of a real or imagined event before a live audience in a specific place. Music – an art form the medium of which is sound and silence. Music genres Jazz – a musical style that originated at the beginning of the 20th century in African American communities in the Southern United States, mixing African and European music traditions. Opera – an art form in which singers and musicians perform a dramatic work combining text (called a libretto) and musical score. [ 4 ] Musical instruments – devices created or adapted to make musical sounds. Guitars – the guitar is a plucked string instrument, usually played with fingers or a pick. The guitar consists of a body with a rigid neck to which the strings, generally six in number, are attached. Guitars are traditionally constructed of various woods and strung with animal gut or, more recently, with either nylon or steel strings. Stagecraft – technical aspects of theatrical, film, and video production. It includes, but is not limited to, constructing and rigging scenery, hanging and focusing of lighting, design and procurement of costumes, makeup, procurement of props, stage management, and recording and mixing of sound. Circus – performance of a company of clowns, acrobats, trained animals, trapeze artists, musicians, hoopers, tightrope walkers, jugglers, unicyclists and other object-manipulating and stunt-oriented artists, and a ringmaster. Comedy – any discourse or work generally intended to be humorous or to amuse by inducing laughter, especially in theatre, television, film and stand-up comedy. Stand-up comedy – performance by a comedian in front of a live audience, usually speaking directly to them. Stand-up comedy – performance by a comedian in front of a live audience, usually speaking directly to them. Dance – art form of movement of the body, usually rhythmic and to music, [ 3 ] used as a form of expression, social interaction, or presented in a spiritual or performance setting. Film – moving pictures, the art form that records performances visually. Theatre – a collaborative form of fine art that uses live performers to present the experience of a real or imagined event before a live audience in a specific place. Music – an art form the medium of which is sound and silence. Music genres Jazz – a musical style that originated at the beginning of the 20th century in African American communities in the Southern United States, mixing African and European music traditions. Opera – an art form in which singers and musicians perform a dramatic work combining text (called a libretto) and musical score. [ 4 ] Musical instruments – devices created or adapted to make musical sounds. Guitars – the guitar is a plucked string instrument, usually played with fingers or a pick. The guitar consists of a body with a rigid neck to which the strings, generally six in number, are attached. Guitars are traditionally constructed of various woods and strung with animal gut or, more recently, with either nylon or steel strings. Music genres Jazz – a musical style that originated at the beginning of the 20th century in African American communities in the Southern United States, mixing African and European music traditions. Opera – an art form in which singers and musicians perform a dramatic work combining text (called a libretto) and musical score. [ 4 ] Jazz – a musical style that originated at the beginning of the 20th century in African American communities in the Southern United States, mixing African and European music traditions. Opera – an art form in which singers and musicians perform a dramatic work combining text (called a libretto) and musical score. [ 4 ] Musical instruments – devices created or adapted to make musical sounds. Guitars – the guitar is a plucked string instrument, usually played with fingers or a pick. The guitar consists of a body with a rigid neck to which the strings, generally six in number, are attached. Guitars are traditionally constructed of various woods and strung with animal gut or, more recently, with either nylon or steel strings. Guitars – the guitar is a plucked string instrument, usually played with fingers or a pick. The guitar consists of a body with a rigid neck to which the strings, generally six in number, are attached. Guitars are traditionally constructed of various woods and strung with animal gut or, more recently, with either nylon or steel strings. Stagecraft – technical aspects of theatrical, film, and video production. It includes, but is not limited to, constructing and rigging scenery, hanging and focusing of lighting, design and procurement of costumes, makeup, procurement of props, stage management, and recording and mixing of sound. Visual arts – art forms that create primarily visual works. Architecture – The art and science of designing and erecting buildings and other physical structures. Classical architecture – the architecture of classical antiquity and later architectural styles influenced by it. Crafts – recreational activities and hobbies that involve making things with one's hands and skill. Design – the process for planning the overall look of an object Drawing – visual art that makes use of any number of drawing instruments to mark a two-dimensional medium. Film – moving pictures. Painting – the practice of applying paint, pigment, colour or another medium to a surface with a brush or other object. History of painting Photography – art, science, and practice of creating pictures by recording radiation on a radiation-sensitive medium, such as a photographic film, or electronic image sensors. Sculpture – three-dimensional artwork created by shaping or combining hard materials - typically stone such as marble - or metal, glass, or wood. Architecture – The art and science of designing and erecting buildings and other physical structures. Classical architecture – the architecture of classical antiquity and later architectural styles influenced by it. Classical architecture – the architecture of classical antiquity and later architectural styles influenced by it. Crafts – recreational activities and hobbies that involve making things with one's hands and skill. Design – the process for planning the overall look of an object Drawing – visual art that makes use of any number of drawing instruments to mark a two-dimensional medium. Film – moving pictures. Painting – the practice of applying paint, pigment, colour or another medium to a surface with a brush or other object. History of painting History of painting Photography – art, science, and practice of creating pictures by recording radiation on a radiation-sensitive medium, such as a photographic film, or electronic image sensors. Sculpture – three-dimensional artwork created by shaping or combining hard materials - typically stone such as marble - or metal, glass, or wood. Entertainment – any activity which provides a diversion or permits people to amuse themselves in their leisure time. Entertainment is generally passive, such as watching opera or a movie. Fiction – any form of narrative which deals, in part or whole, with events that are not factual, but rather, imaginary and invented by its author(s). Fantasy – genre of fiction using magic and the supernatural as primary elements of plot, theme or setting, often in imaginary worlds, generally avoiding the technical/scientific content typical of Science fiction, but overlapping with it Science fiction – a genre of fiction dealing with imaginary but more or less plausible (or at least nonsupernatural) content such as future settings, futuristic science and technology, space travel, aliens, and paranormal abilities. Exploring the consequences of scientific innovations is one purpose of science fiction, making it a "literature of ideas." [ 5 ] Games – structured playing, usually undertaken for enjoyment, involving goals, rules, challenge, and interaction. Board games Chess – two-player board game played on a chessboard, a square-checkered board with 64 squares arranged in an eight-by-eight grid. Each player begins the game with sixteen pieces: One king, one queen, two rooks, two knights, two bishops, and eight pawns. Card games Poker – family of card games that share betting rules and usually (but not always) hand rankings. Video games – electronic games that involve interaction with a user interface to generate visual feedback on a video device. Performing arts – those forms of art that use the artist's own body, face, and presence as a medium. See above . Sports – organized, competitive, entertaining, and skilful activity requiring commitment, strategy, and fair play, in which a winner can be defined by objective means. Generally speaking, a sport is a game based in physical athleticism. Ball games Baseball – bat-and-ball sport played between two teams of nine players each. The aim is to score runs by hitting a thrown ball with a bat and touching a series of four bases arranged at the corners of a ninety-foot diamond. Basketball – team sport in which two teams of five players try to score points by throwing or "shooting" a ball through the top of a basketball hoop while following a set of rules. Tennis – sport usually played between two players (singles) or between two teams of two players each (doubles), using specialized racquets to strike a felt-covered hollow rubber ball over a net into the opponent's court. Canoeing and kayaking – two closely related forms of watercraft paddling, involving manually propelling and navigating specialized boats called canoes and kayaks using a blade that is joined to a shaft, known as a paddle, in the water. Combat sports Fencing – family of combat sports using bladed weapons. Martial arts – extensive systems of codified practices and traditions of combat, practised for a variety of reasons, including self-defence, competition, physical health and fitness, as well as mental and spiritual development. Cycling sport – bicycle racing and track cycling. Motorcycling – riding a motorcycle. A variety of subcultures and lifestyles have been built up around motorcycling and motorcycle racing. Running – moving rapidly on foot, during which both feet are off the ground at regular intervals. Fiction – any form of narrative which deals, in part or whole, with events that are not factual, but rather, imaginary and invented by its author(s). Fantasy – genre of fiction using magic and the supernatural as primary elements of plot, theme or setting, often in imaginary worlds, generally avoiding the technical/scientific content typical of Science fiction, but overlapping with it Science fiction – a genre of fiction dealing with imaginary but more or less plausible (or at least nonsupernatural) content such as future settings, futuristic science and technology, space travel, aliens, and paranormal abilities. Exploring the consequences of scientific innovations is one purpose of science fiction, making it a "literature of ideas." [ 5 ] Fantasy – genre of fiction using magic and the supernatural as primary elements of plot, theme or setting, often in imaginary worlds, generally avoiding the technical/scientific content typical of Science fiction, but overlapping with it Science fiction – a genre of fiction dealing with imaginary but more or less plausible (or at least nonsupernatural) content such as future settings, futuristic science and technology, space travel, aliens, and paranormal abilities. Exploring the consequences of scientific innovations is one purpose of science fiction, making it a "literature of ideas." [ 5 ] Games – structured playing, usually undertaken for enjoyment, involving goals, rules, challenge, and interaction. Board games Chess – two-player board game played on a chessboard, a square-checkered board with 64 squares arranged in an eight-by-eight grid. Each player begins the game with sixteen pieces: One king, one queen, two rooks, two knights, two bishops, and eight pawns. Card games Poker – family of card games that share betting rules and usually (but not always) hand rankings. Video games – electronic games that involve interaction with a user interface to generate visual feedback on a video device. Board games Chess – two-player board game played on a chessboard, a square-checkered board with 64 squares arranged in an eight-by-eight grid. Each player begins the game with sixteen pieces: One king, one queen, two rooks, two knights, two bishops, and eight pawns. Chess – two-player board game played on a chessboard, a square-checkered board with 64 squares arranged in an eight-by-eight grid. Each player begins the game with sixteen pieces: One king, one queen, two rooks, two knights, two bishops, and eight pawns. Card games Poker – family of card games that share betting rules and usually (but not always) hand rankings. Poker – family of card games that share betting rules and usually (but not always) hand rankings. Video games – electronic games that involve interaction with a user interface to generate visual feedback on a video device. Performing arts – those forms of art that use the artist's own body, face, and presence as a medium. See above . Sports – organized, competitive, entertaining, and skilful activity requiring commitment, strategy, and fair play, in which a winner can be defined by objective means. Generally speaking, a sport is a game based in physical athleticism. Ball games Baseball – bat-and-ball sport played between two teams of nine players each. The aim is to score runs by hitting a thrown ball with a bat and touching a series of four bases arranged at the corners of a ninety-foot diamond. Basketball – team sport in which two teams of five players try to score points by throwing or "shooting" a ball through the top of a basketball hoop while following a set of rules. Tennis – sport usually played between two players (singles) or between two teams of two players each (doubles), using specialized racquets to strike a felt-covered hollow rubber ball over a net into the opponent's court. Canoeing and kayaking – two closely related forms of watercraft paddling, involving manually propelling and navigating specialized boats called canoes and kayaks using a blade that is joined to a shaft, known as a paddle, in the water. Combat sports Fencing – family of combat sports using bladed weapons. Martial arts – extensive systems of codified practices and traditions of combat, practised for a variety of reasons, including self-defence, competition, physical health and fitness, as well as mental and spiritual development. Cycling sport – bicycle racing and track cycling. Motorcycling – riding a motorcycle. A variety of subcultures and lifestyles have been built up around motorcycling and motorcycle racing. Running – moving rapidly on foot, during which both feet are off the ground at regular intervals. Ball games Baseball – bat-and-ball sport played between two teams of nine players each. The aim is to score runs by hitting a thrown ball with a bat and touching a series of four bases arranged at the corners of a ninety-foot diamond. Basketball – team sport in which two teams of five players try to score points by throwing or "shooting" a ball through the top of a basketball hoop while following a set of rules. Tennis – sport usually played between two players (singles) or between two teams of two players each (doubles), using specialized racquets to strike a felt-covered hollow rubber ball over a net into the opponent's court. Baseball – bat-and-ball sport played between two teams of nine players each. The aim is to score runs by hitting a thrown ball with a bat and touching a series of four bases arranged at the corners of a ninety-foot diamond. Basketball – team sport in which two teams of five players try to score points by throwing or "shooting" a ball through the top of a basketball hoop while following a set of rules. Tennis – sport usually played between two players (singles) or between two teams of two players each (doubles), using specialized racquets to strike a felt-covered hollow rubber ball over a net into the opponent's court. Canoeing and kayaking – two closely related forms of watercraft paddling, involving manually propelling and navigating specialized boats called canoes and kayaks using a blade that is joined to a shaft, known as a paddle, in the water. Combat sports Fencing – family of combat sports using bladed weapons. Martial arts – extensive systems of codified practices and traditions of combat, practised for a variety of reasons, including self-defence, competition, physical health and fitness, as well as mental and spiritual development. Fencing – family of combat sports using bladed weapons. Martial arts – extensive systems of codified practices and traditions of combat, practised for a variety of reasons, including self-defence, competition, physical health and fitness, as well as mental and spiritual development. Cycling sport – bicycle racing and track cycling. Motorcycling – riding a motorcycle. A variety of subcultures and lifestyles have been built up around motorcycling and motorcycle racing. Running – moving rapidly on foot, during which both feet are off the ground at regular intervals. Humanities – academic disciplines that study the human condition, using methods that are primarily analytical, critical, or speculative, as distinguished from the mainly empirical approaches of the natural sciences. Area studies – comprehensive interdisciplinary research and the academic study of the people and communities of particular regions. Disciplines applied to include history, political science, sociology, cultural studies, languages, geography, literature, and related disciplines. Sinology – study of China and things related to China, such as its classical language and literature. Classical studies – a branch of the Humanities comprising the languages, literature, philosophy, history, art, archaeology and all other cultural elements of the ancient Mediterranean world (Bronze Age ca. BC 3000 – Late Antiquity ca. AD 300–600); especially Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. Area studies – comprehensive interdisciplinary research and the academic study of the people and communities of particular regions. Disciplines applied to include history, political science, sociology, cultural studies, languages, geography, literature, and related disciplines. Sinology – study of China and things related to China, such as its classical language and literature. Sinology – study of China and things related to China, such as its classical language and literature. Classical studies – a branch of the Humanities comprising the languages, literature, philosophy, history, art, archaeology and all other cultural elements of the ancient Mediterranean world (Bronze Age ca. BC 3000 – Late Antiquity ca. AD 300–600); especially Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. Mass media – diversified media technologies and their content that are intended to reach a large audience by mass communication. Includes radio and television programming; mass publishing of books, magazines, and newspapers; web content; and films and audio recordings. Tradition – belief or behaviour passed down within a group or society with symbolic meaning or special significance with origins in the past. Common examples include holidays or impractical but socially meaningful clothes (like lawyer wigs or military officer spurs), but the idea has also been applied to social norms such as greetings. Celebration – Festivals – entertainment events centring on and celebrating a unique aspect of a community, usually staged by that community. Celebration – Festivals – entertainment events centring on and celebrating a unique aspect of a community, usually staged by that community. Festivals – entertainment events centring on and celebrating a unique aspect of a community, usually staged by that community. Tourism – travel for recreational, leisure, or business purposes. The World Tourism Organization defines tourists as people "travelling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes." Tourism is important, and in some cases, vital for many countries. It was recognized in the Manila Declaration on World Tourism of 1980 as "an activity essential to the life of nations because of its direct effects on the social, cultural, educational, and economic sectors of national societies and their international relations." [ 6 ] [ 7 ] Tourist attraction – place of interest where tourists visit, typically for its inherent or exhibited natural or cultural value, historical significance, natural or built beauty, offering leisure, adventure and amusement. Lists of tourist attractions Tourist attraction – place of interest where tourists visit, typically for its inherent or exhibited natural or cultural value, historical significance, natural or built beauty, offering leisure, adventure and amusement. Lists of tourist attractions Lists of tourist attractions Types of cultures Organizational culture – behaviour of humans within an organization and the meaning that people attach to those behaviours. An organization's culture includes its vision, values, norms, systems, countries, symbols, language, assumptions, beliefs, and habits. Cultures by aspect Consumer culture – a society based on consumption High context culture – a culture with the tendency use high context messages, resulting in catering towards in-groups Low context culture – culture with a tendency not to cater towards in-groups Non-institutional culture - culture that is emerging bottom-up from self-organizing grassroot initiatives, rather than top-down from the state Participatory culture – a culture in which private persons (the public) do not act as consumers only, but also as contributors or producers ( prosumers ) Permission culture – a society in which copyright restrictions are pervasive and enforced to the extent that any uses of copyrighted works need to be explicitly leased Remix culture – a society which allows and encourages derivative works Traditional culture – a community that chooses to remain focused on subsistence as a major cornerstone of their economic behaviour, as well as, adheres to their ancestral belief-systems and mannerism. [ 8 ] Cultural cross-sections Animal culture – cultural phenomena pertaining to animals Children's culture – cultural phenomena pertaining to children Children's street culture – cumulative culture created by young children Children's street culture – cumulative culture created by young children Coffee culture – social atmosphere or series of associated social behaviors that depends heavily upon coffee , particularly as a social lubricant Culture of capitalism – the lifestyle of the people living within a capitalist society, and the effects of a global or national capitalist economy on a population Cyberculture – cultural phenomena pertaining to cyberspace DIY culture – refers to a wide range of elements in non-mainstream society, such as grassroots political and social activism, independent music, art, and film Dominant culture – the established language, religion, behavior, values, rituals, and social customs of a society Drinking culture – the customs and practices of people who drink alcoholic beverages Folk culture ( Folklore ) – traditional culture; traditional cultural traits of a community Low culture – non-transcendent; “not worth” studying or researching High culture – “transcendent” in two ways: internationally and timeless Official culture Political culture Civic political culture Civic political culture Popular culture – totality of ideas, perspectives, attitudes, memes, images and other phenomena that permeate the everyday lives of a given society, especially those heavily influenced by mass media. Print culture Safety culture – the way in which safety is managed in the workplace, which often reflects "the attitudes, beliefs, perceptions and values that employees share in relation to safety." Tea culture Trash culture Urban culture Vernacular culture Women's culture ( Cultural feminism ) [ 9 ] Youth culture - refers to the societal norms of children , adolescents , and young adults. Specifically, it comprises the processes and symbolic systems that are shared by the youth demographic and are distinct from those of adults in the community. [ 10 ] Subcultures Subculture Lifestyle enclave Types of cultures Alternative culture Specific subcultures Association football culture Cycling subculture – a culture that supports, encourages, and has high bicycle usage Deaf culture – social beliefs, behaviors, art, literary traditions, history, values and shared institutions of communities that are affected by deafness and which use sign languages as the main means of communication. When used as a cultural label, the word "deaf" is often written with a capital D, and referred to as "big D Deaf" in speech and sign. Ethical culture Horse culture – a community whose day-to-day life revolves around the herding and breeding of horses LGBT culture Modern juggling culture Surf culture Video game culture Academic disciplines that study culture Science Anthropology Cultural anthropology – branch of anthropology focused on the study of cultural variation . Cultural anthropology – branch of anthropology focused on the study of cultural variation . Archaeology – history studies in the physical aspects or artefacts of cultures. culture-historical archaeology Sociocultural evolution culture-historical archaeology Sociocultural evolution Biology Sociobiology Social neuroscience Cultural neuroscience Sociobiology Social neuroscience Cultural neuroscience Cultural history – an academic discipline that combines the approaches of anthropology and history to look at popular cultural traditions and cultural interpretations of historical experience. It examines the records and narrative descriptions of past knowledge, customs, and arts of a group of people. Cultural studies – an academic discipline that studies the forces from which the whole of humankind construct their daily lives. It seeks to understand how meaning is generated and disseminated through practices, beliefs, and political, economic, or social structures within a given culture. Ethnic studies Popular culture studies – generally considered a combination of communication studies and cultural studies, it analyzes popular culture from a critical theory perspective. Ethnic studies Popular culture studies – generally considered a combination of communication studies and cultural studies, it analyzes popular culture from a critical theory perspective. Culturology – social science concerned with the scientific understanding, description, analysis and prediction of cultural activities. Culture theory – seeks to define the heuristic concept of culture in operational and/or scientific terms. Human geography – social science that studies the world, its people, communities, and cultures with an emphasis on relations of and across space and place. Philosophy of culture Psychology Evolutionary psychology Cultural psychology Evolutionary psychology Cultural psychology Sociology – scientific study of human society. The traditional focuses of sociology have included social stratification, social class, culture, social mobility, religion, secularization, law, and deviance. Sociology of culture Sociology of culture Sound culture – an interdisciplinary field which considers "the material production and consumption of music, sound, noise and silence, and how these have changed throughout history and within different societies, but does this from a much broader perspective than standard disciplines." [ 11 ] Visual culture Cultures of the world Area studies Area studies Classical studies Sinology Internet studies Internet culture Lurker Netizen Social media Femboy Internet culture Lurker Netizen Social media Femboy Lurker Netizen Social media Femboy Cultures of continents and major geopolitical regions Culture of Africa Culture of Antarctica Culture of Asia Culture of Europe Culture of North America Culture of Oceania Culture of Australia Culture of Australia Culture of South America Cultures by political divisions of the World (arranged by continent or major geopolitical region) Cultures of Africa Culture of Africa West Africa Culture of Benin Culture of Burkina Faso Culture of Cape Verde Culture of Ivory Coast Culture of the Gambia Culture of Ghana Culture of Guinea Culture of Guinea-Bissau Culture of Liberia Culture of Mali Culture of Mauritania Culture of Niger Culture of Nigeria Culture of Senegal Culture of Sierra Leone Culture of Togo Culture of Benin Culture of Burkina Faso Culture of Cape Verde Culture of Ivory Coast Culture of the Gambia Culture of Ghana Culture of Guinea Culture of Guinea-Bissau Culture of Liberia Culture of Mali Culture of Mauritania Culture of Niger Culture of Nigeria Culture of Senegal Culture of Sierra Leone Culture of Togo North Africa Culture of Algeria Culture of Egypt Culture of Libya Culture of Mauritania Culture of Morocco Culture of Sudan Culture of Tunisia Culture of Western Sahara Culture of Algeria Culture of Egypt Culture of Libya Culture of Mauritania Culture of Morocco Culture of Sudan Culture of Tunisia Culture of Western Sahara Central Africa Culture of Angola Culture of Burundi Culture of Cameroon Culture of the Central African Republic Culture of Chad Culture of the Democratic Republic of the Congo Culture of Equatorial Guinea Culture of Gabon Culture of the Republic of the Congo Culture of Rwanda Culture of São Tomé and Príncipe Culture of Angola Culture of Burundi Culture of Cameroon Culture of the Central African Republic Culture of Chad Culture of the Democratic Republic of the Congo Culture of Equatorial Guinea Culture of Gabon Culture of the Republic of the Congo Culture of Rwanda Culture of São Tomé and Príncipe East Africa Culture of Burundi Culture of Comoros Culture of Djibouti Culture of Eritrea Culture of Ethiopia Culture of Kenya Culture of Madagascar Culture of Malawi Culture of Mauritius Culture of Mozambique Culture of Rwanda Culture of Seychelles Culture of Somalia Culture of South Sudan Culture of Tanzania Culture of Uganda Culture of Zambia Culture of Zimbabwe Culture of Burundi Culture of Comoros Culture of Djibouti Culture of Eritrea Culture of Ethiopia Culture of Kenya Culture of Madagascar Culture of Malawi Culture of Mauritius Culture of Mozambique Culture of Rwanda Culture of Seychelles Culture of Somalia Culture of South Sudan Culture of Tanzania Culture of Uganda Culture of Zambia Culture of Zimbabwe Southern Africa Culture of Botswana Culture of Lesotho Culture of Namibia Culture of South Africa Culture of Swaziland Culture of Botswana Culture of Lesotho Culture of Namibia Culture of South Africa Culture of Swaziland Dependencies in Africa Culture of the British Indian Ocean Territory (UK) Culture of Mayotte (France) Culture of Réunion (France) Culture of Saint Helena (UK) Culture of the Canary Islands (Spain) Culture of Ceuta (Spain) Culture of Madeira (Portugal) Culture of Melilla (Spain) Culture of Socotra (Yemen) Culture of Puntland Culture of Somaliland Culture of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic Culture of the British Indian Ocean Territory (UK) Culture of Mayotte (France) Culture of Réunion (France) Culture of Saint Helena (UK) Culture of the Canary Islands (Spain) Culture of Ceuta (Spain) Culture of Madeira (Portugal) Culture of Melilla (Spain) Culture of Socotra (Yemen) Culture of Puntland Culture of Somaliland Culture of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic Culture of Antarctica No political divisions and no permanent population Cultures of Asia Culture of Asia Central Asia Culture of Kazakhstan Culture of Kyrgyzstan Culture of Tajikistan Culture of Turkmenistan Culture of Uzbekistan Culture of Kazakhstan Culture of Kyrgyzstan Culture of Tajikistan Culture of Turkmenistan Culture of Uzbekistan East Asia Culture of China Culture of Tibet Special Administrative regions of China Culture of Hong Kong Culture of Macau Culture of Japan Culture of North Korea Culture of South Korea Culture of Mongolia Culture of Taiwan Culture of China Culture of Tibet Special Administrative regions of China Culture of Hong Kong Culture of Macau Culture of Tibet Special Administrative regions of China Culture of Hong Kong Culture of Macau Culture of Hong Kong Culture of Macau Culture of Japan Culture of North Korea Culture of South Korea Culture of Mongolia Culture of Taiwan North Asia Culture of Russia Culture of Russia Southeast Asia Culture of Brunei Culture of Burma Culture of Cambodia Culture of East Timor Culture of Indonesia Culture of Laos Culture of Malaysia Culture of the Philippines Culture of Singapore Culture of Thailand Culture of Vietnam Culture of Brunei Culture of Burma Culture of Cambodia Culture of East Timor Culture of Indonesia Culture of Laos Culture of Malaysia Culture of the Philippines Culture of Singapore Culture of Thailand Culture of Vietnam South Asia Culture of Afghanistan Culture of Bangladesh Culture of Bhutan Culture of India Culture of Iran Culture of Maldives Culture of Nepal Culture of Pakistan Culture of Sri Lanka Culture of Afghanistan Culture of Bangladesh Culture of Bhutan Culture of India Culture of Iran Culture of Maldives Culture of Nepal Culture of Pakistan Culture of Sri Lanka West Asia Culture of Armenia Culture of Azerbaijan Culture of Bahrain Culture of Cyprus Culture of Northern Cyprus Culture of Georgia Culture of Iraq Culture of Israel Culture of Jordan Culture of Kuwait Culture of Lebanon Culture of Oman Culture of Palestine Culture of Qatar Culture of Saudi Arabia Culture of Syria Culture of Turkey Culture of the United Arab Emirates Culture of Yemen Culture of Armenia Culture of Azerbaijan Culture of Bahrain Culture of Cyprus Culture of Northern Cyprus Culture of Northern Cyprus Culture of Georgia Culture of Iraq Culture of Israel Culture of Jordan Culture of Kuwait Culture of Lebanon Culture of Oman Culture of Palestine Culture of Qatar Culture of Saudi Arabia Culture of Syria Culture of Turkey Culture of the United Arab Emirates Culture of Yemen Cultures of the Caucasus (a region considered to be in both Asia and Europe or between them) North Caucasus Parts of Russia Culture of Chechnya Culture of Ingushetia Culture of Dagestan Culture of Adyghea Culture of Kabardino-Balkaria Culture of Karachay–Cherkessia Culture of North Ossetia Culture of Krasnodar Krai Culture of Stavropol Krai Parts of Russia Culture of Chechnya Culture of Ingushetia Culture of Dagestan Culture of Adyghea Culture of Kabardino-Balkaria Culture of Karachay–Cherkessia Culture of North Ossetia Culture of Krasnodar Krai Culture of Stavropol Krai Culture of Chechnya Culture of Ingushetia Culture of Dagestan Culture of Adyghea Culture of Kabardino-Balkaria Culture of Karachay–Cherkessia Culture of North Ossetia Culture of Krasnodar Krai Culture of Stavropol Krai South Caucasus Culture of Georgia Culture of Abkhazia Culture of South Ossetia Culture of Armenia Culture of Azerbaijan Culture of Nagorno-Karabakh Culture of Georgia Culture of Abkhazia Culture of South Ossetia Culture of Abkhazia Culture of South Ossetia Culture of Armenia Culture of Azerbaijan Culture of Nagorno-Karabakh Culture of Nagorno-Karabakh Cultures of Europe Culture of Europe Culture of Akrotiri and Dhekelia Culture of Åland Culture of Albania Culture of Andorra Culture of Armenia Culture of Austria Culture of Azerbaijan Culture of Belarus Culture of Belgium Culture of Bosnia and Herzegovina Culture of Bulgaria Culture of Croatia Culture of Cyprus Culture of the Czech Republic Culture of Denmark Culture of Estonia Culture of the Faroe Islands Culture of Finland Culture of France Culture of Georgia Culture of Germany Culture of Gibraltar Culture of Greece Culture of Guernsey Culture of Hungary Culture of Iceland Culture of the Republic of Ireland Culture of the Isle of Man Culture of Italy Culture of Jersey Culture of Kazakhstan Culture of Kosovo Culture of Latvia Culture of Liechtenstein Culture of Lithuania Culture of Luxembourg Culture of Malta Culture of Moldova Culture of Transnistria Culture of Transnistria Culture of Monaco Culture of Montenegro Culture of the Netherlands Culture of North Macedonia Culture of Norway Culture of Poland Culture of Portugal Culture of Romania Culture of Russia Culture of San Marino Culture of Serbia Culture of Slovakia Culture of Slovenia Culture of Spain Culture of Svalbard Culture of Sweden Culture of Switzerland Culture of Turkey Culture of Ukraine Culture of the United Kingdom Culture of England Culture of Cornwall Culture of Sussex Culture of Yorkshire Culture of Northern Ireland Culture of Scotland Culture of Wales Culture of England Culture of Cornwall Culture of Sussex Culture of Yorkshire Culture of Cornwall Culture of Sussex Culture of Yorkshire Culture of Northern Ireland Culture of Scotland Culture of Wales Culture of Vatican City Culture of the European Union Cultures of North America Culture of North America Culture of Canada Culture of Alberta Culture of British Columbia Culture of Manitoba Culture of New Brunswick Culture of Newfoundland and Labrador Culture of Nova Scotia Culture of Ontario Culture of Prince Edward Island Culture of Quebec Culture of Saskatchewan Culture of Alberta Culture of British Columbia Culture of Manitoba Culture of New Brunswick Culture of Newfoundland and Labrador Culture of Nova Scotia Culture of Ontario Culture of Prince Edward Island Culture of Quebec Culture of Saskatchewan Culture of Greenland Culture of Mexico Culture of Saint Pierre and 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Culture of West Virginia Culture of Wisconsin Culture of Wyoming Culture of Washington, D.C. Culture of Alabama Culture of Alaska Culture of Arizona Culture of Arkansas Culture of California Culture of Colorado Culture of Connecticut Culture of Delaware Culture of Florida Culture of Georgia Culture of Hawaii Culture of Idaho Culture of Illinois Culture of Indiana Culture of Iowa Culture of Montana Culture of Kansas Culture of Kentucky Culture of Louisiana Culture of Maine Culture of Maryland Culture of Massachusetts Culture of Michigan Culture of Minnesota Culture of Mississippi Culture of Missouri Culture of Nebraska Culture of Nevada Culture of New Hampshire Culture of New Jersey Culture of New Mexico Culture of New York Culture of North Carolina Culture of North Dakota Culture of Ohio Culture of Oklahoma Culture of Oregon Culture of Pennsylvania Culture of Rhode Island Culture of South Carolina Culture of South Dakota Culture of Tennessee Culture of Texas Culture of Utah Culture of Vermont Culture of Virginia Culture of Washington Culture of West Virginia Culture of Wisconsin Culture of Wyoming Culture of Washington, D.C. Central America Culture of Belize Culture of Costa Rica Culture of El Salvador Culture of Guatemala Culture of Honduras Culture of Nicaragua Culture of Panama Culture of Belize Culture of Costa Rica Culture of El Salvador Culture of Guatemala Culture of Honduras Culture of Nicaragua Culture of Panama Caribbean Culture of Anguilla Culture of Antigua and Barbuda Culture of Aruba Culture of the Bahamas Culture of Barbados Culture of Bermuda Culture of the British Virgin Islands Culture of the Cayman Islands Culture of Cuba Culture of Dominica Culture of the Dominican Republic Culture of Grenada Culture of Guadeloupe Culture of Haiti Culture of Jamaica Culture of Martinique Culture of Montserrat Culture of Navassa Island Culture of the Netherlands Antilles Culture of Puerto Rico Culture of Saint Barthélemy Culture of Saint Kitts and Nevis Culture of Saint Lucia Culture of Saint Martin Culture of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Culture of Trinidad and Tobago Culture of the Turks and Caicos Islands Culture of the United States Virgin Islands Culture of Anguilla Culture of Antigua and Barbuda Culture of Aruba Culture of the Bahamas Culture of Barbados Culture of Bermuda Culture of the British Virgin Islands Culture of the Cayman Islands Culture of Cuba Culture of Dominica Culture of the Dominican Republic Culture of Grenada Culture of Guadeloupe Culture of Haiti Culture of Jamaica Culture of Martinique Culture of Montserrat Culture of Navassa Island Culture of the Netherlands Antilles Culture of Puerto Rico Culture of Saint Barthélemy Culture of Saint Kitts and Nevis Culture of Saint Lucia Culture of Saint Martin Culture of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Culture of Trinidad and Tobago Culture of the Turks and Caicos Islands Culture of the United States Virgin Islands Cultures of Oceania Culture of Oceania Australasia Culture of Australia Dependencies/Territories of Australia Culture of Christmas Island Culture of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands Culture of Norfolk Island Culture of New Zealand Melanesia Culture of Fiji Culture of Indonesia Culture of New Caledonia (France) Culture of Papua New Guinea Culture of the Solomon Islands Culture of Vanuatu Micronesia Culture of the Federated States of Micronesia Culture of Guam ( US ) Culture of Kiribati Culture of the Marshall Islands Culture of Nauru Culture of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Culture of Palau Culture of Wake Island (US) Polynesia Culture of American Samoa (US) Culture of the Chatham Islands (NZ) Culture of the Cook Islands ( NZ ) Culture of Easter Island (Chile) Culture of French Polynesia (France) Culture of Hawaii (US) Culture of the Loyalty Islands (France) Culture of Niue (NZ) Culture of the Pitcairn Islands ( UK ) Culture of Adamstown Culture of Samoa Culture of Tokelau (NZ) Culture of Tonga Culture of Tuvalu Culture of Wallis and Futuna (France) Culture of Australia Dependencies/Territories of Australia Culture of Christmas Island Culture of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands Culture of Norfolk Island Culture of New Zealand Dependencies/Territories of Australia Culture of Christmas Island Culture of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands Culture of Norfolk Island Culture of Christmas Island Culture of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands Culture of Norfolk Island Culture of New Zealand Melanesia Culture of Fiji Culture of Indonesia Culture of New Caledonia (France) Culture of Papua New Guinea Culture of the Solomon Islands Culture of Vanuatu Culture of Fiji Culture of Indonesia Culture of New Caledonia (France) Culture of Papua New Guinea Culture of the Solomon Islands Culture of Vanuatu Micronesia Culture of the Federated States of Micronesia Culture of Guam ( US ) Culture of Kiribati Culture of the Marshall Islands Culture of Nauru Culture of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Culture of Palau Culture of Wake Island (US) Culture of the Federated States of Micronesia Culture of Guam ( US ) Culture of Kiribati Culture of the Marshall Islands Culture of Nauru Culture of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Culture of Palau Culture of Wake Island (US) Polynesia Culture of American Samoa (US) Culture of the Chatham Islands (NZ) Culture of the Cook Islands ( NZ ) Culture of Easter Island (Chile) Culture of French Polynesia (France) Culture of Hawaii (US) Culture of the Loyalty Islands (France) Culture of Niue (NZ) Culture of the Pitcairn Islands ( UK ) Culture of Adamstown Culture of Samoa Culture of Tokelau (NZ) Culture of Tonga Culture of Tuvalu Culture of Wallis and Futuna (France) Culture of American Samoa (US) Culture of the Chatham Islands (NZ) Culture of the Cook Islands ( NZ ) Culture of Easter Island (Chile) Culture of French Polynesia (France) Culture of Hawaii (US) Culture of the Loyalty Islands (France) Culture of Niue (NZ) Culture of the Pitcairn Islands ( UK ) Culture of Adamstown Culture of Samoa Culture of Tokelau (NZ) Culture of Tonga Culture of Tuvalu Culture of Wallis and Futuna (France) Cultures of South America Culture of South America Culture of Argentina Culture of Bolivia Culture of Brazil Culture of Chile Culture of Colombia Culture of Ecuador Culture of the Falkland Islands Culture of French Guiana Culture of Guyana Culture of Paraguay Culture of Peru Culture of Suriname Culture of Uruguay Culture of Venezuela Cultures of the South America Culture of Ascension Island Culture of Saint Helena Culture of Tristan da Cunha History of culture Cultural histories By period Culture during the Cold War By region Cultural history of the United States Cultural history of Taiwan History of Lithuanian culture History of Russian culture By subject Earth in culture World War II in contemporary culture Medieval maritime culture Historical cultures Chinese culture Culture of ancient Greece Culture of ancient Rome Culture of ancient Rus Clovis culture Mississippian culture Vinca culture Human sacrifice in Aztec culture Politics of culture The arts and politics – as they respond to contemporaneous events and politics, the arts take on political as well as social dimensions, becoming themselves a focus of controversy and even a force of political as well as social change. Culture change – Culture of fear – Culture of life – Culture minister – Official culture – Political culture – Sociology of culture Animal culture – Constructed culture – Counterculture – Cross-cultural communication – Cultural bias – Cultural dissonance – Cultural evolution – Cultural icon – Cultural imperialism – Cultural movement – Cultural phenomenon – Cultural system – Cultural universals – Culture assimilators – Culture clash Culture gap – Culture hero – Culture industry – Culture note – Culture of poverty – Culture shock – Culture theory – Culture speculation – Culture war – Death and culture – Demographics – Emotions and culture – Ethnocentrism – High culture – Intercultural competence – Low culture – Right to science and culture – Social fact – Symbolic culture – Third culture kid – Transformation of culture – Trash culture – Urban culture – Research fields Semiotics of culture – studies culture in relation to language and as a symbolic system of signs See also Society portal Bread and circuses Ethnocentrism Cultural Institutions Studies Culture 21 – The Agenda 21 plan of action applied to culture Fads Interculturality Lifestyle MTV Generation Netflix One-Dimensional Man Pop art Pop icon References ^ Merriam-Webster "Gastronomy - Definition" Archived 2012-01-27 at the Wayback Machine ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "wine" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Archived from the original on 17 June 2008 . Retrieved 25 June 2008 . ^ "Dance - performing arts" . britannica.com . Archived from the original on 27 July 2008 . Retrieved 24 April 2018 . ^ Some definitions of opera: "dramatic performance or composition of which music is an essential part, a branch of art concerned with this" ( Concise Oxford English Dictionary ); "any dramatic work that can be sung (or at times declaimed or spoken) in a place for performance, set to original music for singers (usually in costume) and instrumentalists" (Amanda Holden, Viking Opera Guide ); "musical work for the stage with singing characters, originated in early years of 17th century" ( Pears Cyclopaedia , 1983 ed.). ^ Marg Gilks; Paula Fleming & Moira Allen (2003). "Science Fiction: The Literature of Ideas" . WritingWorld.com. Archived from the original on 2008-05-26. ^ "UNWTO technical manual: Collection of Tourism Expenditure Statistics" (PDF) . World Tourism Organization. 1995. p. 10. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 September 2010 . Retrieved 26 March 2009 . ^ Manila Declaration on World Tourism (PDF) . World Tourism Conference. Manila , Philippines . 10 October 1980. pp. 1– 4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 November 2012 . Retrieved 14 May 2013 . ^ "Primitive culture | Britannica" . ^ Staggenborg, Suzanne; Eder, Donna; Sudderth, Lori (1993). "Women's Culture and Social Change: Evidence from the National Women's Music Festival" . Berkeley Journal of Sociology . 38 : 31– 56. ISSN 0067-5830 . JSTOR 41035465 . ^ "Youth Culture | Encyclopedia.com" . www.encyclopedia.com . Retrieved 2022-04-15 . ^ Pinch, T. and Bijsterveld, K, 2004, Sound Studies: New Technologies and Music , in "Social Studies of Science", 34\5, pp. 635-648 .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Culture v t e Outline Sciences Cultural anthropology Cultural astronomy Cultural ecology Cultural geography Cultural neuroscience Cultural studies Culturology Culture theory Cultural anthropology Cultural astronomy Cultural ecology Cultural geography Cultural neuroscience Cultural studies Culturology Culture theory Subfields Bioculture Cross-cultural studies Cross-cultural communication Cross-cultural leadership Cross-cultural psychiatry Cross-cultural psychology Cultural analytics Cultural economics Cultural entomology Cultural history Cultural mapping Cultural mediation Cultural psychology Cultural values Culturomics Intercultural learning Intercultural relations Philosophy of culture Popular culture studies 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Prije nego što bude postavljen ovdje, članak mora biti izglasan prema kriterijima urednosti, tačnosti, neutralnosti i stilu pisanja. Wikipedia na bosanskom jeziku trenutno ima 221 istaknutih članaka od ukupno 96.602 na Wikipediji, što znači da je svaki 437 . članak istaknuti. Članci se, također, mogu uklanjati sa spiska istaknutih ako se obavi proces glasanja isto kao i za odabir. Zlatna zvjezdica ( ) u gornjem desnom uglu članka obilježava da je on istaknuti. Pogledajte i dobre članke: Wikipedia:Dobri članci Arhive: Arhiva 1 Glasanje Spisak istaknutih članaka Također pogledajte Prijašnje prijedloge i prijašnje članke Astronomija Betelgez Cerera Fobos Istraživanje Marsa Mars Planeta Program "Buran" Svemirski teleskop "James Webb" Venera Biografije Anne Boleyn Willy Brandt Josip Broz Tito Ciceron Arthur C. Clarke Ćirilo i Metodije Demosten Džingis-kan Adolf Eichmann Elizabeta I, kraljica Engleske Henry Ford Husein-kapetan Gradaščević Jakov I, kralj Engleske Jakov II, kralj Engleske Karlo II, kralj Engleske Katarina Aragonska Kir Veliki Mahathir Mohamad Marija Antoaneta Marija Terezija, kraljica Ugarske Simone Martini Erwin Rommel Biologija Ascomycota Bioluminiscencija BRCA1 Charles Darwin Evolucija čovjeka Fotosinteza Glodari Helicobacter pylori Morfologija insekata Skalar (riba) Snježna sova Spinosaurus Voda Društvene nauke OPEC Sociologija Fizika Atom Alexander Graham Bell Izvijanje Nikola Tesla Optika Snijeg Geografija Alabama Albanija Angola Baščaršija Bejrut Bonn Bosna i Hercegovina Delaware Doboj Egipat Evropa Fojnica Gvatemala Las Vegas Lesoto Livno Los Angeles Malta Namibija Nauru Njemačka Pariz Sarajevo Seoul San Francisco Slovenija SFR Jugoslavija Španija Štajerska Švedska Ukrajina Unsko-sanski kanton Visoko Zenica Zvornik Geologija Mineral Zemljotres Hemija Germanij Hafnij Heroin Hromatografija Iridij Itrij Kokain Ksenon Molibden Natrij Nikotin Sumpor Tantal Titanij Ugljična kvantna tačka Uranij Historija 14. srednjobosanska udarna brigada Ahemenidsko Carstvo Antička Grčka Atentat na Johna F. Kennedyja Bitka za Monte Cassino Borba za nezavisnost zemalja Latinske Amerike Bosanski sabor Bosna i Hercegovina u srednjem vijeku Dekolonizacija Afrike Deportacija Krimskih Tatara Genocid u Srebrenici Historija Evropske unije Historija Sarajeva Konferencija Ujedinjenih nacija o klimatskim promjenama 2021. Legija Mađarska revolucija 1848 Masakr u Bijeljini Masakri na Markalama Napadi 11. septembra 2001. Nasilje Pretorijanci Rat na Pacifiku Silovanja u ratu u Bosni i Hercegovini Sjevernoirski sukob Svemirska utrka Tet ofanziva Velika Srbija Visoko u srednjem vijeku Kultura Arhitektura Bosne i Hercegovine Bizantijska umjetnost Bizantijska umjetnost za vrijeme vladavine dinastije Komnen Bizantijska umjetnost za vrijeme vladavine dinastije Paleolog Bizantijska umjetnost za vrijeme vladavine Justinijanove i Heraklijeve dinastije Filatelija u Bosni i Hercegovini Islamska arhitektura Most Mehmed-paše Sokolovića Norveški jezik Rana bizantijska umjetnost Taj Mahal Književnost Da Vincijev kod Deset malih crnaca Musa Ćazim Ćatić Elfriede Jelinek Skender Kulenović Henning Mankell Borislav Pekić William Shakespeare Matematika Medicina Aspergerov sindrom Aspirin Autizam Ibuprofen Krvna grupa Lupus Multipla skleroza Paracetamol Muzika ABBA Aphex Twin Slavko Avsenik Johann Sebastian Bach Jerry Cantrell Dookie The Doors Eurosong 2016. Joseph Haydn Koncert U2-a u Sarajevu Nimrod (album) Johann Pachelbel Queen Religija Ateizam Ferhat-pašina džamija Sport i igre Aleksandar Aljehin Miroslav Blažević Derby della Madonnina Novak Đoković Gimnastika Roger Federer Mika Häkkinen Stephen Hendry John Higgins Jelena Isinbajeva Juventus FC Karling Košarka Košarka na Olimpijskim igrama Liverpool FC Mat lovcem i skakačem Olimpijske igre Hakeem Olajuwon Ivica Osim Ronnie O'Sullivan Problemski šah Olga Ripakova Skijaški skokovi Snuker Safet Sušić Svjetski kup u biatlonu Šah Tenis Wimbledon FC Caroline Wozniacki Tehnologija Automobilizam Audi Nanotehnologija Škoda Auto Volkswagen Tehničke nauke / inženjerstvo Mašinstvo Drvna industrija Furnir Računarstvo, informatika, internet Diferencijalna mašina Google Microsoft OpenAI Računar Ubuntu (operativni sistem) Televizija, film, razonoda Američki bogovi Andrej Rubljov Apokalipsa danas Batman Besramnici Birdman CSI: Las Vegas Doktor Živago (film) Dosjei X (serija) Elementarno Alfred Hitchcock Sherlock Holmes Sherlock Holmes (2009) Sherlock Holmes: Igra sjenki Igra prijestolja Mjesečina (film) Pakleni šund Prijatelji (serija) Michael Scofield Sherlock (serija) Snježno kraljevstvo Sonic Adventure Spužva Bob Skockani Stargate SG-1 Terminator (1984) Zločinački umovi Zvjezdane staze: Discovery .mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain{float:right;border:1px solid #aaa;background:#fff;margin:0 0 0 1em;padding:0.3em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;text-align:center;font-size:85%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutlist{display:inline-block;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;margin-bottom:0.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutanchordiv{position:relative;top:-3em}.mw-parser-output li .module-shortcutanchordiv{float:right} Prečica WP:IČ Istaknuti članci jesu oni za koje korisnici Wikipedije smatraju da su najkvalitetniji i najsadržajniji na Wikipediji. Prije nego što bude postavljen ovdje, članak mora biti izglasan prema kriterijima urednosti, tačnosti, neutralnosti i stilu pisanja. Wikipedia na bosanskom jeziku trenutno ima 221 istaknutih članaka od ukupno 96.602 na Wikipediji, što znači da je svaki 437 . članak istaknuti. Članci se, također, mogu uklanjati sa spiska istaknutih ako se obavi proces glasanja isto kao i za odabir. Zlatna zvjezdica ( ) u gornjem desnom uglu članka obilježava da je on istaknuti. Pogledajte i dobre članke: Wikipedia:Dobri članci Arhive: Arhiva 1 Glasanje WP:IČ Istaknuti članci jesu oni za koje korisnici Wikipedije smatraju da su najkvalitetniji i najsadržajniji na Wikipediji. Prije nego što bude postavljen ovdje, članak mora biti izglasan prema kriterijima urednosti, tačnosti, neutralnosti i stilu pisanja. Wikipedia na bosanskom jeziku trenutno ima 221 istaknutih članaka od ukupno 96.602 na Wikipediji, što znači da je svaki 437 . članak istaknuti. Članci se, također, mogu uklanjati sa spiska istaknutih ako se obavi proces glasanja isto kao i za odabir. Zlatna zvjezdica ( ) u gornjem desnom uglu članka obilježava da je on istaknuti. Pogledajte i dobre članke: Wikipedia:Dobri članci Arhive: Arhiva 1 Glasanje Spisak istaknutih članaka Također pogledajte Prijašnje prijedloge i prijašnje članke Astronomija Betelgez Cerera Fobos Istraživanje Marsa Mars Planeta Program "Buran" Svemirski teleskop "James Webb" Venera Biografije Anne Boleyn Willy Brandt Josip Broz Tito Ciceron Arthur C. Clarke Ćirilo i Metodije Demosten Džingis-kan Adolf Eichmann Elizabeta I, kraljica Engleske Henry Ford Husein-kapetan Gradaščević Jakov I, kralj Engleske Jakov II, kralj Engleske Karlo II, kralj Engleske Katarina Aragonska Kir Veliki Mahathir Mohamad Marija Antoaneta Marija Terezija, kraljica Ugarske Simone Martini Erwin Rommel Biologija Ascomycota Bioluminiscencija BRCA1 Charles Darwin Evolucija čovjeka Fotosinteza Glodari Helicobacter pylori Morfologija insekata Skalar (riba) Snježna sova Spinosaurus Voda Društvene nauke OPEC Sociologija Fizika Atom Alexander Graham Bell Izvijanje Nikola Tesla Optika Snijeg Geografija Alabama Albanija Angola Baščaršija Bejrut Bonn Bosna i Hercegovina Delaware Doboj Egipat Evropa Fojnica Gvatemala Las Vegas Lesoto Livno Los Angeles Malta Namibija Nauru Njemačka Pariz Sarajevo Seoul San Francisco Slovenija SFR Jugoslavija Španija Štajerska Švedska Ukrajina Unsko-sanski kanton Visoko Zenica Zvornik Geologija Mineral Zemljotres Hemija Germanij Hafnij Heroin Hromatografija Iridij Itrij Kokain Ksenon Molibden Natrij Nikotin Sumpor Tantal Titanij Ugljična kvantna tačka Uranij Historija 14. srednjobosanska udarna brigada Ahemenidsko Carstvo Antička Grčka Atentat na Johna F. Kennedyja Bitka za Monte Cassino Borba za nezavisnost zemalja Latinske Amerike Bosanski sabor Bosna i Hercegovina u srednjem vijeku Dekolonizacija Afrike Deportacija Krimskih Tatara Genocid u Srebrenici Historija Evropske unije Historija Sarajeva Konferencija Ujedinjenih nacija o klimatskim promjenama 2021. Legija Mađarska revolucija 1848 Masakr u Bijeljini Masakri na Markalama Napadi 11. septembra 2001. Nasilje Pretorijanci Rat na Pacifiku Silovanja u ratu u Bosni i Hercegovini Sjevernoirski sukob Svemirska utrka Tet ofanziva Velika Srbija Visoko u srednjem vijeku Kultura Arhitektura Bosne i Hercegovine Bizantijska umjetnost Bizantijska umjetnost za vrijeme vladavine dinastije Komnen Bizantijska umjetnost za vrijeme vladavine dinastije Paleolog Bizantijska umjetnost za vrijeme vladavine Justinijanove i Heraklijeve dinastije Filatelija u Bosni i Hercegovini Islamska arhitektura Most Mehmed-paše Sokolovića Norveški jezik Rana bizantijska umjetnost Taj Mahal Književnost Da Vincijev kod Deset malih crnaca Musa Ćazim Ćatić Elfriede Jelinek Skender Kulenović Henning Mankell Borislav Pekić William Shakespeare Matematika Medicina Aspergerov sindrom Aspirin Autizam Ibuprofen Krvna grupa Lupus Multipla skleroza Paracetamol Muzika ABBA Aphex Twin Slavko Avsenik Johann Sebastian Bach Jerry Cantrell Dookie The Doors Eurosong 2016. Joseph Haydn Koncert U2-a u Sarajevu Nimrod (album) Johann Pachelbel Queen Religija Ateizam Ferhat-pašina džamija Sport i igre Aleksandar Aljehin Miroslav Blažević Derby della Madonnina Novak Đoković Gimnastika Roger Federer Mika Häkkinen Stephen Hendry John Higgins Jelena Isinbajeva Juventus FC Karling Košarka Košarka na Olimpijskim igrama Liverpool FC Mat lovcem i skakačem Olimpijske igre Hakeem Olajuwon Ivica Osim Ronnie O'Sullivan Problemski šah Olga Ripakova Skijaški skokovi Snuker Safet Sušić Svjetski kup u biatlonu Šah Tenis Wimbledon FC Caroline Wozniacki Tehnologija Automobilizam Audi Nanotehnologija Škoda Auto Volkswagen Tehničke nauke / inženjerstvo Mašinstvo Drvna industrija Furnir Računarstvo, informatika, internet Diferencijalna mašina Google Microsoft OpenAI Računar Ubuntu (operativni sistem) Televizija, film, razonoda Američki bogovi Andrej Rubljov Apokalipsa danas Batman Besramnici Birdman CSI: Las Vegas Doktor Živago (film) Dosjei X (serija) Elementarno Alfred Hitchcock Sherlock Holmes Sherlock Holmes (2009) Sherlock Holmes: Igra sjenki Igra prijestolja Mjesečina (film) Pakleni šund Prijatelji (serija) Michael Scofield Sherlock (serija) Snježno kraljevstvo Sonic Adventure Spužva Bob Skockani Stargate SG-1 Terminator (1984) Zločinački umovi Zvjezdane staze: Discovery Spisak istaknutih članaka Također pogledajte Prijašnje prijedloge i prijašnje članke Spisak istaknutih članaka Također pogledajte Prijašnje prijedloge i prijašnje članke Astronomija Betelgez Cerera Fobos Istraživanje Marsa Mars Planeta Program "Buran" Svemirski teleskop "James Webb" Venera Astronomija Betelgez Cerera Fobos Istraživanje Marsa Mars Planeta Program "Buran" Svemirski teleskop "James Webb" Venera Biografije Anne Boleyn Willy Brandt Josip Broz Tito Ciceron Arthur C. Clarke Ćirilo i Metodije Demosten Džingis-kan Adolf Eichmann Elizabeta I, kraljica Engleske Henry Ford Husein-kapetan Gradaščević Jakov I, kralj Engleske Jakov II, kralj Engleske Karlo II, kralj Engleske Katarina Aragonska Kir Veliki Mahathir Mohamad Marija Antoaneta Marija Terezija, kraljica Ugarske Simone Martini Erwin Rommel Biografije Anne Boleyn Willy Brandt Josip Broz Tito Ciceron Arthur C. Clarke Ćirilo i Metodije Demosten Džingis-kan Adolf Eichmann Elizabeta I, kraljica Engleske Henry Ford Husein-kapetan Gradaščević Jakov I, kralj Engleske Jakov II, kralj Engleske Karlo II, kralj Engleske Katarina Aragonska Kir Veliki Mahathir Mohamad Marija Antoaneta Marija Terezija, kraljica Ugarske Simone Martini Erwin Rommel Biologija Ascomycota Bioluminiscencija BRCA1 Charles Darwin Evolucija čovjeka Fotosinteza Glodari Helicobacter pylori Morfologija insekata Skalar (riba) Snježna sova Spinosaurus Voda Biologija Ascomycota Bioluminiscencija BRCA1 Charles Darwin Evolucija čovjeka Fotosinteza Glodari Helicobacter pylori Morfologija insekata Skalar (riba) Snježna sova Spinosaurus Voda Društvene nauke OPEC Sociologija Društvene nauke OPEC Sociologija Fizika Atom Alexander Graham Bell Izvijanje Nikola Tesla Optika Snijeg Fizika Atom Alexander Graham Bell Izvijanje Nikola Tesla Optika Snijeg Geografija Alabama Albanija Angola Baščaršija Bejrut Bonn Bosna i Hercegovina Delaware Doboj Egipat Evropa Fojnica Gvatemala Las Vegas Lesoto Livno Los Angeles Malta Namibija Nauru Njemačka Pariz Sarajevo Seoul San Francisco Slovenija SFR Jugoslavija Španija Štajerska Švedska Ukrajina Unsko-sanski kanton Visoko Zenica Zvornik Geografija Alabama Albanija Angola Baščaršija Bejrut Bonn Bosna i Hercegovina Delaware Doboj Egipat Evropa Fojnica Gvatemala Las Vegas Lesoto Livno Los Angeles Malta Namibija Nauru Njemačka Pariz Sarajevo Seoul San Francisco Slovenija SFR Jugoslavija Španija Štajerska Švedska Ukrajina Unsko-sanski kanton Visoko Zenica Zvornik Geologija Mineral Zemljotres Geologija Mineral Zemljotres Hemija Germanij Hafnij Heroin Hromatografija Iridij Itrij Kokain Ksenon Molibden Natrij Nikotin Sumpor Tantal Titanij Ugljična kvantna tačka Uranij Hemija Germanij Hafnij Heroin Hromatografija Iridij Itrij Kokain Ksenon Molibden Natrij Nikotin Sumpor Tantal Titanij Ugljična kvantna tačka Uranij Historija 14. srednjobosanska udarna brigada Ahemenidsko Carstvo Antička Grčka Atentat na Johna F. Kennedyja Bitka za Monte Cassino Borba za nezavisnost zemalja Latinske Amerike Bosanski sabor Bosna i Hercegovina u srednjem vijeku Dekolonizacija Afrike Deportacija Krimskih Tatara Genocid u Srebrenici Historija Evropske unije Historija Sarajeva Konferencija Ujedinjenih nacija o klimatskim promjenama 2021. Legija Mađarska revolucija 1848 Masakr u Bijeljini Masakri na Markalama Napadi 11. septembra 2001. Nasilje Pretorijanci Rat na Pacifiku Silovanja u ratu u Bosni i Hercegovini Sjevernoirski sukob Svemirska utrka Tet ofanziva Velika Srbija Visoko u srednjem vijeku Historija 14. srednjobosanska udarna brigada Ahemenidsko Carstvo Antička Grčka Atentat na Johna F. Kennedyja Bitka za Monte Cassino Borba za nezavisnost zemalja Latinske Amerike Bosanski sabor Bosna i Hercegovina u srednjem vijeku Dekolonizacija Afrike Deportacija Krimskih Tatara Genocid u Srebrenici Historija Evropske unije Historija Sarajeva Konferencija Ujedinjenih nacija o klimatskim promjenama 2021. Legija Mađarska revolucija 1848 Masakr u Bijeljini Masakri na Markalama Napadi 11. septembra 2001. 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Table key 2 Seasons 3 See also 4 Notes 5 References List of Portland Trail Blazers seasons Français Русский Српски / srpski Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item The Portland Trail Blazers are an American professional basketball team based in Portland, Oregon that competes in the National Basketball Association (NBA) as a member of the Northwest Division of the Western Conference . [ a ] The team played its home games in the Memorial Coliseum before moving to the Moda Center in 1995 (called the Rose Garden until 2013). [ 3 ] [ 4 ] The franchise entered the league as an expansion team in 1970 , and has enjoyed a strong following: from 1977 through 1995, the team sold out 814 consecutive home games, the longest such streak in American major professional sports at the time. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] [ 7 ] The team's rallying cry is "Rip City", coined by play-by-play announcer Bill Schonely during their inaugural season. [ 8 ] Harry Glickman became interested in creating an NBA team in his hometown of Portland when Memorial Coliseum opened in 1960, but the NBA commissioner at the time, Maurice Podoloff , refused on the grounds that Portland was too far west. However, Podoloff's successor, J. Walter Kennedy , expanded the league into the West throughout the 1960s. On February 6, 1970, the NBA board of governors granted Portland – along with Buffalo, New York , and Cleveland – the rights to a franchise in return for a US$3.7 million admission. [ 5 ] [ 9 ] To name the team, management held a contest and received more than 10,000 entries. The name "Trail Blazers" was suggested by 172 people, and was ultimately selected by a drawing on March 13. Blake Byrne, the general sales manager of KPTV at the time, was the winner of the drawing and received two season tickets for the inaugural season. Derived from the trail blazing activity by explorers making paths through forests, Glickman considered it a name that could "reflect both the ruggedness of the Pacific Northwest and the start of a major league era in our state". [ 10 ] The Blazers selected the first players to join their team in the 1970 NBA draft . The team chose Geoff Petrie eighth overall, making him the first draft pick in franchise history . A couple months later, they took part in the 1970 NBA expansion draft to further fill out their inaugural roster. The Blazers played their first game on October 16, 1970 against fellow expansion team the Cleveland Cavaliers , which they won 115–112. The team went on to have a season record of 29 wins and 53 losses, with Petrie winning co-Rookie of the Year , sharing the honor with Dave Cowens of the Boston Celtics . [ 11 ] [ 12 ] The Blazers had the third worst record in the NBA that season, only ahead of the Cavaliers and the season's other expansion team, the Buffalo Braves . [ 13 ] In their second season, they had just 18 wins to go along with 64 losses which still remains as the fewest wins in a season in franchise history. [ 14 ] Led by head coach Jack Ramsay , the Blazers had their first winning record during the 1976–77 season , in which they made the playoffs for the first time, and went on to win the 1977 NBA Finals against the Philadelphia 76ers 4–2. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] They were the second team in NBA history to come back from an 0—2 deficit in the Finals to win the series, and the first team to win four straight games after losing the first two. [ 15 ] Bill Walton was named the Finals MVP . The following season, Walton was named the NBA MVP after leading the Blazers to the best record in the league with 58 wins and 24 losses. [ 17 ] [ 18 ] The team was unable to defend their title, losing to the Seattle SuperSonics in the conference semifinals . [ 18 ] [ 19 ] In the 1980s, the Blazers made the playoffs every season except 1981–82 . In the 1983 draft , the team selected Clyde Drexler 14th overall, who would greatly contribute to the team's playoff streak, becoming one of the best players in franchise history. [ 20 ] After multiple consecutive seasons of first round losses in the playoffs, the Ramsay era ended after the 1986 season , and Ramsay was replaced by Mike Schuler . Schuler only lasted two and a half years before he was fired during the 1988–89 season and replaced by former Blazers player Rick Adelman . [ 21 ] [ 22 ] In his first full season, Adelman led the Blazers to the 1990 NBA Finals , but the team lost 4–1 to the Detroit Pistons . [ 23 ] Adelman led the team to a franchise record 63 wins in the 1990–91 season , but the team was unable to return to the Finals, and were defeated 4–2 by the Los Angeles Lakers in the conference finals . [ 24 ] [ 25 ] However, the Blazers made their third Finals appearance in franchise history in 1992 , but were defeated 4–2 by the Chicago Bulls , led by Michael Jordan . [ 26 ] The next six seasons saw the Blazers lose in the first round of the playoffs. In his second season in charge, Mike Dunleavy was named Coach of the Year . [ 27 ] Dunleavey led the team to back-to-back conference finals appearances in 1999 and 2000 , with the team getting swept by the San Antonio Spurs in 1999, and then falling one game short of the 2000 NBA Finals , losing to the Lakers 4–3. [ 28 ] [ 29 ] The Blazers went on a stretch of either missing the playoffs or losing in the first round for the rest of the 2000s through the mid-2010s. Damian Lillard was selected in the 2012 NBA draft , and won Rookie of the Year. [ 30 ] In the 2014 playoffs , Lillard lead the Blazers to their first playoff series win in 14 years with a game-winning shot at the buzzer in game 6 against the Houston Rockets , winning the series 4–2. The team ultimately lost in the next round 4–1 to the Spurs. [ 31 ] [ 32 ] The next seven seasons saw the team make the playoffs. In the first round of the 2019 playoffs , Lillard had another series-winning buzzer beater, this time against the Oklahoma City Thunder . The team made it to the conference finals, but were swept by the Golden State Warriors . [ 33 ] [ 34 ] The following two seasons saw the Blazers make the playoffs, but lose in the first round. Chauncey Billups was hired as the head coach before the 2021–22 season , with the team having a losing record each season since. [ 35 ] [ 36 ] In their 55 seasons (through the 2024–25 season ) as an NBA franchise, the Blazers have an all-time regular season record of 2,328 wins and 2,116 losses; in the playoffs, they have 119 wins and 155 losses. The team has had 32 winning seasons, 20 losing seasons, and 3 seasons with a 41–41 record. The Blazers have reached the postseason 37 times, including a streak of 21 straight appearances from 1983 through 2003 . [ 14 ] [ 19 ] [ 37 ] The franchise's all-time points leader is Damian Lillard with 19,376; he also holds the team record for the most three-point field goals made with 2,387. [ 38 ] Table key Key to colors .mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px;white-space:nowrap} Table key † NBA champions * Conference champions ^ Division champions ¤ Playoff berth × Play-in berth † NBA champions * Conference champions ^ Division champions ¤ Playoff berth × Play-in berth Key to abbreviations Finish – final position in league or division standings W – number of regular season wins L – number of regular season losses Pct. – winning percentage GB – games behind first-place team in division Finish – final position in league or division standings W – number of regular season wins L – number of regular season losses Pct. – winning percentage GB – games behind first-place team in division Key to awards AMVP – All-Star Game Most Valuable Player COY – Coach of the Year CPOY – Comeback Player of the Year DPOY – Defensive Player of the Year EOY – Executive of the Year FMVP – Finals Most Valuable Player JWKC – J. Walter Kennedy Citizenship Award MIP – Most Improved Player ROY – Rookie of the Year SMOY – Sixth Man of the Year SPOR – Sportsmanship Award AMVP – All-Star Game Most Valuable Player COY – Coach of the Year CPOY – Comeback Player of the Year DPOY – Defensive Player of the Year EOY – Executive of the Year FMVP – Finals Most Valuable Player JWKC – J. Walter Kennedy Citizenship Award MIP – Most Improved Player ROY – Rookie of the Year SMOY – Sixth Man of the Year SPOR – Sportsmanship Award Seasons Season Conference Finish Division Finish Regular season [ 24 ] Playoff results [ 39 ] Awards Head coach [ 40 ] Ref. W L Pct. GB 1970–71 Western 9th Pacific 5th 29 53 .354 19 Did not qualify Geoff Petrie ( ROY ) [ 41 ] Rolland Todd [ 13 ] 1971–72 Western 9th Pacific 5th 18 64 .220 51 Did not qualify Sidney Wicks ( ROY ) [ 41 ] Rolland Todd ( .mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help} 12–44 ) Stu Inman ( 6–20 ) [ 42 ] 1972–73 Western 9th Pacific 5th 21 61 .256 39 Did not qualify — Jack McCloskey [ 43 ] 1973–74 Western 9th Pacific 5th 27 55 .329 20 Did not qualify — [ 44 ] 1974–75 Western 6th Pacific 3rd 38 44 .463 10 Did not qualify — Lenny Wilkens [ 45 ] 1975–76 Western 7th Pacific 5th 37 45 .451 22 Did not qualify — [ 46 ] 1976–77 Western * 3rd ¤ Pacific 2nd 49 33 .598 4 Won first round vs. Bulls , 2–1 Won conference semifinals vs. Nuggets , 4–2 Won conference finals vs. Lakers , 4–0 Won NBA Finals vs. 76ers , 4–2 † Bill Walton ( FMVP ) [ 47 ] Jack Ramsay [ 48 ] 1977–78 Western 1st ¤ Pacific 1st ^ 58 24 .707 — Lost conference semifinals vs. SuperSonics , 4–2 Bill Walton ( MVP ) [ 49 ] [ 18 ] 1978–79 Western 6th ¤ Pacific 4th 45 37 .549 7 Lost first round vs. Suns , 2–1 — [ 50 ] 1979–80 Western 6th ¤ Pacific 4th 38 44 .463 22 Lost first round vs. SuperSonics , 2–1 — [ 51 ] 1980–81 Western 4th ¤ Pacific 3rd 45 37 .549 12 Lost first round vs. Kings , 2–1 — [ 52 ] 1981–82 Western 8th Pacific 5th 42 40 .512 15 Did not qualify — [ 53 ] 1982–83 Western 5th ¤ Pacific 4th 46 36 .561 12 Won first round vs. SuperSonics , 2–0 Lost conference semifinals vs. Lakers , 4–1 — [ 54 ] 1983–84 Western 3rd ¤ Pacific 2nd 48 34 .585 6 Lost first round vs. Suns , 3–2 — [ 55 ] 1984–85 Western 5th ¤ Pacific 2nd 42 40 .512 20 Won first round vs. Mavericks , 3–1 Lost conference semifinals vs. Lakers , 4–1 — [ 56 ] 1985–86 Western 6th ¤ Pacific 2nd 40 42 .488 22 Lost first round vs. Nuggets , 3–1 — [ 57 ] 1986–87 Western 3rd ¤ Pacific 2nd 49 33 .598 16 Lost first round vs. Rockets , 3–1 Mike Schuler ( COY ) [ 21 ] Mike Schuler [ 58 ] 1987–88 Western 4th ¤ Pacific 2nd 53 29 .646 9 Lost first round vs. Jazz , 3–1 Kevin Duckworth ( MIP ) [ 59 ] [ 60 ] 1988–89 Western 8th ¤ Pacific 5th 39 43 .476 18 Lost first round vs. Lakers , 3–0 — Mike Schuler ( 25–22 ) Rick Adelman ( 14–21 ) [ 61 ] 1989–90 Western * 3rd ¤ Pacific 2nd 59 23 .720 4 Won first round vs. Mavericks , 3–0 Won conference semifinals vs. Spurs , 4–3 Won conference finals vs. Suns , 4–2 Lost NBA Finals vs. Pistons , 4–1 * — Rick Adelman [ 23 ] 1990–91 Western 1st ¤ Pacific 1st ^ 63 19 .768 — Won first round vs. SuperSonics , 3–2 Won conference semifinals vs. Jazz , 4–1 Lost conference finals vs. Lakers , 4–2 Bucky Buckwalter ( EOY ) [ 62 ] [ 25 ] 1991–92 Western * 1st ¤ Pacific 1st ^ 57 25 .695 — Won first round vs. Lakers , 3–1 Won conference semifinals vs. Suns , 4–1 Won conference finals vs. Jazz , 4–2 Lost NBA Finals vs. Bulls , 4–2 * — [ 26 ] 1992–93 Western 4th ¤ Pacific 3rd 51 31 .622 11 Lost first round vs. Spurs , 3–1 Terry Porter ( JWKC ) [ 63 ] Clifford Robinson ( SMOY ) [ 64 ] [ 65 ] 1993–94 Western 7th ¤ Pacific 4th 47 35 .573 16 Lost first round vs. Rockets , 3–1 — [ 66 ] 1994–95 Western 7th ¤ Pacific 4th 44 38 .537 15 Lost first round vs. Suns , 3–0 — P. J. Carlesimo [ 67 ] 1995–96 Western 6th ¤ Pacific 3rd 44 38 .537 20 Lost first round vs. Jazz , 3–2 Chris Dudley ( JWKC ) [ 68 ] [ 69 ] 1996–97 Western 5th ¤ Pacific 3rd 49 33 .598 8 Lost first round vs. Lakers , 3–1 — [ 70 ] 1997–98 Western 6th ¤ Pacific 4th 46 36 .561 15 Lost first round vs. Lakers , 3–1 — Mike Dunleavy [ 71 ] 1998–99 [ b ] Western 2nd ¤ Pacific 1st ^ 35 15 .700 — Won first round vs. Suns , 3–0 Won conference semifinals vs. Jazz , 4–2 Lost conference finals vs. Spurs , 4–0 Mike Dunleavy ( COY ) [ 27 ] Brian Grant ( JWKC ) [ 73 ] [ 28 ] 1999–2000 Western 3rd ¤ Pacific 2nd 59 23 .720 8 Won first round vs. Timberwolves , 3–1 Won conference semifinals vs. Jazz , 4–1 Lost conference finals vs. Lakers , 4–3 — [ 29 ] 2000–01 Western 7th ¤ Pacific 4th 50 32 .610 6 Lost first round vs. Lakers , 3–0 — [ 74 ] 2001–02 Western 6th ¤ Pacific 3rd 49 33 .598 12 Lost first round vs. Lakers , 3–0 — Maurice Cheeks [ 75 ] 2002–03 Western 6th ¤ Pacific 3rd 50 32 .610 9 Lost first round vs. Mavericks , 4–3 — [ 76 ] 2003–04 Western 10th Pacific 3rd 41 41 .500 15 Did not qualify Zach Randolph ( MIP ) [ 77 ] [ 78 ] 2004–05 Western 13th Northwest 4th 27 55 .329 25 Did not qualify — Maurice Cheeks ( 22–33 ) Kevin Pritchard ( 5–22 ) [ 79 ] 2005–06 Western 15th Northwest 5th 21 61 .256 23 Did not qualify — Nate McMillan [ 80 ] 2006–07 Western 12th Northwest 3rd 32 50 .390 19 Did not qualify Brandon Roy ( ROY ) [ 81 ] [ 82 ] 2007–08 Western 10th Northwest 3rd 41 41 .500 13 Did not qualify — [ 83 ] 2008–09 Western 4th ¤ Northwest 2nd [ c ] 54 28 .659 — Lost first round vs. Rockets , 4–2 — [ 85 ] 2009–10 Western 6th ¤ Northwest 3rd 50 32 .610 3 Lost first round vs. Suns , 4–2 — [ 86 ] 2010–11 Western 6th ¤ Northwest 3rd 48 34 .585 7 Lost first round vs. Mavericks , 4–2 — [ 87 ] 2011–12 [ d ] Western 11th Northwest 4th 28 38 .424 19 Did not qualify — Nate McMillan ( 20–23 ) Kaleb Canales ( 8–15 ) [ 89 ] 2012–13 Western 11th Northwest 4th 33 49 .402 27 Did not qualify Damian Lillard ( ROY ) [ 30 ] Terry Stotts [ 90 ] 2013–14 Western 5th ¤ Northwest 2nd 54 28 .659 5 Won first round vs. Rockets , 4–2 Lost conference semifinals vs. Spurs , 4–1 — [ 32 ] 2014–15 Western 4th ¤ Northwest 1st ^ 51 31 .622 — Lost first round vs. Grizzlies , 4–1 — [ 91 ] 2015–16 Western 5th ¤ Northwest 2nd 44 38 .537 11 Won first round vs. Clippers , 4–2 Lost conference semifinals vs. Warriors , 4–1 CJ McCollum ( MIP ) [ 92 ] [ 93 ] 2016–17 Western 8th ¤ Northwest 3rd 41 41 .500 10 Lost first round vs. Warriors , 4–0 — [ 94 ] 2017–18 Western 3rd ¤ Northwest 1st ^ 49 33 .598 — Lost first round vs. Pelicans , 4–0 — [ 95 ] 2018–19 Western 3rd ¤ Northwest 2nd 53 29 .646 1 Won first round vs. Thunder , 4–1 Won conference semifinals vs. Nuggets , 4–3 Lost conference finals vs. Warriors , 4–0 Damian Lillard ( JWKC ) [ 96 ] [ 34 ] 2019–20 [ e ] Western 8th ¤ Northwest 4th 35 39 .473 11.5 Lost first round vs. Lakers , 4–1 — [ 99 ] 2020–21 [ f ] Western 6th ¤ Northwest 3rd 42 30 .583 10 Lost first round vs. Nuggets , 4–2 — [ 101 ] 2021–22 Western 13th Northwest 4th 27 55 .329 22 Did not qualify — Chauncey Billups [ 102 ] 2022–23 Western 13th Northwest 5th 33 49 .402 20 Did not qualify — [ 103 ] 2023–24 Western 15th Northwest 5th 21 61 .256 36 Did not qualify — [ 104 ] 2024–25 Western 12th Northwest 4th 36 46 .439 32 Did not qualify — [ 105 ] All-time regular season record 2,328 2,116 .524 1970–2025 All-time postseason record 119 155 .434 Playoff series record: 22–36 All-time regular & postseason record 2,447 2,271 .519 1970–2025 1 NBA championship, 3 conference titles, 6 division titles See also History of the Portland Trail Blazers Notes ^ The Blazers were members of the Pacific Division from their initial season until after the 2003–04 season , when the Northwest Division was formed as a result of conference realignment with the Charlotte Bobcats joining as the NBA's 30th franchise. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] ^ Due to a lockout , the season did not start until February 5, 1999, and all 29 teams played a shortened 50 game regular season schedule. [ 72 ] ^ The Blazers tied with the Denver Nuggets for first place in the division, but tiebreakers from the season resulted in the Nuggets being declared the division champion for playoff seeding purposes. [ 84 ] ^ Due to a lockout , the season did not start until December 25, 2011 and all 30 teams played a shortened 66-game regular season schedule. [ 88 ] ^ The season was shortened due to the COVID-19 pandemic on March 11 after Rudy Gobert of the Utah Jazz tested positive. The season resumed in July 2020 with the 16 teams who were in playoff position when the season was suspended and the six teams that were six games or fewer behind the eighth seed taking part in the NBA Bubble at Walt Disney World . [ 97 ] [ 98 ] ^ The season was shortened to 72 games due to the COVID-19 pandemic. [ 100 ] References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "NBA 1970–71 Regular Season Standings" . 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Retrieved April 14, 2025 . .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Portland Trail Blazers seasons v t e Franchise History Seasons Franchise History Seasons 1970s 1970–71 1971–72 1972–73 1973–74 1974–75 1975–76 1976–77 1977–78 1978–79 1970–71 1971–72 1972–73 1973–74 1974–75 1975–76 1976–77 1977–78 1978–79 1980s 1979–80 1980–81 1981–82 1982–83 1983–84 1984–85 1985–86 1986–87 1987–88 1988–89 1979–80 1980–81 1981–82 1982–83 1983–84 1984–85 1985–86 1986–87 1987–88 1988–89 1990s 1989–90 1990–91 1991–92 1992–93 1993–94 1994–95 1995–96 1996–97 1997–98 1998–99 1989–90 1990–91 1991–92 1992–93 1993–94 1994–95 1995–96 1996–97 1997–98 1998–99 2000s 1999–00 2000–01 2001–02 2002–03 2003–04 2004–05 2005–06 2006–07 2007–08 2008–09 1999–00 2000–01 2001–02 2002–03 2003–04 2004–05 2005–06 2006–07 2007–08 2008–09 2010s 2009–10 2010–11 2011–12 2012–13 2013–14 2014–15 2015–16 2016–17 2017–18 2018–19 2009–10 2010–11 2011–12 2012–13 2013–14 2014–15 2015–16 2016–17 2017–18 2018–19 2020s 2019–20 2020–21 2021–22 2022–23 2023–24 2024–25 2025–26 2019–20 2020–21 2021–22 2022–23 2023–24 2024–25 2025–26 Bold indicates NBA Finals victory v t e NBA season-by-season team history v t e Eastern Conference Atlantic Boston Celtics Brooklyn Nets New York Knicks Philadelphia 76ers Toronto Raptors Central Chicago Bulls Cleveland Cavaliers Detroit Pistons Indiana Pacers Milwaukee Bucks Southeast Atlanta Hawks Charlotte Hornets Miami Heat Orlando Magic Washington Wizards Atlantic Boston Celtics Brooklyn Nets New York Knicks Philadelphia 76ers Toronto Raptors Boston Celtics Brooklyn Nets New York Knicks Philadelphia 76ers Toronto Raptors Central Chicago Bulls Cleveland Cavaliers Detroit Pistons Indiana Pacers Milwaukee Bucks Chicago Bulls Cleveland Cavaliers Detroit Pistons Indiana Pacers Milwaukee Bucks Southeast Atlanta Hawks 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New Orleans Pelicans San Antonio Spurs Relocated teams Seattle SuperSonics Seattle SuperSonics Seattle SuperSonics Defunct franchises Anderson Packers Baltimore Bullets (original) Chicago Stags Cleveland Rebels Denver Nuggets (original) Detroit Falcons Indianapolis Jets Indianapolis Olympians Pittsburgh Ironmen Providence Steamrollers Sheboygan Red Skins St. Louis Bombers Toronto Huskies Washington Capitols Waterloo Hawks Anderson Packers Baltimore Bullets (original) Chicago Stags Cleveland Rebels Denver Nuggets (original) Detroit Falcons Indianapolis Jets Indianapolis Olympians Pittsburgh Ironmen Providence Steamrollers Sheboygan Red Skins St. Louis Bombers Toronto Huskies Washington Capitols Waterloo Hawks Anderson Packers Baltimore Bullets (original) Chicago Stags Cleveland Rebels Denver Nuggets (original) Detroit Falcons Indianapolis Jets Indianapolis Olympians Pittsburgh Ironmen Providence Steamrollers Sheboygan Red Skins St. Louis Bombers Toronto Huskies Washington Capitols Waterloo Hawks v t e Portland Trail Blazers v t e Founded in 1970 Based in Portland, Oregon Founded in 1970 Based in Portland, Oregon Franchise History All-time roster Draft history 1970 Records Head coaches Seasons Current season History All-time roster Draft history 1970 1970 Records Head coaches Seasons Current season Arenas Memorial Coliseum Moda Center Memorial Coliseum Moda Center Personnel Owner(s) Jody Allen President Dewayne Hankins General manager Joe Cronin Head coach Chauncey Billups G League affiliate Rip City Remix Rip City Remix Retired numbers 1 13 14 15 20 22 30 (Gross) 30 (Porter) 32 36 45 77 1 13 14 15 20 22 30 (Gross) 30 (Porter) 32 36 45 77 NBA championships 1977 1977 Rivalries Seattle SuperSonics (I-5 rivalry) Seattle SuperSonics (I-5 rivalry) Culture and lore Radio network Blazermania Rip City The Breaks of the Game Bulls vs. Blazers and the NBA Playoffs " Duck " Rose Garden arena bankruptcy Larry Weinberg Bill Walton Jack Ramsay Mike Barrett and Mike Rice Clyde 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Types of knowledge Toggle Types of knowledge subsection 1.1 By form 1.2 By scope 1.1 By form 1.2 By scope 2 Structure of knowledge 3 Types of bodies of recorded knowledge 4 Specific bodies of recorded knowledge, by type 5 Epistemology (philosophy of knowledge) 6 Management of knowledge Toggle Management of knowledge subsection 6.1 Obtaining knowledge 6.2 Knowledge storage 6.3 Knowledge retrieval 6.4 Imparting knowledge 6.1 Obtaining knowledge 6.2 Knowledge storage 6.3 Knowledge retrieval 6.4 Imparting knowledge 7 History of the knowledge of humanity 8 Knowledge and society Toggle Knowledge and society subsection 8.1 Economics of knowledge 8.2 Politics of knowledge 8.3 Sociology of knowledge 8.1 Economics of knowledge 8.2 Politics of knowledge 8.3 Sociology of knowledge 9 Knowledge technology 10 Knowledge of humanity 11 Organizations 12 Publications Toggle Publications subsection 12.1 Books 12.2 Journals 12.1 Books 12.2 Journals 13 See also 14 References 15 Works cited 16 External links Outline of knowledge العربية Hrvatski Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to knowledge: Knowledge – familiarity with someone or something, which can include facts , information , descriptions , and/or skills acquired through experience or education . It can refer to the theoretical or practical understanding of a subject. It can be implicit (as with practical skill or expertise) or explicit (as with the theoretical understanding of a subject); and it can be more or less formal or systematic. [ 1 ] Types of knowledge By form A priori and a posteriori knowledge – these terms are used with respect to reasoning ( epistemology ) to distinguish necessary conclusions from first premises. A priori knowledge or justification – knowledge that is independent of experience , as with mathematics , tautologies ("All bachelors are unmarried"), and deduction from pure reason (e.g., ontological proofs ). [ 3 ] A posteriori knowledge or justification – knowledge dependent on experience or empirical evidence , as with most aspects of science and personal knowledge . A priori knowledge or justification – knowledge that is independent of experience , as with mathematics , tautologies ("All bachelors are unmarried"), and deduction from pure reason (e.g., ontological proofs ). [ 3 ] A posteriori knowledge or justification – knowledge dependent on experience or empirical evidence , as with most aspects of science and personal knowledge . Descriptive knowledge – also called declarative knowledge or propositional knowledge, it is the type of knowledge that is, by its very nature, expressed in declarative sentences or indicative propositions (e.g., " Capybaras are rodents", or "It is raining"). This is distinguished from what is commonly known as "know-how" or procedural knowledge (the knowledge of how, and especially how best, to perform some task), and "knowing of", or knowledge by acquaintance (the knowledge of something's existence). Experience – knowledge or mastery of an event or subject gained through involvement in or exposure to it. [ 4 ] Empirical evidence – also referred to as empirical data, empirical knowledge, and sense experience, it is a collective term for the knowledge or source of knowledge acquired by means of the senses, particularly by observation and experimentation. [ 5 ] After Immanuel Kant, it is common in philosophy to call the knowledge thus gained a posteriori knowledge. This is contrasted with a priori knowledge, the knowledge accessible from pure reason alone. Experiential knowledge – knowledge gained through experience . Empirical evidence – also referred to as empirical data, empirical knowledge, and sense experience, it is a collective term for the knowledge or source of knowledge acquired by means of the senses, particularly by observation and experimentation. [ 5 ] After Immanuel Kant, it is common in philosophy to call the knowledge thus gained a posteriori knowledge. This is contrasted with a priori knowledge, the knowledge accessible from pure reason alone. Experiential knowledge – knowledge gained through experience . Explicit knowledge – knowledge that can be readily articulated, codified, accessed and verbalized. [ 6 ] It can be easily transmitted to others. Most forms of explicit knowledge can be stored in certain media. The information contained in encyclopedias and textbooks are good examples of explicit knowledge. Extelligence – term coined by Ian Stewart and Jack Cohen in their 1997 book Figments of Reality. They define it as the cultural capital that is available to us in the form of external media (e.g., tribal legends, folklore, nursery rhymes, books, videotapes, CD-ROMs, etc.). Knowledge by acquaintance – according to Bertrand Russell, knowledge by acquaintance is obtained through a direct causal (experience-based) interaction between a person and the object that person is perceiving. Sense-data from that object are the only things that people can ever become acquainted with; they can never truly KNOW the physical object itself. The distinction between "knowledge by acquaintance" and "knowledge by description" was promoted by Russell (notably in his 1905 paper On Denoting). Russell was extremely critical of the equivocal nature of the word "know", and believed that the equivocation arose from a failure to distinguish between the two fundamentally different types of knowledge. Libre knowledge – knowledge released in such a way that users are free to read, listen to, watch, or otherwise experience it; to learn from or with it; to copy, adapt and use it for any purpose; and to share the work (unchanged or modified). Whilst shared tacit knowledge is regarded as implicitly libre, (explicit) libre knowledge is defined as a generalisation of the libre software definition. Procedural knowledge – also known as imperative knowledge, it is the knowledge exercised in the performance of some task. Commonly referred to as "knowing-how" and opposed to "knowing-that" ( descriptive knowledge ). Tacit knowledge – kind of knowledge that is difficult to transfer to another person by means of writing it down or verbalizing it. For example, that London is in the United Kingdom is a piece of explicit knowledge that can be written down, transmitted, and understood by a recipient. However, the ability to speak a language, knead dough, play a musical instrument or design and use complex equipment requires all sorts of knowledge that is not always known explicitly, even by expert practitioners, and which is difficult or impossible to explicitly transfer to other users. By scope Common knowledge – knowledge that is known by everyone or nearly everyone, usually with reference to the community in which the term is used. Customer knowledge – knowledge for, about, or from customers. Domain knowledge – valid knowledge used to refer to an area of human endeavour, an autonomous computer activity, or other specialized discipline. Foundational knowledge – the knowledge necessary for understanding or usefully applying further knowledge in a field. General knowledge – information that has been accumulated over time through various mediums. [ 7 ] This definition excludes highly specialized learning that can only be obtained with extensive training and information confined to a single medium. General knowledge is an important component of crystallized intelligence and is strongly associated with general intelligence , and with openness to experience . [ 8 ] Metaknowledge – knowledge about knowledge. Bibliographies are a form of metaknowledge. Patterns within scientific literature is another. Mutual knowledge – Information known by all participatory agents Self-knowledge – information that an individual draws upon when finding an answer to the question "What am I like?". Traditional knowledge – knowledge systems embedded in the cultural traditions of regional, indigenous, or local communities. Traditional knowledge includes types of knowledge about traditional technologies of subsistence (e.g. tools and techniques for hunting or agriculture), midwifery, ethnobotany and ecological knowledge, traditional medicine, celestial navigation, ethnoastronomy, the climate, and others. These kinds of knowledge, crucial for subsistence and survival, are generally based on accumulations of empirical observation and on interaction with the environment. Traditional ecological knowledge Traditional ecological knowledge Structure of knowledge Taxonomies Types of subject taxonomies Document classification Library classification Taxonomy for search engines Document classification Library classification Taxonomy for search engines Specific taxonomies of knowledge Figurative System of Human Knowledge Propædia – first of three parts of the 15th edition of Encyclopædia Britannica , presenting its Outline of Knowledge . Tree of Knowledge System Figurative System of Human Knowledge Propædia – first of three parts of the 15th edition of Encyclopædia Britannica , presenting its Outline of Knowledge . Tree of Knowledge System Types of bodies of recorded knowledge Academic disciplines – branch of knowledge that is taught and researched as part of higher education. A scholar's discipline is commonly defined and recognized by the university faculties and learned societies to which he or she belongs and the academic journals in which he or she publishes research. However, no formal criteria exist for defining an academic discipline. Body of knowledge (BOK) – specialized term in knowledge representation meaning the set of concepts, terms and activities that make up a professional domain, as defined by the relevant learned society or professional association. Curricula – plural of curriculum, which means the totality of student experiments that occur in the educational process. [ 9 ] [ 10 ] The term often refers specifically to a planned sequence of instruction, or to a view of planned student's experiences in terms of the educator's or school's instructional goals. Curricula may be tightly standardized, or may include a high level of instructor or learner autonomy. [ 11 ] Many countries have national curricula in primary and secondary education, such as the United Kingdom's National Curriculum. Encyclopedias – type of reference work or compendium holding a comprehensive summary of information from either all branches of knowledge or a particular branch of knowledge. [ 12 ] Encyclopedias are divided into articles or entries, which are usually accessed alphabetically by article name. [ 13 ] Encyclopedia entries are longer and more detailed than those in most dictionaries. [ 13 ] Generally speaking, unlike dictionary entries, which focus on linguistic information about words, encyclopedia articles focus on factual information concerning the subject for which the article is named. [ 14 ] [ 15 ] [ 16 ] [ 17 ] Knowledge base Personal knowledge base Personal knowledge base Knowledge commons Libraries – a library is a collection of sources of information and similar resources, made accessible to a defined community for reference or borrowing. [ 18 ] It provides physical or digital access to material, and may be a physical building or room, or a virtual space, or both. [ 19 ] A library's collection can include books, periodicals, newspapers, manuscripts, films, maps, prints, documents, microform, CDs, cassettes, videotapes, DVDs, Blu-ray Discs, e-books, audiobooks, databases, and other formats. Libraries range in size from a few shelves of books to several million items. Specific bodies of recorded knowledge, by type Specific BOKs ( bodies of knowledge , in the context of the knowledge representation field) Canadian IT Body of Knowledge Civil Engineering Body of Knowledge Common Body of Knowledge Enterprise Architecture Body of Knowledge Geographic Information Science and Technology Body of Knowledge Project Management Body of Knowledge Software Engineering Body of Knowledge Data Management Body of Knowledge Canadian IT Body of Knowledge Civil Engineering Body of Knowledge Common Body of Knowledge Enterprise Architecture Body of Knowledge Geographic Information Science and Technology Body of Knowledge Project Management Body of Knowledge Software Engineering Body of Knowledge Data Management Body of Knowledge Specific encyclopedias Bibliography of encyclopedias List of encyclopedias by branch of knowledge List of encyclopedias by language List of historical encyclopedias List of online encyclopedias Wikipedia – largest encyclopedia in the world. It is a free, web-based, collaborative, multilingual encyclopedia project supported by the non-profit Wikimedia Foundation. Its more than 20 million articles (over 6.89 million in English) have been written collaboratively by volunteers around the world. Almost all of its articles can be edited by anyone with access to the site, [ 20 ] and it has about 100,000 regularly active contributors. [ 21 ] Bibliography of encyclopedias List of encyclopedias by branch of knowledge List of encyclopedias by language List of historical encyclopedias List of online encyclopedias Wikipedia – largest encyclopedia in the world. It is a free, web-based, collaborative, multilingual encyclopedia project supported by the non-profit Wikimedia Foundation. Its more than 20 million articles (over 6.89 million in English) have been written collaboratively by volunteers around the world. Almost all of its articles can be edited by anyone with access to the site, [ 20 ] and it has about 100,000 regularly active contributors. [ 21 ] Wikipedia – largest encyclopedia in the world. It is a free, web-based, collaborative, multilingual encyclopedia project supported by the non-profit Wikimedia Foundation. Its more than 20 million articles (over 6.89 million in English) have been written collaboratively by volunteers around the world. Almost all of its articles can be edited by anyone with access to the site, [ 20 ] and it has about 100,000 regularly active contributors. [ 21 ] Specific knowledge bases Knowledge Vault – knowledge base created by Google. As of 2014, it contained 1.6 billion facts which had been collated automatically from the Internet. Knowledge Vault – knowledge base created by Google. As of 2014, it contained 1.6 billion facts which had been collated automatically from the Internet. Epistemology (philosophy of knowledge) Epistemology – philosophy of knowledge. It is the study of knowledge and justified belief. It questions what knowledge is and how it can be acquired, and the extent to which knowledge pertinent to any given subject or entity can be acquired. Much of the debate in this field has focused on the philosophical analysis of the nature of knowledge and how it relates to connected notions such as truth, belief, and justification. DIKW pyramid – theoretical model of the relationship between data, information, knowledge, and wisdom Knowledge neglect – failure to apply knowledge Theory of knowledge (IB course) – a course related to epistemology Management of knowledge Knowledge management Chief knowledge officer Knowledge balance sheet Knowledge ecosystem Knowledge mobilization Knowledge organization (effort) Knowledge organization system Knowledge organization system Knowledge organization (company or agency) Knowledge transfer Knowledge worker Obtaining knowledge Methods of obtaining knowledge Exploration Space exploration Revelation Research Scientific method Experimentation Space exploration Revelation Research Scientific method Experimentation Scientific method Experimentation Learning Autodidactism – self-education; act of self-directed learning about a subject or subjects in which one has had little to no formal education. Reading Studying Knowledge building Knowledge building communities Autodidactism – self-education; act of self-directed learning about a subject or subjects in which one has had little to no formal education. Reading Studying Knowledge building Knowledge building communities Knowledge building communities Knowledge storage Knowledge can be stored in: Books Knowledge bases Ontology – formal naming and definition of the types, properties, and interrelationships of the entities that really or fundamentally exist for a particular domain of discourse. Commonsense knowledge base – database containing all the general knowledge that most people possess, represented in a way that it is available to artificial intelligence programs that use natural language or make inferences about the ordinary world. Knowledge graph – another name for ontology Ontology – formal naming and definition of the types, properties, and interrelationships of the entities that really or fundamentally exist for a particular domain of discourse. Commonsense knowledge base – database containing all the general knowledge that most people possess, represented in a way that it is available to artificial intelligence programs that use natural language or make inferences about the ordinary world. Knowledge graph – another name for ontology Commonsense knowledge base – database containing all the general knowledge that most people possess, represented in a way that it is available to artificial intelligence programs that use natural language or make inferences about the ordinary world. Knowledge graph – another name for ontology Knowledge representation (AI) Body of knowledge (BOK) – complete set of concepts, terms and activities that make up a professional domain, as defined by the relevant learned society or professional association Body of knowledge (BOK) – complete set of concepts, terms and activities that make up a professional domain, as defined by the relevant learned society or professional association Libraries Memory Knowledge retrieval Knowledge retrieval – Stored knowledge can be retrieved by: Knowledge engine WolframAlpha – computational knowledge engine or answer engine developed by Wolfram Research Knowledge Engine (Wikimedia Foundation) – search engine project by the Wikimedia Foundation Google Search – powered by: Google Knowledge Graph – knowledge base used by Google to enhance its search engine's search results with semantic search information gathered from a wide variety of sources WolframAlpha – computational knowledge engine or answer engine developed by Wolfram Research Knowledge Engine (Wikimedia Foundation) – search engine project by the Wikimedia Foundation Google Search – powered by: Google Knowledge Graph – knowledge base used by Google to enhance its search engine's search results with semantic search information gathered from a wide variety of sources Google Knowledge Graph – knowledge base used by Google to enhance its search engine's search results with semantic search information gathered from a wide variety of sources Knowledge discovery Reading Imparting knowledge Communication – purposeful activity of information exchange between two or more participants in order to convey or receive the intended meanings through a shared system of signs and semiotic rules. The basic steps of communication are the forming of communicative intent, message composition, message encoding, transmission of signal, reception of signal, message decoding and interpretation of the message by the recipient. Examples of methods of communication used to impart knowledge include: Writing and Publishing . Education – process of facilitating learning. Educational methods: Storytelling Discussion Teaching Training Directed research Educational methods: Storytelling Discussion Teaching Training Directed research Storytelling Discussion Teaching Training Directed research Knowledge sharing – activity through which knowledge (namely, information, skills, or expertise) is exchanged among people, friends, families, communities (Wikipedia), or organizations. [ 22 ] [ 23 ] Knowledge café Knowledge transfer Knowledge translation Knowledge café Knowledge transfer Knowledge translation History of the knowledge of humanity Historiography History of exploration History of space exploration History of space exploration History of invention History of libraries History of philosophy History of science Knowledge deities Taxes on knowledge Knowledge and society Economics of knowledge Intellectual capital Knowledge broker Knowledge Economic Index Knowledge economy Knowledge gap hypothesis Knowledge market Knowledge services Knowledge services Knowledge spillover Knowledge value Monopolies of knowledge Politics of knowledge Access to Knowledge movement Knowledge assessment methodology Knowledge society Local knowledge problem Open access Berlin Declaration on Open Access to Knowledge in the Sciences and Humanities Berlin Declaration on Open Access to Knowledge in the Sciences and Humanities Scientia potentia est – Latin for "knowledge is power". The Cost of Knowledge protest World Brain Sociology of knowledge Sociology of knowledge Knowledge community Knowledge space Knowledge technology Knowledge-based systems Knowledge acquisition Knowledge base Knowledge engineering Knowledge engineer Knowledge extraction Knowledge level Knowledge level modeling Knowledge modeling Knowledge acquisition Knowledge base Knowledge engineering Knowledge engineer Knowledge engineer Knowledge extraction Knowledge level Knowledge level modeling Knowledge modeling Knowledge management (see above) Knowledge of humanity The world 's knowledge (knowledge possessed by human civilization): [ 24 ] [ 25 ] [ 26 ] [ 27 ] Science Formal Sciences Logic Mathematics Computer science (is also Technology) Natural Sciences Physics Astronomy Chemistry Earth Sciences Biology Engineering / Technology Aerospace engineering Biotechnology / Biological engineering Biomedical engineering Chemical engineering Civil engineering Computer science (Formal Science) / Computer engineering Electrical engineering Electronics engineering Environmental engineering Industrial engineering Marine engineering / Naval architecture Materials science and engineering Mechanical engineering Nuclear science and engineering Healthcare sciences Medicine and surgery Dentistry and oral health Veterinary medicine / Veterinary surgery Formal Sciences Logic Mathematics Computer science (is also Technology) Logic Mathematics Computer science (is also Technology) Natural Sciences Physics Astronomy Chemistry Earth Sciences Biology Physics Astronomy Chemistry Earth Sciences Biology Engineering / Technology Aerospace engineering Biotechnology / Biological engineering Biomedical engineering Chemical engineering Civil engineering Computer science (Formal Science) / Computer engineering Electrical engineering Electronics engineering Environmental engineering Industrial engineering Marine engineering / Naval architecture Materials science and engineering Mechanical engineering Nuclear science and engineering Aerospace engineering Biotechnology / Biological engineering Biomedical engineering Chemical engineering Civil engineering Computer science (Formal Science) / Computer engineering Electrical engineering Electronics engineering Environmental engineering Industrial engineering Marine engineering / Naval architecture Materials science and engineering Mechanical engineering Nuclear science and engineering Healthcare sciences Medicine and surgery Dentistry and oral health Veterinary medicine / Veterinary surgery Medicine and surgery Dentistry and oral health Veterinary medicine / Veterinary surgery Social sciences Psychology Linguistics / Language Sociology Anthropology Geography ( Physical geography ) Economics Trade Education Political science Law Jurisprudence Psychology Linguistics / Language Sociology Anthropology Geography ( Physical geography ) Economics Trade Trade Education Political science Law Jurisprudence Jurisprudence Humanities and arts Classics Literature Performing arts Theatre Dance Music Visual arts Painting Religion History Classics Literature Performing arts Theatre Dance Music Theatre Dance Music Visual arts Painting Painting Religion History Philosophy Organizations Institute of Knowledge Transfer International Society for Knowledge Organization Open Knowledge International Publications Books A Guide for the Perplexed by E. F. Schumacher (critique of materialist scientism and an exploration of the nature and organization of knowledge ). Knowledge and Its Limits . Human Knowledge: Its Scope and Limits by Bertrand Russell , a founder of analytic philosophy . Outline of Knowledge (part of the Propædia of the 15th edition of Encyclopædia Britannica ). Journals Electronic Journal of Knowledge Management Journal of Information & Knowledge Management Journal of Information Science Journal of Knowledge Management Journal of Knowledge Management Practice Journal of Web Semantics Knowledge Management Research & Practice See also Belief Data Information Truth Wisdom Knowledge representation and reasoning Knowledge building Knowledge enterprise Empirical knowledge Simple Knowledge Organization System Encyclopedic knowledge Knowledge intensive business services Knowledge entrepreneurship Institutional memory Omniscience Knowledge environment Personal knowledge management Knowledge management software Tribal knowledge Democratization of knowledge Open Knowledge Base Connectivity Knowledge integration Knowledge triangle Curse of knowledge Knowledge value chain Economics of scientific knowledge Knowledge ark Knowledge building communities Knowledge-based theory of the firm Half-life of knowledge Forbidden knowledge Encapsulated knowledge Threshold knowledge History of knowledge Social knowledge management List of knowledge management concepts Knowledge compilation List of lists of lists References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "knowledge (knowl·edge)" . Oxford Dictionaries Online . Archived from the original on Jul 14, 2010. ^ Sommers, Tamler (March 1, 2003). "An Interview with Galen Strawson" . The Believer . No. 1. ^ Galen Strawson has stated that an a priori argument is one in which "you can see that it is true just lying on your couch. You don't have to get up off your couch and go outside and examine the way things are in the physical world. You don't have to do any science." [ 2 ] ^ Compare various contemporary definitions given in the OED (2nd edition, 1989): "[...] 3. The actual observation of facts or events, considered as a source of knowledge.[...] 4. a. The fact of being consciously the subject of a state or condition, or of being consciously affected by an event. [...] b. In religious use: A state of mind or feeling forming part of the inner religious life; the mental history (of a person) with regard to religious emotion. [...] 6. What has been experienced; the events that have taken place within the knowledge of an individual, a community, mankind at large, either during a particular period or generally. [...] 7. a. Knowledge resulting from actual observation or from what one has undergone. [...] 8. The state of having been occupied in any department of study or practice, in affairs generally, or in the intercourse of life; the extent to which, or the length of time during which, one has been so occupied; the aptitudes, skill, judgement, etc. thereby acquired." ^ Pickett 2011 , p. 585 ^ Helie, Sebastien; Sun, Ron (2010). "Incubation, Insight, and Creative Problem Solving: A Unified Theory and a Connectionist Model". Psychological Review . 117 (3): 994– 1024. doi : 10.1037/a0019532 . PMID 20658861 . ^ "general knowledge" . Cambridge English Dictionary . Retrieved 2019-08-24 . ^ Bates, T. C.; Shieles, A. (2003). "Crystallized Intelligence as a product of Speed and Drive for Experience: The Relationship of Inspection Time and Openness to g and Gc". Intelligence . 31 (3): 275– 287. doi : 10.1016/S0160-2896(02)00176-9 . ^ Kelly 2009 , p. 13. ^ Wiles, Jon (2008). Leading Curriculum Development . Corwin Press. p. 2. ISBN 9781412961417 . ^ Adams 2003 , pp. 33–34. ^ "Encyclopedia" . Archived from the original on 2007-08-03. Glossary of Library Terms. Riverside City College, Digital Library/Learning Resource Center. Retrieved on: November 17, 2007. ^ a b Hartmann, R. R. K.; James, Gregory; Gregory James (1998). Dictionary of Lexicography . Routledge. p. 48. ISBN 978-0-415-14143-7 . Retrieved July 27, 2010 . ^ Béjoint, Henri (2000). Modern Lexicography , pp. 30–31. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-829951-6 ^ "Encyclopaedia" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved July 27, 2010 . An English lexicographer, H.W. Fowler, wrote in the preface to the first edition (1911) of The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English language that a dictionary is concerned with the uses of words and phrases and with giving information about the things for which they stand only so far as current use of the words depends upon knowledge of those things. The emphasis in an encyclopedia is much more on the nature of the things for which the words and phrases stand. ^ Hartmann, R. R. K.; Gregory James (1998). Dictionary of Lexicography . Routledge. p. 49. ISBN 978-0-415-14143-7 . Retrieved July 27, 2010 . In contrast with linguistic information, encyclopedia material is more concerned with the description of objective realities than the words or phrases that refer to them. In practice, however, there is no hard and fast boundary between factual and lexical knowledge. ^ Cowie, Anthony Paul (2009). The Oxford History of English Lexicography, Volume I . Oxford University Press. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-415-14143-7 . Retrieved August 17, 2010 . An 'encyclopedia' (encyclopaedia) usually gives more information than a dictionary; it explains not only the words but also the things and concepts referred to by the words. ^ "Library" . Merriam-Webster Dictionary . ^ "Library ... collection of books, public or private; room or building where these are kept; similar collection of films, records, computer routines, etc. or place where they are kept; series of books issued in similar bindings as set."--Allen, R. E., ed. (1984) The Pocket Oxford Dictionary of Current English . Oxford: Clarendon Press; p. 421 ^ "Wikipedia's Jimmy Wales Speaks Out On China And Internet Freedom" . Huffington Post . Retrieved 2011-09-24 . Currently Wikipedia, Facebook and Twitter remain blocked in China ^ " 'Technology can topple tyrants': Jimmy Wales an eternal optimist" . Sydney Morning Herald . 7 November 2011. ^ Bukowitz, Wendi R.; Williams, Ruth L. (1999). The Knowledge Management Fieldbook . FT Press. ISBN 978-0273638827 . ^ Serban, Andreea M.; Luan, Jing (Spring 2002). "An Overview of Knowledge Management" (PDF) . New Directions for Institutional Research . University of Kentucky . Retrieved 17 April 2013 . ^ "Part Ten. Branches of Knowledge". The New Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th edition . Vol. Propædia . Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. 2007. p. 475-523. ^ Adler, Mortimer J. (2007). "Circle of Learning". The New Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th edition . Vol. Propædia . Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. p. 5-8. ^ Cohen, Eliel (2021). "The boundary lens: theorising academic actitity". The University and its Boundaries: Thriving or Surviving in the 21st Century 1st Edition . New York, New York: Routledge. pp. 14– 41. ISBN 978-0367562984 . ^ Revised Field of Science and Technology (FOS) Classification in the Frascati Manual , OECD Works cited Adams, Kathy L.; Adams, Dale E. (2003). Urban Education: A Reference Handbook . ABC-CLIO. pp. 31 –32. ISBN 9781576073629 . Kelly, A.V. (2009). The Curriculum: theory and practice (6th ed.). ISBN 9781847872746 . Pickett, Joseph P., ed. (2011). The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (5th ed.). Houghton Mifflin . ISBN 978-0-547-04101-8 . External links Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Diagrams of knowledge from throughout society and history Outline of knowledge at PhilPapers Fieser, James; Dowden, Bradley (eds.). "Knowledge" . Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy . ISSN 2161-0002 . OCLC 37741658 . Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). "The Value of Knowledge" . Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy . ISSN 1095-5054 . OCLC 429049174 . Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). "The Analysis of Knowledge" . Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy . ISSN 1095-5054 . OCLC 429049174 . Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). "Knowledge by Acquaintance vs. Description" . Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy . ISSN 1095-5054 . OCLC 429049174 . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Start and end dates 2 Background Toggle Background subsection 2.1 Aftermath of World War I 2.2 Germany and Italy 2.3 European treaties 2.4 Asia 2.1 Aftermath of World War I 2.2 Germany and Italy 2.3 European treaties 2.4 Asia 3 Pre-war events Toggle Pre-war events subsection 3.1 Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) 3.2 Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) 3.3 Japanese invasion of China (1937) 3.4 Soviet–Japanese border conflicts 3.5 European occupations and agreements 3.1 Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) 3.2 Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) 3.3 Japanese invasion of China (1937) 3.4 Soviet–Japanese border conflicts 3.5 European occupations and agreements 4 Course of the war Toggle Course of the war subsection 4.1 War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) 4.2 Western Europe (1940–1941) 4.3 Mediterranean (1940–1941) 4.4 Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) 4.5 War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) 4.6 Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) 4.7 Pacific (1942–1943) 4.8 Eastern Front (1942–1943) 4.9 Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) 4.10 Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) 4.11 Allies Offensives (1944) 4.12 Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) 4.1 War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) 4.2 Western Europe (1940–1941) 4.3 Mediterranean (1940–1941) 4.4 Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) 4.5 War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) 4.6 Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) 4.7 Pacific (1942–1943) 4.8 Eastern Front (1942–1943) 4.9 Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) 4.10 Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) 4.11 Allies Offensives (1944) 4.12 Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) 5 Aftermath 6 Impact Toggle Impact subsection 6.1 Casualties and war crimes 6.2 Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour 6.3 Occupation 6.4 Home fronts and production 6.5 Advances in technology and its application 6.1 Casualties and war crimes 6.2 Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour 6.3 Occupation 6.4 Home fronts and production 6.5 Advances in technology and its application 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References Toggle References subsection 9.1 Sources 9.1 Sources 10 Further reading 11 External links World War II Адыгэбзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ Ænglisc العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Bislama Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Chavacano de Zamboanga Chi-Chewa ChiShona Corsu Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deitsch Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Diné bizaad Dolnoserbski डोटेली Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gàidhlig Galego 贛語 گیلکی ગુજરાતી 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Hausa Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Ido Igbo Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Коми Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Ladin Ladino Лакку ລາວ Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala La .lojban. Lombard Magyar Madhurâ मैथिली Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Malti Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu Minangkabau 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Mirandés Мокшень Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाली नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano ߒߞߏ Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Pälzisch پنجابی ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ Papiamentu پښتو Patois ភាសាខ្មែរ Picard Piemontèis Plattdüütsch Polski Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Ripoarisch Română Rumantsch Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sakizaya Gagana Samoa संस्कृतम् ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Sardu Scots Seeltersk Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ Ślůnski Soomaaliga کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Taclḥit Taqbaylit Tarandíne Татарча / tatarça తెలుగు ไทย Thuɔŋjäŋ Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Türkmençe Tyap Тыва дыл Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vahcuengh Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon 文言 West-Vlams Winaray Wolof 吴语 ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Batak Mandailing Jaku Iban Yerwa Kanuri Tolışi Toki pona Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikinews Wikiquote Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wikidata item This article contains one or more duplicated citations . 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( January 2026 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) (refs: 141, 198) World War II .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti 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("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} German Stuka dive bombers on the Eastern Front , 1943 British Matilda II tanks during the North African campaign , 1941 US atomic bombing of Nagasaki in Japan, 1945 Soviet troops at the Battle of Stalingrad , 1943 Soviet soldier raising a flag over the Reichstag after the Battle of Berlin , 1945 US warships in Lingayen Gulf in the Philippines , 1945 German Stuka dive bombers on the Eastern Front , 1943 British Matilda II tanks during the North African campaign , 1941 US atomic bombing of Nagasaki in Japan, 1945 Soviet troops at the Battle of Stalingrad , 1943 Soviet soldier raising a flag over the Reichstag after the Battle of Berlin , 1945 US warships in Lingayen Gulf in the Philippines , 1945 Date 1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945 [ a ] (6 years, 1 day) Location Global Result .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Allied victory Date 1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945 [ a ] (6 years, 1 day) Location Global Result .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Allied victory Allied victory Participants Allies Axis Commanders and leaders Main Allied leaders : Joseph Stalin Franklin D. Roosevelt Winston Churchill Chiang Kai-shek Joseph Stalin Franklin D. Roosevelt Winston Churchill Chiang Kai-shek Main Axis leaders : Adolf Hitler Hirohito Benito Mussolini Adolf Hitler Hirohito Benito Mussolini Casualties and losses 60 million to over 75 million deaths (military and civilian) .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Theatres of World War II v t e Europe Poland Soviet invasion Phoney War Saar Offensive Finland Winter War Karelia Lapland Weserübung Denmark Norway Western Front Luxembourg Netherlands Belgium France Alps 1944–1945 Britain Eastern Front Barbarossa Leningrad Crimea Rzhev Case Blue Stalingrad Kursk Dnieper–Carpaths Bagration Romania Hungary Vistula–Oder Berlin Liberation of France Overlord Dragoon Siegfried Line Market Garden Bulge Western Germany Asia-Pacific China Marco Polo Bridge Shanghai Taiyuan Nanjing Xuzhou and Taierzhuang Wuhan Winter Offensive Hundred Regiments Offensive Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Ichi-Go 1945 Hunan Burma 1941–1942 1942–1943 1944 1944–1945 South-East Asia Indochina Franco-Thai War Thailand Hong Kong Malaya and Singapore South West Pacific Philippines 1941–1942 1944–1945 Dutch East Indies Borneo 1945 Coral Sea Solomon Islands Guadalcanal New Georgia Bougainville New Guinea Kokoda Track Salamaua–Lae Markham, Ramu and Finisterre Huon Peninsula New Britain Admiralty Islands Western New Guinea Pacific Ocean Midway Gilberts and Marshalls Mariana and Palau Volcano and Ryukyu Soviet-Japanese War(Mainland) Manchuria and Northern Korea pre-war border conflicts Japan Volcano and Ryukyu South Sakhalin Kurils Mediterranean and Middle East Balkans Greco-Italian War Greece Crete Albania Yugoslavia Mediterranean Sea Adriatic Malta Dodecanese East Africa Guerrilla war Middle East Iraq Syria–Lebanon Iran North Africa Libya-Egypt Morocco-Algeria Tunisia Italy Sicily Mainland Italy Winter Line Gothic Line Spring Offensive Other campaigns Air warfare Strategic bombing Americas Aleuts Antarctica Atlantic Australia Arctic French West Africa Indian Ocean 1940–1945 Madagascar Coups Uruguay Norway Baltic Nations Yugoslavia Romania 1941 Iraq Italy Argentina Germany Croatia Romania 1944 Bulgaria Hungary French Indochina Japan Matsue Slovak National Uprising Resistance movements Albanian resistance Baltic states Belgian Resistance Czechoslovak Resistance Danish resistance Dutch resistance Ethiopian resistance French Resistance Greek resistance Italian Resistance Malayan resistance Norwegian resistance Filipino resistance Polish resistance Romanian resistance Slovak partisans Soviet partisans Free Thai Movement Yugoslav Partisans Poland Soviet invasion Soviet invasion Phoney War Saar Offensive Saar Offensive Finland Winter War Karelia Lapland Winter War Karelia Lapland Weserübung Denmark Norway Denmark Norway Western Front Luxembourg Netherlands Belgium France Luxembourg Netherlands Belgium France Alps 1944–1945 1944–1945 Britain Eastern Front Barbarossa Leningrad Crimea Rzhev Case Blue Stalingrad Kursk Dnieper–Carpaths Bagration Romania Hungary Vistula–Oder Berlin Barbarossa Leningrad Crimea Rzhev Case Blue Stalingrad Kursk Dnieper–Carpaths Bagration Romania Hungary Vistula–Oder Berlin Liberation of France Overlord Dragoon Siegfried Line Market Garden Bulge Western Germany Overlord Dragoon Siegfried Line Market Garden Bulge Western Germany China Marco Polo Bridge Shanghai Taiyuan Nanjing Xuzhou and Taierzhuang Wuhan Winter Offensive Hundred Regiments Offensive Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Ichi-Go 1945 Hunan Marco Polo Bridge Shanghai Taiyuan Nanjing Xuzhou and Taierzhuang Wuhan Winter Offensive Hundred Regiments Offensive Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Ichi-Go 1945 Hunan Burma 1941–1942 1942–1943 1944 1944–1945 1941–1942 1942–1943 1944 1944–1945 South-East Asia Indochina Franco-Thai War Thailand Hong Kong Malaya and Singapore Indochina Franco-Thai War Thailand Hong Kong Malaya and Singapore South West Pacific Philippines 1941–1942 1944–1945 1944–1945 Dutch East Indies Borneo 1945 Borneo 1945 Coral Sea Solomon Islands Guadalcanal New Georgia Bougainville Guadalcanal New Georgia Bougainville New Guinea Kokoda Track Salamaua–Lae Markham, Ramu and Finisterre Huon Peninsula New Britain Admiralty Islands Western New Guinea Kokoda Track Salamaua–Lae Markham, Ramu and Finisterre Huon Peninsula New Britain Admiralty Islands Western New Guinea Pacific Ocean Midway Gilberts and Marshalls Mariana and Palau Volcano and Ryukyu Midway Gilberts and Marshalls Mariana and Palau Volcano and Ryukyu Soviet-Japanese War(Mainland) Manchuria and Northern Korea pre-war border conflicts Manchuria and Northern Korea pre-war border conflicts Japan Volcano and Ryukyu South Sakhalin Kurils Volcano and Ryukyu South Sakhalin Kurils Balkans Greco-Italian War Greece Crete Albania Yugoslavia Greco-Italian War Greece Crete Crete Albania Yugoslavia Mediterranean Sea Adriatic Malta Dodecanese Adriatic Malta Dodecanese East Africa Guerrilla war Guerrilla war Middle East Iraq Syria–Lebanon Iran Iraq Syria–Lebanon Iran North Africa Libya-Egypt Morocco-Algeria Tunisia Libya-Egypt Morocco-Algeria Tunisia Italy Sicily Mainland Italy Winter Line Gothic Line Spring Offensive Sicily Mainland Italy Winter Line Gothic Line Spring Offensive Air warfare Strategic bombing Strategic bombing Americas Aleuts Aleuts Antarctica Atlantic Australia Arctic French West Africa Indian Ocean 1940–1945 Madagascar Madagascar Uruguay Norway Baltic Nations Yugoslavia Romania 1941 Iraq Italy Argentina Germany Croatia Romania 1944 Bulgaria Hungary French Indochina Japan Matsue Slovak National Uprising Albanian resistance Baltic states Belgian Resistance Czechoslovak Resistance Danish resistance Dutch resistance Ethiopian resistance French Resistance Greek resistance Italian Resistance Malayan resistance Norwegian resistance Filipino resistance Polish resistance Romanian resistance Slovak partisans Soviet partisans Free Thai Movement Yugoslav Partisans World War II Navigation Campaigns Countries Equipment Timeline Outline Lists Historiography Category Bibliography Campaigns Countries Equipment Campaigns Countries Equipment Timeline Outline Lists Historiography Timeline Outline Lists Historiography Category Bibliography Category Bibliography v t e v t e World War II [ b ] or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a global conflict between two coalitions : the Allies and the Axis powers . Nearly all of the world's countries participated, with many nations mobilising their resources in pursuit of total war . Tanks and aircraft played major roles , enabling the strategic bombing of cities and delivery of the first and only nuclear weapons ever used in war. World War II is the deadliest conflict in history, causing the death of over 60 million people. Millions died in genocides , including the Holocaust , and by massacres, starvation, and disease. After the Allied victory, Germany , Austria , Japan , and Korea were occupied, and German and Japanese leaders were put on trial for war crimes . The causes of World War II included unresolved tensions in the aftermath of World War I , the rise of fascism in Europe and militarism in Japan . Key events preceding the war included Japan's invasion of Manchuria in 1931, the Spanish Civil War , the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, and Germany's annexations of Austria and the Sudetenland . World War II is generally considered to have begun on 1 September 1939, when Nazi Germany , under Adolf Hitler , invaded Poland , after which the United Kingdom and France declared war on Germany. Poland was also invaded by the Soviet Union in mid-September, and was partitioned between Germany and the Soviet Union under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact . In 1940, the Soviet Union annexed the Baltic states and parts of Finland and Romania , while Germany conquered Norway , Belgium , Luxembourg and the Netherlands . After the fall of France in June 1940, the war continued mainly between Germany, now assisted by Fascist Italy , and the British Empire / British Commonwealth , with fighting in the Balkans , Mediterranean, and Middle East , East Africa , the aerial Battle of Britain and the Blitz , and the naval Battle of the Atlantic . By mid-1941 Yugoslavia and Greece had also been defeated by Axis countries. In June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union , opening the Eastern Front and initially making large territorial gains along with Axis allies. In December 1941, Japan attacked American and British territories in Asia and the Pacific , including Pearl Harbor in Hawaii , leading the United States to enter the war against the Axis. Japan conquered much of coastal China and Southeast Asia , but its advances in the Pacific were halted in June 1942 at the Battle of Midway . In early 1943, Axis forces were defeated in North Africa and at Stalingrad in the Soviet Union. An Allied invasion of Italy in July resulted in the fall of its fascist regime , and Allied offensives in the Pacific and the Soviet Union forced the Axis to retreat on all fronts. In 1944, the Western Allies invaded France at Normandy , and the Soviet Union advanced into Central Europe. During the same period, Japan suffered major setbacks, including the crippling of its navy by the United States, the loss of key Western Pacific islands, and defeats in South-Central China and Burma . The war in Europe concluded with the liberation of German-occupied territories and the invasion of Germany by the Allies which culminated in the fall of Berlin to Soviet troops, and Germany's unconditional surrender on 8 May 1945 . On 6 and 9 August, the US dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan. Faced with an imminent Allied invasion , the prospect of further atomic bombings, and a Soviet declaration of war and invasion of Manchuria , Japan announced its unconditional surrender on 15 August, and signed a surrender document on 2 September 1945 . World War II transformed the political, economic, and social structures of the world, and established the foundation of international relations for the rest of the 20th century and into the 21st century. The United Nations was created to foster international cooperation and prevent future conflicts, with the victorious great powers—China, France, the Soviet Union, the UK, and the US—becoming the permanent members of its security council . The Soviet Union and the US emerged as rival superpowers , setting the stage for the half-century Cold War . In the wake of Europe's devastation, the influence of its great powers waned, triggering the decolonisation of Africa and of Asia . Many countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery and expansion . Start and end dates Timelines of World War II Chronological Prelude Events ( in Asia in Europe ) Aftermath Events ( in Asia in Europe ) Aftermath 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Aftermath 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Aftermath By topic Causes ( Diplomacy ) Declarations of war Battles Operations Causes ( Diplomacy ) Causes ( Diplomacy ) Declarations of war Battles Operations Battles Operations By theatre Battle of Europe air operations Eastern Front Manhattan Project United Kingdom home front Surrender of the Axis armies Battle of Europe air operations Eastern Front Manhattan Project Eastern Front Manhattan Project United Kingdom home front Surrender of the Axis armies v t e v t e Most historians agree that World War II began with the German invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939 [ 1 ] [ 2 ] and the United Kingdom and France 's declaration of war on Germany two days later. Dates for the beginning of the Pacific War include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, [ 3 ] [ 4 ] or the earlier Japanese invasion of Manchuria , on 18 September 1931. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Other proposed starting dates for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. [ 7 ] The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939. [ 8 ] Others view the Spanish Civil War as the start or prelude to World War II. [ 9 ] [ 10 ] The exact date of the war's end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 15 August 1945 ( V-J Day ), rather than with the formal surrender of Japan on 2 September 1945, which officially ended the war in Asia . A peace treaty between Japan and the Allies was signed in 1951. [ 11 ] A 1990 treaty regarding Germany's future allowed the reunification of East and West Germany to take place. [ 12 ] No formal peace treaty between Japan and the Soviet Union was ever signed, [ 13 ] although the state of war between the two countries was terminated by the Soviet–Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956 , which also restored full diplomatic relations between them. [ 14 ] Background Aftermath of World War I World War I had radically altered the political European map with the defeat of the Central Powers —including Austria-Hungary, Germany, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire —and the 1917 Bolshevik seizure of power in Russia , which led to the founding of the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, the victorious Allies of World War I , such as France, Belgium, Italy, Romania, and Greece, gained territory, and new nation-states were created out of the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian , Ottoman , and Russian Empires . [ 15 ] [ failed verification ] To prevent a future world war, the League of Nations was established in 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference . The organisation's primary goals were to prevent armed conflict through collective security, military, and naval disarmament , as well as settling international disputes through peaceful negotiations and arbitration. [ 16 ] Despite strong pacifist sentiment after World War I , [ 17 ] irredentist and revanchist nationalism had emerged in several European states. These sentiments were especially pronounced in Germany due to the significant territorial, colonial, and financial losses imposed by the Treaty of Versailles . Under the treaty, Germany lost around 13 percent of its home territory and all its overseas possessions , while German annexation of other states was prohibited, reparations were imposed, and limits were placed on the size and capability of the country's armed forces . [ 18 ] Germany and Italy The German Empire was dissolved in the German revolution of 1918–1919 , and a democratic government, later known as the Weimar Republic , was created. The interwar period saw strife between supporters of the new republic and hardline opponents on both the political right and left. Italy, as an Entente ally, had made some post-war territorial gains; however, Italian nationalists were angered that the promises made by the United Kingdom and France to secure Italian entrance into the war were not fulfilled in the peace settlement. From 1922 to 1925, the fascist movement led by Benito Mussolini seized power in Italy with a nationalist, totalitarian , and class collaborationist agenda that abolished representative democracy , repressed socialist, left-wing, and liberal forces, and pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at making Italy a world power, promising the creation of a "New Roman Empire". [ 19 ] Adolf Hitler , after an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German government in 1923, eventually became the chancellor of Germany in 1933 when President Paul von Hindenburg and the Reichstag appointed him. Following Hindenburg's death in 1934, Hitler proclaimed himself Führer of Germany and abolished democracy, espousing a radical, racially motivated revision of the world order , and soon began a massive rearmament campaign . [ 20 ] France, seeking to secure its alliance with Italy, allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia , which Italy desired as a colonial possession. The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when the Territory of the Saar Basin was legally reunited with Germany, and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles, accelerated his rearmament programme, and introduced conscription. [ 21 ] European treaties The United Kingdom, France and Italy formed the Stresa Front in April 1935 in order to contain Germany, a key step towards military globalisation ; however, that June, the United Kingdom made an independent naval agreement with Germany, easing prior restrictions. The Soviet Union, concerned by Germany's goals of capturing vast areas of Eastern Europe , drafted a treaty of mutual assistance with France. Before taking effect, though, the Franco-Soviet pact was required to go through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations, which rendered it essentially toothless. [ 22 ] The United States, concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed the Neutrality Act in August of the same year. [ 23 ] Hitler defied the Versailles and Locarno Treaties by remilitarising the Rhineland in March 1936, encountering little opposition due to the policy of appeasement . [ 24 ] In October 1936, Germany and Italy formed the Rome–Berlin Axis . A month later, Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact , which Italy joined the following year. [ 25 ] Asia The Kuomintang party in China launched a unification campaign against regional warlords and nominally unified China in the mid-1920s, but was soon embroiled in a civil war against its former Chinese Communist Party (CCP) allies [ 26 ] and new regional warlords . In 1931, an increasingly militaristic Empire of Japan , which had long sought influence in China [ 27 ] as the first step of what its government saw as the country's right to rule Asia , staged the Mukden incident as a pretext to invade Manchuria and establish the puppet state of Manchukuo . [ 28 ] China appealed to the League of Nations to stop the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations after being condemned for its incursion into Manchuria. The two nations then fought several battles, in Shanghai , Rehe , and Hebei , until the Tanggu Truce was signed in 1933. Thereafter, Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to Japanese aggression in Manchuria , and Chahar and Suiyuan . [ 29 ] After the 1936 Xi'an Incident , the Kuomintang and CCP forces agreed on a ceasefire to present a united front to oppose Japan. [ 30 ] Pre-war events Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) The Second Italo-Ethiopian War was a colonial war that began in October 1935 and ended in May 1936. The war began with the invasion of the Ethiopian Empire (also known as Abyssinia ) by the armed forces of the Kingdom of Italy ( Regno d'Italia ), which was launched from Italian Somaliland and Eritrea . [ 31 ] The war resulted in the military occupation of Ethiopia and its annexation into the newly created colony of Italian East Africa ( Africa Orientale Italiana ); in addition it exposed the weakness of the League of Nations as a force to preserve peace. Both Italy and Ethiopia were member nations, but the League did little when the former clearly violated Article X of the League's Covenant . [ 32 ] The United Kingdom and France supported imposing sanctions on Italy for the invasion, but the sanctions were not fully enforced and failed to end the Italian invasion. [ 33 ] Italy subsequently dropped its objections to Germany's goal of absorbing Austria . [ 34 ] Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) When civil war broke out in Spain, Hitler and Mussolini lent military support to the Nationalist rebels , led by General Francisco Franco . Italy supported the Nationalists to a greater extent than the Nazis: Mussolini sent more than 70,000 ground troops, 6,000 aviation personnel, and 720 aircraft to Spain. [ 35 ] The Soviet Union supported the existing government of the Spanish Republic . More than 30,000 foreign volunteers, known as the International Brigades , also fought against the Nationalists. Both Germany and the Soviet Union used this proxy war as an opportunity to test in combat their most advanced weapons and tactics. The Nationalists won the civil war in April 1939; Franco, now dictator, remained officially neutral during World War II but generally favoured the Axis . [ 36 ] His greatest collaboration with Germany was the sending of volunteers to fight on the Eastern Front . [ 37 ] Japanese invasion of China (1937) In July 1937, Japan captured the former Chinese imperial capital of Peking after instigating the Marco Polo Bridge incident , which culminated in the Japanese campaign to invade all of China following years of tension and low-level conflicts . [ 38 ] The Soviets quickly signed a non-aggression pact with China to lend materiel support, effectively ending China's prior cooperation with Germany . [ 39 ] From September to November, the Japanese attacked Taiyuan , engaged the Kuomintang Army around Xinkou , [ 40 ] fought Communist forces in Pingxingguan [ 41 ] [ 42 ] , and wrestled control over China's northern railway network. [ 43 ] Nationalist Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek deployed his best army to defend Shanghai , but after three months of heavy fighting, Shanghai fell. The Japanese continued to push Chinese forces back, capturing the capital Nanking in December 1937. [ 44 ] [ 45 ] [ 46 ] In March 1938, Nationalist Chinese forces won their first major victory at Taierzhuang , but ultimately lost control of the city of Xuzhou in May. [ 47 ] In June 1938, Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance by flooding the Yellow River ; buying time for the Chinese to prepare their defences at Wuhan at heavy cost to the local civilian population, but the city was taken by October after heavy fighting along the Yangtze River. [ 48 ] Japanese military victories did not destroy Chinese resistance; instead, the Chinese government relocated inland to Chongqing and continued the war. [ 49 ] [ 50 ] Aiming to break Chinese morale, Japanese aircraft began striking cities in the Sichuan basin in a bombing campaign, killing tens of thousands of civilians. [ 51 ] [ 52 ] Soviet–Japanese border conflicts In the mid-to-late 1930s, Japanese forces in Manchukuo had sporadic border clashes with the Soviet Union and Mongolia . The Japanese doctrine of Hokushin-ron , which emphasised Japan's expansion northward, was favoured by the Imperial Army during this time. This policy would prove difficult to maintain in light of the Japanese defeat at Khalkin Gol in 1939, the ongoing Second Sino-Japanese War [ 53 ] and ally Nazi Germany pursuing neutrality with the Soviets. Japan and the Soviet Union eventually signed a Neutrality Pact in April 1941, and Japan adopted the doctrine of Nanshin-ron , promoted by the Navy, which took its focus southward and eventually led to war with the United States and the Western Allies. [ 54 ] [ 55 ] European occupations and agreements In Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming more aggressive. In March 1938, Germany annexed Austria , again provoking little response from other European powers. [ 56 ] Encouraged, Hitler began pressing German claims on the Sudetenland , an area of Czechoslovakia with a predominantly ethnic German population. Soon the United Kingdom and France followed the appeasement policy of British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and conceded this territory to Germany in the Munich Agreement , which was made against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government, in exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands. [ 57 ] Soon afterwards, Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia to cede additional territory to Hungary, and Poland annexed the Trans-Olza region of Czechoslovakia. [ 58 ] Although all of Germany's stated demands had been satisfied by the agreement, privately Hitler was furious that British interference had prevented him from seizing all of Czechoslovakia in one operation. In subsequent speeches Hitler attacked British and Jewish "war-mongers" and in January 1939 secretly ordered a major build-up of the German navy to challenge British naval supremacy. In March 1939, Germany invaded the remainder of Czechoslovakia and subsequently split it into the German Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and a pro-German client state , the Slovak Republic . [ 59 ] Hitler also delivered an ultimatum to Lithuania on 20 March 1939, forcing the concession of the Klaipėda Region , formerly the German Memelland . [ 60 ] Greatly alarmed and with Hitler making further demands on the Free City of Danzig , the United Kingdom and France guaranteed their support for Polish independence ; when Italy conquered Albania in April 1939, the same guarantee was extended to the Kingdoms of Romania and Greece . [ 61 ] Shortly after the Franco - British pledge to Poland, Germany and Italy formalised their own alliance with the Pact of Steel . [ 62 ] Hitler accused the United Kingdom and Poland of trying to "encircle" Germany and renounced the Anglo-German Naval Agreement and the German–Polish declaration of non-aggression . [ 63 ] The situation became a crisis in late August as German troops continued to mobilise against the Polish border. On 23 August the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact with Germany, [ 64 ] after tripartite negotiations for a military alliance between France, the United Kingdom, and Soviet Union had stalled. [ 65 ] This pact had a secret protocol that defined German and Soviet "spheres of influence" (western Poland and Lithuania for Germany; eastern Poland , Finland, Estonia , Latvia and Bessarabia for the Soviet Union), and raised the question of continuing Polish independence. [ 66 ] The pact neutralised the possibility of Soviet opposition to a campaign against Poland and assured that Germany would not have to face the prospect of a two-front war, as it had in World War I . Immediately afterwards, Hitler ordered the attack to proceed on 26 August, but upon hearing that the United Kingdom had concluded a formal mutual assistance pact with Poland and that Italy would maintain neutrality, he decided to delay it. [ 67 ] In response to British requests for direct negotiations to avoid war, Germany made demands on Poland, which served as a pretext to worsen relations. [ 68 ] On 29 August, Hitler demanded that a Polish plenipotentiary immediately travel to Berlin to negotiate the handover of Danzig , and to allow a plebiscite in the Polish Corridor in which the German minority would vote on secession. [ 68 ] The Poles refused to comply with the German demands, and on the night of 30–31 August in a confrontational meeting with the British ambassador Nevile Henderson , Ribbentrop declared that Germany considered its claims rejected. [ 69 ] Course of the war War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland after having staged several false flag border incidents as a pretext to initiate the invasion. [ 71 ] The first German attack of the war came against the Polish defences at Westerplatte . [ 72 ] The United Kingdom responded with an ultimatum for Germany to cease military operations, and on 3 September, after the ultimatum was ignored, Britain and France declared war on Germany. [ c ] During the Phoney War period, the alliance provided no direct military support to Poland, outside of a cautious French probe into the Saarland . [ 73 ] The Western Allies also began a naval blockade of Germany , which aimed to damage the country's economy and war effort. [ 74 ] Germany responded by ordering U-boat warfare against Allied merchant and warships, which would later escalate into the Battle of the Atlantic . [ 75 ] On 8 September, German troops reached the suburbs of Warsaw . The Polish counter-offensive to the west halted the German advance for several days, but it was outflanked and encircled by the Wehrmacht . Remnants of the Polish army broke through to besieged Warsaw . On 17 September 1939, two days after signing a cease-fire with Japan , the Soviet Union invaded Poland [ 76 ] under the supposed pretext that the Polish state had ceased to exist. [ 77 ] On 27 September, the Warsaw garrison surrendered to the Germans, and the last large operational unit of the Polish Army surrendered on 6 October . Despite the military defeat, Poland never surrendered; instead, it formed the Polish government-in-exile and a clandestine state apparatus remained in occupied Poland. [ 78 ] A significant part of Polish military personnel evacuated to Romania and Latvia; many of them later fought against the Axis in other theatres of the war. [ 79 ] Germany annexed western Poland and occupied central Poland ; the Soviet Union annexed eastern Poland . Small shares of Polish territory were transferred to Lithuania and Slovakia . On 6 October, Hitler made a public peace overture to the United Kingdom and France but said that the future of Poland was to be determined exclusively by Germany and the Soviet Union. The proposal was rejected [ 69 ] and Hitler ordered an immediate offensive against France, [ 80 ] which was postponed until the spring of 1940 due to bad weather. [ 81 ] [ 82 ] [ 83 ] After the outbreak of war in Poland, Stalin threatened Estonia , Latvia , and Lithuania with military invasion, forcing the three Baltic countries to sign pacts allowing the creation of Soviet military bases in these countries; in October 1939, significant Soviet military contingents were moved there. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] [ 86 ] Finland refused to sign a similar pact and rejected ceding part of its territory to the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union invaded Finland in November 1939, [ 87 ] and was subsequently expelled from the League of Nations for this crime of aggression. [ 88 ] Despite overwhelming numerical superiority, Soviet military success during the Winter War was modest, and the Finno–Soviet war ended in March 1940 with some Finnish concessions of territory . [ 89 ] In June 1940, the Soviet Union occupied the entire territories of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, [ 85 ] as well as the Romanian regions of Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and the Hertsa region . In August 1940, Hitler imposed the Second Vienna Award on Romania which led to the transfer of Northern Transylvania to Hungary. [ 90 ] In September 1940, Bulgaria demanded Southern Dobruja from Romania with German and Italian support, leading to the Treaty of Craiova . [ 91 ] The loss of one-third of Romania's 1939 territory caused a coup against King Carol II , turning Romania into a fascist dictatorship under Marshal Ion Antonescu , with a course set towards the Axis in the hopes of a German guarantee. [ 92 ] Meanwhile, German–Soviet political relations and economic co-operation [ 93 ] [ 94 ] gradually stalled, [ 95 ] [ 96 ] and both states began preparations for war. [ 97 ] Western Europe (1940–1941) In April 1940, Germany invaded Denmark and Norway to protect shipments of iron ore from Sweden , which the Allies were attempting to cut off . [ 98 ] Denmark capitulated after six hours , and despite Allied support , Norway was conquered within two months. [ 99 ] British discontent over the Norwegian campaign led to the resignation of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain , who was replaced by Winston Churchill on 10 May 1940. [ 100 ] On the same day, Germany launched an offensive against France . To circumvent the strong Maginot Line fortifications on the Franco-German border, Germany directed its attack at the neutral nations of Belgium , the Netherlands , and Luxembourg . [ 101 ] The Germans carried out a flanking manoeuvre through the Ardennes region, [ 102 ] which was mistakenly perceived by the Allies as an impenetrable natural barrier against armoured vehicles. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] By successfully implementing new Blitzkrieg tactics, the Wehrmacht rapidly advanced to the Channel and cut off the Allied forces in Belgium, trapping the bulk of the Allied armies in a cauldron on the Franco-Belgian border near Lille. The United Kingdom was able to evacuate a significant number of Allied troops from the continent by early June, although they had to abandon almost all their equipment. [ 105 ] On 10 June, Italy invaded France , declaring war on both France and the United Kingdom. [ 106 ] The Germans turned south against the weakened French army, and Paris fell to them on 14 June. Eight days later France signed an armistice with Germany ; it was divided into German and Italian occupation zones , [ 107 ] and an unoccupied rump state under the Vichy Regime , which, though officially neutral, was generally aligned with Germany. France kept its fleet, which the United Kingdom attacked on 3 July in an attempt to prevent its seizure by Germany. [ 108 ] The air Battle of Britain [ 109 ] began in early July with Luftwaffe attacks on shipping and harbours . [ 110 ] The German campaign for air superiority started in August but its failure to defeat RAF Fighter Command forced the indefinite postponement of the proposed German invasion of Britain . The German strategic bombing offensive intensified with night attacks on London and other cities in the Blitz , but largely ended in May 1941 [ 111 ] after failing to significantly disrupt the British war effort. [ 110 ] Using newly captured French ports, the German Navy enjoyed success against an over-extended Royal Navy , using U-boats against British shipping in the Atlantic . [ 112 ] The British Home Fleet scored a significant victory on 27 May 1941 by sinking the German battleship Bismarck . [ 113 ] In November 1939, the United States was assisting China and the Western Allies, and had amended the Neutrality Act to allow " cash and carry " purchases by the Allies. [ 114 ] In 1940, following the German capture of Paris, the size of the United States Navy was significantly increased . In September the United States further agreed to a trade of American destroyers for British bases . [ 115 ] Still, a large majority of the American public continued to oppose any direct military intervention in the conflict well into 1941. [ 116 ] In December 1940, President Franklin D. Roosevelt accused Hitler of planning world conquest and ruled out any negotiations as useless, calling for the United States to become an " arsenal of democracy " and promoting Lend-Lease programmes of military and humanitarian aid to support the British war effort; Lend-Lease was later extended to the other Allies, including the Soviet Union after it was invaded by Germany. [ 117 ] The United States started strategic planning to prepare for a full-scale offensive against Germany. [ 118 ] At the end of September 1940, the Tripartite Pact formally united Japan, Italy, and Germany as the Axis powers . The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country—with the exception of the Soviet Union—that attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three. [ 119 ] The Axis expanded in November 1940 when Hungary , Slovakia , and Romania joined. [ 120 ] Romania and Hungary later made major contributions to the Axis war against the Soviet Union, in Romania's case partially to recapture territory ceded to the Soviet Union . [ 121 ] Mediterranean (1940–1941) In early June 1940, the Italian Regia Aeronautica attacked and besieged Malta , a British possession. From late summer to early autumn, Italy conquered British Somaliland and made an incursion into British-held Egypt . In October, Italy attacked Greece , but the attack was repulsed with heavy Italian casualties; the campaign ended within months with minor territorial changes. [ 122 ] To assist Italy and prevent Britain from gaining a foothold, Germany prepared to invade the Balkans, which would threaten Romanian oil fields and strike against British dominance of the Mediterranean. [ 123 ] In December 1940, British Empire forces began counter-offensives against Italian forces in Egypt and Italian East Africa . [ 124 ] The offensives were successful; by early February 1941, Italy had lost control of eastern Libya, and large numbers of Italian troops had been taken prisoner. The Italian Navy also suffered significant defeats, with the Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission after a carrier attack at Taranto , and neutralising several more warships at the Battle of Cape Matapan . [ 125 ] Italian defeats prompted Germany to deploy an expeditionary force to North Africa; at the end of March 1941, Rommel 's Afrika Korps launched an offensive which drove back Commonwealth forces. [ 126 ] In less than a month, Axis forces advanced to western Egypt and besieged the port of Tobruk . [ 127 ] By late March 1941, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia signed the Tripartite Pact ; however, the Yugoslav government was overthrown two days later by pro-British nationalists. Germany and Italy responded with simultaneous invasions of both Yugoslavia and Greece , commencing on 6 April 1941 with a massive bombing of Belgrade ; both nations were forced to surrender within the month. [ 128 ] The airborne invasion of the Greek island of Crete at the end of May completed the German conquest of the Balkans. [ 129 ] Partisan warfare subsequently broke out against the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia , which continued until the end of the war. [ 130 ] In the Middle East in May, Commonwealth forces quashed an uprising in Iraq which had been supported by German aircraft from bases within Vichy-controlled Syria . [ 131 ] Between June and July, British-led forces invaded and occupied the French possessions of Syria and Lebanon , assisted by the Free French . [ 132 ] Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) With the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable, Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union made preparations for war. With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with Germany, and the Japanese planning to take advantage of the European War by seizing resource-rich European possessions in Southeast Asia , the two powers signed the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1941. [ 133 ] By contrast, the Germans were steadily making preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, massing forces on the Soviet border. [ 134 ] Hitler believed that the United Kingdom's refusal to end the war was based on the hope that the United States and the Soviet Union would enter the war against Germany. [ 135 ] On 31 July 1940, Hitler decided that the Soviet Union should be eliminated and aimed for the conquest of Ukraine , the Baltic states and Byelorussia . [ 136 ] However, other senior German officials like Ribbentrop saw an opportunity to create a Euro-Asian bloc against the British Empire by inviting the Soviet Union into the Tripartite Pact. [ 137 ] In November 1940, negotiations took place to determine if the Soviet Union would join the pact. The Soviets showed some interest but asked for concessions from Finland, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Japan that Germany considered unacceptable. On 18 December 1940, Hitler issued the directive to prepare for an invasion of the Soviet Union. [ 138 ] On 22 June 1941, Germany, supported by Italy and Romania, invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa , with Germany accusing the Soviets of plotting against them ; they were joined shortly by Finland and Hungary. [ 139 ] The primary targets of this surprise offensive [ 140 ] were the Baltic region , Moscow and Ukraine, with the ultimate goal of ending the 1941 campaign near the Arkhangelsk–Astrakhan line —from the Caspian to the White Seas . Hitler's objectives were to eliminate the Soviet Union as a military power, exterminate communism , generate Lebensraum ("living space") [ 141 ] by dispossessing the native population , [ 142 ] and guarantee access to the strategic resources needed to defeat Germany's remaining rivals. [ 143 ] Although the Red Army was preparing for strategic counter-offensives before the war, [ 144 ] Operation Barbarossa forced the Soviet supreme command to adopt strategic defence . During the summer, the Axis made significant gains into Soviet territory, inflicting immense losses in both personnel and materiel, mainly in massive encirclements around Minsk , Smolensk , and Uman .. Nazi policy entailed that Wehrmacht subject Soviet POWs to murderous treatment, executing all Jewish and Communist POWs immediately per the Commissar Order , and subjecting the remainder to forced marches to open-air concentration camps, where they were to be deliberately starved to death . By the end of the winter of 1941, 2.8 million Soviet POWs had died in German captivity. Some 3.3 million Soviet POWs would die in German captivity by the war's end in total, a nearly 60% mortality rate. [ 145 ] By mid-August, however, the German Army High Command decided to suspend the offensive of a considerably depleted Army Group Centre , and to divert the 2nd Panzer Group to reinforce troops advancing towards central Ukraine and Leningrad. [ 146 ] The Kiev offensive was overwhelmingly successful, resulting in encirclement and elimination of four Soviet armies, and made possible further advance into Crimea and industrially-developed eastern Ukraine (the First Battle of Kharkov ). [ 147 ] The diversion of three-quarters of the Axis troops and the majority of their air forces from France and the central Mediterranean to the Eastern Front [ 148 ] prompted the United Kingdom to reconsider its grand strategy . [ 149 ] In July, the UK and the Soviet Union formed a military alliance against Germany [ 150 ] and in August, the United Kingdom and the United States jointly issued the Atlantic Charter , which outlined British and American goals for the post-war world. [ 151 ] In late August the British and Soviets invaded neutral Iran to secure the Persian Corridor , Iran's oil fields , and preempt any Axis advances through Iran toward the Baku oil fields or India. [ 152 ] By October, Axis powers had achieved operational objectives in Ukraine and the Baltic region, with only the sieges of Leningrad [ 153 ] and Sevastopol continuing. [ 154 ] A major offensive against Moscow was renewed; after two months of fierce battles in increasingly harsh weather, the German army almost reached the outer suburbs of Moscow, where the exhausted troops [ 155 ] were forced to suspend the offensive. [ 156 ] Large territorial gains were made by Axis forces, but their campaign had failed to achieve its main objectives: two key cities remained in Soviet hands, the Soviet capability to resist was not broken, and the Soviet Union retained a considerable part of its military potential. The blitzkrieg phase of the war in Europe had ended. [ 157 ] By early December, freshly mobilised reserves [ 158 ] allowed the Soviets to achieve numerical parity with Axis troops. [ 159 ] This, as well as intelligence data which established that a minimal number of Soviet troops in the East would be sufficient to deter any attack by the Japanese Kwantung Army , [ 160 ] allowed the Soviets to begin a massive counter-offensive that started on 5 December all along the front and pushed German troops 100–250 kilometres (62–155 mi) west. [ 161 ] War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) Following the Japanese false flag Mukden incident in 1931, the Japanese shelling of the American gunboat USS Panay in 1937, and the 1937–1938 Nanjing Massacre , Japanese-American relations deteriorated . In 1939, the United States notified Japan that it would not be extending its trade treaty and American public opinion opposing Japanese expansionism led to a series of economic sanctions—the Export Control Acts —which banned US exports of chemicals, minerals and military parts to Japan, and increased economic pressure on the Japanese regime. [ 117 ] [ 162 ] [ 163 ] During 1939 Japan launched its first attack against Changsha , but was repulsed by late September. [ 164 ] Despite several offensives by both sides, by 1940 the war between China and Japan was at a stalemate. To increase pressure on China by blocking supply routes, and to better position Japanese forces in the event of a war with the Western powers, Japan invaded and occupied northern Indochina in September 1940. [ 165 ] Chinese nationalist forces launched a large-scale counter-offensive in early 1940. In August, Chinese communists launched an offensive in Central China ; [ 166 ] in retaliation, Japanese armies in North China implemented the Three Alls Policy , a massive scorched earth initiative to depopulate regions deemed hostile to Japanese occupation.. [ 167 ] [ 168 ] Continued antipathy between Chinese communist and nationalist forces culminated in armed clashes in January 1941 , effectively ending their co-operation. [ 169 ] In March, the Japanese 11th army attacked the headquarters of the nationalist Chinese 19th army but was repulsed during the Battle of Shanggao . [ 170 ] In September, Japan attempted to take the city of Changsha again and clashed with Chinese nationalist forces. [ 171 ] German successes in Europe prompted Japan to increase pressure on European governments in Southeast Asia . The Dutch government agreed to provide Japan with oil supplies from the Dutch East Indies , but negotiations for additional access to their resources ended in failure in June 1941. [ 172 ] In July 1941 Japan sent troops to southern Indochina, threatening British and Dutch possessions in the Far East. The United States, the United Kingdom, and other Western governments reacted to this move with a freeze on Japanese assets and a total oil embargo . [ 173 ] [ 174 ] At the same time, Japan was planning an invasion of the Soviet Far East , intending to take advantage of the German invasion in the west, but abandoned the operation after the sanctions. [ 175 ] Since early 1941, the United States and Japan had been engaged in negotiations in an attempt to improve their strained relations and end the war in China. Japan advanced a number of proposals which were dismissed by the Americans as inadequate. [ 176 ] At the same time the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands engaged in secret discussions for the joint defence of their territories, in the event of a Japanese attack against any of them. [ 177 ] Roosevelt reinforced the Philippines (an American protectorate scheduled for independence in 1946) and warned Japan that the United States would react to Japanese attacks against any "neighboring countries". [ 177 ] Frustrated at the lack of progress and pressured by American–British–Dutch sanctions, especially in oil, Japan prepared for war. Emperor Hirohito , after initial hesitation about Japan's chances of victory, [ 178 ] began to favour Japan's entry into the war. [ 179 ] As a result, Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe resigned. [ 180 ] [ 181 ] Hirohito refused the recommendation to appoint Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni in his place, choosing War Minister Hideki Tojo instead. [ 182 ] On 3 November, Nagano explained in detail the plan of the attack on Pearl Harbor to the Emperor. [ 183 ] On 5 November, Hirohito approved in imperial conference the operations plan for the war. [ 184 ] On 20 November, the new government presented an interim proposal as its final offer. It called for the end of American aid to China and for lifting the embargo on the supply of oil and other resources to Japan. In exchange, Japan promised not to launch any attacks in Southeast Asia and to withdraw its forces from southern Indochina. [ 176 ] The American counter-proposal of 26 November required that Japan evacuate all of China without conditions and conclude non-aggression pacts with all Pacific powers. [ 185 ] That meant Japan was essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions in China, or seizing the natural resources it needed in the Dutch East Indies by force; [ 186 ] [ 187 ] the Japanese military did not consider the former an option, and many officers considered the oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war. [ 188 ] Japan planned to seize European colonies in Asia to create a large defensive perimeter stretching into the Central Pacific. The Japanese would then be free to exploit the resources of Southeast Asia while exhausting the over-stretched Allies by fighting a defensive war. [ 189 ] To prevent American intervention while securing the perimeter, it was further planned to neutralise the United States Pacific Fleet and the American military presence in the Philippines from the outset. [ 190 ] On 7 December 1941 (8 December in Asian time zones), Japan attacked British and American holdings with near-simultaneous offensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific . [ 191 ] These included an attack on the American fleets at Pearl Harbor and the Philippines , as well as invasions of Guam , Wake Island , Malaya , [ 191 ] Thailand , and Hong Kong . [ 192 ] These attacks led the United States , United Kingdom , China, Australia, and several other states to formally declare war on Japan, whereas the Soviet Union, being heavily involved in large-scale hostilities with European Axis countries, maintained its neutrality agreement with Japan. [ 193 ] Germany, followed by the other Axis states, declared war on the United States [ 194 ] in solidarity with Japan, citing as justification the American attacks on German war vessels that had been ordered by Roosevelt. [ 139 ] [ 195 ] Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) On 1 January 1942, the Allied Big Four [ 196 ] —the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, and the United States—and 22 smaller or exiled governments issued the Declaration by United Nations , thereby affirming the Atlantic Charter [ 197 ] and agreeing not to sign a separate peace with the Axis powers. [ 198 ] During 1942, Allied officials debated on the appropriate grand strategy to pursue. All agreed that defeating Germany was the primary objective. The Americans favoured a straightforward, large-scale attack on Germany through France. The Soviets demanded a second front. The British argued that military operations should target peripheral areas to wear out German strength, leading to increasing demoralisation, and bolstering resistance forces ; Germany itself would be subject to a heavy bombing campaign. An offensive against Germany would then be launched primarily by Allied armour, without using large-scale armies. [ 199 ] Eventually, the British persuaded the Americans that a landing in France was infeasible in 1942 and they should instead focus on driving the Axis out of North Africa. [ 200 ] At the Casablanca Conference in early 1943, the Allies reiterated the statements issued in the 1942 Declaration and demanded the unconditional surrender of their enemies. The British and Americans agreed to continue to press the initiative in the Mediterranean by invading Sicily to fully secure the Mediterranean supply routes. [ 201 ] Although the British argued for further operations in the Balkans to bring Turkey into the war, in May 1943, the Americans extracted a British commitment to limit Allied operations in the Mediterranean to an invasion of the Italian mainland, and to invade France in 1944. [ 202 ] Pacific (1942–1943) By the end of April 1942, Japan and its ally Thailand had almost conquered Burma , Malaya , the Dutch East Indies , Singapore , and Rabaul , inflicting severe losses on Allied troops and taking a large number of prisoners. Japanese advances were accompanied by numerous atrocities, including the Sook Ching Massacre in Singapore. [ 203 ] Despite stubborn resistance by Filipino and US forces , the Philippine Commonwealth was eventually captured in May 1942, forcing its government into exile. Following the capture of Bataan, Japanese armies forced some 75,000 Filipino and American prisoners on a 42km death march , resulting in thousands of deaths. [ 204 ] On 16 April, in Burma, 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during the Battle of Yenangyaung and rescued by the Chinese 38th Division. [ 205 ] Japanese forces achieved naval victories in the South China Sea , Java Sea , and Indian Ocean , [ 206 ] and bombed the Allied naval base at Darwin , Australia. In January 1942, the only Allied success against Japan was a Chinese victory at Changsha . [ 207 ] These easy victories over the unprepared US and European opponents left Japan overconfident, and overextended. [ 208 ] In early May 1942, Japan initiated operations to capture Port Moresby by amphibious assault and thus sever communications and supply lines between the United States and Australia. The planned invasion was thwarted when an Allied task force, centred on two American fleet carriers, fought Japanese naval forces to a draw in the Battle of the Coral Sea . [ 209 ] Japan's next plan, motivated by the earlier Doolittle Raid , was to seize Midway Atoll and lure American carriers into battle to be eliminated; as a diversion, Japan would also send forces to occupy the Aleutian Islands in Alaska. [ 210 ] In mid-May, Japan started the Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign in China, with the goal of inflicting retribution on the Chinese who aided the surviving American airmen in the Doolittle Raid by destroying Chinese air bases and fighting against the Chinese 23rd and 32nd Army Groups. [ 211 ] [ 212 ] In early June, Japan put its operations into action, but the Americans had broken Japanese naval codes in late May and were fully aware of the plans and order of battle, and used this knowledge to achieve a decisive victory at Midway over the Imperial Japanese Navy . [ 213 ] With its capacity for aggressive action greatly diminished as a result of the Midway battle, Japan attempted to capture Port Moresby by an overland campaign in the Territory of Papua . [ 214 ] The Americans planned a counterattack against Japanese positions in the southern Solomon Islands , primarily Guadalcanal , as a first step towards capturing Rabaul , the main Japanese base in Southeast Asia. [ 215 ] Both plans started in July, but by mid-September, the Battle for Guadalcanal took priority for the Japanese, and troops in New Guinea were ordered to withdraw from the Port Moresby area to the northern part of the island , where they faced Australian and United States troops in the Battle of Buna–Gona . [ 216 ] Guadalcanal soon became a focal point for both sides with heavy commitments of troops and ships in the battle for Guadalcanal, with Japanese forces suffering massive losses in the attrition, especially amongst their elite pilots. [ 217 ] By the start of 1943, the Japanese were defeated on the island and withdrew their troops . [ 218 ] In Burma, Commonwealth forces mounted two operations. The first was a disastrous offensive into the Arakan region in late 1942 that forced a retreat back to India by May 1943. [ 219 ] The second was the insertion of irregular forces behind Japanese frontlines in February which, by the end of April, had achieved mixed results. [ 220 ] Eastern Front (1942–1943) Despite considerable losses, in early 1942 Germany and its allies stopped a major Soviet offensive in central and southern Russia , keeping most territorial gains they had achieved during the previous year. [ 221 ] In May, the Germans defeated Soviet offensives in the Kerch Peninsula and at Kharkov . [ 222 ] The fortress city of Sevastopol, which the Red Army had held out against Axis siege for nearly 250 days, was finally seized with the use of massive artillery bombardments and poison gas. [ 223 ] In June 1942 launched their main summer offensive against southern Russia, to seize the oil fields of the Caucasus and occupy the Kuban steppe , while maintaining positions on the northern and central areas of the front. The Germans split Army Group South into two groups: Army Group A advanced to the lower Don River and struck south-east to the Caucasus, while Army Group B headed towards the Volga River . The Soviets decided to make their stand at Stalingrad on the Volga. [ 224 ] By mid-November, the Germans had nearly taken Stalingrad in bitter street fighting . The Soviets began their second winter counter-offensive, starting with an encirclement of the German Sixth Army at Stalingrad , [ 225 ] and an assault on the Rzhev salient near Moscow , though the latter failed. [ 226 ] By early February 1943, the German army had taken tremendous losses; German troops at Stalingrad had been defeated, [ 227 ] and the front-line had been pushed back beyond its position before the summer offensive. In mid-February, after the Soviet push had tapered off, the Germans launched another attack on Kharkov , creating a salient in their front line around the Soviet city of Kursk . [ 228 ] Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) Exploiting poor American naval command decisions, the German navy ravaged Allied shipping off the American Atlantic coast . [ 229 ] By November 1941, Commonwealth forces had launched a counter-offensive in North Africa, Operation Crusader , and reclaimed all the gains the Germans and Italians had made. [ 230 ] The Germans also launched a North African offensive in January, pushing the British back to positions at the Gazala line by early February, [ 231 ] followed by a temporary lull in combat which Germany used to prepare for their upcoming offensives. [ 232 ] Concerns that the Japanese might use bases in Vichy-held Madagascar caused the British to invade the island in early May 1942. [ 233 ] An Axis offensive in Libya forced an Allied retreat deep inside Egypt until Axis forces were stopped at El Alamein . [ 234 ] On the Continent, raids of Allied commandos on strategic targets, culminating in the failed Dieppe Raid , [ 235 ] demonstrated the Western Allies' inability to launch an invasion of continental Europe without much better preparation, equipment, and operational security. [ 236 ] In August 1942, the Allies succeeded in repelling a second attack against El Alamein [ 237 ] and, at a high cost, managed to deliver desperately needed supplies to the besieged Malta . [ 238 ] A few months later, the Allies commenced an attack of their own in Egypt, dislodging the Axis forces and beginning a drive west across Libya. [ 239 ] This attack was followed up shortly after by Anglo-American landings in French North Africa , which resulted in the region joining the Allies. [ 240 ] Hitler responded to the French colony's defection by ordering the occupation of Vichy France ; [ 240 ] although Vichy forces did not resist this violation of the armistice, they managed to scuttle their fleet to prevent its capture by German forces. [ 240 ] [ 241 ] Axis forces in Africa withdrew into Tunisia , which was conquered by the Allies in May 1943. [ 240 ] [ 242 ] In June 1943, the British and Americans began a strategic bombing campaign against Germany with a goal to disrupt the war economy, reduce morale, and " de-house " the civilian population. [ 243 ] The firebombing of Hamburg was among the first attacks in this campaign, inflicting significant casualties and considerable losses on infrastructure of this important industrial centre. [ 244 ] Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) After the Guadalcanal campaign, the Allies initiated several operations against Japan in the Pacific. In May 1943, Canadian and US forces were sent to eliminate Japanese forces from the Aleutians . [ 245 ] Soon after, the United States, with support from Australia, New Zealand and Pacific Islander forces, began major ground, sea and air operations to isolate Rabaul by capturing surrounding islands , and breach the Japanese Central Pacific perimeter at the Gilbert and Marshall Islands . [ 246 ] By the end of March 1944, the Allies had completed both of these objectives and had also neutralised the major Japanese base at Truk in the Caroline Islands . In April, the Allies launched an operation to retake Western New Guinea . [ 247 ] In the Soviet Union, both the Germans and the Soviets spent the spring and early summer of 1943 preparing for large offensives in central Russia . On 5 July 1943, Germany attacked Soviet forces around the Kursk Bulge . Within a week, German forces had exhausted themselves against the Soviets' well-constructed defences, [ 248 ] and for the first time in the war, Hitler cancelled an operation before it had achieved tactical or operational success. [ 249 ] This decision was partially affected by the Western Allies' invasion of Sicily launched on 9 July, which, combined with previous Italian failures, resulted in the ousting and arrest of Mussolini later that month. [ 250 ] On 12 July 1943, the Soviets launched their own counter-offensives , thereby nearly completely dispelling any chance of German victory or even stalemate in the east. The Soviet victory at Kursk marked the end of German superiority, [ 251 ] giving the Soviet Union the initiative on the Eastern Front. [ 252 ] [ 253 ] The Germans tried to stabilise their eastern front along the hastily fortified Panther–Wotan line , but the Soviets broke through it at Smolensk and the Lower Dnieper Offensive . [ 254 ] On 3 September 1943, the Western Allies invaded the Italian mainland , following Italy's armistice with the Allies and the ensuing German occupation of Italy. [ 255 ] Germany, with the help of the fascists, responded to the armistice by disarming Italian forces that were in many places without superior orders, seizing military control of Italian areas, [ 256 ] and creating a series of defensive lines. [ 257 ] German special forces then rescued Mussolini , who then soon established a new client state in German-occupied Italy named the Italian Social Republic , [ 258 ] causing an Italian civil war . The Western Allies fought through several lines until reaching the main German defensive line in mid-November. [ 259 ] German operations in the Atlantic also suffered. By May 1943, as Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective , the resulting sizeable German submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic naval campaign. [ 260 ] In November 1943, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill met with Chiang Kai-shek in Cairo and then with Joseph Stalin in Tehran . [ 261 ] The former conference determined the post-war return of Japanese territory [ 262 ] and the military planning for the Burma campaign , [ 263 ] while the latter included agreement that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany's defeat. [ 264 ] From November 1943, during the seven-week Battle of Changde , the Chinese awaited Allied relief as they forced Japan to fight a costly war of attrition. [ 265 ] [ 266 ] [ 267 ] In January 1944, the Allies launched a series of attacks in Italy against the line at Monte Cassino and tried to outflank it with landings at Anzio . [ 268 ] On 27 January 1944, Soviet troops launched a major offensive that expelled German forces from the Leningrad region , thereby ending the most lethal siege in history . [ 269 ] The following Soviet offensive was halted on the pre-war Estonian border by the German Army Group North aided by Estonians hoping to re-establish national independence . This delay slowed subsequent Soviet operations in the Baltic Sea region. [ 270 ] By late May 1944, the Soviets had liberated Crimea , largely expelled Axis forces from Ukraine , and made incursions into Romania , which were repulsed by the Axis troops. [ 271 ] The Allied offensives in Italy had succeeded and, at the cost of allowing several German divisions to retreat, Rome was captured on 4 June. [ 272 ] The Allies had mixed success in mainland Asia. In March 1944, the Japanese launched the first of two invasions, an operation against Allied positions in Assam, India , [ 273 ] and soon besieged Commonwealth positions at Imphal and Kohima . [ 274 ] In May 1944, British and Indian forces mounted a counter-offensive that drove Japanese troops back to Burma by July, [ 274 ] and Chinese forces that had invaded northern Burma in late 1943 besieged Japanese troops in Myitkyina . [ 275 ] The second Japanese invasion of China aimed to destroy China's main fighting forces, secure railways between Japanese-held territory and capture Allied airfields. [ 276 ] By June, the Japanese had conquered the province of Henan and begun a new attack on Changsha . [ 277 ] Allies Offensives (1944) On 6 June 1944 (commonly known as D-Day ), after three years of Soviet pressure, [ 278 ] the Western Allies invaded northern France . After reassigning several Allied divisions from Italy, they also attacked southern France . [ 279 ] These landings were successful and led to the defeat of the German Army units in France . Paris was liberated on 25 August by the local resistance assisted by the Free French Forces , both led by General Charles de Gaulle , [ 280 ] and the Western Allies continued to push back German forces in western Europe during the latter part of the year. An attempt to advance into northern Germany spearheaded by a major airborne operation in the Netherlands failed. [ 281 ] After that, the Western Allies slowly pushed into Germany, but failed to cross the Roer river . In Italy, the Allied advance slowed due to the last major German defensive line . [ 282 ] On 22 June, the Soviets launched a strategic offensive in Belarus that nearly destroyed the German Army Group Centre . [ 283 ] Soon after that, another Soviet strategic offensive forced German troops from Western Ukraine and Eastern Poland. The Soviet Red Army however halted in the Praga district on the other side of the Vistula as the Germans quelled the Warsaw Uprising initiated by the Home Army (the main faction of the Polish resistance , loyal to the non-communist government-in exile), killing over 150,000 Poles. [ 284 ] [ 285 ] The national uprising in Slovakia was also quelled by the Germans. [ 286 ] The Soviet Red Army 's strategic offensive in eastern Romania cut off and destroyed the considerable German troops there and triggered a successful coup d'état in Romania and in Bulgaria , followed by those countries' shift to the Allied side. [ 287 ] In September 1944, Soviet troops advanced into Yugoslavia and forced the rapid withdrawal of German Army Groups E and F in Greece , Albania , and Yugoslavia to rescue them from being cut off. [ 288 ] By this point, the communist-led Partisans under Marshal Josip Broz Tito , who had led an increasingly successful guerrilla campaign against the occupation since 1941, controlled much of the territory of Yugoslavia and engaged in delaying efforts against German forces further south. In northern Serbia , the Soviet Red Army , with limited support from Bulgarian forces, assisted the Partisans in a joint liberation of the capital city of Belgrade on 20 October. A few days later, the Soviets launched a massive assault against German-occupied Hungary that lasted until the fall of Budapest in February 1945. [ 289 ] Unlike rapid Soviet victories in the Balkans, bitter Finnish resistance to the Soviet offensive in the Karelian Isthmus denied the Soviets occupation of Finland and led to a Soviet-Finnish armistice on relatively mild conditions, [ 290 ] although Finland was obligated to fight their German former allies . [ 291 ] By the start of July 1944, Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges in Assam , pushing the Japanese back to the Chindwin River [ 292 ] while the Chinese captured Myitkyina. In September 1944, Chinese forces captured Mount Song and reopened the Burma Road . [ 293 ] In China, the Japanese had more successes, having finally captured Changsha in mid-June and the city of Hengyang by early August. [ 294 ] Soon after, they invaded the province of Guangxi , winning major engagements against Chinese forces at Guilin and Liuzhou by the end of November [ 295 ] and successfully linking up their forces in China and Indochina by mid-December. [ 296 ] In the Pacific, US forces continued to push back the Japanese perimeter. In mid-June 1944, they began their offensive against the Mariana and Palau islands and decisively defeated Japanese forces in the Battle of the Philippine Sea . These defeats led to the resignation of the Japanese Prime Minister, Hideki Tojo , and provided the United States with air bases to launch intensive heavy bomber attacks on the Japanese home islands. In late October, American forces invaded the Filipino island of Leyte ; soon after, Allied naval forces scored another large victory in the Battle of Leyte Gulf , one of the largest naval battles in history. [ 297 ] Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) On 16 December 1944, Germany made a last attempt to split the Allies on the Western Front by using most of its remaining reserves to launch a massive counter-offensive in the Ardennes and along the French-German border , hoping to encircle large portions of Western Allied troops and prompt a political settlement after capturing their primary supply port at Antwerp . By 16 January 1945, this offensive had been repulsed with no strategic objectives fulfilled. [ 298 ] In Italy, the Western Allies remained stalemated at the German defensive line. In mid-January 1945, the Red Army attacked in Poland, pushing from the Vistula to the Oder river in Germany, and overran East Prussia . [ 299 ] On 4 February Soviet, British, and US leaders met for the Yalta Conference . They agreed on the occupation of post-war Germany, and on when the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan. [ 300 ] In February, the Soviets entered Silesia and Pomerania , while the Western Allies entered western Germany and closed to the Rhine river. By March, the Western Allies crossed the Rhine north and south of the Ruhr , encircling the German Army Group B . [ 301 ] In early March, in an attempt to protect its last oil reserves in Hungary and retake Budapest, Germany launched its last major offensive against Soviet troops near Lake Balaton . Within two weeks, the offensive had been repulsed, the Soviets advanced to Vienna , and captured the city. In early April, Soviet troops captured Königsberg , while the Western Allies finally pushed forward in Italy and swept across western Germany capturing Hamburg and Nuremberg . American and Soviet forces met at the Elbe river on 25 April, leaving unoccupied pockets in southern Germany and around Berlin. Soviet troops stormed and captured Berlin in late April. [ 302 ] In Italy, German forces surrendered on 29 April, while the Italian Social Republic capitulated two days later. On 30 April, the Reichstag was captured, signalling the military defeat of Nazi Germany. [ 303 ] Major changes in leadership occurred on both sides during this period. On 12 April, President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by his vice president, Harry S. Truman . [ 304 ] Benito Mussolini was killed by Italian partisans on 28 April. [ 305 ] On 30 April, Hitler committed suicide in his headquarters , and was succeeded by Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz (as President of the Reich ) and Joseph Goebbels (as Chancellor of the Reich ). Goebbels also committed suicide on the following day and was replaced by Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk , in what would later be known as the Flensburg Government . Total and unconditional surrender in Europe was signed on 7 and 8 May , to be effective by the end of 8 May . [ 306 ] German Army Group Centre resisted in Prague until 11 May. [ 307 ] On 23 May all remaining members of the German government were arrested by Allied forces in Flensburg . On 5 June all German political and military institutions were placed under Allied control through the Berlin Declaration . [ 308 ] In the Pacific theatre, American forces accompanied by the forces of the Philippine Commonwealth advanced in the Philippines , clearing Leyte by the end of April 1945. They landed on Luzon in January 1945 and recaptured Manila in March, during which Japanese forces killed 100,000 Filipino civilians in the city. Fighting continued on Luzon, Mindanao , and other islands of the Philippines until the end of the war . [ 309 ] Meanwhile, the United States Army Air Forces launched a massive firebombing campaign of strategic cities in Japan in an effort to destroy Japanese war industry and civilian morale. A devastating bombing raid on Tokyo of 9–10 March was the deadliest conventional bombing raid in history. [ 310 ] In May 1945, Australian troops landed in Borneo , overrunning the oilfields there. British, American, and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northern Burma in March, and the British pushed on to reach Rangoon by 3 May. [ 311 ] Chinese forces started a counterattack in the Battle of West Hunan that occurred between 6 April and 7 June 1945. American naval and amphibious forces also moved towards Japan, taking Iwo Jima by March, and Okinawa by the end of June. [ 312 ] At the same time, a naval blockade by submarines was strangling Japan's economy and drastically reducing its ability to supply overseas forces. [ 313 ] [ 314 ] On 11 July, Allied leaders met in Potsdam, Germany . They confirmed earlier agreements about Germany, [ 315 ] and the American, British and Chinese governments reiterated the demand for unconditional surrender of Japan, specifically stating that " the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction ". [ 316 ] During this conference, the United Kingdom held its general election , and Clement Attlee replaced Churchill as Prime Minister. [ 317 ] The call for unconditional surrender was rejected by the Japanese government, which believed it would be capable of negotiating for more favourable surrender terms. [ 318 ] In early August, the United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . Between the two bombings, the Soviets, pursuant to the Yalta agreement, declared war on Japan , invaded Japanese-held Manchuria and quickly defeated the Kwantung Army , which was the largest Japanese fighting force. [ 319 ] These two events persuaded previously adamant Imperial Army leaders to accept surrender terms. [ 320 ] The Red Army also captured the southern part of Sakhalin Island and the Kuril Islands . On the night of 9–10 August 1945, Emperor Hirohito announced his decision to accept the terms demanded by the Allies in the Potsdam Declaration . [ 321 ] On 15 August, the Emperor communicated this decision to the Japanese people through a speech broadcast on the radio ( Gyokuon-hōsō , literally "broadcast in the Emperor's voice"). [ 322 ] On 15 August 1945, Japan surrendered , with the surrender documents finally signed at Tokyo Bay on the deck of the American battleship USS Missouri on 2 September 1945, ending the war. [ 323 ] Aftermath The Allies established occupation administrations in Austria and Germany , both initially divided between western and eastern occupation zones controlled by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union, respectively. However, their paths soon diverged. In Germany, the western and eastern occupation zones officially ended in 1949, with the respective zones becoming separate countries, West Germany and East Germany . [ 324 ] In Austria, however, occupation continued until 1955, when a joint settlement between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union permitted the reunification of Austria as a democratic state officially non-aligned with any political bloc (although in practice having better relations with the Western Allies). A denazification program in Germany led to the prosecution of Nazi war criminals in the Nuremberg trials and the removal of ex-Nazis from power, although this policy moved towards amnesty and re-integration of ex-Nazis into West German society. [ 325 ] Germany lost a quarter of its pre-war (1937) territory. Among the eastern territories, Silesia , Neumark and most of Pomerania were taken over by Poland, [ 326 ] and East Prussia was divided between Poland and the Soviet Union, followed by the expulsion to Germany of the nine million Germans from these provinces, [ 327 ] [ 328 ] as well as three million Germans from the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia. By the 1950s, one-fifth of West Germans were refugees from the east. The Soviet Union also took over the Polish provinces east of the Curzon Line , [ 329 ] from which two million Poles were expelled . [ 328 ] [ 330 ] North-east Romania, [ 331 ] [ 332 ] parts of eastern Finland, [ 333 ] and the Baltic states were annexed into the Soviet Union . [ 334 ] [ 335 ] Italy lost its monarchy , colonial empire , and some European territories . [ 336 ] In an effort to maintain world peace , [ 337 ] the Allies formed the United Nations , [ 338 ] which officially came into existence on 24 October 1945, [ 339 ] and adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 as a common standard for all member nations . [ 340 ] The great powers that were the victors of the war—France, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and the United States—became the permanent members of the UN's Security Council . [ 341 ] The five permanent members remain so to the present, although there have been two seat changes, between the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China in 1971, and between the Soviet Union and its successor state , the Russian Federation , following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. The alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate even before the war was over. [ 342 ] Besides Germany, the rest of Europe was also divided into Western and Soviet spheres of influence . [ 343 ] Most eastern and central European countries fell into the Soviet sphere , which led to the establishment of Communist-led regimes, with full or partial support of the Soviet occupation authorities. As a result, East Germany , [ 344 ] Poland , Hungary , Romania , Bulgaria , Czechoslovakia , and Albania [ 345 ] became Soviet satellite states . Communist Yugoslavia conducted a fully independent policy , causing tension with the Soviet Union . [ 346 ] A communist uprising in Greece was put down with Anglo-American support and the country remained aligned with the West. [ 347 ] Post-war division of the world was formalised by two international military alliances, the United States-led NATO and the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact . [ 348 ] The long period of political tensions and military competition between them—the Cold War —would be accompanied by an unprecedented arms race and number of proxy wars throughout the world. [ 349 ] In Asia, the United States led the occupation of Japan and administered Japan's former islands in the Western Pacific, while the Soviets annexed South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands . [ 350 ] Korea , formerly under Japanese colonial rule , was divided and occupied by the Soviet Union in the North and the United States in the South between 1945 and 1948. Separate republics emerged on both sides of the 38th parallel in 1948, each claiming to be the legitimate government for all of Korea, which led ultimately to the Korean War . [ 351 ] In China, nationalist and communist forces resumed the civil war in June 1946. Communist forces prevailed and established the People's Republic of China on the mainland, while nationalist forces retreated to Taiwan in 1949. [ 352 ] In the Middle East, the Arab rejection of the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine and the creation of Israel marked the escalation of the Arab–Israeli conflict . While European powers attempted to retain some or all of their colonial empires , their losses of prestige and resources during the war rendered this unsuccessful, leading to decolonisation . [ 353 ] [ 354 ] The global economy suffered heavily from the war, although participating nations were affected differently. The United States emerged much richer than any other nation, leading to a baby boom , and by 1950 its gross domestic product per person was much greater than that of any of the other powers, and it dominated the world economy. [ 355 ] The Allied occupational authorities pursued a policy of industrial disarmament in Western Germany from 1945 to 1948. [ 356 ] Due to international trade interdependencies, this policy led to an economic stagnation in Europe and delayed European recovery from the war for several years. [ 357 ] [ 358 ] At the Bretton Woods Conference in July 1944, the Allied nations drew up an economic framework for the post-war world. The agreement created the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), which later became part of the World Bank Group . The Bretton Woods system lasted until 1973. [ 359 ] Recovery began with the mid-1948 currency reform in West Germany , and was sped up by the liberalisation of European economic policy that the US Marshall Plan economic aid (1948–1951) both directly and indirectly caused. [ 360 ] [ 361 ] The post-1948 West German recovery has been called the German economic miracle . [ 362 ] Italy also experienced an economic boom [ 363 ] and the French economy rebounded . [ 364 ] By contrast, the United Kingdom was in a state of economic ruin, [ 365 ] and although receiving a quarter of the total Marshall Plan assistance, more than any other European country, [ 366 ] it continued in relative economic decline for decades. [ 367 ] The Soviet Union, despite enormous human and material losses, also experienced rapid increases in production in the immediate post-war era, [ 368 ] having seized and transferred most of Germany's industrial plants and exacted war reparations from its satellite states. [ d ] [ 369 ] Japan recovered much later. [ 370 ] China returned to its pre-war industrial production by 1952. [ 371 ] Impact Casualties and war crimes An estimated 60 million to more than 75 million people died in the war including at least 20 million who died from deprivation, famine and disease. [ 372 ] [ 373 ] [ 374 ] [ 375 ] The majority of these deaths were on the Eastern Front and the Chinese Theatre . [ 376 ] The Soviet Union lost around 27 million people [ 377 ] including 8.7 million military and 19 million civilian deaths. [ 378 ] A quarter of the Soviet population were wounded or killed. [ 379 ] Germany sustained 5.3 million military losses, mostly on the Eastern Front and during the final battles in Germany. [ 380 ] An estimated 11 [ 381 ] to 17 million [ 382 ] civilians died as a direct or as an indirect result of Hitler's racist policies , including mass killing of around 6 million Jews , along with Roma , homosexuals , at least 1.9 million ethnic Poles [ 383 ] [ 384 ] and millions of other Slavs (including Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians), and other ethnic and minority groups . [ 385 ] [ 382 ] Between 1941 and 1945, more than 1,200,000 Yugoslavians died. [ 386 ] 200,000 were ethnic Serbs , along with Roma and Jews, were persecuted and killed by the Axis-aligned Croatian Ustaše in Yugoslavia . [ 387 ] Concurrently, Muslims and Croats were persecuted and killed by Serb nationalist Chetniks , [ 388 ] with an estimated 50,000–68,000 victims (of which 41,000 were civilians). [ 389 ] Also, more than 100,000 Poles were massacred by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army in the Volhynia massacres , between 1943 and 1945. [ 390 ] At the same time, about 10,000–15,000 Ukrainians were killed by the Polish Home Army and other units in reprisal attacks. [ 391 ] The number of deaths resulting from the war in Asia and the Pacific is contested. Estimates of Chinese deaths range from 8 million to over 20 million. [ e ] Arne Westad estimates 14 million Chinese died directly from war, of which 2 million were soldiers and the rest civilians. [ 394 ] Rana Mitter considers Westad's figures conservative. [ 398 ] An estimated 500,000 died as a result of Nationalist forces flooding the Yellow River . [ 399 ] In the Nanking Massacre , between 100,000 and 200,000 Chinese civilians and POWs were killed by Japanese forces, while another 20,000 were raped. [ 44 ] Another 2.7 million Chinese civilians were killed by Japanese forces during the Three Alls policy . [ 400 ] Japanese forces killed between 5 million and 10 million civilians in Southeast Asia. [ 401 ] [ 402 ] At least a million civilians died in Indochina , while as many as 4 million died in the Dutch East Indies, 3 million of which died on Java from famine. Between 500,000 and 1,000,000 Filipino civilians died during the Japanese occupation and American liberation. [ 403 ] [ 404 ] Estimates of the number of people killed by Japanese forces in all theatres are as high as 30 million. [ 405 ] Axis forces employed biological and chemical weapons . The Imperial Japanese Army used a variety of such weapons during its invasion and occupation of China ( see Unit 731 ) [ 406 ] [ 407 ] and in early conflicts against the Soviets . [ 408 ] Both the Germans and the Japanese tested such weapons against civilians, [ 409 ] and sometimes on prisoners of war . [ 410 ] The Soviet Union was responsible for the Katyn massacre of 22,000 Polish officers, [ 411 ] and the imprisonment or execution of hundreds of thousands of political prisoners by the NKVD secret police, along with mass civilian deportations to Siberia , in the Baltic states and eastern Poland annexed by the Red Army. [ 412 ] Soviet soldiers committed mass rapes in occupied territories, especially in Germany . [ 413 ] [ 414 ] The exact number of German women and girls raped by Soviet troops during the war and occupation is uncertain, but historians estimate their numbers are likely in the hundreds of thousands, and possibly as many as two million, [ 415 ] while figures for women raped by German soldiers in the Soviet Union go as far as ten million. [ 416 ] [ 417 ] The mass bombing of cities in Europe and Asia has often been called a war crime, although no positive or specific customary international humanitarian law with respect to aerial warfare existed before or during World War II. [ 418 ] The USAAF bombed a total of 67 Japanese cities , killing 393,000 civilians, including the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki , and destroying 65% of built-up areas. [ 419 ] Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour Nazi Germany , under the dictatorship of Adolf Hitler, was responsible for killing about 6 million Jews in what is now known as the Holocaust . They also killed an additional 4 million others who were deemed " unworthy of life " (including the disabled and mentally ill , Soviet prisoners of war , Romani , homosexuals , Freemasons , and Jehovah's Witnesses ) as part of a program of deliberate extermination, in effect becoming a " genocidal state". [ 420 ] Soviet POWs were kept in especially unbearable conditions , and 3.6 million Soviet POWs out of 5.7 million died in Nazi camps during the war. [ 421 ] [ 422 ] In addition to concentration camps , death camps were created in Nazi Germany to exterminate people on an industrial scale. Nazi Germany extensively used forced labourers ; about 12 million Europeans from German-occupied countries were abducted and used as a slave work force in German industry, agriculture and war economy. [ 423 ] The Soviet Gulag became a de facto system of deadly camps during 1942–1943, when wartime privation and hunger caused numerous deaths of inmates, [ 425 ] including foreign citizens of Poland and other countries occupied in 1939–1940 by the Soviet Union, as well as Axis POWs . [ 426 ] By the end of the war, most Soviet POWs liberated from Nazi camps and many repatriated civilians were detained in special filtration camps where they were subjected to NKVD evaluation, and 226,127 were sent to the Gulag as real or perceived Nazi collaborators. [ 427 ] Japanese prisoner-of-war camps , many of which were used as labour camps, also had high death rates. The International Military Tribunal for the Far East found the death rate of Western prisoners was 27 percent (for American POWs, 37 percent), [ 428 ] seven times that of POWs under the Germans and Italians. [ 429 ] While 37,583 prisoners from the UK, 28,500 from the Netherlands, and 14,473 from the United States were released after the surrender of Japan , the number of Chinese released was only 56. [ 430 ] At least five million Chinese civilians from northern China and Manchukuo were enslaved between 1935 and 1941 by the East Asia Development Board , or Kōain , for work in mines and war industries. After 1942, the number reached 10 million. [ 431 ] In Java , between 4 and 10 million rōmusha (Japanese: "manual labourers"), were forced to work by the Japanese military. About 270,000 of these Javanese labourers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in Southeast Asia, and only 52,000 were repatriated to Java. [ 432 ] Occupation In Europe, occupation came under two forms. In Western, Northern, and Central Europe (France, Norway, Denmark, the Low Countries, and the annexed portions of Czechoslovakia ) Germany established economic policies through which it collected roughly 69.5 billion reichsmarks (27.8 billion US dollars) by the end of the war; this figure does not include the plunder of industrial products, military equipment, raw materials and other goods. [ 433 ] Thus, the income from occupied nations was over 40 percent of the income Germany collected from taxation, a figure which increased to nearly 40 percent of total German income as the war went on. [ 434 ] In the East, the intended gains of Lebensraum were never attained as fluctuating front-lines and Soviet scorched earth policies denied resources to the German invaders. [ 435 ] Unlike in the West, the Nazi racial policy encouraged extreme brutality against what it considered to be the " inferior people " of Slavic descent; most German advances were thus followed by mass atrocities and war crimes . [ 436 ] The Nazis killed an estimated 2.8 million ethnic Poles in addition to Polish-Jewish victims of the Holocaust . [ 437 ] Although by 1942 resistance groups formed in most occupied territories, [ 438 ] the assessments of the effectiveness of Soviet partisans [ 439 ] and French Resistance [ 440 ] suggests that they did not significantly hamper German operations until late 1943. In Asia, Japan termed nations under its occupation as being part of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere , essentially a Japanese hegemony which it claimed was for purposes of liberating colonised peoples. [ 441 ] Although Japanese forces were sometimes welcomed as liberators from European domination, Japanese war crimes frequently turned local public opinion against them. [ 442 ] During Japan's initial conquest, it captured 4,000,000 barrels (640,000 m 3 ) of oil (~550,000 tonnes) left behind by retreating Allied forces; and by 1943, was able to get production in the Dutch East Indies up to 50 million barrels (7,900,000 m 3 ) of oil (~6.8 million tonnes), 76 percent of its 1940 output rate. [ 442 ] Home fronts and production In the 1930s, Britain and the United States together controlled almost 75% of world mineral output—essential for projecting military power. [ 443 ] In Europe, before the outbreak of the war, the Allies had significant advantages in both population and economics. In 1938, the Western Allies (United Kingdom, France, Poland and the British Dominions) had a 30 percent larger population and a 30 percent higher gross domestic product than the European Axis powers (Germany and Italy); including colonies, the Allies had more than a 5:1 advantage in population and a nearly 2:1 advantage in GDP. [ 444 ] In Asia at the same time, China had roughly six times the population of Japan but only an 89 percent higher GDP; this reduces to three times the population and only a 38 percent higher GDP if Japanese colonies are included. [ 444 ] The United States produced about two-thirds of all munitions used by the Allies in World War II, including warships, transports, warplanes, artillery, tanks, trucks, and ammunition. [ 445 ] Although the Allies' economic and population advantages were largely mitigated during the initial rapid blitzkrieg attacks of Germany and Japan, they became the decisive factor by 1942, after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies and the war evolved into one of attrition . [ 446 ] While the Allies' ability to out-produce the Axis was partly due to more access to natural resources, other factors, such as Germany and Japan's reluctance to employ women in the labour force , [ 447 ] Allied strategic bombing , [ 448 ] and Germany's late shift to a war economy [ 449 ] contributed significantly. Additionally, neither Germany nor Japan planned to fight a protracted war, and had not equipped themselves to do so. [ 450 ] To improve their production, Germany and Japan used millions of slave labourers ; [ 451 ] Germany enslaved about 12 million people, mostly from Eastern Europe, [ 423 ] while Japan used more than 18 million people in Far East Asia. [ 431 ] [ 432 ] Advances in technology and its application Aircraft were used for reconnaissance , as fighters , bombers , and ground-support , and each role developed considerably. Innovations included airlift (the capability to quickly move limited high-priority supplies, equipment, and personnel); [ 452 ] and strategic bombing (the bombing of enemy industrial and population centres to destroy the enemy's ability to wage war). [ 453 ] Anti-aircraft weaponry also advanced, including defences such as radar and surface-to-air artillery, in particular the introduction of the proximity fuze . The use of the jet aircraft was pioneered and led to jets becoming standard in air forces worldwide. [ 454 ] Advances were made in nearly every aspect of naval warfare , most notably with aircraft carriers and submarines . Although aeronautical warfare had relatively little success at the start of the war, actions at Taranto , Pearl Harbor , and the Coral Sea established the carrier as the dominant capital ship (in place of the battleship). [ 455 ] [ 456 ] [ 457 ] In the Atlantic, escort carriers became a vital part of Allied convoys, increasing the effective protection radius and helping to close the Mid-Atlantic gap . [ 458 ] Carriers were also more economical than battleships due to the relatively low cost of aircraft [ 459 ] and because they are not required to be as heavily armoured. [ 460 ] Submarines, which had proved to be an effective weapon during the First World War , [ 461 ] were expected by all combatants to be important in the second. The British focused development on anti-submarine weaponry and tactics, such as sonar and convoys, while Germany focused on improving its offensive capability, with designs such as the Type VII submarine and wolfpack tactics. [ 462 ] Gradually, improving Allied technologies such as the Leigh Light , Hedgehog , Squid , and homing torpedoes proved effective against German submarines. [ 463 ] Land warfare changed from the static frontlines of trench warfare of World War I, which had relied on improved artillery that outmatched the speed of both infantry and cavalry , to increased mobility and combined arms . The tank , which had been used predominantly for infantry support in the First World War, had evolved into the primary weapon. [ 464 ] In the late 1930s, tank design was considerably more advanced than it had been during World War I, [ 465 ] and advances continued throughout the war with increases in speed, armour and firepower. [ 466 ] [ 467 ] At the start of the war, most commanders thought enemy tanks should be met by tanks with superior specifications. [ 468 ] This idea was challenged by the poor performance of the relatively light early tank guns against armour, and German doctrine of avoiding tank-versus-tank combat. This, along with Germany's use of combined arms, were among the key elements of their highly successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and France. [ 464 ] Many means of destroying tanks , including indirect artillery , anti-tank guns (both towed and self-propelled ), mines , short-ranged infantry antitank weapons, and other tanks were used. [ 468 ] Even with large-scale mechanisation, infantry remained the backbone of all forces, [ 469 ] and throughout the war, most infantry were equipped similarly to World War I. [ 470 ] The portable machine gun spread, a notable example being the German MG 34 , and various submachine guns which were suited to close combat in urban and jungle settings. [ 470 ] The assault rifle , a late war development incorporating many features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the standard post-war infantry weapon for most armed forces. [ 471 ] Most major belligerents attempted to solve the problems of complexity and security involved in using large codebooks for cryptography by designing ciphering machines, the most well-known being the German Enigma machine . [ 472 ] Development of SIGINT ( sig nals int elligence) and cryptanalysis enabled the countering process of decryption. Notable examples were the Allied decryption of Japanese naval codes [ 473 ] and British Ultra , a pioneering method for decoding Enigma that benefited from information given to the United Kingdom by the Polish Cipher Bureau , which had been decoding early versions of Enigma before the war. [ 474 ] Another component of military intelligence was deception , which the Allies used to great effect in operations such as Mincemeat and Bodyguard . [ 473 ] [ 475 ] Other technological and engineering feats achieved during, or as a result of, the war include the world's first programmable computers ( Z3 , Colossus , and ENIAC ), guided missiles and modern rockets , the Manhattan Project 's development of nuclear weapons , operations research , the development of artificial harbours , and oil pipelines under the English Channel . [ 476 ] [ 477 ] Although penicillin was discovered before the war, the development ] of industrial production technology as well as the mass production and use began during the war. [ 478 ] See also Greatest Generation – Cohort born from 1901 to 1927 Opposition to World War II World War III – Hypothetical future global conflict Notes ^ While various other dates have been proposed as the date on which World War II began or ended, this is the period most frequently cited. ^ Often abbreviated as WWII or WW2 ^ The UK declared war on Germany at 11 am. France followed 6 hours later at 5 pm. ^ Reparations were exacted from East Germany , Hungary , Romania , and Bulgaria using Soviet-dominated joint enterprises. The Soviet Union also instituted trading arrangements deliberately designed to favour the country. Moscow controlled the Communist parties that ruled the satellite states, and they followed orders from the Kremlin. Historian Mark Kramer concludes: "The net outflow of resources from eastern Europe to the Soviet Union was approximately $15 billion to $20 billion in the first decade after World War II, an amount roughly equal to the total aid provided by the United States to western Europe under the Marshall Plan ." ^ Multiple sources: [ 392 ] [ 393 ] [ 394 ] [ 395 ] [ 396 ] [ 397 ] References ^ Weinberg 2005 , p. 6. ^ Wells, Anne Sharp (2014) Historical Dictionary of World War II: The War against Germany and Italy . Rowman & Littlefield . p. 7. ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Ferris, John; Mawdsley, Evan (2015). 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Past & Present (258): 246– 281. doi : 10.1093/pastj/gtab042 . ISSN 0031-2746 . also see online review Archived 4 May 2024 at the Wayback Machine Gerlach, Christian (2024). Conditions of Violence . Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. ISBN 978-3-1115-6873-7 . External links Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Travel information from Wikivoyage West Point Maps of the European War . Archived 23 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine . West Point Maps of the Asian-Pacific War . Archived 23 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine . Atlas of the World Battle Fronts (July 1943 – August 1945) v t e World War II v t e Outline Battles Operations Leaders Allied Axis Commanders Casualties Conferences Outline Battles Operations Operations Leaders Allied Axis Commanders Allied Axis Commanders Casualties Conferences General Topics Air warfare of World War II In Europe Blitzkrieg Comparative military ranks Cryptography Declarations of war Diplomacy Governments in exile Home front Australian United Kingdom United States Lend-Lease Manhattan Project British contribution Military awards Military equipment Military production Naval history Nazi plunder Opposition Technology Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Total war Strategic bombing Puppet states Women Art and World War II Music in World War II Weather events during World War II Theaters Asia and Pacific China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean Europe Western Front Eastern Front Mediterranean and Middle East North Africa East Africa Italy West Africa Atlantic timeline Americas Aftermath Chinese Civil War Cold War Decolonization Division of Korea First Indochina War Expulsion of Germans Greek Civil War Indonesian National Revolution Keelhaul Marshall Plan Occupation of Germany Occupation of Japan Osoaviakhim Paperclip Soviet occupations Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Territorial changes of Germany Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany United Nations War crimes Allied war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes German war crimes forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials Italian war crimes Japanese war crimes Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Croatian war crimes Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Romanian war crimes Sexual violence German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate Topics Air warfare of World War II In Europe Blitzkrieg Comparative military ranks Cryptography Declarations of war Diplomacy Governments in exile Home front Australian United Kingdom United States Lend-Lease Manhattan Project British contribution Military awards Military equipment Military production Naval history Nazi plunder Opposition Technology Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Total war Strategic bombing Puppet states Women Art and World War II Music in World War II Weather events during World War II Air warfare of World War II In Europe In Europe Blitzkrieg Comparative military ranks Cryptography Declarations of war Diplomacy Governments in exile Home front Australian United Kingdom United States Australian United Kingdom United States Lend-Lease Manhattan Project British contribution British contribution Military awards Military equipment Military production Naval history Nazi plunder Opposition Technology Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Total war Strategic bombing Puppet states Women Art and World War II Music in World War II Weather events during World War II Theaters Asia and Pacific China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean Europe Western Front Eastern Front Mediterranean and Middle East North Africa East Africa Italy West Africa Atlantic timeline Americas Asia and Pacific China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean Europe Western Front Eastern Front Western Front Eastern Front Mediterranean and Middle East North Africa East Africa Italy North Africa East Africa Italy West Africa Atlantic timeline timeline Americas Aftermath Chinese Civil War Cold War Decolonization Division of Korea First Indochina War Expulsion of Germans Greek Civil War Indonesian National Revolution Keelhaul Marshall Plan Occupation of Germany Occupation of Japan Osoaviakhim Paperclip Soviet occupations Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Territorial changes of Germany Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany United Nations Chinese Civil War Cold War Decolonization Division of Korea First Indochina War Expulsion of Germans Greek Civil War Indonesian National Revolution Keelhaul Marshall Plan Occupation of Germany Occupation of Japan Osoaviakhim Paperclip Soviet occupations Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Territorial changes of Germany Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany United Nations War crimes Allied war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes German war crimes forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials Italian war crimes Japanese war crimes Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Croatian war crimes Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Romanian war crimes Sexual violence German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate Allied war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes German war crimes forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials Italian war crimes Japanese war crimes Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Croatian war crimes Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Romanian war crimes Sexual violence German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate Participants Allies Algeria Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria ( from September 1944 ) Canada China Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Ethiopia Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) Finland ( from September 1944 ) France Free France Greece India ( Indian Army ) Italy ( from September 1943 ) Liberia Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Newfoundland New Zealand Norway Philippines Poland Romania ( from August 1944 ) Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Soviet Union Tuva United Kingdom British Empire United States Puerto Rico Yugoslavia Axis Albania protectorate Bulgaria (until September 1944) State of Burma Republic of China (Wang Jingwei) Independent State of Croatia Finland (until September 1944) German Reich Hungary Azad Hind Iraq Italy (until September 1943) Italian Social Republic Empire of Japan Manchukuo Mengjiang Philippines Romania (until August 1944) Slovak Republic Thailand Vichy France Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Collaboration Neutral Afghanistan Andorra Bhutan Ireland Liechtenstein Monaco Portugal San Marino Saudi Arabia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tibet Turkey Vatican City Yemen Resistance Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech lands Denmark Dutch East Indies Estonia Ethiopia France Germany Greece Hong Kong Italy Japan Jews Korea Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malaya Netherlands Northeast China Norway Philippines Poland Romania Thailand Soviet Union Slovakia Western Ukraine Vietnam Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Yugoslavia POWs Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union German prisoners Soviet Union Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners Soviet Union German atrocities against Polish POWs Soviet prisoners Finland atrocities by Germans Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union Allies Algeria Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria ( from September 1944 ) Canada China Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Ethiopia Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) Finland ( from September 1944 ) France Free France Greece India ( Indian Army ) Italy ( from September 1943 ) Liberia Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Newfoundland New Zealand Norway Philippines Poland Romania ( from August 1944 ) Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Soviet Union Tuva United Kingdom British Empire United States Puerto Rico Yugoslavia Algeria Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria ( from September 1944 ) Canada China Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Ethiopia Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) Finland ( from September 1944 ) France Free France Greece India ( Indian Army ) Italy ( from September 1943 ) Liberia Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Newfoundland New Zealand Norway Philippines Poland Romania ( from August 1944 ) Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Soviet Union Tuva United Kingdom British Empire British Empire United States Puerto Rico Puerto Rico Yugoslavia Axis Albania protectorate Bulgaria (until September 1944) State of Burma Republic of China (Wang Jingwei) Independent State of Croatia Finland (until September 1944) German Reich Hungary Azad Hind Iraq Italy (until September 1943) Italian Social Republic Empire of Japan Manchukuo Mengjiang Philippines Romania (until August 1944) Slovak Republic Thailand Vichy France Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Collaboration Albania protectorate Bulgaria (until September 1944) State of Burma Republic of China (Wang Jingwei) Independent State of Croatia Finland (until September 1944) German Reich Hungary Azad Hind Iraq Italy (until September 1943) Italian Social Republic Italian Social Republic Empire of Japan Manchukuo Mengjiang Philippines Romania (until August 1944) Slovak Republic Thailand Vichy France Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Collaboration Neutral Afghanistan Andorra Bhutan Ireland Liechtenstein Monaco Portugal San Marino Saudi Arabia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tibet Turkey Vatican City Yemen Afghanistan Andorra Bhutan Ireland Liechtenstein Monaco Portugal San Marino Saudi Arabia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tibet Turkey Vatican City Yemen Resistance Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech lands Denmark Dutch East Indies Estonia Ethiopia France Germany Greece Hong Kong Italy Japan Jews Korea Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malaya Netherlands Northeast China Norway Philippines Poland Romania Thailand Soviet Union Slovakia Western Ukraine Vietnam Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Yugoslavia Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech lands Denmark Dutch East Indies Estonia Ethiopia France Germany Greece Hong Kong Italy Japan Jews Korea Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malaya Netherlands Northeast China Norway Philippines Poland Romania Thailand Soviet Union Slovakia Western Ukraine Vietnam Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Yugoslavia POWs Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union German prisoners Soviet Union Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners Soviet Union German atrocities against Polish POWs Soviet prisoners Finland atrocities by Germans Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union German prisoners Soviet Union Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Soviet Union Azerbaijan Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners Soviet Union Soviet Union German atrocities against Polish POWs Soviet prisoners Finland atrocities by Germans Finland atrocities by Germans Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union Timeline Prelude Africa Second Italo-Ethiopian War Asia Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Europe Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania 1939 Invasion of Poland Battle of the Atlantic Phoney War First Battle of Changsha Battle of South Guangxi Winter War 1939–1940 Winter Offensive 1940 Norwegian campaign German invasion of Denmark Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang German invasion of Luxembourg German invasion of the Netherlands German invasion of Belgium Battle of France Dunkirk evacuation Battle of Britain Battle of the Mediterranean North Africa West Africa British Somaliland Hundred Regiments Offensive Baltic states Eastern Romania Japanese invasion of French Indochina Italian invasion of Greece Compass 1941 Battle of South Henan Battle of Shanggao Invasion of Yugoslavia German invasion of Greece Battle of Crete Anglo-Iraqi War Battle of South Shanxi Syria–Lebanon campaign East African campaign Invasion of the Soviet Union Summer War Finland ( Silver Fox ) Lithuania Battle of Kiev Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran Second Battle of Changsha Siege of Leningrad Battle of Moscow Bombing of Gorky Siege of Sevastopol Attack on Pearl Harbor Niʻihau incident Japanese invasion of Thailand Fall of Hong Kong Fall of the Philippines Battle of Guam Battle of Wake Island Malayan campaign Battle of Borneo Japanese invasion of Burma Third Battle of Changsha Greek famine of 1941–1944 1942 Fall of Singapore Battle of the Java Sea St Nazaire Raid Battle of Christmas Island Battle of the Coral Sea Battle of Madagascar Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign Battle of Gazala Battle of Dutch Harbor Battle of Midway Aleutian Islands campaign Kiska Attu Blue First Battle of El Alamein Battle of Stalingrad Kokoda Track campaign Rzhev Jubilee Second Battle of El Alamein Guadalcanal campaign Torch Chinese famine of 1942–1943 1943 Black May Tunisian campaign Battle of West Hubei Battle of Attu Bombing of Gorky Battle of Kursk Allied invasion of Sicily Smolensk Solomon Islands campaign Cottage Battle of the Dnieper Allied invasion of Italy Armistice of Cassibile Burma Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Changde Second Battle of Kiev Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign Tarawa Makin Bengal famine of 1943 1944 Tempest Monte Cassino / Anzio Korsun–Cherkassy Narva U-Go Imphal Ichi-Go Kohima Overlord Neptune Mariana and Palau Bagration Western Ukraine Second Battle of Guam Tannenberg Line Warsaw Uprising Eastern Romania Liberation of Paris Dragoon Gothic Line Belgrade offensive Battle of San Marino Lapland Market Garden Estonia Crossbow Pointblank Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945 Philippines (1944–1945) Leyte Syrmian Front Hungary Budapest Burma (1944–1945) Ardennes Bodenplatte Dutch famine of 1944–1945 1945 Vistula–Oder Battle of Manila Battle of Iwo Jima Indochina Vienna offensive Project Hula Western invasion of Germany Bratislava–Brno offensive Battle of Okinawa Second Guangxi campaign West Hunan Italy (Spring 1945) Battle of Berlin Prague offensive Surrender of Germany document Borneo Taipei Naval bombardment of Japan Manchuria Atomic bombings Debate South Sakhalin Kuril Islands Shumshu Surrender of Japan Potsdam Declaration document End of World War II in Asia Prelude Africa Second Italo-Ethiopian War Asia Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Europe Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania Africa Second Italo-Ethiopian War Second Italo-Ethiopian War Asia Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of 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campaign Battle of Borneo Japanese invasion of Burma Third Battle of Changsha Greek famine of 1941–1944 Battle of South Henan Battle of Shanggao Invasion of Yugoslavia German invasion of Greece Battle of Crete Battle of Crete Anglo-Iraqi War Battle of South Shanxi Syria–Lebanon campaign East African campaign Invasion of the Soviet Union Summer War Summer War Finland ( Silver Fox ) Lithuania Battle of Kiev Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran Second Battle of Changsha Siege of Leningrad Battle of Moscow Bombing of Gorky Siege of Sevastopol Attack on Pearl Harbor Niʻihau incident Niʻihau incident Japanese invasion of Thailand Fall of Hong Kong Fall of the Philippines Battle of Guam Battle of Wake Island Malayan campaign Battle of Borneo Japanese invasion of Burma Third Battle of Changsha Greek famine of 1941–1944 1942 Fall of Singapore Battle of the Java Sea St Nazaire Raid Battle of Christmas Island Battle of the Coral Sea Battle of Madagascar Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign Battle of Gazala Battle of Dutch Harbor Battle of Midway Aleutian Islands campaign Kiska Attu Blue First Battle of El Alamein Battle of Stalingrad Kokoda Track campaign Rzhev Jubilee Second Battle of El Alamein Guadalcanal campaign Torch Chinese famine of 1942–1943 Fall of Singapore Battle of the Java Sea St Nazaire Raid Battle of Christmas Island Battle of the Coral Sea Battle of Madagascar Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign Battle of Gazala Battle of Dutch Harbor Battle of Midway Aleutian Islands campaign Kiska Attu Kiska Attu Blue First Battle of El Alamein Battle of Stalingrad Kokoda Track campaign Rzhev Jubilee Second Battle of El Alamein Guadalcanal campaign Torch Chinese famine of 1942–1943 1943 Black May Tunisian campaign Battle of West Hubei Battle of Attu Bombing of Gorky Battle of Kursk Allied invasion of Sicily Smolensk Solomon Islands campaign Cottage Battle of the Dnieper Allied invasion of Italy Armistice of Cassibile Burma Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Changde Second Battle of Kiev Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign Tarawa Makin Bengal famine of 1943 Black May Tunisian campaign Battle of West Hubei Battle of Attu Bombing of Gorky Battle of Kursk Allied invasion of Sicily Smolensk Solomon Islands campaign Cottage Battle of the Dnieper Allied invasion of Italy Armistice of Cassibile Armistice of Cassibile Burma Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Changde Second Battle of Kiev Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign Tarawa Makin Tarawa Makin Bengal famine of 1943 1944 Tempest Monte Cassino / Anzio Korsun–Cherkassy Narva U-Go Imphal Ichi-Go Kohima Overlord Neptune Mariana and Palau Bagration Western Ukraine Second Battle of Guam Tannenberg Line Warsaw Uprising Eastern Romania Liberation of Paris Dragoon Gothic Line Belgrade offensive Battle of San Marino Lapland Market Garden Estonia Crossbow Pointblank Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945 Philippines (1944–1945) Leyte Syrmian Front Hungary Budapest Burma (1944–1945) Ardennes Bodenplatte Dutch famine of 1944–1945 Tempest Monte Cassino 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Balé-balé Kaca-kaca jema'ah Perobahan belakangan Halaman sembarang Pertulungan Halaman istimèwa Nyumbang Keja rèkening Masup Nyumbang Keja rèkening Masup Batman Afrikaans Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Нохчийн کوردی Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Arpetan Gaeilge Galego Ghanaian Pidgin ગુજરાતી עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Kreyòl ayisyen Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша ಕನ್ನಡ 한국어 Kurdî Kʋsaal Kernowek Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ नेपाली Nederlands Norsk bokmål Chi-Chewa Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sardu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Toki pona Türkçe Татарча / tatarça Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ 中文 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí 粵語 Halaman Perhadring Baca Permak Permak sumber Deleng riwayat Baca Permak Permak sumber Deleng riwayat Sènggètan balik Perobahan nyang juntrungan Angkat gepokan Sènggètan tetep Pengabaran halaman Tukil ni halaman Dapetin URL pongèsan Comot kode keresek (QR) Keja kitab Comot pèrsi PDF Pèrsi apdrek Wikimedia Commons Barang di Wikidata Ni makalah kudu dipegarin isinya biar nutugin Wikipédi punya patokan. Nyo' tulungin kita-kita megarin ni makalah! Batman . DC Comics. Bob Kane. Bill Finger. 1939. Makalah nyang kudu dipegarin Juni 2024 Makalah nyang kudu dipegarin Ni halaman paling baru dipermak pas 21 Juni 2024, jem pukul 19.20. Tèks derak di bawahnya Ongji Nisbat DumanSetumbras Creative Commons ; ketentuan tambahan barangkali belakon. Liat Ketentuan Pemakéan bakal tètèk bengèknya. Belèd keresiaan Pasal Wikipédi Penyangkalan Kode Etik Pemegar Statistik Perbilangan kuki Tampang pesawat
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Etymology 2 History Toggle History subsection 2.1 Medieval lapidaries 2.1 Medieval lapidaries 3 Techniques Toggle Techniques subsection 3.1 Cutting 3.2 Faceting 3.3 Polishing 3.4 Inlaying 3.1 Cutting 3.2 Faceting 3.3 Polishing 3.4 Inlaying 4 Safety 5 Societies and clubs 6 See also 7 References 8 External links Lapidary Català Español Français Bahasa Indonesia 日本語 Simple English Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Lapidary (from Latin lapidarius ' stone, stony ' ) is the practice of shaping stone , minerals , or gemstones into decorative items such as cabochons , engraved gems (including cameos ), and faceted designs. A person who practices lapidary techniques of cutting, grinding, and polishing is known as a lapidary or lapidarist . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] Hardstone carving requires specialized carving techniques. [ 2 ] In modern contexts, a gemcutter is a person who specializes in cutting diamonds, but in older contexts the term refers to artists who produced hardstone carvings ; engraved gems such as jade carvings, a branch of miniature sculpture or ornament in gemstone. By extension, the term lapidary has sometimes been applied to collectors of and dealers in gems, or to anyone who is knowledgeable in precious stones. [ 5 ] Etymology The etymological root of the word lapidary is the Latin word lapis , meaning "stone". [ 6 ] In the 14th century, the term evolved from lapidarius , meaning 'stonecutter' or 'working with stone', into the Old French word lapidaire , meaning 'one skilled in working with precious stones'. [ 6 ] In French , and later English , the term is also used for a lapidary text , which was a treatise on precious stones that details their appearance, formation, and properties—particularly in terms of the powers believed to be held by some stones—as believed in medieval Europe. The beliefs about the powers of stones included their ability to prevent harm, heal ailments, or offer health benefits. [ 7 ] Lapidary appeared as an English adjective in the 18th century. [ 6 ] History The earliest known lapidary work likely occurred during the Stone Age . [ 1 ] [ 8 ] As people created tools from stone, they realized that some geological materials were harder than others. The next earliest documented examples of what could be considered lapidary arts came in the form of drilling stone and rock. The earliest roots of drilling rocks date back to approximately one million years ago. [ 9 ] The early Egyptians developed cutting and jewelry fashioning methods for lapis lazuli , turquoise , and amethyst . [ 10 ] The art of lapidary was relatively well-developed in the Indian subcontinent by the early 1st millennium CE. The surviving manuscripts of the 3rd century Buddhist text Rathanpariksha by Buddha Bhatta, [ citation needed ] and several Hindu texts of mid-1st millennium CE such as Agni Purana and Agastimata , are Sanskrit treatises on lapidary arts. They discuss sources of gems and diamonds, their origins, qualities, testing, cutting and polishing, and making jewelry from them. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] [ 13 ] Several other Sanskrit texts on gems and lapidary arts have been dated to post-10th century, suggesting a continuous lapidary practice. [ 14 ] According to Jason Hawkes and Stephanie Wynne-Jones , archaeological evidence suggests that trade in lapidary products between Africa and India was established in the 1st millennium CE. People of the Deccan region of India and those near the coast of East Africa had innovated their own techniques for lapidary before the 10th century, as evidenced by excavations and Indian and non-Indian texts dated to that period. [ 15 ] Lapidary was also a significant tradition in early Mesoamerica . The lapidary products were used as status symbols, for offerings, and during burials. They were made from shell , jade , turquoise , and greenstones . Aztec lapidarists used string saws and drills made of reed and bone as their lapidary tools. [ 16 ] Medieval lapidaries The history of lapidaries can be traced back to the classical world, where writers like Theophrastus and Pliny the Elder laid the foundations for later medieval interpretations of gemstones. In his examination of lyngurium —a mythical gemstone described by Theophrastus—Steven A. Walton discusses how classical knowledge was transmitted and adapted in medieval lapidary traditions. Despite the mythical nature of some of these stones, medieval lapidaries continued to draw on classical sources, blending scientific knowledge with magical beliefs. Walton highlights how these texts cataloged stones not only for their aesthetic and material properties but also for their purported magical and medicinal functions, making lapidaries sources essential for texts for both scholars and practitioners of natural philosophy during the medieval period. [ 17 ] In Anglo-Saxon England, lapidaries became particularly significant as both medical and religious guides. Peter Kitson traces the transmission of lapidary knowledge into early medieval England, emphasizing how these texts informed by Lapidaries functioned as practical manuals for physicians, clergy, and scholars. The Old English Lapidary , for instance, detailed the healing properties of stones, reflecting the belief that gemstones could cure illnesses and provide spiritual protection. Kitson argues that lapidaries in this period served a dual purpose: they were not only scientific texts that described natural phenomena but also moral and religious guides that connected material objects to divine forces. [ 18 ] Medieval lapidaries were deeply embedded in the practice of lithotherapy, the belief in the healing properties of stones. John M. Riddle’s analysis of lithotherapy in the Middle Ages emphasizes the medical role lapidaries played, particularly in guiding the use of gemstones for healing. These texts described how different stones, often categorized by color, composition, and astrological associations, could be used to treat specific ailments. Riddle points out that medieval lapidaries were not merely collections of folklore; they were often considered legitimate medical texts, consulted by physicians and healers to guide treatment practices. [ 19 ] The Peterborough Lapidary is another example of a medieval lapidary that reflects the blending of practical and mystical knowledge. As detailed in A Medieval Book of Magical Stones: The Peterborough Lapidary , this text catalogs various gemstones and their magical properties, emphasizing the belief that stones could influence human behavior, protect against harm, and even cure diseases. The Peterborough Lapidary demonstrates how lapidaries were used not only for healing but also for magical and protective purposes, reflecting the medieval understanding that the natural world was imbued with supernatural power. [ 20 ] Lapidaries also played an important role in medieval spirituality. Richard A. Beinert’s analysis of medieval piety and lapidary literature emphasizes how these texts reflected religious beliefs. Medieval Christians often associated gemstones with biblical figures, virtues, and divine forces. Lapidaries like the Peterborough Lapidary reinforced the idea that stones had sacred meanings, offering protection and spiritual benefits to those who used them correctly. Beinert suggests that these texts served as “windows on a medieval world” where natural objects were seen as manifestations of divine power, bridging the gap between the material and the spiritual. [ 21 ] Several notable examples of medieval lapidaries highlight their widespread use and cultural significance. The Lapidary of Sydrac , a 13th-century text, stands out for its inclusion of unusual lore about gemstones. William M. Holler notes that the Lapidary of Sydrac cataloged not only conventional healing properties of stones but also fantastical claims, such as stones that could grant invincibility or manipulate human emotions. This text reflects the broader medieval belief in the mystical powers of nature and the importance of lapidaries in transmitting both empirical knowledge and magical traditions. [ 22 ] In literary contexts, lapidary traditions also made their way into poetry. Tony Davenport’s analysis of the medieval poem Pearl reveals how the symbolic meanings of gemstones, as described in lapidaries, informed the poem’s themes of loss, beauty, and spiritual transcendence. Davenport suggests that the portrayal of jewels in Pearl draws on lapidary traditions to convey deeper religious and moral messages, illustrating how lapidary knowledge permeated not only scientific and medical texts but also literary and artistic works. [ 23 ] Techniques There are three broad categories of lapidary arts: tumbling , cabochon cutting , and faceting . Among a modern gemcutter's work are the following activities: Positioning rough stone in a holder, and holding the stone against the edge of a revolving saw or lapidary slitter impregnated with diamond dust to cut and slit stone. Removing cut stone and placing it in lapidary stick. A gemcutter then selects the shaping wheel and applies abrasive compound. They hold a lapidary stick against the revolving shaping wheel and lapidary disk to further shape stone and grind facets. Depositing stone within a barrel with both water and a grinding/polishing medium and either vibrating or rotating said barrel using friction to grind and polish the stones over time. [ 24 ] Examining stone for accuracy of cut, using a magnifying glass. A gemcutter polishes stone, using felt or canvas-covered polishing wheel, and polishing compounds, such as tripoli or jeweler's rouge . Possibly using a mechanical facet-cutting device . A gemcutter may cut and polish diamonds for industrial purposes, and be designated as an industrial diamond polisher. The Mohs hardness scale [ 25 ] is a commonly used tool in lapidary to help measure a mineral's scratch hardness. A mineral's scratch hardness is measured by seeing how easily scratched it is, and what other minerals on the Mohs hardness scale can scratch it. This tool is helpful in indicating what different lapidary methods should be used on the material. Cutting Cutting of harder stones is done with a diamond-edged saw. For softer materials, a medium other than diamond can be used, such as silicon carbide , garnet , emery , or corundum . Diamond cutting requires the use of diamond tools because of the extreme hardness of diamonds. The cutting, grinding, and polishing operations are usually lubricated with water, oil, or other liquids. Beyond these broader categories, there are other specialized forms of lapidary techniques, such as casting, carving, jewelry, and mosaics . [ citation needed ] While the gemstone in the rough state may be trimmed to remove undesirable material or to separate it on a cleavage line with a diamond bladed saw, accurately described as cutting and once done by the use of a chisel or similar tool to simply break off pieces that were usable as single gemstones, the actual shaping and polishing of a gemstone is a grinding or sanding process. This grinding and sanding is done using a lap , a precision metal plate embedded with grit similar to the more familiar embedding of grit on paper the lap is of high precision particularly for flatness and turned by a motor. The grit material is normally diamond and sometimes corundum for their hardness. Only diamond is hard enough on the Mohs scale to shape and polish a diamond. Faceting Faceting requires equipment allowing for very precise adjustment of angle and location around the gemstone for facet-placement, a process sometimes referred to as indexing. The design may be computer-generated or left up to the skill and expertise of the individual cutting the gemstone. During the process of grinding, faceting, and lapping, the gemstone is usually affixed ("dopped") to a rod (frequently referred to as a "dop" or "dopstick") made of wood, or perhaps brass or steel, with dopping cement , a specialized thermal adhesive . The dopstick can be hand-held or inserted into the indexing equipment for more precise faceting. A coolant then needs to be constantly applied to prevent softening of the cement. Diamonds, however, are held mechanically, or with low- melting point tin-lead solder , since the resultant heat generated by friction can be extreme, thus preventing the use of thermal adhesives . Cabochons - smooth-shaped gemstones without facets such as jade or turquoise , and indeed most gemstones - are instead shaped and polished in much the same manner. They are usually left up to the skill and expertise of the individual cutting the gemstone and to similar equipment such as the lapping equipment. Polishing Most modern lapidary work is done using motorized equipment. Polishing is done with resin- or metal-bonded emery , silicon carbide (carborundum), aluminium oxide ( corundum ), or diamond dust in successively decreasing particle sizes until a polish is achieved. In older systems, the grinding and polishing powders were applied separately to the grinding or buffing wheel. Often, the final polish will use a different medium such as tin oxide or cerium(IV) oxide . The initial shaping and facet placement may be done using laps with grits of 220, 600, and/or 1200. The polishing step, however, requires grits of a much higher grade, such as 8,000, 14,000, 50,000 and even 100,000. This grit is also embedded into a metal lap, but sometimes applied manually to the lap during polishing. Inlaying Another specialized form of lapidary work is the inlaying of marble and gemstones into a marble matrix. This technique is known in English as pietra dura , for the hardstones that are used, like onyx , jasper and carnelian . In Florence and Naples , where the technique was developed in the 16th century, it is called opere di commessi . The Medici Chapel at San Lorenzo in Florence is completely veneered with inlaid hard stones. The specialty of micromosaics , which developed in the late-18th century in Naples and Rome, is sometimes covered under the umbrella term of lapidary work. In this technique, minute slivers of glass are assembled to create still life, cityscape views, and other images. In China , lapidary work specializing in jade carving has been continuous since at least the Shang dynasty . [ citation needed ] Safety Stones can contain asbestos, silica, lead, talc, and other hazardous ingredients. The dust produced by lapidary techniques on such stones can cause health issues if inhaled. [ 26 ] Copper(II) oxide , which is common in colorful minerals such as turquoise and malachite, can damage the endocrine and central nervous systems. The most common minerals are silicates , and the dust from these rocks can result in silicosis . Fossil rocks can be radioactive . [ 27 ] For lapidary work, safety precautions include wearing a National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health approved respirator with replaceable cartridges and dust filters; using a local exhaust ventilation system or working outside; using proper lubricants; wearing protective clothing; showering and shampooing immediately afterward; and using a wet mop to clean the workshop. [ 27 ] Societies and clubs There are lapidary clubs throughout the world. In Australia, there are numerous gem shows, including an annual gem show called the GEMBOREE, which is a nationwide lapidary competition. There is a collection of gem and mineral shows held in Tucson, Arizona , at the beginning of February each year. The event began with the Tucson Gem and Mineral Society Show and has now grown to include dozens of other independent shows. In 2012, this concurrent group of shows constituted the largest gem and mineral event in the world. [ citation needed ] In the United States, societies include the American Gem Society . See also Amber Diamantaire Diamond Diamond cutting Gemstone Handicraft Jade Lapping Pearl Ruby Sandpaper References ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Ripley, George; Dana, Charles A., eds. (1860). "Lapidary". The New American Cyclopædia . Vol. X: Jerusalem–MacFerrin . New York: Appleton. pp. 310– 311. ^ a b Kraus, Pansy D. (1987). "Preface". Introduction to Lapidary . Iola, Wisconsin: Krause Publications. p. ix. ISBN 978-0-8019-7266-9 . ^ "Oxford Dictionaries: Definition of lapidary in English" . Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 22 September 2012. ^ "lapidarist, n. meanings, etymology and more" . Oxford English Dictionary . July 1, 2023 . Retrieved January 8, 2025 . ^ "lapidary" . Webster's New World College Dictionary (4th ed.). Archived from the original on 3 May 2007. ^ a b c Douglas Harper (2014), Lapidary , Online Etymology Dictionary ^ William W. Kibler (1995). Medieval France: An Encyclopedia . Routledge. pp. 990– 991. ISBN 978-0-8240-4444-2 . ^ Cocca, Enzo; Mutri, Guiseppina (2013). "The lithic assemblages: production, use and discard". In Garcea, Elena A. A. (ed.). Gobero: The No-Return Frontier Archaeology and Landscape at the Sahara-Sahelian Borderland . Journal of African Archaeology Monograph Series 9. Frankfurt am Main, Germany: Africa Magna Verlag. pp. 129– 166. ISBN 978-3-937248-34-9 . ^ The full and complete history of the lapidary arts International Gem Society, Retrieved January 7, 2015 ^ Kraus, Pansy D. (1987). "History of Lapidary". Introduction To Lapidary . Iola, Wisconsin: Krause Publications. p. 1 . ISBN 978-0-8019-7266-9 . ^ Sures Chandra Banerji (1989). A Companion to Sanskrit Literature . Motilal Banarsidass. p. 121. ISBN 978-81-208-0063-2 . ^ Mohsen Manutchehr-Danai (2009). Dictionary of Gems and Gemology . Berlin: Springer. p. 10 . ISBN 978-3-540-72795-8 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: publisher location ( link ) ^ Louis Finot (1896). Les lapidaires indiens (in Sanskrit and French). Champion. pp. 77 –139, see other chapters as well. ^ Louis Finot (1896). Les lapidaires indiens (in Sanskrit and French). Champion. pp. xiv–xv with footnotes. ^ Jason D. Hawkes and Stephanie Wynne-Jones (2015), India in Africa: Trade goods and connections of the late first millennium , L’Afrique Orientale et l’océan Indien: connexions, réseaux d'échanges et globalization, Journal: Afriques, Volume 6 (June 2015), Quote: " The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea , and the Sanskrit Mricchakatika both refer to the jewels made in Ujjain. The evidence from excavations at Ujjain itself, as well as that from surrounding villages, supports this identification. These workshops fed the main market for international trade at the city port of Baruch, at the mouth of the Narmada, which has long been recognized as the main coastal port of the early first millennium. At some point in the mid to late first millennium AD, the center of lapidary workshops appears to have moved from Ujjain to Limudra, and the main port shifted to Khambhat. Exactly when this shift took place and why it occurred is unclear. What is interesting, however, is that throughout the first millennium AD there was a clear and close spatial association between 1) source areas, 2) production centers, and 3) ports connected to the Indian Ocean." ^ Susan Toby Evans; David L. Webster (2013). Archaeology of Ancient Mexico and Central America: An Encyclopedia . Taylor & Francis. p. 400. ISBN 978-1-136-80185-3 . ^ Walton, Steven A. (January 2001). "Theophrastus on Lyngurium : Medieval and Early Modern Lore from the Classical Lapidary Tradition" . Annals of Science . 58 (4): 357– 379. doi : 10.1080/000337900110041371 . ISSN 0003-3790 . PMID 11724065 . ^ Kitson, Peter (December 1978). "Lapidary traditions in Anglo-Saxon England: part I, the background; the Old English Lapidary" . Anglo-Saxon England . 7 : 9– 60. doi : 10.1017/s0263675100002854 . ISSN 0263-6751 . ^ Boyle, Robert W. (1987), "Gold During the Middle Ages" , Gold , Boston, MA: Springer US, pp. 39– 50, doi : 10.1007/978-1-4613-1969-6_5 , ISBN 978-1-4612-9169-5 , retrieved 2024-11-06 ^ "Magical Stones or Amulets" , Egyptian Magic , Routledge, pp. 45– 84, 2013-12-19, doi : 10.4324/9781315828619-9 (inactive 12 July 2025), ISBN 978-1-315-82861-9 , retrieved 2024-11-06 {{ citation }} : CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 ( link ) ^ Jasperse, Jitske (2022-01-05), "Treasuries as Windows to the Medieval World" , Authorship, Worldview, and Identity in Medieval Europe , London: Routledge, pp. 171– 197, doi : 10.4324/9781003025160-10 , ISBN 978-1-003-02516-0 , retrieved 2024-11-06 ^ Holler, William M. (November 1986). "The Lapidary of Sydrac: New Evidence on the Origin of the Lapidaire chrétien " . Manuscripta . 30 (3): 181– 190. doi : 10.1484/j.mss.3.1204 . ISSN 0025-2603 . ^ Davenport, T. (2007-11-27). "Jewels and Jewellers in Pearl" . The Review of English Studies . 59 (241): 508– 520. doi : 10.1093/res/hgm168 . ISSN 0034-6551 . ^ "Lapidary Fundamentals: Gemstone Tumbling" . International Gem Society . Retrieved 2022-02-22 . ^ "Mohs Hardness Scale (U.S. National Park Service)" . www.nps.gov . Retrieved 2022-02-22 . ^ Rossol, Monona (2001). "Chapter 23: Sculpture, Lapidary, and Modeling Materials". The Artist's Complete Health and Safety Guide . Allworth Press. ISBN 9781581159929 . ^ a b "Dangerous Dust" . Rock & Gem . June 22, 2018. External links @media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}} The dictionary definition of lapidary at Wiktionary .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar 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Malachite Marcasite Moonstone Obsidian Onyx Opal Peridot Prasiolite Quartz ( smoky ) Ruby Sapphire Sodalite Spinel Sunstone Tanzanite Tiger's eye Topaz Tourmaline Turquoise Variscite Zircon Agate Amazonite Amethyst Aventurine Beryl ( red ) Carnelian Chrysoberyl Chrysocolla Citrine Diamond Diopside Emerald Fluorite Garnet Howlite Jade Jasper Kyanite Labradorite Lapis lazuli Larimar Malachite Marcasite Moonstone Obsidian Onyx Opal Peridot Prasiolite Quartz ( smoky ) Ruby Sapphire Sodalite Spinel Sunstone Tanzanite Tiger's eye Topaz Tourmaline Turquoise Variscite Zircon Organic gemstones Abalone Amber Ammolite Copal Coral Black Precious Ivory Jet Nacre Operculum Pearl Tortoiseshell Abalone Amber Ammolite Copal Coral Black Precious Black Precious Ivory Jet Nacre Operculum Pearl Tortoiseshell Other natural objects Bezoar Bog-wood Ebonite (vulcanite) Gutta-percha Hair Shell Spondylus shell Toadstone Bezoar Bog-wood Ebonite (vulcanite) Gutta-percha Hair Shell Spondylus shell Spondylus shell 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Events Toggle Events subsection 1.1 January 1.2 February 1.3 March 1.4 April 1.5 May 1.6 June 1.7 July 1.8 August 1.9 September 1.10 October 1.11 November 1.12 December 1.13 Date unknown 1.1 January 1.2 February 1.3 March 1.4 April 1.5 May 1.6 June 1.7 July 1.8 August 1.9 September 1.10 October 1.11 November 1.12 December 1.13 Date unknown 2 Births Toggle Births subsection 2.1 January 2.2 February 2.3 March 2.4 April 2.5 May 2.6 June 2.7 July 2.8 August 2.9 September 2.10 October 2.11 November 2.12 December 2.1 January 2.2 February 2.3 March 2.4 April 2.5 May 2.6 June 2.7 July 2.8 August 2.9 September 2.10 October 2.11 November 2.12 December 3 Deaths Toggle Deaths subsection 3.1 January 3.2 February 3.3 March 3.4 April 3.5 May 3.6 June 3.7 July 3.8 August 3.9 September 3.10 October 3.11 November 3.12 December 3.1 January 3.2 February 3.3 March 3.4 April 3.5 May 3.6 June 3.7 July 3.8 August 3.9 September 3.10 October 3.11 November 3.12 December 4 Nobel Prizes 5 References 6 Further reading 1945 Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն Arpetan Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali বাংলা Banjar 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Български Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deutsch Dolnoserbski Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego ГӀалгӀай 贛語 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Ido Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Коми Kotava Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Кырык мары Latgaļu Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Livvinkarjala La .lojban. Lombard Magyar मैथिली Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu Minangkabau 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Мокшень Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nāhuatl Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Nouormand Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Papiamentu Tok Pisin Plattdüütsch Polski Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Reo tahiti Ripoarisch Română Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sardu Scots Seeltersk Sesotho sa Leboa Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Ślůnski کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Tarandíne Татарча / tatarça တႆး తెలుగు Tetun ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Türkmençe Удмурт Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vahcuengh Vèneto Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon 文言 West-Vlams Winaray ייִדיש 粵語 Zazaki Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Tolışi Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item Years Millennium 2nd millennium Centuries 19th century 20th century 21st century 19th century 20th century 21st century Decades 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s Years 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e 1945 by topic Subject Animation Archaeology Architecture Art Aviation Awards Comics Film Literature Poetry Meteorology Music Country Jazz Rail transport Radio Science Spaceflight Sports Football Television American British Animation Archaeology Architecture Art Aviation Awards Comics Film Literature Poetry Poetry Meteorology Music Country Jazz Country Jazz Rail transport Radio Science Spaceflight Sports Football Television American American British British By country Afghanistan Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria Canada China Denmark France Germany India Indonesia Ireland Italy Japan Malaya Netherlands New Zealand Norway Palestine Mandate Philippines Portugal South Africa South Korea Soviet Union Spain Sweden Switzerland Thailand Turkey United Kingdom United States Venezuela Afghanistan Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria Canada China Denmark France Germany India Indonesia Ireland Italy Japan Malaya Netherlands New Zealand Norway Palestine Mandate Philippines Portugal South Africa South Korea Soviet Union Spain Sweden Switzerland Thailand Turkey United Kingdom United States Venezuela Lists of leaders Sovereign states Sovereign state leaders Territorial governors Religious leaders Law Sovereign states Sovereign state leaders Territorial governors Religious leaders Law Birth and death categories Births Deaths Births Deaths Establishments and disestablishments categories Establishments Disestablishments Establishments Disestablishments Works category Works Introductions Works Introductions v t e v t e Gregorian calendar 1945 MCMXLV Ab urbe condita 2698 Armenian calendar 1394 ԹՎ ՌՅՂԴ Assyrian calendar 6695 Baháʼí calendar 101–102 Balinese saka calendar 1866–1867 Bengali calendar 1351–1352 Berber calendar 2895 British Regnal year 9 Geo. 6 – 10 Geo. 6 Buddhist calendar 2489 Burmese calendar 1307 Byzantine calendar 7453–7454 Chinese calendar 甲申 年 (Wood Monkey ) 4642 or 4435 — to — 乙酉年 (Wood Rooster ) 4643 or 4436 Coptic calendar 1661–1662 Discordian calendar 3111 Ethiopian calendar 1937–1938 Hebrew calendar 5705–5706 Hindu calendars - Vikram Samvat 2001–2002 - Shaka Samvat 1866–1867 - Kali Yuga 5045–5046 Holocene calendar 11945 Igbo calendar 945–946 Iranian calendar 1323–1324 Islamic calendar 1364–1365 Japanese calendar Shōwa 20 (昭和２０年) Javanese calendar 1875–1876 Juche calendar 34 Julian calendar Gregorian minus 13 days Korean calendar 4278 Minguo calendar ROC 34 民國34年 Nanakshahi calendar 477 Thai solar calendar 2488 Tibetan calendar ཤིང་ཕོ་སྤྲེ་ལོ་ (male Wood- Monkey ) 2071 or 1690 or 918 — to — ཤིང་མོ་བྱ་ལོ་ (female Wood- Bird ) 2072 or 1691 or 919 1945 ( MCMXLV ) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar , the 1945th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 945th year of the 2nd millennium , the 45th year of the 20th century , and the 6th year of the 1940s decade. A turning point [ 1 ] in human history , 1945 marked the end of World War II , ending with the defeat and occupation of Nazi Germany and the Empire of Japan by the United States and the Soviet Union in the world of two superpowers which has led the beginning of the Cold War (1945–1991). It is also the year the Nazi concentration camps were liberated and the only year in which atomic weapons have been used in warfare . Events World War II will be abbreviated as "WWII" January January 1 – WWII: Germany begins Operation Bodenplatte , an attempt by the Luftwaffe to cripple Allied air forces in the Low Countries . [ 2 ] Chenogne massacre : German prisoners are allegedly killed by American forces near the village of Chenogne, Belgium. Germany begins Operation Bodenplatte , an attempt by the Luftwaffe to cripple Allied air forces in the Low Countries . [ 2 ] Chenogne massacre : German prisoners are allegedly killed by American forces near the village of Chenogne, Belgium. January 6 – WWII: A German offensive recaptures Esztergom , Hungary from the Soviets. January 9 – WWII: American and Australian troops land at Lingayen Gulf on western coast of the largest Philippine island of Luzon , occupied by Japan since 1942. January 12 – WWII: The Soviet Union begins the Vistula–Oder Offensive in Eastern Europe, against the German Army . [ 3 ] January 13 – WWII: The Soviet Union begins the East Prussian Offensive , to eliminate German forces in East Prussia . January 16 – WWII: Adolf Hitler takes residence in the Führerbunker in Berlin. [ 4 ] January 17 WWII: The Soviet Union occupies Warsaw , Poland. The Holocaust : Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg , who has saved thousands of Jews, is taken into custody by a Soviet patrol during the Siege of Budapest and is never again seen publicly. [ 5 ] WWII: The Soviet Union occupies Warsaw , Poland. The Holocaust : Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg , who has saved thousands of Jews, is taken into custody by a Soviet patrol during the Siege of Budapest and is never again seen publicly. [ 5 ] January 18 – The Holocaust : The SS begins the evacuation of Auschwitz concentration camp . Nearly 60,000 prisoners, mostly Jews, are forced to march to other locations in Germany; as many as 15,000 die. The 7,000 too sick to move are left without supplies being distributed. January 19 – The Holocaust : Soviet forces liberate the Łódź Ghetto ; only 877 Jews of the initial population of 164,000 remain at this time. [ 6 ] January 20 – Germany begins the Evacuation of East Prussia . January 21 – 22 (night) – At the Grünhagen railroad station, located in East Prussia at this date, two trains, heading for Elbing , collide. At dawn the station is reached by Soviet Army infantry and tanks which destroy the station, killing between 140 and 150 people. January 23 – WWII: Hungary agrees to an armistice with the Allies . German Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz orders the start of Operation Hannibal , the mass evacuation by sea of German troops and civilians from the Courland Pocket , East Prussia and the Polish Corridor , evacuating an estimated 800,000-900,000 German civilians and 350,000 soldiers from advancing Soviet forces. Evacuation of Germans from Grünhagen . Hungary agrees to an armistice with the Allies . German Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz orders the start of Operation Hannibal , the mass evacuation by sea of German troops and civilians from the Courland Pocket , East Prussia and the Polish Corridor , evacuating an estimated 800,000-900,000 German civilians and 350,000 soldiers from advancing Soviet forces. Evacuation of Germans from Grünhagen . January 24 – WWII: AP war correspondent Joseph Morton , nine OSS men, and four SOE agents are executed by the Germans at Mauthausen concentration camp under Hitler's Commando Order of 1942, which stipulates the immediate execution of all captured Allied commandos or saboteurs without trial, even those in proper uniforms. Morton is the only Allied correspondent to be executed by the Axis during the war. January 25 – WWII: Hitler appoints Heinrich Himmler as commander of the hastily formed Army Group Vistula ( Heeresgruppe Weichsel ) to halt the Soviet Red Army 's Vistula–Oder offensive into Pomerania , despite Himmler's lack of military experience. [ 7 ] January 26 – WWII: 19-year-old U.S. Army Staff Sergeant Audie Murphy sees action at Holtzwihr , France, for which is awarded the Medal of Honor . January 27 The Holocaust : The Soviet Red Army liberates the Auschwitz and Birkenau concentration camps. WWII: The Soviet Red Army reaches to Wolf's Lair former Hitler headquarter [ 8 ] The Holocaust : The Soviet Red Army liberates the Auschwitz and Birkenau concentration camps. WWII: The Soviet Red Army reaches to Wolf's Lair former Hitler headquarter [ 8 ] January 30 – WWII: MV Wilhelm Gustloff , with over 10,000 mainly civilian Germans from Gotenhafen ( Gdynia ) is sunk in Gdańsk Bay by three torpedoes from Soviet submarine S-13 in the Baltic Sea ; up to 9,400, 5,000 of whom are children, are thought to have died – the greatest loss of life in a single ship sinking in history. Raid at Cabanatuan : 121 American soldiers and 800 Filipino guerrillas free 813 American prisoners of war from the Japanese-held camp in the city of Cabanatuan , in the Philippines . Adolf Hitler makes his last public speech, on broadcast radio, expressing the belief that Germany will triumph. MV Wilhelm Gustloff , with over 10,000 mainly civilian Germans from Gotenhafen ( Gdynia ) is sunk in Gdańsk Bay by three torpedoes from Soviet submarine S-13 in the Baltic Sea ; up to 9,400, 5,000 of whom are children, are thought to have died – the greatest loss of life in a single ship sinking in history. Raid at Cabanatuan : 121 American soldiers and 800 Filipino guerrillas free 813 American prisoners of war from the Japanese-held camp in the city of Cabanatuan , in the Philippines . Adolf Hitler makes his last public speech, on broadcast radio, expressing the belief that Germany will triumph. January 31 – WWII: The Battle of Hill 170 in the Burma Campaign ends with the British 3rd Commando Brigade defeating the Imperial Japanese Army 54th Division , causing the Japanese Twenty-Eighth Army to withdraw from the Arakan Peninsula. February February – Raymond L. Libby of American Cyanamid 's research laboratories, at Stamford, Connecticut , announces a method of orally administering the antibiotic penicillin . [ 9 ] February 3 – WWII: Battle of Manila : United States forces enter the outskirts of Manila to capture it from the Japanese Imperial Army , starting the battle. On February 4, U.S. Army forces liberate Santo Tomas Internment Camp in the city. The Soviet Union agrees to enter the Pacific War against Japan, once hostilities against Germany are concluded. Battle of Manila : United States forces enter the outskirts of Manila to capture it from the Japanese Imperial Army , starting the battle. On February 4, U.S. Army forces liberate Santo Tomas Internment Camp in the city. The Soviet Union agrees to enter the Pacific War against Japan, once hostilities against Germany are concluded. February 4 – 11 – WWII: President Franklin D. Roosevelt , Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Winston Churchill and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin hold the Yalta Conference . February 7 – WWII: General Douglas MacArthur returns to Manila . February 8 – The Alaska Anti-Discrimination Act of 1945, championed by charismatic native leader Elizabeth Peratrovich , is passed by the territorial Senate, after the legislature defeated a previous bill in 1943. February 9 Walter Ulbricht becomes leader of the German Communists in Moscow. WWII: " Black Friday ": A force of Allied Bristol Beaufighter aircraft suffers heavy casualties in an unsuccessful attack on German destroyer Z33 and escorting vessels sheltering in Førde Fjord , Norway. Walter Ulbricht becomes leader of the German Communists in Moscow. WWII: " Black Friday ": A force of Allied Bristol Beaufighter aircraft suffers heavy casualties in an unsuccessful attack on German destroyer Z33 and escorting vessels sheltering in Førde Fjord , Norway. February 10 – WWII: German troopship SS General von Steuben is sunk by the Soviet submarine S-13 ; 3,608 drown. [ 10 ] February 10 – 20 – WWII: Operation Kita : The Imperial Japanese Navy returns "Completion Force", containing both its Ise -class battleships , safely from Singapore to Kure in Japan despite Allied attacks. February 12 – A devastating tornado outbreak in Mississippi and Alabama kills 45 people and injures 427 others. [ 11 ] February 13 – WWII: The Budapest Offensive and the Siege of Budapest end with Nazi troops surrendering Budapest (Hungary) to Soviet -Romanian forces. Bombing of Dresden (Germany) by the British Royal Air Force and United States Army Air Forces ; 25,000-35,000 are estimated to have died. The Budapest Offensive and the Siege of Budapest end with Nazi troops surrendering Budapest (Hungary) to Soviet -Romanian forces. Bombing of Dresden (Germany) by the British Royal Air Force and United States Army Air Forces ; 25,000-35,000 are estimated to have died. February 16 – WWII: The Bombing of Wesel begins, destroying 97% of the town over three days. American and Filipino ground forces land on Corregidor Island in the Philippines . Combined American and Filipino forces recapture the Bataan Peninsula. Venezuela declares war on Germany. The Bombing of Wesel begins, destroying 97% of the town over three days. American and Filipino ground forces land on Corregidor Island in the Philippines . Combined American and Filipino forces recapture the Bataan Peninsula. Venezuela declares war on Germany. February 18 – March 5 – WWII: American and Brazilian troops kick off Operation Encore in Northern Italy, a successful limited action in the Northern Apennines that prepares for the western portion of the Allied Spring offensive . [ 12 ] February 19 – 20 – 980 (actual figure is disputed) [ 13 ] Japanese soldiers die as a result of being attacked by long saltwater crocodiles in Ramree, Burma . [ 14 ] February 19 – WWII: Battle of Iwo Jima – About 30,000 United States Marines land on Iwo Jima . February 21 – The last V-2 rocket is launched from Peenemünde . February 22 – WWII: Italian Front : The Battle of Monte Castello ends after nearly three months of fighting when the Brazilian Expeditionary Force expels German forces from a pivot point in the (Tuscan) North Apennines where their artillery was impeding the advance of the British Eighth Army toward Bologna . Uruguay declares war on Germany and Japan. Italian Front : The Battle of Monte Castello ends after nearly three months of fighting when the Brazilian Expeditionary Force expels German forces from a pivot point in the (Tuscan) North Apennines where their artillery was impeding the advance of the British Eighth Army toward Bologna . Uruguay declares war on Germany and Japan. February 23 – WWII: Battle of Iwo Jima : A group of United States Marines reach the top of Mount Suribachi on the island, and are photographed raising the American flag . The photo, Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima (taken by Joe Rosenthal ), later wins a Pulitzer Prize . The 11th Airborne Division , with Filipino guerrillas, free the captives of the Los Baños internment camp. The capital of the Philippines , Manila, is liberated by combined American and Filipino ground troops. The suburb of Intramuros is devastated. [ 15 ] The German garrison in Poznań capitulates to Red Army and Polish troops. Bombing of Pforzheim : The heaviest of a series of bombing raids on Pforzheim , Germany by Allied aircraft is carried out by the British Royal Air Force . As many as 17,600 people, or 31.4% of the town's population, are killed in the raid and about 83% of the town's buildings destroyed, two-thirds of its complete area and between 80 and 100% of the inner city. Turkey joins the war on the side of the Allies . Battle of Iwo Jima : A group of United States Marines reach the top of Mount Suribachi on the island, and are photographed raising the American flag . The photo, Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima (taken by Joe Rosenthal ), later wins a Pulitzer Prize . The 11th Airborne Division , with Filipino guerrillas, free the captives of the Los Baños internment camp. The capital of the Philippines , Manila, is liberated by combined American and Filipino ground troops. The suburb of Intramuros is devastated. [ 15 ] The German garrison in Poznań capitulates to Red Army and Polish troops. Bombing of Pforzheim : The heaviest of a series of bombing raids on Pforzheim , Germany by Allied aircraft is carried out by the British Royal Air Force . As many as 17,600 people, or 31.4% of the town's population, are killed in the raid and about 83% of the town's buildings destroyed, two-thirds of its complete area and between 80 and 100% of the inner city. Turkey joins the war on the side of the Allies . February 24 – Egyptian premier Ahmad Mahir Pasha is assassinated in Parliament after declaring war on Germany and Japan. February 27 – The Bombing of Mainz results in 1,209 confirmed dead; 80% of the city is destroyed. February 28 – In Bucharest , a violent demonstration takes place, during which the Bolşevic group opens fire on the army and protesters. In response, Andrei Y. Vishinsky , USSR vice commissioner of foreign affairs and president of the Allied Control Commission for Romania , travels to Bucharest to compel Nicolae Rădescu to resign as premier. March March 1 – President Franklin D. Roosevelt gives what will be his last address to a joint session of the United States Congress , reporting on the Yalta Conference . March 2 Former U.S. vice-president Henry A. Wallace starts his term of office as United States Secretary of Commerce , serving under President Franklin D. Roosevelt . The rocket-propelled Bachem Ba 349 Natter is first test launched at Stetten am kalten Markt . The launch fails and the pilot, Lothar Sieber , dies. [ 16 ] WWII: Allied troops lead by 10th Armored Division captures Trier oldest city in Germany. [ 17 ] Former U.S. vice-president Henry A. Wallace starts his term of office as United States Secretary of Commerce , serving under President Franklin D. Roosevelt . The rocket-propelled Bachem Ba 349 Natter is first test launched at Stetten am kalten Markt . The launch fails and the pilot, Lothar Sieber , dies. [ 16 ] WWII: Allied troops lead by 10th Armored Division captures Trier oldest city in Germany. [ 17 ] March 3 – WWII: Finland declares war on the Axis powers . United States and Filipino troops take Manila , Philippines . Pawłokoma massacre : A Polish Home Army unit massacres between 150 and 500 Ukrainian civilians in the Polish village of Pawłokoma . Bombing of the Bezuidenhout : The British Royal Air Force accidentally bombs the Bezuidenhout neighbourhood in The Hague , Netherlands, killing 511 people. Finland declares war on the Axis powers . United States and Filipino troops take Manila , Philippines . Pawłokoma massacre : A Polish Home Army unit massacres between 150 and 500 Ukrainian civilians in the Polish village of Pawłokoma . Bombing of the Bezuidenhout : The British Royal Air Force accidentally bombs the Bezuidenhout neighbourhood in The Hague , Netherlands, killing 511 people. March 4 In the United Kingdom, Princess Elizabeth (later Queen Elizabeth II), joins the Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS) as a truck driver/mechanic in London. The Swiss cities of Basel and Zürich are accidentally bombed by the United States. [ 18 ] In the United Kingdom, Princess Elizabeth (later Queen Elizabeth II), joins the Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS) as a truck driver/mechanic in London. The Swiss cities of Basel and Zürich are accidentally bombed by the United States. [ 18 ] March 5 – WWII: Brazilian troops take Castelnuovo ( Vergato ), in the last operations of the Allied Operation Encore . March 6 A Communist-led government is formed in Romania under Petru Groza , following Soviet intervention. Resistance fighters accidentally ambush and attempt to execute SS general Hanns Albin Rauter , the arch-persecutor of the Dutch. A Communist-led government is formed in Romania under Petru Groza , following Soviet intervention. Resistance fighters accidentally ambush and attempt to execute SS general Hanns Albin Rauter , the arch-persecutor of the Dutch. March 7 WWII: At the end of Operation Lumberjack , American troops seize the Ludendorff Bridge over the Rhine at Remagen , Germany and begin to cross; in the next 10 days, 25,000 troops with equipment are able to cross. 10th Armored Division captures city of Cologne [ 19 ] WWII: At the end of Operation Lumberjack , American troops seize the Ludendorff Bridge over the Rhine at Remagen , Germany and begin to cross; in the next 10 days, 25,000 troops with equipment are able to cross. 10th Armored Division captures city of Cologne [ 19 ] March 8 Josip Broz Tito forms a Provisional Government of the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia , in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . Nazi authorities kill 117 Dutch men, in reprisal for the attempted murder of Hanns Albin Rauter . Operation Sunrise : Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff meets with Allen Welsh Dulles of the United States Office of Strategic Services at Lucerne , Switzerland, to negotiate the surrender of the Axis forces in Italy to the Allies . Josip Broz Tito forms a Provisional Government of the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia , in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . Nazi authorities kill 117 Dutch men, in reprisal for the attempted murder of Hanns Albin Rauter . Operation Sunrise : Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff meets with Allen Welsh Dulles of the United States Office of Strategic Services at Lucerne , Switzerland, to negotiate the surrender of the Axis forces in Italy to the Allies . March 9 – 10 – WWII: Bombing of Tokyo : USAAF B-29 bombers attack Tokyo, Japan, with incendiary bombs , killing 100,000 citizens in the firebombing. It is the single most destructive conventional air attack of the war. March 11 The Empire of Japan establishes the Empire of Vietnam , a puppet state which will last only until August 23, with Bảo Đại as its ruler. The Sammarinese general election gives San Marino the world's first democratically elected communist government, which will hold power until 1957 . [ 20 ] The Empire of Japan establishes the Empire of Vietnam , a puppet state which will last only until August 23, with Bảo Đại as its ruler. The Sammarinese general election gives San Marino the world's first democratically elected communist government, which will hold power until 1957 . [ 20 ] March 12 – WWII: Swinemünde is destroyed by the USAAF, killing an estimated 8,000 to 23,000 civilians, mostly refugees saved by Operation Hannibal . March 15 – 31 – WWII: The Soviet Red Army carries out the Upper Silesian Offensive . March 15 – The 17th Academy Awards ceremony is held, broadcast via radio in the United States for the first time. Best Picture goes to Going My Way . March 16 – WWII: The Battle of Iwo Jima unofficially ends. The Bombing of Würzburg , as part of the Allied strategic bombing campaign against Nazi Germany, destroys 89% of the city and causes 4,000 deaths. The Battle of Iwo Jima unofficially ends. The Bombing of Würzburg , as part of the Allied strategic bombing campaign against Nazi Germany, destroys 89% of the city and causes 4,000 deaths. March 17 – WWII: Kobe , Japan is fire-bombed by 331 B-29 bombers, killing over 8,000 people. March 18 – WWII: The 40th Infantry Division, spearheaded by the 185th US Infantry Regiment, lands unopposed in Tigbauan forcing the Japanese forces to surrender and General Macario Peralta and Gen. Gen. Eichelberger to declare the Liberation of Panay, Romblon and Guimaras . [ 21 ] 1,250 American bombers attack Berlin. [ 22 ] Battle of Kolberg concludes with the Baltic seaport (designated a key Festung (fortress) by the Germans) taken by Polish and Soviet forces and ethnic Germans evacuated or expelled. [ 23 ] The 40th Infantry Division, spearheaded by the 185th US Infantry Regiment, lands unopposed in Tigbauan forcing the Japanese forces to surrender and General Macario Peralta and Gen. Gen. Eichelberger to declare the Liberation of Panay, Romblon and Guimaras . [ 21 ] 1,250 American bombers attack Berlin. [ 22 ] Battle of Kolberg concludes with the Baltic seaport (designated a key Festung (fortress) by the Germans) taken by Polish and Soviet forces and ethnic Germans evacuated or expelled. [ 23 ] March 19 – WWII: Adolf Hitler issues the " Nero Decree " ordering that all industries, military installations, machine shops, transportation facilities and communications facilities in Germany be destroyed ahead of Allied advances, but Albert Speer , placed in charge of the implementation, deliberately disobeys it. Off the coast of Japan, bombers hit the aircraft carrier USS Franklin , killing about 800 of her crewmen and crippling the ship. Adolf Hitler issues the " Nero Decree " ordering that all industries, military installations, machine shops, transportation facilities and communications facilities in Germany be destroyed ahead of Allied advances, but Albert Speer , placed in charge of the implementation, deliberately disobeys it. Off the coast of Japan, bombers hit the aircraft carrier USS Franklin , killing about 800 of her crewmen and crippling the ship. March 20 – WWII: Hitler dismisses Heinrich Himmler from his military command. [ 3 ] March 21 – WWII: British troops liberate Mandalay , Burma . Bulgarian and Soviet troops successfully defend the north bank of the Drava River , as the Battle of the Transdanubian Hills concludes. British troops liberate Mandalay , Burma . Bulgarian and Soviet troops successfully defend the north bank of the Drava River , as the Battle of the Transdanubian Hills concludes. March 22 The Arab League is formed, with the adoption of a charter in Cairo , Egypt. The Cathedral and the historic centre of Hildesheim in Germany are destroyed in a bombing of the city . The Arab League is formed, with the adoption of a charter in Cairo , Egypt. The Cathedral and the historic centre of Hildesheim in Germany are destroyed in a bombing of the city . March 24 WWII: Operation Varsity – Two airborne divisions capture bridges across the river Rhine to aid the Allied advance. The cartoon character Sylvester the cat debuts in Life with Feathers . WWII: Operation Varsity – Two airborne divisions capture bridges across the river Rhine to aid the Allied advance. The cartoon character Sylvester the cat debuts in Life with Feathers . March 26 – WWII: The Battle of Iwo Jima officially ends, with the destruction of the remaining areas of Japanese resistance, although there are Japanese holdouts here until 1949. March 27 – WWII: The United States Army Air Forces begins Operation Starvation , laying naval mines in many of Japan's seaways. Argentina declares war on Germany and Japan . The United States Army Air Forces begins Operation Starvation , laying naval mines in many of Japan's seaways. Argentina declares war on Germany and Japan . March 29 WWII: The Red Army almost destroys the German 4th Army , in the Heiligenbeil Pocket in East Prussia . WWII: American troops lead by 5th Infantry Division and 6th Armored Division captures city of Frankfurt after three days of battle [ 24 ] The "Clash of Titans": George Mikan and Bob Kurland duel at Madison Square Garden in New York, as Oklahoma State University defeats DePaul 52–44 in basketball . WWII: The Red Army almost destroys the German 4th Army , in the Heiligenbeil Pocket in East Prussia . WWII: American troops lead by 5th Infantry Division and 6th Armored Division captures city of Frankfurt after three days of battle [ 24 ] The "Clash of Titans": George Mikan and Bob Kurland duel at Madison Square Garden in New York, as Oklahoma State University defeats DePaul 52–44 in basketball . March 30 – WWII: The Red Army pushes most of the Axis forces out of Hungary into Austria. American official Alger Hiss is congratulated in Moscow for his part in bringing the positions of the Western powers and the Soviet Union closer to each other, at the Yalta Conference . The Red Army pushes most of the Axis forces out of Hungary into Austria. American official Alger Hiss is congratulated in Moscow for his part in bringing the positions of the Western powers and the Soviet Union closer to each other, at the Yalta Conference . April April 1 – WWII: Battle of Okinawa : The Tenth United States Army lands on Okinawa . April 4 – WWII: American troops liberate their first Nazi concentration camp, Ohrdruf extermination camp in Germany. The Soviet Red Army enters Bratislava and pushes to the outskirts of Vienna , taking it on April 13, after several days of intense fighting. American troops liberate their first Nazi concentration camp, Ohrdruf extermination camp in Germany. The Soviet Red Army enters Bratislava and pushes to the outskirts of Vienna , taking it on April 13, after several days of intense fighting. April 6 – WWII: Sarajevo is liberated from Nazi Germany and the Independent State of Croatia (a fascist puppet state ) by Yugoslav Partisans . The Battle of Slater's Knoll on Bougainville Island concludes with a decisive victory for the Australian Army 's 7th Brigade . Allied forces reach Merkers Salt Mines in Thuringia where gold reserves of the Nazi German Reichsbank and art treasures are stored. Sarajevo is liberated from Nazi Germany and the Independent State of Croatia (a fascist puppet state ) by Yugoslav Partisans . The Battle of Slater's Knoll on Bougainville Island concludes with a decisive victory for the Australian Army 's 7th Brigade . Allied forces reach Merkers Salt Mines in Thuringia where gold reserves of the Nazi German Reichsbank and art treasures are stored. April 7 – WWII: The only flight of the German ramming unit known as Sonderkommando Elbe takes place, resulting in the loss of some 24 B-17s and B-24s of the United States Eighth Air Force . Japanese battleship Yamato and nine other warships take part in Operation Ten-Go , a suicide attack on Allied forces engaged in the Battle of Okinawa. Yamato is sunk by U.S. Navy aircraft in the East China Sea 200 miles (320 km) north of Okinawa with the loss of 2,055 of 2,332 crew, together with five other Japanese warships. Kantarō Suzuki becomes Prime Minister of Japan . The only flight of the German ramming unit known as Sonderkommando Elbe takes place, resulting in the loss of some 24 B-17s and B-24s of the United States Eighth Air Force . Japanese battleship Yamato and nine other warships take part in Operation Ten-Go , a suicide attack on Allied forces engaged in the Battle of Okinawa. Yamato is sunk by U.S. Navy aircraft in the East China Sea 200 miles (320 km) north of Okinawa with the loss of 2,055 of 2,332 crew, together with five other Japanese warships. Kantarō Suzuki becomes Prime Minister of Japan . April 8 – The SS begins to evacuate the Buchenwald concentration camp ; inmates in the Buchenwald Resistance call for American aid, and overpower and kill the remaining guards. April 9 WWII: The Battle of Königsberg , in East Prussia , ends with Soviet forces capturing the city. Abwehr conspirators Wilhelm Canaris , Hans Oster and Hans von Dohnányi are hanged at Flossenberg concentration camp, along with pastor Dietrich Bonhoeffer . Johann Georg Elser , would-be assassin of Adolf Hitler , is executed at Dachau concentration camp . WWII: The Battle of Königsberg , in East Prussia , ends with Soviet forces capturing the city. Abwehr conspirators Wilhelm Canaris , Hans Oster and Hans von Dohnányi are hanged at Flossenberg concentration camp, along with pastor Dietrich Bonhoeffer . Johann Georg Elser , would-be assassin of Adolf Hitler , is executed at Dachau concentration camp . April 10 – WWII: Visoko is liberated by the 7th, 9th and 17th Krajina Brigades from the Tenth Division of Yugoslav Partisan forces. American troops lead by 84th Division captures city of Hanover after thousands of German troops surrenders [ 25 ] Visoko is liberated by the 7th, 9th and 17th Krajina Brigades from the Tenth Division of Yugoslav Partisan forces. American troops lead by 84th Division captures city of Hanover after thousands of German troops surrenders [ 25 ] April 11 – Buchenwald concentration camp is liberated by the United States Army . April 12 Vice President Harry S. Truman becomes the 33rd president of the United States upon the death of President Franklin D. Roosevelt at the Little White House in Warm Springs, Georgia of an intracerebral hemorrhage . President Truman is sworn in later this evening in the White House . A devastating tornado outbreak occurs across the United States, which kills 128 people and injures over 1,000 others. This is heavily overshadowed by the death of President Roosevelt. [ 26 ] WWII: The U.S. Ninth Army under General William H. Simpson crosses the Elbe River astride Magdeburg , and reaches Tangermünde — only 50 miles from Berlin . Richard Strauss completes composition of his Metamorphosen . Vice President Harry S. Truman becomes the 33rd president of the United States upon the death of President Franklin D. Roosevelt at the Little White House in Warm Springs, Georgia of an intracerebral hemorrhage . President Truman is sworn in later this evening in the White House . A devastating tornado outbreak occurs across the United States, which kills 128 people and injures over 1,000 others. This is heavily overshadowed by the death of President Roosevelt. [ 26 ] WWII: The U.S. Ninth Army under General William H. Simpson crosses the Elbe River astride Magdeburg , and reaches Tangermünde — only 50 miles from Berlin . Richard Strauss completes composition of his Metamorphosen . April 14 – WWII: The First Canadian Army assumes military control of the Netherlands, where German forces are trapped in the Atlantic Wall fortifications along the coastline. [ 27 ] Razing of Friesoythe : The 4th Canadian (Armoured) Division deliberately destroys the German town of Friesoythe , on the orders of Major General Christopher Vokes . Bombing of Potsdam The First Canadian Army assumes military control of the Netherlands, where German forces are trapped in the Atlantic Wall fortifications along the coastline. [ 27 ] Razing of Friesoythe : The 4th Canadian (Armoured) Division deliberately destroys the German town of Friesoythe , on the orders of Major General Christopher Vokes . Bombing of Potsdam April 15 – WWII: The Bergen-Belsen concentration camp is liberated by British and Canadian forces. The Canadian First Army reaches the coast in the northern Netherlands , and captures Arnhem . The Bergen-Belsen concentration camp is liberated by British and Canadian forces. The Canadian First Army reaches the coast in the northern Netherlands , and captures Arnhem . April 16 – WWII: The Battle of Berlin begins, opening with the Red Army launching the Battle of the Oder–Neisse and the Battle of the Seelow Heights . Canadian forces take Harlingen and occupy Leeuwarden and Groningen in the Netherlands. MV Goya is sunk by Soviet submarine L-3 in the Baltic Sea while evacuating German troops and civilians as part of Operation Hannibal ; 7,000–8,000 drown. Death marches from Flossenbürg concentration camp begin. The Battle of Berlin begins, opening with the Red Army launching the Battle of the Oder–Neisse and the Battle of the Seelow Heights . Canadian forces take Harlingen and occupy Leeuwarden and Groningen in the Netherlands. MV Goya is sunk by Soviet submarine L-3 in the Baltic Sea while evacuating German troops and civilians as part of Operation Hannibal ; 7,000–8,000 drown. Death marches from Flossenbürg concentration camp begin. April 17 – WWII: Battle of Montese : Brazilian forces liberate the town of Montese , Italy, from German forces. Inundation of the Wieringermeer in the Netherlands by occupying German forces. Battle of Montese : Brazilian forces liberate the town of Montese , Italy, from German forces. Inundation of the Wieringermeer in the Netherlands by occupying German forces. April 18 – American war correspondent Ernie Pyle is killed by Japanese machine gun fire on the island of Ie Shima off Okinawa . April 19 – Rodgers and Hammerstein 's Carousel , a musical play based on Ferenc Molnár 's Liliom , opens on Broadway , and becomes their second long-running stage classic. It includes the standard " You'll Never Walk Alone ". April 20 – WWII: On his 56th birthday, Adolf Hitler leaves his Führerbunker , to decorate a group of Hitler Youth soldiers in Berlin. It will be his last trip to the surface from his underground bunker. The German city of Nuremberg , previously the site of the Nuremberg rallies , is occupied by American troops. American troops lead by 2nd Infantry Division and 69th Infantry Division captures city of Leipzig [ 28 ] " Morotai Mutiny ": members of the Australian First Tactical Air Force based on the island of Morotai in the Dutch East Indies tender their resignations to protest their belief that they are being assigned to missions of no military importance and in which they are not specialists; a subsequent inquiry effectively vindicates them. [ 29 ] On his 56th birthday, Adolf Hitler leaves his Führerbunker , to decorate a group of Hitler Youth soldiers in Berlin. It will be his last trip to the surface from his underground bunker. The German city of Nuremberg , previously the site of the Nuremberg rallies , is occupied by American troops. American troops lead by 2nd Infantry Division and 69th Infantry Division captures city of Leipzig [ 28 ] " Morotai Mutiny ": members of the Australian First Tactical Air Force based on the island of Morotai in the Dutch East Indies tender their resignations to protest their belief that they are being assigned to missions of no military importance and in which they are not specialists; a subsequent inquiry effectively vindicates them. [ 29 ] April 22 – WWII: Heinrich Himmler , through Folke Bernadotte , Count of Wisborg, puts forth an offer of German surrender to the Western Allies, but not the Soviet Union. Adolf Hitler finally concedes that "everything is lost" [ 30 ] at a meeting in the Führerbunker after learning that SS-Obergruppenführer Felix Steiner cannot mobilize enough men to launch a counterattack on the Soviet forces which are surrounding Berlin. Heinrich Himmler , through Folke Bernadotte , Count of Wisborg, puts forth an offer of German surrender to the Western Allies, but not the Soviet Union. Adolf Hitler finally concedes that "everything is lost" [ 30 ] at a meeting in the Führerbunker after learning that SS-Obergruppenführer Felix Steiner cannot mobilize enough men to launch a counterattack on the Soviet forces which are surrounding Berlin. April 23 – WWII: Hermann Göring sends the Göring telegram to Hitler, seeking confirmation that he should take over leadership of Germany, in accordance with the decree of June 29, 1941. Hitler regards this as treason. The main Flossenbürg concentration camp is liberated by the United States Army. Hermann Göring sends the Göring telegram to Hitler, seeking confirmation that he should take over leadership of Germany, in accordance with the decree of June 29, 1941. Hitler regards this as treason. The main Flossenbürg concentration camp is liberated by the United States Army. April 24 – WWII: Battle of Berlin : Red Army troops complete encirclement of Berlin. [ 31 ] Retreating German troops destroy all the bridges over the Adige in Verona , including the historic Ponte di Castelvecchio and Ponte Pietra . Battle of Berlin : Red Army troops complete encirclement of Berlin. [ 31 ] Retreating German troops destroy all the bridges over the Adige in Verona , including the historic Ponte di Castelvecchio and Ponte Pietra . April 25 Founding negotiations for the United Nations begin in San Francisco . WWII – Elbe Day : United States and Soviet troops link up at the river Elbe , cutting Germany in two. Founding negotiations for the United Nations begin in San Francisco . WWII – Elbe Day : United States and Soviet troops link up at the river Elbe , cutting Germany in two. April 25 – 26 – WWII: The last major strategic bombing raid by RAF Bomber Command , the destruction of the oil refinery at Tønsberg in southern Norway, is carried out by 107 Avro Lancasters . April 26 – WWII: Battle of Bautzen : The last "successful" German panzer-offensive in Bautzen ends with the city recaptured. The British 3rd Infantry Division , under General Whistler , captures Bremen. [ 32 ] Nazi surrenders mean the British and Canadians now control the German border with Switzerland, from Basel to Lake Constance . Battle of Bautzen : The last "successful" German panzer-offensive in Bautzen ends with the city recaptured. The British 3rd Infantry Division , under General Whistler , captures Bremen. [ 32 ] Nazi surrenders mean the British and Canadians now control the German border with Switzerland, from Basel to Lake Constance . April 27 The last German formations withdraw from Finland to Norway. The Lapland War and thus, World War II in Finland , comes to an end and the Raising the Flag on the Three-Country Cairn photograph is taken. The provisional government of Austria headed by Karl Renner asserts its independence from Germany. [ 33 ] U.S. Ordnance troops find the coffins of Frederick William I of Prussia , Frederick the Great , Paul von Hindenburg and his wife in a salt mine in Germany. [ 34 ] The last German formations withdraw from Finland to Norway. The Lapland War and thus, World War II in Finland , comes to an end and the Raising the Flag on the Three-Country Cairn photograph is taken. The provisional government of Austria headed by Karl Renner asserts its independence from Germany. [ 33 ] U.S. Ordnance troops find the coffins of Frederick William I of Prussia , Frederick the Great , Paul von Hindenburg and his wife in a salt mine in Germany. [ 34 ] April 28 The bodies of Benito Mussolini , his mistress, Clara Petacci , and other followers are hung by their heels at a gas station in the public square of Milan , Piazzale Loreto, following their execution by Italian partisans after an attempt to flee the country. The Canadian First Army captures Emden and Wilhelmshaven . The bodies of Benito Mussolini , his mistress, Clara Petacci , and other followers are hung by their heels at a gas station in the public square of Milan , Piazzale Loreto, following their execution by Italian partisans after an attempt to flee the country. The Canadian First Army captures Emden and Wilhelmshaven . April 29 At the royal palace in Caserta , Lieutenant-Colonel Viktor von Schweinitz (representing General Heinrich von Vietinghoff ) and SS- Obersturmbannführer Eugen Wenner (representing Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff ) sign an unconditional instrument of surrender for all Axis powers forces in Italy, taking effect on May 2 . Italian General Rodolfo Graziani orders the Esercito Nazionale Repubblicano forces under his command to lay down their arms. [ 35 ] Dachau concentration camp is surrendered to U.S. forces, who kill SS guards at the camp and the nearby hamlet of Webling. [ 36 ] Brazilian forces liberate the commune of Fornovo di Taro , Italy, from German forces. Operation Manna : British Avro Lancaster bombers drop food into the Netherlands to prevent the starvation of the civilian population. Soviet soldiers hoist the Red flag over the Reich Chancellery in Berlin. Adolf Hitler marries his longtime mistress Eva Braun , in a closed civil ceremony in the Berlin Führerbunker , and signs his last will and testament . At the royal palace in Caserta , Lieutenant-Colonel Viktor von Schweinitz (representing General Heinrich von Vietinghoff ) and SS- Obersturmbannführer Eugen Wenner (representing Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff ) sign an unconditional instrument of surrender for all Axis powers forces in Italy, taking effect on May 2 . Italian General Rodolfo Graziani orders the Esercito Nazionale Repubblicano forces under his command to lay down their arms. [ 35 ] Dachau concentration camp is surrendered to U.S. forces, who kill SS guards at the camp and the nearby hamlet of Webling. [ 36 ] Brazilian forces liberate the commune of Fornovo di Taro , Italy, from German forces. Operation Manna : British Avro Lancaster bombers drop food into the Netherlands to prevent the starvation of the civilian population. Soviet soldiers hoist the Red flag over the Reich Chancellery in Berlin. Adolf Hitler marries his longtime mistress Eva Braun , in a closed civil ceremony in the Berlin Führerbunker , and signs his last will and testament . April 30 – WWII: Death of Adolf Hitler : Adolf Hitler and his wife of one day, Eva Braun , commit suicide as the Red Army approaches the Führerbunker in Berlin. Großadmiral Karl Dönitz succeeds Hitler as Reichspräsident (President of Germany) and Joseph Goebbels succeeds as Reichskanzler (Chancellor of Germany) , in accordance with Hitler's political testament the day earlier. American forces enter the Bavarian capital of Munich . Death of Adolf Hitler : Adolf Hitler and his wife of one day, Eva Braun , commit suicide as the Red Army approaches the Führerbunker in Berlin. Großadmiral Karl Dönitz succeeds Hitler as Reichspräsident (President of Germany) and Joseph Goebbels succeeds as Reichskanzler (Chancellor of Germany) , in accordance with Hitler's political testament the day earlier. American forces enter the Bavarian capital of Munich . May May – Interpol (being headquartered in Berlin) effectively ceases to exist (it is recreated on June 3 , 1946 ). May 1 – WWII: Reichssender Hamburg 's Flensburg radio station announces that Hitler has died in battle, "fighting up to his last breath against Bolshevism ." Joseph Goebbels carries out his sole official act as Chancellor of Germany, dictating a letter to the Soviet commander in Berlin advising of Hitler's death and requesting a ceasefire. When the latter is refused, he and his wife Magda kill their six children and commit suicide themselves. Karl Dönitz appoints Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk as the new de facto Chancellor of Germany , in the Flensburg Government . Troops of the Yugoslav 4th Army, together with the Slovene 9th Corpus NOV, enter Trieste . Mass suicide in Demmin : An estimated 700–2,500 suicides take place, after 80% of the town has been destroyed by the Soviets during the past three days. Reichssender Hamburg 's Flensburg radio station announces that Hitler has died in battle, "fighting up to his last breath against Bolshevism ." Joseph Goebbels carries out his sole official act as Chancellor of Germany, dictating a letter to the Soviet commander in Berlin advising of Hitler's death and requesting a ceasefire. When the latter is refused, he and his wife Magda kill their six children and commit suicide themselves. Karl Dönitz appoints Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk as the new de facto Chancellor of Germany , in the Flensburg Government . Troops of the Yugoslav 4th Army, together with the Slovene 9th Corpus NOV, enter Trieste . Mass suicide in Demmin : An estimated 700–2,500 suicides take place, after 80% of the town has been destroyed by the Soviets during the past three days. May 2 – WWII: The Soviet Union announces the fall of Berlin . The famous picture of Raising a Flag over the Reichstag was taken at this date. Lübeck is liberated by the British Army . The surrender of Axis troops in Italy comes into effect. A Holocaust death march from Dachau to the Austrian border is halted under two kilometers west of Waakirchen by the segregated, all- Nisei 522nd Field Artillery Battalion of the U.S. Army in southern Bavaria, saving several hundred prisoners. [ 37 ] Troops of the New Zealand Army 2nd Division enter Trieste a day after the Yugoslavs ; the German Army in Trieste surrenders to the New Zealand Army . Following the death or resignation of the Hitler Cabinet in Germany, the Schwerin von Krosigk cabinet first meets. Neuengamme concentration camp near Hamburg is evacuated at about this date. Expatriate American poet Ezra Pound is arrested by the Italian resistance movement but soon released by them as of no interest; on May 5 he turns himself in to the United States Army and is imprisoned as a traitor. The Soviet Union announces the fall of Berlin . The famous picture of Raising a Flag over the Reichstag was taken at this date. Lübeck is liberated by the British Army . The surrender of Axis troops in Italy comes into effect. A Holocaust death march from Dachau to the Austrian border is halted under two kilometers west of Waakirchen by the segregated, all- Nisei 522nd Field Artillery Battalion of the U.S. Army in southern Bavaria, saving several hundred prisoners. [ 37 ] Troops of the New Zealand Army 2nd Division enter Trieste a day after the Yugoslavs ; the German Army in Trieste surrenders to the New Zealand Army . Following the death or resignation of the Hitler Cabinet in Germany, the Schwerin von Krosigk cabinet first meets. Neuengamme concentration camp near Hamburg is evacuated at about this date. Expatriate American poet Ezra Pound is arrested by the Italian resistance movement but soon released by them as of no interest; on May 5 he turns himself in to the United States Army and is imprisoned as a traitor. May 3 – WWII: The prison ships Cap Arcona (5,000 dead), Thielbek (2,750 dead) and Deutschland (all survive) are sunk by the British Royal Air Force in Lübeck Bay. Rocket scientist Wernher von Braun and 120 members of his team surrender to U.S. forces (later going on to help start the U.S. space program). German Protestant theologian Gerhard Kittel is arrested by the French forces in Tübingen, Germany. Operation Dracula : British troops liberate the Burmese capital of Rangoon from Japanese forces. Capture of Hamburg : British troops of VIII Corps and XII Corps capture city of Hamburg [ 38 ] The prison ships Cap Arcona (5,000 dead), Thielbek (2,750 dead) and Deutschland (all survive) are sunk by the British Royal Air Force in Lübeck Bay. Rocket scientist Wernher von Braun and 120 members of his team surrender to U.S. forces (later going on to help start the U.S. space program). German Protestant theologian Gerhard Kittel is arrested by the French forces in Tübingen, Germany. Operation Dracula : British troops liberate the Burmese capital of Rangoon from Japanese forces. Capture of Hamburg : British troops of VIII Corps and XII Corps capture city of Hamburg [ 38 ] May 4 – WWII: German surrender at Lüneburg Heath : All German armed forces in northwest Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands surrender unconditionally to Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery , effective on May 5 at 08:00 hours British Double (and German) Summer Time. The Netherlands is liberated by British and Canadian troops. [ 39 ] Denmark is liberated. [ 40 ] Admiral Karl Dönitz orders all U-boats to cease offensive operations and return to bases in Norway. [ 41 ] The Holy Crown of Hungary is found in Mattsee , Austria, by the United States Army 86th Infantry Division . The U.S. government keeps the crown in Fort Knox for safekeeping from the Soviets until it is returned to Hungary on January 6 1978 . [ 42 ] German auxiliary cruiser Orion is sunk on her way to Copenhagen carrying refugees, with a loss of over 3,800 lives. American troops captures city of Salzburg [ 43 ] German surrender at Lüneburg Heath : All German armed forces in northwest Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands surrender unconditionally to Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery , effective on May 5 at 08:00 hours British Double (and German) Summer Time. The Netherlands is liberated by British and Canadian troops. [ 39 ] Denmark is liberated. [ 40 ] Admiral Karl Dönitz orders all U-boats to cease offensive operations and return to bases in Norway. [ 41 ] The Holy Crown of Hungary is found in Mattsee , Austria, by the United States Army 86th Infantry Division . The U.S. government keeps the crown in Fort Knox for safekeeping from the Soviets until it is returned to Hungary on January 6 1978 . [ 42 ] German auxiliary cruiser Orion is sunk on her way to Copenhagen carrying refugees, with a loss of over 3,800 lives. American troops captures city of Salzburg [ 43 ] May 5 – WWII: Prague uprising : Prague rises up against occupying Nazi forces, encouraged by radio broadcasts (giving rise to the Battle for Czech Radio ). The US 11th Armored Division liberates the prisoners of Mauthausen concentration camp , including Simon Wiesenthal . Canadian soldiers liberate the city of Amsterdam from Nazi occupation. A Japanese fire balloon kills six people, Elsie Mitchell and five children, near Bly, Oregon , when it explodes as they drag it from the woods. These are the only people killed by an enemy attack on the American mainland during WWII. Prague uprising : Prague rises up against occupying Nazi forces, encouraged by radio broadcasts (giving rise to the Battle for Czech Radio ). The US 11th Armored Division liberates the prisoners of Mauthausen concentration camp , including Simon Wiesenthal . Canadian soldiers liberate the city of Amsterdam from Nazi occupation. A Japanese fire balloon kills six people, Elsie Mitchell and five children, near Bly, Oregon , when it explodes as they drag it from the woods. These are the only people killed by an enemy attack on the American mainland during WWII. May 6 WWII: Mildred Gillars ("Axis Sally") delivers her last propaganda broadcast to Allied troops (the first was on December 11, 1941 ). Holocaust : Ebensee concentration camp in Austria is liberated by troops of the 80th Division (United States) . WWII: American troops of 16th Armored Division reaches city of Plzeň in Czech [ 44 ] WWII: Mildred Gillars ("Axis Sally") delivers her last propaganda broadcast to Allied troops (the first was on December 11, 1941 ). Holocaust : Ebensee concentration camp in Austria is liberated by troops of the 80th Division (United States) . WWII: American troops of 16th Armored Division reaches city of Plzeň in Czech [ 44 ] May 6 – 7 – The government of the Independent State of Croatia , the Nazi-affiliated fascist puppet state established in occupied Yugoslavia , flees Zagreb for a location near Klagenfurt in Austria, but is captured in the Bleiburg repatriations that then leads to mass executions. [ 45 ] May 7 – WWII: At 02:41, General Alfred Jodl signs the unconditional German Instrument of Surrender in SHAEF HQ at Reims , France, to end Germany's participation in the war. Surrender is effective on May 8 at 23:01 hours Central European Time (00:01 hours May 9 German Summer Time). This afternoon Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk , Leading Minister in the rump Flensburg Government , makes a broadcast announcing the German surrender and American journalist Edward Kennedy breaks an Allied embargo on news of the signing. [ 46 ] Numerous RAF Lancasters land in Germany to repatriate British prisoners of war. Some 4,500 ex-POWs are flown back to Great Britain over the next 24 hours. At 02:41, General Alfred Jodl signs the unconditional German Instrument of Surrender in SHAEF HQ at Reims , France, to end Germany's participation in the war. Surrender is effective on May 8 at 23:01 hours Central European Time (00:01 hours May 9 German Summer Time). This afternoon Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk , Leading Minister in the rump Flensburg Government , makes a broadcast announcing the German surrender and American journalist Edward Kennedy breaks an Allied embargo on news of the signing. [ 46 ] Numerous RAF Lancasters land in Germany to repatriate British prisoners of war. Some 4,500 ex-POWs are flown back to Great Britain over the next 24 hours. May 8 – WWII: Victory in Europe Day (VE Day) is observed by the western European powers as Nazi Germany surrenders, marking the end of WWII in Europe. Shortly before midnight (May 9 Moscow time) the final German Instrument of Surrender is signed at the seat of the Soviet Military Administration in Berlin- Karlshorst , attended by Allied representatives. Canadian troops move into Amsterdam , after German troops surrender. The surrender of the Dodecanese is signed in Symi . The Prague uprising ends with a ceasefire. The Eighth British Army , together with Slovene partisan troops and a motorized detachment of the Yugoslav 4th Army, arrives in Carinthia and Klagenfurt . The Croatian Armed Forces of the Independent State of Croatia are ordered by their commanders not to surrender to the Yugoslav Partisans , but to attempt to retreat to Austria and surrender to the British, part of the events leading to the Bleiburg repatriations . Hermann Göring surrenders himself to the United States Army near Radstadt . [ 47 ] Victory in Europe Day (VE Day) is observed by the western European powers as Nazi Germany surrenders, marking the end of WWII in Europe. Shortly before midnight (May 9 Moscow time) the final German Instrument of Surrender is signed at the seat of the Soviet Military Administration in Berlin- Karlshorst , attended by Allied representatives. Canadian troops move into Amsterdam , after German troops surrender. The surrender of the Dodecanese is signed in Symi . The Prague uprising ends with a ceasefire. The Eighth British Army , together with Slovene partisan troops and a motorized detachment of the Yugoslav 4th Army, arrives in Carinthia and Klagenfurt . The Croatian Armed Forces of the Independent State of Croatia are ordered by their commanders not to surrender to the Yugoslav Partisans , but to attempt to retreat to Austria and surrender to the British, part of the events leading to the Bleiburg repatriations . Hermann Göring surrenders himself to the United States Army near Radstadt . [ 47 ] May 8 – 29 – Sétif and Guelma massacre : in Algeria , thousands die as French troops and released Italian POWs kill an estimated 6,000 to 40,000 Algerian citizens. May 9 – WWII: The Soviet Union marks VE Day as the Red Army enters Prague. [ 48 ] Vidkun Quisling and other members of the collaborationist Quisling regime in Norway surrender to the Resistance ( Milorg ) and police at Møllergata 19 in Oslo, as part of the legal purge in Norway after World War II . General Alexander Löhr , Commander of German Army Group E near Topolšica, Slovenia , signs the capitulation of German occupation troops. Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : British forces take the surrender of the occupying troops, with Royal Navy ships HMS Bulldog arriving in St Peter Port , Guernsey , and HMS Beagle in St Helier , Jersey . The Soviet Union marks VE Day as the Red Army enters Prague. [ 48 ] Vidkun Quisling and other members of the collaborationist Quisling regime in Norway surrender to the Resistance ( Milorg ) and police at Møllergata 19 in Oslo, as part of the legal purge in Norway after World War II . General Alexander Löhr , Commander of German Army Group E near Topolšica, Slovenia , signs the capitulation of German occupation troops. Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : British forces take the surrender of the occupying troops, with Royal Navy ships HMS Bulldog arriving in St Peter Port , Guernsey , and HMS Beagle in St Helier , Jersey . May 10 – WWII: Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : Occupation of Sark ends, with British forces taking the surrender of the occupying troops and leaving them under the orders of Dame Sibyl Hathaway . May 12 Argentinian labour leader José Peter declares the Meat Industry Workers Federation dissolved. Rev. W. V. Awdry 's children's book The Three Railway Engines , first of The Railway Series , is published in England. Argentinian labour leader José Peter declares the Meat Industry Workers Federation dissolved. Rev. W. V. Awdry 's children's book The Three Railway Engines , first of The Railway Series , is published in England. May 14 – 15 – WWII: Battle of Poljana : The last battle of the War in Europe is fought at Poljana near Slovenj Gradec , Slovenia . May 15 – WWII: Surrender at Bleiburg – Retreating troops of the Croatian Armed Forces of the former puppet Independent State of Croatia (intermingled with fleeing civilians) attempt to surrender to the British Army at Bleiburg , but are directed to surrender to Yugoslav Partisans , who open fire on them. The remainder, after orders are given by Tito , are force-marched through Croatia and Serbia , interned or massacred, with thousands dying. [ 49 ] May 16 – WWII: Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : Occupation of Alderney ends, with British forces taking the surrender of the occupying troops, the civilian population having been evacuated. May 18 – WWII: Operation Unthinkable – British prime minister Winston Churchill secretly requests his military chiefs of staff to consider a plan for British, American and reactivated German forces to attack the Soviet Red Army on July 1 to preserve the independence of Poland. The operation is ruled militarily unfeasible. [ 50 ] May 23 The Flensburg Government is dissolved by the Allies, and German president Karl Dönitz and German chancellor Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk are arrested by British RAF Regiment personnel at Flensburg . They are respectively the last German head of state and head of government until 1949 . Heinrich Himmler , former head of the Nazi SS , commits suicide in British custody. The Flensburg Government is dissolved by the Allies, and German president Karl Dönitz and German chancellor Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk are arrested by British RAF Regiment personnel at Flensburg . They are respectively the last German head of state and head of government until 1949 . Heinrich Himmler , former head of the Nazi SS , commits suicide in British custody. May 28 – U.S.-born Irish-raised William Joyce (" Lord Haw-Haw ") is captured on the German border. He is later charged in London with high treason for his earlier English-language wartime broadcasts from German radio, convicted, and then hanged in January 1946. May 29 German communists, led by Walter Ulbricht , arrive in Berlin. Dutch painter Han van Meegeren is arrested for collaboration with the Nazis, but the "Dutch Golden Age" paintings he has sold to Hermann Göring (Koch) are later proved to be his own fakes. German communists, led by Walter Ulbricht , arrive in Berlin. Dutch painter Han van Meegeren is arrested for collaboration with the Nazis, but the "Dutch Golden Age" paintings he has sold to Hermann Göring (Koch) are later proved to be his own fakes. May 30 – The Iranian government demands that all Soviet and British troops leave the country. June June 1 – The British take over Lebanon and Syria . June 5 – The Allied Control Council , the military occupation governing body of Germany, formally takes power. June 7 – King Haakon VII of Norway returns to Norway five years to the day after leaving for exile in Britain. June 11 William Lyon Mackenzie King is re-elected as Canadian prime minister. The Franck Committee recommends against a surprise nuclear bombing of Japan. [ 51 ] William Lyon Mackenzie King is re-elected as Canadian prime minister. The Franck Committee recommends against a surprise nuclear bombing of Japan. [ 51 ] June 12 – The Yugoslav Army leaves Trieste , leaving the New Zealand Army in control. June 21 – WWII: The Battle of Okinawa ends, with U.S. occupation of the island until 1972 . June 24 – WWII: A victory parade is held in Red Square in Moscow. June 25 – Seán T. O'Kelly is elected the second president of Ireland . June 26 – The United Nations Charter is signed in San Francisco. June 29 – Czechoslovakia cedes Carpathian Ruthenia to the Soviet Union . June 30 – John von Neumann 's First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC is distributed, containing the first published description of the logical design of a computer, with stored-program and instruction data stored in the same address space within the memory ( von Neumann architecture ). July July 1 WWII: Germany is divided between the Allied occupation forces. WWII: Australian and other Allied forces launch an invasion of the east coast of Japanese-occupied Borneo near Balikpapan . WWII: Germany is divided between the Allied occupation forces. WWII: Australian and other Allied forces launch an invasion of the east coast of Japanese-occupied Borneo near Balikpapan . July 2 – The 1945 Sheikh Bashir rebellion breaks out in Burao and Erigavo in British Somaliland , led by Sheikh Bashir , a Somali religious leader. [ 52 ] July 4 – Brazilian cruiser Bahia is sunk by an accidentally induced explosion, killing more than 300 and stranding the survivors in shark-infested waters. July 5 The 1945 United Kingdom general election is held, though some constituencies delay their polls for local holiday reasons. Counting of votes and declaration of results are delayed until July 26 to allow for voting by the large number of service personnel still overseas. John Curtin , 14th Prime Minister of Australia , dies in office from heart failure at the age of 60. He is briefly replaced by his deputy Frank Forde , who serves as the 15th Prime Minister until a Labor Party leadership election is held to replace Curtin. WWII: The Philippines are declared liberated. The 1945 United Kingdom general election is held, though some constituencies delay their polls for local holiday reasons. Counting of votes and declaration of results are delayed until July 26 to allow for voting by the large number of service personnel still overseas. John Curtin , 14th Prime Minister of Australia , dies in office from heart failure at the age of 60. He is briefly replaced by his deputy Frank Forde , who serves as the 15th Prime Minister until a Labor Party leadership election is held to replace Curtin. WWII: The Philippines are declared liberated. July 6 – 7 – Schio massacre : 54 prisoners, mostly fascist sympathisers, are killed by members of the Italian resistance movement in Schio . July 8 – WWII: Harry S. Truman is informed that Japan will talk peace if it can retain the reign of the Emperor. [ 51 ] July 12 – Ben Chifley is elected leader of the Labor Party , and consequently becomes the 16th Prime Minister of Australia , defeating Frank Forde as well as Norman Makin and H.V. Evatt . As a result, Forde becomes the shortest-serving prime minister in Australian history; nevertheless, he retains his post as deputy leader. July 14 – WWII: Italy declares war on Japan. July 16 The Trinity Test , the first of an atomic bomb , using about six kilograms of plutonium , succeeds in unleashing an explosion equivalent to that of 22 kilotons of TNT. A train collision near Munich , Germany kills 102 war prisoners. The Trinity Test , the first of an atomic bomb , using about six kilograms of plutonium , succeeds in unleashing an explosion equivalent to that of 22 kilotons of TNT. A train collision near Munich , Germany kills 102 war prisoners. July 17 – August 2 – WWII: Potsdam Conference – At Potsdam , the three main Allied leaders hold their final summit of the war. President Truman officially informs Stalin that the U.S. has a powerful new weapon. July 21 – WWII: President Harry S. Truman approves the order for atomic bombs to be used against Japan. [ 51 ] July 23 – WWII: French marshal Philippe Pétain , who headed the Vichy government during WWII, goes on trial for treason. July 26 Winston Churchill resigns as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , after his Conservative Party is soundly defeated by the Labour Party in the 1945 general election . Clement Attlee becomes the new prime minister. It is the first time that Labour has governed Britain with a majority in the House of Commons . [ 53 ] The Potsdam Declaration demands Japan's unconditional surrender; Article 12, permitting Japan to retain the reign of the Emperor, has been deleted by President Truman. [ 51 ] Winston Churchill resigns as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , after his Conservative Party is soundly defeated by the Labour Party in the 1945 general election . Clement Attlee becomes the new prime minister. It is the first time that Labour has governed Britain with a majority in the House of Commons . [ 53 ] The Potsdam Declaration demands Japan's unconditional surrender; Article 12, permitting Japan to retain the reign of the Emperor, has been deleted by President Truman. [ 51 ] July 27 – WWII: Bombing of Aomori – Two USAAF B-29s drop a total of 60,000 leaflets on the city of Aomori , Japan, warning civilians of an air raid and urging them to leave immediately. The city was firebombed the next day, killing more than 1,700 people. July 28 WWII: Japan ambiguously rejects the Potsdam Declaration . [ 51 ] A North American B-25 Mitchell crashes into The Empire State Building , killing 14 people. [ 54 ] WWII: Japan ambiguously rejects the Potsdam Declaration . [ 51 ] A North American B-25 Mitchell crashes into The Empire State Building , killing 14 people. [ 54 ] July 29 The BBC Light Programme radio station is launched in the United Kingdom, aimed at mainstream light entertainment and music . WWII: Bombing of Aomori : The Japanese city of Aomori is firebombed by 63 USAAF B-29 heavy bombers , killing 1,767 civilians and destroying 18,045 homes. The BBC Light Programme radio station is launched in the United Kingdom, aimed at mainstream light entertainment and music . WWII: Bombing of Aomori : The Japanese city of Aomori is firebombed by 63 USAAF B-29 heavy bombers , killing 1,767 civilians and destroying 18,045 homes. July 30 – WWII: Heavy cruiser USS Indianapolis is hit and sunk by torpedoes from the Japanese submarine I-58 in the Philippine Sea . Some 900 survivors jump into the sea and are adrift for up to four days. Nearly 600 die before help arrives. Captain Charles B. McVay III of the cruiser is later court-martialed and convicted; in 2000, he is posthumously exonerated. [ 55 ] August August 6 – WWII: Atomic bombing of Hiroshima : United States Boeing B-29 Superfortress Enola Gay drops a uranium-235 atomic bomb , codenamed " Little Boy ", on the Japanese city of Hiroshima at 8:15 a.m. local time, resulting in between 90,000 and 146,000 deaths. August 7 – U.S. President Harry Truman announces the successful atomic bombing of Hiroshima, while he is returning from the Potsdam Conference aboard the U.S. Navy heavy cruiser USS Augusta (CA-31) , in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean. August 8 The United Nations Charter is ratified by the United States Senate, and this nation becomes the third to join the new international organization. WWII: The Soviet Union declares war on Japan. The United Nations Charter is ratified by the United States Senate, and this nation becomes the third to join the new international organization. WWII: The Soviet Union declares war on Japan. August 9 – WWII: Atomic bombing of Nagasaki : United States B-29 Bockscar drops a plutonium-239 atomic bomb, codenamed " Fat Man ", on the Japanese city of Nagasaki at 11:02 a.m. local time, resulting in between 39,000 and 80,000 deaths. The Soviet–Japanese War opens: The Soviet Union begins its army offensive against Japan, in the northern part of the Japanese-held puppet region of Manchuria including the northern peninsula of Korea that became involved with the 25th Army . [ 56 ] Atomic bombing of Nagasaki : United States B-29 Bockscar drops a plutonium-239 atomic bomb, codenamed " Fat Man ", on the Japanese city of Nagasaki at 11:02 a.m. local time, resulting in between 39,000 and 80,000 deaths. The Soviet–Japanese War opens: The Soviet Union begins its army offensive against Japan, in the northern part of the Japanese-held puppet region of Manchuria including the northern peninsula of Korea that became involved with the 25th Army . [ 56 ] August 10 – WWII: Japan offers to surrender to the Allies, "provided this does not prejudice the sovereignty of the Emperor". August 11 WWII: The Allies reply to the Japanese surrender offer by stating that Emperor Hirohito will be subject to the authority of the Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces . The Holocaust : Kraków pogrom – Róża Berger is shot dead by Polish militia. WWII: The Allies reply to the Japanese surrender offer by stating that Emperor Hirohito will be subject to the authority of the Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces . The Holocaust : Kraków pogrom – Róża Berger is shot dead by Polish militia. August 11 – 25 – Soviet troops complete the occupation of Sakhalin . August 13 – The Zionist World Congress approaches the British government to discuss the founding of the country of Israel . August 14 – WWII: Emperor Hirohito accepts the terms of the Potsdam Declaration . His recorded announcement of this is smuggled out of the Tokyo Imperial Palace . At 19:00 hrs in Washington, D.C. (23:00 GMT ), U.S. president Harry S. Truman announces the Japanese surrender. August 15 WWII: Bombing of Kumagaya , Japan, by the United States using conventional bombs, beginning at 00:23. Hirohito surrender broadcast (Gyokuon-hōsō) : Emperor Hirohito 's announcement of the unconditional surrender of Japan is broadcast on the radio a little after noon (12:00 Japan Standard Time is 03:00 GMT). This is probably the first time an Emperor of Japan has been heard by the common people. Delivered in formal classical Japanese , without directly referring to surrender and following official censorship of the country's weak position, the recorded speech is not immediately easily understood by ordinary people. The Allies call this day Victory over Japan Day (V-J Day). This ends the period of Japanese expansionism , and begins the period of the Occupation of Japan and sets the stage for Korean independence. The August Revolution in Vietnam begins, with the Viet Minh taking over the capital Hanoi , taking advantage of the collapse of Japanese power. The Provisional International Civil Aviation Organization is founded, as a specialized agency of the United Nations . WWII: Bombing of Kumagaya , Japan, by the United States using conventional bombs, beginning at 00:23. Hirohito surrender broadcast (Gyokuon-hōsō) : Emperor Hirohito 's announcement of the unconditional surrender of Japan is broadcast on the radio a little after noon (12:00 Japan Standard Time is 03:00 GMT). This is probably the first time an Emperor of Japan has been heard by the common people. Delivered in formal classical Japanese , without directly referring to surrender and following official censorship of the country's weak position, the recorded speech is not immediately easily understood by ordinary people. The Allies call this day Victory over Japan Day (V-J Day). This ends the period of Japanese expansionism , and begins the period of the Occupation of Japan and sets the stage for Korean independence. Bombing of Kumagaya , Japan, by the United States using conventional bombs, beginning at 00:23. Hirohito surrender broadcast (Gyokuon-hōsō) : Emperor Hirohito 's announcement of the unconditional surrender of Japan is broadcast on the radio a little after noon (12:00 Japan Standard Time is 03:00 GMT). This is probably the first time an Emperor of Japan has been heard by the common people. Delivered in formal classical Japanese , without directly referring to surrender and following official censorship of the country's weak position, the recorded speech is not immediately easily understood by ordinary people. The Allies call this day Victory over Japan Day (V-J Day). This ends the period of Japanese expansionism , and begins the period of the Occupation of Japan and sets the stage for Korean independence. The August Revolution in Vietnam begins, with the Viet Minh taking over the capital Hanoi , taking advantage of the collapse of Japanese power. The Provisional International Civil Aviation Organization is founded, as a specialized agency of the United Nations . August 17 Philippines President José P. Laurel issues an Executive Proclamation putting an end to the Second Philippine Republic , thus ending his term as President of the Philippines. Proclamation of Indonesian Independence : Indonesian nationalists Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declare the independence of the Republic of Indonesia , with Sukarno as president and Mohammad Hatta as vice-president, igniting the Indonesian National Revolution against the Dutch Empire . Philippines President José P. Laurel issues an Executive Proclamation putting an end to the Second Philippine Republic , thus ending his term as President of the Philippines. Proclamation of Indonesian Independence : Indonesian nationalists Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declare the independence of the Republic of Indonesia , with Sukarno as president and Mohammad Hatta as vice-president, igniting the Indonesian National Revolution against the Dutch Empire . August 18 – WWII: Death of Subhas Chandra Bose : Indian nationalist leader Subhas Chandra Bose is killed as a result of his overloaded Japanese plane crashing in Japanese Taiwan . August 19 – Chinese Civil War : Mao Zedong and Chiang Kai-shek meet in Chongqing to discuss an end to hostilities between the Communists and the Nationalists . August 22 – Kim Il Sung as the guerilla fighter returned to the Soviet-occupied capital Pyongyang after the Red Army entered the northern peninsula of Korea . August 23 – Soviet–Japanese War : Joseph Stalin orders the detention of Japanese prisoners of war in the Soviet Union . August 25 – Bảo Đại abdicates as Emperor of Vietnam , ending 2,000 years of dynastic and monarchic rule in the country and 143 years of the Nguyễn dynasty , Paris marked the first anniversary of liberation from Nazi rule by the French Resistance as a momentous event at the Battle of Normandy against Dietrich von Choltitz . August 30 – WWII: Vietnam 's capital Hanoi is taken by the Viet Minh , which ends the French occupation in what becomes North Vietnam , and thus the southern provinces become South Vietnam . This ends the August Revolution . August 31 WWII: Allied troops arrest German field marshal Walther von Brauchitsch . A team at American Cyanamid 's Lederle Laboratories, Pearl River, New York , led by Yellapragada Subbarow , announces they have obtained folic acid in a pure crystalline form. [ 57 ] This vitamin is abundant in green leaf vegetables , liver , kidney , and yeast . [ 58 ] WWII: Allied troops arrest German field marshal Walther von Brauchitsch . A team at American Cyanamid 's Lederle Laboratories, Pearl River, New York , led by Yellapragada Subbarow , announces they have obtained folic acid in a pure crystalline form. [ 57 ] This vitamin is abundant in green leaf vegetables , liver , kidney , and yeast . [ 58 ] September September 2 – World War II ends: Japanese general Tomoyuki Yamashita surrenders to Philippine and American forces at Kiangan, Ifugao . The final official Japanese Instrument of Surrender is accepted by the Supreme Allied Commander, General Douglas MacArthur , and Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz for the United States, and delegates from the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, the Netherlands, China, and others from a Japanese delegation led by Mamoru Shigemitsu , on board the American battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay . General Douglas MacArthur is given the title of Supreme Commander Allied Powers , and is also tasked with the occupation of Japan. [ 59 ] The Democratic Republic of Vietnam is officially established, by Ho Chi Minh . [ 59 ] Japanese general Tomoyuki Yamashita surrenders to Philippine and American forces at Kiangan, Ifugao . The final official Japanese Instrument of Surrender is accepted by the Supreme Allied Commander, General Douglas MacArthur , and Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz for the United States, and delegates from the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, the Netherlands, China, and others from a Japanese delegation led by Mamoru Shigemitsu , on board the American battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay . General Douglas MacArthur is given the title of Supreme Commander Allied Powers , and is also tasked with the occupation of Japan. [ 59 ] The Democratic Republic of Vietnam is officially established, by Ho Chi Minh . [ 59 ] September 4 – WWII: Japanese forces surrender on Wake Island , after hearing word of their country's surrender. September 5 Iva Toguri D'Aquino , a Japanese American suspected of being wartime radio propagandist " Tokyo Rose ", is arrested in Yokohama . Russian code clerk Igor Gouzenko comes forward with numerous documents implicating the Soviet Union in many spy rings in North America, both in the United States and in Canada. Iva Toguri D'Aquino , a Japanese American suspected of being wartime radio propagandist " Tokyo Rose ", is arrested in Yokohama . Russian code clerk Igor Gouzenko comes forward with numerous documents implicating the Soviet Union in many spy rings in North America, both in the United States and in Canada. September 8 U.S. troops arrive in Southern Korea , while the Soviet Union occupies the north , with the dividing line being the 38th parallel of latitude. This arrangement proves to be the indirect beginning of a divided Korea, which will lead to the Korean War when North Korea invades in 1950 . The Afghan government defeats a rebel force at Kunar Khas ; Gerald Crichton, the British Charge de 'affairs in Kabul, later describes the victory as the "turning point" of the Afghan tribal revolts of 1944–1947 . [ 60 ] U.S. troops arrive in Southern Korea , while the Soviet Union occupies the north , with the dividing line being the 38th parallel of latitude. This arrangement proves to be the indirect beginning of a divided Korea, which will lead to the Korean War when North Korea invades in 1950 . The Afghan government defeats a rebel force at Kunar Khas ; Gerald Crichton, the British Charge de 'affairs in Kabul, later describes the victory as the "turning point" of the Afghan tribal revolts of 1944–1947 . [ 60 ] September 9 Chairman of the Nationalist Government of China Chiang Kai-shek officially accepts the Japanese capitulation at Nanking . [ 59 ] Japanese troops in Keijō (present day Seoul ) formally relinquish control over Southern Korea to the United States, effectively ending Japan's 35-year rule of Korea. [ 61 ] Chairman of the Nationalist Government of China Chiang Kai-shek officially accepts the Japanese capitulation at Nanking . [ 59 ] Japanese troops in Keijō (present day Seoul ) formally relinquish control over Southern Korea to the United States, effectively ending Japan's 35-year rule of Korea. [ 61 ] September 10 – Vidkun Quisling is sentenced to death for being a Nazi collaborator in Norway. [ 59 ] September 11 Hideki Tojo , Japanese prime minister during most of World War II, attempts to commit suicide to avoid facing an Allied war crimes tribunal. Radio Republik Indonesia starts broadcasting. The Batu Lintang camp in Sarawak , Borneo is liberated by Australian forces. Hideki Tojo , Japanese prime minister during most of World War II, attempts to commit suicide to avoid facing an Allied war crimes tribunal. Radio Republik Indonesia starts broadcasting. The Batu Lintang camp in Sarawak , Borneo is liberated by Australian forces. September 12 Operation Tiderace : The Japanese Army formally surrenders to the British in Singapore . The office of governor-general of Korea is disbanded by the United States Army Military Government in Korea, formally ending Japan's 35-year rule in Korea. Operation Tiderace : The Japanese Army formally surrenders to the British in Singapore . The office of governor-general of Korea is disbanded by the United States Army Military Government in Korea, formally ending Japan's 35-year rule in Korea. September 18 Typhoon Makurazaki kills 3,746 people in Japan. The Japanese Army in Central China officially surrenders to the Chinese, in Wuhan . Typhoon Makurazaki kills 3,746 people in Japan. The Japanese Army in Central China officially surrenders to the Chinese, in Wuhan . September 20 – Mohandas Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru demand that all British troops depart India. September 24 – Postwar anti-Jewish violence in Slovakia : The Topoľčany pogrom is carried out in Czechoslovakia. October October – Arthur C. Clarke puts forward the idea of a geosynchronous communications satellite , in a Wireless World magazine article. October 1 – 15 – Operation Backfire : Three A4 rockets are launched near Cuxhaven , in a demonstration to Allied forces. October 2 – George Albert Smith becomes president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints . October 4 – The Partizan Belgrade sports club is founded in Belgrade , Serbia . October 5 – Hollywood Black Friday : A strike by the Set Decorator's Union in Hollywood results in a riot. October 8 – 15 – Hadamar Trial: Personnel of the Hadamar Euthanasia Centre , now in the American zone of Allied-occupied Germany , are the first to be tried for systematic extermination in Nazi Germany . October 9 – Former prime minister Pierre Laval is sentenced to death, for collaboration with the Nazis in Vichy France . [ 59 ] October 10 – The Nazi Party is dissolved by the Allied Powers. October 14 – Czechoslovakia : A new provisional national assembly is elected, Kim Il Sung made his first major public appearance in Pyongyang as the celebration of liberation where he was officially introduced to the public by the Soviet authorities as a national hero, a legendary guerrilla fighter and leader. [ 59 ] October 15 – 21 – The Fifth Pan-African Congress is held in Manchester . October 16 – The Food and Agriculture Organization is established at a meeting in Quebec City , as a specialized agency of the United Nations , Syngman Rhee returned to the southern peninsula of Korea as he arrived in Seoul by becoming a prominent figure under the U.S. occupation. October 17 – A massive number of people, headed for the General Confederation of Labour (Argentina) , gather in the Plaza de Mayo in Buenos Aires to demand Juan Perón 's release. This is known to the Peronists as the Día de la lealtad ( Loyalty Day ) and considered the founding day of Peronism . October 18 – Isaías Medina Angarita , president of Venezuela , is overthrown by a military coup . [ 59 ] October 19 – Members of the Indonesian People's Army attack Anglo-Dutch forces in Indonesia . [ 59 ] October 20 – Mongolians vote for independence from China. [ 59 ] October 21 – Women's suffrage : Women are allowed to vote in the French Legislative Election for the first time. October 22 – Rómulo Betancourt is named provisional president of Venezuela . [ 59 ] October 24 The United Nations is founded by ratification of its Charter , by 29 nations such as the United Kingdom , the United States , France , Canada , Egypt , Brazil , Haiti , Luxembourg , Russia (former USSR ) and others. [ 59 ] The International Court of Justice ("World Court") is established by the United Nations Charter . Norwegian Nazi leader Vidkun Quisling is executed by firing squad , for treason against Norway. [ 59 ] The United Nations is founded by ratification of its Charter , by 29 nations such as the United Kingdom , the United States , France , Canada , Egypt , Brazil , Haiti , Luxembourg , Russia (former USSR ) and others. [ 59 ] The International Court of Justice ("World Court") is established by the United Nations Charter . Norwegian Nazi leader Vidkun Quisling is executed by firing squad , for treason against Norway. [ 59 ] October 25 WWII: Japanese armed forces in Taiwan surrender to the Allies. Getúlio Vargas is deposed as president in Brazil; José Linhares is named temporary president. [ 59 ] Osijek prison massacre by Yugoslav secret police. WWII: Japanese armed forces in Taiwan surrender to the Allies. Getúlio Vargas is deposed as president in Brazil; José Linhares is named temporary president. [ 59 ] Osijek prison massacre by Yugoslav secret police. October 27 – November 20 – Indonesian National Revolution : Battle of Surabaya – Pro-independence Indonesian soldiers and militia fight British and British Indian troops in Surabaya . October 29 Getúlio Vargas resigns as president of Brazil. At Gimbels Department Store in New York City, the first ballpoint pens go on sale at $12.50 each. Getúlio Vargas resigns as president of Brazil. At Gimbels Department Store in New York City, the first ballpoint pens go on sale at $12.50 each. October 30 – The undivided country of India joins the United Nations . November November 1 International Labour Organization 's new constitution comes into effect. Telechron introduces the model 8H59 Musalarm, the first clock radio . Australia joins the United Nations . International Labour Organization 's new constitution comes into effect. Telechron introduces the model 8H59 Musalarm, the first clock radio . Australia joins the United Nations . November 5 – Colombia joins the United Nations . November 6 – Indonesians reject an offer of autonomy from the Dutch . [ 59 ] November 7 – South Africa and Mexico both joined the United Nations . November 9 – Soo Bahk Do and Moo Duk Kwan martial arts are founded in Korea . November 10 – Indonesian National Revolution : Battle of Surabaya – Following the killing of British officer Brigadier A. W. S. Mallaby on October 30, the British Indian Army (in support of its allied Dutch colonial administration) begins an advance on Surabaya in the Dutch East Indies against Indonesian nationalists; although most of the city is retaken in 3 days of heavy fighting, the strength of the resistance leads to today being celebrated as Heroes' Day (Hari Pahlawan) in Indonesia. November 11 – 1945 Yugoslavian parliamentary election : Marshal Josip Broz Tito and the People's Front win a decisive majority (90%) in the Yugoslavian Assembly. [ 59 ] November 15 Harry S. Truman , Clement Attlee and Mackenzie King share nuclear information with the U.N. and call for a United Nations Atomic Energy Commission . [ 51 ] [ 59 ] An offensive is begun in Manchuria by the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalists) against further infiltration by the Chinese Communist Party . [ 59 ] Harry S. Truman , Clement Attlee and Mackenzie King share nuclear information with the U.N. and call for a United Nations Atomic Energy Commission . [ 51 ] [ 59 ] An offensive is begun in Manchuria by the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalists) against further infiltration by the Chinese Communist Party . [ 59 ] November 16 Charles de Gaulle is unanimously elected president of France by the provisional government . [ 59 ] The United States controversially imports 88 German scientists to help in the production of rocket technology. The foundation of UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) is agreed at a meeting in London. Charles de Gaulle is unanimously elected president of France by the provisional government . [ 59 ] The United States controversially imports 88 German scientists to help in the production of rocket technology. The foundation of UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) is agreed at a meeting in London. November 18 – The Tudeh party starts a bloodless coup, and will form Azerbaijan within days. Soviet troops prevent Iranian troops from getting involved. November 20 – The Nuremberg trials begin: Trials against 22 Nazis for war crimes of World War II start at the Palace of Justice, Nuremberg . [ 59 ] November 26 – U.S. ambassador to China Patrick J. Hurley resigns after he is unable to broker a deal between Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Tse-tung . [ 59 ] November 28 The 1945 Balochistan earthquake causes a tsunami and kills 4,000. British fascist John Amery pleads guilty to treason, and is condemned to death. [ 62 ] The 1945 Balochistan earthquake causes a tsunami and kills 4,000. British fascist John Amery pleads guilty to treason, and is condemned to death. [ 62 ] November 29 The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is declared (this day is celebrated as Republic Day until the 1990s). Marshal Tito is named president. Assembly of the world's first general purpose electronic computer, the Electronic Numerical Integrator Analyzer and Computer ( ENIAC ), is completed in the United States, covering 1,800 square feet (170 m 2 ) of floor space, and the first set of calculations is run on it. The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is declared (this day is celebrated as Republic Day until the 1990s). Marshal Tito is named president. Assembly of the world's first general purpose electronic computer, the Electronic Numerical Integrator Analyzer and Computer ( ENIAC ), is completed in the United States, covering 1,800 square feet (170 m 2 ) of floor space, and the first set of calculations is run on it. December December 1 – German general Anton Dostler is executed by firing squad in Italy for the war crime of ordering the summary execution of captured U.S. commandos. The U.S. military tribunal which has tried him has not accepted his plea of " superior orders ", setting a precedent for future Allied war crimes trials . [ 63 ] December 2 General Eurico Gaspar Dutra is elected president of Brazil. French banks ( Bank of France , BNCI , CNEP , Crédit Lyonnais and Société Générale ) are nationalized. General Eurico Gaspar Dutra is elected president of Brazil. French banks ( Bank of France , BNCI , CNEP , Crédit Lyonnais and Société Générale ) are nationalized. December 3 – Communist demonstrations in Athens presage the Greek Civil War . December 4 – The United States Senate approves the entry of the United States into the United Nations by a vote of 65–7. December 5 – Flight 19 of United States Navy Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bombers disappears on a training exercise from Naval Air Station Fort Lauderdale . December 9 – American General George S. Patton is involved in a car accident in Germany, resulting in his death on December 21. December 21 – Iraq joins the United Nations . December 27 – Twenty-one nations ratify the articles creating the World Bank . [ 64 ] Date unknown A team at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (led by Charles D. Coryell ) discovers chemical element 61, the only one still missing between 1 and 96 on the periodic table , which they will name promethium . [ 65 ] Found by analysis of fission products of irradiated uranium fuel, its discovery is not made public until 1947. The Australian government introduces an Assisted Passage Migration Scheme to encourage the immigration of British subjects, at a fare of £ 10, hence they become known as " Ten Pound Poms ". [ 66 ] The first geothermal milk pasteurization is done in Klamath Falls, Oregon , United States. Births Births January · February · March · April · May · June · July · August · September · October · November · December January January 1 Pietro Grasso , Italian politician Jacky Ickx , Belgian racing driver Pietro Grasso , Italian politician Jacky Ickx , Belgian racing driver January 3 – Stephen Stills , American rock singer-songwriter ( Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young ) January 4 Sima Bina , Iranian vocalist Richard R. Schrock , American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate Sima Bina , Iranian vocalist Richard R. Schrock , American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate January 5 Júlio Isidro , Portuguese television presenter Robert Pindyck , American economist Júlio Isidro , Portuguese television presenter Robert Pindyck , American economist January 7 Shulamith Firestone , Canadian American feminist, writer (d. 2012 ) Raila Odinga , prime minister of Kenya (d. 2025 ) Shulamith Firestone , Canadian American feminist, writer (d. 2012 ) Raila Odinga , prime minister of Kenya (d. 2025 ) January 10 – Sir Rod Stewart , British rock singer January 12 – André Bicaba , Burkinabé sprinter January 14 – Einar Hákonarson , Icelandic painter January 15 Vince Foster , American deputy White House counsel during the first term of President Bill Clinton (d. 1993 ) Princess Michael of Kent , German-born member of the British Royal Family Vince Foster , American deputy White House counsel during the first term of President Bill Clinton (d. 1993 ) Princess Michael of Kent , German-born member of the British Royal Family January 17 – Javed Akhtar , Indian political activist, poet, lyricist and screenwriter January 20 – Robert Olen Butler , American writer January 21 Arthur Beetson , Australian rugby league player and coach (d. 2011 ) Martin Shaw , British actor Arthur Beetson , Australian rugby league player and coach (d. 2011 ) Martin Shaw , British actor January 24 – Subhash Ghai , Indian film director, producer and screenwriter January 25 – Leigh Taylor-Young , American actress January 26 Jacqueline du Pré , English cellist (d. 1987 ) Graham Williams , New Zealand rugby union player (d. 2018 ) Jacqueline du Pré , English cellist (d. 1987 ) Graham Williams , New Zealand rugby union player (d. 2018 ) January 27 – Harold Cardinal , Cree political leader, writer and lawyer (d. 2005 ) January 28 Karen Lynn Gorney , American actress ( Saturday Night Fever ) Chuck Pyle , American country-folk singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) Karen Lynn Gorney , American actress ( Saturday Night Fever ) Chuck Pyle , American country-folk singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) January 29 Jim Nicholson , Northern Irish politician Tom Selleck , American actor ( Magnum, P.I. ) Jim Nicholson , Northern Irish politician Tom Selleck , American actor ( Magnum, P.I. ) January 31 – Joseph Kosuth , American artist February February 1 – Yasuhiro Takai , Japanese professional baseball player (d. 2019 ) February 3 Bob Griese , American football player Philip Waruinge , Kenyan boxer Bob Griese , American football player Philip Waruinge , Kenyan boxer February 4 – John P. Jumper , United States Air Force general February 5 – Sarah Weddington , American attorney (d. 2021 ) February 6 – Bob Marley , Jamaican reggae singer-songwriter and musician (d. 1981 ) February 7 – Gerald Davies , Welsh rugby player February 9 Mia Farrow , American actress Yoshinori Ohsumi , Japanese cell biologist [ 67 ] Mia Farrow , American actress Yoshinori Ohsumi , Japanese cell biologist [ 67 ] February 10 – Koo Bon-moo , South Korean business executive (d. 2018 ) February 12 Luiz Carlos Alborghetti , Italian-Brazilian radio commenter, showman and political figure (d. 2009 ) Maud Adams , Swedish actress David D. Friedman , American economist Luiz Carlos Alborghetti , Italian-Brazilian radio commenter, showman and political figure (d. 2009 ) Maud Adams , Swedish actress David D. Friedman , American economist February 13 – Simon Schama , English historian [ 68 ] February 14 Adiss Harmandian , Lebanese-Armenian pop singer (d. 2019 ) Hans-Adam II, Prince of Liechtenstein Adiss Harmandian , Lebanese-Armenian pop singer (d. 2019 ) Hans-Adam II, Prince of Liechtenstein February 15 – Douglas Hofstadter , American cognitive scientist February 17 – Brenda Fricker , Irish actress [ 69 ] February 18 – Hashem Mahameed , Israeli politician (d. 2018 ) February 22 – Oliver , American singer ( Good Morning Starshine ) (d. 2000 ) February 24 – Barry Bostwick , American actor February 25 – Roy Saari , American swimmer (d. 2008 ) February 26 – Marta Kristen , Norwegian actress ( Lost In Space ) February 27 – Carl Anderson , American singer, actor ( Jesus Christ Superstar ) (d. 2004 ) February 28 Alexey Ekimov , Russian-born chemist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 70 ] Bubba Smith , American football player and actor (d. 2011 ) Alexey Ekimov , Russian-born chemist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 70 ] Bubba Smith , American football player and actor (d. 2011 ) March March 1 – Dirk Benedict , American actor March 3 – George Miller , Australian film director March 4 Dieter Meier , Swiss singer, writer Tommy Svensson , Swedish football manager, player Dieter Meier , Swiss singer, writer Tommy Svensson , Swedish football manager, player March 7 – Arthur Lee , American musician (d. 2006 ) March 8 Micky Dolenz , American actor, director and rock musician ( The Monkees ) Anselm Kiefer , German painter Micky Dolenz , American actor, director and rock musician ( The Monkees ) Anselm Kiefer , German painter March 9 Katja Ebstein , German singer Dennis Rader , American serial killer Katja Ebstein , German singer Dennis Rader , American serial killer March 10 – Nobuhiko Higashikuni , Japanese Imperial prince (d. 2019 ) March 13 Othman Abdullah , Malaysian footballer (d. 2015 ) Anatoly Fomenko , Russian mathematician Othman Abdullah , Malaysian footballer (d. 2015 ) Anatoly Fomenko , Russian mathematician March 14 – Michael Martin Murphey , American country singer-songwriter March 16 – Douglas Ahlstedt , American tenor March 17 Hassan Bechara , Lebanese wrestler (d. 2017 ) Hassan Bechara , Lebanese wrestler (d. 2017 ) March 18 Michael Reagan , American television personality, political commentator and Republican strategist Marta Suplicy , Brazilian politician and psychologist Michael Reagan , American television personality, political commentator and Republican strategist Marta Suplicy , Brazilian politician and psychologist March 20 Jay Ingram , Canadian television host, author and journalist Bobby Jameson , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) Pat Riley , American basketball coach Jay Ingram , Canadian television host, author and journalist Bobby Jameson , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) Pat Riley , American basketball coach March 21 – Charles Greene , American Olympic athlete (d. 2022 ) March 26 – Mikhail Voronin , Russian gymnast (d. 2004 ) March 27 – Władysław Stachurski , Polish football player, manager (d. 2013 ) March 28 Rodrigo Duterte , 16th President of the Philippines Raine Loo , Estonian actress Rodrigo Duterte , 16th President of the Philippines Raine Loo , Estonian actress March 29 Walt Frazier , African-American basketball player Willem Ruis , Dutch game show host (d. 1986 ) Walt Frazier , African-American basketball player Willem Ruis , Dutch game show host (d. 1986 ) March 30 – Eric Clapton , English rock guitarist and singer-songwriter [ 71 ] March 31 Nana Ampadu , Ghanaian musician (d. 2021 ) [ 72 ] Edwin Catmull , American computer scientist, President of Walt Disney Animation Studios [ 73 ] Nana Ampadu , Ghanaian musician (d. 2021 ) [ 72 ] Edwin Catmull , American computer scientist, President of Walt Disney Animation Studios [ 73 ] April April 2 – Linda Hunt , American actress [ 74 ] April 4 – Daniel Cohn-Bendit , French political activist [ 75 ] April 5 Cem Karaca , Turkish musician (d. 2004 ) Tommy Smith , English footballer (d. 2019 ) Cem Karaca , Turkish musician (d. 2004 ) Tommy Smith , English footballer (d. 2019 ) April 12 – Lee Jong-wook , South Korean Director-General of the World Health Organization (d. 2006 ) April 13 Lucha Corpi , Mexican poet Tony Dow , American actor, producer and director (d. 2022 ) Lowell George , American rock musician ( Little Feat ) (d. 1979 ) Lucha Corpi , Mexican poet Tony Dow , American actor, producer and director (d. 2022 ) Lowell George , American rock musician ( Little Feat ) (d. 1979 ) April 14 Ritchie Blackmore , English rock guitarist Tuilaʻepa Saʻilele Malielegaoi , 6th Prime Minister of Samoa Ritchie Blackmore , English rock guitarist Tuilaʻepa Saʻilele Malielegaoi , 6th Prime Minister of Samoa April 20 – Naftali Temu , Kenyan Olympic long-distance runner (d. 2003 ) April 21 – Ana Lúcia Torre , Brazilian actress April 24 – Larry Tesler , American computer scientist (cut, copy, paste) (d. 2020 ) April 25 – Björn Ulvaeus , Swedish rock songwriter ( ABBA ) April 29 – Tammi Terrell , African-American soul singer (d. 1970 ) April 30 – Lara Saint Paul , Eritrean-born Italian singer (d. 2018 ) May May 1 – Rita Coolidge , American pop singer May 2 – Bianca Jagger , Nicaraguan social activist [ 76 ] May 3 – Jeffrey C. Hall , American geneticist and chronobiologist, Nobel Prize laureate May 4 David Magson , Australian-British mathematician and businessman Narasimhan Ram , Indian journalist David Magson , Australian-British mathematician and businessman Narasimhan Ram , Indian journalist May 6 – Bob Seger , American rock singer May 7 – Robin Strasser , American actress May 8 – Keith Jarrett , American musician [ 77 ] May 9 – Jupp Heynckes , German footballer and manager May 11 Mary Cooney , American politician Hilda Pérez Carvajal , Venezuelan biologist Mary Cooney , American politician Hilda Pérez Carvajal , Venezuelan biologist May 13 – Tammam Salam , 34th Prime Minister of Lebanon May 14 – Yochanan Vollach , Israeli footballer and president of Maccabi Haifa, CEO May 15 – Duarte Pio, Duke of Braganza , heir to the Portuguese crown May 17 – Tony Roche , Australian tennis player May 19 – Pete Townshend , English rock guitarist, lyricist ( The Who ) May 20 – Anton Zeilinger , Austrian quantum physicist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 78 ] May 21 Richard Hatch , American actor ( Battlestar Galactica ) (d. 2017 ) Ernst Messerschmid , German physicist, astronaut Richard Hatch , American actor ( Battlestar Galactica ) (d. 2017 ) Ernst Messerschmid , German physicist, astronaut May 22 – Victoria Wyndham , American actress ( Another World ) May 23 Lauren Chapin , American child actress, evangelist Doris Mae Oulton , Canadian community developer Lauren Chapin , American child actress, evangelist Doris Mae Oulton , Canadian community developer May 24 – Priscilla Presley , American actress, businesswoman May 28 Patch Adams , American physician, comedian, social activist, clown and author John Fogerty , American rock singer ( Creedence Clearwater Revival ) Patch Adams , American physician, comedian, social activist, clown and author John Fogerty , American rock singer ( Creedence Clearwater Revival ) May 29 Gary Brooker , English rock keyboardist and singer-songwriter ( Procol Harum ) (d. 2022 ) [ 79 ] Jean-Pierre Van Rossem , Belgian businessman, fraudster and politician (d. 2018 ) Gary Brooker , English rock keyboardist and singer-songwriter ( Procol Harum ) (d. 2022 ) [ 79 ] Jean-Pierre Van Rossem , Belgian businessman, fraudster and politician (d. 2018 ) May 30 Andrea Bronfman , American philanthropist (d. 2006 ) Gladys Horton , American singer ( The Marvelettes ) (d. 2011 ) Andrea Bronfman , American philanthropist (d. 2006 ) Gladys Horton , American singer ( The Marvelettes ) (d. 2011 ) May 31 Rainer Werner Fassbinder , German film director (d. 1982 ) Laurent Gbagbo , President of Côte d'Ivoire Rainer Werner Fassbinder , German film director (d. 1982 ) Laurent Gbagbo , President of Côte d'Ivoire June June 1 – Frederica von Stade , American mezzo-soprano June 2 – Jon Peters , American film producer June 3 – Hale Irwin , American professional golfer June 4 – Anthony Braxton , American composer and musical instrumentalist June 5 John Carlos , American athlete Théophile Georges Kassab , Catholic prelate (d. 2013 ) Nechama Rivlin , Israeli socialite, 10th First lady of Israel (d. 2019 ) John Carlos , American athlete Théophile Georges Kassab , Catholic prelate (d. 2013 ) Nechama Rivlin , Israeli socialite, 10th First lady of Israel (d. 2019 ) June 6 – David Dukes , American actor (d. 2000 ) June 7 – Wolfgang Schüssel , Chancellor of Austria June 9 – Nike Wagner , German woman of the theater June 10 – Benny Gallagher , Scottish singer-songwriter and multi-instrumentalist, half of duo Gallagher and Lyle June 11 – Adrienne Barbeau , American actress, television personality and author ( Maude ) June 12 – Pat Jennings , Northern Irish footballer June 14 – Jörg Immendorff , German painter June 15 Françoise Chandernagor , French writer Miriam Defensor Santiago , Filipino politician (d. 2016 ) Françoise Chandernagor , French writer Miriam Defensor Santiago , Filipino politician (d. 2016 ) June 16 Claire Alexander , Canadian ice hockey player Ivan Lins , Latin Grammy-winning Brazilian musician Claire Alexander , Canadian ice hockey player Ivan Lins , Latin Grammy-winning Brazilian musician June 17 P. D. T. Acharya , Secretary General, Indian Lok Sabha Art Bell , American radio talk show host ( Coast to Coast AM ) (d. 2018 ) Ken Livingstone , British politician Eddy Merckx , Belgian cyclist P. D. T. Acharya , Secretary General, Indian Lok Sabha Art Bell , American radio talk show host ( Coast to Coast AM ) (d. 2018 ) Ken Livingstone , British politician Eddy Merckx , Belgian cyclist June 19 Radovan Karadžić , Serbian politician Aung San Suu Kyi , Myanmar politician and poet, Nobel Peace Prize recipient Radovan Karadžić , Serbian politician Aung San Suu Kyi , Myanmar politician and poet, Nobel Peace Prize recipient June 20 – Anne Murray , Canadian singer June 21 Roberto D'Angelo , Italian slalom canoeist Luis Castañeda Lossio , Peruvian politician Thiagarajan , Indian actor, director and producer Nirmalendu Goon , Bangladeshi poet Marijana Lubej , Slovenian sprinter Roberto D'Angelo , Italian slalom canoeist Luis Castañeda Lossio , Peruvian politician Thiagarajan , Indian actor, director and producer Nirmalendu Goon , Bangladeshi poet Marijana Lubej , Slovenian sprinter June 22 Juma Kapuya , Tanzanian politician Dieter Versen , German football defender (d. 2025 ) Juma Kapuya , Tanzanian politician Dieter Versen , German football defender (d. 2025 ) June 23 Ana Chumachenco , Italian violinist Kim Småge , Norwegian novelist, crime fiction writer, writer of short stories and children's writer Ana Chumachenco , Italian violinist Kim Småge , Norwegian novelist, crime fiction writer, writer of short stories and children's writer June 24 George Pataki , Governor of New York Betty Stöve , Dutch tennis player [ 80 ] Ali Akbar Velayati , Iranian physician, politician George Pataki , Governor of New York Betty Stöve , Dutch tennis player [ 80 ] Ali Akbar Velayati , Iranian physician, politician June 25 Lali Armengol , Spanish playwright, professor and theater director [ 81 ] Mohammed Bakar , Malaysian footballer Carolyn Cheeks Kilpatrick , American politician Baba Gana Kingibe , Nigerian politician Guillermo Mendoza , Mexican cyclist Chaiyasit Shinawatra , commander-in-chief of the Royal Thai Army Lali Armengol , Spanish playwright, professor and theater director [ 81 ] Mohammed Bakar , Malaysian footballer Carolyn Cheeks Kilpatrick , American politician Baba Gana Kingibe , Nigerian politician Guillermo Mendoza , Mexican cyclist Chaiyasit Shinawatra , commander-in-chief of the Royal Thai Army June 26 – Paul Chun , Hong Kong actor June 27 Jose Miguel Arroyo , First Gentleman of the Philippines Ami Ayalon , Israeli politician Norma Kamali , American fashion designer Catherine Lacoste , French amateur golfer Lu Sheng-yen , Taiwanese leader of the True Buddha School Jose Miguel Arroyo , First Gentleman of the Philippines Ami Ayalon , Israeli politician Norma Kamali , American fashion designer Catherine Lacoste , French amateur golfer Lu Sheng-yen , Taiwanese leader of the True Buddha School June 28 Ken Buchanan , Scottish undisputed world lightweight boxing champion (d. 2023 ) Raul Seixas , Brazilian rock singer (d. 1989 ) Ken Buchanan , Scottish undisputed world lightweight boxing champion (d. 2023 ) Raul Seixas , Brazilian rock singer (d. 1989 ) June 29 – Chandrika Kumaratunga , 5th President of Sri Lanka June 30 Kevin Jackman , Australian rules footballer Jerry Kenney , American Major League Baseball infielder Sean Scully , Irish-American-based painter, printmaker James Snyder Jr. , American author, attorney and politician Kevin Jackman , Australian rules footballer Jerry Kenney , American Major League Baseball infielder Sean Scully , Irish-American-based painter, printmaker James Snyder Jr. , American author, attorney and politician July July 1 Jane Cederqvist , Swedish freestyle swimmer Visu , Indian writer, director, stage, actor and talk-show host (d. 2020 ) Billy Rohr , American Major League Baseball player Debbie Harry , American rock singer ( Blondie ) Jane Cederqvist , Swedish freestyle swimmer Visu , Indian writer, director, stage, actor and talk-show host (d. 2020 ) Billy Rohr , American Major League Baseball player Debbie Harry , American rock singer ( Blondie ) July 2 – Linda Warren , American author July 3 – Thomas Mapfumo , Zimbabwean musician July 4 Tiong Thai King , Malaysian politician Steinar Amundsen , Norwegian sprint canoeist Tiong Thai King , Malaysian politician Steinar Amundsen , Norwegian sprint canoeist July 5 Nurul Islam Nahid , Bangladeshi politician Miroslav Mišković , Serbian business magnate, investor Nurul Islam Nahid , Bangladeshi politician Miroslav Mišković , Serbian business magnate, investor July 6 – Burt Ward , American actor ( Batman ) July 7 Heloísa Pinheiro , Brazilian model, businesswoman Moncef Marzouki , Tunisian politician; 4th President of Tunisia Li Chi-an , North Korean football striker Matti Salminen , Finnish bass singer Heloísa Pinheiro , Brazilian model, businesswoman Moncef Marzouki , Tunisian politician; 4th President of Tunisia Li Chi-an , North Korean football striker Matti Salminen , Finnish bass singer July 8 – Micheline Calmy-Rey , Swiss Federal Councilor July 9 Dean Koontz , American writer Mohammad Reza Nematzadeh , Iranian politician, engineer Dean Koontz , American writer Mohammad Reza Nematzadeh , Iranian politician, engineer July 10 Zlatko Tomčić , Croatian politician Daniel Ona Ondo , Gabonese politician Virginia Wade , English professional tennis player Ron Glass , African-American actor (d. 2016 ) Zlatko Tomčić , Croatian politician Daniel Ona Ondo , Gabonese politician Virginia Wade , English professional tennis player Ron Glass , African-American actor (d. 2016 ) July 11 – Richard Wesley , American playwright, screenwriter July 12 Leopoldo Mastelloni , Italian actor, comedian and singer Thor Martinsen , Norwegian ice hockey player Leopoldo Mastelloni , Italian actor, comedian and singer Thor Martinsen , Norwegian ice hockey player July 14 – Antun Vujić , Croatian politician, philosopher, political analyst, lexicographer and author July 15 Hong Ra-hee , South Korean billionaire businesswoman, philanthropist Jürgen Möllemann , German politician (d. 2003 ) Jan-Michael Vincent , American actor (d. 2019 ) Hong Ra-hee , South Korean billionaire businesswoman, philanthropist Jürgen Möllemann , German politician (d. 2003 ) Jan-Michael Vincent , American actor (d. 2019 ) July 16 Victor Sloan , Irish artist Çetin Tekindor , Turkish actor Roy Ho Ten Soeng , Dutch politician Jos Stelling , Dutch film director, screenwriter Victor Sloan , Irish artist Çetin Tekindor , Turkish actor Roy Ho Ten Soeng , Dutch politician Jos Stelling , Dutch film director, screenwriter July 17 Eduardo Olivera , Mexican modern pentathlete Kim Won-hong , North Korean politician, military leader Alexander, Crown Prince of Yugoslavia Eduardo Olivera , Mexican modern pentathlete Kim Won-hong , North Korean politician, military leader Alexander, Crown Prince of Yugoslavia July 19 Oleg Fotin , Russian swimmer Richard Henderson , Scottish molecular biologist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 82 ] Uri Rosenthal , Dutch politician Oleg Fotin , Russian swimmer Richard Henderson , Scottish molecular biologist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 82 ] Uri Rosenthal , Dutch politician July 20 Kim Carnes , American singer-songwriter ( Bette Davis Eyes ) Lothar Koepsel , German sailor Simbarashe Mumbengegwi , Zimbabwean politician and diplomat Kim Carnes , American singer-songwriter ( Bette Davis Eyes ) Lothar Koepsel , German sailor Simbarashe Mumbengegwi , Zimbabwean politician and diplomat July 21 John Lowe , English darts player Barry Richards , South African batsman John Lowe , English darts player Barry Richards , South African batsman July 23 – Edie McClurg , American actress July 24 – Azim Premji , Indian businessman July 26 Helen Mirren , British actress Helen Mirren , British actress July 28 – Jim Davis , American cartoonist ( Garfield ) July 30 Roger Dobkowitz , American producer Patrick Modiano , French novelist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 83 ] David Sanborn , American saxophonist (d. 2024 ) Roger Dobkowitz , American producer Patrick Modiano , French novelist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 83 ] David Sanborn , American saxophonist (d. 2024 ) August August 1 – Douglas Osheroff , American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate August 4 – Alan Mulally , American businessman, CEO of the Ford Motor Company August 5 – Loni Anderson , American actress ( WKRP in Cincinnati ) (d. 2025 ) August 8 – Julie Anne Robinson , British theatre, television, film director and producer August 9 – Posy Simmonds , English cartoonist August 12 Ron Mael , American musician ( Sparks ) [ 84 ] J. D. McClatchy , American poet and literary critic (d. 2018 ) Ron Mael , American musician ( Sparks ) [ 84 ] J. D. McClatchy , American poet and literary critic (d. 2018 ) August 14 Steve Martin , American actor and comedian Valeriy Shmarov , Ukrainian politician (d. 2018 ) Eliana Pittman , Brazilian singer, actress Faustin Twagiramungu , Prime Minister of Rwanda (d. 2023 ) Wim Wenders , German film director, producer Steve Martin , American actor and comedian Valeriy Shmarov , Ukrainian politician (d. 2018 ) Eliana Pittman , Brazilian singer, actress Faustin Twagiramungu , Prime Minister of Rwanda (d. 2023 ) Wim Wenders , German film director, producer August 15 Bobby Treviño , Mexican baseball player (d. 2018 ) Miyuki Matsuhisa , Japanese artistic gymnast Khaleda Zia , Bangladesh politician, Prime Minister of Bangladesh (d. 2025 ) [ 85 ] Bobby Treviño , Mexican baseball player (d. 2018 ) Miyuki Matsuhisa , Japanese artistic gymnast Khaleda Zia , Bangladesh politician, Prime Minister of Bangladesh (d. 2025 ) [ 85 ] August 17 – Katri Helena , Finnish singer August 19 – Ian Gillan , English rock singer ( Deep Purple ) August 22 David Chase , American writer, director and television producer Ron Dante , American rock singer-songwriter and record producer ( The Archies ) David Chase , American writer, director and television producer Ron Dante , American rock singer-songwriter and record producer ( The Archies ) August 24 – Vincent K. "Vince" McMahon , American professional wrestling promoter, chairman and CEO of WWE August 25 – Daniel Hulet , Belgian cartoonist (d. 2011 ) August 26 – Tom Ridge , American politician August 27 – Marianne Sägebrecht , German film actress August 29 Alyosha Abrahamyan , Armenian football player (d. 2018 ) Wyomia Tyus , American Olympic athlete Alyosha Abrahamyan , Armenian football player (d. 2018 ) Wyomia Tyus , American Olympic athlete August 31 Sir Van Morrison , Irish rock musician Itzhak Perlman , Israeli-born American violinist, conductor Sir Van Morrison , Irish rock musician Itzhak Perlman , Israeli-born American violinist, conductor September September 1 – Mustafa Balel , Turkish writer September 5 K. N. T. Sastry , Indian film critic, director and writer (d. 2018 ) Al Stewart , Scottish singer-songwriter ( Year of the Cat ) K. N. T. Sastry , Indian film critic, director and writer (d. 2018 ) Al Stewart , Scottish singer-songwriter ( Year of the Cat ) September 6 – Victor Ramahatra , 5th Prime Minister of Madagascar September 7 – Jacques Lemaire , Canadian ice hockey coach September 8 Ron "Pigpen" McKernan , American musician ( Grateful Dead ) (d. 1973 ) Rogatien Vachon , Canadian ice hockey player Ron "Pigpen" McKernan , American musician ( Grateful Dead ) (d. 1973 ) Rogatien Vachon , Canadian ice hockey player September 10 – José Feliciano , Puerto Rican-American singer (" Feliz Navidad ") September 11 – Franz Beckenbauer , German footballer and manager (d. 2024 ) September 12 – Richard Thaler , American economist September 14 – Benjamin Harjo Jr. , Native American artist September 15 – Jessye Norman , American soprano (d. 2019 ) September 16 – Pat Stevens , American voice actress (d. 2010 ) September 17 Phil Jackson , American basketball coach Bruce Spence , Australian actor Phil Jackson , American basketball coach Bruce Spence , Australian actor September 18 John McAfee , British-American computer programmer and businessman (d. 2021 ) [ 86 ] P. F. Sloan , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) John McAfee , British-American computer programmer and businessman (d. 2021 ) [ 86 ] P. F. Sloan , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) September 19 - Randolph Mantooth , American actor September 21 Shaw Clifton , Northern Ireland-born General of the Salvation Army Kay Ryan , American poet Shaw Clifton , Northern Ireland-born General of the Salvation Army Kay Ryan , American poet September 22 – Gonzaguinha , Brazilian singer, composer (d. 1991 ) September 24 – John Rutter , English choral composer, conductor September 26 – Bryan Ferry , English singer-songwriter and musician ( Roxy Music ) September 27 – Jack Goldstein , Canadian artist (d. 2003 ) September 29 – Nadezhda Chizhova , Russian athlete September 30 Ehud Olmert , 12th Prime Minister of Israel Ralph Siegel , German record producer, songwriter Ehud Olmert , 12th Prime Minister of Israel Ralph Siegel , German record producer, songwriter October October 1 Rod Carew , Panamanian-American baseball player Donny Hathaway , African-American soul singer-songwriter (d. 1979 ) Ram Nath Kovind , 14th President of India Rod Carew , Panamanian-American baseball player Donny Hathaway , African-American soul singer-songwriter (d. 1979 ) Ram Nath Kovind , 14th President of India October 2 Regina Torné , Mexican actress, singer and television presenter Don McLean , American singer-songwriter (" American Pie ") Regina Torné , Mexican actress, singer and television presenter Don McLean , American singer-songwriter (" American Pie ") October 3 – Viktor Saneyev , Soviet athlete and Olympic champion (d. 2022 ) October 6 – Ivan Graziani , Italian singer-songwriter (d. 1997 ) October 9 Vijaya Kumaratunga , Sri Lankan actor and politician (d. 1988 ) Archbishop Nikon of Boston , Albanian bishop (d. 2019 ) Vijaya Kumaratunga , Sri Lankan actor and politician (d. 1988 ) Archbishop Nikon of Boston , Albanian bishop (d. 2019 ) October 12 Aurore Clément , French actress Dusty Rhodes , American wrestler (d. 2015 ) Aurore Clément , French actress Dusty Rhodes , American wrestler (d. 2015 ) October 18 Norio Wakamoto , Japanese voice actor Yıldo , Turkish showman, footballer Norio Wakamoto , Japanese voice actor Yıldo , Turkish showman, footballer October 19 Angus Deaton , Scottish-born economist, recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences John Lithgow , American actor ( Third Rock from the Sun ) Angus Deaton , Scottish-born economist, recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences John Lithgow , American actor ( Third Rock from the Sun ) October 22 – Yvan Ponton , Canadian actor, sportscaster October 23 – Kim Larsen , Danish rock musician (d. 2018 ) October 24 Eugenie Scott , American Executive Director of the National Center for Science Education Sean Solomon , American Principal Investigator of NASA's MESSENGER mission to Mercury and director of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at the Carnegie Institution for Science Eugenie Scott , American Executive Director of the National Center for Science Education Sean Solomon , American Principal Investigator of NASA's MESSENGER mission to Mercury and director of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at the Carnegie Institution for Science October 25 Peter Ledger , Australian artist (d. 1994 ) David Schramm , American astrophysicist and educator (d. 1997 ) Keaton Yamada , Japanese voice actor Peter Ledger , Australian artist (d. 1994 ) David Schramm , American astrophysicist and educator (d. 1997 ) Keaton Yamada , Japanese voice actor October 26 Pat Conroy , American author (d. 2016 ) Jaclyn Smith , American actress, businesswoman ( Charlie's Angels ) Pat Conroy , American author (d. 2016 ) Jaclyn Smith , American actress, businesswoman ( Charlie's Angels ) October 27 Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva , 35th President of Brazil Carrie Snodgress , American actress (d. 2004 ) Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva , 35th President of Brazil Carrie Snodgress , American actress (d. 2004 ) October 29 Ching Li , Taiwanese actress (d. 2017 ) Melba Moore , African-American singer, actress Ching Li , Taiwanese actress (d. 2017 ) Melba Moore , African-American singer, actress October 30 – Henry Winkler , American actor, producer and director ( Happy Days ) November November 3 – Gerd Müller , German footballer (d. 2021 ) November 5 – Jacques Lanctôt , Canadian terrorist November 7 Bob Englehart , American editorial cartoonist Waljinah , Javanese singer Bob Englehart , American editorial cartoonist Waljinah , Javanese singer November 8 – Joseph James DeAngelo , American serial killer and serial rapist November 9 – Charlie Robinson , African-American actor (d. 2021 ) November 10 – Madeleine Juneau , Canadian museologist November 11 – Daniel Ortega , 58th and 62nd President of Nicaragua November 12 – Neil Young , Canadian singer-songwriter, musician November 15 – Anni-Frid Lyngstad , Norwegian-born rock singer ( ABBA ) November 17 Elvin Hayes , American basketball player Abdelmadjid Tebboune , President of Algeria Elvin Hayes , American basketball player Abdelmadjid Tebboune , President of Algeria November 18 Wilma Mankiller , Chief of the Cherokee Nation (d. 2010 ) Mahinda Rajapaksa , Sri Lankan politician, 6th President of Sri Lanka Wilma Mankiller , Chief of the Cherokee Nation (d. 2010 ) Mahinda Rajapaksa , Sri Lankan politician, 6th President of Sri Lanka November 21 – Goldie Hawn , American actress Kalervo Kummola – Finnish ice hockey executive, businessman, and politician Kalervo Kummola – Finnish ice hockey executive, businessman, and politician November 22 – Kari Tapio , Finnish singer (d. 2010 ) November 23 – Dennis Nilsen , Scottish serial killer (d. 2018 ) [ 87 ] November 24 – Nuruddin Farah , Somali novelist November 25 – Mary Jo Deschanel , American actress November 26 – John McVie , English rock musician ( Fleetwood Mac ) November 27 Barbara Anderson , American actress James Avery , African-American actor (d. 2013 ) Barbara Anderson , American actress James Avery , African-American actor (d. 2013 ) November 30 Roger Glover , English rock musician ( Deep Purple ) Radu Lupu , Romanian classical pianist (d. 2022 ) Roger Glover , English rock musician ( Deep Purple ) Radu Lupu , Romanian classical pianist (d. 2022 ) December December 1 Lyle Bien , American vice admiral [ 88 ] Bette Midler , American actress, comedian and singer Lyle Bien , American vice admiral [ 88 ] Bette Midler , American actress, comedian and singer December 2 – Tex Watson , American multiple murderer, 'Manson Family' member December 3 – Bozhidar Dimitrov , Bulgarian historian, politician and polemicist (d. 2018 ) December 4 – Geoff Emerick , English recording engineer (d. 2018 ) December 7 – Clive Russell , English actor December 8 – Julie Heldman , American tennis player [ 89 ] December 10 – John Ankerberg , American Christian television host, author and speaker December 11 – Sharafuddin of Selangor , Sultan of Selangor December 12 René Pétillon , French satirical, political cartoonist (d. 2018 ) Portia Simpson-Miller , 2-time Prime Minister of Jamaica Kathy Garver , American actress, author and online radio hostess Donald Pandiangan , Indonesian archery athlete (d. 2008 ) Heather North , American actress (d. 2017 ) René Pétillon , French satirical, political cartoonist (d. 2018 ) Portia Simpson-Miller , 2-time Prime Minister of Jamaica Kathy Garver , American actress, author and online radio hostess Donald Pandiangan , Indonesian archery athlete (d. 2008 ) Heather North , American actress (d. 2017 ) December 15 Michael King , New Zealand popular historian, author and biographer (d. 2004 ) Thaao Penghlis , Australian actor Michael King , New Zealand popular historian, author and biographer (d. 2004 ) Thaao Penghlis , Australian actor December 16 – Patti Deutsch , American voice actress (d. 2017 ) December 17 – Ernie Hudson , African-American actor December 18 – Carolyn Wood , American professional swimmer December 19 – Elaine Joyce , American actress, game show panelist December 20 Peter Criss , American rock drummer ( KISS ) Sivakant Tiwari , senior legal officer of the Singapore Legal Service (d. 2010 ) Peter Criss , American rock drummer ( KISS ) Sivakant Tiwari , senior legal officer of the Singapore Legal Service (d. 2010 ) December 21 – Mari Lill , Estonian actress December 22 – Diane Sawyer , American news journalist December 23 – Donald A. Ritchie , American historian December 24 Lemmy , British singer, bassist ( Motörhead ) (d. 2015 ) [ 90 ] Nicholas Meyer , American screenwriter, producer, director and novelist Sharafuddin of Selangor , Sultan of Selangor Steve Smith , Canadian actor, comedian and writer Lemmy , British singer, bassist ( Motörhead ) (d. 2015 ) [ 90 ] Nicholas Meyer , American screenwriter, producer, director and novelist Sharafuddin of Selangor , Sultan of Selangor Steve Smith , Canadian actor, comedian and writer December 25 – Noel Redding , English musician (d. 2003 ) [ 91 ] December 29 – Birendra of Nepal , King of Nepal (d. 2001 ) December 30 – Davy Jones , English-born pop singer, actor ( The Monkees ) (d. 2012 ) December 31 Barbara Carrera , Nicaraguan-American actress Vernon Wells , Australian actor [ 92 ] Connie Willis , American fiction writer Barbara Carrera , Nicaraguan-American actress Vernon Wells , Australian actor [ 92 ] Connie Willis , American fiction writer Deaths January January 2 – Sir Bertram Ramsay , British admiral (b. 1883 ) January 3 – Edgar Cayce , American mystic (b. 1877 ) January 4 – Ricardo Jiménez Oreamuno , 3-time President of Costa Rica (b. 1859 ) January 6 Josefa Llanes Escoda , Filipino women's suffrage advocate, founder of the Girl Scouts of the Philippines (b. 1898 ) Edith Frank , German-Dutch mother of Anne Frank (b. 1900 ) [ 93 ] Herbert Lumsden , British general (killed in action) (b. 1897 ) [ 94 ] Vladimir Vernadsky , Soviet mineralogist, geochemist (b. 1863 ) Josefa Llanes Escoda , Filipino women's suffrage advocate, founder of the Girl Scouts of the Philippines (b. 1898 ) Edith Frank , German-Dutch mother of Anne Frank (b. 1900 ) [ 93 ] Herbert Lumsden , British general (killed in action) (b. 1897 ) [ 94 ] Vladimir Vernadsky , Soviet mineralogist, geochemist (b. 1863 ) January 7 Alexander Stirling Calder , American sculptor (b. 1870 ) Thomas McGuire , American World War II fighter ace (killed in action) (b. 1920 ) Prince Rainer of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) Alexander Stirling Calder , American sculptor (b. 1870 ) Thomas McGuire , American World War II fighter ace (killed in action) (b. 1920 ) Prince Rainer of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) January 9 – Jüri Uluots , 8th Prime Minister of Estonia (b. 1890 ) January 10 – Pēteris Juraševskis , 8th Prime Minister of Latvia (b. 1872 ) January 12 – Teresio Olivelli , Italian Roman Catholic soldier and venerable (b. 1916 ) January 15 – Pedro Abad Santos , Filipino politician, brother of José Abad Santos (b. 1876 ) January 16 – José Fabella , Filipino physician (b. 1888 ) January 19 Petar Bojović , Serbian field marshal (b. 1858 ) Gustave Mesny , French Army general (b. 1886 ) Petar Bojović , Serbian field marshal (b. 1858 ) Gustave Mesny , French Army general (b. 1886 ) January 20 – Federico Pedrocchi , Italian artist, writer (killed on active service) (b. 1907 ) January 21 Francisco Moreno Fernández , Spanish admiral (b. 1883 ) [ 95 ] Sir Archibald Murray , British Army general (b. 1860 ) Francisco Moreno Fernández , Spanish admiral (b. 1883 ) [ 95 ] Sir Archibald Murray , British Army general (b. 1860 ) January 22 – Else Lasker-Schüler , German poet, author (b. 1869 ) January 23 Eugen Bolz , German politician, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1881 ) Nikolaus Gross , German Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1898 ) Newton E. Mason , United States Navy rear admiral (b. 1850 ) Eugen Bolz , German politician, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1881 ) Nikolaus Gross , German Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1898 ) Newton E. Mason , United States Navy rear admiral (b. 1850 ) January 29 – Hans Conrad Leipelt , Austrian member of the White Rose resistance movement in Nazi Germany (executed) (b. 1921 ) January 30 Sir William Goodenough , British admiral (b. 1867 ) Pedro Paulet , Peruvian scientist (b. 1874 ) Sir William Goodenough , British admiral (b. 1867 ) Pedro Paulet , Peruvian scientist (b. 1874 ) January 31 – Eddie Slovik , American soldier (executed for desertion) (b. 1920 ) [ 96 ] February February (or March) – Anne Frank , German-born Jewish diarist, writer (typhus in Bergen-Belsen concentration camp ) (b. 1929 ) [ 97 ] February 1 Ivan Bagryanov , 30th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1891 ) Dobri Bozhilov , 29th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1884 ) Bogdan Filov , Bulgarian archaeologist, historian and politician, 28th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1883 ) Petar Gabrovski , acting Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1898 ) Johan Huizinga , Dutch cultural historian (b. 1872 ) Prince Kiril of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1895 ) Ivan Bagryanov , 30th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1891 ) Dobri Bozhilov , 29th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1884 ) Bogdan Filov , Bulgarian archaeologist, historian and politician, 28th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1883 ) Petar Gabrovski , acting Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1898 ) Johan Huizinga , Dutch cultural historian (b. 1872 ) Prince Kiril of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1895 ) February 2 Adolf Brand , German campaigner for homosexuality (air raid victim) (b. 1874 ) Alfred Delp , German Jesuit priest and philosopher of the German Resistance, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1907 ) Carl Friedrich Goerdeler , German politician, civil servant, executive and economist, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1884 ) Gustav Heistermann von Ziehlberg , German general, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1898 ) Joe Hunt , American tennis champion (military aircraft crash) (b. 1919 ) Adolf Brand , German campaigner for homosexuality (air raid victim) (b. 1874 ) Alfred Delp , German Jesuit priest and philosopher of the German Resistance, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1907 ) Carl Friedrich Goerdeler , German politician, civil servant, executive and economist, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1884 ) Gustav Heistermann von Ziehlberg , German general, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1898 ) Joe Hunt , American tennis champion (military aircraft crash) (b. 1919 ) February 3 – Roland Freisler , Nazi German judge (air raid victim) (b. 1893 ) February 5 Denise Bloch , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1916 ) Lilian Rolfe , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1914 ) Violette Szabo , French/British World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1921 ) Denise Bloch , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1916 ) Lilian Rolfe , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1914 ) Violette Szabo , French/British World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1921 ) February 6 – Robert Brasillach , French writer (executed) (b. 1909 ) [ 98 ] February 8 – Robert Mallet-Stevens , French architect, designer (b. 1886 ) February 11 – Al Dubin , Swiss-born American songwriter (b. 1891 ) February 13 – Maria Orosa , Filipino technologist, chemist, humanitarian and WWII heroine (air raid victim) (b. 1893 ) February 16 – Otto Kittel , German fighter ace (killed in action) (b. 1917 ) [ 99 ] February 18 – Ivan Chernyakhovsky , Soviet general (died of wounds) (b. 1906 ) February 19 – John Basilone , American war hero (killed in action) (b. 1916 ) February 21 – Eric Liddell , British Olympic athlete (in internment camp) (b. 1902 ) February 22 – Sara Josephine Baker , American physician (b. 1873 ) February 23 José María Moncada , 19th President of Nicaragua (b. 1870 ) Aleksei Nikolaevich Tolstoy , Russian writer (b. 1883 ) [ 100 ] José María Moncada , 19th President of Nicaragua (b. 1870 ) Aleksei Nikolaevich Tolstoy , Russian writer (b. 1883 ) [ 100 ] February 24 – Josef Mayr-Nusser , Italian Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1910 ) February 25 – Mário de Andrade , Brazilian writer, photographer (b. 1893 ) February 26 – Millard Harmon , American general (b. 1888 ) [ 101 ] March March 2 – Emily Carr , Canadian painter (b. 1871 ) March 3 Gheorghe Avramescu , Romanian general (in custody) (b. 1884 ) Aleksandra Samusenko , Soviet WWII tank commander (died of wounds) (b. 1922 ) Gheorghe Avramescu , Romanian general (in custody) (b. 1884 ) Aleksandra Samusenko , Soviet WWII tank commander (died of wounds) (b. 1922 ) March 4 Harry Chauvel , Australian Army general (b. 1865 ) [ 102 ] Lucille La Verne , American actress (b. 1872 ) [ 103 ] Mark Sandrich , American film director (b. 1900 ) Harry Chauvel , Australian Army general (b. 1865 ) [ 102 ] Lucille La Verne , American actress (b. 1872 ) [ 103 ] Mark Sandrich , American film director (b. 1900 ) March 5 – George Alan Vasey , Australian general (killed in military aircraft accident) (b. 1895 ) March 12 – Friedrich Fromm , German Nazi official (executed) (b. 1888 ) March 14 – Francisco Braga , Brazilian composer (b. 1868 ) March 15 – Sava Caracaș , Romanian general (b. 1890 ) March 18 – William Grover-Williams , British/French racing driver, war hero (executed) (b. 1903 ) [ 104 ] March 19 – Marcel Callo , French Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (in concentration camp) (b. 1921 ) March 20 – Lord Alfred Douglas , English poet (b. 1870 ) March 22 Enrico Caviglia , Italian marshal (b. 1862 ) Heinrich Maier , Austrian Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1908 ) Takeichi Nishi , Japanese equestrian gold medalist (1932), tank commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1902 ) Enrico Caviglia , Italian marshal (b. 1862 ) Heinrich Maier , Austrian Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1908 ) Takeichi Nishi , Japanese equestrian gold medalist (1932), tank commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1902 ) March 23 – Élisabeth de Rothschild , French WWII heroine (b. 1902 ) March 26 David Lloyd George , British politician and statesman, 51st Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1863 ) Tadamichi Kuribayashi , Imperial Japanese Army general, commander of the battle of Iwo Jima (probably killed in action) (b. 1891 ) Boris Shaposhnikov , Soviet military leader, Marshal of the Soviet Union (b. 1882 ) Ichimaru Toshinosuke , Japanese naval aviator, commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1891 ) David Lloyd George , British politician and statesman, 51st Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1863 ) Tadamichi Kuribayashi , Imperial Japanese Army general, commander of the battle of Iwo Jima (probably killed in action) (b. 1891 ) Boris Shaposhnikov , Soviet military leader, Marshal of the Soviet Union (b. 1882 ) Ichimaru Toshinosuke , Japanese naval aviator, commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1891 ) March 27 – Halid Ziya Uşaklıgil , Turkish author (b. 1867 ) March 29 – Ferenc Csik , Hungarian swimmer (air raid victim) (b. 1913 ) March 30 – Maurice Rose , American general (killed in action) (b. 1899 ) [ 105 ] March 31 Hans Fischer , German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (suicide) (b. 1881 ) Torgny Segerstedt , Swedish newspaper editor, publicist (b. 1876 ) Maria Skobtsova , Soviet Orthodox nun and saint (killed by poison) (b. 1891 ) Natalia Tulasiewicz , Polish teacher and Roman Catholic blessed (murdered in concentration camp) (b. 1906 ) Hans Fischer , German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (suicide) (b. 1881 ) Torgny Segerstedt , Swedish newspaper editor, publicist (b. 1876 ) Maria Skobtsova , Soviet Orthodox nun and saint (killed by poison) (b. 1891 ) Natalia Tulasiewicz , Polish teacher and Roman Catholic blessed (murdered in concentration camp) (b. 1906 ) April April 7 Seiichi Itō , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1890 ) Aruga Kōsaku , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1897 ) Seiichi Itō , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1890 ) Aruga Kōsaku , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1897 ) April 9 Dietrich Bonhoeffer , German theologian (executed) (b. 1906 ) Wilhelm Canaris , German admiral, head of the Abwehr (executed) (b. 1887 ) Hans von Dohnanyi , Hungarian-born German lawyer, member of the German Resistance, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1902 ) Georg Elser , German carpenter and attempted assassin of Adolf Hitler (executed) (b. 1903 ) [ 106 ] Dietrich Bonhoeffer , German theologian (executed) (b. 1906 ) Wilhelm Canaris , German admiral, head of the Abwehr (executed) (b. 1887 ) Hans von Dohnanyi , Hungarian-born German lawyer, member of the German Resistance, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1902 ) Georg Elser , German carpenter and attempted assassin of Adolf Hitler (executed) (b. 1903 ) [ 106 ] April 10 Gloria Dickson , American actress (fire victim) (b. 1917 ) Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman , Dutch artist and printer (b. 1882 ) [ 107 ] Gloria Dickson , American actress (fire victim) (b. 1917 ) Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman , Dutch artist and printer (b. 1882 ) [ 107 ] April 11 – Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard , British colonial administrator (b. 1858 ) April 12 – Franklin D. Roosevelt , American political leader and statesman, 32nd President of the United States (b. 1882 ) April 13 – Ernst Cassirer , German philosopher (b. 1874 ) April 15 – Joachim Albrecht Eggeling , German SS general (suicide) (b. 1884 ) April 18 Sir Ambrose Fleming , British electrical engineer and physicist (b. 1849 ) Ernie Pyle , American journalist (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm, Prince of Albania (b. 1876 ) Sir Ambrose Fleming , British electrical engineer and physicist (b. 1849 ) Ernie Pyle , American journalist (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm, Prince of Albania (b. 1876 ) April 21 Pavle Đurišić , Montenegrin Serb army commander (b. 1909 ) [ citation needed ] Walter Model , German field marshal (suicide) (b. 1891 ) Pavle Đurišić , Montenegrin Serb army commander (b. 1909 ) [ citation needed ] Walter Model , German field marshal (suicide) (b. 1891 ) April 22 – Käthe Kollwitz , German artist (b. 1867 ) April 23 – Klaus Bonhoeffer , German resistance fighter, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1901 ) April 24 – Ernst-Robert Grawitz , German SS Reichsphysician (suicide) (b. 1899 ) April 28 Executed: Hermann Fegelein , German SS general (b. 1906 ) Benito Mussolini , Italian politician, journalist, 27th Prime Minister of Italy and Duce of Fascism (b. 1883 ) Clara Petacci , mistress of Benito Mussolini (b. 1912 ) Nicola Bombacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1879 ) Roberto Farinacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1892 ) Alessandro Pavolini , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1903 ) Executed: Hermann Fegelein , German SS general (b. 1906 ) Benito Mussolini , Italian politician, journalist, 27th Prime Minister of Italy and Duce of Fascism (b. 1883 ) Clara Petacci , mistress of Benito Mussolini (b. 1912 ) Nicola Bombacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1879 ) Roberto Farinacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1892 ) Alessandro Pavolini , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1903 ) Hermann Fegelein , German SS general (b. 1906 ) Benito Mussolini , Italian politician, journalist, 27th Prime Minister of Italy and Duce of Fascism (b. 1883 ) Clara Petacci , mistress of Benito Mussolini (b. 1912 ) Nicola Bombacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1879 ) Roberto Farinacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1892 ) Alessandro Pavolini , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1903 ) April 29 – Achille Starace , Italian Fascist politician (executed) (b. 1889 ) April 30 Luisa Ferida , Italian actress (executed) (b. 1914 ) Adolf Hitler , Austrian-born German politician, Führer of Germany (suicide) (b. 1889 ) Eva Braun , wife of Adolf Hitler (suicide) (b. 1912 ) Luisa Ferida , Italian actress (executed) (b. 1914 ) Adolf Hitler , Austrian-born German politician, Führer of Germany (suicide) (b. 1889 ) Eva Braun , wife of Adolf Hitler (suicide) (b. 1912 ) May May 1 Joseph Goebbels , Chancellor of Germany for 1 day and Reich Minister of Propaganda (suicide) (b. 1897 ) Magda Goebbels , wife of Joseph Goebbels (suicide) (b. 1901 ) Joseph Goebbels , Chancellor of Germany for 1 day and Reich Minister of Propaganda (suicide) (b. 1897 ) Magda Goebbels , wife of Joseph Goebbels (suicide) (b. 1901 ) May 2 Martin Bormann , Nazi Party leader and private secretary to Adolf Hitler (presumed suicide) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm Burgdorf , German general (suicide) (b. 1895 ) Hans Krebs , German general (suicide) (b. 1898 ) Prince Waldemar of Prussia (haemophilia) (b. 1889 ) Martin Bormann , Nazi Party leader and private secretary to Adolf Hitler (presumed suicide) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm Burgdorf , German general (suicide) (b. 1895 ) Hans Krebs , German general (suicide) (b. 1898 ) Prince Waldemar of Prussia (haemophilia) (b. 1889 ) May 3 – Mario Blasich , Italian physician, politician (b. 1878 ) May 4 – Fedor von Bock , German field marshal (killed in action) (b. 1880 ) [ 108 ] May 6 – Xhem Hasa , Albanian nationalist (assassinated) (b. 1908 ) May 7 – Vladimir Boyarsky , Soviet army officer (executed) (b. 1901 ) May 8 Francis Bruguière , American photographer (b. 1875 ) Julius Hirsch , German footballer (killed in Auschwitz concentration camp) (b. 1892 ) [ 109 ] Wilhelm Rediess , SS and Police Leader of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1900 ) Bernhard Rust , education minister of Nazi Germany (presumed suicide) (b. 1883 ) Josef Terboven , Reichskommissar of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1898 ) Francis Bruguière , American photographer (b. 1875 ) Julius Hirsch , German footballer (killed in Auschwitz concentration camp) (b. 1892 ) [ 109 ] Wilhelm Rediess , SS and Police Leader of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1900 ) Bernhard Rust , education minister of Nazi Germany (presumed suicide) (b. 1883 ) Josef Terboven , Reichskommissar of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1898 ) May 9 – Gustav Becking , German musicologist (b. 1894 ) May 10 – Konrad Henlein , Sudeten German Nazi leader (suicide) (b. 1898 ) May 11 Kiyoshi Ogawa , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1922 ) Seizō Yasunori , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1924 ) [ 110 ] Kiyoshi Ogawa , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1922 ) Seizō Yasunori , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1924 ) [ 110 ] May 14 Joseph Barthélemy , French jurist, politician and journalist (b. 1874 ) Heber J. Grant , 7th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b. 1856 ) Joseph Barthélemy , French jurist, politician and journalist (b. 1874 ) Heber J. Grant , 7th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b. 1856 ) May 15 Kenneth J. Alford , British soldier and composer (b. 1881 ) [ 111 ] Charles Williams , British author (b. 1886 ) Kenneth J. Alford , British soldier and composer (b. 1881 ) [ 111 ] Charles Williams , British author (b. 1886 ) May 16 – Kaju Sugiura , Japanese admiral (killed in action) (b. 1896 ) May 18 – William Joseph Simmons , American founder of the second Ku Klux Klan (b. 1880 ) May 19 – Philipp Bouhler , German Nazi leader and general (suicide) (b. 1899 ) May 21 – Prince Kan'in Kotohito , Japanese prince, member of the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office (b. 1865 ) May 23 – Heinrich Himmler , German politician, Reichsführer-SS (suicide) (b. 1900 ) May 24 – Robert Ritter von Greim , German field marshal (suicide) (b. 1892 ) May 25 Rafael Estrella Ureña , Dominican lawyer and politician, acting president of the Dominican Republic (b. 1889 ) Ishii Kikujirō , Japanese diplomat and politician (killed in bombing raid) (b. 1866 ) [ 112 ] Rafael Estrella Ureña , Dominican lawyer and politician, acting president of the Dominican Republic (b. 1889 ) Ishii Kikujirō , Japanese diplomat and politician (killed in bombing raid) (b. 1866 ) [ 112 ] May 31 Odilo Globocnik , Austrian Nazi leader (suicide) (b. 1904 ) Curt von Gottberg , German SS general (suicide) (b. 1896 ) Odilo Globocnik , Austrian Nazi leader (suicide) (b. 1904 ) Curt von Gottberg , German SS general (suicide) (b. 1896 ) June June 4 – Georg Kaiser , German dramatist (b. 1878 ) June 7 – Kitaro Nishida , Japanese philosopher (b. 1870 ) June 8 Robert Desnos , French poet, resistance fighter (typhoid) (b. 1900 ) Karl Hanke , German Nazi general and last Reichsführer-SS (killed) (b. 1903 ) Robert Desnos , French poet, resistance fighter (typhoid) (b. 1900 ) Karl Hanke , German Nazi general and last Reichsführer-SS (killed) (b. 1903 ) June 11 – Lurana W. Sheldon , American author and editor (b. 1862 ) June 13 – Minoru Ōta , Japanese admiral (suicide) (b. 1891 ) June 15 Carl Gustaf Ekman , Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1872 ) Amélie Rives Troubetzkoy , American author (b. 1863 ) Aris Velouchiotis , Greek World War II resistance leader (suicide) (b. 1905 ) Carl Gustaf Ekman , Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1872 ) Amélie Rives Troubetzkoy , American author (b. 1863 ) Aris Velouchiotis , Greek World War II resistance leader (suicide) (b. 1905 ) June 16 Nikolai Berzarin , Soviet Red Army general (b. 1904 ) Nils Edén , 15th Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1871 ) Nikolai Berzarin , Soviet Red Army general (b. 1904 ) Nils Edén , 15th Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1871 ) June 18 Florence Bascom , American geologist and educator (b. 1862 ) Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr. , American general (killed in action on Okinawa ) (b. 1886 ) Friedrich, Prince of Wied , German prince (b. 1872 ) Florence Bascom , American geologist and educator (b. 1862 ) Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr. , American general (killed in action on Okinawa ) (b. 1886 ) Friedrich, Prince of Wied , German prince (b. 1872 ) June 20 Robert Crewe-Milnes, 1st Marquess of Crewe , British politician (b. 1858 ) Luís Fernando de Orleans y Borbón , Spanish prince (b. 1888 ) Robert Crewe-Milnes, 1st Marquess of Crewe , British politician (b. 1858 ) Luís Fernando de Orleans y Borbón , Spanish prince (b. 1888 ) June 22 Isamu Chō , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1895 ) Mitsuru Ushijima , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) Isamu Chō , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1895 ) Mitsuru Ushijima , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) June 24 – José Gutiérrez Solana , Spanish painter (b. 1886 ) June 27 – Emil Hácha , 3rd President of Czechoslovakia , State President of Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (b. 1872 ) June 30 Germogen (Maximov) , Russian Orthodox Metropolitan (b. 1861 ) Gabriel El-Registan , Soviet poet (b. 1899 ) Germogen (Maximov) , Russian Orthodox Metropolitan (b. 1861 ) Gabriel El-Registan , Soviet poet (b. 1899 ) July July 1 – Félix Evaristo Mejía , Dominican diplomat, educator and writer (b. 1866 ) July 2 – Óscar R. Benavides , Peruvian field marshal, diplomat, politician and President of Peru (b. 1876 ) July 5 – John Curtin , 14th Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1885 ) July 7 – Peter To Rot , Papuan Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1912 ) July 9 – Luigi Aldrovandi Marescotti , Italian politician, diplomat (b. 1876 ) July 12 Boris Galerkin , Russian mathematician (b. 1871 ) [ 113 ] Wolfram von Richthofen , German field marshal (brain tumor) (b. 1895 ) Boris Galerkin , Russian mathematician (b. 1871 ) [ 113 ] Wolfram von Richthofen , German field marshal (brain tumor) (b. 1895 ) July 13 – Alla Nazimova , Russian-born American actress (b. 1879 ) July 17 – Ernst Busch , German field marshal, as prisoner of war (b. 1885 ) July 20 – Paul Valéry , French poet (b. 1871 ) July 24 – Arnold von Winckler , German general (b. 1856 ) July 25 – Malin Craig , United States Army general (b. 1875 ) July 28 – Margot Asquith, Countess of Oxford and Asquith (b. 1864 ) July 29 – Maria Pierina De Micheli , Italian Roman Catholic religious sister, mystic and blessed (b. 1890 ) July 31 – Artemio Ricarte , Filipino general (b. 1866 ) August August 1 – Blas Cabrera Felipe , Spanish physicist (b. 1878 ) August 2 – Pietro Mascagni , Italian composer (b. 1863 ) August 3 – Roman Kochanowski , Polish painter, illustrator (b. 1857 ) August 4 – Gerhard Gentzen , German mathematician and logician (starvation in prison camp) (b. 1909 ) August 5 – Nat Jaffe , American swing jazz pianist (b. 1918 ) August 7 – Jacques Vaillant de Guélis , British/French WWII hero (injuries received in automobile accident) (b. 1907 ) August 8 – Joseph Pujol, Le Pétomane , French flatulist (b. 1857 ) August 9 Harry Hillman , American track athlete (b. 1881 ) [ 114 ] Jun Tosaka , Japanese philosopher (in prison) (b. 1900 ) Harry Hillman , American track athlete (b. 1881 ) [ 114 ] Jun Tosaka , Japanese philosopher (in prison) (b. 1900 ) August 10 – Robert H. Goddard , American rocket scientist (b. 1882 ) August 12 – Karl Leisner , German Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1915 ) August 15 Korechika Anami , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) Matome Ugaki , Japanese admiral (killed in action) (b. 1890 ) Korechika Anami , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) Matome Ugaki , Japanese admiral (killed in action) (b. 1890 ) August 16 – Takijirō Ōnishi , Japanese admiral (ritual suicide) (b. 1891 ) August 18 Subhas Chandra Bose , Leader of Indian National Army (Third-degree burns from aircrash) (b. 1897 ) [ 115 ] Sarala Devi Chaudhurani , Indian educationist (b. 1872 ) Subhas Chandra Bose , Leader of Indian National Army (Third-degree burns from aircrash) (b. 1897 ) [ 115 ] Sarala Devi Chaudhurani , Indian educationist (b. 1872 ) August 24 – Shizuichi Tanaka , Japanese general (suicide) (b. 1887 ) August 25 – Willis Augustus Lee , American admiral, Olympic shooter (b. 1888 ) August 26 Pio Collivadino , Argentinian painter (b. 1869 ) Franz Werfel , Austrian writer (b. 1890 ) Pio Collivadino , Argentinian painter (b. 1869 ) Franz Werfel , Austrian writer (b. 1890 ) August 27 – Blessed María Pilar Izquierdo Albero , Spanish Roman Catholic religious professed (b. 1906 ) August 29 – Fritz Pfleumer , German engineer, inventor (b. 1881 ) August 30 – Florencio Harmodio Arosemena , 6th President of Panama (b. 1872 ) August 31 Stefan Banach , Polish mathematician (b. 1892 ) Pope Macarius III of Alexandria , Egyptian patriarch, saint (b. 1872 ) Stefan Banach , Polish mathematician (b. 1892 ) Pope Macarius III of Alexandria , Egyptian patriarch, saint (b. 1872 ) September September 6 Witold Leon Czartoryski , Polish nobleman (b. 1864 ) John S. McCain Sr. , American admiral (b. 1884 ) Witold Leon Czartoryski , Polish nobleman (b. 1864 ) John S. McCain Sr. , American admiral (b. 1884 ) September 9 – Aage Bertelsen , Danish painter (b. 1873 ) September 12 – Hajime Sugiyama , Japanese general (suicide) (b. 1880 ) September 15 Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer , German physician and bacteriologist (b. 1858 ) [ 116 ] André Tardieu , 3-time prime minister of France (b. 1876 ) Anton Webern , Austrian composer (b. 1883 ) Zhang Mingqi , Qing dynasty politician (b. 1875 ) Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer , German physician and bacteriologist (b. 1858 ) [ 116 ] André Tardieu , 3-time prime minister of France (b. 1876 ) Anton Webern , Austrian composer (b. 1883 ) Zhang Mingqi , Qing dynasty politician (b. 1875 ) September 16 – John McCormack , Irish tenor (b. 1884 ) September 18 José Agripino Barnet , Cuban politician and diplomat, acting president of Cuba (b. 1864 ) Blind Willie Johnson , American gospel blues singer (b. 1897 ) José Agripino Barnet , Cuban politician and diplomat, acting president of Cuba (b. 1864 ) Blind Willie Johnson , American gospel blues singer (b. 1897 ) September 20 Augusto Tasso Fragoso , Brazilian soldier, statesman and interim president of Brazil (b. 1869 ) Eduard Wirths , German doctor, chief SS doctor at Auschwitz concentration camp (suicide) (b. 1909 ) Augusto Tasso Fragoso , Brazilian soldier, statesman and interim president of Brazil (b. 1869 ) Eduard Wirths , German doctor, chief SS doctor at Auschwitz concentration camp (suicide) (b. 1909 ) September 24 – Hans Geiger , German physicist, inventor (b. 1882 ) September 26 Béla Bartók , Hungarian composer (b. 1881 ) [ 117 ] Leonhard Kaupisch , German general (b. 1878 ) [ 118 ] Kiyoshi Miki , Japanese philosopher (b. 1897 ) Béla Bartók , Hungarian composer (b. 1881 ) [ 117 ] Leonhard Kaupisch , German general (b. 1878 ) [ 118 ] Kiyoshi Miki , Japanese philosopher (b. 1897 ) October October 1 – Walter Bradford Cannon , American physiologist (b. 1871 ) [ 119 ] October 6 – Leonardo Conti , German physician, Nazi officer (suicide) (b. 1900 ) October 8 – Felix Salten , Austrian author (b. 1869 ) [ 120 ] October 10 – Joseph Darnand , Vichy French politician (executed) (b. 1897 ) October 12 – Dmytro Antonovych , Soviet politician (b. 1877 ) October 13 – Milton S. Hershey , American chocolate tycoon (b. 1857 ) October 15 – Pierre Laval , French politician, 2-time Prime Minister of France (executed) (b. 1883 ) [ 59 ] October 18 – Frederick Hovey , American tennis player (b. 1868 ) October 19 Plutarco Elías Calles , Mexican general, politician and 40th President of Mexico (b. 1877) N. C. Wyeth , American illustrator (b. 1882 ) Plutarco Elías Calles , Mexican general, politician and 40th President of Mexico (b. 1877) N. C. Wyeth , American illustrator (b. 1882 ) October 21 Henry Armetta , Italian actor (b. 1888 ) Felicija Bortkevičienė , Lithuanian politician and publisher (b. 1873 ) [ 121 ] Henry Armetta , Italian actor (b. 1888 ) Felicija Bortkevičienė , Lithuanian politician and publisher (b. 1873 ) [ 121 ] October 24 Franklin Carmichael , Canadian landscape painter and graphic designer (b. 1890 ) [ 122 ] Vidkun Quisling , Norwegian Nazi collaborator (executed) (b. 1887 ) Franklin Carmichael , Canadian landscape painter and graphic designer (b. 1890 ) [ 122 ] Vidkun Quisling , Norwegian Nazi collaborator (executed) (b. 1887 ) October 25 – Robert Ley , German Nazi politician (suicide) (b. 1890 ) October 26 Adolf von Brudermann , Austro-Hungarian general (b. 1854 ) Paul Pelliot , French explorer (b. 1878 ) Adolf von Brudermann , Austro-Hungarian general (b. 1854 ) Paul Pelliot , French explorer (b. 1878 ) October 30 – Xian Xinghai , Chinese composer (b. 1905 ) October 31 Henry Ainley , British actor (b. 1879 ) Ignacio Zuloaga , Basque Spanish painter (b. 1870 ) Henry Ainley , British actor (b. 1879 ) Ignacio Zuloaga , Basque Spanish painter (b. 1870 ) November November 8 – August von Mackensen , German field marshal (b. 1849 ) November 11 – Jerome Kern , American composer (b. 1885 ) [ 123 ] November 13 – Sir Edwyn Alexander-Sinclair , British admiral (b. 1865 ) [ 124 ] November 16 – Sigurður Eggerz , Minister for Iceland during World War I and 2nd Prime Minister of Iceland (b. 1875 ) November 17 – Frederick Francis IV, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (b. 1882 ) November 20 – Francis William Aston , British chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1877 ) November 21 Robert Benchley , American humorist, theater critic and actor (b. 1889 ) [ 125 ] Ellen Glasgow , American novelist (b. 1873 ) [ 126 ] Alexander Patch , United States Army lieutenant general, World War II army commander (b. 1889 ) Jimmy Quinn , Scottish footballer (b. 1878 ) [ 127 ] Robert Benchley , American humorist, theater critic and actor (b. 1889 ) [ 125 ] Ellen Glasgow , American novelist (b. 1873 ) [ 126 ] Alexander Patch , United States Army lieutenant general, World War II army commander (b. 1889 ) Jimmy Quinn , Scottish footballer (b. 1878 ) [ 127 ] November 23 – Charles Coborn , British singer (b. 1852 ) November 27 – Josep Maria Sert , Spanish Catalan muralist (b. 1874 ) November 28 – Dwight F. Davis , American tennis player (b. 1879 ) November 30 – Shigeru Honjō , Japanese general (suicide) (b. 1876 ) December December 1 – Anton Dostler , German general (executed) (b. 1891 ) December 4 Thomas Hunt Morgan , American biologist, geneticist, embryologist and Nobel Prize in Physiology recipient (b. 1866 ) Richárd Weisz , Hungarian Olympic champion wrestler (b. 1879 ) [ 128 ] Thomas Hunt Morgan , American biologist, geneticist, embryologist and Nobel Prize in Physiology recipient (b. 1866 ) Richárd Weisz , Hungarian Olympic champion wrestler (b. 1879 ) [ 128 ] December 5 – Cosmo Gordon Lang , Archbishop of Canterbury (b. 1864 ) December 8 – Gabriellino D'Annunzio , Italian actor, director and screenwriter (b. 1886 ) December 12 – Prince Frederick of Schaumburg-Lippe (b. 1868 ) December 13 Johanna Bormann , German Nazi concentration camp guard (executed) (b. 1893 ) Henri Dentz , French general (b. 1881 ) Irma Grese , German camp guard at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1923 ) Josef Kramer , German commandant of Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1906 ) Elisabeth Volkenrath , German supervisor at Nazi concentration camps (executed) (b. 1919 ) Johanna Bormann , German Nazi concentration camp guard (executed) (b. 1893 ) Henri Dentz , French general (b. 1881 ) Irma Grese , German camp guard at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1923 ) Josef Kramer , German commandant of Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1906 ) Elisabeth Volkenrath , German supervisor at Nazi concentration camps (executed) (b. 1919 ) December 14 – Forrester Harvey , Irish actor (b. 1884 ) December 16 Giovanni Agnelli , Italian entrepreneur, founder of Fiat (b. 1866 ) Fumimaro Konoe , Japanese general, politician, and 23rd Prime Minister of Japan (suicide) (b. 1891 ) Giovanni Agnelli , Italian entrepreneur, founder of Fiat (b. 1866 ) Fumimaro Konoe , Japanese general, politician, and 23rd Prime Minister of Japan (suicide) (b. 1891 ) December 19 – Leonard F. Wing , American general and politician (b. 1893 ) [ 129 ] December 21 – George S. Patton , American general (injuries from automobile accident) (b. 1885 ) [ 130 ] December 22 – Otto Neurath , Austrian philosopher, political economist (b. 1892 ) December 26 Duy Tân , Emperor of Vietnam (b. 1900 ) Roger Keyes, 1st Baron Keyes , British admiral (b. 1872 ) Duy Tân , Emperor of Vietnam (b. 1900 ) Roger Keyes, 1st Baron Keyes , British admiral (b. 1872 ) December 28 – Theodore Dreiser , American novelist (b. 1871 ) [ 131 ] Nobel Prizes Physics – Wolfgang Pauli Chemistry – Artturi Ilmari Virtanen Physiology or Medicine – Sir Alexander Fleming , Ernst Chain , Howard Florey Literature – Gabriela Mistral Peace – Cordell Hull References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "What Was 1945 a Turning Point - 1377 Words | Bartleby" . ^ Girbig, Werner (1975). 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JSTOR 44638781 . ^ "75th Anniversary of World Bank Articles of Agreement Ratification" . World Bank . Retrieved May 5, 2022 . ^ "Discovery of Promethium" . Oak Ridge National Laboratory Review . 36 (1). 2003. Archived from the original on June 22, 2011 . Retrieved June 16, 2011 . ^ Hammerton, A. James; Thomson, Alistair (2005). 'Ten Pound Poms': Australia's Invisible Migrants . Manchester University Press. ISBN 0-719071321 . ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2016" . ^ William D. Rubinstein; Michael Jolles; Hilary L. Rubinstein (February 22, 2011). The Palgrave Dictionary of Anglo-Jewish History . Palgrave Macmillan. p. 868. ISBN 978-1-4039-3910-4 . [ permanent dead link ] ^ Chase's ... Calendar of Events . Contemporary Books. 2003. p. 138. ISBN 978-0-07-139098-9 . ^ "They planted an important seed for nanotechnology" (Press release). The Nobel Prize. October 4, 2023 . Retrieved October 7, 2023 . ^ Geoff Nicholson (1991). Big Noises: Rock Guitar in the 1990s . Quartet. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-7043-0145-0 . ^ "Profile of highlife legend Nana Ampadu" . GhanaWeb . September 30, 2021. Archived from the original on October 19, 2022 . Retrieved October 5, 2021 . ^ Avery, Laura (2004). Newsmakers . Gale Research. p. 61. ISBN 978-0-7876-6806-8 . ISSN 0899-0417 . OCLC 17977680 . ^ Bauer, Pat (March 29, 2022). "Linda Hunt" . Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved February 21, 2023 . ^ Encyclopedia of Contemporary German Culture . Taylor & Francis. 2013. ISBN 9781136816109 . ^ Events, Chase's Calendar of; McGraw-Hill (2007). "Birthday: Bianca Jagger" . Chase's Calendar of Events . McGraw Hill Professional. ISBN 9780071468183 . Retrieved August 5, 2025 . At the time of her marriage to Mick Jagger in 1971 it was reported that she was born in 1945, which is cited as her birth year by most published sources. The charitable organisations with which she has been associated have used 1950. ^ Colin Larkin , ed. (1997). The Virgin Encyclopedia of Popular Music (Concise ed.). Virgin Books . p. 666/7. ISBN 1-85227-745-9 . ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 2022" . Nobel Prize (Press release). The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences . October 4, 2022 . Retrieved October 6, 2022 . ^ Ruggieri, Melissa. "Procol Harum singer Gary Brooker, the voice of 'A Whiter Shade of Pale,' dies at 76" . USA Today . Retrieved February 23, 2022 . ^ "Betty Stöve" . Women's Tennis Association. ^ Dagnino, Maruja. "Lali Armengol Argemi". In Transparencia Venezuela (ed.). 20 mujeres venezolanas del siglo XX (PDF) . pp. 68– 71. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 6, 2021 . Retrieved June 12, 2022 . ^ Anon (2017). "Henderson, Dr Richard" . Who's Who (online Oxford University Press ed.). Oxford: A & C Black. doi : 10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.19818 . (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) ^ "Patrick Modiano" . Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved February 4, 2022 . ^ Easlea, Daryl (April 7, 2010). Talent Is An Asset: The Story Of Sparks . Omnibus Press. ISBN 9780857122377 – via Google Books. ^ "Khaleda Zia" . Britannica Presents 100 Women Trailblazers . February 25, 2020 . Retrieved July 27, 2021 . ^ "Obituary: John McAfee, antivirus software designer, dies aged 75" . The Times . June 24, 2021. Archived from the original on June 24, 2021 . Retrieved June 24, 2021 . ^ "Serial killer Dennis Nilsen dies in prison aged 72" . The Guardian . May 12, 2018 . Retrieved January 3, 2022 . ^ "Legacy Lyle Bien" . South Dakota Hall of Fame . Retrieved June 17, 2024 . ^ David J. Goldman (2014). Jewish Sports Stars; Athletic Heroes Past and Present ^ "Lemmy, Motörhead frontman – obituary" . The Daily Telegraph . December 29, 2015. Archived from the original on January 11, 2022 . Retrieved December 29, 2015 . ^ "Noel Redding" . The Guardian . May 15, 2003 . Retrieved May 4, 2022 . ^ "Vernon Wells" . Movies & TV Dept. The New York Times . 2014. Archived from the original on October 28, 2014. ^ "Edith Frank" . July 6, 2010. Archived from the original on July 6, 2010 . Retrieved October 18, 2017 . ^ Lumsden, Herbert ^ "Francisco Moreno Fernández: Biografía" [Francisco Moreno Fernández: Biography] (in Spanish). Madrid : Real Academia de la Historia. 2022 . Retrieved January 4, 2026 . ^ Kimmelman, Benedict B. (September–October 1987). "The Example Of Private Slovik" . American Heritage Magazine . 38 (6) . Retrieved October 5, 2012 . ^ "One day they simply weren't there any more..." (PDF) . anne frank house . March 2015 . Retrieved April 11, 2015 . ^ Kaplan, Alice (2000). The Collaborator: The Trial and Execution of Robert Brasillach . University of Chicago Press. p. 210. ISBN 978-0-226-42414-9 . ^ Zabecki, David T. , ed. (2019). The German War Machine in World War II . Santa Barbara, California: ABC-Clio . ISBN 978-1-44-086918-1 . ^ "Aleksey Nikolayevich, Count Tolstoy | Soviet writer | Britannica" . www.britannica.com . January 6, 2024. ^ "LIEUTENANT GENERAL MILLARD F. HARMON" . Air Force . [ dead link ] ^ Hill, Alec (1979). " 'Chauvel, Sir Henry George (Harry) (1865–1945)' " . Australian Dictionary of Biography . National Centre of Biography, Australian National University . ISBN 978-0-522-84459-7 . ISSN 1833-7538 . OCLC 70677943 . Retrieved January 11, 2010 . ^ "Preview unavailable" . ProQuest . ProQuest 107039613 . ^ "Casualty Details | CWGC" . www.cwgc.org . Retrieved March 8, 2021 . ^ MG Maurice Rose ^ "Georg Elser" . www.gdw-berlin.de . Retrieved January 4, 2025 . ^ "Ontdek amateurschilder, drukker, fotograaf Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman" . rkd.nl . ^ Evans, Richard J. (2008). The Third Reich at War: 1939–1945 . London: Allen Lane. p. 750. ISBN 978-0-7139-9742-2 . ^ Wallace, Sam (January 25, 2020). "The imperishable story of Julius Hirsch: the great goalscorer murdered at Auschwitz who adorns Stamford Bridge mural" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on January 12, 2022. ^ Maxwell Taylor Kennedy (November 3, 2009). Danger's Hour: The Story of the USS Bunker Hill and the Kamikaze Pilot Who Crippled Her . Simon and Schuster. p. 257. ISBN 978-0-7432-6081-7 . ^ "AAFA Bio - Kenneth J. Alford" . ^ "Ishii Kikujiro | Biography & Facts | Britannica" . www.britannica.com . March 15, 2024. ^ "Boris Galerkin" . TheFreeDictionary.com . ^ Harry Hillman Taken by Death, Cumberland News , August 10, 1945 ^ Firoz Alam (October 1, 2009). Subhas Chandra Bose . Sahni Publications. p. 121. ISBN 978-81-7564-242-3 . ^ Fildes, P. (February 13, 1956). "Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer, 1858-1945" . Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society . 2 (2): 237– 247. doi : 10.1098/rsbm.1956.0016 . S2CID 73380545 . ^ .mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)} Stevens, Halsey. 2018. " Béla Bartók: Hungarian Composer ". Encyclopædia Britannica online (accessed 27 September 2018). ^ "Kaupisch, Leonhard" (in German). lexikon-der-wehrmacht.de . Retrieved September 7, 2025 . ^ "Dr. W.B. Cannon, 73, Neurologist, Dead. Harvard Psychology Professor for 36 Years Noted for His Work on Traumatic Shock Became Professor in 1906" . New York Times . October 2, 1945 . Retrieved October 5, 2010 . ^ "Felix Salten | Austrian novelist | Britannica" . www.britannica.com . September 2, 2023. ^ "Felicija Bortkevičienė" . www.vle.lt . ^ Franklin Carmichael ^ Hugh Fordin, Stephen Sondheim (1995). Getting to Know Him: A Biography of Oscar Hammerstein II . Da Capo Press. p. 237. ISBN 0-306-80668-1 . [ permanent dead link ] ^ [Sinclair, Sir Edwyn Sinclair Alexander-, of Freswick (1865–1945)] ^ Billy Altman, Laughter's Gentle Soul: The Life of Robert Benchley . (New York City: W. W. Norton , 1997. ISBN 0-393-03833-5 ) Pages 352–362 ^ Inge, Tonette Bond. Encyclopedia of Southern Culture , ed. Charles Reagan Wilson and William R. Ferris. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989. Page 884. ^ FC, Celtic. "Jimmy Quinn" . Celtic FC . ^ Siegman, Joseph (2020). Jewish Sports Legends: The International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame . U of Nebraska Press. ISBN 9781496222121 . ^ Wing, Leonard Fish ^ Axelrod, Alan (2006), Patton: A Biography , London : Palgrave Macmillan , pp. 168– 9, ISBN 978-1-4039-7139-5 ^ Theodore Dreiser Recalled . Clemson University Press. 2017. p. 311. ISBN 9781942954446 . Further reading Ian Buruma . Year Zero: A History of 1945 (Penguin Press; 2013) 368 pages; covers liberation, revenge, decolonization, and the rise of the United Nations. excerpt International News Service, It Happened In 1945 The Essential Year Book (1946) Keith Lowe. Savage Continent: Europe in the Aftermath of World War II (2012) excerpt and text search McDannald, A. H. ed. The Americana Annual 1946 (1946) events of 1945 online ; encyclopedia yearbook global coverage in 950pp Walter Yust, ed. 10 Eventful Years, 1937 – 1946 Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 1947, 4 vol., encyclopedia yearbook online v t e Events by month v t e 1949 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1948 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1947 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1946 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1945 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1944 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1943 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1942 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1941 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1940 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Authority control databases National United States Czech Republic Israel United States Czech Republic Israel Other Yale LUX Yale LUX 1945 All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from May 2022 Articles with permanently dead external links CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown CS1 Polish-language sources (pl) CS1 maint: location missing publisher Articles with dead external links from February 2023 CS1 Spanish-language sources (es) Articles with dead external links from March 2025 CS1 German-language sources (de) Use mdy dates from August 2019 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Commons category link from Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2026 This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 01:14 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 What to look for 2 What not to look for 3 Special situations Toggle Special situations subsection 3.1 Multiple locations within a region 3.2 Multiple businesses each with a different name but under common ownership 3.3 Non-profits 3.4 Government agencies 3.1 Multiple locations within a region 3.2 Multiple businesses each with a different name but under common ownership 3.3 Non-profits 3.4 Government agencies 4 Keeping it neutral Toggle Keeping it neutral subsection 4.1 Notoriety 4.1 Notoriety 5 Avoiding conflicts of interest 6 Miscellaneous issues Toggle Miscellaneous issues subsection 6.1 Age of the business 6.2 Audience 6.3 Iconic status 6.4 In the news because of crime 6.5 Defunct businesses 6.6 Pictures of businesses 6.1 Age of the business 6.2 Audience 6.3 Iconic status 6.4 In the news because of crime 6.5 Defunct businesses 6.6 Pictures of businesses 7 See also Wikipedia : Businesses with a single location Project page Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version This is an essay . It contains the advice or opinions of one or more Wikipedia contributors. This page is not an encyclopedia article or a Wikipedia policy , as it has not been reviewed by the community and may reflect various opinions. .mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain{float:right;margin:0 0 0 1em;border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);background-color:var(--background-color-base,#fff);padding:0.3em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;text-align:center;font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxleft{float:left;margin:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutlist{display:inline-block;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);margin-bottom:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain ul{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutanchordiv{position:relative;top:-3em}.mw-parser-output li .module-shortcutanchordiv{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mbox-imageright .module-shortcutboxplain{padding:0.4em 1em;line-height:1.3;margin:0;float:initial} Shortcut .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} WP:ONELOC WP:ONELOC WP:ONELOC WP:ONELOC This page in a nutshell: Many businesses with a single location already qualify for an article On Wikipedia, any subject that meets all inclusion guidelines is likely to merit an article, even if one is yet to be created. This includes many businesses with a single location. Many small businesses, such as shops, restaurants, clubs, hotels, bed and breakfasts, tourist attractions, apartments, and more have been featured in articles in local newspapers, magazines, or published books about the region. Especially in major metropolitan areas with multiple publications, it is a strong possibility that more than one article about an establishment telling neutral, factual, non-promotional information and spaced over a period of time exist. Even in a small town, some establishments may be among the town's charms that have received coverage. Wikipedia is not finished . There are many more articles waiting to be created. For those who want to create new articles and are looking for a niche, you could write about businesses in your hometown or a place where you have visited. To be sure if a small business qualifies for an article, read the general notability guideline , the notability guidelines for businesses , and especially the sources that are required for local businesses , which stipulates that there must be at least one source from beyond the business's hometown. What to look for Certain types of information are among those that are appropriate for any Wikipedia article, including those on small businesses. These include the history of the business, the name(s) of the owner(s), and what the establishment is best known for in the public eye. A published book about the establishment's town or region whose purpose is just to provide interesting information about the region, and that provides a significant amount of information about the establishment, noting its iconic status can be considered a reliable source. What not to look for To be avoided is information that promotes the business, since Wikipedia is not advertising space . Even certain "articles" that appear in newspapers really serve the purpose of promotion, such as restaurant and travel reviews. Information found in directories that are comprehensive listings of businesses in its area and ratings charts should not be used in the article. And of course, advertising for the business, since it is propaganda, should not be used. An example of an unreliable source that should not be used is a travel guide. A travel guide provides useful information to the traveler about a business being marketed to those outside the region, but in essence is a form of advertising, and therefore is not a reliable source to convey notability or be considered a source outside the immediate area. Special situations Multiple locations within a region Some businesses have multiple locations but all contained to a single region, and in some cases within the same part of town. These too can qualify for articles if they meet inclusion guidelines. Once again, there must be at least one source from outside the local area for the chain to qualify for an article. Multiple businesses each with a different name but under common ownership It is not uncommon for a company to run multiple operations, each with a different name and each operation with a single location. There is a good chance such a company is notable, especially if it operates in multiple cities/towns. If this is the case, it is best to start out by creating an article on the large company itself, and then if there is enough information and sources to create articles on individual locations to create articles on those. This is often the case with many luxury hotels and tourist attractions . Non-profits Like for-profit businesses, many non-profits exist that cater to locals only. Likewise, they could qualify for articles under the same guidelines. Government agencies Agencies of municipal and other smaller governments (other than national) are very frequently notable if it is customary for that type of agency to have an article. Even when they can be found in just a single location, and even when sources pertaining to them are limited to the region or in some cases to primary sources, they can be worthy of an article. These include police and fire departments, mass transit providers, schools, and libraries, to name a few. As usual, only sourced information can be included in Wikipedia. If only a few lines to a few small paragraphs about the agency can be provided through the sourced information, it should be included in the article on the jurisdiction. If a greater amount of information can be provided that can fill up at least several pages, then it is more practical to write about it in a separate article. In some cases, when there is enough sourced information, there can be multiple articles pertaining to a government agency and its services. Keeping it neutral Many articles that appear in local publications on small businesses tend to do one of two things: to promote it or tell of problems the business has. Some articles may have been arranged through connections with a local paper for the purpose of promotion while appearing as a general news article. And if a company has had troubles, unhappy customers may come to the local media, which in turn may report this. One of Wikipedia's most important guidelines is neutrality . An article on a small business must be completely neutral and tell factual information. It is important to examine the sources used to determine their real purpose when selecting them and determining if they make the business worthy of an article. Notoriety Some businesses are only 'notable' because of their notoriety. If this is the case, creating an article on the business that describes all its problems may be a violation of certain guidelines, such as undue weight . If there is a scandal that is associated with the business, and that scandal itself meets Wikipedia's notability guidelines, and the business is otherwise not notable for anything else, the article should be titled according to the scandal rather than the business's own name. This is single to the one event guideline used for biographies of living people . See WP:ILLCON for the related policy. If an establishment has become notable only because of crime on the premises, articles if worthy should focus only on the crime itself (see in the news because of crime below). Avoiding conflicts of interest If you choose to write an article on a small business, it is certain that by now you know of its existence. There is an even better chance that you have had something to do with it already, such as having been a customer, known its owner, or worked there. The closer your connections are, the more care you must take to avoid a conflict of interest . It is best if the creator be as far removed from it as possible. The best possible creator of an article on a local business is one who knows about it only from media sources and not from personal involvement. Such a person would be more likely limit what is written in the article to published and not inside information and to keep the article neutral. And the fact that one knows of its existence this way demonstrates that it is very likely notable. Miscellaneous issues Age of the business Some small businesses have been around for decades, sometimes more than a century. A business's age does not automatically grant it notability, nor does young age automatically exclude it. But the longer a business has been around, the more likely it is to have sources that can be used to establish notability simply because it has had more time to accumulate them. Sometimes these sources might be hard to find because older sources are not always online. But if they exist, they are valid to use. Audience A wider audience for a business means it is more likely to be notable, though this does not automatically grant it notability. If a business caters to beyond the locals, there is a good chance it has received coverage from a source outside of the town or region, which would qualify it for an article. Iconic status A business that has an iconic status in the public eye is very likely to be notable. This is true if it has been put in the national spotlight somehow. But it is important to distinguish between such an iconic status as being that of actual publications or simply word of mouth within the community or heavy local advertising. In the news because of crime Some businesses make it into the mass media only because of crimes that occur on the premises. Crime alone does not make a business notable. Even frequent crime that gets reported often does not establish notability. News articles about crimes that occur at the site of the business are really about the crimes and not the business. Consequently, they do not help qualify a business for an article. In some cases, a crime will receive so much coverage that the crime itself could be notable (see WP:CRIME for info on this). If this is the case, the article should be titled to be about the crime rather than the business. If an article already exists about a business that has been found to be notable, and a crime then occurs, information about the crime can be added to the article on the business unless it is enough length to merit a separate article or the length of info about the crime greatly exceeds the amount of info in the article on the business itself. Defunct businesses Defunct status of a business does not have any affect on the notability of one. A business does not automatically qualify for an article on the basis that it is defunct, thereby providing a safe bet that the article is not advertising. And if a business that already has an article ceases operations, this is not a reason to delete the article either. In such a case, there could be mention added (with sources) that the business has shut down, but the article must remain. See WP:DEFUNCTS for arguments to avoid in deletion discussions pertaining to this topic. Pictures of businesses It is nice to have a picture of a business in the respective article. Often, the creator of an article on a small business lives near it and therefore has the ability to take such a picture when they have an opportunity. One should be familiar with the laws in the country of the business's location before taking such a picture. Many countries allow pictures of the exterior to be taken from the public domain. If a picture of the interior is to be taken, permission should be received from the owner. It is also possible for the owner of a business to offer a picture once the article is created. Another option where available is to provide a link on Google Street View of the location of the business, displaying its location. The picture in this case is not readily visible when viewing the article, but can be seen by clicking a link. See also Wikipedia:Run-of-the-mill .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a 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article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles Writing article content Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Removing or deleting content Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Essays on building, editing, and deleting content Philosophy Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Article construction 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles Writing article content Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Removing or deleting content Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Philosophy Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Article construction 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles Writing article content Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Removing or deleting content Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Essays on civility The basics Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Philosophy A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent Dos Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Don'ts Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE WikiRelations WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace Essays on civility The basics Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Philosophy A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent Dos Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Don'ts Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE WikiRelations WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace The basics Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Philosophy A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent Dos Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Don'ts Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE WikiRelations WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace Essays on neutrality Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Essays on neutrality Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Essays on notability Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Essays on notability Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Humorous essays Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? Case against LLM-generated articles Complete bollocks Counting forks Counting juntas Crap Delete the main page Diffusing conflict Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Don't abbreviate "Wikipedia" as "Wiki"! Don't delete the main page Editcountitis Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Editing under the influence Embrace Stop Signs Emerson Fart Five Fs of Wikipedia Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to get away with UPE How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle How to vandalize correctly How to win a citation war Ignore all essays Ignore all user warnings Ignore every single rule Is that even an essay? Keep beating the horse List of really, really, really stupid article ideas that you really, really, really should not create Mess with the templates My local pond Newcomers are delicious, so go ahead and bite them Legal vandalism List of jokes about Wikipedia LTTAUTMAOK No climbing the Reichstag dressed as Spider-Man No episcopal threats No one cares about your garage band No one really cares No, really No self attacks Notability is not eternal Oops Defense Play the game Please be a giant dick, so we can ban you Please bite the newbies Please do not murder the newcomers Pledge of Tranquility Project S.C.R.A.M. R-e-s-p-e-c-t Requests for medication Requirements for adminship Rouge admin Rouge editor Sarcasm is really helpful Sausages for tasting Spaling Muich? Template madness The Night Before Wikimas The first rule of Wikipedia The Five Pillars of Untruth Things that should not be surprising The WikiBible Watchlistitis We are deletionist! Why is BFDI on Wikipedia? Why you shouldn't write articles with ChatGPT, according to ChatGPT Wikipedia is an MMORPG WTF? OMG! TMD TLA. ARG! Yes, falsely Yes legal threats Yes personal attacks You don't have to be mad to work here, but You should not write meaningless lists Humorous essays Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? Case against LLM-generated articles Complete bollocks Counting forks Counting juntas Crap Delete the main page Diffusing conflict Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Don't abbreviate "Wikipedia" as "Wiki"! Don't delete the main page Editcountitis Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Editing under the influence Embrace Stop Signs Emerson Fart Five Fs of Wikipedia Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to get away with UPE How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle How to vandalize correctly How to win a citation war Ignore all essays Ignore all user warnings Ignore every single rule Is that even an essay? Keep beating the horse List of really, really, really stupid article ideas that you really, really, really should not create Mess with the templates My local pond Newcomers are delicious, so go ahead and bite them Legal vandalism List of jokes about Wikipedia LTTAUTMAOK No climbing the Reichstag dressed as Spider-Man No episcopal threats No one cares about your garage band No one really cares No, really No self attacks Notability is not eternal Oops Defense Play the game Please be a giant dick, so we can ban you Please bite the newbies Please do not murder the newcomers Pledge of Tranquility Project S.C.R.A.M. R-e-s-p-e-c-t Requests for medication Requirements for adminship Rouge admin Rouge editor Sarcasm is really helpful Sausages for tasting Spaling Muich? Template madness The Night Before Wikimas The first rule of Wikipedia The Five Pillars of Untruth Things that should not be surprising The WikiBible Watchlistitis We are deletionist! Why is BFDI on Wikipedia? Why you shouldn't write articles with ChatGPT, according to ChatGPT Wikipedia is an MMORPG WTF? OMG! TMD TLA. ARG! Yes, falsely Yes legal threats Yes personal attacks You don't have to be mad to work here, but You should not write meaningless lists Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? Case against LLM-generated articles Complete bollocks Counting forks Counting juntas Crap Delete the main page Diffusing conflict Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Don't abbreviate "Wikipedia" as "Wiki"! Don't delete the main page Editcountitis Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Editing under the influence Embrace Stop Signs Emerson Fart Five Fs of Wikipedia Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to get away with UPE How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle How to vandalize correctly How to win a citation war Ignore all essays Ignore all user warnings Ignore every single rule Is that even an essay? Keep beating the horse List of really, really, really stupid article ideas that you really, really, really should not create Mess with the templates My local pond Newcomers are delicious, so go ahead and bite them Legal vandalism List of jokes about Wikipedia LTTAUTMAOK No climbing the Reichstag dressed as Spider-Man No episcopal threats No one cares about your garage band No one really cares No, really No self attacks Notability is not eternal Oops Defense Play the game Please be a giant dick, so we can ban you Please bite the newbies Please do not murder the newcomers Pledge of Tranquility Project S.C.R.A.M. R-e-s-p-e-c-t Requests for medication Requirements for adminship Rouge admin Rouge editor Sarcasm is really helpful Sausages for tasting Spaling Muich? Template madness The Night Before Wikimas The first rule of Wikipedia The Five Pillars of Untruth Things that should not be surprising The WikiBible Watchlistitis We are deletionist! Why is BFDI on Wikipedia? Why you shouldn't write articles with ChatGPT, according to ChatGPT Wikipedia is an MMORPG WTF? OMG! TMD TLA. ARG! Yes, falsely Yes legal threats Yes personal attacks You don't have to be mad to work here, but You should not write meaningless lists Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? Case against LLM-generated articles Complete bollocks Counting forks Counting juntas Crap Delete the main page Diffusing conflict Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Don't abbreviate "Wikipedia" as "Wiki"! Don't delete the main page Editcountitis Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Editing under the influence Embrace Stop Signs Emerson Fart Five Fs of Wikipedia Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to get away with UPE How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle How to vandalize correctly How to win a citation war Ignore all essays Ignore all user warnings Ignore every single rule Is that even an essay? Keep beating the horse List of really, really, really stupid article ideas that you really, really, really should not create Mess with the templates My local pond Newcomers are delicious, so go ahead and bite them Legal vandalism List of jokes about Wikipedia LTTAUTMAOK No climbing the Reichstag dressed as Spider-Man No episcopal threats No one cares about your garage band No one really cares No, really No self attacks Notability is not eternal Oops Defense Play the game Please be a giant dick, so we can ban you Please bite the newbies Please do not murder the newcomers Pledge of Tranquility Project S.C.R.A.M. R-e-s-p-e-c-t Requests for medication Requirements for adminship Rouge admin Rouge editor Sarcasm is really helpful Sausages for tasting Spaling Muich? Template madness The Night Before Wikimas The first rule of Wikipedia The Five Pillars of Untruth Things that should not be surprising The WikiBible Watchlistitis We are deletionist! Why is BFDI on Wikipedia? Why you shouldn't write articles with ChatGPT, according to ChatGPT Wikipedia is an MMORPG WTF? OMG! TMD TLA. ARG! 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Portal : Current events/August 2011 Portal Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version August 2011 was the eighth month of that common year. The month, which began on a Monday , ended on a Wednesday after 31 days. Portal:Current events This is an archived version of Wikipedia's Current events Portal from August 2011. .mw-parser-output .current-events-main{margin:0.5em 0;padding:0.3em;background-color:var(--background-color-base,#fff);color:inherit;border:1px #cef2e0 solid}.mw-parser-output .current-events-heading{background-color:#cef2e0;color:inherit;font-weight:bold}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .current-events-heading{background-color:#0b281a}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .current-events-heading{background-color:#0b281a}}.mw-parser-output .current-events-title{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .current-events-navbar{list-style:none;margin:0;font-size:small}.mw-parser-output .current-events-navbar li{display:inline-block;padding:0 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .current-events-content{padding:0 0.3em}.mw-parser-output .current-events-content-heading{margin-top:0.3em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .current-events-more{border-width:2px;font-size:10pt;font-weight:bold;padding:0.3em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .current-events-nav{margin:auto;text-align:center;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .current-events-nav a{display:inline-block;margin:0.5em;padding:0.5em;background-color:var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0)}.mw-parser-output .current-events-nav a>div{font-weight:bold}@media all and (min-width:480px){.mw-parser-output .current-events-heading{align-items:center;display:flex}.mw-parser-output .current-events-title{flex:1}.mw-parser-output .current-events-navbar{flex:0 auto;text-align:right;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .current-events-nav{max-width:22em}.mw-parser-output .current-events-nav a{width:9em}} August 1, 2011 ( 2011-08-01 ) (Monday) edit history watch Armed conflict and attacks At least 11 people, including 5 suspects, are killed and 15 others are injured on Sunday's violence in China 's Xinjiang region, raising the death toll to 20 over the weekend attacks in Kashgar . (CRI) ( The Guardian ) 2011 Syrian uprising : More than 142 people are killed across the country in a continuing crackdown on protests. (Al Jazeera) Russia calls for an end to the "use of force" against civilians. (Lebanon Now) ( The Moscow Times ) The Lebanese Armed Forces exchanged fire with the Israeli Defense Forces patrolling the border, with one Lebanese soldier being injured. ( Jerusalem Post ) Business and economy The HSBC bank announces plans to cut 5,000 jobs now and 25,000 by 2013. (Reuters) Foxconn Technology, a computer assembler headquartered in Taiwan , plans to add one million robots to its plants over the next three years, according to a Reuters report. (Reuters) BBC journalists stage another 24-hour strike in protest at planned redundancies. ( Mail Online ) ( The Guardian ) Disasters Anna Bligh , the Premier of Queensland , releases the results of an inquiry into the 2010–2011 Queensland floods which killed 35 people. ( Courier Mail ) The Italian news agency Agenzia Nazionale Stampa Associata reports that 25 refugees have been found dead in a boat off the coast of Lampedusa . (CNN) Tropical Storm Emily forms in the Atlantic Ocean with tropical storm warnings issued for Puerto Rico , Guadeloupe , Desirade , Les Saintes , Marie Galante and the Dominican Republic . (National Hurricane Centre) (NOLA.com) International relations North Korea agrees to further talks with the United States as part of efforts to restore Six Party talks on its nuclear weapons program . (Yonhap) South Korea bans three Japanese lawmakers all from the Liberal Democratic Party due to an assertion of Japanese sovereignty over the Liancourt Rocks . (Mainichi Shimbun) [ permanent dead link ] (Yonhap) Politics Kevin Rudd , the Minister for Foreign Affairs and former Prime Minister of Australia, goes into hospital to have the aortic valve in his heart replaced. ( Courier Mail ) 2011 U.S. debt ceiling crisis The United States House of Representatives passes legislation to raise the debt ceiling and avert the 2011 U.S. debt ceiling crisis . (Reuters and AFP via Sydney Morning Herald ) More than twenty protesters are arrested after disrupting debate in the House. ( Washington Post ) Congresswoman Gabby Giffords makes her first appearance on Capitol Hill since the 2011 Tucson shootings to cast her vote amongst applause. (BBC) ( Washington Post ) The United States Senate fails to pass a bill ending the partial shutdown of the Federal Aviation Administration . (AP) August 2, 2011 ( 2011-08-02 ) (Tuesday) edit history watch Armed conflict and attacks 2011 Libyan civil war : Seven rebels are killed and 50 injured in fighting in the town of Zlitan . (Xinhua) (Reuters) Suicide bombers attack a guesthouse used by foreigners in the northern Afghanistan province of Kunduz with at least four security guards dead. (Reuters) 2011 Syrian uprising : Syrian Army forces shell the town of Hama for a second successive day. (BBC) Fifteen people are wounded in a bombing of a Syrian Catholic Church in Kirkuk , Iraq . (AFP via Yahoo! News) Egypt 's military police and riot police end a three-week Tahrir Square sit-in . ( The Washington Post ) ( The National ) [ permanent dead link ] ( Al-Ahram ) Four Ethiopian peacekeepers are killed by a landmine in the Abyei region of Sudan . (Reuters) Disasters The United Nations warns that Uganda could be the next country to be affected by the famine in the Horn of Africa . (Reuters) Tropical Storm Emily moves towards Puerto Rico . (NOAA) International relations The United Nations Working Group on Arbitrary Detention calls on China to release Liu Xiaobo and his wife. (BBC) Israel 's Supreme Court orders the West Bank outpost of Migron, inhabited by 250 Jewish settlers, to be evacuated without delay. (Reuters) Four European nations (the United Kingdom , France , Germany and Portugal ) circulate a draft United Nations Security Council resolution condemning the Government of Syria for its recent crackdown on protesters . (Bloomberg) Law and crime South Korean prosecutors send a summons to Park Chul, President of Hankuk University of Foreign Studies , over alleged embezzlement . (Yonhap) News International phone hacking scandal Former News of the World managing editor Stuart Kuttner is arrested and later bailed as part of the ongoing investigation into phone hacking. (BBC) Jonathan May-Bowles is jailed for six weeks for throwing a foam pie into the face of Rupert Murdoch at a House of Commons Select Committee hearing. (BBC) Politics Around 10,000 Papuan people demonstrate in support of independence from Indonesia in the Papuan capital of Jayapura . ( Straits Times ) Peter O'Neill of Southern Highlands Province is elected Prime Minister of Papua New Guinea in a 70-24 vote, ousting acting Prime Minister Sam Abal who promises to contest the decision in court. ( Sydney Morning Herald ) The United States Senate passes legislation to raise the debt ceiling in order to avert the 2011 US debt ceiling crisis and President Barack Obama signs it into law. (AFP via Sydney Morning Herald ) ( New Zealand Herald ) Science French and Ugandan scientists discover a 20-million-year-old skull of a tree-climbing ape in the Karamoja region of Uganda. (Reuters) ( Hindustan Times ) August 3, 2011 ( 2011-08-03 ) (Wednesday) edit history watch Armed conflicts and attacks 2011 Syrian uprising : Syrian forces shell and advance on the city of Hama . (Al Jazeera) Business and economy South Africa agrees to loan Swaziland 2.5 billion rand (US$368 million) to ease the latter's economic crisis. ( Mail & Guardian ) (AFP via Google News) The Chinese Dagong Global Credit Rating downgrades the United States credit rating from A+ to A with a negative outlook. (AFP via Sydney Morning Herald ) The plans of cable entrepreneur John Malone to purchase book store chain Barnes & Noble may have hit a snag, especially over how to value the B&N eReader, the Nook . (New York Post) Disasters More than 26,000 people have permanently left New Zealand 's Canterbury Region since the 2011 Christchurch earthquake in February. (AAP via News Limited) Ten people die as a Bell 412 helicopter crashes in Indonesia 's North Sulawesi province. ( Jakarta Post ) International relations Computer security firm McAfee uncovers one of the largest series of cyber attacks against the International Olympic Committee , Indian government , the United Nations , the steel industry and defence and security firms. (BBC) Law and crime The former President of Egypt , Hosni Mubarak , leaves the resort town of Sharm el-Sheikh, Egypt to return to Cairo for his trial . (AFP via The Melbourne Age ) News International phone hacking scandal : Charity campaigner Heather Mills tells the BBC's Newsnight that a senior Mirror Group journalist admitted hacking voicemails left for her by Sir Paul McCartney while they were together. (BBC) Politics Luke March, who was charged with investigating the United Kingdom Parliamentary expenses scandal , resigns from the Independent Parliamentary Standards Authority after refusing to name those under suspicion. (BBC) The Iranian parliament confirms four new ministers including Rostam Ghasemi as Minister of Petroleum . (Tabnak) David Wu resigns his seat representing Oregon's 1st congressional district in the United States House of Representatives as a result of a sex scandal. ( The Oregonian ) August 4, 2011 ( 2011-08-04 ) (Thursday) edit history watch Armed conflict and attacks War in Afghanistan (2001–2021) : A senior intelligence officer in Afghanistan 's National Directorate of Security , Payenda Khan , is killed in a bombing in Kunduz Province . (CNN) Business and economy Kraft Foods announces that it will split into two operations consisting of its North American grocery business and its global snack foods business. (Reuters via Yahoo!) [ permanent dead link ] Stock markets around the world fall on the back of concerns about global economic growth with the Dow Jones Industrial Average falling by 4%. ( New York Times ) Disasters Tropical Storm Emily is expected to make landfall on Haiti where it is expected to cause heavy flooding. (AP via Houston Chronicle ) The Japanese government led by Prime Minister Naoto Kan announces that it is firing three senior bureaucrats responsible for nuclear energy policy as a result of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster earlier this year. (AP via Washington Post ) Fourteen states in the Southern United States are on a heat alert with several dozen deaths since July as part of a heat wave. (MSNBC) International relations Sky News reports new evidence that North Korean officials have been involved in the illegal drugs trade . (Sky News) The shutdown of the United States Federal Aviation Administration will end August 8th. ( Washington Post ) Law and crime A judge rules that Donald Rumsfeld can be sued personally for damages by a U.S. Army veteran in his 50s who says he was imprisoned unjustly and tortured by the U.S. military in Iraq. (Huffington Post) Heather Mills claims that a Mirror Group journalist admitted hacking into her phone and listening to a message from then-boyfriend Paul McCartney - Piers Morgan has admitted to hearing it although he was not the journalist involved. (BBC) The Virginia Tech campus, site of an April 2007 mass shooting , goes on lockdown as a precaution after reports of a man, possibly armed with a gun, on or near the campus were made by teenagers attending a camp there. [1] Politics Nelson Jobim resigns as the Minister of Defence in Brazil after making critical remarks about the government of President Dilma Rousseff and fellow Ministers - he is replaced by Celso Amorim . ( Wall Street Journal ) The British Government launches a new e-petition website to encourage the public to prompt parliamentary debate on topics they feel are important. Several petitions concern proposals for and against restoring the death penalty , last used in the UK in 1964 . (BBC) (BBC) Sport In American football , players in the US National Football League ratify a new collective bargaining agreement including provisions for tests for human growth hormone . ( New York Times ) August 5, 2011 ( 2011-08-05 ) (Friday) edit history watch Armed conflict and attacks 2011 Syrian uprising : Turkey confirms it has seized an Iranian arms shipment to Syria. ( Today's Zaman ) Tens of thousands of people again protest across the country, amid a government crackdown. (BBC) 2011 Libyan civil war : Rebels claim that a NATO airstrike has killed Muammar Gaddafi 's youngest son Khamis but this is later denied. (Al Jazeera) (MSNBC) (Reuters) Meng Jianzhu , the Minister for Public Security in the People's Republic of China , orders a clampdown in Xinjiang following recent unrest . (AP via Washington Post ) Burmese state media say rebels in the northeast of the country killed seven workers from a Chinese -backed hydroelectric power project. ( Straits Times ) Business and economy Stock markets in Asia and Australia continue falls from Europe and the United States . (SBS) (BBC) The Standard & Poor's credit rating agency downgrades the credit rating of the United States from AAA to AA+ with a negative outlook. (Reuters) (AP via Atlanta Journal-Constitution ) [ permanent dead link ] Disasters and accidents A bus in Ivory Coast plunges into the capital Abidjan 's lagoon , killing 12 people. (Reuters) Typhoon Muifa : Typhoon Muifa approaches the Japanese island of Okinawa causing localised flooding, cancellation of flights to and from Naha International Airport and 30,000 homes to lose power. (Stars and Stripes) [ permanent dead link ] The People's Republic of China warns residents of Zhejiang province and Shanghai to prepare for the arrival of Typhoon Muifa tomorrow or Sunday, which is expected to be one of the most powerful storms to hit China in recent years. ( China Daily ) Zyzz dies after receiving a heart attack in Thailand. International relations UNICEF calls on Australia not to send 18 asylum seekers who are allegedly unaccompanied minors to Malaysia as part of a people swap. (AFP via Google News) (AAP via SBS News) Politics Former Prime Minister of Ukraine , and leader of the most numerous opposition party Yulia Tymoshenko is arrested in Kiev . ( Kyiv Post ) Philippine President Benigno Aquino III meets with rebel Moro Islamic Liberation Front leader Al Haj Murad Ibrahim in Tokyo . ( Philippine Inquirer ) (Radio Australia) Yingluck Shinawatra is officially elected as the Prime Minister of Thailand by the parliament . (Reuters) Former Deputy Prime Minister of Poland Andrzej Lepper is found dead in what police suspect is a suicide by hanging. (WBJ) ( The Telegraph ) August 6, 2011 ( 2011-08-06 ) (Saturday) edit history watch Armed conflict and attacks 2011 Syrian uprising : The Gulf Co-operation Council urges an end to the "bloodshed" in Syria, and calls for reforms. (Al Arabiya) The Islamist al-Shabaab rebels in Somalia pull out of the capital Mogadishu . (BBC) Police in Saudi Arabia shoot dead a gunman who fired at the palace of Prince Nayef bin Abdul-Aziz Al Saud in Jeddah . (Al Jazeera) A NATO Chinook helicopter crashes in the Sayd Abad district of Afghanistan 's Wardak province after being shot down by the Taliban with 37 deaths. (Dawn) ( New York Times ) At least 20 of the U.S. Navy SEALs killed in the attack were members of SEAL Team Six , the unit that carried out the operation that killed Osama Bin Laden . The Associated Press and CNN later reported that none of the unit members that participated in the raid were involved. (AP) Law and crime English rioters set police cars on fire on the High Road in the London suburb of Tottenham after Metropolitan Police shot Mark Duggan on Thursday. (BBC) Disasters and accidents 500,000 people are evacuated in eastern China as Typhoon Muifa approaches. (Channel NewsAsia) International relations Asylum seekers at the Christmas Island Immigration Reception and Processing Centre off the Indian Ocean coast of Western Australia start a hunger strike in protest at their deportation to Malaysia . ( The West Australian ) Culture Ilya Shikshin won the European Go Championship August 7, 2011 ( 2011-08-07 ) (Sunday) edit history watch Armed conflict and attacks 2011 Syrian uprising : The Syrian army attacks the city of Deir ez-Zor according to opposition activists. (Al Jazeera) (BBC) The Arab League calls on Syrian authorities to end the violence against civilians. (Kuwait News Agency) (Emirates 24/7) Saudi Arabia withdraws its ambassador to Syria in protest at the violence. (BBC) (Al Jazeera) 2011 Yemeni uprising : Yemeni President Ali Abdullah Saleh leaves hospital in Saudi Arabia after injuries sustained during the ongoing uprising. (CNN) 2011 Libyan civil war : Rebels report more gains south of the capital Tripoli . (Reuters) 2011 Bahraini uprising : Two opposition MPs are released from prison. ( Al-Masry Al-Youm ) Fighting erupts in the Somali capital Mogadishu a day after al Shabaab rebels had reportedly left the city. (Reuters) Australian French Resistance leader Nancy Wake dies in London at the age of 98. ( Sydney Daily Telegraph ) Disasters and accidents One person is killed and six are missing after a landslide in eastern Malaysia . (Xinhua) Law and crime 2011 London riots The Metropolitan Police Service restores order in Tottenham , north London, after a riot on Saturday night in which twenty-six police officers were injured. (AFP via Hindustan Times ) (BBC) Outbreaks of looting and civil disorder are reported in a number of areas including Hackney , Brixton and Walthamstow . ( The Guardian ) ( The Telegraph ) Nepal bans smoking in public places. [ ( Straits Times ) [Copley Shooting 2011] [2] Science and technology The Cambridgeshire Guided Busway , the longest guided busway in the world, opens after years of delays. (BBC) August 8, 2011 ( 2011-08-08 ) (Monday) edit history watch Armed conflict and attacks 2011 Syrian uprising The Syrian opposition reports that the Army has entered the town of Maarat an-Numan . (Al Jazeera) Ban Ki-moon , the Secretary-General of the United Nations , again warns the President of Syria Bashar al-Assad to stop violence against civilians. (Ynet) The website of the Ministry of Defense of Syria is taken over by Anonymous . ( Huffington Post ) Kuwait and Bahrain recall their ambassadors to Syria in protest of the violence, a day after Saudi Arabia recalled its ambassador. (Gulf News) ( Daily Star Lebanon ) Syria rejects a statement by the Gulf Cooperation Council condemning its crackdown on protests. (Syrian Arab News Agency) [ permanent dead link ] 2011 Libyan civil war : Fighting continues on the eastern and western fronts. (Al Jazeera) The Royal Navy appoints its first female war ship commander; Lieutenant Commander Sarah West, 39, will take command of HMS Portland in April 2012. (BBC) Business and economy Stock markets in Asia , Australia , and the United States fall further after the credit rating of the United States is downgraded with the Dow Jones Industrial Average falling by over 634 points, 5.55%. (Market Watch) (AAP via SBS) ( Herald Sun ) (Bloomberg) ( USA Today ) (News Limited) Rice futures trading on the Tokyo Grain Exchange is suspended following fears that the Japanese crop has been contaminated by radiation from the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster . (Bloomberg) . Disasters Seven people are killed in a landslide in Malaysia 's Cameron Highlands . ( Straits Times ) More than 100,000 people have been evacuated from China's Shandong Province as former Typhoon Muifa travels along the eastern coast as a tropical storm . (Xinhua) Law and crime The High Court of Australia grants an injunction against the removal of asylum seekers to Malaysia until a full hearing later this month. (ABC News) 2011 London riots : More than 215 people have been arrested in London , England since the riots began. (AFP via Herald-Sun ) ( Belfast Telegraph ) Fresh violence breaks out in Hackney , Lewisham , Peckham , Croydon and several other areas of London as Home Secretary Theresa May meets with police chiefs to discuss the crisis. (BBC) London Mayor Boris Johnson says he will return early from his family holiday on Tuesday to deal with the riots. ( The Telegraph ) British Prime Minister David Cameron returns home early to chair a meeting of the COBRA Committee. ( Daily Mail ) Unrest breaks out in Birmingham City Centre and Liverpool . (BBC) (BBC) Politics and elections Mike Rann , the Premier of the Australian state of South Australia , announces that he will be resigning on October 20 to be replaced by Education Minister Jay Weatherill . ( Herald Sun ) August 9, 2011 ( 2011-08-09 ) (Tuesday) edit history watch Arts and culture Australians fill out the 2011 Australian census . (ABC News Australia) Business and economy August 2011 stock markets fall The Australian Commonwealth and Westpac banks cut fixed home loan rates. (News Limited) ( Sydney Morning Herald ) ( Market Watch ) (Reuters) South Korea 's financial authorities promise to take action to stabilise markets as stocks on the Korea Exchange continue to fall. (Yonhap) The Australian and New Zealand dollars continue to fall as investors seek security with the Aussie dollar falling below parity. (Bloomberg) The Dow Jones Industrial Average on the New York Stock Exchange as world stock markets recover after recent falls. ( Wall Street Journal ) The U.S. Federal Reserve announces it will keep interest rates at "exceptionally low levels" at least through mid 2013, though it makes no commitment for further quantitative easing . (Reuters) Disasters Tropical Storm Mufia At least four people are dead and two missing after former Typhoon Muifa hits South Korea - 600 homes had earlier been destroyed in the People's Republic of China . ( Chosun Ilbo ) (AFP via Google News) At least ten people are reported to have died in North Korea . (CNN) Law and crime English riots: Rioting continues in London with lawlessness spreading to other English cities such as Liverpool , Manchester , Bristol and Birmingham . (BBC) , ( The Australian ) The Prime Minister David Cameron returns to Britain to chair an emergency meeting on the crisis and later recalls Parliament on Thursday. (BBC) (BBC) Police arrest 334 people and charge 69 after last night's riots. (Al-Jazeera) The Football Association calls off a friendly match between the England and Netherlands national teams. ( The Guardian ) The far-right English Defense League says it will send its members onto the streets to quell riots. (AP via Houston Chronicle ) Warren Jeffs , former leader of the FLDS Church and formerly on the FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives list, is sentenced to life in prison plus 20 years for a conviction on child sexual assault charges. (CNN) Politics and elections Voters in some parts of the US state of Wisconsin go to the polls for recall elections for six Republican Party State Senators with Republicans retaining four of the six seats and their majority in the chamber. ( The New York Times ) , (Bloomberg) Penny Wong , the first openly gay member of the Australian Cabinet , announces that her partner will be having a baby. ( Adelaide Advertiser ) August 10, 2011 ( 2011-08-10 ) (Wednesday) edit history watch Armed conflict and attacks The People's Republic of China 's first aircraft carrier , the refitted Soviet aircraft carrier Varyag , commences its first sea trial under the Chinese flag. (Bloomberg) (Reuters) Korean Peninsula : The Yonhap news agency reports that sources have advised them that North Korea is plotting to assassinate Kim Kwan-jin , currently South Korea 's defence minister. (Yonhap News) North and South Korea exchange artillery fire near Yeonpyeong Island . (Bloomberg) A US drone missile attack kills at least 18 people in Pakistan 's North Waziristan district. ( Dawn ) Arts and culture The south ridge of Aoraki / Mount Cook , New Zealand 's highest mountain, is renamed Hillary Ridge after Sir Edmund Hillary , the first man to conquer Mount Everest . (Reuters) Business and economy Stock markets in Asia and Australia continue to rebound after the United States Federal Reserve promises to keep interest rates near zero for two years. (CNBC) [ permanent dead link ] The trade surplus of the People's Republic of China rises to US$31.5 billion in July, the highest level in two years. (Bloomberg) Australia 's Civil Aviation Safety Authority gives Tiger Airways the all clear to resume operations after a six-week suspension for safety violations. ( Sydney Morning Herald ) Law and crime Australian crime figure Judy Moran is sentenced to 26 years in jail for her part in the murder of Des "Tuppence" Moran in Melbourne with the actual murderer Geoffrey Armour also sentenced to 26 years. ( Sydney Morning Herald ) England riots : Rioting hits other English cities including Manchester , Salford , Liverpool , Nottingham and Birmingham , though London is largely quiet. (BBC) The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , David Cameron , holds another cabinet meeting to discuss responses to the riots with police authorised to use water cannon and rubber bullets . (CNN) ( The Guardian ) Police from Scotland are sent to England to help combat riots and disorder. (BBC) News International phone hacking scandal Former News of the World news editor Greg Miskiw is arrested, then later bailed as the investigation into phone-hacking continues. (BBC) August 11, 2011 ( 2011-08-11 ) (Thursday) edit history watch Armed conflict and attacks Karen Drambjan , a left-wing Estonian lawyer, storms the Defense Ministry in Tallinn and takes two hostages, but is killed when special police forces storm the building. (RT) At least five people including four police officers are killed after a bomb explodes near a police van in the Pakistani city of Peshawar . (BBC) Business and economy August 2011 stock markets fall and rebound Stock markets in Asia and Australia fall on the back of a sharp decline in Wednesday's trading on the New York Stock Exchange . (MarketWatch) (MarketWatch) The Dow Jones Industrial Average gains 423.37 points, the fourth-straight day U.S. stocks have changed by over 400 points. The market dropped on Monday and Wednesday, and registered increases Tuesday and today. ( Hartford Courant ) [ permanent dead link ] Disasters The City Council in the New Zealand city of Christchurch announces plans to rebuild its central business district after the recent earthquake . (TV New Zealand) International relations Final approval is given for the building of 1,600 Israeli settler homes in disputed East Jerusalem by Israeli Interior Minister Eli Yishai despite a diplomatic rebuke Tuesday from the United States over earlier construction plans. (BBC) (Toronto Globe and Mail) Law and crime Umar Patek , a key suspect in the 2002 Bali bombings , faces trial on terrorism charges in Jakarta after being extradicted from Pakistan to Indonesia . (AP via News Limited) Politics and elections The Parliament of the United Kingdom comes back from its summer break to debate the 2011 England riots . (AFP via Sydney Morning Herald ) The Philippine Senate Electoral Tribunal proclaims Aquilino Pimentel III as the winner of the 2007 election days after Migz Zubiri resigned due to alleged electoral fraud. (BBC News) August 12, 2011 ( 2011-08-12 ) (Friday) edit history watch Armed conflict and attacks Two bombers kill themselves in an attempted attack in the Philippines city of Kidapawan in Cotabato province . (Philippines Star) 2011 Syrian uprising : Massive protests are planned against the President Bashar al-Assad , after recent raids by the Army . (Al Arabiya) Business and economy Chinese Bullet trains on the Beijing–Shanghai High-Speed Railway are withdrawn and all sections of track are inspected following a recent crash. ( Wall Street Journal ) Law and crime The United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit strikes down the health insurance mandate of President Barack Obama 's Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act . (AP via Washington Post ) Sport In rugby league , Darren Lockyer of the Brisbane Broncos plays his 350th match in first grade setting a new record for the National Rugby League . ( Sydney Morning Herald ) Disasters A passenger train derails at Baby, Piotrków County , Poland. One passenger is killed and 45 are injured. (BBC) August 13, 2011 ( 2011-08-13 ) (Saturday) edit history watch Disasters Stage rigging collapses at the Indiana State Fair , killing at least five and injuring dozens of fans of the musical group Sugarland and singer/songwriter Sara Bareilles . (CNN) The Thomson and Mitchell rivers flood in the Gippsland region of the Australian state of Victoria . (ABC News Australia) A ruptured oil pipeline is discovered near Gannet Alpha platform, run by Shell 113 miles from Aberdeen , Scotland . BBC Law and crime 2011 England riots Two people are charged with the murder of three men who were hit by a car in Birmingham as they tried to protect their property from looters. (BBC) British Prime Minister David Cameron hires so-called U.S. supercop Bill Bratton to advise the British Government on dealing with gang-related violence. (BBC) Politics and elections The first electoral contest of the 2012 United States Presidential election takes place in the Iowa town of Ames with the Ames Straw Poll for Republican Party candidates with Michele Bachmann emerging as the winner. (AP via Yahoo! News) ( Washington Post ) August 14, 2011 ( 2011-08-14 ) (Sunday) edit history watch Armed conflict and attacks 2011 Syrian uprising : Syrian Navy gunboats fire heavy machine guns targeting waterfront districts in Latakia , as ground troops and security agents backed by armor storm several neighborhoods. Up to 26 people are killed. ( Haaretz ) (Ynet News) Iran confirms the arrest of the second-in-command of the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK), Murat Karayılan , by the country's intelligence agency . (PressTV) Anti- Muammar Gaddafi rebels make major progress in the 2011 Libyan civil war , advancing into Zawiya , only 50 km west of the capital city, Tripoli . (Reuters) Law and crime Egyptian activist Asmaa Mahfouz is charged with inciting violence in what seems to be a clear violation of human rights . ( Al-Ahram ) ( Almasry Alyoum ) (Associated Press) ( Washington Post ) Six people are killed in a stabbing incident on the Channel Island of Jersey (BBC) 2011 England riots A third person is charged with the murder of three men hit by a car in Birmingham. (BBC) Politics Former Governor of Minnesota Tim Pawlenty announces the end of his campaign for the Republican Party nomination in the 2012 United States presidential election following a poor result in the Ames Straw Poll . ( Washington Post ) Jhala Nath Khanal resigns as the Prime Minister of Nepal due to the failure of Nepalese political parties to adopt a constitution or end infighting. (AP via Houston Chronicle ) Sport American golfer Keegan Bradley wins the United States 2011 PGA Championship at the Atlanta Athletic Club , defeating Jason Dufner in a playoff. ( Atlanta Journal Constitution ) [ permanent dead link ] , (CBS Sports) August 15, 2011 ( 2011-08-15 ) (Monday) edit history watch Armed conflict and attacks 2011 Syrian uprising : The Syrian navy shells the city of Latakia , killing as many as 26 people, including Palestinian refugees from Ramel refugee camp in southern Latakia. (Al Jazeera) ( The Daily Telegraph ) ( Los Angeles Times ) (CNN) (VOA) ( Jerusalem Post ) Turkish Minister of Foreign Affairs Ahmet Davutoğlu says that unspecified "steps" would be taken by Turkey if Syria fails to end the crackdown. (Al Jazeera) Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi gives a live address to the nation after rebels claim a number of victories in the 2011 Libyan civil war . (CNN) A double bombing in the Iraqi city of Kut kills at least 34 and injures 68 people. (CNN) Business and economy Japan 's economy shrinks by 0.3% in the April-June quarter confirming the country is in a recession caused in part by the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami and subsequent Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster . (Market Watch) Authorities in the north-eastern Chinese city of Dalian order a petrochemical plant, which produces paraxylene (PX), to be shut down and relocated, after tens of thousands of local residents protested through the streets on Sunday, fearing potential pollution. The protests resembled to a similar case, when citizens went on a protest "stroll" in the southeastern city of Xiamen in June 2007. ( China Daily ) ( The Guardian ) ( The Atlantic ) ( The Wall Street Journal ) Google announces a proposed acquisition of Motorola Mobility . (Reuters) Disasters Tropical Storm Gert passes Bermuda . (National Hurricane Centre) A cold snap in New Zealand causes widespread snow on both the North and South Islands , disruption to power supplies and the closures of roads and Wellington International Airport . (TV New Zealand) ( The Guardian ) Politics Japan 's Cabinet approves a plan to establish a new energy watchdog under the Environment Ministry . (Japan Today) Former Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak appears in court for the second session of his trial with his two sons Alaa and Gamal who share corruption charges with him; the trial is subsequently adjourned and ordered to be merged with that of former Interior Minister Habib al-Adly . (PressTV) (BBC) Sport In baseball , Jim Thome of the Minnesota Twins becomes the eighth player in the history of North American Major League Baseball to hit 600 career home runs . (MSNBC) In motorsport , Marcos Ambrose wins the Heluva Good! Sour Cream Dips at The Glen , becoming the first Australian ever to win a race in the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series . (Australian Associated Press via The Sydney Morning Herald ) August 16, 2011 ( 2011-08-16 ) (Tuesday) edit history watch Armed conflicts and attacks 2011 Libyan civil war National Transitional Council forces in Libya began cutting off supply lines to Tripoli after a 48 hour operation capturing key towns around the capital and surrounding the city. (Reuters via Yahoo) (Reuters via Yahoo) The Israeli Air Force launches an air strike east of Gaza City , killing a Hamas gunman, in response to a rocket launched at Israel which landed in the Negev Desert . ( Jerusalem Post ) A United States drone attack in the Pakistani province of North Waziristan kills four militants. (AFP via Dawn ) Arts and culture BBC Magazines agrees a £12m deal to sell the Radio Times – together with ten other titles – to Exponent, owner of thetrainline.com . (BBC) Business and economy Australian airline Qantas announces that it will be cutting 1000 jobs while steel maker OneSteel announces the loss of 400 jobs. (AAP via News Limited) The economy of Germany grows by only 0.1% in the second quarter of 2011, raising concerns about the European economy as a whole. (AP via Washington Post ) Law and crime Indian social activist Anna Hazare is arrested in New Delhi ahead of a proposed fast against corruption . (IBN Live) Detained illegal immigrants injure 15 policemen and 3 soldiers in a riot in Malta . ( Times of Malta ) News of the World phone hacking scandal : MPs release a letter sent to News International in 2007 by former News of the World Royal editor Clive Goodman , in which he alleges senior staff at the newspaper were aware of phone hacking activities. (BBC) 2011 England riots : Two men who set up a Facebook site to incite violence during the riots are sentenced to four years imprisonment at Chester Crown Court . (BBC) Politics Chinese Vice-Premier Li Keqiang visits Hong Kong on a three-day official tour; observers indicate that this solidifies his status as the next Premier of China. ( Wall Street Journal ) Sports Former Brazilian football star Zico signs a contract to manage the Iraq national football team . (SAG) Other In Canada , the Canadian Forces Maritime Command and the Canadian Forces Air Command are restored to their pre-1968 service titles, the Royal Canadian Navy and the Royal Canadian Air Force respectively. At the same time, the Canadian Forces Land Forces Command is redesignated the Canadian Army . (BBC) August 17, 2011 ( 2011-08-17 ) (Wednesday) edit history watch Armed conflict and attacks A rocket is fired into the compound of the President of Afghanistan in Kabul . (AP via Salon) Business and economy Workers at the Polish Przewozy Regionalne passenger rail network commence a 24-hour strike. (RIA Novosti) Verizon Communications says that striking workers who do not return to work by the end of August will lose medical, prescription drug , and related benefits. (Bloomberg) The price of gold reaches a new record after the President of Venezuela Hugo Chávez announces plans to nationalize the Venezuelan gold industry. (Dow Jones via The Australian ) The Financial Times reports that sources "familiar with the situation" say Liberty Media is losing interest in a purchase of Barnes & Noble , due to financing constraints. ( Financial Times ) [ permanent dead link ] Law and crime The Special Tribunal for Lebanon publishes an indictment against Hezbollah members accused in the 2005 assassination of Lebanese Prime Minister Rafic Hariri . ( Los Angeles Times ) ( Washington Post ) (UPI) ( The Telegraph ) A lawyer claims that 25,000 South Koreans will be suing Apple Inc. in relation to alleged privacy breaches in relation to collection of iPhone location addresses. (AP via MSNBC) Three sexual assault cases are lodged against the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Miami . ( Miami Herald ) [ permanent dead link ] A Toronto Imam is charged in relation to alleged sexual assaults and death threats committed against five victims over the course of three years. ( Toronto Star ) A fourth man is charged with murder following the deaths of three men hit by a car in Birmingham , UK, during recent rioting which spread across England . (BBC) Politics and elections Vasyl Dzharty , the Prime Minister of Crimea , an autonomous region of Ukraine , dies in office. ( Kyiv Post ) Singapore 's Presidential Elections Committee approves four presidential candidates for the presidential election on August 27: Tony Tan Keng Yam , Tan Cheng Bock , Tan Kin Lian and Tan Jee Say . ( Wall Street Journal ) August 18, 2011 ( 2011-08-18 ) (Thursday) edit history watch Armed conflicts and attacks At least fourteen people die after a minibus hits a roadside bomb in Afghanistan 's Herat province. (Voice of America) Turkey launches an air strike on PKK positions in northern Iraq . (AP via Google News) Southern Israel attacks Eight people are killed and dozens are injured in southern Israel near the Egyptian border, after a string of terrorist attacks on a highway targeting two civilian buses and cars as well a military bus responding to the attacks. (Ynetnews) ( New York Times ) In retaliation, Israel launches an air raid on the town of Rafah killing five Palestinians terrorists from the Popular Resistance Committee according to officials in Gaza. ( The Guardian ) , (AFP via Sydney Morning Herald ) ( New York Times ) Business and economy South Korean banks temporarily stop making household loans to stop the growth of household debt. (Yonhap) August 2011 stock markets fall The DAX , CAC 40 , Nasdaq drop over 5%, the FTSE 100 index by 4.5%, the Dow Jones Industrial Average by 3.7%. (BBC) , ( New York Times ) Gold hits a high of US$1,826 an ounce. (BBC) Disasters More than 60,000 people are homeless after flooding in the southern Pakistani province of Sindh . (Pakistan) An Australian Broadcasting Corporation helicopter goes missing near Lake Eyre in outback South Australia with journalist Paul Lockyer , pilot Gary Ticehurst and cameraman John Bean feared dead. (AAP via Melbourne Herald Sun ) Five people die on the first day of the Belgian Pukkelpop festival when a hurricane hits the festival field. The rest of the festival is cancelled. Law and crime A rabbi in the U.S. state of New Jersey has been indicted for alleged sex crimes against two 13-year-old Israeli boys who were visiting the rabbi through a scholarship fund. The two boys had reported the abuse separately following their return. (Jerusalem Post) Seven people are killed and 17 injured after a fight in a western Venezuelan prison in the town of Cabimas . (AP via Google News) The BBC airs a special edition of its Crimewatch programme aimed at identifying people involved in the 2011 England riots . ( The Telegraph ) ( The Guardian ) Politics and elections Roch Wamytan is elected President of the Congress of New Caledonia by the Congress of New Caledonia with 32 votes. (RNZI) August 19, 2011 ( 2011-08-19 ) (Friday) edit history watch Armed conflicts and attacks A Taliban attack on a British Council centre in Kabul , Afghanistan , results in the death of at least eight people. (BBC) (CNN) (Reuters) (AFP via The Straits Times ) Rocket attacks in southern Israel kill eight people. (Ha'aretz) Arts and culture The Pukkelpop music festival in Belgium is cancelled following the death of at least five people in a storm. (The Inquisitr) Business and economy Hewlett-Packard shares drop 20% on news that the company plans to split off its personal computer division as a separate company. ( Wall Street Journal ) August 2011 stock markets fall The Tokyo Stock Exchange 's Nikkei Stock Average falls by 1.9% in early trading as the trend of stock market falls continues. ( Wall Street Journal ) The All Ordinaries Index on the Australian Stock Exchange falls by 4.4% with Asian markets generally down. (AAP via The Australian ) U.S. retailing giant J.C. Penney agrees with its largest shareholder, William Ackman , that Ackman will cap his shareholdings at 16.5 percent, while increasing his exposure through a "synthetic long position." (Dow Jones Newswire) Disasters A 6.8 magnitude earthquake occurs off the coast of Japan with a tsunami warning issued and then retracted. (Reuters) (AP via Sydney Morning Herald ) A Chinese scientist is reported missing on Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region 's Muztagh Ata glacier after conducting research on the Tibetan Plateau . (Bernama) ( The People's Daily ) Three people die in the city of Pittsburgh in the US state of Pennsylvania as a result of flash flooding . (AP via Google) Other The announcement of possible wreck relocation of Swedish 16th century warship Mars in the Baltic Sea . (AFP via Dawn.com ) August 20, 2011 ( 2011-08-20 ) (Saturday) edit history watch Armed conflicts and attacks At least six Pakistani police officers are killed and 50 injured in an attack in Karachi . (Xinhua) 2011 Libyan civil war Libyan rebels claim to have captured the strategic oil port of Brega . (AP via MSNBC) Heavy fighting is reported in the capital Tripoli as the rebel advance continues. ( The Telegraph ) Arab-Israeli conflict : One Israeli is killed, seven are wounded in Beersheba and three Palestinian illegal aliens are wounded near the city of Ashdod by incoming mortars and rockets launched from the Gaza Strip . (Ynetnews) (Ynetnews) (AFP via Google News) The Israeli Air Force attacks targets in the Gaza Strip for a third successive day as over 90 rockets have been launched into Israel since Thursday. (AFP via Google News) Disasters A pair of earthquakes, magnitude 7.1 and 7.0, occur in Vanuatu . (USGS) 2011 Atlantic hurricane season : Tropical Storm Harvey is expected to cross the coast of Belize with a tropical storm watch in place for Guatemala and parts of Honduras . (CNN) (Alertnet) Tropical Storm Irene forms with a tropical storm warning in place for Puerto Rica , the US Virgin Islands , the British Virgin Islands , Antigua and Barbuda amongst others. (Hurricane Terrapin) [ permanent dead link ] At least 25 people die in a bus crash in Afghanistan 's Kandahar Province . (BBC) A pilot dies as an RAF Red Arrows aeroplane crashes at the Bournemouth Air Festival following a display. (BBC) First Air Flight 6560 , a Boeing 737 , crashes in the northern Canadian territory of Nunavut near the hamlet of Resolute Bay with 15 people on board, killing 12. ( Globe and Mail ) Politics At least 10,000 people gather in the Indian capital New Delhi to support a hunger strike by social activist Anna Hazare in support of tougher anti-corruption legislation. (Reuters) Sport In football , the start of the Spanish La Liga 2011–12 season is delayed by a players' strike. (AFP via France 24) Other Striking Verizon Communications workers will return to work from a strike on the night of Monday, August 22, 2011, even without a formal contract. (Journal Star of Peoria) August 21, 2011 ( 2011-08-21 ) (Sunday) edit history watch Armed conflict and attacks 2011 Libyan civil war : Abdul Hafiz Ghoga , the Vice Chairman of the National Transitional Council , says that "the zero hour has started" with fighting continuing in Tripoli . (Xinhua) (Al-Jazeera) Forces loyal to Muammar Gaddafi recapture sections of the town of Brega . (Al-Jazeera) Gaddafi appears on Libyan television claiming to be the "father of Libya ". (AFP via Sydney Morning Herald ) al-Jazeera reports that the rebels have taken control of Tripoli Airport . (BBC) Barack Obama , the President of the United States , calls on Muammar Gaddafi to "relinquish power once and for all." (MSNBC) Rockets fired from Gaza , reportedly aiming for Israel , land in the Sinai Peninsula of Egypt during the Palestinian-Israeli conflict . (AFP via Google News) Business and economy Four employees of Deutsche Bank AG and its South Korean brokerage unit are indicted for alleged illegal trading on the Korea Exchange . (Yonhap) The New York Times carries claims by anonymous sources that the Bank of Japan is said to be considering a further easing of monetary policy, and the government of Japan may intervene in markets to push the value of the yen down. ( New York Times ) Disasters A tornado hits the town of Goderich in the Canadian province of Ontario causing significant damage and one death. ( Vancouver Sun ) , (AP via the Washington Post ) International relations An Egyptian protester removes the flag from the Israeli embassy as thousands protest outside following the death of five policemen near the border. (AFP via Maan News) Vietnamese police shut down an anti- China rally in Hanoi over disputed territory in the South China Sea . (AP via The Washington Post ) Science A team of Australian and British geologists claim to have the found the world's oldest fossils in the Strelley Pool rock formation in the outback of the Australian state of Western Australia . According to the Monday, August 22 Huffington Post online video and short article about them [3] they "are thought to be 3.4 billion years old. Some believe that the organisms could also have lived on Mars , as at the time when they lived there was very little oxygen on Earth , and Mars was known to have had both the water and sulphur necessary to sustain the life forms." ( New York Times ) August 22, 2011 ( 2011-08-22 ) (Monday) edit history watch Armed conflicts and attacks 2011 Libyan civil war , 2011 Battle of Tripoli : Mustafa Abdul Jalil , Chairman of the National Transitional Council , announces that Muammar Gaddafi's regime has collapsed. (TABNAK) National Transitional Council forces take control of Tripoli as Muammar Gaddafi 's son Saif al-Islam Gaddafi is reported captured by rebels. (ABC News Australia) ( Washington Post ) The chief prosecutor of the International Criminal Court in The Hague call for Saif al-Islam to stand trial for his role in the civil war. ( Evening Standard ) (Huffington Post) (TABNAK) In an audio message, Gaddafi urges the people of Tripoli to "purge the capital" even as fighters sweep through the city and take control of the symbolic Green Square, which is subsequently renamed Martyrs' Square . (Press TV) (TABNAK) Heavy fighting is reported near Gaddafi's residence in southern Tripoli, while reports claim that Gaddafi and his family are moving to the Park Hotel in Tunisia . (AFP/Reuters via ABC News Online) (Farsnews) [ permanent dead link ] Anti-Gaddafi forces capture the house of Gaddafi's daughter, Ayesha Gaddafi . (TABNAK) People celebrate their victory in the streets of Tripoli by saying Shahada , ending to 42 years of dictatorship. (TABNAK) Large anti-Gaddafi protests take place, with some coming under fire from snipers perched on rooftops. (Yahoo! News) France announces plans to host a summit on Libya as early as next week. (Reuters) South Africa is reported to be involved in negotiations with Muammar Gaddafi's camp to offer him a place of refuge, though the government denies reports a plane has been sent for him. (Press TV) ( The Daily Telegraph ) More than 900 people are released from Ain Zara jail in Tripoli . (TABNAK) Iran 's Foreign Ministry calls for the release of Musa al-Sadr , who they claim has been held in Libya since 1978. (IRNA) Palestinian militants on the Gaza Strip fire rockets and mortars into Israel despite a truce. (AP via Google) (Reuters) Pakistan announces it will send more troops to Bahrain in support of the King of Bahrain Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa . ( The Nation ) The Australian Army reports that another Australian soldier has been killed by an improvised explosive device lost in fighting in Afghanistan . ( The Courier Mail ) ( The Australian ) The UN says 600 people have been killed in clashes in South Sudan . (New York Times) Arts and culture Jerry Leiber, the American lyricist of the Leiber and Stoller duo that wrote many of the most popular songs in the early years of rock and roll , dies at the age of 78 in Los Angeles . ( New York Times ) Nick Ashford , American R&B singer-songwriter and one half of the husband-and-wife songwriting duo Ashford & Simpson , dies from throat cancer aged 69. ( The Telegraph ) Business and economy Australia 's BlueScope Steel announces the loss of a thousand jobs with 800 jobs lost in Port Kembla and 200 jobs in Western Port . (AAP via Sydney Morning Herald ) The price of crude oil falls on world markets due to the downfall of Muammar Gaddafi and bleak global economic outlook. (Reuters) Disasters Hurricane Irene : Twenty people including British billionaire Richard Branson and actress Kate Winslet have to be rescued after Hurricane Irene destroys Branson's mansion on Necker Island in the Caribbean Sea . ( Winnipeg Free Press ) Hurricane Irene reaches hurricane strength over Puerto Rico , becoming the first of the 2011 Atlantic hurricane season . (Reuters) Law and crime Prosecutors in New York City ask for charges against former International Monetary Fund head Dominique Strauss-Kahn to be dropped. (ABC Online) Politics Jack Layton , leader of Canada 's New Democratic Party and Leader of the Opposition , dies from cancer at age 61. (CTV) August 23, 2011 ( 2011-08-23 ) (Tuesday) edit history watch Armed conflicts and attacks 2011 Battle of Tripoli Heavy fighting continues in the Libyan capital Tripoli as Muammar Gaddafi 's son Saif al-Islam Gaddafi leads a counterattack despite earlier reports of his capture. (ABC News Australia) Rebels capture Muammar Gaddafi 's Bab al-Azizia compound after heavy fighting. (BBC) Turkey claims to have killed 100 Kurdistan Workers' Party terrorists in bombing raids on positions in northern Iraq since last Wednesday. (Hurriyet Daily News and Economic Review) Suspected Islamic insurgents kill two Thai Army soldiers and wound 14 other people in southern Thailand . (AP via Google News) The United Nations Human Rights Council orders an investigation into alleged human rights violations by the Government of Syria in the 2011 Syrian uprising . (BBC) At least one Palestinian is killed and several injured following an Israeli drone aircraft attack on Gaza shortly after an informal ceasefire was reached. (Al-Jazeera) Business and economy Swiss bank UBS AG announces plans to cut 3,500 jobs. ( Financial Times ) Disasters Hurricane Irene reaches Category 2 strength as it hits the island of Hispaniola containing Haiti and the Dominican Republic . (CNN) A magnitude 5.8 earthquake strikes near Mineral, Virginia ; a nearby nuclear reactor is automatically shutdown due to the quake. This is the most powerful earthquake to hit Virginia since 1897. ( New York Times ) ( The Guardian ) International relations Thailand says it will recognize the State of Palestine during its September bid at the United Nations General Assembly . (Ma'an News Agency) Law and crime A judge in New York City rules in favour dropping sexual assault charges against former International Monetary Fund head Dominique Strauss-Kahn . ( New York Times ) Politics President Obama provides temporary relief for illegal immigrants who are students, veterans , the elderly, crime victims and those with family, including same-sex partners , as part of immigration reform in the United States . ( Los Angeles Times ) ( New York Times ) An e-petition calling for the British Government to release of Cabinet documents relating to the Hillsborough disaster collects 100,000 signatures - enough for MPs to consider a House of Commons debate on the matter. It is the first government e-petition to reach the target. (BBC) News International phone hacking scandal The BBC reports that former News of the World editor Andy Coulson continued to receive a severance pay package from News International while working as Director of Communications for the Conservative Party . (BBC) Hattiesburg Mayor Johnny DuPree is declared the winner in the Democratic Party primary election in Mississippi , becoming the first black candidate to win a major party nomination in a gubernatorial race. (Clarion Ledger) [ permanent dead link ] August 24, 2011 ( 2011-08-24 ) (Wednesday) edit history watch Armed conflicts and attacks 2011 Battle of Tripoli National Transitional Council Chairman Mustafa Abdul Jalil announces legislative and presidential elections within eight months, and promises that Muammar Gaddafi will be tried in Libya. (Ynetnews) Muammar Gaddafi vows to fight until "death or victory" despite the capture of his Bab al-Azizia compound in southern Tripoli . ( The Telegraph ) A former United Nations weapons inspector, Olli Heinonen, warns that a research centre near Tripoli has materials that could be used to make a nuclear dirty bomb . (Reuters via the New York Times ) Air strikes kill 30 Al-Qaeda linked militants near Zinjibar in Yemen 's Abyan Governorate with eight army soldiers killed in fighting. (AP via Huffington Post ) Business and economy Moody's credit rating agency downgrades Japan to Aa3 due to weak economic growth prospects and high levels of public debt . (Bloomberg) Steve Jobs resigns as the CEO of Apple Inc . Tim Cook took over the CEO position for the company. (Wall Street Journal) Disasters Hurricane Irene Hurricane Irene strengthens to Category 3 status as it heads towards The Bahamas and Turks and Caicos and then the East Coast of the United States . (News Limited via The Herald Sun ) . (CNN) Thousands of people on Ocracoke Island off the U.S. state of North Carolina are told to evacuate ahead of the arrival of the hurricane later in the week. (AP via The Chronicle-Herald ) [ permanent dead link ] A 7.0 magnitude earthquake hits near the Amazon region of Peru (MSNBC) (CNN) International relations North Korea indicates it is ready to bring about a self-imposed moratorium on its nuclear weapons program . (AP via USA Today ) Law and crime Russian police arrest a former senior police officer Dmitry Pavlyuchenkov suspected of organising the murder of former Kremlin reporter Anna Politkovskaya in 2006. (AFP via Google News) Sport In athletics , Lamine Diack of Senegal is elected unopposed to another term as President of the International Association of Athletics Federations . (AP via Yahoo!) Science A Progress resupply vehicle destined for the International Space Station experiences a catastrophic engine failure and fails to reach orbit impacting in the Altai Republic . August 25, 2011 ( 2011-08-25 ) (Thursday) edit history watch Armed conflicts and attacks More than 50 people are killed in an attack on a casino in Monterrey, Nuevo León , Mexico. (BBC News) (AP via Youtube) Libya 's National Transitional Council announces plans to move its headquarters to Tripoli following the capture of the city from Muammar Gaddafi . (AFP via The Australian ) 17 rockets and mortars are fired from Gaza at southwestern Israeli cities. 2 people, one of them a nine-month-old baby, are hurt in the attack. ( Arutz Sheva ) Arts and culture Gunmen attack prominent Syrian political cartoonist Ali Farzat , beating him badly and breaking both of his hands, with the beating believed to be related to cartoons critical of President of Syria Bashar Assad and his family. (AP via Boston Globe ) Business and economy Berkshire Hathaway , the conglomerate headed by Warren Buffett , announces a plan to invest $5 billion in Bank of America . (DealBook) Disasters At least 19 people are feared dead in Zimbabwe after a haulage truck and bus collide (Radio VoP) The RAF gives the Red Arrows clearance to fly again following Saturday's fatal crash at the Bournemouth Air Festival , but cannot confirm if they will fly at similar events this year. (BBC) Hurricane Irene : New York City announces its plans to shut down subways , buses and commuter trains ahead of the likely arrival of Hurricane Irene. (NBC News) The US city of Norfolk , Virginia declares a mandatory evacuation of lowlying areas by 8am Saturday morning. (Norfolk Government) [ permanent dead link ] 2011 Pacific typhoon season : At least one person in the Philippines is missing and several towns are flooded as a result of Typhoon Nanmadol which is now heading for Taiwan . ( Washington Post ) Law and crime London's Metropolitan Police Service says that it has now made over 2,000 arrests in connection with the riots which occurred in London . (BBC) A 61-year-old man is arrested after making threats to the British Conservative Party MP Louise Mensch via email and social networking sites. (BBC) Police in Austria have arrested an 80-year-old man for allegedly imprisoning and sexually abusing his two daughters over a period of 40 years. (BBC) Politics Former Iranian Prime Minister Mir-Hossein Mousavi is hospitalized after a heart attack. (Balatarin) A protester is arrested for throwing a paint bomb at British Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg as he arrives at a Liberal Democrats party meeting in Glasgow . (BBC) Sports The New York Yankees hit three grand slam home runs in a single game, the first time such a feat has occurred, to win over the Oakland Athletics . ( The New York Times ) August 26, 2011 ( 2011-08-26 ) (Friday) edit history watch Armed conflict and attacks Al Arabiya television reports that three rockets have hit the border area between Kuwait and Iraq . (Reuters) As many as ten people are feared dead after a bomb explodes at a United Nations building in Abuja , Nigeria . ( The Guardian ) (Sky News) Arts and culture The Ministry of Culture of the People's Republic of China bars 100 songs from music download sites including Lady Gaga 's " Judas " and Katy Perry 's " Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.) ". (AP via Google News) Business and economy Ben Bernanke , the Chairman of the United States Federal Reserve , gives a keynote address at a central banks conference at the US resort of Jackson Hole , Wyoming as statistics show that the US economy grew by 1%. (Reuters via CNBC) The Federal Reserve announces that it will hold hearings on the proposed acquisition, by Capital One , of ING Direct , a potential $9 billion deal. (Reuters) Disasters Hurricane Irene : Hurricane Irene approaches the east coast of the United States ahead of making landfall on Saturday with 50 million people in its path. (WRAL) (Reuters) The United States Navy sends its Second Fleet out of its base in Naval Station Norfolk to ride the storm out at sea. (Reuters) A state of emergency is declared in a number of states including North Carolina , Maryland , Virginia , Delaware , New Jersey , New York , Pennsylvania and Connecticut as well as the city of Baltimore in the state of Maryland . (BBC) (AP via San Luis Obispo Tribune ) [ permanent dead link ] (Fox News) The unveiling of the Martin Luther King, Jr. National Memorial in Washington D.C. is postponed indefinitely. ( Daily Mail ) The casinos in Atlantic City close as gamblers and residents evacuate from the New Jersey coast. (AP via NJ.com) The Mayor of New York City Michael Bloomberg orders the mandatory evacuation of some low-lying parts of the city , and the shutdown of the subway . ( International Business Times ) (AP via YouTube) The President of the United States Barack Obama urges Americans in the path of the hurricane to take appropriate precautions for a "historic storm". (CBS News) Law and Crime The Japanese National Police Agency reveals that 90 per cent of cyberattacks on its web site on July 10 came from Internet Protocol addresses in the People's Republic of China . (MDN) [ permanent dead link ] The Associated Press reports that U.S. President Barack Obama 's uncle, Onyango Obama , 67, is stopped on suspicion of drunken driving in Framingham, Massachusetts . (Peoria Journal Star) Politics Oh Se-hoon resigns as the Mayor of Seoul after losing a referendum on free school lunches. (AP via Google News) Naoto Kan announces his resignation as Prime Minister of Japan after the Parliament passes two key pieces of legislation. (AP via NineMSN) (AP via San Jose Mercury News ) [ permanent dead link ] An investigation by the consultancy firm Deloitte clears Iris Robinson , the wife of the Northern Ireland First Minister Peter Robinson , of any wrongdoing over a council contract which was awarded to an individual with whom she was conducting an affair. (BBC) Danish Prime Minister Lars Løkke Rasmussen calls for Parliamentary elections to be held on September 15 - nearly two months ahead of the scheduled date. (Xinhua) Science Scientists at Swinburne University of Technology in Melbourne announce their discovery of J1719-143 , a planet made entirely of diamond orbiting a pulsar - only the second time such a planetary mass has been discovered. (CBC) August 27, 2011 ( 2011-08-27 ) (Saturday) edit history watch Armed conflict and attacks Dozens of dead bodies are found at the Abu Salim Hospital in Tripoli which had been abandoned by medical staff earlier in the week when it came under heavy gunfire . (NPR) Disasters Hurricane Irene : At least 65 million people on the East Coast of the United States will be in the direct path of Hurricane Irene over the next few days. (News Limited) Hurricane Irene makes landfall in the U.S. state of North Carolina near Cape Lookout . ( Washington Post ) (ABC News) At least 4 people die in North Carolina as a result of Hurricane Irene. (CBS News) (CNN) Politics The Parliament of India debates the Jan Lokpal anti-corruption legislation, prompted in part by an ongoing hunger strike by social activist Anna Hazare . ( Hindustan Times ) Voters in Singapore go to the polls for the presidential election . (Link TV) (AFP via Google News) Hundreds of thousands of Canadians attend events and tributes across Canada in honour of Jack Layton , as an unprecedented state funeral is held. (CBC News) Sport In rugby union , the Australian Wallabies defeat the New Zealand All Blacks to win the 2011 Tri Nations Series . (3 News) [ permanent dead link ] In cricket , the Leicestershire Foxes win the Friends Life T20 Cup , beating Somerset Sabres by 18 runs in the final. Both teams reached the final after winning a one over eliminator , the first time such decider had been used in the finals of the competition. [4] August 28, 2011 ( 2011-08-28 ) (Sunday) edit history watch Armed conflicts and attacks At least 29 people are killed in a suicide bombing in Baghdad 's largest Sunni mosque including Khalid al-Fahdawi , a member of the Council of Representatives of Iraq . (AP via Google News) Arts and culture The Notting Hill Carnival , the world's second largest street festival , gets underway peacefully in London with a heavy police presence due to recent riots . ( The Guardian ) The 2011 MTV Video Music Awards conclude in Los Angeles with Katy Perry winning Video of the Year for Firework . ( Entertainment Weekly ) Disasters Hurricane Irene : Effects of Hurricane Irene in New York The storm reaches New York City with 370,000 people having been evacuated from low-lying areas. (AFP via Sydney Morning Herald ) A confirmed tornado in Delaware destroys a home and damages others. (ABC News) At least five people died in Maryland as a result of Hurricane Irene. ( International Business Times ) The state of Vermont is badly affected by the storm with the towns of Wilmington , Brattleboro and Dover all badly flooded and at least one death. (CNN) Numerous covered bridges in Vermont are destroyed or damaged by flooding caused by Irene including a covered bridge in Quechee and the Bartonsville Covered Bridge near Rockingham , which was swept away by flooding. ( The New York Times ) (KHQ-TV) Archived June 1, 2013, at the Wayback Machine Typhoon Nanmadol kills eight people in the Philippines and is headed for Taiwan . (Taiwan News) Five people are killed and at least 27 injured when a tram derails in the Santa Teresa neighborhood of Rio de Janeiro . (BBC) Law and crime The Government of the United Kingdom pledges to raise the issue of the murder of WPC Yvonne Fletcher , allegedly by a Libyan official outside the embassy in London in 1984, with the new government in Tripoli . (Press Association via Google) Politics Indian social activist Anna Hazare breaks a hunger strike after Parliament passes strong anti-corruption laws. ( Times of India ) Tony Tan Keng Yam becomes the President-elect of Singapore after winning the presidential election . (Press Trust of India via Hindustan Times ) Nepal elects Baburam Bhattarai as its new Prime Minister . (CNN) August 29, 2011 ( 2011-08-29 ) (Monday) edit history watch Armed conflicts and attacks 2011 Libyan civil war : The National Transitional Council in Libya raises concerns about mass killing of political prisoners by the former government. (AM via ABC News Online) , (AP via France 24) National Transitional Council fighters converge on Muammar Gaddafi 's home town of Sirte . (Reuters) Several members of the Gaddafi family are reported as having fled to Algeria . (BBC) Disasters Stock, bond and commodities markets open as usual in the United States despite the impact of Hurricane Irene on New York City . (Bloomberg) Typhoon Nanmadol hits Taiwan after killing 11 people in the Philippines . (AP via Google News) Floods hit northern India with transport services disrupted in Mumbai and 15 villages isolated in Maharashtra state. (NewsxLive) Politics and elections The ruling Democratic Party of Japan selects a replacement for Naoto Kan as party leader and Prime Minister of Japan with current Minister of Finance Yoshihiko Noda winning the ballot. ( Wall Street Journal ) (Reuters) ( The Australian ) Baburam Bhattarai of the Unified Communist Party is elected as Prime Minister of Nepal by the Parliament . ( Himalayan Times ) Alexander Ankvab is elected President of partially recognized Abkhazia during elections held on August, 26. The elections are characterised by the Western media and independent observers as "democratic", but not recognized by Georgia . ( The New York Times ) ( Washington Post ) (Taz) Toomas Hendrik Ilves is re-elected by an electoral body to another term as President of Estonia . (Reuters) August 30, 2011 ( 2011-08-30 ) (Tuesday) edit history watch Armed conflicts and attacks Three suicide bombings leave 9 dead and 20 wounded in Grozny , the capital of the Republic of Chechnya , Russia . (CNN) The Libyan National Transitional Council gives an ultimatum to supporters of Muammar Gaddafi in Sirte to surrender by the end of Eid ul-Fitr on Saturday. ( The Scotsman ) [ permanent dead link ] Arts and culture Muslims celebrate Eid ul-Fitr marking the end of Ramadan , the month of fasting . In Indonesia , however, the government rules that the end of Ramadan should be delayed one day. ( Wall Street Journal ) ( Hindustan Times ) Business and economy Lehman Brothers Holdings Inc. asks a bankruptcy court to let creditors vote on a reorganization plan that would pay its creditors, on average, $0.20 on the dollar. (Reuters) Disasters Hurricane Irene : The death toll from Hurricane Irene reaches 40 in the contiguous United States plus three people in the Dominican Republic and one in Puerto Rico . (NZ Stuff) (Associated Press) The New England state of Vermont suffers its worst flooding in 100 years. (Associated Press) The U.S. state of New Jersey suffers extensive flooding with Passaic County , Mercer County and Middlesex County worst affected. ( International Business Times ) Monsoonal rain causes heavy floods in the Indian state of Gujarat . (IBN Live) Nineteen coal miners are rescued from a flooded pit in China 's Heilongjiang Province . (Xinhua) At least 25 people are killed and thousands displaced due to floods in Ibadan , southwest Nigeria over the weekend. [5] The Popocatepetl volcano south of Mexico City starts spewing ash into the sky. (AP via Washington Post ) A TTC bus collides with a hydraulic crane mounted on a construction truck on Lawrence Avenue Toronto , killing one and injuring thirteen, in the first such incident since the Russell Hill subway accident in 1995. (Globe and Mail) ( Vancouver Sun ) [ permanent dead link ] ( The Hamilton Spectator ) Law and crime While reportedly on his way to surrender to police in Atlanta , Georgia to face murder charges, former National Basketball Association player Javaris Crittenton is arrested by the FBI at John Wayne Airport in Orange County, California . (Associated Press via ESPN) Politics New Japanese Prime Minister : The Cabinet of former Prime Minister of Japan Naoto Kan resigns en masse following the election of Yoshihiko Noda as the presumptive Prime Minister. (Nikkei) The Diet of Japan approves Noda as the new Prime Minister. [ August 31, 2011 ( 2011-08-31 ) (Wednesday) edit history watch Armed conflict and attacks Tripoli doctor Gassem Baruni tells the Associated Press that Colonel Muammar Gaddafi 's daughter Hana Moammar Gadafi - thought to have been killed in 1986 US airstrikes - worked for him as a surgeon before she disappeared on August 25. (CBS News) Syrian Army troops reportedly raid neighbourhoods in the town of Hama looking for anti-government activists. ( Jerusalem Post ) Arts and culture The 68th Venice International Film Festival gets underway in Venice , Italy . ( The Guardian ) Business and economy ExxonMobil and OAO Rosneft reach a deal which may reach $500 billion in projects in the Arctic , Gulf of Mexico , and the Black Sea . ( Wall Street Journal ) (Bloomberg) ( Washington Post ) ( Forbes ) (Reuters) ( New York Times ) The United States Justice Department files an antitrust lawsuit to prevent AT&T from taking over T-Mobile USA . ( Los Angeles Times ) Disasters 2011 Texas wildfires Wildfires of the Possum Kingdom Complex severely damage homes and infrastructure in the US states of Texas and Oklahoma . (AP via Detroit News ) 2011 Atlantic hurricane season Hurricane Katia becomes the second hurricane of the 2011 Atlantic hurricane season . (National Hurricane Center) Law and crime The High Court of Australia rules against plans by the government of Australia to send 800 asylum seekers to Malaysia . ( The Courier-Mail ) edit history watch At least 11 people, including 5 suspects, are killed and 15 others are injured on Sunday's violence in China 's Xinjiang region, raising the death toll to 20 over the weekend attacks in Kashgar . (CRI) ( The Guardian ) 2011 Syrian uprising : More than 142 people are killed across the country in a continuing crackdown on protests. (Al Jazeera) Russia calls for an end to the "use of force" against civilians. (Lebanon Now) ( The Moscow Times ) More than 142 people are killed across the country in a continuing crackdown on protests. (Al Jazeera) Russia calls for an end to the "use of force" against civilians. (Lebanon Now) ( The Moscow Times ) The Lebanese Armed Forces exchanged fire with the Israeli Defense Forces patrolling the border, with one Lebanese soldier being injured. ( Jerusalem Post ) The HSBC bank announces plans to cut 5,000 jobs now and 25,000 by 2013. (Reuters) Foxconn Technology, a computer assembler headquartered in Taiwan , plans to add one million robots to its plants over the next three years, according to a Reuters report. (Reuters) BBC journalists stage another 24-hour strike in protest at planned redundancies. ( Mail Online ) ( The Guardian ) Anna Bligh , the Premier of Queensland , releases the results of an inquiry into the 2010–2011 Queensland floods which killed 35 people. ( Courier Mail ) The Italian news agency Agenzia Nazionale Stampa Associata reports that 25 refugees have been found dead in a boat off the coast of Lampedusa . (CNN) Tropical Storm Emily forms in the Atlantic Ocean with tropical storm warnings issued for Puerto Rico , Guadeloupe , Desirade , Les Saintes , Marie Galante and the Dominican Republic . (National Hurricane Centre) (NOLA.com) North Korea agrees to further talks with the United States as part of efforts to restore Six Party talks on its nuclear weapons program . (Yonhap) South Korea bans three Japanese lawmakers all from the Liberal Democratic Party due to an assertion of Japanese sovereignty over the Liancourt Rocks . (Mainichi Shimbun) [ permanent dead link ] (Yonhap) Kevin Rudd , the Minister for Foreign Affairs and former Prime Minister of Australia, goes into hospital to have the aortic valve in his heart replaced. ( Courier Mail ) 2011 U.S. debt ceiling crisis The United States House of Representatives passes legislation to raise the debt ceiling and avert the 2011 U.S. debt ceiling crisis . (Reuters and AFP via Sydney Morning Herald ) More than twenty protesters are arrested after disrupting debate in the House. ( Washington Post ) Congresswoman Gabby Giffords makes her first appearance on Capitol Hill since the 2011 Tucson shootings to cast her vote amongst applause. (BBC) ( Washington Post ) The United States House of Representatives passes legislation to raise the debt ceiling and avert the 2011 U.S. debt ceiling crisis . (Reuters and AFP via Sydney Morning Herald ) More than twenty protesters are arrested after disrupting debate in the House. ( Washington Post ) Congresswoman Gabby Giffords makes her first appearance on Capitol Hill since the 2011 Tucson shootings to cast her vote amongst applause. (BBC) ( Washington Post ) The United States Senate fails to pass a bill ending the partial shutdown of the Federal Aviation Administration . (AP) edit history watch 2011 Libyan civil war : Seven rebels are killed and 50 injured in fighting in the town of Zlitan . (Xinhua) (Reuters) Suicide bombers attack a guesthouse used by foreigners in the northern Afghanistan province of Kunduz with at least four security guards dead. (Reuters) 2011 Syrian uprising : Syrian Army forces shell the town of Hama for a second successive day. (BBC) Fifteen people are wounded in a bombing of a Syrian Catholic Church in Kirkuk , Iraq . (AFP via Yahoo! News) Egypt 's military police and riot police end a three-week Tahrir Square sit-in . ( The Washington Post ) ( The National ) [ permanent dead link ] ( Al-Ahram ) Four Ethiopian peacekeepers are killed by a landmine in the Abyei region of Sudan . (Reuters) The United Nations warns that Uganda could be the next country to be affected by the famine in the Horn of Africa . (Reuters) Tropical Storm Emily moves towards Puerto Rico . (NOAA) The United Nations Working Group on Arbitrary Detention calls on China to release Liu Xiaobo and his wife. (BBC) Israel 's Supreme Court orders the West Bank outpost of Migron, inhabited by 250 Jewish settlers, to be evacuated without delay. (Reuters) Four European nations (the United Kingdom , France , Germany and Portugal ) circulate a draft United Nations Security Council resolution condemning the Government of Syria for its recent crackdown on protesters . (Bloomberg) South Korean prosecutors send a summons to Park Chul, President of Hankuk University of Foreign Studies , over alleged embezzlement . (Yonhap) News International phone hacking scandal Former News of the World managing editor Stuart Kuttner is arrested and later bailed as part of the ongoing investigation into phone hacking. (BBC) Jonathan May-Bowles is jailed for six weeks for throwing a foam pie into the face of Rupert Murdoch at a House of Commons Select Committee hearing. (BBC) Former News of the World managing editor Stuart Kuttner is arrested and later bailed as part of the ongoing investigation into phone hacking. (BBC) Jonathan May-Bowles is jailed for six weeks for throwing a foam pie into the face of Rupert Murdoch at a House of Commons Select Committee hearing. (BBC) Around 10,000 Papuan people demonstrate in support of independence from Indonesia in the Papuan capital of Jayapura . ( Straits Times ) Peter O'Neill of Southern Highlands Province is elected Prime Minister of Papua New Guinea in a 70-24 vote, ousting acting Prime Minister Sam Abal who promises to contest the decision in court. ( Sydney Morning Herald ) The United States Senate passes legislation to raise the debt ceiling in order to avert the 2011 US debt ceiling crisis and President Barack Obama signs it into law. (AFP via Sydney Morning Herald ) ( New Zealand Herald ) French and Ugandan scientists discover a 20-million-year-old skull of a tree-climbing ape in the Karamoja region of Uganda. (Reuters) ( Hindustan Times ) edit history watch 2011 Syrian uprising : Syrian forces shell and advance on the city of Hama . (Al Jazeera) Syrian forces shell and advance on the city of Hama . (Al Jazeera) South Africa agrees to loan Swaziland 2.5 billion rand (US$368 million) to ease the latter's economic crisis. ( Mail & Guardian ) (AFP via Google News) The Chinese Dagong Global Credit Rating downgrades the United States credit rating from A+ to A with a negative outlook. (AFP via Sydney Morning Herald ) The plans of cable entrepreneur John Malone to purchase book store chain Barnes & Noble may have hit a snag, especially over how to value the B&N eReader, the Nook . (New York Post) More than 26,000 people have permanently left New Zealand 's Canterbury Region since the 2011 Christchurch earthquake in February. (AAP via News Limited) Ten people die as a Bell 412 helicopter crashes in Indonesia 's North Sulawesi province. ( Jakarta Post ) Computer security firm McAfee uncovers one of the largest series of cyber attacks against the International Olympic Committee , Indian government , the United Nations , the steel industry and defence and security firms. (BBC) The former President of Egypt , Hosni Mubarak , leaves the resort town of Sharm el-Sheikh, Egypt to return to Cairo for his trial . (AFP via The Melbourne Age ) News International phone hacking scandal : Charity campaigner Heather Mills tells the BBC's Newsnight that a senior Mirror Group journalist admitted hacking voicemails left for her by Sir Paul McCartney while they were together. (BBC) Charity campaigner Heather Mills tells the BBC's Newsnight that a senior Mirror Group journalist admitted hacking voicemails left for her by Sir Paul McCartney while they were together. (BBC) Luke March, who was charged with investigating the United Kingdom Parliamentary expenses scandal , resigns from the Independent Parliamentary Standards Authority after refusing to name those under suspicion. (BBC) The Iranian parliament confirms four new ministers including Rostam Ghasemi as Minister of Petroleum . (Tabnak) David Wu resigns his seat representing Oregon's 1st congressional district in the United States House of Representatives as a result of a sex scandal. ( The Oregonian ) edit history watch War in Afghanistan (2001–2021) : A senior intelligence officer in Afghanistan 's National Directorate of Security , Payenda Khan , is killed in a bombing in Kunduz Province . (CNN) A senior intelligence officer in Afghanistan 's National Directorate of Security , Payenda Khan , is killed in a bombing in Kunduz Province . (CNN) Kraft Foods announces that it will split into two operations consisting of its North American grocery business and its global snack foods business. (Reuters via Yahoo!) [ permanent dead link ] Stock markets around the world fall on the back of concerns about global economic growth with the Dow Jones Industrial Average falling by 4%. ( New York Times ) Tropical Storm Emily is expected to make landfall on Haiti where it is expected to cause heavy flooding. (AP via Houston Chronicle ) The Japanese government led by Prime Minister Naoto Kan announces that it is firing three senior bureaucrats responsible for nuclear energy policy as a result of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster earlier this year. (AP via Washington Post ) Fourteen states in the Southern United States are on a heat alert with several dozen deaths since July as part of a heat wave. (MSNBC) Sky News reports new evidence that North Korean officials have been involved in the illegal drugs trade . (Sky News) The shutdown of the United States Federal Aviation Administration will end August 8th. ( Washington Post ) A judge rules that Donald Rumsfeld can be sued personally for damages by a U.S. Army veteran in his 50s who says he was imprisoned unjustly and tortured by the U.S. military in Iraq. (Huffington Post) Heather Mills claims that a Mirror Group journalist admitted hacking into her phone and listening to a message from then-boyfriend Paul McCartney - Piers Morgan has admitted to hearing it although he was not the journalist involved. (BBC) The Virginia Tech campus, site of an April 2007 mass shooting , goes on lockdown as a precaution after reports of a man, possibly armed with a gun, on or near the campus were made by teenagers attending a camp there. [1] Nelson Jobim resigns as the Minister of Defence in Brazil after making critical remarks about the government of President Dilma Rousseff and fellow Ministers - he is replaced by Celso Amorim . ( Wall Street Journal ) The British Government launches a new e-petition website to encourage the public to prompt parliamentary debate on topics they feel are important. Several petitions concern proposals for and against restoring the death penalty , last used in the UK in 1964 . (BBC) (BBC) In American football , players in the US National Football League ratify a new collective bargaining agreement including provisions for tests for human growth hormone . ( New York Times ) edit history watch 2011 Syrian uprising : Turkey confirms it has seized an Iranian arms shipment to Syria. ( Today's Zaman ) Tens of thousands of people again protest across the country, amid a government crackdown. (BBC) Turkey confirms it has seized an Iranian arms shipment to Syria. ( Today's Zaman ) Tens of thousands of people again protest across the country, amid a government crackdown. (BBC) 2011 Libyan civil war : Rebels claim that a NATO airstrike has killed Muammar Gaddafi 's youngest son Khamis but this is later denied. (Al Jazeera) (MSNBC) (Reuters) Meng Jianzhu , the Minister for Public Security in the People's Republic of China , orders a clampdown in Xinjiang following recent unrest . (AP via Washington Post ) Burmese state media say rebels in the northeast of the country killed seven workers from a Chinese -backed hydroelectric power project. ( Straits Times ) Stock markets in Asia and Australia continue falls from Europe and the United States . (SBS) (BBC) The Standard & Poor's credit rating agency downgrades the credit rating of the United States from AAA to AA+ with a negative outlook. (Reuters) (AP via Atlanta Journal-Constitution ) [ permanent dead link ] A bus in Ivory Coast plunges into the capital Abidjan 's lagoon , killing 12 people. (Reuters) Typhoon Muifa : Typhoon Muifa approaches the Japanese island of Okinawa causing localised flooding, cancellation of flights to and from Naha International Airport and 30,000 homes to lose power. (Stars and Stripes) [ permanent dead link ] The People's Republic of China warns residents of Zhejiang province and Shanghai to prepare for the arrival of Typhoon Muifa tomorrow or Sunday, which is expected to be one of the most powerful storms to hit China in recent years. ( China Daily ) Typhoon Muifa approaches the Japanese island of Okinawa causing localised flooding, cancellation of flights to and from Naha International Airport and 30,000 homes to lose power. (Stars and Stripes) [ permanent dead link ] The People's Republic of China warns residents of Zhejiang province and Shanghai to prepare for the arrival of Typhoon Muifa tomorrow or Sunday, which is expected to be one of the most powerful storms to hit China in recent years. ( China Daily ) Zyzz dies after receiving a heart attack in Thailand. UNICEF calls on Australia not to send 18 asylum seekers who are allegedly unaccompanied minors to Malaysia as part of a people swap. (AFP via Google News) (AAP via SBS News) Former Prime Minister of Ukraine , and leader of the most numerous opposition party Yulia Tymoshenko is arrested in Kiev . ( Kyiv Post ) Philippine President Benigno Aquino III meets with rebel Moro Islamic Liberation Front leader Al Haj Murad Ibrahim in Tokyo . ( Philippine Inquirer ) (Radio Australia) Yingluck Shinawatra is officially elected as the Prime Minister of Thailand by the parliament . (Reuters) Former Deputy Prime Minister of Poland Andrzej Lepper is found dead in what police suspect is a suicide by hanging. (WBJ) ( The Telegraph ) edit history watch 2011 Syrian uprising : The Gulf Co-operation Council urges an end to the "bloodshed" in Syria, and calls for reforms. (Al Arabiya) The Islamist al-Shabaab rebels in Somalia pull out of the capital Mogadishu . (BBC) Police in Saudi Arabia shoot dead a gunman who fired at the palace of Prince Nayef bin Abdul-Aziz Al Saud in Jeddah . (Al Jazeera) A NATO Chinook helicopter crashes in the Sayd Abad district of Afghanistan 's Wardak province after being shot down by the Taliban with 37 deaths. (Dawn) ( New York Times ) At least 20 of the U.S. Navy SEALs killed in the attack were members of SEAL Team Six , the unit that carried out the operation that killed Osama Bin Laden . The Associated Press and CNN later reported that none of the unit members that participated in the raid were involved. (AP) At least 20 of the U.S. Navy SEALs killed in the attack were members of SEAL Team Six , the unit that carried out the operation that killed Osama Bin Laden . The Associated Press and CNN later reported that none of the unit members that participated in the raid were involved. (AP) English rioters set police cars on fire on the High Road in the London suburb of Tottenham after Metropolitan Police shot Mark Duggan on Thursday. (BBC) 500,000 people are evacuated in eastern China as Typhoon Muifa approaches. (Channel NewsAsia) Asylum seekers at the Christmas Island Immigration Reception and Processing Centre off the Indian Ocean coast of Western Australia start a hunger strike in protest at their deportation to Malaysia . ( The West Australian ) Ilya Shikshin won the European Go Championship edit history watch 2011 Syrian uprising : The Syrian army attacks the city of Deir ez-Zor according to opposition activists. (Al Jazeera) (BBC) The Arab League calls on Syrian authorities to end the violence against civilians. (Kuwait News Agency) (Emirates 24/7) Saudi Arabia withdraws its ambassador to Syria in protest at the violence. (BBC) (Al Jazeera) The Syrian army attacks the city of Deir ez-Zor according to opposition activists. (Al Jazeera) (BBC) The Arab League calls on Syrian authorities to end the violence against civilians. (Kuwait News Agency) (Emirates 24/7) Saudi Arabia withdraws its ambassador to Syria in protest at the violence. (BBC) (Al Jazeera) 2011 Yemeni uprising : Yemeni President Ali Abdullah Saleh leaves hospital in Saudi Arabia after injuries sustained during the ongoing uprising. (CNN) 2011 Libyan civil war : Rebels report more gains south of the capital Tripoli . (Reuters) 2011 Bahraini uprising : Two opposition MPs are released from prison. ( Al-Masry Al-Youm ) Fighting erupts in the Somali capital Mogadishu a day after al Shabaab rebels had reportedly left the city. (Reuters) Australian French Resistance leader Nancy Wake dies in London at the age of 98. ( Sydney Daily Telegraph ) One person is killed and six are missing after a landslide in eastern Malaysia . (Xinhua) 2011 London riots The Metropolitan Police Service restores order in Tottenham , north London, after a riot on Saturday night in which twenty-six police officers were injured. (AFP via Hindustan Times ) (BBC) Outbreaks of looting and civil disorder are reported in a number of areas including Hackney , Brixton and Walthamstow . ( The Guardian ) ( The Telegraph ) The Metropolitan Police Service restores order in Tottenham , north London, after a riot on Saturday night in which twenty-six police officers were injured. (AFP via Hindustan Times ) (BBC) Outbreaks of looting and civil disorder are reported in a number of areas including Hackney , Brixton and Walthamstow . ( The Guardian ) ( The Telegraph ) Nepal bans smoking in public places. [ ( Straits Times ) [Copley Shooting 2011] [2] The Cambridgeshire Guided Busway , the longest guided busway in the world, opens after years of delays. (BBC) edit history watch 2011 Syrian uprising The Syrian opposition reports that the Army has entered the town of Maarat an-Numan . (Al Jazeera) Ban Ki-moon , the Secretary-General of the United Nations , again warns the President of Syria Bashar al-Assad to stop violence against civilians. (Ynet) The website of the Ministry of Defense of Syria is taken over by Anonymous . ( Huffington Post ) Kuwait and Bahrain recall their ambassadors to Syria in protest of the violence, a day after Saudi Arabia recalled its ambassador. (Gulf News) ( Daily Star Lebanon ) Syria rejects a statement by the Gulf Cooperation Council condemning its crackdown on protests. (Syrian Arab News Agency) [ permanent dead link ] The Syrian opposition reports that the Army has entered the town of Maarat an-Numan . (Al Jazeera) Ban Ki-moon , the Secretary-General of the United Nations , again warns the President of Syria Bashar al-Assad to stop violence against civilians. (Ynet) The website of the Ministry of Defense of Syria is taken over by Anonymous . ( Huffington Post ) Kuwait and Bahrain recall their ambassadors to Syria in protest of the violence, a day after Saudi Arabia recalled its ambassador. (Gulf News) ( Daily Star Lebanon ) Syria rejects a statement by the Gulf Cooperation Council condemning its crackdown on protests. (Syrian Arab News Agency) [ permanent dead link ] 2011 Libyan civil war : Fighting continues on the eastern and western fronts. (Al Jazeera) The Royal Navy appoints its first female war ship commander; Lieutenant Commander Sarah West, 39, will take command of HMS Portland in April 2012. (BBC) Stock markets in Asia , Australia , and the United States fall further after the credit rating of the United States is downgraded with the Dow Jones Industrial Average falling by over 634 points, 5.55%. (Market Watch) (AAP via SBS) ( Herald Sun ) (Bloomberg) ( USA Today ) (News Limited) Rice futures trading on the Tokyo Grain Exchange is suspended following fears that the Japanese crop has been contaminated by radiation from the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster . (Bloomberg) . Seven people are killed in a landslide in Malaysia 's Cameron Highlands . ( Straits Times ) More than 100,000 people have been evacuated from China's Shandong Province as former Typhoon Muifa travels along the eastern coast as a tropical storm . (Xinhua) The High Court of Australia grants an injunction against the removal of asylum seekers to Malaysia until a full hearing later this month. (ABC News) 2011 London riots : More than 215 people have been arrested in London , England since the riots began. (AFP via Herald-Sun ) ( Belfast Telegraph ) Fresh violence breaks out in Hackney , Lewisham , Peckham , Croydon and several other areas of London as Home Secretary Theresa May meets with police chiefs to discuss the crisis. (BBC) London Mayor Boris Johnson says he will return early from his family holiday on Tuesday to deal with the riots. ( The Telegraph ) British Prime Minister David Cameron returns home early to chair a meeting of the COBRA Committee. ( Daily Mail ) Unrest breaks out in Birmingham City Centre and Liverpool . (BBC) (BBC) More than 215 people have been arrested in London , England since the riots began. (AFP via Herald-Sun ) ( Belfast Telegraph ) Fresh violence breaks out in Hackney , Lewisham , Peckham , Croydon and several other areas of London as Home Secretary Theresa May meets with police chiefs to discuss the crisis. (BBC) London Mayor Boris Johnson says he will return early from his family holiday on Tuesday to deal with the riots. ( The Telegraph ) British Prime Minister David Cameron returns home early to chair a meeting of the COBRA Committee. ( Daily Mail ) Unrest breaks out in Birmingham City Centre and Liverpool . (BBC) (BBC) Mike Rann , the Premier of the Australian state of South Australia , announces that he will be resigning on October 20 to be replaced by Education Minister Jay Weatherill . ( Herald Sun ) edit history watch Australians fill out the 2011 Australian census . (ABC News Australia) August 2011 stock markets fall The Australian Commonwealth and Westpac banks cut fixed home loan rates. (News Limited) ( Sydney Morning Herald ) ( Market Watch ) (Reuters) South Korea 's financial authorities promise to take action to stabilise markets as stocks on the Korea Exchange continue to fall. (Yonhap) The Australian and New Zealand dollars continue to fall as investors seek security with the Aussie dollar falling below parity. (Bloomberg) The Dow Jones Industrial Average on the New York Stock Exchange as world stock markets recover after recent falls. ( Wall Street Journal ) The Australian Commonwealth and Westpac banks cut fixed home loan rates. (News Limited) ( Sydney Morning Herald ) ( Market Watch ) (Reuters) South Korea 's financial authorities promise to take action to stabilise markets as stocks on the Korea Exchange continue to fall. (Yonhap) The Australian and New Zealand dollars continue to fall as investors seek security with the Aussie dollar falling below parity. (Bloomberg) The Dow Jones Industrial Average on the New York Stock Exchange as world stock markets recover after recent falls. ( Wall Street Journal ) The U.S. Federal Reserve announces it will keep interest rates at "exceptionally low levels" at least through mid 2013, though it makes no commitment for further quantitative easing . (Reuters) Tropical Storm Mufia At least four people are dead and two missing after former Typhoon Muifa hits South Korea - 600 homes had earlier been destroyed in the People's Republic of China . ( Chosun Ilbo ) (AFP via Google News) At least ten people are reported to have died in North Korea . (CNN) At least four people are dead and two missing after former Typhoon Muifa hits South Korea - 600 homes had earlier been destroyed in the People's Republic of China . ( Chosun Ilbo ) (AFP via Google News) At least ten people are reported to have died in North Korea . (CNN) English riots: Rioting continues in London with lawlessness spreading to other English cities such as Liverpool , Manchester , Bristol and Birmingham . (BBC) , ( The Australian ) The Prime Minister David Cameron returns to Britain to chair an emergency meeting on the crisis and later recalls Parliament on Thursday. (BBC) (BBC) Police arrest 334 people and charge 69 after last night's riots. (Al-Jazeera) The Football Association calls off a friendly match between the England and Netherlands national teams. ( The Guardian ) The far-right English Defense League says it will send its members onto the streets to quell riots. (AP via Houston Chronicle ) Rioting continues in London with lawlessness spreading to other English cities such as Liverpool , Manchester , Bristol and Birmingham . (BBC) , ( The Australian ) The Prime Minister David Cameron returns to Britain to chair an emergency meeting on the crisis and later recalls Parliament on Thursday. (BBC) (BBC) Police arrest 334 people and charge 69 after last night's riots. (Al-Jazeera) The Football Association calls off a friendly match between the England and Netherlands national teams. ( The Guardian ) The far-right English Defense League says it will send its members onto the streets to quell riots. (AP via Houston Chronicle ) Warren Jeffs , former leader of the FLDS Church and formerly on the FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives list, is sentenced to life in prison plus 20 years for a conviction on child sexual assault charges. (CNN) Voters in some parts of the US state of Wisconsin go to the polls for recall elections for six Republican Party State Senators with Republicans retaining four of the six seats and their majority in the chamber. ( The New York Times ) , (Bloomberg) Penny Wong , the first openly gay member of the Australian Cabinet , announces that her partner will be having a baby. ( Adelaide Advertiser ) edit history watch The People's Republic of China 's first aircraft carrier , the refitted Soviet aircraft carrier Varyag , commences its first sea trial under the Chinese flag. (Bloomberg) (Reuters) Korean Peninsula : The Yonhap news agency reports that sources have advised them that North Korea is plotting to assassinate Kim Kwan-jin , currently South Korea 's defence minister. (Yonhap News) North and South Korea exchange artillery fire near Yeonpyeong Island . (Bloomberg) The Yonhap news agency reports that sources have advised them that North Korea is plotting to assassinate Kim Kwan-jin , currently South Korea 's defence minister. (Yonhap News) North and South Korea exchange artillery fire near Yeonpyeong Island . (Bloomberg) A US drone missile attack kills at least 18 people in Pakistan 's North Waziristan district. ( Dawn ) The south ridge of Aoraki / Mount Cook , New Zealand 's highest mountain, is renamed Hillary Ridge after Sir Edmund Hillary , the first man to conquer Mount Everest . (Reuters) Stock markets in Asia and Australia continue to rebound after the United States Federal Reserve promises to keep interest rates near zero for two years. (CNBC) [ permanent dead link ] The trade surplus of the People's Republic of China rises to US$31.5 billion in July, the highest level in two years. (Bloomberg) Australia 's Civil Aviation Safety Authority gives Tiger Airways the all clear to resume operations after a six-week suspension for safety violations. ( Sydney Morning Herald ) Australian crime figure Judy Moran is sentenced to 26 years in jail for her part in the murder of Des "Tuppence" Moran in Melbourne with the actual murderer Geoffrey Armour also sentenced to 26 years. ( Sydney Morning Herald ) England riots : Rioting hits other English cities including Manchester , Salford , Liverpool , Nottingham and Birmingham , though London is largely quiet. (BBC) The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , David Cameron , holds another cabinet meeting to discuss responses to the riots with police authorised to use water cannon and rubber bullets . (CNN) ( The Guardian ) Police from Scotland are sent to England to help combat riots and disorder. (BBC) Rioting hits other English cities including Manchester , Salford , Liverpool , Nottingham and Birmingham , though London is largely quiet. (BBC) The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , David Cameron , holds another cabinet meeting to discuss responses to the riots with police authorised to use water cannon and rubber bullets . (CNN) ( The Guardian ) Police from Scotland are sent to England to help combat riots and disorder. (BBC) News International phone hacking scandal Former News of the World news editor Greg Miskiw is arrested, then later bailed as the investigation into phone-hacking continues. (BBC) Former News of the World news editor Greg Miskiw is arrested, then later bailed as the investigation into phone-hacking continues. (BBC) edit history watch Karen Drambjan , a left-wing Estonian lawyer, storms the Defense Ministry in Tallinn and takes two hostages, but is killed when special police forces storm the building. (RT) At least five people including four police officers are killed after a bomb explodes near a police van in the Pakistani city of Peshawar . (BBC) August 2011 stock markets fall and rebound Stock markets in Asia and Australia fall on the back of a sharp decline in Wednesday's trading on the New York Stock Exchange . (MarketWatch) (MarketWatch) The Dow Jones Industrial Average gains 423.37 points, the fourth-straight day U.S. stocks have changed by over 400 points. The market dropped on Monday and Wednesday, and registered increases Tuesday and today. ( Hartford Courant ) [ permanent dead link ] Stock markets in Asia and Australia fall on the back of a sharp decline in Wednesday's trading on the New York Stock Exchange . (MarketWatch) (MarketWatch) The Dow Jones Industrial Average gains 423.37 points, the fourth-straight day U.S. stocks have changed by over 400 points. The market dropped on Monday and Wednesday, and registered increases Tuesday and today. ( Hartford Courant ) [ permanent dead link ] The City Council in the New Zealand city of Christchurch announces plans to rebuild its central business district after the recent earthquake . (TV New Zealand) Final approval is given for the building of 1,600 Israeli settler homes in disputed East Jerusalem by Israeli Interior Minister Eli Yishai despite a diplomatic rebuke Tuesday from the United States over earlier construction plans. (BBC) (Toronto Globe and Mail) Umar Patek , a key suspect in the 2002 Bali bombings , faces trial on terrorism charges in Jakarta after being extradicted from Pakistan to Indonesia . (AP via News Limited) The Parliament of the United Kingdom comes back from its summer break to debate the 2011 England riots . (AFP via Sydney Morning Herald ) The Philippine Senate Electoral Tribunal proclaims Aquilino Pimentel III as the winner of the 2007 election days after Migz Zubiri resigned due to alleged electoral fraud. (BBC News) edit history watch Two bombers kill themselves in an attempted attack in the Philippines city of Kidapawan in Cotabato province . (Philippines Star) 2011 Syrian uprising : Massive protests are planned against the President Bashar al-Assad , after recent raids by the Army . (Al Arabiya) Chinese Bullet trains on the Beijing–Shanghai High-Speed Railway are withdrawn and all sections of track are inspected following a recent crash. ( Wall Street Journal ) The United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit strikes down the health insurance mandate of President Barack Obama 's Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act . (AP via Washington Post ) In rugby league , Darren Lockyer of the Brisbane Broncos plays his 350th match in first grade setting a new record for the National Rugby League . ( Sydney Morning Herald ) A passenger train derails at Baby, Piotrków County , Poland. One passenger is killed and 45 are injured. (BBC) edit history watch Stage rigging collapses at the Indiana State Fair , killing at least five and injuring dozens of fans of the musical group Sugarland and singer/songwriter Sara Bareilles . (CNN) The Thomson and Mitchell rivers flood in the Gippsland region of the Australian state of Victoria . (ABC News Australia) A ruptured oil pipeline is discovered near Gannet Alpha platform, run by Shell 113 miles from Aberdeen , Scotland . BBC 2011 England riots Two people are charged with the murder of three men who were hit by a car in Birmingham as they tried to protect their property from looters. (BBC) British Prime Minister David Cameron hires so-called U.S. supercop Bill Bratton to advise the British Government on dealing with gang-related violence. (BBC) Two people are charged with the murder of three men who were hit by a car in Birmingham as they tried to protect their property from looters. (BBC) British Prime Minister David Cameron hires so-called U.S. supercop Bill Bratton to advise the British Government on dealing with gang-related violence. (BBC) The first electoral contest of the 2012 United States Presidential election takes place in the Iowa town of Ames with the Ames Straw Poll for Republican Party candidates with Michele Bachmann emerging as the winner. (AP via Yahoo! News) ( Washington Post ) edit history watch 2011 Syrian uprising : Syrian Navy gunboats fire heavy machine guns targeting waterfront districts in Latakia , as ground troops and security agents backed by armor storm several neighborhoods. Up to 26 people are killed. ( Haaretz ) (Ynet News) Iran confirms the arrest of the second-in-command of the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK), Murat Karayılan , by the country's intelligence agency . (PressTV) Anti- Muammar Gaddafi rebels make major progress in the 2011 Libyan civil war , advancing into Zawiya , only 50 km west of the capital city, Tripoli . (Reuters) Egyptian activist Asmaa Mahfouz is charged with inciting violence in what seems to be a clear violation of human rights . ( Al-Ahram ) ( Almasry Alyoum ) (Associated Press) ( Washington Post ) Six people are killed in a stabbing incident on the Channel Island of Jersey (BBC) 2011 England riots A third person is charged with the murder of three men hit by a car in Birmingham. (BBC) A third person is charged with the murder of three men hit by a car in Birmingham. (BBC) Former Governor of Minnesota Tim Pawlenty announces the end of his campaign for the Republican Party nomination in the 2012 United States presidential election following a poor result in the Ames Straw Poll . ( Washington Post ) Jhala Nath Khanal resigns as the Prime Minister of Nepal due to the failure of Nepalese political parties to adopt a constitution or end infighting. (AP via Houston Chronicle ) American golfer Keegan Bradley wins the United States 2011 PGA Championship at the Atlanta Athletic Club , defeating Jason Dufner in a playoff. ( Atlanta Journal Constitution ) [ permanent dead link ] , (CBS Sports) edit history watch 2011 Syrian uprising : The Syrian navy shells the city of Latakia , killing as many as 26 people, including Palestinian refugees from Ramel refugee camp in southern Latakia. (Al Jazeera) ( The Daily Telegraph ) ( Los Angeles Times ) (CNN) (VOA) ( Jerusalem Post ) Turkish Minister of Foreign Affairs Ahmet Davutoğlu says that unspecified "steps" would be taken by Turkey if Syria fails to end the crackdown. (Al Jazeera) The Syrian navy shells the city of Latakia , killing as many as 26 people, including Palestinian refugees from Ramel refugee camp in southern Latakia. (Al Jazeera) ( The Daily Telegraph ) ( Los Angeles Times ) (CNN) (VOA) ( Jerusalem Post ) Turkish Minister of Foreign Affairs Ahmet Davutoğlu says that unspecified "steps" would be taken by Turkey if Syria fails to end the crackdown. (Al Jazeera) Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi gives a live address to the nation after rebels claim a number of victories in the 2011 Libyan civil war . (CNN) A double bombing in the Iraqi city of Kut kills at least 34 and injures 68 people. (CNN) Japan 's economy shrinks by 0.3% in the April-June quarter confirming the country is in a recession caused in part by the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami and subsequent Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster . (Market Watch) Authorities in the north-eastern Chinese city of Dalian order a petrochemical plant, which produces paraxylene (PX), to be shut down and relocated, after tens of thousands of local residents protested through the streets on Sunday, fearing potential pollution. The protests resembled to a similar case, when citizens went on a protest "stroll" in the southeastern city of Xiamen in June 2007. ( China Daily ) ( The Guardian ) ( The Atlantic ) ( The Wall Street Journal ) Google announces a proposed acquisition of Motorola Mobility . (Reuters) Tropical Storm Gert passes Bermuda . (National Hurricane Centre) A cold snap in New Zealand causes widespread snow on both the North and South Islands , disruption to power supplies and the closures of roads and Wellington International Airport . (TV New Zealand) ( The Guardian ) Japan 's Cabinet approves a plan to establish a new energy watchdog under the Environment Ministry . (Japan Today) Former Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak appears in court for the second session of his trial with his two sons Alaa and Gamal who share corruption charges with him; the trial is subsequently adjourned and ordered to be merged with that of former Interior Minister Habib al-Adly . (PressTV) (BBC) In baseball , Jim Thome of the Minnesota Twins becomes the eighth player in the history of North American Major League Baseball to hit 600 career home runs . (MSNBC) In motorsport , Marcos Ambrose wins the Heluva Good! Sour Cream Dips at The Glen , becoming the first Australian ever to win a race in the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series . (Australian Associated Press via The Sydney Morning Herald ) edit history watch 2011 Libyan civil war National Transitional Council forces in Libya began cutting off supply lines to Tripoli after a 48 hour operation capturing key towns around the capital and surrounding the city. (Reuters via Yahoo) (Reuters via Yahoo) National Transitional Council forces in Libya began cutting off supply lines to Tripoli after a 48 hour operation capturing key towns around the capital and surrounding the city. (Reuters via Yahoo) (Reuters via Yahoo) The Israeli Air Force launches an air strike east of Gaza City , killing a Hamas gunman, in response to a rocket launched at Israel which landed in the Negev Desert . ( Jerusalem Post ) A United States drone attack in the Pakistani province of North Waziristan kills four militants. (AFP via Dawn ) BBC Magazines agrees a £12m deal to sell the Radio Times – together with ten other titles – to Exponent, owner of thetrainline.com . (BBC) Australian airline Qantas announces that it will be cutting 1000 jobs while steel maker OneSteel announces the loss of 400 jobs. (AAP via News Limited) The economy of Germany grows by only 0.1% in the second quarter of 2011, raising concerns about the European economy as a whole. (AP via Washington Post ) Indian social activist Anna Hazare is arrested in New Delhi ahead of a proposed fast against corruption . (IBN Live) Detained illegal immigrants injure 15 policemen and 3 soldiers in a riot in Malta . ( Times of Malta ) News of the World phone hacking scandal : MPs release a letter sent to News International in 2007 by former News of the World Royal editor Clive Goodman , in which he alleges senior staff at the newspaper were aware of phone hacking activities. (BBC) MPs release a letter sent to News International in 2007 by former News of the World Royal editor Clive Goodman , in which he alleges senior staff at the newspaper were aware of phone hacking activities. (BBC) 2011 England riots : Two men who set up a Facebook site to incite violence during the riots are sentenced to four years imprisonment at Chester Crown Court . (BBC) Two men who set up a Facebook site to incite violence during the riots are sentenced to four years imprisonment at Chester Crown Court . (BBC) Chinese Vice-Premier Li Keqiang visits Hong Kong on a three-day official tour; observers indicate that this solidifies his status as the next Premier of China. ( Wall Street Journal ) Former Brazilian football star Zico signs a contract to manage the Iraq national football team . (SAG) In Canada , the Canadian Forces Maritime Command and the Canadian Forces Air Command are restored to their pre-1968 service titles, the Royal Canadian Navy and the Royal Canadian Air Force respectively. At the same time, the Canadian Forces Land Forces Command is redesignated the Canadian Army . (BBC) edit history watch A rocket is fired into the compound of the President of Afghanistan in Kabul . (AP via Salon) Workers at the Polish Przewozy Regionalne passenger rail network commence a 24-hour strike. (RIA Novosti) Verizon Communications says that striking workers who do not return to work by the end of August will lose medical, prescription drug , and related benefits. (Bloomberg) The price of gold reaches a new record after the President of Venezuela Hugo Chávez announces plans to nationalize the Venezuelan gold industry. (Dow Jones via The Australian ) The Financial Times reports that sources "familiar with the situation" say Liberty Media is losing interest in a purchase of Barnes & Noble , due to financing constraints. ( Financial Times ) [ permanent dead link ] The Special Tribunal for Lebanon publishes an indictment against Hezbollah members accused in the 2005 assassination of Lebanese Prime Minister Rafic Hariri . ( Los Angeles Times ) ( Washington Post ) (UPI) ( The Telegraph ) A lawyer claims that 25,000 South Koreans will be suing Apple Inc. in relation to alleged privacy breaches in relation to collection of iPhone location addresses. (AP via MSNBC) Three sexual assault cases are lodged against the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Miami . ( Miami Herald ) [ permanent dead link ] A Toronto Imam is charged in relation to alleged sexual assaults and death threats committed against five victims over the course of three years. ( Toronto Star ) A fourth man is charged with murder following the deaths of three men hit by a car in Birmingham , UK, during recent rioting which spread across England . (BBC) Vasyl Dzharty , the Prime Minister of Crimea , an autonomous region of Ukraine , dies in office. ( Kyiv Post ) Singapore 's Presidential Elections Committee approves four presidential candidates for the presidential election on August 27: Tony Tan Keng Yam , Tan Cheng Bock , Tan Kin Lian and Tan Jee Say . ( Wall Street Journal ) edit history watch At least fourteen people die after a minibus hits a roadside bomb in Afghanistan 's Herat province. (Voice of America) Turkey launches an air strike on PKK positions in northern Iraq . (AP via Google News) Southern Israel attacks Eight people are killed and dozens are injured in southern Israel near the Egyptian border, after a string of terrorist attacks on a highway targeting two civilian buses and cars as well a military bus responding to the attacks. (Ynetnews) ( New York Times ) In retaliation, Israel launches an air raid on the town of Rafah killing five Palestinians terrorists from the Popular Resistance Committee according to officials in Gaza. ( The Guardian ) , (AFP via Sydney Morning Herald ) ( New York Times ) Eight people are killed and dozens are injured in southern Israel near the Egyptian border, after a string of terrorist attacks on a highway targeting two civilian buses and cars as well a military bus responding to the attacks. (Ynetnews) ( New York Times ) In retaliation, Israel launches an air raid on the town of Rafah killing five Palestinians terrorists from the Popular Resistance Committee according to officials in Gaza. ( The Guardian ) , (AFP via Sydney Morning Herald ) ( New York Times ) South Korean banks temporarily stop making household loans to stop the growth of household debt. (Yonhap) August 2011 stock markets fall The DAX , CAC 40 , Nasdaq drop over 5%, the FTSE 100 index by 4.5%, the Dow Jones Industrial Average by 3.7%. (BBC) , ( New York Times ) Gold hits a high of US$1,826 an ounce. (BBC) The DAX , CAC 40 , Nasdaq drop over 5%, the FTSE 100 index by 4.5%, the Dow Jones Industrial Average by 3.7%. (BBC) , ( New York Times ) Gold hits a high of US$1,826 an ounce. (BBC) More than 60,000 people are homeless after flooding in the southern Pakistani province of Sindh . (Pakistan) An Australian Broadcasting Corporation helicopter goes missing near Lake Eyre in outback South Australia with journalist Paul Lockyer , pilot Gary Ticehurst and cameraman John Bean feared dead. (AAP via Melbourne Herald Sun ) Five people die on the first day of the Belgian Pukkelpop festival when a hurricane hits the festival field. The rest of the festival is cancelled. A rabbi in the U.S. state of New Jersey has been indicted for alleged sex crimes against two 13-year-old Israeli boys who were visiting the rabbi through a scholarship fund. The two boys had reported the abuse separately following their return. (Jerusalem Post) Seven people are killed and 17 injured after a fight in a western Venezuelan prison in the town of Cabimas . (AP via Google News) The BBC airs a special edition of its Crimewatch programme aimed at identifying people involved in the 2011 England riots . ( The Telegraph ) ( The Guardian ) Roch Wamytan is elected President of the Congress of New Caledonia by the Congress of New Caledonia with 32 votes. (RNZI) edit history watch A Taliban attack on a British Council centre in Kabul , Afghanistan , results in the death of at least eight people. (BBC) (CNN) (Reuters) (AFP via The Straits Times ) Rocket attacks in southern Israel kill eight people. (Ha'aretz) The Pukkelpop music festival in Belgium is cancelled following the death of at least five people in a storm. (The Inquisitr) Hewlett-Packard shares drop 20% on news that the company plans to split off its personal computer division as a separate company. ( Wall Street Journal ) August 2011 stock markets fall The Tokyo Stock Exchange 's Nikkei Stock Average falls by 1.9% in early trading as the trend of stock market falls continues. ( Wall Street Journal ) The All Ordinaries Index on the Australian Stock Exchange falls by 4.4% with Asian markets generally down. (AAP via The Australian ) The Tokyo Stock Exchange 's Nikkei Stock Average falls by 1.9% in early trading as the trend of stock market falls continues. ( Wall Street Journal ) The All Ordinaries Index on the Australian Stock Exchange falls by 4.4% with Asian markets generally down. (AAP via The Australian ) U.S. retailing giant J.C. Penney agrees with its largest shareholder, William Ackman , that Ackman will cap his shareholdings at 16.5 percent, while increasing his exposure through a "synthetic long position." (Dow Jones Newswire) A 6.8 magnitude earthquake occurs off the coast of Japan with a tsunami warning issued and then retracted. (Reuters) (AP via Sydney Morning Herald ) A Chinese scientist is reported missing on Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region 's Muztagh Ata glacier after conducting research on the Tibetan Plateau . (Bernama) ( The People's Daily ) Three people die in the city of Pittsburgh in the US state of Pennsylvania as a result of flash flooding . (AP via Google) The announcement of possible wreck relocation of Swedish 16th century warship Mars in the Baltic Sea . (AFP via Dawn.com ) edit history watch At least six Pakistani police officers are killed and 50 injured in an attack in Karachi . (Xinhua) 2011 Libyan civil war Libyan rebels claim to have captured the strategic oil port of Brega . (AP via MSNBC) Heavy fighting is reported in the capital Tripoli as the rebel advance continues. ( The Telegraph ) Libyan rebels claim to have captured the strategic oil port of Brega . (AP via MSNBC) Heavy fighting is reported in the capital Tripoli as the rebel advance continues. ( The Telegraph ) Arab-Israeli conflict : One Israeli is killed, seven are wounded in Beersheba and three Palestinian illegal aliens are wounded near the city of Ashdod by incoming mortars and rockets launched from the Gaza Strip . (Ynetnews) (Ynetnews) (AFP via Google News) The Israeli Air Force attacks targets in the Gaza Strip for a third successive day as over 90 rockets have been launched into Israel since Thursday. (AFP via Google News) One Israeli is killed, seven are wounded in Beersheba and three Palestinian illegal aliens are wounded near the city of Ashdod by incoming mortars and rockets launched from the Gaza Strip . (Ynetnews) (Ynetnews) (AFP via Google News) The Israeli Air Force attacks targets in the Gaza Strip for a third successive day as over 90 rockets have been launched into Israel since Thursday. (AFP via Google News) A pair of earthquakes, magnitude 7.1 and 7.0, occur in Vanuatu . (USGS) 2011 Atlantic hurricane season : Tropical Storm Harvey is expected to cross the coast of Belize with a tropical storm watch in place for Guatemala and parts of Honduras . (CNN) (Alertnet) Tropical Storm Irene forms with a tropical storm warning in place for Puerto Rica , the US Virgin Islands , the British Virgin Islands , Antigua and Barbuda amongst others. (Hurricane Terrapin) [ permanent dead link ] Tropical Storm Harvey is expected to cross the coast of Belize with a tropical storm watch in place for Guatemala and parts of Honduras . (CNN) (Alertnet) Tropical Storm Irene forms with a tropical storm warning in place for Puerto Rica , the US Virgin Islands , the British Virgin Islands , Antigua and Barbuda amongst others. (Hurricane Terrapin) [ permanent dead link ] At least 25 people die in a bus crash in Afghanistan 's Kandahar Province . (BBC) A pilot dies as an RAF Red Arrows aeroplane crashes at the Bournemouth Air Festival following a display. (BBC) First Air Flight 6560 , a Boeing 737 , crashes in the northern Canadian territory of Nunavut near the hamlet of Resolute Bay with 15 people on board, killing 12. ( Globe and Mail ) At least 10,000 people gather in the Indian capital New Delhi to support a hunger strike by social activist Anna Hazare in support of tougher anti-corruption legislation. (Reuters) In football , the start of the Spanish La Liga 2011–12 season is delayed by a players' strike. (AFP via France 24) Striking Verizon Communications workers will return to work from a strike on the night of Monday, August 22, 2011, even without a formal contract. (Journal Star of Peoria) edit history watch 2011 Libyan civil war : Abdul Hafiz Ghoga , the Vice Chairman of the National Transitional Council , says that "the zero hour has started" with fighting continuing in Tripoli . (Xinhua) (Al-Jazeera) Forces loyal to Muammar Gaddafi recapture sections of the town of Brega . (Al-Jazeera) Gaddafi appears on Libyan television claiming to be the "father of Libya ". (AFP via Sydney Morning Herald ) al-Jazeera reports that the rebels have taken control of Tripoli Airport . (BBC) Barack Obama , the President of the United States , calls on Muammar Gaddafi to "relinquish power once and for all." (MSNBC) Abdul Hafiz Ghoga , the Vice Chairman of the National Transitional Council , says that "the zero hour has started" with fighting continuing in Tripoli . (Xinhua) (Al-Jazeera) Forces loyal to Muammar Gaddafi recapture sections of the town of Brega . (Al-Jazeera) Gaddafi appears on Libyan television claiming to be the "father of Libya ". (AFP via Sydney Morning Herald ) al-Jazeera reports that the rebels have taken control of Tripoli Airport . (BBC) Barack Obama , the President of the United States , calls on Muammar Gaddafi to "relinquish power once and for all." (MSNBC) Rockets fired from Gaza , reportedly aiming for Israel , land in the Sinai Peninsula of Egypt during the Palestinian-Israeli conflict . (AFP via Google News) Four employees of Deutsche Bank AG and its South Korean brokerage unit are indicted for alleged illegal trading on the Korea Exchange . (Yonhap) The New York Times carries claims by anonymous sources that the Bank of Japan is said to be considering a further easing of monetary policy, and the government of Japan may intervene in markets to push the value of the yen down. ( New York Times ) A tornado hits the town of Goderich in the Canadian province of Ontario causing significant damage and one death. ( Vancouver Sun ) , (AP via the Washington Post ) An Egyptian protester removes the flag from the Israeli embassy as thousands protest outside following the death of five policemen near the border. (AFP via Maan News) Vietnamese police shut down an anti- China rally in Hanoi over disputed territory in the South China Sea . (AP via The Washington Post ) A team of Australian and British geologists claim to have the found the world's oldest fossils in the Strelley Pool rock formation in the outback of the Australian state of Western Australia . According to the Monday, August 22 Huffington Post online video and short article about them [3] they "are thought to be 3.4 billion years old. Some believe that the organisms could also have lived on Mars , as at the time when they lived there was very little oxygen on Earth , and Mars was known to have had both the water and sulphur necessary to sustain the life forms." ( New York Times ) edit history watch 2011 Libyan civil war , 2011 Battle of Tripoli : Mustafa Abdul Jalil , Chairman of the National Transitional Council , announces that Muammar Gaddafi's regime has collapsed. (TABNAK) National Transitional Council forces take control of Tripoli as Muammar Gaddafi 's son Saif al-Islam Gaddafi is reported captured by rebels. (ABC News Australia) ( Washington Post ) The chief prosecutor of the International Criminal Court in The Hague call for Saif al-Islam to stand trial for his role in the civil war. ( Evening Standard ) (Huffington Post) (TABNAK) In an audio message, Gaddafi urges the people of Tripoli to "purge the capital" even as fighters sweep through the city and take control of the symbolic Green Square, which is subsequently renamed Martyrs' Square . (Press TV) (TABNAK) Heavy fighting is reported near Gaddafi's residence in southern Tripoli, while reports claim that Gaddafi and his family are moving to the Park Hotel in Tunisia . (AFP/Reuters via ABC News Online) (Farsnews) [ permanent dead link ] Anti-Gaddafi forces capture the house of Gaddafi's daughter, Ayesha Gaddafi . (TABNAK) People celebrate their victory in the streets of Tripoli by saying Shahada , ending to 42 years of dictatorship. (TABNAK) Large anti-Gaddafi protests take place, with some coming under fire from snipers perched on rooftops. (Yahoo! News) France announces plans to host a summit on Libya as early as next week. (Reuters) South Africa is reported to be involved in negotiations with Muammar Gaddafi's camp to offer him a place of refuge, though the government denies reports a plane has been sent for him. (Press TV) ( The Daily Telegraph ) More than 900 people are released from Ain Zara jail in Tripoli . (TABNAK) Iran 's Foreign Ministry calls for the release of Musa al-Sadr , who they claim has been held in Libya since 1978. (IRNA) Mustafa Abdul Jalil , Chairman of the National Transitional Council , announces that Muammar Gaddafi's regime has collapsed. (TABNAK) National Transitional Council forces take control of Tripoli as Muammar Gaddafi 's son Saif al-Islam Gaddafi is reported captured by rebels. (ABC News Australia) ( Washington Post ) The chief prosecutor of the International Criminal Court in The Hague call for Saif al-Islam to stand trial for his role in the civil war. ( Evening Standard ) (Huffington Post) (TABNAK) The chief prosecutor of the International Criminal Court in The Hague call for Saif al-Islam to stand trial for his role in the civil war. ( Evening Standard ) (Huffington Post) (TABNAK) In an audio message, Gaddafi urges the people of Tripoli to "purge the capital" even as fighters sweep through the city and take control of the symbolic Green Square, which is subsequently renamed Martyrs' Square . (Press TV) (TABNAK) Heavy fighting is reported near Gaddafi's residence in southern Tripoli, while reports claim that Gaddafi and his family are moving to the Park Hotel in Tunisia . (AFP/Reuters via ABC News Online) (Farsnews) [ permanent dead link ] Anti-Gaddafi forces capture the house of Gaddafi's daughter, Ayesha Gaddafi . (TABNAK) People celebrate their victory in the streets of Tripoli by saying Shahada , ending to 42 years of dictatorship. (TABNAK) Large anti-Gaddafi protests take place, with some coming under fire from snipers perched on rooftops. (Yahoo! News) France announces plans to host a summit on Libya as early as next week. (Reuters) South Africa is reported to be involved in negotiations with Muammar Gaddafi's camp to offer him a place of refuge, though the government denies reports a plane has been sent for him. (Press TV) ( The Daily Telegraph ) More than 900 people are released from Ain Zara jail in Tripoli . (TABNAK) Iran 's Foreign Ministry calls for the release of Musa al-Sadr , who they claim has been held in Libya since 1978. (IRNA) Palestinian militants on the Gaza Strip fire rockets and mortars into Israel despite a truce. (AP via Google) (Reuters) Pakistan announces it will send more troops to Bahrain in support of the King of Bahrain Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa . ( The Nation ) The Australian Army reports that another Australian soldier has been killed by an improvised explosive device lost in fighting in Afghanistan . ( The Courier Mail ) ( The Australian ) The UN says 600 people have been killed in clashes in South Sudan . (New York Times) Jerry Leiber, the American lyricist of the Leiber and Stoller duo that wrote many of the most popular songs in the early years of rock and roll , dies at the age of 78 in Los Angeles . ( New York Times ) Nick Ashford , American R&B singer-songwriter and one half of the husband-and-wife songwriting duo Ashford & Simpson , dies from throat cancer aged 69. ( The Telegraph ) Australia 's BlueScope Steel announces the loss of a thousand jobs with 800 jobs lost in Port Kembla and 200 jobs in Western Port . (AAP via Sydney Morning Herald ) The price of crude oil falls on world markets due to the downfall of Muammar Gaddafi and bleak global economic outlook. (Reuters) Hurricane Irene : Twenty people including British billionaire Richard Branson and actress Kate Winslet have to be rescued after Hurricane Irene destroys Branson's mansion on Necker Island in the Caribbean Sea . ( Winnipeg Free Press ) Hurricane Irene reaches hurricane strength over Puerto Rico , becoming the first of the 2011 Atlantic hurricane season . (Reuters) Twenty people including British billionaire Richard Branson and actress Kate Winslet have to be rescued after Hurricane Irene destroys Branson's mansion on Necker Island in the Caribbean Sea . ( Winnipeg Free Press ) Hurricane Irene reaches hurricane strength over Puerto Rico , becoming the first of the 2011 Atlantic hurricane season . (Reuters) Prosecutors in New York City ask for charges against former International Monetary Fund head Dominique Strauss-Kahn to be dropped. (ABC Online) Jack Layton , leader of Canada 's New Democratic Party and Leader of the Opposition , dies from cancer at age 61. (CTV) edit history watch 2011 Battle of Tripoli Heavy fighting continues in the Libyan capital Tripoli as Muammar Gaddafi 's son Saif al-Islam Gaddafi leads a counterattack despite earlier reports of his capture. (ABC News Australia) Rebels capture Muammar Gaddafi 's Bab al-Azizia compound after heavy fighting. (BBC) Heavy fighting continues in the Libyan capital Tripoli as Muammar Gaddafi 's son Saif al-Islam Gaddafi leads a counterattack despite earlier reports of his capture. (ABC News Australia) Rebels capture Muammar Gaddafi 's Bab al-Azizia compound after heavy fighting. (BBC) Turkey claims to have killed 100 Kurdistan Workers' Party terrorists in bombing raids on positions in northern Iraq since last Wednesday. (Hurriyet Daily News and Economic Review) Suspected Islamic insurgents kill two Thai Army soldiers and wound 14 other people in southern Thailand . (AP via Google News) The United Nations Human Rights Council orders an investigation into alleged human rights violations by the Government of Syria in the 2011 Syrian uprising . (BBC) At least one Palestinian is killed and several injured following an Israeli drone aircraft attack on Gaza shortly after an informal ceasefire was reached. (Al-Jazeera) Swiss bank UBS AG announces plans to cut 3,500 jobs. ( Financial Times ) Hurricane Irene reaches Category 2 strength as it hits the island of Hispaniola containing Haiti and the Dominican Republic . (CNN) A magnitude 5.8 earthquake strikes near Mineral, Virginia ; a nearby nuclear reactor is automatically shutdown due to the quake. This is the most powerful earthquake to hit Virginia since 1897. ( New York Times ) ( The Guardian ) Thailand says it will recognize the State of Palestine during its September bid at the United Nations General Assembly . (Ma'an News Agency) A judge in New York City rules in favour dropping sexual assault charges against former International Monetary Fund head Dominique Strauss-Kahn . ( New York Times ) President Obama provides temporary relief for illegal immigrants who are students, veterans , the elderly, crime victims and those with family, including same-sex partners , as part of immigration reform in the United States . ( Los Angeles Times ) ( New York Times ) An e-petition calling for the British Government to release of Cabinet documents relating to the Hillsborough disaster collects 100,000 signatures - enough for MPs to consider a House of Commons debate on the matter. It is the first government e-petition to reach the target. (BBC) News International phone hacking scandal The BBC reports that former News of the World editor Andy Coulson continued to receive a severance pay package from News International while working as Director of Communications for the Conservative Party . (BBC) The BBC reports that former News of the World editor Andy Coulson continued to receive a severance pay package from News International while working as Director of Communications for the Conservative Party . (BBC) Hattiesburg Mayor Johnny DuPree is declared the winner in the Democratic Party primary election in Mississippi , becoming the first black candidate to win a major party nomination in a gubernatorial race. (Clarion Ledger) [ permanent dead link ] edit history watch 2011 Battle of Tripoli National Transitional Council Chairman Mustafa Abdul Jalil announces legislative and presidential elections within eight months, and promises that Muammar Gaddafi will be tried in Libya. (Ynetnews) Muammar Gaddafi vows to fight until "death or victory" despite the capture of his Bab al-Azizia compound in southern Tripoli . ( The Telegraph ) A former United Nations weapons inspector, Olli Heinonen, warns that a research centre near Tripoli has materials that could be used to make a nuclear dirty bomb . (Reuters via the New York Times ) National Transitional Council Chairman Mustafa Abdul Jalil announces legislative and presidential elections within eight months, and promises that Muammar Gaddafi will be tried in Libya. (Ynetnews) Muammar Gaddafi vows to fight until "death or victory" despite the capture of his Bab al-Azizia compound in southern Tripoli . ( The Telegraph ) A former United Nations weapons inspector, Olli Heinonen, warns that a research centre near Tripoli has materials that could be used to make a nuclear dirty bomb . (Reuters via the New York Times ) Air strikes kill 30 Al-Qaeda linked militants near Zinjibar in Yemen 's Abyan Governorate with eight army soldiers killed in fighting. (AP via Huffington Post ) Moody's credit rating agency downgrades Japan to Aa3 due to weak economic growth prospects and high levels of public debt . (Bloomberg) Steve Jobs resigns as the CEO of Apple Inc . Tim Cook took over the CEO position for the company. (Wall Street Journal) Hurricane Irene Hurricane Irene strengthens to Category 3 status as it heads towards The Bahamas and Turks and Caicos and then the East Coast of the United States . (News Limited via The Herald Sun ) . (CNN) Thousands of people on Ocracoke Island off the U.S. state of North Carolina are told to evacuate ahead of the arrival of the hurricane later in the week. (AP via The Chronicle-Herald ) [ permanent dead link ] Hurricane Irene strengthens to Category 3 status as it heads towards The Bahamas and Turks and Caicos and then the East Coast of the United States . (News Limited via The Herald Sun ) . (CNN) Thousands of people on Ocracoke Island off the U.S. state of North Carolina are told to evacuate ahead of the arrival of the hurricane later in the week. (AP via The Chronicle-Herald ) [ permanent dead link ] A 7.0 magnitude earthquake hits near the Amazon region of Peru (MSNBC) (CNN) North Korea indicates it is ready to bring about a self-imposed moratorium on its nuclear weapons program . (AP via USA Today ) Russian police arrest a former senior police officer Dmitry Pavlyuchenkov suspected of organising the murder of former Kremlin reporter Anna Politkovskaya in 2006. (AFP via Google News) In athletics , Lamine Diack of Senegal is elected unopposed to another term as President of the International Association of Athletics Federations . (AP via Yahoo!) A Progress resupply vehicle destined for the International Space Station experiences a catastrophic engine failure and fails to reach orbit impacting in the Altai Republic . edit history watch More than 50 people are killed in an attack on a casino in Monterrey, Nuevo León , Mexico. (BBC News) (AP via Youtube) Libya 's National Transitional Council announces plans to move its headquarters to Tripoli following the capture of the city from Muammar Gaddafi . (AFP via The Australian ) 17 rockets and mortars are fired from Gaza at southwestern Israeli cities. 2 people, one of them a nine-month-old baby, are hurt in the attack. ( Arutz Sheva ) Gunmen attack prominent Syrian political cartoonist Ali Farzat , beating him badly and breaking both of his hands, with the beating believed to be related to cartoons critical of President of Syria Bashar Assad and his family. (AP via Boston Globe ) Berkshire Hathaway , the conglomerate headed by Warren Buffett , announces a plan to invest $5 billion in Bank of America . (DealBook) At least 19 people are feared dead in Zimbabwe after a haulage truck and bus collide (Radio VoP) The RAF gives the Red Arrows clearance to fly again following Saturday's fatal crash at the Bournemouth Air Festival , but cannot confirm if they will fly at similar events this year. (BBC) Hurricane Irene : New York City announces its plans to shut down subways , buses and commuter trains ahead of the likely arrival of Hurricane Irene. (NBC News) The US city of Norfolk , Virginia declares a mandatory evacuation of lowlying areas by 8am Saturday morning. (Norfolk Government) [ permanent dead link ] New York City announces its plans to shut down subways , buses and commuter trains ahead of the likely arrival of Hurricane Irene. (NBC News) The US city of Norfolk , Virginia declares a mandatory evacuation of lowlying areas by 8am Saturday morning. (Norfolk Government) [ permanent dead link ] 2011 Pacific typhoon season : At least one person in the Philippines is missing and several towns are flooded as a result of Typhoon Nanmadol which is now heading for Taiwan . ( Washington Post ) London's Metropolitan Police Service says that it has now made over 2,000 arrests in connection with the riots which occurred in London . (BBC) A 61-year-old man is arrested after making threats to the British Conservative Party MP Louise Mensch via email and social networking sites. (BBC) Police in Austria have arrested an 80-year-old man for allegedly imprisoning and sexually abusing his two daughters over a period of 40 years. (BBC) Former Iranian Prime Minister Mir-Hossein Mousavi is hospitalized after a heart attack. (Balatarin) A protester is arrested for throwing a paint bomb at British Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg as he arrives at a Liberal Democrats party meeting in Glasgow . (BBC) The New York Yankees hit three grand slam home runs in a single game, the first time such a feat has occurred, to win over the Oakland Athletics . ( The New York Times ) edit history watch Al Arabiya television reports that three rockets have hit the border area between Kuwait and Iraq . (Reuters) As many as ten people are feared dead after a bomb explodes at a United Nations building in Abuja , Nigeria . ( The Guardian ) (Sky News) The Ministry of Culture of the People's Republic of China bars 100 songs from music download sites including Lady Gaga 's " Judas " and Katy Perry 's " Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.) ". (AP via Google News) Ben Bernanke , the Chairman of the United States Federal Reserve , gives a keynote address at a central banks conference at the US resort of Jackson Hole , Wyoming as statistics show that the US economy grew by 1%. (Reuters via CNBC) The Federal Reserve announces that it will hold hearings on the proposed acquisition, by Capital One , of ING Direct , a potential $9 billion deal. (Reuters) Hurricane Irene : Hurricane Irene approaches the east coast of the United States ahead of making landfall on Saturday with 50 million people in its path. (WRAL) (Reuters) The United States Navy sends its Second Fleet out of its base in Naval Station Norfolk to ride the storm out at sea. (Reuters) A state of emergency is declared in a number of states including North Carolina , Maryland , Virginia , Delaware , New Jersey , New York , Pennsylvania and Connecticut as well as the city of Baltimore in the state of Maryland . (BBC) (AP via San Luis Obispo Tribune ) [ permanent dead link ] (Fox News) The unveiling of the Martin Luther King, Jr. National Memorial in Washington D.C. is postponed indefinitely. ( Daily Mail ) The casinos in Atlantic City close as gamblers and residents evacuate from the New Jersey coast. (AP via NJ.com) The Mayor of New York City Michael Bloomberg orders the mandatory evacuation of some low-lying parts of the city , and the shutdown of the subway . ( International Business Times ) (AP via YouTube) The President of the United States Barack Obama urges Americans in the path of the hurricane to take appropriate precautions for a "historic storm". (CBS News) Hurricane Irene approaches the east coast of the United States ahead of making landfall on Saturday with 50 million people in its path. (WRAL) (Reuters) The United States Navy sends its Second Fleet out of its base in Naval Station Norfolk to ride the storm out at sea. (Reuters) A state of emergency is declared in a number of states including North Carolina , Maryland , Virginia , Delaware , New Jersey , New York , Pennsylvania and Connecticut as well as the city of Baltimore in the state of Maryland . (BBC) (AP via San Luis Obispo Tribune ) [ permanent dead link ] (Fox News) The unveiling of the Martin Luther King, Jr. National Memorial in Washington D.C. is postponed indefinitely. ( Daily Mail ) The casinos in Atlantic City close as gamblers and residents evacuate from the New Jersey coast. (AP via NJ.com) The Mayor of New York City Michael Bloomberg orders the mandatory evacuation of some low-lying parts of the city , and the shutdown of the subway . ( International Business Times ) (AP via YouTube) The President of the United States Barack Obama urges Americans in the path of the hurricane to take appropriate precautions for a "historic storm". (CBS News) The Japanese National Police Agency reveals that 90 per cent of cyberattacks on its web site on July 10 came from Internet Protocol addresses in the People's Republic of China . (MDN) [ permanent dead link ] The Associated Press reports that U.S. President Barack Obama 's uncle, Onyango Obama , 67, is stopped on suspicion of drunken driving in Framingham, Massachusetts . (Peoria Journal Star) Oh Se-hoon resigns as the Mayor of Seoul after losing a referendum on free school lunches. (AP via Google News) Naoto Kan announces his resignation as Prime Minister of Japan after the Parliament passes two key pieces of legislation. (AP via NineMSN) (AP via San Jose Mercury News ) [ permanent dead link ] An investigation by the consultancy firm Deloitte clears Iris Robinson , the wife of the Northern Ireland First Minister Peter Robinson , of any wrongdoing over a council contract which was awarded to an individual with whom she was conducting an affair. (BBC) Danish Prime Minister Lars Løkke Rasmussen calls for Parliamentary elections to be held on September 15 - nearly two months ahead of the scheduled date. (Xinhua) Scientists at Swinburne University of Technology in Melbourne announce their discovery of J1719-143 , a planet made entirely of diamond orbiting a pulsar - only the second time such a planetary mass has been discovered. (CBC) edit history watch Dozens of dead bodies are found at the Abu Salim Hospital in Tripoli which had been abandoned by medical staff earlier in the week when it came under heavy gunfire . (NPR) Hurricane Irene : At least 65 million people on the East Coast of the United States will be in the direct path of Hurricane Irene over the next few days. (News Limited) Hurricane Irene makes landfall in the U.S. state of North Carolina near Cape Lookout . ( Washington Post ) (ABC News) At least 4 people die in North Carolina as a result of Hurricane Irene. (CBS News) (CNN) At least 65 million people on the East Coast of the United States will be in the direct path of Hurricane Irene over the next few days. (News Limited) Hurricane Irene makes landfall in the U.S. state of North Carolina near Cape Lookout . ( Washington Post ) (ABC News) At least 4 people die in North Carolina as a result of Hurricane Irene. (CBS News) (CNN) The Parliament of India debates the Jan Lokpal anti-corruption legislation, prompted in part by an ongoing hunger strike by social activist Anna Hazare . ( Hindustan Times ) Voters in Singapore go to the polls for the presidential election . (Link TV) (AFP via Google News) Hundreds of thousands of Canadians attend events and tributes across Canada in honour of Jack Layton , as an unprecedented state funeral is held. (CBC News) In rugby union , the Australian Wallabies defeat the New Zealand All Blacks to win the 2011 Tri Nations Series . (3 News) [ permanent dead link ] In cricket , the Leicestershire Foxes win the Friends Life T20 Cup , beating Somerset Sabres by 18 runs in the final. Both teams reached the final after winning a one over eliminator , the first time such decider had been used in the finals of the competition. [4] edit history watch At least 29 people are killed in a suicide bombing in Baghdad 's largest Sunni mosque including Khalid al-Fahdawi , a member of the Council of Representatives of Iraq . (AP via Google News) The Notting Hill Carnival , the world's second largest street festival , gets underway peacefully in London with a heavy police presence due to recent riots . ( The Guardian ) The 2011 MTV Video Music Awards conclude in Los Angeles with Katy Perry winning Video of the Year for Firework . ( Entertainment Weekly ) Hurricane Irene : Effects of Hurricane Irene in New York The storm reaches New York City with 370,000 people having been evacuated from low-lying areas. (AFP via Sydney Morning Herald ) A confirmed tornado in Delaware destroys a home and damages others. (ABC News) At least five people died in Maryland as a result of Hurricane Irene. ( International Business Times ) The state of Vermont is badly affected by the storm with the towns of Wilmington , Brattleboro and Dover all badly flooded and at least one death. (CNN) Numerous covered bridges in Vermont are destroyed or damaged by flooding caused by Irene including a covered bridge in Quechee and the Bartonsville Covered Bridge near Rockingham , which was swept away by flooding. ( The New York Times ) (KHQ-TV) Archived June 1, 2013, at the Wayback Machine Effects of Hurricane Irene in New York The storm reaches New York City with 370,000 people having been evacuated from low-lying areas. (AFP via Sydney Morning Herald ) The storm reaches New York City with 370,000 people having been evacuated from low-lying areas. (AFP via Sydney Morning Herald ) A confirmed tornado in Delaware destroys a home and damages others. (ABC News) At least five people died in Maryland as a result of Hurricane Irene. ( International Business Times ) The state of Vermont is badly affected by the storm with the towns of Wilmington , Brattleboro and Dover all badly flooded and at least one death. (CNN) Numerous covered bridges in Vermont are destroyed or damaged by flooding caused by Irene including a covered bridge in Quechee and the Bartonsville Covered Bridge near Rockingham , which was swept away by flooding. ( The New York Times ) (KHQ-TV) Archived June 1, 2013, at the Wayback Machine Typhoon Nanmadol kills eight people in the Philippines and is headed for Taiwan . (Taiwan News) Five people are killed and at least 27 injured when a tram derails in the Santa Teresa neighborhood of Rio de Janeiro . (BBC) The Government of the United Kingdom pledges to raise the issue of the murder of WPC Yvonne Fletcher , allegedly by a Libyan official outside the embassy in London in 1984, with the new government in Tripoli . (Press Association via Google) Indian social activist Anna Hazare breaks a hunger strike after Parliament passes strong anti-corruption laws. ( Times of India ) Tony Tan Keng Yam becomes the President-elect of Singapore after winning the presidential election . (Press Trust of India via Hindustan Times ) Nepal elects Baburam Bhattarai as its new Prime Minister . (CNN) edit history watch 2011 Libyan civil war : The National Transitional Council in Libya raises concerns about mass killing of political prisoners by the former government. (AM via ABC News Online) , (AP via France 24) National Transitional Council fighters converge on Muammar Gaddafi 's home town of Sirte . (Reuters) Several members of the Gaddafi family are reported as having fled to Algeria . (BBC) The National Transitional Council in Libya raises concerns about mass killing of political prisoners by the former government. (AM via ABC News Online) , (AP via France 24) National Transitional Council fighters converge on Muammar Gaddafi 's home town of Sirte . (Reuters) Several members of the Gaddafi family are reported as having fled to Algeria . (BBC) Stock, bond and commodities markets open as usual in the United States despite the impact of Hurricane Irene on New York City . (Bloomberg) Typhoon Nanmadol hits Taiwan after killing 11 people in the Philippines . (AP via Google News) Floods hit northern India with transport services disrupted in Mumbai and 15 villages isolated in Maharashtra state. (NewsxLive) The ruling Democratic Party of Japan selects a replacement for Naoto Kan as party leader and Prime Minister of Japan with current Minister of Finance Yoshihiko Noda winning the ballot. ( Wall Street Journal ) (Reuters) ( The Australian ) Baburam Bhattarai of the Unified Communist Party is elected as Prime Minister of Nepal by the Parliament . ( Himalayan Times ) Alexander Ankvab is elected President of partially recognized Abkhazia during elections held on August, 26. The elections are characterised by the Western media and independent observers as "democratic", but not recognized by Georgia . ( The New York Times ) ( Washington Post ) (Taz) Toomas Hendrik Ilves is re-elected by an electoral body to another term as President of Estonia . (Reuters) edit history watch Three suicide bombings leave 9 dead and 20 wounded in Grozny , the capital of the Republic of Chechnya , Russia . (CNN) The Libyan National Transitional Council gives an ultimatum to supporters of Muammar Gaddafi in Sirte to surrender by the end of Eid ul-Fitr on Saturday. ( The Scotsman ) [ permanent dead link ] Muslims celebrate Eid ul-Fitr marking the end of Ramadan , the month of fasting . In Indonesia , however, the government rules that the end of Ramadan should be delayed one day. ( Wall Street Journal ) ( Hindustan Times ) Lehman Brothers Holdings Inc. asks a bankruptcy court to let creditors vote on a reorganization plan that would pay its creditors, on average, $0.20 on the dollar. (Reuters) Hurricane Irene : The death toll from Hurricane Irene reaches 40 in the contiguous United States plus three people in the Dominican Republic and one in Puerto Rico . (NZ Stuff) (Associated Press) The New England state of Vermont suffers its worst flooding in 100 years. (Associated Press) The U.S. state of New Jersey suffers extensive flooding with Passaic County , Mercer County and Middlesex County worst affected. ( International Business Times ) The death toll from Hurricane Irene reaches 40 in the contiguous United States plus three people in the Dominican Republic and one in Puerto Rico . (NZ Stuff) (Associated Press) The New England state of Vermont suffers its worst flooding in 100 years. (Associated Press) The U.S. state of New Jersey suffers extensive flooding with Passaic County , Mercer County and Middlesex County worst affected. ( International Business Times ) Monsoonal rain causes heavy floods in the Indian state of Gujarat . (IBN Live) Nineteen coal miners are rescued from a flooded pit in China 's Heilongjiang Province . (Xinhua) At least 25 people are killed and thousands displaced due to floods in Ibadan , southwest Nigeria over the weekend. [5] The Popocatepetl volcano south of Mexico City starts spewing ash into the sky. (AP via Washington Post ) A TTC bus collides with a hydraulic crane mounted on a construction truck on Lawrence Avenue Toronto , killing one and injuring thirteen, in the first such incident since the Russell Hill subway accident in 1995. (Globe and Mail) ( Vancouver Sun ) [ permanent dead link ] ( The Hamilton Spectator ) While reportedly on his way to surrender to police in Atlanta , Georgia to face murder charges, former National Basketball Association player Javaris Crittenton is arrested by the FBI at John Wayne Airport in Orange County, California . (Associated Press via ESPN) New Japanese Prime Minister : The Cabinet of former Prime Minister of Japan Naoto Kan resigns en masse following the election of Yoshihiko Noda as the presumptive Prime Minister. (Nikkei) The Diet of Japan approves Noda as the new Prime Minister. [ The Cabinet of former Prime Minister of Japan Naoto Kan resigns en masse following the election of Yoshihiko Noda as the presumptive Prime Minister. (Nikkei) The Diet of Japan approves Noda as the new Prime Minister. [ edit history watch Tripoli doctor Gassem Baruni tells the Associated Press that Colonel Muammar Gaddafi 's daughter Hana Moammar Gadafi - thought to have been killed in 1986 US airstrikes - worked for him as a surgeon before she disappeared on August 25. (CBS News) Syrian Army troops reportedly raid neighbourhoods in the town of Hama looking for anti-government activists. ( Jerusalem Post ) The 68th Venice International Film Festival gets underway in Venice , Italy . ( The Guardian ) ExxonMobil and OAO Rosneft reach a deal which may reach $500 billion in projects in the Arctic , Gulf of Mexico , and the Black Sea . ( Wall Street Journal ) (Bloomberg) ( Washington Post ) ( Forbes ) (Reuters) ( New York Times ) The United States Justice Department files an antitrust lawsuit to prevent AT&T from taking over T-Mobile USA . ( Los Angeles Times ) 2011 Texas wildfires Wildfires of the Possum Kingdom Complex severely damage homes and infrastructure in the US states of Texas and Oklahoma . (AP via Detroit News ) 2011 Atlantic hurricane season Hurricane Katia becomes the second hurricane of the 2011 Atlantic hurricane season . (National Hurricane Center) The High Court of Australia rules against plans by the government of Australia to send 800 asylum seekers to Malaysia . ( The Courier-Mail ) .mw-parser-output .current-events-calendar{clear:right;max-width:350px;width:100%;margin:auto;padding:0.2em;font-size:88%;line-height:1.5;border-spacing:3px;border:1px solid #cedff2;text-align:center;background-color:#f5faff;color:black}.mw-parser-output .current-events-calendar tbody a{font-weight:bold;width:100%;display:inline-block}.mw-parser-output .current-events-calendar-archive{margin:8px 0 0 0}.mw-parser-output .current-events-calendar caption{font-weight:bold;background-color:#cedff2;line-height:1.6;padding:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .current-events-calendar caption span:first-child{float:left;width:calc(14% + 6px)}.mw-parser-output .current-events-calendar caption span:last-child{float:right;width:calc(14% + 6px)}.mw-parser-output .current-events-calendar th{width:14%}.mw-parser-output .current-events-calendar-footer td{padding-top:3px;padding-bottom:5px;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .current-events-calendar-footer td a{font-weight:normal;width:initial} ◀ August 2011 ▶ S M T W T F S 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Ongoing events Disasters [ edit ] Horn of Africa famine Economic [ edit ] Japanese recession Global financial crisis European sovereign debt crisis Greek economic crisis August 2011 stock markets fall Medical [ edit ] HIV/AIDS in Africa Haiti cholera outbreak Political [ edit ] Anti-austerity protests Greek protests Spanish protests Arab Spring Bahraini uprising Egyptian revolution Jordanian protests Libyan civil war Moroccan protests Syrian uprising Tunisian Revolution Yemeni uprising Belgian political crisis Chilean student protests Kurdish protests News International phone hacking scandal Scientific [ edit ] Expedition 28 Recent deaths August [ edit ] 31 : Wade Belak 29 : David "Honeyboy" Edwards 27 : Stetson Kennedy 25 : Lazar Mojsov 24 : Frank DiLeo 24 : Mike Flanagan 22 : Nick Ashford 22 : John Howard Davies 22 : Jack Layton 22 : Jerry Leiber 19 : Raúl Ruiz 19 : Jimmy Sangster 18 : Paul Lockyer 17 : Vasyl Dzharty 16 : Andrej Bajuk 16 : Huw Ceredig 14 : Shammi Kapoor 14 : Shawn Tompkins 12 : Charles P. Murray Jr. 12 : Robert Robinson 11 : Jani Lane 11 : Karen Overington 10 : Babak Masoumi 7 : Mark Hatfield 7 : Harri Holkeri 7 : Nancy Wake 6 : John Wood 5 : Andrzej Lepper 5 : Francesco Quinn 4 : Naoki Matsuda 3 : Annette Charles 3 : Ray Patterson 3 : Bubba Smith 2 : Baruj Benacerraf 1 : Stan Barstow edit this archived sidebar Ongoing conflicts Global [ edit ] War on terror Terrorist incidents Operation Active Endeavour Operation Enduring Freedom War on drugs Africa [ edit ] Libyan civil war Tunisian Revolution Maghreb insurgency OEF - Trans Sahara Casamance conflict Niger Delta conflict Nigerian Sharia conflict South Kordofan conflict Lord's Resistance Army insurgency Somalia : Civil war Somali Civil War (2009–present) Piracy OEF - Horn of Africa Europe [ edit ] Basque conflict Real IRA North Caucasus insurgency Ingushetia civil war Middle East [ edit ] Iraqi insurgency Iran-Jundallah conflict Fatah–Hamas conflict Arab–Israeli conflict Israeli–Palestinian conflict Israeli–Lebanese conflict Palestinian political violence and rocket attacks Yemen : Terrorism and al-Qaeda crackdown South Yemen insurgency Shia insurgency Kurdistan : Turkey–PKK conflict Iran–PJAK conflict Asia [ edit ] Afghanistan War Military operations Taliban insurgency Pakistan: Terrorism North-West War Balochistan conflict Drone attacks Sectarian violence India: Terrorism Jammu and Kashmir insurgency Naxalite–Maoist insurgency Northeast India insurgency Nagaland ethnic conflict Kashmir conflict Siachen conflict Korean maritime border incidents Southeast Asia: Laos insurgency Burma internal conflict Burma border clashes South Thailand insurgency Cambodian–Thai border dispute Philippines insurgency OEF - Philippines Papua conflict Americas [ edit ] Colombian conflict Plan Colombia FARC Mexican drug war Mérida Initiative Peru internal conflict edit this archived sidebar Elections Recent: August [ edit ] 7 : Cape Verde , President (1st round) 7 : São Tomé and Príncipe , President (2nd round) 21 : Cape Verde , President (2nd round) 23 : Liberia , Constitutional referendum 26 : Abkhazia , President 27 : Singapore , President Upcoming: August [ edit ] 29 – 30 : Estonia , President (indirect) Upcoming: September [ edit ] 11 : Guatemala , General 15 : Denmark , Parliament 17 : Latvia , Parliament 20 : Zambia , General edit this archived sidebar Trials Recently concluded [ edit ] Cambodia: Kang Kek Iew Germany: John Demjanjuk Indonesia: Abu Bakar Bashir Netherlands: Geert Wilders United Kingdom: Levi Bellfield United States: Faisal Shahzad , Noshir Gowadia , Buju Banton , Barry Bonds , Raj Rajaratnam , Rod Blagojevich , Casey Anthony , Dominique Strauss-Kahn Ongoing [ edit ] Cambodia: Khmer Rouge Tribunal Canada: Russell Williams China: Organized crime in Chongqing France: Church of Scientology Germany: Heinrich Boere Iraq: Supreme Criminal Tribunal Iran: Sakineh Mohammadi Ashtiani Malaysia: Anwar Ibrahim Netherlands: Thomas Lubanga ( ICC ), Radovan Karadžić ( ICTY ) Palau: Tommy Remengesau Peru: Joran van der Sloot Philippines: Andal Ampatuan Jr. Russia: Mikhail Khodorkovsky , Platon Lebedev Sierra Leone]: Charles Taylor ( SCFSL ) Singapore: Tak Boleh Tahan Thailand: Thaksin Shinawatra Turkey: Ergenekon network United States: David Headley , Ahmed Ghailani , Jared Lee Loughner , Charles P. White , Roger Clemens Upcoming [ edit ] Egypt: Hosni Mubarak , Alaa Mubarak , Gamal Mubarak Sudan: Lubna al-Hussein Tunisia: Zine El Abidine Ben Ali United States: Viktor Bout , Allen Stanford , Nidal Malik Hasan , Conrad Murray , John Edwards , Javaris Crittenton edit this archived sidebar Holidays and observances Recent [ edit ] edit this archived sidebar S M T W T F S 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Ongoing events Disasters [ edit ] Horn of Africa famine Economic [ edit ] Japanese recession Global financial crisis European sovereign debt crisis Greek economic crisis August 2011 stock markets fall Medical [ edit ] HIV/AIDS in Africa Haiti cholera outbreak Political [ edit ] Anti-austerity protests Greek protests Spanish protests Arab Spring Bahraini uprising Egyptian revolution Jordanian protests Libyan civil war Moroccan protests Syrian uprising Tunisian Revolution Yemeni uprising Belgian political crisis Chilean student protests Kurdish protests News International phone hacking scandal Scientific [ edit ] Expedition 28 Disasters Horn of Africa famine Economic Japanese recession Global financial crisis European sovereign debt crisis Greek economic crisis August 2011 stock markets fall European sovereign debt crisis Greek economic crisis August 2011 stock markets fall Medical HIV/AIDS in Africa Haiti cholera outbreak Political Anti-austerity protests Greek protests Spanish protests Greek protests Spanish protests Arab Spring Bahraini uprising Egyptian revolution Jordanian protests Libyan civil war Moroccan protests Syrian uprising Tunisian Revolution Yemeni uprising Bahraini uprising Egyptian revolution Jordanian protests Libyan civil war Moroccan protests Syrian uprising Tunisian Revolution Yemeni uprising Belgian political crisis Chilean student protests Kurdish protests News International phone hacking scandal Scientific Expedition 28 Recent deaths August [ edit ] 31 : Wade Belak 29 : David "Honeyboy" Edwards 27 : Stetson Kennedy 25 : Lazar Mojsov 24 : Frank DiLeo 24 : Mike Flanagan 22 : Nick Ashford 22 : John Howard Davies 22 : Jack Layton 22 : Jerry Leiber 19 : Raúl Ruiz 19 : Jimmy Sangster 18 : Paul Lockyer 17 : Vasyl Dzharty 16 : Andrej Bajuk 16 : Huw Ceredig 14 : Shammi Kapoor 14 : Shawn Tompkins 12 : Charles P. Murray Jr. 12 : Robert Robinson 11 : Jani Lane 11 : Karen Overington 10 : Babak Masoumi 7 : Mark Hatfield 7 : Harri Holkeri 7 : Nancy Wake 6 : John Wood 5 : Andrzej Lepper 5 : Francesco Quinn 4 : Naoki Matsuda 3 : Annette Charles 3 : Ray Patterson 3 : Bubba Smith 2 : Baruj Benacerraf 1 : Stan Barstow edit this archived sidebar August 31 : Wade Belak 29 : David "Honeyboy" Edwards 27 : Stetson Kennedy 25 : Lazar Mojsov 24 : Frank DiLeo 24 : Mike Flanagan 22 : Nick Ashford 22 : John Howard Davies 22 : Jack Layton 22 : Jerry Leiber 19 : Raúl Ruiz 19 : Jimmy Sangster 18 : Paul Lockyer 17 : Vasyl Dzharty 16 : Andrej Bajuk 16 : Huw Ceredig 14 : Shammi Kapoor 14 : Shawn Tompkins 12 : Charles P. Murray Jr. 12 : Robert Robinson 11 : Jani Lane 11 : Karen Overington 10 : Babak Masoumi 7 : Mark Hatfield 7 : Harri Holkeri 7 : Nancy Wake 6 : John Wood 5 : Andrzej Lepper 5 : Francesco Quinn 4 : Naoki Matsuda 3 : Annette Charles 3 : Ray Patterson 3 : Bubba Smith 2 : Baruj Benacerraf 1 : Stan Barstow edit this archived sidebar Ongoing conflicts Global [ edit ] War on terror Terrorist incidents Operation Active Endeavour Operation Enduring Freedom War on drugs Africa [ edit ] Libyan civil war Tunisian Revolution Maghreb insurgency OEF - Trans Sahara Casamance conflict Niger Delta conflict Nigerian Sharia conflict South Kordofan conflict Lord's Resistance Army insurgency Somalia : Civil war Somali Civil War (2009–present) Piracy OEF - Horn of Africa Europe [ edit ] Basque conflict Real IRA North Caucasus insurgency Ingushetia civil war Middle East [ edit ] Iraqi insurgency Iran-Jundallah conflict Fatah–Hamas conflict Arab–Israeli conflict Israeli–Palestinian conflict Israeli–Lebanese conflict Palestinian political violence and rocket attacks Yemen : Terrorism and al-Qaeda crackdown South Yemen insurgency Shia insurgency Kurdistan : Turkey–PKK conflict Iran–PJAK conflict Asia [ edit ] Afghanistan War Military operations Taliban insurgency Pakistan: Terrorism North-West War Balochistan conflict Drone attacks Sectarian violence India: Terrorism Jammu and Kashmir insurgency Naxalite–Maoist insurgency Northeast India insurgency Nagaland ethnic conflict Kashmir conflict Siachen conflict Korean maritime border incidents Southeast Asia: Laos insurgency Burma internal conflict Burma border clashes South Thailand insurgency Cambodian–Thai border dispute Philippines insurgency OEF - Philippines Papua conflict Americas [ edit ] Colombian conflict Plan Colombia FARC Mexican drug war Mérida Initiative Peru internal conflict edit this archived sidebar Global War on terror Terrorist incidents Operation Active Endeavour Operation Enduring Freedom Terrorist incidents Operation Active Endeavour Operation Enduring Freedom War on drugs Africa Libyan civil war Tunisian Revolution Maghreb insurgency OEF - Trans Sahara Casamance conflict Niger Delta conflict Nigerian Sharia conflict South Kordofan conflict Lord's Resistance Army insurgency Somalia : Civil war Somali Civil War (2009–present) Piracy Civil war Somali Civil War (2009–present) Piracy OEF - Horn of Africa Europe Basque conflict Real IRA North Caucasus insurgency Ingushetia civil war Middle East Iraqi insurgency Iran-Jundallah conflict Fatah–Hamas conflict Arab–Israeli conflict Israeli–Palestinian conflict Israeli–Lebanese conflict Palestinian political violence and rocket attacks Israeli–Palestinian conflict Israeli–Lebanese conflict Palestinian political violence and rocket attacks Yemen : Terrorism and al-Qaeda crackdown South Yemen insurgency Shia insurgency Terrorism and al-Qaeda crackdown South Yemen insurgency Shia insurgency Kurdistan : Turkey–PKK conflict Iran–PJAK conflict Turkey–PKK conflict Iran–PJAK conflict Asia Afghanistan War Military operations Taliban insurgency Military operations Taliban insurgency Pakistan: Terrorism North-West War Balochistan conflict Drone attacks Sectarian violence Terrorism North-West War Balochistan conflict Drone attacks Sectarian violence India: Terrorism Jammu and Kashmir insurgency Naxalite–Maoist insurgency Northeast India insurgency Nagaland ethnic conflict Terrorism Jammu and Kashmir insurgency Naxalite–Maoist insurgency Northeast India insurgency Nagaland ethnic conflict Kashmir conflict Siachen conflict Siachen conflict Korean maritime border incidents Southeast Asia: Laos insurgency Burma internal conflict Burma border clashes South Thailand insurgency Cambodian–Thai border dispute Laos insurgency Burma internal conflict Burma border clashes South Thailand insurgency Cambodian–Thai border dispute Philippines insurgency OEF - Philippines OEF - Philippines Papua conflict Americas Colombian conflict Plan Colombia FARC Plan Colombia FARC Mexican drug war Mérida Initiative Mérida Initiative Peru internal conflict edit this archived sidebar Elections Recent: August [ edit ] 7 : Cape Verde , President (1st round) 7 : São Tomé and Príncipe , President (2nd round) 21 : Cape Verde , President (2nd round) 23 : Liberia , Constitutional referendum 26 : Abkhazia , President 27 : Singapore , President Upcoming: August [ edit ] 29 – 30 : Estonia , President (indirect) Upcoming: September [ edit ] 11 : Guatemala , General 15 : Denmark , Parliament 17 : Latvia , Parliament 20 : Zambia , General edit this archived sidebar Recent: August 7 : Cape Verde , President (1st round) 7 : São Tomé and Príncipe , President (2nd round) 21 : Cape Verde , President (2nd round) 23 : Liberia , Constitutional referendum 26 : Abkhazia , President 27 : Singapore , President Upcoming: August 29 – 30 : Estonia , President (indirect) Upcoming: September 11 : Guatemala , General 15 : Denmark , Parliament 17 : Latvia , Parliament 20 : Zambia , General edit this archived sidebar Trials Recently concluded [ edit ] Cambodia: Kang Kek Iew Germany: John Demjanjuk Indonesia: Abu Bakar Bashir Netherlands: Geert Wilders United Kingdom: Levi Bellfield United States: Faisal Shahzad , Noshir Gowadia , Buju Banton , Barry Bonds , Raj Rajaratnam , Rod Blagojevich , Casey Anthony , Dominique Strauss-Kahn Ongoing [ edit ] Cambodia: Khmer Rouge Tribunal Canada: Russell Williams China: Organized crime in Chongqing France: Church of Scientology Germany: Heinrich Boere Iraq: Supreme Criminal Tribunal Iran: Sakineh Mohammadi Ashtiani Malaysia: Anwar Ibrahim Netherlands: Thomas Lubanga ( ICC ), Radovan Karadžić ( ICTY ) Palau: Tommy Remengesau Peru: Joran van der Sloot Philippines: Andal Ampatuan Jr. Russia: Mikhail Khodorkovsky , Platon Lebedev Sierra Leone]: Charles Taylor ( SCFSL ) Singapore: Tak Boleh Tahan Thailand: Thaksin Shinawatra Turkey: Ergenekon network United States: David Headley , Ahmed Ghailani , Jared Lee Loughner , Charles P. White , Roger Clemens Upcoming [ edit ] Egypt: Hosni Mubarak , Alaa Mubarak , Gamal Mubarak Sudan: Lubna al-Hussein Tunisia: Zine El Abidine Ben Ali United States: Viktor Bout , Allen Stanford , Nidal Malik Hasan , Conrad Murray , John Edwards , Javaris Crittenton edit this archived sidebar Recently concluded Cambodia: Kang Kek Iew Germany: John Demjanjuk Indonesia: Abu Bakar Bashir Netherlands: Geert Wilders United Kingdom: Levi Bellfield United States: Faisal Shahzad , Noshir Gowadia , Buju Banton , Barry Bonds , Raj Rajaratnam , Rod Blagojevich , Casey Anthony , Dominique Strauss-Kahn Ongoing Cambodia: Khmer Rouge Tribunal Canada: Russell Williams China: Organized crime in Chongqing France: Church of Scientology Germany: Heinrich Boere Iraq: Supreme Criminal Tribunal Iran: Sakineh Mohammadi Ashtiani Malaysia: Anwar Ibrahim Netherlands: Thomas Lubanga ( ICC ), Radovan Karadžić ( ICTY ) Palau: Tommy Remengesau Peru: Joran van der Sloot Philippines: Andal Ampatuan Jr. Russia: Mikhail Khodorkovsky , Platon Lebedev Sierra Leone]: Charles Taylor ( SCFSL ) Singapore: Tak Boleh Tahan Thailand: Thaksin Shinawatra Turkey: Ergenekon network United States: David Headley , Ahmed Ghailani , Jared Lee Loughner , Charles P. White , Roger Clemens Upcoming Egypt: Hosni Mubarak , Alaa Mubarak , Gamal Mubarak Sudan: Lubna al-Hussein Tunisia: Zine El Abidine Ben Ali United States: Viktor Bout , Allen Stanford , Nidal Malik Hasan , Conrad Murray , John Edwards , Javaris Crittenton edit this archived sidebar Holidays and observances Recent [ edit ] edit this archived sidebar Recent edit this archived sidebar .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Current events by month v t e 2015 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2014 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2013 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2012 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2011 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2010 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2009 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2008 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2007 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2006 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2011 by day August 2011 Months in the 2010s Current events archives Webarchive template wayback links This page was last edited on 8 September 2023, at 03:51 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Why does an uncivil environment hurt productive editing? Toggle Why does an uncivil environment hurt productive editing? subsection 1.1 Us vs. Them mentality 1.2 Destruction of nuance 1.3 Bad feelings 1.4 Erosion of critical thinking 1.5 Departure from rules 1.6 Reinforcement to quit 1.1 Us vs. Them mentality 1.2 Destruction of nuance 1.3 Bad feelings 1.4 Erosion of critical thinking 1.5 Departure from rules 1.6 Reinforcement to quit 2 See also Wikipedia : An uncivil environment is a poor environment Español Project page Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item This is an essay . It contains the advice or opinions of one or more Wikipedia contributors. This page is not an encyclopedia article or a Wikipedia policy , as it has not been reviewed by the community and may reflect various opinions. .mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain{float:right;margin:0 0 0 1em;border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);background-color:var(--background-color-base,#fff);padding:0.3em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;text-align:center;font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxleft{float:left;margin:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutlist{display:inline-block;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);margin-bottom:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain ul{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutanchordiv{position:relative;top:-3em}.mw-parser-output li .module-shortcutanchordiv{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mbox-imageright .module-shortcutboxplain{padding:0.4em 1em;line-height:1.3;margin:0;float:initial} Shortcuts .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} WP:UCEPE WP:UCEPE WP:POOR WP:POOR WP:UCEPE WP:UCEPE WP:POOR WP:POOR This page in a nutshell: Being civil encourages others to be civil. Work towards building a civil environment. An uncivil environment is a poor environment to work in. It is not conducive to a useful and positive outcome from an already difficult situation. If editors are not staying within the boundaries of civility then they should be warned accordingly, and if they persist, then blocks should be enforced. If conversations devolve into uncivil rants at each other, how is that helping anyone? Yes, we all believe our side is the right answer and find it difficult to assume good faith of the other parties, but we must force ourselves to as much as possible, and to stay civil. Else we are just a bunch of arguing editors who are doing exactly nothing for improving the site. Reminding fellow editors of our need for civility is a good thing as it reminds people to stay useful. Why does an uncivil environment hurt productive editing? So, why does an uncivil environment hurt productive editing? Us vs. Them mentality Let's say I accuse you of "edits bordering on vandalism " about your efforts to NPOV an article. This makes you angry, right? Enough of this sort of thing leads to an Us versus Them mentality, which can prevent any attempt at compromise. Destruction of nuance The truth of a situation is often a subtle, difficult to articulate thing. An uncivil environment tends to result in such loud shouting that it becomes impossible to be heard over said shouting, thus making subtle, nuanced positions almost impossible. Bad feelings If you're in a bad mood, you're more likely to make a mistake. Incivility encourages a bad mood, thus encouraging mistakes. Erosion of critical thinking Incivility makes it harder for people to think critically , that is, to evaluate conflicting claims solely on their merits. When a discussion deteriorates into an exchange of insults, hyperbole tends to displace facts . When people become emotional, they become more prone to fallacies which appeal to emotion . In most persistent disputes, each side may have some facts to support its position, but with anger comes a hardening of positions and a refusal to consider the other side's case. People may lose sight of the actual disagreement, and instead focus on trying to harm the opponent, creating a cycle of vendetta . Departure from rules Wikipedia maintains remarkable coherence despite the vast diversity of its 51,069,962 registered users (and a comparable number of unregistereds). Wikipedia is able to do this by defining a comprehensive set of policies and guidelines that tell editors what to do in most situations. When friendly disagreements occur, the cause is either that one or more editors are not aware of the applicable rules; different editors interpret the same rule in different ways; or a new situation has come up and the rules do not cover it yet. [ clarification needed ] The best way to avoid or defuse conflict on Wikipedia is to know the rules as thoroughly as you can. Not just individual policies and guidelines in isolation, but how they fit together and the underlying reasons for them. Then, in most cases, disputes are easy to resolve by simply pointing to the applicable rules. This helps to take the focus away from individuals and their emotions of pride and self-worth, and instead make it about reading and following instructions. As long as everyone on Wikipedia agrees to do the latter, there is usually not much to argue about. When disputes get out of hand, and administrators intervene, they generally favor the side which most closely follows the rules. But when a dispute arises and the rules don't cover it, or when a rule needs updating, editors should work carefully to reach consensus . The resolution affects not only the current dispute, but any number of other editors may rely on the findings when similar situations come in the future. Resolving a conflict therefore adds value to the entire project. Many features of Wikipedia that we take for granted arose from past disputes, some of them bitter. We are able to edit productively because we don't all have to keep fighting the same battles . When two sides devolve into calling each other names, they are not getting closer to finding the consensus which could add another important piece to Wikipedia's structure of rules. Reinforcement to quit Every edit which results in a personal attack or a criticism of the editor rather than their content is a consequence which, if the majority of edits over time result in a negative experience, through reinforcement trains editors to avoid or quit editing Wikipedia in order to avoid being hurt again or experience further emotional pain. If all of the civil editors quit Wikipedia, only the mean editors who constantly insult their collaborators will be left, and even these users will find the experience less enjoying and be more likely to avoid or quit editing themselves. This applies both to experts and to house cleaners, editors who assert facts and editors who check facts. See also Appeal to emotion Appeal to spite I-message Wikipedia:Civility Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not § Wikipedia is not a soapbox Wikipedia:Resolving disputes Content disputes – the entry in the Editor's index Wikipedia:Society Wikipedia:Positivity Wikipedia:Turnover Wikipedia:WikiProject Editor Retention .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Wikipedia essays (?) v t e Essays on building, editing, and deleting content Philosophy Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Article construction 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles Writing article content Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Removing or deleting content Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Essays on building, editing, and deleting content Philosophy Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Article construction 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles Writing article content Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Removing or deleting content Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Philosophy Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Article construction 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles Writing article content Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Removing or deleting content Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Essays on civility The basics Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Philosophy A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent Dos Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Don'ts Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE WikiRelations WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace Essays on civility The basics Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Philosophy A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent Dos Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Don'ts Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE WikiRelations WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace The basics Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Philosophy A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent Dos Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Don'ts Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE WikiRelations WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace Essays on neutrality Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Essays on neutrality Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Essays on notability Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Essays on notability Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Humorous essays Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? Case against LLM-generated articles Complete bollocks Counting forks Counting juntas Crap Delete the main page Diffusing conflict Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Don't abbreviate "Wikipedia" as "Wiki"! Don't delete the main page Editcountitis Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Editing under the influence Embrace Stop Signs Emerson Fart Five Fs of Wikipedia Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to get away with UPE How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle How to vandalize correctly How to win a citation war Ignore all essays Ignore all user warnings Ignore every single rule Is that even an essay? Keep beating the horse List of really, really, really stupid article ideas that you really, really, really should not create Mess with the templates My local pond Newcomers are delicious, so go ahead and bite them Legal vandalism List of jokes about Wikipedia LTTAUTMAOK No climbing the Reichstag dressed as Spider-Man No episcopal threats No one cares about your garage band No one really cares No, really No self attacks Notability is not eternal Oops Defense Play the game Please be a giant dick, so we can ban you Please bite the newbies Please do not murder the newcomers Pledge of Tranquility Project S.C.R.A.M. R-e-s-p-e-c-t Requests for medication Requirements for adminship Rouge admin Rouge editor Sarcasm is really helpful Sausages for tasting Spaling Muich? Template madness The Night Before Wikimas The first rule of Wikipedia The Five Pillars of Untruth Things that should not be surprising The WikiBible Watchlistitis We are deletionist! Why is BFDI on Wikipedia? Why you shouldn't write articles with ChatGPT, according to ChatGPT Wikipedia is an MMORPG WTF? OMG! TMD TLA. ARG! Yes, falsely Yes legal threats Yes personal attacks You don't have to be mad to work here, but You should not write meaningless lists Humorous essays Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? Case against LLM-generated articles Complete bollocks Counting forks Counting juntas Crap Delete the main page Diffusing conflict Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Don't abbreviate "Wikipedia" as "Wiki"! Don't delete the main page Editcountitis Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Editing under the influence Embrace Stop Signs Emerson Fart Five Fs of Wikipedia Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to get away with UPE How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle How to vandalize correctly How to win a citation war Ignore all essays Ignore all user warnings Ignore every single rule Is that even an essay? Keep beating the horse List of really, really, really stupid article ideas that you really, really, really should not create Mess with the templates My local pond Newcomers are delicious, so go ahead and bite them Legal vandalism List of jokes about Wikipedia LTTAUTMAOK No climbing the Reichstag dressed as Spider-Man No episcopal threats No one cares about your garage band No one really cares No, really No self attacks Notability is not eternal Oops Defense Play the game Please be a giant dick, so we can ban you Please bite the newbies Please do not murder the newcomers Pledge of Tranquility Project S.C.R.A.M. R-e-s-p-e-c-t Requests for medication Requirements for adminship Rouge admin Rouge editor Sarcasm is really helpful Sausages for tasting Spaling Muich? Template madness The Night Before Wikimas The first rule of Wikipedia The Five Pillars of Untruth Things that should not be surprising The WikiBible Watchlistitis We are deletionist! Why is BFDI on Wikipedia? Why you shouldn't write articles with ChatGPT, according to ChatGPT Wikipedia is an MMORPG WTF? OMG! TMD TLA. ARG! Yes, falsely Yes legal threats Yes personal attacks You don't have to be mad to work here, but You should not write meaningless lists Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? Case against LLM-generated articles Complete bollocks Counting forks Counting juntas Crap Delete the main page Diffusing conflict Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Don't abbreviate "Wikipedia" as "Wiki"! Don't delete the main page Editcountitis Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Editing under the influence Embrace Stop Signs Emerson Fart Five Fs of Wikipedia Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to get away with UPE How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle How to vandalize correctly How to win a citation war Ignore all essays Ignore all user warnings Ignore every single rule Is that even an essay? Keep beating the horse List of really, really, really stupid article ideas that you really, really, really should not create Mess with the templates My local pond Newcomers are delicious, so go ahead and bite them Legal vandalism List of jokes about Wikipedia LTTAUTMAOK No climbing the Reichstag dressed as Spider-Man No episcopal threats No one cares about your garage band No one really cares No, really No self attacks Notability is not eternal Oops Defense Play the game Please be a giant dick, so we can ban you Please bite the newbies Please do not murder the newcomers Pledge of Tranquility Project S.C.R.A.M. R-e-s-p-e-c-t Requests for medication Requirements for adminship Rouge admin Rouge editor Sarcasm is really helpful Sausages for tasting Spaling Muich? Template madness The Night Before Wikimas The first rule of Wikipedia The Five Pillars of Untruth Things that should not be surprising The WikiBible Watchlistitis We are deletionist! Why is BFDI on Wikipedia? Why you shouldn't write articles with ChatGPT, according to ChatGPT Wikipedia is an MMORPG WTF? OMG! TMD TLA. ARG! Yes, falsely Yes legal threats Yes personal attacks You don't have to be mad to work here, but You should not write meaningless lists Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? Case against LLM-generated articles Complete bollocks Counting forks Counting juntas Crap Delete the main page Diffusing conflict Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Don't abbreviate "Wikipedia" as "Wiki"! Don't delete the main page Editcountitis Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Editing under the influence Embrace Stop Signs Emerson Fart Five Fs of Wikipedia Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to get away with UPE How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle How to vandalize correctly How to win a citation war Ignore all essays Ignore all user warnings Ignore every single rule Is that even an essay? Keep beating the horse List of really, really, really stupid article ideas that you really, really, really should not create Mess with the templates My local pond Newcomers are delicious, so go ahead and bite them Legal vandalism List of jokes about Wikipedia LTTAUTMAOK No climbing the Reichstag dressed as Spider-Man No episcopal threats No one cares about your garage band No one really cares No, really No self attacks Notability is not eternal Oops Defense Play the game Please be a giant dick, so we can ban you Please bite the newbies Please do not murder the newcomers Pledge of Tranquility Project S.C.R.A.M. R-e-s-p-e-c-t Requests for medication Requirements for adminship Rouge admin Rouge editor Sarcasm is really helpful Sausages for tasting Spaling Muich? Template madness The Night Before Wikimas The first rule of Wikipedia The Five Pillars of Untruth Things that should not be surprising The WikiBible Watchlistitis We are deletionist! Why is BFDI on Wikipedia? Why you shouldn't write articles with ChatGPT, according to ChatGPT Wikipedia is an MMORPG WTF? OMG! TMD TLA. ARG! Yes, falsely Yes legal threats Yes personal attacks You don't have to be mad to work here, but You should not write meaningless lists About essays About essays Essay guide Value of essays Difference between policies, guidelines and essays Don't cite essays as if they were policy Avoid writing redundant essays Finding an essay Quote your own essay Policies and guidelines About policies and guidelines Policies Guidelines How to contribute to Wikipedia guidance Policy writing is hard About essays About essays Essay guide Value of essays Difference between policies, guidelines and essays Don't cite essays as if they were policy Avoid writing redundant essays Finding an essay Quote your own essay Policies and guidelines About policies and guidelines Policies Guidelines How to contribute to Wikipedia guidance Policy writing is hard About essays Essay guide Value of essays Difference between policies, guidelines and essays Don't cite essays as if they were policy Avoid writing redundant essays Finding an essay Quote your own essay Essay guide Value of essays Difference between policies, guidelines and essays Don't cite essays as if they were policy Avoid writing redundant essays Finding an essay Quote your own essay Policies and guidelines About policies and guidelines Policies Guidelines How to contribute to Wikipedia guidance Policy writing is hard About policies and guidelines Policies Guidelines Policies Guidelines How to contribute to Wikipedia guidance Policy writing is hard Wikipedia essays This page was last edited on 30 August 2023, at 17:11 (UTC) . 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Jump to main content Jump to navigation nature.com homepage Publications A-Z index Browse by subject My account submit Register Subscribe Login Cart Nature's responses to Encyclopaedia Britannica In December 2005, Nature published a news story comparing the accuracy of science articles taken from the website of Encyclopedia Britannica and Wikipedia , an online encyclopaedia that can be edited by anyone. The results and their interpretation have since been disputed by Encyclopedia Britannica . We present our initial formal response to Britannica's objections, an Editorial from the 30 March 2006 edition of Nature , and a point-by-point rebuttal of Britannica 's main objections. Main navigation Journal content Journal home Advance online publication About AOP About AOP Current issue Nature News Archive Supplements Insights Outlooks Collections Insights Outlooks Collections Web focuses Biological sciences Earth and environment Horizons Physical sciences Science and politics Science, art and culture Biological sciences Earth and environment Horizons Physical sciences Science and politics Science, art and culture Podcasts Videos News Specials Journal information About the journal Contact the journal About the editors Nature family of journals History of the Journal Nature For advertisers For librarians Contact the journal About the editors Nature family of journals History of the Journal Nature For advertisers For librarians For authors Formatting guide Publication policies For referees Formatting guide Publication policies For referees Online submission Nature Awards Nature history NPG Services Advertising work@ npg Reprints & permissions For librarians Authors & referees NPG Resources Gateways & databases Nature Reports Nature Network nature.com blogs Nature Conferences Scitable Genetics NPG Journals by Subject Area Chemistry Chemistry Drug discovery Biotechnology Materials Methods & Protocols Chemistry Chemistry Drug discovery Biotechnology Materials Methods & Protocols Clinical Practice & Research Cancer Cardiovascular medicine Endocrinology Gastroenterology & Hepatology Methods & Protocols Pathology & Pathobiology Urology Clinical Practice & Research Cancer Cardiovascular medicine Endocrinology Gastroenterology & Hepatology Methods & Protocols Pathology & Pathobiology Urology Earth & Environment Earth sciences Evolution & Ecology Earth & Environment Earth sciences Evolution & Ecology Life sciences Biotechnology Cancer Development Drug discovery Evolution & Ecology Genetics Immunology Medical research Methods & Protocols Microbiology Molecular cell biology Neuroscience Pharmacology Systems biology Life sciences Biotechnology Cancer Development Drug discovery Evolution & Ecology Genetics Immunology Medical research Methods & Protocols Microbiology Molecular cell biology Neuroscience Pharmacology Systems biology Physical sciences Physics Materials Physical sciences Physics Materials by A - Z Index Extra navigation Journal services Sign up for e-alerts Recommend to your library RSS newsfeeds Nature in the news (external link) Open Innovation Challenges Novel Treatment Approaches to Stop the Allergic March towards Asthma Deadline: Feb 14 2016 Reward: $20,000 USD 1. The Challenge and qualification for the award Allergy or atopy is one of the main causes for de… Novel Treatment Approaches to Stop the Allergic March towards Asthma Deadline: Feb 14 2016 Reward: $20,000 USD 1. The Challenge and qualification for the award Allergy or atopy is one of the main causes for de… New Translational Models of Psychiatric Diseases Deadline: Feb 17 2016 Reward: $21,000 USD 1. The Challenge and qualification for the award According to statistics compiled by the World Hea… New Translational Models of Psychiatric Diseases Deadline: Feb 17 2016 Reward: $21,000 USD 1. The Challenge and qualification for the award According to statistics compiled by the World Hea… More Challenges Powered by: nature jobs Grand stage for great players: CCID recruiting principal investigators The Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases (CCID) Grand stage for great players: CCID recruiting principal investigators The Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases (CCID) Assistant, Associate or Professor Level University of Louisville Assistant, Associate or Professor Level University of Louisville Top Nature ISSN : 0028-0836 EISSN : 1476-4687 About NPG Contact NPG Accessibility statement Help Privacy policy Use of cookies Legal notice Terms Nature jobs Nature Asia Nature Education RSS web feeds © 2015 Macmillan Publishers Limited. All Rights Reserved. partner of AGORA, HINARI, OARE, INASP, ORCID, CrossRef, COUNTER and COPE
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History Toggle History subsection 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 2 Collaborative editing Toggle Collaborative editing subsection 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 3 Policies and content Toggle Policies and content subsection 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 4 Governance Toggle Governance subsection 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 5 Community Toggle Community subsection 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 6 Language editions Toggle Language editions subsection 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 7 Reception Toggle Reception subsection 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 8 Operation Toggle Operation subsection 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 9 Access to content Toggle Access to content subsection 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 10 Cultural influence Toggle Cultural influence subsection 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 11 Related projects 12 See also 13 Notes 14 References Toggle References subsection 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 15 Further reading Toggle Further reading subsection 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 16 External links Wikipedia Acèh Адыгэбзэ Адыгабзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ अंगिका Ænglisc Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés ܐܪܡܝܐ Արեւմտահայերէն Armãneashti Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Atikamekw अवधी Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali Bamanankan বাংলা Banjar 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Bislama Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Chamoru Chavacano de Zamboanga Chi-Chewa ChiShona ChiTumbuka Corsu Cymraeg Dagbanli Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deitsch Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Dolnoserbski डोटेली ཇོང་ཁ Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Fulfulde Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego ГӀалгӀай 贛語 Gĩkũyũ گیلکی ગુજરાતી 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni Gungbe 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî Хальмг 한국어 Hausa Hawaiʻi Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Ido Igbo Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut Iñupiatun Ирон IsiXhosa IsiZulu Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kernowek Ikirundi Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Кырык мары Ladin Ladino Лакку ລາວ Latgaļu Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala La .lojban. 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.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}} Screenshot Wikipedia's desktop homepage Type of site Online encyclopedia Available in 342 languages Headquarters San Francisco , California, US Country of origin United States Owner Wikimedia Foundation (since 2003) Created by .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger URL wikipedia .org Commercial No Registration Optional [ a ] Users 126 million (as of January 16, 2026) Launched January 15, 2001 (25 years ago) ( 2001-01-15 ) Current status Active Content license CC Attribution / Share-Alike 4.0 [ b ] Written in PHP OCLC number 52075003 Wikipedia [ c ] is a free online encyclopedia written and maintained by a community of volunteers , known as Wikipedians , through open collaboration and the wiki software MediaWiki . Founded by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger in 2001, Wikipedia has been hosted since 2003 by the Wikimedia Foundation , an American nonprofit organization funded mainly by donations from readers. [ 1 ] Wikipedia is the largest and most-read reference work in history. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Initially available only in English , Wikipedia exists in over 340 languages and is one of the world's most visited websites . The English Wikipedia , with over 7 million articles , remains the largest of the editions, which together comprise more than 66 million articles and attract more than 1.5 billion unique device visits and 13 million edits per month (about five edits per second on average) as of April 2024 [update] . [ W 1 ] As of December 2025 [update] , over 25% of Wikipedia's traffic comes from the United States, while Japan accounts for nearly 7%, and the United Kingdom, Germany, and Russia each represent around 5%. [ 4 ] Wikipedia has been praised for enabling the democratization of knowledge , its extensive coverage, unique structure, and culture. Wikipedia has been censored by some national governments, ranging from specific pages to the entire site, sometimes due to its criticism of the government or by content otherwise considered blasphemous. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Although Wikipedia's volunteer editors have written extensively on a wide variety of topics, the encyclopedia has also been criticized for systemic bias, such as a gender bias against women and a geographical bias against the Global South . [ 7 ] [ 8 ] While the reliability of Wikipedia was frequently criticized in the 2000s, it has improved over time, receiving greater praise from the late 2010s onward. [ 2 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ] Articles on breaking news are often accessed as sources for up-to-date information about those events. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] History Nupedia Various collaborative online encyclopedias were attempted before the start of Wikipedia, but with limited success. [ 13 ] Wikipedia began as a complementary project for Nupedia, a free online English-language encyclopedia project whose articles were written by experts and reviewed under a formal process. [ 14 ] It was founded on March 9, 2000, under the ownership of Bomis , a web portal company. Its main figures were Bomis CEO Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger , editor-in-chief for Nupedia and later Wikipedia. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] Nupedia was initially licensed under its own Nupedia Open Content License, but before Wikipedia was founded, Nupedia switched to the GNU Free Documentation License at the urging of Richard Stallman . [ W 2 ] Wales is credited with defining the goal of making a publicly editable encyclopedia, [ 17 ] while Sanger is credited with the strategy of using a wiki to reach that goal. [ 18 ] On January 10, 2001, Sanger proposed on the Nupedia mailing list to create a wiki as a "feeder" project for Nupedia. [ W 3 ] Launch and growth Wikipedia was launched on January 15, 2001 (referred to as "Wikipedia Day"), [ 19 ] as a single English language edition with the domain name www.wikipedia.com , [ W 4 ] and was announced by Sanger on the Nupedia mailing list. [ 17 ] The name, proposed by Sanger to forestall any potential damage to the Nupedia name, [ 20 ] originated from a blend of the words wiki and encyclopedia . [ 21 ] [ 22 ] Its integral policy of " neutral point of view " arose within its first year. [ 23 ] Otherwise, there were initially relatively few rules, and it operated independently of Nupedia. [ 17 ] Bomis originally intended for it to be a for-profit business. [ 24 ] Wikipedia gained early contributors from Nupedia, Slashdot postings, and web search engine indexing. Language editions were created beginning in March 2001, with a total of 161 in use by the end of 2004. [ W 5 ] [ W 6 ] Nupedia and Wikipedia coexisted until the former's servers were taken down permanently in 2003, and its text was incorporated into Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia passed the mark of 2 million articles on September 9, 2007, making it the largest encyclopedia ever assembled, surpassing the Yongle Encyclopedia made in China during the Ming dynasty in 1408, which had held the record for almost 600 years. [ 25 ] Due to fears of commercial advertising and lack of control, users of the Spanish Wikipedia forked from Wikipedia to create Enciclopedia Libre in February 2002. [ W 7 ] Wales then announced that Wikipedia would not display advertisements, and changed Wikipedia's domain from wikipedia.com to wikipedia.org . [ 26 ] [ W 8 ] After an early period of exponential growth, [ 27 ] the growth rate of the English Wikipedia in terms of the numbers of new articles and of editors appears to have peaked around early 2007. [ 28 ] The edition reached 3 million articles in August 2009. Around 1,800 articles were added daily to the encyclopedia in 2006; by 2013 that average was roughly 800. [ W 9 ] A team at the Palo Alto Research Center attributed this slowing of growth to "increased coordination and overhead costs, exclusion of newcomers, and resistance to new edits". [ 27 ] Others suggested that the growth flattened naturally because articles that could be called " low-hanging fruit "—topics that clearly merit an article—had already been created and built up extensively. [ 29 ] [ 30 ] [ 31 ] In November 2009, a researcher at the Rey Juan Carlos University in Madrid, Spain, found that the English Wikipedia had lost 49,000 editors during the first three months of 2009; in comparison, it lost only 4,900 editors during the same period in 2008. [ 32 ] [ 33 ] The Wall Street Journal cited the array of rules applied to editing and disputes related to such content among the reasons for this trend. [ 34 ] Wales disputed these claims in 2009, denying the decline and questioning the study's methodology. [ 35 ] Two years later, in 2011, he acknowledged a slight decline, noting a decrease from "a little more than 36,000 writers" in June 2010 to 35,800 in June 2011. In the same interview, he also claimed the number of editors was "stable and sustainable". [ 36 ] A 2013 MIT Technology Review article, "The Decline of Wikipedia", questioned this claim, reporting that since 2007 Wikipedia had lost a third of its volunteer editors, and suggesting that those remaining had focused increasingly on minutiae. [ 37 ] In July 2012, The Atlantic reported that the number of administrators was also in decline. [ 38 ] In November 2013, New York magazine stated, "Wikipedia, the sixth-most-used website, is facing an internal crisis." [ 39 ] The number of active English Wikipedia editors has since remained steady after a long period of decline. [ 40 ] [ 41 ] On January 20, 2014, Subodh Varma reporting for The Economic Times indicated that not only had Wikipedia's growth stalled, it "had lost nearly ten percent of its page views last year. There was a decline of about 2 billion between December 2012 and December 2013. Its most popular versions are leading the slide: page-views of the English Wikipedia declined by twelve percent, those of German version slid by 17 percent and the Japanese version lost 9 percent." [ 42 ] Varma added, "While Wikipedia's managers think that this could be due to errors in counting, other experts feel that Google's Knowledge Graphs project launched last year may be gobbling up Wikipedia users." [ 42 ] When contacted on this matter, Clay Shirky , associate professor at New York University and fellow at Harvard's Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society said that he suspected much of the page-view decline was due to Knowledge Graphs, stating, "If you can get your question answered from the search page, you don't need to click [any further]." [ 42 ] By the end of December 2016, Wikipedia was ranked the fifth most popular website globally. [ 43 ] As of January 2023, 55,791 English Wikipedia articles have been cited 92,300 times in scholarly journals, [ 44 ] from which cloud computing was the most cited page. [ 45 ] Sister projects Wikipedia has spawned several sister projects, which are also wikis run by the Wikimedia Foundation . These other Wikimedia projects include Wiktionary , a dictionary project launched in December 2002, [ W 10 ] Wikiquote , a collection of quotations created a week after Wikimedia launched, [ 46 ] Wikibooks , a collection of collaboratively written free textbooks and annotated texts, [ W 11 ] Wikimedia Commons , a site devoted to free-knowledge multimedia, [ W 12 ] Wikinews , for collaborative journalism, [ W 13 ] and Wikiversity , a project for the creation of free learning materials and the provision of online learning activities. [ W 14 ] Another sister project of Wikipedia, Wikispecies , is a catalog of all species, but is not open for public editing. [ 47 ] In 2012, Wikivoyage , an editable travel guide, [ 48 ] and Wikidata , an editable knowledge base, launched. [ W 15 ] Milestones In January 2007, Wikipedia first became one of the ten most popular websites in the United States, according to Comscore Networks. [ 49 ] With 42.9 million unique visitors, it was ranked ninth, surpassing The New York Times (No. 10) and Apple (No. 11). [ 49 ] This marked a significant increase over January 2006, when Wikipedia ranked 33rd, with around 18.3 million unique visitors. [ 50 ] In 2014, it received 8 billion page views every month. [ W 16 ] On February 9, 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia had 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, "according to the ratings firm comScore". [ 51 ] As of March 2023 [update] , it ranked sixth in popularity, according to Similarweb . [ 52 ] Jeff Loveland and Joseph Reagle argue that, in process, Wikipedia follows a long tradition of historical encyclopedias that have accumulated improvements piecemeal through " stigmergic accumulation". [ 53 ] [ 54 ] On January 18, 2012, the English Wikipedia participated in a series of coordinated protests against two proposed laws in the United States Congress —the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA) and the PROTECT IP Act (PIPA)—by blacking out its pages for 24 hours . [ 55 ] More than 162 million people viewed the blackout explanation page that temporarily replaced its content. [ 56 ] [ W 17 ] In January 2013, 274301 Wikipedia , an asteroid , was named after Wikipedia; [ 57 ] in October 2014, Wikipedia was honored with the Wikipedia Monument ; [ 58 ] and, in July 2015, 106 of the 7,473 700-page volumes of Wikipedia became available as Print Wikipedia . [ 59 ] In April 2019, an Israeli lunar lander , Beresheet , crash landed on the surface of the Moon carrying a copy of nearly all of the English Wikipedia engraved on thin nickel plates; experts say the plates likely survived the crash. [ 60 ] [ 61 ] In June 2019, scientists reported that all 16 GB of article text from the English Wikipedia had been encoded into synthetic DNA . [ 62 ] On January 18, 2023, Wikipedia debuted a new website redesign, called " Vector 2022 ". [ 63 ] [ 64 ] It featured a redesigned menu bar , moving the table of contents to the left as a sidebar , and numerous changes in the locations of buttons like the language selection tool. [ 64 ] [ W 18 ] The update initially received backlash, most notably when editors of the Swahili Wikipedia unanimously voted to revert the changes. [ 63 ] [ 65 ] Both Sanger and Wales have given public interviews in late 2025 about their reflections about the status and state of Wikipedia leading up to its 25 years of operation on January 15, 2026; Wales appeared on the PBS television news show GZERO World interviewed by Ian Bremmer [ 66 ] and Sanger has appeared on the FOX news network interviewed by Ashley Rindsberg . [ 67 ] Wales's book The Seven Rules of Trust was published in October 2025 by Penguin Random House . It was described by the publisher as a "sweeping reflection on the global crisis of credibility and knowledge" with the book examining the "rules of trust" that enabled the growth and success of Wikipedia. [ 68 ] Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views Since January 2024, the Wikimedia Foundation has reported a roughly 50 percent increase in bandwidth use from downloads of multimedia content across its projects. According to the foundation, this growth is largely attributed to automated programs, or "scraper" bots, that collect large volumes of data from Wikimedia sites for use in training large language models and related applications. [ 69 ] In October 2025, the Wikimedia Foundation reported an estimated 8 percent decline in traffic as compared to the same months in 2024 in human page views. They speculate it reflects the use of generative AI and social media on how people tend to search for information. [ 70 ] [ 71 ] Collaborative editing Restrictions Due to Wikipedia's increasing popularity, some editions, including the English version, have introduced editing restrictions for certain cases. For instance, on the English Wikipedia and some other language editions, only users with 10 edits that have an account that is four days old may create a new article. [ W 19 ] On the English Wikipedia, among others, particularly controversial, sensitive, or vandalism-prone pages have been protected to varying degrees. [ 72 ] A frequently vandalized article can be "semi-protected" or "extended confirmed protected", meaning that only "autoconfirmed" or "extended confirmed" editors can modify it. [ 73 ] A particularly contentious article may be locked so that only administrators can make changes. [ W 20 ] A 2021 article in the Columbia Journalism Review identified Wikipedia's page-protection policies as "perhaps the most important" means at its disposal to "regulate its market of ideas". [ 74 ] Wikipedia has delegated some functions to bots . Such algorithmic governance has an ease of implementation and scaling, though the automated rejection of edits may have contributed to a downturn in active Wikipedia editors. [ 75 ] Bots must be approved by the community before their tasks are implemented. [ 76 ] In certain cases, all editors are allowed to submit modifications, but review is required for some editors, depending on certain conditions. For example, the German Wikipedia maintains "stable versions" of articles which have passed certain reviews. [ W 21 ] Following protracted trials and community discussion, the English Wikipedia introduced the "pending changes" system in December 2012. [ 77 ] Under this system, new and unregistered users' edits to certain controversial or vandalism-prone articles are reviewed by established users before they are published. [ 78 ] However, restrictions on editing may reduce the editor engagement as well as efforts to diversify the editing community. [ 79 ] Articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict are placed under extended-confirmed protection. [ 80 ] Editors also can make only one revert per day across the entire field and can be banned from editing related articles. These restrictions were introduced in 2008. [ 81 ] In January 2025, the Arbitration Committee introduced the "balanced editing restriction", which requires sanctioned users to devote only a third of their edits to articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict even when no misconduct rules have been violated. [ 82 ] [ 83 ] Review of changes Although changes are not systematically reviewed, Wikipedia's software provides tools allowing anyone to review changes made by others. Each article's History page links to each revision. [ e ] [ 84 ] On most articles, anyone can view the latest changes and undo others' revisions by clicking a link on the article's History page. Registered users may maintain a "watchlist" of articles that interest them so they can be notified of changes. [ W 22 ] "New pages patrol" is a process where newly created articles are checked for obvious problems. [ W 23 ] In 2003, economics PhD student Andrea Ciffolilli argued that the low transaction costs of participating in a wiki created a catalyst for collaborative development, and that features such as allowing easy access to past versions of a page favored "creative construction" over "creative destruction". [ 85 ] Vandalism Any change that deliberately compromises Wikipedia's integrity is considered vandalism. The most common and obvious types of vandalism include additions of obscenities and crude humor; it can also include advertising and other types of spam. [ 86 ] Sometimes editors commit vandalism by removing content or entirely blanking a given page. Less common types of vandalism, such as the deliberate addition of plausible but false information, can be more difficult to detect. Vandals can introduce irrelevant formatting, modify page semantics such as the page's title or categorization, manipulate the article's underlying code, or use images disruptively. [ W 24 ] Obvious vandalism is generally easy to remove from Wikipedia articles; the median time to detect and fix it is a few minutes. [ 87 ] [ 88 ] However, some vandalism takes much longer to detect and repair. [ 89 ] In the Seigenthaler biography incident , an anonymous editor introduced false information into the biography of American political figure John Seigenthaler in May 2005, falsely presenting him as a suspect in the assassination of John F. Kennedy . [ 89 ] It remained uncorrected for four months. [ 89 ] Seigenthaler, the founding editorial director of USA Today and founder of the Freedom Forum First Amendment Center at Vanderbilt University , called Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales and asked whether he had any way of knowing who contributed the misinformation. Wales said he did not, although the perpetrator was eventually traced. [ 90 ] [ 91 ] After the incident, Seigenthaler described Wikipedia as "a flawed and irresponsible research tool". [ 89 ] The incident led to policy changes at Wikipedia for tightening up the verifiability of biographical articles of living people. [ 92 ] Disputes and edit warring Wikipedia editors often have disagreements regarding content, which can be discussed on article Talk pages. Disputes may result in repeated competing changes to an article, known as "edit warring". [ W 25 ] [ 93 ] It is widely seen as a resource-consuming scenario where no useful knowledge is added, [ 94 ] and criticized as creating a competitive [ 95 ] and conflict-based editing culture associated with traditional masculine gender roles . [ 96 ] [ 97 ] Research has focused on, for example, impoliteness of disputes, [ 98 ] [ 99 ] the influence of rival editing camps, [ 100 ] [ 101 ] the conversational structure, [ 102 ] and the shift in conflicts to a focus on sources. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] Taha Yasseri of the University of Oxford examined editing conflicts and their resolution in a 2013 study. [ 105 ] [ 106 ] Yasseri contended that simple reverts or "undo" operations were not the most significant measure of counterproductive work behavior at Wikipedia. He relied instead on "mutually reverting edit pairs", where one editor reverts the edit of another editor who then, in sequence, returns to revert the first editor. The results were tabulated for several language versions of Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia's three largest conflict rates belonged to the articles George W. Bush , anarchism , and Muhammad . [ 106 ] By comparison, for the German Wikipedia, the three largest conflict rates at the time of the study were for the articles covering Croatia , Scientology , and 9/11 conspiracy theories . [ 106 ] In 2020, researchers identified other measures of editor behaviors, beyond mutual reverts, to identify editing conflicts across Wikipedia. [ 104 ] Editors also debate the deletion of articles on Wikipedia , with roughly 500,000 such debates since Wikipedia's inception. Once an article is nominated for deletion, the dispute is typically determined by initial votes (to keep or delete) and by reference to topic-specific notability policies. [ 107 ] Policies and content External videos Jimmy Wales , The Birth of Wikipedia, 2006, TED talks , 20 minutes Katherine Maher , What Wikipedia Teaches Us About Balancing Truth and Beliefs, 2022, TED talks , 15 minutes Wikipedia is composed of 11 different namespaces , with its articles being present in mainspace . Other namespaces have a prefix before their page title and fulfill various purposes. For example, the project namespace uses the Wikipedia prefix and is used for self-governance related discussions. Most readers are not aware of these other namespaces. [ 108 ] The fundamental principles of the Wikipedia community are embodied in the "Five pillars", while the detailed editorial principles are expressed in numerous policies and guidelines intended to appropriately shape content. [ W 26 ] The five pillars are: Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is written from a neutral point of view Wikipedia is free content that anyone can use, edit, and distribute Wikipedia's editors should treat each other with respect and civility Wikipedia has no firm rules The rules developed by the community are stored in wiki form, and Wikipedia editors write and revise the website's policies and guidelines in accordance with community consensus. [ 109 ] Originally, rules on the non-English editions of Wikipedia were based on a translation of the rules for the English Wikipedia. They have since diverged to some extent. [ W 21 ] Content policies and guidelines According to the rules on the English Wikipedia community, each entry in Wikipedia must be about a topic that is encyclopedic and is not a dictionary entry or dictionary-style. [ W 27 ] A topic should also meet Wikipedia's standards of "notability" , which generally means that the topic has been covered extensively in reliable sources that are independent of the article's subject. [ 110 ] Wikipedia intends to convey only knowledge that is already established and recognized and therefore must not present original research. [ 111 ] Some subjects such as politicians and academics have specialized notability requirements. [ 110 ] Finally, Wikipedia must reflect a neutral point of view. This is accomplished through summarizing reliable sources, using impartial language, and ensuring that multiple points of view are presented based on their prominence. Information must also be verifiable. [ 112 ] Information without citations may be tagged or removed entirely. [ 113 ] This can at times lead to the removal of information which, though valid, is not properly sourced. [ 114 ] As Wikipedia policies changed over time, and became more complex, their number has grown. In 2008, there were 44 policy pages and 248 guideline pages; by 2013, scholars counted 383 policy pages and 449 guideline pages. [ 75 ] Governance Wikipedia's initial anarchy integrated democratic and hierarchical elements over time. [ 115 ] [ 116 ] An article is not considered to be owned by its creator or any other editor, nor by the subject of the article. [ W 28 ] Editors in good standing in the community can request extra user rights , granting them the technical ability to perform certain special actions. Some user rights are granted automatically, such as the autoconfirmed and extended confirmed groups, when thresholds for account age and edits are met. [ 73 ] Administrators Experienced editors can choose to run for " adminship ", [ 117 ] which includes the ability to delete pages or prevent them from being changed in cases of severe vandalism or editorial disputes. [ W 29 ] Administrators are not supposed to enjoy any special privilege in decision-making; instead, their powers are mostly limited to making edits that have project-wide effects and thus are disallowed to ordinary editors, and to implement restrictions intended to prevent disruptive editors from making unproductive edits. [ W 29 ] By 2012, fewer editors were becoming administrators compared to Wikipedia's earlier years, in part because the process of vetting potential administrators had become more rigorous. [ 38 ] In 2022, there was a particularly contentious request for adminship over the candidate's anti-Trump views; ultimately, they were granted adminship. [ 118 ] Dispute resolution Over time, Wikipedia has developed a semi-formal dispute resolution process. To determine community consensus, editors can raise issues at appropriate community forums, seek outside input through third opinion requests, or initiate a more general community discussion known as a "request for comment", [ W 25 ] in which bots add the discussion to a centralized list of discussions, invite editors to participate, and remove the discussion from the list after 30 days. [ W 30 ] However, editors have the discretion to close (and delist) the discussion early or late. If the result of a discussion is not obvious, a closer—an uninvolved editor usually in good standing—may render a verdict from the strength of the arguments presented and then the numbers of arguers on each side. [ 119 ] Wikipedians emphasize that the process is not a vote by referring to statements of opinion in such discussions as "!vote"s, in which the exclamation mark is the symbol for logical negation and pronounced "not". [ 120 ] Wikipedia encourages local resolutions of conflicts, which Jemielniak argues is quite unique in organization studies, though there has been some recent interest in consensus building in the field. [ 121 ] Reagle and Sue Gardner argue that the approaches to consensus building are similar to those used by Quakers . [ 121 ] : 62 A difference from Quaker meetings is the absence of a facilitator in the presence of disagreement, a role played by the clerk in Quaker meetings. [ 121 ] : 83 Arbitration Committee The Arbitration Committee presides over the ultimate dispute resolution process. Although disputes usually arise from a disagreement between two opposing views on how an article should read, the Arbitration Committee explicitly refuses to directly rule on the specific view that should be adopted. [ 122 ] Statistical analyses suggest that the English Wikipedia committee ignores the content of disputes and rather focuses on the way disputes are conducted, [ 123 ] functioning not so much to resolve disputes and make peace between conflicting editors, but to weed out problematic editors while allowing potentially productive editors back in to participate. [ 122 ] Therefore, the committee does not dictate the content of articles, although it sometimes condemns content changes when it deems the new content violates Wikipedia policies (for example, if the new content is considered biased). [ f ] Commonly used solutions include cautions and probations (used in 63% of cases) and banning editors from articles (43%), subject matters (23%), or Wikipedia (16%). [ 122 ] Complete bans from Wikipedia are generally limited to instances of impersonation and antisocial behavior . [ W 31 ] When conduct is not impersonation or anti-social, but rather edit warring and other violations of editing policies, solutions tend to be limited to warnings. [ 122 ] Community Each article and each user of Wikipedia has an associated and dedicated "talk" page. These form the primary communication channel for editors to discuss, coordinate and debate. [ 124 ] Wikipedia's community has been described as cultlike , [ 125 ] although not always with entirely negative connotations. [ 126 ] Its preference for cohesiveness, even if it requires compromise that includes disregard of credentials , has been referred to as " anti-elitism ". [ W 32 ] Wikipedia does not require that its editors and contributors provide identification. [ 127 ] As Wikipedia grew, "Who writes Wikipedia?" became one of the questions frequently asked there. [ 128 ] Jimmy Wales once argued that only "a community ... a dedicated group of a few hundred volunteers" makes the bulk of contributions to Wikipedia and that the project is therefore "much like any traditional organization". [ 129 ] Since Wikipedia relies on volunteer labour, editors frequently focus on topics that interest them. [ 130 ] The English Wikipedia has 7,122,774 articles, 51,074,164 registered editors, and 267,090 active editors. An editor is considered active if they have made one or more edits in the past 30 days. [ W 33 ] Editors who fail to comply with Wikipedia cultural rituals, such as signing talk page comments, may implicitly signal that they are Wikipedia outsiders, increasing the odds that Wikipedia insiders may target or discount their contributions. Becoming a Wikipedia insider involves non-trivial costs: the contributor is expected to learn Wikipedia-specific technological codes, submit to a sometimes convoluted dispute resolution process, and learn a "baffling culture rich with in-jokes and insider references". [ 131 ] Editors who do not log in are in some sense " second-class citizens " on Wikipedia, [ 131 ] as "participants are accredited by members of the wiki community, who have a vested interest in preserving the quality of the work product, on the basis of their ongoing participation", [ 132 ] but the contribution histories of anonymous unregistered editors recognized only by their IP addresses cannot be attributed to a particular editor with certainty. [ 132 ] New editors often struggle to understand Wikipedia's complexity. Experienced editors are encouraged to not "bite" the newcomers in order to create a more welcoming atmosphere. [ 133 ] Research A 2007 study by researchers from Dartmouth College found that "anonymous and infrequent contributors to Wikipedia ... are as reliable a source of knowledge as those contributors who register with the site". [ 134 ] Jimmy Wales stated in 2009 that "[I]t turns out over 50% of all the edits are done by just 0.7% of the users ... 524 people ... And in fact, the most active 2%, which is 1400 people, have done 73.4% of all the edits." [ 129 ] However, Business Insider editor and journalist Henry Blodget showed in 2009 that in a random sample of articles, most Wikipedia content (measured by the amount of contributed text that survives to the latest sampled edit) is created by "outsiders", while most editing and formatting is done by "insiders". [ 129 ] In 2008, a Slate magazine article reported that "one percent of Wikipedia users are responsible for about half of the site's edits." [ 135 ] This method of evaluating contributions was later disputed by Aaron Swartz , who noted that several articles he sampled had large portions of their content (measured by number of characters) contributed by users with low edit counts. [ 136 ] A 2008 study found that Wikipedians were less agreeable, open, and conscientious than others, [ 137 ] although a later commentary pointed out serious flaws, including that the data showed higher openness and that the differences with the control group and the samples were small. [ 138 ] According to a 2009 study, there is "evidence of growing resistance from the Wikipedia community to new content". [ 139 ] Diversity Several studies have shown that most volunteer Wikipedia contributors are male. The results of a Wikimedia Foundation survey in 2008 showed that only 13 percent of Wikipedia editors were female. [ 140 ] Because of this, universities throughout the United States tried to encourage women to become Wikipedia contributors. [ 141 ] Similarly, many of these universities, including Yale and Brown , gave college credit to students who create or edit an article relating to women in science or technology. [ 141 ] Andrew Lih , a professor and scientist, said that the reason he thought the number of male contributors outnumbered the number of females so greatly was because identifying as a woman may expose oneself to "ugly, intimidating behavior". [ 142 ] Data has shown that Africans are underrepresented among Wikipedia editors. [ 143 ] Language editions English (10.7%) Cebuano (9.20%) German (4.70%) French (4.10%) Swedish (4.00%) Dutch (3.30%) Spanish (3.10%) Russian (3.10%) Italian (2.90%) Polish (2.50%) Egyptian Arabic (2.50%) Chinese (2.30%) Japanese (2.20%) Ukrainian (2.10%) Vietnamese (2.00%) Arabic (2.00%) Waray (1.90%) Portuguese (1.90%) Persian (1.60%) Catalan (1.20%) Other (32.7%) There are currently 342 language editions of Wikipedia (also called language versions , or simply Wikipedias ). As of January 2026, the six largest, in order of article count, are the English , Cebuano , German , French , Swedish , and Dutch Wikipedias. [ W 35 ] The second and fifth-largest Wikipedias owe their position to the article-creating bot Lsjbot , which as of 2013 [update] had created about half the articles on the Swedish Wikipedia , and most of the articles in the Cebuano and Waray Wikipedias . The latter are both languages of the Philippines . In addition to the top six, twelve other Wikipedias have more than a million articles each ( Spanish , Russian , Italian , Polish , Egyptian Arabic , Chinese , Japanese , Ukrainian , Vietnamese , Arabic , Waray , and Portuguese ), seven more have over 500,000 articles ( Persian , Catalan , Indonesian , Korean , Chechen , Serbian , and Norwegian ), 44 more have over 100,000, and 82 more have over 10,000. [ W 36 ] [ W 35 ] The largest, the English Wikipedia, has over 7.1 million articles. As of January 2021, [update] the English Wikipedia receives 48% of Wikipedia's cumulative traffic, with the remaining split among the other languages. The top 10 editions represent approximately 85% of the total traffic. [ W 37 ] Most viewed editions of Wikipedia, 2008–2024 Most edited editions of Wikipedia, 2001–2024 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 Since Wikipedia is based on the Web and therefore worldwide, contributors to the same language edition may use different dialects or may come from different countries (as is the case for the English edition). These differences may lead to some conflicts over spelling differences (e.g. colour versus color ) [ W 38 ] or points of view. [ W 39 ] Though the various language editions are held to global policies such as "neutral point of view", they diverge on some points of policy and practice, most notably on whether images that are not licensed freely may be used under a claim of fair use . [ W 40 ] [ 145 ] The content of articles on the same subject can differ significantly between languages, depending on the sources editors use and other factors. [ 146 ] [ 147 ] Jimmy Wales has described Wikipedia as "an effort to create and distribute a free encyclopedia of the highest possible quality to every single person on the planet in their own language". [ W 41 ] Though each language edition functions more or less independently, some efforts are made to supervise them all. They are coordinated in part by Meta-Wiki, the Wikimedia Foundation's wiki devoted to maintaining all its projects (Wikipedia and others). [ W 42 ] For instance, Meta-Wiki provides important statistics on all language editions of Wikipedia, [ W 43 ] and it maintains a list of articles every Wikipedia should have. [ W 44 ] The list concerns basic content by subject: biography, history, geography, society, culture, science, technology, and mathematics. [ W 44 ] It is not rare for articles strongly related to a particular language not to have counterparts in another edition. For example, articles about small towns in the United States might be available only in English, even when they meet the notability criteria of other language Wikipedia projects. [ W 45 ] Translated articles represent only a small portion of articles in most editions, in part because those editions do not allow fully automated translation of articles. Articles available in more than one language may offer "interwiki links", which link to the counterpart articles in other editions. [ 149 ] [ W 46 ] A study published by PLOS One in 2012 also estimated the share of contributions to different editions of Wikipedia from different regions of the world. It reported that the proportion of the edits made from North America was 51% for the English Wikipedia, and 25% for the Simple English Wikipedia . [ 148 ] English Wikipedia editor numbers On March 1, 2014, The Economist , in an article titled "The Future of Wikipedia", cited a trend analysis concerning data published by the Wikimedia Foundation stating that "the number of editors for the English-language version has fallen by a third in seven years." [ 150 ] The attrition rate for active editors in English Wikipedia was cited by The Economist as substantially in contrast to statistics for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia). The Economist reported that the number of contributors with an average of five or more edits per month was relatively constant since 2008 for Wikipedia in other languages at approximately 42,000 editors within narrow seasonal variances of about 2,000 editors up or down. The number of active editors in English Wikipedia, by sharp comparison, was cited as peaking in 2007 at approximately 50,000 and dropping to 30,000 by the start of 2014. [ 150 ] In contrast, the trend analysis for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) shows success in retaining active editors on a renewable and sustained basis, with their numbers remaining relatively constant at approximately 42,000. No comment was made concerning which of the differentiated edit policy standards from Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) would provide a possible alternative to English Wikipedia for effectively improving substantial editor attrition rates on the English-language Wikipedia. [ 150 ] Reception Various Wikipedians have criticized Wikipedia's large and growing regulation , which includes more than fifty policies and nearly 150,000 words as of 2014. [update] [ 151 ] [ 121 ] Critics have stated that Wikipedia exhibits systemic bias . In 2010, columnist and journalist Edwin Black described Wikipedia as being a mixture of "truth, half-truth, and some falsehoods". [ 152 ] Articles in The Chronicle of Higher Education and The Journal of Academic Librarianship have criticized Wikipedia's " undue-weight policy ", concluding that Wikipedia explicitly is not designed to provide correct information about a subject, but rather focus on all the major viewpoints on the subject, give less attention to minor ones, and creates omissions that can lead to false beliefs based on incomplete information. [ 153 ] [ 154 ] [ 155 ] Journalists Oliver Kamm and Edwin Black alleged (in 2010 and 2011 respectively) that articles are dominated by the loudest and most persistent voices, usually by a group with an "ax to grind" on the topic. [ 152 ] [ 156 ] A 2008 article in Education Next journal concluded that as a resource about controversial topics, Wikipedia is subject to manipulation and spin . [ 157 ] In 2020, Omer Benjakob and Stephen Harrison noted that "Media coverage of Wikipedia has radically shifted over the past two decades: once cast as an intellectual frivolity, it is now lauded as the 'last bastion of shared reality' online." [ 158 ] Multiple news networks and pundits have accused Wikipedia of being ideologically biased . In February 2021, Fox News accused Wikipedia of whitewashing communism and socialism and having too much " leftist bias". [ 159 ] Wikipedia co-founder Larry Sanger , who left Wikipedia in 2002 to establish competing websites, has said that Wikipedia had become "propaganda" for the left-leaning "establishment" and warned the site can no longer be trusted. [ 160 ] [ 161 ] In 2022, libertarian John Stossel opined that Wikipedia, a site he financially supported at one time, appeared to have gradually taken a significant turn in bias to the political left, specifically on political topics. [ 162 ] Some studies suggest that Wikipedia (and in particular the English Wikipedia) has a "western cultural bias " (or "pro-western bias") [ 163 ] or "Eurocentric bias", [ 164 ] reiterating, says Anna Samoilenko, "similar biases that are found in the 'ivory tower' of academic historiography". Carwil Bjork-James proposes that Wikipedia could follow the diversification pattern of contemporary scholarship [ 165 ] and Dangzhi Zhao calls for a "decolonization" of Wikipedia to reduce bias from opinionated White male editors. [ 166 ] In October 2025, Larry Sanger published his Nine Theses , a critical assessment and reform agenda for Wikipedia. The proposal is part of his broader effort to address what Sanger perceives as systemic issues within Wikipedia, which include ideological bias, lack of transparency in the editor hierarchies and an ineffective consensus-based decision making procedure. [ 167 ] [ 168 ] Accuracy of content External audio The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1 , Ideas with Paul Kennedy , CBC , January 15, 2014 Articles for traditional encyclopedias such as Encyclopædia Britannica are written by experts , lending such encyclopedias a reputation for accuracy. [ 169 ] However, a peer review in 2005 of forty-two scientific entries on both Wikipedia and Encyclopædia Britannica by the science journal Nature found few differences in accuracy, and concluded that "the average science entry in Wikipedia contained around four inaccuracies; Britannica , about three." [ 170 ] Joseph Reagle suggested that while the study reflects "a topical strength of Wikipedia contributors" in science articles, "Wikipedia may not have fared so well using a random sampling of articles or on humanities subjects." [ 171 ] [ failed verification ] Others raised similar critiques. [ 172 ] The findings by Nature were disputed by Encyclopædia Britannica , [ 173 ] [ 174 ] and in response, Nature gave a rebuttal of the points raised by Britannica . [ 175 ] In addition to the point-for-point disagreement between these two parties, others have examined the sample size and selection method used in the Nature effort, and suggested a "flawed study design" (in Nature ' s manual selection of articles, in part or in whole, for comparison), absence of statistical analysis (e.g., of reported confidence intervals ), and a lack of study "statistical power" (i.e., owing to small sample size , 42 or 4 × 10 1 articles compared, vs >10 5 and >10 6 set sizes for Britannica and the English Wikipedia, respectively). [ 176 ] As a consequence of the open structure, Wikipedia "makes no guarantee of validity" of its content, since no one is ultimately responsible for any claims appearing in it. [ W 47 ] Concerns have been raised by PC World in 2009 regarding the lack of accountability that results from users' anonymity, the insertion of false information, [ 177 ] vandalism , and similar problems. Legal Research in a Nutshell (2011), cites Wikipedia as a "general source" that "can be a real boon" in "coming up to speed in the law governing a situation" and, "while not authoritative, can provide basic facts as well as leads to more in-depth resources". [ 178 ] Economist Tyler Cowen wrote: "If I had to guess whether Wikipedia or the median refereed journal article on economics was more likely to be true after a not so long think I would opt for Wikipedia." He comments that some traditional sources of non-fiction suffer from systemic biases, and novel results, in his opinion, are over-reported in journal articles as well as relevant information being omitted from news reports. However, he also cautions that errors are frequently found on Internet sites and that academics and experts must be vigilant in correcting them. [ 179 ] Amy Bruckman has argued that, due to the number of reviewers, "the content of a popular Wikipedia page is actually the most reliable form of information ever created". [ 180 ] In September 2022, The Sydney Morning Herald journalist Liam Mannix noted that: "There's no reason to expect Wikipedia to be accurate ... And yet it [is]." Mannix further discussed the multiple studies that have proved Wikipedia to be generally as reliable as Encyclopædia Britannica , summarizing that "...turning our back on such an extraordinary resource is... well, a little petty." [ 181 ] Critics argue that Wikipedia's open nature and a lack of proper sources for most of the information makes it unreliable. [ 182 ] Some commentators suggest that Wikipedia may be reliable, but that the reliability of any given article is not clear. [ 183 ] Editors of traditional reference works such as the Encyclopædia Britannica have questioned the project's utility and status as an encyclopedia. [ 184 ] Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales has claimed that Wikipedia has largely avoided the problem of "fake news" because the Wikipedia community regularly debates the quality of sources in articles. [ 185 ] External videos Inside Wikipedia – Attack of the PR Industry , Deutsche Welle , 7:13 mins [ 186 ] Wikipedia's open structure inherently makes it an easy target for Internet trolls , spammers , and various forms of paid advocacy seen as counterproductive to the maintenance of a neutral and verifiable online encyclopedia. [ 84 ] [ W 48 ] In response to paid advocacy editing and undisclosed editing issues, Wikipedia was reported in an article in The Wall Street Journal to have strengthened its rules and laws against undisclosed editing. [ 187 ] The article stated that: "Beginning Monday [from the date of the article, June 16, 2014], changes in Wikipedia's terms of use will require anyone paid to edit articles to disclose that arrangement. Katherine Maher , the nonprofit Wikimedia Foundation's chief communications officer, said the changes address a sentiment among volunteer editors that 'we're not an advertising service; we're an encyclopedia. ' " [ 187 ] [ 188 ] [ 189 ] [ 190 ] [ 191 ] These issues, among others, had been parodied since the first decade of Wikipedia, notably by Stephen Colbert on The Colbert Report . [ 192 ] Discouragement in education Some university lecturers discourage students from citing any encyclopedia in academic work , preferring primary sources ; [ 193 ] some specifically prohibit Wikipedia citations. [ 194 ] [ 195 ] Wales stresses that encyclopedias of any type are not usually appropriate to use as citable sources, and should not be relied upon as authoritative. [ 196 ] Wales once (2006 or earlier) said he receives about ten emails weekly from students saying they got failing grades on papers because they cited Wikipedia; he told the students they got what they deserved. "For God's sake, you're in college; don't cite the encyclopedia", he said. [ 197 ] In February 2007, an article in The Harvard Crimson newspaper reported that a few of the professors at Harvard University were including Wikipedia articles in their syllabi , although without realizing the articles might change. [ 198 ] In June 2007, Michael Gorman , former president of the American Library Association , condemned Wikipedia, along with Google, stating that academics who endorse the use of Wikipedia are "the intellectual equivalent of a dietitian who recommends a steady diet of Big Macs with everything". [ 199 ] A 2020 research study published in Studies in Higher Education argued that Wikipedia could be applied in the higher education " flipped classroom ", an educational model where students learn before coming to class and apply it in classroom activities. The experimental group was instructed to learn before class and get immediate feedback before going in (the flipped classroom model), while the control group was given direct instructions in class (the conventional classroom model). The groups were then instructed to collaboratively develop Wikipedia entries, which would be graded in quality after the study. The results showed that the experimental group yielded more Wikipedia entries and received higher grades in quality. The study concluded that learning with Wikipedia in flipped classrooms was more effective than in conventional classrooms, demonstrating Wikipedia could be used as an educational tool in higher education. [ 200 ] Medical information On March 5, 2014, Julie Beck writing for The Atlantic magazine in an article titled "Doctors' #1 Source for Healthcare Information: Wikipedia", stated that "Fifty percent of physicians look up conditions on the (Wikipedia) site, and some are editing articles themselves to improve the quality of available information." [ 201 ] Beck continued to detail in this article new programs of Amin Azzam at the University of San Francisco to offer medical school courses to medical students for learning to edit and improve Wikipedia articles on health-related issues , as well as internal quality control programs within Wikipedia organized by James Heilman to improve a group of 200 health-related articles of central medical importance up to Wikipedia's highest standard of articles using its Featured Article and Good Article peer-review evaluation process. [ 201 ] In a May 7, 2014, follow-up article in The Atlantic titled "Can Wikipedia Ever Be a Definitive Medical Text?", Julie Beck quotes WikiProject Medicine's James Heilman as stating: "Just because a reference is peer-reviewed doesn't mean it's a high-quality reference." [ 202 ] Beck added that: "Wikipedia has its own peer review process before articles can be classified as 'good' or 'featured'. Heilman, who has participated in that process before, says 'less than one percent' of Wikipedia's medical articles have passed." [ 202 ] Coverage of topics and systemic bias Wikipedia seeks to create a summary of all human knowledge in the form of an online encyclopedia, with each topic covered encyclopedically in one article. Since it has terabytes of disk space , it can have far more topics than can be covered by any printed encyclopedia. [ W 49 ] The exact degree and manner of coverage on Wikipedia is under constant review by its editors, and disagreements are not uncommon (see deletionism and inclusionism ). [ 203 ] [ 204 ] Wikipedia contains materials that some people may find objectionable, offensive, or pornographic. [ W 50 ] The "Wikipedia is not censored" policy has sometimes proved controversial: in 2008, Wikipedia rejected an online petition against the inclusion of images of Muhammad in the English edition of its Muhammad article, citing this policy. [ 205 ] The presence of politically, religiously, and pornographically sensitive materials in Wikipedia has led to the censorship of Wikipedia by national authorities in China [ 206 ] and Pakistan, [ 207 ] among other countries. [ 208 ] [ 209 ] [ 210 ] Through its "Wikipedia Loves Libraries" program, Wikipedia has partnered with major public libraries such as the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts to expand its coverage of underrepresented subjects and articles. [ 211 ] A 2011 study conducted by researchers at the University of Minnesota indicated that male and female editors focus on different coverage topics. There was a greater concentration of females in the "people and arts" category, while males focus more on "geography and science". [ 212 ] An editorial in The Guardian in 2014 claimed that more effort went into providing references for a list of female porn actors than a list of women writers . [ 213 ] Systemic biases Wikipedia's policies may limit "its capacity for truly representing global knowledge". For example, Wikipedia only considers published sources to be reliable. Oral knowledge of Indigenous cultures is not always reflected in print. Marginalized topics are also more likely to lack significant coverage in reliable sources. Wikipedia's content is therefore limited as a result of larger systemic biases. [ 214 ] Academic studies of Wikipedia have shown that the average contributor to the English Wikipedia is an educated, technically inclined white male, aged 15–49, from a developed, predominantly Christian country. [ 215 ] The corresponding point of view (POV) is over-represented. [ 216 ] [ 165 ] This systemic bias in editor demographic results in cultural bias , gender bias , and geographical bias on Wikipedia . [ 217 ] [ 218 ] There are two broad types of bias, which are implicit (when a topic is omitted) and explicit (when a certain POV is over-represented in an article or by references). [ 216 ] Interdisciplinary scholarly assessments of Wikipedia articles have found that while articles are typically accurate and free of misinformation, they are also typically incomplete and fail to present all perspectives with a neutral point of view . [ 217 ] In 2011, Wales claimed that the unevenness of coverage is a reflection of the demography of the editors, citing for example "biographies of famous women through history and issues surrounding early childcare". [ 36 ] The October 22, 2013, essay by Tom Simonite in MIT's Technology Review titled "The Decline of Wikipedia" discussed the effect of systemic bias and policy creep on the downward trend in the number of editors . [ 37 ] Research conducted by Mark Graham of the Oxford Internet Institute in 2009 indicated that the geographic distribution of article topics is highly uneven, with Africa being the most underrepresented. [ 219 ] Across 30 language editions of Wikipedia, historical articles and sections are generally Eurocentric and focused on recent events. [ 220 ] Explicit content Wikipedia has been criticized for allowing information about graphic content. [ 221 ] Articles depicting what some critics have called objectionable content (such as feces , cadaver , human penis , vulva , and nudity) contain graphic pictures and detailed information easily available to anyone with access to the internet, including children. [ W 51 ] The site also includes sexual content such as images and videos of masturbation and ejaculation , illustrations of zoophilia , and photos from hardcore pornographic films in its articles. It also has non-sexual photographs of nude children . [ W 52 ] The Wikipedia article about Virgin Killer —a 1976 album from the German rock band Scorpions —features a picture of the album's original cover, which depicts a naked prepubescent girl. The original release cover caused controversy and was replaced in some countries. In December 2008, access to the Wikipedia article Virgin Killer was blocked for four days by most Internet service providers in the United Kingdom after the Internet Watch Foundation (IWF) decided the album cover was a potentially illegal indecent image and added the article's URL to a "blacklist" it supplies to British internet service providers. [ 222 ] In April 2010, Sanger wrote a letter to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, outlining his concerns that two categories of images on Wikimedia Commons contained child pornography, and were in violation of US federal obscenity law . [ 223 ] [ 224 ] Sanger later clarified that the images, which were related to pedophilia and one about lolicon , were not of real children, but said that they constituted "obscene visual representations of the sexual abuse of children", under the PROTECT Act of 2003 . [ 225 ] That law bans photographic child pornography and cartoon images and drawings of children that are obscene under American law . [ 225 ] Sanger also expressed concerns about access to the images on Wikipedia in schools. [ 226 ] Wikimedia Foundation spokesman Jay Walsh strongly rejected Sanger's accusation, [ 227 ] saying that Wikipedia did not have "material we would deem to be illegal. If we did, we would remove it." [ 227 ] Following the complaint by Sanger, Wales deleted sexual images without consulting the community. After some editors who volunteered to maintain the site argued that the decision to delete had been made hastily, Wales voluntarily gave up some of the powers he had held up to that time as part of his co-founder status. He wrote in a message to the Wikimedia Foundation mailing-list that this action was "in the interest of encouraging this discussion to be about real philosophical/content issues, rather than be about me and how quickly I acted". [ 228 ] Critics, including Wikipediocracy , noticed that many of the pornographic images deleted from Wikipedia since 2010 have reappeared. [ 229 ] Privacy One privacy concern in the case of Wikipedia regards one's right to remain a private citizen rather than a public figure in the eyes of the law. [ 230 ] [ g ] It is a battle between the right to be anonymous in cyberspace and the right to be anonymous in real life . The Wikimedia Foundation's privacy policy states, "we believe that you shouldn't have to provide personal information to participate in the free knowledge movement", and states that "personal information" may be shared "For legal reasons", "To Protect You, Ourselves & Others", or "To Understand & Experiment". [ W 53 ] In January 2006, a German court ordered the German Wikipedia shut down within Germany because it stated the full name of Boris Floricic , aka "Tron", a deceased hacker. On February 9, 2006, the injunction against Wikimedia Deutschland was overturned, with the court rejecting the notion that Tron's right to privacy or that of his parents was being violated. [ 231 ] Wikipedia has a " .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}} Volunteer Response Team " that uses Znuny, a free and open-source software fork of OTRS [ W 54 ] to handle queries without having to reveal the identities of the involved parties. This is used, for example, in confirming the permission for using individual images and other media in the project. [ W 55 ] In late April 2023, Wikimedia Foundation announced that Wikipedia will not submit to any age verifications that may be required by the UK's Online Safety Bill legislation. Rebecca MacKinnon of the Wikimedia Foundation said that such checks would run counter to the website's commitment to minimal data collection on its contributors and readers. [ 232 ] Sexism Wikipedia was described in 2015 as harboring a battleground culture of sexism and harassment . [ 233 ] [ 234 ] The perceived tolerance of abusive language was a reason put forth in 2013 for the gender gap in Wikipedia editorship. [ 235 ] Edit-a-thons have been held to encourage female editors and increase the coverage of women's topics. [ 236 ] In May 2018, a Wikipedia editor rejected a submitted article about Donna Strickland due to lack of coverage in the media. [ W 56 ] [ 237 ] Five months later, Strickland won a Nobel Prize in Physics "for groundbreaking inventions in the field of laser physics", becoming the third woman to ever receive the award. [ 237 ] [ 238 ] Prior to winning the award, Strickland's only mention on Wikipedia was in the article about her collaborator and co-winner of the award Gérard Mourou . [ 237 ] Her exclusion from Wikipedia led to accusations of sexism, but Corinne Purtill writing for Quartz argued that "it's also a pointed lesson in the hazards of gender bias in media, and of the broader consequences of underrepresentation." [ 239 ] Purtill attributes the issue to the gender bias in media coverage. [ 239 ] A comprehensive 2008 survey, published in 2016, by Julia B. Bear of Stony Brook University 's College of Business and Benjamin Collier of Carnegie Mellon University found significant gender differences in confidence in expertise, discomfort with editing, and response to critical feedback. "Women reported less confidence in their expertise, expressed greater discomfort with editing (which typically involves conflict), and reported more negative responses to critical feedback compared to men." [ 240 ] Operation Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements Wikipedia is hosted and funded by the Wikimedia Foundation , a non-profit organization which also operates Wikipedia-related projects such as Wiktionary and Wikibooks . [ W 57 ] The foundation relies on public contributions and grants to fund its mission. [ 241 ] [ W 58 ] The foundation's 2020 Internal Revenue Service Form 990 shows revenue of $124.6 million and expenses of almost $112.2 million, with assets of about $191.2 million and liabilities of almost $11 million. [ W 59 ] In May 2014, Wikimedia Foundation named Lila Tretikov as its second executive director, taking over for Sue Gardner. [ W 60 ] The Wall Street Journal reported on May 1, 2014, that Tretikov's information technology background, from her years at University of California offers Wikipedia an opportunity to develop in more concentrated directions guided by her often repeated position statement that, "Information, like air, wants to be free." [ 242 ] [ 243 ] The same Wall Street Journal article reported these directions of development according to an interview with spokesman Jay Walsh of Wikimedia, who "said Tretikov would address that issue ( paid advocacy ) as a priority. 'We are really pushing toward more transparency ... We are reinforcing that paid advocacy is not welcome.' Initiatives to involve greater diversity of contributors, better mobile support of Wikipedia, new geo-location tools to find local content more easily, and more tools for users in the second and third world are also priorities", Walsh said. [ 242 ] Following the departure of Tretikov from Wikipedia due to issues concerning the use of the "superprotection" feature which some language versions of Wikipedia have adopted, [ W 61 ] Katherine Maher became the third executive director of the Wikimedia Foundation in June 2016. [ W 62 ] Maher stated that one of her priorities would be the issue of editor harassment endemic to Wikipedia as identified by the Wikipedia board in December. She said to Bloomberg Businessweek regarding the harassment issue that: "It establishes a sense within the community that this is a priority ... [and that correction requires that] it has to be more than words." [ 142 ] Maher served as executive director until April 2021. [ 244 ] Maryana Iskander was named the incoming CEO in September 2021, and took over that role in January 2022. She stated that one of her focuses would be increasing diversity in the Wikimedia community. [ 245 ] Wikipedia is also supported by many organizations and groups that are affiliated with the Wikimedia Foundation but independently-run, called Wikimedia movement affiliates . These include Wikimedia chapters (which are national or sub-national organizations, such as Wikimedia Deutschland and Wikimedia France), thematic organizations (such as Amical Wikimedia for the Catalan language community), and user groups. These affiliates participate in the promotion, development, and funding of Wikipedia. [ W 63 ] Software operations and support The operation of Wikipedia depends on MediaWiki , a custom-made, free and open source wiki software platform written in PHP and built upon the MySQL database system. [ W 64 ] The software incorporates programming features such as a macro language , variables , a transclusion system for templates , and URL redirection . [ W 65 ] MediaWiki is licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL) and it is used by all Wikimedia projects, as well as many other wiki projects. [ W 64 ] [ W 66 ] Originally, Wikipedia ran on UseModWiki written in Perl by Clifford Adams (Phase I), which initially required CamelCase for article hyperlinks; the present double bracket style was incorporated later. [ W 67 ] Starting in January 2002 (Phase II), Wikipedia began running on a PHP wiki engine with a MySQL database; this software was custom-made for Wikipedia by Magnus Manske . The Phase II software was repeatedly modified to accommodate the exponentially increasing demand. In July 2002 (Phase III), Wikipedia shifted to the third-generation software, MediaWiki, originally written by Lee Daniel Crocker . Several MediaWiki extensions are installed to extend the functionality of the MediaWiki software. [ W 68 ] In April 2005, a Lucene extension [ W 69 ] [ W 70 ] was added to MediaWiki's built-in search and Wikipedia switched from MySQL to Lucene for searching. Lucene was later replaced by CirrusSearch which is based on Elasticsearch . [ W 71 ] In July 2013, after extensive beta testing, a WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) extension, VisualEditor , was opened to public use. [ 246 ] [ 247 ] [ 248 ] It was met with much rejection and criticism, and was described as "slow and buggy". [ 249 ] The feature was changed from opt-out to opt-in afterward. [ W 72 ] Automated editing Computer programs called bots have often been used to perform simple and repetitive tasks, such as correcting common misspellings and stylistic issues, or to start articles such as geography entries in a standard format from statistical data. [ W 73 ] [ 250 ] [ 251 ] One controversial contributor, Sverker Johansson , created articles with his bot Lsjbot , which was reported to create up to 10,000 articles on the Swedish Wikipedia on certain days. [ 252 ] Additionally, there are bots designed to automatically notify editors when they make common editing errors (such as unmatched quotes or unmatched parentheses). [ W 74 ] Edits falsely identified by bots as the work of a banned editor can be restored by other editors. An anti-vandal bot is programmed to detect and revert vandalism quickly. [ 250 ] Bots are able to indicate edits from particular accounts or IP address ranges, as occurred at the time of the shooting down of the MH17 jet in July 2014 when it was reported that edits were made via IPs controlled by the Russian government. [ 253 ] Bots on Wikipedia must be approved before activation. [ W 75 ] According to Andrew Lih , the current expansion of Wikipedia to millions of articles would be difficult to envision without the use of such bots. [ 254 ] Hardware operations and support As of 2021, [update] page requests are first passed to a front-end layer of Varnish caching servers and back-end layer caching is done by Apache Traffic Server . [ W 76 ] Requests that cannot be served from the Varnish cache are sent to load-balancing servers running the Linux Virtual Server software, which in turn pass them to one of the Apache web servers for page rendering from the database. [ W 76 ] The web servers deliver pages as requested, performing page rendering for all the language editions of Wikipedia. To increase speed further, rendered pages are cached in a distributed memory cache until invalidated, allowing page rendering to be skipped entirely for most common page accesses. [ 255 ] Wikipedia currently runs on dedicated clusters of Linux servers running the Debian operating system. [ W 77 ] By January 22, 2013, Wikipedia had migrated its primary data center to an Equinix facility in Ashburn, Virginia . [ W 78 ] [ 256 ] A second application data center was created in 2014 in Carrollton, Texas , to improve Wikipedia's reliability. [ 257 ] [ 258 ] Both datacenters work as the primary one, in alternate semesters, with the other one working as secondary datacenter. [ 259 ] In 2017, Wikipedia installed a caching cluster in an Equinix facility in Singapore , the first of its kind in Asia. [ W 79 ] In 2022, a caching data center was opened in Marseille , France. [ W 80 ] In 2024, a caching data center was opened in São Paulo , the first of its kind in South America. [ W 81 ] As of November 2024, [update] caching clusters are located in Amsterdam , San Francisco, Singapore, Marseille, and São Paulo. [ W 82 ] [ W 83 ] Internal research and operational development Following growing amounts of incoming donations in 2013 exceeding seven digits, [ 37 ] the Foundation has reached a threshold of assets which qualify its consideration under the principles of industrial organization economics to indicate the need for the re-investment of donations into the internal research and development of the Foundation. [ 260 ] Two projects of such internal research and development have been the creation of a Visual Editor and the "Thank" tab in the edit history, which were developed to improve issues of editor attrition. [ 37 ] [ 249 ] The estimates for reinvestment by industrial organizations into internal research and development was studied by Adam Jaffe , who recorded that the range of 4% to 25% annually was to be recommended, with high-end technology requiring the higher level of support for internal reinvestment. [ 261 ] At the 2013 level of contributions for Wikimedia presently documented as 45 million dollars, [ W 84 ] the computed budget level recommended by Jaffe for reinvestment into internal research and development is between 1.8 million and 11.3 million dollars annually. [ 261 ] In 2019, the level of contributions were reported by the Wikimedia Foundation as being at $120 million annually, [ W 85 ] updating the Jaffe estimates for the higher level of support to between $3.08 million and $19.2 million annually. [ 261 ] Internal news publications Multiple Wikimedia projects have internal news publications. Wikimedia 's online newspaper The Signpost was founded in 2005 by Michael Snow, a Wikipedia administrator who would join the Wikimedia Foundation's board of trustees in 2008. [ 262 ] [ 263 ] The publication covers news and events from the English Wikipedia, the Wikimedia Foundation, and Wikipedia's sister projects . [ W 86 ] The Wikipedia Library Wikipedia editors sometimes struggle to access paywalled sources needed to improve a subject. [ 264 ] The Wikipedia Library is a resource for Wikipedia editors which provides free access to a wide range of digital publications , so that they can consult and cite these while editing the encyclopedia. [ 265 ] [ 266 ] Over 60 publishers have partnered with The Wikipedia Library to provide access to their resources: when ICE Publishing joined in 2020, a spokesman said "By enabling free access to our content for Wikipedia editors, we hope to further the research community's resources – creating and updating Wikipedia entries on civil engineering which are read by thousands of monthly readers." [ 267 ] Access to content Content licensing When the project was started in 2001, all text in Wikipedia was covered by the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL), a copyleft license permitting the redistribution, creation of derivative works, and commercial use of content while authors retain copyright of their work. [ W 87 ] The GFDL was created for software manuals that come with free software programs licensed under the GPL . This made it a poor choice for a general reference work: for example, the GFDL requires the reprints of materials from Wikipedia to come with a full copy of the GFDL text. [ 268 ] In December 2002, the Creative Commons license was released; it was specifically designed for creative works in general, not just for software manuals. The Wikipedia project sought the switch to the Creative Commons. [ W 88 ] Because the GFDL and Creative Commons were incompatible, in November 2008, following the request of the project, the Free Software Foundation (FSF) released a new version of the GFDL designed specifically to allow Wikipedia to relicense its content to CC BY-SA by August 1, 2009. [ W 89 ] In April 2009, Wikipedia and its sister projects held a community-wide referendum which decided the switch in June 2009. [ W 90 ] [ W 91 ] [ W 92 ] [ W 93 ] The handling of media files (e.g. image files) varies across language editions. Some language editions, such as the English Wikipedia, include non-free image files under fair use doctrine, [ W 94 ] while the others have opted not to, in part because of the lack of fair use doctrines in their home countries (e.g. in Japanese copyright law ). Media files covered by free content licenses (e.g. Creative Commons ' CC BY-SA ) are shared across language editions via Wikimedia Commons repository, a project operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. [ W 95 ] Wikipedia's accommodation of varying international copyright laws regarding images has led some to observe that its photographic coverage of topics lags behind the quality of the encyclopedic text. [ 269 ] The Wikimedia Foundation is not a licensor of content on Wikipedia or its related projects but merely a hosting service for contributors to and licensors of Wikipedia, a position which was successfully defended in 2004 in a court in France. [ 270 ] [ 271 ] Methods of access Since Wikipedia content is distributed under an open license, anyone can reuse or re-distribute it at no charge. [ W 96 ] The content of Wikipedia has been published in many forms, both online and offline, outside the Wikipedia website. Thousands of " mirror sites " exist that republish content from Wikipedia; two prominent ones that also include content from other reference sources are Reference.com and Answers.com . [ 272 ] [ 273 ] Another example is Wapedia , which began to display Wikipedia content in a mobile-device-friendly format before Wikipedia itself did. [ W 97 ] Some web search engines make special use of Wikipedia content when displaying search results: examples include Microsoft Bing (via technology gained from Powerset ) [ 274 ] and DuckDuckGo . Collections of Wikipedia articles have been published on optical discs . An English version released in 2006 contained about 2,000 articles. [ W 98 ] The Polish-language version from 2006 contains nearly 240,000 articles, [ W 99 ] the German-language version from 2007/2008 contains over 620,000 articles, [ W 100 ] and the Spanish-language version from 2011 contains 886,000 articles. [ W 101 ] Additionally, "Wikipedia for Schools", the Wikipedia series of CDs / DVDs produced by Wikipedia and SOS Children , is a free selection from Wikipedia designed for education towards children eight to seventeen. [ W 102 ] There have been efforts to put a select subset of Wikipedia's articles into printed book form. [ 275 ] [ W 103 ] Since 2009, tens of thousands of print-on-demand books that reproduced English, German, Russian, and French Wikipedia articles have been produced by the American company Books LLC and by three Mauritian subsidiaries of the German publisher VDM . [ 276 ] The website DBpedia , begun in 2007, extracts data from the infoboxes and category declarations of the English-language Wikipedia. [ 277 ] Wikimedia has created the Wikidata project with a similar objective of storing the basic facts from each page of Wikipedia and other Wikimedia Foundation projects and make it available in a queryable semantic format, RDF . [ W 104 ] As of February 2023, [update] it has over 101 million items. [ W 105 ] WikiReader is a dedicated reader device that contains an offline copy of Wikipedia, which was launched by OpenMoko and first released in 2009. [ W 106 ] Obtaining the full contents of Wikipedia for reuse presents challenges, since direct cloning via a web crawler is discouraged. [ W 107 ] Wikipedia publishes " dumps " of its contents, but these are text-only; as of 2023, [update] there is no dump available of Wikipedia's images. [ W 108 ] Wikimedia Enterprise is a for-profit solution to this. [ 278 ] Several languages of Wikipedia also maintain a reference desk, where volunteers answer questions from the general public. According to a study by Pnina Shachaf in the Journal of Documentation , the quality of the Wikipedia reference desk is comparable to a standard library reference desk , with an accuracy of 55 percent. [ 279 ] Mobile access Wikipedia's original medium was for users to read and edit content using any standard web browser through a fixed Internet connection . Although Wikipedia content has been accessible through the mobile web since July 2013, The New York Times on February 9, 2014, quoted Erik Möller , deputy director of the Wikimedia Foundation, stating that the transition of internet traffic from desktops to mobile devices was significant and a cause for concern and worry. The article in The New York Times reported the comparison statistics for mobile edits stating that, "Only 20 percent of the readership of the English-language Wikipedia comes via mobile devices, a figure substantially lower than the percentage of mobile traffic for other media sites, many of which approach 50 percent. And the shift to mobile editing has lagged even more." In 2014 The New York Times reported that Möller has assigned "a team of 10 software developers focused on mobile", out of a total of approximately 200 employees working at the Wikimedia Foundation. One principal concern cited by The New York Times for the "worry" is for Wikipedia to effectively address attrition issues with the number of editors which the online encyclopedia attracts to edit and maintain its content in a mobile access environment. [ 51 ] By 2023, the Wikimedia Foundation's staff had grown to over 700 employees. [ 1 ] Access to Wikipedia from mobile phones was possible as early as 2004, through the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP), via the Wapedia service. [ W 97 ] In June 2007, Wikipedia launched en.mobile.wikipedia.org, an official website for wireless devices. In 2009, a newer mobile service was officially released, located at en.m.wikipedia.org, which caters to more advanced mobile devices such as the iPhone , Android -based devices, or WebOS -based devices. [ W 109 ] Several other methods of mobile access to Wikipedia have emerged since. Many devices and applications optimize or enhance the display of Wikipedia content for mobile devices, while some also incorporate additional features such as use of Wikipedia metadata like geoinformation . [ 280 ] [ 281 ] The Android app for Wikipedia was released in January 2012, to over 500,000 installs and generally positive reviews, scoring over four of a possible five in a poll of approximately 200,000 users downloading from Google. [ W 110 ] [ W 111 ] The version for iOS was released on April 3, 2013, to similar reviews. [ W 112 ] Wikipedia Zero was an initiative of the Wikimedia Foundation to expand the reach of the encyclopedia to the developing countries by partnering with mobile operators to allow free access. [ W 113 ] [ 282 ] It was discontinued in February 2018 due to lack of participation from mobile operators. [ W 113 ] Andrew Lih and Andrew Brown both maintain editing Wikipedia with smartphones is difficult and this discourages new potential contributors. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Lih states that the number of Wikipedia editors has been declining after several years, [ 283 ] and Tom Simonite of MIT Technology Review claims the bureaucratic structure and rules are a factor in this. Simonite alleges some Wikipedians use the labyrinthine rules and guidelines to dominate others and those editors have a vested interest in keeping the status quo. [ 37 ] Lih alleges there is a serious disagreement among existing contributors on how to resolve this. Lih fears for Wikipedia's long-term future while Brown fears problems with Wikipedia will remain and rival encyclopedias will not replace it. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Chinese access Access to Wikipedia has been blocked in mainland China since May 2015. [ 6 ] [ 285 ] [ 286 ] This was done after Wikipedia started to use HTTPS encryption, which made selective censorship more difficult. [ 287 ] Cultural influence Trusted source to combat fake news In 2017–18, after a barrage of false news reports, both Facebook and YouTube announced they would rely on Wikipedia to help their users evaluate reports and reject false news. [ 288 ] [ 289 ] Noam Cohen , writing in The Washington Post states, "YouTube's reliance on Wikipedia to set the record straight builds on the thinking of another fact-challenged platform, the Facebook social network, which announced last year that Wikipedia would help its users root out ' fake news '." [ 289 ] [ 290 ] Readership In February 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia was ranked fifth globally among all websites, stating "With 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, ... Wikipedia trails just Yahoo, Facebook, Microsoft and Google, the largest with 1.2 billion unique visitors." [ 51 ] However, its ranking dropped to 13th globally by June 2020 due mostly to a rise in popularity of Chinese websites for online shopping. [ 43 ] The website has since recovered its ranking as of April 2022. [ 43 ] In addition to logistic growth in the number of its articles, [ W 114 ] Wikipedia has steadily gained status as a general reference website since its inception in 2001. [ 291 ] The number of readers of Wikipedia worldwide reached 365 million at the end of 2009. [ W 115 ] The Pew Internet and American Life project found that one third of US Internet users consulted Wikipedia. [ 292 ] In 2011, Business Insider gave Wikipedia a valuation of $4 billion if it ran advertisements. [ 293 ] According to "Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011", the average age of Wikipedia readers is 36, with a rough parity between genders. Almost half of Wikipedia readers visit the site more than five times a month, and a similar number of readers specifically look for Wikipedia in search engine results. About 47 percent of Wikipedia readers do not realize that Wikipedia is a non-profit organization. [ W 116 ] As of February 2023, [update] Wikipedia attracts around 2 billion unique devices monthly, with the English Wikipedia receiving 10 billion pageviews each month. [ W 1 ] COVID-19 pandemic During the COVID-19 pandemic , Wikipedia's coverage of the pandemic and fight against misinformation received international media attention, and brought an increase in Wikipedia readership overall. [ 294 ] [ 295 ] [ 296 ] [ 297 ] Noam Cohen wrote in Wired that Wikipedia's effort to combat misinformation related to the pandemic was different from other major websites, opining, "Unless Twitter, Facebook and the others can learn to address misinformation more effectively, Wikipedia will remain the last best place on the Internet." [ 295 ] In October 2020, the World Health Organization announced they were freely licensing its infographics and other materials on Wikimedia projects. [ 298 ] There were nearly 7,000 COVID-19 related Wikipedia articles across 188 different Wikipedias, as of November 2021. [update] [ 299 ] [ 300 ] Cultural significance Wikipedia's content has also been used in academic studies, books, conferences, and court cases. [ W 117 ] [ 301 ] [ 302 ] The Parliament of Canada 's website refers to Wikipedia's article on same-sex marriage in the "related links" section of its "further reading" list for the Civil Marriage Act . [ 303 ] The encyclopedia's assertions are increasingly used as a source by organizations such as the US federal courts and the World Intellectual Property Organization [ 304 ] —though mainly for supporting information rather than information decisive to a case. [ 305 ] Content appearing on Wikipedia has also been cited as a source and referenced in some US intelligence agency reports. [ 306 ] In December 2008, the scientific journal RNA Biology launched a new section for descriptions of families of RNA molecules and requires authors who contribute to the section to also submit a draft article on the RNA family for publication in Wikipedia. [ 307 ] Wikipedia has also been used as a source in journalism, [ 308 ] [ 309 ] often without attribution, and several reporters have been dismissed for plagiarizing from Wikipedia . [ 310 ] [ 311 ] [ 312 ] [ 313 ] In 2006, Time magazine recognized Wikipedia's participation (along with YouTube, Reddit , MySpace , and Facebook) in the rapid growth of online collaboration and interaction by millions of people worldwide. [ 314 ] On September 16, 2007, The Washington Post reported that Wikipedia had become a focal point in the 2008 US election campaign , saying: "Type a candidate's name into Google, and among the first results is a Wikipedia page, making those entries arguably as important as any ad in defining a candidate. Already, the presidential entries are being edited, dissected and debated countless times each day." [ 315 ] An October 2007 Reuters article, titled "Wikipedia page the latest status symbol", reported the recent phenomenon of how having a Wikipedia article vindicates one's notability. [ 316 ] One of the first times Wikipedia was involved in a governmental affair was on September 28, 2007, when Italian politician Franco Grillini raised a parliamentary question with the minister of cultural resources and activities about the necessity of freedom of panorama . He said that the lack of such freedom forced Wikipedia, "the seventh most consulted website", to forbid all images of modern Italian buildings and art, and claimed this was hugely damaging to tourist revenues. [ 317 ] A working group led by Peter Stone (formed as a part of the Stanford -based project One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence ) in its report called Wikipedia "the best-known example of crowdsourcing ... that far exceeds traditionally-compiled information sources, such as encyclopedias and dictionaries, in scale and depth". [ 318 ] [ 319 ] In a 2017 opinion piece for Wired , Hossein Derakhshan describes Wikipedia as "one of the last remaining pillars of the open and decentralized web " and contrasted its existence as a text-based source of knowledge with social media and social networking services , the latter having "since colonized the web for television's values". For Derakhshan, Wikipedia's goal as an encyclopedia represents the Age of Enlightenment tradition of rationality triumphing over emotions, a trend which he considers "endangered" due to the "gradual shift from a typographic culture to a photographic one, which in turn mean[s] a shift from rationality to emotions, exposition to entertainment". Rather than " sapere aude " ( lit. ' dare to know ' ), social networks have led to a culture of "dare not to care to know". This is while Wikipedia faces "a more concerning problem" than funding, namely "a flattening growth rate in the number of contributors to the website". Consequently, the challenge for Wikipedia and those who use it is to "save Wikipedia and its promise of a free and open collection of all human knowledge amid the conquest of new and old television—how to collect and preserve knowledge when nobody cares to know." [ 320 ] Awards Wikipedia has won many awards, receiving its first two major awards in May 2004. [ W 118 ] The first was a Golden Nica for Digital Communities of the annual Prix Ars Electronica contest; this came with a €10,000 (£6,588; $12,700) grant and an invitation to present at the PAE Cyberarts Festival in Austria later that year. The second was a Judges' Webby Award for the "community" category. [ 321 ] In September 2008, Wikipedia received Quadriga A Mission of Enlightenment award of Werkstatt Deutschland along with Boris Tadić , Eckart Höfling , and Peter Gabriel . The award was presented to Wales by David Weinberger . [ 322 ] In 2015, Wikipedia was awarded both the annual Erasmus Prize , which recognizes exceptional contributions to culture, society or social sciences, [ 323 ] and the Spanish Princess of Asturias Award on International Cooperation. [ 324 ] Speaking at the Asturian Parliament in Oviedo, the city that hosts the awards ceremony, Jimmy Wales praised the work of the Asturian Wikipedia users. [ 325 ] Satire Comedian Stephen Colbert has parodied or referenced Wikipedia on numerous episodes of his show The Colbert Report and coined the related term wikiality , meaning "together we can create a reality that we all agree on—the reality we just agreed on". [ 192 ] Another example can be found in "Wikipedia Celebrates 750 Years of American Independence", a July 2006 front-page article in The Onion , [ 326 ] as well as the 2010 The Onion article " 'L.A. Law' Wikipedia Page Viewed 874 Times Today". [ 327 ] In an April 2007 episode of the American television comedy The Office , office manager ( Michael Scott ) is shown relying on a hypothetical Wikipedia article for information on negotiation tactics to assist him in negotiating lesser pay for an employee. [ 328 ] Viewers of the show tried to add the episode's mention of the page as a section of the actual Wikipedia article on negotiation, but this effort was prevented by other users on the article's talk page. [ 329 ] " My Number One Doctor ", a 2007 episode of the television show Scrubs , played on the perception that Wikipedia is an unreliable reference tool with a scene in which Perry Cox reacts to a patient who says that a Wikipedia article indicates that the raw food diet reverses the effects of bone cancer by retorting that the same editor who wrote that article also wrote the Battlestar Galactica episode guide . [ 330 ] In 2008, the comedy website CollegeHumor produced a video sketch named "Professor Wikipedia", in which the fictitious Professor Wikipedia instructs a class with a medley of unverifiable and occasionally absurd statements. [ 331 ] The Dilbert comic strip from May 8, 2009, features a character supporting an improbable claim by saying "Give me ten minutes and then check Wikipedia." [ 332 ] In July 2009, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a comedy series called Bigipedia , which was set on a website which was a parody of Wikipedia. [ 333 ] Some of the sketches were directly inspired by Wikipedia and its articles. [ 334 ] On August 23, 2013, the New Yorker website published a cartoon with this caption: "Dammit, Manning, have you considered the pronoun war that this is going to start on your Wikipedia page?" [ 335 ] The cartoon referred to Chelsea Elizabeth Manning (born Bradley Edward Manning), an American activist, politician, and former United States Army soldier who had recently come out as a trans woman . [ 336 ] In June 2024, nature.com published a fictional Wikipedia Talk page under the title "Plastic-eating fungus caused doomsday" by Emma Burnett. The Talk page concerned a fictional article describing the unintended consequences of the release of a plastic-eating fungus to clean up an oil spill. The article contained Talk page topics found on Wikipedia, like discussions of changes in the articles priority level. [ 337 ] Publishing The most obvious economic effect of Wikipedia has been the death of commercial encyclopedias, especially printed versions like Encyclopædia Britannica , which were unable to compete with a free alternative. [ 338 ] [ 339 ] [ 340 ] Nicholas Carr 's 2005 essay "The amorality of Web 2.0 " criticizes websites with user-generated content (like Wikipedia) for possibly leading to professional (and, in his view, superior) content producers' going out of business, because "free trumps quality all the time". Carr wrote, "Implicit in the ecstatic visions of Web 2.0 is the hegemony of the amateur. I for one can't imagine anything more frightening." [ 341 ] Others dispute the notion that Wikipedia, or similar efforts, will entirely displace traditional publications. Chris Anderson , the former editor-in-chief of Wired , wrote in Nature that the " wisdom of crowds " approach of Wikipedia will not displace top scientific journals with rigorous peer review processes. [ 342 ] Wikipedia's influence on the biography publishing business has been a concern for some. Book publishing data tracker Nielsen BookScan stated in 2013 that biography sales were dropping "far more sharply". [ 343 ] Kathryn Hughes , professor of life writing at the University of East Anglia and author of two biographies wrote, "The worry is that, if you can get all that information from Wikipedia, what's left for biography?" [ 343 ] Research use Wikipedia has been widely used as a corpus for linguistic research in computational linguistics , information retrieval and natural language processing . [ 344 ] [ 345 ] In particular, it commonly serves as a target knowledge base for the entity linking problem, which is then called "wikification", [ 346 ] and to the related problem of word-sense disambiguation . [ 347 ] Methods similar to wikification can in turn be used to find "missing" links in Wikipedia. [ 348 ] In 2015, French researchers José Lages of the University of Franche-Comté in Besançon and Dima Shepelyansky of Paul Sabatier University in Toulouse published a global university ranking based on Wikipedia scholarly citations. [ 349 ] [ 350 ] [ 351 ] They used PageRank , CheiRank and similar algorithms "followed by the number of appearances in the 24 different language editions of Wikipedia (descending order) and the century in which they were founded (ascending order)". [ 351 ] [ 352 ] The study was updated in 2019. [ 353 ] In December 2015, John Julius Norwich stated, in a letter published in The Times newspaper, that as a historian he resorted to Wikipedia "at least a dozen times a day", and had "never caught it out". He described it as "a work of reference as useful as any in existence", with so wide a range that it is almost impossible to find a person, place, or thing that it has left uncovered and that he could never have written his last two books without it. [ 354 ] A 2017 MIT study suggests that words used in Wikipedia articles end up in scientific publications. [ 355 ] Studies related to Wikipedia have been using machine learning and artificial intelligence [ 319 ] to support various operations. One of the most important areas is the automatic detection of vandalism [ 356 ] [ 357 ] and data quality assessment in Wikipedia. [ 358 ] [ 359 ] Related projects Several interactive multimedia encyclopedias incorporating entries written by the public existed long before Wikipedia was founded. The first of these was the 1986 BBC Domesday Project , which included text (entered on BBC Micro computers) and photographs from more than a million contributors in the UK, and covered the geography, art, and culture of the UK. This was the first interactive multimedia encyclopedia (and was also the first major multimedia document connected through internal links), with the majority of articles being accessible through an interactive map of the UK. The user interface and part of the content of the Domesday Project were emulated on a website until 2008. [ 360 ] Several free-content, collaborative encyclopedias were created around the same period as Wikipedia (e.g. Everything2 ), [ 361 ] with many later being merged into the project (e.g. GNE ). [ W 119 ] One of the most successful early online encyclopedias incorporating entries by the public was h2g2 , which was created by Douglas Adams in 1999. The h2g2 encyclopedia is relatively lighthearted, focusing on articles which are both witty and informative. [ 362 ] Subsequent collaborative knowledge websites have drawn inspiration from Wikipedia. Others use more traditional peer review , such as Encyclopedia of Life and the online wiki encyclopedias Scholarpedia and Citizendium . [ 363 ] [ 364 ] The latter was started by Sanger in an attempt to create a reliable alternative to Wikipedia. [ 365 ] [ 366 ] See also Internet portal Wikipedia portal Democratization of knowledge Interpedia – an early proposal for a collaborative Internet encyclopedia List of films about Wikipedia List of online encyclopedias List of Wikipedia controversies List of wikis Missing Links and Secret Histories Network effect Outline of Wikipedia – guide to the subject of Wikipedia presented as a tree structured list of its subtopics; for an outline of the contents of Wikipedia, see Portal:Contents/Outlines QRpedia – multilingual, mobile interface to Wikipedia Wikipedia Review Notes ^ Registration is required for certain tasks, such as editing protected pages, creating pages on the English Wikipedia, and uploading files. ^ Most text is also dual-licensed under GFDL ; media licensing varies. ^ Pronounced / ˌ w ɪ k ɪ ˈ p iː d i ə / ⓘ WIK -ih- PEE -dee-ə or / ˌ w ɪ k i -/ ⓘ WIK -ee- PEE -dee-ə in English ^ Available as an archive at the Nostalgia Wikipedia ^ Revisions with libelous content, criminal threats, or copyright infringements may be removed completely. ^ The committee may directly rule that a content change is inappropriate, but may not directly rule that certain content is inappropriate. ^ See "Libel" by David McHam for the legal distinction. References Footnotes ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Seitz-Gruwell, Lisa (October 23, 2023). 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Retrieved November 6, 2012. ^ a b Wikipedia:Dispute resolution ^ Wikipedia:Five pillars ^ Wikipedia:Citing sources : "Wikipedia's verifiability policy requires inline citations for any material challenged or likely to be challenged, and for all quotations, anywhere in article space." ^ Wikipedia:Ownership of content : "No one "owns" content (including articles or any page at Wikipedia)." ^ a b Wikipedia:Administrators ^ Wikipedia:Requests for comment ^ Wikipedia:Banning policy ^ Sanger, Larry (December 31, 2004). "Why Wikipedia Must Jettison Its Anti-Elitism" . Kuro5hin , Op–Ed . Archived from the original on November 1, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . There is a certain mindset associated with unmoderated Usenet groups [...] that infects the collectively-managed Wikipedia project: if you react strongly to trolling, that reflects poorly on you, not (necessarily) on the troll. If you [...] demand that something be done about constant disruption by trollish behavior, the other listmembers will cry "censorship", attack you, and even come to the defense of the troll. [...] The root problem: anti-elitism, or lack of respect for expertise. There is a deeper problem [...] which explains both of the above-elaborated problems. Namely, as a community, Wikipedia lacks the habit or tradition of respect for expertise. As a community, far from being elitist, it is anti-elitist (which, in this context, means that expertise is not accorded any special respect, and snubs and disrespect of expertise are tolerated). This is one of my failures: a policy that I attempted to institute in Wikipedia's first year, but for which I did not muster adequate support, was the policy of respecting and deferring politely to experts. 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Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia Mobile on the App Store on iTunes" . App Store (iOS/iPadOS) . Apple Inc. August 4, 2014 . Retrieved August 21, 2014 . ^ a b "Building for the future of Wikimedia with a new approach to partnerships" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . February 16, 2018 . Retrieved May 12, 2019 . ^ Wikipedia: Modelling Wikipedia's growth ^ West, Stuart (2010). "Wikipedia's Evolving Impact: slideshow presentation at TED2010" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Research: Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011/Results – Meta" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . February 6, 2012. Archived from the original on December 9, 2013 . Retrieved April 16, 2014 . ^ Wikipedia:Wikipedia in the media ^ "Trophy shelf" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "The Free Encyclopedia Project" . GNU Operating System . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . Sources McDowell, Zachary; Vetter, Matthew (2022). Wikipedia and the Representation of Reality . New York: Routledge. pp. 1– 107. ISBN 978-0-367-55571-9 . Further reading Balke, Jeff (March 2008). "For Music Fans: Wikipedia; MySpace" . Houston Chronicle . Broken Record (blog). Archived from the original on December 29, 2008 . Retrieved December 17, 2008 . Borland, John (August 14, 2007). "See Who's Editing Wikipedia – Diebold, the CIA, a Campaign" . Wired . Archived from the original on November 16, 2015 . Retrieved October 23, 2018 . Dee, Jonathan (July 1, 2007). "All the News That's Fit to Print Out" . The New York Times Magazine . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Giles, Jim (September 20, 2007). "Wikipedia 2.0 – Now with Added Trust" . New Scientist . Retrieved January 14, 2008 . Miliard, Mike (December 2, 2007). "Wikipedia Rules" . The Phoenix . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Poe, Marshall (September 1, 2006). "The Hive" . The Atlantic Monthly . Retrieved March 22, 2008 . Rosenwald, Michael S. (October 23, 2009). "Gatekeeper of D.C.'s entry: Road to city's Wikipedia page goes through a DuPont Circle bedroom" . The Washington Post . Retrieved October 22, 2009 . Runciman, David (May 28, 2009). "Like Boiling a Frog" . London Review of Books . Archived from the original on May 27, 2009 . Retrieved June 3, 2009 . Stix, Gary , "Wiki-Curious: Are you a 'busybody,' a 'hunter" or a 'dancer'?", Scientific American , vol. 332, no. 2 (February 2025), p. 18. "'Curiosity actually works by connecting pieces of information, not just acquiring them.'" Taylor, Chris (May 29, 2005). "It's a Wiki, Wiki World" . Time . Archived from the original on June 2, 2005 . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . "Technological Quarterly: Brain Scan: The Free-knowledge Fundamentalist" . The Economist . June 5, 2008 . Retrieved June 5, 2008 . Jimmy Wales changed the world with Wikipedia, the hugely popular online encyclopedia that anyone can edit. What will he do next? "Wikipedia probe into paid-for 'sockpuppet' entries" , BBC News, October 21, 2013. "The Decline of Wikipedia" Archived October 23, 2013, at the Library of Congress Web Archives, MIT Technology Review , October 22, 2013 "Edits to Wikipedia pages on Bell, Garner, Diallo traced to 1 Police Plaza" Archived March 13, 2015, at the Wayback Machine (March 2015), Capital Angola's Wikipedia Pirates Are Exposing Problems (March 2016), Motherboard "Dark Side of Wikipedia" . Full Measure . Archived from the original on August 4, 2016 . Retrieved April 17, 2016 . Full Measure with Sharyl Attkisson , April 17, 2016. (Includes video.) Wales, Jimmy (December 9, 2016). "How Wikipedia Works" . Cato Institute . Jimmy Wales, founder of Wikipedia, discusses the site, how it's treated by governments, and how it's fueled by its users. The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1: A Wiki is a Kind of Bus , Ideas, with Paul Kennedy , CBC Radio One , originally broadcast January 15, 2014. The webpage includes a link to the archived audio program (also found here ). The radio documentary discusses Wikipedia's history, development, and its place within the broader scope of the trend to democratized knowledge. It also includes interviews with several key Wikipedia staff and contributors, including Kat Walsh and Sue Gardner (audio, 53:58, Flash required). "So Is Wikipedia Cracking Up?" The Independent , February 3, 2009. Wikipedia's Year-End List Shows What the Internet Needed to Know in 2019 . Alyse Stanley, December 27, 2019, Gizmodo. Academic studies Leitch, Thomas (2014). Wikipedia U: Knowledge, authority, and a liberal education in the digital age . JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-1535-2 . Jensen, Richard (October 2012). "Military History on the Electronic Frontier: Wikipedia Fights the War of 1812" (PDF) . The Journal of Military History . 76 (4): 523– 556. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 21, 2012. Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Kertész, János (2012). Szolnoki, Attila (ed.). "Circadian Patterns of Wikipedia Editorial Activity: A Demographic Analysis" . PLOS ONE . 7 (1) e30091. arXiv : 1109.1746 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...730091Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0030091 . PMC 3260192 . PMID 22272279 . Goldman, Eric (2010). "Wikipedia's Labor Squeeze and its Consequences". Journal of Telecommunications and High Technology Law . 8 . SSRN 1458162 . ( A blog post by the author. ) Nielsen, Finn (August 2007). "Scientific Citations in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (8). arXiv : 0805.1154 . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.246.4536 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i8.1997 . S2CID 58893 . Pfeil, Ulrike; Zaphiris, Panayiotis; Chee Siang Ang (2006). "Cultural Differences in Collaborative Authoring of Wikipedia" . Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication . 12 (1): 88. doi : 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2006.00316.x . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Priedhorsky; Reid; Chen, Jilin; Shyong (Tony) K. Lam; Panciera, Katherine; Terveen, Loren ; Riedl, John (2007). "Creating, destroying, and restoring value in Wikipedia". Proceedings of the 2007 international ACM conference on Conference on supporting group work – Group '07 . pp. 259– 268. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.123.7456 . doi : 10.1145/1316624.1316663 . ISBN 978-1-59593-845-9 . S2CID 15350808 . Reagle, Joseph (2007). Do as I Do: Authorial Leadership in Wikipedia (PDF) . WikiSym '07: Proceedings of the 2007 International Symposium on Wikis . Montreal: ACM. hdl : 2047/d20002876 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Rijshouwer, Emiel (2019). Organizing Democracy. Power concentration and self-organization in the evolution of Wikipedia (PhD, Erasmus University Rotterdam) . Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. hdl : 1765/113937 . ISBN 978-94-028-1371-5 . OCLC 1081174169 . (Open access) Rosenzweig, Roy . Can History be Open Source? Wikipedia and the Future of the Past . (Originally published in The Journal of American History 93.1 (June 2006): 117–146.) Wilkinson, Dennis M.; Huberman, Bernardo A. (April 2007). "Assessing the Value of Cooperation in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (4). arXiv : cs/0702140 . Bibcode : 2007cs........2140W . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.342.6933 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i4.1763 . hdl : 2027.42/136037 . S2CID 10484077 . Halfaker, Aaron; R. Stuart Geiger; Morgan, Jonathan T.; Riedl, John (2012). "The Rise and Decline of an Open Collaboration Community". American Behavioral Scientist . 57 (5): 664. doi : 10.1177/0002764212469365 . S2CID 144208941 . Maggio, Lauren A.; Willinsky, John M. ; Steinberg, Ryan M.; Mietchen, Daniel; Wass, Joseph L.; Dong, Ting (2017). "Wikipedia as a gateway to biomedical research: The relative distribution and use of citations in the English Wikipedia" . PLOS One . 12 (12) e0190046. PLOS . Bibcode : 2017PLoSO..1290046M . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0190046 . PMC 5739466 . PMID 29267345 . Books Keen, Andrew (2007). The Cult of the Amateur . Doubleday/Currency. ISBN 978-0-385-52080-5 . (Substantial criticisms of Wikipedia and other web 2.0 projects.) Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Ayers, Phoebe; Matthews, Charles; Yates, Ben (2008). How Wikipedia Works: And How You Can Be a Part of It . San Francisco: No Starch Press. ISBN 978-1-59327-176-3 . Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia – The Missing Manual . O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-0-596-51516-4 . (See book review by Baker, as listed hereafter.) Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia Reader's Guide . Sebastopol: Pogue Press. ISBN 978-0-596-52174-5 . Rafaeli, Sheizaf ; Ariel, Yaron (2008). "Online motivational factors: Incentives for participation and contribution in Wikipedia". In Barak, A. (ed.). Psychological aspects of cyberspace: Theory, research, applications . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press . pp. 243 –267. ISBN 978-0-521-69464-3 . Dalby, Andrew (2009). The World and Wikipedia: How We are Editing Reality . Siduri. ISBN 978-0-9562052-0-9 . Lih, Andrew (2009). The Wikipedia Revolution: How a Bunch of Nobodies Created the World's Greatest Encyclopedia . New York: Hyperion. ISBN 978-1-4013-0371-6 . O'Sullivan, Dan (2009). Wikipedia: a new community of practice? . Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-7433-7 . Rahmstorf, Olaf (2023). Wikipedia – die rationale Seite der Digitalisierung? (in German). transcript Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8394-5862-4 . Reagle, Joseph Michael Jr. (2010). Good Faith Collaboration: The Culture of Wikipedia . Cambridge, MA: the MIT Press . ISBN 978-0-262-01447-2 . Retrieved October 25, 2015 . Jemielniak, Dariusz (2014). Common Knowledge? An Ethnography of Wikipedia . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press . ISBN 978-0-8047-8944-8 . Reagle, Joseph; Koerner, Jackie, eds. (2020). Wikipedia @ 20: Stories of an Incomplete Revolution . MIT Press . doi : 10.7551/mitpress/12366.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-262-53817-6 . Retrieved October 13, 2020 . Bruckman, Amy S. (2022). Should You Believe Wikipedia?: Online Communities and the Construction of Knowledge . Cambridge University Press. doi : 10.1017/9781108780704 . ISBN 978-1-108-78070-4 . Book review–related articles Baker, Nicholson . "The Charms of Wikipedia" . The New York Review of Books , March 20, 2008. Retrieved December 17, 2008. (Book rev. of The Missing Manual , by John Broughton, as listed previously.) Crovitz, L. Gordon . "Wikipedia's Old-Fashioned Revolution: The online encyclopedia is fast becoming the best." (Originally published in Wall Street Journal online – April 6, 2009.) Postrel, Virginia , "Who Killed Wikipedia? : A hardened corps of volunteer editors is the only force protecting Wikipedia. They might also be killing it" , Pacific Standard , November/December 2014 issue. External links Official website – multilingual portal (contains links to all language editions) Wikipedia on Twitter Wikipedia on Instagram Wikipedia collected news and commentary at The Guardian Wikipedia topic page at The New York Times Video of TED talk by Jimmy Wales on the birth of Wikipedia Ro, Christine (February 19, 2025). "Why these scientists devote time to editing and updating Wikipedia". Nature . doi : 10.1038/d41586-025-00244-7 . PMID 39972088 . .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Wikipedia v t e Overview (outline) Biases gender geographical ideological racial Censorship Conflict-of-interest editing political editing incidents Criticism Deletion of articles deletionism and inclusionism notability Disputes " Ignore all rules " MediaWiki Plagiarism Predictions of the project's end Reliability Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Vandalism Biases gender geographical ideological racial gender geographical ideological racial Censorship Conflict-of-interest editing political editing incidents political editing incidents Criticism Deletion of articles deletionism and inclusionism notability deletionism and inclusionism notability Disputes " Ignore all rules " MediaWiki Plagiarism Predictions of the project's end Reliability Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Vandalism Community (Wikipedians) Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Events Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Wiki Loves Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science People ( list ) Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Women in Red Events Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Wiki Loves Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science People ( list ) Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White History Bomis Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Controversies Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. 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We gratefully acknowledge support from the Simons Foundation, member institutions , and all contributors. Donate Help | Advanced Search Showing 1–50 of 605 results for author: Ren, Z Show abstracts Hide abstracts 1 2 3 4 5 … arXiv:2601.10679 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.LG Are Your Reasoning Models Reasoning or Guessing? A Mechanistic Analysis of Hierarchical Reasoning Models Authors: Zirui Ren , Ziming Liu Abstract : Hierarchical reasoning model (HRM) achieves extraordinary performance on various reasoning tasks, significantly outperforming large language model-based reasoners. To understand the strengths and potential failure modes of HRM, we conduct a mechanistic study on its reasoning patterns and find three surprising facts: (a) Failure of extremely simple puzzles, e.g., HRM can fail on a puzzle with only… ▽ More Hierarchical reasoning model (HRM) achieves extraordinary performance on various reasoning tasks, significantly outperforming large language model-based reasoners. To understand the strengths and potential failure modes of HRM, we conduct a mechanistic study on its reasoning patterns and find three surprising facts: (a) Failure of extremely simple puzzles, e.g., HRM can fail on a puzzle with only one unknown cell. We attribute this failure to the violation of the fixed point property, a fundamental assumption of HRM. (b) "Grokking" dynamics in reasoning steps, i.e., the answer is not improved uniformly, but instead there is a critical reasoning step that suddenly makes the answer correct; (c) Existence of multiple fixed points. HRM "guesses" the first fixed point, which could be incorrect, and gets trapped there for a while or forever. All facts imply that HRM appears to be "guessing" instead of "reasoning". Leveraging this "guessing" picture, we propose three strategies to scale HRM's guesses: data augmentation (scaling the quality of guesses), input perturbation (scaling the number of guesses by leveraging inference randomness), and model bootstrapping (scaling the number of guesses by leveraging training randomness). On the practical side, by combining all methods, we develop Augmented HRM, boosting accuracy on Sudoku-Extreme from 54.5% to 96.9%. On the scientific side, our analysis provides new insights into how reasoning models "reason". △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10679 [ pdf , ps , other ] Are Your Reasoning Models Reasoning or Guessing? A Mechanistic Analysis of Hierarchical Reasoning Models Authors: Zirui Ren , Ziming Liu Abstract : Hierarchical reasoning model (HRM) achieves extraordinary performance on various reasoning tasks, significantly outperforming large language model-based reasoners. To understand the strengths and potential failure modes of HRM, we conduct a mechanistic study on its reasoning patterns and find three surprising facts: (a) Failure of extremely simple puzzles, e.g., HRM can fail on a puzzle with only… ▽ More Hierarchical reasoning model (HRM) achieves extraordinary performance on various reasoning tasks, significantly outperforming large language model-based reasoners. To understand the strengths and potential failure modes of HRM, we conduct a mechanistic study on its reasoning patterns and find three surprising facts: (a) Failure of extremely simple puzzles, e.g., HRM can fail on a puzzle with only one unknown cell. We attribute this failure to the violation of the fixed point property, a fundamental assumption of HRM. (b) "Grokking" dynamics in reasoning steps, i.e., the answer is not improved uniformly, but instead there is a critical reasoning step that suddenly makes the answer correct; (c) Existence of multiple fixed points. HRM "guesses" the first fixed point, which could be incorrect, and gets trapped there for a while or forever. All facts imply that HRM appears to be "guessing" instead of "reasoning". Leveraging this "guessing" picture, we propose three strategies to scale HRM's guesses: data augmentation (scaling the quality of guesses), input perturbation (scaling the number of guesses by leveraging inference randomness), and model bootstrapping (scaling the number of guesses by leveraging training randomness). On the practical side, by combining all methods, we develop Augmented HRM, boosting accuracy on Sudoku-Extreme from 54.5% to 96.9%. On the scientific side, our analysis provides new insights into how reasoning models "reason". △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10611 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI Molmo2: Open Weights and Data for Vision-Language Models with Video Understanding and Grounding Authors: Christopher Clark , Jieyu Zhang , Zixian Ma , Jae Sung Park , Mohammadreza Salehi , Rohun Tripathi , Sangho Lee , Zhongzheng Ren , Chris Dongjoo Kim , Yinuo Yang , Vincent Shao , Yue Yang , Weikai Huang , Ziqi Gao , Taira Anderson , Jianrui Zhang , Jitesh Jain , George Stoica , Winson Han , Ali Farhadi , Ranjay Krishna Abstract : Today's strongest video-language models (VLMs) remain proprietary. The strongest open-weight models either rely on synthetic data from proprietary VLMs, effectively distilling from them, or do not disclose their training data or recipe. As a result, the open-source community lacks the foundations needed to improve on the state-of-the-art video (and image) language models. Crucially, many downstrea… ▽ More Today's strongest video-language models (VLMs) remain proprietary. The strongest open-weight models either rely on synthetic data from proprietary VLMs, effectively distilling from them, or do not disclose their training data or recipe. As a result, the open-source community lacks the foundations needed to improve on the state-of-the-art video (and image) language models. Crucially, many downstream applications require more than just high-level video understanding; they require grounding -- either by pointing or by tracking in pixels. Even proprietary models lack this capability. We present Molmo2, a new family of VLMs that are state-of-the-art among open-source models and demonstrate exceptional new capabilities in point-driven grounding in single image, multi-image, and video tasks. Our key contribution is a collection of 7 new video datasets and 2 multi-image datasets, including a dataset of highly detailed video captions for pre-training, a free-form video Q&A dataset for fine-tuning, a new object tracking dataset with complex queries, and an innovative new video pointing dataset, all collected without the use of closed VLMs. We also present a training recipe for this data utilizing an efficient packing and message-tree encoding scheme, and show bi-directional attention on vision tokens and a novel token-weight strategy improves performance. Our best-in-class 8B model outperforms others in the class of open weight and data models on short videos, counting, and captioning, and is competitive on long-videos. On video-grounding Molmo2 significantly outperforms existing open-weight models like Qwen3-VL (35.5 vs 29.6 accuracy on video counting) and surpasses proprietary models like Gemini 3 Pro on some tasks (38.4 vs 20.0 F1 on video pointing and 56.2 vs 41.1 J&F on video tracking). △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10611 [ pdf , ps , other ] Molmo2: Open Weights and Data for Vision-Language Models with Video Understanding and Grounding Authors: Christopher Clark , Jieyu Zhang , Zixian Ma , Jae Sung Park , Mohammadreza Salehi , Rohun Tripathi , Sangho Lee , Zhongzheng Ren , Chris Dongjoo Kim , Yinuo Yang , Vincent Shao , Yue Yang , Weikai Huang , Ziqi Gao , Taira Anderson , Jianrui Zhang , Jitesh Jain , George Stoica , Winson Han , Ali Farhadi , Ranjay Krishna Abstract : Today's strongest video-language models (VLMs) remain proprietary. The strongest open-weight models either rely on synthetic data from proprietary VLMs, effectively distilling from them, or do not disclose their training data or recipe. As a result, the open-source community lacks the foundations needed to improve on the state-of-the-art video (and image) language models. Crucially, many downstrea… ▽ More Today's strongest video-language models (VLMs) remain proprietary. The strongest open-weight models either rely on synthetic data from proprietary VLMs, effectively distilling from them, or do not disclose their training data or recipe. As a result, the open-source community lacks the foundations needed to improve on the state-of-the-art video (and image) language models. Crucially, many downstream applications require more than just high-level video understanding; they require grounding -- either by pointing or by tracking in pixels. Even proprietary models lack this capability. We present Molmo2, a new family of VLMs that are state-of-the-art among open-source models and demonstrate exceptional new capabilities in point-driven grounding in single image, multi-image, and video tasks. Our key contribution is a collection of 7 new video datasets and 2 multi-image datasets, including a dataset of highly detailed video captions for pre-training, a free-form video Q&A dataset for fine-tuning, a new object tracking dataset with complex queries, and an innovative new video pointing dataset, all collected without the use of closed VLMs. We also present a training recipe for this data utilizing an efficient packing and message-tree encoding scheme, and show bi-directional attention on vision tokens and a novel token-weight strategy improves performance. Our best-in-class 8B model outperforms others in the class of open weight and data models on short videos, counting, and captioning, and is competitive on long-videos. On video-grounding Molmo2 significantly outperforms existing open-weight models like Qwen3-VL (35.5 vs 29.6 accuracy on video counting) and surpasses proprietary models like Gemini 3 Pro on some tasks (38.4 vs 20.0 F1 on video pointing and 56.2 vs 41.1 J&F on video tracking). △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09496 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.IR Unifying Search and Recommendation in LLMs via Gradient Multi-Subspace Tuning Authors: Jujia Zhao , Zihan Wang , Shuaiqun Pan , Suzan Verberne , Zhaochun Ren Abstract : Search and recommendation (S&R) are core to online platforms, addressing explicit intent through queries and modeling implicit intent from behaviors, respectively. Their complementary roles motivate a unified modeling paradigm. Early studies to unify S&R adopt shared encoders with task-specific heads, while recent efforts reframe item ranking in both S&R as conditional generation. The latter holds… ▽ More Search and recommendation (S&R) are core to online platforms, addressing explicit intent through queries and modeling implicit intent from behaviors, respectively. Their complementary roles motivate a unified modeling paradigm. Early studies to unify S&R adopt shared encoders with task-specific heads, while recent efforts reframe item ranking in both S&R as conditional generation. The latter holds particular promise, enabling end-to-end optimization and leveraging the semantic understanding of LLMs. However, existing methods rely on full fine-tuning, which is computationally expensive and limits scalability. Parameter-efficient fine-tuning (PEFT) offers a more practical alternative but faces two critical challenges in unifying S&R: (1) gradient conflicts across tasks due to divergent optimization objectives, and (2) shifts in user intent understanding caused by overfitting to fine-tuning data, which distort general-domain knowledge and weaken LLM reasoning. To address the above issues, we propose Gradient Multi-Subspace Tuning (GEMS), a novel framework that unifies S&R with LLMs while alleviating gradient conflicts and preserving general-domain knowledge. GEMS introduces (1) \textbf{Multi-Subspace Decomposition}, which disentangles shared and task-specific optimization signals into complementary low-rank subspaces, thereby reducing destructive gradient interference, and (2) \textbf{Null-Space Projection}, which constrains parameter updates to a subspace orthogonal to the general-domain knowledge space, mitigating shifts in user intent understanding. Extensive experiments on benchmark datasets show that GEMS consistently outperforms the state-of-the-art baselines across both search and recommendation tasks, achieving superior effectiveness. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09496 [ pdf , ps , other ] Unifying Search and Recommendation in LLMs via Gradient Multi-Subspace Tuning Authors: Jujia Zhao , Zihan Wang , Shuaiqun Pan , Suzan Verberne , Zhaochun Ren Abstract : Search and recommendation (S&R) are core to online platforms, addressing explicit intent through queries and modeling implicit intent from behaviors, respectively. Their complementary roles motivate a unified modeling paradigm. Early studies to unify S&R adopt shared encoders with task-specific heads, while recent efforts reframe item ranking in both S&R as conditional generation. The latter holds… ▽ More Search and recommendation (S&R) are core to online platforms, addressing explicit intent through queries and modeling implicit intent from behaviors, respectively. Their complementary roles motivate a unified modeling paradigm. Early studies to unify S&R adopt shared encoders with task-specific heads, while recent efforts reframe item ranking in both S&R as conditional generation. The latter holds particular promise, enabling end-to-end optimization and leveraging the semantic understanding of LLMs. However, existing methods rely on full fine-tuning, which is computationally expensive and limits scalability. Parameter-efficient fine-tuning (PEFT) offers a more practical alternative but faces two critical challenges in unifying S&R: (1) gradient conflicts across tasks due to divergent optimization objectives, and (2) shifts in user intent understanding caused by overfitting to fine-tuning data, which distort general-domain knowledge and weaken LLM reasoning. To address the above issues, we propose Gradient Multi-Subspace Tuning (GEMS), a novel framework that unifies S&R with LLMs while alleviating gradient conflicts and preserving general-domain knowledge. GEMS introduces (1) \textbf{Multi-Subspace Decomposition}, which disentangles shared and task-specific optimization signals into complementary low-rank subspaces, thereby reducing destructive gradient interference, and (2) \textbf{Null-Space Projection}, which constrains parameter updates to a subspace orthogonal to the general-domain knowledge space, mitigating shifts in user intent understanding. Extensive experiments on benchmark datasets show that GEMS consistently outperforms the state-of-the-art baselines across both search and recommendation tasks, achieving superior effectiveness. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07261 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.AI q-bio.QM Pseudodata-guided Invariant Representation Learning Boosts the Out-of-Distribution Generalization in Enzymatic Kinetic Parameter Prediction Authors: Haomin Wu , Zhiwei Nie , Hongyu Zhang , Zhixiang Ren Abstract : Accurate prediction of enzyme kinetic parameters is essential for understanding catalytic mechanisms and guiding enzyme engineering.However, existing deep learning-based enzyme-substrate interaction (ESI) predictors often exhibit performance degradation on sequence-divergent, out-of-distribution (OOD) cases, limiting robustness under biologically relevant perturbations.We propose O$^2$DENet, a lig… ▽ More Accurate prediction of enzyme kinetic parameters is essential for understanding catalytic mechanisms and guiding enzyme engineering.However, existing deep learning-based enzyme-substrate interaction (ESI) predictors often exhibit performance degradation on sequence-divergent, out-of-distribution (OOD) cases, limiting robustness under biologically relevant perturbations.We propose O$^2$DENet, a lightweight, plug-and-play module that enhances OOD generalization via biologically and chemically informed perturbation augmentation and invariant representation learning.O$^2$DENet introduces enzyme-substrate perturbations and enforces consistency between original and augmented enzyme-substrate-pair representations to encourage invariance to distributional shifts.When integrated with representative ESI models, O$^2$DENet consistently improves predictive performance for both $k_{cat}$ and $K_m$ across stringent sequence-identity-based OOD benchmarks, achieving state-of-the-art results among the evaluated methods in terms of accuracy and robustness metrics.Overall, O$^2$DENet provides a general and effective strategy to enhance the stability and deployability of data-driven enzyme kinetics predictors for real-world enzyme engineering applications. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07261 [ pdf , ps , other ] Pseudodata-guided Invariant Representation Learning Boosts the Out-of-Distribution Generalization in Enzymatic Kinetic Parameter Prediction Authors: Haomin Wu , Zhiwei Nie , Hongyu Zhang , Zhixiang Ren Abstract : Accurate prediction of enzyme kinetic parameters is essential for understanding catalytic mechanisms and guiding enzyme engineering.However, existing deep learning-based enzyme-substrate interaction (ESI) predictors often exhibit performance degradation on sequence-divergent, out-of-distribution (OOD) cases, limiting robustness under biologically relevant perturbations.We propose O$^2$DENet, a lig… ▽ More Accurate prediction of enzyme kinetic parameters is essential for understanding catalytic mechanisms and guiding enzyme engineering.However, existing deep learning-based enzyme-substrate interaction (ESI) predictors often exhibit performance degradation on sequence-divergent, out-of-distribution (OOD) cases, limiting robustness under biologically relevant perturbations.We propose O$^2$DENet, a lightweight, plug-and-play module that enhances OOD generalization via biologically and chemically informed perturbation augmentation and invariant representation learning.O$^2$DENet introduces enzyme-substrate perturbations and enforces consistency between original and augmented enzyme-substrate-pair representations to encourage invariance to distributional shifts.When integrated with representative ESI models, O$^2$DENet consistently improves predictive performance for both $k_{cat}$ and $K_m$ across stringent sequence-identity-based OOD benchmarks, achieving state-of-the-art results among the evaluated methods in terms of accuracy and robustness metrics.Overall, O$^2$DENet provides a general and effective strategy to enhance the stability and deployability of data-driven enzyme kinetics predictors for real-world enzyme engineering applications. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05053 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.CL Reinforced Efficient Reasoning via Semantically Diverse Exploration Authors: Ziqi Zhao , Zhaochun Ren , Jiahong Zou , Liu Yang , Zhiwei Xu , Xuri Ge , Zhumin Chen , Xinyu Ma , Daiting Shi , Shuaiqiang Wang , Dawei Yin , Xin Xin Abstract : Reinforcement learning with verifiable rewards (RLVR) has proven effective in enhancing the reasoning of large language models (LLMs). Monte Carlo Tree Search (MCTS)-based extensions improve upon vanilla RLVR (e.g., GRPO) by providing tree-based reasoning rollouts that enable fine-grained and segment-level credit assignment. However, existing methods still suffer from limited exploration diversity… ▽ More Reinforcement learning with verifiable rewards (RLVR) has proven effective in enhancing the reasoning of large language models (LLMs). Monte Carlo Tree Search (MCTS)-based extensions improve upon vanilla RLVR (e.g., GRPO) by providing tree-based reasoning rollouts that enable fine-grained and segment-level credit assignment. However, existing methods still suffer from limited exploration diversity and inefficient reasoning. To address the above challenges, we propose reinforced efficient reasoning via semantically diverse explorations, i.e., ROSE, for LLMs. To encourage more diverse reasoning exploration, our method incorporates a semantic-entropy-based branching strategy and an $\varepsilon$-exploration mechanism. The former operates on already sampled reasoning rollouts to capture semantic uncertainty and select branching points with high semantic divergence to generate new successive reasoning paths, whereas the latter stochastically initiates reasoning rollouts from the root, preventing the search process from becoming overly local. To improve efficiency, we design a length-aware segment-level advantage estimator that rewards concise and correct reasoning while penalizing unnecessarily long reasoning chains. Extensive experiments on various mathematical reasoning benchmarks with Qwen and Llama models validate the effectiveness and efficiency of ROSE. Codes are available at △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05053 [ pdf , ps , other ] Reinforced Efficient Reasoning via Semantically Diverse Exploration Authors: Ziqi Zhao , Zhaochun Ren , Jiahong Zou , Liu Yang , Zhiwei Xu , Xuri Ge , Zhumin Chen , Xinyu Ma , Daiting Shi , Shuaiqiang Wang , Dawei Yin , Xin Xin Abstract : Reinforcement learning with verifiable rewards (RLVR) has proven effective in enhancing the reasoning of large language models (LLMs). Monte Carlo Tree Search (MCTS)-based extensions improve upon vanilla RLVR (e.g., GRPO) by providing tree-based reasoning rollouts that enable fine-grained and segment-level credit assignment. However, existing methods still suffer from limited exploration diversity… ▽ More Reinforcement learning with verifiable rewards (RLVR) has proven effective in enhancing the reasoning of large language models (LLMs). Monte Carlo Tree Search (MCTS)-based extensions improve upon vanilla RLVR (e.g., GRPO) by providing tree-based reasoning rollouts that enable fine-grained and segment-level credit assignment. However, existing methods still suffer from limited exploration diversity and inefficient reasoning. To address the above challenges, we propose reinforced efficient reasoning via semantically diverse explorations, i.e., ROSE, for LLMs. To encourage more diverse reasoning exploration, our method incorporates a semantic-entropy-based branching strategy and an $\varepsilon$-exploration mechanism. The former operates on already sampled reasoning rollouts to capture semantic uncertainty and select branching points with high semantic divergence to generate new successive reasoning paths, whereas the latter stochastically initiates reasoning rollouts from the root, preventing the search process from becoming overly local. To improve efficiency, we design a length-aware segment-level advantage estimator that rewards concise and correct reasoning while penalizing unnecessarily long reasoning chains. Extensive experiments on various mathematical reasoning benchmarks with Qwen and Llama models validate the effectiveness and efficiency of ROSE. Codes are available at △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.02760 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV AnyDepth: Depth Estimation Made Easy Authors: Zeyu Ren , Zeyu Zhang , Wukai Li , Qingxiang Liu , Hao Tang Abstract : Monocular depth estimation aims to recover the depth information of 3D scenes from 2D images. Recent work has made significant progress, but its reliance on large-scale datasets and complex decoders has limited its efficiency and generalization ability. In this paper, we propose a lightweight and data-centric framework for zero-shot monocular depth estimation. We first adopt DINOv3 as the visual e… ▽ More Monocular depth estimation aims to recover the depth information of 3D scenes from 2D images. Recent work has made significant progress, but its reliance on large-scale datasets and complex decoders has limited its efficiency and generalization ability. In this paper, we propose a lightweight and data-centric framework for zero-shot monocular depth estimation. We first adopt DINOv3 as the visual encoder to obtain high-quality dense features. Secondly, to address the inherent drawbacks of the complex structure of the DPT, we design the Simple Depth Transformer (SDT), a compact transformer-based decoder. Compared to the DPT, it uses a single-path feature fusion and upsampling process to reduce the computational overhead of cross-scale feature fusion, achieving higher accuracy while reducing the number of parameters by approximately 85%-89%. Furthermore, we propose a quality-based filtering strategy to filter out harmful samples, thereby reducing dataset size while improving overall training quality. Extensive experiments on five benchmarks demonstrate that our framework surpasses the DPT in accuracy. This work highlights the importance of balancing model design and data quality for achieving efficient and generalizable zero-shot depth estimation. Code: Website: △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.02760 [ pdf , ps , other ] AnyDepth: Depth Estimation Made Easy Authors: Zeyu Ren , Zeyu Zhang , Wukai Li , Qingxiang Liu , Hao Tang Abstract : Monocular depth estimation aims to recover the depth information of 3D scenes from 2D images. Recent work has made significant progress, but its reliance on large-scale datasets and complex decoders has limited its efficiency and generalization ability. In this paper, we propose a lightweight and data-centric framework for zero-shot monocular depth estimation. We first adopt DINOv3 as the visual e… ▽ More Monocular depth estimation aims to recover the depth information of 3D scenes from 2D images. Recent work has made significant progress, but its reliance on large-scale datasets and complex decoders has limited its efficiency and generalization ability. In this paper, we propose a lightweight and data-centric framework for zero-shot monocular depth estimation. We first adopt DINOv3 as the visual encoder to obtain high-quality dense features. Secondly, to address the inherent drawbacks of the complex structure of the DPT, we design the Simple Depth Transformer (SDT), a compact transformer-based decoder. Compared to the DPT, it uses a single-path feature fusion and upsampling process to reduce the computational overhead of cross-scale feature fusion, achieving higher accuracy while reducing the number of parameters by approximately 85%-89%. Furthermore, we propose a quality-based filtering strategy to filter out harmful samples, thereby reducing dataset size while improving overall training quality. Extensive experiments on five benchmarks demonstrate that our framework surpasses the DPT in accuracy. This work highlights the importance of balancing model design and data quality for achieving efficient and generalizable zero-shot depth estimation. Code: Website: △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.01968 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.NI Near-Field Multi-Cell ISCAP with Extremely Large-Scale Antenna Array Authors: Yuan Guo , Yilong Chen , Zixiang Ren , Derrick Wing Kwan Ng , Jie Xu Abstract : This paper investigates a coordinated multi-cell integrated sensing, communication, and powering (ISCAP) system operating in the electromagnetic near field, where each base station (BS) employs an extremely large-scale antenna array (ELAA) to simultaneously support downlink communication, wireless power transfer (WPT), and environmental sensing. Three categories of communication users (CUs) with d… ▽ More This paper investigates a coordinated multi-cell integrated sensing, communication, and powering (ISCAP) system operating in the electromagnetic near field, where each base station (BS) employs an extremely large-scale antenna array (ELAA) to simultaneously support downlink communication, wireless power transfer (WPT), and environmental sensing. Three categories of communication users (CUs) with different interference cancellation capabilities are considered, and sensing is enabled through a distributed multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) radar architecture. To address the resulting design challenges, a robust optimization framework is proposed by optimizing the beamforming strategy to maximize the worst-case detection probability over a prescribed sensing region, subject to per-user signal-to-interference-plus-noise ratio (SINR) constraints and energy harvesting requirements at energy receivers (ERs), while explicitly capturing the uncertainty in ER locations. By leveraging semidefinite relaxation (SDR), the original non-convex problem is reformulated as a convex semidefinite program with a provably tight relaxation. Furthermore, a low-complexity maximum ratio transmission (MRT)-based suboptimal scheme is developed, yielding a closed-form solution in the asymptotic regime as the number of antenna elements approaches infinity. Extensive numerical results reveal the fundamental trade-offs among sensing accuracy, communication reliability, and WPT efficiency. △ Less Submitted 5 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.01968 [ pdf , ps , other ] Near-Field Multi-Cell ISCAP with Extremely Large-Scale Antenna Array Authors: Yuan Guo , Yilong Chen , Zixiang Ren , Derrick Wing Kwan Ng , Jie Xu Abstract : This paper investigates a coordinated multi-cell integrated sensing, communication, and powering (ISCAP) system operating in the electromagnetic near field, where each base station (BS) employs an extremely large-scale antenna array (ELAA) to simultaneously support downlink communication, wireless power transfer (WPT), and environmental sensing. Three categories of communication users (CUs) with d… ▽ More This paper investigates a coordinated multi-cell integrated sensing, communication, and powering (ISCAP) system operating in the electromagnetic near field, where each base station (BS) employs an extremely large-scale antenna array (ELAA) to simultaneously support downlink communication, wireless power transfer (WPT), and environmental sensing. Three categories of communication users (CUs) with different interference cancellation capabilities are considered, and sensing is enabled through a distributed multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) radar architecture. To address the resulting design challenges, a robust optimization framework is proposed by optimizing the beamforming strategy to maximize the worst-case detection probability over a prescribed sensing region, subject to per-user signal-to-interference-plus-noise ratio (SINR) constraints and energy harvesting requirements at energy receivers (ERs), while explicitly capturing the uncertainty in ER locations. By leveraging semidefinite relaxation (SDR), the original non-convex problem is reformulated as a convex semidefinite program with a provably tight relaxation. Furthermore, a low-complexity maximum ratio transmission (MRT)-based suboptimal scheme is developed, yielding a closed-form solution in the asymptotic regime as the number of antenna elements approaches infinity. Extensive numerical results reveal the fundamental trade-offs among sensing accuracy, communication reliability, and WPT efficiency. △ Less Submitted 5 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.00268 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI Beyond Perfect APIs: A Comprehensive Evaluation of LLM Agents Under Real-World API Complexity Authors: Doyoung Kim , Zhiwei Ren , Jie Hao , Zhongkai Sun , Lichao Wang , Xiyao Ma , Zack Ye , Xu Han , Jun Yin , Heng Ji , Wei Shen , Xing Fan , Benjamin Yao , Chenlei Guo Abstract : We introduce WildAGTEval, a benchmark designed to evaluate large language model (LLM) agents' function-calling capabilities under realistic API complexity. Unlike prior work that assumes an idealized API system and disregards real-world factors such as noisy API outputs, WildAGTEval accounts for two dimensions of real-world complexity: 1. API specification, which includes detailed documentation an… ▽ More We introduce WildAGTEval, a benchmark designed to evaluate large language model (LLM) agents' function-calling capabilities under realistic API complexity. Unlike prior work that assumes an idealized API system and disregards real-world factors such as noisy API outputs, WildAGTEval accounts for two dimensions of real-world complexity: 1. API specification, which includes detailed documentation and usage constraints, and 2. API execution, which captures runtime challenges. Consequently, WildAGTEval offers (i) an API system encompassing 60 distinct complexity scenarios that can be composed into approximately 32K test configurations, and (ii) user-agent interactions for evaluating LLM agents on these scenarios. Using WildAGTEval, we systematically assess several advanced LLMs and observe that most scenarios are challenging, with irrelevant information complexity posing the greatest difficulty and reducing the performance of strong LLMs by 27.3%. Furthermore, our qualitative analysis reveals that LLMs occasionally distort user intent merely to claim task completion, critically affecting user satisfaction. △ Less Submitted 1 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 26 pages arXiv:2601.00268 [ pdf , ps , other ] Beyond Perfect APIs: A Comprehensive Evaluation of LLM Agents Under Real-World API Complexity Authors: Doyoung Kim , Zhiwei Ren , Jie Hao , Zhongkai Sun , Lichao Wang , Xiyao Ma , Zack Ye , Xu Han , Jun Yin , Heng Ji , Wei Shen , Xing Fan , Benjamin Yao , Chenlei Guo Abstract : We introduce WildAGTEval, a benchmark designed to evaluate large language model (LLM) agents' function-calling capabilities under realistic API complexity. Unlike prior work that assumes an idealized API system and disregards real-world factors such as noisy API outputs, WildAGTEval accounts for two dimensions of real-world complexity: 1. API specification, which includes detailed documentation an… ▽ More We introduce WildAGTEval, a benchmark designed to evaluate large language model (LLM) agents' function-calling capabilities under realistic API complexity. Unlike prior work that assumes an idealized API system and disregards real-world factors such as noisy API outputs, WildAGTEval accounts for two dimensions of real-world complexity: 1. API specification, which includes detailed documentation and usage constraints, and 2. API execution, which captures runtime challenges. Consequently, WildAGTEval offers (i) an API system encompassing 60 distinct complexity scenarios that can be composed into approximately 32K test configurations, and (ii) user-agent interactions for evaluating LLM agents on these scenarios. Using WildAGTEval, we systematically assess several advanced LLMs and observe that most scenarios are challenging, with irrelevant information complexity posing the greatest difficulty and reducing the performance of strong LLMs by 27.3%. Furthermore, our qualitative analysis reveals that LLMs occasionally distort user intent merely to claim task completion, critically affecting user satisfaction. △ Less Submitted 1 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 26 pages arXiv:2512.24750 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.NI Analyzing Communication Predictability in LLM Training Authors: Wenxue Li , Xiangzhou Liu , Yuxuan Li , Yilun Jin , Zhenghang Ren , Xudong Liao , Han Tian , Bo Ren , Zhizhen Zhong , Guyue Liu , Ying Zhang , Kai Chen Abstract : Effective communication is essential in distributed training, with predictability being one of its most significant characteristics. However, existing studies primarily focus on exploiting predictability through online profiling for runtime optimization, without a systematic understanding of it. In this work, we aim to systematically formulate communication predictability in distributed training,… ▽ More Effective communication is essential in distributed training, with predictability being one of its most significant characteristics. However, existing studies primarily focus on exploiting predictability through online profiling for runtime optimization, without a systematic understanding of it. In this work, we aim to systematically formulate communication predictability in distributed training, particularly in Large Language Models (LLMs) that utilize hybrid parallelism. Our analysis focuses on both traffic patterns and communication overhead. Specifically, we investigate predictable traffic patterns in typical LLMs and evaluate how various factors influence GPU utilization and effective bandwidth (two critical variables affecting communication overhead). Furthermore, we develop an analytical formulation to estimate communication overhead in LLM training, which is validated with high accuracy against empirical data. Leveraging this formulation, we propose a configuration tuning tool, ConfigTuner, to optimize training performance. Compared to Megatron-LM, the training configurations optimized by ConfigTuner demonstrate up to a 1.36$\times$ increase in throughput. Compared to Alpa, ConfigTuner generates the same configuration suggestion while significantly reducing the search complexity. △ Less Submitted 31 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.24750 [ pdf , ps , other ] Analyzing Communication Predictability in LLM Training Authors: Wenxue Li , Xiangzhou Liu , Yuxuan Li , Yilun Jin , Zhenghang Ren , Xudong Liao , Han Tian , Bo Ren , Zhizhen Zhong , Guyue Liu , Ying Zhang , Kai Chen Abstract : Effective communication is essential in distributed training, with predictability being one of its most significant characteristics. However, existing studies primarily focus on exploiting predictability through online profiling for runtime optimization, without a systematic understanding of it. In this work, we aim to systematically formulate communication predictability in distributed training,… ▽ More Effective communication is essential in distributed training, with predictability being one of its most significant characteristics. However, existing studies primarily focus on exploiting predictability through online profiling for runtime optimization, without a systematic understanding of it. In this work, we aim to systematically formulate communication predictability in distributed training, particularly in Large Language Models (LLMs) that utilize hybrid parallelism. Our analysis focuses on both traffic patterns and communication overhead. Specifically, we investigate predictable traffic patterns in typical LLMs and evaluate how various factors influence GPU utilization and effective bandwidth (two critical variables affecting communication overhead). Furthermore, we develop an analytical formulation to estimate communication overhead in LLM training, which is validated with high accuracy against empirical data. Leveraging this formulation, we propose a configuration tuning tool, ConfigTuner, to optimize training performance. Compared to Megatron-LM, the training configurations optimized by ConfigTuner demonstrate up to a 1.36$\times$ increase in throughput. Compared to Alpa, ConfigTuner generates the same configuration suggestion while significantly reducing the search complexity. △ Less Submitted 31 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.24210 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO GR-Dexter Technical Report Authors: Ruoshi Wen , Guangzeng Chen , Zhongren Cui , Min Du , Yang Gou , Zhigang Han , Liqun Huang , Mingyu Lei , Yunfei Li , Zhuohang Li , Wenlei Liu , Yuxiao Liu , Xiao Ma , Hao Niu , Yutao Ouyang , Zeyu Ren , Haixin Shi , Wei Xu , Haoxiang Zhang , Jiajun Zhang , Xiao Zhang , Liwei Zheng , Weiheng Zhong , Yifei Zhou , Zhengming Zhu , et al. (1 additional authors not shown) Abstract : Vision-language-action (VLA) models have enabled language-conditioned, long-horizon robot manipulation, but most existing systems are limited to grippers. Scaling VLA policies to bimanual robots with high degree-of-freedom (DoF) dexterous hands remains challenging due to the expanded action space, frequent hand-object occlusions, and the cost of collecting real-robot data. We present GR-Dexter, a… ▽ More Vision-language-action (VLA) models have enabled language-conditioned, long-horizon robot manipulation, but most existing systems are limited to grippers. Scaling VLA policies to bimanual robots with high degree-of-freedom (DoF) dexterous hands remains challenging due to the expanded action space, frequent hand-object occlusions, and the cost of collecting real-robot data. We present GR-Dexter, a holistic hardware-model-data framework for VLA-based generalist manipulation on a bimanual dexterous-hand robot. Our approach combines the design of a compact 21-DoF robotic hand, an intuitive bimanual teleoperation system for real-robot data collection, and a training recipe that leverages teleoperated robot trajectories together with large-scale vision-language and carefully curated cross-embodiment datasets. Across real-world evaluations spanning long-horizon everyday manipulation and generalizable pick-and-place, GR-Dexter achieves strong in-domain performance and improved robustness to unseen objects and unseen instructions. We hope GR-Dexter serves as a practical step toward generalist dexterous-hand robotic manipulation. △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; v1 submitted 30 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.24210 [ pdf , ps , other ] GR-Dexter Technical Report Authors: Ruoshi Wen , Guangzeng Chen , Zhongren Cui , Min Du , Yang Gou , Zhigang Han , Liqun Huang , Mingyu Lei , Yunfei Li , Zhuohang Li , Wenlei Liu , Yuxiao Liu , Xiao Ma , Hao Niu , Yutao Ouyang , Zeyu Ren , Haixin Shi , Wei Xu , Haoxiang Zhang , Jiajun Zhang , Xiao Zhang , Liwei Zheng , Weiheng Zhong , Yifei Zhou , Zhengming Zhu , et al. (1 additional authors not shown) Abstract : Vision-language-action (VLA) models have enabled language-conditioned, long-horizon robot manipulation, but most existing systems are limited to grippers. Scaling VLA policies to bimanual robots with high degree-of-freedom (DoF) dexterous hands remains challenging due to the expanded action space, frequent hand-object occlusions, and the cost of collecting real-robot data. We present GR-Dexter, a… ▽ More Vision-language-action (VLA) models have enabled language-conditioned, long-horizon robot manipulation, but most existing systems are limited to grippers. Scaling VLA policies to bimanual robots with high degree-of-freedom (DoF) dexterous hands remains challenging due to the expanded action space, frequent hand-object occlusions, and the cost of collecting real-robot data. We present GR-Dexter, a holistic hardware-model-data framework for VLA-based generalist manipulation on a bimanual dexterous-hand robot. Our approach combines the design of a compact 21-DoF robotic hand, an intuitive bimanual teleoperation system for real-robot data collection, and a training recipe that leverages teleoperated robot trajectories together with large-scale vision-language and carefully curated cross-embodiment datasets. Across real-world evaluations spanning long-horizon everyday manipulation and generalizable pick-and-place, GR-Dexter achieves strong in-domain performance and improved robustness to unseen objects and unseen instructions. We hope GR-Dexter serves as a practical step toward generalist dexterous-hand robotic manipulation. △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; v1 submitted 30 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.20491 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL Step-DeepResearch Technical Report Authors: Chen Hu , Haikuo Du , Heng Wang , Lin Lin , Mingrui Chen , Peng Liu , Ruihang Miao , Tianchi Yue , Wang You , Wei Ji , Wei Yuan , Wenjin Deng , Xiaojian Yuan , Xiaoyun Zhang , Xiangyu Liu , Xikai Liu , Yanming Xu , Yicheng Cao , Yifei Zhang , Yongyao Wang , Yubo Shu , Yurong Zhang , Yuxiang Zhang , Zheng Gong , Zhichao Chang , et al. (42 additional authors not shown) Abstract : As LLMs shift toward autonomous agents, Deep Research has emerged as a pivotal metric. However, existing academic benchmarks like BrowseComp often fail to meet real-world demands for open-ended research, which requires robust skills in intent recognition, long-horizon decision-making, and cross-source verification. To address this, we introduce Step-DeepResearch, a cost-effective, end-to-end agent… ▽ More As LLMs shift toward autonomous agents, Deep Research has emerged as a pivotal metric. However, existing academic benchmarks like BrowseComp often fail to meet real-world demands for open-ended research, which requires robust skills in intent recognition, long-horizon decision-making, and cross-source verification. To address this, we introduce Step-DeepResearch, a cost-effective, end-to-end agent. We propose a Data Synthesis Strategy Based on Atomic Capabilities to reinforce planning and report writing, combined with a progressive training path from agentic mid-training to SFT and RL. Enhanced by a Checklist-style Judger, this approach significantly improves robustness. Furthermore, to bridge the evaluation gap in the Chinese domain, we establish ADR-Bench for realistic deep research scenarios. Experimental results show that Step-DeepResearch (32B) scores 61.4% on Scale AI Research Rubrics. On ADR-Bench, it significantly outperforms comparable models and rivals SOTA closed-source models like OpenAI and Gemini DeepResearch. These findings prove that refined training enables medium-sized models to achieve expert-level capabilities at industry-leading cost-efficiency. △ Less Submitted 29 December, 2025; v1 submitted 23 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.20491 [ pdf , ps , other ] Step-DeepResearch Technical Report Authors: Chen Hu , Haikuo Du , Heng Wang , Lin Lin , Mingrui Chen , Peng Liu , Ruihang Miao , Tianchi Yue , Wang You , Wei Ji , Wei Yuan , Wenjin Deng , Xiaojian Yuan , Xiaoyun Zhang , Xiangyu Liu , Xikai Liu , Yanming Xu , Yicheng Cao , Yifei Zhang , Yongyao Wang , Yubo Shu , Yurong Zhang , Yuxiang Zhang , Zheng Gong , Zhichao Chang , et al. (42 additional authors not shown) Abstract : As LLMs shift toward autonomous agents, Deep Research has emerged as a pivotal metric. However, existing academic benchmarks like BrowseComp often fail to meet real-world demands for open-ended research, which requires robust skills in intent recognition, long-horizon decision-making, and cross-source verification. To address this, we introduce Step-DeepResearch, a cost-effective, end-to-end agent… ▽ More As LLMs shift toward autonomous agents, Deep Research has emerged as a pivotal metric. However, existing academic benchmarks like BrowseComp often fail to meet real-world demands for open-ended research, which requires robust skills in intent recognition, long-horizon decision-making, and cross-source verification. To address this, we introduce Step-DeepResearch, a cost-effective, end-to-end agent. We propose a Data Synthesis Strategy Based on Atomic Capabilities to reinforce planning and report writing, combined with a progressive training path from agentic mid-training to SFT and RL. Enhanced by a Checklist-style Judger, this approach significantly improves robustness. Furthermore, to bridge the evaluation gap in the Chinese domain, we establish ADR-Bench for realistic deep research scenarios. Experimental results show that Step-DeepResearch (32B) scores 61.4% on Scale AI Research Rubrics. On ADR-Bench, it significantly outperforms comparable models and rivals SOTA closed-source models like OpenAI and Gemini DeepResearch. These findings prove that refined training enables medium-sized models to achieve expert-level capabilities at industry-leading cost-efficiency. △ Less Submitted 29 December, 2025; v1 submitted 23 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.17386 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.GT Deterministic implementation in single-item auctions Authors: Yan Liu , Zeyu Ren , Pingzhong Tang , Zihe Wang , Yulong Zeng , Jie Zhang Abstract : Deterministic auctions are attractive in practice due to their transparency, simplicity, and ease of implementation, motivating a sharper understanding of when they can attain the same outcomes as randomized mechanisms. We study deterministic implementation in single-item auctions under two notions of outcomes: (revenue, welfare) pairs and interim allocations. For (revenue, welfare) pairs, we show… ▽ More Deterministic auctions are attractive in practice due to their transparency, simplicity, and ease of implementation, motivating a sharper understanding of when they can attain the same outcomes as randomized mechanisms. We study deterministic implementation in single-item auctions under two notions of outcomes: (revenue, welfare) pairs and interim allocations. For (revenue, welfare) pairs, we show a separation in discrete settings: there exists a pair implementable by a deterministic Bayesian incentive-compatible (BIC) auction but not by any deterministic dominant-strategy incentive-compatible (DSIC) auction. For continuous atomless priors, we identify conditions under which deterministic DSIC auctions are equivalent to randomized BIC auctions in terms of achievable outcomes. For interim allocations, under a strict monotonicity condition, we establish a deterministic analogue of Border's theorem for two bidders, providing a necessary and sufficient condition for deterministic DSIC implementability. Using this characterization, we exhibit an interim allocation implementable by a randomized BIC auction but not by any deterministic DSIC auction. △ Less Submitted 24 December, 2025; v1 submitted 19 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.17386 [ pdf , ps , other ] Deterministic implementation in single-item auctions Authors: Yan Liu , Zeyu Ren , Pingzhong Tang , Zihe Wang , Yulong Zeng , Jie Zhang Abstract : Deterministic auctions are attractive in practice due to their transparency, simplicity, and ease of implementation, motivating a sharper understanding of when they can attain the same outcomes as randomized mechanisms. We study deterministic implementation in single-item auctions under two notions of outcomes: (revenue, welfare) pairs and interim allocations. For (revenue, welfare) pairs, we show… ▽ More Deterministic auctions are attractive in practice due to their transparency, simplicity, and ease of implementation, motivating a sharper understanding of when they can attain the same outcomes as randomized mechanisms. We study deterministic implementation in single-item auctions under two notions of outcomes: (revenue, welfare) pairs and interim allocations. For (revenue, welfare) pairs, we show a separation in discrete settings: there exists a pair implementable by a deterministic Bayesian incentive-compatible (BIC) auction but not by any deterministic dominant-strategy incentive-compatible (DSIC) auction. For continuous atomless priors, we identify conditions under which deterministic DSIC auctions are equivalent to randomized BIC auctions in terms of achievable outcomes. For interim allocations, under a strict monotonicity condition, we establish a deterministic analogue of Border's theorem for two bidders, providing a necessary and sufficient condition for deterministic DSIC implementability. Using this characterization, we exhibit an interim allocation implementable by a randomized BIC auction but not by any deterministic DSIC auction. △ Less Submitted 24 December, 2025; v1 submitted 19 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.17215 cs.RO cs.AI Research on Dead Reckoning Algorithm for Self-Propelled Pipeline Robots in Three-Dimensional Complex Pipelines Authors: Yan Gao , Jiliang Wang , Minghan Wang , Xiaohua Chen , Demin Chen , Zhiyong Ren , Tian-Yun Huang Abstract : In the field of gas pipeline location, existing pipeline location methods mostly rely on pipeline location instruments. However, when faced with complex and curved pipeline scenarios, these methods often fail due to problems such as cable entanglement and insufficient equipment flexibility. To address this pain point, we designed a self-propelled pipeline robot. This robot can autonomously complet… ▽ More In the field of gas pipeline location, existing pipeline location methods mostly rely on pipeline location instruments. However, when faced with complex and curved pipeline scenarios, these methods often fail due to problems such as cable entanglement and insufficient equipment flexibility. To address this pain point, we designed a self-propelled pipeline robot. This robot can autonomously complete the location work of complex and curved pipelines in complex pipe networks without external dragging. In terms of pipeline mapping technology, traditional visual mapping and laser mapping methods are easily affected by lighting conditions and insufficient features in the confined space of pipelines, resulting in mapping drift and divergence problems. In contrast, the pipeline location method that integrates inertial navigation and wheel odometers is less affected by pipeline environmental factors. Based on this, this paper proposes a pipeline robot location method based on extended Kalman filtering (EKF). Firstly, the body attitude angle is initially obtained through an inertial measurement unit (IMU). Then, the extended Kalman filtering algorithm is used to improve the accuracy of attitude angle estimation. Finally, high-precision pipeline location is achieved by combining wheel odometers. During the testing phase, the roll wheels of the pipeline robot needed to fit tightly against the pipe wall to reduce slippage. However, excessive tightness would reduce the flexibility of motion control due to excessive friction. Therefore, a balance needed to be struck between the robot's motion capability and positioning accuracy. Experiments were conducted using the self-propelled pipeline robot in a rectangular loop pipeline, and the results verified the effectiveness of the proposed dead reckoning algorithm. △ Less Submitted 24 December, 2025; v1 submitted 18 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: The paper needs further revision arXiv:2512.17215 Research on Dead Reckoning Algorithm for Self-Propelled Pipeline Robots in Three-Dimensional Complex Pipelines Authors: Yan Gao , Jiliang Wang , Minghan Wang , Xiaohua Chen , Demin Chen , Zhiyong Ren , Tian-Yun Huang Abstract : In the field of gas pipeline location, existing pipeline location methods mostly rely on pipeline location instruments. However, when faced with complex and curved pipeline scenarios, these methods often fail due to problems such as cable entanglement and insufficient equipment flexibility. To address this pain point, we designed a self-propelled pipeline robot. This robot can autonomously complet… ▽ More In the field of gas pipeline location, existing pipeline location methods mostly rely on pipeline location instruments. However, when faced with complex and curved pipeline scenarios, these methods often fail due to problems such as cable entanglement and insufficient equipment flexibility. To address this pain point, we designed a self-propelled pipeline robot. This robot can autonomously complete the location work of complex and curved pipelines in complex pipe networks without external dragging. In terms of pipeline mapping technology, traditional visual mapping and laser mapping methods are easily affected by lighting conditions and insufficient features in the confined space of pipelines, resulting in mapping drift and divergence problems. In contrast, the pipeline location method that integrates inertial navigation and wheel odometers is less affected by pipeline environmental factors. Based on this, this paper proposes a pipeline robot location method based on extended Kalman filtering (EKF). Firstly, the body attitude angle is initially obtained through an inertial measurement unit (IMU). Then, the extended Kalman filtering algorithm is used to improve the accuracy of attitude angle estimation. Finally, high-precision pipeline location is achieved by combining wheel odometers. During the testing phase, the roll wheels of the pipeline robot needed to fit tightly against the pipe wall to reduce slippage. However, excessive tightness would reduce the flexibility of motion control due to excessive friction. Therefore, a balance needed to be struck between the robot's motion capability and positioning accuracy. Experiments were conducted using the self-propelled pipeline robot in a rectangular loop pipeline, and the results verified the effectiveness of the proposed dead reckoning algorithm. △ Less Submitted 24 December, 2025; v1 submitted 18 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: The paper needs further revision arXiv:2512.11529 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG xGR: Efficient Generative Recommendation Serving at Scale Authors: Qingxiao Sun , Tongxuan Liu , Shen Zhang , Siyu Wu , Peijun Yang , Haotian Liang , Menxin Li , Xiaolong Ma , Zhiwei Liang , Ziyi Ren , Minchao Zhang , Xinyu Liu , Ke Zhang , Depei Qian , Hailong Yang Abstract : Recommendation system delivers substantial economic benefits by providing personalized predictions. Generative recommendation (GR) integrates LLMs to enhance the understanding of long user-item sequences. Despite employing attention-based architectures, GR's workload differs markedly from that of LLM serving. GR typically processes long prompt while producing short, fixed-length outputs, yet the c… ▽ More Recommendation system delivers substantial economic benefits by providing personalized predictions. Generative recommendation (GR) integrates LLMs to enhance the understanding of long user-item sequences. Despite employing attention-based architectures, GR's workload differs markedly from that of LLM serving. GR typically processes long prompt while producing short, fixed-length outputs, yet the computational cost of each decode phase is especially high due to the large beam width. In addition, since the beam search involves a vast item space, the sorting overhead becomes particularly time-consuming. We propose xGR, a GR-oriented serving system that meets strict low-latency requirements under highconcurrency scenarios. First, xGR unifies the processing of prefill and decode phases through staged computation and separated KV cache. Second, xGR enables early sorting termination and mask-based item filtering with data structure reuse. Third, xGR reconstructs the overall pipeline to exploit multilevel overlap and multi-stream parallelism. Our experiments with real-world recommendation service datasets demonstrate that xGR achieves at least 3.49x throughput compared to the state-of-the-art baseline under strict latency constraints. △ Less Submitted 19 December, 2025; v1 submitted 12 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.11529 [ pdf , ps , other ] xGR: Efficient Generative Recommendation Serving at Scale Authors: Qingxiao Sun , Tongxuan Liu , Shen Zhang , Siyu Wu , Peijun Yang , Haotian Liang , Menxin Li , Xiaolong Ma , Zhiwei Liang , Ziyi Ren , Minchao Zhang , Xinyu Liu , Ke Zhang , Depei Qian , Hailong Yang Abstract : Recommendation system delivers substantial economic benefits by providing personalized predictions. Generative recommendation (GR) integrates LLMs to enhance the understanding of long user-item sequences. Despite employing attention-based architectures, GR's workload differs markedly from that of LLM serving. GR typically processes long prompt while producing short, fixed-length outputs, yet the c… ▽ More Recommendation system delivers substantial economic benefits by providing personalized predictions. Generative recommendation (GR) integrates LLMs to enhance the understanding of long user-item sequences. Despite employing attention-based architectures, GR's workload differs markedly from that of LLM serving. GR typically processes long prompt while producing short, fixed-length outputs, yet the computational cost of each decode phase is especially high due to the large beam width. In addition, since the beam search involves a vast item space, the sorting overhead becomes particularly time-consuming. We propose xGR, a GR-oriented serving system that meets strict low-latency requirements under highconcurrency scenarios. First, xGR unifies the processing of prefill and decode phases through staged computation and separated KV cache. Second, xGR enables early sorting termination and mask-based item filtering with data structure reuse. Third, xGR reconstructs the overall pipeline to exploit multilevel overlap and multi-stream parallelism. Our experiments with real-world recommendation service datasets demonstrate that xGR achieves at least 3.49x throughput compared to the state-of-the-art baseline under strict latency constraints. △ Less Submitted 19 December, 2025; v1 submitted 12 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.10619 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV DOCR-Inspector: Fine-Grained and Automated Evaluation of Document Parsing with VLM Authors: Qintong Zhang , Junyuan Zhang , Zhifei Ren , Linke Ouyang , Zichen Wen , Junbo Niu , Yuan Qu , Bin Wang , Ka-Ho Chow , Conghui He , Wentao Zhang Abstract : Document parsing aims to transform unstructured PDF images into semi-structured data, facilitating the digitization and utilization of information in diverse domains. While vision language models (VLMs) have significantly advanced this task, achieving reliable, high-quality parsing in real-world scenarios remains challenging. Common practice often selects the top-performing model on standard bench… ▽ More Document parsing aims to transform unstructured PDF images into semi-structured data, facilitating the digitization and utilization of information in diverse domains. While vision language models (VLMs) have significantly advanced this task, achieving reliable, high-quality parsing in real-world scenarios remains challenging. Common practice often selects the top-performing model on standard benchmarks. However, these benchmarks may carry dataset-specific biases, leading to inconsistent model rankings and limited correlation with real-world performance. Moreover, benchmark metrics typically provide only overall scores, which can obscure distinct error patterns in output. This raises a key challenge: how can we reliably and comprehensively assess document parsing quality in the wild? We address this problem with DOCR-Inspector, which formalizes document parsing assessment as fine-grained error detection and analysis. Leveraging VLM-as-a-Judge, DOCR-Inspector analyzes a document image and its parsed output, identifies all errors, assigns them to one of 28 predefined types, and produces a comprehensive quality assessment. To enable this capability, we construct DOCRcase-200K for training and propose the Chain-of-Checklist reasoning paradigm to enable the hierarchical structure of parsing quality assessment. For empirical validation, we introduce DOCRcaseBench, a set of 882 real-world document parsing cases with manual annotations. On this benchmark, DOCR-Inspector-7B outperforms commercial models like Gemini 2.5 Pro, as well as leading open-source models. Further experiments demonstrate that its quality assessments provide valuable guidance for parsing results refinement, making DOCR-Inspector both a practical evaluator and a driver for advancing document parsing systems at scale. Model and code are released at: △ Less Submitted 11 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.10619 [ pdf , ps , other ] DOCR-Inspector: Fine-Grained and Automated Evaluation of Document Parsing with VLM Authors: Qintong Zhang , Junyuan Zhang , Zhifei Ren , Linke Ouyang , Zichen Wen , Junbo Niu , Yuan Qu , Bin Wang , Ka-Ho Chow , Conghui He , Wentao Zhang Abstract : Document parsing aims to transform unstructured PDF images into semi-structured data, facilitating the digitization and utilization of information in diverse domains. While vision language models (VLMs) have significantly advanced this task, achieving reliable, high-quality parsing in real-world scenarios remains challenging. Common practice often selects the top-performing model on standard bench… ▽ More Document parsing aims to transform unstructured PDF images into semi-structured data, facilitating the digitization and utilization of information in diverse domains. While vision language models (VLMs) have significantly advanced this task, achieving reliable, high-quality parsing in real-world scenarios remains challenging. Common practice often selects the top-performing model on standard benchmarks. However, these benchmarks may carry dataset-specific biases, leading to inconsistent model rankings and limited correlation with real-world performance. Moreover, benchmark metrics typically provide only overall scores, which can obscure distinct error patterns in output. This raises a key challenge: how can we reliably and comprehensively assess document parsing quality in the wild? We address this problem with DOCR-Inspector, which formalizes document parsing assessment as fine-grained error detection and analysis. Leveraging VLM-as-a-Judge, DOCR-Inspector analyzes a document image and its parsed output, identifies all errors, assigns them to one of 28 predefined types, and produces a comprehensive quality assessment. To enable this capability, we construct DOCRcase-200K for training and propose the Chain-of-Checklist reasoning paradigm to enable the hierarchical structure of parsing quality assessment. For empirical validation, we introduce DOCRcaseBench, a set of 882 real-world document parsing cases with manual annotations. On this benchmark, DOCR-Inspector-7B outperforms commercial models like Gemini 2.5 Pro, as well as leading open-source models. Further experiments demonstrate that its quality assessments provide valuable guidance for parsing results refinement, making DOCR-Inspector both a practical evaluator and a driver for advancing document parsing systems at scale. Model and code are released at: △ Less Submitted 11 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.08661 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO Ergodic Trajectory Planning with Dynamic Sensor Footprints Authors: Ziyue Zheng , Yongce Liu , Hesheng Wang , Zhongqiang Ren Abstract : This paper addresses the problem of trajectory planning for information gathering with a dynamic and resolution-varying sensor footprint. Ergodic planning offers a principled framework that balances exploration (visiting all areas) and exploitation (focusing on high-information regions) by planning trajectories such that the time spent in a region is proportional to the amount of information in th… ▽ More This paper addresses the problem of trajectory planning for information gathering with a dynamic and resolution-varying sensor footprint. Ergodic planning offers a principled framework that balances exploration (visiting all areas) and exploitation (focusing on high-information regions) by planning trajectories such that the time spent in a region is proportional to the amount of information in that region. Existing ergodic planning often oversimplifies the sensing model by assuming a point sensor or a footprint with constant shape and resolution. In practice, the sensor footprint can drastically change over time as the robot moves, such as aerial robots equipped with downward-facing cameras, whose field of view depends on the orientation and altitude. To overcome this limitation, we propose a new metric that accounts for dynamic sensor footprints, analyze the theoretic local optimality conditions, and propose numerical trajectory optimization algorithms. Experimental results show that the proposed approach can simultaneously optimize both the trajectories and sensor footprints, with up to an order of magnitude better ergodicity than conventional methods. We also deploy our approach in a multi-drone system to ergodically cover an object in 3D space. △ Less Submitted 9 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 12 figures arXiv:2512.08661 [ pdf , ps , other ] Ergodic Trajectory Planning with Dynamic Sensor Footprints Authors: Ziyue Zheng , Yongce Liu , Hesheng Wang , Zhongqiang Ren Abstract : This paper addresses the problem of trajectory planning for information gathering with a dynamic and resolution-varying sensor footprint. Ergodic planning offers a principled framework that balances exploration (visiting all areas) and exploitation (focusing on high-information regions) by planning trajectories such that the time spent in a region is proportional to the amount of information in th… ▽ More This paper addresses the problem of trajectory planning for information gathering with a dynamic and resolution-varying sensor footprint. Ergodic planning offers a principled framework that balances exploration (visiting all areas) and exploitation (focusing on high-information regions) by planning trajectories such that the time spent in a region is proportional to the amount of information in that region. Existing ergodic planning often oversimplifies the sensing model by assuming a point sensor or a footprint with constant shape and resolution. In practice, the sensor footprint can drastically change over time as the robot moves, such as aerial robots equipped with downward-facing cameras, whose field of view depends on the orientation and altitude. To overcome this limitation, we propose a new metric that accounts for dynamic sensor footprints, analyze the theoretic local optimality conditions, and propose numerical trajectory optimization algorithms. Experimental results show that the proposed approach can simultaneously optimize both the trajectories and sensor footprints, with up to an order of magnitude better ergodicity than conventional methods. We also deploy our approach in a multi-drone system to ergodically cover an object in 3D space. △ Less Submitted 9 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 12 figures arXiv:2512.06774 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI RDSplat: Robust Watermarking Against Diffusion Editing for 3D Gaussian Splatting Authors: Longjie Zhao , Ziming Hong , Zhenyang Ren , Runnan Chen , Mingming Gong , Tongliang Liu Abstract : 3D Gaussian Splatting (3DGS) has enabled the creation of digital assets and downstream applications, underscoring the need for robust copyright protection via digital watermarking. However, existing 3DGS watermarking methods remain highly vulnerable to diffusion-based editing, which can easily erase embedded provenance. This challenge highlights the urgent need for 3DGS watermarking techniques tha… ▽ More 3D Gaussian Splatting (3DGS) has enabled the creation of digital assets and downstream applications, underscoring the need for robust copyright protection via digital watermarking. However, existing 3DGS watermarking methods remain highly vulnerable to diffusion-based editing, which can easily erase embedded provenance. This challenge highlights the urgent need for 3DGS watermarking techniques that are intrinsically resilient to diffusion-based editing. In this paper, we introduce RDSplat, a Robust watermarking paradigm against Diffusion editing for 3D Gaussian Splatting. RDSplat embeds watermarks into 3DGS components that diffusion-based editing inherently preserve, achieved through (i) proactively targeting low-frequency Gaussians and (ii) adversarial training with a diffusion proxy. Specifically, we introduce a multi-domain framework that operates natively in 3DGS space and embeds watermarks into diffusion-editing-preserved low-frequency Gaussians via coordinated covariance regularization and 2D filtering. In addition, we exploit the low-pass filtering behavior of diffusion-based editing by using Gaussian blur as an efficient training surrogate, enabling adversarial fine-tuning that further enhances watermark robustness against diffusion-based editing. Empirically, comprehensive quantitative and qualitative evaluations on three benchmark datasets demonstrate that RDSplat not only maintains superior robustness under diffusion-based editing, but also preserves watermark invisibility, achieving state-of-the-art performance. △ Less Submitted 7 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.06774 [ pdf , ps , other ] RDSplat: Robust Watermarking Against Diffusion Editing for 3D Gaussian Splatting Authors: Longjie Zhao , Ziming Hong , Zhenyang Ren , Runnan Chen , Mingming Gong , Tongliang Liu Abstract : 3D Gaussian Splatting (3DGS) has enabled the creation of digital assets and downstream applications, underscoring the need for robust copyright protection via digital watermarking. However, existing 3DGS watermarking methods remain highly vulnerable to diffusion-based editing, which can easily erase embedded provenance. This challenge highlights the urgent need for 3DGS watermarking techniques tha… ▽ More 3D Gaussian Splatting (3DGS) has enabled the creation of digital assets and downstream applications, underscoring the need for robust copyright protection via digital watermarking. However, existing 3DGS watermarking methods remain highly vulnerable to diffusion-based editing, which can easily erase embedded provenance. This challenge highlights the urgent need for 3DGS watermarking techniques that are intrinsically resilient to diffusion-based editing. In this paper, we introduce RDSplat, a Robust watermarking paradigm against Diffusion editing for 3D Gaussian Splatting. RDSplat embeds watermarks into 3DGS components that diffusion-based editing inherently preserve, achieved through (i) proactively targeting low-frequency Gaussians and (ii) adversarial training with a diffusion proxy. Specifically, we introduce a multi-domain framework that operates natively in 3DGS space and embeds watermarks into diffusion-editing-preserved low-frequency Gaussians via coordinated covariance regularization and 2D filtering. In addition, we exploit the low-pass filtering behavior of diffusion-based editing by using Gaussian blur as an efficient training surrogate, enabling adversarial fine-tuning that further enhances watermark robustness against diffusion-based editing. Empirically, comprehensive quantitative and qualitative evaluations on three benchmark datasets demonstrate that RDSplat not only maintains superior robustness under diffusion-based editing, but also preserves watermark invisibility, achieving state-of-the-art performance. △ Less Submitted 7 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.05964 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO cs.AI Training-Time Action Conditioning for Efficient Real-Time Chunking Authors: Kevin Black , Allen Z. Ren , Michael Equi , Sergey Levine Abstract : Real-time chunking (RTC) enables vision-language-action models (VLAs) to generate smooth, reactive robot trajectories by asynchronously predicting action chunks and conditioning on previously committed actions via inference-time inpainting. However, this inpainting method introduces computational overhead that increases inference latency. In this work, we propose a simple alternative: simulating i… ▽ More Real-time chunking (RTC) enables vision-language-action models (VLAs) to generate smooth, reactive robot trajectories by asynchronously predicting action chunks and conditioning on previously committed actions via inference-time inpainting. However, this inpainting method introduces computational overhead that increases inference latency. In this work, we propose a simple alternative: simulating inference delay at training time and conditioning on action prefixes directly, eliminating any inference-time overhead. Our method requires no modifications to the model architecture or robot runtime, and can be implemented with only a few additional lines of code. In simulated experiments, we find that training-time RTC outperforms inference-time RTC at higher inference delays. In real-world experiments on box building and espresso making tasks with the $π_{0.6}$ VLA, we demonstrate that training-time RTC maintains both task performance and speed parity with inference-time RTC while being computationally cheaper. Our results suggest that training-time action conditioning is a practical drop-in replacement for inference-time inpainting in real-time robot control. △ Less Submitted 8 December, 2025; v1 submitted 5 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.05964 [ pdf , ps , other ] Training-Time Action Conditioning for Efficient Real-Time Chunking Authors: Kevin Black , Allen Z. Ren , Michael Equi , Sergey Levine Abstract : Real-time chunking (RTC) enables vision-language-action models (VLAs) to generate smooth, reactive robot trajectories by asynchronously predicting action chunks and conditioning on previously committed actions via inference-time inpainting. However, this inpainting method introduces computational overhead that increases inference latency. In this work, we propose a simple alternative: simulating i… ▽ More Real-time chunking (RTC) enables vision-language-action models (VLAs) to generate smooth, reactive robot trajectories by asynchronously predicting action chunks and conditioning on previously committed actions via inference-time inpainting. However, this inpainting method introduces computational overhead that increases inference latency. In this work, we propose a simple alternative: simulating inference delay at training time and conditioning on action prefixes directly, eliminating any inference-time overhead. Our method requires no modifications to the model architecture or robot runtime, and can be implemented with only a few additional lines of code. In simulated experiments, we find that training-time RTC outperforms inference-time RTC at higher inference delays. In real-world experiments on box building and espresso making tasks with the $π_{0.6}$ VLA, we demonstrate that training-time RTC maintains both task performance and speed parity with inference-time RTC while being computationally cheaper. Our results suggest that training-time action conditioning is a practical drop-in replacement for inference-time inpainting in real-time robot control. △ Less Submitted 8 December, 2025; v1 submitted 5 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.04535 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI GTM: Simulating the World of Tools for AI Agents Authors: Zhenzhen Ren , Xinpeng Zhang , Zhenxing Qian , Yan Gao , Yu Shi , Shuxin Zheng , Jiyan He Abstract : The integration of external tools is pivotal for empowering Large Language Model (LLM) agents with real-world capabilities. However, training these agents through direct, continuous interaction with diverse tools is often prohibitively expensive, slow, and introduces additional development and maintenance overhead. To address this challenge, we introduce the Generalist Tool Model (GTM), a 1.5-bill… ▽ More The integration of external tools is pivotal for empowering Large Language Model (LLM) agents with real-world capabilities. However, training these agents through direct, continuous interaction with diverse tools is often prohibitively expensive, slow, and introduces additional development and maintenance overhead. To address this challenge, we introduce the Generalist Tool Model (GTM), a 1.5-billion-parameter model that learns to act as a universal tool simulator. With only prompt-level configuration, GTM accesses tool functionalities along with input arguments and generates outputs that faithfully mimic real tool execution, providing a fast and cost-effective solution that eliminates development overhead. To build GTM, we propose the Context-Aware Response Generation (CARG) pipeline, which synthesizes comprehensive training data covering over 20,000 tools across 300 domains including physics, medicine, robotics, and finance. Through this pipeline, GTM learns to produce not only syntactically correct outputs but also logically coherent and contextually appropriate responses. Experiments demonstrate that GTM produces high-quality outputs with strong consistency and reliability. Besides when used in real reinforcement learning scenarios for agent training, GTM exhibits significantly faster simulation speed compared to real tools while maintaining comparable output quality, along with remarkable generalization and domain adaptability. Our results establish GTM as a foundational component for developing future AI agents, enabling efficient and scalable training of tool-augmented systems. △ Less Submitted 5 December, 2025; v1 submitted 4 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.04535 [ pdf , ps , other ] GTM: Simulating the World of Tools for AI Agents Authors: Zhenzhen Ren , Xinpeng Zhang , Zhenxing Qian , Yan Gao , Yu Shi , Shuxin Zheng , Jiyan He Abstract : The integration of external tools is pivotal for empowering Large Language Model (LLM) agents with real-world capabilities. However, training these agents through direct, continuous interaction with diverse tools is often prohibitively expensive, slow, and introduces additional development and maintenance overhead. To address this challenge, we introduce the Generalist Tool Model (GTM), a 1.5-bill… ▽ More The integration of external tools is pivotal for empowering Large Language Model (LLM) agents with real-world capabilities. However, training these agents through direct, continuous interaction with diverse tools is often prohibitively expensive, slow, and introduces additional development and maintenance overhead. To address this challenge, we introduce the Generalist Tool Model (GTM), a 1.5-billion-parameter model that learns to act as a universal tool simulator. With only prompt-level configuration, GTM accesses tool functionalities along with input arguments and generates outputs that faithfully mimic real tool execution, providing a fast and cost-effective solution that eliminates development overhead. To build GTM, we propose the Context-Aware Response Generation (CARG) pipeline, which synthesizes comprehensive training data covering over 20,000 tools across 300 domains including physics, medicine, robotics, and finance. Through this pipeline, GTM learns to produce not only syntactically correct outputs but also logically coherent and contextually appropriate responses. Experiments demonstrate that GTM produces high-quality outputs with strong consistency and reliability. Besides when used in real reinforcement learning scenarios for agent training, GTM exhibits significantly faster simulation speed compared to real tools while maintaining comparable output quality, along with remarkable generalization and domain adaptability. Our results establish GTM as a foundational component for developing future AI agents, enabling efficient and scalable training of tool-augmented systems. △ Less Submitted 5 December, 2025; v1 submitted 4 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.02556 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL DeepSeek-V3.2: Pushing the Frontier of Open Large Language Models Authors: DeepSeek-AI , Aixin Liu , Aoxue Mei , Bangcai Lin , Bing Xue , Bingxuan Wang , Bingzheng Xu , Bochao Wu , Bowei Zhang , Chaofan Lin , Chen Dong , Chengda Lu , Chenggang Zhao , Chengqi Deng , Chenhao Xu , Chong Ruan , Damai Dai , Daya Guo , Dejian Yang , Deli Chen , Erhang Li , Fangqi Zhou , Fangyun Lin , Fucong Dai , Guangbo Hao , et al. (239 additional authors not shown) Abstract : We introduce DeepSeek-V3.2, a model that harmonizes high computational efficiency with superior reasoning and agent performance. The key technical breakthroughs of DeepSeek-V3.2 are as follows: (1) DeepSeek Sparse Attention (DSA): We introduce DSA, an efficient attention mechanism that substantially reduces computational complexity while preserving model performance in long-context scenarios. (2)… ▽ More We introduce DeepSeek-V3.2, a model that harmonizes high computational efficiency with superior reasoning and agent performance. The key technical breakthroughs of DeepSeek-V3.2 are as follows: (1) DeepSeek Sparse Attention (DSA): We introduce DSA, an efficient attention mechanism that substantially reduces computational complexity while preserving model performance in long-context scenarios. (2) Scalable Reinforcement Learning Framework: By implementing a robust reinforcement learning protocol and scaling post-training compute, DeepSeek-V3.2 performs comparably to GPT-5. Notably, our high-compute variant, DeepSeek-V3.2-Speciale, surpasses GPT-5 and exhibits reasoning proficiency on par with Gemini-3.0-Pro, achieving gold-medal performance in both the 2025 International Mathematical Olympiad (IMO) and the International Olympiad in Informatics (IOI). (3) Large-Scale Agentic Task Synthesis Pipeline: To integrate reasoning into tool-use scenarios, we developed a novel synthesis pipeline that systematically generates training data at scale. This methodology facilitates scalable agentic post-training, yielding substantial improvements in generalization and instruction-following robustness within complex, interactive environments. △ Less Submitted 2 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.02556 [ pdf , ps , other ] DeepSeek-V3.2: Pushing the Frontier of Open Large Language Models Authors: DeepSeek-AI , Aixin Liu , Aoxue Mei , Bangcai Lin , Bing Xue , Bingxuan Wang , Bingzheng Xu , Bochao Wu , Bowei Zhang , Chaofan Lin , Chen Dong , Chengda Lu , Chenggang Zhao , Chengqi Deng , Chenhao Xu , Chong Ruan , Damai Dai , Daya Guo , Dejian Yang , Deli Chen , Erhang Li , Fangqi Zhou , Fangyun Lin , Fucong Dai , Guangbo Hao , et al. (239 additional authors not shown) Abstract : We introduce DeepSeek-V3.2, a model that harmonizes high computational efficiency with superior reasoning and agent performance. The key technical breakthroughs of DeepSeek-V3.2 are as follows: (1) DeepSeek Sparse Attention (DSA): We introduce DSA, an efficient attention mechanism that substantially reduces computational complexity while preserving model performance in long-context scenarios. (2)… ▽ More We introduce DeepSeek-V3.2, a model that harmonizes high computational efficiency with superior reasoning and agent performance. The key technical breakthroughs of DeepSeek-V3.2 are as follows: (1) DeepSeek Sparse Attention (DSA): We introduce DSA, an efficient attention mechanism that substantially reduces computational complexity while preserving model performance in long-context scenarios. (2) Scalable Reinforcement Learning Framework: By implementing a robust reinforcement learning protocol and scaling post-training compute, DeepSeek-V3.2 performs comparably to GPT-5. Notably, our high-compute variant, DeepSeek-V3.2-Speciale, surpasses GPT-5 and exhibits reasoning proficiency on par with Gemini-3.0-Pro, achieving gold-medal performance in both the 2025 International Mathematical Olympiad (IMO) and the International Olympiad in Informatics (IOI). (3) Large-Scale Agentic Task Synthesis Pipeline: To integrate reasoning into tool-use scenarios, we developed a novel synthesis pipeline that systematically generates training data at scale. This methodology facilitates scalable agentic post-training, yielding substantial improvements in generalization and instruction-following robustness within complex, interactive environments. △ Less Submitted 2 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.02038 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI cs.IR Deep Research: A Systematic Survey Authors: Zhengliang Shi , Yiqun Chen , Haitao Li , Weiwei Sun , Shiyu Ni , Yougang Lyu , Run-Ze Fan , Bowen Jin , Yixuan Weng , Minjun Zhu , Qiujie Xie , Xinyu Guo , Qu Yang , Jiayi Wu , Jujia Zhao , Xiaqiang Tang , Xinbei Ma , Cunxiang Wang , Jiaxin Mao , Qingyao Ai , Jen-Tse Huang , Wenxuan Wang , Yue Zhang , Yiming Yang , Zhaopeng Tu , et al. (1 additional authors not shown) Abstract : Large language models (LLMs) have rapidly evolved from text generators into powerful problem solvers. Yet, many open tasks demand critical thinking, multi-source, and verifiable outputs, which are beyond single-shot prompting or standard retrieval-augmented generation. Recently, numerous studies have explored Deep Research (DR), which aims to combine the reasoning capabilities of LLMs with externa… ▽ More Large language models (LLMs) have rapidly evolved from text generators into powerful problem solvers. Yet, many open tasks demand critical thinking, multi-source, and verifiable outputs, which are beyond single-shot prompting or standard retrieval-augmented generation. Recently, numerous studies have explored Deep Research (DR), which aims to combine the reasoning capabilities of LLMs with external tools, such as search engines, thereby empowering LLMs to act as research agents capable of completing complex, open-ended tasks. This survey presents a comprehensive and systematic overview of deep research systems, including a clear roadmap, foundational components, practical implementation techniques, important challenges, and future directions. Specifically, our main contributions are as follows: (i) we formalize a three-stage roadmap and distinguish deep research from related paradigms; (ii) we introduce four key components: query planning, information acquisition, memory management, and answer generation, each paired with fine-grained sub-taxonomies; (iii) we summarize optimization techniques, including prompting, supervised fine-tuning, and agentic reinforcement learning; and (iv) we consolidate evaluation criteria and open challenges, aiming to guide and facilitate future development. As the field of deep research continues to evolve rapidly, we are committed to continuously updating this survey to reflect the latest progress in this area. △ Less Submitted 24 November, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.02038 [ pdf , ps , other ] Deep Research: A Systematic Survey Authors: Zhengliang Shi , Yiqun Chen , Haitao Li , Weiwei Sun , Shiyu Ni , Yougang Lyu , Run-Ze Fan , Bowen Jin , Yixuan Weng , Minjun Zhu , Qiujie Xie , Xinyu Guo , Qu Yang , Jiayi Wu , Jujia Zhao , Xiaqiang Tang , Xinbei Ma , Cunxiang Wang , Jiaxin Mao , Qingyao Ai , Jen-Tse Huang , Wenxuan Wang , Yue Zhang , Yiming Yang , Zhaopeng Tu , et al. (1 additional authors not shown) Abstract : Large language models (LLMs) have rapidly evolved from text generators into powerful problem solvers. Yet, many open tasks demand critical thinking, multi-source, and verifiable outputs, which are beyond single-shot prompting or standard retrieval-augmented generation. Recently, numerous studies have explored Deep Research (DR), which aims to combine the reasoning capabilities of LLMs with externa… ▽ More Large language models (LLMs) have rapidly evolved from text generators into powerful problem solvers. Yet, many open tasks demand critical thinking, multi-source, and verifiable outputs, which are beyond single-shot prompting or standard retrieval-augmented generation. Recently, numerous studies have explored Deep Research (DR), which aims to combine the reasoning capabilities of LLMs with external tools, such as search engines, thereby empowering LLMs to act as research agents capable of completing complex, open-ended tasks. This survey presents a comprehensive and systematic overview of deep research systems, including a clear roadmap, foundational components, practical implementation techniques, important challenges, and future directions. Specifically, our main contributions are as follows: (i) we formalize a three-stage roadmap and distinguish deep research from related paradigms; (ii) we introduce four key components: query planning, information acquisition, memory management, and answer generation, each paired with fine-grained sub-taxonomies; (iii) we summarize optimization techniques, including prompting, supervised fine-tuning, and agentic reinforcement learning; and (iv) we consolidate evaluation criteria and open challenges, aiming to guide and facilitate future development. As the field of deep research continues to evolve rapidly, we are committed to continuously updating this survey to reflect the latest progress in this area. △ Less Submitted 24 November, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.01820 [ pdf , ps , other ] stat.ML cs.LG math.PR math.ST Dimension-free error estimate for diffusion model and optimal scheduling Authors: Valentin de Bortoli , Romuald Elie , Anna Kazeykina , Zhenjie Ren , Jiacheng Zhang Abstract : Diffusion generative models have emerged as powerful tools for producing synthetic data from an empirically observed distribution. A common approach involves simulating the time-reversal of an Ornstein-Uhlenbeck (OU) process initialized at the true data distribution. Since the score function associated with the OU process is typically unknown, it is approximated using a trained neural network. Thi… ▽ More Diffusion generative models have emerged as powerful tools for producing synthetic data from an empirically observed distribution. A common approach involves simulating the time-reversal of an Ornstein-Uhlenbeck (OU) process initialized at the true data distribution. Since the score function associated with the OU process is typically unknown, it is approximated using a trained neural network. This approximation, along with finite time simulation, time discretization and statistical approximation, introduce several sources of error whose impact on the generated samples must be carefully understood. Previous analyses have quantified the error between the generated and the true data distributions in terms of Wasserstein distance or Kullback-Leibler (KL) divergence. However, both metrics present limitations: KL divergence requires absolute continuity between distributions, while Wasserstein distance, though more general, leads to error bounds that scale poorly with dimension, rendering them impractical in high-dimensional settings. In this work, we derive an explicit, dimension-free bound on the discrepancy between the generated and the true data distributions. The bound is expressed in terms of a smooth test functional with bounded first and second derivatives. The key novelty lies in the use of this weaker, functional metric to obtain dimension-independent guarantees, at the cost of higher regularity on the test functions. As an application, we formulate and solve a variational problem to minimize the time-discretization error, leading to the derivation of an optimal time-scheduling strategy for the reverse-time diffusion. Interestingly, this scheduler has appeared previously in the literature in a different context; our analysis provides a new justification for its optimality, now grounded in minimizing the discretization bias in generative sampling. △ Less Submitted 1 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.01820 [ pdf , ps , other ] Dimension-free error estimate for diffusion model and optimal scheduling Authors: Valentin de Bortoli , Romuald Elie , Anna Kazeykina , Zhenjie Ren , Jiacheng Zhang Abstract : Diffusion generative models have emerged as powerful tools for producing synthetic data from an empirically observed distribution. A common approach involves simulating the time-reversal of an Ornstein-Uhlenbeck (OU) process initialized at the true data distribution. Since the score function associated with the OU process is typically unknown, it is approximated using a trained neural network. Thi… ▽ More Diffusion generative models have emerged as powerful tools for producing synthetic data from an empirically observed distribution. A common approach involves simulating the time-reversal of an Ornstein-Uhlenbeck (OU) process initialized at the true data distribution. Since the score function associated with the OU process is typically unknown, it is approximated using a trained neural network. This approximation, along with finite time simulation, time discretization and statistical approximation, introduce several sources of error whose impact on the generated samples must be carefully understood. Previous analyses have quantified the error between the generated and the true data distributions in terms of Wasserstein distance or Kullback-Leibler (KL) divergence. However, both metrics present limitations: KL divergence requires absolute continuity between distributions, while Wasserstein distance, though more general, leads to error bounds that scale poorly with dimension, rendering them impractical in high-dimensional settings. In this work, we derive an explicit, dimension-free bound on the discrepancy between the generated and the true data distributions. The bound is expressed in terms of a smooth test functional with bounded first and second derivatives. The key novelty lies in the use of this weaker, functional metric to obtain dimension-independent guarantees, at the cost of higher regularity on the test functions. As an application, we formulate and solve a variational problem to minimize the time-discretization error, leading to the derivation of an optimal time-scheduling strategy for the reverse-time diffusion. Interestingly, this scheduler has appeared previously in the literature in a different context; our analysis provides a new justification for its optimality, now grounded in minimizing the discretization bias in generative sampling. △ Less Submitted 1 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.01801 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO cs.LG GR-RL: Going Dexterous and Precise for Long-Horizon Robotic Manipulation Authors: Yunfei Li , Xiao Ma , Jiafeng Xu , Yu Cui , Zhongren Cui , Zhigang Han , Liqun Huang , Tao Kong , Yuxiao Liu , Hao Niu , Wanli Peng , Jingchao Qiao , Zeyu Ren , Haixin Shi , Zhi Su , Jiawen Tian , Yuyang Xiao , Shenyu Zhang , Liwei Zheng , Hang Li , Yonghui Wu Abstract : We present GR-RL, a robotic learning framework that turns a generalist vision-language-action (VLA) policy into a highly capable specialist for long-horizon dexterous manipulation. Assuming the optimality of human demonstrations is core to existing VLA policies. However, we claim that in highly dexterous and precise manipulation tasks, human demonstrations are noisy and suboptimal. GR-RL proposes… ▽ More We present GR-RL, a robotic learning framework that turns a generalist vision-language-action (VLA) policy into a highly capable specialist for long-horizon dexterous manipulation. Assuming the optimality of human demonstrations is core to existing VLA policies. However, we claim that in highly dexterous and precise manipulation tasks, human demonstrations are noisy and suboptimal. GR-RL proposes a multi-stage training pipeline that filters, augments, and reinforces the demonstrations by reinforcement learning. First, GR-RL learns a vision-language-conditioned task progress, filters the demonstration trajectories, and only keeps the transitions that contribute positively to the progress. Specifically, we show that by directly applying offline RL with sparse reward, the resulting $Q$-values can be treated as a robust progress function. Next, we introduce morphological symmetry augmentation that greatly improves the generalization and performance of GR-RL. Lastly, to better align the VLA policy with its deployment behaviors for high-precision control, we perform online RL by learning a latent space noise predictor. With this pipeline, GR-RL is, to our knowledge, the first learning-based policy that can autonomously lace up a shoe by threading shoelaces through multiple eyelets with an 83.3% success rate, a task requiring long-horizon reasoning, millimeter-level precision, and compliant soft-body interaction. We hope GR-RL provides a step toward enabling generalist robot foundation models to specialize into reliable real-world experts. △ Less Submitted 22 December, 2025; v1 submitted 1 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.01801 [ pdf , ps , other ] GR-RL: Going Dexterous and Precise for Long-Horizon Robotic Manipulation Authors: Yunfei Li , Xiao Ma , Jiafeng Xu , Yu Cui , Zhongren Cui , Zhigang Han , Liqun Huang , Tao Kong , Yuxiao Liu , Hao Niu , Wanli Peng , Jingchao Qiao , Zeyu Ren , Haixin Shi , Zhi Su , Jiawen Tian , Yuyang Xiao , Shenyu Zhang , Liwei Zheng , Hang Li , Yonghui Wu Abstract : We present GR-RL, a robotic learning framework that turns a generalist vision-language-action (VLA) policy into a highly capable specialist for long-horizon dexterous manipulation. Assuming the optimality of human demonstrations is core to existing VLA policies. However, we claim that in highly dexterous and precise manipulation tasks, human demonstrations are noisy and suboptimal. GR-RL proposes… ▽ More We present GR-RL, a robotic learning framework that turns a generalist vision-language-action (VLA) policy into a highly capable specialist for long-horizon dexterous manipulation. Assuming the optimality of human demonstrations is core to existing VLA policies. However, we claim that in highly dexterous and precise manipulation tasks, human demonstrations are noisy and suboptimal. GR-RL proposes a multi-stage training pipeline that filters, augments, and reinforces the demonstrations by reinforcement learning. First, GR-RL learns a vision-language-conditioned task progress, filters the demonstration trajectories, and only keeps the transitions that contribute positively to the progress. Specifically, we show that by directly applying offline RL with sparse reward, the resulting $Q$-values can be treated as a robust progress function. Next, we introduce morphological symmetry augmentation that greatly improves the generalization and performance of GR-RL. Lastly, to better align the VLA policy with its deployment behaviors for high-precision control, we perform online RL by learning a latent space noise predictor. With this pipeline, GR-RL is, to our knowledge, the first learning-based policy that can autonomously lace up a shoe by threading shoelaces through multiple eyelets with an 83.3% success rate, a task requiring long-horizon reasoning, millimeter-level precision, and compliant soft-body interaction. We hope GR-RL provides a step toward enabling generalist robot foundation models to specialize into reliable real-world experts. △ Less Submitted 22 December, 2025; v1 submitted 1 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.00398 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.DC Heimdall++: Optimizing GPU Utilization and Pipeline Parallelism for Efficient Single-Pulse Detection Authors: Bingzheng Xia , Zujie Ren , Kuang Ma , Xiaoqian Li , Wenda Li , Shuibing He Abstract : With the increasing time and frequency resolution of modern radio telescopes and the exponential growth in observational data volumes, real-time single-pulse detection has become a critical requirement for time-domain radio astronomy. Heimdall, as a representative GPU-accelerated single-pulse search tool, offers substantial performance advantages over CPU-based approaches. However, its sequential… ▽ More With the increasing time and frequency resolution of modern radio telescopes and the exponential growth in observational data volumes, real-time single-pulse detection has become a critical requirement for time-domain radio astronomy. Heimdall, as a representative GPU-accelerated single-pulse search tool, offers substantial performance advantages over CPU-based approaches. However, its sequential execution model and resource contention in intermediate processing stages limit GPU utilization, leading to suboptimal throughput and increased computational latency. To address these limitations, we present Heimdall++, an optimized successor to Heimdall that incorporates fine-grained GPU parallelization, enhanced memory management, and a multi-threaded framework to decouple CPU-bound and GPU-bound processing stages. This design mitigates the GPU stall problem and improves end-to-end efficiency. We evaluated Heimdall++ on a system equipped with NVIDIA RTX 3080 Ti GPUs using both a single large-scale observational file and multiple files. Experimental results demonstrate that Heimdall++ achieves up to 2.66x speedup in single-file processing and 2.05x speedup in multi-file batch processing, while maintaining full consistency with the original Heimdall's search results. △ Less Submitted 29 November, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.00398 [ pdf , ps , other ] Heimdall++: Optimizing GPU Utilization and Pipeline Parallelism for Efficient Single-Pulse Detection Authors: Bingzheng Xia , Zujie Ren , Kuang Ma , Xiaoqian Li , Wenda Li , Shuibing He Abstract : With the increasing time and frequency resolution of modern radio telescopes and the exponential growth in observational data volumes, real-time single-pulse detection has become a critical requirement for time-domain radio astronomy. Heimdall, as a representative GPU-accelerated single-pulse search tool, offers substantial performance advantages over CPU-based approaches. However, its sequential… ▽ More With the increasing time and frequency resolution of modern radio telescopes and the exponential growth in observational data volumes, real-time single-pulse detection has become a critical requirement for time-domain radio astronomy. Heimdall, as a representative GPU-accelerated single-pulse search tool, offers substantial performance advantages over CPU-based approaches. However, its sequential execution model and resource contention in intermediate processing stages limit GPU utilization, leading to suboptimal throughput and increased computational latency. To address these limitations, we present Heimdall++, an optimized successor to Heimdall that incorporates fine-grained GPU parallelization, enhanced memory management, and a multi-threaded framework to decouple CPU-bound and GPU-bound processing stages. This design mitigates the GPU stall problem and improves end-to-end efficiency. We evaluated Heimdall++ on a system equipped with NVIDIA RTX 3080 Ti GPUs using both a single large-scale observational file and multiple files. Experimental results demonstrate that Heimdall++ achieves up to 2.66x speedup in single-file processing and 2.05x speedup in multi-file batch processing, while maintaining full consistency with the original Heimdall's search results. △ Less Submitted 29 November, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.00375 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO DPNet: Doppler LiDAR Motion Planning for Highly-Dynamic Environments Authors: Wei Zuo , Zeyi Ren , Chengyang Li , Yikun Wang , Mingle Zhao , Shuai Wang , Wei Sui , Fei Gao , Yik-Chung Wu , Chengzhong Xu Abstract : Existing motion planning methods often struggle with rapid-motion obstacles due to an insufficient understanding of environmental changes. To address this limitation, we propose integrating motion planners with Doppler LiDARs which provide not only ranging measurements but also instantaneous point velocities. However, this integration is nontrivial due to the dual requirements of high accuracy and… ▽ More Existing motion planning methods often struggle with rapid-motion obstacles due to an insufficient understanding of environmental changes. To address this limitation, we propose integrating motion planners with Doppler LiDARs which provide not only ranging measurements but also instantaneous point velocities. However, this integration is nontrivial due to the dual requirements of high accuracy and high frequency. To this end, we introduce Doppler Planning Network (DPNet), which tracks and reacts to rapid obstacles using Doppler model-based learning. Particularly, we first propose a Doppler Kalman neural network (D-KalmanNet) to track the future states of obstacles under partially observable Gaussian state space model. We then leverage the estimated motions to construct a Doppler-tuned model predictive control (DT-MPC) framework for ego-motion planning, enabling runtime auto-tuning of the controller parameters. These two model-based learners allow DPNet to maintain lightweight while learning fast environmental changes using minimum data, and achieve both high frequency and high accuracy in tracking and planning. Experiments on both high-fidelity simulator and real-world datasets demonstrate the superiority of DPNet over extensive benchmark schemes. △ Less Submitted 29 November, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.00375 [ pdf , ps , other ] DPNet: Doppler LiDAR Motion Planning for Highly-Dynamic Environments Authors: Wei Zuo , Zeyi Ren , Chengyang Li , Yikun Wang , Mingle Zhao , Shuai Wang , Wei Sui , Fei Gao , Yik-Chung Wu , Chengzhong Xu Abstract : Existing motion planning methods often struggle with rapid-motion obstacles due to an insufficient understanding of environmental changes. To address this limitation, we propose integrating motion planners with Doppler LiDARs which provide not only ranging measurements but also instantaneous point velocities. However, this integration is nontrivial due to the dual requirements of high accuracy and… ▽ More Existing motion planning methods often struggle with rapid-motion obstacles due to an insufficient understanding of environmental changes. To address this limitation, we propose integrating motion planners with Doppler LiDARs which provide not only ranging measurements but also instantaneous point velocities. However, this integration is nontrivial due to the dual requirements of high accuracy and high frequency. To this end, we introduce Doppler Planning Network (DPNet), which tracks and reacts to rapid obstacles using Doppler model-based learning. Particularly, we first propose a Doppler Kalman neural network (D-KalmanNet) to track the future states of obstacles under partially observable Gaussian state space model. We then leverage the estimated motions to construct a Doppler-tuned model predictive control (DT-MPC) framework for ego-motion planning, enabling runtime auto-tuning of the controller parameters. These two model-based learners allow DPNet to maintain lightweight while learning fast environmental changes using minimum data, and achieve both high frequency and high accuracy in tracking and planning. Experiments on both high-fidelity simulator and real-world datasets demonstrate the superiority of DPNet over extensive benchmark schemes. △ Less Submitted 29 November, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2511.22570 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.CL DeepSeekMath-V2: Towards Self-Verifiable Mathematical Reasoning Authors: Zhihong Shao , Yuxiang Luo , Chengda Lu , Z. Z. Ren , Jiewen Hu , Tian Ye , Zhibin Gou , Shirong Ma , Xiaokang Zhang Abstract : Large language models have made significant progress in mathematical reasoning, which serves as an important testbed for AI and could impact scientific research if further advanced. By scaling reasoning with reinforcement learning that rewards correct final answers, LLMs have improved from poor performance to saturating quantitative reasoning competitions like AIME and HMMT in one year. However, t… ▽ More Large language models have made significant progress in mathematical reasoning, which serves as an important testbed for AI and could impact scientific research if further advanced. By scaling reasoning with reinforcement learning that rewards correct final answers, LLMs have improved from poor performance to saturating quantitative reasoning competitions like AIME and HMMT in one year. However, this approach faces fundamental limitations. Pursuing higher final answer accuracy doesn't address a key issue: correct answers don't guarantee correct reasoning. Moreover, many mathematical tasks like theorem proving require rigorous step-by-step derivation rather than numerical answers, making final answer rewards inapplicable. To push the limits of deep reasoning, we believe it is necessary to verify the comprehensiveness and rigor of mathematical reasoning. Self-verification is particularly important for scaling test-time compute, especially for open problems without known solutions. Towards self-verifiable mathematical reasoning, we investigate how to train an accurate and faithful LLM-based verifier for theorem proving. We then train a proof generator using the verifier as the reward model, and incentivize the generator to identify and resolve as many issues as possible in their own proofs before finalizing them. To maintain the generation-verification gap as the generator becomes stronger, we propose to scale verification compute to automatically label new hard-to-verify proofs, creating training data to further improve the verifier. Our resulting model, DeepSeekMath-V2, demonstrates strong theorem-proving capabilities, achieving gold-level scores on IMO 2025 and CMO 2024 and a near-perfect 118/120 on Putnam 2024 with scaled test-time compute. △ Less Submitted 27 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.22570 [ pdf , ps , other ] DeepSeekMath-V2: Towards Self-Verifiable Mathematical Reasoning Authors: Zhihong Shao , Yuxiang Luo , Chengda Lu , Z. Z. Ren , Jiewen Hu , Tian Ye , Zhibin Gou , Shirong Ma , Xiaokang Zhang Abstract : Large language models have made significant progress in mathematical reasoning, which serves as an important testbed for AI and could impact scientific research if further advanced. By scaling reasoning with reinforcement learning that rewards correct final answers, LLMs have improved from poor performance to saturating quantitative reasoning competitions like AIME and HMMT in one year. However, t… ▽ More Large language models have made significant progress in mathematical reasoning, which serves as an important testbed for AI and could impact scientific research if further advanced. By scaling reasoning with reinforcement learning that rewards correct final answers, LLMs have improved from poor performance to saturating quantitative reasoning competitions like AIME and HMMT in one year. However, this approach faces fundamental limitations. Pursuing higher final answer accuracy doesn't address a key issue: correct answers don't guarantee correct reasoning. Moreover, many mathematical tasks like theorem proving require rigorous step-by-step derivation rather than numerical answers, making final answer rewards inapplicable. To push the limits of deep reasoning, we believe it is necessary to verify the comprehensiveness and rigor of mathematical reasoning. Self-verification is particularly important for scaling test-time compute, especially for open problems without known solutions. Towards self-verifiable mathematical reasoning, we investigate how to train an accurate and faithful LLM-based verifier for theorem proving. We then train a proof generator using the verifier as the reward model, and incentivize the generator to identify and resolve as many issues as possible in their own proofs before finalizing them. To maintain the generation-verification gap as the generator becomes stronger, we propose to scale verification compute to automatically label new hard-to-verify proofs, creating training data to further improve the verifier. Our resulting model, DeepSeekMath-V2, demonstrates strong theorem-proving capabilities, achieving gold-level scores on IMO 2025 and CMO 2024 and a near-perfect 118/120 on Putnam 2024 with scaled test-time compute. △ Less Submitted 27 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.18385 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI Can a Second-View Image Be a Language? Geometric and Semantic Cross-Modal Reasoning for X-ray Prohibited Item Detection Authors: Chuang Peng , Renshuai Tao , Zhongwei Ren , Xianglong Liu , Yunchao Wei Abstract : Automatic X-ray prohibited items detection is vital for security inspection and has been widely studied. Traditional methods rely on visual modality, often struggling with complex threats. While recent studies incorporate language to guide single-view images, human inspectors typically use dual-view images in practice. This raises the question: can the second view provide constraints similar to a… ▽ More Automatic X-ray prohibited items detection is vital for security inspection and has been widely studied. Traditional methods rely on visual modality, often struggling with complex threats. While recent studies incorporate language to guide single-view images, human inspectors typically use dual-view images in practice. This raises the question: can the second view provide constraints similar to a language modality? In this work, we introduce DualXrayBench, the first comprehensive benchmark for X-ray inspection that includes multiple views and modalities. It supports eight tasks designed to test cross-view reasoning. In DualXrayBench, we introduce a caption corpus consisting of 45,613 dual-view image pairs across 12 categories with corresponding captions. Building upon these data, we propose the Geometric (cross-view)-Semantic (cross-modality) Reasoner (GSR), a multimodal model that jointly learns correspondences between cross-view geometry and cross-modal semantics, treating the second-view images as a "language-like modality". To enable this, we construct the GSXray dataset, with structured Chain-of-Thought sequences: <top>, <side>, <conclusion>. Comprehensive evaluations on DualXrayBench demonstrate that GSR achieves significant improvements across all X-ray tasks, offering a new perspective for real-world X-ray inspection. △ Less Submitted 23 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: 10 pages, 4 figures arXiv:2511.18385 [ pdf , ps , other ] Can a Second-View Image Be a Language? Geometric and Semantic Cross-Modal Reasoning for X-ray Prohibited Item Detection Authors: Chuang Peng , Renshuai Tao , Zhongwei Ren , Xianglong Liu , Yunchao Wei Abstract : Automatic X-ray prohibited items detection is vital for security inspection and has been widely studied. Traditional methods rely on visual modality, often struggling with complex threats. While recent studies incorporate language to guide single-view images, human inspectors typically use dual-view images in practice. This raises the question: can the second view provide constraints similar to a… ▽ More Automatic X-ray prohibited items detection is vital for security inspection and has been widely studied. Traditional methods rely on visual modality, often struggling with complex threats. While recent studies incorporate language to guide single-view images, human inspectors typically use dual-view images in practice. This raises the question: can the second view provide constraints similar to a language modality? In this work, we introduce DualXrayBench, the first comprehensive benchmark for X-ray inspection that includes multiple views and modalities. It supports eight tasks designed to test cross-view reasoning. In DualXrayBench, we introduce a caption corpus consisting of 45,613 dual-view image pairs across 12 categories with corresponding captions. Building upon these data, we propose the Geometric (cross-view)-Semantic (cross-modality) Reasoner (GSR), a multimodal model that jointly learns correspondences between cross-view geometry and cross-modal semantics, treating the second-view images as a "language-like modality". To enable this, we construct the GSXray dataset, with structured Chain-of-Thought sequences: <top>, <side>, <conclusion>. Comprehensive evaluations on DualXrayBench demonstrate that GSR achieves significant improvements across all X-ray tasks, offering a new perspective for real-world X-ray inspection. △ Less Submitted 23 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: 10 pages, 4 figures arXiv:2511.18342 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.IR UFO: Unfair-to-Fair Evolving Mitigates Unfairness in LLM-based Recommender Systems via Self-Play Fine-tuning Authors: Jiaming Zhang , Yuyuan Li , Xiaohua Feng , Zhifei Ren , Li Zhang , Chaochao Chen Abstract : Large language model-based Recommender Systems (LRSs) have demonstrated superior recommendation performance by integrating pre-training with Supervised Fine-Tuning (SFT). However, this approach introduces item-side unfairness. Existing studies primarily attribute this issue to the absence of fairness constraints during SFT and attempt to mitigate unfairness via re-weighting and re-ranking methods.… ▽ More Large language model-based Recommender Systems (LRSs) have demonstrated superior recommendation performance by integrating pre-training with Supervised Fine-Tuning (SFT). However, this approach introduces item-side unfairness. Existing studies primarily attribute this issue to the absence of fairness constraints during SFT and attempt to mitigate unfairness via re-weighting and re-ranking methods. In this paper, we find that unfairness arises not only from SFT but also from pre-training, where inherent biases are further amplified during SFT. This finding underscores the failure of current methods to address the root causes of unfairness. Moreover, current methods struggle to preserve satisfactory recommendation performance. To tackle these issues, we propose an Unfair-to-Fair evOlving (UFO) framework using a self-play mechanism, formulating unfairness mitigation as a two-player game. UFO alternates between two player roles: the \textit{judger}, which identifies unfairness from both pre-training and SFT, and the \textit{corrector}, which adjusts the LRS to address identified unfairness while preserving recommendation performance. Iterative optimization between these roles enables UFO to completely resolve unfairness. Extensive experiments demonstrate that UFO effectively mitigates unfairness while improving recommendation performance. △ Less Submitted 23 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.18342 [ pdf , ps , other ] UFO: Unfair-to-Fair Evolving Mitigates Unfairness in LLM-based Recommender Systems via Self-Play Fine-tuning Authors: Jiaming Zhang , Yuyuan Li , Xiaohua Feng , Zhifei Ren , Li Zhang , Chaochao Chen Abstract : Large language model-based Recommender Systems (LRSs) have demonstrated superior recommendation performance by integrating pre-training with Supervised Fine-Tuning (SFT). However, this approach introduces item-side unfairness. Existing studies primarily attribute this issue to the absence of fairness constraints during SFT and attempt to mitigate unfairness via re-weighting and re-ranking methods.… ▽ More Large language model-based Recommender Systems (LRSs) have demonstrated superior recommendation performance by integrating pre-training with Supervised Fine-Tuning (SFT). However, this approach introduces item-side unfairness. Existing studies primarily attribute this issue to the absence of fairness constraints during SFT and attempt to mitigate unfairness via re-weighting and re-ranking methods. In this paper, we find that unfairness arises not only from SFT but also from pre-training, where inherent biases are further amplified during SFT. This finding underscores the failure of current methods to address the root causes of unfairness. Moreover, current methods struggle to preserve satisfactory recommendation performance. To tackle these issues, we propose an Unfair-to-Fair evOlving (UFO) framework using a self-play mechanism, formulating unfairness mitigation as a two-player game. UFO alternates between two player roles: the \textit{judger}, which identifies unfairness from both pre-training and SFT, and the \textit{corrector}, which adjusts the LRS to address identified unfairness while preserving recommendation performance. Iterative optimization between these roles enables UFO to completely resolve unfairness. Extensive experiments demonstrate that UFO effectively mitigates unfairness while improving recommendation performance. △ Less Submitted 23 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.17923 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI Towards Efficient LLM-aware Heterogeneous Graph Learning Authors: Wenda Li , Tongya Zheng , Shunyu Liu , Yu Wang , Kaixuan Chen , Hanyang Yuan , Bingde Hu , Zujie Ren , Mingli Song , Gang Chen Abstract : Heterogeneous graphs are widely present in real-world complex networks, where the diversity of node and relation types leads to complex and rich semantics. Efforts for modeling complex relation semantics in heterogeneous graphs are restricted by the limitations of predefined semantic dependencies and the scarcity of supervised signals. The advanced pre-training and fine-tuning paradigm leverages g… ▽ More Heterogeneous graphs are widely present in real-world complex networks, where the diversity of node and relation types leads to complex and rich semantics. Efforts for modeling complex relation semantics in heterogeneous graphs are restricted by the limitations of predefined semantic dependencies and the scarcity of supervised signals. The advanced pre-training and fine-tuning paradigm leverages graph structure to provide rich self-supervised signals, but introduces semantic gaps between tasks. Large Language Models (LLMs) offer significant potential to address the semantic issues of relations and tasks in heterogeneous graphs through their strong reasoning capabilities in textual modality, but their incorporation into heterogeneous graphs is largely limited by computational complexity. Therefore, in this paper, we propose an Efficient LLM-Aware (ELLA) framework for heterogeneous graphs, addressing the above issues. To capture complex relation semantics, we propose an LLM-aware Relation Tokenizer that leverages LLM to encode multi-hop, multi-type relations. To reduce computational complexity, we further employ a Hop-level Relation Graph Transformer, which help reduces the complexity of LLM-aware relation reasoning from exponential to linear. To bridge semantic gaps between pre-training and fine-tuning tasks, we introduce the fine-grained task-aware textual Chain-of-Thought (CoT) prompts. Extensive experiments on four heterogeneous graphs show that our proposed ELLA outperforms state-of-the-art methods in the performance and efficiency. In particular, ELLA scales up to 13b-parameter LLMs and achieves up to a 4x speedup compared with existing LLM-based methods. Our code is publicly available at △ Less Submitted 22 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.17923 [ pdf , ps , other ] Towards Efficient LLM-aware Heterogeneous Graph Learning Authors: Wenda Li , Tongya Zheng , Shunyu Liu , Yu Wang , Kaixuan Chen , Hanyang Yuan , Bingde Hu , Zujie Ren , Mingli Song , Gang Chen Abstract : Heterogeneous graphs are widely present in real-world complex networks, where the diversity of node and relation types leads to complex and rich semantics. Efforts for modeling complex relation semantics in heterogeneous graphs are restricted by the limitations of predefined semantic dependencies and the scarcity of supervised signals. The advanced pre-training and fine-tuning paradigm leverages g… ▽ More Heterogeneous graphs are widely present in real-world complex networks, where the diversity of node and relation types leads to complex and rich semantics. Efforts for modeling complex relation semantics in heterogeneous graphs are restricted by the limitations of predefined semantic dependencies and the scarcity of supervised signals. The advanced pre-training and fine-tuning paradigm leverages graph structure to provide rich self-supervised signals, but introduces semantic gaps between tasks. Large Language Models (LLMs) offer significant potential to address the semantic issues of relations and tasks in heterogeneous graphs through their strong reasoning capabilities in textual modality, but their incorporation into heterogeneous graphs is largely limited by computational complexity. Therefore, in this paper, we propose an Efficient LLM-Aware (ELLA) framework for heterogeneous graphs, addressing the above issues. To capture complex relation semantics, we propose an LLM-aware Relation Tokenizer that leverages LLM to encode multi-hop, multi-type relations. To reduce computational complexity, we further employ a Hop-level Relation Graph Transformer, which help reduces the complexity of LLM-aware relation reasoning from exponential to linear. To bridge semantic gaps between pre-training and fine-tuning tasks, we introduce the fine-grained task-aware textual Chain-of-Thought (CoT) prompts. Extensive experiments on four heterogeneous graphs show that our proposed ELLA outperforms state-of-the-art methods in the performance and efficiency. In particular, ELLA scales up to 13b-parameter LLMs and achieves up to a 4x speedup compared with existing LLM-based methods. Our code is publicly available at △ Less Submitted 22 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.15316 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV What Your Features Reveal: Data-Efficient Black-Box Feature Inversion Attack for Split DNNs Authors: Zhihan Ren , Lijun He , Jiaxi Liang , Xinzhu Fu , Haixia Bi , Fan Li Abstract : Split DNNs enable edge devices by offloading intensive computation to a cloud server, but this paradigm exposes privacy vulnerabilities, as the intermediate features can be exploited to reconstruct the private inputs via Feature Inversion Attack (FIA). Existing FIA methods often produce limited reconstruction quality, making it difficult to assess the true extent of privacy leakage. To reveal the… ▽ More Split DNNs enable edge devices by offloading intensive computation to a cloud server, but this paradigm exposes privacy vulnerabilities, as the intermediate features can be exploited to reconstruct the private inputs via Feature Inversion Attack (FIA). Existing FIA methods often produce limited reconstruction quality, making it difficult to assess the true extent of privacy leakage. To reveal the privacy risk of the leaked features, we introduce FIA-Flow, a black-box FIA framework that achieves high-fidelity image reconstruction from intermediate features. To exploit the semantic information within intermediate features, we design a Latent Feature Space Alignment Module (LFSAM) to bridge the semantic gap between the intermediate feature space and the latent space. Furthermore, to rectify distributional mismatch, we develop Deterministic Inversion Flow Matching (DIFM), which projects off-manifold features onto the target manifold with one-step inference. This decoupled design simplifies learning and enables effective training with few image-feature pairs. To quantify privacy leakage from a human perspective, we also propose two metrics based on a large vision-language model. Experiments show that FIA-Flow achieves more faithful and semantically aligned feature inversion across various models (AlexNet, ResNet, Swin Transformer, DINO, and YOLO11) and layers, revealing a more severe privacy threat in Split DNNs than previously recognized. △ Less Submitted 19 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.15316 [ pdf , ps , other ] What Your Features Reveal: Data-Efficient Black-Box Feature Inversion Attack for Split DNNs Authors: Zhihan Ren , Lijun He , Jiaxi Liang , Xinzhu Fu , Haixia Bi , Fan Li Abstract : Split DNNs enable edge devices by offloading intensive computation to a cloud server, but this paradigm exposes privacy vulnerabilities, as the intermediate features can be exploited to reconstruct the private inputs via Feature Inversion Attack (FIA). Existing FIA methods often produce limited reconstruction quality, making it difficult to assess the true extent of privacy leakage. To reveal the… ▽ More Split DNNs enable edge devices by offloading intensive computation to a cloud server, but this paradigm exposes privacy vulnerabilities, as the intermediate features can be exploited to reconstruct the private inputs via Feature Inversion Attack (FIA). Existing FIA methods often produce limited reconstruction quality, making it difficult to assess the true extent of privacy leakage. To reveal the privacy risk of the leaked features, we introduce FIA-Flow, a black-box FIA framework that achieves high-fidelity image reconstruction from intermediate features. To exploit the semantic information within intermediate features, we design a Latent Feature Space Alignment Module (LFSAM) to bridge the semantic gap between the intermediate feature space and the latent space. Furthermore, to rectify distributional mismatch, we develop Deterministic Inversion Flow Matching (DIFM), which projects off-manifold features onto the target manifold with one-step inference. This decoupled design simplifies learning and enables effective training with few image-feature pairs. To quantify privacy leakage from a human perspective, we also propose two metrics based on a large vision-language model. Experiments show that FIA-Flow achieves more faithful and semantically aligned feature inversion across various models (AlexNet, ResNet, Swin Transformer, DINO, and YOLO11) and layers, revealing a more severe privacy threat in Split DNNs than previously recognized. △ Less Submitted 19 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.14759 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.RO $π^{*}_{0.6}$: a VLA That Learns From Experience Authors: Physical Intelligence , Ali Amin , Raichelle Aniceto , Ashwin Balakrishna , Kevin Black , Ken Conley , Grace Connors , James Darpinian , Karan Dhabalia , Jared DiCarlo , Danny Driess , Michael Equi , Adnan Esmail , Yunhao Fang , Chelsea Finn , Catherine Glossop , Thomas Godden , Ivan Goryachev , Lachy Groom , Hunter Hancock , Karol Hausman , Gashon Hussein , Brian Ichter , Szymon Jakubczak , Rowan Jen , et al. (31 additional authors not shown) Abstract : We study how vision-language-action (VLA) models can improve through real-world deployments via reinforcement learning (RL). We present a general-purpose method, RL with Experience and Corrections via Advantage-conditioned Policies (RECAP), that provides for RL training of VLAs via advantage conditioning. Our method incorporates heterogeneous data into the self-improvement process, including demon… ▽ More We study how vision-language-action (VLA) models can improve through real-world deployments via reinforcement learning (RL). We present a general-purpose method, RL with Experience and Corrections via Advantage-conditioned Policies (RECAP), that provides for RL training of VLAs via advantage conditioning. Our method incorporates heterogeneous data into the self-improvement process, including demonstrations, data from on-policy collection, and expert teleoperated interventions provided during autonomous execution. RECAP starts by pre-training a generalist VLA with offline RL, which we call $π^{*}_{0.6}$, that can then be specialized to attain high performance on downstream tasks through on-robot data collection. We show that the $π^{*}_{0.6}$ model trained with the full RECAP method can fold laundry in real homes, reliably assemble boxes, and make espresso drinks using a professional espresso machine. On some of the hardest tasks, RECAP more than doubles task throughput and roughly halves the task failure rate. △ Less Submitted 18 November, 2025; v1 submitted 18 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.14759 [ pdf , ps , other ] $π^{*}_{0.6}$: a VLA That Learns From Experience Authors: Physical Intelligence , Ali Amin , Raichelle Aniceto , Ashwin Balakrishna , Kevin Black , Ken Conley , Grace Connors , James Darpinian , Karan Dhabalia , Jared DiCarlo , Danny Driess , Michael Equi , Adnan Esmail , Yunhao Fang , Chelsea Finn , Catherine Glossop , Thomas Godden , Ivan Goryachev , Lachy Groom , Hunter Hancock , Karol Hausman , Gashon Hussein , Brian Ichter , Szymon Jakubczak , Rowan Jen , et al. (31 additional authors not shown) Abstract : We study how vision-language-action (VLA) models can improve through real-world deployments via reinforcement learning (RL). We present a general-purpose method, RL with Experience and Corrections via Advantage-conditioned Policies (RECAP), that provides for RL training of VLAs via advantage conditioning. Our method incorporates heterogeneous data into the self-improvement process, including demon… ▽ More We study how vision-language-action (VLA) models can improve through real-world deployments via reinforcement learning (RL). We present a general-purpose method, RL with Experience and Corrections via Advantage-conditioned Policies (RECAP), that provides for RL training of VLAs via advantage conditioning. Our method incorporates heterogeneous data into the self-improvement process, including demonstrations, data from on-policy collection, and expert teleoperated interventions provided during autonomous execution. RECAP starts by pre-training a generalist VLA with offline RL, which we call $π^{*}_{0.6}$, that can then be specialized to attain high performance on downstream tasks through on-robot data collection. We show that the $π^{*}_{0.6}$ model trained with the full RECAP method can fold laundry in real homes, reliably assemble boxes, and make espresso drinks using a professional espresso machine. On some of the hardest tasks, RECAP more than doubles task throughput and roughly halves the task failure rate. △ Less Submitted 18 November, 2025; v1 submitted 18 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.11691 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.AI cs.SD Beyond saliency: enhancing explanation of speech emotion recognition with expert-referenced acoustic cues Authors: Seham Nasr , Zhao Ren , David Johnson Abstract : Explainable AI (XAI) for Speech Emotion Recognition (SER) is critical for building transparent, trustworthy models. Current saliency-based methods, adapted from vision, highlight spectrogram regions but fail to show whether these regions correspond to meaningful acoustic markers of emotion, limiting faithfulness and interpretability. We propose a framework that overcomes these limitations by quant… ▽ More Explainable AI (XAI) for Speech Emotion Recognition (SER) is critical for building transparent, trustworthy models. Current saliency-based methods, adapted from vision, highlight spectrogram regions but fail to show whether these regions correspond to meaningful acoustic markers of emotion, limiting faithfulness and interpretability. We propose a framework that overcomes these limitations by quantifying the magnitudes of cues within salient regions. This clarifies "what" is highlighted and connects it to "why" it matters, linking saliency to expert-referenced acoustic cues of speech emotions. Experiments on benchmark SER datasets show that our approach improves explanation quality by explicitly linking salient regions to theory-driven speech emotions expert-referenced acoustics. Compared to standard saliency methods, it provides more understandable and plausible explanations of SER models, offering a foundational step towards trustworthy speech-based affective computing. △ Less Submitted 12 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: 5 pages, 2 figures arXiv:2511.11691 [ pdf , ps , other ] Beyond saliency: enhancing explanation of speech emotion recognition with expert-referenced acoustic cues Authors: Seham Nasr , Zhao Ren , David Johnson Abstract : Explainable AI (XAI) for Speech Emotion Recognition (SER) is critical for building transparent, trustworthy models. Current saliency-based methods, adapted from vision, highlight spectrogram regions but fail to show whether these regions correspond to meaningful acoustic markers of emotion, limiting faithfulness and interpretability. We propose a framework that overcomes these limitations by quant… ▽ More Explainable AI (XAI) for Speech Emotion Recognition (SER) is critical for building transparent, trustworthy models. Current saliency-based methods, adapted from vision, highlight spectrogram regions but fail to show whether these regions correspond to meaningful acoustic markers of emotion, limiting faithfulness and interpretability. We propose a framework that overcomes these limitations by quantifying the magnitudes of cues within salient regions. This clarifies "what" is highlighted and connects it to "why" it matters, linking saliency to expert-referenced acoustic cues of speech emotions. Experiments on benchmark SER datasets show that our approach improves explanation quality by explicitly linking salient regions to theory-driven speech emotions expert-referenced acoustics. Compared to standard saliency methods, it provides more understandable and plausible explanations of SER models, offering a foundational step towards trustworthy speech-based affective computing. △ Less Submitted 12 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: 5 pages, 2 figures arXiv:2511.11422 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Shrinking the Teacher: An Adaptive Teaching Paradigm for Asymmetric EEG-Vision Alignment Authors: Lukun Wu , Jie Li , Ziqi Ren , Kaifan Zhang , Xinbo Gao Abstract : Decoding visual features from EEG signals is a central challenge in neuroscience, with cross-modal alignment as the dominant approach. We argue that the relationship between visual and brain modalities is fundamentally asymmetric, characterized by two critical gaps: a Fidelity Gap (stemming from EEG's inherent noise and signal degradation, vs. vision's high-fidelity features) and a Semantic Gap (a… ▽ More Decoding visual features from EEG signals is a central challenge in neuroscience, with cross-modal alignment as the dominant approach. We argue that the relationship between visual and brain modalities is fundamentally asymmetric, characterized by two critical gaps: a Fidelity Gap (stemming from EEG's inherent noise and signal degradation, vs. vision's high-fidelity features) and a Semantic Gap (arising from EEG's shallow conceptual representation, vs. vision's rich semantic depth). Previous methods often overlook this asymmetry, forcing alignment between the two modalities as if they were equal partners and thereby leading to poor generalization. To address this, we propose the adaptive teaching paradigm. This paradigm empowers the ``teacher" modality (vision) to dynamically shrink and adjust its knowledge structure under task guidance, tailoring its semantically dense features to match the ``student" modality (EEG)'s capacity. We implement this paradigm with the ShrinkAdapter, a simple yet effective module featuring a residual-free design and a bottleneck structure. Through extensive experiments, we validate the underlying rationale and effectiveness of our paradigm. Our method achieves a top-1 accuracy of 60.2\% on the zero-shot brain-to-image retrieval task, surpassing previous state-of-the-art methods by a margin of 9.8\%. Our work introduces a new perspective for asymmetric alignment: the teacher must shrink and adapt to bridge the vision-brain gap. △ Less Submitted 14 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: 21pages,12 figures,published to AAAI 2026 arXiv:2511.11422 [ pdf , ps , other ] Shrinking the Teacher: An Adaptive Teaching Paradigm for Asymmetric EEG-Vision Alignment Authors: Lukun Wu , Jie Li , Ziqi Ren , Kaifan Zhang , Xinbo Gao Abstract : Decoding visual features from EEG signals is a central challenge in neuroscience, with cross-modal alignment as the dominant approach. We argue that the relationship between visual and brain modalities is fundamentally asymmetric, characterized by two critical gaps: a Fidelity Gap (stemming from EEG's inherent noise and signal degradation, vs. vision's high-fidelity features) and a Semantic Gap (a… ▽ More Decoding visual features from EEG signals is a central challenge in neuroscience, with cross-modal alignment as the dominant approach. We argue that the relationship between visual and brain modalities is fundamentally asymmetric, characterized by two critical gaps: a Fidelity Gap (stemming from EEG's inherent noise and signal degradation, vs. vision's high-fidelity features) and a Semantic Gap (arising from EEG's shallow conceptual representation, vs. vision's rich semantic depth). Previous methods often overlook this asymmetry, forcing alignment between the two modalities as if they were equal partners and thereby leading to poor generalization. To address this, we propose the adaptive teaching paradigm. This paradigm empowers the ``teacher" modality (vision) to dynamically shrink and adjust its knowledge structure under task guidance, tailoring its semantically dense features to match the ``student" modality (EEG)'s capacity. We implement this paradigm with the ShrinkAdapter, a simple yet effective module featuring a residual-free design and a bottleneck structure. Through extensive experiments, we validate the underlying rationale and effectiveness of our paradigm. Our method achieves a top-1 accuracy of 60.2\% on the zero-shot brain-to-image retrieval task, surpassing previous state-of-the-art methods by a margin of 9.8\%. Our work introduces a new perspective for asymmetric alignment: the teacher must shrink and adapt to bridge the vision-brain gap. △ Less Submitted 14 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: 21pages,12 figures,published to AAAI 2026 arXiv:2511.08150 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.IR DiffuGR: Generative Document Retrieval with Diffusion Language Models Authors: Xinpeng Zhao , Zhaochun Ren , Yukun Zhao , Zhenyang Li , Mengqi Zhang , Jun Feng , Ran Chen , Ying Zhou , Zhumin Chen , Shuaiqiang Wang , Dawei Yin , Xin Xin Abstract : Generative retrieval (GR) re-frames document retrieval as a sequence-based document identifier (DocID) generation task, memorizing documents with model parameters and enabling end-to-end retrieval without explicit indexing. Existing GR methods are based on auto-regressive generative models, i.e., the token generation is performed from left to right. However, such auto-regressive methods suffer fro… ▽ More Generative retrieval (GR) re-frames document retrieval as a sequence-based document identifier (DocID) generation task, memorizing documents with model parameters and enabling end-to-end retrieval without explicit indexing. Existing GR methods are based on auto-regressive generative models, i.e., the token generation is performed from left to right. However, such auto-regressive methods suffer from: (1) mismatch between DocID generation and natural language generation, e.g., an incorrect DocID token generated in early left steps would lead to totally erroneous retrieval; and (2) failure to balance the trade-off between retrieval efficiency and accuracy dynamically, which is crucial for practical applications. To address these limitations, we propose generative document retrieval with diffusion language models, dubbed DiffuGR. It models DocID generation as a discrete diffusion process: during training, DocIDs are corrupted through a stochastic masking process, and a diffusion language model is learned to recover them under a retrieval-aware objective. For inference, DiffuGR attempts to generate DocID tokens in parallel and refines them through a controllable number of denoising steps. In contrast to conventional left-to-right auto-regressive decoding, DiffuGR provides a novel mechanism to first generate more confident DocID tokens and refine the generation through diffusion-based denoising. Moreover, DiffuGR also offers explicit runtime control over the qualitylatency tradeoff. Extensive experiments on benchmark retrieval datasets show that DiffuGR is competitive with strong auto-regressive generative retrievers, while offering flexible speed and accuracy tradeoffs through variable denoising budgets. Overall, our results indicate that non-autoregressive diffusion models are a practical and effective alternative for generative document retrieval. △ Less Submitted 23 November, 2025; v1 submitted 11 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: This paper is under review arXiv:2511.08150 [ pdf , ps , other ] DiffuGR: Generative Document Retrieval with Diffusion Language Models Authors: Xinpeng Zhao , Zhaochun Ren , Yukun Zhao , Zhenyang Li , Mengqi Zhang , Jun Feng , Ran Chen , Ying Zhou , Zhumin Chen , Shuaiqiang Wang , Dawei Yin , Xin Xin Abstract : Generative retrieval (GR) re-frames document retrieval as a sequence-based document identifier (DocID) generation task, memorizing documents with model parameters and enabling end-to-end retrieval without explicit indexing. Existing GR methods are based on auto-regressive generative models, i.e., the token generation is performed from left to right. However, such auto-regressive methods suffer fro… ▽ More Generative retrieval (GR) re-frames document retrieval as a sequence-based document identifier (DocID) generation task, memorizing documents with model parameters and enabling end-to-end retrieval without explicit indexing. Existing GR methods are based on auto-regressive generative models, i.e., the token generation is performed from left to right. However, such auto-regressive methods suffer from: (1) mismatch between DocID generation and natural language generation, e.g., an incorrect DocID token generated in early left steps would lead to totally erroneous retrieval; and (2) failure to balance the trade-off between retrieval efficiency and accuracy dynamically, which is crucial for practical applications. To address these limitations, we propose generative document retrieval with diffusion language models, dubbed DiffuGR. It models DocID generation as a discrete diffusion process: during training, DocIDs are corrupted through a stochastic masking process, and a diffusion language model is learned to recover them under a retrieval-aware objective. For inference, DiffuGR attempts to generate DocID tokens in parallel and refines them through a controllable number of denoising steps. In contrast to conventional left-to-right auto-regressive decoding, DiffuGR provides a novel mechanism to first generate more confident DocID tokens and refine the generation through diffusion-based denoising. Moreover, DiffuGR also offers explicit runtime control over the qualitylatency tradeoff. Extensive experiments on benchmark retrieval datasets show that DiffuGR is competitive with strong auto-regressive generative retrievers, while offering flexible speed and accuracy tradeoffs through variable denoising budgets. Overall, our results indicate that non-autoregressive diffusion models are a practical and effective alternative for generative document retrieval. △ Less Submitted 23 November, 2025; v1 submitted 11 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: This paper is under review arXiv:2511.07808 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV DI3CL: Contrastive Learning With Dynamic Instances and Contour Consistency for SAR Land-Cover Classification Foundation Model Authors: Zhongle Ren , Hui Ding , Kai Wang , Biao Hou , Xingyu Luo , Weibin Li , Licheng Jiao Abstract : Although significant advances have been achieved in SAR land-cover classification, recent methods remain predominantly focused on supervised learning, which relies heavily on extensive labeled datasets. This dependency not only limits scalability and generalization but also restricts adaptability to diverse application scenarios. In this paper, a general-purpose foundation model for SAR land-cover… ▽ More Although significant advances have been achieved in SAR land-cover classification, recent methods remain predominantly focused on supervised learning, which relies heavily on extensive labeled datasets. This dependency not only limits scalability and generalization but also restricts adaptability to diverse application scenarios. In this paper, a general-purpose foundation model for SAR land-cover classification is developed, serving as a robust cornerstone to accelerate the development and deployment of various downstream models. Specifically, a Dynamic Instance and Contour Consistency Contrastive Learning (DI3CL) pre-training framework is presented, which incorporates a Dynamic Instance (DI) module and a Contour Consistency (CC) module. DI module enhances global contextual awareness by enforcing local consistency across different views of the same region. CC module leverages shallow feature maps to guide the model to focus on the geometric contours of SAR land-cover objects, thereby improving structural discrimination. Additionally, to enhance robustness and generalization during pre-training, a large-scale and diverse dataset named SARSense, comprising 460,532 SAR images, is constructed to enable the model to capture comprehensive and representative features. To evaluate the generalization capability of our foundation model, we conducted extensive experiments across a variety of SAR land-cover classification tasks, including SAR land-cover mapping, water body detection, and road extraction. The results consistently demonstrate that the proposed DI3CL outperforms existing methods. Our code and pre-trained weights are publicly available at: △ Less Submitted 11 November, 2025; v1 submitted 10 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: 18 pages, 10 figures;Submitted to IEEE Transactions on Image Processing (TIP); In peer review arXiv:2511.07808 [ pdf , ps , other ] DI3CL: Contrastive Learning With Dynamic Instances and Contour Consistency for SAR Land-Cover Classification Foundation Model Authors: Zhongle Ren , Hui Ding , Kai Wang , Biao Hou , Xingyu Luo , Weibin Li , Licheng Jiao Abstract : Although significant advances have been achieved in SAR land-cover classification, recent methods remain predominantly focused on supervised learning, which relies heavily on extensive labeled datasets. This dependency not only limits scalability and generalization but also restricts adaptability to diverse application scenarios. In this paper, a general-purpose foundation model for SAR land-cover… ▽ More Although significant advances have been achieved in SAR land-cover classification, recent methods remain predominantly focused on supervised learning, which relies heavily on extensive labeled datasets. This dependency not only limits scalability and generalization but also restricts adaptability to diverse application scenarios. In this paper, a general-purpose foundation model for SAR land-cover classification is developed, serving as a robust cornerstone to accelerate the development and deployment of various downstream models. Specifically, a Dynamic Instance and Contour Consistency Contrastive Learning (DI3CL) pre-training framework is presented, which incorporates a Dynamic Instance (DI) module and a Contour Consistency (CC) module. DI module enhances global contextual awareness by enforcing local consistency across different views of the same region. CC module leverages shallow feature maps to guide the model to focus on the geometric contours of SAR land-cover objects, thereby improving structural discrimination. Additionally, to enhance robustness and generalization during pre-training, a large-scale and diverse dataset named SARSense, comprising 460,532 SAR images, is constructed to enable the model to capture comprehensive and representative features. To evaluate the generalization capability of our foundation model, we conducted extensive experiments across a variety of SAR land-cover classification tasks, including SAR land-cover mapping, water body detection, and road extraction. The results consistently demonstrate that the proposed DI3CL outperforms existing methods. Our code and pre-trained weights are publicly available at: △ Less Submitted 11 November, 2025; v1 submitted 10 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: 18 pages, 10 figures;Submitted to IEEE Transactions on Image Processing (TIP); In peer review arXiv:2511.07145 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.IT A Copula-based Semantics-Structure Minimization Framework for QoS Guaranteed Wireless Communications Authors: Xinke Jian , Zhiyuan Ren , Wenchi Cheng Abstract : Current empirically driven research on semantic communication lacks a unified theoretical foundation, preventing quantifiable Quality of Service guarantees, particularly for transmitting minimal structural semantics in emergency scenarios. This deficiency limits its evolution into a predictable engineering science. To address this, we establish a complete theoretical axiomatic basis for this probl… ▽ More Current empirically driven research on semantic communication lacks a unified theoretical foundation, preventing quantifiable Quality of Service guarantees, particularly for transmitting minimal structural semantics in emergency scenarios. This deficiency limits its evolution into a predictable engineering science. To address this, we establish a complete theoretical axiomatic basis for this problem. We propose four axioms and rigorously prove that the family of pairwise rank-Copulas is the minimal sufficient representation for minimal structural semantics. Based on this, we construct a semantic distortion metric, centered on the Jensen-Shannon divergence. We then establish the core theoretical boundaries of the framework: sample complexity bounds; rate-distortion bounds; an end-to-end Service Level Agreements theorem; and a semantic source-channel separation theorem, which provides a provable Quality of Service guarantee. Finally, we validate our framework through decoupled experiments, empirically demonstrating that our core metric strictly adheres to our foundational axioms while standard perceptual metrics fail to do so. △ Less Submitted 10 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.07145 [ pdf , ps , other ] A Copula-based Semantics-Structure Minimization Framework for QoS Guaranteed Wireless Communications Authors: Xinke Jian , Zhiyuan Ren , Wenchi Cheng Abstract : Current empirically driven research on semantic communication lacks a unified theoretical foundation, preventing quantifiable Quality of Service guarantees, particularly for transmitting minimal structural semantics in emergency scenarios. This deficiency limits its evolution into a predictable engineering science. To address this, we establish a complete theoretical axiomatic basis for this probl… ▽ More Current empirically driven research on semantic communication lacks a unified theoretical foundation, preventing quantifiable Quality of Service guarantees, particularly for transmitting minimal structural semantics in emergency scenarios. This deficiency limits its evolution into a predictable engineering science. To address this, we establish a complete theoretical axiomatic basis for this problem. We propose four axioms and rigorously prove that the family of pairwise rank-Copulas is the minimal sufficient representation for minimal structural semantics. Based on this, we construct a semantic distortion metric, centered on the Jensen-Shannon divergence. We then establish the core theoretical boundaries of the framework: sample complexity bounds; rate-distortion bounds; an end-to-end Service Level Agreements theorem; and a semantic source-channel separation theorem, which provides a provable Quality of Service guarantee. Finally, we validate our framework through decoupled experiments, empirically demonstrating that our core metric strictly adheres to our foundational axioms while standard perceptual metrics fail to do so. △ Less Submitted 10 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.06905 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.IR Have We Really Understood Collaborative Information? An Empirical Investigation Authors: Xiaokun Zhang , Zhaochun Ren , Bowei He , Ziqiang Cui , Chen Ma Abstract : Collaborative information serves as the cornerstone of recommender systems which typically focus on capturing it from user-item interactions to deliver personalized services. However, current understanding of this crucial resource remains limited. Specifically, a quantitative definition of collaborative information is missing, its manifestation within user-item interactions remains unclear, and it… ▽ More Collaborative information serves as the cornerstone of recommender systems which typically focus on capturing it from user-item interactions to deliver personalized services. However, current understanding of this crucial resource remains limited. Specifically, a quantitative definition of collaborative information is missing, its manifestation within user-item interactions remains unclear, and its impact on recommendation performance is largely unknown. To bridge this gap, this work conducts a systematic investigation of collaborative information. We begin by clarifying collaborative information in terms of item co-occurrence patterns, identifying its main characteristics, and presenting a quantitative definition. We then estimate the distribution of collaborative information from several aspects, shedding light on how collaborative information is structured in practice. Furthermore, we evaluate the impact of collaborative information on the performance of various recommendation algorithms. Finally, we highlight challenges in effectively capturing collaborative information and outlook promising directions for future research. By establishing an empirical framework, we uncover many insightful observations that advance our understanding of collaborative information and offer valuable guidelines for developing more effective recommender systems. △ Less Submitted 25 November, 2025; v1 submitted 10 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: This work has been accepted by WSDM 2026 arXiv:2511.06905 [ pdf , ps , other ] Have We Really Understood Collaborative Information? An Empirical Investigation Authors: Xiaokun Zhang , Zhaochun Ren , Bowei He , Ziqiang Cui , Chen Ma Abstract : Collaborative information serves as the cornerstone of recommender systems which typically focus on capturing it from user-item interactions to deliver personalized services. However, current understanding of this crucial resource remains limited. Specifically, a quantitative definition of collaborative information is missing, its manifestation within user-item interactions remains unclear, and it… ▽ More Collaborative information serves as the cornerstone of recommender systems which typically focus on capturing it from user-item interactions to deliver personalized services. However, current understanding of this crucial resource remains limited. Specifically, a quantitative definition of collaborative information is missing, its manifestation within user-item interactions remains unclear, and its impact on recommendation performance is largely unknown. To bridge this gap, this work conducts a systematic investigation of collaborative information. We begin by clarifying collaborative information in terms of item co-occurrence patterns, identifying its main characteristics, and presenting a quantitative definition. We then estimate the distribution of collaborative information from several aspects, shedding light on how collaborative information is structured in practice. Furthermore, we evaluate the impact of collaborative information on the performance of various recommendation algorithms. Finally, we highlight challenges in effectively capturing collaborative information and outlook promising directions for future research. By establishing an empirical framework, we uncover many insightful observations that advance our understanding of collaborative information and offer valuable guidelines for developing more effective recommender systems. △ Less Submitted 25 November, 2025; v1 submitted 10 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: This work has been accepted by WSDM 2026 arXiv:2511.05302 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.SE Code Review Automation using Retrieval Augmented Generation Authors: Qianru Meng , Xiao Zhang , Zhaochen Ren , Joost Visser Abstract : Code review is essential for maintaining software quality but is labor-intensive. Automated code review generation offers a promising solution to this challenge. Both deep learning-based generative techniques and retrieval-based methods have demonstrated strong performance in this task. However, despite these advancements, there are still some limitations where generated reviews can be either off-… ▽ More Code review is essential for maintaining software quality but is labor-intensive. Automated code review generation offers a promising solution to this challenge. Both deep learning-based generative techniques and retrieval-based methods have demonstrated strong performance in this task. However, despite these advancements, there are still some limitations where generated reviews can be either off-point or overly general. To address these issues, we introduce Retrieval-Augmented Reviewer (RARe), which leverages Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) to combine retrieval-based and generative methods, explicitly incorporating external domain knowledge into the code review process. RARe uses a dense retriever to select the most relevant reviews from the codebase, which then enrich the input for a neural generator, utilizing the contextual learning capacity of large language models (LLMs), to produce the final review. RARe outperforms state-of-the-art methods on two benchmark datasets, achieving BLEU-4 scores of 12.32 and 12.96, respectively. Its effectiveness is further validated through a detailed human evaluation and a case study using an interpretability tool, demonstrating its practical utility and reliability. △ Less Submitted 7 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.05302 [ pdf , ps , other ] Code Review Automation using Retrieval Augmented Generation Authors: Qianru Meng , Xiao Zhang , Zhaochen Ren , Joost Visser Abstract : Code review is essential for maintaining software quality but is labor-intensive. Automated code review generation offers a promising solution to this challenge. Both deep learning-based generative techniques and retrieval-based methods have demonstrated strong performance in this task. However, despite these advancements, there are still some limitations where generated reviews can be either off-… ▽ More Code review is essential for maintaining software quality but is labor-intensive. Automated code review generation offers a promising solution to this challenge. Both deep learning-based generative techniques and retrieval-based methods have demonstrated strong performance in this task. However, despite these advancements, there are still some limitations where generated reviews can be either off-point or overly general. To address these issues, we introduce Retrieval-Augmented Reviewer (RARe), which leverages Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) to combine retrieval-based and generative methods, explicitly incorporating external domain knowledge into the code review process. RARe uses a dense retriever to select the most relevant reviews from the codebase, which then enrich the input for a neural generator, utilizing the contextual learning capacity of large language models (LLMs), to produce the final review. RARe outperforms state-of-the-art methods on two benchmark datasets, achieving BLEU-4 scores of 12.32 and 12.96, respectively. Its effectiveness is further validated through a detailed human evaluation and a case study using an interpretability tool, demonstrating its practical utility and reliability. △ Less Submitted 7 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.02713 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.SE ReleaseEval: A Benchmark for Evaluating Language Models in Automated Release Note Generation Authors: Qianru Meng , Zhaochun Ren , Joost Visser Abstract : Automated release note generation addresses the challenge of documenting frequent software updates, where manual efforts are time-consuming and prone to human error. Although recent advances in language models further enhance this process, progress remains hindered by dataset limitations, including the lack of explicit licensing and limited reproducibility, and incomplete task design that relies m… ▽ More Automated release note generation addresses the challenge of documenting frequent software updates, where manual efforts are time-consuming and prone to human error. Although recent advances in language models further enhance this process, progress remains hindered by dataset limitations, including the lack of explicit licensing and limited reproducibility, and incomplete task design that relies mainly on commit messages for summarization while overlooking fine-grained contexts such as commit hierarchies and code changes. To fill this gap, we introduce ReleaseEval, a reproducible and openly licensed benchmark designed to systematically evaluate language models for automated release note generation. ReleaseEval comprises 94,987 release notes from 3,369 repositories across 6 programming languages, and supports three task settings with three levels of input granularity: (1) commit2sum, which generates release notes from commit messages; (2) tree2sum, which incorporates commit tree structures; and (3) diff2sum, which leverages fine-grained code diffs. Both automated and human evaluations show that large language models consistently outperform traditional baselines across all tasks, achieving substantial gains on tree2sum, while still struggling on diff2sum. These findings highlight LLMs' proficiency in leveraging structured information while revealing challenges in abstracting from long code diffs. △ Less Submitted 4 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.02713 [ pdf , ps , other ] ReleaseEval: A Benchmark for Evaluating Language Models in Automated Release Note Generation Authors: Qianru Meng , Zhaochun Ren , Joost Visser Abstract : Automated release note generation addresses the challenge of documenting frequent software updates, where manual efforts are time-consuming and prone to human error. Although recent advances in language models further enhance this process, progress remains hindered by dataset limitations, including the lack of explicit licensing and limited reproducibility, and incomplete task design that relies m… ▽ More Automated release note generation addresses the challenge of documenting frequent software updates, where manual efforts are time-consuming and prone to human error. Although recent advances in language models further enhance this process, progress remains hindered by dataset limitations, including the lack of explicit licensing and limited reproducibility, and incomplete task design that relies mainly on commit messages for summarization while overlooking fine-grained contexts such as commit hierarchies and code changes. To fill this gap, we introduce ReleaseEval, a reproducible and openly licensed benchmark designed to systematically evaluate language models for automated release note generation. ReleaseEval comprises 94,987 release notes from 3,369 repositories across 6 programming languages, and supports three task settings with three levels of input granularity: (1) commit2sum, which generates release notes from commit messages; (2) tree2sum, which incorporates commit tree structures; and (3) diff2sum, which leverages fine-grained code diffs. Both automated and human evaluations show that large language models consistently outperform traditional baselines across all tasks, achieving substantial gains on tree2sum, while still struggling on diff2sum. These findings highlight LLMs' proficiency in leveraging structured information while revealing challenges in abstracting from long code diffs. △ Less Submitted 4 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2510.24636 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL OpenReward: Learning to Reward Long-form Agentic Tasks via Reinforcement Learning Authors: Ziyou Hu , Zhengliang Shi , Minghang Zhu , Haitao Li , Teng Sun , Pengjie Ren , Suzan Verberne , Zhaochun Ren Abstract : Reward models (RMs) have become essential for aligning large language models (LLMs), serving as scalable proxies for human evaluation in both training and inference. However, existing RMs struggle on knowledge-intensive and long-form tasks, where evaluating correctness requires grounding beyond the model's internal knowledge. This limitation hinders them from reliably discriminating subtle quality… ▽ More Reward models (RMs) have become essential for aligning large language models (LLMs), serving as scalable proxies for human evaluation in both training and inference. However, existing RMs struggle on knowledge-intensive and long-form tasks, where evaluating correctness requires grounding beyond the model's internal knowledge. This limitation hinders them from reliably discriminating subtle quality differences, especially when external evidence is necessary. To address this, we introduce OpenRM, a tool-augmented long-form reward model that systematically judges open-ended responses by invoking external tools to gather relevant evidence. We train OpenRM with Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO) on over 27K synthesized pairwise examples generated through a controllable data synthesis framework. The training objective jointly supervises intermediate tool usage and final outcome accuracy, incentivizing our reward model to learn effective evidence-based judgment strategies. Extensive experiments on three newly-collected datasets and two widely-used benchmarks demonstrate that OpenRM substantially outperforms existing reward modeling approaches. As a further step, we integrate OpenRM into both inference-time response selection and training-time data selection. This yields consistent gains in downstream LLM alignment tasks, highlighting the potential of tool-augmented reward models for scaling reliable long-form evaluation. △ Less Submitted 29 October, 2025; v1 submitted 28 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.24636 [ pdf , ps , other ] OpenReward: Learning to Reward Long-form Agentic Tasks via Reinforcement Learning Authors: Ziyou Hu , Zhengliang Shi , Minghang Zhu , Haitao Li , Teng Sun , Pengjie Ren , Suzan Verberne , Zhaochun Ren Abstract : Reward models (RMs) have become essential for aligning large language models (LLMs), serving as scalable proxies for human evaluation in both training and inference. However, existing RMs struggle on knowledge-intensive and long-form tasks, where evaluating correctness requires grounding beyond the model's internal knowledge. This limitation hinders them from reliably discriminating subtle quality… ▽ More Reward models (RMs) have become essential for aligning large language models (LLMs), serving as scalable proxies for human evaluation in both training and inference. However, existing RMs struggle on knowledge-intensive and long-form tasks, where evaluating correctness requires grounding beyond the model's internal knowledge. This limitation hinders them from reliably discriminating subtle quality differences, especially when external evidence is necessary. To address this, we introduce OpenRM, a tool-augmented long-form reward model that systematically judges open-ended responses by invoking external tools to gather relevant evidence. We train OpenRM with Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO) on over 27K synthesized pairwise examples generated through a controllable data synthesis framework. The training objective jointly supervises intermediate tool usage and final outcome accuracy, incentivizing our reward model to learn effective evidence-based judgment strategies. Extensive experiments on three newly-collected datasets and two widely-used benchmarks demonstrate that OpenRM substantially outperforms existing reward modeling approaches. As a further step, we integrate OpenRM into both inference-time response selection and training-time data selection. This yields consistent gains in downstream LLM alignment tasks, highlighting the potential of tool-augmented reward models for scaling reliable long-form evaluation. △ Less Submitted 29 October, 2025; v1 submitted 28 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.17918 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI JT-Safe: Intrinsically Enhancing the Safety and Trustworthiness of LLMs Authors: Junlan Feng , Fanyu Meng , Chong Long , Pengyu Cong , Duqing Wang , Yan Zheng , Yuyao Zhang , Xuanchang Gao , Ye Yuan , Yunfei Ma , Zhijie Ren , Fan Yang , Na Wu , Di Jin , Chao Deng Abstract : The hallucination and credibility concerns of large language models (LLMs) are global challenges that the industry is collectively addressing. Recently, a significant amount of advances have been made on post-training and inference techniques to mitigate these challenges. However, it is widely agreed that unsafe and hallucinations of LLMs intrinsically originate from pre-training, involving pre-tr… ▽ More The hallucination and credibility concerns of large language models (LLMs) are global challenges that the industry is collectively addressing. Recently, a significant amount of advances have been made on post-training and inference techniques to mitigate these challenges. However, it is widely agreed that unsafe and hallucinations of LLMs intrinsically originate from pre-training, involving pre-training data and the next-token prediction learning mechanism. In this paper, we focus on enhancing pre-training data to improve the trustworthiness and safety of LLMs. Since the data is vast, it's almost impossible to entirely purge the data of factual errors, logical inconsistencies, or distributional biases. Moreover, the pre-training data lack grounding in real-world knowledge. Each piece of data is treated as a sequence of tokens rather than as a representation of a part of the world. To overcome these issues, we propose approaches to enhancing our pre-training data with its context in the world and increasing a substantial amount of data reflecting industrial scenarios. We argue that most source data are created by the authors for specific purposes in a certain spatial-temporal context. They have played a role in the real world. By incorporating related world context information, we aim to better anchor pre-training data within real-world scenarios, thereby reducing uncertainty in model training and enhancing the model's safety and trustworthiness. We refer to our Data with World Context as DWC. We continue pre-training an earlier checkpoint of JT-35B-Base with 1.5 trillion of DWC tokens. We introduce our post-training procedures to activate the potentials of DWC. Compared with the Qwen model of a similar scale, JT-Safe-35B achieves an average performance improvement of 1.79% on the Safety and Trustworthy evaluation benchmarks, while being pretrained with only 6.2 trillion tokens. △ Less Submitted 19 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.17918 [ pdf , ps , other ] JT-Safe: Intrinsically Enhancing the Safety and Trustworthiness of LLMs Authors: Junlan Feng , Fanyu Meng , Chong Long , Pengyu Cong , Duqing Wang , Yan Zheng , Yuyao Zhang , Xuanchang Gao , Ye Yuan , Yunfei Ma , Zhijie Ren , Fan Yang , Na Wu , Di Jin , Chao Deng Abstract : The hallucination and credibility concerns of large language models (LLMs) are global challenges that the industry is collectively addressing. Recently, a significant amount of advances have been made on post-training and inference techniques to mitigate these challenges. However, it is widely agreed that unsafe and hallucinations of LLMs intrinsically originate from pre-training, involving pre-tr… ▽ More The hallucination and credibility concerns of large language models (LLMs) are global challenges that the industry is collectively addressing. Recently, a significant amount of advances have been made on post-training and inference techniques to mitigate these challenges. However, it is widely agreed that unsafe and hallucinations of LLMs intrinsically originate from pre-training, involving pre-training data and the next-token prediction learning mechanism. In this paper, we focus on enhancing pre-training data to improve the trustworthiness and safety of LLMs. Since the data is vast, it's almost impossible to entirely purge the data of factual errors, logical inconsistencies, or distributional biases. Moreover, the pre-training data lack grounding in real-world knowledge. Each piece of data is treated as a sequence of tokens rather than as a representation of a part of the world. To overcome these issues, we propose approaches to enhancing our pre-training data with its context in the world and increasing a substantial amount of data reflecting industrial scenarios. We argue that most source data are created by the authors for specific purposes in a certain spatial-temporal context. They have played a role in the real world. By incorporating related world context information, we aim to better anchor pre-training data within real-world scenarios, thereby reducing uncertainty in model training and enhancing the model's safety and trustworthiness. We refer to our Data with World Context as DWC. We continue pre-training an earlier checkpoint of JT-35B-Base with 1.5 trillion of DWC tokens. We introduce our post-training procedures to activate the potentials of DWC. Compared with the Qwen model of a similar scale, JT-Safe-35B achieves an average performance improvement of 1.79% on the Safety and Trustworthy evaluation benchmarks, while being pretrained with only 6.2 trillion tokens. △ Less Submitted 19 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.14819 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.LG Capturing Context-Aware Route Choice Semantics for Trajectory Representation Learning Authors: Ji Cao , Yu Wang , Tongya Zheng , Jie Song , Qinghong Guo , Zujie Ren , Canghong Jin , Gang Chen , Mingli Song Abstract : Trajectory representation learning (TRL) aims to encode raw trajectory data into low-dimensional embeddings for downstream tasks such as travel time estimation, mobility prediction, and trajectory similarity analysis. From a behavioral perspective, a trajectory reflects a sequence of route choices within an urban environment. However, most existing TRL methods ignore this underlying decision-makin… ▽ More Trajectory representation learning (TRL) aims to encode raw trajectory data into low-dimensional embeddings for downstream tasks such as travel time estimation, mobility prediction, and trajectory similarity analysis. From a behavioral perspective, a trajectory reflects a sequence of route choices within an urban environment. However, most existing TRL methods ignore this underlying decision-making process and instead treat trajectories as static, passive spatiotemporal sequences, thereby limiting the semantic richness of the learned representations. To bridge this gap, we propose CORE, a TRL framework that integrates context-aware route choice semantics into trajectory embeddings. CORE first incorporates a multi-granular Environment Perception Module, which leverages large language models (LLMs) to distill environmental semantics from point of interest (POI) distributions, thereby constructing a context-enriched road network. Building upon this backbone, CORE employs a Route Choice Encoder with a mixture-of-experts (MoE) architecture, which captures route choice patterns by jointly leveraging the context-enriched road network and navigational factors. Finally, a Transformer encoder aggregates the route-choice-aware representations into a global trajectory embedding. Extensive experiments on 4 real-world datasets across 6 downstream tasks demonstrate that CORE consistently outperforms 12 state-of-the-art TRL methods, achieving an average improvement of 9.79% over the best-performing baseline. Our code is available at △ Less Submitted 1 December, 2025; v1 submitted 16 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.14819 [ pdf , ps , other ] Capturing Context-Aware Route Choice Semantics for Trajectory Representation Learning Authors: Ji Cao , Yu Wang , Tongya Zheng , Jie Song , Qinghong Guo , Zujie Ren , Canghong Jin , Gang Chen , Mingli Song Abstract : Trajectory representation learning (TRL) aims to encode raw trajectory data into low-dimensional embeddings for downstream tasks such as travel time estimation, mobility prediction, and trajectory similarity analysis. From a behavioral perspective, a trajectory reflects a sequence of route choices within an urban environment. However, most existing TRL methods ignore this underlying decision-makin… ▽ More Trajectory representation learning (TRL) aims to encode raw trajectory data into low-dimensional embeddings for downstream tasks such as travel time estimation, mobility prediction, and trajectory similarity analysis. From a behavioral perspective, a trajectory reflects a sequence of route choices within an urban environment. However, most existing TRL methods ignore this underlying decision-making process and instead treat trajectories as static, passive spatiotemporal sequences, thereby limiting the semantic richness of the learned representations. To bridge this gap, we propose CORE, a TRL framework that integrates context-aware route choice semantics into trajectory embeddings. CORE first incorporates a multi-granular Environment Perception Module, which leverages large language models (LLMs) to distill environmental semantics from point of interest (POI) distributions, thereby constructing a context-enriched road network. Building upon this backbone, CORE employs a Route Choice Encoder with a mixture-of-experts (MoE) architecture, which captures route choice patterns by jointly leveraging the context-enriched road network and navigational factors. Finally, a Transformer encoder aggregates the route-choice-aware representations into a global trajectory embedding. Extensive experiments on 4 real-world datasets across 6 downstream tasks demonstrate that CORE consistently outperforms 12 state-of-the-art TRL methods, achieving an average improvement of 9.79% over the best-performing baseline. Our code is available at △ Less Submitted 1 December, 2025; v1 submitted 16 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.14301 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI A Guardrail for Safety Preservation: When Safety-Sensitive Subspace Meets Harmful-Resistant Null-Space Authors: Bingjie Zhang , Yibo Yang , Zhe Ren , Dandan Guo , Jindong Gu , Philip Torr , Bernard Ghanem Abstract : Large language models (LLMs) have achieved remarkable success in diverse tasks, yet their safety alignment remains fragile during adaptation. Even when fine-tuning on benign data or with low-rank adaptation, pre-trained safety behaviors are easily degraded, leading to harmful responses in the fine-tuned models. To address this challenge, we propose GuardSpace, a guardrail framework for preserving… ▽ More Large language models (LLMs) have achieved remarkable success in diverse tasks, yet their safety alignment remains fragile during adaptation. Even when fine-tuning on benign data or with low-rank adaptation, pre-trained safety behaviors are easily degraded, leading to harmful responses in the fine-tuned models. To address this challenge, we propose GuardSpace, a guardrail framework for preserving safety alignment throughout fine-tuning, composed of two key components: a safety-sensitive subspace and a harmful-resistant null space. First, we explicitly decompose pre-trained weights into safety-relevant and safety-irrelevant components using covariance-preconditioned singular value decomposition, and initialize low-rank adapters from the safety-irrelevant ones, while freezing safety-relevant components to preserve their associated safety mechanism. Second, we construct a null space projector that restricts adapter updates from altering safe outputs on harmful prompts, thereby maintaining the original refusal behavior. Experiments with various pre-trained models on multiple downstream tasks demonstrate that GuardSpace achieves superior performance over existing methods. Notably, for Llama-2-7B-Chat fine-tuned on GSM8K, GuardSpace outperforms the state-of-the-art method AsFT, reducing the average harmful score from 14.4% to 3.6%, while improving the accuracy from from 26.0% to 28.0%. △ Less Submitted 27 October, 2025; v1 submitted 16 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.14301 [ pdf , ps , other ] A Guardrail for Safety Preservation: When Safety-Sensitive Subspace Meets Harmful-Resistant Null-Space Authors: Bingjie Zhang , Yibo Yang , Zhe Ren , Dandan Guo , Jindong Gu , Philip Torr , Bernard Ghanem Abstract : Large language models (LLMs) have achieved remarkable success in diverse tasks, yet their safety alignment remains fragile during adaptation. Even when fine-tuning on benign data or with low-rank adaptation, pre-trained safety behaviors are easily degraded, leading to harmful responses in the fine-tuned models. To address this challenge, we propose GuardSpace, a guardrail framework for preserving… ▽ More Large language models (LLMs) have achieved remarkable success in diverse tasks, yet their safety alignment remains fragile during adaptation. Even when fine-tuning on benign data or with low-rank adaptation, pre-trained safety behaviors are easily degraded, leading to harmful responses in the fine-tuned models. To address this challenge, we propose GuardSpace, a guardrail framework for preserving safety alignment throughout fine-tuning, composed of two key components: a safety-sensitive subspace and a harmful-resistant null space. First, we explicitly decompose pre-trained weights into safety-relevant and safety-irrelevant components using covariance-preconditioned singular value decomposition, and initialize low-rank adapters from the safety-irrelevant ones, while freezing safety-relevant components to preserve their associated safety mechanism. Second, we construct a null space projector that restricts adapter updates from altering safe outputs on harmful prompts, thereby maintaining the original refusal behavior. Experiments with various pre-trained models on multiple downstream tasks demonstrate that GuardSpace achieves superior performance over existing methods. Notably, for Llama-2-7B-Chat fine-tuned on GSM8K, GuardSpace outperforms the state-of-the-art method AsFT, reducing the average harmful score from 14.4% to 3.6%, while improving the accuracy from from 26.0% to 28.0%. △ Less Submitted 27 October, 2025; v1 submitted 16 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.10419 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.IR ZeroGR: A Generalizable and Scalable Framework for Zero-Shot Generative Retrieval Authors: Weiwei Sun , Keyi Kong , Xinyu Ma , Shuaiqiang Wang , Dawei Yin , Maarten de Rijke , Zhaochun Ren , Yiming Yang Abstract : Generative retrieval (GR) reformulates information retrieval (IR) by framing it as the generation of document identifiers (docids), thereby enabling an end-to-end optimization and seamless integration with generative language models (LMs). Despite notable progress under supervised training, GR still struggles to generalize to zero-shot IR scenarios, which are prevalent in real-world applications.… ▽ More Generative retrieval (GR) reformulates information retrieval (IR) by framing it as the generation of document identifiers (docids), thereby enabling an end-to-end optimization and seamless integration with generative language models (LMs). Despite notable progress under supervised training, GR still struggles to generalize to zero-shot IR scenarios, which are prevalent in real-world applications. To tackle this challenge, we propose \textsc{ZeroGR}, a zero-shot generative retrieval framework that leverages natural language instructions to extend GR across a wide range of IR tasks. Specifically, \textsc{ZeroGR} is composed of three key components: (i) an LM-based docid generator that unifies heterogeneous documents (e.g., text, tables, code) into semantically meaningful docids; (ii) an instruction-tuned query generator that generates diverse types of queries from natural language task descriptions to enhance corpus indexing; and (iii) a reverse annealing decoding strategy to balance precision and recall during docid generation. We investigate the impact of instruction fine-tuning scale and find that performance consistently improves as the number of IR tasks encountered during training increases. Empirical results on the BEIR and MAIR benchmarks demonstrate that \textsc{ZeroGR} outperforms strong dense retrieval and generative baselines in zero-shot settings, establishing a new state-of-the-art for instruction-driven GR. △ Less Submitted 11 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.10419 [ pdf , ps , other ] ZeroGR: A Generalizable and Scalable Framework for Zero-Shot Generative Retrieval Authors: Weiwei Sun , Keyi Kong , Xinyu Ma , Shuaiqiang Wang , Dawei Yin , Maarten de Rijke , Zhaochun Ren , Yiming Yang Abstract : Generative retrieval (GR) reformulates information retrieval (IR) by framing it as the generation of document identifiers (docids), thereby enabling an end-to-end optimization and seamless integration with generative language models (LMs). Despite notable progress under supervised training, GR still struggles to generalize to zero-shot IR scenarios, which are prevalent in real-world applications.… ▽ More Generative retrieval (GR) reformulates information retrieval (IR) by framing it as the generation of document identifiers (docids), thereby enabling an end-to-end optimization and seamless integration with generative language models (LMs). Despite notable progress under supervised training, GR still struggles to generalize to zero-shot IR scenarios, which are prevalent in real-world applications. To tackle this challenge, we propose \textsc{ZeroGR}, a zero-shot generative retrieval framework that leverages natural language instructions to extend GR across a wide range of IR tasks. Specifically, \textsc{ZeroGR} is composed of three key components: (i) an LM-based docid generator that unifies heterogeneous documents (e.g., text, tables, code) into semantically meaningful docids; (ii) an instruction-tuned query generator that generates diverse types of queries from natural language task descriptions to enhance corpus indexing; and (iii) a reverse annealing decoding strategy to balance precision and recall during docid generation. We investigate the impact of instruction fine-tuning scale and find that performance consistently improves as the number of IR tasks encountered during training increases. Empirical results on the BEIR and MAIR benchmarks demonstrate that \textsc{ZeroGR} outperforms strong dense retrieval and generative baselines in zero-shot settings, establishing a new state-of-the-art for instruction-driven GR. △ Less Submitted 11 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.09400 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.SE TIT: A Tree-Structured Instruction Tuning Approach for LLM-Based Code Translation Authors: He Jiang , Yufu Wang , Hao Lin , Peiyu Zou , Zhide Zhou , Ang Jia , Xiaochen Li , Zhilei Ren Abstract : Large Language Models (LLMs) have shown strong performance in automated source-to-target code translation through pretraining on extensive code corpora. However, mainstream LLM-based code translation methods suffer from two critical limitations. First, they are highly sensitive to language-specific features, which often introduce source-language syntax or lexicon into the output, leading to syntac… ▽ More Large Language Models (LLMs) have shown strong performance in automated source-to-target code translation through pretraining on extensive code corpora. However, mainstream LLM-based code translation methods suffer from two critical limitations. First, they are highly sensitive to language-specific features, which often introduce source-language syntax or lexicon into the output, leading to syntactic confusion. Second, they lack fine-grained semantic alignment due to an over-reliance on function-level parallel datasets, resulting in semantic misalignment between the translated code and the original source. To overcome these limitations, we propose TIT, a Tree-structured Instruction Tuning paradigm for LLM-based code translation. Specifically, TIT consists of three modules. First, to mitigate syntactic confusion, the syntactic information representation module integrates language-agnostic syntactic features via structured parsing. Then, to generate high-quality fine-grained parallel data, the fine-grained parallel dataset augmentation module aligns nodes with code segments through statement-level segmentation and contrastive matching. Finally, we leverage the dual-stage tree instruction tuning module to alleviate the contextual processing burden on the LLM caused by the introduction of syntactic information. The first stage employs syntax-aware fine-tuning to enable the LLM to autonomously comprehend structured syntactic information, while the second stage utilizes code generation fine-tuning to guide the model in generating accurate target code based on function-level syntactic dependencies. The experimental results demonstrate that the proposed method significantly outperforms existing approaches in multiple LLMs, achieving a success rate 1.22x-1.75x higher in code translation while markedly reducing syntactic confusion. △ Less Submitted 10 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.09400 [ pdf , ps , other ] TIT: A Tree-Structured Instruction Tuning Approach for LLM-Based Code Translation Authors: He Jiang , Yufu Wang , Hao Lin , Peiyu Zou , Zhide Zhou , Ang Jia , Xiaochen Li , Zhilei Ren Abstract : Large Language Models (LLMs) have shown strong performance in automated source-to-target code translation through pretraining on extensive code corpora. However, mainstream LLM-based code translation methods suffer from two critical limitations. First, they are highly sensitive to language-specific features, which often introduce source-language syntax or lexicon into the output, leading to syntac… ▽ More Large Language Models (LLMs) have shown strong performance in automated source-to-target code translation through pretraining on extensive code corpora. However, mainstream LLM-based code translation methods suffer from two critical limitations. First, they are highly sensitive to language-specific features, which often introduce source-language syntax or lexicon into the output, leading to syntactic confusion. Second, they lack fine-grained semantic alignment due to an over-reliance on function-level parallel datasets, resulting in semantic misalignment between the translated code and the original source. To overcome these limitations, we propose TIT, a Tree-structured Instruction Tuning paradigm for LLM-based code translation. Specifically, TIT consists of three modules. First, to mitigate syntactic confusion, the syntactic information representation module integrates language-agnostic syntactic features via structured parsing. Then, to generate high-quality fine-grained parallel data, the fine-grained parallel dataset augmentation module aligns nodes with code segments through statement-level segmentation and contrastive matching. Finally, we leverage the dual-stage tree instruction tuning module to alleviate the contextual processing burden on the LLM caused by the introduction of syntactic information. The first stage employs syntax-aware fine-tuning to enable the LLM to autonomously comprehend structured syntactic information, while the second stage utilizes code generation fine-tuning to guide the model in generating accurate target code based on function-level syntactic dependencies. The experimental results demonstrate that the proposed method significantly outperforms existing approaches in multiple LLMs, achieving a success rate 1.22x-1.75x higher in code translation while markedly reducing syntactic confusion. △ Less Submitted 10 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.06600 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI doi 10.1145/3746252.3761319 Fine-Grained Emotion Recognition via In-Context Learning Authors: Zhaochun Ren , Zhou Yang , Chenglong Ye , Haizhou Sun , Chao Chen , Xiaofei Zhu , Xiangwen Liao Abstract : Fine-grained emotion recognition aims to identify the emotional type in queries through reasoning and decision-making processes, playing a crucial role in various systems. Recent methods use In-Context Learning (ICL), enhancing the representation of queries in the reasoning process through semantically similar examples, while further improving emotion recognition by explaining the reasoning mechan… ▽ More Fine-grained emotion recognition aims to identify the emotional type in queries through reasoning and decision-making processes, playing a crucial role in various systems. Recent methods use In-Context Learning (ICL), enhancing the representation of queries in the reasoning process through semantically similar examples, while further improving emotion recognition by explaining the reasoning mechanisms. However, these methods enhance the reasoning process but overlook the decision-making process. This paper investigates decision-making in fine-grained emotion recognition through prototype theory. We show that ICL relies on similarity matching between query representations and emotional prototypes within the model, where emotion-accurate representations are critical. However, semantically similar examples often introduce emotional discrepancies, hindering accurate representations and causing errors. To address this, we propose Emotion In-Context Learning (EICL), which introduces emotionally similar examples and uses a dynamic soft-label strategy to improve query representations in the emotion reasoning process. A two-stage exclusion strategy is then employed to assess similarity from multiple angles, further optimizing the decision-making process. Extensive experiments show that EICL significantly outperforms ICL on multiple datasets. △ Less Submitted 7 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: 9 pages, 10 figures, 4 tables ACM Class: H.3.3; I.2.7 Journal ref: Proceedings of the 34th ACM International Conference on Information and Knowledge Management (CIKM 2025) arXiv:2510.06600 [ pdf , ps , other ] Fine-Grained Emotion Recognition via In-Context Learning Authors: Zhaochun Ren , Zhou Yang , Chenglong Ye , Haizhou Sun , Chao Chen , Xiaofei Zhu , Xiangwen Liao Abstract : Fine-grained emotion recognition aims to identify the emotional type in queries through reasoning and decision-making processes, playing a crucial role in various systems. Recent methods use In-Context Learning (ICL), enhancing the representation of queries in the reasoning process through semantically similar examples, while further improving emotion recognition by explaining the reasoning mechan… ▽ More Fine-grained emotion recognition aims to identify the emotional type in queries through reasoning and decision-making processes, playing a crucial role in various systems. Recent methods use In-Context Learning (ICL), enhancing the representation of queries in the reasoning process through semantically similar examples, while further improving emotion recognition by explaining the reasoning mechanisms. However, these methods enhance the reasoning process but overlook the decision-making process. This paper investigates decision-making in fine-grained emotion recognition through prototype theory. We show that ICL relies on similarity matching between query representations and emotional prototypes within the model, where emotion-accurate representations are critical. However, semantically similar examples often introduce emotional discrepancies, hindering accurate representations and causing errors. To address this, we propose Emotion In-Context Learning (EICL), which introduces emotionally similar examples and uses a dynamic soft-label strategy to improve query representations in the emotion reasoning process. A two-stage exclusion strategy is then employed to assess similarity from multiple angles, further optimizing the decision-making process. Extensive experiments show that EICL significantly outperforms ICL on multiple datasets. △ Less Submitted 7 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: 9 pages, 10 figures, 4 tables ACM Class: H.3.3; I.2.7 Journal ref: Proceedings of the 34th ACM International Conference on Information and Knowledge Management (CIKM 2025) arXiv:2510.06307 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI Belief-Calibrated Multi-Agent Consensus Seeking for Complex NLP Tasks Authors: Wentao Deng , Jiahuan Pei , Zhiwei Xu , Zhaochun Ren , Zhumin Chen , Pengjie Ren Abstract : A multi-agent system (MAS) enhances its capacity to solve complex natural language processing (NLP) tasks through collaboration among multiple agents, where consensus-seeking serves as a fundamental mechanism. However, existing consensus-seeking approaches typically rely on voting mechanisms to judge consensus, overlooking contradictions in system-internal beliefs that destabilize the consensus. M… ▽ More A multi-agent system (MAS) enhances its capacity to solve complex natural language processing (NLP) tasks through collaboration among multiple agents, where consensus-seeking serves as a fundamental mechanism. However, existing consensus-seeking approaches typically rely on voting mechanisms to judge consensus, overlooking contradictions in system-internal beliefs that destabilize the consensus. Moreover, these methods often involve agents updating their results through indiscriminate collaboration with every other agent. Such uniform interaction fails to identify the optimal collaborators for each agent, hindering the emergence of a stable consensus. To address these challenges, we provide a theoretical framework for selecting optimal collaborators that maximize consensus stability. Based on the theorems, we propose the Belief-Calibrated Consensus Seeking (BCCS) framework to facilitate stable consensus via selecting optimal collaborators and calibrating the consensus judgment by system-internal beliefs. Experimental results on the MATH and MMLU benchmark datasets demonstrate that the proposed BCCS framework outperforms the best existing results by 2.23% and 3.95% of accuracy on challenging tasks, respectively. Our code and data are available at △ Less Submitted 7 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: This paper has been accepted by NeurIPS 2025 arXiv:2510.06307 [ pdf , ps , other ] Belief-Calibrated Multi-Agent Consensus Seeking for Complex NLP Tasks Authors: Wentao Deng , Jiahuan Pei , Zhiwei Xu , Zhaochun Ren , Zhumin Chen , Pengjie Ren Abstract : A multi-agent system (MAS) enhances its capacity to solve complex natural language processing (NLP) tasks through collaboration among multiple agents, where consensus-seeking serves as a fundamental mechanism. However, existing consensus-seeking approaches typically rely on voting mechanisms to judge consensus, overlooking contradictions in system-internal beliefs that destabilize the consensus. M… ▽ More A multi-agent system (MAS) enhances its capacity to solve complex natural language processing (NLP) tasks through collaboration among multiple agents, where consensus-seeking serves as a fundamental mechanism. However, existing consensus-seeking approaches typically rely on voting mechanisms to judge consensus, overlooking contradictions in system-internal beliefs that destabilize the consensus. Moreover, these methods often involve agents updating their results through indiscriminate collaboration with every other agent. Such uniform interaction fails to identify the optimal collaborators for each agent, hindering the emergence of a stable consensus. To address these challenges, we provide a theoretical framework for selecting optimal collaborators that maximize consensus stability. Based on the theorems, we propose the Belief-Calibrated Consensus Seeking (BCCS) framework to facilitate stable consensus via selecting optimal collaborators and calibrating the consensus judgment by system-internal beliefs. Experimental results on the MATH and MMLU benchmark datasets demonstrate that the proposed BCCS framework outperforms the best existing results by 2.23% and 3.95% of accuracy on challenging tasks, respectively. Our code and data are available at △ Less Submitted 7 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: This paper has been accepted by NeurIPS 2025 arXiv:2510.05621 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.DC cs.MA Decoupling Correctness from Policy: A Deterministic Causal Structure for Multi-Agent Systems Authors: Zhiyuan Ren , Tao Zhang , Wenchi Chen Abstract : In distributed multi-agent systems, correctness is often entangled with operational policies such as scheduling, batching, or routing, which makes systems brittle since performance-driven policy evolution may break integrity guarantees. This paper introduces the Deterministic Causal Structure (DCS), a formal foundation that decouples correctness from policy. We develop a minimal axiomatic theory a… ▽ More In distributed multi-agent systems, correctness is often entangled with operational policies such as scheduling, batching, or routing, which makes systems brittle since performance-driven policy evolution may break integrity guarantees. This paper introduces the Deterministic Causal Structure (DCS), a formal foundation that decouples correctness from policy. We develop a minimal axiomatic theory and prove four results: existence and uniqueness, policy-agnostic invariance, observational equivalence, and axiom minimality. These results show that DCS resolves causal ambiguities that value-centric convergence models such as CRDTs cannot address, and that removing any axiom collapses determinism into ambiguity. DCS thus emerges as a boundary principle of asynchronous computation, analogous to CAP and FLP: correctness is preserved only within the expressive power of a join-semilattice. All guarantees are established by axioms and proofs, with only minimal illustrative constructions included to aid intuition. This work establishes correctness as a fixed, policy-agnostic substrate, a Correctness-as-a-Chassis paradigm, on which distributed intelligent systems can be built modularly, safely, and evolvably. △ Less Submitted 7 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.05621 [ pdf , ps , other ] Decoupling Correctness from Policy: A Deterministic Causal Structure for Multi-Agent Systems Authors: Zhiyuan Ren , Tao Zhang , Wenchi Chen Abstract : In distributed multi-agent systems, correctness is often entangled with operational policies such as scheduling, batching, or routing, which makes systems brittle since performance-driven policy evolution may break integrity guarantees. This paper introduces the Deterministic Causal Structure (DCS), a formal foundation that decouples correctness from policy. We develop a minimal axiomatic theory a… ▽ More In distributed multi-agent systems, correctness is often entangled with operational policies such as scheduling, batching, or routing, which makes systems brittle since performance-driven policy evolution may break integrity guarantees. This paper introduces the Deterministic Causal Structure (DCS), a formal foundation that decouples correctness from policy. We develop a minimal axiomatic theory and prove four results: existence and uniqueness, policy-agnostic invariance, observational equivalence, and axiom minimality. These results show that DCS resolves causal ambiguities that value-centric convergence models such as CRDTs cannot address, and that removing any axiom collapses determinism into ambiguity. DCS thus emerges as a boundary principle of asynchronous computation, analogous to CAP and FLP: correctness is preserved only within the expressive power of a join-semilattice. All guarantees are established by axioms and proofs, with only minimal illustrative constructions included to aid intuition. This work establishes correctness as a fixed, policy-agnostic substrate, a Correctness-as-a-Chassis paradigm, on which distributed intelligent systems can be built modularly, safely, and evolvably. △ Less Submitted 7 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.04251 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.SD eess.AS Machine Unlearning in Speech Emotion Recognition via Forget Set Alone Authors: Zhao Ren , Rathi Adarshi Rammohan , Kevin Scheck , Tanja Schultz Abstract : Speech emotion recognition aims to identify emotional states from speech signals and has been widely applied in human-computer interaction, education, healthcare, and many other fields. However, since speech data contain rich sensitive information, partial data can be required to be deleted by speakers due to privacy concerns. Current machine unlearning approaches largely depend on data beyond the… ▽ More Speech emotion recognition aims to identify emotional states from speech signals and has been widely applied in human-computer interaction, education, healthcare, and many other fields. However, since speech data contain rich sensitive information, partial data can be required to be deleted by speakers due to privacy concerns. Current machine unlearning approaches largely depend on data beyond the samples to be forgotten. However, this reliance poses challenges when data redistribution is restricted and demands substantial computational resources in the context of big data. We propose a novel adversarial-attack-based approach that fine-tunes a pre-trained speech emotion recognition model using only the data to be forgotten. The experimental results demonstrate that the proposed approach can effectively remove the knowledge of the data to be forgotten from the model, while preserving high model performance on the test set for emotion recognition. △ Less Submitted 22 December, 2025; v1 submitted 5 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: Submitted to ICASSP 2026 arXiv:2510.04251 [ pdf , ps , other ] Machine Unlearning in Speech Emotion Recognition via Forget Set Alone Authors: Zhao Ren , Rathi Adarshi Rammohan , Kevin Scheck , Tanja Schultz Abstract : Speech emotion recognition aims to identify emotional states from speech signals and has been widely applied in human-computer interaction, education, healthcare, and many other fields. However, since speech data contain rich sensitive information, partial data can be required to be deleted by speakers due to privacy concerns. Current machine unlearning approaches largely depend on data beyond the… ▽ More Speech emotion recognition aims to identify emotional states from speech signals and has been widely applied in human-computer interaction, education, healthcare, and many other fields. However, since speech data contain rich sensitive information, partial data can be required to be deleted by speakers due to privacy concerns. Current machine unlearning approaches largely depend on data beyond the samples to be forgotten. However, this reliance poses challenges when data redistribution is restricted and demands substantial computational resources in the context of big data. We propose a novel adversarial-attack-based approach that fine-tunes a pre-trained speech emotion recognition model using only the data to be forgotten. The experimental results demonstrate that the proposed approach can effectively remove the knowledge of the data to be forgotten from the model, while preserving high model performance on the test set for emotion recognition. △ Less Submitted 22 December, 2025; v1 submitted 5 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: Submitted to ICASSP 2026 arXiv:2510.04161 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO HEHA: Hierarchical Planning for Heterogeneous Multi-Robot Exploration of Unknown Environments Authors: Longrui Yang , Yiyu Wang , Jingfan Tang , Yunpeng Lv , Shizhe Zhao , Chao Cao , Zhongqiang Ren Abstract : This paper considers the path planning problem for autonomous exploration of an unknown environment using multiple heterogeneous robots such as drones, wheeled, and legged robots, which have different capabilities to traverse complex terrains. A key challenge there is to intelligently allocate the robots to the unknown areas to be explored and determine the visiting order of those spaces subject t… ▽ More This paper considers the path planning problem for autonomous exploration of an unknown environment using multiple heterogeneous robots such as drones, wheeled, and legged robots, which have different capabilities to traverse complex terrains. A key challenge there is to intelligently allocate the robots to the unknown areas to be explored and determine the visiting order of those spaces subject to traversablity constraints, which leads to a large scale constrained optimization problem that needs to be quickly and iteratively solved every time when new space are explored. To address the challenge, we propose HEHA (Hierarchical Exploration with Heterogeneous Agents) by leveraging a recent hierarchical method that decompose the exploration into global planning and local planning. The major contribution in HEHA is its global planning, where we propose a new routing algorithm PEAF (Partial Anytime Focal search) that can quickly find bounded sub-optimal solutions to minimize the maximum path length among the agents subject to traversability constraints. Additionally, the local planner in HEHA also considers heterogeneity to avoid repeated and duplicated exploration among the robots. The experimental results show that, our HEHA can reduce up to 30% of the exploration time than the baselines. △ Less Submitted 5 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: 5 Figures arXiv:2510.04161 [ pdf , ps , other ] HEHA: Hierarchical Planning for Heterogeneous Multi-Robot Exploration of Unknown Environments Authors: Longrui Yang , Yiyu Wang , Jingfan Tang , Yunpeng Lv , Shizhe Zhao , Chao Cao , Zhongqiang Ren Abstract : This paper considers the path planning problem for autonomous exploration of an unknown environment using multiple heterogeneous robots such as drones, wheeled, and legged robots, which have different capabilities to traverse complex terrains. A key challenge there is to intelligently allocate the robots to the unknown areas to be explored and determine the visiting order of those spaces subject t… ▽ More This paper considers the path planning problem for autonomous exploration of an unknown environment using multiple heterogeneous robots such as drones, wheeled, and legged robots, which have different capabilities to traverse complex terrains. A key challenge there is to intelligently allocate the robots to the unknown areas to be explored and determine the visiting order of those spaces subject to traversablity constraints, which leads to a large scale constrained optimization problem that needs to be quickly and iteratively solved every time when new space are explored. To address the challenge, we propose HEHA (Hierarchical Exploration with Heterogeneous Agents) by leveraging a recent hierarchical method that decompose the exploration into global planning and local planning. The major contribution in HEHA is its global planning, where we propose a new routing algorithm PEAF (Partial Anytime Focal search) that can quickly find bounded sub-optimal solutions to minimize the maximum path length among the agents subject to traversability constraints. Additionally, the local planner in HEHA also considers heterogeneity to avoid repeated and duplicated exploration among the robots. The experimental results show that, our HEHA can reduce up to 30% of the exploration time than the baselines. △ Less Submitted 5 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: 5 Figures 1 2 3 4 5 … About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack
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https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&query=Ren,+Z
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early life 2 Career Toggle Career subsection 2.1 1975–1988: Early career and breakthrough 2.2 1989–1999: Established actor 2.3 2000–2013: Limited roles and venture into voice acting 2.4 2014–2019: Renewed critical success 2.5 2020–present: Continued acclaim and reprising past roles 2.1 1975–1988: Early career and breakthrough 2.2 1989–1999: Established actor 2.3 2000–2013: Limited roles and venture into voice acting 2.4 2014–2019: Renewed critical success 2.5 2020–present: Continued acclaim and reprising past roles 3 Personal life Toggle Personal life subsection 3.1 Marriage and family 3.2 Interests 3.3 Political views and activism 3.1 Marriage and family 3.2 Interests 3.3 Political views and activism 4 Filmography Toggle Filmography subsection 4.1 Film 4.2 Television 4.3 Video games 4.1 Film 4.2 Television 4.3 Video games 5 Awards and nominations 6 References 7 External links Michael Keaton Afrikaans العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Kapampangan ქართული Қазақша Kreyòl ayisyen Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Magyar Македонски Malagasy मराठी მარგალური مصرى Bahasa Melayu Монгол Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 粵語 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item Michael Keaton Keaton in 2024 Born Michael John Douglas ( 1951-09-05 ) September 5, 1951 (age 74) Kennedy Township, Pennsylvania , U.S. Other names Michael Keaton Douglas Alma mater Kent State University Occupations .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} Actor director producer Actor director producer Years active 1975–present Spouse .mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-inline{display:inline} Caroline McWilliams ( m. 1982; div. 1990) Partners .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Courteney Cox (1990–1995) Marni Turner (2016–present) Courteney Cox (1990–1995) Marni Turner (2016–present) Children Sean Douglas Awards Full list Signature Michael John Douglas (born September 5, 1951), known professionally as Michael Keaton , is an American actor. His accolades include a Primetime Emmy Award and two Golden Globe Awards , in addition to nominations for an Academy Award and a BAFTA Award . In 2016, Keaton received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame and was named Officer of Order of Arts and Letters in France. [ 1 ] Keaton gained early recognition for his comedic roles in Night Shift (1982), Mr. Mom (1983), and Beetlejuice (1988). He gained wider stardom portraying the titular superhero in Batman (1989) and Batman Returns (1992). Other notable roles include Clean and Sober (1988), Much Ado About Nothing (1993), The Paper (1994), Multiplicity (1996), Jackie Brown (1997), Jack Frost (1998), First Daughter (2004), Herbie: Fully Loaded (2005), The Other Guys (2010), and Dumbo (2019). He also voiced roles in Cars (2006), Toy Story 3 (2010), and Minions (2015). Keaton experienced a career resurgence portraying a faded actor attempting a comeback in Alejandro González Iñárritu 's Birdman (2014), for which he won a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor and a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actor . He has since acted in biographical dramas such as Spotlight (2015), The Founder (2016), The Trial of the Chicago 7 (2020), and Worth (2021). He portrayed the Vulture in Spider-Man: Homecoming (2017), while also reprising his roles as Batman in The Flash (2023) and the title role in Beetlejuice Beetlejuice (2024). Keaton directed the neo-noir The Merry Gentleman (2008) and crime drama Knox Goes Away (2023), in which he also starred. On television, Keaton starred as a journalist in the HBO film Live from Baghdad (2002). He portrayed a drug-addicted doctor in the Hulu limited series Dopesick (2021), for which he won a Primetime Emmy Award and Golden Globe Award for Best Actor . Early life Michael John Douglas, the youngest of seven children, was born at Ohio Valley Hospital in Kennedy Township, Pennsylvania , [ 2 ] on September 5, 1951. [ 3 ] He was raised between McKees Rocks , [ 4 ] Coraopolis and Robinson Township, Pennsylvania . [ 5 ] [ 6 ] His father, George A. Douglas (1905–1977), worked as a civil engineer and surveyor , and his mother, Leona Elizabeth ( née Loftus; 1909–2002), was a homemaker, and came from McKees Rocks. [ 7 ] [ 8 ] Keaton was raised in a Catholic family. [ 9 ] He said he liked going to Catholic school and being an altar boy, and the school shaped who he was. [ 10 ] His mother was of Irish descent, [ 9 ] [ 11 ] [ 12 ] while his father was of Scottish , Scotch-Irish , German and English ancestry, and was originally from a Protestant family. [ 13 ] [ 14 ] Keaton attended Montour High School in Robinson Township, Pennsylvania. [ 15 ] He graduated with the class of 1969, and studied speech for two years at Kent State University , where he appeared in plays, and returned to Pennsylvania to pursue his career. [ 16 ] Career 1975–1988: Early career and breakthrough Keaton first appeared on television in the Pittsburgh public television programs Where the Heart Is and Mister Rogers' Neighborhood (1975). For Mister Rogers he played one of the "Flying Zucchini Brothers" [ 17 ] and served as a full-time production assistant. [ 18 ] (In 2003, after Fred Rogers ' death, Keaton hosted a PBS memorial tribute, Fred Rogers: America's Favorite Neighbor ; [ 19 ] in 2018, he hosted a 50th anniversary special of the series for PBS, Mister Rogers: It's You I Like . [ 20 ] ) Keaton also worked as an actor in Pittsburgh theatre ; he played the role of Rick in the Pittsburgh premiere of David Rabe 's Sticks and Bones with the Pittsburgh Poor Players. [ 21 ] He also performed stand-up comedy during his early years to supplement his income. [ 22 ] Keaton left Pittsburgh and moved to Los Angeles to begin auditioning for various television parts. He popped up in various popular television shows including Maude and The Mary Tyler Moore Hour . He decided to use a stage name to satisfy SAG rules, as there were already an actor ( Michael Douglas ) and daytime host ( Mike Douglas ) with the same or similar names. In response to questions as to whether he selected his new surname due to an attraction to actress Diane Keaton , or in homage to silent film actor Buster Keaton , he has responded by saying "it had nothing to do with that". [ 23 ] [ 24 ] Keaton searched a phone book under "K", saw "Keaton" and decided to stop looking. [ 25 ] [ 26 ] Keaton's film debut came in a small non-speaking role in the Joan Rivers film Rabbit Test (1978). [ 27 ] His next big break was working alongside Jim Belushi in the short-lived comedy series Working Stiffs , which showcased his comedic talent and led to a co-starring role in the comedy Night Shift (1982) directed by Ron Howard . This was his breakout role as the fast-talking schemer Bill "Billy Blaze" Blazejowski and earned Keaton some critical acclaim. [ 28 ] Night Shift led to Keaton becoming a leading man in the 1983 comedy hit Mr. Mom . Keaton was pigeonholed as a comic lead during this time with films like Johnny Dangerously (1984), Gung Ho (1986), The Squeeze (1987), and The Dream Team (1989), though Keaton tried to transition to dramatic leads as early as 1984, playing a hockey player in Touch and Go , which was shelved until 1986. Woody Allen cast Keaton as the lead in The Purple Rose of Cairo the following year, but after filming began Allen felt Keaton was "too modern" and reshot his scenes with Jeff Daniels in the final film, further delaying his transition to drama in the public eye. [ 29 ] When Touch and Go was finally released in 1986 the studio was still unsure of how to market the film, making the poster, trailer and TV spots similar to Mr. Mom , which resulted in the film not finding its target audience. 1988 was a seminal year in Keaton's career, in which he landed two major unconventional roles, forever changing his image to audiences. He played the title character in Tim Burton 's horror-comedy Beetlejuice , earning Keaton widespread acclaim and boosting him to Hollywood's A list. That same year, he also gave an acclaimed dramatic performance as a drug-addicted realtor in Glenn Gordon Caron 's Clean and Sober . [ 30 ] 1989–1999: Established actor Keaton's career was given another major boost when he was again cast by Tim Burton, this time as the title comic book superhero of the 1989 film Batman . [ 31 ] [ 32 ] Warner Bros. received thousands of written complaints from fans who believed Keaton was the wrong choice to portray Batman. [ 33 ] However, Keaton's performance in the role ultimately earned widespread acclaim from both critics and audiences, [ 34 ] and Batman became one of 1989's most successful films. [ 35 ] According to Les Daniels 's reference book Batman: The Complete History , Keaton initially believed the film would be similar in tone to the 1960s TV series starring Adam West . However, after reading Frank Miller 's comic book miniseries The Dark Knight Returns , he understood the darker, more brooding side of Batman that Burton's adaptation was going for, which he portrayed to much fan approval. [ 36 ] Keaton later reprised the role for the sequel Batman Returns (1992), which was another critically acclaimed success. [ 37 ] He was initially set to reprise the role again for a third Batman film, even going as far as to show up for costume fitting. However, when Burton was dropped as director of the film, Keaton left the franchise as well. He was reportedly dissatisfied with the screenplay approved by the new director, Joel Schumacher . According to the A&E Biography episode on Keaton, after he had refused the first time (after meetings with Schumacher), Warner Bros. offered him $15 million, but Keaton steadfastly refused and was replaced by Val Kilmer in Batman Forever (1995). [ 38 ] Keaton remained active during the 1990s, appearing in a wide range of films, including Pacific Heights (1990), One Good Cop (1991), My Life (1993) and the star-studded Shakespearean story Much Ado About Nothing (1993). He starred in The Paper (1994) and Multiplicity (1996), and twice in the same role, that of Elmore Leonard character Agent Ray Nicolette, in the films Jackie Brown (1997) and Out of Sight (1998). He made the family holiday movie Jack Frost (1998) and the thriller Desperate Measures (1998). Keaton starred as a political candidate's speechwriter in 1994's Speechless . [ 39 ] 2000–2013: Limited roles and venture into voice acting In the early 2000s, Keaton appeared in several films with mixed success, including Live From Baghdad (2002, for which he was nominated for a Golden Globe award [ 40 ] ), First Daughter (2004, playing the President of the United States), White Noise (2005) and Herbie: Fully Loaded (2005). While he continued to receive good notices from the critics (particularly for Jackie Brown ), he was not able to re-approach the box-office success of Batman until the release of Disney / Pixar 's Cars (2006), in which he voiced Chick Hicks , a green race car with a mustache, who frequently loses his patience with losing to his longtime rival, Strip Weathers, a.k.a. The King, voiced by Richard Petty . On New Year's Day of 2004, he hosted the PBS television special Mr. Rogers: America's Favorite Neighbor . It was released by Triumph Marketing LLC on DVD September 28, 2004. In 2006, he starred in Game 6 , about the 1986 World Series bid by the Boston Red Sox . He had a cameo in the Tenacious D short film Time Fixers , an iTunes exclusive. The 9-minute film was released to coincide with Tenacious D in The Pick of Destiny . [ 41 ] Keaton reportedly was cast as Jack Shephard in the series Lost , with the understanding that the role of Jack would be a brief one. Once the role was retooled to be a long-running series regular, Keaton withdrew. The part was then given to actor Matthew Fox . The show ran for six seasons, with the Shephard role continuing throughout. [ 42 ] Keaton starred in the 2007 television miniseries The Company , set during the Cold War , in which he portrayed the real-life CIA counterintelligence chief James Jesus Angleton . The role garnered Keaton a 2008 Screen Actors Guild nomination for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Television Movie or Miniseries. [ 43 ] Keaton provided the voice of Ken in Toy Story 3 (2010). The film received overwhelmingly positive acclaim and grossed over $1 billion worldwide, making it one of the most financially successful films ever. [ 44 ] He played Captain Gene Mauch in the comedy The Other Guys (2010). 2014–2019: Renewed critical success In 2014 he played the OmniCorp CEO Raymond Sellars in the RoboCop remake as a more active antagonist, taking RoboCop's wife and child hostage, forcing Joel Kinnaman 's character to struggle to overcome the 4th directive. [ 45 ] Keaton starred alongside Zach Galifianakis , Edward Norton , Emma Stone , and Naomi Watts in Alejandro González Iñárritu 's Birdman or (The Unexpected Virtue of Ignorance) (2014), playing Riggan Thomson, a screen actor, famous for playing the titular superhero, who puts on a Broadway play based on a Raymond Carver short story to regain his former glory. [ 46 ] He won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Musical or Comedy for his portrayal of Thomson and received an Academy Award nomination for Best Actor . [ 47 ] In 2015, Keaton appeared as Walter V. Robinson in Tom McCarthy 's Academy Award-winning film Spotlight , and in 2016, he starred as businessman Ray Kroc in the biopic The Founder . On July 28, 2016, Keaton was honored with the 2,585th star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for his contributions to film. The star is located at 6931 Hollywood Blvd. [ 48 ] In 2017, Keaton played the supervillain the Vulture in Spider-Man: Homecoming . While making this film Keaton was unable to reprise the role of Chick Hicks for Disney and Pixar 's Cars 3 and was replaced by Bob Peterson . [ 49 ] [ 50 ] Later that year, Keaton portrayed Stan Hurley in American Assassin . In 2019, he played the villain in Disney's live-action adaptation of Dumbo directed by Tim Burton, co-starring with Colin Farrell and Eva Green . [ 51 ] Keaton later said: "I was clueless on Dumbo . I sucked in Dumbo ." [ 52 ] 2020–present: Continued acclaim and reprising past roles In 2020, Keaton appeared in a small role as U.S. Attorney General Ramsey Clark in The Trial of the Chicago 7 , a legal drama directed by Aaron Sorkin about seven anti-Vietnam protesters charged with inciting riots in 1968. [ 53 ] In 2021, Keaton starred as American lawyer Kenneth Feinberg in the Netflix biographical drama film Worth . [ 54 ] He then starred in the Hulu miniseries Dopesick . He won the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Miniseries or Television Movie and Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Limited or Anthology Series or Movie for his role. [ 55 ] Keaton cites his performance in 1988's Clean and Sober as an early preparation for Dopesick . [ 56 ] In 2022, he briefly reprised his role as Vulture in the Sony's Spider-Man Universe (SSU) film Morbius , [ 57 ] which released on April 1, 2022. In 2023, Keaton reprised his role as Batman/Bruce Wayne, after last playing the role in 1992, in the DC Extended Universe superhero film The Flash . [ 58 ] [ 59 ] [ 60 ] He filmed scenes to reprise the character in Batgirl starring Leslie Grace , set for a release on HBO Max , [ 61 ] taking some inspiration from the acclaimed DC Animated Universe animated series Batman Beyond with Keaton playing the elder Bruce Wayne as the title character's mentor and remote coordinator in the Batcave, [ 62 ] only for the film's release to be cancelled in August 2022. [ 63 ] Keaton stated that he did not care about that decision because he had made money making the film, though he said he felt badly for the film's directors. [ 64 ] He also reprised the character in the 2023 film Aquaman and the Lost Kingdom , in an ultimately deleted scene . [ 65 ] Keaton also starred in and directed the 2023 noir thriller Knox Goes Away . [ 66 ] In 2024, Keaton reprised his role as Beetlejuice for Beetlejuice Beetlejuice . [ 67 ] [ 68 ] [ 69 ] Keaton next starred in Goodrich , a film about a man whose second wife suddenly leaves him, forcing him to take sole care of their nine-year-old twins. Directed by Hallie Meyers-Shyer , filming was set to commence in October 2019, [ 70 ] [ 71 ] but after a delay ultimately began in April 2023. On April 16, 2025, it was reported that Keaton would be joining the cast of the Netflix and AGBO adaptation of the Alex North novel The Whisper Man . [ 72 ] Personal life Marriage and family Keaton was married to Caroline McWilliams from 1982 to 1990. They have a son, Sean , born in 1983. [ 73 ] Through their son, Keaton and McWilliams have two grandchildren. [ 74 ] Keaton had a relationship with actress Courteney Cox from 1990 to 1995. [ 75 ] He has been in a relationship with Marni Turner since 2016. [ 76 ] Interests Keaton, a longtime Pittsburgh resident and fan of its sports teams, negotiated a break in his Batman movie contract in case the Pittsburgh Pirates made the playoffs that year, although they ultimately did not. Keaton did, however, take time off from filming the sequel Batman Returns in order to return to Pittsburgh to support the Pittsburgh Penguins in the 1991 Stanley Cup Finals. Keaton has been seen regularly at Penguins home playoff games. Keaton also often attends Pittsburgh Steelers games and, during the 2005 AFC Championship Game , he wandered onto the camera frame of the KDKA pregame coverage, surprising reporter John Steigerwald . He also wrote an ESPN blog on the Pirates during the final months of their 2013 season. [ 77 ] In the 1980s, Keaton bought a ranch near Big Timber, Montana , where he spends much of his time. [ 78 ] An avid fisherman, he is often seen on the saltwater fishing series Buccaneers & Bones on Outdoor Channel , along with Tom Brokaw , Zach Gilford , Thomas McGuane , and Yvon Chouinard , among others. [ 79 ] Political views and activism Keaton supported Barack Obama in 2008, [ 80 ] Hillary Clinton for president in the 2016 U.S. presidential election , [ 81 ] and Joe Biden in the 2020 U.S. presidential election . [ 82 ] Despite his political activism during the 2020 election, Keaton later stated that celebrities should not speak about politics. In addition, Keaton has said that he tries to be judicious in choosing when to become involved in politics, as his fame can be detrimental. [ 83 ] [ 80 ] In 2019, he appeared in a PETA ad campaign, asking tourists not to visit operations that exploit animals, such as roadside zoos which sometimes offer the opportunity to get selfies with wild animals. [ 84 ] Filmography † Denotes works that have not yet been released Film Year Title Role Notes 1978 Rabbit Test Sailor A Different Approach Filmmaker Short film 1982 Night Shift Bill Blazejowski 1983 Mr. Mom Jack Butler 1984 Johnny Dangerously Johnny Kelly / Johnny Dangerously 1986 Gung Ho Hunt Stevenson Touch and Go Bobby Barbato 1987 The Squeeze Harry Berg 1988 She's Having a Baby Himself Uncredited cameo appearance Beetlejuice Betelgeuse Clean and Sober Daryl Poynter 1989 The Dream Team Billy Caufield Batman Bruce Wayne / Batman 1990 Pacific Heights Carter Hayes / James Danforth 1991 One Good Cop Detective Artie Lewis 1992 Batman Returns Bruce Wayne / Batman 1993 Much Ado About Nothing Dogberry My Life Bob Ivanovich / Jones 1994 The Paper Henry Hackett Speechless Kevin Vallick 1996 Multiplicity Doug Kinney/Lance/Rico/Lenny 1997 Inventing the Abbotts Narrator / Older Doug Holt Uncredited Jackie Brown ATF Agent Ray Nicolette 1998 Desperate Measures Peter J. McCabe Out of Sight Ray Nicolette Uncredited Jack Frost Jack Frost Also voice of snowman form 1999 Body Shots — .mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px;white-space:nowrap} N/a Executive producer only 2002 A Shot at Glory Peter Cameron 2004 Quicksand Martin Raikes First Daughter President John MacKenzie 2005 White Noise Jonathan Rivers Porco Rosso Porco Rosso Voice, English dub Herbie: Fully Loaded Ray Peyton 2006 Game 6 Nicky Rogan Cars Chick Hicks Voice 2007 The Last Time Ted Riker Also executive producer 2008 The Merry Gentleman Frank Logan Also director 2009 Post Grad Walter Malby 2010 Toy Story 3 Ken Voice The Other Guys Captain Gene Mauch 2011 Hawaiian Vacation Ken Voice; Short film 2012 Noah's Ark: The New Beginning Noah Voice; Unreleased 2013 Penthouse North Hollander Also executive producer; Also known as Blindsided 2014 RoboCop Raymond Sellars Need for Speed "Monarch" Birdman (or The Unexpected Virtue of Ignorance) Riggan Thomson / Birdman 2015 Minions Walter Nelson Voice Spotlight Walter 'Robby' Robinson 2016 The Founder Ray Kroc 2017 Spider-Man: Homecoming Adrian Toomes / Vulture American Assassin Stan Hurley 2019 Dumbo V. A. Vandevere 2020 The Trial of the Chicago 7 Ramsey Clark 2021 Worth Kenneth Feinberg [ 85 ] The Protégé Rembrandt 2022 Morbius Adrian Toomes / Vulture Cameo [ 83 ] 2023 The Flash Bruce Wayne / Batman Knox Goes Away John Knox Also director 2024 Clemente Self Documentary Beetlejuice Beetlejuice Betelgeuse Goodrich Andy Goodrich 2025 Sweetwater Robert Rogers Short film, also director 2026 The Whisper Man † TBA Post-production Television Year Title Role Notes 1975 Mister Rogers' Neighborhood Volunteer Episode #1435; also production assistant 1976–1977 All's Fair Lannie Wolf 5 episodes 1977 Klein Time Various characters Television special Mary Hartman, Mary Hartman The Robber Episode: "2.89" Maude Chip Winston Episode: "Arthur's Crisis" 1978 The Tony Randall Show Zeke 2 episodes Mary Various roles 3 episodes Family Tree salesman Episode: "Gifts" 1979 Working Stiffs Mike O'Rourke 9 episodes The Mary Tyler Moore Hour Kenneth Christy 11 episodes 1982 Report to Murphy Murphy 6 episodes Kraft Salutes Walt Disney World's 10th Anniversary [ 86 ] Kevin Television special 1982–2024 Saturday Night Live Himself (host) / Julian Assange Host, 4 episodes; guest, episode: "Emma Stone/BTS" 1990 The Earth Day Special Charles McIntyre Television special 2001–2025 The Simpsons Jack Crowley / Hal Julian Voice; Episodes: " Pokey Mom " and " Treehouse of Horror XXXVI " 2002 Frasier Blaine Sternin Episode: "Wheels of Fortune" Live from Baghdad Robert Wiener Television movie 2003 King of the Hill Trip Larsen Voice; Episode: "Pigmalion" Gary the Rat Jerry Andrews Voice; Episode: "Catch Me If You Can" Fred Rogers: America's Favorite Neighbor Himself Host; Television special 2007 The Company James Angleton 3 episodes 2011 30 Rock Tom Episode: " 100 " 2013 Clear History Joe Stumpo Television film 2018 Mister Rogers: It's You I Like Himself Host, Television special 2019 Documentary Now! Bill Doss Episode: "Batsh*t Valley" Last Week Tonight with John Oliver Richard Sackler Episode: "Opioids II" 2021 Dopesick Samuel Finnix Miniseries [ 87 ] 2025 The American Revolution Voice; 2 episodes Video games Year Title Role Notes 2006 Cars Chick Hicks 2009 Cars Race-O-Rama 2012 Call of Duty: Black Ops II Jason Hudson Replaced Ed Harris 2013 Disney Infinity Chick Hicks 2014 Cars: Fast as Lighting Awards and nominations Over his career Keaton has received several awards including a Primetime Emmy Award , two Golden Globe Awards , six Critics Choice Movie Awards , and four Screen Actors Guild Awards as well as nominations for an Academy Award and British Academy Film Award . Keaton was honored with a Career Achievement Award from the Hollywood Film Festival . [ 88 ] He is also a visiting scholar at Carnegie Mellon University . [ 89 ] Keaton will be Harvard 's 2026 Hasty Pudding Man of the Year ; he is expected to accept the award at the University of Cambridge in February 2026. [ 90 ] References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Michael Keaton Gets France's Order of Arts and Letters Honor" . 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Retrieved August 18, 2021 . ^ Kelli Bender, "Michael Keaton Slams Bear Cub Selfie Photo-Ops in PSA: 'It's Simply a Question of Respect ' " People July 11, 2019. ^ "Michael Keaton investigates 9/11 in trailer for Netflix drama 'Worth' " . NME . August 9, 2021 . Retrieved August 9, 2021 . ^ Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine : ProgressCityPublicTV (March 14, 2012). "Kraft Salutes Walt Disney World's 10th Anniversary (1982)" – via YouTube. ^ Schwartz, Ryan (June 17, 2020). "Michael Keaton to Star in 'Dopesick' Adaptation From Empire Co-Creator" . TVLine . Retrieved June 17, 2020 . ^ Waxman, Sharon (November 16, 2014). "Hollywood Film Awards: Slowly Killing the Golden Goose" . TheWrap.com . Retrieved December 4, 2014 . ^ Kelly, Saavedra (January 12, 2015). "Actor Michael Keaton Discusses His New Role at the ETC" . The Piper . Retrieved February 23, 2015 . ^ Rouke, Riley (December 19, 2025). "Michael Keaton named Harvard's Hasty Pudding 2026 Man of the Year" . CBS News . Retrieved December 23, 2025 . External links Michael Keaton at IMDb Michael Keaton at the TCM Movie Database Michael Keaton in the Hollywood Walk of Fame Directory Michael Keaton on Instagram Awards for Michael Keaton .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e AACTA International Award for Best Actor Jean Dujardin (2011) Daniel Day-Lewis (2012) Chiwetel Ejiofor (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Leonardo DiCaprio (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Gary Oldman (2017) Rami Malek (2018) Adam Driver (2019) Chadwick Boseman (2020) Benedict Cumberbatch (2021) Austin Butler (2022) Cillian Murphy (2023) Ralph Fiennes (2024) v t e AARP Movies for Grownups Award for Best Actor (TV/Streaming) Mark Ruffalo (2020) Michael Keaton (2021) Jeff Bridges (2022) Bryan Cranston (2023) Jon Hamm (2024) Noah Wyle (2025) v t e American Riviera Award Award Diane Lane (2004) Kevin Bacon (2005) Philip Seymour Hoffman (2006) Forest Whitaker (2007) Tommy Lee Jones (2008) Mickey Rourke (2009) Sandra Bullock (2010) Annette Bening (2011) Martin Scorsese (2012) Quentin Tarantino (2013) Robert Redford (2014) Patricia Arquette and Ethan Hawke (2015) Michael Keaton , Rachel McAdams and Mark Ruffalo (2016) Jeff Bridges (2017) Sam Rockwell (2018) Viggo Mortensen (2019) Renée Zellweger (2020) Delroy Lindo (2021) Kristen Stewart (2022) Brendan Fraser (2023) Mark Ruffalo (2024) Zoe Saldaña (2025) Festival editions 2024 2025 2026 v t e Boston Society of Film Critics Award for Best Actor Robert De Niro (1980) Burt Lancaster (1981) Dustin Hoffman (1982) Eric Roberts (1983) Haing S. Ngor (1984) Jack Nicholson (1985) Bob Hoskins (1986) Albert Brooks (1987) Daniel Day-Lewis (1988) Daniel Day-Lewis (1989) Jeremy Irons (1990) Nick Nolte (1991) Denzel Washington (1992) Daniel Day-Lewis (1993) Albert Finney (1994) Nicolas Cage (1995) Geoffrey Rush (1996) Al Pacino (1997) Brendan Gleeson (1998) Jim Carrey (1999) Colin Farrell (2000) Brian Cox / Denzel Washington (2001) Adrien Brody (2002) Bill Murray (2003) Jamie Foxx (2004) Philip Seymour Hoffman (2005) Forest Whitaker (2006) Frank Langella (2007) Sean Penn / Mickey Rourke (2008) Jeremy Renner (2009) Jesse Eisenberg (2010) Brad Pitt (2011) Daniel Day-Lewis (2012) Chiwetel Ejiofor (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Paul Dano / Leonardo DiCaprio (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Daniel Kaluuya (2017) John C. Reilly (2018) Adam Sandler (2019) Anthony Hopkins (2020) Hidetoshi Nishijima (2021) Colin Farrell (2022) Paul Giamatti (2023) Timothée Chalamet (2024) Ethan Hawke (2025) v t e Chicago Film Critics Association Award for Best Actor Jeremy Irons (1988) Tom Cruise (1989) Jeremy Irons (1990) Anthony Hopkins (1991) Denzel Washington (1992) Liam Neeson (1993) Tom Hanks (1994) Nicolas Cage (1995) Billy Bob Thornton (1996) Robert Duvall (1997) Ian McKellen (1998) Russell Crowe (1999) Tom Hanks (2000) Gene Hackman (2001) Daniel Day-Lewis (2002) Bill Murray (2003) Paul Giamatti (2004) Philip Seymour Hoffman (2005) Forest Whitaker (2006) Daniel Day-Lewis (2007) Mickey Rourke (2008) Jeremy Renner (2009) Colin Firth (2010) Michael Shannon (2011) Daniel Day-Lewis (2012) Chiwetel Ejiofor (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Leonardo DiCaprio (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Timothée Chalamet (2017) Ethan Hawke (2018) Adam Driver (2019) Chadwick Boseman (2020) Benedict Cumberbatch (2021) Colin Farrell (2022) Paul Giamatti (2023) Adrien Brody (2024) Timothée Chalamet (2025) v t e Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Actor Kevin Bacon (1995) Geoffrey Rush (1996) Jack Nicholson (1997) Ian McKellen (1998) Russell Crowe (1999) Russell Crowe (2000) Russell Crowe (2001) Daniel Day-Lewis / Jack Nicholson (2002) Sean Penn (2003) Jamie Foxx (2004) Philip Seymour Hoffman (2005) Forest Whitaker (2006) Daniel Day-Lewis (2007) Sean Penn (2008) Jeff Bridges (2009) Colin Firth (2010) George Clooney (2011) Daniel Day-Lewis (2012) Matthew McConaughey (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Leonardo DiCaprio (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Gary Oldman (2017) Christian Bale (2018) Joaquin Phoenix (2019) Chadwick Boseman (2020) Will Smith (2021) Brendan Fraser (2022) Paul Giamatti (2023) Adrien Brody (2024) Timothée Chalamet (2025) v t e Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Actor in a Comedy Bradley Cooper (2012) Leonardo DiCaprio (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Christian Bale (2015) Ryan Reynolds (2016) James Franco (2017) Christian Bale (2018) v t e Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Actor in a Limited Series or Movie Benedict Cumberbatch (2012) Michael Douglas (2013) Billy Bob Thornton (2014) David Oyelowo (2015) Idris Elba (2016) Courtney B. Vance (2016) Ewan McGregor (2017) Darren Criss (2018) Jharrel Jerome (2019) John Boyega (2020) Michael Keaton (2021) Daniel Radcliffe (2022) Steven Yeun (2023) Colin Farrell (2024) Stephen Graham (2025) v t e Dallas–Fort Worth Film Critics Association Award for Best Actor Jeremy Irons (1990) Anthony Hopkins (1991) Denzel Washington (1992) Anthony Hopkins (1993) Tom Hanks (1994) Nicolas Cage (1995) Geoffrey Rush (1996) Peter Fonda (1997) Jim Carrey (1998) Kevin Spacey (1999) Russell Crowe (2000) Russell Crowe (2001) Jack Nicholson (2002) Sean Penn (2003) Paul Giamatti (2004) Philip Seymour Hoffman (2005) Forest Whitaker (2006) Daniel Day-Lewis (2007) Sean Penn (2008) George Clooney (2009) James Franco (2010) George Clooney (2011) Daniel Day-Lewis (2012) Matthew McConaughey (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Leonardo DiCaprio (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Gary Oldman (2017) Christian Bale (2018) Adam Driver (2019) Chadwick Boseman (2020) Benedict Cumberbatch (2021) Colin Farrell (2022) Cillian Murphy (2023) Ralph Fiennes (2024) Leonardo DiCaprio (2025) v t e Detroit Film Critics Society Award for Best Actor George Clooney (2007) Mickey Rourke (2008) Colin Firth (2009) Colin Firth (2010) Michael Fassbender (2011) Daniel Day-Lewis (2012) Matthew McConaughey (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Michael Caine (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) James Franco (2017) Ethan Hawke (2018) Adam Driver (2019) Delroy Lindo (2020) Peter Dinklage (2021) v t e Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Limited or Anthology Series or Movie 1953–1975 Thomas Mitchell (1953) Robert Cummings (1955) Lloyd Nolan (1956) Jack Palance (1957) Peter Ustinov (1958) Fred Astaire (1959) Laurence Olivier (1960) Maurice Evans (1961) Peter Falk (1962) Trevor Howard (1963) Jack Klugman (1964) Alfred Lunt (1965) Cliff Robertson (1966) Peter Ustinov (1967) Melvyn Douglas (1968) Paul Scofield (1969) Peter Ustinov (1970) George C. Scott (1971) Keith Michell (1972) Laurence Olivier (1973) Anthony Murphy (1973) Hal Holbrook (1974) William Holden (1974) Laurence Olivier (1975) Peter Falk (1975) 1976–2000 Anthony Hopkins (1976) Hal Holbrook (1976) Ed Flanders (1977) Christopher Plummer (1977) Fred Astaire (1978) Michael Moriarty (1978) Peter Strauss (1979) Powers Boothe (1980) Anthony Hopkins (1981) Mickey Rooney (1982) Tommy Lee Jones (1983) Laurence Olivier (1984) Richard Crenna (1985) Dustin Hoffman (1986) James Woods (1987) Jason Robards (1988) James Woods (1989) Hume Cronyn (1990) John Gielgud (1991) Beau Bridges (1992) Robert Morse (1993) Hume Cronyn (1994) Raul Julia (1995) Alan Rickman (1996) Armand Assante (1997) Gary Sinise (1998) Stanley Tucci (1999) Jack Lemmon (2000) 2001–present Kenneth Branagh (2001) Albert Finney (2002) William H. Macy (2003) Al Pacino (2004) Geoffrey Rush (2005) Andre Braugher (2006) Robert Duvall (2007) Paul Giamatti (2008) Brendan Gleeson (2009) Al Pacino (2010) Barry Pepper (2011) Kevin Costner (2012) Michael Douglas (2013) Benedict Cumberbatch (2014) Richard Jenkins (2015) Courtney B. Vance (2016) Riz Ahmed (2017) Darren Criss (2018) Jharrel Jerome (2019) Mark Ruffalo (2020) Ewan McGregor (2021) Michael Keaton (2022) Steven Yeun (2023) Richard Gadd (2024) Stephen Graham (2025) v t e Florida Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor Geoffrey Rush (1996) Robert Duvall (1997) Ian McKellen (1998) Kevin Spacey (1999) Geoffrey Rush (2000) Billy Bob Thornton (2001) Daniel Day-Lewis (2002) Sean Penn (2003) Jamie Foxx (2004) Philip Seymour Hoffman (2005) Forest Whitaker (2006) Daniel Day-Lewis (2007) Mickey Rourke (2008) George Clooney (2009) Colin Firth (2010) Michael Fassbender (2011) Daniel Day-Lewis (2012) Chiwetel Ejiofor (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Paul Dano (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Timothée Chalamet (2017) Joaquin Phoenix (2018) Adam Driver (2019) Anthony Hopkins (2020) Adam Driver (2021) Colin Farrell (2022) Franz Rogowski (2023) Kieran Culkin (2024) v t e Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy 1950–1976 Fred Astaire (1949) Danny Kaye (1951) Donald O'Connor (1952) David Niven (1953) James Mason (1954) Tom Ewell (1955) Mario Moreno (1956) Frank Sinatra (1957) Danny Kaye (1958) Jack Lemmon (1959) Jack Lemmon (1960) Glenn Ford (1961) Marcello Mastroianni (1962) Alberto Sordi (1963) Rex Harrison (1964) Lee Marvin (1965) Alan Arkin (1966) Richard Harris (1967) Ron Moody (1968) Peter O'Toole (1969) Albert Finney (1970) Chaim Topol (1971) Jack Lemmon (1972) George Segal (1973) Art Carney (1974) George Burns / Walter Matthau (1975) 1976–2000 Kris Kristofferson (1976) Richard Dreyfuss (1977) Warren Beatty (1978) Peter Sellers (1979) Ray Sharkey (1980) Dudley Moore (1981) Dustin Hoffman (1982) Michael Caine (1983) Dudley Moore (1984) Jack Nicholson (1985) Paul Hogan (1986) Robin Williams (1987) Tom Hanks (1988) Morgan Freeman (1989) Gérard Depardieu (1990) Robin Williams (1991) Tim Robbins (1992) Robin Williams (1993) Hugh Grant (1994) John Travolta (1995) Tom Cruise (1996) Jack Nicholson (1997) Michael Caine (1998) Jim Carrey (1999) George Clooney (2000) 2001–present Gene Hackman (2001) Richard Gere (2002) Bill Murray (2003) Jamie Foxx (2004) Joaquin Phoenix (2005) Sacha Baron Cohen (2006) Johnny Depp (2007) Colin Farrell (2008) Robert Downey Jr. (2009) Paul Giamatti (2010) Jean Dujardin (2011) Hugh Jackman (2012) Leonardo DiCaprio (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Matt Damon ( 2015 ) Ryan Gosling (2016) James Franco (2017) Christian Bale (2018) Taron Egerton (2019) Sacha Baron Cohen (2020) Andrew Garfield (2021) Colin Farrell (2022) Paul Giamatti (2023) Sebastian Stan (2024) Timothée Chalamet (2025) v t e Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Limited or Anthology Series or Television Film Mickey Rooney (1981) Anthony Andrews (1982) Richard Chamberlain (1983) Ted Danson (1984) Dustin Hoffman (1985) James Woods (1986) Randy Quaid (1987) Michael Caine / Stacy Keach (1988) Robert Duvall (1989) James Garner (1990) Beau Bridges (1991) Robert Duvall (1992) James Garner (1993) Raul Julia (1994) Gary Sinise (1995) Alan Rickman (1996) Ving Rhames (1997) Stanley Tucci (1998) Jack Lemmon (1999) Brian Dennehy (2000) James Franco (2001) Albert Finney (2002) Al Pacino (2003) Geoffrey Rush (2004) Jonathan Rhys Meyers (2005) Bill Nighy (2006) Jim Broadbent (2007) Paul Giamatti (2008) Kevin Bacon (2009) Al Pacino (2010) Idris Elba (2011) Kevin Costner (2012) Michael Douglas (2013) Billy Bob Thornton (2014) Oscar Isaac (2015) Tom Hiddleston (2016) Ewan McGregor (2017) Darren Criss (2018) Russell Crowe (2019) Mark Ruffalo (2020) Michael Keaton (2021) Evan Peters (2022) Steven Yeun (2023) Colin Farrell (2024) Stephen Graham (2025) v t e Gotham Independent Film Award for Best Actor Matthew McConaughey (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Paul Dano (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) James Franco (2017) Ethan Hawke (2018) Adam Driver (2019) Riz Ahmed (2020) v t e Hasty Pudding Men of the Year Bob Hope (1967) Paul Newman (1968) Bill Cosby (1969) Robert Redford (1970) James Stewart (1971) Dustin Hoffman (1972) Jack Lemmon (1973) Peter Falk (1974) Warren Beatty (1975) Robert Blake (1976) Johnny Carson (1977) Richard Dreyfuss (1978) Robert De Niro (1979) Alan Alda (1980) John Travolta (1981) James Cagney (1982) Steven Spielberg (1983) Sean Connery (1984) Bill Murray (1985) Sylvester Stallone (1986) Mikhail Baryshnikov (1987) Steve Martin (1988) Robin Williams (1989) Kevin Costner (1990) Clint Eastwood (1991) Michael Douglas (1992) Chevy Chase (1993) Tom Cruise (1994) Tom Hanks (1995) Harrison Ford (1996) Mel Gibson (1997) Kevin Kline (1998) Samuel L. Jackson (1999) Billy Crystal (2000) Anthony Hopkins (2001) Bruce Willis (2002) Martin Scorsese (2003) Robert Downey Jr. (2004) Tim Robbins (2005) Richard Gere (2006) Ben Stiller (2007) Christopher Walken (2008) James Franco (2009) Justin Timberlake (2010) Jay Leno (2011) Jason Segel (2012) Kiefer Sutherland (2013) Neil Patrick Harris (2014) Chris Pratt (2015) Joseph Gordon-Levitt (2016) Ryan Reynolds (2017) Paul Rudd (2018) Milo Ventimiglia (2019) Ben Platt (2020) Jason Bateman (2022) Bob Odenkirk (2023) Barry Keoghan (2024) Jon Hamm (2025) Michael Keaton (2026) v t e Independent Spirit Award for Best Male Lead M. Emmet Walsh (1985) James Woods (1986) Dennis Quaid (1987) Edward James Olmos (1988) Matt Dillon (1989) Danny Glover (1990) River Phoenix (1991) Harvey Keitel (1992) Jeff Bridges (1993) Samuel L. Jackson (1994) Sean Penn (1995) William H. Macy (1996) Robert Duvall (1997) Ian McKellen (1998) Richard Farnsworth (1999) Javier Bardem (2000) Tom Wilkinson (2001) Derek Luke (2002) Bill Murray (2003) Paul Giamatti (2004) Philip Seymour Hoffman (2005) Ryan Gosling (2006) Philip Seymour Hoffman (2007) Mickey Rourke (2008) Jeff Bridges (2009) James Franco (2010) Jean Dujardin (2011) John Hawkes (2012) Matthew McConaughey (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Abraham Attah (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Timothée Chalamet (2017) Ethan Hawke (2018) Adam Sandler (2019) Riz Ahmed (2020) Simon Rex (2021) v t e London Film Critics' Circle Award for Actor of the Year Philippe Noiret (1990) Gérard Depardieu (1991) Robert Downey Jr. (1992) Anthony Hopkins (1993) John Travolta (1994) Johnny Depp (1995) Morgan Freeman (1996) Geoffrey Rush (1997) Jack Nicholson (1998) Kevin Spacey (1999) Russell Crowe (2000) Billy Bob Thornton (2001) Michael Caine (2002) Sean Penn (2003) Jamie Foxx (2004) Bruno Ganz (2005) Forest Whitaker (2006) Daniel Day-Lewis (2007) Mickey Rourke (2008) Christoph Waltz (2009) Colin Firth (2010) Jean Dujardin (2011) Joaquin Phoenix (2012) Chiwetel Ejiofor (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Tom Courtenay (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Timothée Chalamet (2017) Ethan Hawke (2018) Joaquin Phoenix (2019) Chadwick Boseman (2020) Benedict Cumberbatch (2021) Colin Farrell (2022) Andrew Scott (2023) Ralph Fiennes (2024) v t e Maltin Modern Master Award Award Michael Douglas (1995) Jodie Foster (1997) Anthony Hopkins (2000) Diane Keaton (2001) Peter Jackson (2004) George Clooney (2006) Will Smith (2007) Cate Blanchett (2008) Clint Eastwood (2009) James Cameron (2010) Christopher Nolan (2011) Christopher Plummer (2012) Ben Affleck (2013) Bruce Dern (2014) Michael Keaton (2015) Johnny Depp (2016) Denzel Washington (2017) Gary Oldman (2018) Glenn Close (2019) Brad Pitt (2020) Bill Murray (2021) Nicole Kidman (2022) Javier Bardem (2022) Jamie Lee Curtis (2023) Robert Downey Jr. (2024) Angelina Jolie (2025) Adam Sandler (2026) Festival editions 2024 2025 2026 v t e National Board of Review Award for Best Actor 1945–1975 Ray Milland (1945) Laurence Olivier (1946) Michael Redgrave (1947) Walter Huston (1948) Ralph Richardson (1949) Alec Guinness (1950) Richard Basehart (1951) Ralph Richardson (1952) James Mason (1953) Bing Crosby (1954) Ernest Borgnine (1955) Yul Brynner (1956) Alec Guinness (1957) Spencer Tracy (1958) Victor Sjöström (1959) Robert Mitchum (1960) Albert Finney (1961) Jason Robards (1962) Rex Harrison (1963) Anthony Quinn (1964) Lee Marvin (1965) Paul Scofield (1966) Peter Finch (1967) Cliff Robertson (1968) Peter O'Toole (1969) George C. Scott (1970) Gene Hackman (1971) Peter O'Toole (1972) Al Pacino / Robert Ryan (1973) Gene Hackman (1974) Jack Nicholson (1975) 1976–present David Carradine (1976) John Travolta (1977) Jon Voight / Laurence Olivier (1978) Peter Sellers (1979) Robert De Niro (1980) Henry Fonda (1981) Ben Kingsley (1982) Tom Conti (1983) Victor Banerjee (1984) William Hurt / Raul Julia (1985) Paul Newman (1986) Michael Douglas (1987) Gene Hackman (1988) Morgan Freeman (1989) Robert De Niro / Robin Williams (1990) Warren Beatty (1991) Jack Lemmon (1992) Anthony Hopkins (1993) Tom Hanks (1994) Nicolas Cage (1995) Tom Cruise (1996) Jack Nicholson (1997) Ian McKellen (1998) Russell Crowe (1999) Javier Bardem (2000) Billy Bob Thornton (2001) Campbell Scott (2002) Sean Penn (2003) Jamie Foxx (2004) Philip Seymour Hoffman (2005) Forest Whitaker (2006) George Clooney (2007) Clint Eastwood (2008) George Clooney / Morgan Freeman (2009) Jesse Eisenberg (2010) George Clooney (2011) Bradley Cooper (2012) Bruce Dern (2013) Michael Keaton / Oscar Isaac (2014) Matt Damon (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Tom Hanks (2017) Viggo Mortensen (2018) Adam Sandler (2019) Riz Ahmed (2020) Will Smith (2021) Colin Farrell (2022) Paul Giamatti (2023) Daniel Craig (2024) Leonardo DiCaprio (2025) v t e National Society of Film Critics Award for Best Actor Michael Caine (1966) Rod Steiger (1967) Per Oscarsson (1968) Jon Voight (1969) George C. Scott (1970) Peter Finch (1971) Al Pacino (1972) Marlon Brando (1973) Jack Nicholson (1974) Jack Nicholson (1975) Robert De Niro (1976) Art Carney (1977) Gary Busey (1978) Dustin Hoffman (1979) Peter O'Toole (1980) Burt Lancaster (1981) Dustin Hoffman (1982) Gérard Depardieu (1983) Steve Martin (1984) Jack Nicholson (1985) Bob Hoskins (1986) Steve Martin (1987) Michael Keaton (1988) Daniel Day-Lewis (1989) Jeremy Irons (1990) River Phoenix (1991) Stephen Rea (1992) David Thewlis (1993) Paul Newman (1994) Nicolas Cage (1995) Eddie Murphy (1996) Robert Duvall (1997) Nick Nolte (1998) Russell Crowe (1999) Javier Bardem (2000) Gene Hackman (2001) Adrien Brody (2002) Bill Murray (2003) Jamie Foxx (2004) Philip Seymour Hoffman (2005) Forest Whitaker (2006) Daniel Day-Lewis (2007) Sean Penn (2008) Jeremy Renner (2009) Jesse Eisenberg (2010) Brad Pitt (2011) Daniel Day-Lewis (2012) Oscar Isaac (2013) Timothy Spall (2014) Michael B. Jordan (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Daniel Kaluuya (2017) Ethan Hawke (2018) Antonio Banderas (2019) Delroy Lindo (2020) Hidetoshi Nishijima (2021) Colin Farrell (2022) Andrew Scott (2023) Colman Domingo (2024) Ethan Hawke (2025) v t e New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor 1935–1975 Charles Laughton (1935) Walter Huston (1936) Paul Muni (1937) James Cagney (1938) James Stewart (1939) Charlie Chaplin (1940) Gary Cooper (1941) James Cagney (1942) Paul Lukas (1943) Barry Fitzgerald (1944) Ray Milland (1945) Laurence Olivier (1946) William Powell (1947) Laurence Olivier (1948) Broderick Crawford (1949) Gregory Peck (1950) Arthur Kennedy (1951) Ralph Richardson (1952) Burt Lancaster (1953) Marlon Brando (1954) Ernest Borgnine (1955) Kirk Douglas (1956) Alec Guinness (1957) David Niven (1958) James Stewart (1959) Burt Lancaster (1960) Maximilian Schell (1961) No Award (1962) Albert Finney (1963) Rex Harrison (1964) Oskar Werner (1965) Paul Scofield (1966) Rod Steiger (1967) Alan Arkin (1968) Jon Voight (1969) George C. Scott (1970) Gene Hackman (1971) Laurence Olivier (1972) Marlon Brando (1973) Jack Nicholson (1974) Jack Nicholson (1975) 1976–present Robert De Niro (1976) John Gielgud (1977) Jon Voight (1978) Dustin Hoffman (1979) Robert De Niro (1980) Burt Lancaster (1981) Ben Kingsley (1982) Robert Duvall (1983) Steve Martin (1984) Jack Nicholson (1985) Bob Hoskins (1986) Jack Nicholson (1987) Jeremy Irons (1988) Daniel Day-Lewis (1989) Robert De Niro (1990) Anthony Hopkins (1991) Denzel Washington (1992) David Thewlis (1993) Paul Newman (1994) Nicolas Cage (1995) Geoffrey Rush (1996) Peter Fonda (1997) Nick Nolte (1998) Richard Farnsworth (1999) Tom Hanks (2000) Tom Wilkinson (2001) Daniel Day-Lewis (2002) Bill Murray (2003) Paul Giamatti (2004) Heath Ledger (2005) Forest Whitaker (2006) Daniel Day-Lewis (2007) Sean Penn (2008) George Clooney (2009) Colin Firth (2010) Brad Pitt (2011) Daniel Day-Lewis (2012) Robert Redford (2013) Timothy Spall (2014) Michael Keaton (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Timothée Chalamet (2017) Ethan Hawke (2018) Antonio Banderas (2019) Delroy Lindo (2020) Benedict Cumberbatch (2021) Colin Farrell (2022) Franz Rogowski (2023) Adrien Brody (2024) Wagner Moura (2025) v t e Online Film Critics Society Award for Best Actor Jack Nicholson (1997) Ian McKellen (1998) Kevin Spacey (1999) Tom Hanks (2000) Billy Bob Thornton (2001) Daniel Day-Lewis (2002) Bill Murray (2003) Paul Giamatti (2004) Philip Seymour Hoffman (2005) Forest Whitaker (2006) Daniel Day-Lewis (2007) Mickey Rourke (2008) Jeremy Renner (2009) Colin Firth (2010) Michael Fassbender (2011) Daniel Day-Lewis (2012) Chiwetel Ejiofor (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Michael Fassbender (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Gary Oldman (2017) Ethan Hawke (2018) Adam Driver (2019) Delroy Lindo (2020) Benedict Cumberbatch (2021) Colin Farrell (2022) Paul Giamatti (2023) Ralph Fiennes (2024) v t e San Francisco Bay Area Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor Michael Caine (2002) Bill Murray (2003) Paul Giamatti (2004) Heath Ledger (2005) Sacha Baron Cohen (2006) George Clooney (2007) Sean Penn / Mickey Rourke (2008) Colin Firth (2009) Colin Firth (2010) Gary Oldman (2011) Joaquin Phoenix (2012) Chiwetel Ejiofor (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Paul Dano (2015) Denzel Washington (2016) Andy Serkis (2017) Ethan Hawke (2018) Antonio Banderas (2019) Chadwick Boseman (2020) Benedict Cumberbatch (2021) Colin Farrell (2022) Jeffrey Wright (2023) Colman Domingo (2024) Ethan Hawke (2025) v t e Satellite Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama (1996–2010, 2018–present) Geoffrey Rush (1996) Robert Duvall (1997) Edward Norton (1998) Terence Stamp (1999) Geoffrey Rush (2000) Brian Cox (2001) Michael Caine / Daniel Day-Lewis (2002) Sean Penn (2003) Don Cheadle (2004) Philip Seymour Hoffman (2005) Forest Whitaker (2006) Viggo Mortensen (2007) Richard Jenkins (2008) Jeremy Renner (2009) Colin Firth (2010) Willem Dafoe (2018) Christian Bale (2019) Riz Ahmed (2020) Benedict Cumberbatch (2021) Brendan Fraser (2022) Cillian Murphy (2023) Colman Domingo (2024) Musical or Comedy (1996–2010, 2018–present) Tom Cruise (1996) Jack Nicholson (1997) Ian Bannen / David Kelly (1998) Philip Seymour Hoffman (1999) Michael Douglas (2000) Ewan McGregor (2001) Kieran Culkin (2002) Bill Murray (2003) Jamie Foxx (2004) Terrence Howard (2005) Joseph Cross (2006) Ryan Gosling (2007) Ricky Gervais (2008) Michael Stuhlbarg (2009) Michael Cera (2010) Rami Malek (2018) Taron Egerton (2019) Sacha Baron Cohen (2020) Andrew Garfield (2021) Austin Butler (2022) Paul Giamatti (2023) Keith Kupferer (2024) Motion Picture (2011–2017) Ryan Gosling (2011) Bradley Cooper (2012) Matthew McConaughey (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Leonardo DiCaprio (2015) Andrew Garfield / Viggo Mortensen (2016) Gary Oldman / Harry Dean Stanton (2017) v t e Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Miniseries or Television Movie Raul Julia (1994) Gary Sinise (1995) Alan Rickman (1996) Gary Sinise (1997) Christopher Reeve (1998) Jack Lemmon (1999) Brian Dennehy (2000) Ben Kingsley (2001) William H. Macy (2002) Al Pacino (2003) Geoffrey Rush (2004) Paul Newman (2005) Jeremy Irons (2006) Kevin Kline (2007) Paul Giamatti (2008) Kevin Bacon (2009) Al Pacino (2010) Paul Giamatti (2011) Kevin Costner (2012) Michael Douglas (2013) Mark Ruffalo (2014) Idris Elba (2015) Bryan Cranston (2016) Alexander Skarsgård (2017) Darren Criss (2018) Sam Rockwell (2019) Mark Ruffalo (2020) Michael Keaton (2021) Sam Elliott (2022) Steven Yeun (2023) Colin Farrell (2024) v t e Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association Award for Best Actor Jack Nicholson (2002) Bill Murray (2003) Jamie Foxx (2004) Philip Seymour Hoffman (2005) Forest Whitaker (2006) George Clooney (2007) Mickey Rourke (2008) George Clooney (2009) Colin Firth (2010) George Clooney (2011) Daniel Day-Lewis (2012) Chiwetel Ejiofor (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Leonardo DiCaprio (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Gary Oldman (2017) Bradley Cooper (2018) Adam Driver (2019) Chadwick Boseman (2020) Andrew Garfield (2021) Colin Farrell (2022) Cillian Murphy (2023) Colman Domingo (2024) Michael B. Jordan (2025) .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e AACTA International Award for Best Actor v t e Jean Dujardin (2011) Daniel Day-Lewis (2012) Chiwetel Ejiofor (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Leonardo DiCaprio (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Gary Oldman (2017) Rami Malek (2018) Adam Driver (2019) Chadwick Boseman (2020) Benedict Cumberbatch (2021) Austin Butler (2022) Cillian Murphy (2023) Ralph Fiennes (2024) Jean Dujardin (2011) Daniel Day-Lewis (2012) Chiwetel Ejiofor (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Leonardo DiCaprio (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Gary Oldman (2017) Rami Malek (2018) Adam Driver (2019) Chadwick Boseman (2020) Benedict Cumberbatch (2021) Austin Butler (2022) Cillian Murphy (2023) Ralph Fiennes (2024) v t e AARP Movies for Grownups Award for Best Actor (TV/Streaming) v t e Mark Ruffalo (2020) Michael Keaton (2021) Jeff Bridges (2022) Bryan Cranston (2023) Jon Hamm (2024) Noah Wyle (2025) Mark Ruffalo (2020) Michael Keaton (2021) Jeff Bridges (2022) Bryan Cranston (2023) Jon Hamm (2024) Noah Wyle (2025) v t e American Riviera Award v t e Award Diane Lane (2004) Kevin Bacon (2005) Philip Seymour Hoffman (2006) Forest Whitaker (2007) Tommy Lee Jones (2008) Mickey Rourke (2009) Sandra Bullock (2010) Annette Bening (2011) Martin Scorsese (2012) Quentin Tarantino (2013) Robert Redford (2014) Patricia Arquette and Ethan Hawke (2015) Michael Keaton , Rachel McAdams and Mark Ruffalo (2016) Jeff Bridges (2017) Sam Rockwell (2018) Viggo Mortensen (2019) Renée Zellweger (2020) Delroy Lindo (2021) Kristen Stewart (2022) Brendan Fraser (2023) Mark Ruffalo (2024) Zoe Saldaña (2025) Diane Lane (2004) Kevin Bacon (2005) Philip Seymour Hoffman (2006) Forest Whitaker (2007) Tommy Lee Jones (2008) Mickey Rourke (2009) Sandra Bullock (2010) Annette Bening (2011) Martin Scorsese (2012) Quentin Tarantino (2013) Robert Redford (2014) Patricia Arquette and Ethan Hawke (2015) Michael Keaton , Rachel McAdams and Mark Ruffalo (2016) Jeff Bridges (2017) Sam Rockwell (2018) Viggo Mortensen (2019) Renée Zellweger (2020) Delroy Lindo (2021) Kristen Stewart (2022) Brendan Fraser (2023) Mark Ruffalo (2024) Zoe Saldaña (2025) Festival editions 2024 2025 2026 2024 2025 2026 v t e Boston Society of Film Critics Award for Best Actor v t e Robert De Niro (1980) Burt Lancaster (1981) Dustin Hoffman (1982) Eric Roberts (1983) Haing S. Ngor (1984) Jack Nicholson (1985) Bob Hoskins (1986) Albert Brooks (1987) Daniel Day-Lewis (1988) Daniel Day-Lewis (1989) Jeremy Irons (1990) Nick Nolte (1991) Denzel Washington (1992) Daniel Day-Lewis (1993) Albert Finney (1994) Nicolas Cage (1995) Geoffrey Rush (1996) Al Pacino (1997) Brendan Gleeson (1998) Jim Carrey (1999) Colin Farrell (2000) Brian Cox / Denzel Washington (2001) Adrien Brody (2002) Bill Murray (2003) Jamie Foxx (2004) Philip Seymour Hoffman (2005) Forest Whitaker (2006) Frank Langella (2007) Sean Penn / Mickey Rourke (2008) Jeremy Renner (2009) Jesse Eisenberg (2010) Brad Pitt (2011) Daniel Day-Lewis (2012) Chiwetel Ejiofor (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Paul Dano / Leonardo DiCaprio (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Daniel Kaluuya (2017) John C. Reilly (2018) Adam Sandler (2019) Anthony Hopkins (2020) Hidetoshi Nishijima (2021) Colin Farrell (2022) Paul Giamatti (2023) Timothée Chalamet (2024) Ethan Hawke (2025) Robert De Niro (1980) Burt Lancaster (1981) Dustin Hoffman (1982) Eric Roberts (1983) Haing S. Ngor (1984) Jack Nicholson (1985) Bob Hoskins (1986) Albert Brooks (1987) Daniel Day-Lewis (1988) Daniel Day-Lewis (1989) Jeremy Irons (1990) Nick Nolte (1991) Denzel Washington (1992) Daniel Day-Lewis (1993) Albert Finney (1994) Nicolas Cage (1995) Geoffrey Rush (1996) Al Pacino (1997) Brendan Gleeson (1998) Jim Carrey (1999) Colin Farrell (2000) Brian Cox / Denzel Washington (2001) Adrien Brody (2002) Bill Murray (2003) Jamie Foxx (2004) Philip Seymour Hoffman (2005) Forest Whitaker (2006) Frank Langella (2007) Sean Penn / Mickey Rourke (2008) Jeremy Renner (2009) Jesse Eisenberg (2010) Brad Pitt (2011) Daniel Day-Lewis (2012) Chiwetel Ejiofor (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Paul Dano / Leonardo DiCaprio (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Daniel Kaluuya (2017) John C. Reilly (2018) Adam Sandler (2019) Anthony Hopkins (2020) Hidetoshi Nishijima (2021) Colin Farrell (2022) Paul Giamatti (2023) Timothée Chalamet (2024) Ethan Hawke (2025) v t e Chicago Film Critics Association Award for Best Actor v t e Jeremy Irons (1988) Tom Cruise (1989) Jeremy Irons (1990) Anthony Hopkins (1991) Denzel Washington (1992) Liam Neeson (1993) Tom Hanks (1994) Nicolas Cage (1995) Billy Bob Thornton (1996) Robert Duvall (1997) Ian McKellen (1998) Russell Crowe (1999) Tom Hanks (2000) Gene Hackman (2001) Daniel Day-Lewis (2002) Bill Murray (2003) Paul Giamatti (2004) Philip Seymour Hoffman (2005) Forest Whitaker (2006) Daniel Day-Lewis (2007) Mickey Rourke (2008) Jeremy Renner (2009) Colin Firth (2010) Michael Shannon (2011) Daniel Day-Lewis (2012) Chiwetel Ejiofor (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Leonardo DiCaprio (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Timothée Chalamet (2017) Ethan Hawke (2018) Adam Driver (2019) Chadwick Boseman (2020) Benedict Cumberbatch (2021) Colin Farrell (2022) Paul Giamatti (2023) Adrien Brody (2024) Timothée Chalamet (2025) Jeremy Irons (1988) Tom Cruise (1989) Jeremy Irons (1990) Anthony Hopkins (1991) Denzel Washington (1992) Liam Neeson (1993) Tom Hanks (1994) Nicolas Cage (1995) Billy Bob Thornton (1996) Robert Duvall (1997) Ian McKellen (1998) Russell Crowe (1999) Tom Hanks (2000) Gene Hackman (2001) Daniel Day-Lewis (2002) Bill Murray (2003) Paul Giamatti (2004) Philip Seymour Hoffman (2005) Forest Whitaker (2006) Daniel Day-Lewis (2007) Mickey Rourke (2008) Jeremy Renner (2009) Colin Firth (2010) Michael Shannon (2011) Daniel Day-Lewis (2012) Chiwetel Ejiofor (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Leonardo DiCaprio (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Timothée Chalamet (2017) Ethan Hawke (2018) Adam Driver (2019) Chadwick Boseman (2020) Benedict Cumberbatch (2021) Colin Farrell (2022) Paul Giamatti (2023) Adrien Brody (2024) Timothée Chalamet (2025) v t e Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Actor v t e Kevin Bacon (1995) Geoffrey Rush (1996) Jack Nicholson (1997) Ian McKellen (1998) Russell Crowe (1999) Russell Crowe (2000) Russell Crowe (2001) Daniel Day-Lewis / Jack Nicholson (2002) Sean Penn (2003) Jamie Foxx (2004) Philip Seymour Hoffman (2005) Forest Whitaker (2006) Daniel Day-Lewis (2007) Sean Penn (2008) Jeff Bridges (2009) Colin Firth (2010) George Clooney (2011) Daniel Day-Lewis (2012) Matthew McConaughey (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Leonardo DiCaprio (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Gary Oldman (2017) Christian Bale (2018) Joaquin Phoenix (2019) Chadwick Boseman (2020) Will Smith (2021) Brendan Fraser (2022) Paul Giamatti (2023) Adrien Brody (2024) Timothée Chalamet (2025) Kevin Bacon (1995) Geoffrey Rush (1996) Jack Nicholson (1997) Ian McKellen (1998) Russell Crowe (1999) Russell Crowe (2000) Russell Crowe (2001) Daniel Day-Lewis / Jack Nicholson (2002) Sean Penn (2003) Jamie Foxx (2004) Philip Seymour Hoffman (2005) Forest Whitaker (2006) Daniel Day-Lewis (2007) Sean Penn (2008) Jeff Bridges (2009) Colin Firth (2010) George Clooney (2011) Daniel Day-Lewis (2012) Matthew McConaughey (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Leonardo DiCaprio (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Gary Oldman (2017) Christian Bale (2018) Joaquin Phoenix (2019) Chadwick Boseman (2020) Will Smith (2021) Brendan Fraser (2022) Paul Giamatti (2023) Adrien Brody (2024) Timothée Chalamet (2025) v t e Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Actor in a Comedy v t e Bradley Cooper (2012) Leonardo DiCaprio (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Christian Bale (2015) Ryan Reynolds (2016) James Franco (2017) Christian Bale (2018) Bradley Cooper (2012) Leonardo DiCaprio (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Christian Bale (2015) Ryan Reynolds (2016) James Franco (2017) Christian Bale (2018) v t e Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Actor in a Limited Series or Movie v t e Benedict Cumberbatch (2012) Michael Douglas (2013) Billy Bob Thornton (2014) David Oyelowo (2015) Idris Elba (2016) Courtney B. Vance (2016) Ewan McGregor (2017) Darren Criss (2018) Jharrel Jerome (2019) John Boyega (2020) Michael Keaton (2021) Daniel Radcliffe (2022) Steven Yeun (2023) Colin Farrell (2024) Stephen Graham (2025) Benedict Cumberbatch (2012) Michael Douglas (2013) Billy Bob Thornton (2014) David Oyelowo (2015) Idris Elba (2016) Courtney B. Vance (2016) Ewan McGregor (2017) Darren Criss (2018) Jharrel Jerome (2019) John Boyega (2020) Michael Keaton (2021) Daniel Radcliffe (2022) Steven Yeun (2023) Colin Farrell (2024) Stephen Graham (2025) v t e Dallas–Fort Worth Film Critics Association Award for Best Actor v t e Jeremy Irons (1990) Anthony Hopkins (1991) Denzel Washington (1992) Anthony Hopkins (1993) Tom Hanks (1994) Nicolas Cage (1995) Geoffrey Rush (1996) Peter Fonda (1997) Jim Carrey (1998) Kevin Spacey (1999) Russell Crowe (2000) Russell Crowe (2001) Jack Nicholson (2002) Sean Penn (2003) Paul Giamatti (2004) Philip Seymour Hoffman (2005) Forest Whitaker (2006) Daniel Day-Lewis (2007) Sean Penn (2008) George Clooney (2009) James Franco (2010) George Clooney (2011) Daniel Day-Lewis (2012) Matthew McConaughey (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Leonardo DiCaprio (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Gary Oldman (2017) Christian Bale (2018) Adam Driver (2019) Chadwick Boseman (2020) Benedict Cumberbatch (2021) Colin Farrell (2022) Cillian Murphy (2023) Ralph Fiennes (2024) Leonardo DiCaprio (2025) Jeremy Irons (1990) Anthony Hopkins (1991) Denzel Washington (1992) Anthony Hopkins (1993) Tom Hanks (1994) Nicolas Cage (1995) Geoffrey Rush (1996) Peter Fonda (1997) Jim Carrey (1998) Kevin Spacey (1999) Russell Crowe (2000) Russell Crowe (2001) Jack Nicholson (2002) Sean Penn (2003) Paul Giamatti (2004) Philip Seymour Hoffman (2005) Forest Whitaker (2006) Daniel Day-Lewis (2007) Sean Penn (2008) George Clooney (2009) James Franco (2010) George Clooney (2011) Daniel Day-Lewis (2012) Matthew McConaughey (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Leonardo DiCaprio (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Gary Oldman (2017) Christian Bale (2018) Adam Driver (2019) Chadwick Boseman (2020) Benedict Cumberbatch (2021) Colin Farrell (2022) Cillian Murphy (2023) Ralph Fiennes (2024) Leonardo DiCaprio (2025) v t e Detroit Film Critics Society Award for Best Actor v t e George Clooney (2007) Mickey Rourke (2008) Colin Firth (2009) Colin Firth (2010) Michael Fassbender (2011) Daniel Day-Lewis (2012) Matthew McConaughey (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Michael Caine (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) James Franco (2017) Ethan Hawke (2018) Adam Driver (2019) Delroy Lindo (2020) Peter Dinklage (2021) George Clooney (2007) Mickey Rourke (2008) Colin Firth (2009) Colin Firth (2010) Michael Fassbender (2011) Daniel Day-Lewis (2012) Matthew McConaughey (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Michael Caine (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) James Franco (2017) Ethan Hawke (2018) Adam Driver (2019) Delroy Lindo (2020) Peter Dinklage (2021) v t e Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Limited or Anthology Series or Movie v t e 1953–1975 Thomas Mitchell (1953) Robert Cummings (1955) Lloyd Nolan (1956) Jack Palance (1957) Peter Ustinov (1958) Fred Astaire (1959) Laurence Olivier (1960) Maurice Evans (1961) Peter Falk (1962) Trevor Howard (1963) Jack Klugman (1964) Alfred Lunt (1965) Cliff Robertson (1966) Peter Ustinov (1967) Melvyn Douglas (1968) Paul Scofield (1969) Peter Ustinov (1970) George C. Scott (1971) Keith Michell (1972) Laurence Olivier (1973) Anthony Murphy (1973) Hal Holbrook (1974) William Holden (1974) Laurence Olivier (1975) Peter Falk (1975) Thomas Mitchell (1953) Robert Cummings (1955) Lloyd Nolan (1956) Jack Palance (1957) Peter Ustinov (1958) Fred Astaire (1959) Laurence Olivier (1960) Maurice Evans (1961) Peter Falk (1962) Trevor Howard (1963) Jack Klugman (1964) Alfred Lunt (1965) Cliff Robertson (1966) Peter Ustinov (1967) Melvyn Douglas (1968) Paul Scofield (1969) Peter Ustinov (1970) George C. Scott (1971) Keith Michell (1972) Laurence Olivier (1973) Anthony Murphy (1973) Hal Holbrook (1974) William Holden (1974) Laurence Olivier (1975) Peter Falk (1975) 1976–2000 Anthony Hopkins (1976) Hal Holbrook (1976) Ed Flanders (1977) Christopher Plummer (1977) Fred Astaire (1978) Michael Moriarty (1978) Peter Strauss (1979) Powers Boothe (1980) Anthony Hopkins (1981) Mickey Rooney (1982) Tommy Lee Jones (1983) Laurence Olivier (1984) Richard Crenna (1985) Dustin Hoffman (1986) James Woods (1987) Jason Robards (1988) James Woods (1989) Hume Cronyn (1990) John Gielgud (1991) Beau Bridges (1992) Robert Morse (1993) Hume Cronyn (1994) Raul Julia (1995) Alan Rickman (1996) Armand Assante (1997) Gary Sinise (1998) Stanley Tucci (1999) Jack Lemmon (2000) Anthony Hopkins (1976) Hal Holbrook (1976) Ed Flanders (1977) Christopher Plummer (1977) Fred Astaire (1978) Michael Moriarty (1978) Peter Strauss (1979) Powers Boothe (1980) Anthony Hopkins (1981) Mickey Rooney (1982) Tommy Lee Jones (1983) Laurence Olivier (1984) Richard Crenna (1985) Dustin Hoffman (1986) James Woods (1987) Jason Robards (1988) James Woods (1989) Hume Cronyn (1990) John Gielgud (1991) Beau Bridges (1992) Robert Morse (1993) Hume Cronyn (1994) Raul Julia (1995) Alan Rickman (1996) Armand Assante (1997) Gary Sinise (1998) Stanley Tucci (1999) Jack Lemmon (2000) 2001–present Kenneth Branagh (2001) Albert Finney (2002) William H. Macy (2003) Al Pacino (2004) Geoffrey Rush (2005) Andre Braugher (2006) Robert Duvall (2007) Paul Giamatti (2008) Brendan Gleeson (2009) Al Pacino (2010) Barry Pepper (2011) Kevin Costner (2012) Michael Douglas (2013) Benedict Cumberbatch (2014) Richard Jenkins (2015) Courtney B. Vance (2016) Riz Ahmed (2017) Darren Criss (2018) Jharrel Jerome (2019) Mark Ruffalo (2020) Ewan McGregor (2021) Michael Keaton (2022) Steven Yeun (2023) Richard Gadd (2024) Stephen Graham (2025) Kenneth Branagh (2001) Albert Finney (2002) William H. Macy (2003) Al Pacino (2004) Geoffrey Rush (2005) Andre Braugher (2006) Robert Duvall (2007) Paul Giamatti (2008) Brendan Gleeson (2009) Al Pacino (2010) Barry Pepper (2011) Kevin Costner (2012) Michael Douglas (2013) Benedict Cumberbatch (2014) Richard Jenkins (2015) Courtney B. Vance (2016) Riz Ahmed (2017) Darren Criss (2018) Jharrel Jerome (2019) Mark Ruffalo (2020) Ewan McGregor (2021) Michael Keaton (2022) Steven Yeun (2023) Richard Gadd (2024) Stephen Graham (2025) v t e Florida Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor v t e Geoffrey Rush (1996) Robert Duvall (1997) Ian McKellen (1998) Kevin Spacey (1999) Geoffrey Rush (2000) Billy Bob Thornton (2001) Daniel Day-Lewis (2002) Sean Penn (2003) Jamie Foxx (2004) Philip Seymour Hoffman (2005) Forest Whitaker (2006) Daniel Day-Lewis (2007) Mickey Rourke (2008) George Clooney (2009) Colin Firth (2010) Michael Fassbender (2011) Daniel Day-Lewis (2012) Chiwetel Ejiofor (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Paul Dano (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Timothée Chalamet (2017) Joaquin Phoenix (2018) Adam Driver (2019) Anthony Hopkins (2020) Adam Driver (2021) Colin Farrell (2022) Franz Rogowski (2023) Kieran Culkin (2024) Geoffrey Rush (1996) Robert Duvall (1997) Ian McKellen (1998) Kevin Spacey (1999) Geoffrey Rush (2000) Billy Bob Thornton (2001) Daniel Day-Lewis (2002) Sean Penn (2003) Jamie Foxx (2004) Philip Seymour Hoffman (2005) Forest Whitaker (2006) Daniel Day-Lewis (2007) Mickey Rourke (2008) George Clooney (2009) Colin Firth (2010) Michael Fassbender (2011) Daniel Day-Lewis (2012) Chiwetel Ejiofor (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Paul Dano (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Timothée Chalamet (2017) Joaquin Phoenix (2018) Adam Driver (2019) Anthony Hopkins (2020) Adam Driver (2021) Colin Farrell (2022) Franz Rogowski (2023) Kieran Culkin (2024) v t e Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy v t e 1950–1976 Fred Astaire (1949) Danny Kaye (1951) Donald O'Connor (1952) David Niven (1953) James Mason (1954) Tom Ewell (1955) Mario Moreno (1956) Frank Sinatra (1957) Danny Kaye (1958) Jack Lemmon (1959) Jack Lemmon (1960) Glenn Ford (1961) Marcello Mastroianni (1962) Alberto Sordi (1963) Rex Harrison (1964) Lee Marvin (1965) Alan Arkin (1966) Richard Harris (1967) Ron Moody (1968) Peter O'Toole (1969) Albert Finney (1970) Chaim Topol (1971) Jack Lemmon (1972) George Segal (1973) Art Carney (1974) George Burns / Walter Matthau (1975) Fred Astaire (1949) Danny Kaye (1951) Donald O'Connor (1952) David Niven (1953) James Mason (1954) Tom Ewell (1955) Mario Moreno (1956) Frank Sinatra (1957) Danny Kaye (1958) Jack Lemmon (1959) Jack Lemmon (1960) Glenn Ford (1961) Marcello Mastroianni (1962) Alberto Sordi (1963) Rex Harrison (1964) Lee Marvin (1965) Alan Arkin (1966) Richard Harris (1967) Ron Moody (1968) Peter O'Toole (1969) Albert Finney (1970) Chaim Topol (1971) Jack Lemmon (1972) George Segal (1973) Art Carney (1974) George Burns / Walter Matthau (1975) 1976–2000 Kris Kristofferson (1976) Richard Dreyfuss (1977) Warren Beatty (1978) Peter Sellers (1979) Ray Sharkey (1980) Dudley Moore (1981) Dustin Hoffman (1982) Michael Caine (1983) Dudley Moore (1984) Jack Nicholson (1985) Paul Hogan (1986) Robin Williams (1987) Tom Hanks (1988) Morgan Freeman (1989) Gérard Depardieu (1990) Robin Williams (1991) Tim Robbins (1992) Robin Williams (1993) Hugh Grant (1994) John Travolta (1995) Tom Cruise (1996) Jack Nicholson (1997) Michael Caine (1998) Jim Carrey (1999) George Clooney (2000) Kris Kristofferson (1976) Richard Dreyfuss (1977) Warren Beatty (1978) Peter Sellers (1979) Ray Sharkey (1980) Dudley Moore (1981) Dustin Hoffman (1982) Michael Caine (1983) Dudley Moore (1984) Jack Nicholson (1985) Paul Hogan (1986) Robin Williams (1987) Tom Hanks (1988) Morgan Freeman (1989) Gérard Depardieu (1990) Robin Williams (1991) Tim Robbins (1992) Robin Williams (1993) Hugh Grant (1994) John Travolta (1995) Tom Cruise (1996) Jack Nicholson (1997) Michael Caine (1998) Jim Carrey (1999) George Clooney (2000) 2001–present Gene Hackman (2001) Richard Gere (2002) Bill Murray (2003) Jamie Foxx (2004) Joaquin Phoenix (2005) Sacha Baron Cohen (2006) Johnny Depp (2007) Colin Farrell (2008) Robert Downey Jr. (2009) Paul Giamatti (2010) Jean Dujardin (2011) Hugh Jackman (2012) Leonardo DiCaprio (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Matt Damon ( 2015 ) Ryan Gosling (2016) James Franco (2017) Christian Bale (2018) Taron Egerton (2019) Sacha Baron Cohen (2020) Andrew Garfield (2021) Colin Farrell (2022) Paul Giamatti (2023) Sebastian Stan (2024) Timothée Chalamet (2025) Gene Hackman (2001) Richard Gere (2002) Bill Murray (2003) Jamie Foxx (2004) Joaquin Phoenix (2005) Sacha Baron Cohen (2006) Johnny Depp (2007) Colin Farrell (2008) Robert Downey Jr. (2009) Paul Giamatti (2010) Jean Dujardin (2011) Hugh Jackman (2012) Leonardo DiCaprio (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Matt Damon ( 2015 ) Ryan Gosling (2016) James Franco (2017) Christian Bale (2018) Taron Egerton (2019) Sacha Baron Cohen (2020) Andrew Garfield (2021) Colin Farrell (2022) Paul Giamatti (2023) Sebastian Stan (2024) Timothée Chalamet (2025) v t e Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Limited or Anthology Series or Television Film v t e Mickey Rooney (1981) Anthony Andrews (1982) Richard Chamberlain (1983) Ted Danson (1984) Dustin Hoffman (1985) James Woods (1986) Randy Quaid (1987) Michael Caine / Stacy Keach (1988) Robert Duvall (1989) James Garner (1990) Beau Bridges (1991) Robert Duvall (1992) James Garner (1993) Raul Julia (1994) Gary Sinise (1995) Alan Rickman (1996) Ving Rhames (1997) Stanley Tucci (1998) Jack Lemmon (1999) Brian Dennehy (2000) James Franco (2001) Albert Finney (2002) Al Pacino (2003) Geoffrey Rush (2004) Jonathan Rhys Meyers (2005) Bill Nighy (2006) Jim Broadbent (2007) Paul Giamatti (2008) Kevin Bacon (2009) Al Pacino (2010) Idris Elba (2011) Kevin Costner (2012) Michael Douglas (2013) Billy Bob Thornton (2014) Oscar Isaac (2015) Tom Hiddleston (2016) Ewan McGregor (2017) Darren Criss (2018) Russell Crowe (2019) Mark Ruffalo (2020) Michael Keaton (2021) Evan Peters (2022) Steven Yeun (2023) Colin Farrell (2024) Stephen Graham (2025) Mickey Rooney (1981) Anthony Andrews (1982) Richard Chamberlain (1983) Ted Danson (1984) Dustin Hoffman (1985) James Woods (1986) Randy Quaid (1987) Michael Caine / Stacy Keach (1988) Robert Duvall (1989) James Garner (1990) Beau Bridges (1991) Robert Duvall (1992) James Garner (1993) Raul Julia (1994) Gary Sinise (1995) Alan Rickman (1996) Ving Rhames (1997) Stanley Tucci (1998) Jack Lemmon (1999) Brian Dennehy (2000) James Franco (2001) Albert Finney (2002) Al Pacino (2003) Geoffrey Rush (2004) Jonathan Rhys Meyers (2005) Bill Nighy (2006) Jim Broadbent (2007) Paul Giamatti (2008) Kevin Bacon (2009) Al Pacino (2010) Idris Elba (2011) Kevin Costner (2012) Michael Douglas (2013) Billy Bob Thornton (2014) Oscar Isaac (2015) Tom Hiddleston (2016) Ewan McGregor (2017) Darren Criss (2018) Russell Crowe (2019) Mark Ruffalo (2020) Michael Keaton (2021) Evan Peters (2022) Steven Yeun (2023) Colin Farrell (2024) Stephen Graham (2025) v t e Gotham Independent Film Award for Best Actor v t e Matthew McConaughey (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Paul Dano (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) James Franco (2017) Ethan Hawke (2018) Adam Driver (2019) Riz Ahmed (2020) Matthew McConaughey (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Paul Dano (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) James Franco (2017) Ethan Hawke (2018) Adam Driver (2019) Riz Ahmed (2020) v t e Hasty Pudding Men of the Year v t e Bob Hope (1967) Paul Newman (1968) Bill Cosby (1969) Robert Redford (1970) James Stewart (1971) Dustin Hoffman (1972) Jack Lemmon (1973) Peter Falk (1974) Warren Beatty (1975) Robert Blake (1976) Johnny Carson (1977) Richard Dreyfuss (1978) Robert De Niro (1979) Alan Alda (1980) John Travolta (1981) James Cagney (1982) Steven Spielberg (1983) Sean Connery (1984) Bill Murray (1985) Sylvester Stallone (1986) Mikhail Baryshnikov (1987) Steve Martin (1988) Robin Williams (1989) Kevin Costner (1990) Clint Eastwood (1991) Michael Douglas (1992) Chevy Chase (1993) Tom Cruise (1994) Tom Hanks (1995) Harrison Ford (1996) Mel Gibson (1997) Kevin Kline (1998) Samuel L. Jackson (1999) Billy Crystal (2000) Anthony Hopkins (2001) Bruce Willis (2002) Martin Scorsese (2003) Robert Downey Jr. (2004) Tim Robbins (2005) Richard Gere (2006) Ben Stiller (2007) Christopher Walken (2008) James Franco (2009) Justin Timberlake (2010) Jay Leno (2011) Jason Segel (2012) Kiefer Sutherland (2013) Neil Patrick Harris (2014) Chris Pratt (2015) Joseph Gordon-Levitt (2016) Ryan Reynolds (2017) Paul Rudd (2018) Milo Ventimiglia (2019) Ben Platt (2020) Jason Bateman (2022) Bob Odenkirk (2023) Barry Keoghan (2024) Jon Hamm (2025) Michael Keaton (2026) Bob Hope (1967) Paul Newman (1968) Bill Cosby (1969) Robert Redford (1970) James Stewart (1971) Dustin Hoffman (1972) Jack Lemmon (1973) Peter Falk (1974) Warren Beatty (1975) Robert Blake (1976) Johnny Carson (1977) Richard Dreyfuss (1978) Robert De Niro (1979) Alan Alda (1980) John Travolta (1981) James Cagney (1982) Steven Spielberg (1983) Sean Connery (1984) Bill Murray (1985) Sylvester Stallone (1986) Mikhail Baryshnikov (1987) Steve Martin (1988) Robin Williams (1989) Kevin Costner (1990) Clint Eastwood (1991) Michael Douglas (1992) Chevy Chase (1993) Tom Cruise (1994) Tom Hanks (1995) Harrison Ford (1996) Mel Gibson (1997) Kevin Kline (1998) Samuel L. Jackson (1999) Billy Crystal (2000) Anthony Hopkins (2001) Bruce Willis (2002) Martin Scorsese (2003) Robert Downey Jr. (2004) Tim Robbins (2005) Richard Gere (2006) Ben Stiller (2007) Christopher Walken (2008) James Franco (2009) Justin Timberlake (2010) Jay Leno (2011) Jason Segel (2012) Kiefer Sutherland (2013) Neil Patrick Harris (2014) Chris Pratt (2015) Joseph Gordon-Levitt (2016) Ryan Reynolds (2017) Paul Rudd (2018) Milo Ventimiglia (2019) Ben Platt (2020) Jason Bateman (2022) Bob Odenkirk (2023) Barry Keoghan (2024) Jon Hamm (2025) Michael Keaton (2026) v t e Independent Spirit Award for Best Male Lead v t e M. Emmet Walsh (1985) James Woods (1986) Dennis Quaid (1987) Edward James Olmos (1988) Matt Dillon (1989) Danny Glover (1990) River Phoenix (1991) Harvey Keitel (1992) Jeff Bridges (1993) Samuel L. Jackson (1994) Sean Penn (1995) William H. Macy (1996) Robert Duvall (1997) Ian McKellen (1998) Richard Farnsworth (1999) Javier Bardem (2000) Tom Wilkinson (2001) Derek Luke (2002) Bill Murray (2003) Paul Giamatti (2004) Philip Seymour Hoffman (2005) Ryan Gosling (2006) Philip Seymour Hoffman (2007) Mickey Rourke (2008) Jeff Bridges (2009) James Franco (2010) Jean Dujardin (2011) John Hawkes (2012) Matthew McConaughey (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Abraham Attah (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Timothée Chalamet (2017) Ethan Hawke (2018) Adam Sandler (2019) Riz Ahmed (2020) Simon Rex (2021) M. Emmet Walsh (1985) James Woods (1986) Dennis Quaid (1987) Edward James Olmos (1988) Matt Dillon (1989) Danny Glover (1990) River Phoenix (1991) Harvey Keitel (1992) Jeff Bridges (1993) Samuel L. Jackson (1994) Sean Penn (1995) William H. Macy (1996) Robert Duvall (1997) Ian McKellen (1998) Richard Farnsworth (1999) Javier Bardem (2000) Tom Wilkinson (2001) Derek Luke (2002) Bill Murray (2003) Paul Giamatti (2004) Philip Seymour Hoffman (2005) Ryan Gosling (2006) Philip Seymour Hoffman (2007) Mickey Rourke (2008) Jeff Bridges (2009) James Franco (2010) Jean Dujardin (2011) John Hawkes (2012) Matthew McConaughey (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Abraham Attah (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Timothée Chalamet (2017) Ethan Hawke (2018) Adam Sandler (2019) Riz Ahmed (2020) Simon Rex (2021) v t e London Film Critics' Circle Award for Actor of the Year v t e Philippe Noiret (1990) Gérard Depardieu (1991) Robert Downey Jr. (1992) Anthony Hopkins (1993) John Travolta (1994) Johnny Depp (1995) Morgan Freeman (1996) Geoffrey Rush (1997) Jack Nicholson (1998) Kevin Spacey (1999) Russell Crowe (2000) Billy Bob Thornton (2001) Michael Caine (2002) Sean Penn (2003) Jamie Foxx (2004) Bruno Ganz (2005) Forest Whitaker (2006) Daniel Day-Lewis (2007) Mickey Rourke (2008) Christoph Waltz (2009) Colin Firth (2010) Jean Dujardin (2011) Joaquin Phoenix (2012) Chiwetel Ejiofor (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Tom Courtenay (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Timothée Chalamet (2017) Ethan Hawke (2018) Joaquin Phoenix (2019) Chadwick Boseman (2020) Benedict Cumberbatch (2021) Colin Farrell (2022) Andrew Scott (2023) Ralph Fiennes (2024) Philippe Noiret (1990) Gérard Depardieu (1991) Robert Downey Jr. (1992) Anthony Hopkins (1993) John Travolta (1994) Johnny Depp (1995) Morgan Freeman (1996) Geoffrey Rush (1997) Jack Nicholson (1998) Kevin Spacey (1999) Russell Crowe (2000) Billy Bob Thornton (2001) Michael Caine (2002) Sean Penn (2003) Jamie Foxx (2004) Bruno Ganz (2005) Forest Whitaker (2006) Daniel Day-Lewis (2007) Mickey Rourke (2008) Christoph Waltz (2009) Colin Firth (2010) Jean Dujardin (2011) Joaquin Phoenix (2012) Chiwetel Ejiofor (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Tom Courtenay (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Timothée Chalamet (2017) Ethan Hawke (2018) Joaquin Phoenix (2019) Chadwick Boseman (2020) Benedict Cumberbatch (2021) Colin Farrell (2022) Andrew Scott (2023) Ralph Fiennes (2024) v t e Maltin Modern Master Award v t e Award Michael Douglas (1995) Jodie Foster (1997) Anthony Hopkins (2000) Diane Keaton (2001) Peter Jackson (2004) George Clooney (2006) Will Smith (2007) Cate Blanchett (2008) Clint Eastwood (2009) James Cameron (2010) Christopher Nolan (2011) Christopher Plummer (2012) Ben Affleck (2013) Bruce Dern (2014) Michael Keaton (2015) Johnny Depp (2016) Denzel Washington (2017) Gary Oldman (2018) Glenn Close (2019) Brad Pitt (2020) Bill Murray (2021) Nicole Kidman (2022) Javier Bardem (2022) Jamie Lee Curtis (2023) Robert Downey Jr. (2024) Angelina Jolie (2025) Adam Sandler (2026) Michael Douglas (1995) Jodie Foster (1997) Anthony Hopkins (2000) Diane Keaton (2001) Peter Jackson (2004) George Clooney (2006) Will Smith (2007) Cate Blanchett (2008) Clint Eastwood (2009) James Cameron (2010) Christopher Nolan (2011) Christopher Plummer (2012) Ben Affleck (2013) Bruce Dern (2014) Michael Keaton (2015) Johnny Depp (2016) Denzel Washington (2017) Gary Oldman (2018) Glenn Close (2019) Brad Pitt (2020) Bill Murray (2021) Nicole Kidman (2022) Javier Bardem (2022) Jamie Lee Curtis (2023) Robert Downey Jr. (2024) Angelina Jolie (2025) Adam Sandler (2026) Festival editions 2024 2025 2026 2024 2025 2026 v t e National Board of Review Award for Best Actor v t e 1945–1975 Ray Milland (1945) Laurence Olivier (1946) Michael Redgrave (1947) Walter Huston (1948) Ralph Richardson (1949) Alec Guinness (1950) Richard Basehart (1951) Ralph Richardson (1952) James Mason (1953) Bing Crosby (1954) Ernest Borgnine (1955) Yul Brynner (1956) Alec Guinness (1957) Spencer Tracy (1958) Victor Sjöström (1959) Robert Mitchum (1960) Albert Finney (1961) Jason Robards (1962) Rex Harrison (1963) Anthony Quinn (1964) Lee Marvin (1965) Paul Scofield (1966) Peter Finch (1967) Cliff Robertson (1968) Peter O'Toole (1969) George C. Scott (1970) Gene Hackman (1971) Peter O'Toole (1972) Al Pacino / Robert Ryan (1973) Gene Hackman (1974) Jack Nicholson (1975) Ray Milland (1945) Laurence Olivier (1946) Michael Redgrave (1947) Walter Huston (1948) Ralph Richardson (1949) Alec Guinness (1950) Richard Basehart (1951) Ralph Richardson (1952) James Mason (1953) Bing Crosby (1954) Ernest Borgnine (1955) Yul Brynner (1956) Alec Guinness (1957) Spencer Tracy (1958) Victor Sjöström (1959) Robert Mitchum (1960) Albert Finney (1961) Jason Robards (1962) Rex Harrison (1963) Anthony Quinn (1964) Lee Marvin (1965) Paul Scofield (1966) Peter Finch (1967) Cliff Robertson (1968) Peter O'Toole (1969) George C. Scott (1970) Gene Hackman (1971) Peter O'Toole (1972) Al Pacino / Robert Ryan (1973) Gene Hackman (1974) Jack Nicholson (1975) 1976–present David Carradine (1976) John Travolta (1977) Jon Voight / Laurence Olivier (1978) Peter Sellers (1979) Robert De Niro (1980) Henry Fonda (1981) Ben Kingsley (1982) Tom Conti (1983) Victor Banerjee (1984) William Hurt / Raul Julia (1985) Paul Newman (1986) Michael Douglas (1987) Gene Hackman (1988) Morgan Freeman (1989) Robert De Niro / Robin Williams (1990) Warren Beatty (1991) Jack Lemmon (1992) Anthony Hopkins (1993) Tom Hanks (1994) Nicolas Cage (1995) Tom Cruise (1996) Jack Nicholson (1997) Ian McKellen (1998) Russell Crowe (1999) Javier Bardem (2000) Billy Bob Thornton (2001) Campbell Scott (2002) Sean Penn (2003) Jamie Foxx (2004) Philip Seymour Hoffman (2005) Forest Whitaker (2006) George Clooney (2007) Clint Eastwood (2008) George Clooney / Morgan Freeman (2009) Jesse Eisenberg (2010) George Clooney (2011) Bradley Cooper (2012) Bruce Dern (2013) Michael Keaton / Oscar Isaac (2014) Matt Damon (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Tom Hanks (2017) Viggo Mortensen (2018) Adam Sandler (2019) Riz Ahmed (2020) Will Smith (2021) Colin Farrell (2022) Paul Giamatti (2023) Daniel Craig (2024) Leonardo DiCaprio (2025) David Carradine (1976) John Travolta (1977) Jon Voight / Laurence Olivier (1978) Peter Sellers (1979) Robert De Niro (1980) Henry Fonda (1981) Ben Kingsley (1982) Tom Conti (1983) Victor Banerjee (1984) William Hurt / Raul Julia (1985) Paul Newman (1986) Michael Douglas (1987) Gene Hackman (1988) Morgan Freeman (1989) Robert De Niro / Robin Williams (1990) Warren Beatty (1991) Jack Lemmon (1992) Anthony Hopkins (1993) Tom Hanks (1994) Nicolas Cage (1995) Tom Cruise (1996) Jack Nicholson (1997) Ian McKellen (1998) Russell Crowe (1999) Javier Bardem (2000) Billy Bob Thornton (2001) Campbell Scott (2002) Sean Penn (2003) Jamie Foxx (2004) Philip Seymour Hoffman (2005) Forest Whitaker (2006) George Clooney (2007) Clint Eastwood (2008) George Clooney / Morgan Freeman (2009) Jesse Eisenberg (2010) George Clooney (2011) Bradley Cooper (2012) Bruce Dern (2013) Michael Keaton / Oscar Isaac (2014) Matt Damon (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Tom Hanks (2017) Viggo Mortensen (2018) Adam Sandler (2019) Riz Ahmed (2020) Will Smith (2021) Colin Farrell (2022) Paul Giamatti (2023) Daniel Craig (2024) Leonardo DiCaprio (2025) v t e National Society of Film Critics Award for Best Actor v t e Michael Caine (1966) Rod Steiger (1967) Per Oscarsson (1968) Jon Voight (1969) George C. Scott (1970) Peter Finch (1971) Al Pacino (1972) Marlon Brando (1973) Jack Nicholson (1974) Jack Nicholson (1975) Robert De Niro (1976) Art Carney (1977) Gary Busey (1978) Dustin Hoffman (1979) Peter O'Toole (1980) Burt Lancaster (1981) Dustin Hoffman (1982) Gérard Depardieu (1983) Steve Martin (1984) Jack Nicholson (1985) Bob Hoskins (1986) Steve Martin (1987) Michael Keaton (1988) Daniel Day-Lewis (1989) Jeremy Irons (1990) River Phoenix (1991) Stephen Rea (1992) David Thewlis (1993) Paul Newman (1994) Nicolas Cage (1995) Eddie Murphy (1996) Robert Duvall (1997) Nick Nolte (1998) Russell Crowe (1999) Javier Bardem (2000) Gene Hackman (2001) Adrien Brody (2002) Bill Murray (2003) Jamie Foxx (2004) Philip Seymour Hoffman (2005) Forest Whitaker (2006) Daniel Day-Lewis (2007) Sean Penn (2008) Jeremy Renner (2009) Jesse Eisenberg (2010) Brad Pitt (2011) Daniel Day-Lewis (2012) Oscar Isaac (2013) Timothy Spall (2014) Michael B. Jordan (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Daniel Kaluuya (2017) Ethan Hawke (2018) Antonio Banderas (2019) Delroy Lindo (2020) Hidetoshi Nishijima (2021) Colin Farrell (2022) Andrew Scott (2023) Colman Domingo (2024) Ethan Hawke (2025) Michael Caine (1966) Rod Steiger (1967) Per Oscarsson (1968) Jon Voight (1969) George C. Scott (1970) Peter Finch (1971) Al Pacino (1972) Marlon Brando (1973) Jack Nicholson (1974) Jack Nicholson (1975) Robert De Niro (1976) Art Carney (1977) Gary Busey (1978) Dustin Hoffman (1979) Peter O'Toole (1980) Burt Lancaster (1981) Dustin Hoffman (1982) Gérard Depardieu (1983) Steve Martin (1984) Jack Nicholson (1985) Bob Hoskins (1986) Steve Martin (1987) Michael Keaton (1988) Daniel Day-Lewis (1989) Jeremy Irons (1990) River Phoenix (1991) Stephen Rea (1992) David Thewlis (1993) Paul Newman (1994) Nicolas Cage (1995) Eddie Murphy (1996) Robert Duvall (1997) Nick Nolte (1998) Russell Crowe (1999) Javier Bardem (2000) Gene Hackman (2001) Adrien Brody (2002) Bill Murray (2003) Jamie Foxx (2004) Philip Seymour Hoffman (2005) Forest Whitaker (2006) Daniel Day-Lewis (2007) Sean Penn (2008) Jeremy Renner (2009) Jesse Eisenberg (2010) Brad Pitt (2011) Daniel Day-Lewis (2012) Oscar Isaac (2013) Timothy Spall (2014) Michael B. Jordan (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Daniel Kaluuya (2017) Ethan Hawke (2018) Antonio Banderas (2019) Delroy Lindo (2020) Hidetoshi Nishijima (2021) Colin Farrell (2022) Andrew Scott (2023) Colman Domingo (2024) Ethan Hawke (2025) v t e New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor v t e 1935–1975 Charles Laughton (1935) Walter Huston (1936) Paul Muni (1937) James Cagney (1938) James Stewart (1939) Charlie Chaplin (1940) Gary Cooper (1941) James Cagney (1942) Paul Lukas (1943) Barry Fitzgerald (1944) Ray Milland (1945) Laurence Olivier (1946) William Powell (1947) Laurence Olivier (1948) Broderick Crawford (1949) Gregory Peck (1950) Arthur Kennedy (1951) Ralph Richardson (1952) Burt Lancaster (1953) Marlon Brando (1954) Ernest Borgnine (1955) Kirk Douglas (1956) Alec Guinness (1957) David Niven (1958) James Stewart (1959) Burt Lancaster (1960) Maximilian Schell (1961) No Award (1962) Albert Finney (1963) Rex Harrison (1964) Oskar Werner (1965) Paul Scofield (1966) Rod Steiger (1967) Alan Arkin (1968) Jon Voight (1969) George C. Scott (1970) Gene Hackman (1971) Laurence Olivier (1972) Marlon Brando (1973) Jack Nicholson (1974) Jack Nicholson (1975) Charles Laughton (1935) Walter Huston (1936) Paul Muni (1937) James Cagney (1938) James Stewart (1939) Charlie Chaplin (1940) Gary Cooper (1941) James Cagney (1942) Paul Lukas (1943) Barry Fitzgerald (1944) Ray Milland (1945) Laurence Olivier (1946) William Powell (1947) Laurence Olivier (1948) Broderick Crawford (1949) Gregory Peck (1950) Arthur Kennedy (1951) Ralph Richardson (1952) Burt Lancaster (1953) Marlon Brando (1954) Ernest Borgnine (1955) Kirk Douglas (1956) Alec Guinness (1957) David Niven (1958) James Stewart (1959) Burt Lancaster (1960) Maximilian Schell (1961) No Award (1962) Albert Finney (1963) Rex Harrison (1964) Oskar Werner (1965) Paul Scofield (1966) Rod Steiger (1967) Alan Arkin (1968) Jon Voight (1969) George C. Scott (1970) Gene Hackman (1971) Laurence Olivier (1972) Marlon Brando (1973) Jack Nicholson (1974) Jack Nicholson (1975) 1976–present Robert De Niro (1976) John Gielgud (1977) Jon Voight (1978) Dustin Hoffman (1979) Robert De Niro (1980) Burt Lancaster (1981) Ben Kingsley (1982) Robert Duvall (1983) Steve Martin (1984) Jack Nicholson (1985) Bob Hoskins (1986) Jack Nicholson (1987) Jeremy Irons (1988) Daniel Day-Lewis (1989) Robert De Niro (1990) Anthony Hopkins (1991) Denzel Washington (1992) David Thewlis (1993) Paul Newman (1994) Nicolas Cage (1995) Geoffrey Rush (1996) Peter Fonda (1997) Nick Nolte (1998) Richard Farnsworth (1999) Tom Hanks (2000) Tom Wilkinson (2001) Daniel Day-Lewis (2002) Bill Murray (2003) Paul Giamatti (2004) Heath Ledger (2005) Forest Whitaker (2006) Daniel Day-Lewis (2007) Sean Penn (2008) George Clooney (2009) Colin Firth (2010) Brad Pitt (2011) Daniel Day-Lewis (2012) Robert Redford (2013) Timothy Spall (2014) Michael Keaton (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Timothée Chalamet (2017) Ethan Hawke (2018) Antonio Banderas (2019) Delroy Lindo (2020) Benedict Cumberbatch (2021) Colin Farrell (2022) Franz Rogowski (2023) Adrien Brody (2024) Wagner Moura (2025) Robert De Niro (1976) John Gielgud (1977) Jon Voight (1978) Dustin Hoffman (1979) Robert De Niro (1980) Burt Lancaster (1981) Ben Kingsley (1982) Robert Duvall (1983) Steve Martin (1984) Jack Nicholson (1985) Bob Hoskins (1986) Jack Nicholson (1987) Jeremy Irons (1988) Daniel Day-Lewis (1989) Robert De Niro (1990) Anthony Hopkins (1991) Denzel Washington (1992) David Thewlis (1993) Paul Newman (1994) Nicolas Cage (1995) Geoffrey Rush (1996) Peter Fonda (1997) Nick Nolte (1998) Richard Farnsworth (1999) Tom Hanks (2000) Tom Wilkinson (2001) Daniel Day-Lewis (2002) Bill Murray (2003) Paul Giamatti (2004) Heath Ledger (2005) Forest Whitaker (2006) Daniel Day-Lewis (2007) Sean Penn (2008) George Clooney (2009) Colin Firth (2010) Brad Pitt (2011) Daniel Day-Lewis (2012) Robert Redford (2013) Timothy Spall (2014) Michael Keaton (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Timothée Chalamet (2017) Ethan Hawke (2018) Antonio Banderas (2019) Delroy Lindo (2020) Benedict Cumberbatch (2021) Colin Farrell (2022) Franz Rogowski (2023) Adrien Brody (2024) Wagner Moura (2025) v t e Online Film Critics Society Award for Best Actor v t e Jack Nicholson (1997) Ian McKellen (1998) Kevin Spacey (1999) Tom Hanks (2000) Billy Bob Thornton (2001) Daniel Day-Lewis (2002) Bill Murray (2003) Paul Giamatti (2004) Philip Seymour Hoffman (2005) Forest Whitaker (2006) Daniel Day-Lewis (2007) Mickey Rourke (2008) Jeremy Renner (2009) Colin Firth (2010) Michael Fassbender (2011) Daniel Day-Lewis (2012) Chiwetel Ejiofor (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Michael Fassbender (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Gary Oldman (2017) Ethan Hawke (2018) Adam Driver (2019) Delroy Lindo (2020) Benedict Cumberbatch (2021) Colin Farrell (2022) Paul Giamatti (2023) Ralph Fiennes (2024) Jack Nicholson (1997) Ian McKellen (1998) Kevin Spacey (1999) Tom Hanks (2000) Billy Bob Thornton (2001) Daniel Day-Lewis (2002) Bill Murray (2003) Paul Giamatti (2004) Philip Seymour Hoffman (2005) Forest Whitaker (2006) Daniel Day-Lewis (2007) Mickey Rourke (2008) Jeremy Renner (2009) Colin Firth (2010) Michael Fassbender (2011) Daniel Day-Lewis (2012) Chiwetel Ejiofor (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Michael Fassbender (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Gary Oldman (2017) Ethan Hawke (2018) Adam Driver (2019) Delroy Lindo (2020) Benedict Cumberbatch (2021) Colin Farrell (2022) Paul Giamatti (2023) Ralph Fiennes (2024) v t e San Francisco Bay Area Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor v t e Michael Caine (2002) Bill Murray (2003) Paul Giamatti (2004) Heath Ledger (2005) Sacha Baron Cohen (2006) George Clooney (2007) Sean Penn / Mickey Rourke (2008) Colin Firth (2009) Colin Firth (2010) Gary Oldman (2011) Joaquin Phoenix (2012) Chiwetel Ejiofor (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Paul Dano (2015) Denzel Washington (2016) Andy Serkis (2017) Ethan Hawke (2018) Antonio Banderas (2019) Chadwick Boseman (2020) Benedict Cumberbatch (2021) Colin Farrell (2022) Jeffrey Wright (2023) Colman Domingo (2024) Ethan Hawke (2025) Michael Caine (2002) Bill Murray (2003) Paul Giamatti (2004) Heath Ledger (2005) Sacha Baron Cohen (2006) George Clooney (2007) Sean Penn / Mickey Rourke (2008) Colin Firth (2009) Colin Firth (2010) Gary Oldman (2011) Joaquin Phoenix (2012) Chiwetel Ejiofor (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Paul Dano (2015) Denzel Washington (2016) Andy Serkis (2017) Ethan Hawke (2018) Antonio Banderas (2019) Chadwick Boseman (2020) Benedict Cumberbatch (2021) Colin Farrell (2022) Jeffrey Wright (2023) Colman Domingo (2024) Ethan Hawke (2025) v t e Satellite Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture v t e Drama (1996–2010, 2018–present) Geoffrey Rush (1996) Robert Duvall (1997) Edward Norton (1998) Terence Stamp (1999) Geoffrey Rush (2000) Brian Cox (2001) Michael Caine / Daniel Day-Lewis (2002) Sean Penn (2003) Don Cheadle (2004) Philip Seymour Hoffman (2005) Forest Whitaker (2006) Viggo Mortensen (2007) Richard Jenkins (2008) Jeremy Renner (2009) Colin Firth (2010) Willem Dafoe (2018) Christian Bale (2019) Riz Ahmed (2020) Benedict Cumberbatch (2021) Brendan Fraser (2022) Cillian Murphy (2023) Colman Domingo (2024) Geoffrey Rush (1996) Robert Duvall (1997) Edward Norton (1998) Terence Stamp (1999) Geoffrey Rush (2000) Brian Cox (2001) Michael Caine / Daniel Day-Lewis (2002) Sean Penn (2003) Don Cheadle (2004) Philip Seymour Hoffman (2005) Forest Whitaker (2006) Viggo Mortensen (2007) Richard Jenkins (2008) Jeremy Renner (2009) Colin Firth (2010) Willem Dafoe (2018) Christian Bale (2019) Riz Ahmed (2020) Benedict Cumberbatch (2021) Brendan Fraser (2022) Cillian Murphy (2023) Colman Domingo (2024) Musical or Comedy (1996–2010, 2018–present) Tom Cruise (1996) Jack Nicholson (1997) Ian Bannen / David Kelly (1998) Philip Seymour Hoffman (1999) Michael Douglas (2000) Ewan McGregor (2001) Kieran Culkin (2002) Bill Murray (2003) Jamie Foxx (2004) Terrence Howard (2005) Joseph Cross (2006) Ryan Gosling (2007) Ricky Gervais (2008) Michael Stuhlbarg (2009) Michael Cera (2010) Rami Malek (2018) Taron Egerton (2019) Sacha Baron Cohen (2020) Andrew Garfield (2021) Austin Butler (2022) Paul Giamatti (2023) Keith Kupferer (2024) Tom Cruise (1996) Jack Nicholson (1997) Ian Bannen / David Kelly (1998) Philip Seymour Hoffman (1999) Michael Douglas (2000) Ewan McGregor (2001) Kieran Culkin (2002) Bill Murray (2003) Jamie Foxx (2004) Terrence Howard (2005) Joseph Cross (2006) Ryan Gosling (2007) Ricky Gervais (2008) Michael Stuhlbarg (2009) Michael Cera (2010) Rami Malek (2018) Taron Egerton (2019) Sacha Baron Cohen (2020) Andrew Garfield (2021) Austin Butler (2022) Paul Giamatti (2023) Keith Kupferer (2024) Motion Picture (2011–2017) Ryan Gosling (2011) Bradley Cooper (2012) Matthew McConaughey (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Leonardo DiCaprio (2015) Andrew Garfield / Viggo Mortensen (2016) Gary Oldman / Harry Dean Stanton (2017) Ryan Gosling (2011) Bradley Cooper (2012) Matthew McConaughey (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Leonardo DiCaprio (2015) Andrew Garfield / Viggo Mortensen (2016) Gary Oldman / Harry Dean Stanton (2017) v t e Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Miniseries or Television Movie v t e Raul Julia (1994) Gary Sinise (1995) Alan Rickman (1996) Gary Sinise (1997) Christopher Reeve (1998) Jack Lemmon (1999) Brian Dennehy (2000) Ben Kingsley (2001) William H. Macy (2002) Al Pacino (2003) Geoffrey Rush (2004) Paul Newman (2005) Jeremy Irons (2006) Kevin Kline (2007) Paul Giamatti (2008) Kevin Bacon (2009) Al Pacino (2010) Paul Giamatti (2011) Kevin Costner (2012) Michael Douglas (2013) Mark Ruffalo (2014) Idris Elba (2015) Bryan Cranston (2016) Alexander Skarsgård (2017) Darren Criss (2018) Sam Rockwell (2019) Mark Ruffalo (2020) Michael Keaton (2021) Sam Elliott (2022) Steven Yeun (2023) Colin Farrell (2024) Raul Julia (1994) Gary Sinise (1995) Alan Rickman (1996) Gary Sinise (1997) Christopher Reeve (1998) Jack Lemmon (1999) Brian Dennehy (2000) Ben Kingsley (2001) William H. Macy (2002) Al Pacino (2003) Geoffrey Rush (2004) Paul Newman (2005) Jeremy Irons (2006) Kevin Kline (2007) Paul Giamatti (2008) Kevin Bacon (2009) Al Pacino (2010) Paul Giamatti (2011) Kevin Costner (2012) Michael Douglas (2013) Mark Ruffalo (2014) Idris Elba (2015) Bryan Cranston (2016) Alexander Skarsgård (2017) Darren Criss (2018) Sam Rockwell (2019) Mark Ruffalo (2020) Michael Keaton (2021) Sam Elliott (2022) Steven Yeun (2023) Colin Farrell (2024) v t e Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association Award for Best Actor v t e Jack Nicholson (2002) Bill Murray (2003) Jamie Foxx (2004) Philip Seymour Hoffman (2005) Forest Whitaker (2006) George Clooney (2007) Mickey Rourke (2008) George Clooney (2009) Colin Firth (2010) George Clooney (2011) Daniel Day-Lewis (2012) Chiwetel Ejiofor (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Leonardo DiCaprio (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Gary Oldman (2017) Bradley Cooper (2018) Adam Driver (2019) Chadwick Boseman (2020) Andrew Garfield (2021) Colin Farrell (2022) Cillian Murphy (2023) Colman Domingo (2024) Michael B. Jordan (2025) Jack Nicholson (2002) Bill Murray (2003) Jamie Foxx (2004) Philip Seymour Hoffman (2005) Forest Whitaker (2006) George Clooney (2007) Mickey Rourke (2008) George Clooney (2009) Colin Firth (2010) George Clooney (2011) Daniel Day-Lewis (2012) Chiwetel Ejiofor (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Leonardo DiCaprio (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Gary Oldman (2017) Bradley Cooper (2018) Adam Driver (2019) Chadwick Boseman (2020) Andrew Garfield (2021) Colin Farrell (2022) Cillian Murphy (2023) Colman Domingo (2024) Michael B. Jordan (2025) Authority control databases International ISNI 2 VIAF GND FAST WorldCat ISNI 2 2 VIAF GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Korea Poland Israel Catalonia United States France BnF data Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Korea Poland Israel Catalonia Artists MusicBrainz Emmy Awards FID MusicBrainz Emmy Awards FID People Trove DDB Trove DDB Other IdRef Open Library SNAC Yale LUX IdRef Open Library SNAC Yale LUX 1951 births 20th-century American male actors 21st-century American male actors American male film actors American people of English descent American people of German descent American people of Irish descent American people of Scottish descent American people of Scotch-Irish descent American male television actors American male video game actors American male voice actors Best Actor AACTA International Award winners Best Miniseries or Television Movie Actor Golden Globe winners Best Musical or Comedy Actor Golden Globe (film) winners DC Comics people Best Male Lead Independent Spirit Award winners Kent State University alumni Living people Male actors from Pittsburgh Officiers of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture Screen Actors Guild Award winners Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Miniseries or Television Movie Screen Actors Guild Award winners Outstanding Performance by a Lead Actor in a Miniseries or Movie Primetime Emmy Award winners People from Coraopolis, Pennsylvania People from Sweet Grass County, Montana CS1: unfit URL Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use American English from December 2025 All Wikipedia articles written in American English Use mdy dates from January 2026 Biography with signature Articles with hCards Commons category link is on Wikidata TCMDb name template using non-numeric ID from Wikidata This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 10:25 (UTC) . 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Keaton#References
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History Toggle History subsection 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 2 Collaborative editing Toggle Collaborative editing subsection 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 3 Policies and content Toggle Policies and content subsection 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 4 Governance Toggle Governance subsection 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 5 Community Toggle Community subsection 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 6 Language editions Toggle Language editions subsection 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 7 Reception Toggle Reception subsection 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 8 Operation Toggle Operation subsection 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 9 Access to content Toggle Access to content subsection 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 10 Cultural influence Toggle Cultural influence subsection 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 11 Related projects 12 See also 13 Notes 14 References Toggle References subsection 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 15 Further reading Toggle Further reading subsection 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 16 External links Wikipedia Acèh Адыгэбзэ Адыгабзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ अंगिका Ænglisc Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés ܐܪܡܝܐ Արեւմտահայերէն Armãneashti Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Atikamekw अवधी Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali Bamanankan বাংলা Banjar 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Bislama Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Chamoru Chavacano de Zamboanga Chi-Chewa ChiShona ChiTumbuka Corsu Cymraeg Dagbanli Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deitsch Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Dolnoserbski डोटेली ཇོང་ཁ Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Fulfulde Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego ГӀалгӀай 贛語 Gĩkũyũ گیلکی ગુજરાતી 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni Gungbe 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî Хальмг 한국어 Hausa Hawaiʻi Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Ido Igbo Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut Iñupiatun Ирон IsiXhosa IsiZulu Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kernowek Ikirundi Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Кырык мары Ladin Ladino Лакку ລາວ Latgaļu Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala La .lojban. 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.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}} Screenshot Wikipedia's desktop homepage Type of site Online encyclopedia Available in 342 languages Headquarters San Francisco , California, US Country of origin United States Owner Wikimedia Foundation (since 2003) Created by .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger URL wikipedia .org Commercial No Registration Optional [ a ] Users 126 million (as of January 16, 2026) Launched January 15, 2001 (25 years ago) ( 2001-01-15 ) Current status Active Content license CC Attribution / Share-Alike 4.0 [ b ] Written in PHP OCLC number 52075003 Wikipedia [ c ] is a free online encyclopedia written and maintained by a community of volunteers , known as Wikipedians , through open collaboration and the wiki software MediaWiki . Founded by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger in 2001, Wikipedia has been hosted since 2003 by the Wikimedia Foundation , an American nonprofit organization funded mainly by donations from readers. [ 1 ] Wikipedia is the largest and most-read reference work in history. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Initially available only in English , Wikipedia exists in over 340 languages and is one of the world's most visited websites . The English Wikipedia , with over 7 million articles , remains the largest of the editions, which together comprise more than 66 million articles and attract more than 1.5 billion unique device visits and 13 million edits per month (about five edits per second on average) as of April 2024 [update] . [ W 1 ] As of December 2025 [update] , over 25% of Wikipedia's traffic comes from the United States, while Japan accounts for nearly 7%, and the United Kingdom, Germany, and Russia each represent around 5%. [ 4 ] Wikipedia has been praised for enabling the democratization of knowledge , its extensive coverage, unique structure, and culture. Wikipedia has been censored by some national governments, ranging from specific pages to the entire site, sometimes due to its criticism of the government or by content otherwise considered blasphemous. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Although Wikipedia's volunteer editors have written extensively on a wide variety of topics, the encyclopedia has also been criticized for systemic bias, such as a gender bias against women and a geographical bias against the Global South . [ 7 ] [ 8 ] While the reliability of Wikipedia was frequently criticized in the 2000s, it has improved over time, receiving greater praise from the late 2010s onward. [ 2 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ] Articles on breaking news are often accessed as sources for up-to-date information about those events. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] History Nupedia Various collaborative online encyclopedias were attempted before the start of Wikipedia, but with limited success. [ 13 ] Wikipedia began as a complementary project for Nupedia, a free online English-language encyclopedia project whose articles were written by experts and reviewed under a formal process. [ 14 ] It was founded on March 9, 2000, under the ownership of Bomis , a web portal company. Its main figures were Bomis CEO Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger , editor-in-chief for Nupedia and later Wikipedia. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] Nupedia was initially licensed under its own Nupedia Open Content License, but before Wikipedia was founded, Nupedia switched to the GNU Free Documentation License at the urging of Richard Stallman . [ W 2 ] Wales is credited with defining the goal of making a publicly editable encyclopedia, [ 17 ] while Sanger is credited with the strategy of using a wiki to reach that goal. [ 18 ] On January 10, 2001, Sanger proposed on the Nupedia mailing list to create a wiki as a "feeder" project for Nupedia. [ W 3 ] Launch and growth Wikipedia was launched on January 15, 2001 (referred to as "Wikipedia Day"), [ 19 ] as a single English language edition with the domain name www.wikipedia.com , [ W 4 ] and was announced by Sanger on the Nupedia mailing list. [ 17 ] The name, proposed by Sanger to forestall any potential damage to the Nupedia name, [ 20 ] originated from a blend of the words wiki and encyclopedia . [ 21 ] [ 22 ] Its integral policy of " neutral point of view " arose within its first year. [ 23 ] Otherwise, there were initially relatively few rules, and it operated independently of Nupedia. [ 17 ] Bomis originally intended for it to be a for-profit business. [ 24 ] Wikipedia gained early contributors from Nupedia, Slashdot postings, and web search engine indexing. Language editions were created beginning in March 2001, with a total of 161 in use by the end of 2004. [ W 5 ] [ W 6 ] Nupedia and Wikipedia coexisted until the former's servers were taken down permanently in 2003, and its text was incorporated into Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia passed the mark of 2 million articles on September 9, 2007, making it the largest encyclopedia ever assembled, surpassing the Yongle Encyclopedia made in China during the Ming dynasty in 1408, which had held the record for almost 600 years. [ 25 ] Due to fears of commercial advertising and lack of control, users of the Spanish Wikipedia forked from Wikipedia to create Enciclopedia Libre in February 2002. [ W 7 ] Wales then announced that Wikipedia would not display advertisements, and changed Wikipedia's domain from wikipedia.com to wikipedia.org . [ 26 ] [ W 8 ] After an early period of exponential growth, [ 27 ] the growth rate of the English Wikipedia in terms of the numbers of new articles and of editors appears to have peaked around early 2007. [ 28 ] The edition reached 3 million articles in August 2009. Around 1,800 articles were added daily to the encyclopedia in 2006; by 2013 that average was roughly 800. [ W 9 ] A team at the Palo Alto Research Center attributed this slowing of growth to "increased coordination and overhead costs, exclusion of newcomers, and resistance to new edits". [ 27 ] Others suggested that the growth flattened naturally because articles that could be called " low-hanging fruit "—topics that clearly merit an article—had already been created and built up extensively. [ 29 ] [ 30 ] [ 31 ] In November 2009, a researcher at the Rey Juan Carlos University in Madrid, Spain, found that the English Wikipedia had lost 49,000 editors during the first three months of 2009; in comparison, it lost only 4,900 editors during the same period in 2008. [ 32 ] [ 33 ] The Wall Street Journal cited the array of rules applied to editing and disputes related to such content among the reasons for this trend. [ 34 ] Wales disputed these claims in 2009, denying the decline and questioning the study's methodology. [ 35 ] Two years later, in 2011, he acknowledged a slight decline, noting a decrease from "a little more than 36,000 writers" in June 2010 to 35,800 in June 2011. In the same interview, he also claimed the number of editors was "stable and sustainable". [ 36 ] A 2013 MIT Technology Review article, "The Decline of Wikipedia", questioned this claim, reporting that since 2007 Wikipedia had lost a third of its volunteer editors, and suggesting that those remaining had focused increasingly on minutiae. [ 37 ] In July 2012, The Atlantic reported that the number of administrators was also in decline. [ 38 ] In November 2013, New York magazine stated, "Wikipedia, the sixth-most-used website, is facing an internal crisis." [ 39 ] The number of active English Wikipedia editors has since remained steady after a long period of decline. [ 40 ] [ 41 ] On January 20, 2014, Subodh Varma reporting for The Economic Times indicated that not only had Wikipedia's growth stalled, it "had lost nearly ten percent of its page views last year. There was a decline of about 2 billion between December 2012 and December 2013. Its most popular versions are leading the slide: page-views of the English Wikipedia declined by twelve percent, those of German version slid by 17 percent and the Japanese version lost 9 percent." [ 42 ] Varma added, "While Wikipedia's managers think that this could be due to errors in counting, other experts feel that Google's Knowledge Graphs project launched last year may be gobbling up Wikipedia users." [ 42 ] When contacted on this matter, Clay Shirky , associate professor at New York University and fellow at Harvard's Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society said that he suspected much of the page-view decline was due to Knowledge Graphs, stating, "If you can get your question answered from the search page, you don't need to click [any further]." [ 42 ] By the end of December 2016, Wikipedia was ranked the fifth most popular website globally. [ 43 ] As of January 2023, 55,791 English Wikipedia articles have been cited 92,300 times in scholarly journals, [ 44 ] from which cloud computing was the most cited page. [ 45 ] Sister projects Wikipedia has spawned several sister projects, which are also wikis run by the Wikimedia Foundation . These other Wikimedia projects include Wiktionary , a dictionary project launched in December 2002, [ W 10 ] Wikiquote , a collection of quotations created a week after Wikimedia launched, [ 46 ] Wikibooks , a collection of collaboratively written free textbooks and annotated texts, [ W 11 ] Wikimedia Commons , a site devoted to free-knowledge multimedia, [ W 12 ] Wikinews , for collaborative journalism, [ W 13 ] and Wikiversity , a project for the creation of free learning materials and the provision of online learning activities. [ W 14 ] Another sister project of Wikipedia, Wikispecies , is a catalog of all species, but is not open for public editing. [ 47 ] In 2012, Wikivoyage , an editable travel guide, [ 48 ] and Wikidata , an editable knowledge base, launched. [ W 15 ] Milestones In January 2007, Wikipedia first became one of the ten most popular websites in the United States, according to Comscore Networks. [ 49 ] With 42.9 million unique visitors, it was ranked ninth, surpassing The New York Times (No. 10) and Apple (No. 11). [ 49 ] This marked a significant increase over January 2006, when Wikipedia ranked 33rd, with around 18.3 million unique visitors. [ 50 ] In 2014, it received 8 billion page views every month. [ W 16 ] On February 9, 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia had 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, "according to the ratings firm comScore". [ 51 ] As of March 2023 [update] , it ranked sixth in popularity, according to Similarweb . [ 52 ] Jeff Loveland and Joseph Reagle argue that, in process, Wikipedia follows a long tradition of historical encyclopedias that have accumulated improvements piecemeal through " stigmergic accumulation". [ 53 ] [ 54 ] On January 18, 2012, the English Wikipedia participated in a series of coordinated protests against two proposed laws in the United States Congress —the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA) and the PROTECT IP Act (PIPA)—by blacking out its pages for 24 hours . [ 55 ] More than 162 million people viewed the blackout explanation page that temporarily replaced its content. [ 56 ] [ W 17 ] In January 2013, 274301 Wikipedia , an asteroid , was named after Wikipedia; [ 57 ] in October 2014, Wikipedia was honored with the Wikipedia Monument ; [ 58 ] and, in July 2015, 106 of the 7,473 700-page volumes of Wikipedia became available as Print Wikipedia . [ 59 ] In April 2019, an Israeli lunar lander , Beresheet , crash landed on the surface of the Moon carrying a copy of nearly all of the English Wikipedia engraved on thin nickel plates; experts say the plates likely survived the crash. [ 60 ] [ 61 ] In June 2019, scientists reported that all 16 GB of article text from the English Wikipedia had been encoded into synthetic DNA . [ 62 ] On January 18, 2023, Wikipedia debuted a new website redesign, called " Vector 2022 ". [ 63 ] [ 64 ] It featured a redesigned menu bar , moving the table of contents to the left as a sidebar , and numerous changes in the locations of buttons like the language selection tool. [ 64 ] [ W 18 ] The update initially received backlash, most notably when editors of the Swahili Wikipedia unanimously voted to revert the changes. [ 63 ] [ 65 ] Both Sanger and Wales have given public interviews in late 2025 about their reflections about the status and state of Wikipedia leading up to its 25 years of operation on January 15, 2026; Wales appeared on the PBS television news show GZERO World interviewed by Ian Bremmer [ 66 ] and Sanger has appeared on the FOX news network interviewed by Ashley Rindsberg . [ 67 ] Wales's book The Seven Rules of Trust was published in October 2025 by Penguin Random House . It was described by the publisher as a "sweeping reflection on the global crisis of credibility and knowledge" with the book examining the "rules of trust" that enabled the growth and success of Wikipedia. [ 68 ] Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views Since January 2024, the Wikimedia Foundation has reported a roughly 50 percent increase in bandwidth use from downloads of multimedia content across its projects. According to the foundation, this growth is largely attributed to automated programs, or "scraper" bots, that collect large volumes of data from Wikimedia sites for use in training large language models and related applications. [ 69 ] In October 2025, the Wikimedia Foundation reported an estimated 8 percent decline in traffic as compared to the same months in 2024 in human page views. They speculate it reflects the use of generative AI and social media on how people tend to search for information. [ 70 ] [ 71 ] Collaborative editing Restrictions Due to Wikipedia's increasing popularity, some editions, including the English version, have introduced editing restrictions for certain cases. For instance, on the English Wikipedia and some other language editions, only users with 10 edits that have an account that is four days old may create a new article. [ W 19 ] On the English Wikipedia, among others, particularly controversial, sensitive, or vandalism-prone pages have been protected to varying degrees. [ 72 ] A frequently vandalized article can be "semi-protected" or "extended confirmed protected", meaning that only "autoconfirmed" or "extended confirmed" editors can modify it. [ 73 ] A particularly contentious article may be locked so that only administrators can make changes. [ W 20 ] A 2021 article in the Columbia Journalism Review identified Wikipedia's page-protection policies as "perhaps the most important" means at its disposal to "regulate its market of ideas". [ 74 ] Wikipedia has delegated some functions to bots . Such algorithmic governance has an ease of implementation and scaling, though the automated rejection of edits may have contributed to a downturn in active Wikipedia editors. [ 75 ] Bots must be approved by the community before their tasks are implemented. [ 76 ] In certain cases, all editors are allowed to submit modifications, but review is required for some editors, depending on certain conditions. For example, the German Wikipedia maintains "stable versions" of articles which have passed certain reviews. [ W 21 ] Following protracted trials and community discussion, the English Wikipedia introduced the "pending changes" system in December 2012. [ 77 ] Under this system, new and unregistered users' edits to certain controversial or vandalism-prone articles are reviewed by established users before they are published. [ 78 ] However, restrictions on editing may reduce the editor engagement as well as efforts to diversify the editing community. [ 79 ] Articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict are placed under extended-confirmed protection. [ 80 ] Editors also can make only one revert per day across the entire field and can be banned from editing related articles. These restrictions were introduced in 2008. [ 81 ] In January 2025, the Arbitration Committee introduced the "balanced editing restriction", which requires sanctioned users to devote only a third of their edits to articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict even when no misconduct rules have been violated. [ 82 ] [ 83 ] Review of changes Although changes are not systematically reviewed, Wikipedia's software provides tools allowing anyone to review changes made by others. Each article's History page links to each revision. [ e ] [ 84 ] On most articles, anyone can view the latest changes and undo others' revisions by clicking a link on the article's History page. Registered users may maintain a "watchlist" of articles that interest them so they can be notified of changes. [ W 22 ] "New pages patrol" is a process where newly created articles are checked for obvious problems. [ W 23 ] In 2003, economics PhD student Andrea Ciffolilli argued that the low transaction costs of participating in a wiki created a catalyst for collaborative development, and that features such as allowing easy access to past versions of a page favored "creative construction" over "creative destruction". [ 85 ] Vandalism Any change that deliberately compromises Wikipedia's integrity is considered vandalism. The most common and obvious types of vandalism include additions of obscenities and crude humor; it can also include advertising and other types of spam. [ 86 ] Sometimes editors commit vandalism by removing content or entirely blanking a given page. Less common types of vandalism, such as the deliberate addition of plausible but false information, can be more difficult to detect. Vandals can introduce irrelevant formatting, modify page semantics such as the page's title or categorization, manipulate the article's underlying code, or use images disruptively. [ W 24 ] Obvious vandalism is generally easy to remove from Wikipedia articles; the median time to detect and fix it is a few minutes. [ 87 ] [ 88 ] However, some vandalism takes much longer to detect and repair. [ 89 ] In the Seigenthaler biography incident , an anonymous editor introduced false information into the biography of American political figure John Seigenthaler in May 2005, falsely presenting him as a suspect in the assassination of John F. Kennedy . [ 89 ] It remained uncorrected for four months. [ 89 ] Seigenthaler, the founding editorial director of USA Today and founder of the Freedom Forum First Amendment Center at Vanderbilt University , called Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales and asked whether he had any way of knowing who contributed the misinformation. Wales said he did not, although the perpetrator was eventually traced. [ 90 ] [ 91 ] After the incident, Seigenthaler described Wikipedia as "a flawed and irresponsible research tool". [ 89 ] The incident led to policy changes at Wikipedia for tightening up the verifiability of biographical articles of living people. [ 92 ] Disputes and edit warring Wikipedia editors often have disagreements regarding content, which can be discussed on article Talk pages. Disputes may result in repeated competing changes to an article, known as "edit warring". [ W 25 ] [ 93 ] It is widely seen as a resource-consuming scenario where no useful knowledge is added, [ 94 ] and criticized as creating a competitive [ 95 ] and conflict-based editing culture associated with traditional masculine gender roles . [ 96 ] [ 97 ] Research has focused on, for example, impoliteness of disputes, [ 98 ] [ 99 ] the influence of rival editing camps, [ 100 ] [ 101 ] the conversational structure, [ 102 ] and the shift in conflicts to a focus on sources. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] Taha Yasseri of the University of Oxford examined editing conflicts and their resolution in a 2013 study. [ 105 ] [ 106 ] Yasseri contended that simple reverts or "undo" operations were not the most significant measure of counterproductive work behavior at Wikipedia. He relied instead on "mutually reverting edit pairs", where one editor reverts the edit of another editor who then, in sequence, returns to revert the first editor. The results were tabulated for several language versions of Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia's three largest conflict rates belonged to the articles George W. Bush , anarchism , and Muhammad . [ 106 ] By comparison, for the German Wikipedia, the three largest conflict rates at the time of the study were for the articles covering Croatia , Scientology , and 9/11 conspiracy theories . [ 106 ] In 2020, researchers identified other measures of editor behaviors, beyond mutual reverts, to identify editing conflicts across Wikipedia. [ 104 ] Editors also debate the deletion of articles on Wikipedia , with roughly 500,000 such debates since Wikipedia's inception. Once an article is nominated for deletion, the dispute is typically determined by initial votes (to keep or delete) and by reference to topic-specific notability policies. [ 107 ] Policies and content External videos Jimmy Wales , The Birth of Wikipedia, 2006, TED talks , 20 minutes Katherine Maher , What Wikipedia Teaches Us About Balancing Truth and Beliefs, 2022, TED talks , 15 minutes Wikipedia is composed of 11 different namespaces , with its articles being present in mainspace . Other namespaces have a prefix before their page title and fulfill various purposes. For example, the project namespace uses the Wikipedia prefix and is used for self-governance related discussions. Most readers are not aware of these other namespaces. [ 108 ] The fundamental principles of the Wikipedia community are embodied in the "Five pillars", while the detailed editorial principles are expressed in numerous policies and guidelines intended to appropriately shape content. [ W 26 ] The five pillars are: Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is written from a neutral point of view Wikipedia is free content that anyone can use, edit, and distribute Wikipedia's editors should treat each other with respect and civility Wikipedia has no firm rules The rules developed by the community are stored in wiki form, and Wikipedia editors write and revise the website's policies and guidelines in accordance with community consensus. [ 109 ] Originally, rules on the non-English editions of Wikipedia were based on a translation of the rules for the English Wikipedia. They have since diverged to some extent. [ W 21 ] Content policies and guidelines According to the rules on the English Wikipedia community, each entry in Wikipedia must be about a topic that is encyclopedic and is not a dictionary entry or dictionary-style. [ W 27 ] A topic should also meet Wikipedia's standards of "notability" , which generally means that the topic has been covered extensively in reliable sources that are independent of the article's subject. [ 110 ] Wikipedia intends to convey only knowledge that is already established and recognized and therefore must not present original research. [ 111 ] Some subjects such as politicians and academics have specialized notability requirements. [ 110 ] Finally, Wikipedia must reflect a neutral point of view. This is accomplished through summarizing reliable sources, using impartial language, and ensuring that multiple points of view are presented based on their prominence. Information must also be verifiable. [ 112 ] Information without citations may be tagged or removed entirely. [ 113 ] This can at times lead to the removal of information which, though valid, is not properly sourced. [ 114 ] As Wikipedia policies changed over time, and became more complex, their number has grown. In 2008, there were 44 policy pages and 248 guideline pages; by 2013, scholars counted 383 policy pages and 449 guideline pages. [ 75 ] Governance Wikipedia's initial anarchy integrated democratic and hierarchical elements over time. [ 115 ] [ 116 ] An article is not considered to be owned by its creator or any other editor, nor by the subject of the article. [ W 28 ] Editors in good standing in the community can request extra user rights , granting them the technical ability to perform certain special actions. Some user rights are granted automatically, such as the autoconfirmed and extended confirmed groups, when thresholds for account age and edits are met. [ 73 ] Administrators Experienced editors can choose to run for " adminship ", [ 117 ] which includes the ability to delete pages or prevent them from being changed in cases of severe vandalism or editorial disputes. [ W 29 ] Administrators are not supposed to enjoy any special privilege in decision-making; instead, their powers are mostly limited to making edits that have project-wide effects and thus are disallowed to ordinary editors, and to implement restrictions intended to prevent disruptive editors from making unproductive edits. [ W 29 ] By 2012, fewer editors were becoming administrators compared to Wikipedia's earlier years, in part because the process of vetting potential administrators had become more rigorous. [ 38 ] In 2022, there was a particularly contentious request for adminship over the candidate's anti-Trump views; ultimately, they were granted adminship. [ 118 ] Dispute resolution Over time, Wikipedia has developed a semi-formal dispute resolution process. To determine community consensus, editors can raise issues at appropriate community forums, seek outside input through third opinion requests, or initiate a more general community discussion known as a "request for comment", [ W 25 ] in which bots add the discussion to a centralized list of discussions, invite editors to participate, and remove the discussion from the list after 30 days. [ W 30 ] However, editors have the discretion to close (and delist) the discussion early or late. If the result of a discussion is not obvious, a closer—an uninvolved editor usually in good standing—may render a verdict from the strength of the arguments presented and then the numbers of arguers on each side. [ 119 ] Wikipedians emphasize that the process is not a vote by referring to statements of opinion in such discussions as "!vote"s, in which the exclamation mark is the symbol for logical negation and pronounced "not". [ 120 ] Wikipedia encourages local resolutions of conflicts, which Jemielniak argues is quite unique in organization studies, though there has been some recent interest in consensus building in the field. [ 121 ] Reagle and Sue Gardner argue that the approaches to consensus building are similar to those used by Quakers . [ 121 ] : 62 A difference from Quaker meetings is the absence of a facilitator in the presence of disagreement, a role played by the clerk in Quaker meetings. [ 121 ] : 83 Arbitration Committee The Arbitration Committee presides over the ultimate dispute resolution process. Although disputes usually arise from a disagreement between two opposing views on how an article should read, the Arbitration Committee explicitly refuses to directly rule on the specific view that should be adopted. [ 122 ] Statistical analyses suggest that the English Wikipedia committee ignores the content of disputes and rather focuses on the way disputes are conducted, [ 123 ] functioning not so much to resolve disputes and make peace between conflicting editors, but to weed out problematic editors while allowing potentially productive editors back in to participate. [ 122 ] Therefore, the committee does not dictate the content of articles, although it sometimes condemns content changes when it deems the new content violates Wikipedia policies (for example, if the new content is considered biased). [ f ] Commonly used solutions include cautions and probations (used in 63% of cases) and banning editors from articles (43%), subject matters (23%), or Wikipedia (16%). [ 122 ] Complete bans from Wikipedia are generally limited to instances of impersonation and antisocial behavior . [ W 31 ] When conduct is not impersonation or anti-social, but rather edit warring and other violations of editing policies, solutions tend to be limited to warnings. [ 122 ] Community Each article and each user of Wikipedia has an associated and dedicated "talk" page. These form the primary communication channel for editors to discuss, coordinate and debate. [ 124 ] Wikipedia's community has been described as cultlike , [ 125 ] although not always with entirely negative connotations. [ 126 ] Its preference for cohesiveness, even if it requires compromise that includes disregard of credentials , has been referred to as " anti-elitism ". [ W 32 ] Wikipedia does not require that its editors and contributors provide identification. [ 127 ] As Wikipedia grew, "Who writes Wikipedia?" became one of the questions frequently asked there. [ 128 ] Jimmy Wales once argued that only "a community ... a dedicated group of a few hundred volunteers" makes the bulk of contributions to Wikipedia and that the project is therefore "much like any traditional organization". [ 129 ] Since Wikipedia relies on volunteer labour, editors frequently focus on topics that interest them. [ 130 ] The English Wikipedia has 7,122,774 articles, 51,074,164 registered editors, and 267,090 active editors. An editor is considered active if they have made one or more edits in the past 30 days. [ W 33 ] Editors who fail to comply with Wikipedia cultural rituals, such as signing talk page comments, may implicitly signal that they are Wikipedia outsiders, increasing the odds that Wikipedia insiders may target or discount their contributions. Becoming a Wikipedia insider involves non-trivial costs: the contributor is expected to learn Wikipedia-specific technological codes, submit to a sometimes convoluted dispute resolution process, and learn a "baffling culture rich with in-jokes and insider references". [ 131 ] Editors who do not log in are in some sense " second-class citizens " on Wikipedia, [ 131 ] as "participants are accredited by members of the wiki community, who have a vested interest in preserving the quality of the work product, on the basis of their ongoing participation", [ 132 ] but the contribution histories of anonymous unregistered editors recognized only by their IP addresses cannot be attributed to a particular editor with certainty. [ 132 ] New editors often struggle to understand Wikipedia's complexity. Experienced editors are encouraged to not "bite" the newcomers in order to create a more welcoming atmosphere. [ 133 ] Research A 2007 study by researchers from Dartmouth College found that "anonymous and infrequent contributors to Wikipedia ... are as reliable a source of knowledge as those contributors who register with the site". [ 134 ] Jimmy Wales stated in 2009 that "[I]t turns out over 50% of all the edits are done by just 0.7% of the users ... 524 people ... And in fact, the most active 2%, which is 1400 people, have done 73.4% of all the edits." [ 129 ] However, Business Insider editor and journalist Henry Blodget showed in 2009 that in a random sample of articles, most Wikipedia content (measured by the amount of contributed text that survives to the latest sampled edit) is created by "outsiders", while most editing and formatting is done by "insiders". [ 129 ] In 2008, a Slate magazine article reported that "one percent of Wikipedia users are responsible for about half of the site's edits." [ 135 ] This method of evaluating contributions was later disputed by Aaron Swartz , who noted that several articles he sampled had large portions of their content (measured by number of characters) contributed by users with low edit counts. [ 136 ] A 2008 study found that Wikipedians were less agreeable, open, and conscientious than others, [ 137 ] although a later commentary pointed out serious flaws, including that the data showed higher openness and that the differences with the control group and the samples were small. [ 138 ] According to a 2009 study, there is "evidence of growing resistance from the Wikipedia community to new content". [ 139 ] Diversity Several studies have shown that most volunteer Wikipedia contributors are male. The results of a Wikimedia Foundation survey in 2008 showed that only 13 percent of Wikipedia editors were female. [ 140 ] Because of this, universities throughout the United States tried to encourage women to become Wikipedia contributors. [ 141 ] Similarly, many of these universities, including Yale and Brown , gave college credit to students who create or edit an article relating to women in science or technology. [ 141 ] Andrew Lih , a professor and scientist, said that the reason he thought the number of male contributors outnumbered the number of females so greatly was because identifying as a woman may expose oneself to "ugly, intimidating behavior". [ 142 ] Data has shown that Africans are underrepresented among Wikipedia editors. [ 143 ] Language editions English (10.7%) Cebuano (9.20%) German (4.70%) French (4.10%) Swedish (4.00%) Dutch (3.30%) Spanish (3.10%) Russian (3.10%) Italian (2.90%) Polish (2.50%) Egyptian Arabic (2.50%) Chinese (2.30%) Japanese (2.20%) Ukrainian (2.10%) Vietnamese (2.00%) Arabic (2.00%) Waray (1.90%) Portuguese (1.90%) Persian (1.60%) Catalan (1.20%) Other (32.7%) There are currently 342 language editions of Wikipedia (also called language versions , or simply Wikipedias ). As of January 2026, the six largest, in order of article count, are the English , Cebuano , German , French , Swedish , and Dutch Wikipedias. [ W 35 ] The second and fifth-largest Wikipedias owe their position to the article-creating bot Lsjbot , which as of 2013 [update] had created about half the articles on the Swedish Wikipedia , and most of the articles in the Cebuano and Waray Wikipedias . The latter are both languages of the Philippines . In addition to the top six, twelve other Wikipedias have more than a million articles each ( Spanish , Russian , Italian , Polish , Egyptian Arabic , Chinese , Japanese , Ukrainian , Vietnamese , Arabic , Waray , and Portuguese ), seven more have over 500,000 articles ( Persian , Catalan , Indonesian , Korean , Chechen , Serbian , and Norwegian ), 44 more have over 100,000, and 82 more have over 10,000. [ W 36 ] [ W 35 ] The largest, the English Wikipedia, has over 7.1 million articles. As of January 2021, [update] the English Wikipedia receives 48% of Wikipedia's cumulative traffic, with the remaining split among the other languages. The top 10 editions represent approximately 85% of the total traffic. [ W 37 ] Most viewed editions of Wikipedia, 2008–2024 Most edited editions of Wikipedia, 2001–2024 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 Since Wikipedia is based on the Web and therefore worldwide, contributors to the same language edition may use different dialects or may come from different countries (as is the case for the English edition). These differences may lead to some conflicts over spelling differences (e.g. colour versus color ) [ W 38 ] or points of view. [ W 39 ] Though the various language editions are held to global policies such as "neutral point of view", they diverge on some points of policy and practice, most notably on whether images that are not licensed freely may be used under a claim of fair use . [ W 40 ] [ 145 ] The content of articles on the same subject can differ significantly between languages, depending on the sources editors use and other factors. [ 146 ] [ 147 ] Jimmy Wales has described Wikipedia as "an effort to create and distribute a free encyclopedia of the highest possible quality to every single person on the planet in their own language". [ W 41 ] Though each language edition functions more or less independently, some efforts are made to supervise them all. They are coordinated in part by Meta-Wiki, the Wikimedia Foundation's wiki devoted to maintaining all its projects (Wikipedia and others). [ W 42 ] For instance, Meta-Wiki provides important statistics on all language editions of Wikipedia, [ W 43 ] and it maintains a list of articles every Wikipedia should have. [ W 44 ] The list concerns basic content by subject: biography, history, geography, society, culture, science, technology, and mathematics. [ W 44 ] It is not rare for articles strongly related to a particular language not to have counterparts in another edition. For example, articles about small towns in the United States might be available only in English, even when they meet the notability criteria of other language Wikipedia projects. [ W 45 ] Translated articles represent only a small portion of articles in most editions, in part because those editions do not allow fully automated translation of articles. Articles available in more than one language may offer "interwiki links", which link to the counterpart articles in other editions. [ 149 ] [ W 46 ] A study published by PLOS One in 2012 also estimated the share of contributions to different editions of Wikipedia from different regions of the world. It reported that the proportion of the edits made from North America was 51% for the English Wikipedia, and 25% for the Simple English Wikipedia . [ 148 ] English Wikipedia editor numbers On March 1, 2014, The Economist , in an article titled "The Future of Wikipedia", cited a trend analysis concerning data published by the Wikimedia Foundation stating that "the number of editors for the English-language version has fallen by a third in seven years." [ 150 ] The attrition rate for active editors in English Wikipedia was cited by The Economist as substantially in contrast to statistics for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia). The Economist reported that the number of contributors with an average of five or more edits per month was relatively constant since 2008 for Wikipedia in other languages at approximately 42,000 editors within narrow seasonal variances of about 2,000 editors up or down. The number of active editors in English Wikipedia, by sharp comparison, was cited as peaking in 2007 at approximately 50,000 and dropping to 30,000 by the start of 2014. [ 150 ] In contrast, the trend analysis for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) shows success in retaining active editors on a renewable and sustained basis, with their numbers remaining relatively constant at approximately 42,000. No comment was made concerning which of the differentiated edit policy standards from Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) would provide a possible alternative to English Wikipedia for effectively improving substantial editor attrition rates on the English-language Wikipedia. [ 150 ] Reception Various Wikipedians have criticized Wikipedia's large and growing regulation , which includes more than fifty policies and nearly 150,000 words as of 2014. [update] [ 151 ] [ 121 ] Critics have stated that Wikipedia exhibits systemic bias . In 2010, columnist and journalist Edwin Black described Wikipedia as being a mixture of "truth, half-truth, and some falsehoods". [ 152 ] Articles in The Chronicle of Higher Education and The Journal of Academic Librarianship have criticized Wikipedia's " undue-weight policy ", concluding that Wikipedia explicitly is not designed to provide correct information about a subject, but rather focus on all the major viewpoints on the subject, give less attention to minor ones, and creates omissions that can lead to false beliefs based on incomplete information. [ 153 ] [ 154 ] [ 155 ] Journalists Oliver Kamm and Edwin Black alleged (in 2010 and 2011 respectively) that articles are dominated by the loudest and most persistent voices, usually by a group with an "ax to grind" on the topic. [ 152 ] [ 156 ] A 2008 article in Education Next journal concluded that as a resource about controversial topics, Wikipedia is subject to manipulation and spin . [ 157 ] In 2020, Omer Benjakob and Stephen Harrison noted that "Media coverage of Wikipedia has radically shifted over the past two decades: once cast as an intellectual frivolity, it is now lauded as the 'last bastion of shared reality' online." [ 158 ] Multiple news networks and pundits have accused Wikipedia of being ideologically biased . In February 2021, Fox News accused Wikipedia of whitewashing communism and socialism and having too much " leftist bias". [ 159 ] Wikipedia co-founder Larry Sanger , who left Wikipedia in 2002 to establish competing websites, has said that Wikipedia had become "propaganda" for the left-leaning "establishment" and warned the site can no longer be trusted. [ 160 ] [ 161 ] In 2022, libertarian John Stossel opined that Wikipedia, a site he financially supported at one time, appeared to have gradually taken a significant turn in bias to the political left, specifically on political topics. [ 162 ] Some studies suggest that Wikipedia (and in particular the English Wikipedia) has a "western cultural bias " (or "pro-western bias") [ 163 ] or "Eurocentric bias", [ 164 ] reiterating, says Anna Samoilenko, "similar biases that are found in the 'ivory tower' of academic historiography". Carwil Bjork-James proposes that Wikipedia could follow the diversification pattern of contemporary scholarship [ 165 ] and Dangzhi Zhao calls for a "decolonization" of Wikipedia to reduce bias from opinionated White male editors. [ 166 ] In October 2025, Larry Sanger published his Nine Theses , a critical assessment and reform agenda for Wikipedia. The proposal is part of his broader effort to address what Sanger perceives as systemic issues within Wikipedia, which include ideological bias, lack of transparency in the editor hierarchies and an ineffective consensus-based decision making procedure. [ 167 ] [ 168 ] Accuracy of content External audio The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1 , Ideas with Paul Kennedy , CBC , January 15, 2014 Articles for traditional encyclopedias such as Encyclopædia Britannica are written by experts , lending such encyclopedias a reputation for accuracy. [ 169 ] However, a peer review in 2005 of forty-two scientific entries on both Wikipedia and Encyclopædia Britannica by the science journal Nature found few differences in accuracy, and concluded that "the average science entry in Wikipedia contained around four inaccuracies; Britannica , about three." [ 170 ] Joseph Reagle suggested that while the study reflects "a topical strength of Wikipedia contributors" in science articles, "Wikipedia may not have fared so well using a random sampling of articles or on humanities subjects." [ 171 ] [ failed verification ] Others raised similar critiques. [ 172 ] The findings by Nature were disputed by Encyclopædia Britannica , [ 173 ] [ 174 ] and in response, Nature gave a rebuttal of the points raised by Britannica . [ 175 ] In addition to the point-for-point disagreement between these two parties, others have examined the sample size and selection method used in the Nature effort, and suggested a "flawed study design" (in Nature ' s manual selection of articles, in part or in whole, for comparison), absence of statistical analysis (e.g., of reported confidence intervals ), and a lack of study "statistical power" (i.e., owing to small sample size , 42 or 4 × 10 1 articles compared, vs >10 5 and >10 6 set sizes for Britannica and the English Wikipedia, respectively). [ 176 ] As a consequence of the open structure, Wikipedia "makes no guarantee of validity" of its content, since no one is ultimately responsible for any claims appearing in it. [ W 47 ] Concerns have been raised by PC World in 2009 regarding the lack of accountability that results from users' anonymity, the insertion of false information, [ 177 ] vandalism , and similar problems. Legal Research in a Nutshell (2011), cites Wikipedia as a "general source" that "can be a real boon" in "coming up to speed in the law governing a situation" and, "while not authoritative, can provide basic facts as well as leads to more in-depth resources". [ 178 ] Economist Tyler Cowen wrote: "If I had to guess whether Wikipedia or the median refereed journal article on economics was more likely to be true after a not so long think I would opt for Wikipedia." He comments that some traditional sources of non-fiction suffer from systemic biases, and novel results, in his opinion, are over-reported in journal articles as well as relevant information being omitted from news reports. However, he also cautions that errors are frequently found on Internet sites and that academics and experts must be vigilant in correcting them. [ 179 ] Amy Bruckman has argued that, due to the number of reviewers, "the content of a popular Wikipedia page is actually the most reliable form of information ever created". [ 180 ] In September 2022, The Sydney Morning Herald journalist Liam Mannix noted that: "There's no reason to expect Wikipedia to be accurate ... And yet it [is]." Mannix further discussed the multiple studies that have proved Wikipedia to be generally as reliable as Encyclopædia Britannica , summarizing that "...turning our back on such an extraordinary resource is... well, a little petty." [ 181 ] Critics argue that Wikipedia's open nature and a lack of proper sources for most of the information makes it unreliable. [ 182 ] Some commentators suggest that Wikipedia may be reliable, but that the reliability of any given article is not clear. [ 183 ] Editors of traditional reference works such as the Encyclopædia Britannica have questioned the project's utility and status as an encyclopedia. [ 184 ] Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales has claimed that Wikipedia has largely avoided the problem of "fake news" because the Wikipedia community regularly debates the quality of sources in articles. [ 185 ] External videos Inside Wikipedia – Attack of the PR Industry , Deutsche Welle , 7:13 mins [ 186 ] Wikipedia's open structure inherently makes it an easy target for Internet trolls , spammers , and various forms of paid advocacy seen as counterproductive to the maintenance of a neutral and verifiable online encyclopedia. [ 84 ] [ W 48 ] In response to paid advocacy editing and undisclosed editing issues, Wikipedia was reported in an article in The Wall Street Journal to have strengthened its rules and laws against undisclosed editing. [ 187 ] The article stated that: "Beginning Monday [from the date of the article, June 16, 2014], changes in Wikipedia's terms of use will require anyone paid to edit articles to disclose that arrangement. Katherine Maher , the nonprofit Wikimedia Foundation's chief communications officer, said the changes address a sentiment among volunteer editors that 'we're not an advertising service; we're an encyclopedia. ' " [ 187 ] [ 188 ] [ 189 ] [ 190 ] [ 191 ] These issues, among others, had been parodied since the first decade of Wikipedia, notably by Stephen Colbert on The Colbert Report . [ 192 ] Discouragement in education Some university lecturers discourage students from citing any encyclopedia in academic work , preferring primary sources ; [ 193 ] some specifically prohibit Wikipedia citations. [ 194 ] [ 195 ] Wales stresses that encyclopedias of any type are not usually appropriate to use as citable sources, and should not be relied upon as authoritative. [ 196 ] Wales once (2006 or earlier) said he receives about ten emails weekly from students saying they got failing grades on papers because they cited Wikipedia; he told the students they got what they deserved. "For God's sake, you're in college; don't cite the encyclopedia", he said. [ 197 ] In February 2007, an article in The Harvard Crimson newspaper reported that a few of the professors at Harvard University were including Wikipedia articles in their syllabi , although without realizing the articles might change. [ 198 ] In June 2007, Michael Gorman , former president of the American Library Association , condemned Wikipedia, along with Google, stating that academics who endorse the use of Wikipedia are "the intellectual equivalent of a dietitian who recommends a steady diet of Big Macs with everything". [ 199 ] A 2020 research study published in Studies in Higher Education argued that Wikipedia could be applied in the higher education " flipped classroom ", an educational model where students learn before coming to class and apply it in classroom activities. The experimental group was instructed to learn before class and get immediate feedback before going in (the flipped classroom model), while the control group was given direct instructions in class (the conventional classroom model). The groups were then instructed to collaboratively develop Wikipedia entries, which would be graded in quality after the study. The results showed that the experimental group yielded more Wikipedia entries and received higher grades in quality. The study concluded that learning with Wikipedia in flipped classrooms was more effective than in conventional classrooms, demonstrating Wikipedia could be used as an educational tool in higher education. [ 200 ] Medical information On March 5, 2014, Julie Beck writing for The Atlantic magazine in an article titled "Doctors' #1 Source for Healthcare Information: Wikipedia", stated that "Fifty percent of physicians look up conditions on the (Wikipedia) site, and some are editing articles themselves to improve the quality of available information." [ 201 ] Beck continued to detail in this article new programs of Amin Azzam at the University of San Francisco to offer medical school courses to medical students for learning to edit and improve Wikipedia articles on health-related issues , as well as internal quality control programs within Wikipedia organized by James Heilman to improve a group of 200 health-related articles of central medical importance up to Wikipedia's highest standard of articles using its Featured Article and Good Article peer-review evaluation process. [ 201 ] In a May 7, 2014, follow-up article in The Atlantic titled "Can Wikipedia Ever Be a Definitive Medical Text?", Julie Beck quotes WikiProject Medicine's James Heilman as stating: "Just because a reference is peer-reviewed doesn't mean it's a high-quality reference." [ 202 ] Beck added that: "Wikipedia has its own peer review process before articles can be classified as 'good' or 'featured'. Heilman, who has participated in that process before, says 'less than one percent' of Wikipedia's medical articles have passed." [ 202 ] Coverage of topics and systemic bias Wikipedia seeks to create a summary of all human knowledge in the form of an online encyclopedia, with each topic covered encyclopedically in one article. Since it has terabytes of disk space , it can have far more topics than can be covered by any printed encyclopedia. [ W 49 ] The exact degree and manner of coverage on Wikipedia is under constant review by its editors, and disagreements are not uncommon (see deletionism and inclusionism ). [ 203 ] [ 204 ] Wikipedia contains materials that some people may find objectionable, offensive, or pornographic. [ W 50 ] The "Wikipedia is not censored" policy has sometimes proved controversial: in 2008, Wikipedia rejected an online petition against the inclusion of images of Muhammad in the English edition of its Muhammad article, citing this policy. [ 205 ] The presence of politically, religiously, and pornographically sensitive materials in Wikipedia has led to the censorship of Wikipedia by national authorities in China [ 206 ] and Pakistan, [ 207 ] among other countries. [ 208 ] [ 209 ] [ 210 ] Through its "Wikipedia Loves Libraries" program, Wikipedia has partnered with major public libraries such as the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts to expand its coverage of underrepresented subjects and articles. [ 211 ] A 2011 study conducted by researchers at the University of Minnesota indicated that male and female editors focus on different coverage topics. There was a greater concentration of females in the "people and arts" category, while males focus more on "geography and science". [ 212 ] An editorial in The Guardian in 2014 claimed that more effort went into providing references for a list of female porn actors than a list of women writers . [ 213 ] Systemic biases Wikipedia's policies may limit "its capacity for truly representing global knowledge". For example, Wikipedia only considers published sources to be reliable. Oral knowledge of Indigenous cultures is not always reflected in print. Marginalized topics are also more likely to lack significant coverage in reliable sources. Wikipedia's content is therefore limited as a result of larger systemic biases. [ 214 ] Academic studies of Wikipedia have shown that the average contributor to the English Wikipedia is an educated, technically inclined white male, aged 15–49, from a developed, predominantly Christian country. [ 215 ] The corresponding point of view (POV) is over-represented. [ 216 ] [ 165 ] This systemic bias in editor demographic results in cultural bias , gender bias , and geographical bias on Wikipedia . [ 217 ] [ 218 ] There are two broad types of bias, which are implicit (when a topic is omitted) and explicit (when a certain POV is over-represented in an article or by references). [ 216 ] Interdisciplinary scholarly assessments of Wikipedia articles have found that while articles are typically accurate and free of misinformation, they are also typically incomplete and fail to present all perspectives with a neutral point of view . [ 217 ] In 2011, Wales claimed that the unevenness of coverage is a reflection of the demography of the editors, citing for example "biographies of famous women through history and issues surrounding early childcare". [ 36 ] The October 22, 2013, essay by Tom Simonite in MIT's Technology Review titled "The Decline of Wikipedia" discussed the effect of systemic bias and policy creep on the downward trend in the number of editors . [ 37 ] Research conducted by Mark Graham of the Oxford Internet Institute in 2009 indicated that the geographic distribution of article topics is highly uneven, with Africa being the most underrepresented. [ 219 ] Across 30 language editions of Wikipedia, historical articles and sections are generally Eurocentric and focused on recent events. [ 220 ] Explicit content Wikipedia has been criticized for allowing information about graphic content. [ 221 ] Articles depicting what some critics have called objectionable content (such as feces , cadaver , human penis , vulva , and nudity) contain graphic pictures and detailed information easily available to anyone with access to the internet, including children. [ W 51 ] The site also includes sexual content such as images and videos of masturbation and ejaculation , illustrations of zoophilia , and photos from hardcore pornographic films in its articles. It also has non-sexual photographs of nude children . [ W 52 ] The Wikipedia article about Virgin Killer —a 1976 album from the German rock band Scorpions —features a picture of the album's original cover, which depicts a naked prepubescent girl. The original release cover caused controversy and was replaced in some countries. In December 2008, access to the Wikipedia article Virgin Killer was blocked for four days by most Internet service providers in the United Kingdom after the Internet Watch Foundation (IWF) decided the album cover was a potentially illegal indecent image and added the article's URL to a "blacklist" it supplies to British internet service providers. [ 222 ] In April 2010, Sanger wrote a letter to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, outlining his concerns that two categories of images on Wikimedia Commons contained child pornography, and were in violation of US federal obscenity law . [ 223 ] [ 224 ] Sanger later clarified that the images, which were related to pedophilia and one about lolicon , were not of real children, but said that they constituted "obscene visual representations of the sexual abuse of children", under the PROTECT Act of 2003 . [ 225 ] That law bans photographic child pornography and cartoon images and drawings of children that are obscene under American law . [ 225 ] Sanger also expressed concerns about access to the images on Wikipedia in schools. [ 226 ] Wikimedia Foundation spokesman Jay Walsh strongly rejected Sanger's accusation, [ 227 ] saying that Wikipedia did not have "material we would deem to be illegal. If we did, we would remove it." [ 227 ] Following the complaint by Sanger, Wales deleted sexual images without consulting the community. After some editors who volunteered to maintain the site argued that the decision to delete had been made hastily, Wales voluntarily gave up some of the powers he had held up to that time as part of his co-founder status. He wrote in a message to the Wikimedia Foundation mailing-list that this action was "in the interest of encouraging this discussion to be about real philosophical/content issues, rather than be about me and how quickly I acted". [ 228 ] Critics, including Wikipediocracy , noticed that many of the pornographic images deleted from Wikipedia since 2010 have reappeared. [ 229 ] Privacy One privacy concern in the case of Wikipedia regards one's right to remain a private citizen rather than a public figure in the eyes of the law. [ 230 ] [ g ] It is a battle between the right to be anonymous in cyberspace and the right to be anonymous in real life . The Wikimedia Foundation's privacy policy states, "we believe that you shouldn't have to provide personal information to participate in the free knowledge movement", and states that "personal information" may be shared "For legal reasons", "To Protect You, Ourselves & Others", or "To Understand & Experiment". [ W 53 ] In January 2006, a German court ordered the German Wikipedia shut down within Germany because it stated the full name of Boris Floricic , aka "Tron", a deceased hacker. On February 9, 2006, the injunction against Wikimedia Deutschland was overturned, with the court rejecting the notion that Tron's right to privacy or that of his parents was being violated. [ 231 ] Wikipedia has a " .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}} Volunteer Response Team " that uses Znuny, a free and open-source software fork of OTRS [ W 54 ] to handle queries without having to reveal the identities of the involved parties. This is used, for example, in confirming the permission for using individual images and other media in the project. [ W 55 ] In late April 2023, Wikimedia Foundation announced that Wikipedia will not submit to any age verifications that may be required by the UK's Online Safety Bill legislation. Rebecca MacKinnon of the Wikimedia Foundation said that such checks would run counter to the website's commitment to minimal data collection on its contributors and readers. [ 232 ] Sexism Wikipedia was described in 2015 as harboring a battleground culture of sexism and harassment . [ 233 ] [ 234 ] The perceived tolerance of abusive language was a reason put forth in 2013 for the gender gap in Wikipedia editorship. [ 235 ] Edit-a-thons have been held to encourage female editors and increase the coverage of women's topics. [ 236 ] In May 2018, a Wikipedia editor rejected a submitted article about Donna Strickland due to lack of coverage in the media. [ W 56 ] [ 237 ] Five months later, Strickland won a Nobel Prize in Physics "for groundbreaking inventions in the field of laser physics", becoming the third woman to ever receive the award. [ 237 ] [ 238 ] Prior to winning the award, Strickland's only mention on Wikipedia was in the article about her collaborator and co-winner of the award Gérard Mourou . [ 237 ] Her exclusion from Wikipedia led to accusations of sexism, but Corinne Purtill writing for Quartz argued that "it's also a pointed lesson in the hazards of gender bias in media, and of the broader consequences of underrepresentation." [ 239 ] Purtill attributes the issue to the gender bias in media coverage. [ 239 ] A comprehensive 2008 survey, published in 2016, by Julia B. Bear of Stony Brook University 's College of Business and Benjamin Collier of Carnegie Mellon University found significant gender differences in confidence in expertise, discomfort with editing, and response to critical feedback. "Women reported less confidence in their expertise, expressed greater discomfort with editing (which typically involves conflict), and reported more negative responses to critical feedback compared to men." [ 240 ] Operation Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements Wikipedia is hosted and funded by the Wikimedia Foundation , a non-profit organization which also operates Wikipedia-related projects such as Wiktionary and Wikibooks . [ W 57 ] The foundation relies on public contributions and grants to fund its mission. [ 241 ] [ W 58 ] The foundation's 2020 Internal Revenue Service Form 990 shows revenue of $124.6 million and expenses of almost $112.2 million, with assets of about $191.2 million and liabilities of almost $11 million. [ W 59 ] In May 2014, Wikimedia Foundation named Lila Tretikov as its second executive director, taking over for Sue Gardner. [ W 60 ] The Wall Street Journal reported on May 1, 2014, that Tretikov's information technology background, from her years at University of California offers Wikipedia an opportunity to develop in more concentrated directions guided by her often repeated position statement that, "Information, like air, wants to be free." [ 242 ] [ 243 ] The same Wall Street Journal article reported these directions of development according to an interview with spokesman Jay Walsh of Wikimedia, who "said Tretikov would address that issue ( paid advocacy ) as a priority. 'We are really pushing toward more transparency ... We are reinforcing that paid advocacy is not welcome.' Initiatives to involve greater diversity of contributors, better mobile support of Wikipedia, new geo-location tools to find local content more easily, and more tools for users in the second and third world are also priorities", Walsh said. [ 242 ] Following the departure of Tretikov from Wikipedia due to issues concerning the use of the "superprotection" feature which some language versions of Wikipedia have adopted, [ W 61 ] Katherine Maher became the third executive director of the Wikimedia Foundation in June 2016. [ W 62 ] Maher stated that one of her priorities would be the issue of editor harassment endemic to Wikipedia as identified by the Wikipedia board in December. She said to Bloomberg Businessweek regarding the harassment issue that: "It establishes a sense within the community that this is a priority ... [and that correction requires that] it has to be more than words." [ 142 ] Maher served as executive director until April 2021. [ 244 ] Maryana Iskander was named the incoming CEO in September 2021, and took over that role in January 2022. She stated that one of her focuses would be increasing diversity in the Wikimedia community. [ 245 ] Wikipedia is also supported by many organizations and groups that are affiliated with the Wikimedia Foundation but independently-run, called Wikimedia movement affiliates . These include Wikimedia chapters (which are national or sub-national organizations, such as Wikimedia Deutschland and Wikimedia France), thematic organizations (such as Amical Wikimedia for the Catalan language community), and user groups. These affiliates participate in the promotion, development, and funding of Wikipedia. [ W 63 ] Software operations and support The operation of Wikipedia depends on MediaWiki , a custom-made, free and open source wiki software platform written in PHP and built upon the MySQL database system. [ W 64 ] The software incorporates programming features such as a macro language , variables , a transclusion system for templates , and URL redirection . [ W 65 ] MediaWiki is licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL) and it is used by all Wikimedia projects, as well as many other wiki projects. [ W 64 ] [ W 66 ] Originally, Wikipedia ran on UseModWiki written in Perl by Clifford Adams (Phase I), which initially required CamelCase for article hyperlinks; the present double bracket style was incorporated later. [ W 67 ] Starting in January 2002 (Phase II), Wikipedia began running on a PHP wiki engine with a MySQL database; this software was custom-made for Wikipedia by Magnus Manske . The Phase II software was repeatedly modified to accommodate the exponentially increasing demand. In July 2002 (Phase III), Wikipedia shifted to the third-generation software, MediaWiki, originally written by Lee Daniel Crocker . Several MediaWiki extensions are installed to extend the functionality of the MediaWiki software. [ W 68 ] In April 2005, a Lucene extension [ W 69 ] [ W 70 ] was added to MediaWiki's built-in search and Wikipedia switched from MySQL to Lucene for searching. Lucene was later replaced by CirrusSearch which is based on Elasticsearch . [ W 71 ] In July 2013, after extensive beta testing, a WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) extension, VisualEditor , was opened to public use. [ 246 ] [ 247 ] [ 248 ] It was met with much rejection and criticism, and was described as "slow and buggy". [ 249 ] The feature was changed from opt-out to opt-in afterward. [ W 72 ] Automated editing Computer programs called bots have often been used to perform simple and repetitive tasks, such as correcting common misspellings and stylistic issues, or to start articles such as geography entries in a standard format from statistical data. [ W 73 ] [ 250 ] [ 251 ] One controversial contributor, Sverker Johansson , created articles with his bot Lsjbot , which was reported to create up to 10,000 articles on the Swedish Wikipedia on certain days. [ 252 ] Additionally, there are bots designed to automatically notify editors when they make common editing errors (such as unmatched quotes or unmatched parentheses). [ W 74 ] Edits falsely identified by bots as the work of a banned editor can be restored by other editors. An anti-vandal bot is programmed to detect and revert vandalism quickly. [ 250 ] Bots are able to indicate edits from particular accounts or IP address ranges, as occurred at the time of the shooting down of the MH17 jet in July 2014 when it was reported that edits were made via IPs controlled by the Russian government. [ 253 ] Bots on Wikipedia must be approved before activation. [ W 75 ] According to Andrew Lih , the current expansion of Wikipedia to millions of articles would be difficult to envision without the use of such bots. [ 254 ] Hardware operations and support As of 2021, [update] page requests are first passed to a front-end layer of Varnish caching servers and back-end layer caching is done by Apache Traffic Server . [ W 76 ] Requests that cannot be served from the Varnish cache are sent to load-balancing servers running the Linux Virtual Server software, which in turn pass them to one of the Apache web servers for page rendering from the database. [ W 76 ] The web servers deliver pages as requested, performing page rendering for all the language editions of Wikipedia. To increase speed further, rendered pages are cached in a distributed memory cache until invalidated, allowing page rendering to be skipped entirely for most common page accesses. [ 255 ] Wikipedia currently runs on dedicated clusters of Linux servers running the Debian operating system. [ W 77 ] By January 22, 2013, Wikipedia had migrated its primary data center to an Equinix facility in Ashburn, Virginia . [ W 78 ] [ 256 ] A second application data center was created in 2014 in Carrollton, Texas , to improve Wikipedia's reliability. [ 257 ] [ 258 ] Both datacenters work as the primary one, in alternate semesters, with the other one working as secondary datacenter. [ 259 ] In 2017, Wikipedia installed a caching cluster in an Equinix facility in Singapore , the first of its kind in Asia. [ W 79 ] In 2022, a caching data center was opened in Marseille , France. [ W 80 ] In 2024, a caching data center was opened in São Paulo , the first of its kind in South America. [ W 81 ] As of November 2024, [update] caching clusters are located in Amsterdam , San Francisco, Singapore, Marseille, and São Paulo. [ W 82 ] [ W 83 ] Internal research and operational development Following growing amounts of incoming donations in 2013 exceeding seven digits, [ 37 ] the Foundation has reached a threshold of assets which qualify its consideration under the principles of industrial organization economics to indicate the need for the re-investment of donations into the internal research and development of the Foundation. [ 260 ] Two projects of such internal research and development have been the creation of a Visual Editor and the "Thank" tab in the edit history, which were developed to improve issues of editor attrition. [ 37 ] [ 249 ] The estimates for reinvestment by industrial organizations into internal research and development was studied by Adam Jaffe , who recorded that the range of 4% to 25% annually was to be recommended, with high-end technology requiring the higher level of support for internal reinvestment. [ 261 ] At the 2013 level of contributions for Wikimedia presently documented as 45 million dollars, [ W 84 ] the computed budget level recommended by Jaffe for reinvestment into internal research and development is between 1.8 million and 11.3 million dollars annually. [ 261 ] In 2019, the level of contributions were reported by the Wikimedia Foundation as being at $120 million annually, [ W 85 ] updating the Jaffe estimates for the higher level of support to between $3.08 million and $19.2 million annually. [ 261 ] Internal news publications Multiple Wikimedia projects have internal news publications. Wikimedia 's online newspaper The Signpost was founded in 2005 by Michael Snow, a Wikipedia administrator who would join the Wikimedia Foundation's board of trustees in 2008. [ 262 ] [ 263 ] The publication covers news and events from the English Wikipedia, the Wikimedia Foundation, and Wikipedia's sister projects . [ W 86 ] The Wikipedia Library Wikipedia editors sometimes struggle to access paywalled sources needed to improve a subject. [ 264 ] The Wikipedia Library is a resource for Wikipedia editors which provides free access to a wide range of digital publications , so that they can consult and cite these while editing the encyclopedia. [ 265 ] [ 266 ] Over 60 publishers have partnered with The Wikipedia Library to provide access to their resources: when ICE Publishing joined in 2020, a spokesman said "By enabling free access to our content for Wikipedia editors, we hope to further the research community's resources – creating and updating Wikipedia entries on civil engineering which are read by thousands of monthly readers." [ 267 ] Access to content Content licensing When the project was started in 2001, all text in Wikipedia was covered by the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL), a copyleft license permitting the redistribution, creation of derivative works, and commercial use of content while authors retain copyright of their work. [ W 87 ] The GFDL was created for software manuals that come with free software programs licensed under the GPL . This made it a poor choice for a general reference work: for example, the GFDL requires the reprints of materials from Wikipedia to come with a full copy of the GFDL text. [ 268 ] In December 2002, the Creative Commons license was released; it was specifically designed for creative works in general, not just for software manuals. The Wikipedia project sought the switch to the Creative Commons. [ W 88 ] Because the GFDL and Creative Commons were incompatible, in November 2008, following the request of the project, the Free Software Foundation (FSF) released a new version of the GFDL designed specifically to allow Wikipedia to relicense its content to CC BY-SA by August 1, 2009. [ W 89 ] In April 2009, Wikipedia and its sister projects held a community-wide referendum which decided the switch in June 2009. [ W 90 ] [ W 91 ] [ W 92 ] [ W 93 ] The handling of media files (e.g. image files) varies across language editions. Some language editions, such as the English Wikipedia, include non-free image files under fair use doctrine, [ W 94 ] while the others have opted not to, in part because of the lack of fair use doctrines in their home countries (e.g. in Japanese copyright law ). Media files covered by free content licenses (e.g. Creative Commons ' CC BY-SA ) are shared across language editions via Wikimedia Commons repository, a project operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. [ W 95 ] Wikipedia's accommodation of varying international copyright laws regarding images has led some to observe that its photographic coverage of topics lags behind the quality of the encyclopedic text. [ 269 ] The Wikimedia Foundation is not a licensor of content on Wikipedia or its related projects but merely a hosting service for contributors to and licensors of Wikipedia, a position which was successfully defended in 2004 in a court in France. [ 270 ] [ 271 ] Methods of access Since Wikipedia content is distributed under an open license, anyone can reuse or re-distribute it at no charge. [ W 96 ] The content of Wikipedia has been published in many forms, both online and offline, outside the Wikipedia website. Thousands of " mirror sites " exist that republish content from Wikipedia; two prominent ones that also include content from other reference sources are Reference.com and Answers.com . [ 272 ] [ 273 ] Another example is Wapedia , which began to display Wikipedia content in a mobile-device-friendly format before Wikipedia itself did. [ W 97 ] Some web search engines make special use of Wikipedia content when displaying search results: examples include Microsoft Bing (via technology gained from Powerset ) [ 274 ] and DuckDuckGo . Collections of Wikipedia articles have been published on optical discs . An English version released in 2006 contained about 2,000 articles. [ W 98 ] The Polish-language version from 2006 contains nearly 240,000 articles, [ W 99 ] the German-language version from 2007/2008 contains over 620,000 articles, [ W 100 ] and the Spanish-language version from 2011 contains 886,000 articles. [ W 101 ] Additionally, "Wikipedia for Schools", the Wikipedia series of CDs / DVDs produced by Wikipedia and SOS Children , is a free selection from Wikipedia designed for education towards children eight to seventeen. [ W 102 ] There have been efforts to put a select subset of Wikipedia's articles into printed book form. [ 275 ] [ W 103 ] Since 2009, tens of thousands of print-on-demand books that reproduced English, German, Russian, and French Wikipedia articles have been produced by the American company Books LLC and by three Mauritian subsidiaries of the German publisher VDM . [ 276 ] The website DBpedia , begun in 2007, extracts data from the infoboxes and category declarations of the English-language Wikipedia. [ 277 ] Wikimedia has created the Wikidata project with a similar objective of storing the basic facts from each page of Wikipedia and other Wikimedia Foundation projects and make it available in a queryable semantic format, RDF . [ W 104 ] As of February 2023, [update] it has over 101 million items. [ W 105 ] WikiReader is a dedicated reader device that contains an offline copy of Wikipedia, which was launched by OpenMoko and first released in 2009. [ W 106 ] Obtaining the full contents of Wikipedia for reuse presents challenges, since direct cloning via a web crawler is discouraged. [ W 107 ] Wikipedia publishes " dumps " of its contents, but these are text-only; as of 2023, [update] there is no dump available of Wikipedia's images. [ W 108 ] Wikimedia Enterprise is a for-profit solution to this. [ 278 ] Several languages of Wikipedia also maintain a reference desk, where volunteers answer questions from the general public. According to a study by Pnina Shachaf in the Journal of Documentation , the quality of the Wikipedia reference desk is comparable to a standard library reference desk , with an accuracy of 55 percent. [ 279 ] Mobile access Wikipedia's original medium was for users to read and edit content using any standard web browser through a fixed Internet connection . Although Wikipedia content has been accessible through the mobile web since July 2013, The New York Times on February 9, 2014, quoted Erik Möller , deputy director of the Wikimedia Foundation, stating that the transition of internet traffic from desktops to mobile devices was significant and a cause for concern and worry. The article in The New York Times reported the comparison statistics for mobile edits stating that, "Only 20 percent of the readership of the English-language Wikipedia comes via mobile devices, a figure substantially lower than the percentage of mobile traffic for other media sites, many of which approach 50 percent. And the shift to mobile editing has lagged even more." In 2014 The New York Times reported that Möller has assigned "a team of 10 software developers focused on mobile", out of a total of approximately 200 employees working at the Wikimedia Foundation. One principal concern cited by The New York Times for the "worry" is for Wikipedia to effectively address attrition issues with the number of editors which the online encyclopedia attracts to edit and maintain its content in a mobile access environment. [ 51 ] By 2023, the Wikimedia Foundation's staff had grown to over 700 employees. [ 1 ] Access to Wikipedia from mobile phones was possible as early as 2004, through the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP), via the Wapedia service. [ W 97 ] In June 2007, Wikipedia launched en.mobile.wikipedia.org, an official website for wireless devices. In 2009, a newer mobile service was officially released, located at en.m.wikipedia.org, which caters to more advanced mobile devices such as the iPhone , Android -based devices, or WebOS -based devices. [ W 109 ] Several other methods of mobile access to Wikipedia have emerged since. Many devices and applications optimize or enhance the display of Wikipedia content for mobile devices, while some also incorporate additional features such as use of Wikipedia metadata like geoinformation . [ 280 ] [ 281 ] The Android app for Wikipedia was released in January 2012, to over 500,000 installs and generally positive reviews, scoring over four of a possible five in a poll of approximately 200,000 users downloading from Google. [ W 110 ] [ W 111 ] The version for iOS was released on April 3, 2013, to similar reviews. [ W 112 ] Wikipedia Zero was an initiative of the Wikimedia Foundation to expand the reach of the encyclopedia to the developing countries by partnering with mobile operators to allow free access. [ W 113 ] [ 282 ] It was discontinued in February 2018 due to lack of participation from mobile operators. [ W 113 ] Andrew Lih and Andrew Brown both maintain editing Wikipedia with smartphones is difficult and this discourages new potential contributors. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Lih states that the number of Wikipedia editors has been declining after several years, [ 283 ] and Tom Simonite of MIT Technology Review claims the bureaucratic structure and rules are a factor in this. Simonite alleges some Wikipedians use the labyrinthine rules and guidelines to dominate others and those editors have a vested interest in keeping the status quo. [ 37 ] Lih alleges there is a serious disagreement among existing contributors on how to resolve this. Lih fears for Wikipedia's long-term future while Brown fears problems with Wikipedia will remain and rival encyclopedias will not replace it. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Chinese access Access to Wikipedia has been blocked in mainland China since May 2015. [ 6 ] [ 285 ] [ 286 ] This was done after Wikipedia started to use HTTPS encryption, which made selective censorship more difficult. [ 287 ] Cultural influence Trusted source to combat fake news In 2017–18, after a barrage of false news reports, both Facebook and YouTube announced they would rely on Wikipedia to help their users evaluate reports and reject false news. [ 288 ] [ 289 ] Noam Cohen , writing in The Washington Post states, "YouTube's reliance on Wikipedia to set the record straight builds on the thinking of another fact-challenged platform, the Facebook social network, which announced last year that Wikipedia would help its users root out ' fake news '." [ 289 ] [ 290 ] Readership In February 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia was ranked fifth globally among all websites, stating "With 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, ... Wikipedia trails just Yahoo, Facebook, Microsoft and Google, the largest with 1.2 billion unique visitors." [ 51 ] However, its ranking dropped to 13th globally by June 2020 due mostly to a rise in popularity of Chinese websites for online shopping. [ 43 ] The website has since recovered its ranking as of April 2022. [ 43 ] In addition to logistic growth in the number of its articles, [ W 114 ] Wikipedia has steadily gained status as a general reference website since its inception in 2001. [ 291 ] The number of readers of Wikipedia worldwide reached 365 million at the end of 2009. [ W 115 ] The Pew Internet and American Life project found that one third of US Internet users consulted Wikipedia. [ 292 ] In 2011, Business Insider gave Wikipedia a valuation of $4 billion if it ran advertisements. [ 293 ] According to "Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011", the average age of Wikipedia readers is 36, with a rough parity between genders. Almost half of Wikipedia readers visit the site more than five times a month, and a similar number of readers specifically look for Wikipedia in search engine results. About 47 percent of Wikipedia readers do not realize that Wikipedia is a non-profit organization. [ W 116 ] As of February 2023, [update] Wikipedia attracts around 2 billion unique devices monthly, with the English Wikipedia receiving 10 billion pageviews each month. [ W 1 ] COVID-19 pandemic During the COVID-19 pandemic , Wikipedia's coverage of the pandemic and fight against misinformation received international media attention, and brought an increase in Wikipedia readership overall. [ 294 ] [ 295 ] [ 296 ] [ 297 ] Noam Cohen wrote in Wired that Wikipedia's effort to combat misinformation related to the pandemic was different from other major websites, opining, "Unless Twitter, Facebook and the others can learn to address misinformation more effectively, Wikipedia will remain the last best place on the Internet." [ 295 ] In October 2020, the World Health Organization announced they were freely licensing its infographics and other materials on Wikimedia projects. [ 298 ] There were nearly 7,000 COVID-19 related Wikipedia articles across 188 different Wikipedias, as of November 2021. [update] [ 299 ] [ 300 ] Cultural significance Wikipedia's content has also been used in academic studies, books, conferences, and court cases. [ W 117 ] [ 301 ] [ 302 ] The Parliament of Canada 's website refers to Wikipedia's article on same-sex marriage in the "related links" section of its "further reading" list for the Civil Marriage Act . [ 303 ] The encyclopedia's assertions are increasingly used as a source by organizations such as the US federal courts and the World Intellectual Property Organization [ 304 ] —though mainly for supporting information rather than information decisive to a case. [ 305 ] Content appearing on Wikipedia has also been cited as a source and referenced in some US intelligence agency reports. [ 306 ] In December 2008, the scientific journal RNA Biology launched a new section for descriptions of families of RNA molecules and requires authors who contribute to the section to also submit a draft article on the RNA family for publication in Wikipedia. [ 307 ] Wikipedia has also been used as a source in journalism, [ 308 ] [ 309 ] often without attribution, and several reporters have been dismissed for plagiarizing from Wikipedia . [ 310 ] [ 311 ] [ 312 ] [ 313 ] In 2006, Time magazine recognized Wikipedia's participation (along with YouTube, Reddit , MySpace , and Facebook) in the rapid growth of online collaboration and interaction by millions of people worldwide. [ 314 ] On September 16, 2007, The Washington Post reported that Wikipedia had become a focal point in the 2008 US election campaign , saying: "Type a candidate's name into Google, and among the first results is a Wikipedia page, making those entries arguably as important as any ad in defining a candidate. Already, the presidential entries are being edited, dissected and debated countless times each day." [ 315 ] An October 2007 Reuters article, titled "Wikipedia page the latest status symbol", reported the recent phenomenon of how having a Wikipedia article vindicates one's notability. [ 316 ] One of the first times Wikipedia was involved in a governmental affair was on September 28, 2007, when Italian politician Franco Grillini raised a parliamentary question with the minister of cultural resources and activities about the necessity of freedom of panorama . He said that the lack of such freedom forced Wikipedia, "the seventh most consulted website", to forbid all images of modern Italian buildings and art, and claimed this was hugely damaging to tourist revenues. [ 317 ] A working group led by Peter Stone (formed as a part of the Stanford -based project One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence ) in its report called Wikipedia "the best-known example of crowdsourcing ... that far exceeds traditionally-compiled information sources, such as encyclopedias and dictionaries, in scale and depth". [ 318 ] [ 319 ] In a 2017 opinion piece for Wired , Hossein Derakhshan describes Wikipedia as "one of the last remaining pillars of the open and decentralized web " and contrasted its existence as a text-based source of knowledge with social media and social networking services , the latter having "since colonized the web for television's values". For Derakhshan, Wikipedia's goal as an encyclopedia represents the Age of Enlightenment tradition of rationality triumphing over emotions, a trend which he considers "endangered" due to the "gradual shift from a typographic culture to a photographic one, which in turn mean[s] a shift from rationality to emotions, exposition to entertainment". Rather than " sapere aude " ( lit. ' dare to know ' ), social networks have led to a culture of "dare not to care to know". This is while Wikipedia faces "a more concerning problem" than funding, namely "a flattening growth rate in the number of contributors to the website". Consequently, the challenge for Wikipedia and those who use it is to "save Wikipedia and its promise of a free and open collection of all human knowledge amid the conquest of new and old television—how to collect and preserve knowledge when nobody cares to know." [ 320 ] Awards Wikipedia has won many awards, receiving its first two major awards in May 2004. [ W 118 ] The first was a Golden Nica for Digital Communities of the annual Prix Ars Electronica contest; this came with a €10,000 (£6,588; $12,700) grant and an invitation to present at the PAE Cyberarts Festival in Austria later that year. The second was a Judges' Webby Award for the "community" category. [ 321 ] In September 2008, Wikipedia received Quadriga A Mission of Enlightenment award of Werkstatt Deutschland along with Boris Tadić , Eckart Höfling , and Peter Gabriel . The award was presented to Wales by David Weinberger . [ 322 ] In 2015, Wikipedia was awarded both the annual Erasmus Prize , which recognizes exceptional contributions to culture, society or social sciences, [ 323 ] and the Spanish Princess of Asturias Award on International Cooperation. [ 324 ] Speaking at the Asturian Parliament in Oviedo, the city that hosts the awards ceremony, Jimmy Wales praised the work of the Asturian Wikipedia users. [ 325 ] Satire Comedian Stephen Colbert has parodied or referenced Wikipedia on numerous episodes of his show The Colbert Report and coined the related term wikiality , meaning "together we can create a reality that we all agree on—the reality we just agreed on". [ 192 ] Another example can be found in "Wikipedia Celebrates 750 Years of American Independence", a July 2006 front-page article in The Onion , [ 326 ] as well as the 2010 The Onion article " 'L.A. Law' Wikipedia Page Viewed 874 Times Today". [ 327 ] In an April 2007 episode of the American television comedy The Office , office manager ( Michael Scott ) is shown relying on a hypothetical Wikipedia article for information on negotiation tactics to assist him in negotiating lesser pay for an employee. [ 328 ] Viewers of the show tried to add the episode's mention of the page as a section of the actual Wikipedia article on negotiation, but this effort was prevented by other users on the article's talk page. [ 329 ] " My Number One Doctor ", a 2007 episode of the television show Scrubs , played on the perception that Wikipedia is an unreliable reference tool with a scene in which Perry Cox reacts to a patient who says that a Wikipedia article indicates that the raw food diet reverses the effects of bone cancer by retorting that the same editor who wrote that article also wrote the Battlestar Galactica episode guide . [ 330 ] In 2008, the comedy website CollegeHumor produced a video sketch named "Professor Wikipedia", in which the fictitious Professor Wikipedia instructs a class with a medley of unverifiable and occasionally absurd statements. [ 331 ] The Dilbert comic strip from May 8, 2009, features a character supporting an improbable claim by saying "Give me ten minutes and then check Wikipedia." [ 332 ] In July 2009, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a comedy series called Bigipedia , which was set on a website which was a parody of Wikipedia. [ 333 ] Some of the sketches were directly inspired by Wikipedia and its articles. [ 334 ] On August 23, 2013, the New Yorker website published a cartoon with this caption: "Dammit, Manning, have you considered the pronoun war that this is going to start on your Wikipedia page?" [ 335 ] The cartoon referred to Chelsea Elizabeth Manning (born Bradley Edward Manning), an American activist, politician, and former United States Army soldier who had recently come out as a trans woman . [ 336 ] In June 2024, nature.com published a fictional Wikipedia Talk page under the title "Plastic-eating fungus caused doomsday" by Emma Burnett. The Talk page concerned a fictional article describing the unintended consequences of the release of a plastic-eating fungus to clean up an oil spill. The article contained Talk page topics found on Wikipedia, like discussions of changes in the articles priority level. [ 337 ] Publishing The most obvious economic effect of Wikipedia has been the death of commercial encyclopedias, especially printed versions like Encyclopædia Britannica , which were unable to compete with a free alternative. [ 338 ] [ 339 ] [ 340 ] Nicholas Carr 's 2005 essay "The amorality of Web 2.0 " criticizes websites with user-generated content (like Wikipedia) for possibly leading to professional (and, in his view, superior) content producers' going out of business, because "free trumps quality all the time". Carr wrote, "Implicit in the ecstatic visions of Web 2.0 is the hegemony of the amateur. I for one can't imagine anything more frightening." [ 341 ] Others dispute the notion that Wikipedia, or similar efforts, will entirely displace traditional publications. Chris Anderson , the former editor-in-chief of Wired , wrote in Nature that the " wisdom of crowds " approach of Wikipedia will not displace top scientific journals with rigorous peer review processes. [ 342 ] Wikipedia's influence on the biography publishing business has been a concern for some. Book publishing data tracker Nielsen BookScan stated in 2013 that biography sales were dropping "far more sharply". [ 343 ] Kathryn Hughes , professor of life writing at the University of East Anglia and author of two biographies wrote, "The worry is that, if you can get all that information from Wikipedia, what's left for biography?" [ 343 ] Research use Wikipedia has been widely used as a corpus for linguistic research in computational linguistics , information retrieval and natural language processing . [ 344 ] [ 345 ] In particular, it commonly serves as a target knowledge base for the entity linking problem, which is then called "wikification", [ 346 ] and to the related problem of word-sense disambiguation . [ 347 ] Methods similar to wikification can in turn be used to find "missing" links in Wikipedia. [ 348 ] In 2015, French researchers José Lages of the University of Franche-Comté in Besançon and Dima Shepelyansky of Paul Sabatier University in Toulouse published a global university ranking based on Wikipedia scholarly citations. [ 349 ] [ 350 ] [ 351 ] They used PageRank , CheiRank and similar algorithms "followed by the number of appearances in the 24 different language editions of Wikipedia (descending order) and the century in which they were founded (ascending order)". [ 351 ] [ 352 ] The study was updated in 2019. [ 353 ] In December 2015, John Julius Norwich stated, in a letter published in The Times newspaper, that as a historian he resorted to Wikipedia "at least a dozen times a day", and had "never caught it out". He described it as "a work of reference as useful as any in existence", with so wide a range that it is almost impossible to find a person, place, or thing that it has left uncovered and that he could never have written his last two books without it. [ 354 ] A 2017 MIT study suggests that words used in Wikipedia articles end up in scientific publications. [ 355 ] Studies related to Wikipedia have been using machine learning and artificial intelligence [ 319 ] to support various operations. One of the most important areas is the automatic detection of vandalism [ 356 ] [ 357 ] and data quality assessment in Wikipedia. [ 358 ] [ 359 ] Related projects Several interactive multimedia encyclopedias incorporating entries written by the public existed long before Wikipedia was founded. The first of these was the 1986 BBC Domesday Project , which included text (entered on BBC Micro computers) and photographs from more than a million contributors in the UK, and covered the geography, art, and culture of the UK. This was the first interactive multimedia encyclopedia (and was also the first major multimedia document connected through internal links), with the majority of articles being accessible through an interactive map of the UK. The user interface and part of the content of the Domesday Project were emulated on a website until 2008. [ 360 ] Several free-content, collaborative encyclopedias were created around the same period as Wikipedia (e.g. Everything2 ), [ 361 ] with many later being merged into the project (e.g. GNE ). [ W 119 ] One of the most successful early online encyclopedias incorporating entries by the public was h2g2 , which was created by Douglas Adams in 1999. The h2g2 encyclopedia is relatively lighthearted, focusing on articles which are both witty and informative. [ 362 ] Subsequent collaborative knowledge websites have drawn inspiration from Wikipedia. Others use more traditional peer review , such as Encyclopedia of Life and the online wiki encyclopedias Scholarpedia and Citizendium . [ 363 ] [ 364 ] The latter was started by Sanger in an attempt to create a reliable alternative to Wikipedia. [ 365 ] [ 366 ] See also Internet portal Wikipedia portal Democratization of knowledge Interpedia – an early proposal for a collaborative Internet encyclopedia List of films about Wikipedia List of online encyclopedias List of Wikipedia controversies List of wikis Missing Links and Secret Histories Network effect Outline of Wikipedia – guide to the subject of Wikipedia presented as a tree structured list of its subtopics; for an outline of the contents of Wikipedia, see Portal:Contents/Outlines QRpedia – multilingual, mobile interface to Wikipedia Wikipedia Review Notes ^ Registration is required for certain tasks, such as editing protected pages, creating pages on the English Wikipedia, and uploading files. ^ Most text is also dual-licensed under GFDL ; media licensing varies. ^ Pronounced / ˌ w ɪ k ɪ ˈ p iː d i ə / ⓘ WIK -ih- PEE -dee-ə or / ˌ w ɪ k i -/ ⓘ WIK -ee- PEE -dee-ə in English ^ Available as an archive at the Nostalgia Wikipedia ^ Revisions with libelous content, criminal threats, or copyright infringements may be removed completely. ^ The committee may directly rule that a content change is inappropriate, but may not directly rule that certain content is inappropriate. ^ See "Libel" by David McHam for the legal distinction. References Footnotes ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Seitz-Gruwell, Lisa (October 23, 2023). 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Retrieved November 6, 2012. ^ a b Wikipedia:Dispute resolution ^ Wikipedia:Five pillars ^ Wikipedia:Citing sources : "Wikipedia's verifiability policy requires inline citations for any material challenged or likely to be challenged, and for all quotations, anywhere in article space." ^ Wikipedia:Ownership of content : "No one "owns" content (including articles or any page at Wikipedia)." ^ a b Wikipedia:Administrators ^ Wikipedia:Requests for comment ^ Wikipedia:Banning policy ^ Sanger, Larry (December 31, 2004). "Why Wikipedia Must Jettison Its Anti-Elitism" . Kuro5hin , Op–Ed . Archived from the original on November 1, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . There is a certain mindset associated with unmoderated Usenet groups [...] that infects the collectively-managed Wikipedia project: if you react strongly to trolling, that reflects poorly on you, not (necessarily) on the troll. If you [...] demand that something be done about constant disruption by trollish behavior, the other listmembers will cry "censorship", attack you, and even come to the defense of the troll. [...] The root problem: anti-elitism, or lack of respect for expertise. There is a deeper problem [...] which explains both of the above-elaborated problems. Namely, as a community, Wikipedia lacks the habit or tradition of respect for expertise. As a community, far from being elitist, it is anti-elitist (which, in this context, means that expertise is not accorded any special respect, and snubs and disrespect of expertise are tolerated). This is one of my failures: a policy that I attempted to institute in Wikipedia's first year, but for which I did not muster adequate support, was the policy of respecting and deferring politely to experts. 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Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia Mobile on the App Store on iTunes" . App Store (iOS/iPadOS) . Apple Inc. August 4, 2014 . Retrieved August 21, 2014 . ^ a b "Building for the future of Wikimedia with a new approach to partnerships" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . February 16, 2018 . Retrieved May 12, 2019 . ^ Wikipedia: Modelling Wikipedia's growth ^ West, Stuart (2010). "Wikipedia's Evolving Impact: slideshow presentation at TED2010" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Research: Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011/Results – Meta" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . February 6, 2012. Archived from the original on December 9, 2013 . Retrieved April 16, 2014 . ^ Wikipedia:Wikipedia in the media ^ "Trophy shelf" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "The Free Encyclopedia Project" . GNU Operating System . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . Sources McDowell, Zachary; Vetter, Matthew (2022). Wikipedia and the Representation of Reality . New York: Routledge. pp. 1– 107. ISBN 978-0-367-55571-9 . Further reading Balke, Jeff (March 2008). "For Music Fans: Wikipedia; MySpace" . Houston Chronicle . Broken Record (blog). Archived from the original on December 29, 2008 . Retrieved December 17, 2008 . Borland, John (August 14, 2007). "See Who's Editing Wikipedia – Diebold, the CIA, a Campaign" . Wired . Archived from the original on November 16, 2015 . Retrieved October 23, 2018 . Dee, Jonathan (July 1, 2007). "All the News That's Fit to Print Out" . The New York Times Magazine . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Giles, Jim (September 20, 2007). "Wikipedia 2.0 – Now with Added Trust" . New Scientist . Retrieved January 14, 2008 . Miliard, Mike (December 2, 2007). "Wikipedia Rules" . The Phoenix . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Poe, Marshall (September 1, 2006). "The Hive" . The Atlantic Monthly . Retrieved March 22, 2008 . Rosenwald, Michael S. (October 23, 2009). "Gatekeeper of D.C.'s entry: Road to city's Wikipedia page goes through a DuPont Circle bedroom" . The Washington Post . Retrieved October 22, 2009 . Runciman, David (May 28, 2009). "Like Boiling a Frog" . London Review of Books . Archived from the original on May 27, 2009 . Retrieved June 3, 2009 . Stix, Gary , "Wiki-Curious: Are you a 'busybody,' a 'hunter" or a 'dancer'?", Scientific American , vol. 332, no. 2 (February 2025), p. 18. "'Curiosity actually works by connecting pieces of information, not just acquiring them.'" Taylor, Chris (May 29, 2005). "It's a Wiki, Wiki World" . Time . Archived from the original on June 2, 2005 . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . "Technological Quarterly: Brain Scan: The Free-knowledge Fundamentalist" . The Economist . June 5, 2008 . Retrieved June 5, 2008 . Jimmy Wales changed the world with Wikipedia, the hugely popular online encyclopedia that anyone can edit. What will he do next? "Wikipedia probe into paid-for 'sockpuppet' entries" , BBC News, October 21, 2013. "The Decline of Wikipedia" Archived October 23, 2013, at the Library of Congress Web Archives, MIT Technology Review , October 22, 2013 "Edits to Wikipedia pages on Bell, Garner, Diallo traced to 1 Police Plaza" Archived March 13, 2015, at the Wayback Machine (March 2015), Capital Angola's Wikipedia Pirates Are Exposing Problems (March 2016), Motherboard "Dark Side of Wikipedia" . Full Measure . Archived from the original on August 4, 2016 . Retrieved April 17, 2016 . Full Measure with Sharyl Attkisson , April 17, 2016. (Includes video.) Wales, Jimmy (December 9, 2016). "How Wikipedia Works" . Cato Institute . Jimmy Wales, founder of Wikipedia, discusses the site, how it's treated by governments, and how it's fueled by its users. The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1: A Wiki is a Kind of Bus , Ideas, with Paul Kennedy , CBC Radio One , originally broadcast January 15, 2014. The webpage includes a link to the archived audio program (also found here ). The radio documentary discusses Wikipedia's history, development, and its place within the broader scope of the trend to democratized knowledge. It also includes interviews with several key Wikipedia staff and contributors, including Kat Walsh and Sue Gardner (audio, 53:58, Flash required). "So Is Wikipedia Cracking Up?" The Independent , February 3, 2009. Wikipedia's Year-End List Shows What the Internet Needed to Know in 2019 . Alyse Stanley, December 27, 2019, Gizmodo. Academic studies Leitch, Thomas (2014). Wikipedia U: Knowledge, authority, and a liberal education in the digital age . JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-1535-2 . Jensen, Richard (October 2012). "Military History on the Electronic Frontier: Wikipedia Fights the War of 1812" (PDF) . The Journal of Military History . 76 (4): 523– 556. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 21, 2012. Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Kertész, János (2012). Szolnoki, Attila (ed.). "Circadian Patterns of Wikipedia Editorial Activity: A Demographic Analysis" . PLOS ONE . 7 (1) e30091. arXiv : 1109.1746 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...730091Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0030091 . PMC 3260192 . PMID 22272279 . Goldman, Eric (2010). "Wikipedia's Labor Squeeze and its Consequences". Journal of Telecommunications and High Technology Law . 8 . SSRN 1458162 . ( A blog post by the author. ) Nielsen, Finn (August 2007). "Scientific Citations in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (8). arXiv : 0805.1154 . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.246.4536 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i8.1997 . S2CID 58893 . Pfeil, Ulrike; Zaphiris, Panayiotis; Chee Siang Ang (2006). "Cultural Differences in Collaborative Authoring of Wikipedia" . Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication . 12 (1): 88. doi : 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2006.00316.x . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Priedhorsky; Reid; Chen, Jilin; Shyong (Tony) K. Lam; Panciera, Katherine; Terveen, Loren ; Riedl, John (2007). "Creating, destroying, and restoring value in Wikipedia". Proceedings of the 2007 international ACM conference on Conference on supporting group work – Group '07 . pp. 259– 268. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.123.7456 . doi : 10.1145/1316624.1316663 . ISBN 978-1-59593-845-9 . S2CID 15350808 . Reagle, Joseph (2007). Do as I Do: Authorial Leadership in Wikipedia (PDF) . WikiSym '07: Proceedings of the 2007 International Symposium on Wikis . Montreal: ACM. hdl : 2047/d20002876 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Rijshouwer, Emiel (2019). Organizing Democracy. Power concentration and self-organization in the evolution of Wikipedia (PhD, Erasmus University Rotterdam) . Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. hdl : 1765/113937 . ISBN 978-94-028-1371-5 . OCLC 1081174169 . (Open access) Rosenzweig, Roy . Can History be Open Source? Wikipedia and the Future of the Past . (Originally published in The Journal of American History 93.1 (June 2006): 117–146.) Wilkinson, Dennis M.; Huberman, Bernardo A. (April 2007). "Assessing the Value of Cooperation in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (4). arXiv : cs/0702140 . Bibcode : 2007cs........2140W . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.342.6933 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i4.1763 . hdl : 2027.42/136037 . S2CID 10484077 . Halfaker, Aaron; R. Stuart Geiger; Morgan, Jonathan T.; Riedl, John (2012). "The Rise and Decline of an Open Collaboration Community". American Behavioral Scientist . 57 (5): 664. doi : 10.1177/0002764212469365 . S2CID 144208941 . Maggio, Lauren A.; Willinsky, John M. ; Steinberg, Ryan M.; Mietchen, Daniel; Wass, Joseph L.; Dong, Ting (2017). "Wikipedia as a gateway to biomedical research: The relative distribution and use of citations in the English Wikipedia" . PLOS One . 12 (12) e0190046. PLOS . Bibcode : 2017PLoSO..1290046M . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0190046 . PMC 5739466 . PMID 29267345 . Books Keen, Andrew (2007). The Cult of the Amateur . Doubleday/Currency. ISBN 978-0-385-52080-5 . (Substantial criticisms of Wikipedia and other web 2.0 projects.) Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Ayers, Phoebe; Matthews, Charles; Yates, Ben (2008). How Wikipedia Works: And How You Can Be a Part of It . San Francisco: No Starch Press. ISBN 978-1-59327-176-3 . Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia – The Missing Manual . O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-0-596-51516-4 . (See book review by Baker, as listed hereafter.) Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia Reader's Guide . Sebastopol: Pogue Press. ISBN 978-0-596-52174-5 . Rafaeli, Sheizaf ; Ariel, Yaron (2008). "Online motivational factors: Incentives for participation and contribution in Wikipedia". In Barak, A. (ed.). Psychological aspects of cyberspace: Theory, research, applications . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press . pp. 243 –267. ISBN 978-0-521-69464-3 . Dalby, Andrew (2009). The World and Wikipedia: How We are Editing Reality . Siduri. ISBN 978-0-9562052-0-9 . Lih, Andrew (2009). The Wikipedia Revolution: How a Bunch of Nobodies Created the World's Greatest Encyclopedia . New York: Hyperion. ISBN 978-1-4013-0371-6 . O'Sullivan, Dan (2009). Wikipedia: a new community of practice? . Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-7433-7 . Rahmstorf, Olaf (2023). Wikipedia – die rationale Seite der Digitalisierung? (in German). transcript Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8394-5862-4 . Reagle, Joseph Michael Jr. (2010). Good Faith Collaboration: The Culture of Wikipedia . Cambridge, MA: the MIT Press . ISBN 978-0-262-01447-2 . Retrieved October 25, 2015 . Jemielniak, Dariusz (2014). Common Knowledge? An Ethnography of Wikipedia . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press . ISBN 978-0-8047-8944-8 . Reagle, Joseph; Koerner, Jackie, eds. (2020). Wikipedia @ 20: Stories of an Incomplete Revolution . MIT Press . doi : 10.7551/mitpress/12366.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-262-53817-6 . Retrieved October 13, 2020 . Bruckman, Amy S. (2022). Should You Believe Wikipedia?: Online Communities and the Construction of Knowledge . Cambridge University Press. doi : 10.1017/9781108780704 . ISBN 978-1-108-78070-4 . Book review–related articles Baker, Nicholson . "The Charms of Wikipedia" . The New York Review of Books , March 20, 2008. Retrieved December 17, 2008. (Book rev. of The Missing Manual , by John Broughton, as listed previously.) Crovitz, L. Gordon . "Wikipedia's Old-Fashioned Revolution: The online encyclopedia is fast becoming the best." (Originally published in Wall Street Journal online – April 6, 2009.) Postrel, Virginia , "Who Killed Wikipedia? : A hardened corps of volunteer editors is the only force protecting Wikipedia. They might also be killing it" , Pacific Standard , November/December 2014 issue. External links Official website – multilingual portal (contains links to all language editions) Wikipedia on Twitter Wikipedia on Instagram Wikipedia collected news and commentary at The Guardian Wikipedia topic page at The New York Times Video of TED talk by Jimmy Wales on the birth of Wikipedia Ro, Christine (February 19, 2025). "Why these scientists devote time to editing and updating Wikipedia". Nature . doi : 10.1038/d41586-025-00244-7 . PMID 39972088 . .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Wikipedia v t e Overview (outline) Biases gender geographical ideological racial Censorship Conflict-of-interest editing political editing incidents Criticism Deletion of articles deletionism and inclusionism notability Disputes " Ignore all rules " MediaWiki Plagiarism Predictions of the project's end Reliability Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Vandalism Biases gender geographical ideological racial gender geographical ideological racial Censorship Conflict-of-interest editing political editing incidents political editing incidents Criticism Deletion of articles deletionism and inclusionism notability deletionism and inclusionism notability Disputes " Ignore all rules " MediaWiki Plagiarism Predictions of the project's end Reliability Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Vandalism Community (Wikipedians) Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Events Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Wiki Loves Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science People ( list ) Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Women in Red Events Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Wiki Loves Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science People ( list ) Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White History Bomis Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Controversies Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. 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Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi Definitions from 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Overview 2 History Toggle History subsection 2.1 18th century 2.2 19th century 2.3 20th century 2.4 21st century 2.1 18th century 2.2 19th century 2.3 20th century 2.4 21st century 3 Women in Congress 4 Role Toggle Role subsection 4.1 Powers 4.1.1 Overview 4.1.2 Enumeration 4.1.3 Implicit, commerce clause 4.1.4 Territorial government 4.2 Checks and balances 4.1 Powers 4.1.1 Overview 4.1.2 Enumeration 4.1.3 Implicit, commerce clause 4.1.4 Territorial government 4.1.1 Overview 4.1.2 Enumeration 4.1.3 Implicit, commerce clause 4.1.4 Territorial government 4.2 Checks and balances 5 Structure Toggle Structure subsection 5.1 Committees 5.1.1 Specializations 5.1.2 Power 5.1.3 Officer 5.2 Support services 5.2.1 Library of Congress 5.2.1.1 Congressional Research Service 5.2.2 Congressional Budget Office 5.2.3 Government Accountability Office 5.2.4 Architect of the Capitol 5.2.5 United States Capitol Police 5.2.6 Lobbying 5.3 Partisanship versus bipartisanship 5.1 Committees 5.1.1 Specializations 5.1.2 Power 5.1.3 Officer 5.1.1 Specializations 5.1.2 Power 5.1.3 Officer 5.2 Support services 5.2.1 Library of Congress 5.2.1.1 Congressional Research Service 5.2.2 Congressional Budget Office 5.2.3 Government Accountability Office 5.2.4 Architect of the Capitol 5.2.5 United States Capitol Police 5.2.6 Lobbying 5.2.1 Library of Congress 5.2.1.1 Congressional Research Service 5.2.1.1 Congressional Research Service 5.2.2 Congressional Budget Office 5.2.3 Government Accountability Office 5.2.4 Architect of the Capitol 5.2.5 United States Capitol Police 5.2.6 Lobbying 5.3 Partisanship versus bipartisanship 6 Procedures Toggle Procedures subsection 6.1 Sessions 6.2 Joint sessions 6.3 Bills and resolutions 6.1 Sessions 6.2 Joint sessions 6.3 Bills and resolutions 7 Public interaction Toggle Public interaction subsection 7.1 Advantage of incumbency 7.1.1 Citizens and representatives 7.1.2 Expensive campaigns 7.1.3 Television and negative advertising 7.1.4 Perceptions 7.2 Smaller states and bigger states 7.3 Members and constituents 7.4 Motivation 7.1 Advantage of incumbency 7.1.1 Citizens and representatives 7.1.2 Expensive campaigns 7.1.3 Television and negative advertising 7.1.4 Perceptions 7.1.1 Citizens and representatives 7.1.2 Expensive campaigns 7.1.3 Television and negative advertising 7.1.4 Perceptions 7.2 Smaller states and bigger states 7.3 Members and constituents 7.4 Motivation 8 Privileges Toggle Privileges subsection 8.1 Outside income and gifts 8.2 Pay 8.3 Postage 8.4 Protection 8.1 Outside income and gifts 8.2 Pay 8.3 Postage 8.4 Protection 9 See also 10 Notes 11 Citations 12 References 13 Further reading 14 External links United States Congress Afrikaans Ænglisc العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Diné bizaad Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Galego Gĩkũyũ 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Қазақша Kernowek Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Lombard Magyar Македонски मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands नेपाली 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی پښتو Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Русский Shqip සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська اردو Vèneto Tiếng Việt 吴语 ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikibooks Wikinews Wikiquote Wikisource Wikiversity Wikidata item Page version status This is an accepted version of this page This article has multiple issues. 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Find sources: "United States Congress" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR ( January 2026 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) United States Congress 119th Congress Coat of arms of the United States Type Type Bicameral Houses Senate House of Representatives Senate House of Representatives History Founded March 4, 1789 (236 years ago) ( 1789-03-04 ) Preceded by Congress of the Confederation Leadership President of the Senate JD Vance ( R ) since January 20, 2025 ( 2025-01-20 ) President pro tempore of the Senate Chuck Grassley ( R ) since January 3, 2025 ( 2025-01-03 ) Speaker of the House Mike Johnson ( R ) since October 25, 2023 ( 2023-10-25 ) Structure Seats .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} 535 voting members 100 senators 435 representatives 6 non-voting members 535 voting members 100 senators 435 representatives 100 senators 435 representatives 6 non-voting members Senate political groups Majority (53) .mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{} Republican (53) Minority (47) Democratic (45) Independent (2) [ a ] .mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{} Republican (53) Minority (47) Democratic (45) Independent (2) [ a ] House of Representatives political groups Majority (218) Republican (218) Minority (213) Democratic (213) Vacant (4) Vacant (4) Republican (218) Minority (213) Democratic (213) Vacant (4) Vacant (4) Elections Last Senate election November 5, 2024 Last House of Representatives election November 5, 2024 Next Senate election November 3, 2026 Next House of Representatives election November 3, 2026 Meeting place United States Capitol Washington, D.C. United States of America Website congress .gov Constitution United States Constitution , Article I The United States Congress is the legislative branch of the federal government of the United States . It is a bicameral legislature, including a lower body , the U.S. House of Representatives , and an upper body , the U.S. Senate . They both meet in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C. Members of Congress are chosen through direct election , [ b ] though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a governor 's appointment. Congress has a total of 535 voting members, a figure which includes 100 senators and 435 representatives ; the House of Representatives has 6 additional non-voting members . The vice president of the United States , as president of the Senate, has a vote in the Senate only when there is a tie. [ 2 ] Congress [ c ] convenes for a two-year term (a Congress), commencing every other January. Each Congress is usually split into two sessions, one for each year. Elections are held every even-numbered year on Election Day . The members of the House of Representatives are elected for the two-year term of a Congress. The Reapportionment Act of 1929 established that there be 435 representatives, and the Uniform Congressional District Act requires that they be elected from single-member constituencies or districts . It is also required that the congressional districts be apportioned among states by population every ten years using the U.S. census results, provided that each state has at least one congressional representative. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a six-year term, with terms staggered , so every two years approximately one-third of the Senate is up for election. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, so currently, there are 100 senators for the 50 states. Article One of the U.S. Constitution requires that members of Congress be at least 25 years old for the House and at least 30 years old for the U.S. Senate, be a U.S. citizen for seven years for the House and nine years for the Senate, and be an inhabitant of the state which they represent. Members in both chambers may stand for re-election an unlimited number of times. Congress was created by the U.S. Constitution 's First Article and first met in 1789 , replacing the Congress of the Confederation in its legislative function. Although not legally mandated, in practice members of Congress since the late 19th century are typically affiliated with one of the two major parties , the Democratic Party or the Republican Party , and only rarely with a third party or independents affiliated with no party. Members can also switch parties at any time, though this is uncommon. Overview Article One of the United States Constitution states, "All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives." The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process – legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers. The Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue -raising bills. [ citation needed ] The House initiates and decides impeachment while the Senate votes on conviction and removal of office for impeachment cases. [ 4 ] A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before an impeached person can be removed from office. [ 4 ] The term Congress can also refer to a particular meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years; the current one, the 119th Congress , began on January 3, 2025, and will end on January 3, 2027. Since the adoption of the Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution , the Congress has started and ended at noon on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators, while members of the House of Representatives are commonly referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. [ citation needed ] Scholar and representative Lee H. Hamilton asserted that the "historic mission of Congress has been to maintain freedom" and insisted it was a "driving force in American government" [ 5 ] and a "remarkably resilient institution". [ 6 ] Congress is the "heart and soul of our democracy", according to this view, even though legislators rarely achieve the prestige or name recognition of presidents or Supreme Court justices ; one wrote that "legislators remain ghosts in America's historical imagination." One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played an active role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. [ 7 ] Several academics described Congress: Congress reflects us in all our strengths and all our weaknesses. It reflects our regional idiosyncrasies, our ethnic, religious, and racial diversity, our multitude of professions, and our shadings of opinion on everything from the value of war to the war over values. Congress is the government's most representative body ... Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the great public policy issues of the day. [ 5 ] Congress reflects us in all our strengths and all our weaknesses. It reflects our regional idiosyncrasies, our ethnic, religious, and racial diversity, our multitude of professions, and our shadings of opinion on everything from the value of war to the war over values. Congress is the government's most representative body ... Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the great public policy issues of the day. [ 5 ] Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux. [ 8 ] In recent times, the American South and West have gained House seats according to demographic changes recorded by the census and includes more women and minorities . [ 8 ] While power balances among the different parts of government continue to change, the internal structure of Congress is important to understand along with its interactions with so-called intermediary institutions such as political parties , civic associations , interest groups , and the mass media . [ 7 ] The Congress of the United States serves two distinct purposes that overlap: local representation to the federal government of a congressional district by representatives and a state's at-large representation to the federal government by senators . [ citation needed ] Most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent. [ 9 ] The historical records of the House of Representatives and the Senate are maintained by the Center for Legislative Archives, which is a part of the National Archives and Records Administration . [ 10 ] Congress is directly responsible for the governing of the District of Columbia , the current seat of the federal government. [ citation needed ] History 18th century The First Continental Congress was a gathering of representatives from twelve of the Thirteen Colonies . [ 11 ] On July 4, 1776, the Second Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence , referring to the new nation as the "United States of America". The Articles of Confederation in 1781 created the Congress of the Confederation , a unicameral body with equal representation among the states in which each state had a veto over most decisions. Congress had executive but not legislative authority, and the federal judiciary was confined to admiralty [ 12 ] and lacked authority to collect taxes, regulate commerce, or enforce laws. [ 13 ] [ 14 ] Government powerlessness led to the Convention of 1787 which proposed a revised constitution with a two-chamber or bicameral Congress. [ 15 ] Smaller states argued for equal representation for each state. [ 16 ] The two-chamber structure had functioned well in state governments. [ 17 ] A compromise plan, the Connecticut Compromise , was adopted with representatives chosen by population (benefiting larger states) and exactly two senators chosen by state governments (benefiting smaller states). [ 8 ] [ 18 ] The ratified constitution created a federal structure with two overlapping power centers so that each citizen as an individual is subject to the powers of state government and national government. [ 19 ] [ 20 ] [ 21 ] To protect against abuse of power, each branch of government – executive, legislative, and judicial – had a separate sphere of authority and could check other branches according to the principle of the separation of powers . [ 4 ] Furthermore, there were checks and balances within the legislature since there were two separate chambers. [ 22 ] The new government became active in 1789. [ 4 ] [ 23 ] Political scientist Julian E. Zelizer suggested there were four main congressional eras, with considerable overlap, and included the formative era (1780s–1820s), the partisan era (1830s–1900s), the committee era (1910s–1960s), and the contemporary era (1970–present). [ 24 ] Federalists and anti-federalists jostled for power in the early years as political parties became pronounced. With the passage of the Constitution and the Bill of Rights , the anti-federalist movement was exhausted. Some activists joined the Anti-Administration Party that James Madison and Thomas Jefferson were forming about 1790–1791 to oppose policies of Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton ; it soon became the Democratic-Republican Party or the Jeffersonian Republican Party [ 25 ] [ 26 ] and thus began the era of the First Party System . [ citation needed ] 19th century In 1800, Thomas Jefferson 's election to the presidency marked a peaceful transition of power between the parties. John Marshall , 4th chief justice of the Supreme Court , empowered the courts by establishing the principle of judicial review in law in the landmark case Marbury v. Madison in 1803, effectively giving the Supreme Court a power to nullify congressional legislation. [ 27 ] [ 28 ] The Civil War , which lasted from 1861 to 1865, resolved the slavery issue and unified the nation under federal authority but weakened the power of states' rights . The Gilded Age (1877–1901) was marked by Republican dominance of Congress. During this time, lobbying activity became more intense, particularly during the administration of President Ulysses S. Grant in which influential lobbies advocated for railroad subsidies and tariffs on wool. [ 29 ] Immigration and high birth rates swelled the ranks of citizens and the nation grew at a rapid pace. The Progressive Era was characterized by strong party leadership in both houses of Congress and calls for reform; sometimes reformers said lobbyists corrupted politics. [ 30 ] The position of Speaker of the House became extremely powerful under leaders such as Thomas Reed in 1890 and Joseph Gurney Cannon . [ citation needed ] 20th century By the beginning of the 20th century, party structures and leadership emerged as key organizers of Senate proceedings. [ 32 ] A system of seniority, in which long-time members of Congress gained more and more power, encouraged politicians of both parties to seek long terms. Committee chairmen remained influential in both houses until the reforms of the 1970s. [ 33 ] Important structural changes included the direct popular election of senators according to the Seventeenth Amendment , [ 18 ] ratified on April 8, 1913. Supreme Court decisions based on the Constitution's commerce clause expanded congressional power to regulate the economy. [ 34 ] One effect of popular election of senators was to reduce the difference between the House and Senate in terms of their link to the electorate. [ 35 ] Lame duck reforms according to the Twentieth Amendment reduced the power of defeated and retiring members of Congress to wield influence despite their lack of accountability. [ 36 ] The Great Depression ushered in President Franklin Roosevelt and strong control by Democrats [ 37 ] and historic New Deal policies. Roosevelt 's election in 1932 marked a shift in government power towards the executive branch. Numerous New Deal initiatives came from the White House rather initiated by Congress. [ 38 ] President Roosevelt pushed his agenda in Congress by detailing Executive Branch staff to friendly Senate committees, a practice that ended with the Legislative Reorganization Act of 1946. [ 39 ] The Democratic Party controlled both houses of Congress for many years. [ 40 ] [ 41 ] [ 42 ] During this time, Republicans and conservative southern Democrats [ 43 ] formed the Conservative Coalition . [ 42 ] [ 44 ] Democrats maintained control of Congress during World War II . [ 45 ] [ 46 ] Congress struggled with efficiency in the postwar era partly by reducing the number of standing congressional committees. [ 47 ] Southern Democrats became a powerful force in many influential committees although political power alternated between Republicans and Democrats during these years. More complex issues required greater specialization and expertise, such as space flight and atomic energy policy. [ 47 ] Senator Joseph McCarthy exploited the fear of communism during the Second Red Scare and conducted televised hearings. [ 48 ] [ 49 ] In 1960, Democratic candidate John F. Kennedy narrowly won the presidency and power shifted again to the Democrats who dominated both chambers of Congress from 1961 to 1980, and retained a consistent majority in the House from 1955 to 1994. [ 50 ] Congress enacted Johnson's Great Society program to fight poverty and hunger. The Watergate Scandal had a powerful effect of waking up a somewhat dormant Congress which investigated presidential wrongdoing and coverups; the scandal "substantially reshaped" relations between the branches of government, suggested political scientist Bruce J. Schulman . [ 51 ] Partisanship returned, particularly after 1994; one analyst attributes partisan infighting to slim congressional majorities which discouraged friendly social gatherings in meeting rooms such as the Board of Education . [ 7 ] Congress began reasserting its authority. [ 38 ] [ 52 ] Lobbying became a big factor despite the 1971 Federal Election Campaign Act . Political action committees or PACs could make substantive donations to congressional candidates via such means as soft money contributions. [ 53 ] While soft money funds were not given to specific campaigns for candidates, the money often benefited candidates substantially in an indirect way and helped reelect candidates. [ 53 ] Reforms such as the 2002 Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act limited campaign donations but did not limit soft money contributions. [ 54 ] One source suggests post-Watergate laws amended in 1974 meant to reduce the "influence of wealthy contributors and end payoffs" instead "legitimized PACs" since they "enabled individuals to band together in support of candidates". [ 55 ] From 1974 to 1984, PACs grew from 608 to 3,803 and donations leaped from $12.5 million to $120 million [ 55 ] [ 56 ] [ 57 ] along with concern over PAC influence in Congress. [ 58 ] [ 59 ] In 2009, there were 4,600 business, labor and special-interest PACs [ 60 ] including ones for lawyers , electricians , and real estate brokers . [ 61 ] From 2007 to 2008, 175 members of Congress received "half or more of their campaign cash" from PACs. [ 60 ] [ 62 ] [ 63 ] From 1970 to 2009, the House expanded delegates, along with their powers and privileges representing U.S. citizens in non-state areas, beginning with representation on committees for Puerto Rico's resident commissioner in 1970. In 1971, a delegate for the District of Columbia was authorized, and in 1972 new delegate positions were established for U.S. Virgin Islands and Guam . In 1978, an additional delegate for American Samoa were added. [ citation needed ] In the late 20th century, the media became more important in Congress's work. [ 64 ] Analyst Michael Schudson suggested that greater publicity undermined the power of political parties and caused "more roads to open up in Congress for individual representatives to influence decisions". [ 64 ] Norman Ornstein suggested that media prominence led to a greater emphasis on the negative and sensational side of Congress, and referred to this as the tabloidization of media coverage. [ 8 ] Others saw pressure to squeeze a political position into a thirty-second soundbite. [ 65 ] A report characterized Congress in 2013 as unproductive, gridlocked, and "setting records for futility". [ 66 ] In October 2013, with Congress unable to compromise, the government was shut down for several weeks and risked a serious default on debt payments, causing 60% of the public to say they would "fire every member of Congress" including their own representative. [ 67 ] One report suggested Congress posed the "biggest risk to the U.S. economy" because of its brinksmanship , "down-to-the-wire budget and debt crises" and "indiscriminate spending cuts", resulting in slowed economic activity and keeping up to two million people unemployed. [ 68 ] There has been increasing public dissatisfaction with Congress, [ 69 ] with extremely low approval ratings [ 70 ] [ 71 ] which dropped to 5% in October 2013. [ 72 ] 21st century In 2009, Congress authorized another delegate for the Northern Mariana Islands . These six members of Congress enjoy floor privileges to introduce bills and resolutions, and in recent Congresses they vote in permanent and select committees, in party caucuses and in joint conferences with the Senate. They have Capitol Hill offices, staff and two annual appointments to each of the four military academies. While their votes are constitutional when Congress authorizes their House Committee of the Whole votes, recent Congresses have not allowed for that, and they cannot vote when the House is meeting as the House of Representatives. [ 74 ] [ 75 ] On January 6, 2021, Congress gathered to confirm the election of Joe Biden, when supporters of the outgoing president Donald Trump attacked the building . The session of Congress ended prematurely, and Congress representatives evacuated. Trump supporters occupied Congress until D.C. police evacuated the area. The event was the first time since the Burning of Washington by the British during the War of 1812 that the United States Congress was forcefully occupied. [ 76 ] Despite the importance of Congress outlined in Article One , Congress has [ when? ] lost power to the executive and judiciary both intentionally and unintentionally. [ 77 ] [ 78 ] [ 79 ] [ 80 ] [ 81 ] Women in Congress Various social and structural barriers have prevented women from gaining seats in Congress. In the early 20th century, women's domestic roles and the inability to vote forestalled opportunities to run for and hold public office. The two party system and the lack of term limits favored incumbent white men, making the widow's succession – in which a woman temporarily took over a seat vacated by the death of her husband – the most common path to Congress for white women. [ 82 ] Women candidates began making substantial inroads in the later 20th century, due in part to new political support mechanisms and public awareness of their underrepresentation in Congress. [ 83 ] Recruitment and financial support for women candidates were rare until the second-wave feminism movement , when activists moved into electoral politics. Beginning in the 1970s, donors and political action committees like EMILY's List began recruiting, training and funding women candidates. Watershed political moments like the confirmation of Clarence Thomas and the 2016 presidential election created momentum for women candidates, resulting in the Year of the Woman and the election of members of The Squad , respectively. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] Women of color faced additional challenges that made their ascension to Congress even more difficult. Jim Crow laws , voter suppression and other forms of structural racism made it virtually impossible for women of color to reach Congress prior to 1965. The passage of the Voting Rights Act that year , and the elimination of race-based immigration laws in the 1960s opened the possibility for Black, Asian American, Latina and other non-white women candidates to run for Congress. [ 86 ] Racially polarized voting, racial stereotypes and lack of institutional support still prevent women of color from reaching Congress as easily as white people . Senate elections, which require victories in statewide electorates, have been particularly difficult for women of color. [ 87 ] Carol Moseley Braun became the first woman of color to reach the Senate in 1993. The second, Mazie Hirono , won in 2013. [ citation needed ] In 2021, Kamala Harris became the first female President of the Senate , which came with her role as the first female Vice President of the United States . [ citation needed ] Role Powers Overview Article One of the Constitution creates and sets forth the structure and most of the powers of Congress. Sections One through Six describe how Congress is elected and gives each House the power to create its own structure. Section Seven lays out the process for creating laws, and Section Eight enumerates numerous powers. Section Nine is a list of powers Congress does not have, and Section Ten enumerates powers of the state, some of which may only be granted by Congress. [ 88 ] Constitutional amendments have granted Congress additional powers. Congress also has implied powers derived from the Constitution's Necessary and Proper Clause . [ citation needed ] Congress has authority over financial and budgetary policy through the enumerated power to "lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States". There is vast authority over budgets, although analyst Eric Patashnik suggested that much of Congress's power to manage the budget has been lost when the welfare state expanded since "entitlements were institutionally detached from Congress's ordinary legislative routine and rhythm." [ 89 ] Another factor leading to less control over the budget was a Keynesian belief that balanced budgets were unnecessary. [ 89 ] The Sixteenth Amendment in 1913 extended congressional power of taxation to include income taxes without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration. [ 90 ] The Constitution also grants Congress the exclusive power to appropriate funds, and this power of the purse is one of Congress's primary checks on the executive branch. [ 90 ] Congress can borrow money on the credit of the United States, regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the states, and coin money. [ 91 ] Generally, the Senate and the House of Representatives have equal legislative authority, although only the House may originate revenue and appropriation bills . [ 4 ] Congress has an important role in national defense , including the exclusive power to declare war, to raise and maintain the armed forces , and to make rules for the military. [ 92 ] Some critics charge that the executive branch has usurped Congress's constitutionally defined task of declaring war. [ 93 ] While historically presidents initiated the process for going to war, they asked for and received formal war declarations from Congress for the War of 1812 , the Mexican–American War , the Spanish–American War , World War I , and World War II , [ 94 ] although President Theodore Roosevelt 's military move into Panama in 1903 did not get congressional approval. [ 94 ] In the early days after the North Korean invasion of 1950 , President Truman described the American response as a "police action". [ 95 ] According to Time magazine in 1970, "U.S. presidents [had] ordered troops into position or action without a formal congressional declaration a total of 149 times." [ 94 ] In 1993, Michael Kinsley wrote that "Congress's war power has become the most flagrantly disregarded provision in the Constitution," and that the "real erosion [of Congress's war power] began after World War II." [ 96 ] [ 97 ] [ 98 ] Disagreement about the extent of congressional versus presidential power regarding war has been present periodically throughout the nation's history. [ 99 ] Congress can establish post offices and post roads, issue patents and copyrights , fix standards of weights and measures, establish Courts inferior to the Supreme Court , and "make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof". Article Four gives Congress the power to admit new states into the Union. [ citation needed ] One of Congress's foremost non-legislative functions is the power to investigate and oversee the executive branch. [ 100 ] Congressional oversight is usually delegated to committees and is facilitated by Congress's subpoena power. [ 101 ] Some critics have charged that Congress has in some instances failed to do an adequate job of overseeing the other branches of government. In the Plame affair , critics including Representative Henry A. Waxman charged that Congress was not doing an adequate job of oversight in this case. [ 102 ] There have been concerns about congressional oversight of executive actions such as warrantless wiretapping , although others respond that Congress did investigate the legality of presidential decisions. [ 103 ] Political scientists Ornstein and Mann suggested that oversight functions do not help members of Congress win reelection. Congress also has the exclusive power of removal , allowing impeachment and removal of the president, federal judges and other federal officers. [ 104 ] There have been charges that presidents acting under the doctrine of the unitary executive have assumed important legislative and budgetary powers that should belong to Congress. [ 105 ] So-called signing statements are one way in which a president can "tip the balance of power between Congress and the White House a little more in favor of the executive branch", according to one account. [ 106 ] Past presidents, including Ronald Reagan , George H. W. Bush , Bill Clinton , and George W. Bush , [ 107 ] have made public statements when signing congressional legislation about how they understand a bill or plan to execute it, and commentators, including the American Bar Association , have described this practice as against the spirit of the Constitution. [ 108 ] [ 109 ] There have been concerns that presidential authority to cope with financial crises is eclipsing the power of Congress. [ 110 ] In 2008, George F. Will called the Capitol building a "tomb for the antiquated idea that the legislative branch matters". [ 111 ] Enumeration The Constitution enumerates the powers of Congress in detail. In addition, other congressional powers have been granted, or confirmed, by constitutional amendments. The Thirteenth (1865), Fourteenth (1868), and Fifteenth Amendments (1870) gave Congress authority to enact legislation to enforce rights of African Americans, including voting rights , due process , and equal protection under the law. [ 112 ] Generally militia forces are controlled by state governments, not Congress. [ 113 ] Implicit, commerce clause Congress also has implied powers deriving from the Constitution's Necessary and Proper Clause which permit Congress to "make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof". [ 114 ] Broad interpretations of this clause and of the Commerce Clause , the enumerated power to regulate commerce, in rulings such as McCulloch v. Maryland , have effectively widened the scope of Congress's legislative authority far beyond that prescribed in Section Eight. [ 115 ] [ 116 ] Territorial government Constitutional responsibility for the oversight of Washington, D.C. , the federal district and national capital, and the U.S. territories of Guam , American Samoa , Puerto Rico , the U.S. Virgin Islands , and the Northern Mariana Islands rests with Congress. [ 117 ] The republican form of government in territories is devolved by congressional statute to the respective territories including direct election of governors, the D.C. mayor and locally elective territorial legislatures. [ 118 ] Each territory and Washington, D.C., elects a non-voting delegate to the U.S. House of Representatives as they have throughout congressional history. They "possess the same powers as other members of the House, except that they may not vote when the House is meeting as the House of Representatives". They are assigned offices and allowances for staff, participate in debate, and appoint constituents to the four military service academies for the Army, Navy, Air Force and Coast Guard. [ 119 ] Washington, D.C., citizens alone among U.S. territories have the right to directly vote for the President of the United States, although the Democratic and Republican political parties nominate their presidential candidates at national conventions which include delegates from the five major territories. [ 120 ] Checks and balances Representative Lee H. Hamilton explained how Congress functions within the federal government: To me the key to understanding it is balance. The founders went to great lengths to balance institutions against each other – balancing powers among the three branches: Congress, the president, and the Supreme Court; between the House of Representatives and the Senate; between the federal government and the states; among states of different sizes and regions with different interests; between the powers of government and the rights of citizens, as spelled out in the Bill of Rights ... No one part of government dominates the other. [ 5 ] : 6 To me the key to understanding it is balance. The founders went to great lengths to balance institutions against each other – balancing powers among the three branches: Congress, the president, and the Supreme Court; between the House of Representatives and the Senate; between the federal government and the states; among states of different sizes and regions with different interests; between the powers of government and the rights of citizens, as spelled out in the Bill of Rights ... No one part of government dominates the other. [ 5 ] : 6 The Constitution provides checks and balances among the three branches of the federal government. Its authors expected the greater power to lie with Congress as described in Article One. [ 5 ] [ 121 ] The influence of Congress on the presidency has varied from period to period depending on factors such as congressional leadership, presidential political influence, historical circumstances such as war, and individual initiative by members of Congress. The impeachment of Andrew Johnson made the presidency less powerful than Congress for a considerable period afterwards. [ 122 ] The 20th and 21st centuries have seen the rise of presidential power under politicians such as Theodore Roosevelt , Woodrow Wilson , Franklin D. Roosevelt , Richard Nixon , Ronald Reagan , and George W. Bush . [ 123 ] Congress restricted presidential power with laws such as the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974 and the War Powers Resolution . The presidency remains considerably more powerful today than during the 19th century. [ 5 ] [ 123 ] Executive branch officials are often loath to reveal sensitive information to members of Congress because of concern that information could not be kept secret; in return, knowing they may be in the dark about executive branch activity, congressional officials are more likely to distrust their counterparts in executive agencies. [ 124 ] Many government actions require fast coordinated effort by many agencies, and this is a task that Congress is ill-suited for. Congress is slow, open, divided, and not well matched to handle more rapid executive action or do a good job of overseeing such activity, according to one analysis. [ 125 ] The Constitution concentrates removal powers in the Congress by empowering and obligating the House of Representatives to impeach executive or judicial officials for "Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors". Impeachment is a formal accusation of unlawful activity by a civil officer or government official. The Senate is constitutionally empowered and obligated to try all impeachments. A simple majority in the House is required to impeach an official; a two-thirds majority in the Senate is required for conviction. A convicted official is automatically removed from office; in addition, the Senate may stipulate that the defendant be banned from holding office in the future. Impeachment proceedings may not inflict more than this. A convicted party may face criminal penalties in a normal court of law. In the history of the United States, the House of Representatives has impeached sixteen officials, of whom seven were convicted. Another resigned before the Senate could complete the trial. Only three presidents have ever been impeached: Andrew Johnson in 1868, Bill Clinton in 1999, Donald Trump in 2019 and 2021. The trials of Johnson, Clinton, and the 2019 trial of Trump all ended in acquittal; in Johnson's case, the Senate fell one vote short of the two-thirds majority required for conviction . In 1974, Richard Nixon resigned from office after impeachment proceedings in the House Judiciary Committee indicated his removal from office. [ citation needed ] The Senate has an important check on the executive power by confirming Cabinet officials, judges, and other high officers "by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate". It confirms most presidential nominees, but rejections are not uncommon. Furthermore, treaties negotiated by the President must be ratified by a two-thirds majority vote in the Senate to take effect. As a result, presidential arm-twisting of senators can happen before a key vote; for example, President Obama's secretary of state, Hillary Clinton , urged her former senate colleagues to approve a nuclear arms treaty with Russia in 2010. [ 126 ] The House of Representatives has no formal role in either the ratification of treaties or the appointment of federal officials, other than in filling a vacancy in the office of the vice president; in such a case, a majority vote in each House is required to confirm a president's nomination of a vice president. [ 4 ] In 1803, the Supreme Court established judicial review of federal legislation in Marbury v. Madison , holding that Congress could not grant unconstitutional power to the Court itself. The Constitution did not explicitly state that the courts may exercise judicial review. The notion that courts could declare laws unconstitutional was envisioned by the founding fathers . Alexander Hamilton , for example, mentioned and expounded upon the doctrine in Federalist No. 78 . Originalists on the Supreme Court have argued that if the constitution does not say something explicitly it is unconstitutional to infer what it should, might, or could have said. [ 127 ] Judicial review means that the Supreme Court can nullify a congressional law. It is a huge check by the courts on the legislative authority and limits congressional power substantially. In 1857, for example, the Supreme Court struck down provisions of a congressional act of 1820 in its Dred Scott decision. [ 128 ] At the same time, the Supreme Court can extend congressional power through its constitutional interpretations. [ citation needed ] The congressional inquiry into St. Clair's Defeat of 1791 was the first congressional investigation of the executive branch. [ 129 ] Investigations are conducted to gather information on the need for future legislation, to test the effectiveness of laws already passed, and to inquire into the qualifications and performance of members and officials of the other branches. Committees may hold hearings, and, if necessary, subpoena people to testify when investigating issues over which it has the power to legislate. [ 130 ] [ 131 ] Witnesses who refuse to testify may be cited for contempt of Congress , and those who testify falsely may be charged with perjury . Most committee hearings are open to the public (the House and Senate intelligence committees are the exception); important hearings are widely reported in the mass media and transcripts published a few months afterwards. [ 131 ] Congress, in the course of studying possible laws and investigating matters, generates an incredible amount of information in various forms, and can be described as a publisher. [ 132 ] Indeed, it publishes House and Senate reports [ 132 ] and maintains databases which are updated irregularly with publications in a variety of electronic formats. [ 132 ] Congress also plays a role in presidential elections. Both Houses meet in joint session on the sixth day of January following a presidential election to count the electoral votes, and there are procedures to follow if no candidate wins a majority. [ 4 ] The main result of congressional activity is the creation of laws, [ 133 ] most of which are contained in the United States Code, arranged by subject matter alphabetically under fifty title headings to present the laws "in a concise and usable form". [ 4 ] Structure Congress is split into two chambers – House and Senate – and manages the task of writing national legislation by dividing work into separate committees which specialize in different areas. Some members of Congress are elected by their peers to be officers of these committees. Further, Congress has ancillary organizations such as the Government Accountability Office and the Library of Congress to help provide it with information, and members of Congress have staff and offices to assist them as well. In addition, a vast industry of lobbyists helps members write legislation on behalf of diverse corporate and labor interests. Committees Specializations The committee structure permits members of Congress to study a particular subject intensely. It is neither expected nor possible that a member be an expert on all subject areas before Congress. [ 134 ] As time goes by, members develop expertise in particular subjects and their legal aspects. Committees investigate specialized subjects and advise the entire Congress about choices and trade-offs. The choice of specialty may be influenced by the member's constituency, important regional issues, prior background and experience. [ 135 ] Senators often choose a different specialty from that of the other senator from their state to prevent overlap. [ 136 ] Some committees specialize in running the business of other committees and exert a powerful influence over all legislation; for example, the House Ways and Means Committee has considerable influence over House affairs. [ 137 ] Power Committees write legislation. While procedures, such as the House discharge petition process, can introduce bills to the House floor and effectively bypass committee input, they are exceedingly difficult to implement without committee action. Committees have power and have been called independent fiefdoms . Legislative, oversight, and internal administrative tasks are divided among about two hundred committees and subcommittees which gather information, evaluate alternatives, and identify problems. [ 138 ] They propose solutions for consideration by the full chamber. [ 138 ] In addition, they perform the function of oversight by monitoring the executive branch and investigating wrongdoing. [ 138 ] Officer At the start of each two-year session, the House elects a speaker who does not normally preside over debates but serves as the majority party's leader. In the Senate, the vice president is the ex officio president of the Senate. In addition, the Senate elects an officer called the president pro tempore . Pro tempore means for the time being and this office is usually held by the most senior member of the Senate's majority party and customarily keeps this position until there is a change in party control. Accordingly, the Senate does not necessarily elect a new president pro tempore at the beginning of a new Congress. In the House and Senate, the actual presiding officer is generally a junior member of the majority party who is appointed so that new members become acquainted with the rules of the chamber. [ citation needed ] Support services Library of Congress The Library of Congress (LOC) was established by an act of Congress in 1800. It is primarily housed in three buildings on Capitol Hill , but also includes several other sites: the National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped in Washington, D.C.; the National Audio-Visual Conservation Center in Culpeper, Virginia ; a large book storage facility located in Fort Meade, Maryland ; and multiple overseas offices. The Library had mostly law books when it was burnt by British forces in 1814 during the War of 1812 , but the library's collections were restored and expanded when Congress authorized the purchase of Thomas Jefferson 's private library. One of the library's missions is to serve Congress and its staff as well as the American public. It is the largest library in the world with nearly 150 million items including books, films, maps, photographs, music, manuscripts, graphics, and materials in 470 languages. [ 139 ] Congressional Research Service The Congressional Research Service (CRS), part of the Library of Congress, provides detailed, up-to-date and non-partisan research for senators, representatives, and their staff to help them carry out their official duties. It provides ideas for legislation, helps members analyze a bill, facilitates public hearings, makes reports, consults on matters such as parliamentary procedure, and helps the two chambers resolve disagreements. It has been called the "House's think tank" and has a staff of about 900 employees. [ 140 ] Congressional Budget Office The Congressional Budget Office (CBO) is a federal agency which provides economic data to Congress. [ 141 ] It was created as an independent non-partisan agency by the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974 . It helps Congress estimate revenue inflows from taxes and helps the budgeting process. It makes projections about such matters as the national debt [ 142 ] as well as likely costs of legislation. It prepares an annual Economic and Budget Outlook with a mid-year update and writes An Analysis of the President's Budgetary Proposals for the Senate's Appropriations Committee . The speaker of the House and the Senate's president pro tempore jointly appoint the CBO director for a four-year term. [ citation needed ] Government Accountability Office The Government Accountability Office (GAO), is a federal agency within the legislative branch that provides auditing , evaluative , and investigative services for the United States Congress in an independent and nonpartisan capacity. [ 143 ] The GAO is the supreme audit institution of the federal government of the United States . It identifies its core "mission values" as: accountability, integrity, and reliability. [ 144 ] It is also known as the "congressional watchdog". [ 145 ] Architect of the Capitol The Architect of the Capitol (AOC) is a federal agency within the legislative branch that is responsible for the maintenance , operation, development, construction , building preservation , and property management of the United States Capitol Complex [ 146 ] and is accountable directly to the United States Congress and the Supreme Court of the United States . [ 147 ] United States Capitol Police Lobbying Lobbyists represent diverse interests and often seek to influence congressional decisions to reflect their clients' needs. Lobby groups and their members sometimes write legislation and whip bills. In 2007, there were approximately 17,000 federal lobbyists in Washington, D.C. [ 148 ] They explain to legislators the goals of their organizations. Some lobbyists represent non-profit organizations and work pro bono for issues in which they are personally interested. [ citation needed ] Partisanship versus bipartisanship Congress has alternated between periods of constructive cooperation and compromise between parties, known as bipartisanship , and periods of deep political polarization and fierce infighting, known as partisanship . The period after the Civil War was marked by partisanship, as is the case today. It is generally easier for committees to reach accord on issues when compromise is possible. Some political scientists speculate that a prolonged period marked by narrow majorities in both chambers of Congress has intensified partisanship in the last few decades, but that an alternation of control of Congress between Democrats and Republicans may lead to greater flexibility in policies, as well as pragmatism and civility within the institution. [ 149 ] Procedures Sessions A term of Congress is divided into two " sessions ", one for each year; Congress has occasionally been called into an extra or special session . A new session commences on January 3 each year unless Congress decides differently. The Constitution requires Congress to meet at least once each year and forbids either house from meeting outside the Capitol without the consent of the other house. Joint sessions Joint sessions of the United States Congress occur on special occasions that require a concurrent resolution from House and Senate. These sessions include counting electoral votes after a presidential election and the president's State of the Union address. The constitutionally mandated report , normally given as an annual speech, is modeled on Britain's Speech from the Throne , was written by most presidents after Jefferson but personally delivered as a spoken oration beginning with Wilson in 1913. Joint Sessions and Joint Meetings are traditionally presided over by the speaker of the House, except when counting presidential electoral votes when the vice president (acting as the president of the Senate) presides. [ citation needed ] Bills and resolutions Ideas for legislation can come from members, lobbyists, state legislatures, constituents, legislative counsel, or executive agencies. Anyone can write a bill, but only members of Congress may introduce bills. Most bills are not written by Congress members, but originate from the Executive branch; interest groups often draft bills as well. The usual next step is for the proposal to be passed to a committee for review. [ 4 ] A proposal is usually in one of these forms: Bills are laws in the making. A House-originated bill begins with the letters "H.R." for "House of Representatives", followed by a number kept as it progresses. [ 133 ] Joint resolutions. There is little difference between a bill and a joint resolution since both are treated similarly; a joint resolution originating from the House, for example, begins "H.J.Res." followed by its number. [ 133 ] Concurrent Resolutions affect only the House and Senate and accordingly are not presented to the president. In the House, they begin with "H.Con.Res." [ 133 ] Simple resolutions concern only the House or only the Senate and begin with "H.Res." or "S.Res." [ 133 ] Representatives introduce a bill while the House is in session by placing it in the hopper on the Clerk's desk. [ 133 ] It is assigned a number and referred to a committee which studies each bill intensely at this stage. [ 133 ] Drafting statutes requires "great skill, knowledge, and experience" and sometimes take a year or more. [ 4 ] Sometimes lobbyists write legislation and submit it to a member for introduction. Joint resolutions are the normal way to propose a constitutional amendment or declare war. On the other hand, concurrent resolutions (passed by both houses) and simple resolutions (passed by only one house) do not have the force of law but express the opinion of Congress or regulate procedure . Bills may be introduced by any member of either house. The Constitution states: "All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives." While the Senate cannot originate revenue and appropriation bills , it has the power to amend or reject them. Congress has sought ways to establish appropriate spending levels. [ 4 ] Each chamber determines its own internal rules of operation unless specified in the Constitution or prescribed by law. In the House, a Rules Committee guides legislation; in the Senate, a Standing Rules committee is in charge. Each branch has its own traditions; for example, the Senate relies heavily on the practice of getting "unanimous consent" for noncontroversial matters. [ 4 ] House and Senate rules can be complex, sometimes requiring a hundred specific steps before a bill can become a law. [ 5 ] Members sometimes turn to outside experts to learn about proper congressional procedures. [ 150 ] Each bill goes through several stages in each house including consideration by a committee and advice from the Government Accountability Office . [ 4 ] Most legislation is considered by standing committees which have jurisdiction over a particular subject such as Agriculture or Appropriations. The House has twenty standing committees; the Senate has sixteen. Standing committees meet at least once each month. [ 4 ] Almost all standing committee meetings for transacting business must be open to the public unless the committee votes, publicly, to close the meeting. [ 4 ] A committee might call for public hearings on important bills. [ 4 ] Each committee is led by a chair who belongs to the majority party and a ranking member of the minority party. Witnesses and experts can present their case for or against a bill. [ 133 ] Then, a bill may go to what is called a mark-up session, where committee members debate the bill's merits and may offer amendments or revisions. [ 133 ] Committees may also amend the bill, but the full house holds the power to accept or reject committee amendments. After debate, the committee votes whether it wishes to report the measure to the full house. If a bill is tabled then it is rejected. If amendments are extensive, sometimes a new bill with amendments built in will be submitted as a so-called clean bill with a new number. [ 133 ] Both houses have procedures under which committees can be bypassed or overruled but they are rarely used. Generally, members who have been in Congress longer have greater seniority and therefore greater power. [ 151 ] A bill which reaches the floor of the full house can be simple or complex [ 133 ] and begins with an enacting formula such as "Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled ..." Consideration of a bill requires, itself, a rule which is a simple resolution specifying the particulars of debate – time limits, possibility of further amendments, and such. [ 133 ] Each side has equal time and members can yield to other members who wish to speak. [ 133 ] Sometimes opponents seek to recommit a bill which means to change part of it. [ 133 ] Generally, discussion requires a quorum , usually half of the total number of representatives, before discussion can begin, although there are exceptions. [ 152 ] The house may debate and amend the bill; the precise procedures used by the House and Senate differ. A final vote on the bill follows. Once a bill is approved by one house, it is sent to the other which may pass, reject, or amend it. For the bill to become law, both houses must agree to identical versions of the bill. [ 133 ] If the second house amends the bill, then the differences between the two versions must be reconciled in a conference committee , an ad hoc committee that includes senators and representatives [ 133 ] sometimes by using a reconciliation process to limit budget bills. [ 4 ] Both houses use a budget enforcement mechanism informally known as pay-as-you-go or paygo which discourages members from considering acts that increase budget deficits. [ 4 ] If both houses agree to the version reported by the conference committee, the bill passes, otherwise it fails. [ citation needed ] The Constitution specifies that a majority of members (a quorum ) be present before doing business in each house. The rules of each house assume that a quorum is present unless a quorum call demonstrates the contrary and debate often continues despite the lack of a majority. [ citation needed ] Voting within Congress can take many forms, including systems using lights and bells and electronic voting. [ 4 ] Both houses use voice voting to decide most matters in which members shout "aye" or "no" and the presiding officer announces the result. The Constitution requires a recorded vote if demanded by one-fifth of the members present or when voting to override a presidential veto. If the voice vote is unclear or if the matter is controversial, a recorded vote usually happens. The Senate uses roll-call voting , in which a clerk calls out the names of all the senators, each senator stating "aye" or "no" when their name is announced. In the Senate, the Vice President may cast the tie-breaking vote if present when the senators are equally divided. [ citation needed ] The House reserves roll-call votes for the most formal matters, as a roll call of all 435 representatives takes quite some time; normally, members vote by using an electronic device. In the case of a tie, the motion in question fails. Most votes in the House are done electronically, allowing members to vote yea or nay or present or open . [ 4 ] Members insert a voting ID card and can change their votes during the last five minutes if they choose; in addition, paper ballots are used occasionally ( yea indicated by green and nay by red). [ 4 ] One member cannot cast a proxy vote for another. [ 4 ] Congressional votes are recorded on an online database. [ 153 ] [ 154 ] After passage by both houses, a bill is enrolled and sent to the president for approval. [ 133 ] The president may sign it making it law or veto it, perhaps returning it to Congress with the president's objections. A vetoed bill can still become law if each house of Congress votes to override the veto with a two-thirds majority. Finally, the president may do nothing neither signing nor vetoing the bill and then the bill becomes law automatically after ten days (not counting Sundays) according to the Constitution. But if Congress is adjourned during this period, presidents may veto legislation passed at the end of a congressional session simply by ignoring it; the maneuver is known as a pocket veto , and cannot be overridden by the adjourned Congress. [ citation needed ] Public interaction Advantage of incumbency Citizens and representatives Senators face reelection every six years, and representatives every two. Reelections encourage candidates to focus their publicity efforts at their home states or districts. [ 64 ] Running for reelection can be a grueling process of distant travel and fund-raising which distracts senators and representatives from paying attention to governing, according to some critics. [ 155 ] Although others respond that the process is necessary to keep members of Congress in touch with voters. [ citation needed ] Incumbent members of Congress running for reelection have strong advantages over challengers. [ 53 ] They raise more money [ 58 ] because donors fund incumbents over challengers, perceiving the former as more likely to win, [ 56 ] [ 156 ] and donations are vital for winning elections. [ 157 ] One critic compared election to Congress to receiving life tenure at a university. [ 156 ] Another advantage for representatives is the practice of gerrymandering . [ 158 ] [ 159 ] After each ten-year census, states are allocated representatives based on population, and officials in power can choose how to draw the congressional district boundaries to support candidates from their party. As a result, reelection rates of members of Congress hover around 90 percent, [ 9 ] causing some critics to call them a privileged class. [ 8 ] Academics such as Princeton's Stephen Macedo have proposed solutions to fix gerrymandering in the U.S. Senators and representatives enjoy free mailing privileges, called franking privileges ; while these are not intended for electioneering, this rule is often skirted by borderline election-related mailings during campaigns. [ citation needed ] Expensive campaigns In 1971, the cost of running for Congress in Utah was $70,000 [ 160 ] but costs have climbed. [ 161 ] The biggest expense is television advertisements. [ 57 ] [ 156 ] [ 160 ] [ 162 ] [ 163 ] Today's races cost more than a million dollars for a House seat, and six million or more for a Senate seat. [ 8 ] [ 57 ] [ 162 ] [ 164 ] [ 165 ] Since fundraising is vital, "members of Congress are forced to spend ever-increasing hours raising money for their re-election", according to the Fair Elections Now coalition. [ 166 ] The Supreme Court has treated campaign contributions as a free speech issue. [ 161 ] Some see money as a good influence in politics since it "enables candidates to communicate with voters". [ 161 ] Few members retire from Congress without complaining about how much it costs to campaign for reelection. [ 8 ] Critics contend that members of Congress are more likely to attend to the needs of heavy campaign contributors than to ordinary citizens. [ 8 ] Elections are influenced by many variables. Some political scientists speculate there is a coattail effect (when a popular president or party position has the effect of reelecting incumbents who win by "riding on the president's coattails"), although there is some evidence that the coattail effect is irregular and possibly declining since the 1950s. [ 53 ] Some districts are so heavily Democratic or Republican that they are called a safe seat ; any candidate winning the primary will almost always be elected, and these candidates do not need to spend money on advertising. [ 167 ] [ 168 ] But some races can be competitive when there is no incumbent. If a seat becomes vacant in an open district, then both parties may spend heavily on advertising in these races; in California in 1992, only four of twenty races for House seats were considered highly competitive. [ 169 ] Television and negative advertising Since members of Congress must advertise heavily on television, this usually involves negative advertising , which smears an opponent's character without focusing on the issues. [ 170 ] Negative advertising is seen as effective because "the messages tend to stick." [ 171 ] These advertisements sour the public on the political process in general as most members of Congress seek to avoid blame. [ 172 ] One wrong decision or one damaging television image can mean defeat at the next election, which leads to a culture of risk avoidance, a need to make policy decisions behind closed doors, [ 172 ] [ 173 ] and concentrating publicity efforts in the members' home districts. [ 64 ] Perceptions Prominent Founding Fathers , writing in The Federalist Papers , felt that elections were essential to liberty, that a bond between the people and the representatives was particularly essential, [ 174 ] and that "frequent elections are unquestionably the only policy by which this dependence and sympathy can be effectually secured." [ 174 ] In 2009, few Americans were familiar with leaders of Congress. [ 175 ] [ 176 ] [ 177 ] The percentage of Americans eligible to vote who did, in fact, vote was 63% in 1960, but has been falling since, although there was a slight upward trend in the 2008 election. [ 178 ] Public opinion polls asking people if they approve of the job Congress is doing have, in the last few decades, hovered around 25% with some variation. [ 8 ] [ 179 ] [ 180 ] [ 181 ] [ 182 ] [ 183 ] [ 184 ] Scholar Julian Zeliger suggested that the "size, messiness, virtues, and vices that make Congress so interesting also create enormous barriers to our understanding the institution ... Unlike the presidency, Congress is difficult to conceptualize." [ 185 ] Other scholars suggest that despite the criticism, "Congress is a remarkably resilient institution ... its place in the political process is not threatened ... it is rich in resources" and that most members behave ethically. [ 6 ] They contend that "Congress is easy to dislike and often difficult to defend" and this perception is exacerbated because many challengers running for Congress run against Congress, which is an "old form of American politics" that further undermines Congress's reputation with the public: [ 8 ] The rough-and-tumble world of legislating is not orderly and civil, human frailties too often taint its membership, and legislative outcomes are often frustrating and ineffective ... Still, we are not exaggerating when we say that Congress is essential to American democracy. We would not have survived as a nation without a Congress that represented the diverse interests of our society, conducted a public debate on the major issues, found compromises to resolve conflicts peacefully, and limited the power of our executive, military, and judicial institutions ... The popularity of Congress ebbs and flows with the public's confidence in government generally ... the legislative process is easy to dislike – it often generates political posturing and grandstanding, it necessarily involves compromise, and it often leaves broken promises in its trail. Also, members of Congress often appear self-serving as they pursue their political careers and represent interests and reflect values that are controversial. Scandals, even when they involve a single member, add to the public's frustration with Congress and have contributed to the institution's low ratings in opinion polls. The rough-and-tumble world of legislating is not orderly and civil, human frailties too often taint its membership, and legislative outcomes are often frustrating and ineffective ... Still, we are not exaggerating when we say that Congress is essential to American democracy. We would not have survived as a nation without a Congress that represented the diverse interests of our society, conducted a public debate on the major issues, found compromises to resolve conflicts peacefully, and limited the power of our executive, military, and judicial institutions ... The popularity of Congress ebbs and flows with the public's confidence in government generally ... the legislative process is easy to dislike – it often generates political posturing and grandstanding, it necessarily involves compromise, and it often leaves broken promises in its trail. Also, members of Congress often appear self-serving as they pursue their political careers and represent interests and reflect values that are controversial. Scandals, even when they involve a single member, add to the public's frustration with Congress and have contributed to the institution's low ratings in opinion polls. — Smith, Roberts & Wielen [ 8 ] An additional factor that confounds public perceptions of Congress is that congressional issues are becoming more technical and complex and require expertise in subjects such as science, engineering and economics. [ 8 ] As a result, Congress often cedes authority to experts at the executive branch. [ 8 ] Since 2006, Congress has dropped ten points in the Gallup confidence poll with only nine percent having "a great deal" or "quite a lot" of confidence in their legislators. [ 186 ] Since 2011, Gallup poll has reported Congress's approval rating among Americans at 10% or below three times. [ 70 ] [ 71 ] Public opinion of Congress plummeted further to 5% in October 2013 after parts of the U.S. government deemed 'nonessential government' shut down. [ 72 ] Smaller states and bigger states When the Constitution was ratified in 1787, the ratio of the populations of large states to small states was roughly twelve to one. The Connecticut Compromise gave every state, large and small, an equal vote in the Senate. [ 187 ] Since each state has two senators, residents of smaller states have more clout in the Senate than residents of larger states. But since 1787, the population disparity between large and small states has grown; in 2006, for example, California had seventy times the population of Wyoming . [ 188 ] Critics, such as constitutional scholar Sanford Levinson , have suggested that the population disparity works against residents of large states and causes a steady redistribution of resources from "large states to small states". [ 189 ] [ 190 ] [ 191 ] Others argue that the Connecticut Compromise was deliberately intended by the Founding Fathers to construct the Senate so that each state had equal footing not based on population, [ 187 ] and contend that the result works well on balance. Members and constituents A major role for members of Congress is providing services to constituents . [ 192 ] Constituents request assistance with problems. [ 193 ] Providing services helps members of Congress win votes and elections [ 158 ] [ 194 ] [ 195 ] and can make a difference in close races. [ 196 ] Congressional staff can help citizens navigate government bureaucracies. [ 5 ] One academic described the complex intertwined relation between lawmakers and constituents as home style . [ 197 ] : 8 Motivation One way to categorize lawmakers, according to former University of Rochester political science professor Richard Fenno , is by their general motivation: Reelection: These are lawmakers who "never met a voter they didn't like" and provide excellent constituent services. Good public policy: Legislators who "burnish a reputation for policy expertise and leadership". Power in the chamber: Lawmakers who spend serious time along the "rail of the House floor or in the Senate cloakroom ministering to the needs of their colleagues". Famous legislator Henry Clay in the mid-19th century was described as an "issue entrepreneur" who looked for issues to serve his ambitions. [ 197 ] : 34 Privileges Outside income and gifts Representative Jim Cooper of Tennessee told Harvard professor Lawrence Lessig that a chief problem with Congress was that members focused on their future careers as lobbyists after serving – that Congress was a " Farm League for K Street ". [ 198 ] [ 199 ] Family members of active legislators have also been hired by lobbying firms, which while not allowed to lobby their family member, has drawn criticism as a conflict of interest. [ 200 ] Members of congress have been accused of insider trading , such as in the 2020 congressional insider trading scandal , where members of Congress or their family members have traded on stocks related to work on their committees. [ 201 ] One 2011 study concluded that portfolios of members of Congress outperformed both the market and hedge funds, which the authors suggested as evidence of insider trading. [ 202 ] Proposed solutions include putting stocks in blind trusts to prevent future insider trading. [ 203 ] Some members of Congress have gone on lavish trips paid for by outside groups, sometimes bringing family members, which are often legal even if in an ethical gray area. [ 204 ] [ 205 ] Pay Some critics complain congressional pay is high compared with a median American income . [ 206 ] Others have countered that congressional pay is consistent with other branches of government . [ 179 ] Another criticism is that members of Congress are insulated from the health care market due to their coverage. [ 207 ] Others have criticized the wealth of members of Congress. [ 160 ] [ 163 ] In January 2014, it was reported that for the first time over half of the members of Congress were millionaires. [ 208 ] Congress has been criticized for trying to conceal pay raises by slipping them into a large bill at the last minute. [ 209 ] Members elected since 1984 are covered by the Federal Employees Retirement System (FERS). Like other federal employees, congressional retirement is funded through taxes and participants' contributions. Members of Congress under FERS contribute 1.3% of their salary into the FERS retirement plan and pay 6.2% of their salary in Social Security taxes. And like federal employees, members contribute one-third of the cost of health insurance with the government covering the other two-thirds. [ 210 ] The size of a congressional pension depends on the years of service and the average of the highest three years of their salary. By law, the starting amount of a member's retirement annuity may not exceed 80% of their final salary. In 2018, the average annual pension for retired senators and representatives under the Civil Service Retirement System (CSRS) was $75,528, while those who retired under FERS, or in combination with CSRS, was $41,208. [ 211 ] Members of Congress make fact-finding missions to learn about other countries and stay informed, but these outings can cause controversy if the trip is deemed excessive or unconnected with the task of governing. For example, The Wall Street Journal reported in 2009 that lawmaker trips abroad at taxpayer expense had included spas, $300-per-night extra unused rooms, and shopping excursions. [ 212 ] Some lawmakers responded that "traveling with spouses compensates for being away from them a lot in Washington" and justify the trips as a way to meet officials in other nations. [ 212 ] By the Twenty-seventh Amendment , changes to congressional pay may not take effect before the next election to the House of the Representatives. [ 213 ] In Boehner v. Anderson , the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit ruled that the amendment does not affect cost-of-living adjustments . [ 214 ] [ 213 ] Postage The franking privilege allows members of Congress to send official mail to constituents at government expense. Though they are not permitted to send election materials, borderline material is often sent, especially in the run-up to an election by those in close races. [ 215 ] [ 216 ] Some academics consider free mailings as giving incumbents a big advantage over challengers. [ 9 ] [ failed verification ] [ 217 ] Protection Members of Congress enjoy parliamentary privilege , including freedom from arrest in all cases except for treason , felony , and breach of the peace , and freedom of speech in debate. This constitutionally derived immunity applies to members during sessions and when traveling to and from sessions. [ 218 ] The term "arrest" has been interpreted broadly, and includes any detention or delay in the course of law enforcement , including court summons and subpoenas . The rules of the House strictly guard this privilege; a member may not waive the privilege on their own but must seek the permission of the whole house to do so. Senate rules are less strict and permit individual senators to waive the privilege as they choose. [ 219 ] The Constitution guarantees absolute freedom of debate in both houses, providing in the Speech or Debate Clause of the Constitution that "for any Speech or Debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other Place." Accordingly, a member of Congress may not be sued in court for slander because of remarks made in either house, although each house has its own rules restricting offensive speeches, and may punish members who transgress. [ 220 ] Obstructing the work of Congress is a crime under federal law and is known as contempt of Congress . Each member has the power to cite people for contempt but can only issue a contempt citation – the judicial system pursues the matter like a normal criminal case. If convicted in court of contempt of Congress, a person may be imprisoned for up to one year. [ 221 ] See also Caucuses of the United States Congress Congressional archives – Records documenting the history and activities of the United States Congress Congressional Baseball Game – Annual baseball game played by members of the United States Congress Divided government in the United States – Divided control of the US government between political parties Elections in the United States § Congressional elections List of current United States representatives List of current United States senators List of United States Congresses Oath of office § United States Radio and Television Correspondents' Association United States congressional hearing Notes ^ Independent Sens. Angus King of Maine and Bernie Sanders of Vermont caucus with the Democratic Party. [ 1 ] ^ Before the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution in 1913, senators were chosen by state legislatures. ^ Congress does not take a grammatical article , except when referring to an individual Congress. [ 3 ] Citations ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Maine Independent Angus King To Caucus With Senate Democrats" . 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"How Our Laws Are Made" . U.S. House of Representatives. Archived from the original on May 5, 2020 . Retrieved November 27, 2016 . ^ a b c d e f g Lee H. Hamilton (2004). How Congress works and why you should care . Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-34425-5 . Archived from the original on January 14, 2021 . Retrieved September 11, 2010 . ^ a b Steven S. Smith; Jason M. Roberts; Ryan J. Vander Wielen (2006). "The American Congress (Fourth Edition)" . Cambridge University Press. p. 23. ISBN 9781139446990 . Archived from the original on January 14, 2021 . Retrieved September 11, 2010 . ^ a b c Julian E. Zelizer; Joanne Barrie Freeman; Jack N. Rakove; Alan Taylor, eds. (2004). "The American Congress: The Building of Democracy" . Houghton Mifflin Company. pp. xiii– xiv. ISBN 0-618-17906-2 . Archived from the original on October 19, 2017 . Retrieved September 11, 2010 . ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Steven S. Smith; Jason M. Roberts; Ryan J. Vander Wielen (2006). 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"Confident Clinton Lends Hand to Congress Candidates" . Los Angeles Times . Archived from the original on January 14, 2021 . Retrieved October 1, 2009 . ^ "References about diffname". "The Congress: Makings of the 72nd (Cont.)" . Time . September 22, 1930. Archived from the original on August 27, 2013 . Retrieved October 1, 2009 . Maki Becker (June 17, 1994). "Informed Opinions on Today's Topics – Looking for Answers to Voter Apathy" . Los Angeles Times . Archived from the original on January 14, 2021 . Retrieved October 1, 2009 . Daniel Brumberg (October 30, 2008). "America's Re-emerging Democracy" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on October 10, 2017 . Retrieved October 1, 2009 . Karen Tumulty (July 8, 1986). "Congress Must Now Make Own Painful Choices" . Los Angeles Times . Archived from the original on January 14, 2021 . Retrieved October 1, 2009 . Janet Hook (December 22, 1997). "As U.S. Economy Flows, Voter Vitriol Ebbs" . Los Angeles Times . 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Clapp, The Congressman, His Work as He Sees It (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1963), p. 55; cf. pp. 50–55, 64–66, 75–84. ^ Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report 35 (September 3, 1977): 1855. English, op. cit ., pp. 48–49, notes that members will also regularly appear at local events in their home district, and will maintain offices in the home congressional district or state. ^ Robert Preer (August 15, 2010). "Two Democrats in Senate race stress constituent services" . Boston Globe . Archived from the original on January 14, 2021 . Retrieved September 11, 2010 . ^ Daniel Malloy (August 22, 2010). "Incumbents battle association with stimulus, Obama" . Pittsburgh Post-Gazette . Archived from the original on January 14, 2021 . Retrieved September 11, 2010 . ^ Amy Gardner (November 27, 2008). "Wolf's Decisive Win Surprised Even the GOP" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on January 14, 2021 . Retrieved September 11, 2010 . ^ a b William T. Blanco, ed. (2000). "Congress on display, Congress at work" . University of Michigan. ISBN 0-472-08711-8 . Archived from the original on January 14, 2021 . Retrieved September 11, 2010 . ^ Lessig, Lawrence (February 8, 2010). "How to Get Our Democracy Back" . CBS News. Archived from the original on January 20, 2013 . Retrieved December 14, 2011 . ^ Lessig, Lawrence (November 16, 2011). "Republic, Lost: How Money Corrupts Congress – and a Plan to Stop It" . Google, YouTube, The Huffington Post. Archived from the original on December 5, 2013 . Retrieved December 13, 2011 . (see 30:13 minutes into the video) ^ Attkisson, Sharyl (June 25, 2010). "Family Ties Bind Federal Lawmakers to Lobbyists - CBS News" . www.cbsnews.com . Retrieved May 15, 2024 . ^ Parlapiano, Alicia; Playford, Adam; Kelly, Kate; Uz, Ege (September 13, 2022). "These 97 Members of Congress Reported Trades in Companies Influenced by Their Committees" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved May 15, 2024 . ^ Schwartz, John (July 9, 2011). "Not-So-Representative Investors" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved May 15, 2024 . ^ Vitali, Ali; Tsirkin, Julie; Talbot, Haley (February 8, 2022). "Stock ban proposed for Congress to stop insider trading among lawmakers" . NBC News . Retrieved May 15, 2024 . ^ Leonard, Kimberly. "An $84,000 trip to Qatar and a $41,000 retreat in Miami: Members of Congress are going on expensive travels paid for by private groups where some bring their loved ones" . Business Insider . Retrieved May 15, 2024 . ^ House, Billy (March 18, 2023). "US Lawmakers Resume Globe Trotting Paid by Special Interests" . Bloomberg . ^ Lee, Timothy B. (September 19, 2013). "This chart shows why members of Congress really should earn more than $172,000" . The Washington Post . Retrieved May 17, 2024 . ^ Lui, Kevin (March 17, 2017). "A Petition to Remove Health Care Subsidies From Members of Congress Has Nearly 500000 Signatures" . Time Magazine . 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Retrieved December 17, 2009 . ^ a b "Constitutional Amendments – Amendment 27 – "Financial Compensation for the Congress" " . Ronald Reagan . Retrieved May 17, 2024 . ^ 30 F.3d 156 (D.C. Cir. 1994) ^ English (2003), pp. 24–25. ^ Simpson, G. R. (October 22, 1992). "Surprise! Top Frankers Also Have the Stiffest Challenges". Roll Call. ^ Steven S. Smith; Jason M. Roberts; Ryan J. Vander Wielen (2006). "The American Congress (Fourth Edition)" . Cambridge University Press. p. 79. ISBN 9781139446990 . Archived from the original on January 14, 2021 . Retrieved September 11, 2010 . ^ Davidson (2006), p. 17. ^ "Rules Of The Senate" . U.S. Senate Committee on Rules & Administration . Archived from the original on December 30, 2017 . Retrieved September 30, 2022 . ^ Brewer, F. M. (1952). "Congressional Immunity" . CQ Press . doi : 10.4135/cqresrre1952042500 . Archived from the original on January 25, 2021 . Retrieved January 16, 2021 . ^ "Contempt of Congress" . HeinOnline . The Jurist . January 1, 1957. ProQuest 1296619169 . Retrieved September 7, 2020 . References "How To Clean Up The Mess From Inside The System, A Plea – And A Plan – To Reform Campaign Finance Before It's Too" . Newsweek . October 28, 1996. Archived from the original on January 14, 2021 . Retrieved September 20, 2009 . "The Constitution and the Idea of Compromise" . PBS. October 10, 2009. Archived from the original on January 14, 2021 . Retrieved October 10, 2009 . Alexander Hamilton (1788). "Federalist No. 15 – The Insufficiency of the Present Confederation to Preserve the Union" . FoundingFathers.info. Archived from the original on January 14, 2021 . Retrieved October 10, 2009 . Bacon, Donald C.; Davidson, Roger H.; Keller, Morton, eds. (1995). Encyclopedia of the United States Congress (4 vols.) . Simon & Schuster. Collier, Christopher & Collier, James Lincoln (1986). Decision in Philadelphia: The Constitutional Convention of 1787 . Ballantine Books. ISBN 0-394-52346-6 . Davidson, Roger H. & Walter J. Oleszek (2006). Congress and Its Members (10th ed.). Congressional Quarterly (CQ) Press. ISBN 0-87187-325-7 . (Legislative procedure, informal practices, and other information) English, Ross M. (2003). The United States Congress . Manchester University Press. ISBN 0-7190-6309-4 . Francis-Smith, Janice (October 22, 2008). "Waging campaigns against incumbents in Oklahoma" . The Oklahoma City Journal Record. Archived from the original on May 10, 2010 . Retrieved September 20, 2009 . Herrnson, Paul S. (2004). Congressional Elections: Campaigning at Home and in Washington . CQ Press. ISBN 1-56802-826-1 . Huckabee, David C. (2003). Reelection Rates of Incumbents . Hauppauge, New York: Novinka Books, an imprint of Nova Science Publishers. p. 21. ISBN 1-59033-509-0 . Archived from the original on January 14, 2021 . Retrieved September 27, 2020 . Huckabee, David C. – Analyst in American National Government – Government Division (March 8, 1995). "Reelection rate of House Incumbents 1790–1990 Summary (page 2)" (PDF) . Congressional Research Service – The Library of Congress. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 29, 2011 . Retrieved September 20, 2009 . Maier, Pauline (book reviewer) (November 18, 2007). "HISTORY – The Framers' Real Motives (book review) Unruly Americans and the Origins of the Constitution book by Woody Holton" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on January 14, 2021 . Retrieved October 10, 2009 . Oleszek, Walter J. (2004). Congressional Procedures and the Policy Process . CQ Press. ISBN 0-87187-477-6 . Polsby, Nelson W. (2004). How Congress Evolves: Social Bases of Institutional Change . Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-516195-5 . Price, David E. (2000). The Congressional Experience . Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-1157-8 . Sanbonmatsu, Kira (2020). "Women's Underrepresentation in the U.S. Congress" . Daedalus . 149 : 40– 55. doi : 10.1162/daed_a_01772 . ISSN 0011-5266 . S2CID 209487865 . Archived from the original on April 24, 2021 . Retrieved April 6, 2021 . Struble, Robert Jr. (2007). Chapter seven, Treatise on Twelve Lights . TeLL. Archived from the original on April 14, 2016. Zelizer, Julian E. (2004). The American Congress: The Building of Democracy . Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-618-17906-2 . Further reading Ritchie, Donald A. (2022). The U.S. Congress: A Very Short Introduction . (History, representation, and legislative procedure) Smith, Steven S.; Roberts, Jason M.; Vander Wielen, Ryan (2007). The American Congress (5th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-19704-5 . (Legislative procedure, informal practices, and other information) Hamilton, Lee H. (2004) How Congress Works and Why You Should Care , Indiana University Press. Lee, Frances and Bruce Oppenheimer. (1999). Sizing Up the Senate: The Unequal Consequences of Equal Representation . University of Chicago Press: Chicago. (Equal representation in the Senate) Some information in this article has been provided by the Senate Historical Office . 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Accountability Office (GAO) Comptroller General GAO Building Architect of the Capitol Cap. Police Board Cap. Guide Service Congr. Budget Office (CBO) Congr. Workplace Rights (OCWR) Library of Congress Gov. Publishing Office (GPO) Technology Assessment Offices Senate Curator Historical Library House Congr. Ethics Emergency Planning, Preparedness, and Operations Interparliamentary Affairs Law Revision Counsel Legislative Counsel Library Employees Senate Secretary Chaplain Curator Historian Librarian Pages Parliamentarian Sergeant at Arms and Doorkeeper House Chaplain Chief Administrative Officer Clerk Doorkeeper Floor Operations Floor Services Chief Historian Pages Board Parliamentarian Postmaster Reading Clerk Sergeant at Arms Library of Congress Congressional Research Service reports Copyright Office Register of Copyrights Law Library Poet Laureate THOMAS Adams Building Jefferson Building Madison Building Gov. Publishing Office Public Printer Congressional Pictorial Directory Congressional Record Official Congressional Directory U.S. Gov. Manual Serial Set Statutes at Large United States Code Capitol Building List of artwork at the United States Capitol complex Brumidi Corridors Congressional Prayer Room Crypt Dome Statue of Freedom Rotunda Hall of Columns Statuary Hall Visitor Center The Apotheosis of Washington Statue of Freedom Declaration of Independence painting Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States Apotheosis of Democracy Progress of Civilization Pediment First Reading of the Emancipation Proclamation of President Lincoln Surrender of General Burgoyne Surrender of Lord Cornwallis George Washington and the Revolutionary War Door Revolutionary War Door Columbus Doors Washington at Princeton Westward the Course of Empire Takes Its Way Vice President's Room Vice Presidential Bust Collection Office buildings Senate Dirksen Hart Mountains and Clouds Russell House Building Commission office lottery Cannon Ford Longworth O'Neill Rayburn Other facilities Botanic Garden Health and Fitness Facility House Recording Studio Senate chamber Old Senate Chamber Old Supreme Court Chamber Power Plant Webster Page Residence Subway Related Capitol Hill United States Capitol cornerstone laying Legislative offices Congressional staff Gov. Accountability Office (GAO) Comptroller General GAO Building Architect of the Capitol Cap. Police Board Cap. Guide Service Congr. Budget Office (CBO) Congr. Workplace Rights (OCWR) Library of Congress Gov. Publishing Office (GPO) Technology Assessment Congressional staff Gov. Accountability Office (GAO) Comptroller General GAO Building Comptroller General GAO Building Architect of the Capitol Cap. Police Board Board Cap. Guide Service Congr. Budget Office (CBO) Congr. Workplace Rights (OCWR) Library of Congress Gov. Publishing Office (GPO) Technology Assessment Offices Senate Curator Historical Library House Congr. Ethics Emergency Planning, Preparedness, and Operations Interparliamentary Affairs Law Revision Counsel Legislative Counsel Library Senate Curator Historical Library Curator Historical Library House Congr. Ethics Emergency Planning, Preparedness, and Operations Interparliamentary Affairs Law Revision Counsel Legislative Counsel Library Congr. Ethics Emergency Planning, Preparedness, and Operations Interparliamentary Affairs Law Revision Counsel Legislative Counsel Library Employees Senate Secretary Chaplain Curator Historian Librarian Pages Parliamentarian Sergeant at Arms and Doorkeeper House Chaplain Chief Administrative Officer Clerk Doorkeeper Floor Operations Floor Services Chief Historian Pages Board Parliamentarian Postmaster Reading Clerk Sergeant at Arms Senate Secretary Chaplain Curator Historian Librarian Pages Parliamentarian Sergeant at Arms and Doorkeeper Secretary Chaplain Curator Historian Librarian Pages Parliamentarian Sergeant at Arms and Doorkeeper House Chaplain Chief Administrative Officer Clerk Doorkeeper Floor Operations Floor Services Chief Historian Pages Board Parliamentarian Postmaster Reading Clerk Sergeant at Arms Chaplain Chief Administrative Officer Clerk Doorkeeper Floor Operations Floor Services Chief Historian Pages Board Board Parliamentarian Postmaster Reading Clerk Sergeant at Arms Library of Congress Congressional Research Service reports Copyright Office Register of Copyrights Law Library Poet Laureate THOMAS Adams Building Jefferson Building Madison Building Congressional Research Service reports reports Copyright Office Register of Copyrights Register of Copyrights Law Library Poet Laureate THOMAS Adams Building Jefferson Building Madison Building Gov. Publishing Office Public Printer Congressional Pictorial Directory Congressional Record Official Congressional Directory U.S. Gov. Manual Serial Set Statutes at Large United States Code Public Printer Congressional Pictorial Directory Congressional Record Official Congressional Directory U.S. Gov. Manual Serial Set Statutes at Large United States Code Capitol Building List of artwork at the United States Capitol complex Brumidi Corridors Congressional Prayer Room Crypt Dome Statue of Freedom Rotunda Hall of Columns Statuary Hall Visitor Center The Apotheosis of Washington Statue of Freedom Declaration of Independence painting Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States Apotheosis of Democracy Progress of Civilization Pediment First Reading of the Emancipation Proclamation of President Lincoln Surrender of General Burgoyne Surrender of Lord Cornwallis George Washington and the Revolutionary War Door Revolutionary War Door Columbus Doors Washington at Princeton Westward the Course of Empire Takes Its Way Vice President's Room Vice Presidential Bust Collection List of artwork at the United States Capitol complex Brumidi Corridors Congressional Prayer Room Crypt Dome Statue of Freedom Statue of Freedom Rotunda Hall of Columns Statuary Hall Visitor Center The Apotheosis of Washington Statue of Freedom Declaration of Independence painting Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States Apotheosis of Democracy Progress of Civilization Pediment First Reading of the Emancipation Proclamation of President Lincoln Surrender of General Burgoyne Surrender of Lord Cornwallis George Washington and the Revolutionary War Door Revolutionary War Door Columbus Doors Washington at Princeton Westward the Course of Empire Takes Its Way Vice President's Room Vice Presidential Bust Collection Office buildings Senate Dirksen Hart Mountains and Clouds Russell House Building Commission office lottery Cannon Ford Longworth O'Neill Rayburn Senate Dirksen Hart Mountains and Clouds Russell Dirksen Hart Mountains and Clouds Mountains and Clouds Russell House Building Commission office lottery Cannon Ford Longworth O'Neill Rayburn Building Commission office lottery Cannon Ford Longworth O'Neill Rayburn Other facilities Botanic Garden Health and Fitness Facility House Recording Studio Senate chamber Old Senate Chamber Old Supreme Court Chamber Power Plant Webster Page Residence Subway Botanic Garden Health and Fitness Facility House Recording Studio Senate chamber Old Senate Chamber Old Supreme Court Chamber Power Plant Webster Page Residence Subway Related Capitol Hill United States Capitol cornerstone laying Capitol Hill United States Capitol cornerstone laying Articles related to the United States Congress v t e United States congresses (and year convened) 1 (1789) 2 (1791) 3 (1793) 4 (1795) 5 (1797) 6 (1799) 7 (1801) 8 (1803) 9 (1805) 10 (1807) 11 (1809) 12 (1811) 13 (1813) 14 (1815) 15 (1817) 16 (1819) 17 (1821) 18 (1823) 19 (1825) 20 (1827) 21 (1829) 22 (1831) 23 (1833) 24 (1835) 25 (1837) 26 (1839) 27 (1841) 28 (1843) 29 (1845) 30 (1847) 31 (1849) 32 (1851) 33 (1853) 34 (1855) 35 (1857) 36 (1859) 37 (1861) 38 (1863) 39 (1865) 40 (1867) 41 (1869) 42 (1871) 43 (1873) 44 (1875) 45 (1877) 46 (1879) 47 (1881) 48 (1883) 49 (1885) 50 (1887) 51 (1889) 52 (1891) 53 (1893) 54 (1895) 55 (1897) 56 (1899) 57 (1901) 58 (1903) 59 (1905) 60 (1907) 61 (1909) 62 (1911) 63 (1913) 64 (1915) 65 (1917) 66 (1919) 67 (1921) 68 (1923) 69 (1925) 70 (1927) 71 (1929) 72 (1931) 73 (1933) 74 (1935) 75 (1937) 76 (1939) 77 (1941) 78 (1943) 79 (1945) 80 (1947) 81 (1949) 82 (1951) 83 (1953) 84 (1955) 85 (1957) 86 (1959) 87 (1961) 88 (1963) 89 (1965) 90 (1967) 91 (1969) 92 (1971) 93 (1973) 94 (1975) 95 (1977) 96 (1979) 97 (1981) 98 (1983) 99 (1985) 100 (1987) 101 (1989) 102 (1991) 103 (1993) 104 (1995) 105 (1997) 106 (1999) 107 (2001) 108 (2003) 109 (2005) 110 (2007) 111 (2009) 112 (2011) 113 (2013) 114 (2015) 115 (2017) 116 (2019) 117 (2021) 118 (2023) 119 (2025) 120 (2027) v t e Lists of United States congressional delegations States Alabama H S Alaska H S Arizona H S Arkansas H S California H S Colorado H S Connecticut H S Delaware H S Florida H S Georgia H S Hawaii H S Idaho H S Illinois H S Indiana H S Iowa H S Kansas H S Kentucky H S Louisiana H S Maine H S Maryland H S Massachusetts H S Michigan H S Minnesota H S Mississippi H S Missouri H S Montana H S Nebraska H S Nevada H S New Hampshire H S New Jersey H S New Mexico H S New York H S North Carolina H S North Dakota H S Ohio H S Oklahoma H S Oregon H S Pennsylvania H S Rhode Island H S South Carolina H S South Dakota H S Tennessee H S Texas H S Utah H S Vermont H S Virginia H S Washington H S West Virginia H S Wisconsin H S Wyoming H S Others American Samoa District of Columbia Guam Northern Mariana Islands Puerto Rico U.S. Virgin Islands Proposed ( Cherokee ) Obsolete Dakota Territory Northwest Territory Orleans Territory Philippines Southwest Territory Lists of former representatives List of former senators v t e Lists of acts of the United States Congress By congress 74th 103rd 104th 105th 106th 107th 108th 109th 110th 111th 112th 113th 114th 115th 116th 117th 118th 119th By year 1789–1901 1901–2001 2001–present By topic African-Americans Education Energy Environment U.S. Forest Service Immigration Tariffs v t e Legislatures of the United States United States Congress United States House of Representatives United States Senate State legislatures Alabama ( H , S ) Alaska ( H , S ) Arizona ( H , S ) Arkansas ( H , S ) California ( A , S ) Colorado ( H , S ) Connecticut ( H , S ) Delaware ( H , S ) Florida ( H , S ) Georgia ( H , S ) Hawaii ( H , S ) Idaho ( H , S ) Illinois ( H , S ) Indiana ( H , S ) Iowa ( H , S ) Kansas ( H , S ) Kentucky ( H , S ) Louisiana ( H , S ) Maine ( H , S ) Maryland ( H , S ) Massachusetts ( H , S ) Michigan ( H , S ) Minnesota ( H , S ) Mississippi ( H , S ) Missouri ( H , S ) Montana ( H , S ) Nebraska Nevada ( A , S ) New Hampshire ( H , S ) New Jersey ( GA , S ) New Mexico ( H , S ) New York ( A , S ) North Carolina ( H , S ) North Dakota ( H , S ) Ohio ( H , S ) Oklahoma ( H , S ) Oregon ( H , S ) Pennsylvania ( H , S ) Rhode Island ( H , S ) South Carolina ( H , S ) South Dakota ( H , S ) Tennessee ( H , S ) Texas ( H , S ) Utah ( H , S ) Vermont ( H , S ) Virginia ( H , S ) Washington ( H , S ) West Virginia ( H , S ) Wisconsin ( A , S ) Wyoming ( H , S ) Other legislatures District of Columbia American Samoa ( H , S ) Guam Northern Mariana Islands ( H , S ) Puerto Rico ( H , S ) U.S. Virgin Islands Legislative elections 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 List of U.S. state legislators Lists of past U.S. state legislatures .mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal} v t e United States History By period 1776–1789 1789–1815 1815–1849 1849–1865 1865–1917 1917–1945 1945–1964 1964–1980 1980–1991 1991–2016 2016–present By event Pre-colonial era Colonial era Stamp Act Congress Thirteen Colonies Continental Congress Continental Association United Colonies military history Founding Fathers Halifax Resolves Lee Resolution Declaration of Independence American Revolution War Treaty of Paris Articles of Confederation Perpetual Union Confederation period American frontier Constitution drafting and ratification Bill of Rights Federalist Era War of 1812 Territorial evolution Mexican–American War Civil War Reconstruction era Indian Wars Native genocide Gilded Age Progressive Era Women's suffrage Civil rights movement 1865–1896 1896–1954 1954–1968 Spanish–American War Imperialism World War I Roaring Twenties Great Depression World War II home front American Century Cold War Korean War Space Race Feminist Movement LGBTQ Movement Vietnam War Post-Cold War (1991–2016) September 11 attacks War on Terror War in Afghanistan Iraq War Great Recession COVID-19 pandemic By topic Outline of U.S. history Demographic Discoveries Economic Inventions Military Postal Technological and industrial Geography Territory Contiguous United States counties federal district federal enclaves Indian reservations insular zones minor outlying islands populated places states Earthquakes Extreme points Islands Mountains peaks ranges Appalachian Rocky Sierra Nevada National Park Service National Parks Regions East Coast West Coast Great Plains Gulf Mid-Atlantic Midwestern New England Pacific Central Eastern Northern Northeastern Northwestern Southern Southeastern Southwestern Western Longest rivers Arkansas Colorado Columbia Mississippi Missouri Red (South) Rio Grande Yukon Time Water supply and sanitation World Heritage Sites Politics Federal Executive President of the United States powers Executive Office Vice President Cabinet Executive departments Independent agencies Intelligence Community Director of National Intelligence Central Intelligence Agency National Security Agency National Reconnaissance Office Law enforcement ATF CBP Diplomatic Security DEA FBI ICE Marshals Secret Service TSA Inspector generals Civil service Public policy Legislative House of Representatives current members Speaker Senate current members President pro tempore President Capitol Police Library of Congress Congressional Budget Office Government Accountability Office Government Publishing Office Judicial Supreme Court Chief Justice Associate Justices list Courts of appeals list of judges District courts / Territorial courts list of courts list of judges Other tribunals U.S. attorney Law Bill of Rights civil liberties Code of Federal Regulations Constitution federalism preemption separation of powers civil rights United States Code Uniformed Armed Forces Army Marine Corps Navy Air Force Space Force Coast Guard National Guard NOAA Corps Public Health Service Corps State , Federal District , and Territorial Executive Governor list Lieutenant governor list Secretary of state Attorney general Treasurer Auditor/Comptroller Agriculture commissioner Insurance commissioner Public utilities commission State police list Legislative List of legislatures List of legislators Judicial Supreme courts Chief justices District attorney list Law State constitutions Statutory codes Uniform act Comparison of governments Tribal Tribal sovereignty Native American recognition in the United States Federally recognized tribes Federally recognized Alaska Native tribes State-recognized tribes Indian reservation list Hawaiian home land Local County List of counties and county equivalents County executive Sheriff Clerk Cities Consolidated city-county Independent city Coterminous municipality Charter Mayor–council government Council–manager government City commission government Mayor City manager City council Minor divisions Township Town meeting Special district School district list Corruption Democratic backsliding Elections Electoral College Red states and blue states Foreign relations foreign policy Imperial presidency Ideologies Anti-Americanism exceptionalism nationalism Parties Democratic Republican Third parties Scandals Economy By sector Agriculture Banking Communications Companies Energy Insurance Manufacturing Mining Science and technology Tourism Trade by state Currency Exports Federal budget Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Federal Reserve System Financial position Labor unions Public debt Social welfare programs Taxation Unemployment Wall Street Transport Aviation Driving Public transportation Rail transportation Transportation policy Transportation safety Trucking industry Society Culture Americana Architecture Cinema Crime Cuisine Dance Demographics Economic issues affluence eviction homeownership household income income inequality middle class personal income poverty standard of living wealth working class Education attainment literacy Family Fashion Flag list Folklore Holidays Federal holidays Homelessness Housing Human rights Languages American English Indigenous languages ASL Literature Media journalism internet newspapers radio television Music Names National anthem National symbols Columbia Mount Rushmore Statue of Liberty Uncle Sam People Philosophy Political ideologies Race Religion Sexuality Social class Society Sports history Theater Transportation Video games Visual art Social class Affluence American Dream Educational attainment Homelessness Homeownership Household income Income inequality Middle class Personal income Poverty Standard of living Health Aging Healthcare Abortion Birth control Prenatal care Hospice care Immigrant health care Rationing Health care finance Health insurance costs Health care prices Prescription drug prices Disability Health insurance Food safety Physician shortage Poverty and health Race and health Obesity Medical deserts Women's reproductive health Life expectancy Issues Capital punishment Crime incarceration Criticism of government Discrimination affirmative action antisemitism intersex rights Islamophobia LGBTQ rights racism Native American African American Energy policy Environmental issues Environmental movement Climate change Gun politics Mass shootings Hunger Smoking Human rights Immigration illegal National security Terrorism Opioid epidemic Separation of church and state Xenophobia Outline Index Category Portal v t e National bicameral legislatures Federal Argentina Australia Austria Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Brazil Canada Ethiopia India Malaysia Mexico Nepal Nigeria Pakistan Russia Somalia South Sudan Sudan Switzerland United States Unitary Algeria Antigua and Barbuda Bahamas Bahrain Barbados Belarus Belize Bhutan Bolivia Burundi Cambodia Cameroon Chad Chile Colombia Democratic Republic of the Congo Republic of the Congo Czech Republic Dominican Republic Egypt Equatorial Guinea Eswatini France Gabon Grenada Haiti Indonesia Ireland Italy Ivory Coast Jamaica Japan Jordan Kazakhstan Kenya Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Morocco Myanmar Namibia Netherlands Oman Palau Paraguay Philippines Poland Romania Rwanda Saint Lucia Slovenia South Africa Spain Tajikistan Thailand Togo Trinidad and Tobago Tunisia United Kingdom Uruguay Uzbekistan Zimbabwe Dependent and other territories American Samoa Bermuda Isle of Man Northern Mariana Islands Puerto Rico Non-UN states Somaliland Historical Venezuela (1811–1999) Confederate States (1862–1865) Czechoslovakia (1920–1939) (1969–1992) Estonia (1938–1940) Serbia (1901–1903) Soviet Union (1938–1991) Texas (1836–1845) Yugoslavia (1931–1939, 1945–1963, 1974–1992) FR Yugoslavia (1992–2003) Ottoman Empire (1876–1878, 1908–1920) Related Unicameralism Tricameralism Multicameralism List of legislatures by country National unicameral legislatures National lower houses National upper houses v t e National legislative bodies of the Americas Sovereign states Antigua and Barbuda Argentina Bahamas Barbados Belize Bolivia Brazil Canada Chile Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador El Salvador France Grenada Guatemala Guyana Haiti Honduras Jamaica Mexico Nicaragua Panama Paraguay Peru Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Suriname Trinidad and Tobago United States Uruguay Venezuela Dependencies and other territories Anguilla Aruba Bermuda British Virgin Islands Cayman Islands Curaçao Falkland Islands Greenland Montserrat Puerto Rico Saint Barthélemy Saint Pierre and Miquelon Sint Maarten Turks and Caicos Islands US Virgin Islands v t e United States congresses (and year convened) v t e 1 (1789) 2 (1791) 3 (1793) 4 (1795) 5 (1797) 6 (1799) 7 (1801) 8 (1803) 9 (1805) 10 (1807) 11 (1809) 12 (1811) 13 (1813) 14 (1815) 15 (1817) 16 (1819) 17 (1821) 18 (1823) 19 (1825) 20 (1827) 21 (1829) 22 (1831) 23 (1833) 24 (1835) 25 (1837) 26 (1839) 27 (1841) 28 (1843) 29 (1845) 30 (1847) 31 (1849) 32 (1851) 33 (1853) 34 (1855) 35 (1857) 36 (1859) 37 (1861) 38 (1863) 39 (1865) 40 (1867) 41 (1869) 42 (1871) 43 (1873) 44 (1875) 45 (1877) 46 (1879) 47 (1881) 48 (1883) 49 (1885) 50 (1887) 51 (1889) 52 (1891) 53 (1893) 54 (1895) 55 (1897) 56 (1899) 57 (1901) 58 (1903) 59 (1905) 60 (1907) 61 (1909) 62 (1911) 63 (1913) 64 (1915) 65 (1917) 66 (1919) 67 (1921) 68 (1923) 69 (1925) 70 (1927) 71 (1929) 72 (1931) 73 (1933) 74 (1935) 75 (1937) 76 (1939) 77 (1941) 78 (1943) 79 (1945) 80 (1947) 81 (1949) 82 (1951) 83 (1953) 84 (1955) 85 (1957) 86 (1959) 87 (1961) 88 (1963) 89 (1965) 90 (1967) 91 (1969) 92 (1971) 93 (1973) 94 (1975) 95 (1977) 96 (1979) 97 (1981) 98 (1983) 99 (1985) 100 (1987) 101 (1989) 102 (1991) 103 (1993) 104 (1995) 105 (1997) 106 (1999) 107 (2001) 108 (2003) 109 (2005) 110 (2007) 111 (2009) 112 (2011) 113 (2013) 114 (2015) 115 (2017) 116 (2019) 117 (2021) 118 (2023) 119 (2025) 120 (2027) 1 (1789) 2 (1791) 3 (1793) 4 (1795) 5 (1797) 6 (1799) 7 (1801) 8 (1803) 9 (1805) 10 (1807) 1 (1789) 2 (1791) 3 (1793) 4 (1795) 5 (1797) 6 (1799) 7 (1801) 8 (1803) 9 (1805) 10 (1807) 11 (1809) 12 (1811) 13 (1813) 14 (1815) 15 (1817) 16 (1819) 17 (1821) 18 (1823) 19 (1825) 20 (1827) 11 (1809) 12 (1811) 13 (1813) 14 (1815) 15 (1817) 16 (1819) 17 (1821) 18 (1823) 19 (1825) 20 (1827) 21 (1829) 22 (1831) 23 (1833) 24 (1835) 25 (1837) 26 (1839) 27 (1841) 28 (1843) 29 (1845) 30 (1847) 21 (1829) 22 (1831) 23 (1833) 24 (1835) 25 (1837) 26 (1839) 27 (1841) 28 (1843) 29 (1845) 30 (1847) 31 (1849) 32 (1851) 33 (1853) 34 (1855) 35 (1857) 36 (1859) 37 (1861) 38 (1863) 39 (1865) 40 (1867) 31 (1849) 32 (1851) 33 (1853) 34 (1855) 35 (1857) 36 (1859) 37 (1861) 38 (1863) 39 (1865) 40 (1867) 41 (1869) 42 (1871) 43 (1873) 44 (1875) 45 (1877) 46 (1879) 47 (1881) 48 (1883) 49 (1885) 50 (1887) 41 (1869) 42 (1871) 43 (1873) 44 (1875) 45 (1877) 46 (1879) 47 (1881) 48 (1883) 49 (1885) 50 (1887) 51 (1889) 52 (1891) 53 (1893) 54 (1895) 55 (1897) 56 (1899) 57 (1901) 58 (1903) 59 (1905) 60 (1907) 51 (1889) 52 (1891) 53 (1893) 54 (1895) 55 (1897) 56 (1899) 57 (1901) 58 (1903) 59 (1905) 60 (1907) 61 (1909) 62 (1911) 63 (1913) 64 (1915) 65 (1917) 66 (1919) 67 (1921) 68 (1923) 69 (1925) 70 (1927) 61 (1909) 62 (1911) 63 (1913) 64 (1915) 65 (1917) 66 (1919) 67 (1921) 68 (1923) 69 (1925) 70 (1927) 71 (1929) 72 (1931) 73 (1933) 74 (1935) 75 (1937) 76 (1939) 77 (1941) 78 (1943) 79 (1945) 80 (1947) 71 (1929) 72 (1931) 73 (1933) 74 (1935) 75 (1937) 76 (1939) 77 (1941) 78 (1943) 79 (1945) 80 (1947) 81 (1949) 82 (1951) 83 (1953) 84 (1955) 85 (1957) 86 (1959) 87 (1961) 88 (1963) 89 (1965) 90 (1967) 81 (1949) 82 (1951) 83 (1953) 84 (1955) 85 (1957) 86 (1959) 87 (1961) 88 (1963) 89 (1965) 90 (1967) 91 (1969) 92 (1971) 93 (1973) 94 (1975) 95 (1977) 96 (1979) 97 (1981) 98 (1983) 99 (1985) 100 (1987) 91 (1969) 92 (1971) 93 (1973) 94 (1975) 95 (1977) 96 (1979) 97 (1981) 98 (1983) 99 (1985) 100 (1987) 101 (1989) 102 (1991) 103 (1993) 104 (1995) 105 (1997) 106 (1999) 107 (2001) 108 (2003) 109 (2005) 110 (2007) 101 (1989) 102 (1991) 103 (1993) 104 (1995) 105 (1997) 106 (1999) 107 (2001) 108 (2003) 109 (2005) 110 (2007) 111 (2009) 112 (2011) 113 (2013) 114 (2015) 115 (2017) 116 (2019) 117 (2021) 118 (2023) 119 (2025) 120 (2027) 111 (2009) 112 (2011) 113 (2013) 114 (2015) 115 (2017) 116 (2019) 117 (2021) 118 (2023) 119 (2025) 120 (2027) v t e Lists of United States congressional delegations v t e States Alabama H S Alaska H S Arizona H S Arkansas H S California H S Colorado H S Connecticut H S Delaware H S Florida H S Georgia H S Hawaii H S Idaho H S Illinois H S Indiana H S Iowa H S Kansas H S Kentucky H S Louisiana H S Maine H S Maryland H S Massachusetts H S Michigan H S Minnesota H S Mississippi H S Missouri H S Montana H S Nebraska H S Nevada H S New Hampshire H S New Jersey H S New Mexico H S New York H S North Carolina H S North Dakota H S Ohio H S Oklahoma H S Oregon H S Pennsylvania H S Rhode Island H S South Carolina H S South Dakota H S Tennessee H S Texas H S Utah H S Vermont H S Virginia H S Washington H S West Virginia H S Wisconsin H S Wyoming H S Alabama H S H S Alaska H S H S Arizona H S H S Arkansas H S H S California H S H S Colorado H S H S Connecticut H S H S Delaware H S H S Florida H S H S Georgia H S H S Hawaii H S H S Idaho H S H S Illinois H S H S Indiana H S H S Iowa H S H S Kansas H S H S Kentucky H S H S Louisiana H S H S Maine H S H S Maryland H S H S Massachusetts H S H S Michigan H S H S Minnesota H S H S Mississippi H S H S Missouri H S H S Montana H S H S Nebraska H S H S Nevada H S H S New Hampshire H S H S New Jersey H S H S New Mexico H S H S New York H S H S North Carolina H S H S North Dakota H S H S Ohio H S H S Oklahoma H S H S Oregon H S H S Pennsylvania H S H S Rhode Island H S H S South Carolina H S H S South Dakota H S H S Tennessee H S H S Texas H S H S Utah H S H S Vermont H S H S Virginia H S H S Washington H S H S West Virginia H S H S Wisconsin H S H S Wyoming H S H S Others American Samoa District of Columbia Guam Northern Mariana Islands Puerto Rico U.S. Virgin Islands Proposed ( Cherokee ) American Samoa District of Columbia Guam Northern Mariana Islands Puerto Rico U.S. Virgin Islands Proposed ( Cherokee ) Obsolete Dakota Territory Northwest Territory Orleans Territory Philippines Southwest Territory Dakota Territory Northwest Territory Orleans Territory Philippines Southwest Territory Lists of former representatives List of former senators Lists of former representatives List of former senators v t e Lists of acts of the United States Congress v t e By congress 74th 103rd 104th 105th 106th 107th 108th 109th 110th 111th 112th 113th 114th 115th 116th 117th 118th 119th 74th 103rd 104th 105th 106th 107th 108th 109th 110th 111th 112th 113th 114th 115th 116th 117th 118th 119th By year 1789–1901 1901–2001 2001–present 1789–1901 1901–2001 2001–present By topic African-Americans Education Energy Environment U.S. Forest Service Immigration Tariffs African-Americans Education Energy Environment U.S. Forest Service Immigration Tariffs v t e Legislatures of the United States v t e United States Congress United States House of Representatives United States Senate United States House of Representatives United States Senate State legislatures Alabama ( H , S ) Alaska ( H , S ) Arizona ( H , S ) Arkansas ( H , S ) California ( A , S ) Colorado ( H , S ) Connecticut ( H , S ) Delaware ( H , S ) Florida ( H , S ) Georgia ( H , S ) Hawaii ( H , S ) Idaho ( H , S ) Illinois ( H , S ) Indiana ( H , S ) Iowa ( H , S ) Kansas ( H , S ) Kentucky ( H , S ) Louisiana ( H , S ) Maine ( H , S ) Maryland ( H , S ) Massachusetts ( H , S ) Michigan ( H , S ) Minnesota ( H , S ) Mississippi ( H , S ) Missouri ( H , S ) Montana ( H , S ) Nebraska Nevada ( A , S ) New Hampshire ( H , S ) New Jersey ( GA , S ) New Mexico ( H , S ) New York ( A , S ) North Carolina ( H , S ) North Dakota ( H , S ) Ohio ( H , S ) Oklahoma ( H , S ) Oregon ( H , S ) Pennsylvania ( H , S ) Rhode Island ( H , S ) South Carolina ( H , S ) South Dakota ( H , S ) Tennessee ( H , S ) Texas ( H , S ) Utah ( H , S ) Vermont ( H , S ) Virginia ( H , S ) Washington ( H , S ) West Virginia ( H , S ) Wisconsin ( A , S ) Wyoming ( H , S ) Alabama ( H , S ) Alaska ( H , S ) Arizona ( H , S ) Arkansas ( H , S ) California ( A , S ) Colorado ( H , S ) Connecticut ( H , S ) Delaware ( H , S ) Florida ( H , S ) Georgia ( H , S ) Hawaii ( H , S ) Idaho ( H , S ) Illinois ( H , S ) Indiana ( H , S ) Iowa ( H , S ) Kansas ( H , S ) Kentucky ( H , S ) Louisiana ( H , S ) Maine ( H , S ) Maryland ( H , S ) Massachusetts ( H , S ) Michigan ( H , S ) Minnesota ( H , S ) Mississippi ( H , S ) Missouri ( H , S ) Montana ( H , S ) Nebraska Nevada ( A , S ) New Hampshire ( H , S ) New Jersey ( GA , S ) New Mexico ( H , S ) New York ( A , S ) North Carolina ( H , S ) North Dakota ( H , S ) Ohio ( H , S ) Oklahoma ( H , S ) Oregon ( H , S ) Pennsylvania ( H , S ) Rhode Island ( H , S ) South Carolina ( H , S ) South Dakota ( H , S ) Tennessee ( H , S ) Texas ( H , S ) Utah ( H , S ) Vermont ( H , S ) Virginia ( H , S ) Washington ( H , S ) West Virginia ( H , S ) Wisconsin ( A , S ) Wyoming ( H , S ) Other legislatures District of Columbia American Samoa ( H , S ) Guam Northern Mariana Islands ( H , S ) Puerto Rico ( H , S ) U.S. Virgin Islands District of Columbia American Samoa ( H , S ) Guam Northern Mariana Islands ( H , S ) Puerto Rico ( H , S ) U.S. Virgin Islands Legislative elections 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 List of U.S. state legislators Lists of past U.S. state legislatures List of U.S. state legislators Lists of past U.S. state legislatures v t e United States v t e History By period 1776–1789 1789–1815 1815–1849 1849–1865 1865–1917 1917–1945 1945–1964 1964–1980 1980–1991 1991–2016 2016–present By event Pre-colonial era Colonial era Stamp Act Congress Thirteen Colonies Continental Congress Continental Association United Colonies military history Founding Fathers Halifax Resolves Lee Resolution Declaration of Independence American Revolution War Treaty of Paris Articles of Confederation Perpetual Union Confederation period American frontier Constitution drafting and ratification Bill of Rights Federalist Era War of 1812 Territorial evolution Mexican–American War Civil War Reconstruction era Indian Wars Native genocide Gilded Age Progressive Era Women's suffrage Civil rights movement 1865–1896 1896–1954 1954–1968 Spanish–American War Imperialism World War I Roaring Twenties Great Depression World War II home front American Century Cold War Korean War Space Race Feminist Movement LGBTQ Movement Vietnam War Post-Cold War (1991–2016) September 11 attacks War on Terror War in Afghanistan Iraq War Great Recession COVID-19 pandemic By topic Outline of U.S. history Demographic Discoveries Economic Inventions Military Postal Technological and industrial By period 1776–1789 1789–1815 1815–1849 1849–1865 1865–1917 1917–1945 1945–1964 1964–1980 1980–1991 1991–2016 2016–present 1776–1789 1789–1815 1815–1849 1849–1865 1865–1917 1917–1945 1945–1964 1964–1980 1980–1991 1991–2016 2016–present By event Pre-colonial era Colonial era Stamp Act Congress Thirteen Colonies Continental Congress 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We gratefully acknowledge support from the Simons Foundation, member institutions , and all contributors. Donate Help | Advanced Search Showing 1–2 of 2 results for author: Bobe, F Show abstracts Hide abstracts arXiv:2601.10524 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI Diagnosing Generalization Failures in Fine-Tuned LLMs: A Cross-Architectural Study on Phishing Detection Authors: Frank Bobe III , Gregory D. Vetaw , Chase Pavlick , Darshan Bryner , Matthew Cook , Jose Salas-Vernis Abstract : The practice of fine-tuning Large Language Models (LLMs) has achieved state-of-the-art performance on specialized tasks, yet diagnosing why these models become brittle and fail to generalize remains a critical open problem. To address this, we introduce and apply a multi-layered diagnostic framework to a cross-architectural study. We fine-tune Llama 3.1 8B, Gemma 2 9B, and Mistral models on a high… ▽ More The practice of fine-tuning Large Language Models (LLMs) has achieved state-of-the-art performance on specialized tasks, yet diagnosing why these models become brittle and fail to generalize remains a critical open problem. To address this, we introduce and apply a multi-layered diagnostic framework to a cross-architectural study. We fine-tune Llama 3.1 8B, Gemma 2 9B, and Mistral models on a high-stakes phishing detection task and use SHAP analysis and mechanistic interpretability to uncover the root causes of their generalization failures. Our investigation reveals three critical findings: (1) Generalization is driven by a powerful synergy between architecture and data diversity. The Gemma 2 9B model achieves state-of-the-art performance (>91\% F1), but only when trained on a stylistically diverse ``generalist'' dataset. (2) Generalization is highly architecture-dependent. We diagnose a specific failure mode in Llama 3.1 8B, which performs well on a narrow domain but cannot integrate diverse data, leading to a significant performance drop. (3) Some architectures are inherently more generalizable. The Mistral model proves to be a consistent and resilient performer across multiple training paradigms. By pinpointing the flawed heuristics responsible for these failures, our work provides a concrete methodology for diagnosing and understanding generalization failures, underscoring that reliable AI requires deep validation of the interplay between architecture, data, and training strategy. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 16 pages, 6 figures, 6 tables arXiv:2601.10524 [ pdf , ps , other ] Diagnosing Generalization Failures in Fine-Tuned LLMs: A Cross-Architectural Study on Phishing Detection Authors: Frank Bobe III , Gregory D. Vetaw , Chase Pavlick , Darshan Bryner , Matthew Cook , Jose Salas-Vernis Abstract : The practice of fine-tuning Large Language Models (LLMs) has achieved state-of-the-art performance on specialized tasks, yet diagnosing why these models become brittle and fail to generalize remains a critical open problem. To address this, we introduce and apply a multi-layered diagnostic framework to a cross-architectural study. We fine-tune Llama 3.1 8B, Gemma 2 9B, and Mistral models on a high… ▽ More The practice of fine-tuning Large Language Models (LLMs) has achieved state-of-the-art performance on specialized tasks, yet diagnosing why these models become brittle and fail to generalize remains a critical open problem. To address this, we introduce and apply a multi-layered diagnostic framework to a cross-architectural study. We fine-tune Llama 3.1 8B, Gemma 2 9B, and Mistral models on a high-stakes phishing detection task and use SHAP analysis and mechanistic interpretability to uncover the root causes of their generalization failures. Our investigation reveals three critical findings: (1) Generalization is driven by a powerful synergy between architecture and data diversity. The Gemma 2 9B model achieves state-of-the-art performance (>91\% F1), but only when trained on a stylistically diverse ``generalist'' dataset. (2) Generalization is highly architecture-dependent. We diagnose a specific failure mode in Llama 3.1 8B, which performs well on a narrow domain but cannot integrate diverse data, leading to a significant performance drop. (3) Some architectures are inherently more generalizable. The Mistral model proves to be a consistent and resilient performer across multiple training paradigms. By pinpointing the flawed heuristics responsible for these failures, our work provides a concrete methodology for diagnosing and understanding generalization failures, underscoring that reliable AI requires deep validation of the interplay between architecture, data, and training strategy. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 16 pages, 6 figures, 6 tables arXiv:2308.11633 [ pdf , other ] eess.SP cs.CV cs.LG Advances in Self-Supervised Learning for Synthetic Aperture Sonar Data Processing, Classification, and Pattern Recognition Authors: Brandon Sheffield , Frank E. Bobe III , Bradley Marchand , Matthew S. Emigh Abstract : Synthetic Aperture Sonar (SAS) imaging has become a crucial technology for underwater exploration because of its unique ability to maintain resolution at increasing ranges, a characteristic absent in conventional sonar techniques. However, the effective application of deep learning to SAS data processing is often limited due to the scarcity of labeled data. To address this challenge, this paper pr… ▽ More Synthetic Aperture Sonar (SAS) imaging has become a crucial technology for underwater exploration because of its unique ability to maintain resolution at increasing ranges, a characteristic absent in conventional sonar techniques. However, the effective application of deep learning to SAS data processing is often limited due to the scarcity of labeled data. To address this challenge, this paper proposes MoCo-SAS that leverages self-supervised learning (SSL) for SAS data processing, classification, and pattern recognition. The experimental results demonstrate that MoCo-SAS significantly outperforms traditional supervised learning methods, as evidenced by significant improvements observed in terms of the F1-score. These findings highlight the potential of SSL in advancing the state-of-the-art in SAS data processing, offering promising avenues for enhanced underwater object detection and classification. △ Less Submitted 12 August, 2023; originally announced August 2023. arXiv:2308.11633 [ pdf , other ] Advances in Self-Supervised Learning for Synthetic Aperture Sonar Data Processing, Classification, and Pattern Recognition Authors: Brandon Sheffield , Frank E. Bobe III , Bradley Marchand , Matthew S. Emigh Abstract : Synthetic Aperture Sonar (SAS) imaging has become a crucial technology for underwater exploration because of its unique ability to maintain resolution at increasing ranges, a characteristic absent in conventional sonar techniques. However, the effective application of deep learning to SAS data processing is often limited due to the scarcity of labeled data. To address this challenge, this paper pr… ▽ More Synthetic Aperture Sonar (SAS) imaging has become a crucial technology for underwater exploration because of its unique ability to maintain resolution at increasing ranges, a characteristic absent in conventional sonar techniques. However, the effective application of deep learning to SAS data processing is often limited due to the scarcity of labeled data. To address this challenge, this paper proposes MoCo-SAS that leverages self-supervised learning (SSL) for SAS data processing, classification, and pattern recognition. The experimental results demonstrate that MoCo-SAS significantly outperforms traditional supervised learning methods, as evidenced by significant improvements observed in terms of the F1-score. These findings highlight the potential of SSL in advancing the state-of-the-art in SAS data processing, offering promising avenues for enhanced underwater object detection and classification. △ Less Submitted 12 August, 2023; originally announced August 2023. About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack
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https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&query=Bobe,+F
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Nayriri Uñstawi Jayma punku Jichha kutikiptatanaka Página aleatoria Yanapaña Ramañanaka Crear una cuenta Acceder Ramañanaka Crear una cuenta Acceder Categoría : Jaqinaka Аԥсшәа Afrikaans Alemannisch Алтай тил አማርኛ Aragonés Ænglisc العربية ܐܪܡܝܐ الدارجة مصرى অসমীয়া Asturianu Авар अवधी Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Башҡортса Basa Bali Boarisch Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български भोजपुरी Bislama বাংলা བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Буряад Català 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Нохчийн Cebuano ᏣᎳᎩ Tsetsêhestâhese کوردی Corsu Qırımtatarca Čeština Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ Чӑвашла Cymraeg Dansk Dagbanli Deutsch Dagaare Thuɔŋjäŋ Zazaki Dolnoserbski Kadazandusun डोटेली ཇོང་ཁ Eʋegbe Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Fulfulde Suomi Võro Na Vosa Vakaviti Føroyskt Français Arpetan Furlan Frysk Gaeilge Gagauz 贛語 Kriyòl gwiyannen Galego Avañe'ẽ Bahasa Hulontalo ગુજરાતી Gaelg Hausa 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Hornjoserbsce Kreyòl ayisyen Magyar Հայերեն Արեւմտահայերէն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Interlingue Ilokano Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Patois La .lojban. Jawa ქართული Qaraqalpaqsha Адыгэбзэ Қазақша 한국어 Перем коми Къарачай-малкъар Kurdî Kernowek Кыргызча Latina Ladino Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lingua Franca Nova Limburgs Ligure Lombard Lingála ລາວ Lietuvių Latgaļu Latviešu Madhurâ मैथिली Basa Banyumasan Мокшень Malagasy Олык марий Māori Minangkabau Македонски മലയാളം Монгол ဘာသာမန် मराठी Кырык мары Bahasa Melayu Malti Mirandés မြန်မာဘာသာ Эрзянь مازِرونی Napulitano Plattdüütsch Nedersaksies नेपाल भाषा Li Niha Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Nouormand Occitan Livvinkarjala Ирон ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Kapampangan Papiamentu Picard Naijá Deitsch Pälzisch Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Rumantsch Română Tarandíne Руски Русский Русиньскый Ikinyarwanda संस्कृतम् Саха тыла Sardu Sicilianu Scots سنڌي Davvisámegiella Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Anarâškielâ ChiShona Soomaaliga Shqip Српски / srpski Sranantongo SiSwati Seeltersk Sunda Svenska Kiswahili Ślůnski Sakizaya தமிழ் తెలుగు Тоҷикӣ ไทย Türkmençe Tagalog Tok Pisin Türkçe Татарча / tatarça ChiTumbuka Reo tahiti Тыва дыл Удмурт ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt West-Vlams Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 Хальмг IsiXhosa მარგალური ייִדיש Yorùbá Vahcuengh Zeêuws 中文 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí 粵語 IsiZulu Patawi Tuqisiwi Leer Editar Chimp askichaña Ver historial Leer Editar Chimp askichaña Ver historial Lo que enlaza aquí Cambios relacionados Subir archivo Enlace permanente Información de la página Obtener URL acortado Descargar código QR Cambiar al analizador antiguo Crear un libro Descargar como PDF Versión para imprimir Wikimedia Commons Wikiespecies Elemento de Wikidata Plantilla:Commonscat Plantilla:Commonscat Subcategorías Esta categoría contiene las siguientes 17 subcategorías, de un total de 17. A Jaqinaka (Asya) (2 C) Jaqinaka (Awya Yala) (18 C) C Chexya Ripublika jaqinaka (1 C, 3 P) China jaqinaka (1 C, 25 P) I Indya jaqinaka (1 C, 4 P) Irlandiya jaqinaka (1 C, 4 P) Ispaña jaqinaka (3 C, 56 P) Jaqinaka (Iwrupa) (21 C) K Kruwatiya jaqinaka (2 P) P Papanaka (15 P) Phransiya jaqinaka (5 C, 52 P) Piruw jaqinaka (7 C, 255 P) R Rusiya jaqinaka (2 C, 16 P) S Sirwiya jaqinaka (3 P) Swisya jaqinaka (1 P) Switsira jaqinaka (2 P) U Ukraniya jaqinaka (5 P) Páginas en la categoría «Jaqinaka» Las siguientes 3 páginas pertenecen a esta categoría, de un total de 3. A Anakithiri Ayllu L Ludovico Bertonio Patawinaka Esta página se editó por última vez el 7 ach 2013 a las 18:09. La página fue renderizada con Parsoid . El texto está disponible bajo la Licencia Creative Commons Atribución-CompartirIgual 4.0 . Pueden existir condiciones adicionales. Véanse los términos de uso para más detalles. Política de privacidad Acerca de Wikipedia Descargos Código de conducta Desarrolladores Estadísticas Declaración de cookies Versión para móviles
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https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Categor%C3%ADa:Jaqinaka
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History 2 Activities 3 Services Toggle Services subsection 3.1 Publications 3.2 Portal and Digital Library 3.1 Publications 3.2 Portal and Digital Library 4 Membership grades Toggle Membership grades subsection 4.1 Fellows 4.2 Distinguished Members 4.3 Senior Members 4.4 Distinguished Speakers 4.1 Fellows 4.2 Distinguished Members 4.3 Senior Members 4.4 Distinguished Speakers 5 Chapters Toggle Chapters subsection 5.1 Special Interest Groups 5.1 Special Interest Groups 6 Conferences 7 Awards 8 Leadership 9 Infrastructure 10 ACM Council on Women in Computing 11 Partner organizations 12 Criticism 13 See also 14 References 15 External links Association for Computing Machinery العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Piemontèis Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 粵語 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item This article may contain excessive or inappropriate references to self-published sources . Please help improve it by removing references to unreliable sources where they are used inappropriately. ( August 2023 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) Formation September 15, 1947 ; 78 years ago ( 1947-09-15 ) [ 1 ] Type 501(c)(3) not-for-profit membership corporation Tax ID no. 13-1921358 Headquarters 1601 Broadway, Times Square, New York City Membership 110,000 President Yannis Ioannidis Website acm .org The Association for Computing Machinery ( ACM ) is an international learned society for computing founded on September 15, 1947, and headquartered in New York City . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] The ACM is a non-profit professional membership group, [ 3 ] reporting nearly 110,000 student and professional members as of 2024 [update] . [ 4 ] The ACM is an umbrella organization for academic and scholarly interests in computer science ( informatics ). Its motto is "Advancing Computing as a Science & Profession". [ 2 ] History In 1947, a notice was sent to various people: [ 5 ] [ 6 ] On January 10, 1947, at the Symposium on Large-Scale Digital Calculating Machinery at the Harvard computation Laboratory, Professor Samuel H. Caldwell of Massachusetts Institute of Technology spoke of the need for an association of those interested in computing machinery, and of the need for communication between them. [...] After making some inquiries during May and June, we believe there is ample interest to start an informal association of many of those interested in the new machinery for computing and reasoning. Since there has to be a beginning, we are acting as a temporary committee to start such an association: E. C. Berkeley , Prudential Insurance Co. of America , Newark, N. J. R. V. D. Campbell, Raytheon Manufacturing Co. , Waltham, Mass. John H. Curtiss [ de ] , Bureau of Standards , Washington, D.C. H. E. Goheen, Office of Naval Research , Boston, Mass. J. W. Mauchly , Electronic Control Co. , Philadelphia, Pa. T. K. Sharpless, Moore School of Elec. Eng. , Philadelphia, Pa. R. Taylor, Mass. Inst. of Tech. , Cambridge, Mass. C. B. Tompkins, Engineering Research Associates , Washington, D.C. On January 10, 1947, at the Symposium on Large-Scale Digital Calculating Machinery at the Harvard computation Laboratory, Professor Samuel H. Caldwell of Massachusetts Institute of Technology spoke of the need for an association of those interested in computing machinery, and of the need for communication between them. [...] After making some inquiries during May and June, we believe there is ample interest to start an informal association of many of those interested in the new machinery for computing and reasoning. Since there has to be a beginning, we are acting as a temporary committee to start such an association: The committee (except for Curtiss) had gained experience with computers during World War II : Berkeley, Campbell, and Goheen helped build Harvard Mark I under Howard H. Aiken , Mauchly and Sharpless were involved in building ENIAC , Tompkins had used "the secret Navy code-breaking machines", and Taylor had worked on Bush 's Differential analyzers . [ 6 ] The ACM was then founded on September 15, 1947, under the name Eastern Association for Computing Machinery , which was changed the following year to the Association for Computing Machinery. [ 7 ] [ 8 ] [ 9 ] The ACM History Committee since 2016 has published the A.M.Turing Oral History project, the ACM Key Award Winners Video Series, and the India Industry Leaders Video project. [ 10 ] Activities ACM is organized into over 180 local professional chapters [ 11 ] and 38 Special Interest Groups (SIGs), [ 12 ] through which it conducts most of its activities. Additionally, there are over 680 student chapters. [ 11 ] The first student chapter was founded in 1961 at the University of Louisiana at Lafayette . [ 13 ] [ 14 ] Many of the SIGs, such as SIGGRAPH , SIGDA , SIGPLAN , SIGCSE and SIGCOMM , sponsor regular conferences, that serve as major publication venues in their respective fields. The groups also publish a large number of specialized journals, magazines, and newsletters. [ 15 ] ACM also sponsors other computer science related events such as the worldwide ACM International Collegiate Programming Contest (ICPC), and has sponsored some other events such as the chess match between Garry Kasparov and the IBM Deep Blue computer. [ 16 ] Services Publications ACM publishes over 50 journals, [ 17 ] such as the Journal of the ACM which academic citation metrics rank among the top computer science publications, [ 18 ] and two general magazines for computer professionals, Communications of the ACM (also known as Communications or CACM ) and Queue . Other publications of the ACM include: ACM XRDS , formerly "Crossroads", was redesigned in 2010 and is the most popular student computing magazine in the US. ACM Interactions , an interdisciplinary HCI publication focused on the connections between experiences, people and technology, and the third largest ACM publication. [ 19 ] ACM Computing Surveys (CSUR) Computers in Entertainment (CIE) ACM Journal on Emerging Technologies in Computing Systems (JETC) ACM Special Interest Group: Computers and Society (SIGCAS) [ 20 ] A number of journals, specific to subfields of computer science, titled ACM Transactions . Some of the more notable transactions include: ACM Transactions on Algorithms (TALG) ACM Transactions on Embedded Computing Systems (TECS) ACM Transactions on Computer Systems (TOCS) IEEE/ACM Transactions on Computational Biology and Bioinformatics now published through the IEEE and entitled IEEE Transactions on Computational Biology and Bioinformatics (TCBB) ACM Transactions on Computational Logic (TOCL) ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction (TOCHI) ACM Transactions on Database Systems (TODS) ACM Transactions on Graphics (TOG) ACM Transactions on Mathematical Software (TOMS) ACM Transactions on Multimedia Computing, Communications, and Applications (TOMM) IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking (TON) ACM Transactions on Programming Languages and Systems (TOPLAS) Games: Research and Practice ACM Transactions on Algorithms (TALG) ACM Transactions on Embedded Computing Systems (TECS) ACM Transactions on Computer Systems (TOCS) IEEE/ACM Transactions on Computational Biology and Bioinformatics now published through the IEEE and entitled IEEE Transactions on Computational Biology and Bioinformatics (TCBB) ACM Transactions on Computational Logic (TOCL) ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction (TOCHI) ACM Transactions on Database Systems (TODS) ACM Transactions on Graphics (TOG) ACM Transactions on Mathematical Software (TOMS) ACM Transactions on Multimedia Computing, Communications, and Applications (TOMM) IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking (TON) ACM Transactions on Programming Languages and Systems (TOPLAS) Games: Research and Practice Communications transitioned from publishing primary research to focusing on broader industry perspectives. The publication has featured significant discussions and developments in computing history. ACM has made almost all of its publications available to paid subscribers online at its Digital Library and also has a Guide to Computing Literature . ACM also offers insurance, online courses, and other services to its members. In 1997, ACM Press published Wizards and Their Wonders: Portraits in Computing ( .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} ISBN 0897919602 ), written by Christopher Morgan, with new photographs by Louis Fabian Bachrach . The book is a collection of historic and current portrait photographs of figures from the computer industry. [ 21 ] Portal and Digital Library The ACM Portal is an online service of the ACM. [ 22 ] Its core are two main sections: ACM Digital Library and the ACM Guide to Computing Literature . [ 23 ] The ACM Digital Library was launched in October 1997. [ 24 ] It is the full-text collection of all articles published by the ACM in its articles, magazines and conference proceedings. The Guide is a bibliography in computing with over one million entries. [ 22 ] The ACM Digital Library contains a comprehensive archive starting in the 1950s of the organization's journals, magazines, newsletters and conference proceedings. Online services include a forum called Ubiquity and Tech News digest. There is an extensive underlying bibliographic database containing key works of all genres from all major publishers of computing literature. This secondary database is a rich discovery service known as The ACM Guide to Computing Literature. [ 25 ] ACM adopted a hybrid Open Access (OA) publishing model in 2013. Authors who do not choose to pay the OA fee must grant ACM publishing rights by either a copyright transfer agreement or a publishing license agreement. [ 26 ] ACM was a "green" publisher before the term was invented. [ 27 ] Authors may post documents on their own websites and in their institutional repositories with a link back to the ACM Digital Library's permanently maintained Version of Record. All metadata in the Digital Library is open to the world, including abstracts , linked references and citing works, citation and usage statistics, as well as all functionality and services. Other than the free articles, the full-texts are accessed by subscription. In addition, starting on April 7, 2022, ACM made its publications from 1951 to 2000 open access through the Digital Library in celebration of the 75th anniversary of the organization's founding. [ 28 ] In 2020, ACM launched a major push to become a fully open access publisher by 2026. ACM restructured its pricing for the ACM Digital Library on the basis of publishing activity by affiliated lead authors in ACM's journals, magazines, and conference proceedings. Under this model, termed "ACM Open," institutions pay set fees for full access to ACM Digital Library contents as well as unlimited open access publishing by their affiliated authors. Authors not affiliated with a participating institution will be expected to pay an article processing charge . [ 29 ] [ 30 ] As of May 2024, ACM reported that more than 1,340 institutions worldwide had signed on for ACM Open, putting ACM at just over halfway to meeting its target of 2,500 participating institutions by 2026. [ 31 ] Membership grades In addition to student and regular members, ACM has several advanced membership grades to recognize those with multiple years of membership and "demonstrated performance that sets them apart from their peers". [ 32 ] The number of Fellows, Distinguished Members, and Senior Members cannot exceed 1%, 10%, and 25% of the total number of professional members, respectively. [ 33 ] Fellows The ACM Fellows Program was established by Council of the Association for Computing Machinery in 1993 "to recognize and honor outstanding ACM members for their achievements in computer science and information technology and for their significant contributions to the mission of the ACM." There are 1,310 Fellows as of 2020 [update] [ 34 ] out of about 100,000 members. Distinguished Members In 2006, ACM began recognizing two additional membership grades, one which was called Distinguished Members. Distinguished Members (Distinguished Engineers, Distinguished Scientists, and Distinguished Educators) have at least 15 years of professional experience and 5 years of continuous ACM membership and "have made a significant impact on the computing field". In 2006 when the Distinguished Members first came out, one of the three levels was called "Distinguished Member" and was changed about two years later to "Distinguished Educator". Those who already had the Distinguished Member title had their titles changed to one of the other three titles. Senior Members Also in 2006, ACM began recognizing Senior Members. According to the ACM, "The Senior Members Grade recognizes those ACM members with at least 10 years of professional experience and 5 years of continuous Professional Membership who have demonstrated performance through technical leadership, and technical or professional contributions". [ 35 ] Senior membership also requires 3 letters of reference. Distinguished Speakers While not technically a membership grade, the ACM recognizes distinguished speakers on topics in computer science. A distinguished speaker is appointed for a three-year period. There are usually about 125 current distinguished speakers. The ACM maintains a speakers bureau of approximately 125 experts from academia, industry, and government who present on topics within their areas of expertise. [ 36 ] The distinguished speakers program (DSP) has been in existence for over 20 years and serves as an outreach program that brings renowned experts from Academia, Industry and Government to present on the topic of their expertise. [ 37 ] The DSP is overseen by a committee. [ 38 ] Chapters ACM has three kinds of chapters: Special Interest Groups , [ 39 ] Professional Chapters, and Student Chapters . [ 40 ] As of 2022 [update] , ACM has professional & SIG Chapters in 56 countries. [ 41 ] As of 2022 [update] , there exist ACM student chapters in 41 countries. [ 42 ] Special Interest Groups SIGACCESS : Accessible Computing SIGACT : Algorithms and Computation Theory SIGAda: Ada Programming Language SIGAI : Artificial Intelligence SIGAPP: Applied Computing SIGARCH : Computer Architecture SIGBED: Embedded Systems SIGBio: Bioinformatics SIGCAS: Computers and Society SIGCHI : Computer–Human Interaction SIGCOMM : Data Communication SIGCSE : Computer Science Education SIGDA : Design Automation SIGDOC : Design of Communication SIGecom: Electronic Commerce SIGEVO : Genetic and Evolutionary Computation SIGGRAPH : Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques SIGHPC : High Performance Computing SIGIR : Information Retrieval SIGITE: Information Technology Education SIGKDD : Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining SIGLOG: Logic and Computation [ 43 ] SIGMETRICS : Measurement and Evaluation SIGMICRO: Microarchitecture SIGMIS: Management Information Systems SIGMM : Multimedia SIGMOBILE : Mobility of Systems, Users, Data and Computing SIGMOD : Management of Data SIGOPS : Operating Systems SIGPLAN : Programming Languages SIGSAC: Security, Audit, and Control SIGSAM : Symbolic and Algebraic Manipulation SIGSIM: Simulation and Modeling SIGSOFT : Software Engineering SIGSPATIAL: Spatial Information SIGUCCS : University and College Computing Services SIGWEB : Hypertext, Hypermedia, and Web Conferences ACM and its Special Interest Groups (SIGs) sponsors numerous conferences worldwide. Most of the SIGs also have an annual conference. ACM conferences are widely recognized publication venues that typically maintain low acceptance rates. For example, SIGGRAPH 2007 attracted about 30000 attendees, while CIKM 2005 and RecSys 2022 had paper acceptance rates of only accepted 15% and 17% respectively. [ 44 ] AIES: Conference on AI, Ethics, and Society ASPLOS: International Conference on Architectural Support for Programming Languages and Operating Systems CHI: Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems CIKM: Conference on Information and Knowledge Management [ 45 ] COMPASS: International Conference on Computing and Sustainable Societies [ 46 ] DAC: Design Automation Conference DEBS: Distributed Event Based Systems [ 47 ] FAccT: Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency FCRC: Federated Computing Research Conference FOGA: Foundations of Genetic Algorithms GECCO: Genetic and Evolutionary Computation Conference HT: Hypertext: Conference on Hypertext and Hypermedia JCDL: Joint Conference on Digital Libraries [ 48 ] MobiHoc: International Symposium on Mobile Ad Hoc Networking and Computing SC: Supercomputing Conference SIGCOMM: ACM SIGCOMM Conference SIGCSE: SIGCSE Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education SIGGRAPH: International Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques RecSys: ACM Conference on Recommender Systems TAPIA: Richard Tapia Celebration of Diversity in Computing Conference The ACM is a co–presenter and founding partner of the Grace Hopper Celebration of Women in Computing (GHC) with the Anita Borg Institute for Women and Technology . [ 49 ] Some conferences are hosted by ACM student branches; this includes Reflections Projections, which is hosted by UIUC ACM. [ 50 ] In addition, ACM sponsors regional conferences. Regional conferences facilitate increased opportunities for collaboration between nearby institutions and they are well attended. For additional non-ACM conferences, see this list of computer science conferences . Awards The ACM presents or co–presents a number of awards for technical and professional achievements and contributions in computer science and information technology. [ 51 ] [ 52 ] [ 53 ] ACM A. M. Turing Award ACM – AAAI Allen Newell Award ACM Athena Lecturer Award ACM/CSTA Cutler-Bell Prize in High School Computing ACM Distinguished Service Award ACM Doctoral Dissertation Award [ 54 ] ACM Eugene L. Lawler Award ACM Fellowship , awarded annually since 1993 [ 55 ] ACM Gordon Bell Prize ACM Grace Murray Hopper Award ACM – IEEE CS George Michael Memorial HPC Fellowships ACM – IEEE CS Ken Kennedy Award ACM – IEEE Eckert–Mauchly Award ACM India Doctoral Dissertation Award ACM Karl V. Karlstrom Outstanding Educator Award ACM Paris Kanellakis Theory and Practice Award ACM Policy Award ACM Presidential Award ACM Prize in Computing (formerly: ACM – Infosys Foundation Award in the Computing Sciences) ACM Programming Systems and Languages Paper Award [ 56 ] ACM Student Research Competition ACM Software System Award International Science and Engineering Fair Outstanding Contribution to ACM Award SIAM/ACM Prize in Computational Science and Engineering Over 30 of ACM's Special Interest Groups also award individuals for their contributions with a few listed below. [ 57 ] ACM Alan D. Berenbaum Distinguished Service Award ACM Maurice Wilkes Award ISCA Influential Paper Award Leadership The President of ACM Yannis Ioannidis , who has served as in the role since 2022. ACM is led by a council consisting of the president, vice-president, treasurer, past president, SIG Governing Board Chair, Publications Board Chair, three representatives of the SIG Governing Board, and seven Members-At-Large. This institution is often referred to simply as "Council" in Communications of the ACM . Infrastructure ACM has numerous boards, committees, and task forces which run the organization: [ 58 ] ACM Council ACM Executive Committee Digital Library Board Education Board l Practitioner Board l Publications Board ACM Council on Women in Computing ACM-W , [ 59 ] the ACM council on women in computing , supports, celebrates, and advocates internationally for the full engagement of women in computing. ACM–W's main programs are regional celebrations of women in computing, ACM-W chapters, and scholarships for women CS students to attend research conferences. In India and Europe these activities are overseen by ACM-W India and ACM-W Europe respectively. ACM-W collaborates with organizations such as the Anita Borg Institute , the National Center for Women & Information Technology (NCWIT) , and Committee on the Status of Women in Computing Research (CRA-W) . The ACM-W gives an annual Athena Lecturer Award to honor outstanding women researchers who have made fundamental contributions to computer science. [ 60 ] This program began in 2006. Speakers are nominated by SIG officers. [ 61 ] Partner organizations ACM's primary partner has been the IEEE Computer Society (IEEE-CS), which is the largest subgroup of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). The IEEE focuses more on hardware and standardization issues than theoretical computer science , but there is considerable overlap with ACM's agenda. They have many joint activities including conferences, publications and awards. [ 62 ] ACM and its SIGs co-sponsor about 20 conferences each year with IEEE-CS and other parts of IEEE. [ 63 ] Eckert–Mauchly Award and Ken Kennedy Award , both major awards in computer science, are given jointly by ACM and the IEEE-CS. [ 64 ] They occasionally cooperate on projects like developing computing curricula. [ 65 ] ACM has also jointly sponsored on events with other professional organizations like the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics (SIAM). [ 66 ] Criticism In December 2019, the ACM co-signed a letter with over one hundred other publishers to President Donald Trump saying that an open access mandate would increase costs to taxpayers or researchers and hurt intellectual property . This was in response to rumors that he was considering issuing an executive order that would require federally funded research be made freely available online immediately after being published. It is unclear how these rumors started. [ 67 ] Many ACM members opposed the letter, leading ACM to issue a statement clarifying that they remained committed to open access, [ 68 ] and they wanted to see communication with stakeholders about the potential mandate. The statement did not significantly assuage criticism from ACM members. [ 69 ] See also ACM Classification Scheme Franz Alt , former president Edmund Berkeley , co-founder Computer science Computing Bernard Galler , former president Fellows of the ACM (by year) Fellows of the ACM (category) Grace Murray Hopper Award Timeline of computing hardware before 1950 Turing Award List of academic databases and search engines References ^ a b "ACM History" . Association for Computing Machinery . Archived from the original on January 1, 2016 . Retrieved August 14, 2025 . The Association for Computing Machinery was founded as the Eastern Association for Computing Machinery at a meeting at Columbia University in New York on September 15, 1947. Its creation was the logical outgrowth of increasing interest in computers as evidenced by several events,[...] ^ a b Misa, Thomas J. (November 10, 2016). "Communities of Computing: Computer Science and Society in the ACM" . Barnes & Noble . Retrieved October 6, 2025 . ^ Charity Navigator. "Rating for Association for Computing Machinery" . Charity Navigator . Retrieved October 6, 2025 . ^ "Renowned Computing Society Announces New Class of Distinguished Members" . Association for Computing Machinery. February 12, 2025 . Retrieved October 6, 2025 . ^ "Notice on Organization of an 'Eastern Association for Computing Machinery' " . ACM Records (CBI 205), Box 3, Folder 6 . June 25, 1947. ^ a b Robertson, L. (October 2005). "Anecdotes". IEEE Annals of the History of Computing . 27 (4): 89– 92. doi : 10.1109/MAHC.2005.53 . ^ "ACM History" . acm.org . Retrieved February 6, 2018 . ^ Mathematical Tables and other Aids to Computation 1948-01: Vol 3 Issue 21 . American Mathematical Society. January 1948. ^ The American Statistician June-July 1950: Vol 4 Iss 3 . American Statistical Association. June–July 1950. ^ "Oral Histories" . ACM History Committee . Association for Computing Machinery . Retrieved April 27, 2022 . ^ a b "About Chapters" . www.acm.org . Archived from the original on December 28, 2023 . Retrieved December 28, 2023 . ^ "Alphabetical Listing of ACM SIGs" . November 4, 2023. Archived from the original on November 4, 2023 . Retrieved December 28, 2023 . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ( link ) ^ Note: The school was then [1961] known as the " University of Southwestern Louisiana (USL)". (Its name was later changed [in 1999] to the " University of Louisiana at Lafayette ".) ^ "Student Chapters" . School of Computing & Informatics . May 26, 2015. Archived from the original on September 26, 2023 . Retrieved December 28, 2023 . ^ Vaggalis, Nikos (April 7, 2020). "Access ACM Digital Library for Free" . i-programmer.info . Retrieved August 5, 2023 . ^ "How IBM's Deep Blue Beat World Champion Chess Player Garry Kasparov – IEEE Spectrum" . IEEE . Retrieved December 28, 2023 . ^ "Journals & Magazines" . acm.org . ^ Lowry, Paul Benjamin; Romans, Denton; Curtis, Aaron (2004). "Global Journal Prestige and Supporting Disciplines: A Scientometric Study of Information Systems Journals" . Journal of the Association for Information Systems . 5 (2): 29– 80. doi : 10.17705/1jais.00045 . SSRN 666145 . ^ Wakkary, R.; Stolterman, E. (2011). "WELCOME: Our first interactions". Interactions . 18 : 5. doi : 10.1145/1897239.1897240 . S2CID 6840587 . ^ "Home page" . sigcas.org . Association for Computing Machinery . Retrieved October 28, 2017 . ^ Wakkary, R. (2011). "WELCOME: Our first interactions" . Interactions . 18 : 5. doi : 10.1145/1897239.1897240 . ^ a b "ACM Digital Library" . acm.org . ^ "The University of Georgia Guide to Online Resources" . Archived from the original on October 4, 2013 . Retrieved July 12, 2015 . ^ "ACM Digital Library" . Archived from the original on October 13, 1997 . Retrieved August 17, 2023 . ^ "The ACM Guide to Computing Literature" . libraries.acm.org . Retrieved February 24, 2025 . ^ "ACM Author Rights" . Acm.org. ^ "ACM History" . www.acm.org . Retrieved July 13, 2024 . ^ "World's Largest Computing Society Makes Thousands of Research Articles Freely Available; Opens First 50 Years Backfile" . ACM . April 7, 2022. ^ Anderson, Rick (February 10, 2020). "ACM's New Open Access Agreements: A Q&A with Scott Delman" . The Scholarly Kitchen . Retrieved May 28, 2024 . ^ "ACM OPEN (ACM's Transformative Model for Open Access Publication)" . ACM . Retrieved May 28, 2024 . ^ "Institutions Currently Participating in ACM OPEN" . Association for Computing Machinery . Retrieved May 28, 2024 . ^ "ACM Senior Members–An Overview" . Acm.org. Archived from the original on January 18, 2012 . Retrieved November 24, 2010 . ^ "ACM Advanced Grades of Membership" . ^ "List of ACM Fellows" . Awards.acm.org . Retrieved February 10, 2021 . ^ ACM Senior Members ^ "Homepage" . ACM Distinguished Speakers . Association for Computing Machinery. ^ "The History of the Distinguished Speakers Program" . ACM Distinguished Speakers . Association for Computing Machinery. ^ "ACM Speakers Committee" . ACM Distinguished Speakers . Association for Computing Machinery. ^ "ACM Special Interest Groups" . Archived from the original on July 27, 2010 . Retrieved August 7, 2010 . ^ "ACM Chapters" . Retrieved August 7, 2010 . ^ "Worldwide Professional Chapters" . Association for Computing Machinery (ACM). Archived from the original on November 28, 2016 . Retrieved December 27, 2012 . ^ "Chapters Listing by Geographic Region — Association for Computing Machinery" . Campus.acm.org . Retrieved October 2, 2013 . ^ "ACM Special Interest Group on Logic and Computation" . acm.org . Retrieved January 28, 2015 . ^ Golbeck, Jennifer; Harper, F. Maxwell; Murdock, Vanessa; Ekstrand, Michael; Shapira, Bracha; Basilico, Justin; Lundgaard, Keld; Oldridge, Even, eds. (2022). Proceedings of ACM RecSys 2022) . doi : 10.1145/3523227 . ISBN 9781450392785 . Retrieved March 7, 2023 . ^ "Conference on Information and Knowledge Management (CIKM)" . Cikmconference.org. ^ "ACM SIGCAS Conference on Computing and Sustainable Societies (COMPASS)" . Archived from the original on June 1, 2019 . Retrieved June 1, 2019 . ^ "Distributed Event-Based Systems" . DEBS.org . ^ "Joint Conference on Digital Library (JCDL)–Home" . JCDL. ^ "Grace Hopper Celebration of Women in Computing, Largest Gathering of Women in Computing, Attracts Researchers, Industry" . Retrieved June 27, 2011 . [ permanent dead link ] ^ "ACM@UIUC" . 2017. Archived from the original on June 16, 2018 . Retrieved January 24, 2018 . ^ "ACM's awards recognize excellence in computer science and information technology" . awards.acm.org . Retrieved April 6, 2017 . ^ "List of ACM Awards" . awards.acm.org . Retrieved April 6, 2017 . ^ "ACM Awards" . Retrieved February 10, 2021 . ^ "Shun Receives ACM Doctoral Dissertation Award" . School of Computer Science . Carnegie Mellon University . Retrieved June 7, 2017 . ^ Anon (2016). "ACM Inducts Fellows". Communications of the ACM . 59 (2). Association for Computing Machinery: 24. doi : 10.1145/2856228 . ^ "ACM Programming Systems and Languages Paper Award" . ACM . Retrieved August 17, 2022 . ^ "Special Interest Group (SIG) Awards" . awards.acm.org . Retrieved April 6, 2017 . ^ "ACM Boards and Committees" . acm.org . Retrieved August 7, 2023 . ^ "Home" . acm.org . ^ "About ACM Athena Lecturer Award" . awards.acm.org . Retrieved April 6, 2017 . ^ "ACM-W Athena Lecturers Award Winners" . ACM . Retrieved December 1, 2013 . ^ "ACM / IEEE-CS Cooperation — Association for Computing Machinery" . acm.org . Archived from the original on January 1, 2017 . Retrieved February 22, 2017 . ^ "ACM / IEEE-CS Jointly Sponsored Conferences —Association for Computing Machinery" . acm.org . Archived from the original on January 1, 2017 . Retrieved February 22, 2017 . ^ "ACM / IEEE-CS Joint Awards — Association for Computing Machinery" . acm.org . Archived from the original on April 6, 2016 . Retrieved February 22, 2017 . ^ Joint Task Force on Computing Curricula; Association for Computing Machinery (ACM); IEEE Computer Society (2013). Computer Science Curricula 2013: Curriculum Guidelines for Undergraduate Degree Programs in Computer Science . Association for Computing Machinery. ISBN 9781450323093 . ^ "SIAM: ACM-SIAM Symposium on Discrete Algorithms (SODA17)" . siam.org . ^ Subbaraman, Nidhi (December 20, 2019). "Rumours fly about changes to US government open-access policy" . Nature . doi : 10.1038/d41586-019-03926-1 . PMID 33340013 . S2CID 214378269 . ^ "ACM Letter to OSTP" . acm.org . Retrieved August 7, 2023 . ^ Lee, Timothy B. (December 27, 2019). "Trump could mandate free access to federally funded research papers" . Ars Technica . Retrieved August 7, 2023 . External links Official website Unknown (2006). ACM Oral History interviews on . Association for Computing Machinery. doi : 10.1145/1141880 . ISBN 9781450317719 . FREE ACM portal for publications ACM Digital Library Association for Computing Machinery Records, 1947–2009 , Charles Babbage Institute , University of Minnesota. ACM Upsilon Phi Epsilon . honor society . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History Toggle History subsection 1.1 Discovery 1.2 Origin 1.1 Discovery 1.2 Origin 2 Design 3 Mechanics Toggle Mechanics subsection 3.1 Operation 3.2 Faces 3.2.1 Front face 3.2.2 Rear face 3.3 Doors 3.4 Gearing 3.4.1 Known gear scheme 3.1 Operation 3.2 Faces 3.2.1 Front face 3.2.2 Rear face 3.2.1 Front face 3.2.2 Rear face 3.3 Doors 3.4 Gearing 3.4.1 Known gear scheme 3.4.1 Known gear scheme 4 Reconstruction efforts Toggle Reconstruction efforts subsection 4.1 Proposed gear schemes 4.2 Accuracy 4.1 Proposed gear schemes 4.2 Accuracy 5 Similar devices in ancient literature Toggle Similar devices in ancient literature subsection 5.1 Roman world 5.2 Eastern Mediterranean and others 5.1 Roman world 5.2 Eastern Mediterranean and others 6 Popular culture and museum replicas 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links Antikythera mechanism Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Aragonés Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Bikol Central Български Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hausa Հայերեն Hrvatski Ido Igbo Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar മലയാളം Bahasa Melayu ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Türkmençe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 吴语 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Antikythera mechanism The Antikythera mechanism (fragment A – front and rear); visible is the largest gear in the mechanism, about 13 cm (5 in) in diameter. Type Analogue computer Writing Ancient Greek Created 2nd century BC Period/culture Hellenistic Discovered 1901 Antikythera , Greece Present location National Archaeological Museum, Athens The Antikythera mechanism ( / ˌ æ n t ɪ k ɪ ˈ θ ɪər ə / AN -tik-ih- THEER -ə , .mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%} US also / ˌ æ n t aɪ k ɪ ˈ -/ AN -ty-kih- ) [ 1 ] [ 2 ] is an ancient Greek hand-powered orrery (model of the Solar System ). It is the oldest known example of an analogue computer . [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ] It could be used to predict astronomical positions and eclipses decades in advance. [ 6 ] [ 7 ] [ 8 ] It could also be used to track the four-year cycle of athletic games similar to an olympiad , the cycle of the ancient Olympic Games . [ 9 ] [ 10 ] [ 11 ] The artefact was among wreckage retrieved from a shipwreck off the coast of the Greek island Antikythera in 1901. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] In 1902, during a visit to the National Archaeological Museum in Athens, it was noticed by Greek politician Spyridon Stais as containing a gear , [ 14 ] prompting the first study of the fragment by his cousin, Valerios Stais , the museum director. The device, housed in the remains of a wooden-framed case of (uncertain) overall size 34 cm × 18 cm × 9 cm (13.4 in × 7.1 in × 3.5 in), [ 15 ] [ 16 ] was found as one lump, later separated into three main fragments which are now divided into 82 separate fragments after conservation efforts. Four of these fragments contain gears, while inscriptions are found on many others. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] The largest gear is about 13 cm (5 in) in diameter and originally had 223 teeth. [ 17 ] All these fragments of the mechanism are kept at the National Archaeological Museum, along with reconstructions and replicas , [ 18 ] [ 19 ] to demonstrate how it may have looked and worked. [ 20 ] In 2005, a team from Cardiff University led by Mike Edmunds used computer X-ray tomography and high resolution scanning to image inside fragments of the crust-encased mechanism and read faint inscriptions that once covered the outer casing. [ 21 ] These scans suggest that the mechanism had 37 meshing bronze gears enabling it to follow the movements of the Moon and the Sun through the zodiac, to predict eclipses and to model the irregular orbit of the Moon , where the Moon's velocity is higher in its perigee than in its apogee . This motion was studied in the 2nd century BC by astronomer Hipparchus of Rhodes , and he may have been consulted in the machine's construction. [ 22 ] There is speculation that a portion of the mechanism is missing and it calculated the positions of the five classical planets . The inscriptions were further deciphered in 2016, revealing numbers connected with the synodic cycles of Venus and Saturn. [ 23 ] [ 24 ] The instrument is believed to have been designed and constructed by Hellenistic scientists and been variously dated to about 87 BC, [ 25 ] between 150 and 100 BC, [ 6 ] or 205 BC. [ 26 ] [ 27 ] It must have been constructed before the shipwreck, which has been dated by multiple lines of evidence to approximately 70–60 BC. [ 28 ] [ 29 ] In 2022, researchers proposed its initial calibration date, not construction date, could have been 23 December 178 BC. Other experts propose 204 BC as a more likely calibration date. [ 30 ] [ 31 ] Machines with similar complexity did not appear again until the 14th century in western Europe. [ 32 ] History Discovery Captain Dimitrios Kontos ( Δημήτριος Κοντός ) and a crew of sponge divers from Symi island discovered the Antikythera wreck in early 1900, and recovered artefacts during the first expedition with the Hellenic Royal Navy , in 1900–01. [ 33 ] This wreck of a Roman cargo ship was found at a depth of 45 metres (148 ft) off Point Glyphadia on the Greek island of Antikythera . The team retrieved numerous large objects, including bronze and marble statues, pottery, unique glassware, jewellery, coins, and the mechanism. The mechanism was retrieved from the wreckage in 1901, probably July. [ 34 ] It is unknown how the mechanism came to be on the cargo ship. All of the items retrieved from the wreckage were transferred to the National Museum of Archaeology in Athens for storage and analysis. The mechanism appeared to be a lump of corroded bronze and wood. The bronze had turned into atacamite which cracked and shrank when it was brought up from the shipwreck, changing the dimensions of the pieces. [ 35 ] It went unnoticed for two years, while museum staff worked on piecing together more obvious treasures, such as the statues. [ 32 ] Upon removal from seawater, the mechanism was not treated, resulting in deformational changes. [ 36 ] On 17 May 1902, archaeologist Valerios Stais , together with his cousin, the Greek politician Spyridon Stais , found one of the pieces of rock had a gear wheel embedded in it. He initially believed that it was an astronomical clock, but most scholars considered the device to be prochronistic , too complex to have been constructed during the same period as the other pieces that had been discovered. The German philologist Albert Rehm became interested in the device and was the first to propose that it was an astronomical calculator. [ 37 ] [ 38 ] Investigations into the object lapsed until British science historian and Yale University professor Derek J. de Solla Price became interested in 1951. [ 39 ] [ 40 ] In 1971, Price and Greek nuclear physicist Charalampos Karakalos made X-ray and gamma-ray images of the 82 fragments. Price published a paper on their findings in 1974. [ 13 ] Two other searches for items at the Antikythera wreck site in 2012 and 2015 yielded art objects and a second ship which may, or may not, be connected with the treasure ship on which the mechanism was found. [ 41 ] Also found was a bronze disc, embellished with the image of a bull. The disc has four "ears" which have holes in them, and it was thought it may have been part of the Antikythera mechanism, as a " cog wheel ". There appears to be little evidence that it was part of the mechanism; it is more likely the disc was a bronze decoration on a piece of furniture. [ 42 ] Origin The Antikythera mechanism is generally referred to as the first known analogue computer. [ 43 ] The quality and complexity of the mechanism's manufacture suggests it must have had undiscovered predecessors during the Hellenistic period . [ 44 ] Its construction relied on theories of astronomy and mathematics developed by Greek astronomers during the second century BC, and it is estimated to have been built in the late second century BC [ 6 ] or the early first century BC. [ 45 ] [ 7 ] In 2008, research by the Antikythera Mechanism Research Project [ 46 ] [ 47 ] suggested the concept for the mechanism may have originated in the colonies of Corinth , since they identified the calendar on the Metonic Spiral as coming from Corinth, or one of its colonies in northwest Greece or Sicily. [ 9 ] Syracuse was a colony of Corinth and the home of Archimedes , and the Antikythera Mechanism Research Project argued in 2008 that it might imply a connection with the school of Archimedes. [ 9 ] It was demonstrated in 2017 that the calendar on the Metonic Spiral is of the Corinthian type, but cannot be that of Syracuse. [ 48 ] Another theory suggests that coins found by Jacques Cousteau at the wreck site in the 1970s date to the time of the device's construction, and posits that its origin may have been from the ancient Greek city of Pergamon , [ 49 ] home of the Library of Pergamum . With its many scrolls of art and science, it was second in importance only to the Library of Alexandria during the Hellenistic period. [ 50 ] The ship carrying the device contained vases in the Rhodian style, leading to a hypothesis that it was constructed at an academy founded by Stoic philosopher Posidonius on that Greek island. [ 51 ] Rhodes was a busy trading port and centre of astronomy and mechanical engineering, home to astronomer Hipparchus, who was active from about 140–120 BC. The mechanism uses Hipparchus' theory for the motion of the Moon, which suggests he may have designed or at least worked on it. [ 32 ] It has been argued the astronomical events on the Parapegma of the mechanism work best for latitudes in the range of 33.3–37.0 degrees north; [ 52 ] the island of Rhodes is located between the latitudes of 35.85 and 36.50 degrees north. In 2014, a study argued for a new dating of approximately 200 BC, based on identifying the start-up date on the Saros Dial, as the astronomical lunar month that began shortly after the new moon of 28 April 205 BC. [ 26 ] [ 27 ] According to this theory the Babylonian arithmetic style of prediction fits much better with the device's predictive models than the traditional Greek trigonometric style. [ 26 ] A study by Iversen in 2017 reasons that the prototype for the device was from Rhodes, but that this particular model was modified for a client from Epirus in northwestern Greece; Iversen argues it was probably constructed no earlier than a generation before the shipwreck, a date supported by Jones in 2017. [ 53 ] Further dives were undertaken in 2014 and 2015, in the hope of discovering more of the mechanism. [ 27 ] A five-year programme of investigations began in 2014 and ended in October 2019, with a new five-year session starting in May 2020. [ 54 ] [ 55 ] In 2022, researchers proposed the mechanism's initial calibration date, not construction date, could have been 23 December 178 BC. Other experts propose 204 BC as a more likely calibration date. [ 30 ] [ 31 ] Machines with similar complexity did not appear again until the fourteenth century, with early examples being astronomical clocks of Richard of Wallingford and Giovanni de' Dondi . [ 32 ] Design The original mechanism apparently came out of the Mediterranean as a single encrusted piece. Soon afterwards it fractured into three major pieces. Other small pieces have broken off in the interim from cleaning and handling, [ 56 ] and others were found on the sea floor by the Cousteau expedition. Other fragments may still be in storage, undiscovered since their initial recovery; Fragment F was discovered in that way in 2005. Of the 82 known fragments, seven are mechanically significant and contain the majority of the mechanism and inscriptions. Another 16 smaller parts contain fractional and incomplete inscriptions. [ 6 ] [ 9 ] [ 57 ] Fragment Size [mm] Weight [g] Gears Inscriptions Notes A 180 × 150 369.1 27 Yes The main fragment contains the majority of the known mechanism. Clearly visible on the front is the large b1 gear, and under closer inspection further gears behind it (parts of the l, m, c, and d trains are visible as gears to the naked eye). The crank mechanism socket and the side-mounted gear that meshes with b1 is on Fragment A . The back of the fragment contains the rearmost e and k gears for synthesis of the moon anomaly, noticeable also is the pin and slot mechanism of the k train. It is noticed from detailed scans of the fragment that all gears are very closely packed and have sustained damage and displacement due to their years in the sea. The fragment is approximately 30 mm thick at its thickest point. Fragment A also contains divisions of the upper left quarter of the Saros spiral and 14 inscriptions from said spiral. The fragment also contains inscriptions for the exeligmos dial and visible on the back surface the remnants of the dial face. Finally, this fragment contains some back door inscriptions. Fragment A also contains divisions of the upper left quarter of the Saros spiral and 14 inscriptions from said spiral. The fragment also contains inscriptions for the exeligmos dial and visible on the back surface the remnants of the dial face. Finally, this fragment contains some back door inscriptions. B 125 × 60 99.4 1 Yes Contains approximately the bottom right third of the Metonic spiral and inscriptions of both the spiral and back door of the mechanism. The Metonic scale would have consisted of 235 cells of which 49 have been deciphered from fragment B either in whole or partially. The rest so far are assumed from knowledge of the Metonic cycle . This fragment also contains a single gear (o1) used in the Olympic train. C 120 × 110 63.8 1 Yes Contains parts of the upper right of the front dial face showing calendar and zodiac inscriptions. This fragment also contains the Moon indicator dial assembly including the Moon phase sphere in its housing and a single bevel gear (ma1) used in the Moon phase indication system. D 45 × 35 15.0 1 Contains at least one unknown gear; according to Michael T. Wright it contains possibly two, and according to Xenophon Moussas [ 58 ] [ 59 ] it contains one gear (numbered 45 "ME") inside a hollow gear giving the position of Jupiter reproducing it with epicyclic motion. Their purpose and position has not been ascertained to any accuracy or consensus, but lends to the debate for the possible planet displays on the face of the mechanism. E 60 × 35 22.1 Yes Found in 1976 and contains six inscriptions from the upper right of the Saros spiral. F 90 × 80 86.2 Yes Found in 2005 and contains 16 inscriptions from the lower right of the Saros spiral. It also contains remnants of the mechanism's wooden housing. G 125 × 110 31.7 Yes A combination of fragments taken from fragment C while cleaning. Many of the smaller fragments that have been found contain nothing of apparent value, but a few have inscriptions on them. Fragment 19 contains significant back door inscriptions including one reading "... 76 years ..." which refers to the Callippic cycle . Other inscriptions seem to describe the function of the back dials. In addition to this important minor fragment, 15 further minor fragments have remnants of inscriptions on them. [ 17 ] : 7 Mechanics Information on the specific data obtained from the fragments is detailed in the supplement to the 2006 Nature article from Freeth et al. [ 6 ] Operation On the front face of the mechanism, there is a fixed ring dial representing the ecliptic , the twelve zodiacal signs marked off with equal 30-degree sectors. This matched with the Babylonian custom of assigning one twelfth of the ecliptic to each zodiac sign equally, even though the constellation boundaries were variable. Outside that dial is another ring which is rotatable, marked off with the months and days of the Sothic Egyptian calendar , twelve months of 30 days plus five intercalary days . The months are marked with the Egyptian names for the months transcribed into the Greek alphabet . The first task is to rotate the Egyptian calendar ring to match the current zodiac points. The Egyptian calendar ignored leap days, so it advanced through a full zodiac sign in about 120 years. [ 7 ] The mechanism was operated by turning a small hand crank (now lost) which was linked via a crown gear to the largest gear, the four-spoked gear visible on the front of fragment A, gear b1. This moved the date pointer on the front dial, which would be set to the correct Egyptian calendar day. The year is not selectable, so it is necessary to know the year currently set, or by looking up the cycles indicated by the various calendar cycle indicators on the back in the Babylonian ephemeris tables for the day of the year currently set, since most of the calendar cycles are not synchronous with the year. The crank moves the date pointer about 78 days per full rotation, so hitting a particular day on the dial would be easily possible if the mechanism were in good working condition. The action of turning the hand crank would also cause all interlocked gears within the mechanism to rotate, resulting in the simultaneous calculation of the position of the Sun and Moon, the moon phase , eclipse , and calendar cycles, and perhaps the locations of planets . [ 60 ] The operator also had to be aware of the position of the spiral dial pointers on the two large dials on the back. The pointer had a "follower" that tracked the spiral incisions in the metal as the dials incorporated four and five full rotations of the pointers. When a pointer reached the terminal month location at either end of the spiral, the pointer's follower had to be manually moved to the other end of the spiral before proceeding further. [ 6 ] : 10 Faces Front face The front dial has two concentric circular scales. The inner scale marks the Greek signs of the zodiac, with division in degrees. The outer scale, which is a movable ring that sits flush with the surface and runs in a channel, is marked off with what appear to be days and has a series of corresponding holes beneath the ring in the channel. Since the discovery of the mechanism more than a century ago, this outer ring has been presumed to represent a 365-day Egyptian solar calendar, but research (Budiselic, et al., 2020) challenged this presumption and provided direct statistical evidence there are 354 intervals, suggesting a lunar calendar. [ 61 ] Since this initial discovery, two research teams, using different methods, independently calculated the interval count. Woan and Bayley calculate 354–355 intervals using two different methods, confirming with higher accuracy the Budiselic et al. findings and noting that "365 holes is not plausible". [ 62 ] Malin and Dickens' best estimate is 352.3±1.5 and concluded that the number of holes (N) "has to be integral and the SE ( standard error ) of 1.5 indicates that there is less than a 5% probability that N is not one of the six values in the range 350 to 355. The chances of N being as high as 365 are less than 1 in 10,000. While other contenders cannot be ruled out, of the two values that have been proposed for N on astronomical grounds, that of Budiselic et al. (354) is by far the more likely." [ 61 ] [ 63 ] [ 64 ] If one supports the 365 day presumption, it is recognized the mechanism predates the Julian calendar reform, but the Sothic and Callippic cycles had already pointed to a .mw-parser-output .sfrac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .sfrac.tion,.mw-parser-output .sfrac .tion{display:inline-block;vertical-align:-0.5em;font-size:85%;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .num{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0.0em 0.1em;border-bottom:1px solid}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .den{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0.1em 0.1em}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px} 365 + 1 / 4 day solar year, as seen in Ptolemy III 's attempted calendar reform of 238 BC. The dials are not believed to reflect his proposed leap day ( Epag. 6), but the outer calendar dial may be moved against the inner dial to compensate for the effect of the extra quarter-day in the solar year by turning the scale backward one day every four years. If one is in favour of the 354 day evidence, the most likely interpretation is that the ring is a manifestation of a 354-day lunar calendar. Given the era of the mechanism's presumed construction and the presence of Egyptian month names, it is possibly the first example of the Egyptian civil-based lunar calendar proposed by Richard Anthony Parker in 1950. [ 65 ] The lunar calendar's purpose was to serve as a day-to-day indicator of successive lunations, and would also have assisted with the interpretation of the lunar phase pointer, and the Metonic and Saros dials. Undiscovered gearing, synchronous with the rest of the Metonic gearing of the mechanism, is implied to drive a pointer around this scale. Movement and registration of the ring relative to the underlying holes served to facilitate both a 1-in-76-year Callippic cycle correction, as well as convenient lunisolar intercalation. The dial also marks the position of the Sun on the ecliptic, corresponding to the current date in the year. The orbits of the Moon and the five planets known to the Greeks are close enough to the ecliptic to make it a convenient reference for defining their positions as well. The following three Egyptian months are inscribed in Greek letters on the surviving pieces of the outer ring: [ 66 ] ΠΑΧΩΝ ( Pachon ) ΠΑΥΝΙ ( Payni ) ΕΠΙΦΙ ( Epiphi ) The other months have been reconstructed; some reconstructions of the mechanism omit the five days of the Egyptian intercalary month. The Zodiac dial contains Greek inscriptions of the members of the zodiac, which is believed to be adapted to the tropical month version rather than the sidereal : [ 17 ] : 8 [ failed verification ] ΚΡΙΟΣ ( Krios [Ram], Aries) ΤΑΥΡΟΣ (Tauros [Bull], Taurus) ΔΙΔΥΜΟΙ (Didymoi [Twins], Gemini) ΚΑΡΚΙΝΟΣ (Karkinos [Crab], Cancer) ΛΕΩΝ (Leon [Lion], Leo) ΠΑΡΘΕΝΟΣ (Parthenos [Maiden], Virgo) ΧΗΛΑΙ (Chelai [Scorpio's Claw or Zygos], Libra) ΣΚΟΡΠΙΟΣ (Skorpios [Scorpion], Scorpio) ΤΟΞΟΤΗΣ (Toxotes [Archer], Sagittarius) ΑΙΓΟΚΕΡΩΣ (Aigokeros [Goat-horned], Capricorn) ΥΔΡΟΧΟΟΣ (Hydrokhoos [Water carrier], Aquarius) ΙΧΘΥΕΣ (Ichthyes [Fish], Pisces) Also on the zodiac dial are single characters at specific points (see reconstruction at ref [ 67 ] ). They are keyed to a parapegma , a precursor of the modern day almanac inscribed on the front face above and beneath the dials. They mark the locations of longitudes on the ecliptic for specific stars. The parapegma above the dials reads (square brackets indicate inferred text): Α ΑΙΓΟΚΕΡΩΣ ΑΡΧΕΤΑΙ ΑΝΑΤΕΛΛΕΙΝ [...] Α Capricorn begins to rise Ι ΚΡΙΟΣ ΑΡΧΕΤΑΙ ΕΠΙΤΕΛΛΕΙΝ [...] Α Aries begins to rise ΤΡΟΠΑΙ ΧΕΙΜΕΡΙΝΑΙ [...] Α Winter solstice ΙΣΗΜΕΡΙΑ ΕΑΡΙΝΗ [...] Α Vernal equinox Β [...] ΕΙ ΕΣΠΕΡΙ ... evening Κ [...] ΕΣΠΕΡΙΑ [...] ΙΑ ... evening Γ [...] ΙΕΣΠΕΡΙ ... evening Λ ΥΑΔΕΣ ΔΥΝΟΥΣΙΝ ΕΣΠΕΡΙΑΙ [...] ΚΑ The Hyades set in the evening Δ [...] ΥΔΡΟΧΟΟΣ ΑΡΧΕΤΑΙ ΕΠΙΤΕΛΛΕΙΝΑ Aquarius begins to rise Μ ΤΑΥΡΟΣ ΑΡΧΕΤΑΙ Ε{Π}ΙΤΕΛΛΕΙΝΑ Taurus begins to rise Ε [...] ΕΣΠΕΡΙΟΣ [...] Ι{Ο} ... evening Ν ΛΥΡΑ ΕΠΙΤΕΛΛΕΙ ΕΣΠΕΡΙΛ [...] Δ Lyra rises in the evening Ζ [...] ΡΙΑΙ [...] Κ ... {evening} Ξ ΠΛΕΙΑΣ ΕΠΙΤΕΛΛΕΙ ΕΩΙΑ [...] Ι The Pleiades rise in the morning Η ΙΧΘΥΕΣ ΑΡΧΟΝΤΑΙ ΕΠΙΤΕΛΛΕΙΝ [...] Α Pisces begins to rise Ο ΥΑΣ ΕΠΙΤΕΛΛΕΙ ΕΩΙΑ [...] Δ The Hyades rise in the morning Θ [...] {Ι}Α Π ΔΙΔΥΜΟΙ ΑΡΧΟΝΤΑ ΕΠΙΤΕΛΛΕΙΝ [...] Α Gemini begins to rise Ρ ΑΕΤΟΣ ΕΠΙΤΕΛΛΕΙ ΕΣΠΕΡΙΟΣ Altair rises in the evening Σ ΑΡΚΤΟΥΡΟΣ ΔΥΝΕΙ Ε{Ω}{Ι}ΟΣ Arcturus sets in the morning The parapegma beneath the dials reads: Α ΧΗΛΑΙ ΑΡΧΟΝΤΑ ΕΠΙΤΕΛΛΕΙΝ [...] Α Libra begins to rise Μ ΚΑΡΚΙΝΟΣ ΑΡΧΕΤΑΙ [...] Α Cancer begins {to rise} {Ι}ΣΗΜΕΡΙΑ ΦΘΙΝΟΠΩΡΙΝΗ [...] Α Autumnal equinox ΤΡΟΠΑΙ ΘΕΡΙΝΑΙ [...] Α Summer solstice Β [...] ΑΝΑΤΕΛΛΟΥΣΙΝ ΕΣΠΕΡΙΟΙΙΑ ... rise in the evening Ν ΩΡΙΩΝ ΑΝΤΕΛΛΕΙ ΕΩΙΟΣ Orion precedes the morning Γ [...] ΑΝΑΤΕΛΛΕΙ ΕΣΠΕΡΙΑΙΔ ... rise in the evening Ξ {Κ}ΥΩΝ ΑΝΤΕΛΛΕΙ ΕΩΙΟΣ Canis Major precedes the morning Δ [...] ΤΕΛΛΕΙΙ{Ο} ... rise Ο ΑΕΤΟΣ ΔΥΝΕΙ ΕΩΙΟΣ Altair sets in the morning Ε ΣΚΟΡΠΙΟΣ ΑΡΧΕΤΑΙ ΑΝΑΤΕΛΛΕΙΝΑ Scorpio begins to rise Π ΛΕΩΝ ΑΡΧΕΤΑΙ ΕΠΙΤΕΛΛΕΙΝ [...] Α Leo begins to rise Ζ [...] Ρ [...] Η [...] Σ [...] Θ [...] Τ [...] Ι ΤΟΞΟΤΗΣ ΑΡΧΕΤΑΙ ΕΠΙΤΕΛΛΕΙΝ [...] Α Sagittarius begins to rise Υ [...] Κ [...] Φ [...] Λ [...] Χ [...] At least two pointers indicated positions of bodies upon the ecliptic. A lunar pointer indicated the position of the Moon, and a mean Sun pointer was shown, perhaps doubling as the current date pointer. The Moon position was not a simple mean Moon indicator which would indicate movement uniformly around a circular orbit; rather, it approximated the acceleration and deceleration of the Moon's elliptical orbit, through the earliest extant use of epicyclic gearing . It also tracked the precession of the Moon's elliptical orbit around the ecliptic in an 8.88 year cycle. The mean Sun position is, by definition, the current date. It is speculated that since significant effort was taken to ensure the position of the Moon was correct, [ 17 ] : 20, 24 there was likely to have also been a "true sun" pointer in addition to the mean Sun pointer, to track the elliptical anomaly of the Sun (the orbit of Earth around the Sun), but there is no evidence of it among the fragments found. [ 7 ] Similarly, neither is there the evidence of planetary orbit pointers for the five planets known to the Greeks among the fragments. But see Proposed gear schemes below. Mechanical engineer Michael Wright demonstrated there was a mechanism to supply the lunar phase in addition to the position. [ 68 ] The indicator was a small ball embedded in the lunar pointer, half-white and half-black, which rotated to show the phase (new, first quarter, half, third quarter, full, and back). The data to support this function is available given the Sun and Moon positions as angular rotations; essentially, it is the angle between the two, translated into the rotation of the ball. It requires a differential gear , a gearing arrangement that sums or differences two angular inputs. Rear face In 2008, scientists reported new findings in Nature showing the mechanism not only tracked the Metonic calendar and predicted solar eclipses , but also calculated the timing of panhellenic athletic games, such as the ancient Olympic Games . [ 9 ] Inscriptions on the instrument closely match the names of the months that are used on calendars from Epirus in northwestern Greece and with the island of Corfu , which in antiquity was known as Corcyra. [ 69 ] [ 70 ] [ 71 ] On the back of the mechanism, there are five dials: the two large displays, the Metonic and the Saros , and three smaller indicators, the so-called Olympiad Dial, [ 9 ] which has been renamed the Games dial as it did not track Olympiad years (the four-year cycle it tracks most closely is the Halieiad), [ 72 ] the Callippic , and the exeligmos . [ 6 ] : 11 The Metonic dial is the main upper dial on the rear of the mechanism. The Metonic cycle, defined in several physical units, is 235 synodic months , which is very close (to within less than 13 one-millionths) to 19 tropical years. It is therefore a convenient interval over which to convert between lunar and solar calendars. The Metonic dial covers 235 months in five rotations of the dial, following a spiral track with a follower on the pointer that keeps track of the layer of the spiral. The pointer points to the synodic month, counted from new moon to new moon, and the cell contains the Corinthian month names . [ 9 ] [ 73 ] [ 74 ] ΦΟΙΝΙΚΑΙΟΣ ( Phoinikaios ) ΚΡΑΝΕΙΟΣ (Kraneios) ΛΑΝΟΤΡΟΠΙΟΣ (Lanotropios) ΜΑΧΑΝΕΥΣ (Machaneus, "mechanic" , referring to Zeus the inventor) ΔΩΔΕΚΑΤΕΥΣ (Dodekateus) ΕΥΚΛΕΙΟΣ (Eukleios) ΑΡΤΕΜΙΣΙΟΣ (Artemisios) ΨΥΔΡΕΥΣ (Psydreus) ΓΑΜΕΙΛΙΟΣ (Gameilios) ΑΓΡΙΑΝΙΟΣ (Agrianios) ΠΑΝΑΜΟΣ (Panamos) ΑΠΕΛΛΑΙΟΣ (Apellaios) Thus, setting the correct solar time (in days) on the front panel indicates the current lunar month on the back panel, with resolution to within a week or so. Based on the fact that the calendar month names are consistent with all the evidence of the Epirote calendar and that the Games dial mentions the very minor Naa games of Dodona (in Epirus), it has been argued that the calendar on the mechanism is likely to be the Epirote calendar, and that this calendar was probably adopted from a Corinthian colony in Epirus, possibly Ambracia. [ 74 ] It has been argued that the first month of the calendar, Phoinikaios, was ideally the month in which the autumn equinox fell, and that the start-up date of the calendar began shortly after the astronomical new moon of 23 August 205 BC. [ 75 ] The Games dial is the right secondary upper dial; it is the only pointer on the instrument that travels in an anticlockwise direction as time advances. The dial is divided into four sectors, each of which is inscribed with a year indicator and the name of two Panhellenic Games : the "crown" games of Isthmia , Olympia , Nemea , and Pythia ; and two lesser games: Naa (held at Dodona ) [ 76 ] and the Halieia of Rhodes. [ 77 ] The inscriptions on each one of the four divisions are: [ 6 ] [ 9 ] Year of the cycle Inside the dial inscription Outside the dial inscription 1 LΑ ΙΣΘΜΙΑ (Isthmia) ΟΛΥΜΠΙΑ (Olympia) 2 LΒ ΝΕΜΕΑ (Nemea) NAA (Naa) 3 LΓ ΙΣΘΜΙΑ (Isthmia) ΠΥΘΙΑ (Pythia) 4 LΔ ΝΕΜΕΑ (Nemea) ΑΛΙΕΙΑ (Halieia) The Saros dial is the main lower spiral dial on the rear of the mechanism. [ 6 ] : 4–5, 10 The Saros cycle is 18 years and .mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px} 11 + 1 ⁄ 3 days long (6585.333... days), which is very close to 223 synodic months (6585.3211 days). It is defined as the cycle of repetition of the positions required to cause solar and lunar eclipses, and therefore, it could be used to predict them—not only the month, but the day and time of day. The cycle is approximately 8 hours longer than an integer number of days. Translated into global spin, that means an eclipse occurs not only eight hours later, but one-third of a rotation farther to the west. Glyphs in 51 of the 223 synodic month cells of the dial specify the occurrence of 38 lunar and 27 solar eclipses. Some of the abbreviations in the glyphs read: [ citation needed ] Σ = ΣΕΛΗΝΗ ("Selene", Moon) Η = ΗΛΙΟΣ ("Helios", Sun) H\M = ΗΜΕΡΑΣ ("Hemeras", of the day) ω\ρ = ωρα ("hora", hour) N\Y = ΝΥΚΤΟΣ ("Nuktos", of the night) The glyphs show whether the designated eclipse is solar or lunar, and give the day of the month and hour. Solar eclipses may not be visible at any given point, and lunar eclipses are visible only if the Moon is above the horizon at the appointed hour. [ 17 ] : 6 In addition, the inner lines at the cardinal points of the Saros dial indicate the start of a new full moon cycle . Based on the distribution of the times of the eclipses, it has been argued the start-up date of the Saros dial was shortly after the astronomical new moon of 28 April 205 BC. [ 26 ] The Exeligmos dial is the secondary lower dial on the rear of the mechanism. The exeligmos cycle is a 54-year triple Saros cycle that is 19,756 days long. Since the length of the Saros cycle is to a third of a day (namely, 6,585 days plus 8 hours), a full exeligmos cycle returns the counting to an integral number of days, as reflected in the inscriptions. The labels on its three divisions are: [ 6 ] : 10 Blank or o ? (representing the number zero, assumed, not yet observed) H (number 8) means add 8 hours to the time mentioned in the display Iϛ (number 16) means add 16 hours to the time mentioned in the display Thus the dial pointer indicates how many hours must be added to the glyph times of the Saros dial in order to calculate the exact eclipse times. [ citation needed ] Doors The mechanism has a wooden casing with a front and a back door, both containing inscriptions. [ 9 ] [ 17 ] The back door appears to be the 'instruction manual'. On one of its fragments is written "76 years, 19 years" representing the Callippic and Metonic cycles. Also written is "223" for the Saros cycle . On another one of its fragments, it is written "on the spiral subdivisions 235" referring to the Metonic dial. Gearing The mechanism is remarkable for the level of miniaturisation and the complexity of its parts, which is comparable to that of 14th-century astronomical clocks . It has at least 30 gears, although mechanism expert Michael Wright has suggested the Greeks of this period were capable of implementing a system with many more gears. [ 60 ] There is debate as to whether the mechanism had indicators for all five of the planets known to the ancient Greeks. No gearing for such a planetary display survives and all gears are accounted for—with the exception of one 63-toothed gear (r1) otherwise unaccounted for in fragment D. [ 7 ] Fragment D is a small quasi-circular constriction that, according to Xenophon Moussas, has a gear inside a somewhat larger hollow gear. The inner gear moves inside the outer gear reproducing an epicyclical motion that, with a pointer, gives the position of planet Jupiter. [ 59 ] The inner gear is numbered 45, "ME" in Greek, and the same number is written on two surfaces of this small cylindrical box. The purpose of the front face was to position astronomical bodies with respect to the celestial sphere along the ecliptic, in reference to the observer's position on the Earth. That is irrelevant to the question of whether that position was computed using a heliocentric or geocentric view of the Solar System ; either computational method should, and does, result in the same position (ignoring ellipticity), within the error factors of the mechanism. The epicyclic Solar System of Ptolemy ( c. 100 AD – c. 170 AD )—hundreds of years after the apparent construction date of the mechanism—carried forward with more epicycles, and was more accurate predicting the positions of planets than the view of Copernicus (1473–1543), until Kepler (1571–1630) introduced the possibility that orbits are ellipses. [ 78 ] Evans et al. suggest that to display the mean positions of the five classical planets would require only 17 further gears that could be positioned in front of the large driving gear and indicated using individual circular dials on the face. [ 79 ] Freeth and Jones modelled and published details of a version using gear trains mechanically similar to the lunar anomaly system, allowing for indication of the positions of the planets, as well as synthesis of the Sun anomaly. Their system, they claim, is more authentic than Wright's model, as it uses the known skills of the Greeks and does not add excessive complexity or internal stresses to the machine. [ 7 ] The gear teeth were in the form of equilateral triangles with an average circular pitch of 1.6 mm, an average wheel thickness of 1.4 mm and an average air gap between gears of 1.2 mm. The teeth were probably created from a blank bronze round using hand tools; this is evident because not all of them are even. [ 7 ] Due to advances in imaging and X-ray technology, it is now possible to know the precise number of teeth and size of the gears within the located fragments. Thus the basic operation of the device is no longer a mystery and has been replicated accurately. The major unknown remains the question of the presence and nature of any planet indicators. [ 17 ] : 8 A table of the gears, their teeth, and the expected and computed rotations of important gears follows. The gear functions come from Freeth et al. (2008) [ 9 ] and for the lower half of the table from Freeth et al. (2012). [ 7 ] The computed values start with 1 year per revolution for the b1 gear, and the remainder are computed directly from gear teeth ratios. The gears marked with an asterisk (*) are missing, or have predecessors missing, from the known mechanism; these gears have been calculated with reasonable gear teeth counts. [ 9 ] [ 17 ] (Lengths in days are calculated assuming the year to be 365.2425 days.) Gear name [ table 1 ] Function of the gear/pointer Length of time for a full circular revolution Mechanism formula [ table 2 ] Computed interval Gear direction [ table 3 ] x Year gear 1 tropical year 1 (by definition) 1 year (presumed) clockwise [ table 4 ] b The Moon's orbit 1 sidereal month (27.321661 days) Time(b) = Time(x) * (c1/b2) * (d1/c2) * (e2/d2) * (k1/e5) * (e6/k2) * (b3/e1) 27.321 days [ table 5 ] clockwise r Lunar phase display 1 synodic month (29.530589 days) Time(r) = 1 / (1 / Time(b2: mean sun or sun3: true sun )) – (1 / Time(b))) 29.530 days [ table 5 ] n* Metonic pointer Metonic cycle / 5 turns = 1387.94 days Time(n) = Time(x) * (l1/b2) * (m1/l2) * (n1/m2) 1387.9 days anticlockwise [ table 6 ] o* Games dial pointer 4 years (5551.8 days) Time(o) = Time(n) * (o1/n2) 4.00 years clockwise [ table 6 ] [ table 7 ] q* Callippic pointer 27758.8 days Time(q) = Time(n) * (p1/n3) * (q1/p2) 27758 days anticlockwise [ table 6 ] e* Lunar orbit precession 8.88 years (3244.37 days) Time(e) = Time(x) * (l1/b2) * (m1/l2) * (e3/m3) 8.8826 years anticlockwise [ table 8 ] g* Saros cycle Saros time / 4 turns = 1646.33 days Time(g) = Time(e) * (f1/e4) * (g1/f2) 1646.3 days anticlockwise [ table 6 ] i* Exeligmos pointer 19755.8 days Time(i) = Time(g) * (h1/g2) * (i1/h2) 19756 days anticlockwise [ table 6 ] The following are proposed gearing from the 2012 Freeth and Jones reconstruction: sun3* True sun pointer 1 mean year Time(sun3) = Time(x) * (sun3/sun1) * (sun2/sun3) 1 mean year [ table 5 ] clockwise [ table 9 ] mer2* Mercury pointer 115.88 days (synodic period) Time(mer2) = Time(x) * (mer2/mer1) 115.89 days [ table 5 ] clockwise [ table 9 ] ven2* Venus pointer 583.93 days (synodic period) Time(ven) = Time(x) * (ven1/sun1) 584.39 days [ table 5 ] clockwise [ table 9 ] mars4* Mars pointer 779.96 days (synodic period) Time(mars) = Time(x) * (mars2/mars1) * (mars4/mars3) 779.84 days [ table 5 ] clockwise [ table 9 ] jup4* Jupiter pointer 398.88 days (synodic period) Time(jup) = Time(x) * (jup2/jup1) * (jup4/jup3) 398.88 days [ table 5 ] clockwise [ table 9 ] sat4* Saturn pointer 378.09 days (synodic period) Time(sat) = Time(x) * (sat2/sat1) * (sat4/sat3) 378.06 days [ table 5 ] clockwise [ table 9 ] Table notes: ^ Change from traditional naming: X is the main year axis, turns once per year with gear B1. The B axis is the axis with gears B3 and B6, while the E axis is the axis with gears E3 and E4. Other axes on E (E1/E6 and E2/E5) are irrelevant to this table. ^ "Time" is the interval represented by one complete revolution of the gear. ^ As viewed from the front of the Mechanism. The "natural" view is viewing the side of the Mechanism the dial/pointer in question is actually displayed on. ^ The Greeks, being in the northern hemisphere, assumed proper daily motion of the stars was from east to west, anticlockwise when the ecliptic and zodiac is viewed to the south. As viewed on the front of the Mechanism. ^ a b c d e f g h On average, due to epicyclic gearing causing accelerations and decelerations. ^ a b c d e Being on the reverse side of the box, the "natural" rotation is the opposite ^ This was the only visual pointer naturally travelling in the anticlockwise direction. ^ Internal and not visible. ^ a b c d e f Prograde motion; retrograde is obviously the opposite direction. There are several gear ratios for each planet that result in close matches to the correct values for synodic periods of the planets and the Sun. Those chosen above seem accurate, with reasonable tooth counts, but the specific gears actually used are unknown. [ 7 ] Known gear scheme It is very probable there were planetary dials, as the complicated motions and periodicities of all planets are mentioned in the manual of the mechanism. The exact position and mechanisms for the gears of the planets is unknown. There is no coaxial system except for the Moon. Fragment D that is an epicycloidal system, is considered as a planetary gear for Jupiter (Moussas, 2011, 2012, 2014) or a gear for the motion of the Sun (University of Thessaloniki group). The Sun gear is operated from the hand-operated crank (connected to gear a1, driving the large four-spoked mean Sun gear, b1) and in turn drives the rest of the gear sets. The Sun gear is b1/b2 and b2 has 64 teeth. It directly drives the date/mean sun pointer (there may have been a second, "true sun" pointer that displayed the Sun's elliptical anomaly; it is discussed below in the Freeth reconstruction). In this discussion, reference is to modelled rotational period of various pointers and indicators; they all assume the input rotation of the b1 gear of 360 degrees, corresponding with one tropical year, and are computed solely on the basis of the gear ratios of the gears named. [ 6 ] [ 9 ] [ 81 ] The Moon train starts with gear b1 and proceeds through c1, c2, d1, d2, e2, e5, k1, k2, e6, e1, and b3 to the Moon pointer on the front face. The gears k1 and k2 form an epicyclic gear system ; they are an identical pair of gears that do not mesh, but rather, they operate face-to-face, with a short pin on k1 inserted into a slot in k2. The two gears have different centres of rotation, so the pin must move back and forth in the slot. That increases and decreases the radius at which k2 is driven, also necessarily varying its angular velocity (presuming the velocity of k1 is even) faster in some parts of the rotation than others. Over an entire revolution the average velocities are the same, but the fast-slow variation models the effects of the elliptical orbit of the Moon, in consequence of Kepler's second and third laws . The modelled rotational period of the Moon pointer (averaged over a year) is 27.321 days, compared to the modern length of a lunar sidereal month of 27.321661 days. The pin/slot driving of the k1/k2 gears varies the displacement over a year's time, and the mounting of those two gears on the e3 gear supplies a precessional advancement to the ellipticity modelling with a period of 8.8826 years, compared with the current value of precession period of the moon of 8.85 years. [ 6 ] [ 9 ] [ 81 ] The system also models the phases of the Moon . The Moon pointer holds a shaft along its length, on which is mounted a small gear named r, which meshes to the Sun pointer at B0 (the connection between B0 and the rest of B is not visible in the original mechanism, so whether b0 is the current date/mean Sun pointer or a hypothetical true Sun pointer is unknown). The gear rides around the dial with the Moon, but is also geared to the Sun—the effect is to perform a differential gear operation, so the gear turns at the synodic month period, measuring in effect, the angle of the difference between the Sun and Moon pointers. The gear drives a small ball that appears through an opening in the Moon pointer's face, painted longitudinally half white and half black, displaying the phases pictorially. It turns with a modelled rotational period of 29.53 days; the modern value for the synodic month is 29.530589 days. [ 6 ] [ 9 ] [ 81 ] The Metonic train is driven by the drive train b1, b2, l1, l2, m1, m2, and n1, which is connected to the pointer. The modelled rotational period of the pointer is the length of the 6,939.5 days (over the whole five-rotation spiral), while the modern value for the Metonic cycle is 6,939.69 days. [ 6 ] [ 9 ] [ 81 ] The Olympiad train is driven by b1, b2, l1, l2, m1, m2, n1, n2, and o1, which mounts the pointer. It has a computed modelled rotational period of exactly four years, as expected. It is the only pointer on the mechanism that rotates anticlockwise; all of the others rotate clockwise. [ 6 ] [ 9 ] [ 81 ] The Callippic train is driven by b1, b2, l1, l2, m1, m2, n1, n3, p1, p2, and q1, which mounts the pointer. It has a computed modelled rotational period of 27,758 days, while the modern value is 27,758.8 days. [ 6 ] [ 9 ] [ 81 ] The Saros train is driven by b1, b2, l1, l2, m1, m3, e3, e4, f1, f2, and g1, which mounts the pointer. The modelled rotational period of the Saros pointer is 1,646.3 days (in four rotations along the spiral pointer track); the modern value is 1,646.33 days. [ 6 ] [ 9 ] [ 81 ] The Exeligmos train is driven by b1, b2, l1, l2, m1, m3, e3, e4, f1, f2, g1, g2, h1, h2, and i1, which mounts the pointer. The modelled rotational period of the exeligmos pointer is 19,756 days; the modern value is 19,755.96 days. [ 6 ] [ 9 ] [ 81 ] It appears gears m3, n1-3, p1-2, and q1 did not survive in the wreckage. The functions of the pointers were deduced from the remains of the dials on the back face, and reasonable, appropriate gearage to fulfill the functions was proposed and is generally accepted. [ 6 ] [ 9 ] [ 81 ] Reconstruction efforts Proposed gear schemes Because of the large space between the mean Sun gear and the front of the case and the size of and mechanical features on the mean Sun gear, it is very likely that the mechanism contained further gearing that either has been lost in or subsequent to the shipwreck, or was removed before being loaded onto the ship. [ 7 ] This lack of evidence and nature of the front part of the mechanism has led to attempts to emulate what the Ancient Greeks would have done and because of the lack of evidence, many solutions have been put forward over the years. But as progress has been made on analyzing the internal structures and deciphering the inscriptions, earlier models have been ruled out and better models developed. [ 23 ] [ 24 ] Derek J. de Solla Price built a simple model in the 1970s. [ 13 ] In 2002 Michael Wright designed and built the first workable model with the known mechanism and his emulation of a potential planetarium system. He suggested that along with the lunar anomaly, adjustments would have been made for the deeper, more basic solar anomaly (known as the "first anomaly"). He included pointers for this "true sun", Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, in addition to the known "mean sun" (current time) and lunar pointers. [ 7 ] Evans, Carman, and Thorndike published a solution in 2010 with significant differences from Wright's. [ 79 ] Their proposal centred on what they observed as irregular spacing of the inscriptions on the front dial face, which to them seemed to indicate an off-centre sun indicator arrangement; this would simplify the mechanism by removing the need to simulate the solar anomaly. They suggested that rather than accurate planetary indication (rendered impossible by the offset inscriptions) there would be simple dials for each individual planet, showing information such as key events in the cycle of planet, initial and final appearances in the night sky, and apparent direction changes. This system would lead to a much simplified gear system, with much reduced forces and complexity, as compared to Wright's model. [ 79 ] Their proposal used simple meshed gear trains and accounted for the previously unexplained 63 toothed gear in fragment D. They proposed two face plate layouts, one with evenly spaced dials, and another with a gap in the top of the face, to account for criticism that they did not use the apparent fixtures on the b1 gear. They proposed that rather than bearings and pillars for gears and axles, they simply held weather and seasonal icons to be displayed through a window. [ 79 ] In a paper published in 2012, Carman, Thorndike, and Evans also proposed a system of epicyclic gearing with pin and slot followers. [ 82 ] Freeth and Jones published a proposal in 2012. They proposed a compact and feasible solution to the question of planetary indication. They also propose indicating the solar anomaly (that is, the sun's apparent position in the zodiac dial) on a separate pointer from the date pointer, which indicates the mean position of the Sun, as well as the date on the month dial. If the two dials are synchronised correctly, their front panel display is essentially the same as Wright's. Unlike Wright's model however, this model has not been built physically, and is only a 3-D computer model. [ 7 ] The system to synthesise the solar anomaly is very similar to that used in Wright's proposal: three gears, one fixed in the centre of the b1 gear and attached to the Sun spindle, the second fixed on one of the spokes (in their proposal the one on the bottom left) acting as an idle gear, and the final positioned next to that one; the final gear is fitted with an offset pin and, over said pin, an arm with a slot that in turn, is attached to the sun spindle, inducing anomaly as the mean Sun wheel turns. [ 7 ] The inferior planet mechanism includes the Sun (treated as a planet in this context), Mercury, and Venus. [ 7 ] For each of the three systems, there is an epicyclic gear whose axis is mounted on b1, thus the basic frequency is the Earth year (as it is, in truth, for epicyclic motion in the Sun and all the planets—excepting only the Moon). Each meshes with a gear grounded to the mechanism frame. Each has a pin mounted, potentially on an extension of one side of the gear that enlarges the gear, but doesn't interfere with the teeth; in some cases, the needed distance between the gear's centre and the pin is farther than the radius of the gear itself. A bar with a slot along its length extends from the pin toward the appropriate coaxial tube, at whose other end is the object pointer, out in front of the front dials. The bars could have been full gears, although there is no need for the waste of metal, since the only working part is the slot. Also, using the bars avoids interference between the three mechanisms, each of which are set on one of the four spokes of b1. Thus there is one new grounded gear (one was identified in the wreckage, and the second is shared by two of the planets), one gear used to reverse the direction of the sun anomaly, three epicyclic gears and three bars/coaxial tubes/pointers, which would qualify as another gear each: five gears and three slotted bars in all. [ 7 ] The superior planet systems—Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn—all follow the same general principle of the lunar anomaly mechanism. [ 7 ] Similar to the inferior systems, each has a gear whose centre pivot is on an extension of b1, and which meshes with a grounded gear. It presents a pin and a centre pivot for the epicyclic gear which has a slot for the pin, and which meshes with a gear fixed to a coaxial tube and thence to the pointer. Each of the three mechanisms can fit within a quadrant of the b1 extension, and they are thus all on a single plane parallel with the front dial plate. Each one uses a ground gear, a driving gear, a driven gear, and a gear/coaxial tube/pointer, thus, twelve gears additional in all. In total, there are eight coaxial spindles of various nested sizes to transfer the rotations in the mechanism to the eight pointers. So in all, there are 30 original gears, seven gears added to complete calendar functionality, 17 gears and three slotted bars to support the six new pointers, for a grand total of 54 gears, three bars, and eight pointers in Freeth and Jones' design. [ 7 ] On the visual representation Freeth provides, the pointers on the front zodiac dial have small, round identifying stones. He refers to a quote from an ancient papyrus: ...a voice comes to you speaking. Let the stars be set upon the board in accordance with [their] nature except for the Sun and Moon. And let the Sun be golden, the Moon silver, Kronos [Saturn] of obsidian, Ares [Mars] of reddish onyx, Aphrodite [Venus] lapis lazuli veined with gold, Hermes [Mercury] turquoise; let Zeus [Jupiter] be of (whitish?) stone, crystalline (?)... [ 83 ] ...a voice comes to you speaking. Let the stars be set upon the board in accordance with [their] nature except for the Sun and Moon. And let the Sun be golden, the Moon silver, Kronos [Saturn] of obsidian, Ares [Mars] of reddish onyx, Aphrodite [Venus] lapis lazuli veined with gold, Hermes [Mercury] turquoise; let Zeus [Jupiter] be of (whitish?) stone, crystalline (?)... [ 83 ] However, more recent discoveries and research have shown that the above models are not correct. In 2016, the numbers 462 and 442 were found in computed tomography scans of the inscriptions dealing with Venus and Saturn, respectively. [ 23 ] These relate to the synodic cycles of these planets, and indicated that the mechanism was more accurate than previously thought. In 2018, based on the CT scans, the Antikythera Mechanism Research Project proposed changes in gearing and produced mechanical parts based on this. [ 84 ] In March 2021, the Antikythera Research Team at University College London , led by Freeth, published a new proposed reconstruction of the entire Antikythera Mechanism. They were able to find gears that could be shared among the gear-trains for the different planets, by using rational approximations for the synodic cycles which have small prime factors, with the factors 7 and 17 being used for more than one planet. They conclude that none of the previous models "are at all compatible with all the currently known data", but their model is compatible with it. [ 24 ] [ 85 ] Freeth has directed a video explaining the discovery of the synodic cycle periods and the conclusions about how the mechanism worked. [ 86 ] In 2025, one research team concluded that manufacture error in the original mechanism's gears is too great for the mechanism to have ever worked; they emphasized that the scans they used could be incorrect about the extent of imperfections. [ 87 ] Accuracy Investigations by Freeth and Jones reveal their simulated mechanism is inaccurate. The Mars pointer is up to 38° wrong in some instances (these inaccuracies occur at the nodal points of Mars' retrograde motion, and the error recedes at other locations in the orbit). This is not due to inaccuracies in gearing ratios in the mechanism, but inadequacies in the Greek theory of planetary movements. The accuracy could not have been improved until c. 160 AD when Ptolemy published his Almagest (particularly by adding the concept of the equant to his theory), then much later by the introduction of Kepler's laws of planetary motion in 1609 and 1619. [ 7 ] In short, the Antikythera Mechanism was a machine designed to predict celestial phenomena according to the sophisticated astronomical theories current in its day, the sole witness to a lost history of brilliant engineering, a conception of pure genius, one of the great wonders of the ancient world—but it didn't really work very well! [ 7 ] In short, the Antikythera Mechanism was a machine designed to predict celestial phenomena according to the sophisticated astronomical theories current in its day, the sole witness to a lost history of brilliant engineering, a conception of pure genius, one of the great wonders of the ancient world—but it didn't really work very well! [ 7 ] In addition to theoretical accuracy, there is the issue of mechanical accuracy. Freeth and Jones note that the inevitable "looseness" in the mechanism due to the hand-built gears, with their triangular teeth and the frictions between gears, and in bearing surfaces, probably would have swamped the finer solar and lunar correction mechanisms built into it: Though the engineering was remarkable for its era, recent research indicates that its design conception exceeded the engineering precision of its manufacture by a wide margin—with considerable cumulative inaccuracies in the gear trains, which would have cancelled out many of the subtle anomalies built into its design. [ 7 ] [ 88 ] Though the engineering was remarkable for its era, recent research indicates that its design conception exceeded the engineering precision of its manufacture by a wide margin—with considerable cumulative inaccuracies in the gear trains, which would have cancelled out many of the subtle anomalies built into its design. [ 7 ] [ 88 ] While the device may have struggled with inaccuracies, due to the triangular teeth being hand-made, the calculations used and technology implemented to create the elliptical paths of the planets and retrograde motion of the Moon and Mars, by using a clockwork-type gear train with the addition of a pin-and-slot epicyclic mechanism, predated that of the first known clocks found in antiquity in medieval Europe, by more than 1000 years. [ clarification needed ] [ 89 ] Archimedes' development of the approximate value of pi and his theory of centres of gravity, along with the steps he made towards developing the calculus , [ 90 ] suggest the Greeks had enough mathematical knowledge beyond that of Babylonian algebra, to model the elliptical nature of planetary motion. Of special delight to physicists, the Moon mechanism uses a special train of bronze gears, two of them linked with a slightly offset axis, to indicate the position and phase of the moon. As is known today from Kepler's laws of planetary motion , the moon travels at different speeds as it orbits the Earth, and this speed differential is modelled by the Antikythera Mechanism, even though the Ancient Greeks were not aware of the actual elliptical shape of the orbit. [ 91 ] Of special delight to physicists, the Moon mechanism uses a special train of bronze gears, two of them linked with a slightly offset axis, to indicate the position and phase of the moon. As is known today from Kepler's laws of planetary motion , the moon travels at different speeds as it orbits the Earth, and this speed differential is modelled by the Antikythera Mechanism, even though the Ancient Greeks were not aware of the actual elliptical shape of the orbit. [ 91 ] Similar devices in ancient literature The level of refinement of the mechanism indicates that the device was not unique, and possibly required expertise built over several generations. [ 32 ] However, such artefacts were commonly melted down for the value of the bronze and rarely survive to the present day. [ 32 ] Roman world Cicero 's De re publica (54-51 BC) , a first century BC philosophical dialogue, mentions two machines that some modern authors consider as some kind of planetarium or orrery , predicting the movements of the Sun , the Moon , and the five planets known at that time. They were both built by Archimedes and brought to Rome by the Roman general Marcus Claudius Marcellus after the death of Archimedes at the siege of Syracuse in 212 BC. Marcellus had great respect for Archimedes and one of these machines was the only item he kept from the siege (the second was placed in the Temple of Virtue ). The device was kept as a family heirloom, and Cicero has Philus (one of the participants in a conversation that Cicero imagined had taken place in a villa belonging to Scipio Aemilianus in the year 129 BC) saying that Gaius Sulpicius Gallus (consul with Marcellus's nephew in 166 BC, and credited by Pliny the Elder as the first Roman to have written a book explaining solar and lunar eclipses) gave both a "learned explanation" and a working demonstration of the device. I had often heard this celestial globe or sphere mentioned on account of the great fame of Archimedes. Its appearance, however, did not seem to me particularly striking. There is another, more elegant in form, and more generally known, moulded by the same Archimedes, and deposited by the same Marcellus, in the Temple of Virtue at Rome. But as soon as Gallus had begun to explain, by his sublime science, the composition of this machine, I felt that the Sicilian geometrician must have possessed a genius superior to any thing we usually conceive to belong to our nature. Gallus assured us, that the solid and compact globe, was a very ancient invention, and that the first model of it had been presented by Thales of Miletus . That afterwards Eudoxus of Cnidus , a disciple of Plato , had traced on its surface the stars that appear in the sky, and that many years subsequent, borrowing from Eudoxus this beautiful design and representation, Aratus had illustrated them in his verses, not by any science of astronomy, but the ornament of poetic description. He added, that the figure of the sphere, which displayed the motions of the Sun and Moon, and the five planets, or wandering stars, could not be represented by the primitive solid globe. And that in this, the invention of Archimedes was admirable, because he had calculated how a single revolution should maintain unequal and diversified progressions in dissimilar motions. When Gallus moved this globe, it showed the relationship of the Moon with the Sun, and there were exactly the same number of turns on the bronze device as the number of days in the real globe of the sky. Thus it showed the same eclipse of the Sun as in the globe [of the sky], as well as showing the Moon entering the area of the Earth's shadow when the Sun is in line ... [missing text] [i.e. It showed both solar and lunar eclipses.] [ 92 ] I had often heard this celestial globe or sphere mentioned on account of the great fame of Archimedes. Its appearance, however, did not seem to me particularly striking. There is another, more elegant in form, and more generally known, moulded by the same Archimedes, and deposited by the same Marcellus, in the Temple of Virtue at Rome. But as soon as Gallus had begun to explain, by his sublime science, the composition of this machine, I felt that the Sicilian geometrician must have possessed a genius superior to any thing we usually conceive to belong to our nature. Gallus assured us, that the solid and compact globe, was a very ancient invention, and that the first model of it had been presented by Thales of Miletus . That afterwards Eudoxus of Cnidus , a disciple of Plato , had traced on its surface the stars that appear in the sky, and that many years subsequent, borrowing from Eudoxus this beautiful design and representation, Aratus had illustrated them in his verses, not by any science of astronomy, but the ornament of poetic description. He added, that the figure of the sphere, which displayed the motions of the Sun and Moon, and the five planets, or wandering stars, could not be represented by the primitive solid globe. And that in this, the invention of Archimedes was admirable, because he had calculated how a single revolution should maintain unequal and diversified progressions in dissimilar motions. When Gallus moved this globe, it showed the relationship of the Moon with the Sun, and there were exactly the same number of turns on the bronze device as the number of days in the real globe of the sky. Thus it showed the same eclipse of the Sun as in the globe [of the sky], as well as showing the Moon entering the area of the Earth's shadow when the Sun is in line ... [missing text] [i.e. It showed both solar and lunar eclipses.] [ 92 ] Pappus of Alexandria (290 – c. 350 AD ) stated that Archimedes had written a now lost manuscript on the construction of these devices titled On Sphere-Making . [ 93 ] [ 94 ] The surviving texts from ancient times describe many of his creations, some even containing simple drawings. One such device is his odometer , the exact model later used by the Romans to place their mile markers (described by Vitruvius , Heron of Alexandria and in the time of Emperor Commodus ). [ 95 ] The drawings in the text appeared functional, but attempts to build them as pictured had failed. When the gears pictured, which had square teeth, were replaced with gears of the type in the Antikythera mechanism, which were angled, the device was perfectly functional. [ 96 ] If Cicero's account is correct, then this technology existed as early as the third century BC. Archimedes' device is also mentioned by later Roman era writers such as Lactantius ( Divinarum Institutionum Libri VII ), Claudian ( In sphaeram Archimedes ), and Proclus ( Commentary on the first book of Euclid's Elements of Geometry ) in the fourth and fifth centuries. Cicero also said that another such device was built "recently" by his friend Posidonius , "... each one of the revolutions of which brings about the same movement in the Sun and Moon and five wandering stars [planets] as is brought about each day and night in the heavens ..." [ 97 ] It is unlikely that any one of these machines was the particular Antikythera mechanism found in the shipwreck since both the devices fabricated by Archimedes and mentioned by Cicero were located in Rome at least 30 years later than the estimated date of the shipwreck, and the third device was almost certainly in the hands of Posidonius by that date. The scientists who have reconstructed the Antikythera mechanism also agree that it was too sophisticated to have been a unique device. Other relatively complex metal devices are known from Roman Greece. For example, a bronze combination lock from the Augustan or Hadrianic period was unearthed in the Kerameikos . The device operated on a primitive form of mechanical logic: the central bolt was physically blocked from retracting until the notches of two independent rotary dials were correctly aligned. The device also included a simple concealed bypass mechanism. [ 98 ] Eastern Mediterranean and others This evidence that the Antikythera mechanism was not unique adds support to the idea that there was an ancient Greek tradition of complex mechanical technology that was later, at least in part, transmitted to the Byzantine and Islamic worlds , where mechanical devices which were complex, albeit simpler than the Antikythera mechanism, were built during the Middle Ages . [ 99 ] Fragments of a geared calendar attached to a sundial, from the fifth or sixth century Byzantine Empire , have been found; the calendar may have been used to assist in telling time. [ 100 ] In the Islamic world, Banū Mūsā 's Kitab al-Hiyal , or Book of Ingenious Devices , was commissioned by the Caliph of Baghdad in the early 9th century AD. This text described over a hundred mechanical devices, some of which may date back to ancient Greek texts preserved in monasteries . A geared calendar similar to the Byzantine device was described by the scientist al-Biruni around 1000, and a surviving 13th-century astrolabe also contains a similar clockwork device. [ 100 ] It is possible that this medieval technology may have been transmitted to Europe and contributed to the development of mechanical clocks there. [ 32 ] In the 11th century, Chinese polymath Su Song constructed a mechanical clock tower that told (among other measurements) the position of some stars and planets, which were shown on a mechanically rotated armillary sphere . [ 101 ] Popular culture and museum replicas Several exhibitions have been staged worldwide, [ 102 ] leading to the main "Antikythera shipwreck" exhibition at the National Archaeological Museum in Athens. As of 2012 [update] , the Antikythera mechanism was displayed as part of a temporary exhibition about the Antikythera shipwreck, [ 103 ] accompanied by reconstructions made by Ioannis Theofanidis , Derek de Solla Price , Michael Wright, the Thessaloniki University and Dionysios Kriaris. Other reconstructions are on display at the American Computer Museum in Bozeman, Montana , at the Children's Museum of Manhattan in New York, at Astronomisch-Physikalisches Kabinett in Kassel , Germany, at the Archimedes Museum in Olympia, Greece, [ 104 ] at the Kotsanas Museum of Ancient Greek Technology in Athens, [ 105 ] at the Musée des Arts et Métiers in Paris and at the Western Australian Museum . [ 106 ] The National Geographic documentary series Naked Science dedicated an episode to the Antikythera Mechanism entitled "Star Clock BC" that aired on 20 January 2011. [ 107 ] A documentary, The World's First Computer , was produced in 2012 by the Antikythera mechanism researcher and film-maker Tony Freeth. [ 108 ] In 2012, BBC Four aired The Two-Thousand-Year-Old Computer ; [ 109 ] it was also aired on 3 April 2013 in the United States on NOVA , the PBS science series, under the name Ancient Computer . [ 110 ] It documents the discovery and 2005 investigation of the mechanism by the Antikythera Mechanism Research Project. A functioning Lego reconstruction of the Antikythera mechanism was built in 2010 by hobbyist Andy Carol, and featured in a short film produced by Small Mammal in 2011. [ 111 ] On 17 May 2017, Google marked the 115th anniversary of the discovery with a Google Doodle . [ 112 ] [ 113 ] The YouTube channel Clickspring documents the creation of an Antikythera mechanism replica using the tools, techniques of machining and metallurgy, and materials that would have been available in ancient Greece, [ 114 ] along with investigations into the possible technologies of the era. [ 115 ] The film Indiana Jones and the Dial of Destiny (2023) features a plot around a fictionalized version of the mechanism (also referred to as Archimedes' Dial, the titular Dial of Destiny). [ 116 ] In the film, the device was built by Archimedes as a temporal mapping system , and sought by a former Nazi scientist as a way to detect time portals in order to travel back in time and help Germany win World War II. A major plot point revolves around the fact that the device did not take continental drift into account as the theory was unknown in Archimedes' time. [ 117 ] On 8 February 2024, a 10X scale replica of the mechanism was built, installed, and inaugurated at the University of Sonora in Hermosillo , Sonora , Mexico . [ 118 ] [ 119 ] With the name of Monumental Antikythera Mechanism for Hermosillo (MAMH), Dr. Alfonso performed the inauguration. Also attending were Durazo Montaño, Governor of Sonora and Dr. Maria Rita Plancarte Martinez, Chancellor of the Universidad de Sonora, the Ambassador of Greece, Nikolaos Koutrokois, and a delegation from the Embassy. [ 120 ] In 2024, Finnish band Nightwish 's album Yesterwynde included the track Antikythera Mechanism . [ citation needed ] The band also partnered with Finnish watch manufacturer POOK Watches to release a limited edition watch, with elements referencing the Antikythera Mechanism. [ 121 ] See also Ancient technology – Technological results from advances in engineering in ancient civilizations Archimedes Palimpsest – Greek parchment codex manuscript Astrarium – Timepiece and astronomical prediction device Automaton – Self-operating machine Baghdad Battery – Set of artifacts claimed to be a battery Ctesibius – 3rd-century BC Greek inventor and mathematician Out-of-place artifact – Artifacts that challenge historical chronology Reverse engineering – Process of extracting design information from anything artificial References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Antikythera" . 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Retrieved 1 January 2025 . ^ "Εγκαίνια του μοναδικού στον κόσμο αντιγράφου εν λειτουργία του Μηχανισμού των Αντικυθύρων στο Πανεπιστήμιο της πολιτείας Sonora του Μεξικού με συμμετοχή του Πρέσβη της Ελλάδος στο Μεξικό κ.Ν. Κοτροκόη" ["Inauguration of the world's only working replica of the Antikythera Mechanism at the University of the State of Sonora, Mexico, with the participation of the Ambassador of Greece to Mexico, Mr. N. Kotrokoi"]. Hellenic Republic - Ministry of Foreign Affairs (in Greek). 14 February 2024. ^ "Presenta Unison Mecanismo Antikythera Monumental ¡Es la única réplica funcional en el mundo! | Noticias de Sonora | el Imparcial" . ^ "Inauguration of the first operational astronomical clock based on studies by scholars from NKUA and University of Sonora on the Antikythera Mechanism" . 9 February 2024. ^ "Pook Watches x Nightwish Yesterwynde Limited Edition – official.pookwatches.com" . Retrieved 6 September 2025 . Further reading Blain, Loz (16 November 2011). "Hublot painstakingly re-creates a mysterious, 2,100-year-old clockwork relic - but why?" . New Atlas . Archived from the original on 19 June 2020 . Retrieved 26 June 2020 . Hublot . Bromley, A. G. (1990). "The Antikythera Mechanism". Horological Journal . 132 : 412– 15. ISSN 0018-5108 . Bromley, A. G. (1990). "The Antikythera Mechanism: A Reconstruction". Horological Journal . 133 (1): 28– 31. Bromley, A. G. (1990). "Observations of the Antikythera Mechanism". Antiquarian Horology . 18 (6): 641– 52. OCLC 900191459 . Carman, C. C.; Di Cocco, M. (2016). "The Moon Phase Anomaly in the Antikythera Mechanism" . ISAW Papers . 11 . Archived from the original on 10 October 2019 . Retrieved 6 June 2018 . Edmunds, M. G. (2014). "The Antikythera Mechanism and the Mechanical Universe". Contemporary Physics . 55 (4): 263– 85. Bibcode : 2014ConPh..55..263E . doi : 10.1080/00107514.2014.927280 . S2CID 122403901 . Edmunds, Mike & Morgan, Philip (2000). "The Antikythera Mechanism: Still a Mystery of Greek Astronomy" . Astronomy & Geophysics . 41 (6): 6– 10. Bibcode : 2000A&G....41f..10E . doi : 10.1046/j.1468-4004.2000.41610.x . Ferreira, Becky (5 July 2024). "Cosmic Research Hints at Mysterious Ancient Computer's Purpose" . New York Times . Retrieved 12 July 2024 . Freeth, T. (2002). "The Antikythera Mechanism: 1. Challenging the Classic Research" (PDF) . Mediterranean Archeology and Archeaometry . 2 (1): 21– 35. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Freeth, T. (2002). "The Antikythera Mechanism: 2. Is it Posidonius' Orrery?". Mediterranean Archeology and Archeaometry . 2 (2): 45– 58. Bibcode : 2002MAA.....2...45F . Freeth, T.; Bitsakis, Y.; Moussas, X.; Seiradakis, J. H.; et al. (2006). "Decoding the ancient Greek astronomical calculator known as the Antikythera Mechanism". Nature . 444 (7119): 587– 91. Bibcode : 2006Natur.444..587F . doi : 10.1038/nature05357 . PMID 17136087 . S2CID 4424998 . Freeth, T. (2009). "Decoding an Ancient Computer". Scientific American . 301 (6): 76– 83. Bibcode : 2009SciAm.301f..76F . doi : 10.1038/scientificamerican1209-76 . PMID 20058643 . Freeth, T.; Jones, A. (2012). "The Cosmos in the Antikythera Mechanism" . ISAW Papers . 4 . Archived from the original on 27 February 2014 . Retrieved 4 April 2013 . Freeth, T. (2022). "An Ancient Greek Astronomical Calculation Machine Reveals New Secrets" . Scientific American . 326 (1): 24– 33. doi : 10.1038/scientificamerican0122-24 . PMID 39016582 . Archived from the original on 23 March 2023 . Retrieved 18 April 2023 . James, Peter; Thorpe, Nick (1995). Ancient Inventions . Ballantine. ISBN 978-0-345-40102-1 . Jones, A. (1991). "The adaptation of Babylonian methods in Greek numerical astronomy" . Isis . 82 (3): 440– 53. Bibcode : 1991Isis...82..441J . doi : 10.1086/355836 . S2CID 92988054 . Archived from the original on 25 June 2022 . Retrieved 14 April 2022 . Koulouris, John A. (2008). "The Heavens of Poseidon: The History and Discovery of the AntiKythera Mechanism" (PDF) . In Nomine Portal (in Greek). 1 : 1– 12. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 December 2013 . Retrieved 10 December 2013 . Lin, Jian-Liang; Yan, Hong-Sen (2016). Decoding the Mechanisms of Antikythera Astronomical Device . Berlin [u.a.]: Springer. ISBN 978-3662484456 . Marchant, Jo (12 December 2008). "Archimedes and the 2000-year-old computer" . New Scientist (2686). Archived from the original on 27 April 2015 . Retrieved 23 September 2017 . Panos, Kristina (2015). "The Antikythera Mechanism" . Hackaday . Archived from the original on 24 November 2015 . Retrieved 24 November 2015 . Price, D. de S. (1959). "An Ancient Greek Computer". Scientific American . 200 (6): 60– 67. Bibcode : 1959SciAm.200f..60P . doi : 10.1038/scientificamerican0659-60 . Ptolemy (1998). Ptolemy's Almagest . Translated by Toomer, G. J. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-00260-6 . Archived from the original on 9 September 2023 . Retrieved 29 August 2020 . Rice, Rob S. (4–7 September 1997). The Antikythera Mechanism: Physical and Intellectual Salvage from the 1st Century B.C. USNA Eleventh Naval History Symposium. Thessaloniki. pp. 19– 25. Rosheim, Mark E. (1994). Robot Evolution: The Development of Anthrobotics . Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-02622-8 . Russo, Lucio (2004). The Forgotten Revolution: How Science Was Born in 300 BC and Why It Had To Be Reborn . Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-20396-4 . Steele, J. M. (2000). Observations and Predictions of Eclipse Times by Early Astronomers . Kluwer. ISBN 978-0-7923-6298-2 . "Astronomers Shed Light on Antikythera Mechanism's Calendar Ring" . SciNews . 10 July 2024 . Retrieved 12 July 2024 . Spinellis, Diomidis (May 2008). "The Antikythera Mechanism: A Computer Science Perspective" . Computer . 41 (5): 22– 27. Bibcode : 2008Compr..41e..22S . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.144.2297 . doi : 10.1109/MC.2008.166 . S2CID 25254859 . Archived from the original on 26 January 2021 . Retrieved 24 May 2008 . Stephenson, F. R. (1997). Historical Eclipses and the Earth's Rotation . Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-46194-8 . Steele, J. M. (2000). "Eclipse prediction in Mesopotamia". Arch. Hist. Exact Sci . 54 (5): 421– 54. Bibcode : 2000AHES...54..421S . doi : 10.1007/s004070050007 . JSTOR 41134091 . S2CID 118299511 . [1] Voulgaris, Aristeidis, et al., "Is there something missing from the Antikythera Mechanism? Was it a mechanical Planetarium, positioner? or a Luni solar Time calculator device? Reconstructing the lost parts of b1 gear and its Cover Disc", arXiv preprint arXiv:2407.15858, 2024 Weinberg, G. D.; Grace, V. R.; Edwards, G. R.; Robinson, H. S.; et al. (1965). "The Antikythera Shipwreck Reconsidered". Trans. Am. Philos. Soc . 55 (New Series) (3): 3– 48. Bibcode : 1965TAPS...55....3W . doi : 10.2307/1005929 . JSTOR 1005929 . External links Bragg, Melvyn (November 2024). "The Antikythera mechanism" . BBC, In Our Time programme. New Antikythera mechanism analysis challenges century-old assumption - Arstechnica - Jennifer Ouellette - 7/10/2024 Weibel, Thomas. "The Antikythera Mechanism" . Animated model of the Antikythera mechanism in virtual reality . Asimakopoulos, Fivos. "3D model simulation" . Manos Roumeliotis's Simulation and Animation of the Antikythera Mechanism page . The Antikythera Mechanism Research Project. The Antikythera Mechanism Research Project. "Videos" . YouTube . Retrieved 24 July 2017 . "The Antikythera Mechanism Exhibitions" . National Hellenic Research Foundation. Archived from the original on 23 April 2012. YAAS – A 3D interactive virtual reality simulator in VRML Archived 5 March 2024 at the Wayback Machine Wright, M.; Vicentini, M. (25 August 2009). "Virtual Reconstruction of the Antikythera Mechanism" . Heritage Key . Archived from the original on 7 November 2021 – via YouTube. Metapage with links December 2021. at antikythera.org Bronze replica 3D engineering manufacturing drawings and operating manual .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Ancient Greek astronomy v t e Astronomers Aglaonice Agrippa Anaximander Andronicus Apollonius Aratus Aristarchus Aristyllus Attalus Autolycus Bion Callippus Cleomedes Cleostratus Conon Eratosthenes Euctemon Eudoxus Geminus Heraclides Hicetas Hipparchus Hippocrates of Chios Hypsicles Menelaus Meton Oenopides Philip of Opus Philolaus Posidonius Ptolemy Pytheas Seleucus Sosigenes of Alexandria Sosigenes the Peripatetic Strabo Thales Theodosius Theon of Alexandria Theon of Smyrna Timocharis Aglaonice Agrippa Anaximander Andronicus Apollonius Aratus Aristarchus Aristyllus Attalus Autolycus Bion Callippus Cleomedes Cleostratus Conon Eratosthenes Euctemon Eudoxus Geminus Heraclides Hicetas Hipparchus Hippocrates of Chios Hypsicles Menelaus Meton Oenopides Philip of Opus Philolaus Posidonius Ptolemy Pytheas Seleucus Sosigenes of Alexandria Sosigenes the Peripatetic Strabo Thales Theodosius Theon of Alexandria Theon of Smyrna Timocharis Treatises Extant Almagest (Ptolemy) Analemma (Ptolemy) Commentary on the Phenomena (Hipparchus) Diosemeia (Aratus) Handy Tables (Ptolemy) Hypotosis (Proclus) Introduction to the Phenomena (Geminus) On Risings and Settings (Autolycus) On Ascensions (Hypsicles) On Days and Nights (Theodosius) On Habitations (Theodosius) On the Circular Motions of the Celestial Bodies (Cleomedes) On the Heavens (Aristotle) On the Sizes and Distances (Aristarchus) On Mathematics Useful for the Understanding of Plato (Theon of Smyrna) On the Moving Sphere (Autolycus) Phaenomena (Euclid) Phenomena (Aratus) Planisphaerium (Ptolemy) Planetary Hypothesis (Ptolemy) Risings of the Fixed Stars (Ptolemy) Spherics (Menelaus) Spherics (Theodosius) The Sand Reckoner (Archimedes) Fragmentary Catasterismi (Eratosthenes) Commentary on the Almagest (Pappus) Commentary on the Almagest (Theon of Alexandria) Great Commentary on the Handy Tables (Theon of Alexandria) History of Astronomy (Eudemus) Little Commentary on the Handy Tables (Theon of Alexandria) Meteoroscope (Ptolemy) On the Measurement of the Earth (Eratosthenes) On Nature (Anaximander) On Nature (Philolaus) On Sizes and Distances (Hipparchus) Star Catalogue (Hipparchus) Untitled Work on Heliocentrism (Aristarchus) Lost Analemma (Diodorus) Astronomia (Hesiod) Description of the Heavens (Democritus) Commentary on Aratus (Theon of Alexandria) Commentary on the Analemma of Diodorus (Pappus) Disappearances of the Sun (Eudoxus) Eneptron (Eudoxus) On Fixed Stars (Anaximander) On Speeds (Eudoxus) On the Displacement of the Solstitial and Equinoctial Points (Hipparchus) On the Eight-Year Lunisolar-Venus Cycle (Eudoxus) On the Equinox (Thales) On the Great Year (Democritus) On the Length of the Year (Hipparchus) On the Solstice (Thales) On the Sphere (Achilles Tatius) Nautical Star-guide (Thales) Phaenomena (Eudoxus) Planispheres (Democritus) Rotation of the Earth (Anaximander) Treatise on the Astrolabe (Theon of Alexandria) Compilations Little Astronomy Extant Almagest (Ptolemy) Analemma (Ptolemy) Commentary on the Phenomena (Hipparchus) Diosemeia (Aratus) Handy Tables (Ptolemy) Hypotosis (Proclus) Introduction to the Phenomena (Geminus) On Risings and Settings (Autolycus) On Ascensions (Hypsicles) On Days and Nights (Theodosius) On Habitations (Theodosius) On the Circular Motions of the Celestial Bodies (Cleomedes) On the Heavens (Aristotle) On the Sizes and Distances (Aristarchus) On Mathematics Useful for the Understanding of Plato (Theon of Smyrna) On the Moving Sphere (Autolycus) Phaenomena (Euclid) Phenomena (Aratus) Planisphaerium (Ptolemy) Planetary Hypothesis (Ptolemy) Risings of the Fixed Stars (Ptolemy) Spherics (Menelaus) Spherics (Theodosius) The Sand Reckoner (Archimedes) Almagest (Ptolemy) Analemma (Ptolemy) Commentary on the Phenomena (Hipparchus) Diosemeia (Aratus) Handy Tables (Ptolemy) Hypotosis (Proclus) Introduction to the Phenomena (Geminus) On Risings and Settings (Autolycus) On Ascensions (Hypsicles) On Days and Nights (Theodosius) On Habitations (Theodosius) On the Circular Motions of the Celestial Bodies (Cleomedes) On the Heavens (Aristotle) On the Sizes and Distances (Aristarchus) On Mathematics Useful for the Understanding of Plato (Theon of Smyrna) On the Moving Sphere (Autolycus) Phaenomena (Euclid) Phenomena (Aratus) Planisphaerium (Ptolemy) Planetary Hypothesis (Ptolemy) Risings of the Fixed Stars (Ptolemy) Spherics (Menelaus) Spherics (Theodosius) The Sand Reckoner (Archimedes) Fragmentary Catasterismi (Eratosthenes) Commentary on the Almagest (Pappus) Commentary on the Almagest (Theon of Alexandria) Great Commentary on the Handy Tables (Theon of Alexandria) History of Astronomy (Eudemus) Little Commentary on the Handy Tables (Theon of Alexandria) Meteoroscope (Ptolemy) On the Measurement of the Earth (Eratosthenes) On Nature (Anaximander) On Nature (Philolaus) On Sizes and Distances (Hipparchus) Star Catalogue (Hipparchus) Untitled Work on Heliocentrism (Aristarchus) Catasterismi (Eratosthenes) Commentary on the Almagest (Pappus) Commentary on the Almagest (Theon of Alexandria) Great Commentary on the Handy Tables (Theon of Alexandria) History of Astronomy (Eudemus) Little Commentary on the Handy Tables (Theon of Alexandria) Meteoroscope (Ptolemy) On the Measurement of the Earth (Eratosthenes) On Nature (Anaximander) On Nature (Philolaus) On Sizes and Distances (Hipparchus) Star Catalogue (Hipparchus) Untitled Work on Heliocentrism (Aristarchus) Lost Analemma (Diodorus) Astronomia (Hesiod) Description of the Heavens (Democritus) Commentary on Aratus (Theon of Alexandria) Commentary on the Analemma of Diodorus (Pappus) Disappearances of the Sun (Eudoxus) Eneptron (Eudoxus) On Fixed Stars (Anaximander) On Speeds (Eudoxus) On the Displacement of the Solstitial and Equinoctial Points (Hipparchus) On the Eight-Year Lunisolar-Venus Cycle (Eudoxus) On the Equinox (Thales) On the Great Year (Democritus) On the Length of the Year (Hipparchus) On the Solstice (Thales) On the Sphere (Achilles Tatius) Nautical Star-guide (Thales) Phaenomena (Eudoxus) Planispheres (Democritus) Rotation of the Earth (Anaximander) Treatise on the Astrolabe (Theon of Alexandria) Analemma (Diodorus) Astronomia (Hesiod) Description of the Heavens (Democritus) Commentary on Aratus (Theon of Alexandria) Commentary on the Analemma of Diodorus (Pappus) Disappearances of the Sun (Eudoxus) Eneptron (Eudoxus) On Fixed Stars (Anaximander) On Speeds (Eudoxus) On the Displacement of the Solstitial and Equinoctial Points (Hipparchus) On the Eight-Year Lunisolar-Venus Cycle (Eudoxus) On the Equinox (Thales) On the Great Year (Democritus) On the Length of the Year (Hipparchus) On the Solstice (Thales) On the Sphere (Achilles Tatius) Nautical Star-guide (Thales) Phaenomena (Eudoxus) Planispheres (Democritus) Rotation of the Earth (Anaximander) Treatise on the Astrolabe (Theon of Alexandria) Compilations Little Astronomy Little Astronomy Instruments Antikythera mechanism Armillary sphere Astrolabe Dioptra Equatorial ring Gnomon Mural instrument Triquetrum Antikythera mechanism Armillary sphere Astrolabe Dioptra Equatorial ring Gnomon Mural instrument Triquetrum Concepts Callippic cycle Celestial spheres Circle of latitude Counter-Earth Deferent and epicycle Equant Geocentrism Heliocentrism Hipparchic cycle Inferior and superior planets Metonic cycle Octaeteris Solstice Spherical Earth Sublunary sphere Zodiac Callippic cycle Celestial spheres Circle of latitude Counter-Earth Deferent and epicycle Equant Geocentrism Heliocentrism Hipparchic cycle Inferior and superior planets Metonic cycle Octaeteris Solstice Spherical Earth Sublunary sphere Zodiac Influences Babylonian astronomy Egyptian astronomy Babylonian astronomy Egyptian astronomy Influenced Medieval European science Indian astronomy Medieval Islamic astronomy Medieval European science Indian astronomy Medieval Islamic astronomy v t e Major exhibits at the National Archaeological Museum of Athens v t e Neolithic Karditsa Thinker Karditsa Thinker Cycladic Frying pan 1 Frying pan 2 Spool-shaped pyxis Frying pan 1 Frying pan 2 Spool-shaped pyxis Minoan Akrotiri Boxer Fresco Wall Paintings of Thera Akrotiri Boxer Fresco Wall Paintings of Thera Mycenaean Grave stelai from Grave Circle A Mask of Agamemnon Octopus amphora Nestor's Cup PY Ta 641 Theseus Ring Warrior Vase Grave stelai from Grave Circle A Mask of Agamemnon Octopus amphora Nestor's Cup PY Ta 641 Theseus Ring Warrior Vase Archaic Apollo Omphalos Artemision Bronze Daidala Dedication of Nikandre Dipylon Amphora Dipylon inscription Grave stele 7901 Horses Amphora Kroisos Kouros Lemnos stele Merenda Kouros Phrasikleia Kore Pitsa panels Rider Amphora Sounion Kouros Stele of Aristion Apollo Omphalos Artemision Bronze Daidala Dedication of Nikandre Dipylon Amphora Dipylon inscription Grave stele 7901 Horses Amphora Kroisos Kouros Lemnos stele Merenda Kouros Phrasikleia Kore Pitsa panels Rider Amphora Sounion Kouros Stele of Aristion Classical Antikythera Ephebe Decree of Themistocles Funerary naiskos of Aristonautes Funerary Stela of Demokleides Grave Stele of Hegeso Great Eleusinian Relief Mantineia Base Marathon Boy Myrtis Nike of Epidaurus Ninnion Tablet Xenokrateia Relief Antikythera Ephebe Decree of Themistocles Funerary naiskos of Aristonautes Funerary Stela of Demokleides Grave Stele of Hegeso Great Eleusinian Relief Mantineia Base Marathon Boy Myrtis Nike of Epidaurus Ninnion Tablet Xenokrateia Relief Hellenistic Antikythera mechanism Aristonoe Group of Aphrodite, Pan and Eros Heracles of Antikythera Jockey of Artemision Lycosoura Artemis Lycosoura Demeter Mithridates relief Nike of Megara Poseidon of Melos Themis of Rhamnous Antikythera mechanism Aristonoe Group of Aphrodite, Pan and Eros Heracles of Antikythera Jockey of Artemision Lycosoura Artemis Lycosoura Demeter Mithridates relief Nike of Megara Poseidon of Melos Themis of Rhamnous Roman Aphrodite of Syracuse Armed Aphrodite Atalante Hermes Bust of Antinous Diadumenos Dionysus Sardanapalus Hermes Criophorus Hermes of Aegium Lenormant Athena Varvakeion Athena Aphrodite of Syracuse Armed Aphrodite Atalante Hermes Bust of Antinous Diadumenos Dionysus Sardanapalus Hermes Criophorus Hermes of Aegium Lenormant Athena Varvakeion Athena v t e Solar System models v t e Devices Antikythera mechanism Armillary sphere Astrarium Astronomical clock Orrery Eise Eisinga Planetarium Tellurion Antikythera mechanism Armillary sphere Astrarium Astronomical clock Orrery Eise Eisinga Planetarium Eise Eisinga Planetarium Tellurion Models Akaa Solar System Scale Model (Akaa, Finland) Gravity Discovery Centre (Gingin, Australia) Kystagerparken (Hvidovre, Denmark) Monument to the Sun (Zadar, Croatia) Nine Views (Zagreb, Croatia) Pajamäki Solar System Scale Model (Helsinki and Espoo, Finland) Planet Lofoten (Lofoten, Norway) Sagan Planet Walk (Ithaca, New York) Somerset Space Walk (Somerset, England) Sweden Solar System Akaa Solar System Scale Model (Akaa, Finland) Gravity Discovery Centre (Gingin, Australia) Kystagerparken (Hvidovre, Denmark) Monument to the Sun (Zadar, Croatia) Nine Views (Zagreb, Croatia) Pajamäki Solar System Scale Model (Helsinki and Espoo, Finland) Planet Lofoten (Lofoten, Norway) Sagan Planet Walk (Ithaca, New York) Somerset Space Walk (Somerset, England) Sweden Solar System Related Solar System Kirkhill Astronomical Pillar Historical models of the Solar System Numerical model of the Solar System Solar System Kirkhill Astronomical Pillar Historical models of the Solar System Numerical model of the Solar System Ancient Greece Astronomy Stars Outer space Solar System History of science Authority control databases International VIAF GND VIAF GND National United States France BnF data Czech Republic Israel United States France BnF data Czech Republic Israel Other Yale LUX Yale LUX Antikythera Mechanism 3rd-century BC artifacts 2nd-century BC artifacts 1st-century BC artifacts 1902 archaeological discoveries 1902 in Greece Ancient Greek astronomy Greek mathematics Ancient Greek technology Ancient inventions Analog computers Antikythera Archaeoastronomy Archaeological discoveries in the Ionian Islands Astronomical instruments Greek inventions Hellenistic engineering History of computing History of mathematics History of science History of technology Mechanical calculators Mechanical computers National Archaeological Museum, Athens Webarchive template wayback links CS1: long volume value CS1 Latin-language sources (la) CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 Greek-language sources (el) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use British English from July 2016 All Wikipedia articles written in British English Use dmy dates from September 2023 Pages using infobox mapframe 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early life 2 Queen Victoria's devoted companion 3 Marriage Toggle Marriage subsection 3.1 Possible suitors 3.2 Engagement and wedding 3.1 Possible suitors 3.2 Engagement and wedding 4 Queen Victoria's last years 5 Later life Toggle Later life subsection 5.1 Queen Victoria's journals 5.2 Retirement from public life 5.3 Last years and death 5.1 Queen Victoria's journals 5.2 Retirement from public life 5.3 Last years and death 6 Legacy 7 Titles, styles, honours and arms Toggle Titles, styles, honours and arms subsection 7.1 Titles and styles 7.2 Honours 7.3 Arms 7.1 Titles and styles 7.2 Honours 7.3 Arms 8 Issue 9 Ancestry 10 Notes 11 References 12 External links Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom Afrikaans Ænglisc العربية Azərbaycanca 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული مصرى Nederlands 日本語 پښتو Polski Português Română Русский Simple English کوردی Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item Princess Beatrice Princess Henry of Battenberg Princess Beatrice in 1886 Born ( 1857-04-14 ) 14 April 1857 Buckingham Palace , London, England Died 26 October 1944 (1944-10-26) (aged 87) Brantridge Park , Sussex, England Burial 3 November 1944 St George's Chapel , Windsor 27 August 1945 St. Mildred's Church, Whippingham Spouse .mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-inline{display:inline} Prince Henry of Battenberg ( m. .mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help} 1885 ; died 1896 ) Issue .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Alexander Mountbatten, 1st Marquess of Carisbrooke Victoria Eugenie, Queen of Spain Lord Leopold Mountbatten Prince Maurice of Battenberg Alexander Mountbatten, 1st Marquess of Carisbrooke Victoria Eugenie, Queen of Spain Lord Leopold Mountbatten Prince Maurice of Battenberg Names Beatrice Mary Victoria Feodore Names Beatrice Mary Victoria Feodore House Saxe-Coburg and Gotha ( until 1917 ) Windsor ( from 1917 ) Father Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Mother Queen Victoria Signature Princess Beatrice (Beatrice Mary Victoria Feodore; 14 April 1857 – 26 October 1944), later Princess Henry of Battenberg , was the fifth daughter and youngest child of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert . Beatrice was also the last of Queen Victoria's children to die, nearly 66 years after the first, her elder sister Alice . Beatrice's childhood coincided with Queen Victoria's grief following the death of her husband on 14 December 1861. As her elder sisters married and left their mother, the Queen came to rely on the company of her youngest daughter, whom she called "Baby" for most of her childhood. Beatrice was brought up to stay with her mother always and she soon resigned herself to her fate. The Queen was so set against her youngest daughter marrying that she refused to discuss the possibility. Nevertheless, many suitors were put forward, including Louis Napoléon, Prince Imperial , the son of the exiled Emperor Napoleon III of France , and Louis IV, Grand Duke of Hesse , the widower of Beatrice's older sister Alice . She was attracted to the Prince Imperial and there was talk of a possible marriage, but he was killed in the Anglo-Zulu War in 1879. Beatrice fell in love with Prince Henry of Battenberg , the son of Prince Alexander of Hesse and by Rhine and Julia von Hauke and brother-in-law of her niece Princess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine . After a year of persuasion, the Queen, whose consent was required pursuant to the Royal Marriages Act 1772 , finally agreed to the marriage, which took place at Whippingham on the Isle of Wight on 23 July 1885. Queen Victoria consented on condition that Beatrice and Henry make their home with her and that Beatrice continue her duties as the Queen's unofficial secretary. The Prince and Princess had four children, but 10 years into their marriage, on 20 January 1896, Prince Henry died of malaria while fighting in the Anglo-Asante War . Beatrice remained at her mother's side until Queen Victoria died on 22 January 1901. Beatrice devoted the next 30 years to editing Queen Victoria's journals as her designated literary executor and continued to make public appearances. She died aged 87 in 1944. Early life Beatrice was born at 1:45 pm on 14 April 1857 at Buckingham Palace , London. [ 1 ] She was the fifth daughter and youngest of the nine children of the reigning British monarch, Queen Victoria , and her husband, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (later the Prince Consort ). The birth caused controversy when it was announced that Queen Victoria would seek relief from the pains of delivery through the use of chloroform administered by Dr John Snow . Chloroform was considered dangerous to mother and child and was frowned upon by the Church of England and the medical authorities. [ 2 ] Queen Victoria was undeterred and used "that blessed chloroform" for her last pregnancy. [ 3 ] A fortnight later, Queen Victoria reported in her journal, "I was amply rewarded and forgot all I had gone through when I heard dearest Albert say 'It's a fine child, and a girl!'" [ 4 ] Albert and Queen Victoria chose the names Beatrice Mary Victoria Feodore : Mary after Princess Mary, Duchess of Gloucester , the last surviving child of King George III the United Kingdom; Victoria after the Queen; and Feodore after Feodora, Princess of Hohenlohe-Langenburg , the Queen's older half-sister. She was baptised in the private chapel at Buckingham Palace on 16 June. Her godparents were the Duchess of Kent (maternal grandmother); the Princess Royal (eldest sister); and the Prince Frederick of Prussia (her future brother-in-law). [ 5 ] From birth, Beatrice became a favoured child. [ 6 ] The elder favourite daughter of Prince Albert, the Princess Royal, was about to take up residence in Germany with her new husband, Frederick ("Fritz") of Prussia. At the same time, the newly arrived Beatrice showed promise. Albert wrote to Augusta , Fritz's mother, that "Baby practises her scales like a good prima donna before a performance and has a good voice!" [ 7 ] Although Queen Victoria was known to dislike most babies, she liked Beatrice, whom she considered attractive. This provided Beatrice with an advantage over her elder siblings. Queen Victoria once remarked that Beatrice was "a pretty, plump and flourishing child ... with fine large blue eyes, [a] pretty little mouth and very fine skin". [ 8 ] Her long, golden hair was the focus of paintings commissioned by Queen Victoria, who enjoyed giving Beatrice her bath, in marked contrast to her bathing preferences for her other children. Beatrice showed intelligence, which further endeared her to the Prince Consort, who was amused by her childhood precociousness. [ 6 ] He wrote to Baron Stockmar that Beatrice was "the most amusing baby we have had." Despite sharing the rigorous education programme designed by Prince Albert and his close adviser, Baron Stockmar , Beatrice had a more relaxed infancy than her siblings because of her relationship with her parents. [ 9 ] By four years of age, the youngest, and the acknowledged last royal child, Beatrice was not forced to share her parents' attention the way her siblings had, and her amusing ways provided comfort to her faltering father. Queen Victoria's devoted companion In March 1861, Queen Victoria's mother Victoria, Duchess of Kent , died at Frogmore . The Queen broke down in grief and guilt over their estrangement at the beginning of her reign. [ 10 ] Beatrice tried to console her mother by reminding her that the Duchess of Kent was "in heaven, but Beatrice hopes she will return". [ 11 ] This comfort was significant because Queen Victoria had isolated herself from her children except the eldest unmarried daughter, Princess Alice , and Beatrice. [ 12 ] Queen Victoria again relied on Beatrice and Alice after the death of Albert, of typhoid fever, on 14 December. [ 13 ] The depth of the Queen's grief over the death of her husband surprised her family, courtiers, politicians and general populace. As when her mother died, she shut herself off from her family—most particularly, the Prince of Wales , (whom she blamed for her husband's death), [ 14 ] with the exception of Alice and Beatrice. Queen Victoria often took Beatrice from her cot, hurried to her bed and "lay there sleepless, clasping to her child, wrapped in the nightclothes of a man who would wear them no more." [ 15 ] After 1871, when the last of Beatrice's elder sisters married, [ 16 ] Queen Victoria came to rely upon her youngest daughter, who had declared from an early age: "I don't like weddings at all. I shall never be married. I shall stay with my mother." [ 17 ] As her mother's secretary, she performed duties such as writing on the Queen's behalf and helping with political correspondence. [ 18 ] These mundane duties mirrored those that had been performed in succession by her sisters, Alice, Helena and Louise. [ 19 ] However, to these the Queen soon added more personal tasks. During a serious illness in 1871, the Queen dictated her journal entries to Beatrice, and in 1876 she allowed Beatrice to sort the music she and the Prince Consort had played, unused since his death fifteen years earlier. [ 19 ] The devotion that Beatrice showed to her mother was acknowledged in the Queen's letters and journals, but her constant need for Beatrice grew stronger. [ 20 ] [ 21 ] The Queen suffered another bereavement in 1883, when her highland servant, John Brown , died at Balmoral . [ 22 ] Once again, the Queen plunged into public mourning and relied on Beatrice for support. Unlike her siblings, Beatrice had not shown dislike for Brown, and the two had often been seen in each other's company; indeed, they had worked together to carry out the Queen's wishes. [ 23 ] Marriage Possible suitors Although the Queen was set against Beatrice marrying anyone in the expectation that she would always stay at home with her, a number of possible suitors were put forward. One of these was Napoléon Eugéne , the French Prince Imperial, son and heir of the exiled Emperor Napoleon III of France and his wife, Empress Eugénie . After Prussia defeated France in the Franco-Prussian War , Napoleon was deposed and moved his family to England in 1870. [ 24 ] After the Emperor's death in 1873, Queen Victoria and Empress Eugénie formed a close attachment, and the newspapers reported the imminent engagement of Beatrice to the Prince Imperial. [ 25 ] These rumours ended with the death of the Prince Imperial in the Anglo-Zulu War on 1 June 1879. Queen Victoria's journal records their grief: "Dear Beatrice, crying very much as I did too, gave me the telegram ... It was dawning and little sleep did I get ... Beatrice is so distressed; everyone quite stunned." [ 26 ] After the death of the Prince Imperial, the Prince of Wales suggested that Beatrice marry their sister Alice's widower, Louis IV, Grand Duke of Hesse . Alice had died in 1878, and the Prince argued that Beatrice could act as replacement mother for Louis's young children and spend most of her time in England looking after her mother. [ 27 ] He further suggested the Queen could oversee the upbringing of her Hessian grandchildren with greater ease. [ 27 ] However, at the time, it was forbidden by law for Beatrice to marry her sister's widower. [ 28 ] This was countered by the Prince of Wales, who vehemently supported passage by the Houses of Parliament of the Deceased Wife's Sister Bill , which would have removed the obstacle. [ 27 ] Despite popular support for this measure and although it passed in the House of Commons , it was rejected by the House of Lords because of opposition from the Lords Spiritual . [ 29 ] Although the Queen was disappointed that the bill had failed, she was happy to keep her daughter at her side. [ 27 ] Other candidates, including the brothers Princes Alexander and Louis of Battenberg , were put forward to be Beatrice's husband, but they did not succeed. Although Alexander never formally pursued Beatrice, merely claiming that he "might even at one time have become engaged to the friend of my childhood, Beatrice of England", [ 30 ] Louis was more interested. Queen Victoria invited him to dinner but sat between him and Beatrice, who had been told by the Queen to ignore Louis to discourage his suit. [ 31 ] Louis, not realising for several years the reasons for this silence, married Beatrice's niece Princess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine . Although her marriage hopes had been dealt another blow, while attending Louis's wedding at Darmstadt , Beatrice fell in love with Louis and Alexander's brother Prince Henry , who returned her affections. [ 32 ] Engagement and wedding When Beatrice, after returning from Darmstadt, told her mother she planned to marry, the Queen reacted with frightening silence. Although they remained side by side, the Queen did not talk to her for seven months, instead communicating by note. [ 33 ] Queen Victoria's behaviour, unexpected even by her family, seemed prompted by the threatened loss of her daughter. The Queen regarded Beatrice as her "Baby" – her innocent child – and viewed the physical sex that would come with marriage as an end to innocence. [ 34 ] Subtle persuasions by the Princess of Wales and the Crown Princess of Prussia , who reminded her mother of the happiness that Beatrice had brought the Prince Consort, induced the Queen to resume talking to Beatrice. Queen Victoria consented to the marriage on condition that Henry give up his German commitments and live permanently with Beatrice and the Queen. [ 35 ] Beatrice and Henry were married at Saint Mildred's Church at Whippingham , near Osborne , [ 36 ] on 23 July 1885. [ 35 ] Beatrice, who wore her mother's wedding veil of Honiton lace , was escorted by the Queen and Beatrice's eldest brother, the Prince of Wales. [ 37 ] Princess Beatrice was attended by ten royal bridesmaids from among her nieces: Princesses Louise (18), Victoria and Maud of Wales ; Princesses Irene and Alix of Hesse and by Rhine; Princesses Marie , Victoria Melita and Alexandra of Edinburgh; and Princesses Helena Victoria and Marie Louise of Schleswig-Holstein. The bridegroom's supporters were his brothers, Prince Alexander of Bulgaria and Prince Francis Joseph of Battenberg . [ 38 ] The ceremony – which was not attended by her eldest sister and brother-in-law, the Crown Prince and Princess of Prussia, who were detained in Germany; William Ewart Gladstone ; or Beatrice's cousin, Princess Mary Adelaide, Duchess of Teck , who was in mourning for her father-in-law [ 39 ] – ended with the couple's departure for their honeymoon at Quarr Abbey House , a few miles from Osborne. The Queen, taking leave of them, "bore up bravely till the departure and then fairly gave way", as she later admitted to the Crown Princess. [ 40 ] Queen Victoria's last years After a short honeymoon, Beatrice and her husband fulfilled their promise and returned to the Queen's side. The Queen made it clear that she could not cope on her own and that the couple could not travel without her. [ 41 ] Although the Queen relaxed this restriction shortly after the marriage, Beatrice and Henry travelled only to make short visits with his family. Beatrice's love for Henry, like that of the Queen's for the Prince Consort, seemed to increase the longer they were married. When Henry travelled without Beatrice, she appeared happier when he returned. [ 41 ] The addition of Prince Henry to the family gave new reasons for Beatrice and the Queen to look forward, and the court was brighter than it had been since the Prince Consort's death. [ 42 ] Even so, Henry, supported by Beatrice, was determined to take part in military campaigns, and this annoyed the Queen, who opposed his participation in life-threatening warfare. [ 43 ] Conflicts also arose when Henry attended the Ajaccio carnival and kept "low company", [ 44 ] and Beatrice sent a Royal Navy officer to remove him from temptation. [ 44 ] On one occasion, Henry slipped away to Corsica with his brother Louis ; [ 35 ] the Queen sent a warship to bring him back. [ 35 ] Henry was feeling oppressed by the Queen's constant need for his and his wife's company. [ 44 ] Despite being married, Beatrice fulfilled her promise to the Queen by continuing as her full-time confidante and secretary. Queen Victoria warmed to Henry. [ 45 ] However, the Queen criticised Beatrice's conduct during her first pregnancy. When Beatrice stopped coming to the Queen's dinners a week before giving birth, preferring to eat alone in her room, the Queen wrote angrily to her physician, Dr James Reid, that, "I [urged the Princess to continue] coming to dinner, and not simply moping in her own room, which is very bad for her. In my case I regularly came to dinner, except when I was really unwell (even when suffering a great deal) up to the very last day." [ 46 ] Beatrice, aided by chloroform , gave birth the following week to her first son, Alexander . [ 46 ] Despite suffering a miscarriage in the early months of her marriage, [ 47 ] Beatrice gave birth to four children: Alexander , called "Drino", was born in 1886; Victoria Eugenie , called "Ena", in 1887; Leopold in 1889; and Maurice in 1891. Following this, she took a polite and encouraging interest in social issues. [ 42 ] Although court entertainments were few after the Prince Consort's death, Beatrice and the Queen enjoyed tableau vivant photography, which was often performed at the royal residences. [ 42 ] Henry, increasingly bored by the lack of activity at court, longed for employment, and in response, the Queen made him Governor of the Isle of Wight in 1889. [ 35 ] However, he yearned for military adventure and pleaded with his mother-in-law to let him join the Ashanti expedition fighting in the Anglo-Asante war . Despite misgivings, the Queen consented, and Henry and Beatrice parted on 6 December 1895; they would not meet again. Henry contracted malaria and was sent home. On 22 January 1896, Beatrice, who was waiting for her husband at Madeira , received a telegram informing her of Henry's death two days earlier. [ 43 ] Devastated, she left court for a month of mourning before returning to her post at her mother's side. [ 43 ] The Queen's journal reports that Queen Victoria "[w]ent over to Beatrice's room and sat a while with her. She is so piteous in her misery." [ 48 ] Despite her grief, Beatrice remained her mother's faithful companion, [ 43 ] and as Queen Victoria aged, she relied more heavily on Beatrice for dealing with correspondence. However, realising that Beatrice needed a place of her own, she gave her the Kensington Palace apartments once occupied by the Queen and her mother. [ 49 ] The Queen appointed Beatrice to the governorship of the Isle of Wight, vacated by Prince Henry's death. [ 35 ] In response to Beatrice's interest in photography, the Queen had a darkroom installed at Osborne House. [ 18 ] The changes in the family, including Beatrice's preoccupation with her mother, may have affected her children, who rebelled at school. Beatrice wrote that Ena was "troublesome and rebellious", and that Alexander was telling "unwarrantable untruths". [ 50 ] Later life Beatrice's life was overturned by the death of Queen Victoria on 22 January 1901. She wrote to the Principal of the University of Glasgow in March, "... you may imagine what the grief is. I, who had hardly ever been separated from my dear mother, can hardly realise what life will be like without her, who was the centre of everything." [ 51 ] Beatrice's public appearances continued, but her position at court was diminished. She, unlike her sister Louise, was not close to her brother, now Edward VII , and was not included in the King's inner circle. Although their relationship did not break down completely, it was occasionally strained, for example when she accidentally (but noisily) dropped her service book from the royal gallery onto a table of gold plate during his coronation. [ 52 ] After inheriting Osborne, the King had his mother's personal photographs and belongings removed and some of them destroyed, especially material relating to John Brown , whom he detested. [ 53 ] Queen Victoria had intended the house to be a private, secluded residence for her descendants, away from the pomp and ceremony of mainland life. [ 54 ] However, the new king had no need for the house and consulted his lawyers about disposing of it, transforming the main wing into a convalescent home, opening the state apartments to the public, and constructing a Naval College on the grounds. His plans met with strong disapproval from Beatrice and Louise. Queen Victoria had bequeathed them houses on the estate, and the privacy promised to them by their mother was threatened. When Edward discussed the fate of the house with them, Beatrice argued against allowing the house to leave the family, citing its importance to their parents. [ 54 ] However, the King did not want the house himself, and he offered it to his heir-apparent, Beatrice's nephew George , who declined, objecting to the high cost of maintenance. Edward subsequently extended the grounds of Beatrice's home, Osborne Cottage, to compensate her for the impending loss of her privacy. Shortly afterwards, the King declared to Arthur Balfour , the prime minister , that the main house would go to the nation as a gift. An exception was made for the private apartments, which were closed to all but the royal family members, who made it a shrine to their mother's memory. [ 55 ] Queen Victoria's journals Upon Queen Victoria's death, Beatrice began the momentous task of transcribing and editing her mother's journals . The hundreds of volumes from 1831 onwards contained the Queen's personal views of the day-to-day business of her life and included personal and family matters as well as matters of state. [ 56 ] Queen Victoria had given Beatrice the task of editing the journals for publication, which meant removing private material as well as passages that, if published, might be hurtful to living people. Beatrice deleted so much material that the edited journals are only a third as long as the originals. [ 56 ] The destruction of such large passages of Queen Victoria's diaries distressed Beatrice's nephew, George V , and his wife Queen Mary , who were powerless to intervene. [ 57 ] Beatrice copied a draft from the original and then copied her draft into a set of blue notebooks. Both the originals and her first drafts were destroyed as she progressed. [ 57 ] The task took thirty years and was finished in 1931. The surviving 111 notebooks are kept in the Royal Archives at Windsor Castle . [ 58 ] Retirement from public life Beatrice continued to appear in public after her mother's death. The public engagements she carried out were often related to her mother, Queen Victoria, as the public had always associated Beatrice with the deceased monarch. [ 59 ] The beauty of Beatrice's daughter, Ena , was known throughout Europe, and, despite her low rank, she was a desirable bride. [ 60 ] Her chosen suitor was Alfonso XIII of Spain. However, the marriage caused controversy in Britain, since it required Ena to convert to Catholicism . [ 61 ] This step was opposed by Beatrice's brother, Edward VII , and Spanish ultra-conservatives were against the King's marriage to a Protestant of low birth, as her father, Prince Henry, was the son of a morganatic marriage . Thus, they considered Ena to be only partly royal and thus unfit to be Queen of Spain. [ 60 ] Nonetheless, the couple wed on 31 May 1906. The marriage began inauspiciously when an anarchist attempted to bomb them on their wedding day. [ 60 ] Apparently close at first, the couple grew apart. Ena became unpopular in Spain and grew more so when it was discovered that her son, the heir-apparent to the throne, suffered from haemophilia . Alfonso held Beatrice responsible [ 62 ] for having brought the disease to the Spanish royal house and turned bitterly against Ena. [ 62 ] During her time as Queen of Spain, Ena returned many times to visit her mother in Britain, but always without Alfonso and usually without her children. Meanwhile, Beatrice lived at Osborne Cottage in East Cowes until she sold it in 1913, when Carisbrooke Castle , home of the Governor of the Isle of Wight , became vacant. [ 63 ] She moved into the Castle while keeping an apartment at Kensington Palace in London. She had been much involved in collecting material for the Carisbrooke Castle museum, which she opened in 1898. [ 64 ] Her presence at court further decreased as she aged. Devastated by the death of her favourite son, Maurice , during the First World War in 1914, she began to retire from public life. [ 65 ] In response to war with Germany, George V changed the name of the royal house from Saxe-Coburg and Gotha to Windsor and at the same time adopted it as the family surname, to downplay their German origins. Subsequently, Beatrice and her family renounced their German titles; Beatrice stopped using the style Princess Henry of Battenberg , reverting to only using her birth style, HRH The Princess Beatrice . Her sons gave up their style, Prince of Battenberg . Alexander, the eldest, became Sir Alexander Mountbatten and was later given the title Marquess of Carisbrooke in the Peerage of the United Kingdom . [ 66 ] Her younger son, Leopold, became Lord Leopold Mountbatten and was given the rank of a younger son of a marquess. [ 35 ] He was a haemophiliac, having inherited the "royal disease" from his mother, and died during a knee operation in 1922 one month short of his 33rd birthday. Following the war, Beatrice was one of several members of the royal family who became patrons of The Ypres League , a society founded for veterans of the Ypres Salient and bereaved relatives of those killed in fighting in the Salient. [ 67 ] She was herself a bereaved mother, as her son, Prince Maurice of Battenberg, had been killed in action during the First Battle of Ypres . Rare public appearances after his death included commemorations, including laying wreaths at the Cenotaph in 1930 and 1935 to mark the 10th and 15th anniversaries of the founding of the League. [ 68 ] [ 69 ] Last years and death Even in her seventies, Beatrice continued to correspond with her friends and relatives and to make rare public appearances, such as when, pushed in a wheelchair, she viewed the wreaths laid after the death of her nephew George V in 1936. [ 70 ] She published her last work of translation in 1941. Entitled "In Napoleonic Days", it was the personal diary of Queen Victoria's maternal grandmother, Augusta, Duchess of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld . She corresponded with the publisher, John Murray , who greatly approved of the work. [ 71 ] She made her last home at Brantridge Park in West Sussex, which was owned by Queen Mary's brother, Alexander Cambridge, 1st Earl of Athlone , and his wife, Princess Alice , [ 72 ] who was Beatrice's niece; the Athlones were at the time in Canada where the Earl was governor-general. There, Beatrice died in her sleep on 26 October 1944, aged 87 (the day before the 30th anniversary of her son, Prince Maurice 's death). [ 35 ] After her funeral service at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle , her coffin was interred in the royal vault on 3 November. On 27 August 1945, her body was transferred and interred in a joint tomb alongside her husband in St Mildred's Church, Whippingham . [ 63 ] [ 73 ] Beatrice's final wish, to be buried with her husband on the island most familiar to her, was fulfilled in a private service at Whippingham attended only by her son, the Marquess of Carisbrooke, and his wife. [ 63 ] Legacy Beatrice was the shyest of all of Queen Victoria's children. However, because she accompanied Queen Victoria almost wherever she went, she became among the best known. [ 74 ] Despite her shyness, she was an able actress and dancer as well as a keen artist and photographer. [ 75 ] She was devoted to her children and was concerned when they misbehaved at school. To those who enjoyed her friendship, she was loyal and had a sense of humour, [ 76 ] and as a public figure she was driven by a strong sense of duty. [ 77 ] She was Patron of the Isle of Wight Branch of the Royal National Lifeboat Institution from 1920 until her death. [ 78 ] Music, a passion that was shared by her mother and the Prince Consort, was something in which Beatrice excelled. She played the piano to professional standards and was an occasional composer. [ 79 ] [ 80 ] Like her mother, she was a devout Christian, fascinated by theology until her death. [ 81 ] With her calm temperament and personal warmth, the princess won wide approval. [ 82 ] The demands made on Beatrice during her mother's reign were high. Despite suffering from rheumatism , Beatrice was forced to endure her mother's love of cold weather. [ 83 ] Beatrice's piano playing suffered as her rheumatism got gradually worse, eliminating an enjoyment in which she excelled; however, this did not change her willingness to cater to her mother's needs. [ 83 ] Her effort did not go unnoticed by the British public. In 1886, when she agreed to open the Show of the Royal Horticultural Society of Southampton, the organisers sent her a proclamation of thanks, expressing their "admiration of the affectionate manner in which you have comforted and assisted your widowed mother our Gracious Sovereign the Queen". [ 84 ] As a wedding present, Sir Moses Montefiore , a banker and philanthropist, presented Beatrice and Henry with a silver tea service inscribed: "Many daughters have acted virtuously, but thou excellest them all." [ 85 ] The Times newspaper, shortly before Beatrice's marriage, wrote: "The devotion of your Royal Highness to our beloved Sovereign has won our warmest admiration and our deepest gratitude. May those blessings which it has hitherto been your constant aim to confer on others now be returned in full measure to yourself." [ 86 ] The sentence was, as far as it dared, criticising the Queen's hold over her daughter. [ 85 ] She died at Brantridge Park , the home of her niece, Princess Alice , and her husband, the Earl of Athlone , at the time serving as Governor General of Canada . Osborne House , her mother's favourite home, is accessible to the public. [ 87 ] Her Osborne residences, Osborne and Albert Cottages, remain in private ownership after their sale in 1912. [ 88 ] Titles, styles, honours and arms Titles and styles 14 April 1857 – 23 July 1885: Her Royal Highness The Princess Beatrice 23 July 1885 – 14 July 1917: Her Royal Highness The Princess Beatrice, Princess Henry of Battenberg [ 89 ] 17 July 1917 – 26 October 1944: Her Royal Highness The Princess Beatrice [ 90 ] Honours 1 January 1878: Order of the Crown of India [ 91 ] 8 January 1919: Dame Grand Cross of the British Empire [ 92 ] 12 June 1926: Dame Grand Cross of St John [ 93 ] 11 May 1937: Dame Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order [ 94 ] Royal Order of Victoria and Albert [ 95 ] Royal Red Cross [ 95 ] Grand Cross of St. Catherine [ 95 ] 11 September 1875: Dame of the Order of Queen Saint Isabel [ 96 ] 25 April 1885: Dame of the Golden Lion [ 97 ] [ 98 ] 27 May 1889: Dame of the Order of Queen Maria Luisa [ 99 ] Arms In 1858, Beatrice and the three younger of her sisters were granted use of the royal arms, with an inescutcheon of the shield of Saxony and differenced by a label of three points argent . On Beatrice's arms, the outer points bore roses gules , and the centre a heart gules. In 1917, the inescutcheon was dropped by royal warrant from George V . [ 100 ] Beatrice's coat of arms (1858–1917) Beatrice's coat of arms marshalled with those of her husband and surrounded by the Order of Queen Maria Luisa Issue Portrait Name Birth Death Notes Prince Alexander of Battenberg later Alexander Mountbatten, 1st Marquess of Carisbrooke 23 November 1886 23 February 1960 married Lady Irene Denison (4 July 1890 – 16 July 1956) on 19 July 1917. 1 daughter ( Lady Iris Mountbatten , 1920–1982). Princess Victoria Eugénie of Battenberg (mostly known as Ena ) later Queen of Spain 24 October 1887 15 April 1969 married Alfonso XIII of Spain (17 May 1886 – 28 February 1941) on 31 May 1906 2 daughters, 5 sons (1 stillborn ), (including Infante Juan, Count of Barcelona , 1913–1993, father of Juan Carlos I of Spain). Prince Leopold of Battenberg later Lord Leopold Mountbatten 21 May 1889 23 April 1922 Suffered from haemophilia ; died unmarried and without issue during a knee operation. Prince Maurice of Battenberg 3 October 1891 27 October 1914 Died of wounds from action during World War I. Unmarried and without issue. Ancestry Ancestors of Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom 8. Francis, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (= 14) [ 101 ] 4. Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha [ 101 ] 9. Countess Augusta of Reuss-Ebersdorf (= 15) [ 101 ] 2. Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha 10. Augustus, Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg [ 101 ] 5. Princess Louise of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg [ 101 ] 11. Duchess Louise Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Schwerin [ 101 ] 1. Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom 12. George III the United Kingdom 6. Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn 13. Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz 3. Victoria of the United Kingdom 14. Francis, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (= 8) [ 101 ] 7. Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld 15. Countess Augusta of Reuss-Ebersdorf (= 9) [ 101 ] 8. Francis, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (= 14) [ 101 ] 4. Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha [ 101 ] 9. Countess Augusta of Reuss-Ebersdorf (= 15) [ 101 ] 2. Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha 10. Augustus, Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg [ 101 ] 5. Princess Louise of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg [ 101 ] 11. Duchess Louise Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Schwerin [ 101 ] 1. Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom 12. George III the United Kingdom 6. Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn 13. Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz 3. Victoria of the United Kingdom 14. Francis, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (= 8) [ 101 ] 7. Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld 15. Countess Augusta of Reuss-Ebersdorf (= 9) [ 101 ] Notes ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Accouchement of Her Majesty: Birth of a Princess" . British Standard . 17 April 1857. p. 6. ^ Dennison, p. 3 ^ Longford, ( Victoria R. I. ), p. 234 ^ Quoted in Dennison, p. 3 ^ Dennison, p. 8 ^ a b Dennison, p. 13 ^ Jagow, p. 272 ^ Quoted in Dennison, p. 11 ^ Dennison, p. 22 ^ Longford, ( Victoria, Duchess of Kent ) Oxford Dictionary of National Biography ^ Quoted in Epton, p. 92 ^ Bolitho, p. 104 ^ Bolitho, pp. 195–196 ^ Matthew, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography ^ Duff, p. 10 ^ Victoria, Princess Royal in 1858; Alice in 1862; Helena in 1866; Louise in 1871 ^ Quoted in Dennison, p. 38 ^ a b Dennison, p. 204 ^ a b Dennison, p. 92 ^ Bolitho, p. 301 ^ After a failed assassination attempt on the Queen in 1882, she wrote of Beatrice: "Nothing can exceed dearest Beatrice's courage and calmness, for she saw the whole thing, the man take aim, and fire straight into the carriage, but she never said a word, observing that I was not frightened." ^ Buckle, p. 418 ^ Dennison, pp. 95–101 ^ Corley, p. 349 ^ Dennison, pp. 86–87 ^ Quoted in Dennison, p. 89 ^ a b c d Dennison, pp. 103–106 ^ McFarland, Cynthia; Reid, Brian (17 August 2003). "Anglican Online archives" . Anglican Online. Archived from the original on 4 April 2023 . Retrieved 8 November 2007 . ^ "Deceased Wife's Sister Bill" . The New York Times . 6 February 1902. Archived from the original on 21 November 2007 . Retrieved 8 November 2007 . ^ Quoted in Dennison, p. 126 ^ Dennison, p. 116 ^ Dennison, p. 124 ^ Dennison, p. 130 ^ Dennison, pp. 127–129 ^ a b c d e f g h Purdue, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography ^ Beatrice and her siblings were confirmed here ^ Dennison, pp. 152–153 ^ "Prince and Princess Henry of Battenberg with their bridesmaids and others on their wedding day" . National Portrait Gallery, London . Retrieved 24 November 2025 . ^ Dennison, p. 153 ^ Hibbert, p. 294 ^ a b Dennison, pp. 179–180 ^ a b c Dennison, p. 171 ^ a b c d Dennison, p. 190 ^ a b c Dennison, pp. 185–186 ^ Bolitho, p. 27 ^ a b Quoted in Dennison, p. 164 ^ Dennison, p. 161 ^ Quoted in Dennison, p. 192 ^ Dennison, p. 203 ^ Dennison, pp. 210–212 ^ Quoted in Dennison, p. 213 ^ Dennison, pp. 233–234 ^ Magnus, p. 290 ^ a b Benson, p. 302 ^ Dennison, pp. 225–228 ^ a b "Extracts from Queen Victoria's journals" (PDF) . Official website of the British Monarchy. 2005 . Retrieved 11 November 2007 . ^ a b Magnus, p. 461 ^ "Collections in the Royal Archives" . Official website of the British Monarchy. 2008–2009 . Retrieved 14 August 2013 . ^ Dennison, p. 215 ^ a b c Noel, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography ^ Lee, p. 513 ^ a b Noel (Spain's English Queen), p. 10 ^ a b c "The Princess of the Wight" . The Isle of Wight Beacon. 31 July 2007. Archived from the original on 12 February 2009 . Retrieved 17 January 2016 . ^ "Carisbrooke Castle Museum" . Carisbrooke Castle Museum Trust . Retrieved 17 January 2016 . ^ Dennison, p. 245 ^ "No. 30374" . The London Gazette . 7 November 1917. p. 11594. ^ The Ypres League webpage Archived 12 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine , Aftermath – when the boys came home, accessed 16 January 2010 ^ "To celebrate the tenth anniversary ..." , Reading Eagle , 9 December 1930, p. 10 ^ "Beatrice Lays Wreath" , Getty Images, image number 3294671, from the Hulton Archive, accessed 16 January 2010 ^ Princess Beatrice pushed in a chair (23 January 1936). Viewing the Wreaths (News broadcast). London, UK: Pathe News. ^ Dennison, p. 262 ^ "Brantridge Park" . 2007 . Retrieved 27 December 2007 . ^ "Royal Burials in the Chapel since 1805" . College of St George – Windsor Castle . Retrieved 5 March 2023 . ^ Dennison, p. 157 ^ Dennison: (dancing) pp. 44, 53; (acting) 174–175; (musician) 232–233; (photographer) 121–122 ^ Aspinall-Oglander, C.F. (1959). "Beatrice, Princess" . Dictionary of National Biography . Oxford University Press . Retrieved 26 December 2007 . ^ Dennison, p. 112 ^ Hennessy, Sue (2010). Hidden Depths: Women of the RNLI . The History Press. ISBN 9780752454436 . ^ Dennison, p. 58 ^ 'Retrospection', published in The Girl's Own Paper (1897) ^ Dennison, pp. 84–85 ^ Dennison, p. 193 ^ a b Dennison, p. 110 ^ "Illuminated Proclamation for Princess Beatrice" . Antiquarian Booksellers Association of America. 31 July 1885. Archived from the original on 12 February 2009 . Retrieved 28 December 2007 . ^ a b Dennison, p. 134 ^ The Times newspaper, 29 July 1885 ^ "Osborne House" . English Heritage. 2007 . Retrieved 15 November 2007 . ^ Dennison, p. 230 ^ e.g. "No. 25751" . The London Gazette . 25 October 1887. p. 5763. ^ e.g. "No. 34396" . The London Gazette (Supplement). 7 May 1937. p. 3073. ^ "No. 24539" . The London Gazette . 4 January 1878. p. 114. ^ "No. 31114" . The London Gazette (Supplement). 7 January 1919. p. 447. ^ "No. 33284" . The London Gazette . 14 June 1927. p. 3836. ^ "No. 34396" . The London Gazette (Supplement). 11 May 1937. p. 3074. ^ a b c "The King and the Royal Family" . The County Families of the United Kingdom . Spottiswode, Ballantyne and Co. 1919. p. xvi . Retrieved 10 April 2021 . ^ Bragança, Jose Vicente de (2014). "Agraciamentos Portugueses Aos Príncipes da Casa Saxe-Coburgo-Gota" [Portuguese Honours awarded to Princes of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha]. Pro Phalaris (in Portuguese). 9– 10 : 13 . Retrieved 28 November 2019 . ^ Sullivan, p. 224 ^ "Goldener Löwen-orden", Großherzoglich Hessische Ordensliste (in German), Darmstadt: Staatsverlag, 1885, p. 35 ^ "Real orden de Damas Nobles de la Reina Maria Luisa". Guía Oficial de España . 1918. p. 227 . Retrieved 21 March 2019 . ^ Velde, Francois (2007). "British Royal Cadency" . Heraldica . Retrieved 18 December 2007 . ^ a b c d e f g h Montgomery-Massingberd, Hugh (ed.) (1977). Burke's Royal Families of the World, 1st edition . London: Burke's Peerage References Aspinall-Oglander, C. F. , "Princess Beatrice (1857–1944)" , Dictionary of National Biography (archive), Oxford University Press, 1959; accessed 26 December 2007 Beatrice, HRH The Princess, A Birthday Book (Smith, Elder & Co. London, 1881) The Adventures of Count Georg Albert of Erbach (John Murray, London, 1890) In Napoleonic Days: Extracts from the private diary of Augusta, Duchess of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, Queen Victoria's maternal grandmother, 1806 to 1821 (John Murray, London, 1941) The Adventures of Count Georg Albert of Erbach (John Murray, London, 1890) In Napoleonic Days: Extracts from the private diary of Augusta, Duchess of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, Queen Victoria's maternal grandmother, 1806 to 1821 (John Murray, London, 1941) Benson, E. F. , Queen Victoria's Daughters (Appleton and Company, 1938) Bolitho, Hector , Reign of Queen Victoria (Macmillan, London, 1948) Buckle, George Earle , The Letters of Queen Victoria (Second Series [3rd volume]) (John Murray, London, 1928) Corley, T. A. B., Democratic Despot: A Life of Napoleon III (Barrie and Rockliff, London, 1961) Dennison, Matthew, The Last Princess: The Devoted Life of Queen Victoria's Youngest Daughter (Weidenfeld and Nicolson, Great Britain, 2007); ISBN 978-0-297-84794-6 Duff, David, The Shy Princess (Evans Brothers, Great Britain, 1958) Epton, Nina , Victoria and her Daughters (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, Great Britain, 1971) Jagow, Kurt, Letters of the Prince Consort 1831–1861 (John Murray, London, 1938) Hibbert, Christopher , Queen Victoria in her letters and journals (Sutton Publishing Ltd, 2000); ISBN 978-0-7509-2349-1 Lee, Sir Sidney , King Edward VII: A Biography (Volume I) (Macmillan company, 1925) Longford, Elizabeth Victoria R. I. (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, Great Britain, 1964) Longford, Elizabeth (2004). "Victoria, Princess [Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld], duchess of Kent (1786–1861)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi : 10.1093/ref:odnb/28273 . (Subscription, Wikipedia Library access or UK public library membership required.) Magnus, Philip , Edward the Seventh (John Murray, London, 1964) Matthew, H. C. G. (2016) [2004]. "Edward VII (1841–1910) profile". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi : 10.1093/ref:odnb/32975 . (Subscription, Wikipedia Library access or UK public library membership required.) Noel, Gerard , Ena: Spain's English Queen (Constable, London, 1985); ISBN 978-0-09-479520-4 Noel, Gerard (2004). "Ena, princess of Battenberg (1887–1969)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi : 10.1093/ref:odnb/36656 . (Subscription, Wikipedia Library access or UK public library membership required.) Purdue, A. W. (2008) [2004]. "Beatrice, Princess [ married name Princess Henry of Battenberg] (1857–1944)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi : 10.1093/ref:odnb/30658 . (Subscription, Wikipedia Library access or UK public library membership required.) External links Ceremonial observed at Beatrice's wedding: "No. 25495" . The London Gazette . 28 July 1885. p. 25495. "Isle of Wight Beacon on Princess Beatrice" . Archived from the original on 12 February 2009 . Retrieved 14 February 2008 . Information about Queen Victoria's journals Carisbrooke Castle Museum Osborne House Princess Beatrice letter, MSS SC 1247 at L. Tom Perry Special Collections , Harold B. Lee Library , Brigham Young University Portraits of Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom at the National Portrait Gallery, London Free scores by Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom at the International Music Score Library Project (IMSLP) Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Cadet branch of the House of Wettin Born: 14 April 1857 Died: 25 October 1944 Honorary titles Preceded by Prince Henry of Battenberg Governor of the Isle of Wight 1896–1944 Succeeded by The Duke of Wellington .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e British princesses v t e The generations indicate descent from George I , who formalised the use of the titles prince and princess for members of the British royal family. Where a princess may have been or is descended from George I more than once, her most senior descent, by which she bore or bears her title, is used. 1st generation Sophia Dorothea, Queen in Prussia Sophia Dorothea, Queen in Prussia 2nd generation Anne, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange Princess Amelia Princess Caroline Mary, Landgravine of Hesse-Kassel Louise, Queen of Denmark and Norway Anne, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange Princess Amelia Princess Caroline Mary, Landgravine of Hesse-Kassel Louise, Queen of Denmark and Norway 3rd generation Augusta, Duchess of Brunswick Princess Elizabeth Princess Louisa Caroline Matilda, Queen of Denmark and Norway Augusta, Duchess of Brunswick Princess Elizabeth Princess Louisa Caroline Matilda, Queen of Denmark and Norway 4th generation Charlotte, Princess Royal and Queen of Württemberg Princess Augusta Sophia Elizabeth, Landgravine of Hesse-Homburg Princess Mary, Duchess of Gloucester and Edinburgh Princess Sophia Princess Amelia Princess Sophia of Gloucester Princess Caroline of Gloucester Charlotte, Princess Royal and Queen of Württemberg Princess Augusta Sophia Elizabeth, Landgravine of Hesse-Homburg Princess Mary, Duchess of Gloucester and Edinburgh Princess Sophia Princess Amelia Princess Sophia of Gloucester Princess Caroline of Gloucester 5th generation Charlotte, Princess Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld Princess Elizabeth of Clarence Queen Victoria Augusta, Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz Princess Mary Adelaide, Duchess of Teck Charlotte, Princess Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld Princess Elizabeth of Clarence Queen Victoria Augusta, Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz Princess Mary Adelaide, Duchess of Teck 6th generation Victoria, Princess Royal and German Empress Alice, Grand Duchess of Hesse and by Rhine Helena, Princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll Beatrice, Princess Henry of Battenberg Princess Frederica, Baroness von Pawel-Rammingen Princess Marie of Hanover Victoria, Princess Royal and German Empress Alice, Grand Duchess of Hesse and by Rhine Helena, Princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll Beatrice, Princess Henry of Battenberg Princess Frederica, Baroness von Pawel-Rammingen Princess Marie of Hanover 7th generation Louise, Princess Royal and Duchess of Fife Princess Victoria Maud, Queen of Norway Marie, Queen of Romania Grand Duchess Victoria Feodorovna of Russia Alexandra, Princess of Hohenlohe-Langenburg Princess Beatrice, Duchess of Galliera Margaret, Crown Princess of Sweden Lady Patricia Ramsay Princess Alice, Countess of Athlone Marie Louise, Princess Maximilian of Baden Alexandra, Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-Schwerin Princess Olga of Hanover Louise, Princess Royal and Duchess of Fife Princess Victoria Maud, Queen of Norway Marie, Queen of Romania Grand Duchess Victoria Feodorovna of Russia Alexandra, Princess of Hohenlohe-Langenburg Princess Beatrice, Duchess of Galliera Margaret, Crown Princess of Sweden Lady Patricia Ramsay Princess Alice, Countess of Athlone Marie Louise, Princess Maximilian of Baden Alexandra, Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-Schwerin Princess Olga of Hanover 8th generation Mary, Princess Royal and Countess of Harewood Alexandra, Princess Arthur of Connaught and Duchess of Fife Princess Maud, Countess of Southesk Princess Sibylla, Duchess of Västerbotten Princess Caroline Mathilde of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Frederica, Queen of Greece Mary, Princess Royal and Countess of Harewood Alexandra, Princess Arthur of Connaught and Duchess of Fife Princess Maud, Countess of Southesk Princess Sibylla, Duchess of Västerbotten Princess Caroline Mathilde of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Frederica, Queen of Greece 9th generation Queen Elizabeth II Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon Princess Alexandra, The Honourable Lady Ogilvy Queen Elizabeth II Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon Princess Alexandra, The Honourable Lady Ogilvy 10th generation Anne, Princess Royal Anne, Princess Royal 11th generation Princess Beatrice, Mrs Edoardo Mapelli Mozzi Princess Eugenie, Mrs Jack Brooksbank Lady Louise Mountbatten-Windsor Princess Beatrice, Mrs Edoardo Mapelli Mozzi Princess Eugenie, Mrs Jack Brooksbank Lady Louise Mountbatten-Windsor 12th generation Princess Charlotte of Wales Princess Lilibet of Sussex Princess Charlotte of Wales Princess Lilibet of Sussex Princesses whose titles were removed and eligible people who do not use the title are shown in italics . v t e Princesses of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha by birth v t e 1st generation None None 2nd generation Princess Victoria, Duchess of Nemours Carlota, Empress of Mexico * Princess Victoria, Duchess of Nemours Carlota, Empress of Mexico * 3rd generation Victoria, German Empress and Queen of Prussia ** Alice, Grand Duchess of Hesse and by Rhine ** Helena, Princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein ** Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll ** Beatrice, Princess Henry of Battenberg ** Clotilde, Archduchess Joseph Karl of Austria Amalie, Duchess Maximilian Emanuel in Bavaria Louise, Princess Philipp of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha-Koháry * Stéphanie, Crown Princess of Austria * Clémentine, Princess Napoléon * Princess Henriette, Duchess of Vendôme * Joséphine Caroline, Princess Karl Anton of Hohenzollern * Victoria, German Empress and Queen of Prussia ** Alice, Grand Duchess of Hesse and by Rhine ** Helena, Princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein ** Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll ** Beatrice, Princess Henry of Battenberg ** Clotilde, Archduchess Joseph Karl of Austria Amalie, Duchess Maximilian Emanuel in Bavaria Louise, Princess Philipp of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha-Koháry * Stéphanie, Crown Princess of Austria * Clémentine, Princess Napoléon * Princess Henriette, Duchess of Vendôme * Joséphine Caroline, Princess Karl Anton of Hohenzollern * 4th generation Louise, Princess Royal and Duchess of Fife ** Princess Victoria of the United Kingdom ** Maud, Queen of Norway ** Marie, Queen of Romania ** Grand Duchess Victoria Feodorovna of Russia ** Alexandra, Princess of Hohenlohe-Langenburg ** Princess Beatrice, Duchess of Galliera ** Margaret, Crown Princess of Sweden ** Lady Patricia Ramsay ** Princess Alice, Countess of Athlone ** Dorothea, Duchess of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg Princess Eudoxia of Bulgaria *** Nadezhda, Duchess Albrecht Eugen of Württemberg *** Marie-José, Queen of Italy * Louise, Princess Royal and Duchess of Fife ** Princess Victoria of the United Kingdom ** Maud, Queen of Norway ** Marie, Queen of Romania ** Grand Duchess Victoria Feodorovna of Russia ** Alexandra, Princess of Hohenlohe-Langenburg ** Princess Beatrice, Duchess of Galliera ** Margaret, Crown Princess of Sweden ** Lady Patricia Ramsay ** Princess Alice, Countess of Athlone ** Dorothea, Duchess of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg Princess Eudoxia of Bulgaria *** Nadezhda, Duchess Albrecht Eugen of Württemberg *** Marie-José, Queen of Italy * 5th generation Mary, Princess Royal and Countess of Harewood ** Princess Sibylla, Duchess of Västerbotten ** Princess Maria Karoline Princess Teresa Cristina, Baroness Taxis of Bordogna and Valnigra Mary, Princess Royal and Countess of Harewood ** Princess Sibylla, Duchess of Västerbotten ** Princess Maria Karoline Princess Teresa Cristina, Baroness Taxis of Bordogna and Valnigra 6th generation Marie Louise, Princess of Koháry *** 7th generation Princess Kalina, Countess of Murany *** 8th generation Princess Mafalda Cecilia *** * also a princess of Belgium ** also a princess of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland *** also a princess of the Tsardom of Bulgaria Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Netherlands Sweden Poland Israel United States France BnF data Netherlands Sweden Poland Israel People BMLO Deutsche Biographie DDB BMLO Deutsche Biographie DDB Other IdRef Open Library SNAC 2 Yale LUX IdRef Open Library SNAC 2 2 Yale LUX 1857 births 1944 deaths 19th-century British people 20th-century British people 19th-century British women 20th-century British women Battenberg family British princesses Burials at St. Mildred's Church, Whippingham Companions of the Order of the Crown of India Ladies of the Royal Order of Victoria and Albert Dames Grand Cross of the Order of St John Dames Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire Dames Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order Dames of the Order of Saint Isabel Princesses in the German Empire House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (United Kingdom) Members of the Royal Red Cross People from Kensington People from the Isle of Wight Princesses of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Women of the Victorian era Children of Queen Victoria People from Balcombe, West Sussex Royal reburials Daughters of queens regnant Daughters of empresses regnant Recipients of the Order of Saint Catherine Prince Henry of Battenberg Webarchive template wayback links Pages containing London Gazette template with parameter supp set to y CS1 Portuguese-language sources (pt) CS1 German-language sources (de) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Featured articles Use British English from September 2014 All Wikipedia articles written in British English Use dmy dates from January 2025 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the ODNB Pages using cite ODNB with id parameter Commons link from Wikidata Articles with hAudio microformats Spoken articles Composers with IMSLP links Articles with International Music Score Library Project links This page was last edited on 6 January 2026, at 08:09 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Key characteristics Toggle Key characteristics subsection 1.1 Formal notation 1.2 Semantic Web compatibility 1.1 Formal notation 1.2 Semantic Web compatibility 2 Example 3 History 4 Semantic wiki software 5 Common features 6 See also 7 References 8 External links Semantic wiki Azərbaycanca Deutsch Español Français 한국어 Hrvatski Português Русский Українська Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item Semantics Linguistic Logical Linguistic Logical Subfields Computational Lexical Lexis Lexicology Statistical Structural Topics Analysis Compositionality Context Prototype theory Force dynamics Semantic feature Semantic gap Theory of descriptions Analysis Latent Computational Machine learning Applications Desktop File system Matching Parsing Querying web wiki Similarity Subfields Computational Lexical Lexis Lexicology Statistical Structural Computational Lexical Lexis Lexicology Lexis Lexicology Statistical Structural Topics Analysis Compositionality Context Prototype theory Force dynamics Semantic feature Semantic gap Theory of descriptions Analysis Compositionality Context Prototype theory Force dynamics Prototype theory Force dynamics Semantic feature Semantic gap Theory of descriptions Analysis Latent Computational Machine learning Latent Computational Machine learning Applications Desktop File system Matching Parsing Querying web wiki Similarity Desktop File system Matching Parsing Querying web wiki web wiki Similarity Semantics of programming languages Types Action Algebraic Axiomatic Categorical Concurrency Denotational Game Operational Predicate transformational Theory Abstract interpretation Abstract semantic graph Types Action Algebraic Axiomatic Categorical Concurrency Denotational Game Operational Predicate transformational Action Algebraic Axiomatic Categorical Concurrency Denotational Game Operational Predicate transformational Theory Abstract interpretation Abstract semantic graph Abstract interpretation Abstract semantic graph Language Linguistics Language Linguistics .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e A semantic wiki is a wiki that has an underlying model of the knowledge described in its pages. Regular, or syntactic , wikis have structured text and untyped hyperlinks . Semantic wikis, on the other hand, provide the ability to capture or identify information about the data within pages, and the relationships between pages, in ways that can be queried or exported like a database [ 1 ] [ 2 ] through semantic queries . Semantic wikis were first proposed in the early 2000s, and began to be implemented seriously around 2005. [ 3 ] [ 4 ] As of 2021, well-known semantic wiki engines are Semantic MediaWiki and Wikibase . [ 5 ] Key characteristics Formal notation The knowledge model found in a semantic wiki is typically available in a formal language , so that machines can process it into an entity-relationship model or relational database . The formal notation may be included in the pages themselves by users, as in Semantic MediaWiki , or it may be derived from the pages or the page names or the means of linking. For example, using a specific alternative page name might indicate that a specific type of link was intended. Providing information through a formal notation allows machines to calculate new facts, as relations between pages, from the facts represented in the knowledge model . Semantic Web compatibility The technologies developed by the Semantic Web community provide one basis for formal reasoning about the knowledge model that is developed by importing this data. However, there is also a wide array of technologies that work on relational data. Example Imagine a semantic wiki devoted to food . The page for an apple would contain, in addition to standard text information, some machine-readable or at least machine-intuitable semantic data. The most basic kind of data would be that an apple is a kind of fruit —what's known as an inheritance relationship. The wiki would thus be able to automatically generate a list of fruits, simply by listing all pages that are tagged as being of type "fruit." Further semantic tags in the "apple" page could indicate other data about apples, including their possible colors and sizes, nutritional information and serving suggestions, and so on. If the wiki exports all this data in RDF or a similar format, it can then be queried like a database so that an external user or site could, for instance, request a list of all fruits that are red and can also be baked in a pie. History In the 1980s, before the Web began, there were several technologies to process typed links between collectively maintained hypertext pages, such as NoteCards , KMS , and gIBIS . Extensive research was published on these tools by the collaboration software , computer-mediated communication , hypertext , and computer supported cooperative work communities. The first known usage of the term "Semantic Wiki" was a Usenet posting by Andy Dingley in January 2001. [ 6 ] Its first known appearance in a technical paper was in a 2003 paper by Austrian researcher Leo Sauermann. [ 7 ] Many of the existing semantic wiki applications were started in the mid-2000s, including ArtificialMemory [ 8 ] (2004), Semantic MediaWiki (2005), Freebase (2005), and OntoWiki (2006). June 2006 saw the first meeting dedicated to semantic wikis, the "SemWiki" workshop, co-located with the European Semantic Web Conference in Montenegro . [ 9 ] This workshop ran annually until 2010. [ 10 ] The site DBpedia , launched in 2007, though not a semantic wiki, publishes structured data from Wikipedia in RDF form, which enables semantic querying of Wikipedia's data. In March 2008, Wikia , the world's largest wiki farm , made the use of Semantic MediaWiki available for all their wikis on request, thus allowing all the wikis they hosted to function as semantic wikis. [ 11 ] However, since upgrading to version 1.19 of MediaWiki in 2013, they have stopped supporting Semantic MediaWiki for new requests on the basis of performance problem. [ 12 ] In July 2010, Google purchased Metaweb , the company behind Freebase. [ 13 ] In April 2012, work began on Wikidata , a collaborative, multi-language store of data, whose data could then be used within Wikipedia articles, as well as by the outside world. Semantic wiki software There are a number of wiki applications that provide semantic functionality. Some standalone semantic wiki applications exist, including OntoWiki . Other semantic wiki software is structured as extensions or plugins to standard wiki software. The best-known of these is Semantic MediaWiki , an extension to MediaWiki . Another example is the SemanticXWiki [ 14 ] extension for XWiki . Some standard wiki engines also include the ability to add typed, semantic links to pages, including PhpWiki and Tiki Wiki CMS Groupware . Freebase , though not billed as a wiki engine, was a web database with semantic-wiki-like properties. Common features Semantic wikis vary in their degree of formalization. Semantics may be either included in, or placed separately from, the wiki markup . Users may be supported when adding this content, using forms or autocompletion , or more complex proposal generation or consistency checks. The representation language may be wiki syntax, a standard language like RDF or OWL , or some database directly populated by the tool that withdraws the semantics from the raw data. Separate versioning support or correction editing for the formalized content may also be provided. Provenance support for the formalized content, that is, tagging the author of the data separately from the data itself, varies. What data can get formalized also varies. One may be able to specify types for pages, categories, or paragraphs or sentences (the latter features were more common in pre-web systems). Links are usually also typed. The source, property, and target may be determined by some defaults, e.g. in Semantic MediaWiki the source is always the current page. Reflexivity also varies. More reflexive user interfaces provide strong ontology support from within the wiki, and allow it to be loaded, saved, created, and changed. Some wikis inherit their ontology entirely from a pre-existing strong ontology like Cyc or SKOS , while, on the other extreme, in other semantic wikis the entire ontology is generated by users. Conventional, non-semantic wikis typically still have ways for users to express data and metadata, typically by tagging, categorizing, and using namespaces . In semantic wikis, these features still typically exist, but integrated these with other semantic declarations, and sometimes with their use restricted. Some semantic wikis provide reasoning support, using a variety of engines. Such reasoning may require that all instance data comply with the ontologies. Most semantic wikis have simple querying support (such as searching for all triples with a certain subject, predicate, object), but the degree of advanced query support varies; some semantic wikis provide querying in standard languages like SPARQL , while others instead provide a custom language. User interface support to construct these also varies. Visualization of the links especially may be supported. Many semantic wikis can display the relationships between pages, or other data such as dates, geographical coordinates , and number values, in various formats, such as graphs , tables, charts, calendars, and maps. See also Microformats Ontology RDF , RDFS , OWL , SPARQL Business Intelligence 2.0 (BI 2.0) Software and websites: Semantic MediaWiki Freebase Gardenology.org Math Images Project Metavid NeuroLex OpenEI SKYbrary SNPedia Semantic MediaWiki Freebase Gardenology.org Math Images Project Metavid NeuroLex OpenEI SKYbrary SNPedia Wikidata References ^ Semantic Wikis and Disaster Relief Operations , Soenke Ziesche, xml.com , December 13, 2006 ^ Semantic Wikis: A Comprehensible Introduction with Examples from the Health Sciences , Maged N. Kamel Boulos , Journal of Emerging Technologies in Web Intelligence , Vol. 1, No. 1, August 2009 ^ A semantic wiki for collaborative knowledge formation , Sebastian Schaffert, Andreas Gruber, and Rupert Westenthaler, Research Report, Knowledge-based Information Systems Group, Salzburg Research, Austria, November 23, 2005 ^ IkeWiki: A semantic wiki for collaborative knowledge management , Sebastian Schaffert, Proceedings of the 15th IEEE International Workshops on Enabling Technologies: Infrastructure for Collaborative Enterprises (WETICE'06), June 6, 2006 ^ Comparison of Semantic MediaWiki and Wikibase ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Andy Dingley (21 January 2001). "Wikiwiki (was Theory: "opportunistic hypertext")" . Newsgroup : comp.infosystems.www.authoring.site-design . ^ Leo Sauermann (2003). "The Gnowsis-Using Semantic Web Technologies to build a Semantic Desktop" (PDF) . Technical University of Vienna . Retrieved 2007-06-20 . ^ Dr. Lars Ludwig (2013). "Extended Artificial Memory. Toward an integral cognitive theory of memory and technology" (pdf) . Technical University of Kaiserslautern . Retrieved 2017-02-07 . ^ Call for Papers: SemWiki 2006 ^ SemWiki.org ^ Wikia offers Semantic MediaWiki hosting , semantic-mediawiki.org , March 12, 2008 ^ Semantic Mediawiki gone from Wikia forever? ^ Deeper understanding with Metaweb , Official Google Blog, July 16, 2010 ^ Semantic XWikiExtension , ObjectSecurity Ltd, November 16, 2012 External links Semantic wiki article at SemanticWeb.org SemanticWiki mini-series - a mini-series of online conferences about semantic wikis that ran in 2008 and 2009. Semantic MediaWiki Website v t e Wikis v t e Types Fan Personal Medical Semantic Fan Personal Medical Semantic Components Software Software Lists Fan wikis LocalWikis Wikis Wiki software Wikipedias Wiktionaries Fan wikis LocalWikis Wikis Wiki software Wikipedias Wiktionaries Comparisons Software Wiki farms Software Wiki farms Notable wikis Ballotpedia Biographicon Book Drum Chalo Chatu Conservapedia DavisWiki Diplopedia Encyclopedia Dramatica Engineering and Technology History Wiki Family History Research Wiki Gene Wiki Geo-Wiki Giant Bomb Gynopedia The Hidden Wiki Intellipedia LifeWiki LocalWiki Moegirlpedia Namuwiki Open protein structure annotation network Qiuwen Baike RationalWiki Resistance Manual Rigveda Wiki Ruwiki Sky-Map.org The Cutting Room Floor TV Tropes Uncyclopedia WikiArt WikiFactor Wikifonia wikiHow Wikiloc Wikimania Wikipedia WikiProfessional Wikiprogress Wikirating WikiStage Wikistrat WikiTribune Wowpedia Ballotpedia Biographicon Book Drum Chalo Chatu Conservapedia DavisWiki Diplopedia Encyclopedia Dramatica Engineering and Technology History Wiki Family History Research Wiki Gene Wiki Geo-Wiki Giant Bomb Gynopedia The Hidden Wiki Intellipedia LifeWiki LocalWiki Moegirlpedia Namuwiki Open protein structure annotation network Qiuwen Baike RationalWiki Resistance Manual Rigveda Wiki Ruwiki Sky-Map.org The Cutting Room Floor TV Tropes Uncyclopedia WikiArt WikiFactor Wikifonia wikiHow Wikiloc Wikimania Wikipedia WikiProfessional Wikiprogress Wikirating WikiStage Wikistrat WikiTribune Wowpedia Wiki farms Confluence Fandom PBworks Wetpaint Confluence Fandom PBworks Wetpaint See also Wikis and education History Creole .wiki Wikis and education History Creole .wiki v t e Semantic Web v t e Background Databases Hypertext Internet Ontologies Semantics Semantic networks World Wide Web Databases Hypertext Internet Ontologies Semantics Semantic networks World Wide Web Sub-topics Dataspaces Hyperdata Linked data Rule-based systems Dataspaces Hyperdata Linked data Rule-based systems Applications Semantic analytics Semantic computing Semantic mapper Semantic matching Semantic publishing Semantic reasoner Semantic search Semantic service-oriented architecture Semantic wiki Solid Semantic analytics Semantic computing Semantic mapper Semantic matching Semantic publishing Semantic reasoner Semantic search Semantic service-oriented architecture Semantic wiki Solid Related topics Collective intelligence Description logic Folksonomy Geotagging Information architecture iXBRL Knowledge extraction Knowledge management Knowledge representation and reasoning Library 2.0 Digital library Digital humanities Metadata References Topic map Web 2.0 Web engineering Web Science Trust Collective intelligence Description logic Folksonomy Geotagging Information architecture iXBRL Knowledge extraction Knowledge management Knowledge representation and reasoning Library 2.0 Digital library Digital humanities Metadata References Topic map Web 2.0 Web engineering Web Science Trust Standards Syntax and supporting technologies HTTP IRI URI RDF triples RDF/XML JSON-LD Turtle TriG Notation3 N-Triples TriX (no W3C standard) RRID SPARQL XML Semantic HTML Schemas, ontologies and rules Common Logic OWL RDFS Rule Interchange Format Semantic Web Rule Language SHACL Semantic annotation COinS GRDDL Microdata Microformats RDFa SAWSDL Facebook Platform Common vocabularies BIBFRAME BIBO DOAP Dublin Core MODS / MADS FOAF Schema.org SIOC SKOS Microformat vocabularies hAtom hCalendar hCard hProduct hRecipe hReview Syntax and supporting technologies HTTP IRI URI RDF triples RDF/XML JSON-LD Turtle TriG Notation3 N-Triples TriX (no W3C standard) RRID SPARQL XML Semantic HTML HTTP IRI URI URI RDF triples RDF/XML JSON-LD Turtle TriG Notation3 N-Triples TriX (no W3C standard) triples RDF/XML JSON-LD Turtle TriG Notation3 N-Triples TriX (no W3C standard) RRID SPARQL XML Semantic HTML Schemas, ontologies and rules Common Logic OWL RDFS Rule Interchange Format Semantic Web Rule Language SHACL Common Logic OWL RDFS Rule Interchange Format Semantic Web Rule Language SHACL Semantic annotation COinS GRDDL Microdata Microformats RDFa SAWSDL Facebook Platform COinS GRDDL Microdata Microformats RDFa SAWSDL Facebook Platform Common vocabularies BIBFRAME BIBO DOAP Dublin Core MODS / MADS FOAF Schema.org SIOC SKOS BIBFRAME BIBO DOAP Dublin Core MODS / MADS FOAF Schema.org SIOC SKOS Microformat vocabularies hAtom hCalendar hCard hProduct hRecipe hReview hAtom hCalendar hCard hProduct hRecipe hReview Semantic wikis Semantic wiki software Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata This page was last edited on 10 August 2025, at 11:38 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early life 2 Career 3 Personal life 4 Filmography Toggle Filmography subsection 4.1 Film 4.2 Television 4.3 Video games 4.4 Music albums 4.1 Film 4.2 Television 4.3 Video games 4.4 Music albums 5 References 6 External links Campbell Scott العربية Aragonés Asturianu تۆرکجه Čeština Deutsch Emiliàn e rumagnòl Español فارسی Français 한국어 Italiano עברית Kreyòl ayisyen Magyar Malagasy مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Polski Português Русский Simple English Slovenčina کوردی Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Türkçe 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Campbell Scott Scott at the 2024 Toronto International Film Festival Born ( 1961-07-19 ) July 19, 1961 (age 64) New York City , New York , U.S. Alma mater Lawrence University Occupations .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} Actor film director producer Actor film director producer Years active 1986–present Spouses .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} .mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-inline{display:inline} Anne Scott ( m. 1991; div. 2002) Kathleen McElfresh ( m. 2009) .mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-inline{display:inline} Children 3 Parent(s) George C. Scott Colleen Dewhurst Relatives Alexander Scott (brother) Devon Scott (paternal half-sister) Campbell Scott (born July 19, 1961) is an American actor, film director, and producer. He is the recipient of several accolades, including a National Board of Review Award, and has been nominated for three Independent Spirit Awards , a Genie Award , a Drama Desk Award , and the Sundance Film Festival 's Grand Jury Prize, among others. The son of actors George C. Scott and Colleen Dewhurst , he had his film breakthrough in Longtime Companion (1989), followed by starring roles in The Sheltering Sky (1990), Dying Young (1991), and Singles (1992). He has been twice nominated for the Independent Spirit Award for Best Male Lead , for his performances in Mrs. Parker and the Vicious Circle (1994) and Roger Dodger (2002). He was nominated Best First Feature for his directing debut Big Night (1996), which he co-directed with Stanley Tucci . He is also known for to television audiences for his roles as Boris Kuester von Jurgens-Ratenicz on Royal Pains , Joe Tobin on Damages , and Mark Usher on House of Cards . His other film work includes roles in The Daytrippers (1996), The Spanish Prisoner (1997), The Exorcism of Emily Rose (2005), and Jurassic World Dominion (2022), and playing Richard Parker , the father of Peter Parker / Spider-Man , in The Amazing Spider-Man (2012) and its sequel The Amazing Spider-Man 2 (2014). His stage work includes roles in Broadway productions like The Real Thing , Hay Fever , Long Day's Journey into Night , The Atheist and Noises Off . Early life Scott was born on July 19, 1961, in New York City, [ 1 ] the son of actor George C. Scott and actress Colleen Dewhurst . [ 2 ] He graduated from John Jay High School with friend Stanley Tucci [ 3 ] before graduating from Lawrence University in 1983. [ 4 ] His brother is Alexander Scott. [ 2 ] [ 5 ] One of his paternal half-sisters is actress Devon Scott . [ 6 ] Career Scott's first film appearance was in the 1987 movie Five Corners , [ 7 ] as a policeman. In 1990, Scott played a lead role in the ground-breaking film Longtime Companion , which chronicles the early years of the AIDS/HIV epidemic and its impact upon a group of American friends. [ 8 ] In the following year he appeared briefly in Kenneth Branagh -directed, Dead Again , and co-starred in the movie Dying Young (in which his mother also appeared) alongside Julia Roberts . [ 9 ] He also appeared in the 1992 Cameron Crowe movie Singles alongside Bridget Fonda and Kyra Sedgwick , [ 10 ] and in 1996, he teamed up with Stanley Tucci to direct the film Big Night . The film met with critical acclaim and was nominated for the Grand Jury Prize at the Sundance Film Festival . For their work, Scott and Tucci won both the New York Film Critics Circle Award [ 11 ] and the Boston Society of Film Critics Award for Best New Director. [ 11 ] In 2002, he was awarded the Best Actor prize from the National Board of Review for his performance in Roger Dodger . [ 12 ] Scott starred in Six Degrees on ABC in 2006. [ 13 ] In 2004, he starred alongside Adam Butcher , in Saint Ralph . [ 14 ] In 2005–2006, Scott served as the reader for the audiobook versions of Stephen King 's bestsellers The Shining [ 15 ] and Cell , and for Ernest Hemingway 's For Whom the Bell Tolls . [ 16 ] In 2007, Scott lent his voice for the narration of a Chevron Corporation television ad, [ 17 ] as well as the Iraq War documentary film, No End in Sight . He also appeared in the romantic comedy Music and Lyrics , starring Hugh Grant and Drew Barrymore . Next up for Scott was the 2009 drama Handsome Harry . Scott also had a recurring role on the USA drama Royal Pains , as Boris Kuester von Jurgens-Ratenicz. From 2009 to 2010, Scott had a recurring role in the third season of Damages , playing Joe Tobin, the son of indicted Bernie Madoff -like Louis Tobin ( Len Cariou ). [ 18 ] In 2010, Scott provided the voice-over for a new Häagen-Dazs TV commercial called "Ode to Flavor". [ 19 ] The ad was created by Goodby, Silverstein & Partners , directed by Noah Marshall with art direction by Croix Gagnon. [ 20 ] He played the role of Richard Parker , the father of Peter Parker , in the 2012 film The Amazing Spider-Man . Scott reprised his role in the 2014 film The Amazing Spider-Man 2 . From 2015 to 2016, Scott appeared as Lloyd Dallas in the Broadway revival of Noises Off . In 2017, he collaborated with Dutch DJ and producer Ferry Corsten on Blueprint , an album combining Trance music and science fiction, in which he can be heard as the story's narrator. [ 21 ] In 2019 Scott portrayed the lead role of Ebenezer Scrooge in a Broadway adaptation of Charles Dickens 's A Christmas Carol written by Jack Thorne and directed by Matthew Warchus . [ 22 ] Scott plays Dr. Lewis Dodgson (replacing Cameron Thor ) in Jurassic World Dominion (2022), the sixth film in the Jurassic Park franchise. Personal life Scott has been married twice. Scott met his current wife Kathleen McElfresh, in 2007 when the two were working on separate plays at the Huntington Theater in Boston. Scott was working on The Atheist , while McElfresh was working on Brenden. [ 23 ] Scott has three sons. He lives with his family in northwest Connecticut . [ 5 ] [ better source needed ] Filmography Film Year Title Role Notes 1987 Five Corners Policeman 1988 From Hollywood to Deadwood Bobby 1989 Longtime Companion Willy 1990 Ain't No Way Back Fletcher Kane The Sheltering Sky George Tunner 1991 Dead Again Doug Dying Young Victor Geddes Nominated— MTV Movie Award for Best Breakthrough Performance 1992 Singles Steve Dunne 1993 The Innocent Leonard 1994 Mrs. Parker and the Vicious Circle Robert Benchley Nominated— Independent Spirit Award for Best Actor 1995 Let It Be Me Dr. Gabriel Rodman 1996 The Daytrippers Eddie Masler Also executive producer Big Night Bob Also co-producer and co-director with Stanley Tucci Boston Society of Film Critics Award for Best New Director New York Film Critics Circle Awards for Best New Director Nominated— Deauville Film Festival Grand Special Prize Award Nominated— Independent Spirit Award for Best First Film Nominated— Sundance Film Festival Grand Jury Prize for Dramatic Feature 1997 The Spanish Prisoner Joseph A. "Joe" Ross 1998 Hi-Life Ray The Impostors Meistrich 1999 Top of the Food Chain Dr. Karel Lamonte Spring Forward Fredrickson Lush Lionel 'Ex' Exley 2000 Other Voices John 2001 Delivering Milo Kevin Final — .mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px;white-space:nowrap} N/a Director and producer 2002 Roger Dodger Roger Swanson National Board of Review Award for Best Actor Nominated— Independent Spirit Award for Best Actor 2003 The Secret Lives of Dentists David Hurst Also producer Off the Map — N/a Director and producer 2004 Saint Ralph Father George Hibbert Nominated— Genie Award for Best Performance by an Actor in a Supporting Role Marie and Bruce Tommy 2005 Loverboy Paul The Exorcism of Emily Rose Ethan Thomas Duma Peter The Dying Gaul Jeffery Tishop Also producer 2007 Music and Lyrics Sloan Cates Crashing Richard McMurray No End in Sight Narrator 2008 Phoebe in Wonderland Principal Davis One Week Narrator Voice 2009 Handsome Harry David Kagan The National Parks: America's Best Idea Various Historical Figures Voice Company Retreat — N/a Director 2010 Beware the Gonzo Arthur Gilman God in America Narrator Voice Eye of the Hurricane Bill Folsom 2011 Love, Lots of It The Man 2012 The Amazing Spider-Man Richard Parker Still Mine Gary Clinton Narrator Voice 2013 Before I Sleep Young Eugene 2014 The Amazing Spider-Man 2 Richard Parker 2016 Manhattan Night Simon Crowley 2017 A Lotus 'Til Reckoning Pete A Long Time for Lovers News Reporter 2018 The Chaperone Alan Carlisle 2020 The 11th Green Jeremy Rudd 2022 Jurassic World Dominion Dr. Lewis Dodgson 2024 Millers in Marriage Nick 2025 Nonnas Edward Durant Television Year Title Role Notes 1986 L.A. Law Officer Clayton Episode: "Sidney, the Dead-Nosed Reindeer" 1987 Family Ties Eric Matthews Episode: "Invasion of the Psychologist Snatchers" 1990 The Kennedys of Massachusetts Joseph P. Kennedy Jr. TV miniseries 1991 The Perfect Tribute Carter Blair TV film 1997 Liberty! Thomas Jefferson Documentary miniseries 1998 The Love Letter Scott Corrigan TV film The Tale of Sweeney Todd Ben Carlyle TV film 2000 Hamlet Hamlet TV film; also director and producer 2001 Follow the Stars Home David McCune TV film 2002 The Pilot's Wife Roger Hart TV film 2006 Six Degrees Steven Caseman 13 episodes Final Days of Planet Earth William Phillips TV film 2009–2016 Royal Pains Boris Kuester von Jurgens-Ratenicz TV series 2010 Damages Joe Tobin 13 episodes 2012 The Men Who Built America Narrator Four part miniseries docudrama 2014 The Blacklist Owen Mallory / Michael Shaw Episode: " The Cyprus Agency " 2015 Allegiance Mysterious Date Episode: "Pilot" (uncredited) 2016 Sex & Drugs & Rock & Roll Himself (Campbell Scott) Recurring 2017 Last Week Tonight with John Oliver Election Party Guest Segment: "Harding" Lore George Brown Episode: "They Made a Tonic" 2017–2018 House of Cards Mark Usher Main role; 19 episodes 2018 Dietland Stanley Austen Recurring role; 3 episodes The Men Who Built America: Frontiersmen Narrator Four part miniseries docudrama 2019 At Home with Amy Sedaris Yves St Au Jus Episode: "Creativity" Instinct Pasternack Episode: "Grey Matter" Soundtrack Frank Main cast 2019–present The Food That Built America Narrator TV series 2021 Prodigal Son Professor Delaney Episode: "Alma Mater" 2022 Billions Colin Drache Recurring WeCrashed Jamie Dimon Miniseries; 4 episodes 2025 Elsbeth Captain Cyrus Tully Episode: "Doll Day Afternoon" Video games Year Title Role Notes 2022 Jurassic World Evolution 2 Lewis Dodgson Biosyn Dominion expansion Music albums Year Title Artist Role Notes 2017 Blueprint Ferry Corsten Narrator References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "The buttery voice behind a bittersweet biker flick" . The Globe and Mail . March 6, 2009. ^ a b "At Carnegie Hall, Martin Beck Theatre Tributes to Rudolf Serkin, Colleen Dewhurst" by Allan Wallach, Newsday (September 24, 1991) [Nassau and Suffolk edition] Retrieved from ProQuest 278418624 ^ "Bringing 'Hamlet' Home" by John Swansburg, The New York Times (March 10, 2002) [Page 14 of the National edition] Retrieved from ProQuest 2231112607 ^ Kahn, Toby (January 22, 1996). "Touch of Evil" . People . Archived from the original on September 28, 2013 . Retrieved December 10, 2012 . ^ a b "Campbell Scott Biography" . Net Glimse . Archived from the original on April 8, 2009 . Retrieved February 8, 2013 . ^ "George C. Scott, Celebrated for 'Patton' Role, Dies at 71" by Mel Gussow, The New York Times (September 24, 1999) Retrieved from ProQuest 431237334 ^ "Dark corners suit Scott: Top of the Food Chain's dim-witted scientist is played by an actor who relishes smaller, strange roles in film." by Katherine Monk, The Vancouver Sun (March 14, 2000) [Final Edition] Retrieved from ProQuest 242709571 ^ "Longtime overdue; Hollywood breaks its silence on AIDS with Longtime Companion" by Marc Horton, Edmonton Journal (August 31, 1990) [Final Edition] Retrieved from ProQuest 251692849 ^ Cwelich, Lorraine (April 27, 2011). "Campbell Scott on Roberts, Rossellini, and How to Stay Fresh" . Interview Magazine . Archived from the original on April 29, 2011 . Retrieved September 20, 2011 . ^ Singles review by Suzan Ayscough variety.com ^ a b "Actor Campbell Scott in 'revolutionary' show" Greenwich Time , (May 18, 2008) Retrieved from ProQuest 346026242 ^ "'The Hours' earns season's first nod; The Board of Review also honors Campbell Scott and Julianne Moore" by Susan King, Los Angeles Times (December 5, 2002) [Home Edition] Retrieved from ProQuest 421746983 ^ "Artful 'Six Degrees' Deserves A Winning Fate" by Matthew Gilbert, The Boston Globe (September 21, 2006) [Third Edition] Retrieved from ProQuest 405035594 ^ Saint Ralph review by Joe Leydon at variety.com ^ "Listen at Your Own Peril: 3 Chilling Audiobooks for Halloween" by Concepción De León at www.nytimes.com ^ "Ex Libris: For Whom the Bell Tolls" by Margaret Clay at columbiametro.com ^ "Chevron's 150-Second Spot" by Stuart Elliott, The New York Times (September 28, 2007) Retrieved from ProQuest 2222985524 ^ Adam Bryant (August 28, 2009). "Campbell Scott Joins Third Season of Damages" . TVGuide.com . Retrieved August 28, 2009 . ^ Gagnon, Croix (April 26, 2010). "Häagen Dazs – Ode To Flavor" – via Vimeo. ^ "The Sweetshop" . The Sweetshop . ^ "Ferry Corsten – Blueprint (2017, CD)" . May 26, 2017 – via discogs.com. ^ Peikert, Mark (November 6, 2019). "Star Campbell Scott Makes Scrooge Fresh for Broadway's New A Christmas Carol " . Playbill . Retrieved November 21, 2019 . ^ "Campbell Scott on Roberts, Rossellini, and How to Stay Fresh" . Interview Magazine . April 26, 2011 . Retrieved September 10, 2023 . External links @media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}} Media related to Campbell Scott at Wikimedia Commons Campbell Scott at IMDb Campbell Scott at the Internet Broadway Database Campbell Scott at the Internet Off-Broadway Database (archived) Awards for Campbell Scott .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e National Board of Review Award for Best Actor 1945–1975 Ray Milland (1945) Laurence Olivier (1946) Michael Redgrave (1947) Walter Huston (1948) Ralph Richardson (1949) Alec Guinness (1950) Richard Basehart (1951) Ralph Richardson (1952) James Mason (1953) Bing Crosby (1954) Ernest Borgnine (1955) Yul Brynner (1956) Alec Guinness (1957) Spencer Tracy (1958) Victor Sjöström (1959) Robert Mitchum (1960) Albert Finney (1961) Jason Robards (1962) Rex Harrison (1963) Anthony Quinn (1964) Lee Marvin (1965) Paul Scofield (1966) Peter Finch (1967) Cliff Robertson (1968) Peter O'Toole (1969) George C. Scott (1970) Gene Hackman (1971) Peter O'Toole (1972) Al Pacino / Robert Ryan (1973) Gene Hackman (1974) Jack Nicholson (1975) 1976–present David Carradine (1976) John Travolta (1977) Jon Voight / Laurence Olivier (1978) Peter Sellers (1979) Robert De Niro (1980) Henry Fonda (1981) Ben Kingsley (1982) Tom Conti (1983) Victor Banerjee (1984) William Hurt / Raul Julia (1985) Paul Newman (1986) Michael Douglas (1987) Gene Hackman (1988) Morgan Freeman (1989) Robert De Niro / Robin Williams (1990) Warren Beatty (1991) Jack Lemmon (1992) Anthony Hopkins (1993) Tom Hanks (1994) Nicolas Cage (1995) Tom Cruise (1996) Jack Nicholson (1997) Ian McKellen (1998) Russell Crowe (1999) Javier Bardem (2000) Billy Bob Thornton (2001) Campbell Scott (2002) Sean Penn (2003) Jamie Foxx (2004) Philip Seymour Hoffman (2005) Forest Whitaker (2006) George Clooney (2007) Clint Eastwood (2008) George Clooney / Morgan Freeman (2009) Jesse Eisenberg (2010) George Clooney (2011) Bradley Cooper (2012) Bruce Dern (2013) Michael Keaton / Oscar Isaac (2014) Matt Damon (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Tom Hanks (2017) Viggo Mortensen (2018) Adam Sandler (2019) Riz Ahmed (2020) Will Smith (2021) Colin Farrell (2022) Paul Giamatti (2023) Daniel Craig (2024) Leonardo DiCaprio (2025) v t e New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best New Director Kenneth Branagh (1989) Whit Stillman (1990) John Singleton (1991) Allison Anders (1992) No Award (1993) Darnell Martin (1994) Chris Noonan (1995) Campbell Scott and Stanley Tucci (1996) .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e National Board of Review Award for Best Actor v t e 1945–1975 Ray Milland (1945) Laurence Olivier (1946) Michael Redgrave (1947) Walter Huston (1948) Ralph Richardson (1949) Alec Guinness (1950) Richard Basehart (1951) Ralph Richardson (1952) James Mason (1953) Bing Crosby (1954) Ernest Borgnine (1955) Yul Brynner (1956) Alec Guinness (1957) Spencer Tracy (1958) Victor Sjöström (1959) Robert Mitchum (1960) Albert Finney (1961) Jason Robards (1962) Rex Harrison (1963) Anthony Quinn (1964) Lee Marvin (1965) Paul Scofield (1966) Peter Finch (1967) Cliff Robertson (1968) Peter O'Toole (1969) George C. Scott (1970) Gene Hackman (1971) Peter O'Toole (1972) Al Pacino / Robert Ryan (1973) Gene Hackman (1974) Jack Nicholson (1975) Ray Milland (1945) Laurence Olivier (1946) Michael Redgrave (1947) Walter Huston (1948) Ralph Richardson (1949) Alec Guinness (1950) Richard Basehart (1951) Ralph Richardson (1952) James Mason (1953) Bing Crosby (1954) Ernest Borgnine (1955) Yul Brynner (1956) Alec Guinness (1957) Spencer Tracy (1958) Victor Sjöström (1959) Robert Mitchum (1960) Albert Finney (1961) Jason Robards (1962) Rex Harrison (1963) Anthony Quinn (1964) Lee Marvin (1965) Paul Scofield (1966) Peter Finch (1967) Cliff Robertson (1968) Peter O'Toole (1969) George C. Scott (1970) Gene Hackman (1971) Peter O'Toole (1972) Al Pacino / Robert Ryan (1973) Gene Hackman (1974) Jack Nicholson (1975) 1976–present David Carradine (1976) John Travolta (1977) Jon Voight / Laurence Olivier (1978) Peter Sellers (1979) Robert De Niro (1980) Henry Fonda (1981) Ben Kingsley (1982) Tom Conti (1983) Victor Banerjee (1984) William Hurt / Raul Julia (1985) Paul Newman (1986) Michael Douglas (1987) Gene Hackman (1988) Morgan Freeman (1989) Robert De Niro / Robin Williams (1990) Warren Beatty (1991) Jack Lemmon (1992) Anthony Hopkins (1993) Tom Hanks (1994) Nicolas Cage (1995) Tom Cruise (1996) Jack Nicholson (1997) Ian McKellen (1998) Russell Crowe (1999) Javier Bardem (2000) Billy Bob Thornton (2001) Campbell Scott (2002) Sean Penn (2003) Jamie Foxx (2004) Philip Seymour Hoffman (2005) Forest Whitaker (2006) George Clooney (2007) Clint Eastwood (2008) George Clooney / Morgan Freeman (2009) Jesse Eisenberg (2010) George Clooney (2011) Bradley Cooper (2012) Bruce Dern (2013) Michael Keaton / Oscar Isaac (2014) Matt Damon (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Tom Hanks (2017) Viggo Mortensen (2018) Adam Sandler (2019) Riz Ahmed (2020) Will Smith (2021) Colin Farrell (2022) Paul Giamatti (2023) Daniel Craig (2024) Leonardo DiCaprio (2025) David Carradine (1976) John Travolta (1977) Jon Voight / Laurence Olivier (1978) Peter Sellers (1979) Robert De Niro (1980) Henry Fonda (1981) Ben Kingsley (1982) Tom Conti (1983) Victor Banerjee (1984) William Hurt / Raul Julia (1985) Paul Newman (1986) Michael Douglas (1987) Gene Hackman (1988) Morgan Freeman (1989) Robert De Niro / Robin Williams (1990) Warren Beatty (1991) Jack Lemmon (1992) Anthony Hopkins (1993) Tom Hanks (1994) Nicolas Cage (1995) Tom Cruise (1996) Jack Nicholson (1997) Ian McKellen (1998) Russell Crowe (1999) Javier Bardem (2000) Billy Bob Thornton (2001) Campbell Scott (2002) Sean Penn (2003) Jamie Foxx (2004) Philip Seymour Hoffman (2005) Forest Whitaker (2006) George Clooney (2007) Clint Eastwood (2008) George Clooney / Morgan Freeman (2009) Jesse Eisenberg (2010) George Clooney (2011) Bradley Cooper (2012) Bruce Dern (2013) Michael Keaton / Oscar Isaac (2014) Matt Damon (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Tom Hanks (2017) Viggo Mortensen (2018) Adam Sandler (2019) Riz Ahmed (2020) Will Smith (2021) Colin Farrell (2022) Paul Giamatti (2023) Daniel Craig (2024) Leonardo DiCaprio (2025) v t e New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best New Director v t e Kenneth Branagh (1989) Whit Stillman (1990) John Singleton (1991) Allison Anders (1992) No Award (1993) Darnell Martin (1994) Chris Noonan (1995) Campbell Scott and Stanley Tucci (1996) Kenneth Branagh (1989) Whit Stillman (1990) John Singleton (1991) Allison Anders (1992) No Award (1993) Darnell Martin (1994) Chris Noonan (1995) Campbell Scott and Stanley Tucci (1996) Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Italy Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Poland Israel United States France BnF data Italy Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Poland Israel Artists MusicBrainz Museum of Modern Art MusicBrainz Museum of Modern Art People Deutsche Biographie DDB Deutsche Biographie DDB Other IdRef SNAC Yale LUX IdRef SNAC Yale LUX 1961 births Film directors from New York City American male stage actors American male television actors American people of Canadian descent Lawrence University alumni Living people Male actors from New York City Audiobook narrators Film producers from New York (state) John Jay High School (Cross River, New York) alumni Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use mdy dates from May 2024 Pages using infobox person with multiple parents Articles with hCards All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking reliable references from April 2019 Commons category link from Wikidata IBDB name template using Wikidata This page was last edited on 2 December 2025, at 05:59 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Publication history Toggle Publication history subsection 1.1 Creation and early history 1.2 Golden, Silver and Bronze Ages 1.3 Modern Age and reboots 1.1 Creation and early history 1.2 Golden, Silver and Bronze Ages 1.3 Modern Age and reboots 2 Characterization Toggle Characterization subsection 2.1 Bruce Wayne 2.1.1 Personality 2.2 Others 2.1 Bruce Wayne 2.1.1 Personality 2.1.1 Personality 2.2 Others 3 Supporting characters Toggle Supporting characters subsection 3.1 Enemies 3.2 Allies 3.3 Sidekicks 3.4 Romantic interests 3.1 Enemies 3.2 Allies 3.3 Sidekicks 3.4 Romantic interests 4 Abilities Toggle Abilities subsection 4.1 Skills and training 4.2 Technology 4.1 Skills and training 4.2 Technology 5 Fictional character biography Toggle Fictional character biography subsection 5.1 20th century 5.1.1 Origin 5.1.2 Golden Age 5.1.3 Silver Age 5.1.4 Bronze Age 5.1.5 Modern Age 5.2 21st century 5.2.1 2000s 5.2.2 2010s 5.3 The New 52 5.4 DC Rebirth 5.1 20th century 5.1.1 Origin 5.1.2 Golden Age 5.1.3 Silver Age 5.1.4 Bronze Age 5.1.5 Modern Age 5.1.1 Origin 5.1.2 Golden Age 5.1.3 Silver Age 5.1.4 Bronze Age 5.1.5 Modern Age 5.2 21st century 5.2.1 2000s 5.2.2 2010s 5.2.1 2000s 5.2.2 2010s 5.3 The New 52 5.4 DC Rebirth 6 Other versions 7 In popular culture Toggle In popular culture subsection 7.1 Media appearances 7.1.1 Criticism 7.2 Different interpretations 7.1 Media appearances 7.1.1 Criticism 7.1.1 Criticism 7.2 Different interpretations 8 Notes 9 References 10 Sources 11 Further reading 12 External links Batman Afrikaans Ænglisc العربية Arpetan Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Беларуская Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Chi-Chewa Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego ગુજરાતી 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Қазақша Kernowek Kreyòl ayisyen Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands नेपाली 日本語 Нохчийн Norsk bokmål Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Piemontèis Polski Português Română Русский Sardu Scots Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Võro Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש 粵語 中文 Betawi Ghanaian Pidgin Kʋsaal Toki pona ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item This article may incorporate text from a large language model . 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The reason given is: This 2024 "split" that appears to also introduce AI summaries, with usual WP:AISIGNS of promotional tone, vocab distribution, etc. See talk page for more info ( January 2026 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) Batman Cover of the DC Comics Absolute Edition of Batman: Hush (2011) Art by Jim Lee Publication information Publisher DC Comics First appearance Detective Comics #27 ( cover-dated May 1939; published March 30, 1939) [ 1 ] Created by .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Bob Kane Bill Finger [ a ] Bob Kane Bill Finger [ a ] In-story information Alter ego Bruce Wayne Place of origin Gotham City Team affiliations Justice League Bat-Family Outsiders Wayne Enterprises Justice League Bat-Family Outsiders Wayne Enterprises Partnerships Robin (various) Batgirl (various) Alfred Pennyworth James Gordon Superman Wonder Woman Catwoman Robin (various) Batgirl (various) Alfred Pennyworth James Gordon Superman Wonder Woman Catwoman Notable aliases Dark Knight Caped Crusader Matches Malone World's Greatest Detective Dark Knight Caped Crusader Matches Malone World's Greatest Detective Abilities Genius -level intellect Expert detective Master martial artist and hand-to-hand combatant Master tactician, strategist and field commander Proficient in using high-tech equipment and weapons Genius -level intellect Expert detective Master martial artist and hand-to-hand combatant Master tactician, strategist and field commander Proficient in using high-tech equipment and weapons Batman [ b ] is a superhero who appears in American comic books published by DC Comics . Batman was created by writer Bill Finger and artist Bob Kane , and debuted in the 27th issue of the comic book Detective Comics on March 30, 1939. In the DC Universe , Batman is the alias of Bruce Wayne , a wealthy American playboy , philanthropist , and industrialist who resides in the fictional Gotham City . His origin story features him swearing vengeance against criminals after witnessing the murder of his parents, Thomas and Martha , as a child, a vendetta tempered by the ideal of justice . He trains himself physically and intellectually, crafts a bat-inspired persona , and monitors the Gotham streets at night. Kane, Finger, and other creators accompanied Batman with supporting characters , including his sidekicks Robin and Batgirl ; allies Alfred Pennyworth and James Gordon ; love interest and occasional adversary Catwoman ; as well as foes such as the Penguin , the Riddler , Two-Face , and his archenemy , the Joker . Kane conceived Batman in early 1939 to capitalize on the popularity of Superman ; although Kane frequently claimed sole creation credit, Finger substantially developed the concept from a generic superhero into something more bat -like. They drew inspiration from pulp fiction characters like the Shadow , Sherlock Holmes , and the Green Hornet . Batman received a spin-off publication, Batman , in 1940. Kane and Finger introduced Batman as a ruthless vigilante who frequently killed or maimed criminals, but he evolved into a just, tempered superhero with a stringent moral code that prohibits killing during the 1940s. Unlike most superheroes, Batman does not possess any superpowers , instead relying on his intellect, fighting skills, and wealth. The 1960s Batman television series used a camp aesthetic, which continued to be associated with Batman for years after it ended. Various creators worked to return Batman to his darker roots in the 1970s and 1980s, culminating with the 1986 miniseries The Dark Knight Returns by Frank Miller . DC has featured Batman in many comic books , including comics published under its imprints such as Vertigo and Black Label ; he has been considered DC's flagship character [ 4 ] [ 5 ] since the 1990s. The longest-running Batman comic, Detective Comics , is the longest-running comic book in the United States. Batman is frequently depicted alongside other DC superheroes, such as Superman and Wonder Woman , as a member of organizations such as the Justice League and the Outsiders . In addition to Bruce Wayne, other characters used the Batman persona, such as Jean-Paul Valley / Azrael in the 1993–1994 " Knightfall " story arc; Dick Grayson , the first Robin, from 2009 to 2011; and Jace Fox , the son of Wayne's ally Lucius , since 2021. [ 6 ] DC has also published comics featuring alternate versions of Batman, including the incarnation seen in The Dark Knight Returns and its successors, the incarnation from the Flashpoint (2011) event, and numerous interpretations in comics published under the Elseworlds label. Batman is one of the most iconic characters in popular culture and has been listed among the greatest comic book superheroes and characters ever created. He is one of the most commercially successful superheroes, the second best-selling comic book series in history with 460 million copies sold worldwide, [ 7 ] and his likeness has been licensed and featured in various media and merchandise sold around the world; this includes toy lines such as Lego Batman and video games such as the Batman: Arkham series. Batman has been adapted in many live-action and animated television series and films. Adam West portrayed him in the 1960s Batman television series, and he has been portrayed in films by Michael Keaton , Val Kilmer , George Clooney , Christian Bale , Ben Affleck , and Robert Pattinson . Many actors, most prolifically Kevin Conroy , have provided Batman's voice in animation and video games. In September 2024, Batman was given a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame , being the first superhero to receive the honor. Publication history Creation and early history In early 1939, following the success of Superman , DC Comics ' editors requested more superheroes. [ 8 ] Bob Kane created Batman, initially drawing a character with red tights, bat wings, and a domino mask. Bill Finger , a collaborator, made significant contributions by suggesting a cowl, cape, gloves, and a darker costume. [ 9 ] The character's alter ego, Bruce Wayne, was inspired by historical figures Robert the Bruce and Mad Anthony Wayne . [ 10 ] Batman's early adventures drew inspiration from contemporary pulp fiction and characters like Zorro and the Shadow, establishing Batman as a master detective with a dark, brooding persona driven by the murder of his parents. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] Golden, Silver and Bronze Ages Batman debuted in Detective Comics #27 in 1939. Early stories were dark, featuring a Batman who did not shy away from killing. The character quickly became popular, leading to his own solo title in 1940. Robin, Batman's sidekick, was introduced in 1940, lightening the tone and boosting sales. Over the next few years, Batman's rogues' gallery expanded with iconic villains like the Joker and Catwoman. The 1950s saw Batman in lighter, science fiction-influenced stories. However, declining sales led to a 1964 revamp by editor Julius Schwartz, who returned Batman to his detective roots and updated his appearance. The 1966 Batman TV series introduced a campy, humorous tone, which was reflected in the comics until its cancellation in 1968. In the 1970s, writers Dennis O'Neil and Neal Adams restored Batman's dark, gritty nature, a trend that continued despite fluctuating sales. Modern Age and reboots In the Modern Age of Comic Books Batman comics have undergone significant transformations, reflecting changing storytelling trends and audience interests. Beginning with seminal works like The Dark Knight Returns in the 1980s, [ 13 ] which reintroduced Batman in a grittier, more mature context, the character's narrative evolved to explore deeper themes and darker tones. [ 14 ] This period also saw the exploration of Batman's origins and psyche through works like Batman: Year One , [ 14 ] [ 15 ] and Batman: The Killing Joke , which delved into the complexities of heroism and villainy. [ 16 ] In the 1990s, storylines such as " Knightfall " introduced new adversaries like Bane, who physically and mentally challenged Batman, leading to a temporary replacement by Jean-Paul Valley. The aftermath of an earthquake in "No Man's Land" depicted Gotham City in chaos, further pushing Batman to new limits of heroism and survival. [ 17 ] Entering the 21st century, Grant Morrison 's influential run introduced Damian Wayne as Batman's son and heir, bringing familial dynamics and a new generation of challenges to the forefront. Morrison's storytelling also delved into surreal and existential themes, such as in Batman R.I.P. and Final Crisis , which tested Batman's resolve and sanity against cosmic threats and personal demons. [ 18 ] [ 19 ] The New 52 reboot in 2011 refreshed Batman's continuity while preserving core elements of his character. This era introduced modern interpretations of classic storylines, like Night of the Owls , where Batman confronts the Court of Owls, a clandestine society controlling Gotham for centuries. The chilling return of the Joker in "Death of the Family" explored the intricate relationships within Batman's extended family of allies and adversaries. More recent developments under DC Rebirth and Infinite Frontier have continued to evolve Batman's universe, exploring new characters like Gotham and Gotham Girl , and tackling contemporary issues within the context of Gotham City's ever-evolving landscape of crime and heroism. [ 20 ] Characterization Bruce Wayne Batman's secret identity is Bruce Wayne, a wealthy American industrialist. As a child, Bruce witnessed the murder of his parents, Dr. Thomas Wayne and Martha Wayne , which ultimately led him to craft the Batman persona and seek justice against criminals. He resides on the outskirts of Gotham City in his personal residence, Wayne Manor . Wayne averts suspicion by acting the part of a superficial playboy idly living off his family's fortune and the profits of Wayne Enterprises , his inherited conglomerate. [ 21 ] [ 22 ] He supports philanthropic causes through his nonprofit Wayne Foundation, which in part addresses social issues encouraging crime as well as assisting victims of it, but is more widely known as a celebrity socialite. [ 23 ] In public, he frequently appears in the company of high-status women, which encourages tabloid gossip. He feigns near-drunkenness by consuming large quantities of disguised ginger ale , though he is a teetotalor to maintain his physical and mental prowess. [ 24 ] Although Bruce Wayne leads an active romantic life, his vigilante activities as Batman account for most of his time. [ 25 ] While Bruce Wayne is never depicted as being especially religious, he is ethnically Jewish on his mother's side; [ 26 ] [ 27 ] his maternal cousin Batwoman (Kate Kane) is practising. His father, Thomas , raised Bruce as a Christian, but as an adult he doesn't follow any religion. [ 26 ] [ 28 ] Various modern stories have portrayed the extravagant, playboy image of Bruce Wayne as a facade. [ 29 ] This is in contrast to the Post- Crisis Superman, whose Clark Kent persona is the true identity, while the Superman persona is the facade. [ 30 ] [ 31 ] In Batman Unmasked , a television documentary about the psychology of the character, behavioral scientist Benjamin Karney notes that Batman's personality is driven by Bruce Wayne's inherent humanity; that "Batman, for all its benefits and for all of the time Bruce Wayne devotes to it, is ultimately a tool for Bruce Wayne's efforts to make the world better". Bruce Wayne's principles include the desire to prevent future harm and a vow not to kill. Bruce Wayne believes that our actions define us, we fail for a reason, and anything is possible. [ 32 ] Writers of Batman and Superman stories have often compared and contrasted the two. Interpretations vary depending on the writer, the story, and the timing. Grant Morrison [ 33 ] notes that both heroes "believe in the same kind of things" despite the day/night contrast their heroic roles display. Morrison notes an equally stark contrast in their real identities. Bruce Wayne and Clark Kent belong to different social classes: "Bruce has a butler, Clark has a boss." T. James Musler's book Unleashing the Superhero in Us All explores the extent to which Bruce Wayne's vast personal wealth is important in his life story, and the crucial role it plays in his efforts as Batman. [ 34 ] Will Brooker notes in his book Batman Unmasked that "the confirmation of the Batman's identity lies with the young audience ...he doesn't have to be Bruce Wayne; he just needs the suit and gadgets, the abilities, and most importantly the morality, the humanity. There's just a sense about him: 'they trust him ...and they're never wrong." [ 35 ] Personality Batman's primary character traits can be summarized as "wealth; physical prowess; deductive abilities and obsession" . [ 36 ] The details and tone of Batman comic books have varied over the years with different creative teams. Dennis O'Neil noted that character consistency was not a major concern during early editorial regimes: " Julie Schwartz did a Batman in Batman and Detective and Murray Boltinoff did a Batman in the Brave and the Bold and apart from the costume they bore very little resemblance to each other. Julie and Murray did not want to coordinate their efforts, nor were they asked to do so. Continuity was not important in those days." [ 37 ] The driving force behind Bruce Wayne's character is his parents' murder and their absence. Bob Kane and Bill Finger discussed Batman's background and decided that "there's nothing more traumatic than having your parents murdered before your eyes". [ 38 ] Despite his trauma, he sets his mind on studying to become a scientist [ 39 ] [ 40 ] and to train his body into physical perfection [ 39 ] [ 40 ] to fight crime in Gotham City as Batman, an inspired idea from Wayne's insight into the criminal mind. [ 39 ] [ 40 ] He also speaks over 40 languages. [ 41 ] Another of Batman's characterizations is that of a vigilante; in order to stop evil that started with the death of his parents, he must sometimes break the law himself. Although manifested differently by being re-told by different artists, it is nevertheless that the details and the prime components of Batman's origin have never varied at all in the comic books, the "reiteration of the basic origin events holds together otherwise divergent expressions". [ 42 ] The origin is the source of the character's traits and attributes, which play out in many of the character's adventures. [ 36 ] Batman is often treated as a vigilante by other characters in his stories. Frank Miller views the character as "a dionysian figure, a force for anarchy that imposes an individual order". [ 43 ] Dressed as a bat, Batman deliberately cultivates a frightening persona in order to aid him in crime-fighting, [ 44 ] a fear that originates from the criminals' own guilty conscience . [ 45 ] Miller is often credited with reintroducing anti-heroic traits into Batman's characterization, [ 46 ] such as his brooding personality, willingness to use violence and torture, and increasingly alienated behavior. Batman, shortly a year after his debut and the introduction of Robin, was changed in 1940 after DC editor Whitney Ellsworth felt the character would be tainted by his lethal methods and DC established their own ethical code, subsequently he was retconned to have a stringent moral code, [ 47 ] [ 48 ] which has stayed with the character of Batman ever since. Miller's Batman was closer to the original pre-Robin version, who was willing to kill criminals if necessary. [ 49 ] Others On several occasions former Robin Dick Grayson has served as Batman; most notably in 2009 while Wayne was believed dead, and served as a second Batman even after Wayne returned in 2010. [ 50 ] As part of DC's 2011 continuity relaunch , Grayson returned to being Nightwing following the Flashpoint crossover event. In an interview with IGN , Morrison detailed that having Dick Grayson as Batman and Damian Wayne as Robin represented a "reverse" of the normal dynamic between Batman and Robin, with, "a more light-hearted and spontaneous Batman and a scowling, badass Robin". Morrison explained their intentions for the new characterization of Batman: "Dick Grayson is kind of this consummate superhero. The guy has been Batman's partner since he was a kid, he's led the Teen Titans , and he's trained with everybody in the DC Universe. So he's a very different kind of Batman. He's a lot easier; He's a lot looser and more relaxed." [ 51 ] Over the years, there have been numerous others to assume the name of Batman, or to officially take over for Bruce during his leaves of absence. Jean-Paul Valley, also known as Azrael , assumed the cowl after the events of the Knightfall saga. [ 50 ] Jim Gordon donned a mecha-suit after the events of Batman: Endgame , and served as Batman in 2015 and 2016. In 2021, as part of the Fear State crossover event, Lucius Fox 's son Jace Fox succeeds Bruce as Batman in a 2021 storyline, depicted in the series I Am Batman , after Batman was declared dead. Additionally, members of the group Batman Incorporated , Bruce Wayne's experiment at franchising his brand of vigilantism, have at times stood in as the official Batman in cities around the world. [ 50 ] Various others have also taken up the role of Batman in stories set in alternative universes and possible futures, including, among them, various former proteges of Bruce Wayne. Supporting characters Batman's interactions with both villains and cohorts have, over time, developed a strong supporting cast of characters. [ 36 ] Enemies Batman faces a variety of foes ranging from common criminals to outlandish supervillains. Many of them mirror aspects of the Batman's character and development, often having tragic origin stories that lead them to a life of crime. [ 52 ] These foes are commonly referred to as Batman's rogues gallery . Batman's "most implacable foe" is the Joker , a homicidal maniac with a clown-like appearance. The Joker is considered by critics to be his perfect adversary, since he is the antithesis of Batman in personality and appearance; the Joker has a maniacal demeanor with a colorful appearance, while Batman has a serious and resolute demeanor with a dark appearance. As a "personification of the irrational", the Joker represents "everything Batman [opposes]". [ 53 ] Other long-time recurring foes that are part of Batman's rogues gallery include Catwoman (a cat burglar anti-heroine who is variously an ally and romantic interest), the Penguin , Ra's al Ghul , Two-Face (Harvey Dent), the Riddler , the Scarecrow , Mr. Freeze , Poison Ivy , Harley Quinn , Bane , Clayface , and Killer Croc , among others. Many of Batman's adversaries are often psychiatric patients at Arkham Asylum . Allies Alfred Pennyworth , Batman's loyal butler and father figure, first appeared in Batman #16 (1943). After Bruce Wayne's parents were killed, Alfred raised Bruce and became one of the few people to know his secret identity. He is often portrayed as a steadying presence in Bruce's life, offering both emotional support and practical assistance in Batman's crime-fighting endeavors. More than just a caretaker, Alfred is a trusted ally and sometimes sidekick, sharing Wayne Manor with Bruce and contributing to Batman's mission. [ 52 ] One of Batman's most crucial allies is Commissioner James Gordon . Their relationship is built on mutual respect and a shared commitment to justice in Gotham City. In Batman: Year One , Gordon and Batman learn to trust each other, which transforms their efforts against crime into a more effective partnership. Gordon's perspective as a police officer complements Batman's vigilantism, allowing them to tackle Gotham's challenges together. Another important ally is the Justice League , which further emphasizes the importance of collaboration. Batman's relationship with Superman showcases how their contrasting ideologies can complement each other. In stories like World's Finest , their friendship highlights how Batman's methods benefit from Superman's optimism and strength. [ 54 ] Sidekicks Robin, Batman's vigilante partner, has been a widely recognized supporting character for many years; each iteration of the Robin character, of which there have been five in the mainstream continuity, function as members of the Batman family, but additionally, as Batman's "central" sidekick in various media. [ 55 ] Bill Finger stated that he wanted to include Robin because "Batman didn't have anyone to talk to, and it got a little tiresome always having him thinking." [ 56 ] The first Robin, Dick Grayson , was introduced in 1940. In the 1970s he finally grew up, went off to college and became the hero Nightwing . A second Robin, Jason Todd was introduced in the 1980s, following Dick Grayson's departure from the role. Initially impulsive and rebellious, Jason's tenure as Robin was controversial among fans. In 1988, DC held a fan vote to determine his fate in the iconic A Death in the Family storyline, where the Joker brutally beat Jason with a crowbar and left him to die in an explosion. The fans voted for his death. However, Jason was later resurrected and returned as the antihero Red Hood . [ 57 ] The third Robin in the mainstream comics is Tim Drake , who first appeared in 1989. He went on to star in his own comic series, and goes by the name Red Robin , a variation on the traditional Robin persona. In the first decade of the new millennium, Stephanie Brown served as the fourth in-universe Robin between stints as her self-made vigilante identity the Spoiler, and later as Batgirl . [ 58 ] After Brown's apparent death, Drake resumed the role of Robin for a time. The role eventually passed to Damian Wayne , the 10-year-old son of Bruce Wayne and Talia al Ghul , in the late 2000s. [ 59 ] Damian's tenure as du jour Robin ended when the character was killed off in the pages of Batman Incorporated in 2013. [ 60 ] Batman's next young sidekick is Harper Row , a streetwise young woman who avoids the name Robin but followed the ornithological theme nonetheless; she debuted the codename and identity of the Bluebird in 2014. Unlike the Robins, the Bluebird is willing and permitted to use a gun, albeit non-lethal ; her weapon of choice is a modified rifle that fires taser rounds. [ 61 ] In 2015, a new series began titled We Are...Robin , focused on a group of teenagers using the Robin persona to fight crime in Gotham City. The most prominent of these, Duke Thomas , later becomes Batman's crimefighting partner as The Signal. [ 62 ] Romantic interests Batman's first love interest was Julie Madison , an actress introduced in Detective Comics #31 (1939), they ultimately got engaged, and later she left him due to his playboy persona. [ 63 ] Following The New 52 DC relaunch, the character was reintroduced as an artist whose father was a gunrunner involved in the death of Bruce's parents. [ 63 ] Catwoman/Selina Kyle debuting in Batman #1 (1940), during the Golden Age of Comics . [ 63 ] She was created in the pre– Comics Code era and portrayed as a "flirtatious and sensual" character to add a layer of sex appeal to Batman. [ 64 ] The two ultimately got engaged during the DC Rebirth relaunch. [ 63 ] Another love interest is intrepid reporter Vicki Vale , who debuted in Batman #49 (1948), and was inspired by Superman ’s love interest, reporter Lois Lane . Vicki frequently tried to prove that Bruce Wayne was Batman, but never succeeded. [ 63 ] This was followed by Linda Page , who debuted in Batman #5 (1941) as a rich socialite turned nurse. [ 63 ] Kathy Kane/Batwoman debuted in Detective Comics #233 (1956) alongside her sister Bette Kane . Kathy was introduced as a love interest for Batman, following allegations of homosexuality between Batman and Robin. [ 63 ] The character was written out in the 1960s and returned in the 1970s to be killed by the League of Assassins . Writer Grant Morrison later brought Kathy back into DC's continuity in Batman, Inc. , as part of his attempts to canonize every Batman story, but she was ultimately killed off again. [ 63 ] Talia al Ghul , introduced in Detective Comics #411 (1971) as the daughter of Batman's enemy Ra's al Ghul . Their love story resulted in the birth of Damian Wayne , who would later become Robin . [ 63 ] [ 65 ] Natalia Knight/Nocturna , debuted in Detective Comics #529 (1983) as the leader of a criminal organization. She became Batman's love interest and later the adopted mother of Jason Todd . Nocturna was later killed by her former lover, Night-Slayer , but returned in subsequent continuity. [ 63 ] Abilities Skills and training Batman has no inherent superhuman powers; he relies on "his own scientific knowledge, detective skills, and athletic prowess". [ 66 ] Batman's inexhaustible wealth gives him access to advanced technologies, and as a proficient scientist , he is able to use and modify these technologies to his advantage. In the stories, Batman is regarded as one of the world's greatest detectives, if not the world's greatest crime solver. [ 67 ] Batman has been repeatedly described as having a genius-level intellect, being one of the greatest martial artists in the DC Universe, and having peak human physical and mental conditioning. [ 68 ] As a polymath , his knowledge and expertise in countless disciplines is nearly unparalleled by any other character in the DC Universe. He has shown prowess in assorted fields such as mathematics, biology, physics, chemistry, and several levels of engineering. [ 69 ] He has traveled the world acquiring the skills needed to aid him in his endeavors as Batman. In the Superman: Doomed story arc, Superman considers Batman to be one of the most brilliant minds on the planet. [ 70 ] Batman has trained extensively in various fighting styles, making him one of the best hand-to-hand fighters in the DC Universe. He possesses a photographic memory , [ 71 ] and has fully utilized his photographic memory to master a total of 127 forms of martial arts. [ 72 ] In terms of his physical condition, Batman is described as peak human and far beyond an Olympic-athlete-level condition, able to perform feats such as easily running across rooftops in a Parkour -esque fashion, pressing thousands of pounds regularly, and even bench pressing six hundred pounds of soil and coffin in a poisoned and starved state. Superman describes Batman as "the most dangerous man on Earth", able to defeat an entire team of superpowered extraterrestrials by himself in order to rescue his imprisoned teammates in Grant Morrison's first storyline in JLA . Batman is strongly disciplined, and he has the ability to function under great physical pain and resist most forms of telepathy and mind control . He is a master of disguise , multilingual, and an expert in espionage , often gathering information under the identity of a notorious gangster named Matches Malone. Batman is highly skilled in stealth movement and escapology , which allows him to appear and disappear at will and to break free of nearly inescapable deathtraps with little to no harm. He is also a master strategist, considered DC's greatest tactician, with numerous plans in preparation for almost any eventuality. Batman is an expert in interrogation techniques and his intimidating and frightening appearance alone is often all that is needed in getting information from suspects. Despite having the potential to harm his enemies, Batman's most defining characteristic is his strong commitment to justice and his reluctance to take a life. This unyielding moral rectitude has earned him the respect of several heroes in the DC Universe, most notably that of Superman and Wonder Woman . Among physical and other crime fighting related training, he is also proficient at other types of skills. Some of these include being a licensed pilot (in order to operate the Batplane ), as well as being able to operate other types of machinery. In some publications, he even underwent some magician training. Technology Batman utilizes a vast arsenal of specialized, high-tech vehicles and gadgets in his war against crime, the designs of which usually share a bat motif. Batman historian Les Daniels credits Gardner Fox with creating the concept of Batman's arsenal with the introduction of the utility belt in Detective Comics #29 (July 1939) and the first bat-themed weapons the batarang and the "Batgyro" in Detective Comics #31 and 32 (Sept. and October 1939). [ 73 ] Batman's batsuit aids in his combat against enemies, having the properties of both Kevlar and Nomex . It protects him from gunfire and other significant impacts, and incorporates the imagery of a bat in order to frighten criminals. [ 74 ] The details of the Batman costume change repeatedly through various decades, stories, media and artists' interpretations, but the most distinctive elements remain consistent: a scallop-hem cape; a cowl covering most of the face; a pair of bat-like ears; a stylized bat emblem on the chest; and the ever-present utility belt. His gloves typically feature three scallops that protrude from long, gauntlet-like cuffs, although in his earliest appearances he wore short, plain gloves without the scallops. [ 75 ] The overall look of the character, particularly the length of the cowl's ears and of the cape, varies greatly depending on the artist. Dennis O'Neil said, "We now say that Batman has two hundred suits hanging in the Batcave so they don't have to look the same ...Everybody loves to draw Batman, and everybody wants to put their own spin on it." [ 76 ] Finger and Kane originally conceptualized Batman as having a black cape and cowl and grey suit, but conventions in coloring called for black to be highlighted with blue. [ 74 ] Hence, the costume's colors have appeared in the comics as dark blue and grey; [ 74 ] as well as black and grey. In the Tim Burton 's Batman and Batman Returns films, Batman has been depicted as completely black with a bat in the middle surrounded by a yellow background. Christopher Nolan 's The Dark Knight Trilogy depicted Batman wearing high-tech gear painted completely black with a black bat in the middle. Ben Affleck 's Batman in the DC Extended Universe films wears a suit grey in color with a black cowl, cape, and bat symbol. Seemingly following the suit of the DC Extended Universe outfit, Robert Pattinson 's uniform in The Batman restores the more traditional gray bodysuit and black appendage design, notably different from prior iterations by mostly utilizing real world armor and apparel pieces from modern military and motorcycle gear. Batman's primary vehicle is the Batmobile , which is usually depicted as an imposing black car, often with tailfins that suggest a bat's wings. Batman also has an aircraft called the Batplane (originally a relatively traditionally, but bat-motifed plane, later seen as the much more unique "Batwing" starting in the 1989 film ), along with various other means of transportation. In proper practice, the "bat" prefix (as in Batmobile or batarang) is rarely used by Batman himself when referring to his equipment, particularly after some portrayals (primarily the 1960s Batman live-action television show and the Super Friends animated series) stretched the practice to campy proportions. For example, the 1960s television show depicted a Batboat, Bat-Sub , and Batcycle, among other bat-themed vehicles. The 1960s television series Batman has an arsenal that includes such "bat-" names as the Bat-computer, Bat-scanner, bat-radar, bat-cuffs, bat-pontoons, bat-drinking water dispenser, bat-camera with polarized bat-filter, bat- shark repellent bat-spray, and Bat-rope. The storyline "A Death in the Family" suggests that given Batman's grim nature, he is unlikely to have adopted the "bat" prefix on his own. In The Dark Knight Returns , Batman tells Carrie Kelley that the original Robin came up with the name "Batmobile" when he was young, since that is what a kid would call Batman's vehicle. The Batmobile, which was before frequently depicted to resemble a sports car , was redesigned in 2011 when DC Comics relaunched its entire line of comic books, with the Batmobile being given heavier armor and new aesthetics. Batman keeps most of his field equipment in his utility belt . Over the years it has shown to contain an assortment of crime-fighting tools, weapons, and investigative and technological instruments. Different versions of the belt have these items stored in compartments, often as pouches or hard cylinders attached evenly around it. Since the 1989 film , Batman is often depicted as carrying a projectile which shoots a retractable grappling hook attached to a cable (before this, a he employed a traditionally thrown grappling hook.) This allows him to attach to distant objects, be propelled into the air, and thus swing from the rooftops of Gotham City. An exception to the range of Batman's equipment are hand guns , which he refuses to use on principle, since a gun was used in his parents' murder. In modern stories in terms of his vehicles, Batman compromises on that principle to install weapon systems on them for the purpose of non-lethally disabling other vehicles, forcing entry into locations and attacking dangerous targets too large to defeat by other means. When Batman is needed, the Gotham City police activate a searchlight with a bat-shaped insignia over the lens called the Bat-Signal, which shines into the night sky, creating a bat-symbol on a passing cloud which can be seen from any point in Gotham. The origin of the signal varies, depending on the continuity and medium. In various incarnations, most notably the 1960s Batman TV series , Commissioner Gordon also has a dedicated phone line, dubbed the Bat-Phone, connected to a bright red telephone (in the TV series) which sits on a wooden base and has a transparent top. The line connects directly to Batman's residence, Wayne Manor , specifically both to a similar phone sitting on the desk in Bruce Wayne's study and the extension phone in the Batcave. The Batcave is Batman's secret headquarters, consisting of a series of caves beneath his mansion, Wayne Manor . As his command center, the Batcave serves multiple purposes; supercomputer, surveillance, redundant power-generators, forensics lab, medical infirmary, private study, training dojo, fabrication workshop, arsenal, hangar and garage. It houses the vehicles and equipment Batman uses in his campaign to fight crime. It is also a trophy room and storage facility for Batman's unique memorabilia collected over the years from various cases he has worked on. In both the comic book Batman: Shadow of the Bat #45 and the 2005 film Batman Begins , the cave is said to have been part of the Underground Railroad . Fictional character biography Batman's history has undergone many retroactive continuity revisions, both minor and major. Elements of the character's history have varied greatly. Scholars William Uricchio and Roberta E. Pearson noted in the early 1990s, "Unlike some fictional characters, the Batman has no primary urtext set in a specific period, but has rather existed in a plethora of equally valid texts constantly appearing over more than five decades." [ 77 ] 20th century Origin The central fixed event in the Batman stories is the character's origin story . [ 36 ] As a young boy, Bruce Wayne was horrified and traumatized when he watched his parents, the physician Dr. Thomas Wayne and his wife Martha , murdered with a gun by a mugger named Joe Chill . Batman refuses to utilize any sort of gun on the principle that a gun was used to murder his parents. This event drove him to train his body to its peak condition and fight crime in Gotham City as Batman. Pearson and Uricchio also noted beyond the origin story and such events as the introduction of Robin, "Until recently, the fixed and accruing and hence, canonized, events have been few in number", [ 36 ] a situation altered by an increased effort by later Batman editors such as Dennis O'Neil to ensure consistency and continuity between stories. [ 78 ] Golden Age In Batman's first appearance in Detective Comics #27, he is already operating as a crime-fighter. [ 79 ] Batman's origin is first presented in Detective Comics #33 (November 1939) and is later expanded upon in Batman #47. As these comics state, Bruce Wayne is born to Dr. Thomas Wayne and his wife Martha, two very wealthy and charitable Gotham City socialites. Bruce is brought up in Wayne Manor , and leads a happy and privileged existence until the age of 8, when his parents are killed by a small-time criminal named Joe Chill while on their way home from a movie theater. That night, Bruce Wayne swears an oath to spend his life fighting crime. He engages in intense intellectual and physical training; however, he realizes that these skills alone would not be enough. "Criminals are a superstitious cowardly lot", Wayne remarks, "so my disguise must be able to strike terror into their hearts. I must be a creature of the night, black, terrible ..." As if responding to his desires, a bat suddenly flies through the window, inspiring Bruce to craft the Batman persona. [ 80 ] In early strips, Batman's career as a vigilante earns him the ire of the police. During this period, Bruce Wayne has a fiancé named Julie Madison . [ 81 ] In Detective Comics #38, Wayne takes in an orphaned circus acrobat, Dick Grayson , who becomes his vigilante partner, Robin . Batman also becomes a founding member of the Justice Society of America , [ 82 ] although he, like Superman, is an honorary member, [ 83 ] and thus only participates occasionally. Batman's relationship with the law thaws quickly, and he is made an honorary member of Gotham City's police department . [ 84 ] During this time, Alfred Pennyworth arrives at Wayne Manor, and after deducing the Dynamic Duo's secret identities, joins their service as their butler. [ 85 ] Silver Age The Silver Age of Comic Books in DC Comics is sometimes held to have begun in 1956 when the publisher introduced Barry Allen as a new, updated version of the Flash . Batman is not significantly changed by the late 1950s for the continuity which would be later referred to as Earth-One . The lighter tone Batman had taken in the period between the Golden and Silver Ages led to the stories of the late 1950s and early 1960s that often feature many science-fiction elements, and Batman is not significantly updated in the manner of other characters until Detective Comics #327 (May 1964), in which Batman reverts to his detective roots, with most science-fiction elements jettisoned from the series. After the introduction of DC Comics' Multiverse in the 1960s, DC established that stories from the Golden Age star the Earth-Two Batman , a character from a parallel world. This version of Batman partners with and marries the reformed Earth-Two Catwoman (Selina Kyle). The two have a daughter, Helena Wayne , who becomes the Huntress. She assumes the position as Gotham's protector along with Dick Grayson, the Earth-Two Robin , once Bruce Wayne retires to become police commissioner. Wayne holds the position of police commissioner until he is killed during one final adventure as Batman. Batman titles, however, often ignored that a distinction had been made between the pre-revamp and post-revamp Batmen (since unlike the Flash or Green Lantern , Batman comics had been published without interruption through the 1950s) and would occasionally make reference to stories from the Golden Age. [ 86 ] Nevertheless, details of Batman's history were altered or expanded upon through the decades. Additions include meetings with a future Superman during his youth, his upbringing by his uncle Philip Wayne (introduced in Batman #208 (February 1969)) after his parents' death, and appearances of his father and himself as prototypical versions of Batman and Robin, respectively. [ 87 ] [ 88 ] In 1980, then-editor Paul Levitz commissioned the Untold Legend of the Batman miniseries to thoroughly chronicle Batman's origin and history. Batman meets and regularly works with other heroes during the Silver Age, most notably Superman, whom he began regularly working alongside in a series of team-ups in World's Finest Comics , starting in 1954 and continuing through the series' cancellation in 1986. Batman and Superman are usually depicted as close friends. As a founding member of the Justice League of America, Batman appears in its first story, in 1960's The Brave and the Bold #28. In the 1970s and 1980s, The Brave and the Bold became a Batman title, in which Batman teams up with a different DC Universe superhero each month. Bronze Age In 1969, Dick Grayson attends college as part of DC Comics' effort to revise the Batman comics. Additionally, Batman also moves from his mansion, Wayne Manor into a penthouse apartment atop the Wayne Foundation building in downtown Gotham City, in order to be closer to Gotham City's crime. In 1974's "Night of the Stalker" storyline, a diploma on the wall reveals Bruce Wayne as a graduate of Yale Law School . [ 89 ] Batman spends the 1970s and early 1980s mainly working solo, with occasional team-ups with Robin or Batgirl. Batman's adventures also become somewhat darker and more grim during this period, depicting increasingly violent crimes, including the first appearance (since the early Golden Age) of the Joker as a homicidal psychopath , and the arrival of Ra's al Ghul , a centuries-old terrorist who knows Batman's secret identity. In the 1980s, Dick Grayson becomes Nightwing . [ 90 ] In the final issue of The Brave and the Bold in 1983, Batman quits the Justice League and forms a new group called the Outsiders . He serves as the team's leader until Batman and the Outsiders #32 (1986) and the comic subsequently changed its title. Modern Age After the 12-issue miniseries Crisis on Infinite Earths , DC Comics retconned the histories of some major characters in an attempt at updating them for contemporary audiences. Frank Miller retold Batman's origin in the storyline " Year One " from Batman #404–407, which emphasizes a grittier tone in the character. [ 91 ] Though the Earth-Two Batman is erased from history, many stories of Batman's Silver Age/Earth-One career (along with an amount of Golden Age ones) remain canonical in the post- Crisis universe, with his origins remaining the same in essence, despite alteration. For example, Gotham's police are mostly corrupt, setting up further need for Batman's existence. The guardian Phillip Wayne is removed, leaving young Bruce to be raised by Alfred Pennyworth. Additionally, Batman is no longer a founding member of the Justice League of America, although he becomes leader for a short time of a new incarnation of the team launched in 1987. To help fill in the revised backstory for Batman following Crisis , DC launched a new Batman title called Legends of the Dark Knight in 1989 and has published various miniseries and one-shot stories since then that largely take place during the "Year One" period. [ 92 ] Subsequently, Batman begins exhibiting an excessive, reckless approach to his crimefighting, a result of the pain of losing Jason Todd . Batman works solo until the decade's close, when Tim Drake becomes the new Robin. [ 93 ] Many of the major Batman storylines since the 1990s have been intertitle crossovers that run for a number of issues. In 1993, DC published " Knightfall ". During the storyline's first phase, the new villain Bane paralyzes Batman, leading Wayne to ask Azrael to take on the role. After the end of "Knightfall", the storylines split in two directions, following both the Azrael-Batman's adventures, and Bruce Wayne's quest to become Batman once more. The story arcs realign in "KnightsEnd", as Azrael becomes increasingly violent and is defeated by a healed Bruce Wayne. Wayne hands the Batman mantle to Dick Grayson (then Nightwing) for an interim period, while Wayne trains for a return to the role. [ 94 ] The 1994 company-wide crossover storyline Zero Hour: Crisis in Time! changes aspects of DC continuity again, including those of Batman. Noteworthy among these changes is that the general populace and the criminal element now consider Batman an urban legend rather than a known force. Batman once again becomes a member of the Justice League during Grant Morrison's 1996 relaunch of the series, titled JLA . During this time, Gotham City faces catastrophe in the decade's closing crossover arc. In 1998's " Cataclysm " storyline, Gotham City is devastated by an earthquake and ultimately cut off from the United States. Deprived of many of his technological resources, Batman fights to reclaim the city from legions of gangs during 1999's " No Man's Land ". Meanwhile, Batman's relationship with the Gotham City Police Department changed for the worse with the events of "Batman: Officer Down" and "Batman: War Games/War Crimes"; Batman's long-time law enforcement allies Commissioner Gordon and Harvey Bullock are forced out of the police department in "Officer Down", while "War Games" and "War Crimes" saw Batman become a wanted fugitive after a contingency plan of his to neutralize Gotham City's criminal underworld is accidentally triggered, resulting in a massive gang war that ends with Black Mask becoming the undisputed ruler of the city's criminal gangs. Lex Luthor arranges for the murder of Batman's on-again, off-again love interest Vesper Fairchild (introduced in the mid-1990s) during the "Bruce Wayne: Murderer?" and " Bruce Wayne: Fugitive " story arcs. Though Batman is able to clear his name, he loses another ally in the form of his new bodyguard Sasha Bordeaux , who is recruited into the organization Checkmate while stuck in prison due to her refusal to turn state's evidence against her employer. While he was unable to prove that Luthor was behind the murder of Vesper, Batman does get his revenge with help from Talia al Ghul in Superman/Batman #1–6. 21st century 2000s DC Comics' 2005 miniseries Identity Crisis reveals that JLA member Zatanna had edited Batman's memories to prevent him from stopping the Justice League from lobotomizing Dr. Light after he raped Sue Dibny . Batman later creates the satellite surveillance system Brother Eye to watch over and, if necessary, kill the other heroes after he remembered. The revelation of Batman's creation and his tacit responsibility for Blue Beetle 's death becomes a driving force in the lead-up to the Infinite Crisis miniseries, which again restructures DC continuity. Batman and a team of superheroes destroy Brother Eye and the OMACs , though, at the very end, Batman reaches his apparent breaking point when Alexander Luthor Jr. seriously wounds Nightwing. Picking up a gun, Batman nearly shoots Luthor in order to avenge his former sidekick, until Wonder Woman convinces him to not pull the trigger. Following Infinite Crisis , Bruce Wayne, Dick Grayson (having recovered from his wounds), and Tim Drake retrace the steps Bruce had taken when he originally left Gotham City, to "rebuild Batman". [ 95 ] In the Face the Face storyline, Batman and Robin return to Gotham City after their year-long absence. Part of this absence is captured during Week 30 of the 52 series, which shows Batman fighting his inner demons. [ 96 ] Later on in 52 , Batman is shown undergoing an intense meditation ritual in Nanda Parbat . This becomes an important part of the regular Batman title, which reveals that Batman is reborn as a more effective crime fighter while undergoing this ritual, having "hunted down and ate" the last traces of fear in his mind. [ 97 ] [ 98 ] At the end of the "Face the Face" story arc, Bruce officially adopts Tim (who had lost both of his parents at various points in the character's history) as his son. [ 99 ] The follow-up story arc in Batman , Batman and Son , introduces Damian Wayne , who is Batman's son with Talia al Ghul . Although originally, in Batman: Son of the Demon , Bruce's coupling with Talia was implied to be consensual, this arc retconned it into Talia forcing herself on Bruce. [ 100 ] Batman, along with Superman and Wonder Woman, reforms the Justice League in the new Justice League of America series, [ 101 ] and is leading the newest incarnation of the Outsiders . [ 102 ] Grant Morrison 's 2008 storyline, " Batman R.I.P. " featured Batman being physically and mentally broken by the enigmatic villain Doctor Hurt and attracted news coverage in advance of its highly promoted conclusion, which would speculated to feature the death of Bruce Wayne. [ 103 ] However, though Batman is shown to possibly perish at the end of the arc, the two-issue arc "Last Rites", which leads into the crossover storyline " Final Crisis ", shows that Batman survives his helicopter crash into the Gotham City River and returns to the Batcave, only to be summoned to the Hall of Justice by the JLA to help investigate the New God Orion 's death. The story ends with Batman retrieving the god-killing bullet used to kill Orion, setting up its use in "Final Crisis". [ 104 ] In the pages of Final Crisis Batman is reduced to a charred skeleton. [ 105 ] In Final Crisis #7, Wayne is shown witnessing the death of the first man, Anthro . [ 106 ] [ 107 ] Wayne's "death" sets up the three-issue Battle for the Cowl miniseries in which Wayne's ex-proteges compete for the "right" to assume the role of Batman, which concludes with Grayson becoming Batman, [ 108 ] while Tim Drake takes on the identity of the Red Robin . [ 109 ] Dick and Damian continue as Batman and Robin, and in the crossover storyline " Blackest Night ", what appears to be Wayne's corpse is reanimated as a Black Lantern zombie , [ 110 ] but is later shown that the corpse is one of Darkseid's failed Batman clones. Dick and Batman's other friends conclude that Bruce is alive. [ 111 ] [ 112 ] 2010s Bruce subsequently returned in Morrison's miniseries Batman: The Return of Bruce Wayne , which depicted his travels through time from prehistory to present-day Gotham. [ 113 ] [ 114 ] [ 115 ] Bruce's return set up Batman Incorporated , an ongoing series which focused on Wayne franchising the Batman identity across the globe, allowing Dick and Damian to continue as Gotham's Dynamic Duo. Bruce publicly announced that Wayne Enterprises will aid Batman on his mission, known as "Batman, Incorporated". However, due to rebooted continuity that occurred as part of DC Comics' 2011 relaunch of all of its comic books, The New 52 , Dick Grayson was restored as Nightwing with Wayne serving as the sole Batman once again. The relaunch also interrupted the publication of Batman, Incorporated , which resumed its story in 2012–2013 with changes to suit the new status quo. The New 52 During The New 52 , all of DC's continuity was reset and the timeline was changed, making Batman the first superhero to emerge. This emergence took place during Zero Year , where Bruce Wayne returns to Gotham and becomes Batman, fighting the original Red Hood [ 116 ] and the Riddler. [ 117 ] In the present day, Batman discovers the Court of Owls , a secret organization operating in Gotham for decades. [ 118 ] Batman somewhat defeats the Court by defeating Owlman, [ 119 ] although the Court continues to operate on a smaller scale. [ 120 ] The Joker returns after losing the skin on his face (as shown in the opening issue of the second volume of Detective Comics ) and attempts to kill the Batman's allies, though he is stopped by Batman. [ 121 ] After some time, Joker returns again, and both he and Batman die while fighting each other. Jim Gordon temporarily becomes Batman, using a high-tech suit, while it is revealed that an amnesiac Bruce Wayne is still alive. [ citation needed ] Gordon attempts to fight a new villain called Mr. Bloom , while Wayne, regains his memories with the help of Alfred Pennyworth and Julie Madison . Once with his memories, Wayne becomes Batman again and defeats Bloom with the help of Gordon. [ citation needed ] DC Rebirth The timeline was reset again during Rebirth , although no significant changes were made to the Batman mythos. [ citation needed ] Batman meets two new superheroes operating in Gotham named Gotham and Gotham Girl. Psycho-Pirate gets into Gotham's head and turns against Batman, and is finally defeated when he is killed. This event is very traumatic for Gotham Girl and she begins to lose her sanity. [ 122 ] Batman forms his own Suicide Squad , including Catwoman, and attempts to take down Bane . The mission is successful, and Batman breaks Bane's back. [ 123 ] Batman proposes to Catwoman. After healing from his wounds, an angry Bane travels to Gotham, where he fights Batman and loses. [ 124 ] Batman then tells Catwoman about the War of Jokes and Riddles, and she agrees to marry him. [ 125 ] Bane takes control of Arkham Asylum and manipulates Catwoman into leaving Wayne before the wedding. [ 126 ] This causes Wayne to become very angry, and, as Batman, lashes out against criminals, nearly killing Mr. Freeze. [ 127 ] Batman learns of Bane's control over Arkham and teams up with the Penguin to stop him. [ 128 ] Bane captures Batman, and Scarecrow causes him to hallucinate, although he eventually breaks free. [ 129 ] Batman escapes and reunites with Catwoman, while Bane captures and kills Alfred Pennyworth. Batman returns and defeats Bane, although too late to save Alfred. Gotham Girl prompts him to marry Catwoman. [ 130 ] It is revealed that the Joker who was working for Bane was Clayface in disguise. The real Joker has been plotting a master plan to take over Gotham. This plan comes to fruition during The Joker War , in which Joker takes over the city. Batman defeats the Joker who vanishes after an explosion. [ 131 ] Ghost-Maker , an enemy from Batman's past, appears in Gotham, and, after a battle, becomes a sort of ally to Batman. [ 132 ] A new group called the Magistrate rises up in Gotham, led by Simon Saint, whose goal is to outlaw vigilantes such as Batman. At the same time, Scarecrow returns, [ 133 ] fighting Batman. During Fear State , Batman battles and defeats both Scarecrow and the Magistrate's Peacekeepers. Other versions The character of Batman has been portrayed in numerous alternative versions across various media since his debut in 1939. These adaptations explore different facets and interpretations of the character. In Smallville , Bruce Wayne adopts the Batman persona in 2001, later teaming up with Superman and other superheroes. [ 134 ] Frank Miller 's influential series, " The Dark Knight Returns ", reimagines Batman as an older, more hardened vigilante, coming out of retirement to fight crime in a dystopian future. [ 135 ] In the Injustice: Gods Among Us universe, Batman leads a resistance against a tyrannical Superman who has taken control of Earth. The DC Bombshells series sets Batman in a World War II -era context, with Bruce Wayne taking inspiration from Batwoman to become the masked hero. The "Dark Multiverse" introduces various twisted versions of Batman, such as The Batman Who Laughs , a hybrid of Batman and the Joker, and Red Death, a fusion of Batman and the Flash. Other notable reimaginings include JLA/Avengers , where Batman appears in a crossover with Marvel's Avengers ; Stan Lee 's Just Imagine , which offers a completely different origin for Batman; and "Kingdom Come", where an older Batman operates in a dystopian future alongside other aged superheroes. In "Superman: American Alien", Bruce Wayne's journey is retold with significant differences, and "Batman: White Knight" explores a reality where the Joker is cured of his insanity and seeks to expose Batman as the true villain of Gotham. These various adaptations and reinterpretations highlight the versatility and enduring appeal of Batman as a character, allowing for a rich exploration of his mythology across different narratives and settings. In popular culture Batman has ascended to the status of a global pop culture phenomenon, transcending his origins in comic books. His influence expanded notably with the release of the 1989 film, which propelled him to the forefront of public consciousness through widespread merchandising. The Guardian describes Batman as emblematic of the constant reinvention characteristic of modern mass culture, embodying both iconic status and commercial appeal, making him a quintessential cultural artifact of the 21st century. [ 136 ] Media appearances Apart from comics, Batman's presence spans various mediums, including newspapers, radio dramas, television, stage, and film. From the 1940s serials to contemporary TV shows like Gotham and Titans , Batman's legacy endures. Celebrating the character's 75th anniversary, Warner Bros released Batman: Strange Days , showcasing his timeless appeal. [ 137 ] In September 2024, Batman become the first superhero to be given a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame . It was the 2,790th star. [ 138 ] Criticism Batman has been criticized by fans for the extreme changes in tone and style between different iterations of the character in the franchise. [ 139 ] Different interpretations Gay interpretations of Batman have been studied academically since psychologist Fredric Wertham 's claims in 1954. [ 140 ] Andy Medhurst and Will Brooker have explored Batman's appeal to gay audiences and the validity of a queer reading. [ 141 ] Meanwhile, in psychological interpretations, Dr. Travis Langley sees Batman as representing the "shadow archetype", confronting inner darkness to fight evil, according to Carl Jung and Joseph Campbell's theories. Langley's analysis adds depth to Batman's psychological complexity. [ 142 ] Notes ^ Finger was not credited in official materials until 2015. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] ^ Sometimes referred to as "the Batman" and originally stylized as The Bat-Man References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Zalben, Alex (March 28, 2014). 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"Frank Miller's Batman Part One: YEAR ONE, or How Legends are Made" . ComicsVerse . Archived from the original on October 8, 2019 . Retrieved May 30, 2018 . ^ Alan Grant ( w ), Norm Breyfogle ( p ). "Master of Fear" Batman , no. 457 (December 1990). DC Comics. ^ Dixon, Chuck. et al. "Batman: Prodigal". Batman #512–514, Batman: Shadow of the Bat #32–34, Detective Comics #679–681, Robin vol. 4 #11–13. New York: DC Comics, 1995. ^ Infinite Crisis #7, p. 32 ^ 52 #30 ^ Batman #673 ^ Batman #681 ^ James Robinson ( w ), Don Kramer ( p ). "Face the Face – Conclusion" Batman , no. 654 (August 2006). DC Comics. ^ Batman #656 (October 2006): Bruce: "I remember being drugged senseless and refusing to co-operate in some depraved eugenics experiment." Talia: "Believe me, you cooperated ...magnificently." ^ Brad Meltzer ( w ), Ed Benes ( p ). "The Tornado's Path" Justice League of America vol. 2 , no. 1 (August 2006). DC Comics. ^ Chuck Dixon ( w ), Julian Lopex ( p ). Batman and the Outsiders vol. 2 , no. 1 (November 2007). DC Comics. ^ Adams, Guy (November 28, 2008). "Holy smoke, Batman! Are you dead?" . The Independent . Archived from the original on December 1, 2008. ^ Newsarama: "Batman R.I.P. – Finally?" January 15, 2009 ^ Grant Morrison ( w ), J. G. Jones ( p ). "How to Murder the Earth" Final Crisis , no. 6 (January 2009). DC Comics. ^ Grant Morrison ( w ). Final Crisis , no. 7 (January 2009). DC Comics. ^ "Grant Morrison: Final Crisis Exit Interview, Part 2" . Archived from the original on February 7, 2009 . Retrieved June 7, 2009 . ^ Tony Daniel ( w ). Battle for the Cowl , no. 3 (May 2009). DC Comics. ^ Chris Yost ( w ). Red Robin , no. 1 (August 2009). DC Comics. ^ Geoff Johns ( w ). Blackest Night , no. 0 (June 2009). DC Comics. ^ Grant Morrison ( w ). Batman and Robin , no. 7 (January 2010). DC Comics. ^ Grant Morrison ( w ). Batman and Robin , no. 8 (February 2010). DC Comics. ^ Geddes, John (December 9, 2009). "Grant Morrison on return of original Batman" . USA Today . Archived from the original on December 12, 2009 . Retrieved December 10, 2009 . ^ Segura, Alex (December 9, 2009). "DCU in 2010: The Return of Bruce Wayne hits in April" . DC Comics. Archived from the original on December 13, 2009 . Retrieved December 10, 2009 . ^ "Batman solicitations for May 2010 at DC's The Source" . DC Comics. February 11, 2010. Archived from the original on March 6, 2012 . Retrieved June 17, 2010 . ^ Snyder, Scott. Batman Vol. 4: Zero Year- Secret City . DC Comics . ^ Snyder, Scott. Batman Vol 5: Zero Year- Dark City . DC Comics . ^ Snyder, Scott. Batman Vol. 1: The Court of Owls . DC Comics . ^ Snyder, Scott. Batman Vol. 2: The City of Owls . DC Comics . ^ Snyder, Scott. Batman Vol. 10: Epilogue . DC Comics . ^ Snyder, Scott. Batman Vol. 3: Death of the Family . DC Comics . ^ King, Tom. Batman Vol. 1: I Am Gotham . DC Comics . ^ King, Tom. Batman Vol. 2: I Am Suicide . DC Comics . ^ King, Tom. Batman Vol. 3: I Am Bane . DC Comics . ^ King, Tom. Batman Vol. 4: The War of Jokes and Riddles . DC Comics . ^ King, Tom. Batman Vol. 7: The Wedding . DC Comics . ^ King, Tom. Batman Vol. 8: Cold Days . DC Comics . ^ King, Tom. Batman Vol. 9: The Tyrant Wing . DC Comics . ^ King, Tom. Batman Vol. 10: Knightmares . DC Comics . ^ King, Tom. Batman Vol. 13: The City of Bane Part 2 . DC Comics . ^ Tynion IV, James. Batman Vol. 2: The Joker War . DC Comics . ^ Tynion IV, James. Batman Vol. 3: Ghost Stories . DC Comics . ^ Tynion IV, James. Batman Vol. 4: The Cowardly Lot . DC Comics . ^ Smallville: Season 11 #6-9 ^ "Comics Reviews, News, Heroes, Villains, Superheroes & Toys" . IGN . Retrieved June 6, 2024 . ^ Finkelstein, David; Macfarlane, Ross (March 15, 1999). "Batman's big birthday" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on January 14, 2008 . Retrieved June 19, 2007 . ^ Daniels (1999) , p. 50 ^ nrueda (September 26, 2024). "Batman becomes first superhero with star on Hollywood Walk of Fame" . INQUIRER.net USA . Retrieved October 6, 2024 . ^ Glazebrook, Lewis (October 10, 2023). "Why Batman's Most Consistent Movie Complaint Is Actually Great For The DCU's Reboot" . ScreenRant . Retrieved March 25, 2025 . ^ Wertham, Fredric. Seduction of the Innocent . Rinehart and Company, Inc., 1954. pp. 189–90. For discussion of Wertham's impact see Brooker (2001). ^ Medhurst, Andy. "Batman, Deviance, and Camp." The Many Lives of the Batman: Critical Approaches to a Superhero and His Media . Routledge: London, 1991. ISBN 978-0-85170-276-6 , p. 150. ^ Langley, Travis. Batman and Psychology: A Dark and Stormy Knight . John Wiley & Sons; 1st edition, 2012, ISBN 1-118-16765-1 Sources Beatty, Scott (2005). The Batman Handbook: The Ultimate Training Manual . Quirk Books. ISBN 978-1-59474-023-7 . Boichel, Bill (1991). "Batman: Commodity as Myth". The Many Lives of the Batman: Critical Approaches to a Superhero and His Media . London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-85170-276-6 . Daniels, Les (1999). Batman: The Complete History . Chronicle Books. ISBN 978-0-8118-2470-5 . Daniels, Les (1995). DC Comics: Sixty Years of the World's Favorite Comic Book Heroes . Bulfinch. ISBN 978-0-8212-2076-4 . Daniels, Les (2003). DC Comics: A Celebration of the World's Favorite Comic Book Heroes . Billboard Books/Watson-Guptill Publications. ISBN 978-0-8230-7919-3 . Daniels, Les (April 2004). Batman: The Complete History: The Life and Times of the Dark Knight . Chronicle Books. ISBN 978-0-8118-4232-7 . Retrieved November 8, 2020 . Pearson, Roberta E.; Uricchio, William, eds. (1991). The Many Lives of the Batman: Critical Approaches to a Superhero and His Media . London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-85170-276-6 . Wright, Bradford W. (2001). Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture in America . The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-6514-5 . Further reading Jones, Gerard (1995). Men of Tomorrow: Geeks, Gangsters, and the Birth of the Comic Book . Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-03657-8 . 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Batkid Begins Detective Comics #27 Origin of Batman Batman and Robin Homosexuality in the Batman franchise The Bat Whispers Batkid Begins Category Category v t e Justice League characters v t e Founding members Pre-New 52/ Rebirth Aquaman Batman Flash / Barry Allen Green Lantern / Hal Jordan Martian Manhunter Superman Wonder Woman Post-New 52/ Rebirth Aquaman Batman Cyborg Flash / Barry Allen Green Lantern / Hal Jordan Superman Wonder Woman Pre-New 52/ Rebirth Aquaman Batman Flash / Barry Allen Green Lantern / Hal Jordan Martian Manhunter Superman Wonder Woman Aquaman Batman Flash / Barry Allen Green Lantern / Hal Jordan Martian Manhunter Superman Wonder Woman Post-New 52/ Rebirth Aquaman Batman Cyborg Flash / Barry Allen Green Lantern / Hal Jordan Superman Wonder Woman Aquaman Batman Cyborg Flash / Barry Allen Green Lantern / Hal Jordan Superman Wonder Woman Recurring members Abin Sur Adam Strange Agent Liberty Amazing-Man / Will Everett III Ambush Bug Animal Man Aqualad Atom Ray 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Pantha Phantom Stranger Plastic Man Power Girl Question Raven Ray Red Arrow Red Star Red Tornado Robin/Nightwing Rocket Red Shade, the Changing Man Silver Sorceress Snapper Carr Star Sapphire Starfire Stargirl Starman Mikaal Tomas Prince Gavyn Will Payton Jack Knight Mikaal Tomas Prince Gavyn Will Payton Jack Knight Steel Super-Chief Superboy Supergirl Swamp Thing Tasmanian Devil Tomorrow Woman Triumph Vibe Vixen Wonder Girl Zatanna Zauriel Other characters Supporting characters Alfred Pennyworth Arella A.R.G.U.S. Carol Ferris Highfather Hippolyta Iris West James Gordon Jimmy Olsen Lois Lane Lucius Fox Pariah Perry White Steve Trevor Sue Dibny Vicki Vale Allies Amazonians Atlanteans Avengers Birds of Prey Doom Patrol Gotham City Police Department Justice League Dark John Constantine Deadman Detective Chimp Etrigan the Demon Swamp Thing Zatanna Justice Society of America Lantern Corps Guardians of the Universe Zamarons Blue Lantern Corps Green Lantern Corps Indigo Tribe White Lantern 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Labs Teen Titans Robin Starfire Beast Boy Cyborg Raven Young Justice Amazonians Atlanteans Avengers Birds of Prey Doom Patrol Gotham City Police Department Justice League Dark John Constantine Deadman Detective Chimp Etrigan the Demon Swamp Thing Zatanna John Constantine Deadman Detective Chimp Etrigan the Demon Swamp Thing Zatanna Justice Society of America Lantern Corps Guardians of the Universe Zamarons Blue Lantern Corps Green Lantern Corps Indigo Tribe White Lantern Corps Guardians of the Universe Zamarons Blue Lantern Corps Green Lantern Corps Indigo Tribe White Lantern Corps Legion of Super-Heroes Marvel/Shazam Family New Gods Outsiders S.T.A.R. Labs Teen Titans Robin Starfire Beast Boy Cyborg Raven Robin Starfire Beast Boy Cyborg Raven Young Justice Neutral characters Amanda Waller Black Adam Captain Cold Manchester Black Frankenstein Jonah Hex Killer Frost Larfleeze Lobo Harley Quinn Poison Ivy Star Sapphire Suicide Squad Amanda Waller Black Adam Captain Cold Manchester Black Frankenstein Jonah Hex Killer Frost Larfleeze Lobo Harley Quinn Poison Ivy Star Sapphire Suicide Squad Enemies Central rogues Amazo Anti-Monitor Black Adam Black Manta Brainiac Captain Cold Cheetah Darkseid Deathstroke Despero Doctor Destiny Doctor Light Doomsday Eclipso Felix Faust Gorilla Grodd Joker Kanjar Ro Lex Luthor Libra Mongul Nekron Neron Ocean Master Professor Ivo Prometheus Queen Bee Queen of Fables Sinestro Starro Steppenwolf T. O. Morrow Ultra-Humanite Vandal Savage Other supervillains Amos Fortune Black Hand Blockbuster Brain Storm Circe Count Vertigo David Graves Deadshot Doctor Polaris Doctor Sivana Epoch Funky Flashman Gamemnae General Wade Eiling Gentleman Ghost Gog Hyathis Imperiex Key King Kull Ma'alefa'ak Magog Manchester Black Manga Khan Manhunter Matter Master Maxwell Lord Merlyn Morgaine le Fey Nebula Man OMAC Paragon Per Degaton Ra's al Ghul Rainbow Raider Rama Khan Red King Shaggy Man Siren Solaris Solomon Grundy Sonar Starbreaker Weapons Master Weather Wizard Wizard Organizations Aryan Brigade Axis Amerika Black Lantern Corps Brotherhood of Evil Cadre Court of Owls Crime Syndicate of America Darkseid's Elite Demolition Team Dominators Fearsome Five Female Furies H.I.V.E. Injustice League Injustice Society Intergang Kobra League of Assassins Legion of Doom Manhunters Parademons Phantom Zone Villains Rogues Royal Flush Gang Secret Six Secret Society of Super Villains Sinestro Corps White Martians Central rogues Amazo Anti-Monitor Black Adam Black Manta Brainiac Captain Cold Cheetah Darkseid Deathstroke Despero Doctor Destiny Doctor Light Doomsday Eclipso Felix Faust Gorilla Grodd Joker Kanjar Ro Lex Luthor Libra Mongul Nekron Neron Ocean Master Professor Ivo Prometheus Queen Bee Queen of Fables Sinestro Starro Steppenwolf T. O. Morrow Ultra-Humanite Vandal Savage Amazo Anti-Monitor Black Adam Black Manta Brainiac Captain Cold Cheetah Darkseid Deathstroke Despero Doctor Destiny Doctor Light Doomsday Eclipso Felix Faust Gorilla Grodd Joker Kanjar Ro Lex Luthor Libra Mongul Nekron Neron Ocean Master Professor Ivo Prometheus Queen Bee Queen of Fables Sinestro Starro Steppenwolf T. O. Morrow Ultra-Humanite Vandal Savage Other supervillains Amos Fortune Black Hand Blockbuster Brain Storm Circe Count Vertigo David Graves Deadshot Doctor Polaris Doctor Sivana Epoch Funky Flashman Gamemnae General Wade Eiling Gentleman Ghost Gog Hyathis Imperiex Key King Kull Ma'alefa'ak Magog Manchester Black Manga Khan Manhunter Matter Master Maxwell Lord Merlyn Morgaine le Fey Nebula Man OMAC Paragon Per Degaton Ra's al Ghul Rainbow Raider Rama Khan Red King Shaggy Man Siren Solaris Solomon Grundy Sonar Starbreaker Weapons Master Weather Wizard Wizard Amos Fortune Black Hand Blockbuster Brain Storm Circe Count Vertigo David Graves Deadshot Doctor Polaris Doctor Sivana Epoch Funky Flashman Gamemnae General Wade Eiling Gentleman Ghost Gog Hyathis Imperiex Key King Kull Ma'alefa'ak Magog Manchester Black Manga Khan Manhunter Matter Master Maxwell Lord Merlyn Morgaine le Fey Nebula Man OMAC Paragon Per Degaton Ra's al Ghul Rainbow Raider Rama Khan Red King Shaggy Man Siren Solaris Solomon Grundy Sonar Starbreaker Weapons Master Weather Wizard Wizard Organizations Aryan Brigade Axis Amerika Black Lantern Corps Brotherhood of Evil Cadre Court of Owls Crime Syndicate of America Darkseid's Elite Demolition Team Dominators Fearsome Five Female Furies H.I.V.E. Injustice League Injustice Society Intergang Kobra League of Assassins Legion of Doom Manhunters Parademons Phantom Zone Villains Rogues Royal Flush Gang Secret Six Secret Society of Super Villains Sinestro Corps White Martians Aryan Brigade Axis Amerika Black Lantern Corps Brotherhood of Evil Cadre Court of Owls Crime Syndicate of America Darkseid's Elite Demolition Team Dominators Fearsome Five Female Furies H.I.V.E. Injustice League Injustice Society Intergang Kobra League of Assassins Legion of Doom Manhunters Parademons Phantom Zone Villains Rogues Royal Flush Gang Secret Six Secret Society of Super Villains Sinestro Corps White Martians Alternative versions Alternate versions of the Justice League Extreme Justice Just'a Lotta Animals Justice Guild of America Justice League 3000 Justice League Dark Justice League Elite Justice League Europe Justice League International Justice League Queer Justice League Task Force Justice League United Justice Legion Alpha Justice Lords Super Buddies Super Jrs. Young Justice Others Superman Wonder Woman Alternate versions of the Justice League Extreme Justice Just'a Lotta Animals Justice Guild of America Justice League 3000 Justice League Dark Justice League Elite Justice League Europe Justice League International Justice League Queer Justice League Task Force Justice League United Justice Legion Alpha Justice Lords Super Buddies Super Jrs. Young Justice Extreme Justice Just'a Lotta Animals Justice Guild of America Justice League 3000 Justice League Dark Justice League Elite Justice League Europe Justice League International Justice League Queer Justice League Task Force Justice League United Justice Legion Alpha Justice Lords Super Buddies Super Jrs. Young Justice Others Superman Wonder Woman Superman Wonder Woman In other media DC Extended Universe Superman Batman Wonder Woman Flash Aquaman DC Extended Universe Superman Batman Wonder Woman Flash Aquaman Superman Batman Wonder Woman Flash Aquaman Category Category Articles and topics related to Batman v t e Batman characters Batman family By codename Batman Batwoman Batgirl Robin Catman Catwoman Owlman Huntress Nightwing Flamebird Red Robin Red Hood Batwing Azrael Phantasm Wrath By public identity Dick Grayson Kathy Kane Bette Kane Barbara Gordon Jason Todd Helena Wayne Helena Bertinelli Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Cassandra Cain Kate Kane Damian Wayne Harper Row Duke Thomas Jace Fox Luke Fox Michael Washington Lane Jean-Paul Valley Andrea Beaumont Pets Ace the Bat-Hound Supporting characters Main supporting Alfred Pennyworth Jim Gordon Julie Madison Holly Robinson Lucius Fox Martha Wayne Thomas Wayne Vicki Vale Gotham City Police Department contacts Jim Gordon Harvey Bullock Sarah Essen Maggie Sawyer Renee Montoya Crispus Allen Jason Bard Slam Bradley Superhero allies Superman Wonder Woman The Flash Barry Allen Wally West Green Lantern Hal Jordan John Stewart Aquaman Black Canary Cyborg Deadman Etrigan Green Arrow Hawkgirl Hawkman John Constantine Martian Manhunter Metamorpho Nightrunner Plastic Man Question Shazam Spectre Vixen Zatanna Superhero groups Batman Incorporated Batmen of All Nations Birds of Prey Justice League Justice Society of America Outsiders World's Finest Team Other characters Bat-Mite Bronze Tiger Creeper Duela Dent Gilda Dent Knight Legs Leslie Thompkins Misfit Mother Panic Nora Fries Orpheus Ragman Sasha Bordeaux Silver St. Cloud Simon Dark Squire Victoria October Antagonists Central rogues gallery Bane Black Mask Catwoman Clayface Deadshot Deathstroke Firefly Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Hush Joker Killer Croc Killer Moth Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Ventriloquist Victor Zsasz Joker's gang Joker Harley Quinn Punchline Bud and Lou League of Assassins Ra's al Ghul Talia al Ghul Nyssa Raatko Sensei Lady Shiva David Cain Merlyn Mobsters Joe Chill Lew Moxon Falcone family Carmine Falcone Alberto Falcone Mario Falcone Sofia Falcone Sal Maroni Squid Rupert Thorne Tobias Whale Johnny Witts Tony Zucco Hamilton Hill Gillian B. Loeb Other enemies Amygdala Anarky Black Spider Blockbuster Calculator Calendar Man Catman Cavalier Clock King Cluemaster Copperhead Cornelius Stirk Crazy Quilt Crime Doctor Deacon Blackfire Doctor Death Doctor Double X Doctor Phosphorus Dollmaker Electrocutioner Enigma Firebug Flamingo Gearhead Great White Shark Humpty Dumpty Jane Doe Key KGBeast King Snake Kite Man Lex Luthor Maxie Zeus Magpie Mirror Man Mr. Bloom Music Meister Nightslayer Nocturna Orca Outsider Owlman Phantasm Phosphorus Rex Planet Master Polka-Dot Man Professor Milo Professor Pyg Rag Doll Ratcatcher Reaper Signalman Simon Hurt Snowman Solomon Grundy Spellbinder Swagman Tally Man Ten-Eyed Man The Batman Who Laughs Tiger Shark Tweedledum and Tweedledee Wrath Zebra-Man Supervillain groups Circus of Strange Court of Owls Kobra Leviathan LexCorp Mutants Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Terrible Trio Alternative versions Batman Earth-Two Batman of Zur-En-Arrh Owlman The Batman Who Laughs Thomas Wayne ( Flashpoint version) Robin Earth-Two Carrie Kelley Helena Wayne Other media 1966 Batman TV series Bookworm Egghead King Tut 1989–1997 film series Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman DC Animated Universe Renee Montoya Harley Quinn Bud and Lou Andrea Beaumont Batman (Terry McGinnis) The Dark Knight Trilogy Bruce Wayne Rachel Dawes Joker DC Extended Universe Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn Joker Gotham Bruce Wayne James Gordon Selina Kyle Fish Mooney Oswald Cobblepot Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Titans Dick Grayson Arrowverse Kate Kane Category v t e Batman publications and storylines Current series Absolute Batman Batgirl Batman Batman/Superman: World's Finest Batman and Robin Birds of Prey Detective Comics ( #27 ) Catwoman Harley Quinn Nightwing Poison Ivy Completed ongoing series Azrael Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Batman (comic strip) Batman '66 Batman '89 Batman and the Outsiders Batman: Arkham Unhinged Batman: The Brave and the Bold Batman: The Dark Knight Batman: Gotham Knights Batman: Legends of the Dark Knight Batman: Shadow of the Bat Batman: Streets of Gotham The Batman Adventures The Batman Chronicles Batman Beyond Batman Confidential Batman Family Batman Incorporated The Batman Strikes! Batman/Superman Batwing Batwoman The Brave and the Bold Gotham by Midnight Gotham Central Gotham City Sirens Gotham Girls Grayson The Huntress The Joker Man-Bat Mother Panic The Penguin Red Hood/Arsenal Red Hood and the Outlaws Red Robin Robin Robin: Son of Batman Superman/Batman Tim Drake: Robin We Are Robin World's Finest Comics Completed miniseries Anarky Batman: Anarky Batman & Dracula trilogy Batman: Arkham City Batman: Battle for the Cowl Batman Black and White Batman: Cacophony Batman: Creature of the Night Batman: The Cult Batman: Damned Batman: The Dark Prince Charming Batman: The Doom That Came to Gotham Batman: Earth One Batman: Gates of Gotham Batman: GCPD Batman: Gotham County Line Batman: Gotham Knights – Gilded City Batman: The Imposter Batman: The Knight Batman: Orpheus Rising Batman: The Return of Bruce Wayne Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Batman: Three Jokers Batman: Thrillkiller Batman: Turning Points The Batman Who Laughs Batman: Year 100 Bat-Mite Dark Knights of Steel First Wave Flashpoint Beyond Flashpoint: Deadman and the Flying Graysons Gotham Underground Harley Quinn and Poison Ivy Man-Bat Penguin: Pain and Prejudice Poison Ivy: Cycle of Life and Death Red Hood: The Lost Days Section 8 Superman & Batman: Generations Trinity The Untold Legend of the Batman Batman Eternal Batman Eternal Batman and Robin Eternal Dark Moon Rising Batman and the Monster Men Batman and the Mad Monk The Long Halloween Batman: The Long Halloween Batman: Dark Victory Catwoman: When in Rome Millerverse The Dark Knight Returns The Dark Knight Strikes Again The Dark Knight III: The Master Race Murphyverse Batman: White Knight Curse of the White Knight White Knight Presents: Red Hood Beyond the White Knight Year One Batgirl: Year One The Riddler: Year One Two-Face: Year One Robin: Year One One-shots Arkham Asylum: A Serious House on Serious Earth Castle of the Bat Dark Knight Dynasty Dark Night: A True Batman Story Death of Innocents Digital Justice Gotham Noir Holy Terror Batman/Houdini: The Devil's Workshop In Darkest Knight The Killing Joke KnightGallery Leatherwing The Man Who Laughs Nine Lives Noël Elseworld's Finest: Supergirl & Batgirl The Joker: Devil's Advocate Batman/Poison Ivy: Cast Shadows Son of the Demon The 12 Cent Adventure Two Faces War on Crime The Batman Adventures: Mad Love The Berlin Batman Gotham by Gaslight Joker Poison Ivy: Thorns Red Hood vs. Anarky Superman and Batman: World's Funnest Storylines 1930-40s " The Case of the Chemical Syndicate " "Robin the Boy Wonder" "The Murders of Clayface" "The Crimes of Two-Face" "The Man Who Led a Double Life" "The End of Two-Face" "The Riddler" 1950s " The Man Behind the Red Hood! " " The Joker's Millions " "The Rainbow Batman" "The Superman of Planet X" "... Meets Bat-Mite" 1960s "Robin Dies at Dawn" "Beware of -- Poison Ivy" "The Million Dollar Debut of Batgirl" "One Bullet Too Many" 1970s "Challenge of the Man-Bat" "Tales of the Demon" "The Joker's Five-Way Revenge" "There is No Hope in Crime Alley" "The Deadshot Ricochet" "The Laughing Fish" 1980s " Batman: Year One " " Year Two " " Batman: A Death in the Family " " Year Three " " The Man Who Falls " " Anarky in Gotham City " 1990s " Gothic " "The Eye of the Beholder" " The Return of the Joker " " Prey " " The Last Arkham " " Knightfall " " Contagion " " Legacy " " Cataclysm " " No Man's Land " 2000s " Joker: Last Laugh " " Bruce Wayne: Fugitive " " Hush " " Broken City " " War Games " " City of Crime " " Under the Hood " " War Crimes " " Face the Face " " Batman and Son " " The Resurrection of Ra's al Ghul " " Batman R.I.P. " " Whatever Happened to the Caped Crusader? " " Batwoman: Elegy " 2010s " Bruce Wayne: The Road Home " " The Black Mirror " " Night of the Owls " " Death of the Family " " Zero Year " " Endgame " " Robin War " " The Button " " Dark Nights: Metal " 2020s " The Joker War " " Dark Nights: Death Metal " " Fear State " " Shadows of the Bat " " Shadow War " " Gotham War " Intercompany crossovers Batman/Aliens Batman/Hellboy/Starman Batman/Judge Dredd: Judgment on Gotham Batman/Spawn: War Devil Batman/Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Batman/Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Adventures Batman/The Spirit Batman Versus Predator Batman vs. Bigby! A Wolf in Gotham Daredevil/Batman: Eye for an Eye Ghost/Batgirl: The Resurrection Machine Harley & Ivy Meet Betty & Veronica Spawn/Batman Superman and Batman versus Aliens and Predator Deadpool/Batman and Batman/Deadpool Incomplete All Star Batman & Robin, the Boy Wonder Batman: The Widening Gyre Related topics Batman: Child of Dreams Batman: Haunted Knight Batman Legends DC Comics – The Legend of Batman Elseworlds The Further Adventures of The Joker Category Publications are listed alphabetically by published titles. Storylines are listed in publication order. Compiled without respect for canon or "current" continuity. v t e Batman franchise media Live-action television Batman (1966) Batman episodes Return to the Batcave: The Misadventures of Adam and Burt Gotham (franchise) Gotham episodes season 1 2 3 4 5 characters Pennyworth Arrowverse Batwoman episodes characters " Crisis on Infinite Earths " The Penguin The Penguin " After Hours " " Inside Man " " Bliss " " Cent'Anni " " Homecoming " " Gold Summit " " Top Hat " " A Great or Little Thing " Other Batman OnStar commercials Birds of Prey Gotham Knights Live-action films Early films Batman (1943) Batman and Robin Batman (1966) 1989–1997 film series Batman (1989) Batman Returns ( special effects ) Batman Forever Batman & Robin The Dark Knight Trilogy Batman Begins The Dark Knight The Dark Knight Rises DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Batgirl (unreleased) The Batman Epic Crime Saga The Batman production Animated television The Batman/Superman Hour The Adventures of Batman The New Adventures of Batman The Batman/Tarzan Adventure Hour The Animated Series episodes The New Batman Adventures Batman Beyond characters episodes The Batman characters episodes The Brave and the Bold episodes Beware the Batman Batwheels Caped Crusader Bat-Fam Animated films Mask of the Phantasm SubZero Return of the Joker Mystery of the Batwoman The Batman vs. Dracula Gotham Knight Public Enemies Under the Red Hood Apocalypse Year One The Dark Knight Returns DC Super Heroes Unite Son of Batman Assault on Arkham Animal Instincts Batman vs. Robin Monster Mayhem Bad Blood The Killing Joke Mechs vs. Mutants Return of the Caped Crusaders The Lego Batman Movie Batman and Harley Quinn Batman vs. Two-Face Scooby-Doo! & Batman: The Brave and the Bold Gotham by Gaslight Batman Ninja Batman vs. Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Hush Family Matters Soul of the Dragon The Long Halloween Battle of the Super Sons The Doom That Came to Gotham Merry Little Batman Batman Ninja vs. Yakuza League Aztec Batman: Clash of Empires Animated shorts Chase Me Strange Days Death in the Family Novels The Ultimate Evil Enemies & Allies Wayne of Gotham Batman: Resurrection Batman: Revolution Podcasts Batman: The Audio Adventures Batman Unburied DC High Volume: Batman Enemies in other media Bane Joker Mr. Freeze Penguin Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Supporting characters in other media Barbara Gordon Catwoman Robin Related topics Batman & Bill Bruce Wayne (unproduced series) Batkid Begins Batman action figures Lego Batman Batman Total Justice Batman Unlimited Bat phone Bat-Manga!: The Secret History of Batman in Japan List of Batman films cast members List of Batman television series cast members List of Batman video games List of Batman children's books Batman music Batman Live Holy Musical B@man! Batman '89 (comic book) The Riddler: Year One v t e Batman music Soundtracks Films Batman score soundtrack Batman Returns Batman Forever soundtrack score Batman & Robin Batman Begins The Dark Knight The Dark Knight Rises Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice The Lego Batman Movie Joker The Batman Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack Video games Batman: Arkham City Batman: Arkham Origins Batman: Arkham Knight Songs Batman (1960s TV series) " Batman Theme " " Batusi " Batman (1989 film) " Batdance " " Partyman " " The Arms of Orion " " Scandalous! " " The Future " Batman Returns " Face to Face " Batman Forever " Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me " " Kiss from a Rose " " The Riddler " Batman & Robin " The End Is the Beginning Is the End " " Look into My Eyes " " Gotham City " " Foolish Games " " Moaner " " Lazy Eye " v t e Batman video games Lego series Lego Batman: The Videogame Lego Batman 2: DC Super Heroes Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham Lego Batman: Legacy of the Dark Knight Arkham series Arkham Asylum Arkham City Lockdown Arkham Origins Mobile Blackgate Arkham Knight Arkham VR Suicide Squad: Kill the Justice League Arkham Shadow Telltale series The Telltale Series The Enemy Within Film -based Batman (Ocean, 1989) Batman: The Video Game (NES, 1989) Batman: The Video Game (Game Boy, 1990) Batman (Mega Drive/Genesis, 1990) Batman (PC Engine, 1990) Batman (arcade, 1991) Batman Returns (Sega systems, 1992) Batman Returns (Atari Lynx, 1992) Batman Returns (NES, 1993) Batman Returns (SNES, 1993) Batman Forever Batman Forever: The Arcade Game Batman & Robin Batman Begins The Dark Knight (canceled) Animation-based The Animated Series The Adventures of Batman & Robin Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker Chaos in Gotham Gotham City Racer Vengeance Rise of Sin Tzu The Brave and the Bold – The Videogame Other games Batman (1986) The Caped Crusader Return of the Joker Dark Tomorrow DC Universe Online Gotham City Impostors Batman (2013) Gotham Knights MultiVersus Category v t e Batman in amusement parks Of Batman Batman Adventure – The Ride Batman: The Dark Knight Batman The Escape Batman: Knight Flight Batman: The Ride Batman: The Ride (S&S Free Spin) Batman & Robin: The Chiller The Dark Knight Coaster Of derivative characters Harley Quinn Crazy Train The Joker (S&S Worldwide) The Joker (Six Flags Discovery Kingdom) The Joker (Six Flags México) The Joker Funhouse Coaster The Joker's Jinx The Riddler Mindbender Mr Freeze: Reverse Blast The Penguin The Riddler Revenge (Six Flags New England) The Riddler's Revenge Of derivative elements Arkham Asylum – Shock Therapy Batwing Spaceshot Batwing Gotham City Gotham City Gauntlet: Escape from Arkham Asylum Shadows of Arkham v t e Batman in film Serials Batman (1943 serial) Batman and Robin (1949 serial) Adam West films Batman (1966) Return of the Caped Crusaders (2016) Batman vs. Two-Face (2017) 1989–1997 series Films Batman (1989) score soundtrack home computer game NES game Game Boy game Sega Genesis game PC Engine game arcade game Batman Returns (1992) soundtrack special effects Sega games Atari Lynx game NES game SNES game Batman Forever (1995) score soundtrack video game arcade game pinball game Batman & Robin (1997) soundtrack video game Characters Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman The Dark Knight trilogy Films Batman Begins (2005) soundtrack video game The Dark Knight (2008) soundtrack canceled video game The Dark Knight Rises (2012) soundtrack Characters Bruce Wayne Joker Rachel Dawes DC Extended Universe Films Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016) soundtrack Suicide Squad (2016) soundtrack Justice League (2017) soundtrack Zack Snyder's Justice League (2021) soundtrack The Flash (2023) soundtrack Batgirl (unreleased) Characters Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn The Batman series The Batman (2022) production accolades soundtrack Theatrical animated films Mask of the Phantasm (1993) soundtrack The Killing Joke (2016) The Lego Batman Movie (2017) soundtrack Spin-off films Catwoman (2004) video game Joker (2019) accolades soundtrack Birds of Prey (2020) soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux (2024) score soundtrack Unofficial and fan films Features Batman Dracula Alyas Batman at Robin James Batman Batman Fights Dracula Fight Batman Fight! Alyas Batman en Robin Batman XXX Shorts Dead End Grayson World's Finest City of Scars Dying Is Easy Batman Beyond: Year One Jokers Wild See also Batman franchise List of Batman films cast members Batman OnStar commercials v t e Batman and Superman Comic books Ongoing series World's Finest Comics Superman/Batman Limited series Superman & Batman: Generations Superman and Batman: World's Funnest Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Superman and Batman versus Aliens and Predator Television The Batman/Superman Hour The Superman/Batman Adventures DC Animated Universe The New Batman/Superman Adventures Books Enemies & Allies Film Live action films Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice soundtrack Animated films Superman/Batman: Public Enemies Superman/Batman: Apocalypse Batman: The Dark Knight Returns Superman: Red Son Injustice Batman and Superman: Battle of the Super Sons Justice League: Warworld Fan works How It Should Have Ended Related Composite Superman Toyman World's Finest Team Categories: Batman Superman v t e Justice League International Keith Giffen J. M. DeMatteis Initial members Pre-Flashpoint Batman Black Canary Blue Beetle/Ted Kord Booster Gold Captain Marvel Doctor Fate Kent Nelson Linda Strauss Doctor Light/Kimiyo Hoshi Green Lantern/Guy Gardner Martian Manhunter Mister Miracle The New 52 August General in Iron Booster Gold Fire Godiva Green Lantern/Guy Gardner Ice Rocket Red/Gavril Ivanovich Vixen Supporting characters L-Ron Catherine Cobert Maxwell Lord Oberon Superman Enemies Antagonists Anti-Monitor Black Hand Darkseid Despero Doomsday Kite Man Lobo Magog Major Disaster Manga Khan Maxwell Lord Neron Queen Bee Signal Men Sinestro Starbreaker Weapons Master Weather Wizard Wizard Organizations Cadre Extremists Injustice League Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Publications and storylines Legends Formerly Known as the Justice League Justice League: Generation Lost Spinoff teams Extreme Justice Justice League America Justice League Europe Justice League Task Force v t e Catwoman Bob Kane Bill Finger Incarnations Selina Kyle Holly Robinson Eiko Hasigawa Supporting characters Batgirl Batman Slam Bradley Gotham City Sirens Dick Grayson Huntress Justice League Outsiders Alfred Pennyworth Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Madame Zodiac Leslie Thompkins Wildcat Antagonists Angle Man Bane Black Mask Clayface Film Freak Hush Joker Penguin Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Riddler Scarecrow Snowflame Hugo Strange Two-Face Zeiss Publications Catwoman Catwoman: When in Rome Gotham City Sirens Nine Lives In other media Catwoman (film) Chase Me DC Showcase: Catwoman Catwoman (video game) Selina Kyle ( Gotham character) "Selina Kyle" ( Gotham episode) Selina Kyle ( Batman Returns ) " The Cat and the Fiddle " " The Cat and the Claw " Catwoman: Soulstealer Catwoman: Hunted Category v t e Batgirl Bill Finger Sheldon Moldoff Gardner Fox Carmine Infantino Incarnations Bette Kane Barbara Gordon Helena Bertinelli Cassandra Cain Stephanie Brown Supporting characters Batman Birds of Prey Black Canary Catwoman James Gordon Dick Grayson Lucius Fox Justice League Misfit Alfred Pennyworth Proxy Harley Quinn Robin Supergirl Leslie Thompkins Alysia Yeoh Antagonists Black Mask Brutale Calculator David Cain Doctor Death Joker Joker's Daughter Killer Moth Knightfall Lady Shiva Livewire Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Madame Zodiac Riddler Ravager Scarecrow Trigger Twins Related identities Flamebird Oracle Huntress Publications Batgirl Batgirl: Year One Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Elseworld's Finest: Supergirl & Batgirl Ghost/Batgirl: The Resurrection Machine Related articles " Enter Batgirl, Exit Penguin " Barbara Gordon in other media Big Game Batgirl (unreleased) Batwoman Category v t e Robin Bill Finger Jerry Robinson Bob Kane Robins Dick Grayson Jason Todd Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Damian Wayne Supporting characters Batgirl Barbara Gordon Batman Catwoman Jack Drake Flying Graysons Lucius Fox Tamara Fox James Gordon Justice League Alfred Pennyworth Nightstar Nocturna Outsiders Starfire Talia al Ghul Teen Titans Leslie Thompkins Warlock's Daughter Antagonists Anarky Bane Blockbuster Brutale Clock King Cluemaster Deathstroke Firefly The General Joker Joker's Daughter Killer Croc Killer Moth King Snake Lady Shiva Lady Vic Lynx Mad Hatter Mr. Freeze Nite-Wing Penguin Prankster Harley Quinn Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Shrike Tarantula Torque Trigger Twins Two-Face Tony Zucco Related identities Nightwing Red Robin Red Hood Squire Red X In other media Batman and Robin (serial) " Robin's Reckoning " Dick Grayson (film character) Batman & Robin (film) soundtrack video game Son of Batman Batman vs. Robin Publications Robin: Year One Robin War All Star Batman & Robin, the Boy Wonder Batman and Robin We Are... Robin Red Robin Batman and Robin Eternal Batman and Son Alternative versions Carrie Kelley Earth-Two Helena Wayne Related Robin Hood Redbird Alyas Batman en Robin Alyas Batman at Robin Batman & Robin: The Chiller Batman and Robin Have an Altercation "Holy..." Batman and Robin (disambiguation) Category v t e The Joker Bill Finger Bob Kane Jerry Robinson Supporting characters Bane Cheetah Clayface Deadshot Deathstroke Duela Dent Firefly Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Hush Killer Croc Legion of Doom Lex Luthor Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Punchline Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Victor Zsasz Antagonists Batgirl Barbara Gordon Batman Batwoman Kate Kane Catwoman Commissioner Gordon Gotham City Police Department Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Huntress Helena Bertinelli) Justice League Nightwing Dick Grayson Penguin Red Hood Jason Todd Red Robin Tim Drake Riddler Robin Damian Wayne Superman The Batman Who Laughs Two-Face Publications and stories The Joker " The Joker's Double Jeopardy " Batman: The Killing Joke Devil's Advocate Batman: The Man Who Laughs The Further Adventures of The Joker Joker (graphic novel) " The Joker's Millions " Last Laugh " The Man Behind the Red Hood! " " The Return of the Joker " Batman: Three Jokers Joker War Alternative versions Red Hood The Batman Who Laughs In other media Incarnations Jack Napier Joker (DC Animated Universe) Joker ( The Dark Knight ) Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Joker (DC Extended Universe) Arthur Fleck Other media Joker accolades soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker video game Batman: The Killing Joke " The Joker's Hard Times " " The Joker Is Wild " " The Joker Goes to School " Batman: Return of the Joker " Joker's Favor " " Christmas with the Joker " Mortal Kombat 11 Harley Quinn and The Joker: Sound Mind Jokers Wild Rides The Joker's Jinx The Joker (S&S Worldwide) The Joker (Six Flags Discovery Kingdom) The Joker Funhouse Coaster The Joker (Six Flags México) Related Ace Chemicals Arkham Asylum Barack Obama "Joker" poster Blackgate Penitentiary Georgia Joker Jokermobile Joker Stairs Jokerz The People's Joker Category v t e Harley Quinn Paul Dini Bruce Timm Karl Kesel Terry Dodson Amanda Conner Jimmy Palmiotti Supporting characters Bruce Wayne / Batman Barbara Gordon / Batgirl Birds of Prey Bud and Lou Selina Kyle/Catwoman Joker Justice League Dick Grayson/Nightwing Pamela Isley/Poison Ivy Karen Starr/Power Girl Robin Cyrus Gold/Solomon Grundy Teams Gotham City Sirens Justice League of Anarchy Secret Six The Society Suicide Squad Antagonists Amanda Waller Bruce Wayne / Batman Barbara Gordon / Batgirl Roman Sionis/Black Mask Jason Woodrue/Floronic Man Hugo Strange Joker Joker's Daughter/Duela Dent Mercy Graves Oswald Cobblepot/Penguin Alexis Kaye/Punchline Edward Nygma/Riddler Dick Grayson / Robin Jonathan Crane/Scarecrow Harvey Dent/Two-Face Publications The Batman Adventures: Mad Love Harley Quinn Batman: White Knight Presents: Harley Quinn Harley and Ivy Meet Betty and Veronica Harley Quinn and Poison Ivy In other media " Joker's Favor " Harley Quinn (TV series) episodes Batman and Harley Quinn Harley Quinn (DCEU character) Birds of Prey soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack Harley Quinn and The Joker: Sound Mind Related articles Harley Quinn Crazy Train Homosexuality in the Batman franchise Harlequin (album) Category v t e The Outsiders Mike W. Barr Jim Aparo Members Founders Batman Black Lightning Geo-Force Halo Katana Metamorpho Others Arsenal Atomic Knight Batgirl Batwing Batwoman Captain Boomerang Captain Marvel Jr. Creeper Duke Thomas Eradicator Francine Langstrom Grace Choi Green Arrow Huntress (Helena Bertinelli) Indigo Jade Lady Shiva Looker Nightwing Olympian Owlman (Roy Raymond Jr.) Red Robin ReMAC Sebastian Faust Starfire Technocrat Thunder Supporting characters Alfred Pennyworth Checkmate Helga Jace Roy Raymond Sapphire Stagg Simon Stagg Enemies Baron Bedlam Brother Blood Doctor Sivana Fearsome Five Doctor Light Gizmo Mammoth Psimon Shimmer Felix Faust Gorilla Grodd Joker Kobra Masters of Disaster Mr. Freeze Nuclear Family Sabbac Tobias Whale Locations Batcave Other media Batman: The Brave and the Bold Young Justice v t e Birds of Prey Creators : Chuck Dixon Jordan B. Gorfinkel Gail Simone Titles Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Main characters Barbara Gordon Black Canary Huntress (Helena Bertinelli) Notable members Big Barda Black Alice Cassandra Cain Gypsy Harley Quinn Hawk and Dove Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders) Jade Canary Judomaster (Sonia Sato) Katana Lady Blackhawk Manhunter (Kate Spencer) Misfit Poison Ivy Power Girl Vixen Zealot Supporting characters Batman Blue Beetle (Ted Kord) Booster Gold James Gordon Creote Catwoman Cyborg Green Arrow Kurt Lance Lois Lane Metamorpho Nightwing Richard Dragon Robin Savant Sin Superman Wildcat Antagonists Atomic Skull Bane Black Mask Blockbuster Brainiac Brutale Calculator Captain Nazi Catwoman Chemo Cheshire Clayface Copperhead Crime Doctor Deathstroke Electrocutioner Gorilla Grodd Harley Quinn Hector Hammond Hellgrammite H.I.V.E. Joker Killer Moth Kobra Lady Shiva Lady Spellbinder Lady Vic Lashina Mad Hatter Mammoth Penguin Poison Ivy Prometheus Psimon Secret Six Secret Society Shadow Thief Shrapnel Spy Smasher Talia al Ghul Victor Zsasz In other media TV series Film soundtrack Category v t e Superman characters Superman family By codename Superman Superboy Supergirl Superwoman Nightwing Flamebird Steel Power Girl By public identity Clark Kent Conner Kent Jon Kent Sodam Yat Mon-El Kara Zor-El Matrix Linda Danvers Laurel Gand Lois Lane Lucy Lane Lana Lang Luma Lynai Donna Troy Kristin Wells Chris Kent/Lor-Zod Thara Ak-Var David Connor John Henry Irons Natasha Irons Kong Kenan Kara Zor-L Pets Krypto the Superdog Streaky the Supercat Beppo the Super-Monkey Comet the Super-Horse Supporting characters Lois Lane Jimmy Olsen Jor-El Lara Jonathan and Martha Kent Perry White Lana Lang Batman Lucy Lane Lori Lemaris Gangbuster Zor-El Alura Dubbilex Sam Lane Lyla Lerrol Pete Ross Professor Potter Lena Luthor Maxima Morgan Edge Dan Turpin Steve Lombard Cat Grant Professor Hamilton Maggie Sawyer Bibbo Bibbowski Ron Troupe Strange Visitor Rampage Vartox Atlas Manchester Black Alexander Luthor Jr. Associated characters Auron The Authority Apollo Enchantress Lightray Manchester Black Midnighter OMAC Steel Guardian Justice League Atom Aquaman Batman Black Canary Blue Beetle Cyborg Flash Green Arrow Green Lantern John Stewart Martian Manhunter Robin/Nightwing Orion Captain Marvel Wonder Woman Justice Society of America Legion of Substitute Heroes Legion of Super-Heroes Cosmic Boy Saturn Girl Lightning Lad Chameleon Boy Colossal Boy Invisible Kid Star Boy Phantom Girl Triplicate Girl Shrinking Violet Bouncing Boy Sun Boy Brainiac 5 Ultra Boy Element Lad Matter-Eater Lad Lightning Lass Dream Girl Timber Wolf Princess Projectra Ferro Lad Karate Kid White Witch Shadow Lass Chemical King Wildfire Tyroc Dawnstar Laurel Gand Legion of Super-Pets Legion of Super-Villains Lobo Maxima Newsboy Legion Project Cadmus Silent Knight Super-Chief Supermen of America World's Finest Team Enemies Central rogues Atomic Skull Bizarro Bloodsport Brainiac Bruno Mannheim Cyborg Superman Hank Henshaw Darkseid Doomsday General Zod Lex Luthor Livewire Mercy Graves Metallo Mister Mxyzptlk Mongul Parasite Silver Banshee Toyman Ultra-Humanite Recurring adversaries Anti-Monitor Atlas Blaze and Satanus Brainiac 2 Chemo Composite Superman Conduit Dev-Em Equus Faora Funky Flashman Gog Hellgramite Imperiex Jax-Ur Joker Kobra Lord Satanis Magpie Mala Mammoth Manchester Black Morgan Edge Neutron Nick O'Teen Non Ol-Vir Prankster Quarmer Quex-Ul Rampage Riot Ruin Scorch Solaris Solomon Grundy Terra-Man Titano Ultraman Ursa Volcana Organizations Black Zero Fearsome Five Intergang Masters of Disaster Royal Flush Gang Secret Society of Super Villains Suicide Squad Superman Revenge Squad Alternative versions Superman Earth-One Earth-Two Ultraman Superboy-Prime Kingdom Come Supergirl Power Girl In other media 1978–1987 film series Superman Lois Lane Lex Luthor Eve Teschmacher General Zod DC Extended Universe Clark Kent / Superman Lois Lane Lex Luthor Zod Smallville Clark Kent Lois Lane Lana Lang Justice League Lex Luthor Lionel Luthor Chloe Sullivan Arrowverse Kara Danvers Alex Danvers Lex Luthor Nia Nal Superman & Lois Clark Kent Lois Lane Related Superman and Lois Lane Daily Planet Alien races Kryptonians Category v t e Wonder Woman William Moulton Marston Elizabeth Holloway Marston Olive Byrne H. G. Peter Other contributors Characters Wonder Women Diana Prince Orana Artemis of Bana-Mighdall Hippolyta Nubia Wonder Girls Cassie Sandsmark Donna Troy Yara Flor Supporting characters Antiope Etta Candy Fury Hephaestus Heracles/Hercules Hermes I Ching Julia and Vanessa Kapatelis Justice League Mala Nemesis (Thomas Tresser) The Olympian Paula von Gunther Philippus Poseidon Queen Desira Helena Sandsmark Sarge Steel Steve Trevor Wonder Man Zeus Zola Enemies Ares Baron Blitzkrieg Baroness Paula von Gunther Blue Snowman Veronica Cale Cheetah Circe Dark Angel Decay Doctor Cyber Doctor Poison Doctor Psycho Duke of Deception Egg Fu Eviless First Born Genocide Giganta Hades Hypnota Kung Mask Maxwell Lord Medusa Minister Blizzard Osira Queen Clea Silver Swan Superwoman Tezcatlipoca Zara Factions Amazons of Themyscira Amazons of Bana-Mighdall Children of Ares Godwatch Olympian Gods Titans of Myth Villainy Inc. Locations Aeaea Themyscira (The Paradise Islands) Publications Absolute Wonder Woman All Star Comics Wonder Woman Amazonia Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Comic Cavalcade Crossover The Legend of Wonder Woman Sensation Comics Superman and Wonder Woman: The Hidden Killer Superman/Wonder Woman Wonder Woman '77 The Wonder Woman Chronicles Wonder Woman: Earth One Wonder Woman Historia: The Amazons The World's Greatest Superheroes Storylines " Introducing Wonder Woman " (1941) Gods and Mortals (1987) Challenge of the Gods (1987–88) War of the Gods (1991) The Contest (1994) The Challenge of Artemis (1995) Paradise Island Lost (2001) Our Worlds at War (2001) The Hiketeia (2002) Down to Earth (2003–04) Who Is Wonder Woman? (2006–07) Amazons Attack! (2007) The Circle (2008) Ends of the Earth (2008) Rise of the Olympian (2009) Flashpoint (2011) The Lies (2016) Year One (2016) The Truth (2017) Godwatch (2017) Trial of the Amazons (2022) Technology Golden Girdle of Gaea Lasso of Truth Wonder Woman's bracelets In other media Film Wonder Woman (1974 film) Wonder Woman (2009 film) Wonder Woman: Bloodlines DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Wonder Woman (2017 film) soundtrack Justice League Zack Snyder's Justice League Wonder Woman 1984 soundtrack Peacemaker: It's Cow or Never Shazam! Fury of the Gods The Flash Television Wonder Woman episodes Wonder Woman (2011 TV pilot) Miscellaneous Alternative versions Earth-Two Bizarra Superwoman Cultural impact Professor Marston and the Wonder Women Literature Wonder Women! The Untold Story of American Superheroines Category v t e Golden Age of Comic Books Ace Comics Captain Courageous Doctor Nemesis The Flag Lash Lightning The Raven Unknown Soldier Vulcan All-American Publications The Atom Al Pratt Black Canary Doctor Mid-Nite Charles McNider Doiby Dickles The Flash Jay Garrick Gay Ghost Green Lantern Alan Scott Hawkgirl Shiera Sanders Hall Hawkman Carter Hall Hop Harrigan Johnny Thunder Justice Society of America The King Mister Terrific Terry Sloane Neptune Perkins Red Tornado Sargon the Sorcerer Terrific Whatzit Thunderbolt Ultra-Man The Whip Wildcat Ted Grant Wonder Woman Centaur Comics Airman Amazing-Man The Arrow The Clock The Eye Fantom of the Fair Magician from Mars The Masked Marvel Minimidget Charlton Comics Atomic Mouse Captain Atom Nightshade Mr. Muscles Nature Boy Space Adventures Yellowjacket Dell Comics Doctor Hormone Flash Gordon The Owl Phantasmo Supermind's Son Zorro Fawcett Comics Bulletgirl Bulletman Captain Marvel Captain Marvel Jr. Captain Midnight Dan Dare Golden Arrow Hoppy the Marvel Bunny Ibis the Invincible Lieutenant Marvels Marvel Family Mary Marvel Master Man Minute-Man Mr. Scarlet Nyoka the Jungle Girl Phantom Eagle Pinky the Whiz Kid Scoop Smith Spy Smasher Squadron of Justice Uncle Marvel Fox Comics Blue Beetle Dan Garret The Bouncer Bronze Man Dynamo The Flame Green Mask The Moth Samson Stardust the Super Wizard U.S. Jones Wonder Man Harvey Comics Black Cat Captain 3-D Captain Freedom Green Hornet Invisible Scarlet O'Neil Kato Shock Gibson Spirit of '76 Lev Gleason Publications Captain Battle Claw Crimebuster Daredevil Little Wise Guys Silver Streak MLJ Comics The Black Hood Bob Phantom Captain Flag The Comet The Firefly The Fox The Hangman Rang-a-Tang the Wonder Dog The Shield Super Duck The Web The Wizard National Allied Publications Ace the Bat-Hound Air Wave Aquaman Batman Batwoman Black Pirate Boy Commandos Captain Comet Chris KL-99 Congo Bill Crimson Avenger Lee Travis Dan the Dyna-Mite Dark Ranger Detective Chimp Doctor Fate Kent Nelson Doctor Occult Genius Jones Gimmick Girl Green Arrow Guardian Hourman Rex Tyler Johnny Chambers King Faraday The Knight Krypto Liberty Belle Manhunter Paul Kirk Martian Manhunter Miss X Mr. America Newsboy Legion Phantom Stranger Rex the Wonder Dog Robin Dick Grayson Robotman Rose Psychic Sandman Wesley Dodds Sandy the Golden Boy Seven Soldiers of Victory Shining Knight Sir Justin Slam Bradley The Spectre Jim Corrigan Speedy Roy Harper Squire Star-Spangled Kid Sylvester Pemberton Starman Ted Knight Stripesy Stuff the Chinatown Kid Superboy Kal-El Superman Superwoman Lois Lane Tarantula TNT Tommy Tomorrow Vigilante Greg Saunders Wonder Woman Zatara Nedor Comics American Crusader American Eagle Black Terror Captain Future Doc Strange Fighting Yank The Ghost Grim Reaper Judy of the Jungle Kara the Jungle Princess Lance Lewis, Space Detective Liberator The Magnet Miss Masque Princess Pantha Pyroman The Scarab The Woman in Red Novelty Press Blue Bolt Dick Cole The Target The Targeteers The Twister Prize Publications Atomic-Man Black Owl Fighting American Green Lama Yank & Doodle Quality Comics Archie O'Toole #711 Black Condor Blackhawk Blue Tracer Bozo the Iron Man Captain Triumph Doll Girl Doll Man Firebrand Human Bomb Invisible Hood The Jester Kid Eternity Lady Luck Madame Fatal Magno Manhunter Merlin the Magician Midnight Miss America Miss Fear Mouthpiece Neon the Unknown Phantom Lady Plastic Man Quicksilver The Ray Red Bee Red Torpedo The Spider Spider Widow Uncle Sam Wildfire Wonder Boy Woozy Winks Timely Comics All-Winners Squad American Ace The Angel Black Marvel Black Widow Claire Voyant Blazing Skull Blonde Phantom Blue Blade Blue Diamond Breeze Barton Bucky Bucky Barnes Captain America Captain Wonder The Challenger Citizen V The Destroyer Dynamic Man Father Time Ferret Fiery Mask The Fin Golden Girl Human Torch Jack Frost Laughing Mask Marvel Boy Mercury Miss America Miss Fury Mister E Namor Namora The Patriot Phantom Reporter Red Raven Rockman Silver Scorpion Sun Girl Super Rabbit Thin Man Thunderer Tim Mulrooney Toro Venus Vision Whizzer Robert Frank Witness Young Allies Misc. American Comics Group Superkatt Anglo-American Publishing Commander Steel Atlas Publications Captain Atom Bell Features The Brain Johnny Canuck Nelvana of the Northern Lights Cardal Publishing Streamline Columbia Comics The Face Skyman David McKay Publications Mandrake the Magician The Phantom DC Thomson The Amazing Mr X Jack Flash Dynamic Publications Dynamic Man Yankee Girl Eastern Color Printing Buck Rogers Hydroman Phantom Magician EC Comics Moon Girl Superduperman Elliot Publishing Company Kismet, Man of Fate Fiction House Fantomah Hillman Periodicals Airboy The Heap Holyoke Publishing Cat-Man Kitten Miss Victory L. Miller & Son, Ltd. Kid Marvelman Marvelman Young Marvelman Magazine Enterprises Funnyman Maple Leaf Publishing Brok Windsor Iron Man Rural Home Publications Green Turtle Street & Smith The Avenger Doc Savage The Shadow Supersnipe v t e Batman characters v t e Batman family By codename Batman Batwoman Batgirl Robin Catman Catwoman Owlman Huntress Nightwing Flamebird Red Robin Red Hood Batwing Azrael Phantasm Wrath By public identity Dick Grayson Kathy Kane Bette Kane Barbara Gordon Jason Todd Helena Wayne Helena Bertinelli Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Cassandra Cain Kate Kane Damian Wayne Harper Row Duke Thomas Jace Fox Luke Fox Michael Washington Lane Jean-Paul Valley Andrea Beaumont Pets Ace the Bat-Hound Batman family By codename Batman Batwoman Batgirl Robin Catman Catwoman Owlman Huntress Nightwing Flamebird Red Robin Red Hood Batwing Azrael Phantasm Wrath By public identity Dick Grayson Kathy Kane Bette Kane Barbara Gordon Jason Todd Helena Wayne Helena Bertinelli Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Cassandra Cain Kate Kane Damian Wayne Harper Row Duke Thomas Jace Fox Luke Fox Michael Washington Lane Jean-Paul Valley Andrea Beaumont Pets Ace the Bat-Hound By codename Batman Batwoman Batgirl Robin Catman Catwoman Owlman Huntress Nightwing Flamebird Red Robin Red Hood Batwing Azrael Phantasm Wrath Batman Batwoman Batgirl Robin Catman Catwoman Owlman Huntress Nightwing Flamebird Red Robin Red Hood Batwing Azrael Phantasm Wrath By public identity Dick Grayson Kathy Kane Bette Kane Barbara Gordon Jason Todd Helena Wayne Helena Bertinelli Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Cassandra Cain Kate Kane Damian Wayne Harper Row Duke Thomas Jace Fox Luke Fox Michael Washington Lane Jean-Paul Valley Andrea Beaumont Dick Grayson Kathy Kane Bette Kane Barbara Gordon Jason Todd Helena Wayne Helena Bertinelli Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Cassandra Cain Kate Kane Damian Wayne Harper Row Duke Thomas Jace Fox Luke Fox Michael Washington Lane Jean-Paul Valley Andrea Beaumont Pets Ace the Bat-Hound Ace the Bat-Hound Supporting characters Main supporting Alfred Pennyworth Jim Gordon Julie Madison Holly Robinson Lucius Fox Martha Wayne Thomas Wayne Vicki Vale Gotham City Police Department contacts Jim Gordon Harvey Bullock Sarah Essen Maggie Sawyer Renee Montoya Crispus Allen Jason Bard Slam Bradley Superhero allies Superman Wonder Woman The Flash Barry Allen Wally West Green Lantern Hal Jordan John Stewart Aquaman Black Canary Cyborg Deadman Etrigan Green Arrow Hawkgirl Hawkman John Constantine Martian Manhunter Metamorpho Nightrunner Plastic Man Question Shazam Spectre Vixen Zatanna Superhero groups Batman Incorporated Batmen of All Nations Birds of Prey Justice League Justice Society of America Outsiders World's Finest Team Other characters Bat-Mite Bronze Tiger Creeper Duela Dent Gilda Dent Knight Legs Leslie Thompkins Misfit Mother Panic Nora Fries Orpheus Ragman Sasha Bordeaux Silver St. Cloud Simon Dark Squire Victoria October Supporting characters Main supporting Alfred Pennyworth Jim Gordon Julie Madison Holly Robinson Lucius Fox Martha Wayne Thomas Wayne Vicki Vale Gotham City Police Department contacts Jim Gordon Harvey Bullock Sarah Essen Maggie Sawyer Renee Montoya Crispus Allen Jason Bard Slam Bradley Superhero allies Superman Wonder Woman The Flash Barry Allen Wally West Green Lantern Hal Jordan John Stewart Aquaman Black Canary Cyborg Deadman Etrigan Green Arrow Hawkgirl Hawkman John Constantine Martian Manhunter Metamorpho Nightrunner Plastic Man Question Shazam Spectre Vixen Zatanna Superhero groups Batman Incorporated Batmen of All Nations Birds of Prey Justice League Justice Society of America Outsiders World's Finest Team Other characters Bat-Mite Bronze Tiger Creeper Duela Dent Gilda Dent Knight Legs Leslie Thompkins Misfit Mother Panic Nora Fries Orpheus Ragman Sasha Bordeaux Silver St. Cloud Simon Dark Squire Victoria October Main supporting Alfred Pennyworth Jim Gordon Julie Madison Holly Robinson Lucius Fox Martha Wayne Thomas Wayne Vicki Vale Alfred Pennyworth Jim Gordon Julie Madison Holly Robinson Lucius Fox Martha Wayne Thomas Wayne Vicki Vale Gotham City Police Department contacts Jim Gordon Harvey Bullock Sarah Essen Maggie Sawyer Renee Montoya Crispus Allen Jason Bard Slam Bradley Jim Gordon Harvey Bullock Sarah Essen Maggie Sawyer Renee Montoya Crispus Allen Jason Bard Slam Bradley Superhero allies Superman Wonder Woman The Flash Barry Allen Wally West Green Lantern Hal Jordan John Stewart Aquaman Black Canary Cyborg Deadman Etrigan Green Arrow Hawkgirl Hawkman John Constantine Martian Manhunter Metamorpho Nightrunner Plastic Man Question Shazam Spectre Vixen Zatanna Superman Wonder Woman The Flash Barry Allen Wally West Barry Allen Wally West Green Lantern Hal Jordan John Stewart Hal Jordan John Stewart Aquaman Black Canary Cyborg Deadman Etrigan Green Arrow Hawkgirl Hawkman John Constantine Martian Manhunter Metamorpho Nightrunner Plastic Man Question Shazam Spectre Vixen Zatanna Superhero groups Batman Incorporated Batmen of All Nations Birds of Prey Justice League Justice Society of America Outsiders World's Finest Team Batman Incorporated Batmen of All Nations Birds of Prey Justice League Justice Society of America Outsiders World's Finest Team Other characters Bat-Mite Bronze Tiger Creeper Duela Dent Gilda Dent Knight Legs Leslie Thompkins Misfit Mother Panic Nora Fries Orpheus Ragman Sasha Bordeaux Silver St. Cloud Simon Dark Squire Victoria October Bat-Mite Bronze Tiger Creeper Duela Dent Gilda Dent Knight Legs Leslie Thompkins Misfit Mother Panic Nora Fries Orpheus Ragman Sasha Bordeaux Silver St. Cloud Simon Dark Squire Victoria October Antagonists Central rogues gallery Bane Black Mask Catwoman Clayface Deadshot Deathstroke Firefly Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Hush Joker Killer Croc Killer Moth Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Ventriloquist Victor Zsasz Joker's gang Joker Harley Quinn Punchline Bud and Lou League of Assassins Ra's al Ghul Talia al Ghul Nyssa Raatko Sensei Lady Shiva David Cain Merlyn Mobsters Joe Chill Lew Moxon Falcone family Carmine Falcone Alberto Falcone Mario Falcone Sofia Falcone Sal Maroni Squid Rupert Thorne Tobias Whale Johnny Witts Tony Zucco Hamilton Hill Gillian B. Loeb Other enemies Amygdala Anarky Black Spider Blockbuster Calculator Calendar Man Catman Cavalier Clock King Cluemaster Copperhead Cornelius Stirk Crazy Quilt Crime Doctor Deacon Blackfire Doctor Death Doctor Double X Doctor Phosphorus Dollmaker Electrocutioner Enigma Firebug Flamingo Gearhead Great White Shark Humpty Dumpty Jane Doe Key KGBeast King Snake Kite Man Lex Luthor Maxie Zeus Magpie Mirror Man Mr. Bloom Music Meister Nightslayer Nocturna Orca Outsider Owlman Phantasm Phosphorus Rex Planet Master Polka-Dot Man Professor Milo Professor Pyg Rag Doll Ratcatcher Reaper Signalman Simon Hurt Snowman Solomon Grundy Spellbinder Swagman Tally Man Ten-Eyed Man The Batman Who Laughs Tiger Shark Tweedledum and Tweedledee Wrath Zebra-Man Supervillain groups Circus of Strange Court of Owls Kobra Leviathan LexCorp Mutants Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Terrible Trio Antagonists Central rogues gallery Bane Black Mask Catwoman Clayface Deadshot Deathstroke Firefly Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Hush Joker Killer Croc Killer Moth Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Ventriloquist Victor Zsasz Joker's gang Joker Harley Quinn Punchline Bud and Lou League of Assassins Ra's al Ghul Talia al Ghul Nyssa Raatko Sensei Lady Shiva David Cain Merlyn Mobsters Joe Chill Lew Moxon Falcone family Carmine Falcone Alberto Falcone Mario Falcone Sofia Falcone Sal Maroni Squid Rupert Thorne Tobias Whale Johnny Witts Tony Zucco Hamilton Hill Gillian B. Loeb Other enemies Amygdala Anarky Black Spider Blockbuster Calculator Calendar Man Catman Cavalier Clock King Cluemaster Copperhead Cornelius Stirk Crazy Quilt Crime Doctor Deacon Blackfire Doctor Death Doctor Double X Doctor Phosphorus Dollmaker Electrocutioner Enigma Firebug Flamingo Gearhead Great White Shark Humpty Dumpty Jane Doe Key KGBeast King Snake Kite Man Lex Luthor Maxie Zeus Magpie Mirror Man Mr. Bloom Music Meister Nightslayer Nocturna Orca Outsider Owlman Phantasm Phosphorus Rex Planet Master Polka-Dot Man Professor Milo Professor Pyg Rag Doll Ratcatcher Reaper Signalman Simon Hurt Snowman Solomon Grundy Spellbinder Swagman Tally Man Ten-Eyed Man The Batman Who Laughs Tiger Shark Tweedledum and Tweedledee Wrath Zebra-Man Supervillain groups Circus of Strange Court of Owls Kobra Leviathan LexCorp Mutants Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Terrible Trio Central rogues gallery Bane Black Mask Catwoman Clayface Deadshot Deathstroke Firefly Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Hush Joker Killer Croc Killer Moth Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Ventriloquist Victor Zsasz Bane Black Mask Catwoman Clayface Deadshot Deathstroke Firefly Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Hush Joker Killer Croc Killer Moth Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Ventriloquist Victor Zsasz Joker's gang Joker Harley Quinn Punchline Bud and Lou Joker Harley Quinn Punchline Bud and Lou League of Assassins Ra's al Ghul Talia al Ghul Nyssa Raatko Sensei Lady Shiva David Cain Merlyn Ra's al Ghul Talia al Ghul Nyssa Raatko Sensei Lady Shiva David Cain Merlyn Mobsters Joe Chill Lew Moxon Falcone family Carmine Falcone Alberto Falcone Mario Falcone Sofia Falcone Sal Maroni Squid Rupert Thorne Tobias Whale Johnny Witts Tony Zucco Hamilton Hill Gillian B. Loeb Joe Chill Lew Moxon Falcone family Carmine Falcone Alberto Falcone Mario Falcone Sofia Falcone Carmine Falcone Alberto Falcone Mario Falcone Sofia Falcone Sal Maroni Squid Rupert Thorne Tobias Whale Johnny Witts Tony Zucco Hamilton Hill Gillian B. Loeb Other enemies Amygdala Anarky Black Spider Blockbuster Calculator Calendar Man Catman Cavalier Clock King Cluemaster Copperhead Cornelius Stirk Crazy Quilt Crime Doctor Deacon Blackfire Doctor Death Doctor Double X Doctor Phosphorus Dollmaker Electrocutioner Enigma Firebug Flamingo Gearhead Great White Shark Humpty Dumpty Jane Doe Key KGBeast King Snake Kite Man Lex Luthor Maxie Zeus Magpie Mirror Man Mr. Bloom Music Meister Nightslayer Nocturna Orca Outsider Owlman Phantasm Phosphorus Rex Planet Master Polka-Dot Man Professor Milo Professor Pyg Rag Doll Ratcatcher Reaper Signalman Simon Hurt Snowman Solomon Grundy Spellbinder Swagman Tally Man Ten-Eyed Man The Batman Who Laughs Tiger Shark Tweedledum and Tweedledee Wrath Zebra-Man Amygdala Anarky Black Spider Blockbuster Calculator Calendar Man Catman Cavalier Clock King Cluemaster Copperhead Cornelius Stirk Crazy Quilt Crime Doctor Deacon Blackfire Doctor Death Doctor Double X Doctor Phosphorus Dollmaker Electrocutioner Enigma Firebug Flamingo Gearhead Great White Shark Humpty Dumpty Jane Doe Key KGBeast King Snake Kite Man Lex Luthor Maxie Zeus Magpie Mirror Man Mr. Bloom Music Meister Nightslayer Nocturna Orca Outsider Owlman Phantasm Phosphorus Rex Planet Master Polka-Dot Man Professor Milo Professor Pyg Rag Doll Ratcatcher Reaper Signalman Simon Hurt Snowman Solomon Grundy Spellbinder Swagman Tally Man Ten-Eyed Man The Batman Who Laughs Tiger Shark Tweedledum and Tweedledee Wrath Zebra-Man Supervillain groups Circus of Strange Court of Owls Kobra Leviathan LexCorp Mutants Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Terrible Trio Circus of Strange Court of Owls Kobra Leviathan LexCorp Mutants Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Terrible Trio Alternative versions Batman Earth-Two Batman of Zur-En-Arrh Owlman The Batman Who Laughs Thomas Wayne ( Flashpoint version) Robin Earth-Two Carrie Kelley Helena Wayne Alternative versions Batman Earth-Two Batman of Zur-En-Arrh Owlman The Batman Who Laughs Thomas Wayne ( Flashpoint version) Robin Earth-Two Carrie Kelley Helena Wayne Batman Earth-Two Batman of Zur-En-Arrh Owlman The Batman Who Laughs Thomas Wayne ( Flashpoint version) Earth-Two Batman of Zur-En-Arrh Owlman The Batman Who Laughs Thomas Wayne ( Flashpoint version) Robin Earth-Two Carrie Kelley Helena Wayne Earth-Two Carrie Kelley Helena Wayne Other media 1966 Batman TV series Bookworm Egghead King Tut 1989–1997 film series Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman DC Animated Universe Renee Montoya Harley Quinn Bud and Lou Andrea Beaumont Batman (Terry McGinnis) The Dark Knight Trilogy Bruce Wayne Rachel Dawes Joker DC Extended Universe Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn Joker Gotham Bruce Wayne James Gordon Selina Kyle Fish Mooney Oswald Cobblepot Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Titans Dick Grayson Arrowverse Kate Kane Other media 1966 Batman TV series Bookworm Egghead King Tut 1989–1997 film series Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman DC Animated Universe Renee Montoya Harley Quinn Bud and Lou Andrea Beaumont Batman (Terry McGinnis) The Dark Knight Trilogy Bruce Wayne Rachel Dawes Joker DC Extended Universe Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn Joker Gotham Bruce Wayne James Gordon Selina Kyle Fish Mooney Oswald Cobblepot Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Titans Dick Grayson Arrowverse Kate Kane 1966 Batman TV series Bookworm Egghead King Tut Bookworm Egghead King Tut 1989–1997 film series Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman DC Animated Universe Renee Montoya Harley Quinn Bud and Lou Andrea Beaumont Batman (Terry McGinnis) Renee Montoya Harley Quinn Bud and Lou Andrea Beaumont Batman (Terry McGinnis) The Dark Knight Trilogy Bruce Wayne Rachel Dawes Joker Bruce Wayne Rachel Dawes Joker DC Extended Universe Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn Joker Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn Joker Gotham Bruce Wayne James Gordon Selina Kyle Fish Mooney Oswald Cobblepot Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Bruce Wayne James Gordon Selina Kyle Fish Mooney Oswald Cobblepot Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Titans Dick Grayson Dick Grayson Arrowverse Kate Kane Kate Kane Category Category v t e Batman publications and storylines v t e Current series Absolute Batman Batgirl Batman Batman/Superman: World's Finest Batman and Robin Birds of Prey Detective Comics ( #27 ) Catwoman Harley Quinn Nightwing Poison Ivy Absolute Batman Batgirl Batman Batman/Superman: World's Finest Batman and Robin Birds of Prey Detective Comics ( #27 ) Catwoman Harley Quinn Nightwing Poison Ivy Completed ongoing series Azrael Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Batman (comic strip) Batman '66 Batman '89 Batman and the Outsiders Batman: Arkham Unhinged Batman: The Brave and the Bold Batman: The Dark Knight Batman: Gotham Knights Batman: Legends of the Dark Knight Batman: Shadow of the Bat Batman: Streets of Gotham The Batman Adventures The Batman Chronicles Batman Beyond Batman Confidential Batman Family Batman Incorporated The Batman Strikes! Batman/Superman Batwing Batwoman The Brave and the Bold Gotham by Midnight Gotham Central Gotham City Sirens Gotham Girls Grayson The Huntress The Joker Man-Bat Mother Panic The Penguin Red Hood/Arsenal Red Hood and the Outlaws Red Robin Robin Robin: Son of Batman Superman/Batman Tim Drake: Robin We Are Robin World's Finest Comics Azrael Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Batman (comic strip) Batman '66 Batman '89 Batman and the Outsiders Batman: Arkham Unhinged Batman: The Brave and the Bold Batman: The Dark Knight Batman: Gotham Knights Batman: Legends of the Dark Knight Batman: Shadow of the Bat Batman: Streets of Gotham The Batman Adventures The Batman Chronicles Batman Beyond Batman Confidential Batman Family Batman Incorporated The Batman Strikes! Batman/Superman Batwing Batwoman The Brave and the Bold Gotham by Midnight Gotham Central Gotham City Sirens Gotham Girls Grayson The Huntress The Joker Man-Bat Mother Panic The Penguin Red Hood/Arsenal Red Hood and the Outlaws Red Robin Robin Robin: Son of Batman Superman/Batman Tim Drake: Robin We Are Robin World's Finest Comics Completed miniseries Anarky Batman: Anarky Batman & Dracula trilogy Batman: Arkham City Batman: Battle for the Cowl Batman Black and White Batman: Cacophony Batman: Creature of the Night Batman: The Cult Batman: Damned Batman: The Dark Prince Charming Batman: The Doom That Came to Gotham Batman: Earth One Batman: Gates of Gotham Batman: GCPD Batman: Gotham County Line Batman: Gotham Knights – Gilded City Batman: The Imposter Batman: The Knight Batman: Orpheus Rising Batman: The Return of Bruce Wayne Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Batman: Three Jokers Batman: Thrillkiller Batman: Turning Points The Batman Who Laughs Batman: Year 100 Bat-Mite Dark Knights of Steel First Wave Flashpoint Beyond Flashpoint: Deadman and the Flying Graysons Gotham Underground Harley Quinn and Poison Ivy Man-Bat Penguin: Pain and Prejudice Poison Ivy: Cycle of Life and Death Red Hood: The Lost Days Section 8 Superman & Batman: Generations Trinity The Untold Legend of the Batman Batman Eternal Batman Eternal Batman and Robin Eternal Dark Moon Rising Batman and the Monster Men Batman and the Mad Monk The Long Halloween Batman: The Long Halloween Batman: Dark Victory Catwoman: When in Rome Millerverse The Dark Knight Returns The Dark Knight Strikes Again The Dark Knight III: The Master Race Murphyverse Batman: White Knight Curse of the White Knight White Knight Presents: Red Hood Beyond the White Knight Year One Batgirl: Year One The Riddler: Year One Two-Face: Year One Robin: Year One Anarky Batman: Anarky Batman: Anarky Batman & Dracula trilogy Batman: Arkham City Batman: Battle for the Cowl Batman Black and White Batman: Cacophony Batman: Creature of the Night Batman: The Cult Batman: Damned Batman: The Dark Prince Charming Batman: The Doom That Came to Gotham Batman: Earth One Batman: Gates of Gotham Batman: GCPD Batman: Gotham County Line Batman: Gotham Knights – Gilded City Batman: The Imposter Batman: The Knight Batman: Orpheus Rising Batman: The Return of Bruce Wayne Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Batman: Three Jokers Batman: Thrillkiller Batman: Turning Points The Batman Who Laughs Batman: Year 100 Bat-Mite Dark Knights of Steel First Wave Flashpoint Beyond Flashpoint: Deadman and the Flying Graysons Gotham Underground Harley Quinn and Poison Ivy Man-Bat Penguin: Pain and Prejudice Poison Ivy: Cycle of Life and Death Red Hood: The Lost Days Section 8 Superman & Batman: Generations Trinity The Untold Legend of the Batman Batman Eternal Batman Eternal Batman and Robin Eternal Batman Eternal Batman and Robin Eternal Dark Moon Rising Batman and the Monster Men Batman and the Mad Monk Batman and the Monster Men Batman and the Mad Monk The Long Halloween Batman: The Long Halloween Batman: Dark Victory Catwoman: When in Rome Batman: The Long Halloween Batman: Dark Victory Catwoman: When in Rome Millerverse The Dark Knight Returns The Dark Knight Strikes Again The Dark Knight III: The Master Race The Dark Knight Returns The Dark Knight Strikes Again The Dark Knight III: The Master Race Murphyverse Batman: White Knight Curse of the White Knight White Knight Presents: Red Hood Beyond the White Knight Batman: White Knight Curse of the White Knight White Knight Presents: Red Hood Beyond the White Knight Year One Batgirl: Year One The Riddler: Year One Two-Face: Year One Robin: Year One Batgirl: Year One The Riddler: Year One Two-Face: Year One Robin: Year One One-shots Arkham Asylum: A Serious House on Serious Earth Castle of the Bat Dark Knight Dynasty Dark Night: A True Batman Story Death of Innocents Digital Justice Gotham Noir Holy Terror Batman/Houdini: The Devil's Workshop In Darkest Knight The Killing Joke KnightGallery Leatherwing The Man Who Laughs Nine Lives Noël Elseworld's Finest: Supergirl & Batgirl The Joker: Devil's Advocate Batman/Poison Ivy: Cast Shadows Son of the Demon The 12 Cent Adventure Two Faces War on Crime The Batman Adventures: Mad Love The Berlin Batman Gotham by Gaslight Joker Poison Ivy: Thorns Red Hood vs. Anarky Superman and Batman: World's Funnest Arkham Asylum: A Serious House on Serious Earth Castle of the Bat Dark Knight Dynasty Dark Night: A True Batman Story Death of Innocents Digital Justice Gotham Noir Holy Terror Batman/Houdini: The Devil's Workshop In Darkest Knight The Killing Joke KnightGallery Leatherwing The Man Who Laughs Nine Lives Noël Elseworld's Finest: Supergirl & Batgirl The Joker: Devil's Advocate Batman/Poison Ivy: Cast Shadows Son of the Demon The 12 Cent Adventure Two Faces War on Crime The Batman Adventures: Mad Love The Berlin Batman Gotham by Gaslight Joker Poison Ivy: Thorns Red Hood vs. Anarky Superman and Batman: World's Funnest Storylines 1930-40s " The Case of the Chemical Syndicate " "Robin the Boy Wonder" "The Murders of Clayface" "The Crimes of Two-Face" "The Man Who Led a Double Life" "The End of Two-Face" "The Riddler" 1950s " The Man Behind the Red Hood! " " The Joker's Millions " "The Rainbow Batman" "The Superman of Planet X" "... Meets Bat-Mite" 1960s "Robin Dies at Dawn" "Beware of -- Poison Ivy" "The Million Dollar Debut of Batgirl" "One Bullet Too Many" 1970s "Challenge of the Man-Bat" "Tales of the Demon" "The Joker's Five-Way Revenge" "There is No Hope in Crime Alley" "The Deadshot Ricochet" "The Laughing Fish" 1980s " Batman: Year One " " Year Two " " Batman: A Death in the Family " " Year Three " " The Man Who Falls " " Anarky in Gotham City " 1990s " Gothic " "The Eye of the Beholder" " The Return of the Joker " " Prey " " The Last Arkham " " Knightfall " " Contagion " " Legacy " " Cataclysm " " No Man's Land " 2000s " Joker: Last Laugh " " Bruce Wayne: Fugitive " " Hush " " Broken City " " War Games " " City of Crime " " Under the Hood " " War Crimes " " Face the Face " " Batman and Son " " The Resurrection of Ra's al Ghul " " Batman R.I.P. " " Whatever Happened to the Caped Crusader? " " Batwoman: Elegy " 2010s " Bruce Wayne: The Road Home " " The Black Mirror " " Night of the Owls " " Death of the Family " " Zero Year " " Endgame " " Robin War " " The Button " " Dark Nights: Metal " 2020s " The Joker War " " Dark Nights: Death Metal " " Fear State " " Shadows of the Bat " " Shadow War " " Gotham War " 1930-40s " The Case of the Chemical Syndicate " "Robin the Boy Wonder" "The Murders of Clayface" "The Crimes of Two-Face" "The Man Who Led a Double Life" "The End of Two-Face" "The Riddler" " The Case of the Chemical Syndicate " "Robin the Boy Wonder" "The Murders of Clayface" "The Crimes of Two-Face" "The Man Who Led a Double Life" "The End of Two-Face" "The Riddler" 1950s " The Man Behind the Red Hood! " " The Joker's Millions " "The Rainbow Batman" "The Superman of Planet X" "... Meets Bat-Mite" " The Man Behind the Red Hood! " " The Joker's Millions " "The Rainbow Batman" "The Superman of Planet X" "... Meets Bat-Mite" 1960s "Robin Dies at Dawn" "Beware of -- Poison Ivy" "The Million Dollar Debut of Batgirl" "One Bullet Too Many" "Robin Dies at Dawn" "Beware of -- Poison Ivy" "The Million Dollar Debut of Batgirl" "One Bullet Too Many" 1970s "Challenge of the Man-Bat" "Tales of the Demon" "The Joker's Five-Way Revenge" "There is No Hope in Crime Alley" "The Deadshot Ricochet" "The Laughing Fish" "Challenge of the Man-Bat" "Tales of the Demon" "The Joker's Five-Way Revenge" "There is No Hope in Crime Alley" "The Deadshot Ricochet" "The Laughing Fish" 1980s " Batman: Year One " " Year Two " " Batman: A Death in the Family " " Year Three " " The Man Who Falls " " Anarky in Gotham City " " Batman: Year One " " Year Two " " Batman: A Death in the Family " " Year Three " " The Man Who Falls " " Anarky in Gotham City " 1990s " Gothic " "The Eye of the Beholder" " The Return of the Joker " " Prey " " The Last Arkham " " Knightfall " " Contagion " " Legacy " " Cataclysm " " No Man's Land " " Gothic " "The Eye of the Beholder" " The Return of the Joker " " Prey " " The Last Arkham " " Knightfall " " Contagion " " Legacy " " Cataclysm " " No Man's Land " 2000s " Joker: Last Laugh " " Bruce Wayne: Fugitive " " Hush " " Broken City " " War Games " " City of Crime " " Under the Hood " " War Crimes " " Face the Face " " Batman and Son " " The Resurrection of Ra's al Ghul " " Batman R.I.P. " " Whatever Happened to the Caped Crusader? " " Batwoman: Elegy " " Joker: Last Laugh " " Bruce Wayne: Fugitive " " Hush " " Broken City " " War Games " " City of Crime " " Under the Hood " " War Crimes " " Face the Face " " Batman and Son " " The Resurrection of Ra's al Ghul " " Batman R.I.P. " " Whatever Happened to the Caped Crusader? " " Batwoman: Elegy " 2010s " Bruce Wayne: The Road Home " " The Black Mirror " " Night of the Owls " " Death of the Family " " Zero Year " " Endgame " " Robin War " " The Button " " Dark Nights: Metal " " Bruce Wayne: The Road Home " " The Black Mirror " " Night of the Owls " " Death of the Family " " Zero Year " " Endgame " " Robin War " " The Button " " Dark Nights: Metal " 2020s " The Joker War " " Dark Nights: Death Metal " " Fear State " " Shadows of the Bat " " Shadow War " " Gotham War " " The Joker War " " Dark Nights: Death Metal " " Fear State " " Shadows of the Bat " " Shadow War " " Gotham War " Intercompany crossovers Batman/Aliens Batman/Hellboy/Starman Batman/Judge Dredd: Judgment on Gotham Batman/Spawn: War Devil Batman/Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Batman/Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Adventures Batman/The Spirit Batman Versus Predator Batman vs. Bigby! A Wolf in Gotham Daredevil/Batman: Eye for an Eye Ghost/Batgirl: The Resurrection Machine Harley & Ivy Meet Betty & Veronica Spawn/Batman Superman and Batman versus Aliens and Predator Deadpool/Batman and Batman/Deadpool Batman/Aliens Batman/Hellboy/Starman Batman/Judge Dredd: Judgment on Gotham Batman/Spawn: War Devil Batman/Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Batman/Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Adventures Batman/The Spirit Batman Versus Predator Batman vs. Bigby! A Wolf in Gotham Daredevil/Batman: Eye for an Eye Ghost/Batgirl: The Resurrection Machine Harley & Ivy Meet Betty & Veronica Spawn/Batman Superman and Batman versus Aliens and Predator Deadpool/Batman and Batman/Deadpool Incomplete All Star Batman & Robin, the Boy Wonder Batman: The Widening Gyre All Star Batman & Robin, the Boy Wonder Batman: The Widening Gyre Related topics Batman: Child of Dreams Batman: Haunted Knight Batman Legends DC Comics – The Legend of Batman Elseworlds The Further Adventures of The Joker Batman: Child of Dreams Batman: Haunted Knight Batman Legends DC Comics – The Legend of Batman Elseworlds The Further Adventures of The Joker Category Publications are listed alphabetically by published titles. Storylines are listed in publication order. Compiled without respect for canon or "current" continuity. v t e Batman franchise media v t e Live-action television Batman (1966) Batman episodes Return to the Batcave: The Misadventures of Adam and Burt Gotham (franchise) Gotham episodes season 1 2 3 4 5 characters Pennyworth Arrowverse Batwoman episodes characters " Crisis on Infinite Earths " The Penguin The Penguin " After Hours " " Inside Man " " Bliss " " Cent'Anni " " Homecoming " " Gold Summit " " Top Hat " " A Great or Little Thing " Other Batman OnStar commercials Birds of Prey Gotham Knights Batman (1966) Batman episodes Return to the Batcave: The Misadventures of Adam and Burt Batman episodes episodes Return to the Batcave: The Misadventures of Adam and Burt Gotham (franchise) Gotham episodes season 1 2 3 4 5 characters Pennyworth Gotham episodes season 1 2 3 4 5 characters episodes season 1 2 3 4 5 season 1 2 3 4 5 characters Pennyworth Arrowverse Batwoman episodes characters " Crisis on Infinite Earths " Batwoman episodes characters episodes characters " Crisis on Infinite Earths " The Penguin The Penguin " After Hours " " Inside Man " " Bliss " " Cent'Anni " " Homecoming " " Gold Summit " " Top Hat " " A Great or Little Thing " The Penguin " After Hours " " Inside Man " " Bliss " " Cent'Anni " " Homecoming " " Gold Summit " " Top Hat " " A Great or Little Thing " " After Hours " " Inside Man " " Bliss " " Cent'Anni " " Homecoming " " Gold Summit " " Top Hat " " A Great or Little Thing " Other Batman OnStar commercials Birds of Prey Gotham Knights Batman OnStar commercials Birds of Prey Gotham Knights Live-action films Early films Batman (1943) Batman and Robin Batman (1966) 1989–1997 film series Batman (1989) Batman Returns ( special effects ) Batman Forever Batman & Robin The Dark Knight Trilogy Batman Begins The Dark Knight The Dark Knight Rises DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Batgirl (unreleased) The Batman Epic Crime Saga The Batman production Early films Batman (1943) Batman and Robin Batman (1966) Batman (1943) Batman and Robin Batman (1966) 1989–1997 film series Batman (1989) Batman Returns ( special effects ) Batman Forever Batman & Robin Batman (1989) Batman Returns ( special effects ) Batman Forever Batman & Robin The Dark Knight Trilogy Batman Begins The Dark Knight The Dark Knight Rises Batman Begins The Dark Knight The Dark Knight Rises DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Batgirl (unreleased) Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Batgirl (unreleased) The Batman Epic Crime Saga The Batman production The Batman production production Animated television The Batman/Superman Hour The Adventures of Batman The New Adventures of Batman The Batman/Tarzan Adventure Hour The Animated Series episodes The New Batman Adventures Batman Beyond characters episodes The Batman characters episodes The Brave and the Bold episodes Beware the Batman Batwheels Caped Crusader Bat-Fam The Batman/Superman Hour The Adventures of Batman The New Adventures of Batman The Batman/Tarzan Adventure Hour The Animated Series episodes episodes The New Batman Adventures Batman Beyond characters episodes characters episodes The Batman characters episodes characters episodes The Brave and the Bold episodes episodes Beware the Batman Batwheels Caped Crusader Bat-Fam Animated films Mask of the Phantasm SubZero Return of the Joker Mystery of the Batwoman The Batman vs. Dracula Gotham Knight Public Enemies Under the Red Hood Apocalypse Year One The Dark Knight Returns DC Super Heroes Unite Son of Batman Assault on Arkham Animal Instincts Batman vs. Robin Monster Mayhem Bad Blood The Killing Joke Mechs vs. Mutants Return of the Caped Crusaders The Lego Batman Movie Batman and Harley Quinn Batman vs. Two-Face Scooby-Doo! & Batman: The Brave and the Bold Gotham by Gaslight Batman Ninja Batman vs. Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Hush Family Matters Soul of the Dragon The Long Halloween Battle of the Super Sons The Doom That Came to Gotham Merry Little Batman Batman Ninja vs. Yakuza League Aztec Batman: Clash of Empires Mask of the Phantasm SubZero Return of the Joker Mystery of the Batwoman The Batman vs. Dracula Gotham Knight Public Enemies Under the Red Hood Apocalypse Year One The Dark Knight Returns DC Super Heroes Unite Son of Batman Assault on Arkham Animal Instincts Batman vs. Robin Monster Mayhem Bad Blood The Killing Joke Mechs vs. Mutants Return of the Caped Crusaders The Lego Batman Movie Batman and Harley Quinn Batman vs. Two-Face Scooby-Doo! & Batman: The Brave and the Bold Gotham by Gaslight Batman Ninja Batman vs. Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Hush Family Matters Soul of the Dragon The Long Halloween Battle of the Super Sons The Doom That Came to Gotham Merry Little Batman Batman Ninja vs. Yakuza League Aztec Batman: Clash of Empires Animated shorts Chase Me Strange Days Death in the Family Chase Me Strange Days Death in the Family Novels The Ultimate Evil Enemies & Allies Wayne of Gotham Batman: Resurrection Batman: Revolution The Ultimate Evil Enemies & Allies Wayne of Gotham Batman: Resurrection Batman: Revolution Podcasts Batman: The Audio Adventures Batman Unburied DC High Volume: Batman Batman: The Audio Adventures Batman Unburied DC High Volume: Batman Enemies in other media Bane Joker Mr. Freeze Penguin Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Bane Joker Mr. Freeze Penguin Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Supporting characters in other media Barbara Gordon Catwoman Robin Barbara Gordon Catwoman Robin Related topics Batman & Bill Bruce Wayne (unproduced series) Batkid Begins Batman action figures Lego Batman Batman Total Justice Batman Unlimited Bat phone Bat-Manga!: The Secret History of Batman in Japan List of Batman films cast members List of Batman television series cast members List of Batman video games List of Batman children's books Batman music Batman Live Holy Musical B@man! Batman '89 (comic book) The Riddler: Year One Batman & Bill Bruce Wayne (unproduced series) Batkid Begins Batman action figures Lego Batman Batman Total Justice Batman Unlimited Lego Batman Batman Total Justice Batman Unlimited Bat phone Bat-Manga!: The Secret History of Batman in Japan List of Batman films cast members List of Batman television series cast members List of Batman video games List of Batman children's books Batman music Batman Live Holy Musical B@man! Batman '89 (comic book) The Riddler: Year One v t e Batman music v t e Soundtracks Films Batman score soundtrack Batman Returns Batman Forever soundtrack score Batman & Robin Batman Begins The Dark Knight The Dark Knight Rises Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice The Lego Batman Movie Joker The Batman Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack Video games Batman: Arkham City Batman: Arkham Origins Batman: Arkham Knight Films Batman score soundtrack Batman Returns Batman Forever soundtrack score Batman & Robin Batman Begins The Dark Knight The Dark Knight Rises Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice The Lego Batman Movie Joker The Batman Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack Batman score soundtrack score soundtrack Batman Returns Batman Forever soundtrack score soundtrack score Batman & Robin Batman Begins The Dark Knight The Dark Knight Rises Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice The Lego Batman Movie Joker The Batman Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack score soundtrack Video games Batman: Arkham City Batman: Arkham Origins Batman: Arkham Knight Batman: Arkham City Batman: Arkham Origins Batman: Arkham Knight Songs Batman (1960s TV series) " Batman Theme " " Batusi " Batman (1989 film) " Batdance " " Partyman " " The Arms of Orion " " Scandalous! " " The Future " Batman Returns " Face to Face " Batman Forever " Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me " " Kiss from a Rose " " The Riddler " Batman & Robin " The End Is the Beginning Is the End " " Look into My Eyes " " Gotham City " " Foolish Games " " Moaner " " Lazy Eye " Batman (1960s TV series) " Batman Theme " " Batusi " " Batman Theme " " Batusi " Batman (1989 film) " Batdance " " Partyman " " The Arms of Orion " " Scandalous! " " The Future " " Batdance " " Partyman " " The Arms of Orion " " Scandalous! " " The Future " Batman Returns " Face to Face " " Face to Face " Batman Forever " Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me " " Kiss from a Rose " " The Riddler " " Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me " " Kiss from a Rose " " The Riddler " Batman & Robin " The End Is the Beginning Is the End " " Look into My Eyes " " Gotham City " " Foolish Games " " Moaner " " Lazy Eye " " The End Is the Beginning Is the End " " Look into My Eyes " " Gotham City " " Foolish Games " " Moaner " " Lazy Eye " v t e Batman video games v t e Lego series Lego Batman: The Videogame Lego Batman 2: DC Super Heroes Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham Lego Batman: Legacy of the Dark Knight Lego Batman: The Videogame Lego Batman 2: DC Super Heroes Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham Lego Batman: Legacy of the Dark Knight Arkham series Arkham Asylum Arkham City Lockdown Arkham Origins Mobile Blackgate Arkham Knight Arkham VR Suicide Squad: Kill the Justice League Arkham Shadow Arkham Asylum Arkham City Lockdown Lockdown Arkham Origins Mobile Blackgate Mobile Blackgate Arkham Knight Arkham VR Suicide Squad: Kill the Justice League Arkham Shadow Telltale series The Telltale Series The Enemy Within The Telltale Series The Enemy Within Film -based Batman (Ocean, 1989) Batman: The Video Game (NES, 1989) Batman: The Video Game (Game Boy, 1990) Batman (Mega Drive/Genesis, 1990) Batman (PC Engine, 1990) Batman (arcade, 1991) Batman Returns (Sega systems, 1992) Batman Returns (Atari Lynx, 1992) Batman Returns (NES, 1993) Batman Returns (SNES, 1993) Batman Forever Batman Forever: The Arcade Game Batman & Robin Batman Begins The Dark Knight (canceled) Batman (Ocean, 1989) Batman: The Video Game (NES, 1989) Batman: The Video Game (Game Boy, 1990) Batman (Mega Drive/Genesis, 1990) Batman (PC Engine, 1990) Batman (arcade, 1991) Batman Returns (Sega systems, 1992) Batman Returns (Atari Lynx, 1992) Batman Returns (NES, 1993) Batman Returns (SNES, 1993) Batman Forever Batman Forever: The Arcade Game Batman & Robin Batman Begins The Dark Knight (canceled) Animation-based The Animated Series The Adventures of Batman & Robin Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker Chaos in Gotham Gotham City Racer Vengeance Rise of Sin Tzu The Brave and the Bold – The Videogame The Animated Series The Adventures of Batman & Robin Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker Chaos in Gotham Gotham City Racer Vengeance Rise of Sin Tzu The Brave and the Bold – The Videogame Other games Batman (1986) The Caped Crusader Return of the Joker Dark Tomorrow DC Universe Online Gotham City Impostors Batman (2013) Gotham Knights MultiVersus Batman (1986) The Caped Crusader Return of the Joker Dark Tomorrow DC Universe Online Gotham City Impostors Batman (2013) Gotham Knights MultiVersus Category Category v t e Batman in amusement parks v t e Of Batman Batman Adventure – The Ride Batman: The Dark Knight Batman The Escape Batman: Knight Flight Batman: The Ride Batman: The Ride (S&S Free Spin) Batman & Robin: The Chiller The Dark Knight Coaster Batman Adventure – The Ride Batman: The Dark Knight Batman The Escape Batman: Knight Flight Batman: The Ride Batman: The Ride (S&S Free Spin) Batman & Robin: The Chiller The Dark Knight Coaster Of derivative characters Harley Quinn Crazy Train The Joker (S&S Worldwide) The Joker (Six Flags Discovery Kingdom) The Joker (Six Flags México) The Joker Funhouse Coaster The Joker's Jinx The Riddler Mindbender Mr Freeze: Reverse Blast The Penguin The Riddler Revenge (Six Flags New England) The Riddler's Revenge Harley Quinn Crazy Train The Joker (S&S Worldwide) The Joker (Six Flags Discovery Kingdom) The Joker (Six Flags México) The Joker Funhouse Coaster The Joker's Jinx The Riddler Mindbender Mr Freeze: Reverse Blast The Penguin The Riddler Revenge (Six Flags New England) The Riddler's Revenge Of derivative elements Arkham Asylum – Shock Therapy Batwing Spaceshot Batwing Gotham City Gotham City Gauntlet: Escape from Arkham Asylum Shadows of Arkham Arkham Asylum – Shock Therapy Batwing Spaceshot Batwing Gotham City Gotham City Gauntlet: Escape from Arkham Asylum Shadows of Arkham v t e Batman in film v t e Serials Batman (1943 serial) Batman and Robin (1949 serial) Batman (1943 serial) Batman and Robin (1949 serial) Adam West films Batman (1966) Return of the Caped Crusaders (2016) Batman vs. Two-Face (2017) Batman (1966) Return of the Caped Crusaders (2016) Batman vs. Two-Face (2017) 1989–1997 series Films Batman (1989) score soundtrack home computer game NES game Game Boy game Sega Genesis game PC Engine game arcade game Batman Returns (1992) soundtrack special effects Sega games Atari Lynx game NES game SNES game Batman Forever (1995) score soundtrack video game arcade game pinball game Batman & Robin (1997) soundtrack video game Characters Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman Films Batman (1989) score soundtrack home computer game NES game Game Boy game Sega Genesis game PC Engine game arcade game Batman Returns (1992) soundtrack special effects Sega games Atari Lynx game NES game SNES game Batman Forever (1995) score soundtrack video game arcade game pinball game Batman & Robin (1997) soundtrack video game Batman (1989) score soundtrack home computer game NES game Game Boy game Sega Genesis game PC Engine game arcade game score soundtrack home computer game NES game Game Boy game Sega Genesis game PC Engine game arcade game Batman Returns (1992) soundtrack special effects Sega games Atari Lynx game NES game SNES game soundtrack special effects Sega games Atari Lynx game NES game SNES game Batman Forever (1995) score soundtrack video game arcade game pinball game score soundtrack video game arcade game pinball game Batman & Robin (1997) soundtrack video game soundtrack video game Characters Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman The Dark Knight trilogy Films Batman Begins (2005) soundtrack video game The Dark Knight (2008) soundtrack canceled video game The Dark Knight Rises (2012) soundtrack Characters Bruce Wayne Joker Rachel Dawes Films Batman Begins (2005) soundtrack video game The Dark Knight (2008) soundtrack canceled video game The Dark Knight Rises (2012) soundtrack Batman Begins (2005) soundtrack video game soundtrack video game The Dark Knight (2008) soundtrack canceled video game soundtrack canceled video game The Dark Knight Rises (2012) soundtrack soundtrack Characters Bruce Wayne Joker Rachel Dawes Bruce Wayne Joker Rachel Dawes DC Extended Universe Films Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016) soundtrack Suicide Squad (2016) soundtrack Justice League (2017) soundtrack Zack Snyder's Justice League (2021) soundtrack The Flash (2023) soundtrack Batgirl (unreleased) Characters Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn Films Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016) soundtrack Suicide Squad (2016) soundtrack Justice League (2017) soundtrack Zack Snyder's Justice League (2021) soundtrack The Flash (2023) soundtrack Batgirl (unreleased) Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016) soundtrack soundtrack Suicide Squad (2016) soundtrack soundtrack Justice League (2017) soundtrack soundtrack Zack Snyder's Justice League (2021) soundtrack soundtrack The Flash (2023) soundtrack soundtrack Batgirl (unreleased) Characters Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn The Batman series The Batman (2022) production accolades soundtrack The Batman (2022) production accolades soundtrack production accolades soundtrack Theatrical animated films Mask of the Phantasm (1993) soundtrack The Killing Joke (2016) The Lego Batman Movie (2017) soundtrack Mask of the Phantasm (1993) soundtrack soundtrack The Killing Joke (2016) The Lego Batman Movie (2017) soundtrack soundtrack Spin-off films Catwoman (2004) video game Joker (2019) accolades soundtrack Birds of Prey (2020) soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux (2024) score soundtrack Catwoman (2004) video game video game Joker (2019) accolades soundtrack accolades soundtrack Birds of Prey (2020) soundtrack soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux (2024) score soundtrack score soundtrack Unofficial and fan films Features Batman Dracula Alyas Batman at Robin James Batman Batman Fights Dracula Fight Batman Fight! Alyas Batman en Robin Batman XXX Shorts Dead End Grayson World's Finest City of Scars Dying Is Easy Batman Beyond: Year One Jokers Wild Features Batman Dracula Alyas Batman at Robin James Batman Batman Fights Dracula Fight Batman Fight! Alyas Batman en Robin Batman XXX Batman Dracula Alyas Batman at Robin James Batman Batman Fights Dracula Fight Batman Fight! Alyas Batman en Robin Batman XXX Shorts Dead End Grayson World's Finest City of Scars Dying Is Easy Batman Beyond: Year One Jokers Wild Dead End Grayson World's Finest City of Scars Dying Is Easy Batman Beyond: Year One Jokers Wild See also Batman franchise List of Batman films cast members Batman OnStar commercials Batman franchise List of Batman films cast members Batman OnStar commercials v t e Batman and Superman v t e Comic books Ongoing series World's Finest Comics Superman/Batman Limited series Superman & Batman: Generations Superman and Batman: World's Funnest Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Superman and Batman versus Aliens and Predator Ongoing series World's Finest Comics Superman/Batman World's Finest Comics Superman/Batman Limited series Superman & Batman: Generations Superman and Batman: World's Funnest Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Superman and Batman versus Aliens and Predator Superman & Batman: Generations Superman and Batman: World's Funnest Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Superman and Batman versus Aliens and Predator Television The Batman/Superman Hour The Superman/Batman Adventures DC Animated Universe The New Batman/Superman Adventures The Batman/Superman Hour The Superman/Batman Adventures DC Animated Universe The New Batman/Superman Adventures The New Batman/Superman Adventures Books Enemies & Allies Enemies & Allies Film Live action films Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice soundtrack Animated films Superman/Batman: Public Enemies Superman/Batman: Apocalypse Batman: The Dark Knight Returns Superman: Red Son Injustice Batman and Superman: Battle of the Super Sons Justice League: Warworld Live action films Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice soundtrack Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice soundtrack soundtrack Animated films Superman/Batman: Public Enemies Superman/Batman: Apocalypse Batman: The Dark Knight Returns Superman: Red Son Injustice Batman and Superman: Battle of the Super Sons Justice League: Warworld Superman/Batman: Public Enemies Superman/Batman: Apocalypse Batman: The Dark Knight Returns Superman: Red Son Injustice Batman and Superman: Battle of the Super Sons Justice League: Warworld Fan works How It Should Have Ended How It Should Have Ended Related Composite Superman Toyman World's Finest Team Composite Superman Toyman World's Finest Team Categories: Batman Superman Categories: Batman Superman v t e Justice League International v t e Keith Giffen J. M. DeMatteis Keith Giffen J. M. DeMatteis Initial members Pre-Flashpoint Batman Black Canary Blue Beetle/Ted Kord Booster Gold Captain Marvel Doctor Fate Kent Nelson Linda Strauss Doctor Light/Kimiyo Hoshi Green Lantern/Guy Gardner Martian Manhunter Mister Miracle The New 52 August General in Iron Booster Gold Fire Godiva Green Lantern/Guy Gardner Ice Rocket Red/Gavril Ivanovich Vixen Pre-Flashpoint Batman Black Canary Blue Beetle/Ted Kord Booster Gold Captain Marvel Doctor Fate Kent Nelson Linda Strauss Doctor Light/Kimiyo Hoshi Green Lantern/Guy Gardner Martian Manhunter Mister Miracle Batman Black Canary Blue Beetle/Ted Kord Booster Gold Captain Marvel Doctor Fate Kent Nelson Linda Strauss Kent Nelson Linda Strauss Doctor Light/Kimiyo Hoshi Green Lantern/Guy Gardner Martian Manhunter Mister Miracle The New 52 August General in Iron Booster Gold Fire Godiva Green Lantern/Guy Gardner Ice Rocket Red/Gavril Ivanovich Vixen August General in Iron Booster Gold Fire Godiva Green Lantern/Guy Gardner Ice Rocket Red/Gavril Ivanovich Vixen Supporting characters L-Ron Catherine Cobert Maxwell Lord Oberon Superman L-Ron Catherine Cobert Maxwell Lord Oberon Superman Enemies Antagonists Anti-Monitor Black Hand Darkseid Despero Doomsday Kite Man Lobo Magog Major Disaster Manga Khan Maxwell Lord Neron Queen Bee Signal Men Sinestro Starbreaker Weapons Master Weather Wizard Wizard Organizations Cadre Extremists Injustice League Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Antagonists Anti-Monitor Black Hand Darkseid Despero Doomsday Kite Man Lobo Magog Major Disaster Manga Khan Maxwell Lord Neron Queen Bee Signal Men Sinestro Starbreaker Weapons Master Weather Wizard Wizard Anti-Monitor Black Hand Darkseid Despero Doomsday Kite Man Lobo Magog Major Disaster Manga Khan Maxwell Lord Neron Queen Bee Signal Men Sinestro Starbreaker Weapons Master Weather Wizard Wizard Organizations Cadre Extremists Injustice League Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Cadre Extremists Injustice League Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Publications and storylines Legends Formerly Known as the Justice League Justice League: Generation Lost Legends Formerly Known as the Justice League Justice League: Generation Lost Spinoff teams Extreme Justice Justice League America Justice League Europe Justice League Task Force Extreme Justice Justice League America Justice League Europe Justice League Task Force v t e Catwoman v t e Bob Kane Bill Finger Bob Kane Bill Finger Incarnations Selina Kyle Holly Robinson Eiko Hasigawa Selina Kyle Holly Robinson Eiko Hasigawa Supporting characters Batgirl Batman Slam Bradley Gotham City Sirens Dick Grayson Huntress Justice League Outsiders Alfred Pennyworth Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Madame Zodiac Leslie Thompkins Wildcat Batgirl Batman Slam Bradley Gotham City Sirens Dick Grayson Huntress Justice League Outsiders Alfred Pennyworth Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Madame Zodiac Leslie Thompkins Wildcat Antagonists Angle Man Bane Black Mask Clayface Film Freak Hush Joker Penguin Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Riddler Scarecrow Snowflame Hugo Strange Two-Face Zeiss Angle Man Bane Black Mask Clayface Film Freak Hush Joker Penguin Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Riddler Scarecrow Snowflame Hugo Strange Two-Face Zeiss Publications Catwoman Catwoman: When in Rome Gotham City Sirens Nine Lives Catwoman Catwoman: When in Rome Gotham City Sirens Nine Lives In other media Catwoman (film) Chase Me DC Showcase: Catwoman Catwoman (video game) Selina Kyle ( Gotham character) "Selina Kyle" ( Gotham episode) Selina Kyle ( Batman Returns ) " The Cat and the Fiddle " " The Cat and the Claw " Catwoman: Soulstealer Catwoman: Hunted Catwoman (film) Chase Me DC Showcase: Catwoman Catwoman (video game) Selina Kyle ( Gotham character) "Selina Kyle" ( Gotham episode) Selina Kyle ( Batman Returns ) " The Cat and the Fiddle " " The Cat and the Claw " Catwoman: Soulstealer Catwoman: Hunted Category Category v t e Batgirl v t e Bill Finger Sheldon Moldoff Gardner Fox Carmine Infantino Bill Finger Sheldon Moldoff Gardner Fox Carmine Infantino Incarnations Bette Kane Barbara Gordon Helena Bertinelli Cassandra Cain Stephanie Brown Bette Kane Barbara Gordon Helena Bertinelli Cassandra Cain Stephanie Brown Supporting characters Batman Birds of Prey Black Canary Catwoman James Gordon Dick Grayson Lucius Fox Justice League Misfit Alfred Pennyworth Proxy Harley Quinn Robin Supergirl Leslie Thompkins Alysia Yeoh Batman Birds of Prey Black Canary Catwoman James Gordon Dick Grayson Lucius Fox Justice League Misfit Alfred Pennyworth Proxy Harley Quinn Robin Supergirl Leslie Thompkins Alysia Yeoh Antagonists Black Mask Brutale Calculator David Cain Doctor Death Joker Joker's Daughter Killer Moth Knightfall Lady Shiva Livewire Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Madame Zodiac Riddler Ravager Scarecrow Trigger Twins Black Mask Brutale Calculator David Cain Doctor Death Joker Joker's Daughter Killer Moth Knightfall Lady Shiva Livewire Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Madame Zodiac Riddler Ravager Scarecrow Trigger Twins Related identities Flamebird Oracle Huntress Flamebird Oracle Huntress Publications Batgirl Batgirl: Year One Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Elseworld's Finest: Supergirl & Batgirl Ghost/Batgirl: The Resurrection Machine Batgirl Batgirl: Year One Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Elseworld's Finest: Supergirl & Batgirl Ghost/Batgirl: The Resurrection Machine Related articles " Enter Batgirl, Exit Penguin " Barbara Gordon in other media Big Game Batgirl (unreleased) Batwoman " Enter Batgirl, Exit Penguin " Barbara Gordon in other media Big Game Batgirl (unreleased) Batwoman Category Category v t e Robin v t e Bill Finger Jerry Robinson Bob Kane Bill Finger Jerry Robinson Bob Kane Robins Dick Grayson Jason Todd Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Damian Wayne Dick Grayson Jason Todd Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Damian Wayne Supporting characters Batgirl Barbara Gordon Batman Catwoman Jack Drake Flying Graysons Lucius Fox Tamara Fox James Gordon Justice League Alfred Pennyworth Nightstar Nocturna Outsiders Starfire Talia al Ghul Teen Titans Leslie Thompkins Warlock's Daughter Batgirl Barbara Gordon Barbara Gordon Batman Catwoman Jack Drake Flying Graysons Lucius Fox Tamara Fox James Gordon Justice League Alfred Pennyworth Nightstar Nocturna Outsiders Starfire Talia al Ghul Teen Titans Leslie Thompkins Warlock's Daughter Antagonists Anarky Bane Blockbuster Brutale Clock King Cluemaster Deathstroke Firefly The General Joker Joker's Daughter Killer Croc Killer Moth King Snake Lady Shiva Lady Vic Lynx Mad Hatter Mr. Freeze Nite-Wing Penguin Prankster Harley Quinn Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Shrike Tarantula Torque Trigger Twins Two-Face Tony Zucco Anarky Bane Blockbuster Brutale Clock King Cluemaster Deathstroke Firefly The General Joker Joker's Daughter Killer Croc Killer Moth King Snake Lady Shiva Lady Vic Lynx Mad Hatter Mr. Freeze Nite-Wing Penguin Prankster Harley Quinn Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Shrike Tarantula Torque Trigger Twins Two-Face Tony Zucco Related identities Nightwing Red Robin Red Hood Squire Red X Nightwing Red Robin Red Hood Squire Red X In other media Batman and Robin (serial) " Robin's Reckoning " Dick Grayson (film character) Batman & Robin (film) soundtrack video game Son of Batman Batman vs. Robin Batman and Robin (serial) " Robin's Reckoning " Dick Grayson (film character) Batman & Robin (film) soundtrack video game soundtrack video game Son of Batman Batman vs. Robin Publications Robin: Year One Robin War All Star Batman & Robin, the Boy Wonder Batman and Robin We Are... Robin Red Robin Batman and Robin Eternal Batman and Son Robin: Year One Robin War All Star Batman & Robin, the Boy Wonder Batman and Robin We Are... Robin Red Robin Batman and Robin Eternal Batman and Son Alternative versions Carrie Kelley Earth-Two Helena Wayne Carrie Kelley Earth-Two Helena Wayne Related Robin Hood Redbird Alyas Batman en Robin Alyas Batman at Robin Batman & Robin: The Chiller Batman and Robin Have an Altercation "Holy..." Batman and Robin (disambiguation) Robin Hood Redbird Alyas Batman en Robin Alyas Batman at Robin Batman & Robin: The Chiller Batman and Robin Have an Altercation "Holy..." Batman and Robin (disambiguation) Category Category v t e The Joker v t e Bill Finger Bob Kane Jerry Robinson Bill Finger Bob Kane Jerry Robinson Supporting characters Bane Cheetah Clayface Deadshot Deathstroke Duela Dent Firefly Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Hush Killer Croc Legion of Doom Lex Luthor Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Punchline Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Victor Zsasz Bane Cheetah Clayface Deadshot Deathstroke Duela Dent Firefly Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Hush Killer Croc Legion of Doom Lex Luthor Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Punchline Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Victor Zsasz Antagonists Batgirl Barbara Gordon Batman Batwoman Kate Kane Catwoman Commissioner Gordon Gotham City Police Department Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Huntress Helena Bertinelli) Justice League Nightwing Dick Grayson Penguin Red Hood Jason Todd Red Robin Tim Drake Riddler Robin Damian Wayne Superman The Batman Who Laughs Two-Face Batgirl Barbara Gordon Barbara Gordon Batman Batwoman Kate Kane Kate Kane Catwoman Commissioner Gordon Gotham City Police Department Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Huntress Helena Bertinelli) Helena Bertinelli) Justice League Nightwing Dick Grayson Dick Grayson Penguin Red Hood Jason Todd Jason Todd Red Robin Tim Drake Tim Drake Riddler Robin Damian Wayne Damian Wayne Superman The Batman Who Laughs Two-Face Publications and stories The Joker " The Joker's Double Jeopardy " Batman: The Killing Joke Devil's Advocate Batman: The Man Who Laughs The Further Adventures of The Joker Joker (graphic novel) " The Joker's Millions " Last Laugh " The Man Behind the Red Hood! " " The Return of the Joker " Batman: Three Jokers Joker War The Joker " The Joker's Double Jeopardy " " The Joker's Double Jeopardy " Batman: The Killing Joke Devil's Advocate Batman: The Man Who Laughs The Further Adventures of The Joker Joker (graphic novel) " The Joker's Millions " Last Laugh " The Man Behind the Red Hood! " " The Return of the Joker " Batman: Three Jokers Joker War Alternative versions Red Hood The Batman Who Laughs Red Hood The Batman Who Laughs In other media Incarnations Jack Napier Joker (DC Animated Universe) Joker ( The Dark Knight ) Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Joker (DC Extended Universe) Arthur Fleck Other media Joker accolades soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker video game Batman: The Killing Joke " The Joker's Hard Times " " The Joker Is Wild " " The Joker Goes to School " Batman: Return of the Joker " Joker's Favor " " Christmas with the Joker " Mortal Kombat 11 Harley Quinn and The Joker: Sound Mind Jokers Wild Incarnations Jack Napier Joker (DC Animated Universe) Joker ( The Dark Knight ) Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Joker (DC Extended Universe) Arthur Fleck Jack Napier Joker (DC Animated Universe) Joker ( The Dark Knight ) Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Joker (DC Extended Universe) Arthur Fleck Other media Joker accolades soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker video game Batman: The Killing Joke " The Joker's Hard Times " " The Joker Is Wild " " The Joker Goes to School " Batman: Return of the Joker " Joker's Favor " " Christmas with the Joker " Mortal Kombat 11 Harley Quinn and The Joker: Sound Mind Jokers Wild Joker accolades soundtrack accolades soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack score soundtrack Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker video game video game Batman: The Killing Joke " The Joker's Hard Times " " The Joker Is Wild " " The Joker Goes to School " Batman: Return of the Joker " Joker's Favor " " Christmas with the Joker " Mortal Kombat 11 Harley Quinn and The Joker: Sound Mind Jokers Wild Rides The Joker's Jinx The Joker (S&S Worldwide) The Joker (Six Flags Discovery Kingdom) The Joker Funhouse Coaster The Joker (Six Flags México) The Joker's Jinx The Joker (S&S Worldwide) The Joker (Six Flags Discovery Kingdom) The Joker Funhouse Coaster The Joker (Six Flags México) Related Ace Chemicals Arkham Asylum Barack Obama "Joker" poster Blackgate Penitentiary Georgia Joker Jokermobile Joker Stairs Jokerz The People's Joker Ace Chemicals Arkham Asylum Barack Obama "Joker" poster Blackgate Penitentiary Georgia Joker Jokermobile Joker Stairs Jokerz The People's Joker Category Category v t e Harley Quinn v t e Paul Dini Bruce Timm Karl Kesel Terry Dodson Amanda Conner Jimmy Palmiotti Paul Dini Bruce Timm Karl Kesel Terry Dodson Amanda Conner Jimmy Palmiotti Supporting characters Bruce Wayne / Batman Barbara Gordon / Batgirl Birds of Prey Bud and Lou Selina Kyle/Catwoman Joker Justice League Dick Grayson/Nightwing Pamela Isley/Poison Ivy Karen Starr/Power Girl Robin Cyrus Gold/Solomon Grundy Bruce Wayne / Batman Barbara Gordon / Batgirl Birds of Prey Bud and Lou Selina Kyle/Catwoman Joker Justice League Dick Grayson/Nightwing Pamela Isley/Poison Ivy Karen Starr/Power Girl Robin Cyrus Gold/Solomon Grundy Teams Gotham City Sirens Justice League of Anarchy Secret Six The Society Suicide Squad Gotham City Sirens Justice League of Anarchy Secret Six The Society Suicide Squad Antagonists Amanda Waller Bruce Wayne / Batman Barbara Gordon / Batgirl Roman Sionis/Black Mask Jason Woodrue/Floronic Man Hugo Strange Joker Joker's Daughter/Duela Dent Mercy Graves Oswald Cobblepot/Penguin Alexis Kaye/Punchline Edward Nygma/Riddler Dick Grayson / Robin Jonathan Crane/Scarecrow Harvey Dent/Two-Face Amanda Waller Bruce Wayne / Batman Barbara Gordon / Batgirl Roman Sionis/Black Mask Jason Woodrue/Floronic Man Hugo Strange Joker Joker's Daughter/Duela Dent Mercy Graves Oswald Cobblepot/Penguin Alexis Kaye/Punchline Edward Nygma/Riddler Dick Grayson / Robin Jonathan Crane/Scarecrow Harvey Dent/Two-Face Publications The Batman Adventures: Mad Love Harley Quinn Batman: White Knight Presents: Harley Quinn Harley and Ivy Meet Betty and Veronica Harley Quinn and Poison Ivy The Batman Adventures: Mad Love Harley Quinn Batman: White Knight Presents: Harley Quinn Harley and Ivy Meet Betty and Veronica Harley Quinn and Poison Ivy In other media " Joker's Favor " Harley Quinn (TV series) episodes Batman and Harley Quinn Harley Quinn (DCEU character) Birds of Prey soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack Harley Quinn and The Joker: Sound Mind " Joker's Favor " Harley Quinn (TV series) episodes episodes Batman and Harley Quinn Harley Quinn (DCEU character) Birds of Prey soundtrack soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack score soundtrack Harley Quinn and The Joker: Sound Mind Related articles Harley Quinn Crazy Train Homosexuality in the Batman franchise Harlequin (album) Harley Quinn Crazy Train Homosexuality in the Batman franchise Harlequin (album) Category Category v t e The Outsiders v t e Mike W. Barr Jim Aparo Mike W. Barr Jim Aparo Members Founders Batman Black Lightning Geo-Force Halo Katana Metamorpho Others Arsenal Atomic Knight Batgirl Batwing Batwoman Captain Boomerang Captain Marvel Jr. Creeper Duke Thomas Eradicator Francine Langstrom Grace Choi Green Arrow Huntress (Helena Bertinelli) Indigo Jade Lady Shiva Looker Nightwing Olympian Owlman (Roy Raymond Jr.) Red Robin ReMAC Sebastian Faust Starfire Technocrat Thunder Founders Batman Black Lightning Geo-Force Halo Katana Metamorpho Batman Black Lightning Geo-Force Halo Katana Metamorpho Others Arsenal Atomic Knight Batgirl Batwing Batwoman Captain Boomerang Captain Marvel Jr. Creeper Duke Thomas Eradicator Francine Langstrom Grace Choi Green Arrow Huntress (Helena Bertinelli) Indigo Jade Lady Shiva Looker Nightwing Olympian Owlman (Roy Raymond Jr.) Red Robin ReMAC Sebastian Faust Starfire Technocrat Thunder Arsenal Atomic Knight Batgirl Batwing Batwoman Captain Boomerang Captain Marvel Jr. Creeper Duke Thomas Eradicator Francine Langstrom Grace Choi Green Arrow Huntress (Helena Bertinelli) Indigo Jade Lady Shiva Looker Nightwing Olympian Owlman (Roy Raymond Jr.) Red Robin ReMAC Sebastian Faust Starfire Technocrat Thunder Supporting characters Alfred Pennyworth Checkmate Helga Jace Roy Raymond Sapphire Stagg Simon Stagg Alfred Pennyworth Checkmate Helga Jace Roy Raymond Sapphire Stagg Simon Stagg Enemies Baron Bedlam Brother Blood Doctor Sivana Fearsome Five Doctor Light Gizmo Mammoth Psimon Shimmer Felix Faust Gorilla Grodd Joker Kobra Masters of Disaster Mr. Freeze Nuclear Family Sabbac Tobias Whale Baron Bedlam Brother Blood Doctor Sivana Fearsome Five Doctor Light Gizmo Mammoth Psimon Shimmer Doctor Light Gizmo Mammoth Psimon Shimmer Felix Faust Gorilla Grodd Joker Kobra Masters of Disaster Mr. Freeze Nuclear Family Sabbac Tobias Whale Locations Batcave Batcave Other media Batman: The Brave and the Bold Young Justice Batman: The Brave and the Bold Young Justice v t e Birds of Prey v t e Creators : Chuck Dixon Jordan B. Gorfinkel Gail Simone Creators : Chuck Dixon Jordan B. Gorfinkel Gail Simone Titles Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Main characters Barbara Gordon Black Canary Huntress (Helena Bertinelli) Barbara Gordon Black Canary Huntress (Helena Bertinelli) Notable members Big Barda Black Alice Cassandra Cain Gypsy Harley Quinn Hawk and Dove Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders) Jade Canary Judomaster (Sonia Sato) Katana Lady Blackhawk Manhunter (Kate Spencer) Misfit Poison Ivy Power Girl Vixen Zealot Big Barda Black Alice Cassandra Cain Gypsy Harley Quinn Hawk and Dove Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders) Jade Canary Judomaster (Sonia Sato) Katana Lady Blackhawk Manhunter (Kate Spencer) Misfit Poison Ivy Power Girl Vixen Zealot Supporting characters Batman Blue Beetle (Ted Kord) Booster Gold James Gordon Creote Catwoman Cyborg Green Arrow Kurt Lance Lois Lane Metamorpho Nightwing Richard Dragon Robin Savant Sin Superman Wildcat Batman Blue Beetle (Ted Kord) Booster Gold James Gordon Creote Catwoman Cyborg Green Arrow Kurt Lance Lois Lane Metamorpho Nightwing Richard Dragon Robin Savant Sin Superman Wildcat Antagonists Atomic Skull Bane Black Mask Blockbuster Brainiac Brutale Calculator Captain Nazi Catwoman Chemo Cheshire Clayface Copperhead Crime Doctor Deathstroke Electrocutioner Gorilla Grodd Harley Quinn Hector Hammond Hellgrammite H.I.V.E. Joker Killer Moth Kobra Lady Shiva Lady Spellbinder Lady Vic Lashina Mad Hatter Mammoth Penguin Poison Ivy Prometheus Psimon Secret Six Secret Society Shadow Thief Shrapnel Spy Smasher Talia al Ghul Victor Zsasz Atomic Skull Bane Black Mask Blockbuster Brainiac Brutale Calculator Captain Nazi Catwoman Chemo Cheshire Clayface Copperhead Crime Doctor Deathstroke Electrocutioner Gorilla Grodd Harley Quinn Hector Hammond Hellgrammite H.I.V.E. Joker Killer Moth Kobra Lady Shiva Lady Spellbinder Lady Vic Lashina Mad Hatter Mammoth Penguin Poison Ivy Prometheus Psimon Secret Six Secret Society Shadow Thief Shrapnel Spy Smasher Talia al Ghul Victor Zsasz In other media TV series Film soundtrack TV series Film soundtrack soundtrack Category Category v t e Superman characters v t e Superman family By codename Superman Superboy Supergirl Superwoman Nightwing Flamebird Steel Power Girl By public identity Clark Kent Conner Kent Jon Kent Sodam Yat Mon-El Kara Zor-El Matrix Linda Danvers Laurel Gand Lois Lane Lucy Lane Lana Lang Luma Lynai Donna Troy Kristin Wells Chris Kent/Lor-Zod Thara Ak-Var David Connor John Henry Irons Natasha Irons Kong Kenan Kara Zor-L Pets Krypto the Superdog Streaky the Supercat Beppo the Super-Monkey Comet the Super-Horse By codename Superman Superboy Supergirl Superwoman Nightwing Flamebird Steel Power Girl Superman Superboy Supergirl Superwoman Nightwing Flamebird Steel Power Girl By public identity Clark Kent Conner Kent Jon Kent Sodam Yat Mon-El Kara Zor-El Matrix Linda Danvers Laurel Gand Lois Lane Lucy Lane Lana Lang Luma Lynai Donna Troy Kristin Wells Chris Kent/Lor-Zod Thara Ak-Var David Connor John Henry Irons Natasha Irons Kong Kenan Kara Zor-L Clark Kent Conner Kent Jon Kent Sodam Yat Mon-El Kara Zor-El Matrix Linda Danvers Laurel Gand Lois Lane Lucy Lane Lana Lang Luma Lynai Donna Troy Kristin Wells Chris Kent/Lor-Zod Thara Ak-Var David Connor John Henry Irons Natasha Irons Kong Kenan Kara Zor-L Pets Krypto the Superdog Streaky the Supercat Beppo the Super-Monkey Comet the Super-Horse Krypto the Superdog Streaky the Supercat Beppo the Super-Monkey Comet the Super-Horse Supporting characters Lois Lane Jimmy Olsen Jor-El Lara Jonathan and Martha Kent Perry White Lana Lang Batman Lucy Lane Lori Lemaris Gangbuster Zor-El Alura Dubbilex Sam Lane Lyla Lerrol Pete Ross Professor Potter Lena Luthor Maxima Morgan Edge Dan Turpin Steve Lombard Cat Grant Professor Hamilton Maggie Sawyer Bibbo Bibbowski Ron Troupe Strange Visitor Rampage Vartox Atlas Manchester Black Alexander Luthor Jr. Lois Lane Jimmy Olsen Jor-El Lara Jonathan and Martha Kent Perry White Lana Lang Batman Lucy Lane Lori Lemaris Gangbuster Zor-El Alura Dubbilex Sam Lane Lyla Lerrol Pete Ross Professor Potter Lena Luthor Maxima Morgan Edge Dan Turpin Steve Lombard Cat Grant Professor Hamilton Maggie Sawyer Bibbo Bibbowski Ron Troupe Strange Visitor Rampage Vartox Atlas Manchester Black Alexander Luthor Jr. Associated characters Auron The Authority Apollo Enchantress Lightray Manchester Black Midnighter OMAC Steel Guardian Justice League Atom Aquaman Batman Black Canary Blue Beetle Cyborg Flash Green Arrow Green Lantern John Stewart Martian Manhunter Robin/Nightwing Orion Captain Marvel Wonder Woman Justice Society of America Legion of Substitute Heroes Legion of Super-Heroes Cosmic Boy Saturn Girl Lightning Lad Chameleon Boy Colossal Boy Invisible Kid Star Boy Phantom Girl Triplicate Girl Shrinking Violet Bouncing Boy Sun Boy Brainiac 5 Ultra Boy Element Lad Matter-Eater Lad Lightning Lass Dream Girl Timber Wolf Princess Projectra Ferro Lad Karate Kid White Witch Shadow Lass Chemical King Wildfire Tyroc Dawnstar Laurel Gand Legion of Super-Pets Legion of Super-Villains Lobo Maxima Newsboy Legion Project Cadmus Silent Knight Super-Chief Supermen of America World's Finest Team Auron The Authority Apollo Enchantress Lightray Manchester Black Midnighter OMAC Steel Apollo Enchantress Lightray Manchester Black Midnighter OMAC Steel Guardian Justice League Atom Aquaman Batman Black Canary Blue Beetle Cyborg Flash Green Arrow Green Lantern John Stewart Martian Manhunter Robin/Nightwing Orion Captain Marvel Wonder Woman Atom Aquaman Batman Black Canary Blue Beetle Cyborg Flash Green Arrow Green Lantern John Stewart Martian Manhunter Robin/Nightwing Orion Captain Marvel Wonder Woman Justice Society of America Legion of Substitute Heroes Legion of Super-Heroes Cosmic Boy Saturn Girl Lightning Lad Chameleon Boy Colossal Boy Invisible Kid Star Boy Phantom Girl Triplicate Girl Shrinking Violet Bouncing Boy Sun Boy Brainiac 5 Ultra Boy Element Lad Matter-Eater Lad Lightning Lass Dream Girl Timber Wolf Princess Projectra Ferro Lad Karate Kid White Witch Shadow Lass Chemical King Wildfire Tyroc Dawnstar Laurel Gand Cosmic Boy Saturn Girl Lightning Lad Chameleon Boy Colossal Boy Invisible Kid Star Boy Phantom Girl Triplicate Girl Shrinking Violet Bouncing Boy Sun Boy Brainiac 5 Ultra Boy Element Lad Matter-Eater Lad Lightning Lass Dream Girl Timber Wolf Princess Projectra Ferro Lad Karate Kid White Witch Shadow Lass Chemical King Wildfire Tyroc Dawnstar Laurel Gand Legion of Super-Pets Legion of Super-Villains Lobo Maxima Newsboy Legion Project Cadmus Silent Knight Super-Chief Supermen of America World's Finest Team Enemies Central rogues Atomic Skull Bizarro Bloodsport Brainiac Bruno Mannheim Cyborg Superman Hank Henshaw Darkseid Doomsday General Zod Lex Luthor Livewire Mercy Graves Metallo Mister Mxyzptlk Mongul Parasite Silver Banshee Toyman Ultra-Humanite Recurring adversaries Anti-Monitor Atlas Blaze and Satanus Brainiac 2 Chemo Composite Superman Conduit Dev-Em Equus Faora Funky Flashman Gog Hellgramite Imperiex Jax-Ur Joker Kobra Lord Satanis Magpie Mala Mammoth Manchester Black Morgan Edge Neutron Nick O'Teen Non Ol-Vir Prankster Quarmer Quex-Ul Rampage Riot Ruin Scorch Solaris Solomon Grundy Terra-Man Titano Ultraman Ursa Volcana Organizations Black Zero Fearsome Five Intergang Masters of Disaster Royal Flush Gang Secret Society of Super Villains Suicide Squad Superman Revenge Squad Central rogues Atomic Skull Bizarro Bloodsport Brainiac Bruno Mannheim Cyborg Superman Hank Henshaw Darkseid Doomsday General Zod Lex Luthor Livewire Mercy Graves Metallo Mister Mxyzptlk Mongul Parasite Silver Banshee Toyman Ultra-Humanite Atomic Skull Bizarro Bloodsport Brainiac Bruno Mannheim Cyborg Superman Hank Henshaw Hank Henshaw Darkseid Doomsday General Zod Lex Luthor Livewire Mercy Graves Metallo Mister Mxyzptlk Mongul Parasite Silver Banshee Toyman Ultra-Humanite Recurring adversaries Anti-Monitor Atlas Blaze and Satanus Brainiac 2 Chemo Composite Superman Conduit Dev-Em Equus Faora Funky Flashman Gog Hellgramite Imperiex Jax-Ur Joker Kobra Lord Satanis Magpie Mala Mammoth Manchester Black Morgan Edge Neutron Nick O'Teen Non Ol-Vir Prankster Quarmer Quex-Ul Rampage Riot Ruin Scorch Solaris Solomon Grundy Terra-Man Titano Ultraman Ursa Volcana Anti-Monitor Atlas Blaze and Satanus Brainiac 2 Chemo Composite Superman Conduit Dev-Em Equus Faora Funky Flashman Gog Hellgramite Imperiex Jax-Ur Joker Kobra Lord Satanis Magpie Mala Mammoth Manchester Black Morgan Edge Neutron Nick O'Teen Non Ol-Vir Prankster Quarmer Quex-Ul Rampage Riot Ruin Scorch Solaris Solomon Grundy Terra-Man Titano Ultraman Ursa Volcana Organizations Black Zero Fearsome Five Intergang Masters of Disaster Royal Flush Gang Secret Society of Super Villains Suicide Squad Superman Revenge Squad Black Zero Fearsome Five Intergang Masters of Disaster Royal Flush Gang Secret Society of Super Villains Suicide Squad Superman Revenge Squad Alternative versions Superman Earth-One Earth-Two Ultraman Superboy-Prime Kingdom Come Supergirl Power Girl Superman Earth-One Earth-Two Ultraman Superboy-Prime Kingdom Come Earth-One Earth-Two Ultraman Superboy-Prime Kingdom Come Supergirl Power Girl Power Girl In other media 1978–1987 film series Superman Lois Lane Lex Luthor Eve Teschmacher General Zod DC Extended Universe Clark Kent / Superman Lois Lane Lex Luthor Zod Smallville Clark Kent Lois Lane Lana Lang Justice League Lex Luthor Lionel Luthor Chloe Sullivan Arrowverse Kara Danvers Alex Danvers Lex Luthor Nia Nal Superman & Lois Clark Kent Lois Lane 1978–1987 film series Superman Lois Lane Lex Luthor Eve Teschmacher General Zod Superman Lois Lane Lex Luthor Eve Teschmacher General Zod DC Extended Universe Clark Kent / Superman Lois Lane Lex Luthor Zod Clark Kent / Superman Lois Lane Lex Luthor Zod Smallville Clark Kent Lois Lane Lana Lang Justice League Lex Luthor Lionel Luthor Chloe Sullivan Clark Kent Lois Lane Lana Lang Justice League Lex Luthor Lionel Luthor Chloe Sullivan Arrowverse Kara Danvers Alex Danvers Lex Luthor Nia Nal Kara Danvers Alex Danvers Lex Luthor Nia Nal Superman & Lois Clark Kent Lois Lane Clark Kent Lois Lane Related Superman and Lois Lane Daily Planet Alien races Kryptonians Superman and Lois Lane Daily Planet Alien races Kryptonians Category Category v t e Wonder Woman v t e William Moulton Marston Elizabeth Holloway Marston Olive Byrne H. G. Peter Other contributors William Moulton Marston Elizabeth Holloway Marston Olive Byrne H. G. Peter Other contributors Characters Wonder Women Diana Prince Orana Artemis of Bana-Mighdall Hippolyta Nubia Wonder Girls Cassie Sandsmark Donna Troy Yara Flor Supporting characters Antiope Etta Candy Fury Hephaestus Heracles/Hercules Hermes I Ching Julia and Vanessa Kapatelis Justice League Mala Nemesis (Thomas Tresser) The Olympian Paula von Gunther Philippus Poseidon Queen Desira Helena Sandsmark Sarge Steel Steve Trevor Wonder Man Zeus Zola Enemies Ares Baron Blitzkrieg Baroness Paula von Gunther Blue Snowman Veronica Cale Cheetah Circe Dark Angel Decay Doctor Cyber Doctor Poison Doctor Psycho Duke of Deception Egg Fu Eviless First Born Genocide Giganta Hades Hypnota Kung Mask Maxwell Lord Medusa Minister Blizzard Osira Queen Clea Silver Swan Superwoman Tezcatlipoca Zara Factions Amazons of Themyscira Amazons of Bana-Mighdall Children of Ares Godwatch Olympian Gods Titans of Myth Villainy Inc. Wonder Women Diana Prince Orana Artemis of Bana-Mighdall Hippolyta Nubia Wonder Girls Cassie Sandsmark Donna Troy Yara Flor Diana Prince Orana Artemis of Bana-Mighdall Hippolyta Nubia Wonder Girls Cassie Sandsmark Donna Troy Yara Flor Cassie Sandsmark Donna Troy Yara Flor Supporting characters Antiope Etta Candy Fury Hephaestus Heracles/Hercules Hermes I Ching Julia and Vanessa Kapatelis Justice League Mala Nemesis (Thomas Tresser) The Olympian Paula von Gunther Philippus Poseidon Queen Desira Helena Sandsmark Sarge Steel Steve Trevor Wonder Man Zeus Zola Antiope Etta Candy Fury Hephaestus Heracles/Hercules Hermes I Ching Julia and Vanessa Kapatelis Justice League Mala Nemesis (Thomas Tresser) The Olympian Paula von Gunther Philippus Poseidon Queen Desira Helena Sandsmark Sarge Steel Steve Trevor Wonder Man Zeus Zola Enemies Ares Baron Blitzkrieg Baroness Paula von Gunther Blue Snowman Veronica Cale Cheetah Circe Dark Angel Decay Doctor Cyber Doctor Poison Doctor Psycho Duke of Deception Egg Fu Eviless First Born Genocide Giganta Hades Hypnota Kung Mask Maxwell Lord Medusa Minister Blizzard Osira Queen Clea Silver Swan Superwoman Tezcatlipoca Zara Ares Baron Blitzkrieg Baroness Paula von Gunther Blue Snowman Veronica Cale Cheetah Circe Dark Angel Decay Doctor Cyber Doctor Poison Doctor Psycho Duke of Deception Egg Fu Eviless First Born Genocide Giganta Hades Hypnota Kung Mask Maxwell Lord Medusa Minister Blizzard Osira Queen Clea Silver Swan Superwoman Tezcatlipoca Zara Factions Amazons of Themyscira Amazons of Bana-Mighdall Children of Ares Godwatch Olympian Gods Titans of Myth Villainy Inc. Amazons of Themyscira Amazons of Bana-Mighdall Children of Ares Godwatch Olympian Gods Titans of Myth Villainy Inc. Locations Aeaea Themyscira (The Paradise Islands) Aeaea Themyscira (The Paradise Islands) Publications Absolute Wonder Woman All Star Comics Wonder Woman Amazonia Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Comic Cavalcade Crossover The Legend of Wonder Woman Sensation Comics Superman and Wonder Woman: The Hidden Killer Superman/Wonder Woman Wonder Woman '77 The Wonder Woman Chronicles Wonder Woman: Earth One Wonder Woman Historia: The Amazons The World's Greatest Superheroes Absolute Wonder Woman All Star Comics Wonder Woman Amazonia Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Comic Cavalcade Crossover The Legend of Wonder Woman Sensation Comics Superman and Wonder Woman: The Hidden Killer Superman/Wonder Woman Wonder Woman '77 The Wonder Woman Chronicles Wonder Woman: Earth One Wonder Woman Historia: The Amazons The World's Greatest Superheroes Storylines " Introducing Wonder Woman " (1941) Gods and Mortals (1987) Challenge of the Gods (1987–88) War of the Gods (1991) The Contest (1994) The Challenge of Artemis (1995) Paradise Island Lost (2001) Our Worlds at War (2001) The Hiketeia (2002) Down to Earth (2003–04) Who Is Wonder Woman? (2006–07) Amazons Attack! (2007) The Circle (2008) Ends of the Earth (2008) Rise of the Olympian (2009) Flashpoint (2011) The Lies (2016) Year One (2016) The Truth (2017) Godwatch (2017) Trial of the Amazons (2022) " Introducing Wonder Woman " (1941) Gods and Mortals (1987) Challenge of the Gods (1987–88) War of the Gods (1991) The Contest (1994) The Challenge of Artemis (1995) Paradise Island Lost (2001) Our Worlds at War (2001) The Hiketeia (2002) Down to Earth (2003–04) Who Is Wonder Woman? (2006–07) Amazons Attack! (2007) The Circle (2008) Ends of the Earth (2008) Rise of the Olympian (2009) Flashpoint (2011) The Lies (2016) Year One (2016) The Truth (2017) Godwatch (2017) Trial of the Amazons (2022) Technology Golden Girdle of Gaea Lasso of Truth Wonder Woman's bracelets Golden Girdle of Gaea Lasso of Truth Wonder Woman's bracelets In other media Film Wonder Woman (1974 film) Wonder Woman (2009 film) Wonder Woman: Bloodlines DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Wonder Woman (2017 film) soundtrack Justice League Zack Snyder's Justice League Wonder Woman 1984 soundtrack Peacemaker: It's Cow or Never Shazam! Fury of the Gods The Flash Television Wonder Woman episodes Wonder Woman (2011 TV pilot) Film Wonder Woman (1974 film) Wonder Woman (2009 film) Wonder Woman: Bloodlines DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Wonder Woman (2017 film) soundtrack Justice League Zack Snyder's Justice League Wonder Woman 1984 soundtrack Peacemaker: It's Cow or Never Shazam! Fury of the Gods The Flash Wonder Woman (1974 film) Wonder Woman (2009 film) Wonder Woman: Bloodlines DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Wonder Woman (2017 film) soundtrack Justice League Zack Snyder's Justice League Wonder Woman 1984 soundtrack Peacemaker: It's Cow or Never Shazam! Fury of the Gods The Flash Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Wonder Woman (2017 film) soundtrack soundtrack Justice League Zack Snyder's Justice League Zack Snyder's Justice League Wonder Woman 1984 soundtrack soundtrack Peacemaker: It's Cow or Never Shazam! Fury of the Gods The Flash Television Wonder Woman episodes Wonder Woman (2011 TV pilot) Wonder Woman episodes episodes Wonder Woman (2011 TV pilot) Miscellaneous Alternative versions Earth-Two Bizarra Superwoman Cultural impact Professor Marston and the Wonder Women Literature Wonder Women! The Untold Story of American Superheroines Alternative versions Earth-Two Bizarra Superwoman Earth-Two Bizarra Superwoman Cultural impact Professor Marston and the Wonder Women Literature Wonder Women! The Untold Story of American Superheroines Category v t e Golden Age of Comic Books v t e Ace Comics Captain Courageous Doctor Nemesis The Flag Lash Lightning The Raven Unknown Soldier Vulcan Captain Courageous Doctor Nemesis The Flag Lash Lightning The Raven Unknown Soldier Vulcan All-American Publications The Atom Al Pratt Black Canary Doctor Mid-Nite Charles McNider Doiby Dickles The Flash Jay Garrick Gay Ghost Green Lantern Alan Scott Hawkgirl Shiera Sanders Hall Hawkman Carter Hall Hop Harrigan Johnny Thunder Justice Society of America The King Mister Terrific Terry Sloane Neptune Perkins Red Tornado Sargon the Sorcerer Terrific Whatzit Thunderbolt Ultra-Man The Whip Wildcat Ted Grant Wonder Woman The Atom Al Pratt Al Pratt Black Canary Doctor Mid-Nite Charles McNider Charles McNider Doiby Dickles The Flash Jay Garrick Jay Garrick Gay Ghost Green Lantern Alan Scott Alan Scott Hawkgirl Shiera Sanders Hall Shiera Sanders Hall Hawkman Carter Hall Carter Hall Hop Harrigan Johnny Thunder Justice Society of America The King Mister Terrific Terry Sloane Terry Sloane Neptune Perkins Red Tornado Sargon the Sorcerer Terrific Whatzit Thunderbolt Ultra-Man The Whip Wildcat Ted Grant Ted Grant Wonder Woman Centaur Comics Airman Amazing-Man The Arrow The Clock The Eye Fantom of the Fair Magician from Mars The Masked Marvel Minimidget Airman Amazing-Man The Arrow The Clock The Eye Fantom of the Fair Magician from Mars The Masked Marvel Minimidget Charlton Comics Atomic Mouse Captain Atom Nightshade Mr. Muscles Nature Boy Space Adventures Yellowjacket Atomic Mouse Captain Atom Nightshade Mr. Muscles Nature Boy Space Adventures Yellowjacket Dell Comics Doctor Hormone Flash Gordon The Owl Phantasmo Supermind's Son Zorro Doctor Hormone Flash Gordon The Owl Phantasmo Supermind's Son Zorro Fawcett Comics Bulletgirl Bulletman Captain Marvel Captain Marvel Jr. Captain Midnight Dan Dare Golden Arrow Hoppy the Marvel Bunny Ibis the Invincible Lieutenant Marvels Marvel Family Mary Marvel Master Man Minute-Man Mr. Scarlet Nyoka the Jungle Girl Phantom Eagle Pinky the Whiz Kid Scoop Smith Spy Smasher Squadron of Justice Uncle Marvel Bulletgirl Bulletman Captain Marvel Captain Marvel Jr. Captain Midnight Dan Dare Golden Arrow Hoppy the Marvel Bunny Ibis the Invincible Lieutenant Marvels Marvel Family Mary Marvel Master Man Minute-Man Mr. Scarlet Nyoka the Jungle Girl Phantom Eagle Pinky the Whiz Kid Scoop Smith Spy Smasher Squadron of Justice Uncle Marvel Fox Comics Blue Beetle Dan Garret The Bouncer Bronze Man Dynamo The Flame Green Mask The Moth Samson Stardust the Super Wizard U.S. Jones Wonder Man Blue Beetle Dan Garret Dan Garret The Bouncer Bronze Man Dynamo The Flame Green Mask The Moth Samson Stardust the Super Wizard U.S. Jones Wonder Man Harvey Comics Black Cat Captain 3-D Captain Freedom Green Hornet Invisible Scarlet O'Neil Kato Shock Gibson Spirit of '76 Black Cat Captain 3-D Captain Freedom Green Hornet Invisible Scarlet O'Neil Kato Shock Gibson Spirit of '76 Lev Gleason Publications Captain Battle Claw Crimebuster Daredevil Little Wise Guys Silver Streak Captain Battle Claw Crimebuster Daredevil Little Wise Guys Silver Streak MLJ Comics The Black Hood Bob Phantom Captain Flag The Comet The Firefly The Fox The Hangman Rang-a-Tang the Wonder Dog The Shield Super Duck The Web The Wizard The Black Hood Bob Phantom Captain Flag The Comet The Firefly The Fox The Hangman Rang-a-Tang the Wonder Dog The Shield Super Duck The Web The Wizard National Allied Publications Ace the Bat-Hound Air Wave Aquaman Batman Batwoman Black Pirate Boy Commandos Captain Comet Chris KL-99 Congo Bill Crimson Avenger Lee Travis Dan the Dyna-Mite Dark Ranger Detective Chimp Doctor Fate Kent Nelson Doctor Occult Genius Jones Gimmick Girl Green Arrow Guardian Hourman Rex Tyler Johnny Chambers King Faraday The Knight Krypto Liberty Belle Manhunter Paul Kirk Martian Manhunter Miss X Mr. America Newsboy Legion Phantom Stranger Rex the Wonder Dog Robin Dick Grayson Robotman Rose Psychic Sandman Wesley Dodds Sandy the Golden Boy Seven Soldiers of Victory Shining Knight Sir Justin Slam Bradley The Spectre Jim Corrigan Speedy Roy Harper Squire Star-Spangled Kid Sylvester Pemberton Starman Ted Knight Stripesy Stuff the Chinatown Kid Superboy Kal-El Superman Superwoman Lois Lane Tarantula TNT Tommy Tomorrow Vigilante Greg Saunders Wonder Woman Zatara Ace the Bat-Hound Air Wave Aquaman Batman Batwoman Black Pirate Boy Commandos Captain Comet Chris KL-99 Congo Bill Crimson Avenger Lee Travis Lee Travis Dan the Dyna-Mite Dark Ranger Detective Chimp Doctor Fate Kent Nelson Kent Nelson Doctor Occult Genius Jones Gimmick Girl Green Arrow Guardian Hourman Rex Tyler Rex Tyler Johnny Chambers King Faraday The Knight Krypto Liberty Belle Manhunter Paul Kirk Paul Kirk Martian Manhunter Miss X Mr. America Newsboy Legion Phantom Stranger Rex the Wonder Dog Robin Dick Grayson Dick Grayson Robotman Rose Psychic Sandman Wesley Dodds Wesley Dodds Sandy the Golden Boy Seven Soldiers of Victory Shining Knight Sir Justin Sir Justin Slam Bradley The Spectre Jim Corrigan Jim Corrigan Speedy Roy Harper Roy Harper Squire Star-Spangled Kid Sylvester Pemberton Sylvester Pemberton Starman Ted Knight Ted Knight Stripesy Stuff the Chinatown Kid Superboy Kal-El Kal-El Superman Superwoman Lois Lane Lois Lane Tarantula TNT Tommy Tomorrow Vigilante Greg Saunders Greg Saunders Wonder Woman Zatara Nedor Comics American Crusader American Eagle Black Terror Captain Future Doc Strange Fighting Yank The Ghost Grim Reaper Judy of the Jungle Kara the Jungle Princess Lance Lewis, Space Detective Liberator The Magnet Miss Masque Princess Pantha Pyroman The Scarab The Woman in Red American Crusader American Eagle Black Terror Captain Future Doc Strange Fighting Yank The Ghost Grim Reaper Judy of the Jungle Kara the Jungle Princess Lance Lewis, Space Detective Liberator The Magnet Miss Masque Princess Pantha Pyroman The Scarab The Woman in Red Novelty Press Blue Bolt Dick Cole The Target The Targeteers The Twister Blue Bolt Dick Cole The Target The Targeteers The Twister Prize Publications Atomic-Man Black Owl Fighting American Green Lama Yank & Doodle Atomic-Man Black Owl Fighting American Green Lama Yank & Doodle Quality Comics Archie O'Toole #711 Black Condor Blackhawk Blue Tracer Bozo the Iron Man Captain Triumph Doll Girl Doll Man Firebrand Human Bomb Invisible Hood The Jester Kid Eternity Lady Luck Madame Fatal Magno Manhunter Merlin the Magician Midnight Miss America Miss Fear Mouthpiece Neon the Unknown Phantom Lady Plastic Man Quicksilver The Ray Red Bee Red Torpedo The Spider Spider Widow Uncle Sam Wildfire Wonder Boy Woozy Winks Archie O'Toole #711 Black Condor Blackhawk Blue Tracer Bozo the Iron Man Captain Triumph Doll Girl Doll Man Firebrand Human Bomb Invisible Hood The Jester Kid Eternity Lady Luck Madame Fatal Magno Manhunter Merlin the Magician Midnight Miss America Miss Fear Mouthpiece Neon the Unknown Phantom Lady Plastic Man Quicksilver The Ray Red Bee Red Torpedo The Spider Spider Widow Uncle Sam Wildfire Wonder Boy Woozy Winks Timely Comics All-Winners Squad American Ace The Angel Black Marvel Black Widow Claire Voyant Blazing Skull Blonde Phantom Blue Blade Blue Diamond Breeze Barton Bucky Bucky Barnes Captain America Captain Wonder The Challenger Citizen V The Destroyer Dynamic Man Father Time Ferret Fiery Mask The Fin Golden Girl Human Torch Jack Frost Laughing Mask Marvel Boy Mercury Miss America Miss Fury Mister E Namor Namora The Patriot Phantom Reporter Red Raven Rockman Silver Scorpion Sun Girl Super Rabbit Thin Man Thunderer Tim Mulrooney Toro Venus Vision Whizzer Robert Frank Witness Young Allies All-Winners Squad American Ace The Angel Black Marvel Black Widow Claire Voyant Claire Voyant Blazing Skull Blonde Phantom Blue Blade Blue Diamond Breeze Barton Bucky Bucky Barnes Bucky Barnes Captain America Captain Wonder The Challenger Citizen V The Destroyer Dynamic Man Father Time Ferret Fiery Mask The Fin Golden Girl Human Torch Jack Frost Laughing Mask Marvel Boy Mercury Miss America Miss Fury Mister E Namor Namora The Patriot Phantom Reporter Red Raven Rockman Silver Scorpion Sun Girl Super Rabbit Thin Man Thunderer Tim Mulrooney Toro Venus Vision Whizzer Robert Frank Robert Frank Witness Young Allies Misc. American Comics Group Superkatt Anglo-American Publishing Commander Steel Atlas Publications Captain Atom Bell Features The Brain Johnny Canuck Nelvana of the Northern Lights Cardal Publishing Streamline Columbia Comics The Face Skyman David McKay Publications Mandrake the Magician The Phantom DC Thomson The Amazing Mr X Jack Flash Dynamic Publications Dynamic Man Yankee Girl Eastern Color Printing Buck Rogers Hydroman Phantom Magician EC Comics Moon Girl Superduperman Elliot Publishing Company Kismet, Man of Fate Fiction House Fantomah Hillman Periodicals Airboy The Heap Holyoke Publishing Cat-Man Kitten Miss Victory L. Miller & Son, Ltd. Kid Marvelman Marvelman Young Marvelman Magazine Enterprises Funnyman Maple Leaf Publishing Brok Windsor Iron Man Rural Home Publications Green Turtle Street & Smith The Avenger Doc Savage The Shadow Supersnipe American Comics Group Superkatt Superkatt Anglo-American Publishing Commander Steel Commander Steel Atlas Publications Captain Atom Captain Atom Bell Features The Brain Johnny Canuck Nelvana of the Northern Lights The Brain Johnny Canuck Nelvana of the Northern Lights Cardal Publishing Streamline Streamline Columbia Comics The Face Skyman The Face Skyman David McKay Publications Mandrake the Magician The Phantom Mandrake the Magician The Phantom DC Thomson The Amazing Mr X Jack Flash The Amazing Mr X Jack Flash Dynamic Publications Dynamic Man Yankee Girl Dynamic Man Yankee Girl Eastern Color Printing Buck Rogers Hydroman Phantom Magician Buck Rogers Hydroman Phantom Magician EC Comics Moon Girl Superduperman Moon Girl Superduperman Elliot Publishing Company Kismet, Man of Fate Kismet, Man of Fate Fiction House Fantomah Fantomah Hillman Periodicals Airboy The Heap Airboy The Heap Holyoke Publishing Cat-Man Kitten Miss Victory Cat-Man Kitten Miss Victory L. Miller & Son, Ltd. Kid Marvelman Marvelman Young Marvelman Kid Marvelman Marvelman Young Marvelman Magazine Enterprises Funnyman Funnyman Maple Leaf Publishing Brok Windsor Iron Man Brok Windsor Iron Man Rural Home Publications Green Turtle Green Turtle Street & Smith The Avenger Doc Savage The Shadow Supersnipe The Avenger Doc Savage The Shadow Supersnipe United States Comics Speculative fiction Media from Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Authority control databases International VIAF 2 GND FAST VIAF 2 2 GND FAST National United States France BnF data Czech Republic Spain Taiwan Chile Argentina Sweden Israel Catalonia United States France BnF data Czech Republic Spain Taiwan Chile Argentina Sweden Israel Catalonia Academics ORCID ORCID Artists MusicBrainz FID MusicBrainz FID People DDB DDB Other IdRef Open Library NARA SNAC Te Papa (New Zealand) Yale LUX IdRef Open Library NARA SNAC Te Papa (New Zealand) Yale LUX DC Comics superheroes Batman Batman characters Batman elements introduced in 1939 1939 comics debuts 1939 establishments in the United States Characters created by Bill Finger Characters created by Bob Kane Comics characters introduced in 1939 Culture of the United States DC Comics American superheroes DC Comics businesspeople DC Comics film characters DC Comics male superheroes DC Comics martial artists DC Comics orphans DC Comics scientists Fictional American detectives Fictional aviators Fictional billionaires Fictional business executives Fictional characters with eidetic memory Fictional characters with post-traumatic stress disorder Fictional criminologists Fictional engineers Fictional escapologists Fictional foster carers Fictional gentleman detectives Fictional hackers Fictional hybrid martial artists Fictional inventors in comics Fictional martial arts trainers Fictional philanthropists Fictional socialites Fictional torturers Fictional victims of sexual assault Superheroes with alter egos Superhero detectives Vigilante characters in comics Justice League characters Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from July 2016 Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from February 2021 Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing suspected AI-generated texts from January 2026 Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages Use mdy dates from July 2020 Converted comics character infoboxes Converted category character infoboxes All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2022 Pages using Sister project links with wikidata mismatch Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata This page was last edited on 10 January 2026, at 04:28 (UTC) . 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Portada Portal de la comunidad Actualidad Cambios recientes Páginas nuevas Página aleatoria Ayuda Notificar un error Páginas especiales Donaciones Crear una cuenta Acceder Donaciones Crear una cuenta Acceder Contenidos Inicio 1 Biomas 2 Características 3 Pastizales de cultivo 4 Degradación Alternar subsección Degradación 4.1 Causas 4.1.1 Intensificación del uso del suelo 4.1.2 Cambio climático 4.1.3 Forestación o introducción de especies invasoras 4.1.4 Gestión 4.2 Tipos de degradación 4.2.1 Cambio de la cubierta terrestre 4.1 Causas 4.1.1 Intensificación del uso del suelo 4.1.2 Cambio climático 4.1.3 Forestación o introducción de especies invasoras 4.1.4 Gestión 4.1.1 Intensificación del uso del suelo 4.1.2 Cambio climático 4.1.3 Forestación o introducción de especies invasoras 4.1.4 Gestión 4.2 Tipos de degradación 4.2.1 Cambio de la cubierta terrestre 4.2.1 Cambio de la cubierta terrestre 5 Véase también 6 Referencias 7 Enlaces externos Herbazal Afrikaans العربية Asturianu বাংলা བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Català Cebuano Čeština Dansk Deutsch English Eesti Euskara فارسی Français Nordfriisk Frysk Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 Taqbaylit 한국어 മലയാളം ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ မြန်မာဘာသာ नेपाल भाषा Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski پنجابی Português Runa Simi Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски සිංහල Simple English Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Vahcuengh 中文 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí 粵語 Artículo Discusión Leer Editar Ver historial Leer Editar Ver historial Lo que enlaza aquí Cambios en enlazadas Subir archivo Enlace permanente Información de la página Citar esta página Obtener URL acortado Descargar código QR Crear un libro Descargar como PDF Versión para imprimir Wikimedia Commons Elemento de Wikidata Los herbazales o pastizales son aquellos ecosistemas donde predomina la vegetación herbácea . Estos ecosistemas pueden ser de origen natural constituyendo extensos biomas , o ser producto de la intervención humana con fines de la crianza de ganado o recreación . El término pradera también es de amplio uso para referirse a los terrenos herbáceos; sin embargo el uso extendido de otros términos como sabanas y estepas ha circunscrito en cierto sentido el uso de pradera a los pastizales de Norteamérica . Más de un cuarto de la Tierra está cubierto por pastizales. Los pastizales se encuentran en cada continente excepto en la Antártica , y estos forman la mayor parte de África y Asia . Existen diferentes tipos de pastizales, para distinguirlos se los denomina con nombres diversos como praderas, estepas, llanos , sabanas, pampas , veld , etc. Los pastizales se desarrollan en lugares donde no cae suficiente agua de lluvia para que se desarrolle un bosque , pero en donde es mucha como para que exista un desierto . Los pastizales están repletos justamente de pasto (hierbas). A los campos de trigo se los considera pastizales, a pesar de que casi siempre son cultivados . Durante épocas de frío el pasto queda adormecido hasta que reverdece nuevamente. Además, las praderas son uno de los biomas más grandes de la Tierra y dominan el paisaje en todo el mundo. [ 1 ] Existen diferentes tipos de praderas: praderas naturales, praderas seminaturales y praderas agrícolas. [ 1 ] Cubren entre el 31 y el 69% de la superficie terrestre del planeta. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Herbazal En ciertas condiciones que dependen del clima , el suelo y otros factores, las tierras no resultan favorables para el desarrollo de bosques o matorrales , mientras que muchas hierbas suelen ser resistentes a las condiciones más extremas de frío, falta de lluvia y alta montaña. Es así que pueden desarrollarse diversos tipos de herbazales o pastizales naturales como: Praderas , como las Grandes Llanuras y las pampas , que son de clima templado. [ 1 ] Estepas , asociadas al clima continental semiárido , especialmente en Asia. [ 1 ] Sabanas , relacionadas con el clima tropical seco o de sabana . [ 1 ] Herbazal alpino , como la pradera alpina y el pajonal de puna , que son de clima alpino . [ 1 ] Humedales herbáceos , como las sabanas y praderas inundadas. Biomas El WWF considera que hay 4 biomas donde los herbazales son predominantes: 07. Herbazales y matorrales tropicales y subtropicales (sabanas) 08. Herbazales y matorrales templados (praderas y estepas) 09. Herbazales de inundación (pantanos o pantanales) 10. Herbazales y matorrales montanos (pastizales alpinos) Características Suelen situarse entre los desiertos y los bosques, con precipitaciones entre los 250 y 600 mm dependiendo de la temperatura y naturaleza del suelo. En zonas tropicales puede llover hasta 1200 mm, dada la mayor evaporación . [ 1 ] Predominan las gramíneas , que pueden ser muy pequeñas hasta las más altas con 2.50 m . La fauna la constituyen grandes o pequeños herbívoros y sus depredadores . Cuando estos ecosistemas se usan como pastos naturales para el ganado doméstico, se puede llegar a la desertificación por sobrepastoreo . Pastizales de cultivo Los pastizales o herbazales de cultivo son las plantaciones de pastos que el hombre realiza con diferentes propósitos: apacentamiento directo por el ganado, preparación de forraje o recreación. No hay una estandarización que defina claramente los diversos tipos de pastizales para el aprovechamiento humano, pero a grandes rasgos tenemos los siguientes: Prado , para pastoreo, está conformado por pastos de regadío y destinados para alimentación del ganado. Dehesa , prado arbolado de clima mediterráneo . Cultivo forrajero : cultivo de pasto, heno , ensilaje y especies forrajeras; predominan las hierbas, pero también leguminosas o cereales para complementación proteica en la alimentación del ganado. Césped , para jardinería , recreación y deportes . Degradación Los pastizales se encuentran entre los ecosistemas más amenazados. [ 4 ] Según la Unión Internacional para la Conservación de la Naturaleza (UICN), la amenaza más importante para los pastizales es el uso humano de la tierra, especialmente la agricultura y la minería. [ 5 ] La vulnerabilidad de los pastizales se deriva de una serie de factores, como la clasificación errónea, la escasa protección y el cultivo. [ 6 ] Causas Intensificación del uso del suelo Los pastizales tienen una extensa historia de actividad humana y perturbación . [ 7 ] Para alimentar a una población humana cada vez mayor, la mayoría de los pastizales del mundo dejan de ser paisajes naturales para convertirse en campos de maíz, trigo u otros cultivos. Los pastizales que han permanecido prácticamente intactos hasta ahora, como las sabanas de África oriental, corren peligro de desaparecer a causa de la agricultura. Los pastizales son muy sensibles a las perturbaciones, como la caza y muerte de especies clave o el arado de la tierra para crear más espacio para las granjas. La vegetación de los pastizales es a menudo un plagioclimax ; que permanece dominante en una zona concreta debido normalmente al pastoreo , la tala o los incendios naturales o provocados por el hombre, todo lo cual desalienta la colonización y la supervivencia de plántulas de árboles y arbustos. [ 8 ] Algunas de las mayores extensiones de pastizales del mundo se encuentran en la sabana africana, y estas son mantenidas por herbívoros salvajes, así como por pastoralistas nómadas y su ganado , ovejas o cabras. Los pastizales influyen en el cambio climático debido a que la descomposición de la hojarasca es más lenta que en los bosques. [ 9 ] Los pastizales pueden aparecer de forma natural o como resultado de la actividad humana. Las culturas cazadoras de todo el mundo suelen prender fuego con regularidad para mantener y ampliar los pastizales y evitar que se arraiguen árboles y arbustos intolerantes al fuego. Las praderas de hierba alta del U.S. Midwest pueden haberse extendido hacia el este hasta Illinois , Indiana y Ohio por la acción humana. Gran parte de los pastizales del noroeste de Europa se desarrollaron después del Período Neolítico , cuando la gente fue talando el bosque para crear zonas para la cría de su ganado. [ 10 ] Cambio climático Los pastizales suelen encontrarse en zonas con precipitaciones anuales de entre 600 mm (23,6 plg) y 1500 mm (59,1 plg) y temperaturas medias anuales de entre -5 y 20 °C. [ 11 ] Sin embargo, algunos pastizales se dan en condiciones climáticas más frías (-20 °C) y más cálidas (30 °C). Los pastizales pueden existir en hábitats frecuentemente perturbados por el pastoreo o el fuego, ya que dicha perturbación impide la invasión de especies leñosas . [ 12 ] La riqueza de especies es particularmente alta en pastizales de baja fertilidad del suelo como barrens serpentine y pastizales calcáreos, donde se previene la invasión de especies leñosas ya que los bajos niveles de nutrientes en el suelo pueden inhibir el crecimiento de especies forestales y arbustivas. Otro predicamento común experimentado a menudo por las malhadadas criaturas de las praderas es la quema constante de plantas, alimentada por el oxígeno y muchos organismos fotosintetizadores caducados, con la falta de lluvia empujando este problema a mayores alturas. [ 13 ] Cuando no está limitado por otros factores, el aumento de la concentración de CO 2 en el aire aumenta el crecimiento de las plantas, al igual que la eficiencia en el uso del agua, que es muy importante en las regiones más secas. Sin embargo, las ventajas de CO 2 elevado están limitadas por factores que incluyen la disponibilidad de agua y los nutrientes disponibles, particularmente nitrógeno. Por lo tanto, los efectos del CO 2 elevado sobre el crecimiento de las plantas variarán según los patrones climáticos locales, las adaptaciones de las especies a las limitaciones de agua y la disponibilidad de nitrógeno. Los estudios indican que el agotamiento de los nutrientes puede ocurrir más rápido en las regiones más secas y con factores como la composición de la comunidad vegetal y el pastoreo. La deposición de nitrógeno de los contaminantes del aire y el aumento de la mineralización de temperaturas más altas pueden aumentar la productividad de las plantas, pero los aumentos a menudo se encuentran entre un descuento en la biodiversidad ya que las plantas de crecimiento más rápido superan a otras. Un estudio de un pastizal de California descubrió que el cambio global puede acelerar la reducción de la diversidad y que las especies forbosas son las más propensas a este proceso. [ 14 ] Forestación o introducción de especies invasoras Los esfuerzos de forestación equivocados, por ejemplo como parte del esfuerzo global para aumentar la captura de carbono, pueden dañar los pastizales y sus servicios ecosistémicos básicos. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] Los esfuerzos de restauración centrados en los bosques pueden crear el riesgo de interpretar y clasificar erróneamente los paisajes. [ 6 ] Un mapa creado por el Instituto de Recursos Mundiales en colaboración con la UICN identifica 2.000 millones de hectáreas para una posible restauración forestal . Se critica que incluya 900 millones de hectáreas de praderas. [ 17 ] [ 18 ] Se espera que las gramíneas no autóctonas sigan superando a las especies autóctonas en las condiciones más cálidas y secas que se dan en muchos pastizales debido al cambio climático. [ 19 ] Gestión El tipo de gestión del suelo utilizado en los pastizales también puede provocar su pérdida/degradación. Muchos pastizales y otros ecosistemas abiertos dependen de perturbaciones como incendios forestales , quemas controladas y/o pastoreo para persistir, aunque este tema sigue siendo controvertido. [ 20 ] Un estudio realizado en los pastizales del altiplano subtropical brasileño descubrió que los pastizales sin una gestión tradicional de la tierra -que utiliza el fuego cada dos años y el pastoreo extensivo del ganado- pueden desaparecer en 30 años. [ 21 ] Este estudio demostró que los pastizales dentro de áreas protegidas en las que no se permite el fuego y está prohibido el pastoreo de ganado, los pastizales eran rápidamente sustituidos por arbustos. Tipos de degradación Cambio de la cubierta terrestre La cubierta terrestre siempre ha cambiado a lo largo de los años. Lo que sigue se refiere a los cambios entre 1960 y 2015. Se ha producido una disminución de los pastizales seminaturales y un aumento de las zonas con tierras de cultivo , bosques y tierras utilizadas para infraestructura y edificios. El estilo de las líneas y su grosor relativo indican el porcentaje de la superficie total que ha cambiado. No se incluyen los cambios inferiores al 1% ni las clases de cobertura del suelo con todos los cambios inferiores al 1% (es decir, humedales seminaturales y agua). [ 22 ] En 1960 la mayor parte de la tierra, el 49,7%, estaba cubierta de bosque y también había más pastizales seminaturales (18,8%) que tierras de cultivo (15,8%). En 2015 esto ha cambiado drásticamente. La cubierta forestal ha aumentado (50,8%) y la tierra cultivable también (20,4%), pero la cubierta de pastizales seminaturales ha disminuido. Aunque sigue cubriendo una gran superficie de la tierra (10,6%). [ 22 ] Una cuarta parte de los pastizales seminaturales se perdió debido a la intensificación, es decir, se convirtió en tierras de cultivo o pastos y bosques. [ 23 ] Es más probable que la intensificación se produzca en praderas planas seminaturales, especialmente si el suelo es fértil. Por otro lado, es más probable que los pastizales en los que el terreno es propenso a la sequía o menos productivo persistan como pastizales seminaturales que los pastizales con suelo fértil y escasa pendiente del terreno. [ 24 ] Además, la accesibilidad de la tierra también es importante, ya que así es más fácil fertilizarla, por ejemplo. Por ejemplo, si se encuentra cerca de una carretera. Con el desarrollo de la tecnología, cada vez es más fácil cultivar tierras con una pendiente más pronunciada, en detrimento de los pastizales. La gestión de los pastizales también está cambiando permanentemente. Hay un mayor uso de fertilizantes minerales, además se eliminan bordes y lindes de los campos para ampliarlos y se nivela el terreno para facilitar el uso de maquinaria agrícola. [ 22 ] El estudio profesional de los pastizales secos entra dentro de la categoría de gestión de pastizales, que se centra en los servicios ecosistémicos asociados a los pastizales áridos y semiáridos del mundo dominados por gramíneas. Se calcula que los pastizales representan el 70% de la masa terrestre; por ello, muchas culturas, incluidas las de Estados Unidos, están en deuda con la economía que ofrecen los pastizales del mundo, desde la producción de animales de pastoreo, el turismo, los servicios ecosistémicos como el agua y el aire limpios, y la extracción de energía. [ 25 ] Vastas áreas de pastizales se ven afectadas por la invasión leñosa, que es la expansión de plantas leñosas a expensas de la capa herbácea. La invasión leñosa es causada por una combinación de impacto humano (p. ej., exclusión de incendios, exceso de ganado y pastoreo excesivo resultante) y factores ambientales (es decir, niveles elevados de CO 2 en la atmósfera). Puede tener graves consecuencias negativas en los servicios ecosistémicos clave, como la productividad de la tierra y la recarga de las aguas subterráneas. Véase también Cebada Ganadería ecológica Referencias ↑ a b c d e f g Gibson, David J. Grasses and grassland ecology . New York. ISBN 978-0-19-154609-9 . OCLC 308648056 . ↑ Conant, Richard T. (2010). Desafíos y oportunidades para el secuestro de carbono en los sistemas de pastizales : un informe técnico sobre la gestión de los pastizales y la mitigación del cambio climático . FAO . ISBN 978-92-5-106494-8 . OCLC 890677450 . ↑ Chapin III, F. Stuart; Sala, Osvaldo E.; Huber-Sannwald, Elisabeth (2013). Biodiversidad mundial en un entorno cambiante: Escenarios para el siglo XXI . Springer . ISBN 978-1-4613-0157-8 . OCLC 1059413892 . ↑ Hoekstra, Jonathan M.; Boucher, Timothy M.; Ricketts, Taylor H.; Roberts, Carter (3 de diciembre de 2004). «Confronting a biome crisis: global disparities of habitat loss and protection: Confronting a biome crisis» . Ecology Letters 8 (1): 23-29. doi : 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2004.00686.x . ↑ «010 - Proteger y restaurar los ecosistemas de pastizales y sabanas en peligro» . UICN Congreso Mundial de la Naturaleza 2020 (en inglés) . Consultado el 1 de junio de 2021 . ↑ a b Stevens, Nicola; Bond, William; Feurdean, Angelica; Lehmann, Caroline E.R. (17 de octubre de 2022). «Grassy Ecosystems in the Anthropocene» . Annual Review of Environment and Resources (en inglés) 47 (1): annurev-environ-112420-015211. ISSN 1543-5938 . S2CID 251265576 . doi : 10.1146/annurev-environ-112420-015211 . ↑ «Pastizales y cambio climático | Climate Change Resource Center» . www.fs.usda.gov . Archivado desde el original el 23 de octubre de 2020 . Consultado el 20 de mayo de 2020 . ↑ Ochoa-Hueso, R.; Delgado-Baquerizo, M.; King, P.T.A.; Benham, M.; Arca, V.; Power, S.A. (2019). «El tipo de ecosistema y la calidad de los recursos son más importantes que los impulsores del cambio global en la regulación de las primeras etapas de la descomposición de la hojarasca». Soil Biology and Biochemistry 129 : 144-152. S2CID 92606851 . doi : 10.1016/j.soilbio.2018.11.009 . ↑ Liu, Jun; Feng, Chao; Wang, Deli; Wang, Ling; Wilsey, Brian J.; Zhong, Zhiwei (Agosto 2015). «El impacto del pastoreo de diferentes grandes herbívoros en pastizales depende de la diversidad de especies vegetales». En Firn, Jennifer, ed. Journal of Applied Ecology 52 (4): 1053-1062. doi : 10.1111/1365-2664.12456 . ↑ «Información y datos sobre los pastizales» . National Geographic (en inglés) . 15 de marzo de 2019 . Consultado el 20 de mayo de 2020 . ↑ «EO Experiments: Bioma de los pastizales» . Earthobservatory.nasa.gov . Archivado desde el original el 27 de octubre de 2000 . Consultado el 1 de diciembre de 2011 . ↑ com/ «Investigación geográfica» . Geographical Inquiry . Consultado el 20 de mayo de 2020 . ↑ Craven, Dylan; Isbell, Forest; Manning, Pete; Connolly, John; Bruelheide, Helge; Ebeling, Anne; Roscher, Christiane; van Ruijven, Jasper; Weigelt, Alexandra; Wilsey, Brian; Beierkuhnlein, Carl (2016- 05-19). «Plant diversity effects on grassland productivity are robust to both nutrient enrichment and drought» . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences (en inglés) 371 (1694): 20150277. ISSN 0962-8436 . PMC 4843698 . PMID 27114579 . doi : 10.1098/rstb.2015.0277 . ↑ «Grassland Carbon Management | Climate Change Resource Center» . www.fs.usda.gov . Consultado el 20 de mayo de 2020 . ↑ «¿Pueden las campañas de árboles frenar el cambio climático sin dañar los pastizales?» . Scienceline (en inglés estadounidense) . 28 de mayo de 2021 . Consultado el 1 de junio de 2021 . ↑ Di Sacco, Alice; Hardwick, Kate A.; Blakesley, David; Brancalion, Pedro H. S.; Breman, Elinor; Cecilio Rebola, Loic; Chomba, Susan; Dixon, Kingsley; Elliott, Stephen; Ruyonga, Godfrey; Shaw, Kirsty (Abril 2021). «Diez reglas de oro de la reforestación para optimizar el secuestro de carbono, la recuperación de la biodiversidad y los beneficios para la subsistencia». Global Change Biology 27 (7): 1328-1348. ISSN 1354-1013 . PMID 33494123 . doi : 10.1111/gcb.15498 . ↑ Dasgupta, Shreya (1 de junio de 2021). in/environment/many-tree-planting-campaigns-are-based-on-flawed-science/ «Muchas campañas de plantación de árboles se basan en datos científicos erróneos» . The Wire Science . Consultado el 12 de junio de 2021 . ↑ Bond, William J.; Stevens, Nicola; Midgley, Guy F.; Lehmann, Caroline E.R. (Noviembre 2019). «El problema con los árboles: Planes de forestación para África» . Trends in Ecology & Evolution 34 (11): 963-965. PMID 31515117 . S2CID 202568025 . doi : 10.1016/j.tree.2019.08.003 . ↑ Duell, Eric B.; Londe, Dave W.; Hickman, K. R.; Greer, Mitchell J.; Wilson, Gail W. T. (15 de julio de 2021). «El rendimiento superior de las gramíneas invasoras sobre sus homólogas autóctonas seguirá siendo problemático en condiciones más cálidas y secas» . Plant Ecology (en inglés) 222 (9): 993-1006. ISSN 1385-0237 . S2CID 237775557 . doi : 10.1007/s11258-021-01156-y . ↑ Mistry, Jayalaxshmi; Schmidt, Isabel Belloni; Eloy, Ludivine; Bilbao, Bibiana (3 de junio de 2022). «Nuevas perspectivas en el manejo del fuego en sabanas sudamericanas: La importancia de la gobernanza intercultural» . Ambio (en en- US) 48 (2): 172-179. PMC 6346601 . PMID 29752682 . doi : 10.1007/s13280-018-1054-7 . ↑ Sühs, Rafael Barbizan; Giehl, Eduardo Luís Hettwer; Peroni, Nivaldo (3 de junio de 2022). «Impedir la gestión tradicional puede causar la pérdida de pastizales en 30 años en el sur de Brasil» . Scientific Reports 10 (1): 783. PMC 6972928 . PMID 31964935 . doi : 10.1038/s41598-020-57564-z . ↑ a b c Aune, Sigrun; Bryn, Anders; Hovstad, Knut Anders (4 de julio de 2018). «Pérdida de pastizales seminaturales en un paisaje boreal: impactos de la intensificación agrícola y el abandono». Journal of Land Use Science 13 (4): 375-390. ISSN 1747-423X . doi : 10.1080/1747423X.2018.1539779 . ↑ Monteiro, Antonio T.; Fava, Francesco; Hiltbrunner, Erika; Della Marianna, Giampaolo; Bocchi, Stefano (Abril 2011). «Evaluación de los cambios en la cobertura del suelo y de los factores espaciales detrás de la pérdida de prados permanentes en las tierras bajas de los Alpes italianos». Landscape and Urban Planning 100 (3): 287-294. ISSN 0169-2046 . doi : 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2010.12.015 . ↑ Cousins, Sara A. O.; Auffret, Alistair G.; Lindgren, Jessica; Tränk, Louise (Enero de 2015). «Cambio de la cubierta terrestre a escala regional durante el siglo XX y sus consecuencias para la biodiversidad» . Ambio 44 (S1): 17-27. ISSN 0044-7447 . PMC 4288995 . PMID 25576277 . doi : 10.1007/s13280-014-0585-9 . ↑ «Pastizales del mundo» . www.fao.org . Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Agricultura y la Alimentación . Archivado desde el original el 18 de agosto de 2020 . Consultado el 20 de mayo de 2020 . Enlaces externos Praderas, sabanas y estepas Control de autoridades Proyectos Wikimedia Datos: Q1006733 Multimedia: Grasslands / Q1006733 Identificadores LCCN : sh85056528 NDL : 01025306 NKC : ph126724 NLI : 987007538563605171 NARA : 10638949 AAT : 300008874 Diccionarios y enciclopedias Britannica : url Identificadores médicos MeSH : D065948 DeCS : 35107 UMLS: C0442534 Proyectos Wikimedia Datos: Q1006733 Multimedia: Grasslands / Q1006733 Identificadores LCCN : sh85056528 NDL : 01025306 NKC : ph126724 NLI : 987007538563605171 NARA : 10638949 AAT : 300008874 Diccionarios y enciclopedias Britannica : url Identificadores médicos MeSH : D065948 DeCS : 35107 UMLS: C0442534 Datos: Q1006733 Multimedia: Grasslands / Q1006733 Herbazal Términos botánicos Wikipedia:Artículos con identificadores LCCN Wikipedia:Artículos con identificadores AAT Esta página se editó por última vez el 22 dic 2025 a las 04:13. 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https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbazal
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Help | Advanced Search quick links Login Help Pages About Computer Science > Artificial Intelligence Title: Generative AI collective behavior needs an interactionist paradigm Abstract: In this article, we argue that understanding the collective behavior of agents based on large language models (LLMs) is an essential area of inquiry, with important implications in terms of risks and benefits, impacting us as a society at many levels. We claim that the distinctive nature of LLMs--namely, their initialization with extensive pre-trained knowledge and implicit social priors, together with their capability of adaptation through in-context learning--motivates the need for an interactionist paradigm consisting of alternative theoretical foundations, methodologies, and analytical tools, in order to systematically examine how prior knowledge and embedded values interact with social context to shape emergent phenomena in multi-agent generative AI systems. We propose and discuss four directions that we consider crucial for the development and deployment of LLM-based collectives, focusing on theory, methods, and trans-disciplinary dialogue. Subjects: Artificial Intelligence (cs.AI) ; Computers and Society (cs.CY); Human-Computer Interaction (cs.HC); Machine Learning (cs.LG); Multiagent Systems (cs.MA) Cite as: arXiv:2601.10567 [cs.AI] (or arXiv:2601.10567v1 [cs.AI] for this version) Focus to learn more arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite (pending registration) Submission history Access Paper: View PDF HTML (experimental) TeX Source References & Citations NASA ADS Google Scholar Semantic Scholar BibTeX formatted citation Bookmark Bibliographic and Citation Tools Code, Data and Media Associated with this Article Demos Recommenders and Search Tools Author Venue Institution Topic arXivLabs: experimental projects with community collaborators arXivLabs is a framework that allows collaborators to develop and share new arXiv features directly on our website. Both individuals and organizations that work with arXivLabs have embraced and accepted our values of openness, community, excellence, and user data privacy. arXiv is committed to these values and only works with partners that adhere to them. Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? Learn more about arXivLabs . About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status arXiv Operational Status
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https://arxiv.org/abs/2601.10567v1
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Dimensions and planes of existence Toggle Dimensions and planes of existence subsection 1.1 Matter/Object — Physical sciences 1.2 Life/Organism — Biological sciences 1.3 Mind/Animal — (Basic) psychological sciences 1.4 Culture/Person — Human social sciences 1.1 Matter/Object — Physical sciences 1.2 Life/Organism — Biological sciences 1.3 Mind/Animal — (Basic) psychological sciences 1.4 Culture/Person — Human social sciences 2 Theoretical joint points Toggle Theoretical joint points subsection 2.1 Quantum gravity 2.2 The modern synthesis 2.3 Behavioral investment theory 2.4 Justification systems theory 2.1 Quantum gravity 2.2 The modern synthesis 2.3 Behavioral investment theory 2.4 Justification systems theory 3 The "problem of psychology" Toggle The "problem of psychology" subsection 3.1 Solution 3.1 Solution 4 Consciousness and human behavior 5 Toward the integration of human knowledge 6 See also 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 External links Tree of knowledge system العربية Español فارسی Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . ( Learn how and when to remove these messages ) A major contributor to this article appears to have a close connection with its subject. It may require cleanup to comply with Wikipedia's content policies, particularly neutral point of view . Please discuss further on the talk page . See our advice if the article is about you and read our scam warning in case someone asks for money to edit this article. ( October 2020 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines . Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references . ( September 2022 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) A major contributor to this article appears to have a close connection with its subject. It may require cleanup to comply with Wikipedia's content policies, particularly neutral point of view . Please discuss further on the talk page . See our advice if the article is about you and read our scam warning in case someone asks for money to edit this article. ( October 2020 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines . Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references . ( September 2022 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) The tree of knowledge ( ToK ) system is a new [ when? ] map of Big History that traces cosmic evolution across four different planes of existence, identified as Matter, Life, Mind and Culture that are mapped respectively by the physical, biological, psychological and social domains of science. The Tree of Knowledge (ToK) System was developed by Gregg Henriques , who is a professor and core faculty member in the Combined-Integrated Doctoral Program in Clinical and School Psychology at James Madison University . [ 1 ] The ToK System is part of a larger Unified Theory of Knowledge that Henriques describes as a consilient scientific humanistic philosophy for the 21st Century. The official Unified Theory of Knowledge website describes the ToK System as: [ 2 ] [A] theory of scientific knowledge that defines the human knower in relation to the known. It achieves this novel accomplishment by solving the problem of psychology and giving rise to a truly consilient view of the scientific landscape. It accomplishes this via dividing the evolution of behavioral complexity into four different planes of existence...The ToK also characterizes modern empirical natural science as a kind of justification system that functions to map complexity and change. [A] theory of scientific knowledge that defines the human knower in relation to the known. It achieves this novel accomplishment by solving the problem of psychology and giving rise to a truly consilient view of the scientific landscape. It accomplishes this via dividing the evolution of behavioral complexity into four different planes of existence...The ToK also characterizes modern empirical natural science as a kind of justification system that functions to map complexity and change. The outline of the ToK System was first published in 2003 in Review of General Psychology . [ 3 ] Two special issues of the Journal of Clinical Psychology in December 2004 [ 4 ] and January 2005 [ 5 ] were devoted to the elaboration and evaluation of the model. In 2008, a special issue of Theory & Psychology [ 6 ] was devoted to the ToK System. In 2011, Henriques published A New Unified Theory of Psychology . That same year he also launched the blog Theory of Knowledge: A Unified Approach to Psychology and Philosophy on Psychology Today , which remains active. There is also a Theory Of Knowledge Society and discussion listserve that is devoted to discussing Henriques' work and other big picture viewpoints. In some ways, the ToK System reflects a fairly common hierarchy of nature and of the sciences that has been represented in one way or another since the time of Auguste Comte , who in the 19th century used a hierarchical conception of nature to argue for the existence of sociology. It also has clear parallels with Aristotle's conception of the scales of nature and the first four levels of the Great Chain of Being . Despite some overlap with a number of traditional schemes, the ToK System is properly thought of as a new theory of both ontic reality and our scientific knowledge of that reality. One of the most important and salient features of the Tree of Knowledge is how it represents reality as consisting of four different planes of existence. The theory is that, following Matter, Life, Mind and Culture each represent complex adaptive landscapes that are organized and mediated by novel emergent information processing and communication systems. Specifically, DNA/RNA store information that is processed by cells which then engage in intercellular communication to create the plane of existence called Life. Similarly, the brain and nervous system store and process information in animals which then engage in communication networks on the complex adaptive plane called Mind. Finally, linguistic storage and processing and communication between human beings generates the emergence of the Culture-Person plane of existence. The separable planes of existence or dimension of complexity argument is one of the most crucial aspects of the system. Many have argued nature is hierarchically leveled; for example, a list of such levels might be subatomic particles , atoms , molecules , cells , organ structures, multi-celled organisms, consciousness , and society is common. The ToK System embraces a view of nature as levels, but adds the notion that there are also separable dimensions of complexity . The difference becomes particularly clear in the extension of the ToK System into the Periodic Table of Behavior . The Periodic Table of Behavior (PTB) shows that natural science can be arranged in terms of the four fundamental dimensions (i.e., matter, life, mind, and culture) and three fundamental levels of analysis (i.e., part, whole, group). The PTB also demonstrates that behavior is a central concept in science. Epistemologically, natural scientists view the world via a third person behavioral lens. Ontologically, science is about mapping different kinds of behaviors that take place in nature at various levels and dimensions of analysis. The second central insight of the ToK System is that it shows how natural science is a particular kind of justification system that emerges out of Culture based on novel methods and specific epistemological commitments and assumptions (i.e., an exterior view point, quantification and experimentation). This epistemology and methodology functions to justify scientific ontology, which in turn maps the ontic reality. Specifically, the domains of the physical, biological, (basic) psychological and social sciences map the ontic dimensions of matter, life, mind and culture. The Periodic Table of Behavior further shows how science is a justification system that is arranged to map behavioral frequencies at different dimensions of complexity and levels of analysis. Dimensions and planes of existence This section relies largely or entirely on a single source . Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page . Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources at this section. ( April 2024 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) Matter/Object — Physical sciences The dimension of matter refers to the set of material objects and their behaviors through time. In accordance with modern cosmology , matter is theorized to have emerged from a pure energy singularity at the Big Bang . Space and time were also born at such a point. Nonliving material objects range in complexity from subatomic particles to large organic molecules. The physical sciences (i.e., physics , chemistry , geology, astronomy ) describe the behavior of material objects. [ 3 ] Life/Organism — Biological sciences The dimension of life refers to organisms and their behaviors through time. Living objects are considered a unique subset of material objects. Just as quantum particles form the fundamental units of material complexity, genes are the fundamental units of living information. Although many questions about the emergence of life remain unanswered, in accordance with modern biology, the ToK posits that natural selection operating on genetic combinations through time is the unified theory of biology and forms the foundational understanding for the emergence of organic complexity. [ 3 ] Mind/Animal — (Basic) psychological sciences Mind/cognition in the ToK system refers to the set of mental behaviors. Mental behaviors are behaviors of animals mediated by the nervous system that produce a functional effect on the animal-environment relationship. As such, Mind/cognition is essentially synonymous with what behavioral psychologists have meant when they use the term behavior. Thus, a fly avoiding a fly swatter, a rat pushing a bar or a human getting a drink of water are all mental behaviors. Mind is not synonymous with sentience or the capacity for mental experience, although such processes are presumed to emerge in the mental/cognitive dimension. Cognition , in the broad sense of the term is meaning bodily-neuro-social information processing, as in EEEE Cognition: Embodied, Embedded, Enactive, Extended. While cognitive science stands for naturalist study of mind, psychology is an approach grounded in the tradition of humanities, especially philosophy. Thus, by defining mind as mental behavior, Henriques argues that the ToK System provides a way to bridge the epistemological differences between cognitive and behavioral science . [ 3 ] Henriques argues that comparative psychology , ethology, and (animal) cognitive behavioral neuroscience should all be thought of as parts of the discipline that maps the animal-mental domain. Culture/Person — Human social sciences Culture in the ToK system refers to the set of sociolinguistic behaviors, which range from large scale nation states to individual human justifications for particular actions. Just as genetic information processing is associated with the Life dimension and neuronal information processing associated with the Mind dimension, symbolic information processing emerges with the Cultural dimension. [ 3 ] Henriques argues that human cognitive science, human psychology and the social sciences (i.e., anthropology, sociology, political science, and economics) work to map this domain. Theoretical joint points Quantum gravity Quantum gravity refers to the imagined merger between the twin pillars of physical science which are quantum mechanics , the study of the microscopic (e.g., electrons), and general relativity , the science of the macroscopic (e.g., galaxies ). Currently, these two great domains of science cannot be effectively interwoven into a single, physical Theory of Everything , yet progress is being made, most notably through string theory , loop quantum gravity , black hole thermodynamics and the study of the early universe. Some of the difficulties combining these two pillars of physical science are philosophical in nature and it is possible that the macro view of knowledge offered by the ToK may eventually aid in the construction of a coherent theory of quantum gravity. The reason the ToK might help is that it locates scientific knowledge in relationship to the physical universe. The modern synthesis The modern synthesis refers to the merger of genetics with natural selection which occurred in the 1930s and 1940s and offers a reasonably complete framework for understanding the emergence of biological complexity. Although there remain significant gaps in biological knowledge surrounding questions such as the origin of life and the emergence of sexual reproduction, the modern synthesis represents the most complete and well-substantiated joint point. Behavioral investment theory Behavioral investment theory (BIT) is a metatheoretical formulation for the mind, brain and animal behavioral sciences. Henriques proposes that it enables the merger of the selection science of behaviorism with the information science of cognitive neuroscience that has conceptual parallels with the modern synthesis. BIT posits that the nervous system evolved as an increasingly flexible computational control system that coordinates the behavioral expenditure of energy of the animal as a whole. Expenditure of behavioral energy is theorized to be computed on an investment value system built evolutionarily through natural selection operating on genetic combinations and ontogenetically through behavioral selection operating on neural combinations. As such, the current behavioral investments of the animal are conceptualized as the joint product of the two vectors of phylogeny and ontogeny . A unique element of BIT is that it finds a core of agreement and builds bridges between five brain-behavior paradigms: (1) cognitive science ; (2) behavioral science ; (3) evolutionary theory and genetics; (4) neuroscience; and (5) cybernetics / systems theory . David C. Geary noted the similarities between his "motive-to-control" hypothesis and Henriques' Behavioral Investment Theory, which were developed independently of each other. Furthermore, Geary suggested that his model "seem[ed] to fill in many of the proximate mechanisms and evolutionary pressures that define the life-mind joint point, and provided a framework for further development of the mind-culture joint point." [ 7 ] Justification systems theory The justification systems theory (JUST; formerly known as the justification hypothesis) posits that the evolution of language reached a tipping point with emergence of propositional claims. Specifically, propositional claims can be questioned, which generates the "question-answer" dynamic. This creates the problem of justification, which Henriques argues drives both the design of the human self-consciousness system as a mental organ of justification and gives rise to the evolution of the Culture-Person plane of existence. JUST is a novel proposal that allows for both the understanding of the evolution of culture and for identifying what makes humans distinct animals. A basic initial claim of JUST is that the process of justification is a crucial component of human mental behavior at both the individual and societal level. Unlike all other animals, humans everywhere ask for and give explanations for their actions. Arguments, debates, moral dictates, rationalizations, and excuses all involve the process of explaining why one's claims, thoughts or actions are warranted. In virtually every form of social exchange, from warfare to politics to family struggles to science, humans are constantly justifying their behavioral investments to themselves and others. JUST consists of three key postulates: The first is that the evolution of propositional language must have created the problem of justification, which involves three interlocking problems of deciphering what is (1) analytically true and what is (2) good for the group and (3) good for the individual. The second postulate is that the structure and functional design of human consciousness can be understood as a solution to the problem of justification. Specifically, the three domains of human consciousness that Henriques identifies in the Updated Tripartite Model of the (1) experiential; (2) private narrator; and (3) public narrator are directly consistent with adaptive pressures that arise from the logic of the problem of justification. This analysis deepens when one considers the dynamic relationships and filtering that takes place between these three domains. The third postulate is that culture can be understood as large scale justification systems that coordinate the behavior of human populations. Cultural systems are seen to evolve much in the same way as organisms do in biological evolution: there is a process of variation, selection and retention of belief systems. The "problem of psychology" The ToK System emerged as a consequence of Henriques wrestling with what he calls "the problem of psychology". Henriques argues that the most difficult problem in psychology as a discipline is that while there is incredible diversity offered by different approaches to psychology, and there is no consensus model of what psychology actually is. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] Specifically, Henriques argues that the field lacks a clear definition, an agreed upon subject matter, and a coherent conceptual framework . The problem has been long standing, identified as the "crisis" by Lev Vygotsky in the mid 1920s. Henriques further argues that the patent tendency of psychology has been toward theoretical and substantial fragmentation and increasing insularity among the "specialties." In other words, the discipline has fragmented into different schools of thought and methodology, with no overall framework to interpret and integrate the research of different areas. At its best, the different approaches are a strength of psychology; different approaches lead to novel ideas, and prevent psychologists from clinging to a paradigm that fails to explain a phenomenon. At its worst, adherents of one particular school cling to their beliefs concerning the relative importance of their research and disregard or are ignorant of different approaches. In most cases, individual psychologists have to determine for themselves which elements of which perspective to apply, and how to integrate them into their overall understanding. Henriques argues that the problem of psychology is a central feature of modern knowledge systems. In A New Unified Theory of Psychology , he described it as follows: The problem of psychology is the joint observation that the field cannot be coherently defined and yet it connects more deeply than any other discipline to the three great branches of learning. Taken together, these observations suggest that the problem of psychology is a profound problem in academia at large. This conclusion is bolstered by the fact that as psychology has lumbered along acquiring findings but not foundational clarity, the fragmentation of human knowledge has grown exponentially. All of this suggests that the question, "What is psychology?" is profoundly important, one of the central questions in all of philosophy. Asking the right questions is often the most important step in getting the right answer. My interest in psychotherapy integration ultimately led me to ask the question, "What is psychology?”. Although I had no idea at the time, it turns out that this is the right question. And, as startling as it sounds, because psychology connects to so many different domains, the correct answer to it opens up a whole new vision for integrating human knowledge. The problem of psychology is the joint observation that the field cannot be coherently defined and yet it connects more deeply than any other discipline to the three great branches of learning. Taken together, these observations suggest that the problem of psychology is a profound problem in academia at large. This conclusion is bolstered by the fact that as psychology has lumbered along acquiring findings but not foundational clarity, the fragmentation of human knowledge has grown exponentially. All of this suggests that the question, "What is psychology?" is profoundly important, one of the central questions in all of philosophy. Asking the right questions is often the most important step in getting the right answer. My interest in psychotherapy integration ultimately led me to ask the question, "What is psychology?”. Although I had no idea at the time, it turns out that this is the right question. And, as startling as it sounds, because psychology connects to so many different domains, the correct answer to it opens up a whole new vision for integrating human knowledge. The reason for psychology's fragmentation, according to the ToK System, is that there has been no meta-theoretical frame that allows scholars to agree on the basic questions that need to be addressed. As such, the different schools of thought in psychology are like the blind men who each grab a part of the elephant and proclaim they have discovered its true nature. With its novel depiction of evolving dimensions of complexity, the ToK allows scholars finally to see the elephant. In his 2003 Review of General Psychology paper, [ 8 ] Henriques used the ToK System with the attempt to clarify and align the views of B.F. Skinner and Sigmund Freud . These luminaries were chosen because when one considers their influence and historical opposition, it can readily be argued that they represent two schools of thought that are the most difficult to integrate. Henriques used the meta-perspective offered by the ToK to argue how one can retain the key insights from each school of thought, identify errors and points of confusion, and integrate the insights into a coherent whole. Cultural and personality psychologist, Michael Katzko, [ 10 ] however critiques Henriques' position on "the problem of psychology": There is a very good reason for skepticism regarding the repeated claims that the one unique problem of psychology, applicable across the entire discipline, has been identified and that the ToK System solves it. The reason is given by the detail with which alternatives have been worked out, be they historical studies of institutional development or critical commentaries on the rhetorical structure of psychology's literature. [ 11 ] There is a very good reason for skepticism regarding the repeated claims that the one unique problem of psychology, applicable across the entire discipline, has been identified and that the ToK System solves it. The reason is given by the detail with which alternatives have been worked out, be they historical studies of institutional development or critical commentaries on the rhetorical structure of psychology's literature. [ 11 ] Solution The problem of psychology, according to the ToK, is its conceptual incoherence, which Henriques identifies by the following: When the various conceptions of psychology (e.g., behavioral, humanistic, cognitive) are viewed through the lens of the ToK System, psychology spans two different dimensions of complexity: the mental and the cultural. In other words, the discipline has historically spanned two fundamentally separate problems: If, as previously thought, nature simply consisted of levels of complexity, psychology would not be crisply defined in relationship to biology or the social sciences. And, indeed, it is frequently suggested that psychology exists in an amorphous space between biology and the social sciences. However, with its dimension of complexity depiction, the ToK System suggests that psychology can be crisply defined as the science of mind, which is the third dimension of complexity. Furthermore, because human behavior exists in the fourth dimension, psychology must be divided into two broad scientific domains of Psychological formalism is defined as the science of mind and corresponds to the behavior of animal objects. Human psychology is considered to be a unique subset of psychological formalism that deals with human behavior at the level of the individual. Because human behavior is immersed in the larger socio-cultural context (level four in the ToK System), human psychology is considered a hybrid discipline that merges the pure science of psychology with the social sciences. It is important to point out that there are other disciplines the ToK System would classify as “hybrids.” Molecular genetics, for example, is a hybrid between chemistry and biology and neuroscience is a hybrid between biology and psychology. As with Henriques' proposed conception of human psychology, both of these disciplines adopt an object level perspective (molecular and cellular, respectively) on phenomena that simultaneously exist as part of meta-level system processes (life and mind, respectively). [ 9 ] Though David A. F. Haaga "congratulate[d] Dr. Henriques' ambitious, scholarly, provocative paper", and "found the Tree of Knowledge taxonomy, the theoretical joint points, the evolutionary history, and the levels of emergent properties highly illuminating", he asks the rhetorical questions, If it is so difficult to define terms such as 'psychology' with such precision, why bother? Why not just agree that we all have at least a rough idea of what psychology is, and take the rest of the afternoon off? After all, if theoretical or empirical work improves our understanding of some aspect of the world or our fellow people, or improves our ability to help people enhance their physical or emotional well being, what difference does it make whether this work is considered a part of psychology, of cognitive science, of behavioral neuroscience, of public health, or what have you? This raises the question of what definitions in general are good for. [ 12 ] If it is so difficult to define terms such as 'psychology' with such precision, why bother? Why not just agree that we all have at least a rough idea of what psychology is, and take the rest of the afternoon off? After all, if theoretical or empirical work improves our understanding of some aspect of the world or our fellow people, or improves our ability to help people enhance their physical or emotional well being, what difference does it make whether this work is considered a part of psychology, of cognitive science, of behavioral neuroscience, of public health, or what have you? This raises the question of what definitions in general are good for. [ 12 ] In a similar vein, Scott O. Lilienfeld, who described Henriques' effort as "thoughtful", contended that psychology is "an inherently fuzzy concept that resists precise definition" and that "attempts to define psychology [would be] likely to hamper rather than foster consilience across disciplines". Lilienfield went on further to suggest that the scientist-practitioner gap in psychology lies not in definitional issues, but in different "epistemic attitudes" between these two groups. He stated that scientists have an epistemic attitude of empiricism , (where questions regarding human nature are settled by scientific evidence), and that practitioners have an epistemic attitude of romanticism , (where questions of human nature are settled by intuition). Lilienfeld suggested that the solution to the scientist-practitioner gulf isn't definitional, but in "train[ing] future clinical scientists to appreciate the proper places of romanticism and empiricism within science". [ 13 ] Consciousness and human behavior A frequent question and point of confusion in the ToK System is the definition and meaning of consciousness . As mentioned above, mind is not synonymous with consciousness. And, to understand consciousness from a ToK vantage point, it is crucial to recognize that the term is often ambiguous in its meaning. Two primary meanings are sentience , which is the capacity for mental experience and self-awareness , which is the capacity to be aware of one's awareness. Sentience is conceptualized as a "level 3" phenomenon, possessed by many animals other than humans and is defined as a "perceived" electro-neuro-chemical representation of animal-environment relations. The ingredient of neurological behavior that allows for the emergence of mental experience is considered the "hard" problem of consciousness and the ToK System does not address this question explicitly. In contrast, through the Justification Hypothesis (see below), the ToK System involves a very direct analysis of the other issue of consciousness, that of self-awareness . Another frequent question that is raised is "Where does individual human behavior fall on the ToK?" To analyze human behavior from the context of the ToK, one uses the ToK like a prism to separate the dimensions of behavior into physiochemical, biogenetic, neuropsychological and sociolinguistic. Thus if we imagine a conversation between a husband and wife as follows: Wife: “You are late again.” Husband: “Please, not now. It was a stressful day, traffic was bad, and you know that if work needs to be done, I can’t just leave it.” Wife: “You are late again.” Husband: “Please, not now. It was a stressful day, traffic was bad, and you know that if work needs to be done, I can’t just leave it.” The words represent the sociolinguistic dimension and are understood as a function of justification. Justification systems are seen both at the level of individual, micro-social and societal (i.e., the context of justification in which men work and women stay at home). The actions of the husband and wife in terms of facial expression , body movement, etc. are seen as the mental dimension and are understood as a function of behavioral investment. The physiological make up of the organ systems and cells of each body is seen as the biogenetic dimension. Finally, the position, temperature, molecular make up is seen as the physiochemical dimension. Each of the more basic dimensions represent conditions of possibility that allow for the emergence of the higher dimension of process. Thus, insufficient oxygen disrupts organic processes which in turn renders neuropsychological and sociolinguistic processes impossible. Toward the integration of human knowledge As stated above, the ToK System proposes a new epistemology with the goal of moving academic knowledge toward what E.O. Wilson termed consilience . Consilience is the interlocking of fact and theory into a coherent, holistic view of knowledge. Henriques argues that the ToK affords new perspectives on how knowledge is obtained because it depicts how science emerges from culture and that the four dimensions of complexity correspond to four broad classes of science: the physical, biological, psychological and social sciences. Henriques further argues that developing such a system for integrating knowledge is not just an academic enterprise. He suggests that in an increasingly complex world, the fragmented state of knowledge can be seen as one of the most pressing social problems of our time. Henriques also believes that history seems to attest that the absence of a collective worldview ostensibly condemns humanity to an endless series of conflicts that inevitably stem from incompatible, partially correct, locally situated justification systems. Thus, from Henriques' perspective, there are good reasons for believing that if there was a shared, general background of explanation, humanity might be able to achieve much greater levels of harmonious relations. In a 2008 article on the ToK, [ 14 ] Henriques cites Oliver Reiser 's 1958 call for unifying scientific knowledge that Henriques implies is similar in theme to the ToK: With its depiction of the dimensions of complexity and interlocking theoretical joint points, Henriques' believes that his ToK System offers new avenues that might allow scholars to meet Reiser’s call for academic synthesis. Henriques, like Reiser, believes that with a shared sense of purpose and a common background of explanation, people might yet be able to integrate bodies of knowledge into a unified interpretation of humanity, with humanity's place in nature and its potentialities for creating the good society. See also Tree of knowledge (philosophy) by René Descartes Tinbergen's four questions Behavioral repertoire Consilience Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge – 1998 book by E.O. Wilson Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge – 1998 book by E.O. Wilson Descriptive psychology General System Theory Psychological behaviorism Social meaning-making The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution – 1959 book by C. P. Snow Unified theory of cognition Unity of science Metasystem transition References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} " "About Me" section of the ToK System website" . Archived from the original on 5 December 2008 . Retrieved 3 January 2009 . ^ " "The Tree of Knowledge System" section of the 8 key ideas in the Unified Theory of Knowledge website" . Archived from the original on 2 July 2022 . Retrieved 2 July 2022 . ^ a b c d e Henriques, G.R. (2003). The Tree of Knowledge System and the Theoretical Unification of Psychology. Archived 25 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine Review of General Psychology, 7, 150–182. ^ "Defining Psychology: Articles and Commentaries on a New Unified Theory (Part 1): Journal of Clinical Psychology: Vol 60, No 12" . Archived from the original on 3 March 2011 . Retrieved 30 July 2021 – via Wiley Online Library. ^ "Defining Psychology: Articles and Commentaries on a New Unified Theory (Part 2): Journal of Clinical Psychology: Vol 61, No 1" . Archived from the original on 16 December 2012 . Retrieved 30 July 2021 – via Wiley Online Library. ^ "Theory & Psychology - Volume 18, Number 6, Dec 01, 2008" . Sage Journals . ^ Geary, D. C. (2005). The motivation to control and the origin of mind: Exploring the life-mind joint point in the tree of knowledge. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 21–46. ^ a b Henriques, G.R. (2003). The tree of knowledge system and the theoretical unification of psychology. Archived 25 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine Review of General Psychology, 7, 150–182. ^ a b Henriques, G.R. (2004). Psychology Defined Archived 10 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine . Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1207–1221. ^ Homepage of Michael Katzko ^ Katzko, M. W. (2008). Pruning the Tree of Knowledge. Theory & Psychology , 18, 817–828. Abstract ^ Haaga, D.A.F. (2004). Defining psychology: What can it do for us? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1227–1230. ^ Lilienfeld, S.O. (2004). Defining psychology: Is it worth the trouble? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1249–1253. ^ Henriques, G.R. (2008). The problem of psychology and the integration of human knowledge: Contrasting Wilson's Consilience with the Tree of Knowledge System. Theory & Psychology, 18, 731–755. Final draft ^ Reiser, O.L. (1958). The integration of human knowledge. Boston: Porter Sargent. Bibliography Anchin, J.C. (2008). The critical role of the dialectic in viable metatheory: A commentary on Henriques' Tree of Knowledge System for integrating human knowledge. Theory & Psychology, 18, 801–816. Full text Calhoun, L.G. (2004). The unification of psychology: A noble quest. Journal of Clinical Psychology , 60, 1283–1289. Abstract Geary, D. C. (2005). The motivation to control and the origin of mind: Exploring the life-mind joint point in the tree of knowledge. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 21–46. Full text Gilbert, P. (2004). A much needed macro level view: A commentary on Henriques’ psychology defined. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1223–1226. Full text Goertzen, J.R. (2008). On the possibility of unification: The reality and nature of the crisis in psychology. Theory & Psychology, 18, 829–852. Full text Haaga, D.A.F. (2004). Defining psychology: What can it do for us? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1227–1230. Full text Hayes, S.C. (2004). Taxonomy as a contextualist views it. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1231–1236. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2008). The problem of psychology and the integration of human knowledge: Contrasting Wilson's Consilience with the Tree of Knowledge System. Theory & Psychology, 18, 731–755. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2005). A new vision for the field: Introduction to the second special issue on the unified theory. Journal of Clinical Psychology , 61, 3–6. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2005). Toward a useful mass movement. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 121–139. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2004). Psychology Defined. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1207–1221. Full text Archived 10 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine Henriques, G.R. (2004). The development of the unified theory and the future of psychotherapy. Psychotherapy Bulletin, 39, 16–21. Final draft Henriques, G.R., & Cobb, H.C. (2004). Introduction to the special issues on the unified theory. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1203–1205. Full text Henriques, G.R., & Sternberg, R. J. (2004). Unified professional psychology: Implications for combined-integrated doctoral training programs. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1051–1063. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2003). The Tree of Knowledge System and the Theoretical Unification of Psychology. Review of General Psychology, 7, 150–182. Full text Archived 25 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine . Henriques, G.R. (2002). The harmful dysfunction analysis and the differentiation between mental disorder and disease. Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice , 1, 157–173. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2000). Depression: Disease or behavioral shutdown mechanism? Journal of Science and Health Policy, 1, 152–165. Full text Jones, R. (2005). From that dirty little science grows a Tree of Knowledge. The Madison, 1, 36–45. Full text Katzko, M.W. (2008). Pruning the Tree of Knowledge. Theory & Psychology, 18, 817–828. Full text Katzko, M.W. (2004). Psychology's dilemma: An institutional neurosis? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1237–1242. Full text Kihlstrom, J.F. (2004). Unity within psychology, and unity between science and practice. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1243–1247. Full text Lilienfeld, S.O. (2004). Defining psychology: Is it worth the trouble? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1249–1253. Full text Mayer, J.D. (2004). How does psychotherapy influence personality? A theoretical integration. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1291–1315. Full text Presbury, J. (2004). Rooting the tree of knowledge: A response to Henriques’ psychology defined. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1255–1258. Full text Quackenbush, S.W. (2008). Theoretical unification as a practical project: Kant and the Tree of Knowledge System. Theory & Psychology, 18, 757–777. Full text Quackenbush, S.W. (2005). Remythologizing culture: Narrativity, justification, and the politics of personalization. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 67–80. Full text Archived 16 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine Rand, K.L., & Ilardi, S.S. (2005). Toward a consilient science of psychology. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 7–20. Full text Shaffer, L.S. (2008). Religion as a large-scale justification system: Does the Justification Hypothesis explain animistic attribution? Theory & Psychology, 18, 779–799. Full text Shaffer, L.S. (2006). Durkheim's aphorism, the Justification Hypothesis, and the nature of social facts. Sociological Viewpoints, fall issue, 57–70. Full text Shaffer, L.S. (2005). From mirror self-recognition to the looking glass self: Exploring the justification hypothesis. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 47–65 . Full text Shealy, C.N. (2005). Justifying the justification hypothesis: Scientific-humanism, Equilintegration (EI) Theory, and the Beliefs, Events, and Values Inventory (BEVI). Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 81–106. Full text Slife, B. (2005). Testing the limits of Henriques' proposal: Wittgensteinian lessons and hermenuetic dialogue. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 107–120. Full text Stam, H.J. (2004). Unifying psychology: Epistemological act or disciplinary maneuver? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1259–1262. Full text Stanovich, K.E. (2004). Metarepresentation and the great cognitive divide: A commentary on Henriques' "Psychology Defined". Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1263–1266. Full text Stricker, G. (2004). The unification of psychology and psychological organizations. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1267–1269. Full text Vazire, S., & Robins, R.W. (2004). Beyond the Justification Hypothesis: A Broader Theory of the Evolution of Self-Consciousness. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1271–1273. Full text Viney, W. (2004). Pluralism in the sciences is not easily dismissed. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1275–1278. Full text Yanchar, S.C. (2004). Some discontents with theoretical unification. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1279–1281. Full text External links The Official Tree of Knowledge Website Archived 6 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine Tree of Knowledge System/Expert article by Gregg Henriques at the Psychology Wiki This page uses content from the English-language version of Psychology Wiki . The original article was at Tree of Knowledge System/Expert article by Gregg Henriques . The list of authors can be seen in the page history . The text of both The Psychology Wiki and Wikipedia is available under the GNU Free Documentation License . 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Portalada A tabierna Zaguers cambeos Una pachina a l'azar Aduya Pachinas especials Donativos Creyar cuenta Dentrar-ie Donativos Creyar cuenta Dentrar-ie Contenidos Inicio 1 Causas d'a Segunda Guerra Mundial Alternar subsección Causas d'a Segunda Guerra Mundial 1.1 Tractau de Versailles y tractaus complementarios 1.2 A crisis d'a democracia en Alemanya 1.3 O nacionalismo expansivo 1.3.1 Alemanya 1.3.2 Austria 1.3.3 Belchica 1.3.4 Bulgaria 1.3.5 Chapón 1.3.6 Espanya 1.3.7 Estonia 1.3.8 Francia 1.3.9 Grecia 1.3.10 Italia 1.3.11 Letonia 1.3.12 Lituania 1.3.13 Hongría 1.3.14 Polonia 1.3.15 Reino Uniu 1.3.16 Rumanía 1.3.17 Rusia 1.3.18 Servia 1.3.19 Turquía 1.3.20 Unión Sovietica 1.3.21 Minorías no estatals 1.3.21.1 Eslovacos 1.3.21.2 Bosnios 1.3.21.3 Croatas 1.4 O nazismo alemán 1.5 O militarismo chaponés 1.6 Inoperancia d'a Sociedat de Nacions 1.7 Aislacionismo estausunidense 1.1 Tractau de Versailles y tractaus complementarios 1.2 A crisis d'a democracia en Alemanya 1.3 O nacionalismo expansivo 1.3.1 Alemanya 1.3.2 Austria 1.3.3 Belchica 1.3.4 Bulgaria 1.3.5 Chapón 1.3.6 Espanya 1.3.7 Estonia 1.3.8 Francia 1.3.9 Grecia 1.3.10 Italia 1.3.11 Letonia 1.3.12 Lituania 1.3.13 Hongría 1.3.14 Polonia 1.3.15 Reino Uniu 1.3.16 Rumanía 1.3.17 Rusia 1.3.18 Servia 1.3.19 Turquía 1.3.20 Unión Sovietica 1.3.21 Minorías no estatals 1.3.21.1 Eslovacos 1.3.21.2 Bosnios 1.3.21.3 Croatas 1.3.1 Alemanya 1.3.2 Austria 1.3.3 Belchica 1.3.4 Bulgaria 1.3.5 Chapón 1.3.6 Espanya 1.3.7 Estonia 1.3.8 Francia 1.3.9 Grecia 1.3.10 Italia 1.3.11 Letonia 1.3.12 Lituania 1.3.13 Hongría 1.3.14 Polonia 1.3.15 Reino Uniu 1.3.16 Rumanía 1.3.17 Rusia 1.3.18 Servia 1.3.19 Turquía 1.3.20 Unión Sovietica 1.3.21 Minorías no estatals 1.3.21.1 Eslovacos 1.3.21.2 Bosnios 1.3.21.3 Croatas 1.3.21.1 Eslovacos 1.3.21.2 Bosnios 1.3.21.3 Croatas 1.4 O nazismo alemán 1.5 O militarismo chaponés 1.6 Inoperancia d'a Sociedat de Nacions 1.7 Aislacionismo estausunidense 2 Os antecedents d'o conflicto Alternar subsección Os antecedents d'o conflicto 2.1 Invasión de Manchuria y guerra en China 2.2 Annexión d'Austria 2.3 Guerra Civil Espanyola 2.4 Annexión de Checoslovaquia 2.1 Invasión de Manchuria y guerra en China 2.2 Annexión d'Austria 2.3 Guerra Civil Espanyola 2.4 Annexión de Checoslovaquia 3 Os países en conflicto 4 Teatros d'operacions militars 5 O desarrollo d'a guerra Alternar subsección O desarrollo d'a guerra 5.1 Guerra en Europa, Africa y Orient Meyo 5.2 Guerra en Extremo Orient y l'Oceano Pacifico 5.1 Guerra en Europa, Africa y Orient Meyo 5.2 Guerra en Extremo Orient y l'Oceano Pacifico 6 Consecuencias d'a guerra Alternar subsección Consecuencias d'a guerra 6.1 Organización d'as Nacions Unidas 6.1 Organización d'as Nacions Unidas 7 Crimens de guerra 8 Aragoneses en a Segunda Guerra Mundial 9 Bibliografía 10 Se veiga tamién 11 Vinclos externos 12 Referencias Segunda Guerra Mundial Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Ænglisc العربية الدارجة مصرى অসমীয়া Asturianu Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Башҡортса Basa Bali Boarisch Žemaitėška Bikol Central Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български भोजपुरी Bislama ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ বাংলা བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Batak Mandailing Буряад Català Chavacano de Zamboanga 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Нохчийн Cebuano کوردی Corsu Qırımtatarca Čeština Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ Чӑвашла Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Thuɔŋjäŋ Zazaki Dolnoserbski डोटेली ދިވެހިބަސް Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Võro Føroyskt Français Arpetan Nordfriisk Furlan Frysk Gaeilge 贛語 Kriyòl gwiyannen Gàidhlig Galego گیلکی Avañe'ẽ ગુજરાતી Gaelg Hausa 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Hornjoserbsce Kreyòl ayisyen Magyar Հայերեն Արեւմտահայերէն Interlingua Jaku Iban Bahasa Indonesia Interlingue Igbo Ilokano Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Patois La .lojban. Jawa ქართული Qaraqalpaqsha Taqbaylit Адыгэбзэ Kabɩyɛ Tyap Қазақша ភាសាខ្មែរ ಕನ್ನಡ Yerwa Kanuri 한국어 Къарачай-малкъар کٲشُر Ripoarisch Kurdî Коми Kernowek Кыргызча Latina Ladino Lëtzebuergesch Лакку Лезги Lingua Franca Nova Limburgs Ligure Ladin Lombard ລາວ Lietuvių Latviešu Madhurâ मैथिली Basa Banyumasan Мокшень Malagasy Олык марий Māori Minangkabau Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Malti Mirandés မြန်မာဘာသာ مازِرونی Napulitano Plattdüütsch Nedersaksies नेपाली नेपाल भाषा Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål ߒߞߏ Diné bizaad Chi-Chewa Occitan Livvinkarjala ଓଡ଼ିଆ Ирон ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Papiamentu Picard Deitsch Pälzisch Polski Piemontèis پنجابی پښتو Português Runa Simi Rumantsch Română Tarandíne Русский Русиньскый संस्कृतम् Саха тыла ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Sardu Sicilianu Scots سنڌي Davvisámegiella Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Taclḥit සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Gagana Samoa Anarâškielâ ChiShona Soomaaliga Shqip Српски / srpski Seeltersk Sunda Svenska Kiswahili Ślůnski Sakizaya தமிழ் తెలుగు Тоҷикӣ ไทย Türkmençe Tagalog Tolışi Toki pona Türkçe Татарча / tatarça Тыва дыл ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt West-Vlams Volapük Walon Winaray Wolof 吴语 მარგალური ייִדיש Yorùbá Vahcuengh Zeêuws 中文 文言 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí 粵語 Pachina Discusión Leyer Editar Modificar codigo Amostrar l'historial Leyer Editar Modificar codigo Amostrar l'historial Pachinas que enlazan con ista Cambios relacionatos Cargar fichero Vinclo permanent Información d'a pachina Citar ista pachina Obtener URL acortado Descargar código QR Cambiar al analizador antiguo Creyar un libro Descargar como PDF Versión ta imprentar Wikimedia Commons Elemento de Wikidata Iste articlo ye en proceso de cambio enta la ortografía oficial de Biquipedia (la Ortografía de l'aragonés de l' Academia Aragonesa d'a Luenga ). Puez aduyar a completar este proceso revisando l'articlo, fendo-ie los cambios ortograficos necesarios y sacando dimpués ista plantilla. Segunda Guerra Mundial [[]] A bomba atomica sobre a ciudat de Nagasaki , o 9 d'agosto de 1945 . Información cheneral Calendata : 1 de setiembre de 1939 - 2 de setiembre de 1945 Puesto : Europa , Africa , Asia , America , Oceanía Resultau : Victoria aliada ; Desaparición d'o Tercer Reich , o nazismo , o faixismo italiano y o militarismo chaponés ; creyación de l' ONU ; Guerra Fría entre os Estaus Unius y a Unión Sovietica ; Descolonización . En conflicto Potencias de l'Eixe : Tercer Reich , Italia , Chapón y atros Aliaus : Imperio Britanico , Polonia Francia , Unión Sovietica , Estaus Unius China y atros Comandants Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hirohito Winston Churchill Edward Rydz-Śmigły Charles de Gaulle Iósif Stalin Chiang Kai-Shek Baixas Soldatos : Mas de 8.000.000 de muertos Civils : Mas de 4.000.000 de muertos Soldatos : Mas de 14.000.000 de muertos Civils : Mas de 36.000.000 de muertos {{{mapa}}} {{{descripción_mapa}}} Segunda Guerra Mundial Teatro d'operacions d'Europa y d'Africa d'o Norte • Teatro d'operacions d'Africa Oriental y d'Orient Meyo • Teatro d'operacions d'Asia y d'o Pacifico • Batalla de l'Atlantico Tropas de l' Exercito estausunidense camín ta a placha d' Omaha Beach , en o desembarco de Normandía o 6 de chunio de 1944 . Fotografía de Robert Cappa . Junkers Ju-87 , uno d'os primers avions de bombardeyo tactico d'a Luftwaffe alemana, elemento clau en a Blitzkrieg d'a Wehrmacht en as primeras anyadas d'a guerra. Esfensas de l' Exercito britanico contra o Deutsches Afrika Korps en a Primera batalla de l'Alamein , o 17 de chulio de 1942 . A Segunda Guerra Mundial estió una guerra que duró dende l'anyo 1939 dica o 1945 entre a mayor parte d'os países independients en ixas calendatas, y en que habió batallas en Europa , Asia , Africa , America y Oceanía , con batallas en tierra, mar y aire. Dica hue, ye a guerra mas mortifera d'a Historia, con estimacions de mas de 65.000.000 de muertos, en cifras conservadoras. As prencipals batallas estioron en Europa , norte d' Africa y en o sector de l' Oceano Pacifico . Lo establimiento d'una calendata d'o suyo inicio ye variau seguntes os expertos y historiadores, a mas consensuada ye que a guerra s'inició o día 1 de setiembre de 1939 con a invasión de Polonia por o Tercer Reich , encara que atros dicen que prencipió o 3 de setiembre , con a declaración de guerra de Francia y o Reino Uniu contra o Tercer Reich . Ta atros, prencipió en China en 1937 con o clamato Incident d'o puent de Marco Polo y a invasión de China por o Chapón . Ta atros encara, a Guerra Civil Espanyola en 1936 ye una d'as guerras predecesoras d'a Segunda Guerra Mundial, como l'annexión d' Austria ( Anschluss ) y de Checoslovaquia en 1938 dimpués d'os ditos Pactos de Munich . A guerra remató o 2 de setiembre de 1945 con a rendición incondicional d'o Chapón , y supuso a desaparición d'as ideyas politicas d'o nazismo en Alemanya , d'o faixismo en Italia y d'o militarismo expansionista en o Chapón . Amás, anque se creyó a Organización d'as Nacions Unidas , a Guerra Fría entre os Estaus Unius y a Unión Sovietica dividió Europa en as siguients 50 anyadas. Tamién dio un empentón a un proceso de descolonización d'os territorios colonials europeus, que rematarba en os anyos 1960 . Tamién ye important porque en os clamatos Chudicios de Nuremberg y en atros similars s'asentoron las bases d'o Dreito Penal Internacional . A Segunda Guerra Mundial estió a primer gran guerra ideyolochica d'a historia, o que explica d'una parte os variatos procesos de colaboracionismo con os ocupants alemans u italianos , d'atra parte a existencia d'una Resistencia alemana a o nazismo en plena guerra y, en fin, la direción centralizada d'os partius comunistas d' Europa por o Partiu Comunista d'a Unión Sovietica y o suyo papel en contra d'a guerra dica a Operación Barbarroya (a invasión alemana d'a Unión Sovietica) en 1941 y a favor d'a guerra contra o Tercer Reich dimpués. Estió amás una guerra con prous crimens de guerra , comesos por toz os países, encara que os prencipals crimens de guerra y crimens contra a Humanidat estioron obra d'o nazismo , como os campos d'exterminio nazis , u o esterminio masivo d'a población chitana , chudieva ( Shoah ) u eslava , u grupos de población como os homosexuals , os Testimonios de Cheová u os disminuyius psiquicos , amás d'atras victimas (como bels centenars d' aragoneses refuchiatos en Francia dimpués d'a Guerra Civil Espanyola ). L'exercito chaponés estió responsable de fer mortaleras en China u violacions sistematicas de mullers, un crimen tamién que l' Exercito Royo cometió sistematicament dende a suya dentrada en territorio alemán en as dos zagueras anyadas d'a guerra. Antiparte, a Luftwaffe alemana estió a primera en bombardiar poblacions civils, como en Londres u en Coventry (apareixió a expresión coventrizar una ciudat ) u Rotterdam , estioron a Royal Air Force britanica y a United States Army Air Forces estausunidense os prencipals autors de bombardeyos masivos con napalm en as ciudaz alemanas, como Hamburgo u Dresde , y chaponesas, con o lanzamiento de dos bombas atomicas en Hiroshima y Nagasaki , en o primer (y dica hue, unico) uso d'una bomba atomica contra poblacions civils. Iste articlo ye en proceso de cambio enta la ortografía oficial de Biquipedia (la Ortografía de l'aragonés de l' Academia Aragonesa d'a Luenga ). Puez aduyar a completar este proceso revisando l'articlo, fendo-ie los cambios ortograficos necesarios y sacando dimpués ista plantilla. Segunda Guerra Mundial [[]] A bomba atomica sobre a ciudat de Nagasaki , o 9 d'agosto de 1945 . Información cheneral Calendata : 1 de setiembre de 1939 - 2 de setiembre de 1945 Puesto : Europa , Africa , Asia , America , Oceanía Resultau : Victoria aliada ; Desaparición d'o Tercer Reich , o nazismo , o faixismo italiano y o militarismo chaponés ; creyación de l' ONU ; Guerra Fría entre os Estaus Unius y a Unión Sovietica ; Descolonización . En conflicto Potencias de l'Eixe : Tercer Reich , Italia , Chapón y atros Aliaus : Imperio Britanico , Polonia Francia , Unión Sovietica , Estaus Unius China y atros Comandants Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hirohito Winston Churchill Edward Rydz-Śmigły Charles de Gaulle Iósif Stalin Chiang Kai-Shek Baixas Soldatos : Mas de 8.000.000 de muertos Civils : Mas de 4.000.000 de muertos Soldatos : Mas de 14.000.000 de muertos Civils : Mas de 36.000.000 de muertos {{{mapa}}} {{{descripción_mapa}}} Segunda Guerra Mundial Teatro d'operacions d'Europa y d'Africa d'o Norte • Teatro d'operacions d'Africa Oriental y d'Orient Meyo • Teatro d'operacions d'Asia y d'o Pacifico • Batalla de l'Atlantico A Segunda Guerra Mundial estió una guerra que duró dende l'anyo 1939 dica o 1945 entre a mayor parte d'os países independients en ixas calendatas, y en que habió batallas en Europa , Asia , Africa , America y Oceanía , con batallas en tierra, mar y aire. Dica hue, ye a guerra mas mortifera d'a Historia, con estimacions de mas de 65.000.000 de muertos, en cifras conservadoras. As prencipals batallas estioron en Europa , norte d' Africa y en o sector de l' Oceano Pacifico . Lo establimiento d'una calendata d'o suyo inicio ye variau seguntes os expertos y historiadores, a mas consensuada ye que a guerra s'inició o día 1 de setiembre de 1939 con a invasión de Polonia por o Tercer Reich , encara que atros dicen que prencipió o 3 de setiembre , con a declaración de guerra de Francia y o Reino Uniu contra o Tercer Reich . Ta atros, prencipió en China en 1937 con o clamato Incident d'o puent de Marco Polo y a invasión de China por o Chapón . Ta atros encara, a Guerra Civil Espanyola en 1936 ye una d'as guerras predecesoras d'a Segunda Guerra Mundial, como l'annexión d' Austria ( Anschluss ) y de Checoslovaquia en 1938 dimpués d'os ditos Pactos de Munich . A guerra remató o 2 de setiembre de 1945 con a rendición incondicional d'o Chapón , y supuso a desaparición d'as ideyas politicas d'o nazismo en Alemanya , d'o faixismo en Italia y d'o militarismo expansionista en o Chapón . Amás, anque se creyó a Organización d'as Nacions Unidas , a Guerra Fría entre os Estaus Unius y a Unión Sovietica dividió Europa en as siguients 50 anyadas. Tamién dio un empentón a un proceso de descolonización d'os territorios colonials europeus, que rematarba en os anyos 1960 . Tamién ye important porque en os clamatos Chudicios de Nuremberg y en atros similars s'asentoron las bases d'o Dreito Penal Internacional . A Segunda Guerra Mundial estió a primer gran guerra ideyolochica d'a historia, o que explica d'una parte os variatos procesos de colaboracionismo con os ocupants alemans u italianos , d'atra parte a existencia d'una Resistencia alemana a o nazismo en plena guerra y, en fin, la direción centralizada d'os partius comunistas d' Europa por o Partiu Comunista d'a Unión Sovietica y o suyo papel en contra d'a guerra dica a Operación Barbarroya (a invasión alemana d'a Unión Sovietica) en 1941 y a favor d'a guerra contra o Tercer Reich dimpués. Estió amás una guerra con prous crimens de guerra , comesos por toz os países, encara que os prencipals crimens de guerra y crimens contra a Humanidat estioron obra d'o nazismo , como os campos d'exterminio nazis , u o esterminio masivo d'a población chitana , chudieva ( Shoah ) u eslava , u grupos de población como os homosexuals , os Testimonios de Cheová u os disminuyius psiquicos , amás d'atras victimas (como bels centenars d' aragoneses refuchiatos en Francia dimpués d'a Guerra Civil Espanyola ). L'exercito chaponés estió responsable de fer mortaleras en China u violacions sistematicas de mullers, un crimen tamién que l' Exercito Royo cometió sistematicament dende a suya dentrada en territorio alemán en as dos zagueras anyadas d'a guerra. Antiparte, a Luftwaffe alemana estió a primera en bombardiar poblacions civils, como en Londres u en Coventry (apareixió a expresión coventrizar una ciudat ) u Rotterdam , estioron a Royal Air Force britanica y a United States Army Air Forces estausunidense os prencipals autors de bombardeyos masivos con napalm en as ciudaz alemanas, como Hamburgo u Dresde , y chaponesas, con o lanzamiento de dos bombas atomicas en Hiroshima y Nagasaki , en o primer (y dica hue, unico) uso d'una bomba atomica contra poblacions civils. Causas d'a Segunda Guerra Mundial [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Territorios perditos por Alemanya seguntes as clausulas d'o Tractau de Versailles . Ta mas detalles, veyer l'articlo Causas d'a Segunda Guerra Mundial veyer os articlos [[{{{2}}}]] y [[{{{3}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{4}}}]] , [[{{{5}}}]] y [[{{{6}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{7}}}]] , [[{{{8}}}]] , [[{{{9}}}]] y [[{{{10}}}]] . Ye difícil fer una relación exacta d'as causas d'a guerra, pero ye posible recollir as causas prencipals, seguntes a mayor parte d'os historiadors , que se remontan a os zaguers momentos d'a Primera Guerra Mundial . Istas causas son: As condicions imposadas en os tractaus de Versailles , Saint-Germain-en-Laye , Trianon y Neuilly a os países d'as Potencias Centrals redotatos en a Primera Guerra Mundial . A crisi en os anyos 1920 d'a democracia en a Republica de Weimar , o sistema democratico naixito en Alemanya dimpués d'a guerra. A crisi en os anyos 1920 y 1930 d'a democracia en Europa , sustituyita en a mayor parte d'os países por dictaduras . O nacionalismo expansivo present en toz os países; ye mas conoixito en os casos d' Alemanya , Italia u Chapón , encara que tamién bi n'ha d'atros. O nazismo , doctrina politica creyata en Alemanya por Adolf Hitler , que aprofita as condicions d'o país ta a suya expansión. O militarismo chaponés d'a clamata Era Showa , resultau d'o nacionalismo chaponés . A inoperancia d'a Sociedat de Nacions , a organización internacional que miraba de guaranciar a paz mundial. Ista organización no pudo evitar os succesivos grans conflictos mundials, como a conquiesta de Manchuria por Chapón , a invasión italiana d'Abisinia u a Guerra Civil espanyola , ni tampoco d'atros pasos ta la guerra, como a remilitarización de Renania , l'annexión d'os Sudetes , l' Anschluss , l'annexión de Checoslovaquia u a invasión d'Albania . L' aislacionismo estausunidense , en desentender-se iste país d'a situación politica mundial. Tractau de Versailles y tractaus complementarios [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Ta mas detalles, veyer l'articlo Tractau de Versailles veyer os articlos [[{{{2}}}]] y [[{{{3}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{4}}}]] , [[{{{5}}}]] y [[{{{6}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{7}}}]] , [[{{{8}}}]] , [[{{{9}}}]] y [[{{{10}}}]] . Ta mas detalles, veyer l'articlo Tractau de Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919) veyer os articlos [[{{{2}}}]] y [[{{{3}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{4}}}]] , [[{{{5}}}]] y [[{{{6}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{7}}}]] , [[{{{8}}}]] , [[{{{9}}}]] y [[{{{10}}}]] . Ta mas detalles, veyer l'articlo Tractau de Trianon veyer os articlos [[{{{2}}}]] y [[{{{3}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{4}}}]] , [[{{{5}}}]] y [[{{{6}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{7}}}]] , [[{{{8}}}]] , [[{{{9}}}]] y [[{{{10}}}]] . A firma d'o Tractau de Versailles , en o Salón d'os Mirallos d'o castiello de Versailles , en un cuadro d'o pintor William Orpen . En os zaguers intes d'a Primera Guerra Mundial , l' Imperio Alemán yera a o limite d'as suyas posibilidaz militars. O país yera acotolato dimpués de cinco anyadas de guerra, encara que os militars aplicoron a censura ta privar que a situación militar fuese conoixita en a retraguarda, incluyindo-ie o propio Gubierno civil. O Exercito alemán ocupaba en ixas calendatas muitos territorios en Europa , incluyindo partes de Francia y amás gran parte de Belchica . O 27 de setiembre de 1918 l'Alto mando alemán, formato por Paul von Hindenburg y Erich Ludendorff , pidió a o suyo Gubierno un armisticio inmediato con os Aliaus , basato en as propuestas d'o president d'os Estaus Unius Woodrow Wilson , os clamatos 14 puntos . Asinas, o Gubierno alemán conoixió que a guerra yera perdita, pero no pas encara a población civil. Con os primers contactos entre os belicherants, os Aliaus desichioron a modificación d'a estructura interna d'o rechimen politico alemán, pero os militars, con Ludendorff a o frent, s'oponioron, y Ludendorff dimitió d'o suyo cargo, afirmando publicament que Alemanya ganaba a guerra pero que a traiduría d'os civils imposibilitaba a vitoria. Naixeba asinas a falordia d'a punyalada por a espalda , uno d'os elementos mitolochicos en o futuro d'o nazismo . As primeras noticias d'a posible paz plegoron a Kiel , a seu d'a Kaiserliche Marine , y o vicealmirant Reinhard Scheer decidió salir a combatir contra a Royal Navy por zaguera vez, ta mantener a honor militar de l'armata. Sindembargo, os marineros, que ya conoixeban as noticias d'a paz, s'oponioron, en o clamato motín de Kiel . O 4 de noviembre de 1918 , os mariners formoron un Soviet , liberoron a os presos y inicioron a revolución, cantando A Internacional . A situación s'estenió a tota Alemanya, y o kaiser Guillermo II d'Alemanya abdicó. O 9 de noviembre yera proclamata a Republica y o SPD , a socialdemocracia alemana, formaba Gubierno, con a misión de negociar a paz con os Aliaus . A insistencia de Francia en o revanchismo contra Alemanya fació que as reunions d'as negociacions d'o Tractau de Versailles se fesen en o castiello de Versailles , en o mismo salón d'os Mirallos an que se proclamó en 1871 l' Imperio Alemán dimpués d'a redota de Francia en a Guerra Franco-prusiana . Francia heba perdito en a guerra muitas vidas, y temeba a posibilidat de recuperación d'Alemanya, por o que insistió en l'aprebación de reparacions de guerra , a pagar por os alemans. Amás, os franceses ocuporon parte d'o territorio alemán, dica o río Rin (a Renania ), y bels territorios en a marguin dreita d'o río. Republica de Weimar : Alemanya dimpués d'o Tractau de Versailles . Alemanya, dimpués d'enronar-se o país con as luitas revolucionarias y con l'albandono por l' Exercito alemán d'o frent de guerra, no teneba posibilidaz d'esfensa, por o que sinyó o Tractau, por o que, seguntes as clausulas suyas, o país cedeba importants territorios en Europa , amás de totas as suyas colonias en Africa , Asia y Oceanía . Alemanya cedeba: Alsacia y Lorena , ocupatas dende 1870 , a Francia . As ciudaz d' Eupen y Malmedy , con población francoparlant y chermanoparlant , a Belchica . Parte d'o ducau de Schleswig faría un referendum ta optar entre a suya pertenenxa a Alemanya u a Dinamarca (en 1920 , en o referendum, as ciudaz d' Aabenraa , Sønderborg y Tønder optoron por Dinamarca). O Sarre formó un estato independient, con administración internacional en as suyas primeras 15 anyadas. Prusia Ocidental pasó a mans d'a renaixita Polonia , cortando o territorio alemán con una salida a a mar Baltica , quedando a Prusia Oriental dividita d'o resto d'o territorio alemán. A ciudat baltica de Dantcig (hue Gdansk ) fue declarata estato independient (a Ciudat Libre de Dantcig , anque desmilitarizada y unita a Polonia con aduanas comuns), ta reforzar a salida polaca a a mar Baltica y que Polonia tenese un puerto neutral. En l' Alta Silesia y bels distritos de Prusia Oriental (en o sector de Masuria ) se faría tamién un referendum ta optar entre Polonia y Alemanya). Atras clausulas d'o Tractau impediban que a Reichswehr , l' exercito d'Alemanya, tenese mas de 100.000 soldatos, ni aviación militar ni carros de combate , y o servicio militar obligatorio fue abolito. Se consideraba que Alemanya (y os suyos Aliaus, as Potencias Centrals ) yeran os unicos responsables d'a guerra, y Alemanya pagaría indemnizacions de guerra ta resarcir a d'atros países ( Francia en especial) por os danyos que heba provocato en a guerra, comprendidas as pensions a os feritos y veterans de guerra. A desmembración de l' Imperio Austrohongaro dimpués d'o Tractau de Trianon . Se firmoron atros tractaus con a resta d'os perdedors d'a guerra, con clausulas pareixitas, encara que menos draconianas: o Tractau de Saint-Germain-en-Laye con Austria (que perdió toz os territorios de l' Imperio Austrohongaro que no yeran de luenga alemana ); o Tractau de Trianon con Hongría ; y atros con Bulgaria y Turquía . Sí fueron duras as condicions con l'antigL' Imperio Austrohongaro : Hongría cedeba mas de dos terceras partes d'o país: Transilvania yera cedita a Rumanía . Croacia , Eslavonia y Voivodina yeran ceditas a Servia ta formar o nuevo país de Yugoslavia . Rutenia y Eslovaquia yeran ceditas a o nuevo país de Checoslovaquia . Burgenland , con población de luenga alemana , yera cedito a Austria ; Sopron retornó a Hongría por referendum . Austria cedeba a mayor parte d'o suyo territorio: A Galitzia yera cedita a Polonia . Bohemia y Moravia , con una important minoría alemana , se cedeba a o nuevo estato de Checoslovaquia . O Tirol yera trestallato: o Tirol d'o Sud se cedeba a Italia , encara que a población de luenga italiana yera minoritaria en a redolada, y a resta d'o Tirol formó l'actual burgeland austriaco de Tirol . Bellas zonas de luenga alemana en Estiria y Carintia fuoron transferitas a o nuevo reino de Yugoslavia . Tamién se prohibió a unificación d' Austria con Alemanya y o servicio militar obligatorio en Austria. A crisis d'a democracia en Alemanya [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Ta mas detalles, veyer l'articlo Republica de Weimar veyer os articlos [[{{{2}}}]] y [[{{{3}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{4}}}]] , [[{{{5}}}]] y [[{{{6}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{7}}}]] , [[{{{8}}}]] , [[{{{9}}}]] y [[{{{10}}}]] . . Montreal Daily Star : "Germany Quit", May 7, 1945 O 9 de noviembre de 1918 , o deputado socialista Philipp Scheidemann proclamó a Republica en o palacio d'o Reichstag en Berlín ; dos horas dimpués, o socialista Karl Liebknecht proclamó una Republica socialista ; o mesmo día, o prencipe Maix von Baden cedió os suyos poders como zaguer canciller d'o Reich a o socialista Friedrich Hebert . I habió luchas entre os socialdemocratas moderatos y o Spartakus Bund u Liga espartaquista , l'ala ezquierda d'a socialdemocracia, y Hebert s'alió con o cheneral Wilhelm Groener , o sucesor de Erich Ludendorff como chefe de l'exercito, ta reprimir a os espartaquistas y ta no reformar l'exercito alemán. Asinas, o 23 de noviembre Hebert pidió aduya ta reprimir un motín en Berlín , reprimito con violencia, y os espartaquistas y d'atros miembros de l'ala ezquierda d'o Socialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands u SPD establioron un partiu comunista , o Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands u KPD (o suyo primer nombre estió Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands (Spartakus Bund) ). Dende chinero dica chulio, bi habió en o país una luita contra os espartaquistas, que proclamoron a Republica Sovietica de Bavera en Múnich . O 15 de chinero morioron asasinatos Rosa Luxemburg y Karl Liebknecht , y Hebert cedió o chudicio por ista represión a os tribunals militars, que dictoron sentencias muy suaves. En a represión destacó o cheneral Walther von Lüttwitz (que en 1920 colaboró en un intento de golpe d'estato, o clamato Putsch de Kapp ) y o suyo Freikorps . En istas condicions, parte d'a sociedat alemana (os sectors mas nacionalistas ) pensaba que o rechimen politico establito dimpués d'o Tractau de Versailles , a Republica de Weimar , yera resultau d'una traiduría a o país por parte d'os chudieus (beluns d'os politicos d'o rechimen republicano n'eran), d'os comunistas y d'os capitalistas , coaligatos entre sí contra o pueblo alemán. Y que o Tractau de Versailles y os suyos tractaus complementarios yeran a culpa d'a situación d' Alemanya . Walther Rathenau , o ministro d'Asuntos Esteriors asasinato por a extrema dreita . Asinas, a Organización Consul , un grupo d' extrema dreita , asasinó a o ministro d'Asuntos Esteriors alemán, Walther Rathenau , o 4 de chunio de 1922 , culpando-le d'a suya aproximación a os Aliaus y d'os suyos oríchens chudieus . D'atros atentatos d'extrema dreita contra os moderatos enturbioron o clima politico, con sublevacions comunistas en Turinchia , Hamburgo u Saxonia . O 8 de noviembre de 1923 , Adolf Hitler se sublevó en Bavera , o territorio mas dreitán d'Alemanya, en o clamato Putsch d'a Cervecería o Putsch de Múnich , en Múnich , reprimito militarment, anque estió o prencipio d'a carrera politica de Hitler y d'o suyo Nationalsocialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei ( Partiu Nacional Socialista d'os Treballadors Alemans u NSDAP ). D'atra parte, en Alemanya habió una crisi economica d'una magnitud no existente antis, con una gran hiperinflación . O motivo estió que en 1923 no bi heban recursos economicos ta pagar as indemnizacions fixatas en o Tractau de Versailles , con a cual cosa o Gubierno alemán deixó d'abonar-las. O Gubierno francés de Raymond Poincaré y o Gubierno belga ocuporon a rechión d'o Ruhr , a rechión mas industrializada d'o país, que yera desmilitarizada, ta cobrar-se'n as indemnizacions, y os meners declaroron una bada cheneral a petición d'o Gubierno alemán, que pagaba os suyos salarios. A impresión masiva de billez de banco cheneró un proceso d' hiperinflación . O marco alemán pasó d'un cambio de 4,2 marcos por dólar estausunidense a 1.000.000 de marcos por dólar en agosto de 1923 y a 4.200.000.000.000 de marcos por dólar o 20 de noviembre : os precios cambeyaban d'hora en hora y os treballadors cobraban cada dos días ta preservar o suyo poder adquisitivo. As empresas alemanas favoreixeban a inflación , que reduceba as suyas propias deudas. S'aprobó o plan Dewes , ta escalonar o pago d'as indemnizacions, y en agosto de 1924 as tropas francesas y belgas albandonaron o Ruhr. En 1924 , a primera mesura d'o nuevo canceller, Gustav Stresemann , con a colaboración de Hjalmar Schacht , director d'o Reichsbank , y d'o ministro d'Economía Hans Luther , estió establir una nueva moneda, o rentenmark , que estabilizó a situación economica d'o país. Tamién s'estabilizó a situación d'a politica exterior alemana con a suya admisión en a Sociedat de Nacions u a firma d'un pacto de neutralidat con a Unión Sovietica , y s'albandonó a politica de desarme impuesta por o Tractau de Versailles . Sindembargo, o proceso hiperinflacionario anterior enrunó as clases meyas alemanas, faciendo-las asinas mas receptivas a la propaganda politica nacionalista, entre a cual destacaba ya o nazismo d' Adolf Hitler . A suya propaganda destacaba as connexions entre os chudieus , os capitalistas y os comunistas , profitando amás d'a tradición antisemita anterior en o país y en Europa . Amás, a estabilización economica dependeba d'uns factors externos a o país: Necesidat de capitals exteriors (u inversions de capital exterior) ta financiar o suyo gran deficit presupuestario . Y amás, os amprens yeran a curto plazo. Necesidat de un activo comercio internacional ta mantener l'emplego en Alemanya. Ista situación de bonanza precaria desapareixió con a crisis de 1929 , que enronó totalment a economía alemana y ubrió a puerta a l'ascenso en as eleccions d'o Nationalsocialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei d' Adolf Hitler , aliato con a clase d'os industials alemans, con l'antiga aristocracia nostalchica de l' Imperio Alemán y con o president d'Alemanya, que en ixas calendatas yera Paul von Hindenburg , l'antigo chefe de l' Exercito alemán mientres a Primera Guerra Mundial . O nacionalismo expansivo [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Mussolini y a Marcha sobre Roma , en 1922 : o faixismo italiano prenió o poder. Encara que a Primera Guerra Mundial estió prencipalment una guerra por motivos nacionalistas , cuasi belún d'os nacionalismos europeus logró en a guerra os suyos obchectivos, como tampoco los logró o nacionalismo chaponés . O Tractau de Versailles y os suyos tractaus complementarios no logroron asinas una autentica pacificación d'as apetencias nacionalistas, que se radicalizaron politicament, aliandose con a chicota burguesía enrunata por as crisis economicas d'as anyadas 20 . En beluns d'os países, o nacionalismo, derivato de raso en faixismo u como mero rechimen autoritario, prenió o poder, por meyo d'eleccions u por meyo de golpes d'estato , encara que en otros o sistema democratico se mantenió. Alemanya [ editar | modificar o codigo ] En Alemanya , dimpués d'a Primera Guerra Mundial y d'a suya redota en ixa guerra, os sectors nacionalistas d' extrema dreita s'agruporon en os Freikorps , grupos paramilitars armatos con protección y aduya de l' Exercito alemán (a Reichswehr ), primero contra os grupos d'ezquierda radical y dimpués contra o mesmo rechimen democratico incarnato por a Republica de Weimar , que alavez veyeba con indiferencia (u mesmo con simpatía) as suyas accions. No estió dica 1923 , con o golpe d'estato d'o Putsch d'a Cervecería en Múnich , que a Republica fue conscient d'o peligro que significaba a extrema dreita ta a supervivencia d'o sistema democratico. Con o chudicio contra Adolf Hitler y o suyo Nationalsocialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei en 1924 por suya participación en o golpe chunto a Erich Ludendorff , a figura politica de Hitler destacó en Alemanya, superando asinas o suyo papel anterior como mero líder d'un partiu politico con actuación rechional restrinchita a Bavera . Prencipió asinas a suya competencia con atro grupo d'extrema dreita, encara que menos radicalizato, o Stahlhelm, Bund der Frontsoldaten , que preneba o suyo nombre d'o Stahlhelm , o casco d' acero d'os soldatos alemans d'a Primera Guerra Mundial. En 1925 , mientres a suya estancia en presón , Hitler redactó o suyo manifiesto politico, o Mein Kampf , y estructuró o suyo partiu como una formación militarizada, basata en o Sturmabteilung (SA) dirichito en primeras por Hermann Göring y dimpués por Ernst Röhm y en a elite d'ista organización paramilitar, as Schutzstaffel (u SS) dirichita por Heinrich Himmler , encara que dende 1923 dica 1926 estioron prohibitos en o país. Contactó tamién con grupos d'ideolochía similar en o norte d'Alemanya ta expandir o suyo partiu ta Prusia y Berlín . En as eleccions anticipadas a o Reichstag d'o 11 de setiembre de 1930 , por primera vegata o Nationalsocialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei tenió buenos resultaus, como tamién o Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands . Os dos partius, chunto con o Stahlhelm, Bund der Frontsoldaten paralizoron l'actividat lechislativa d'a Republica de Weimar . En 1931 o NSDAP dió atro paso mas, establindo o Frent de Harzburg con o Stahlhelm, Bund der Frontsoldaten y atros grupos nacionalistas líderatos por Franz von Papen y Hjalmar Schacht (futuros ministros nazis) y tenió 11,34 milions de votos en primera vuelta y 13,42 en segunda vuelta contra Paul von Hindenburg (18,65 en primera y 19,36 en segunda vuelta), aduyato por os centristas y os socialdemocratas, y Ernst Thälmann , candidato comunista (4,98 y 3,71 milions de votos). [ 1 ] Asinas, en as eleccions a o Reichstag d'o 31 de chulio de 1932 , o NSDAP teneba 230 escanyos (de 608 deputados) y en as eleccions d'o 6 de noviembre de 1932 teneba 196 de 584 deputados. O Stahlhelm, Bund der Frontsoldaten teneba 37 y 52. [ 1 ] O 30 de chinero de 1933 , Hitler accepta o puesto de canceller, encara que con a condición d'a celebración de nuevas eleccions. O 4 de febrero de 1933 , una d'as suyas primeras mesuras ye a prohibición de bellos diarios d'ideolochía comunista u socialista . O 27 de febrero , bi ha un incendio en o Reichstag (o incendio d'o Reichstag ) por un choven comunista neerlandés , encara que hue se creye que l'incendio estió obra d'os propios nazis. O 28 de febrero , hitler dicta un decreto presidencial, o Reichstagsbrandverordnung , que reduce as libertaz personals en o país, prohibindo o KPD y dando inicio a la detención d'os opositors politicos. Como en as eleccions d'o 5 de marzo o NSDAP ni tien a mayoría absoluta (nomás un 44% d'os escanyos), Hitler detiene a os deputados comunistas, con a cual cosa ya teneba o 51% d'os escanyos. O 23 de marzo , o Reichstag vota una ley que atorga plenos poders a Hitler. O 14 de chulio o Nationalsocialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei se converte en o unico partiu politico legal en Alemanya . O 2 d'agosto de 1934 muere o president d'Alemanya, o mariscal Paul von Hindenburg , y o puesto de president ye asumito por Hitler. Naixe asinas, encara que no haiga estado proclamato nunca oficialment, o Tercer Reich . Austria [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Belchica [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Bulgaria [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Bulgaria dimpués d'o Tractau de Neuilly . En color narancha, os territorios perditos. Bulgaria , que dende a suya independencia a finals d'o sieglo XIX heba perdito muitos territorios y que salió redotada d'a suya participación en as Guerras balcanicas , prenió parte en a Primera Guerra Mundial chunto a las Potencias Centrals ta intentar recuperar-los, y estió redotada de nuevo. O suyo nacionalismo preteneba o control d'a rechión de Macedonya , a Dobrucha y partes d'a Tracia , ocupatos por pueblos eslaus amanatos a os bulgaros. Dimpués d'a guerra, en 1919 , un Gubierno d'ezquierdas, con Aleixandro Stamboliski ( Partiu Campesín ), prenió o poder y sinyó o Tractau de Neuilly con os Aliaus , encara que Bulgaria perdeba seguntes o Tractau a suya salida ta'a mar Echea y bels territorios en a Macedonya , ceditos a Grecia y a o nuevo país de Yugoslavia . Stamboliski fue asasinato en un sangroso golpe d'estato d' Aleixandro Tsankov ( Unión Nacional ) en 1923 , golpe que contó con l'aduya d'o rei Boris III de Bulgaria . O nuevo Gubierno de Tsankov fue depuesto en 1934 por un golpe d'estato d'o partiu nacionalista, populista y conservador Zveno , tamién con refirme d'o rei Boris, encara que Tsankov establió en 1932 un partiu nacionalsocialista similar al Nationalsocialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei d' Adolf Hitler . Antiparte, o Zveno yera amanato a o faixismo de Benito Mussolini . Chapón [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Exercicios militars de l' Exercito estausunidense en Shimoda , uno d'os tres puertos abiertos a o comercio estausunidense por a Convención de Kanagawa , en presencia d'o ninviato de l'emperador. Litografía de 1856 . Ta mas detalles, veyer l'articlo Era Meichi veyer os articlos [[{{{2}}}]] y [[{{{3}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{4}}}]] , [[{{{5}}}]] y [[{{{6}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{7}}}]] , [[{{{8}}}]] , [[{{{9}}}]] y [[{{{10}}}]] . Ta mas detalles, veyer l'articlo Era Taisho veyer os articlos [[{{{2}}}]] y [[{{{3}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{4}}}]] , [[{{{5}}}]] y [[{{{6}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{7}}}]] , [[{{{8}}}]] , [[{{{9}}}]] y [[{{{10}}}]] . Ta mas detalles, veyer l'articlo Era Showa veyer os articlos [[{{{2}}}]] y [[{{{3}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{4}}}]] , [[{{{5}}}]] y [[{{{6}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{7}}}]] , [[{{{8}}}]] , [[{{{9}}}]] y [[{{{10}}}]] . Encara que en o sieglo XVI o Chapón teneba contactos comercials con os prencipals países d' Europa , como Espanya , Portugal , Países Baixos , Reino Uniu u Francia , o shogun prohibió o cristianismo en o país, y tamién os contactos con os europeus, restrinchitos a una unica zona comercial en a ciudat de Nagasaki , ta comerciar con chinos y neerlandeses . A situación permaneixió asinas dica 1854 , con a intervención militar d'o comodoro estausunidense Matthew Perry , que forzó manu militari l'acceptación por o Chapón d'a clamata Convención de Kanagawa . Seguntes ista convención, Chapón cedeba tres puertos a o comercio estausunidense , con extraterritorialidat ta os chudicios contra os europeus y estausunidenses, aplicando-se o Dreito nacional en cuentas d'o Dreito chaponés . En o Chapón , ista situación, que pensaban yera insoportable y humiliant, fació que bi hese una reacción contra o poder d'o Shogunato Tokugawa . En noviembre de 1867 , Yoshinovu Tokugawa , o zaguer shogun , cedeba o suyo poder, ubriendo asinas paso a a clamata Era Meichi (u Periodo Meichi u Restauración Meichi ). En o periodo Meichi, o prencipal obchectivo d'o nuevo rechimen yera a modernización d'o país. Apareixió a industria , desapareixió o feudalismo y a casta d'os samurai se transformó ta una nueva clase industrial u ta un Exercito chaponés unificato, modernizato y con armamento europeu . En 1885 s'establió o yen como moneda unificata d'o país y s'adoptó o sistema metrico decimal y en 1894 bi heban en Chapón 3.380 km de vías ferrias . S'estudioron as constitucions d'atros países ta adaptar-las a Chapón y s'invitó a o país a cientificos, militars y d'atros profesionals ya aduyar a modernizar-lo. Tamién se firmó un tractau de mugas con l' Imperio Ruso y un acuerdo de cooperación con l' Imperio Britanico . A conquista de Pekín en 1900 en una pintura chaponesa. En 1894 o Chapón ya heba incorporato parte d'o sistema de valors occidental, incluyindo-ie o colonialismo , y atacó a China , en a Guerra Chino-Chaponesa , con a cual cosa s'anexionó a isla de Formosa en 1895 . En 1900 prenió parte con as suyas tropas en a represión d'a clamata Revuelta d'os Boxers en China y l' Exercito chaponés dentró en Pekín con as tropas d'as potencias europeas. Batalla de Tsushima : l' almirant Heihachiro Togo en o puent d'a suya nau. En 1902 , o Reino Uniu firmó un acuerdo d'alianza con Chapón , ta frenar l'abance de l' Imperio Ruso en a peninsula de Corea y o norte de l' Oceano Pacifico . En 1904 , os rusos, seguros d'a suya victoria, facieron que o Chapón lis declarase a guerra, a clamata Guerra ruso-chaponesa . L' Armata Imperial Chaponesa y l' Exercito Imperial Chaponés redotoron a l' Exercito ruso , en batallas de gran importancia como en a batalla naval de Tsushima u o seche de de Port-Arthur , a prencipal base naval rusa en a mar Amariella . Dimpués d'a redota rusa y d'a emerchencia de Chapón como una nueva potencia militar en Asia , Chapón ponió os suyos uellos en a suya expansión. Ta o norte ya no yera posible, porque o territorio yera ocupato por l' Imperio Ruso ; ta l'este yeran os Estaus Unius y ta o sud, en as Filipinas yeran os Estaus Unius, atra potencia en expansión. Asinas, l'acción imperialista chaponesa estió enta China , en as costas d'a mar Amariella y Manchuria y ta Corea . En 1905 Chapón sinyó con o Reino Uniu o Tractau de Portsmouth , acceptando os britanicos una sustancial ampliación d'a potencia naval chaponesa. L' Armata Imperial Chaponesa construyió modernos vaixiellos basatos en modelos occidentals. En 1907 se sinyoron d'atros alcuerdos con Francia y con l' Imperio Ruso . En 1910 Chapón s'anexionó Corea , que estió asinas a segunda colonia d'o país, dimpués d'a isla de Formosa . En 1912 morió l' emperador Meiji y Chapón, con o nuevo emperador, dentró en a clamata Era Taisho , convertindo-se en una potencia militar important en puertas d'a Primera Guerra Mundial . En a Primera Guerra Mundial , Chapón fació parte d'os Aliaus , declarando a guerra a las Potencias Centrals o 23 d'agosto de 1914 . Por a suya distancia d'os frents de batalla, as tropas chaponesas no participoron en a guerra terrestre, encara que sí en bellas accions contra as bases alemanas en China y en l' Oceano Pacifico , amás d'a protección de convois navals con l' Armata Imperial Chaponesa y d'o suministro de material militar. Ta evitar o suyo aislamiento, China declaró tamién a guerra a as Potencias Centrals. Dimpués d'a guerra, en o Tractau de Vesailles , o Chapón s'apoderó d'as antigas colonias alemanas en Asia y l' Oceano Pacifico , encara que no podió apoderar-se de territorios chinos. Sí s'apoderó de bases en Manchuria que antis yeran de l' Imperio Ruso , aprofitando d'a situación causata por a Revolución rusa en o país, dentrando en Siberia ta luchar contra l' Exercito Royo . Istos beneficios pareixioron muy chicoz a os nacionalistas chaponeses, que se vulcoron en a conquiesta de China , que yera en situación de desgubierno. Acto nacionalista d'exaltación patriotica en Chapón . China , dimpués d'a proclamación d'a Republica por Sun Yat-sen en 1912 y a participación d'o país en a Primera Guerra Mundial , dentró en una situación caotica, y o país yera dominato por os clamatos sinyors d'a guerra , que controlaban partis d'o país. Bi heba dos grupos politicos que intentaban rendrezar a situación: o Kuomitang de Chiang Kai-shek , politicament conservador, y o Partiu Comunista Chino , líderato por Mao Cedong ; istos dos grupos s'enfrontoron entre sí y con os sinyors d'a guerra, con os chaponeses aprofitando-se d'a situación, con a excusa de pacificar o país y protecher a os ciudadans europeus y chaponeses . Con a situación colonial en Corea y con a intervención militar en China, o Gubierno chaponés preteneba tierras ta instalar colons chaponeses y amás, extender a suya ideolochía de superioridat racial d'os nipons en Asia , con o corolario d'o suyo dreito a dominar tot o continent. Istas teorías preparaban a lucha con Francia en as suyas colonias en Indochina , con o Reino Uniu y a suyas colonias en India y Malaisia , con os Países Baixos y as suyas colonias en Indonesia y con os Estaus Unius y a suya colonia en Filipinas . O Chapón necesitaba toz istos territorios por as suyas materias primas y alimentos ( petrolio , caucho , roz ...) ta mantener o suyo esfuerzo militar en China. Espanya [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Molimento a Miguel Primo de Rivera , o dictador d' Espanya ( 1923 - 1930 ), en Xerez de la Frontera . Ta mas detalles, veyer l'articlo Dictadura de Primo de Rivera veyer os articlos [[{{{2}}}]] y [[{{{3}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{4}}}]] , [[{{{5}}}]] y [[{{{6}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{7}}}]] , [[{{{8}}}]] , [[{{{9}}}]] y [[{{{10}}}]] . Ta mas detalles, veyer l'articlo Segunda Republica Espanyola veyer os articlos [[{{{2}}}]] y [[{{{3}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{4}}}]] , [[{{{5}}}]] y [[{{{6}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{7}}}]] , [[{{{8}}}]] , [[{{{9}}}]] y [[{{{10}}}]] . Ta mas detalles, veyer l'articlo Guerra Civil Espanyola veyer os articlos [[{{{2}}}]] y [[{{{3}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{4}}}]] , [[{{{5}}}]] y [[{{{6}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{7}}}]] , [[{{{8}}}]] , [[{{{9}}}]] y [[{{{10}}}]] . Dimpués d'a suya redota en 1898 en a Guerra Hispano-Estausunidense a mans d'os Estaus Unius y a perdida d'os zaguers restos d'o suyo imperio colonial, Espanya se cerró en o dominio d'os territorios en Africa d'o Norte que le concedió a Conferencia d'Alchecira en 1906 , que yeran o Protectorau espanyol de Marruecos , con batallas y redotas como a batalla d'o Barranco d'o Lobo u a batalla del Gurugú contra os rifenyos , causantes de disturbios internos, como a Semana Trachica de Barcelona en 1909 . Asinas, Espanya no partecipó en a Primera Guerra Mundial . Sindembargo, a implicación de l' Exercito espanyol en a continua guerra colonial fació que os militars asumiesen o creixent nacionalismo espanyol no partidario d'o sistema democratico en o país, apareixendo asinas en 1923 un golpe d'estato d'o cheneral Miguel Primo de Rivera , con refirme d'o rei Alifonso XIII , ta intentar evitar o creiximento d'o socialismo y d'o anarquismo en o país. Se creyó asinas a dictadura de Primo de Rivera . En 1931 a situación d'o país, mesmo con pronunciamientos militars contra a Monarquía como en Chaca ( sublevación de Chaca en aviento de 1930 ) fació que se proclamase a Segunda Republica Espanyola , dimpués d'a redota en as eleccions municipals d'o 12 d'abril de 1931 d'os partius politicos monarquicos. A dreita politica espanyola, que no acceptaba o sistema democratico , derivó ta o faixismo con a Falange Espanyola de las JONS y José Antonio Primo de Rivera , fillo d'o dictador, dimpués de fracasar a sanjurjada d'o cheneral José Sanjurjo en 1932 . O 18 de chulio de 1936 , dimpués d'un golpe d'estato fracasato, prencipió a Guerra Civil Espanyola . En ista guerra, combatioron tropas d'a Wehrmacht alemana (a Lechión Condor , que bombardeyó, entre d'atros lugars, Bielsa mientres a bolsa de Bielsa ) y d'o Regio Esercito italiano, en aduya d'o sublevatos. Estonia [ editar | modificar o codigo ] En a Primera Guerra Mundial , os alemans ocuporon Estonia , que yera parte de l' Imperio Ruso , dica noviembre de 1918 . En ixas, calendatas os alemans albandonaron o país, y dentró en Estonia l' Exercito Royo sovietico . En as luchas, os estonios recebioron l'aduya d'antigos militars alemans, encuadratos en os Freikorps , amanatos a l' extrema dreita . O 2 de febrero de 1920 , con o Tractau de Tartu , a Unión Sovietica reconoixeba a independencia d'Estonia. En os anyos 20 y primers anyos 30 , o país yera una democracia , con vinclos con atros países d'a mar Baltica , prencipalment con Finlandia . Sindembargo, en 1934 , Estonia pasa a estar una dictadura , con o dictador Konstantin Päts , autoproclamato Riigihoida (protector d'o estato) en 1937 . O Eesti Vabadussõjalaste Liit (Liga de Veterans d'a Guerra d'a Independencia), establito en 1933 , era un partiu politico d'ideyas faixistas , nacionalistas y antisovieticas, que refirmó a o president Päts. Francia [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Con o Tractau de Versailles , Francia recuperó Alsacia y Lorena , territorios que heba perdito en 1870 con a Guerra franco-prusiana , y que yeran uno d'os obchectivos prencipals d'o nacionalismo francés, encara que Alsacia yera un territorio de luenga alemana . Amás, ta evitar a recuperación d' Alemanya y a posibilidat d'una nueva guerra, yera Francia quien insistía en as clausulas que obligaban a os alemans a o pago d'indemnizacions de guerra. A situación interna de Francia estió en ixas anyadas 20 economicament difícil, encara que muito millor que en Alemanya. Sindembargo, o nacionalismo francés de dreita derivó ta actitudes politicas amanatas a o faixismo en bels partius y politicos franceses, como Action Française , Camelots du Roi , Croix-de-feu , Charles Maurras , François de la Rocque u Robert Brasillach . Una parte important d'istas personas estió dimpués colaboracionista en 1940 - 1945 . A extrema dreita , organizada en cuantas Ligas , intentó un difuso golpe d'estato mientres una manifestación convocata en París o 6 d'octubre de 1934 , en os clamatos escaicimientos d'o 6 d'octubre de 1934 . Iste golpe u a percepción por as ezquierdas de un golpe fallito fació que a ezquierda politica francesa s'uniese, creyando o Frent Popular francés , que ganó as eleccions de 1936 , establindo mesuras de gran importancia social, como as vacacions pagatas. Os Gubiernos d'o Partiu Radical y d'o Frent Popular no colabororon con a esfensa d'a Segunda Republica Espanyola en a Guerra Civil Espanyola , por temor a provocar un ataque d'o Tercer Reich de Hitler y d'a Italia de Mussolini . Grecia [ editar | modificar o codigo ] En as Guerras balcanicas de prencipios d'o sieglo XX , Grecia heba adquirito bels territorios, adquisicions completatas con o Tractau de Sèvres , seguntes o cual Turquía cedeba a Grecia bels territorios en Asia , como Esmirna , y con o Tractau de Neuilly , seguntes o cual Bulgaria cedía a Tracia Ocidental , con as costas d'a mar Echea y Tesalonica . Sindembargo, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk no acceptó o Tractau y prencipió a Guerra Greco-turca , que concluyó con os acuerdos en a Conferencia de Lausana ( Tractau de Lausana ) en 1923 , seguntes os cuals Turquía recuperó toz os territorios que heba perdito antis. Antiparte, bi habió en o país una reforma agraria , ta acomodar a os campesins griegos fuixitos de Turquía, d'os Balcans y d'a Unión Sovietica . En 1924 se proclamó a Republica en o país, dimpués d'un golpe d'estato pro-monarquico fracasato d' Ioannis Metaixas , derrocando a o rei Chorche II , y o país dentró en un periodo de luchas politicas entre os venicelistas republicanos d' Eleftherios Venizelos y os monarquicos. En 1935 se restablió a Monarquía, y en 1936 s'instauró o rechimen faixista d'o cheneral Ioannis Metaixas , con aduya d'o rei. Italia [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Letonia [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Lituania [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Hongría [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Polonia [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Reino Uniu [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Rumanía [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Rusia [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Servia [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Turquía [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Unión Sovietica [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Minorías no estatals [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Eslovacos [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Bosnios [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Bosnia-Hercegovina fue adhibita a lo Reino d'os Serbios, Croatas y Eslovenos a fins de 1918. Mientres o gubierno d'o estato recientment constituito preneba o control de Bosnia-Herzegovina os bosnios musulmans cayoron vitimas d'os voluntarios serbios que saqueyaban o territorio. Muitos musulmans se'n fuoron ta Turquía . Una vegata que l'orden yera establito en a propaganda nacionalista serbia os musulmans yeran presentatos como galbans, maltraballas y inutils y que lis caleva rehabilitación pa recuperar a identidat serbia. En a reforma agraria de 1919 espropioron a los propietarios musulmans. Os musulmans de totas as clases socials creyan un frente unito, a Organización Yugoslava, con seu en Sarajevo . En 1929 Bosnia-Hercegovina desapareixe como entidat administrativa y ye repartita en cuatre banovinas con unas mugas que preban de deixar a los bosnios musulmans como minoritarios en cadaguna. Os musulmans no podeban influir sobre o gubierno, dominato por o centralismo serbio. Os musulmans optoron por o yugoslavismo, que lis ofreixeba un refuchio entre os nacionalismos serbio y croata. Croatas [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Os dirichents politicos croatas participan en o Comité nacional formato mientres a Primera Guerra Mundial en Londres, dimpués en o Consello nacional de Zagreb d'octubre de 1918 . O 29 d'octubre de 1918 a Dieta proclama a independencia de Croacia y dimpués a unión a lo Reino d'os serbios, croatas y eslovenos l' 1 d'aviento . A fitación d'as mugas d'o nuevo reino afecta a los croatas. Por o norte en 1920 Hongría se vei obligata por o Tractau de Trianón a ceder o districto de Mur, habitato por croatas en o sud y una porción de Baranya (a lo sud-este de Pécs ). En o sud Yugoslavia y Italia se disputan Istria y Dalmacia. En 1919 uns voluntarios italiants prenen Fiume , y ye declarata ciudat libre. En 1920 o tractau de Rapallo atribuye Chadra , tota Istria y bellas islas d'a redolata a Italia. En 1922 a Italia faixista ocupa Fiume , feito reconoixito por Yugoslavia en 1924 por l'Alcuerdo de Roma. Si os croatas heban estato adeptos d'o ilirismo, os serbios teneban atra conceción de Yugoslavia, considerando que conseguiban a "Gran Serbia". Os nacionalistas serbios consideraban que fendo parte Serbia d'o bando vencedor, teneban dreito a gobernar sobre os atros pueblos eslaus de Yugoslavia, que heban estato en l'Imperio Austrongaro, on no yeran independients. Dimpués de 1918 os croatas se troboron ensopinatos en una "Gran Servia", en cuenta d'a Yugoslavia que heban deseyato. En o periodo d'entreguerras amaneixió por primera vegata l'odio a los serbios, que dominaban o gubierno. O centralismo serbio fa que os croatas queden desencantatos con o ilirismo u o yugoslavismo . En 1925 ye engarcholato Stjepan Radic , cabo d'o Partiu Campesín Croata, y ye asasinato en o mesmo Parlamento en 1928. En 1933 o suyo succesor Macek tamién ye engarcholato. Ye o inte que amaneix o movimiento ustaixa un movimiento nacionalista croata d'inspiración faixista baixo a dirección d' Ante Palevic . O 9 d'octubre de 1934 os ustaixas asasinan a lo rei Aleixandre de Yugoslavia . Cuan se desfa Checoslovaquia os serbios y croatas alcuerdan creyar a Banovina Autonoma de Croacia , y una parte de Bosnia con población croata ( Posavina y Hercegovina occidental sobretot) pasa a fer parte de Croacia. Macek pasa a fer parte d'o gubierno yugoslau en 1941. O nazismo alemán [ editar | modificar o codigo ] O militarismo chaponés [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Inoperancia d'a Sociedat de Nacions [ editar | modificar o codigo ] A Sociedat estió establita dimpués d'a Primera Guerra Mundial con o prencipal obchectivo d'evitar una atra guerra mundial. Con ista sociedat es creyeba que os conflictos es podeban de resolver de forma diplomatica potenciando a colabolación entre os países y sin necesidat de conflictos armatos ni mortaleras. amás amás atros obchectivos yeran amillorar a condicions de vita en tot o mundo. Os prencipals problemas estioron a mancanza d'un exercito propio y a dificultat ta fer asambleas chenerals, que facioron que no es podeban solucionar conclictos como a Invasión de Manchuria , a Segunda Guerra Italo-Etíope y a Guerra Civil Espanyola entre d'atros. Alemanya deixó a sociedat en 1933 , siet anyos dimpués d'a suya admisión, iste anyo tamién surte Chapón y cuatre anyos Italia , toz ellas potencias faixistas, a sociedat no podió impedir o rearme d'Alemanya, ni el expansionismo faixista y o principio d'a Segunda Guerra Mundial deixó a sociedat sin efecto. O 19 d'abril de 1946 , una vegata terminata a guerra y en a suya zaguera sesión se disuelve, transfiriendo-i-e as suyas funcions, servicios, y propiedaz a l' Organización d'as Nacions Unidas , establita en a Conferència de Ialta l'anyo 1945. Aislacionismo estausunidense [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Causas d'a Segunda Guerra Mundial Ye difícil fer una relación exacta d'as causas d'a guerra, pero ye posible recollir as causas prencipals, seguntes a mayor parte d'os historiadors , que se remontan a os zaguers momentos d'a Primera Guerra Mundial . Istas causas son: As condicions imposadas en os tractaus de Versailles , Saint-Germain-en-Laye , Trianon y Neuilly a os países d'as Potencias Centrals redotatos en a Primera Guerra Mundial . A crisi en os anyos 1920 d'a democracia en a Republica de Weimar , o sistema democratico naixito en Alemanya dimpués d'a guerra. A crisi en os anyos 1920 y 1930 d'a democracia en Europa , sustituyita en a mayor parte d'os países por dictaduras . O nacionalismo expansivo present en toz os países; ye mas conoixito en os casos d' Alemanya , Italia u Chapón , encara que tamién bi n'ha d'atros. O nazismo , doctrina politica creyata en Alemanya por Adolf Hitler , que aprofita as condicions d'o país ta a suya expansión. O militarismo chaponés d'a clamata Era Showa , resultau d'o nacionalismo chaponés . A inoperancia d'a Sociedat de Nacions , a organización internacional que miraba de guaranciar a paz mundial. Ista organización no pudo evitar os succesivos grans conflictos mundials, como a conquiesta de Manchuria por Chapón , a invasión italiana d'Abisinia u a Guerra Civil espanyola , ni tampoco d'atros pasos ta la guerra, como a remilitarización de Renania , l'annexión d'os Sudetes , l' Anschluss , l'annexión de Checoslovaquia u a invasión d'Albania . L' aislacionismo estausunidense , en desentender-se iste país d'a situación politica mundial. Tractau de Versailles y tractaus complementarios [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Ta mas detalles, veyer l'articlo Tractau de Versailles veyer os articlos [[{{{2}}}]] y [[{{{3}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{4}}}]] , [[{{{5}}}]] y [[{{{6}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{7}}}]] , [[{{{8}}}]] , [[{{{9}}}]] y [[{{{10}}}]] . Ta mas detalles, veyer l'articlo Tractau de Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919) veyer os articlos [[{{{2}}}]] y [[{{{3}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{4}}}]] , [[{{{5}}}]] y [[{{{6}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{7}}}]] , [[{{{8}}}]] , [[{{{9}}}]] y [[{{{10}}}]] . Ta mas detalles, veyer l'articlo Tractau de Trianon veyer os articlos [[{{{2}}}]] y [[{{{3}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{4}}}]] , [[{{{5}}}]] y [[{{{6}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{7}}}]] , [[{{{8}}}]] , [[{{{9}}}]] y [[{{{10}}}]] . A firma d'o Tractau de Versailles , en o Salón d'os Mirallos d'o castiello de Versailles , en un cuadro d'o pintor William Orpen . En os zaguers intes d'a Primera Guerra Mundial , l' Imperio Alemán yera a o limite d'as suyas posibilidaz militars. O país yera acotolato dimpués de cinco anyadas de guerra, encara que os militars aplicoron a censura ta privar que a situación militar fuese conoixita en a retraguarda, incluyindo-ie o propio Gubierno civil. O Exercito alemán ocupaba en ixas calendatas muitos territorios en Europa , incluyindo partes de Francia y amás gran parte de Belchica . O 27 de setiembre de 1918 l'Alto mando alemán, formato por Paul von Hindenburg y Erich Ludendorff , pidió a o suyo Gubierno un armisticio inmediato con os Aliaus , basato en as propuestas d'o president d'os Estaus Unius Woodrow Wilson , os clamatos 14 puntos . Asinas, o Gubierno alemán conoixió que a guerra yera perdita, pero no pas encara a población civil. Con os primers contactos entre os belicherants, os Aliaus desichioron a modificación d'a estructura interna d'o rechimen politico alemán, pero os militars, con Ludendorff a o frent, s'oponioron, y Ludendorff dimitió d'o suyo cargo, afirmando publicament que Alemanya ganaba a guerra pero que a traiduría d'os civils imposibilitaba a vitoria. Naixeba asinas a falordia d'a punyalada por a espalda , uno d'os elementos mitolochicos en o futuro d'o nazismo . As primeras noticias d'a posible paz plegoron a Kiel , a seu d'a Kaiserliche Marine , y o vicealmirant Reinhard Scheer decidió salir a combatir contra a Royal Navy por zaguera vez, ta mantener a honor militar de l'armata. Sindembargo, os marineros, que ya conoixeban as noticias d'a paz, s'oponioron, en o clamato motín de Kiel . O 4 de noviembre de 1918 , os mariners formoron un Soviet , liberoron a os presos y inicioron a revolución, cantando A Internacional . A situación s'estenió a tota Alemanya, y o kaiser Guillermo II d'Alemanya abdicó. O 9 de noviembre yera proclamata a Republica y o SPD , a socialdemocracia alemana, formaba Gubierno, con a misión de negociar a paz con os Aliaus . A insistencia de Francia en o revanchismo contra Alemanya fació que as reunions d'as negociacions d'o Tractau de Versailles se fesen en o castiello de Versailles , en o mismo salón d'os Mirallos an que se proclamó en 1871 l' Imperio Alemán dimpués d'a redota de Francia en a Guerra Franco-prusiana . Francia heba perdito en a guerra muitas vidas, y temeba a posibilidat de recuperación d'Alemanya, por o que insistió en l'aprebación de reparacions de guerra , a pagar por os alemans. Amás, os franceses ocuporon parte d'o territorio alemán, dica o río Rin (a Renania ), y bels territorios en a marguin dreita d'o río. Republica de Weimar : Alemanya dimpués d'o Tractau de Versailles . Alemanya, dimpués d'enronar-se o país con as luitas revolucionarias y con l'albandono por l' Exercito alemán d'o frent de guerra, no teneba posibilidaz d'esfensa, por o que sinyó o Tractau, por o que, seguntes as clausulas suyas, o país cedeba importants territorios en Europa , amás de totas as suyas colonias en Africa , Asia y Oceanía . Alemanya cedeba: Alsacia y Lorena , ocupatas dende 1870 , a Francia . As ciudaz d' Eupen y Malmedy , con población francoparlant y chermanoparlant , a Belchica . Parte d'o ducau de Schleswig faría un referendum ta optar entre a suya pertenenxa a Alemanya u a Dinamarca (en 1920 , en o referendum, as ciudaz d' Aabenraa , Sønderborg y Tønder optoron por Dinamarca). O Sarre formó un estato independient, con administración internacional en as suyas primeras 15 anyadas. Prusia Ocidental pasó a mans d'a renaixita Polonia , cortando o territorio alemán con una salida a a mar Baltica , quedando a Prusia Oriental dividita d'o resto d'o territorio alemán. A ciudat baltica de Dantcig (hue Gdansk ) fue declarata estato independient (a Ciudat Libre de Dantcig , anque desmilitarizada y unita a Polonia con aduanas comuns), ta reforzar a salida polaca a a mar Baltica y que Polonia tenese un puerto neutral. En l' Alta Silesia y bels distritos de Prusia Oriental (en o sector de Masuria ) se faría tamién un referendum ta optar entre Polonia y Alemanya). Atras clausulas d'o Tractau impediban que a Reichswehr , l' exercito d'Alemanya, tenese mas de 100.000 soldatos, ni aviación militar ni carros de combate , y o servicio militar obligatorio fue abolito. Se consideraba que Alemanya (y os suyos Aliaus, as Potencias Centrals ) yeran os unicos responsables d'a guerra, y Alemanya pagaría indemnizacions de guerra ta resarcir a d'atros países ( Francia en especial) por os danyos que heba provocato en a guerra, comprendidas as pensions a os feritos y veterans de guerra. A desmembración de l' Imperio Austrohongaro dimpués d'o Tractau de Trianon . Se firmoron atros tractaus con a resta d'os perdedors d'a guerra, con clausulas pareixitas, encara que menos draconianas: o Tractau de Saint-Germain-en-Laye con Austria (que perdió toz os territorios de l' Imperio Austrohongaro que no yeran de luenga alemana ); o Tractau de Trianon con Hongría ; y atros con Bulgaria y Turquía . Sí fueron duras as condicions con l'antigL' Imperio Austrohongaro : Hongría cedeba mas de dos terceras partes d'o país: Transilvania yera cedita a Rumanía . Croacia , Eslavonia y Voivodina yeran ceditas a Servia ta formar o nuevo país de Yugoslavia . Rutenia y Eslovaquia yeran ceditas a o nuevo país de Checoslovaquia . Burgenland , con población de luenga alemana , yera cedito a Austria ; Sopron retornó a Hongría por referendum . Austria cedeba a mayor parte d'o suyo territorio: A Galitzia yera cedita a Polonia . Bohemia y Moravia , con una important minoría alemana , se cedeba a o nuevo estato de Checoslovaquia . O Tirol yera trestallato: o Tirol d'o Sud se cedeba a Italia , encara que a población de luenga italiana yera minoritaria en a redolada, y a resta d'o Tirol formó l'actual burgeland austriaco de Tirol . Bellas zonas de luenga alemana en Estiria y Carintia fuoron transferitas a o nuevo reino de Yugoslavia . Tamién se prohibió a unificación d' Austria con Alemanya y o servicio militar obligatorio en Austria. Tractau de Versailles y tractaus complementarios En os zaguers intes d'a Primera Guerra Mundial , l' Imperio Alemán yera a o limite d'as suyas posibilidaz militars. O país yera acotolato dimpués de cinco anyadas de guerra, encara que os militars aplicoron a censura ta privar que a situación militar fuese conoixita en a retraguarda, incluyindo-ie o propio Gubierno civil. O Exercito alemán ocupaba en ixas calendatas muitos territorios en Europa , incluyindo partes de Francia y amás gran parte de Belchica . O 27 de setiembre de 1918 l'Alto mando alemán, formato por Paul von Hindenburg y Erich Ludendorff , pidió a o suyo Gubierno un armisticio inmediato con os Aliaus , basato en as propuestas d'o president d'os Estaus Unius Woodrow Wilson , os clamatos 14 puntos . Asinas, o Gubierno alemán conoixió que a guerra yera perdita, pero no pas encara a población civil. Con os primers contactos entre os belicherants, os Aliaus desichioron a modificación d'a estructura interna d'o rechimen politico alemán, pero os militars, con Ludendorff a o frent, s'oponioron, y Ludendorff dimitió d'o suyo cargo, afirmando publicament que Alemanya ganaba a guerra pero que a traiduría d'os civils imposibilitaba a vitoria. Naixeba asinas a falordia d'a punyalada por a espalda , uno d'os elementos mitolochicos en o futuro d'o nazismo . As primeras noticias d'a posible paz plegoron a Kiel , a seu d'a Kaiserliche Marine , y o vicealmirant Reinhard Scheer decidió salir a combatir contra a Royal Navy por zaguera vez, ta mantener a honor militar de l'armata. Sindembargo, os marineros, que ya conoixeban as noticias d'a paz, s'oponioron, en o clamato motín de Kiel . O 4 de noviembre de 1918 , os mariners formoron un Soviet , liberoron a os presos y inicioron a revolución, cantando A Internacional . A situación s'estenió a tota Alemanya, y o kaiser Guillermo II d'Alemanya abdicó. O 9 de noviembre yera proclamata a Republica y o SPD , a socialdemocracia alemana, formaba Gubierno, con a misión de negociar a paz con os Aliaus . A insistencia de Francia en o revanchismo contra Alemanya fació que as reunions d'as negociacions d'o Tractau de Versailles se fesen en o castiello de Versailles , en o mismo salón d'os Mirallos an que se proclamó en 1871 l' Imperio Alemán dimpués d'a redota de Francia en a Guerra Franco-prusiana . Francia heba perdito en a guerra muitas vidas, y temeba a posibilidat de recuperación d'Alemanya, por o que insistió en l'aprebación de reparacions de guerra , a pagar por os alemans. Amás, os franceses ocuporon parte d'o territorio alemán, dica o río Rin (a Renania ), y bels territorios en a marguin dreita d'o río. Alemanya, dimpués d'enronar-se o país con as luitas revolucionarias y con l'albandono por l' Exercito alemán d'o frent de guerra, no teneba posibilidaz d'esfensa, por o que sinyó o Tractau, por o que, seguntes as clausulas suyas, o país cedeba importants territorios en Europa , amás de totas as suyas colonias en Africa , Asia y Oceanía . Alemanya cedeba: Alsacia y Lorena , ocupatas dende 1870 , a Francia . As ciudaz d' Eupen y Malmedy , con población francoparlant y chermanoparlant , a Belchica . Parte d'o ducau de Schleswig faría un referendum ta optar entre a suya pertenenxa a Alemanya u a Dinamarca (en 1920 , en o referendum, as ciudaz d' Aabenraa , Sønderborg y Tønder optoron por Dinamarca). O Sarre formó un estato independient, con administración internacional en as suyas primeras 15 anyadas. Prusia Ocidental pasó a mans d'a renaixita Polonia , cortando o territorio alemán con una salida a a mar Baltica , quedando a Prusia Oriental dividita d'o resto d'o territorio alemán. A ciudat baltica de Dantcig (hue Gdansk ) fue declarata estato independient (a Ciudat Libre de Dantcig , anque desmilitarizada y unita a Polonia con aduanas comuns), ta reforzar a salida polaca a a mar Baltica y que Polonia tenese un puerto neutral. En l' Alta Silesia y bels distritos de Prusia Oriental (en o sector de Masuria ) se faría tamién un referendum ta optar entre Polonia y Alemanya). Atras clausulas d'o Tractau impediban que a Reichswehr , l' exercito d'Alemanya, tenese mas de 100.000 soldatos, ni aviación militar ni carros de combate , y o servicio militar obligatorio fue abolito. Se consideraba que Alemanya (y os suyos Aliaus, as Potencias Centrals ) yeran os unicos responsables d'a guerra, y Alemanya pagaría indemnizacions de guerra ta resarcir a d'atros países ( Francia en especial) por os danyos que heba provocato en a guerra, comprendidas as pensions a os feritos y veterans de guerra. Se firmoron atros tractaus con a resta d'os perdedors d'a guerra, con clausulas pareixitas, encara que menos draconianas: o Tractau de Saint-Germain-en-Laye con Austria (que perdió toz os territorios de l' Imperio Austrohongaro que no yeran de luenga alemana ); o Tractau de Trianon con Hongría ; y atros con Bulgaria y Turquía . Sí fueron duras as condicions con l'antigL' Imperio Austrohongaro : Hongría cedeba mas de dos terceras partes d'o país: Transilvania yera cedita a Rumanía . Croacia , Eslavonia y Voivodina yeran ceditas a Servia ta formar o nuevo país de Yugoslavia . Rutenia y Eslovaquia yeran ceditas a o nuevo país de Checoslovaquia . Burgenland , con población de luenga alemana , yera cedito a Austria ; Sopron retornó a Hongría por referendum . Transilvania yera cedita a Rumanía . Croacia , Eslavonia y Voivodina yeran ceditas a Servia ta formar o nuevo país de Yugoslavia . Rutenia y Eslovaquia yeran ceditas a o nuevo país de Checoslovaquia . Burgenland , con población de luenga alemana , yera cedito a Austria ; Sopron retornó a Hongría por referendum . Austria cedeba a mayor parte d'o suyo territorio: A Galitzia yera cedita a Polonia . Bohemia y Moravia , con una important minoría alemana , se cedeba a o nuevo estato de Checoslovaquia . O Tirol yera trestallato: o Tirol d'o Sud se cedeba a Italia , encara que a población de luenga italiana yera minoritaria en a redolada, y a resta d'o Tirol formó l'actual burgeland austriaco de Tirol . Bellas zonas de luenga alemana en Estiria y Carintia fuoron transferitas a o nuevo reino de Yugoslavia . A Galitzia yera cedita a Polonia . Bohemia y Moravia , con una important minoría alemana , se cedeba a o nuevo estato de Checoslovaquia . O Tirol yera trestallato: o Tirol d'o Sud se cedeba a Italia , encara que a población de luenga italiana yera minoritaria en a redolada, y a resta d'o Tirol formó l'actual burgeland austriaco de Tirol . Bellas zonas de luenga alemana en Estiria y Carintia fuoron transferitas a o nuevo reino de Yugoslavia . Tamién se prohibió a unificación d' Austria con Alemanya y o servicio militar obligatorio en Austria. A crisis d'a democracia en Alemanya [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Ta mas detalles, veyer l'articlo Republica de Weimar veyer os articlos [[{{{2}}}]] y [[{{{3}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{4}}}]] , [[{{{5}}}]] y [[{{{6}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{7}}}]] , [[{{{8}}}]] , [[{{{9}}}]] y [[{{{10}}}]] . . Montreal Daily Star : "Germany Quit", May 7, 1945 O 9 de noviembre de 1918 , o deputado socialista Philipp Scheidemann proclamó a Republica en o palacio d'o Reichstag en Berlín ; dos horas dimpués, o socialista Karl Liebknecht proclamó una Republica socialista ; o mesmo día, o prencipe Maix von Baden cedió os suyos poders como zaguer canciller d'o Reich a o socialista Friedrich Hebert . I habió luchas entre os socialdemocratas moderatos y o Spartakus Bund u Liga espartaquista , l'ala ezquierda d'a socialdemocracia, y Hebert s'alió con o cheneral Wilhelm Groener , o sucesor de Erich Ludendorff como chefe de l'exercito, ta reprimir a os espartaquistas y ta no reformar l'exercito alemán. Asinas, o 23 de noviembre Hebert pidió aduya ta reprimir un motín en Berlín , reprimito con violencia, y os espartaquistas y d'atros miembros de l'ala ezquierda d'o Socialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands u SPD establioron un partiu comunista , o Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands u KPD (o suyo primer nombre estió Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands (Spartakus Bund) ). Dende chinero dica chulio, bi habió en o país una luita contra os espartaquistas, que proclamoron a Republica Sovietica de Bavera en Múnich . O 15 de chinero morioron asasinatos Rosa Luxemburg y Karl Liebknecht , y Hebert cedió o chudicio por ista represión a os tribunals militars, que dictoron sentencias muy suaves. En a represión destacó o cheneral Walther von Lüttwitz (que en 1920 colaboró en un intento de golpe d'estato, o clamato Putsch de Kapp ) y o suyo Freikorps . En istas condicions, parte d'a sociedat alemana (os sectors mas nacionalistas ) pensaba que o rechimen politico establito dimpués d'o Tractau de Versailles , a Republica de Weimar , yera resultau d'una traiduría a o país por parte d'os chudieus (beluns d'os politicos d'o rechimen republicano n'eran), d'os comunistas y d'os capitalistas , coaligatos entre sí contra o pueblo alemán. Y que o Tractau de Versailles y os suyos tractaus complementarios yeran a culpa d'a situación d' Alemanya . Walther Rathenau , o ministro d'Asuntos Esteriors asasinato por a extrema dreita . Asinas, a Organización Consul , un grupo d' extrema dreita , asasinó a o ministro d'Asuntos Esteriors alemán, Walther Rathenau , o 4 de chunio de 1922 , culpando-le d'a suya aproximación a os Aliaus y d'os suyos oríchens chudieus . D'atros atentatos d'extrema dreita contra os moderatos enturbioron o clima politico, con sublevacions comunistas en Turinchia , Hamburgo u Saxonia . O 8 de noviembre de 1923 , Adolf Hitler se sublevó en Bavera , o territorio mas dreitán d'Alemanya, en o clamato Putsch d'a Cervecería o Putsch de Múnich , en Múnich , reprimito militarment, anque estió o prencipio d'a carrera politica de Hitler y d'o suyo Nationalsocialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei ( Partiu Nacional Socialista d'os Treballadors Alemans u NSDAP ). D'atra parte, en Alemanya habió una crisi economica d'una magnitud no existente antis, con una gran hiperinflación . O motivo estió que en 1923 no bi heban recursos economicos ta pagar as indemnizacions fixatas en o Tractau de Versailles , con a cual cosa o Gubierno alemán deixó d'abonar-las. O Gubierno francés de Raymond Poincaré y o Gubierno belga ocuporon a rechión d'o Ruhr , a rechión mas industrializada d'o país, que yera desmilitarizada, ta cobrar-se'n as indemnizacions, y os meners declaroron una bada cheneral a petición d'o Gubierno alemán, que pagaba os suyos salarios. A impresión masiva de billez de banco cheneró un proceso d' hiperinflación . O marco alemán pasó d'un cambio de 4,2 marcos por dólar estausunidense a 1.000.000 de marcos por dólar en agosto de 1923 y a 4.200.000.000.000 de marcos por dólar o 20 de noviembre : os precios cambeyaban d'hora en hora y os treballadors cobraban cada dos días ta preservar o suyo poder adquisitivo. As empresas alemanas favoreixeban a inflación , que reduceba as suyas propias deudas. S'aprobó o plan Dewes , ta escalonar o pago d'as indemnizacions, y en agosto de 1924 as tropas francesas y belgas albandonaron o Ruhr. En 1924 , a primera mesura d'o nuevo canceller, Gustav Stresemann , con a colaboración de Hjalmar Schacht , director d'o Reichsbank , y d'o ministro d'Economía Hans Luther , estió establir una nueva moneda, o rentenmark , que estabilizó a situación economica d'o país. Tamién s'estabilizó a situación d'a politica exterior alemana con a suya admisión en a Sociedat de Nacions u a firma d'un pacto de neutralidat con a Unión Sovietica , y s'albandonó a politica de desarme impuesta por o Tractau de Versailles . Sindembargo, o proceso hiperinflacionario anterior enrunó as clases meyas alemanas, faciendo-las asinas mas receptivas a la propaganda politica nacionalista, entre a cual destacaba ya o nazismo d' Adolf Hitler . A suya propaganda destacaba as connexions entre os chudieus , os capitalistas y os comunistas , profitando amás d'a tradición antisemita anterior en o país y en Europa . Amás, a estabilización economica dependeba d'uns factors externos a o país: Necesidat de capitals exteriors (u inversions de capital exterior) ta financiar o suyo gran deficit presupuestario . Y amás, os amprens yeran a curto plazo. Necesidat de un activo comercio internacional ta mantener l'emplego en Alemanya. Ista situación de bonanza precaria desapareixió con a crisis de 1929 , que enronó totalment a economía alemana y ubrió a puerta a l'ascenso en as eleccions d'o Nationalsocialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei d' Adolf Hitler , aliato con a clase d'os industials alemans, con l'antiga aristocracia nostalchica de l' Imperio Alemán y con o president d'Alemanya, que en ixas calendatas yera Paul von Hindenburg , l'antigo chefe de l' Exercito alemán mientres a Primera Guerra Mundial . A crisis d'a democracia en Alemanya . O 9 de noviembre de 1918 , o deputado socialista Philipp Scheidemann proclamó a Republica en o palacio d'o Reichstag en Berlín ; dos horas dimpués, o socialista Karl Liebknecht proclamó una Republica socialista ; o mesmo día, o prencipe Maix von Baden cedió os suyos poders como zaguer canciller d'o Reich a o socialista Friedrich Hebert . I habió luchas entre os socialdemocratas moderatos y o Spartakus Bund u Liga espartaquista , l'ala ezquierda d'a socialdemocracia, y Hebert s'alió con o cheneral Wilhelm Groener , o sucesor de Erich Ludendorff como chefe de l'exercito, ta reprimir a os espartaquistas y ta no reformar l'exercito alemán. Asinas, o 23 de noviembre Hebert pidió aduya ta reprimir un motín en Berlín , reprimito con violencia, y os espartaquistas y d'atros miembros de l'ala ezquierda d'o Socialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands u SPD establioron un partiu comunista , o Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands u KPD (o suyo primer nombre estió Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands (Spartakus Bund) ). Dende chinero dica chulio, bi habió en o país una luita contra os espartaquistas, que proclamoron a Republica Sovietica de Bavera en Múnich . O 15 de chinero morioron asasinatos Rosa Luxemburg y Karl Liebknecht , y Hebert cedió o chudicio por ista represión a os tribunals militars, que dictoron sentencias muy suaves. En a represión destacó o cheneral Walther von Lüttwitz (que en 1920 colaboró en un intento de golpe d'estato, o clamato Putsch de Kapp ) y o suyo Freikorps . En istas condicions, parte d'a sociedat alemana (os sectors mas nacionalistas ) pensaba que o rechimen politico establito dimpués d'o Tractau de Versailles , a Republica de Weimar , yera resultau d'una traiduría a o país por parte d'os chudieus (beluns d'os politicos d'o rechimen republicano n'eran), d'os comunistas y d'os capitalistas , coaligatos entre sí contra o pueblo alemán. Y que o Tractau de Versailles y os suyos tractaus complementarios yeran a culpa d'a situación d' Alemanya . Asinas, a Organización Consul , un grupo d' extrema dreita , asasinó a o ministro d'Asuntos Esteriors alemán, Walther Rathenau , o 4 de chunio de 1922 , culpando-le d'a suya aproximación a os Aliaus y d'os suyos oríchens chudieus . D'atros atentatos d'extrema dreita contra os moderatos enturbioron o clima politico, con sublevacions comunistas en Turinchia , Hamburgo u Saxonia . O 8 de noviembre de 1923 , Adolf Hitler se sublevó en Bavera , o territorio mas dreitán d'Alemanya, en o clamato Putsch d'a Cervecería o Putsch de Múnich , en Múnich , reprimito militarment, anque estió o prencipio d'a carrera politica de Hitler y d'o suyo Nationalsocialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei ( Partiu Nacional Socialista d'os Treballadors Alemans u NSDAP ). D'atra parte, en Alemanya habió una crisi economica d'una magnitud no existente antis, con una gran hiperinflación . O motivo estió que en 1923 no bi heban recursos economicos ta pagar as indemnizacions fixatas en o Tractau de Versailles , con a cual cosa o Gubierno alemán deixó d'abonar-las. O Gubierno francés de Raymond Poincaré y o Gubierno belga ocuporon a rechión d'o Ruhr , a rechión mas industrializada d'o país, que yera desmilitarizada, ta cobrar-se'n as indemnizacions, y os meners declaroron una bada cheneral a petición d'o Gubierno alemán, que pagaba os suyos salarios. A impresión masiva de billez de banco cheneró un proceso d' hiperinflación . O marco alemán pasó d'un cambio de 4,2 marcos por dólar estausunidense a 1.000.000 de marcos por dólar en agosto de 1923 y a 4.200.000.000.000 de marcos por dólar o 20 de noviembre : os precios cambeyaban d'hora en hora y os treballadors cobraban cada dos días ta preservar o suyo poder adquisitivo. As empresas alemanas favoreixeban a inflación , que reduceba as suyas propias deudas. S'aprobó o plan Dewes , ta escalonar o pago d'as indemnizacions, y en agosto de 1924 as tropas francesas y belgas albandonaron o Ruhr. En 1924 , a primera mesura d'o nuevo canceller, Gustav Stresemann , con a colaboración de Hjalmar Schacht , director d'o Reichsbank , y d'o ministro d'Economía Hans Luther , estió establir una nueva moneda, o rentenmark , que estabilizó a situación economica d'o país. Tamién s'estabilizó a situación d'a politica exterior alemana con a suya admisión en a Sociedat de Nacions u a firma d'un pacto de neutralidat con a Unión Sovietica , y s'albandonó a politica de desarme impuesta por o Tractau de Versailles . Sindembargo, o proceso hiperinflacionario anterior enrunó as clases meyas alemanas, faciendo-las asinas mas receptivas a la propaganda politica nacionalista, entre a cual destacaba ya o nazismo d' Adolf Hitler . A suya propaganda destacaba as connexions entre os chudieus , os capitalistas y os comunistas , profitando amás d'a tradición antisemita anterior en o país y en Europa . Amás, a estabilización economica dependeba d'uns factors externos a o país: Necesidat de capitals exteriors (u inversions de capital exterior) ta financiar o suyo gran deficit presupuestario . Y amás, os amprens yeran a curto plazo. Necesidat de un activo comercio internacional ta mantener l'emplego en Alemanya. Ista situación de bonanza precaria desapareixió con a crisis de 1929 , que enronó totalment a economía alemana y ubrió a puerta a l'ascenso en as eleccions d'o Nationalsocialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei d' Adolf Hitler , aliato con a clase d'os industials alemans, con l'antiga aristocracia nostalchica de l' Imperio Alemán y con o president d'Alemanya, que en ixas calendatas yera Paul von Hindenburg , l'antigo chefe de l' Exercito alemán mientres a Primera Guerra Mundial . O nacionalismo expansivo [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Mussolini y a Marcha sobre Roma , en 1922 : o faixismo italiano prenió o poder. Encara que a Primera Guerra Mundial estió prencipalment una guerra por motivos nacionalistas , cuasi belún d'os nacionalismos europeus logró en a guerra os suyos obchectivos, como tampoco los logró o nacionalismo chaponés . O Tractau de Versailles y os suyos tractaus complementarios no logroron asinas una autentica pacificación d'as apetencias nacionalistas, que se radicalizaron politicament, aliandose con a chicota burguesía enrunata por as crisis economicas d'as anyadas 20 . En beluns d'os países, o nacionalismo, derivato de raso en faixismo u como mero rechimen autoritario, prenió o poder, por meyo d'eleccions u por meyo de golpes d'estato , encara que en otros o sistema democratico se mantenió. Alemanya [ editar | modificar o codigo ] En Alemanya , dimpués d'a Primera Guerra Mundial y d'a suya redota en ixa guerra, os sectors nacionalistas d' extrema dreita s'agruporon en os Freikorps , grupos paramilitars armatos con protección y aduya de l' Exercito alemán (a Reichswehr ), primero contra os grupos d'ezquierda radical y dimpués contra o mesmo rechimen democratico incarnato por a Republica de Weimar , que alavez veyeba con indiferencia (u mesmo con simpatía) as suyas accions. No estió dica 1923 , con o golpe d'estato d'o Putsch d'a Cervecería en Múnich , que a Republica fue conscient d'o peligro que significaba a extrema dreita ta a supervivencia d'o sistema democratico. Con o chudicio contra Adolf Hitler y o suyo Nationalsocialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei en 1924 por suya participación en o golpe chunto a Erich Ludendorff , a figura politica de Hitler destacó en Alemanya, superando asinas o suyo papel anterior como mero líder d'un partiu politico con actuación rechional restrinchita a Bavera . Prencipió asinas a suya competencia con atro grupo d'extrema dreita, encara que menos radicalizato, o Stahlhelm, Bund der Frontsoldaten , que preneba o suyo nombre d'o Stahlhelm , o casco d' acero d'os soldatos alemans d'a Primera Guerra Mundial. En 1925 , mientres a suya estancia en presón , Hitler redactó o suyo manifiesto politico, o Mein Kampf , y estructuró o suyo partiu como una formación militarizada, basata en o Sturmabteilung (SA) dirichito en primeras por Hermann Göring y dimpués por Ernst Röhm y en a elite d'ista organización paramilitar, as Schutzstaffel (u SS) dirichita por Heinrich Himmler , encara que dende 1923 dica 1926 estioron prohibitos en o país. Contactó tamién con grupos d'ideolochía similar en o norte d'Alemanya ta expandir o suyo partiu ta Prusia y Berlín . En as eleccions anticipadas a o Reichstag d'o 11 de setiembre de 1930 , por primera vegata o Nationalsocialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei tenió buenos resultaus, como tamién o Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands . Os dos partius, chunto con o Stahlhelm, Bund der Frontsoldaten paralizoron l'actividat lechislativa d'a Republica de Weimar . En 1931 o NSDAP dió atro paso mas, establindo o Frent de Harzburg con o Stahlhelm, Bund der Frontsoldaten y atros grupos nacionalistas líderatos por Franz von Papen y Hjalmar Schacht (futuros ministros nazis) y tenió 11,34 milions de votos en primera vuelta y 13,42 en segunda vuelta contra Paul von Hindenburg (18,65 en primera y 19,36 en segunda vuelta), aduyato por os centristas y os socialdemocratas, y Ernst Thälmann , candidato comunista (4,98 y 3,71 milions de votos). [ 1 ] Asinas, en as eleccions a o Reichstag d'o 31 de chulio de 1932 , o NSDAP teneba 230 escanyos (de 608 deputados) y en as eleccions d'o 6 de noviembre de 1932 teneba 196 de 584 deputados. O Stahlhelm, Bund der Frontsoldaten teneba 37 y 52. [ 1 ] O 30 de chinero de 1933 , Hitler accepta o puesto de canceller, encara que con a condición d'a celebración de nuevas eleccions. O 4 de febrero de 1933 , una d'as suyas primeras mesuras ye a prohibición de bellos diarios d'ideolochía comunista u socialista . O 27 de febrero , bi ha un incendio en o Reichstag (o incendio d'o Reichstag ) por un choven comunista neerlandés , encara que hue se creye que l'incendio estió obra d'os propios nazis. O 28 de febrero , hitler dicta un decreto presidencial, o Reichstagsbrandverordnung , que reduce as libertaz personals en o país, prohibindo o KPD y dando inicio a la detención d'os opositors politicos. Como en as eleccions d'o 5 de marzo o NSDAP ni tien a mayoría absoluta (nomás un 44% d'os escanyos), Hitler detiene a os deputados comunistas, con a cual cosa ya teneba o 51% d'os escanyos. O 23 de marzo , o Reichstag vota una ley que atorga plenos poders a Hitler. O 14 de chulio o Nationalsocialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei se converte en o unico partiu politico legal en Alemanya . O 2 d'agosto de 1934 muere o president d'Alemanya, o mariscal Paul von Hindenburg , y o puesto de president ye asumito por Hitler. Naixe asinas, encara que no haiga estado proclamato nunca oficialment, o Tercer Reich . Austria [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Belchica [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Bulgaria [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Bulgaria dimpués d'o Tractau de Neuilly . En color narancha, os territorios perditos. Bulgaria , que dende a suya independencia a finals d'o sieglo XIX heba perdito muitos territorios y que salió redotada d'a suya participación en as Guerras balcanicas , prenió parte en a Primera Guerra Mundial chunto a las Potencias Centrals ta intentar recuperar-los, y estió redotada de nuevo. O suyo nacionalismo preteneba o control d'a rechión de Macedonya , a Dobrucha y partes d'a Tracia , ocupatos por pueblos eslaus amanatos a os bulgaros. Dimpués d'a guerra, en 1919 , un Gubierno d'ezquierdas, con Aleixandro Stamboliski ( Partiu Campesín ), prenió o poder y sinyó o Tractau de Neuilly con os Aliaus , encara que Bulgaria perdeba seguntes o Tractau a suya salida ta'a mar Echea y bels territorios en a Macedonya , ceditos a Grecia y a o nuevo país de Yugoslavia . Stamboliski fue asasinato en un sangroso golpe d'estato d' Aleixandro Tsankov ( Unión Nacional ) en 1923 , golpe que contó con l'aduya d'o rei Boris III de Bulgaria . O nuevo Gubierno de Tsankov fue depuesto en 1934 por un golpe d'estato d'o partiu nacionalista, populista y conservador Zveno , tamién con refirme d'o rei Boris, encara que Tsankov establió en 1932 un partiu nacionalsocialista similar al Nationalsocialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei d' Adolf Hitler . Antiparte, o Zveno yera amanato a o faixismo de Benito Mussolini . Chapón [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Exercicios militars de l' Exercito estausunidense en Shimoda , uno d'os tres puertos abiertos a o comercio estausunidense por a Convención de Kanagawa , en presencia d'o ninviato de l'emperador. Litografía de 1856 . Ta mas detalles, veyer l'articlo Era Meichi veyer os articlos [[{{{2}}}]] y [[{{{3}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{4}}}]] , [[{{{5}}}]] y [[{{{6}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{7}}}]] , [[{{{8}}}]] , [[{{{9}}}]] y [[{{{10}}}]] . Ta mas detalles, veyer l'articlo Era Taisho veyer os articlos [[{{{2}}}]] y [[{{{3}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{4}}}]] , [[{{{5}}}]] y [[{{{6}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{7}}}]] , [[{{{8}}}]] , [[{{{9}}}]] y [[{{{10}}}]] . Ta mas detalles, veyer l'articlo Era Showa veyer os articlos [[{{{2}}}]] y [[{{{3}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{4}}}]] , [[{{{5}}}]] y [[{{{6}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{7}}}]] , [[{{{8}}}]] , [[{{{9}}}]] y [[{{{10}}}]] . Encara que en o sieglo XVI o Chapón teneba contactos comercials con os prencipals países d' Europa , como Espanya , Portugal , Países Baixos , Reino Uniu u Francia , o shogun prohibió o cristianismo en o país, y tamién os contactos con os europeus, restrinchitos a una unica zona comercial en a ciudat de Nagasaki , ta comerciar con chinos y neerlandeses . A situación permaneixió asinas dica 1854 , con a intervención militar d'o comodoro estausunidense Matthew Perry , que forzó manu militari l'acceptación por o Chapón d'a clamata Convención de Kanagawa . Seguntes ista convención, Chapón cedeba tres puertos a o comercio estausunidense , con extraterritorialidat ta os chudicios contra os europeus y estausunidenses, aplicando-se o Dreito nacional en cuentas d'o Dreito chaponés . En o Chapón , ista situación, que pensaban yera insoportable y humiliant, fació que bi hese una reacción contra o poder d'o Shogunato Tokugawa . En noviembre de 1867 , Yoshinovu Tokugawa , o zaguer shogun , cedeba o suyo poder, ubriendo asinas paso a a clamata Era Meichi (u Periodo Meichi u Restauración Meichi ). En o periodo Meichi, o prencipal obchectivo d'o nuevo rechimen yera a modernización d'o país. Apareixió a industria , desapareixió o feudalismo y a casta d'os samurai se transformó ta una nueva clase industrial u ta un Exercito chaponés unificato, modernizato y con armamento europeu . En 1885 s'establió o yen como moneda unificata d'o país y s'adoptó o sistema metrico decimal y en 1894 bi heban en Chapón 3.380 km de vías ferrias . S'estudioron as constitucions d'atros países ta adaptar-las a Chapón y s'invitó a o país a cientificos, militars y d'atros profesionals ya aduyar a modernizar-lo. Tamién se firmó un tractau de mugas con l' Imperio Ruso y un acuerdo de cooperación con l' Imperio Britanico . A conquista de Pekín en 1900 en una pintura chaponesa. En 1894 o Chapón ya heba incorporato parte d'o sistema de valors occidental, incluyindo-ie o colonialismo , y atacó a China , en a Guerra Chino-Chaponesa , con a cual cosa s'anexionó a isla de Formosa en 1895 . En 1900 prenió parte con as suyas tropas en a represión d'a clamata Revuelta d'os Boxers en China y l' Exercito chaponés dentró en Pekín con as tropas d'as potencias europeas. Batalla de Tsushima : l' almirant Heihachiro Togo en o puent d'a suya nau. En 1902 , o Reino Uniu firmó un acuerdo d'alianza con Chapón , ta frenar l'abance de l' Imperio Ruso en a peninsula de Corea y o norte de l' Oceano Pacifico . En 1904 , os rusos, seguros d'a suya victoria, facieron que o Chapón lis declarase a guerra, a clamata Guerra ruso-chaponesa . L' Armata Imperial Chaponesa y l' Exercito Imperial Chaponés redotoron a l' Exercito ruso , en batallas de gran importancia como en a batalla naval de Tsushima u o seche de de Port-Arthur , a prencipal base naval rusa en a mar Amariella . Dimpués d'a redota rusa y d'a emerchencia de Chapón como una nueva potencia militar en Asia , Chapón ponió os suyos uellos en a suya expansión. Ta o norte ya no yera posible, porque o territorio yera ocupato por l' Imperio Ruso ; ta l'este yeran os Estaus Unius y ta o sud, en as Filipinas yeran os Estaus Unius, atra potencia en expansión. Asinas, l'acción imperialista chaponesa estió enta China , en as costas d'a mar Amariella y Manchuria y ta Corea . En 1905 Chapón sinyó con o Reino Uniu o Tractau de Portsmouth , acceptando os britanicos una sustancial ampliación d'a potencia naval chaponesa. L' Armata Imperial Chaponesa construyió modernos vaixiellos basatos en modelos occidentals. En 1907 se sinyoron d'atros alcuerdos con Francia y con l' Imperio Ruso . En 1910 Chapón s'anexionó Corea , que estió asinas a segunda colonia d'o país, dimpués d'a isla de Formosa . En 1912 morió l' emperador Meiji y Chapón, con o nuevo emperador, dentró en a clamata Era Taisho , convertindo-se en una potencia militar important en puertas d'a Primera Guerra Mundial . En a Primera Guerra Mundial , Chapón fació parte d'os Aliaus , declarando a guerra a las Potencias Centrals o 23 d'agosto de 1914 . Por a suya distancia d'os frents de batalla, as tropas chaponesas no participoron en a guerra terrestre, encara que sí en bellas accions contra as bases alemanas en China y en l' Oceano Pacifico , amás d'a protección de convois navals con l' Armata Imperial Chaponesa y d'o suministro de material militar. Ta evitar o suyo aislamiento, China declaró tamién a guerra a as Potencias Centrals. Dimpués d'a guerra, en o Tractau de Vesailles , o Chapón s'apoderó d'as antigas colonias alemanas en Asia y l' Oceano Pacifico , encara que no podió apoderar-se de territorios chinos. Sí s'apoderó de bases en Manchuria que antis yeran de l' Imperio Ruso , aprofitando d'a situación causata por a Revolución rusa en o país, dentrando en Siberia ta luchar contra l' Exercito Royo . Istos beneficios pareixioron muy chicoz a os nacionalistas chaponeses, que se vulcoron en a conquiesta de China , que yera en situación de desgubierno. Acto nacionalista d'exaltación patriotica en Chapón . China , dimpués d'a proclamación d'a Republica por Sun Yat-sen en 1912 y a participación d'o país en a Primera Guerra Mundial , dentró en una situación caotica, y o país yera dominato por os clamatos sinyors d'a guerra , que controlaban partis d'o país. Bi heba dos grupos politicos que intentaban rendrezar a situación: o Kuomitang de Chiang Kai-shek , politicament conservador, y o Partiu Comunista Chino , líderato por Mao Cedong ; istos dos grupos s'enfrontoron entre sí y con os sinyors d'a guerra, con os chaponeses aprofitando-se d'a situación, con a excusa de pacificar o país y protecher a os ciudadans europeus y chaponeses . Con a situación colonial en Corea y con a intervención militar en China, o Gubierno chaponés preteneba tierras ta instalar colons chaponeses y amás, extender a suya ideolochía de superioridat racial d'os nipons en Asia , con o corolario d'o suyo dreito a dominar tot o continent. Istas teorías preparaban a lucha con Francia en as suyas colonias en Indochina , con o Reino Uniu y a suyas colonias en India y Malaisia , con os Países Baixos y as suyas colonias en Indonesia y con os Estaus Unius y a suya colonia en Filipinas . O Chapón necesitaba toz istos territorios por as suyas materias primas y alimentos ( petrolio , caucho , roz ...) ta mantener o suyo esfuerzo militar en China. Espanya [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Molimento a Miguel Primo de Rivera , o dictador d' Espanya ( 1923 - 1930 ), en Xerez de la Frontera . Ta mas detalles, veyer l'articlo Dictadura de Primo de Rivera veyer os articlos [[{{{2}}}]] y [[{{{3}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{4}}}]] , [[{{{5}}}]] y [[{{{6}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{7}}}]] , [[{{{8}}}]] , [[{{{9}}}]] y [[{{{10}}}]] . Ta mas detalles, veyer l'articlo Segunda Republica Espanyola veyer os articlos [[{{{2}}}]] y [[{{{3}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{4}}}]] , [[{{{5}}}]] y [[{{{6}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{7}}}]] , [[{{{8}}}]] , [[{{{9}}}]] y [[{{{10}}}]] . Ta mas detalles, veyer l'articlo Guerra Civil Espanyola veyer os articlos [[{{{2}}}]] y [[{{{3}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{4}}}]] , [[{{{5}}}]] y [[{{{6}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{7}}}]] , [[{{{8}}}]] , [[{{{9}}}]] y [[{{{10}}}]] . Dimpués d'a suya redota en 1898 en a Guerra Hispano-Estausunidense a mans d'os Estaus Unius y a perdida d'os zaguers restos d'o suyo imperio colonial, Espanya se cerró en o dominio d'os territorios en Africa d'o Norte que le concedió a Conferencia d'Alchecira en 1906 , que yeran o Protectorau espanyol de Marruecos , con batallas y redotas como a batalla d'o Barranco d'o Lobo u a batalla del Gurugú contra os rifenyos , causantes de disturbios internos, como a Semana Trachica de Barcelona en 1909 . Asinas, Espanya no partecipó en a Primera Guerra Mundial . Sindembargo, a implicación de l' Exercito espanyol en a continua guerra colonial fació que os militars asumiesen o creixent nacionalismo espanyol no partidario d'o sistema democratico en o país, apareixendo asinas en 1923 un golpe d'estato d'o cheneral Miguel Primo de Rivera , con refirme d'o rei Alifonso XIII , ta intentar evitar o creiximento d'o socialismo y d'o anarquismo en o país. Se creyó asinas a dictadura de Primo de Rivera . En 1931 a situación d'o país, mesmo con pronunciamientos militars contra a Monarquía como en Chaca ( sublevación de Chaca en aviento de 1930 ) fació que se proclamase a Segunda Republica Espanyola , dimpués d'a redota en as eleccions municipals d'o 12 d'abril de 1931 d'os partius politicos monarquicos. A dreita politica espanyola, que no acceptaba o sistema democratico , derivó ta o faixismo con a Falange Espanyola de las JONS y José Antonio Primo de Rivera , fillo d'o dictador, dimpués de fracasar a sanjurjada d'o cheneral José Sanjurjo en 1932 . O 18 de chulio de 1936 , dimpués d'un golpe d'estato fracasato, prencipió a Guerra Civil Espanyola . En ista guerra, combatioron tropas d'a Wehrmacht alemana (a Lechión Condor , que bombardeyó, entre d'atros lugars, Bielsa mientres a bolsa de Bielsa ) y d'o Regio Esercito italiano, en aduya d'o sublevatos. Estonia [ editar | modificar o codigo ] En a Primera Guerra Mundial , os alemans ocuporon Estonia , que yera parte de l' Imperio Ruso , dica noviembre de 1918 . En ixas, calendatas os alemans albandonaron o país, y dentró en Estonia l' Exercito Royo sovietico . En as luchas, os estonios recebioron l'aduya d'antigos militars alemans, encuadratos en os Freikorps , amanatos a l' extrema dreita . O 2 de febrero de 1920 , con o Tractau de Tartu , a Unión Sovietica reconoixeba a independencia d'Estonia. En os anyos 20 y primers anyos 30 , o país yera una democracia , con vinclos con atros países d'a mar Baltica , prencipalment con Finlandia . Sindembargo, en 1934 , Estonia pasa a estar una dictadura , con o dictador Konstantin Päts , autoproclamato Riigihoida (protector d'o estato) en 1937 . O Eesti Vabadussõjalaste Liit (Liga de Veterans d'a Guerra d'a Independencia), establito en 1933 , era un partiu politico d'ideyas faixistas , nacionalistas y antisovieticas, que refirmó a o president Päts. Francia [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Con o Tractau de Versailles , Francia recuperó Alsacia y Lorena , territorios que heba perdito en 1870 con a Guerra franco-prusiana , y que yeran uno d'os obchectivos prencipals d'o nacionalismo francés, encara que Alsacia yera un territorio de luenga alemana . Amás, ta evitar a recuperación d' Alemanya y a posibilidat d'una nueva guerra, yera Francia quien insistía en as clausulas que obligaban a os alemans a o pago d'indemnizacions de guerra. A situación interna de Francia estió en ixas anyadas 20 economicament difícil, encara que muito millor que en Alemanya. Sindembargo, o nacionalismo francés de dreita derivó ta actitudes politicas amanatas a o faixismo en bels partius y politicos franceses, como Action Française , Camelots du Roi , Croix-de-feu , Charles Maurras , François de la Rocque u Robert Brasillach . Una parte important d'istas personas estió dimpués colaboracionista en 1940 - 1945 . A extrema dreita , organizada en cuantas Ligas , intentó un difuso golpe d'estato mientres una manifestación convocata en París o 6 d'octubre de 1934 , en os clamatos escaicimientos d'o 6 d'octubre de 1934 . Iste golpe u a percepción por as ezquierdas de un golpe fallito fació que a ezquierda politica francesa s'uniese, creyando o Frent Popular francés , que ganó as eleccions de 1936 , establindo mesuras de gran importancia social, como as vacacions pagatas. Os Gubiernos d'o Partiu Radical y d'o Frent Popular no colabororon con a esfensa d'a Segunda Republica Espanyola en a Guerra Civil Espanyola , por temor a provocar un ataque d'o Tercer Reich de Hitler y d'a Italia de Mussolini . Grecia [ editar | modificar o codigo ] En as Guerras balcanicas de prencipios d'o sieglo XX , Grecia heba adquirito bels territorios, adquisicions completatas con o Tractau de Sèvres , seguntes o cual Turquía cedeba a Grecia bels territorios en Asia , como Esmirna , y con o Tractau de Neuilly , seguntes o cual Bulgaria cedía a Tracia Ocidental , con as costas d'a mar Echea y Tesalonica . Sindembargo, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk no acceptó o Tractau y prencipió a Guerra Greco-turca , que concluyó con os acuerdos en a Conferencia de Lausana ( Tractau de Lausana ) en 1923 , seguntes os cuals Turquía recuperó toz os territorios que heba perdito antis. Antiparte, bi habió en o país una reforma agraria , ta acomodar a os campesins griegos fuixitos de Turquía, d'os Balcans y d'a Unión Sovietica . En 1924 se proclamó a Republica en o país, dimpués d'un golpe d'estato pro-monarquico fracasato d' Ioannis Metaixas , derrocando a o rei Chorche II , y o país dentró en un periodo de luchas politicas entre os venicelistas republicanos d' Eleftherios Venizelos y os monarquicos. En 1935 se restablió a Monarquía, y en 1936 s'instauró o rechimen faixista d'o cheneral Ioannis Metaixas , con aduya d'o rei. Italia [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Letonia [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Lituania [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Hongría [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Polonia [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Reino Uniu [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Rumanía [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Rusia [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Servia [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Turquía [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Unión Sovietica [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Minorías no estatals [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Eslovacos [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Bosnios [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Bosnia-Hercegovina fue adhibita a lo Reino d'os Serbios, Croatas y Eslovenos a fins de 1918. Mientres o gubierno d'o estato recientment constituito preneba o control de Bosnia-Herzegovina os bosnios musulmans cayoron vitimas d'os voluntarios serbios que saqueyaban o territorio. Muitos musulmans se'n fuoron ta Turquía . Una vegata que l'orden yera establito en a propaganda nacionalista serbia os musulmans yeran presentatos como galbans, maltraballas y inutils y que lis caleva rehabilitación pa recuperar a identidat serbia. En a reforma agraria de 1919 espropioron a los propietarios musulmans. Os musulmans de totas as clases socials creyan un frente unito, a Organización Yugoslava, con seu en Sarajevo . En 1929 Bosnia-Hercegovina desapareixe como entidat administrativa y ye repartita en cuatre banovinas con unas mugas que preban de deixar a los bosnios musulmans como minoritarios en cadaguna. Os musulmans no podeban influir sobre o gubierno, dominato por o centralismo serbio. Os musulmans optoron por o yugoslavismo, que lis ofreixeba un refuchio entre os nacionalismos serbio y croata. Croatas [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Os dirichents politicos croatas participan en o Comité nacional formato mientres a Primera Guerra Mundial en Londres, dimpués en o Consello nacional de Zagreb d'octubre de 1918 . O 29 d'octubre de 1918 a Dieta proclama a independencia de Croacia y dimpués a unión a lo Reino d'os serbios, croatas y eslovenos l' 1 d'aviento . A fitación d'as mugas d'o nuevo reino afecta a los croatas. Por o norte en 1920 Hongría se vei obligata por o Tractau de Trianón a ceder o districto de Mur, habitato por croatas en o sud y una porción de Baranya (a lo sud-este de Pécs ). En o sud Yugoslavia y Italia se disputan Istria y Dalmacia. En 1919 uns voluntarios italiants prenen Fiume , y ye declarata ciudat libre. En 1920 o tractau de Rapallo atribuye Chadra , tota Istria y bellas islas d'a redolata a Italia. En 1922 a Italia faixista ocupa Fiume , feito reconoixito por Yugoslavia en 1924 por l'Alcuerdo de Roma. Si os croatas heban estato adeptos d'o ilirismo, os serbios teneban atra conceción de Yugoslavia, considerando que conseguiban a "Gran Serbia". Os nacionalistas serbios consideraban que fendo parte Serbia d'o bando vencedor, teneban dreito a gobernar sobre os atros pueblos eslaus de Yugoslavia, que heban estato en l'Imperio Austrongaro, on no yeran independients. Dimpués de 1918 os croatas se troboron ensopinatos en una "Gran Servia", en cuenta d'a Yugoslavia que heban deseyato. En o periodo d'entreguerras amaneixió por primera vegata l'odio a los serbios, que dominaban o gubierno. O centralismo serbio fa que os croatas queden desencantatos con o ilirismo u o yugoslavismo . En 1925 ye engarcholato Stjepan Radic , cabo d'o Partiu Campesín Croata, y ye asasinato en o mesmo Parlamento en 1928. En 1933 o suyo succesor Macek tamién ye engarcholato. Ye o inte que amaneix o movimiento ustaixa un movimiento nacionalista croata d'inspiración faixista baixo a dirección d' Ante Palevic . O 9 d'octubre de 1934 os ustaixas asasinan a lo rei Aleixandre de Yugoslavia . Cuan se desfa Checoslovaquia os serbios y croatas alcuerdan creyar a Banovina Autonoma de Croacia , y una parte de Bosnia con población croata ( Posavina y Hercegovina occidental sobretot) pasa a fer parte de Croacia. Macek pasa a fer parte d'o gubierno yugoslau en 1941. O nacionalismo expansivo Encara que a Primera Guerra Mundial estió prencipalment una guerra por motivos nacionalistas , cuasi belún d'os nacionalismos europeus logró en a guerra os suyos obchectivos, como tampoco los logró o nacionalismo chaponés . O Tractau de Versailles y os suyos tractaus complementarios no logroron asinas una autentica pacificación d'as apetencias nacionalistas, que se radicalizaron politicament, aliandose con a chicota burguesía enrunata por as crisis economicas d'as anyadas 20 . En beluns d'os países, o nacionalismo, derivato de raso en faixismo u como mero rechimen autoritario, prenió o poder, por meyo d'eleccions u por meyo de golpes d'estato , encara que en otros o sistema democratico se mantenió. Alemanya [ editar | modificar o codigo ] En Alemanya , dimpués d'a Primera Guerra Mundial y d'a suya redota en ixa guerra, os sectors nacionalistas d' extrema dreita s'agruporon en os Freikorps , grupos paramilitars armatos con protección y aduya de l' Exercito alemán (a Reichswehr ), primero contra os grupos d'ezquierda radical y dimpués contra o mesmo rechimen democratico incarnato por a Republica de Weimar , que alavez veyeba con indiferencia (u mesmo con simpatía) as suyas accions. No estió dica 1923 , con o golpe d'estato d'o Putsch d'a Cervecería en Múnich , que a Republica fue conscient d'o peligro que significaba a extrema dreita ta a supervivencia d'o sistema democratico. Con o chudicio contra Adolf Hitler y o suyo Nationalsocialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei en 1924 por suya participación en o golpe chunto a Erich Ludendorff , a figura politica de Hitler destacó en Alemanya, superando asinas o suyo papel anterior como mero líder d'un partiu politico con actuación rechional restrinchita a Bavera . Prencipió asinas a suya competencia con atro grupo d'extrema dreita, encara que menos radicalizato, o Stahlhelm, Bund der Frontsoldaten , que preneba o suyo nombre d'o Stahlhelm , o casco d' acero d'os soldatos alemans d'a Primera Guerra Mundial. En 1925 , mientres a suya estancia en presón , Hitler redactó o suyo manifiesto politico, o Mein Kampf , y estructuró o suyo partiu como una formación militarizada, basata en o Sturmabteilung (SA) dirichito en primeras por Hermann Göring y dimpués por Ernst Röhm y en a elite d'ista organización paramilitar, as Schutzstaffel (u SS) dirichita por Heinrich Himmler , encara que dende 1923 dica 1926 estioron prohibitos en o país. Contactó tamién con grupos d'ideolochía similar en o norte d'Alemanya ta expandir o suyo partiu ta Prusia y Berlín . En as eleccions anticipadas a o Reichstag d'o 11 de setiembre de 1930 , por primera vegata o Nationalsocialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei tenió buenos resultaus, como tamién o Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands . Os dos partius, chunto con o Stahlhelm, Bund der Frontsoldaten paralizoron l'actividat lechislativa d'a Republica de Weimar . En 1931 o NSDAP dió atro paso mas, establindo o Frent de Harzburg con o Stahlhelm, Bund der Frontsoldaten y atros grupos nacionalistas líderatos por Franz von Papen y Hjalmar Schacht (futuros ministros nazis) y tenió 11,34 milions de votos en primera vuelta y 13,42 en segunda vuelta contra Paul von Hindenburg (18,65 en primera y 19,36 en segunda vuelta), aduyato por os centristas y os socialdemocratas, y Ernst Thälmann , candidato comunista (4,98 y 3,71 milions de votos). [ 1 ] Asinas, en as eleccions a o Reichstag d'o 31 de chulio de 1932 , o NSDAP teneba 230 escanyos (de 608 deputados) y en as eleccions d'o 6 de noviembre de 1932 teneba 196 de 584 deputados. O Stahlhelm, Bund der Frontsoldaten teneba 37 y 52. [ 1 ] O 30 de chinero de 1933 , Hitler accepta o puesto de canceller, encara que con a condición d'a celebración de nuevas eleccions. O 4 de febrero de 1933 , una d'as suyas primeras mesuras ye a prohibición de bellos diarios d'ideolochía comunista u socialista . O 27 de febrero , bi ha un incendio en o Reichstag (o incendio d'o Reichstag ) por un choven comunista neerlandés , encara que hue se creye que l'incendio estió obra d'os propios nazis. O 28 de febrero , hitler dicta un decreto presidencial, o Reichstagsbrandverordnung , que reduce as libertaz personals en o país, prohibindo o KPD y dando inicio a la detención d'os opositors politicos. Como en as eleccions d'o 5 de marzo o NSDAP ni tien a mayoría absoluta (nomás un 44% d'os escanyos), Hitler detiene a os deputados comunistas, con a cual cosa ya teneba o 51% d'os escanyos. O 23 de marzo , o Reichstag vota una ley que atorga plenos poders a Hitler. O 14 de chulio o Nationalsocialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei se converte en o unico partiu politico legal en Alemanya . O 2 d'agosto de 1934 muere o president d'Alemanya, o mariscal Paul von Hindenburg , y o puesto de president ye asumito por Hitler. Naixe asinas, encara que no haiga estado proclamato nunca oficialment, o Tercer Reich . Alemanya En Alemanya , dimpués d'a Primera Guerra Mundial y d'a suya redota en ixa guerra, os sectors nacionalistas d' extrema dreita s'agruporon en os Freikorps , grupos paramilitars armatos con protección y aduya de l' Exercito alemán (a Reichswehr ), primero contra os grupos d'ezquierda radical y dimpués contra o mesmo rechimen democratico incarnato por a Republica de Weimar , que alavez veyeba con indiferencia (u mesmo con simpatía) as suyas accions. No estió dica 1923 , con o golpe d'estato d'o Putsch d'a Cervecería en Múnich , que a Republica fue conscient d'o peligro que significaba a extrema dreita ta a supervivencia d'o sistema democratico. Con o chudicio contra Adolf Hitler y o suyo Nationalsocialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei en 1924 por suya participación en o golpe chunto a Erich Ludendorff , a figura politica de Hitler destacó en Alemanya, superando asinas o suyo papel anterior como mero líder d'un partiu politico con actuación rechional restrinchita a Bavera . Prencipió asinas a suya competencia con atro grupo d'extrema dreita, encara que menos radicalizato, o Stahlhelm, Bund der Frontsoldaten , que preneba o suyo nombre d'o Stahlhelm , o casco d' acero d'os soldatos alemans d'a Primera Guerra Mundial. En 1925 , mientres a suya estancia en presón , Hitler redactó o suyo manifiesto politico, o Mein Kampf , y estructuró o suyo partiu como una formación militarizada, basata en o Sturmabteilung (SA) dirichito en primeras por Hermann Göring y dimpués por Ernst Röhm y en a elite d'ista organización paramilitar, as Schutzstaffel (u SS) dirichita por Heinrich Himmler , encara que dende 1923 dica 1926 estioron prohibitos en o país. Contactó tamién con grupos d'ideolochía similar en o norte d'Alemanya ta expandir o suyo partiu ta Prusia y Berlín . En as eleccions anticipadas a o Reichstag d'o 11 de setiembre de 1930 , por primera vegata o Nationalsocialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei tenió buenos resultaus, como tamién o Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands . Os dos partius, chunto con o Stahlhelm, Bund der Frontsoldaten paralizoron l'actividat lechislativa d'a Republica de Weimar . En 1931 o NSDAP dió atro paso mas, establindo o Frent de Harzburg con o Stahlhelm, Bund der Frontsoldaten y atros grupos nacionalistas líderatos por Franz von Papen y Hjalmar Schacht (futuros ministros nazis) y tenió 11,34 milions de votos en primera vuelta y 13,42 en segunda vuelta contra Paul von Hindenburg (18,65 en primera y 19,36 en segunda vuelta), aduyato por os centristas y os socialdemocratas, y Ernst Thälmann , candidato comunista (4,98 y 3,71 milions de votos). [ 1 ] Asinas, en as eleccions a o Reichstag d'o 31 de chulio de 1932 , o NSDAP teneba 230 escanyos (de 608 deputados) y en as eleccions d'o 6 de noviembre de 1932 teneba 196 de 584 deputados. O Stahlhelm, Bund der Frontsoldaten teneba 37 y 52. [ 1 ] O 30 de chinero de 1933 , Hitler accepta o puesto de canceller, encara que con a condición d'a celebración de nuevas eleccions. O 4 de febrero de 1933 , una d'as suyas primeras mesuras ye a prohibición de bellos diarios d'ideolochía comunista u socialista . O 27 de febrero , bi ha un incendio en o Reichstag (o incendio d'o Reichstag ) por un choven comunista neerlandés , encara que hue se creye que l'incendio estió obra d'os propios nazis. O 28 de febrero , hitler dicta un decreto presidencial, o Reichstagsbrandverordnung , que reduce as libertaz personals en o país, prohibindo o KPD y dando inicio a la detención d'os opositors politicos. Como en as eleccions d'o 5 de marzo o NSDAP ni tien a mayoría absoluta (nomás un 44% d'os escanyos), Hitler detiene a os deputados comunistas, con a cual cosa ya teneba o 51% d'os escanyos. O 23 de marzo , o Reichstag vota una ley que atorga plenos poders a Hitler. O 14 de chulio o Nationalsocialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei se converte en o unico partiu politico legal en Alemanya . O 2 d'agosto de 1934 muere o president d'Alemanya, o mariscal Paul von Hindenburg , y o puesto de president ye asumito por Hitler. Naixe asinas, encara que no haiga estado proclamato nunca oficialment, o Tercer Reich . Austria [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Austria Belchica [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Belchica Bulgaria [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Bulgaria dimpués d'o Tractau de Neuilly . En color narancha, os territorios perditos. Bulgaria , que dende a suya independencia a finals d'o sieglo XIX heba perdito muitos territorios y que salió redotada d'a suya participación en as Guerras balcanicas , prenió parte en a Primera Guerra Mundial chunto a las Potencias Centrals ta intentar recuperar-los, y estió redotada de nuevo. O suyo nacionalismo preteneba o control d'a rechión de Macedonya , a Dobrucha y partes d'a Tracia , ocupatos por pueblos eslaus amanatos a os bulgaros. Dimpués d'a guerra, en 1919 , un Gubierno d'ezquierdas, con Aleixandro Stamboliski ( Partiu Campesín ), prenió o poder y sinyó o Tractau de Neuilly con os Aliaus , encara que Bulgaria perdeba seguntes o Tractau a suya salida ta'a mar Echea y bels territorios en a Macedonya , ceditos a Grecia y a o nuevo país de Yugoslavia . Stamboliski fue asasinato en un sangroso golpe d'estato d' Aleixandro Tsankov ( Unión Nacional ) en 1923 , golpe que contó con l'aduya d'o rei Boris III de Bulgaria . O nuevo Gubierno de Tsankov fue depuesto en 1934 por un golpe d'estato d'o partiu nacionalista, populista y conservador Zveno , tamién con refirme d'o rei Boris, encara que Tsankov establió en 1932 un partiu nacionalsocialista similar al Nationalsocialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei d' Adolf Hitler . Antiparte, o Zveno yera amanato a o faixismo de Benito Mussolini . Bulgaria Bulgaria , que dende a suya independencia a finals d'o sieglo XIX heba perdito muitos territorios y que salió redotada d'a suya participación en as Guerras balcanicas , prenió parte en a Primera Guerra Mundial chunto a las Potencias Centrals ta intentar recuperar-los, y estió redotada de nuevo. O suyo nacionalismo preteneba o control d'a rechión de Macedonya , a Dobrucha y partes d'a Tracia , ocupatos por pueblos eslaus amanatos a os bulgaros. Dimpués d'a guerra, en 1919 , un Gubierno d'ezquierdas, con Aleixandro Stamboliski ( Partiu Campesín ), prenió o poder y sinyó o Tractau de Neuilly con os Aliaus , encara que Bulgaria perdeba seguntes o Tractau a suya salida ta'a mar Echea y bels territorios en a Macedonya , ceditos a Grecia y a o nuevo país de Yugoslavia . Stamboliski fue asasinato en un sangroso golpe d'estato d' Aleixandro Tsankov ( Unión Nacional ) en 1923 , golpe que contó con l'aduya d'o rei Boris III de Bulgaria . O nuevo Gubierno de Tsankov fue depuesto en 1934 por un golpe d'estato d'o partiu nacionalista, populista y conservador Zveno , tamién con refirme d'o rei Boris, encara que Tsankov establió en 1932 un partiu nacionalsocialista similar al Nationalsocialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei d' Adolf Hitler . Antiparte, o Zveno yera amanato a o faixismo de Benito Mussolini . Chapón [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Exercicios militars de l' Exercito estausunidense en Shimoda , uno d'os tres puertos abiertos a o comercio estausunidense por a Convención de Kanagawa , en presencia d'o ninviato de l'emperador. Litografía de 1856 . Ta mas detalles, veyer l'articlo Era Meichi veyer os articlos [[{{{2}}}]] y [[{{{3}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{4}}}]] , [[{{{5}}}]] y [[{{{6}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{7}}}]] , [[{{{8}}}]] , [[{{{9}}}]] y [[{{{10}}}]] . Ta mas detalles, veyer l'articlo Era Taisho veyer os articlos [[{{{2}}}]] y [[{{{3}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{4}}}]] , [[{{{5}}}]] y [[{{{6}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{7}}}]] , [[{{{8}}}]] , [[{{{9}}}]] y [[{{{10}}}]] . Ta mas detalles, veyer l'articlo Era Showa veyer os articlos [[{{{2}}}]] y [[{{{3}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{4}}}]] , [[{{{5}}}]] y [[{{{6}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{7}}}]] , [[{{{8}}}]] , [[{{{9}}}]] y [[{{{10}}}]] . Encara que en o sieglo XVI o Chapón teneba contactos comercials con os prencipals países d' Europa , como Espanya , Portugal , Países Baixos , Reino Uniu u Francia , o shogun prohibió o cristianismo en o país, y tamién os contactos con os europeus, restrinchitos a una unica zona comercial en a ciudat de Nagasaki , ta comerciar con chinos y neerlandeses . A situación permaneixió asinas dica 1854 , con a intervención militar d'o comodoro estausunidense Matthew Perry , que forzó manu militari l'acceptación por o Chapón d'a clamata Convención de Kanagawa . Seguntes ista convención, Chapón cedeba tres puertos a o comercio estausunidense , con extraterritorialidat ta os chudicios contra os europeus y estausunidenses, aplicando-se o Dreito nacional en cuentas d'o Dreito chaponés . En o Chapón , ista situación, que pensaban yera insoportable y humiliant, fació que bi hese una reacción contra o poder d'o Shogunato Tokugawa . En noviembre de 1867 , Yoshinovu Tokugawa , o zaguer shogun , cedeba o suyo poder, ubriendo asinas paso a a clamata Era Meichi (u Periodo Meichi u Restauración Meichi ). En o periodo Meichi, o prencipal obchectivo d'o nuevo rechimen yera a modernización d'o país. Apareixió a industria , desapareixió o feudalismo y a casta d'os samurai se transformó ta una nueva clase industrial u ta un Exercito chaponés unificato, modernizato y con armamento europeu . En 1885 s'establió o yen como moneda unificata d'o país y s'adoptó o sistema metrico decimal y en 1894 bi heban en Chapón 3.380 km de vías ferrias . S'estudioron as constitucions d'atros países ta adaptar-las a Chapón y s'invitó a o país a cientificos, militars y d'atros profesionals ya aduyar a modernizar-lo. Tamién se firmó un tractau de mugas con l' Imperio Ruso y un acuerdo de cooperación con l' Imperio Britanico . A conquista de Pekín en 1900 en una pintura chaponesa. En 1894 o Chapón ya heba incorporato parte d'o sistema de valors occidental, incluyindo-ie o colonialismo , y atacó a China , en a Guerra Chino-Chaponesa , con a cual cosa s'anexionó a isla de Formosa en 1895 . En 1900 prenió parte con as suyas tropas en a represión d'a clamata Revuelta d'os Boxers en China y l' Exercito chaponés dentró en Pekín con as tropas d'as potencias europeas. Batalla de Tsushima : l' almirant Heihachiro Togo en o puent d'a suya nau. En 1902 , o Reino Uniu firmó un acuerdo d'alianza con Chapón , ta frenar l'abance de l' Imperio Ruso en a peninsula de Corea y o norte de l' Oceano Pacifico . En 1904 , os rusos, seguros d'a suya victoria, facieron que o Chapón lis declarase a guerra, a clamata Guerra ruso-chaponesa . L' Armata Imperial Chaponesa y l' Exercito Imperial Chaponés redotoron a l' Exercito ruso , en batallas de gran importancia como en a batalla naval de Tsushima u o seche de de Port-Arthur , a prencipal base naval rusa en a mar Amariella . Dimpués d'a redota rusa y d'a emerchencia de Chapón como una nueva potencia militar en Asia , Chapón ponió os suyos uellos en a suya expansión. Ta o norte ya no yera posible, porque o territorio yera ocupato por l' Imperio Ruso ; ta l'este yeran os Estaus Unius y ta o sud, en as Filipinas yeran os Estaus Unius, atra potencia en expansión. Asinas, l'acción imperialista chaponesa estió enta China , en as costas d'a mar Amariella y Manchuria y ta Corea . En 1905 Chapón sinyó con o Reino Uniu o Tractau de Portsmouth , acceptando os britanicos una sustancial ampliación d'a potencia naval chaponesa. L' Armata Imperial Chaponesa construyió modernos vaixiellos basatos en modelos occidentals. En 1907 se sinyoron d'atros alcuerdos con Francia y con l' Imperio Ruso . En 1910 Chapón s'anexionó Corea , que estió asinas a segunda colonia d'o país, dimpués d'a isla de Formosa . En 1912 morió l' emperador Meiji y Chapón, con o nuevo emperador, dentró en a clamata Era Taisho , convertindo-se en una potencia militar important en puertas d'a Primera Guerra Mundial . En a Primera Guerra Mundial , Chapón fació parte d'os Aliaus , declarando a guerra a las Potencias Centrals o 23 d'agosto de 1914 . Por a suya distancia d'os frents de batalla, as tropas chaponesas no participoron en a guerra terrestre, encara que sí en bellas accions contra as bases alemanas en China y en l' Oceano Pacifico , amás d'a protección de convois navals con l' Armata Imperial Chaponesa y d'o suministro de material militar. Ta evitar o suyo aislamiento, China declaró tamién a guerra a as Potencias Centrals. Dimpués d'a guerra, en o Tractau de Vesailles , o Chapón s'apoderó d'as antigas colonias alemanas en Asia y l' Oceano Pacifico , encara que no podió apoderar-se de territorios chinos. Sí s'apoderó de bases en Manchuria que antis yeran de l' Imperio Ruso , aprofitando d'a situación causata por a Revolución rusa en o país, dentrando en Siberia ta luchar contra l' Exercito Royo . Istos beneficios pareixioron muy chicoz a os nacionalistas chaponeses, que se vulcoron en a conquiesta de China , que yera en situación de desgubierno. Acto nacionalista d'exaltación patriotica en Chapón . China , dimpués d'a proclamación d'a Republica por Sun Yat-sen en 1912 y a participación d'o país en a Primera Guerra Mundial , dentró en una situación caotica, y o país yera dominato por os clamatos sinyors d'a guerra , que controlaban partis d'o país. Bi heba dos grupos politicos que intentaban rendrezar a situación: o Kuomitang de Chiang Kai-shek , politicament conservador, y o Partiu Comunista Chino , líderato por Mao Cedong ; istos dos grupos s'enfrontoron entre sí y con os sinyors d'a guerra, con os chaponeses aprofitando-se d'a situación, con a excusa de pacificar o país y protecher a os ciudadans europeus y chaponeses . Con a situación colonial en Corea y con a intervención militar en China, o Gubierno chaponés preteneba tierras ta instalar colons chaponeses y amás, extender a suya ideolochía de superioridat racial d'os nipons en Asia , con o corolario d'o suyo dreito a dominar tot o continent. Istas teorías preparaban a lucha con Francia en as suyas colonias en Indochina , con o Reino Uniu y a suyas colonias en India y Malaisia , con os Países Baixos y as suyas colonias en Indonesia y con os Estaus Unius y a suya colonia en Filipinas . O Chapón necesitaba toz istos territorios por as suyas materias primas y alimentos ( petrolio , caucho , roz ...) ta mantener o suyo esfuerzo militar en China. Chapón Encara que en o sieglo XVI o Chapón teneba contactos comercials con os prencipals países d' Europa , como Espanya , Portugal , Países Baixos , Reino Uniu u Francia , o shogun prohibió o cristianismo en o país, y tamién os contactos con os europeus, restrinchitos a una unica zona comercial en a ciudat de Nagasaki , ta comerciar con chinos y neerlandeses . A situación permaneixió asinas dica 1854 , con a intervención militar d'o comodoro estausunidense Matthew Perry , que forzó manu militari l'acceptación por o Chapón d'a clamata Convención de Kanagawa . Seguntes ista convención, Chapón cedeba tres puertos a o comercio estausunidense , con extraterritorialidat ta os chudicios contra os europeus y estausunidenses, aplicando-se o Dreito nacional en cuentas d'o Dreito chaponés . En o Chapón , ista situación, que pensaban yera insoportable y humiliant, fació que bi hese una reacción contra o poder d'o Shogunato Tokugawa . En noviembre de 1867 , Yoshinovu Tokugawa , o zaguer shogun , cedeba o suyo poder, ubriendo asinas paso a a clamata Era Meichi (u Periodo Meichi u Restauración Meichi ). En o periodo Meichi, o prencipal obchectivo d'o nuevo rechimen yera a modernización d'o país. Apareixió a industria , desapareixió o feudalismo y a casta d'os samurai se transformó ta una nueva clase industrial u ta un Exercito chaponés unificato, modernizato y con armamento europeu . En 1885 s'establió o yen como moneda unificata d'o país y s'adoptó o sistema metrico decimal y en 1894 bi heban en Chapón 3.380 km de vías ferrias . S'estudioron as constitucions d'atros países ta adaptar-las a Chapón y s'invitó a o país a cientificos, militars y d'atros profesionals ya aduyar a modernizar-lo. Tamién se firmó un tractau de mugas con l' Imperio Ruso y un acuerdo de cooperación con l' Imperio Britanico . En 1894 o Chapón ya heba incorporato parte d'o sistema de valors occidental, incluyindo-ie o colonialismo , y atacó a China , en a Guerra Chino-Chaponesa , con a cual cosa s'anexionó a isla de Formosa en 1895 . En 1900 prenió parte con as suyas tropas en a represión d'a clamata Revuelta d'os Boxers en China y l' Exercito chaponés dentró en Pekín con as tropas d'as potencias europeas. En 1902 , o Reino Uniu firmó un acuerdo d'alianza con Chapón , ta frenar l'abance de l' Imperio Ruso en a peninsula de Corea y o norte de l' Oceano Pacifico . En 1904 , os rusos, seguros d'a suya victoria, facieron que o Chapón lis declarase a guerra, a clamata Guerra ruso-chaponesa . L' Armata Imperial Chaponesa y l' Exercito Imperial Chaponés redotoron a l' Exercito ruso , en batallas de gran importancia como en a batalla naval de Tsushima u o seche de de Port-Arthur , a prencipal base naval rusa en a mar Amariella . Dimpués d'a redota rusa y d'a emerchencia de Chapón como una nueva potencia militar en Asia , Chapón ponió os suyos uellos en a suya expansión. Ta o norte ya no yera posible, porque o territorio yera ocupato por l' Imperio Ruso ; ta l'este yeran os Estaus Unius y ta o sud, en as Filipinas yeran os Estaus Unius, atra potencia en expansión. Asinas, l'acción imperialista chaponesa estió enta China , en as costas d'a mar Amariella y Manchuria y ta Corea . En 1905 Chapón sinyó con o Reino Uniu o Tractau de Portsmouth , acceptando os britanicos una sustancial ampliación d'a potencia naval chaponesa. L' Armata Imperial Chaponesa construyió modernos vaixiellos basatos en modelos occidentals. En 1907 se sinyoron d'atros alcuerdos con Francia y con l' Imperio Ruso . En 1910 Chapón s'anexionó Corea , que estió asinas a segunda colonia d'o país, dimpués d'a isla de Formosa . En 1912 morió l' emperador Meiji y Chapón, con o nuevo emperador, dentró en a clamata Era Taisho , convertindo-se en una potencia militar important en puertas d'a Primera Guerra Mundial . En a Primera Guerra Mundial , Chapón fació parte d'os Aliaus , declarando a guerra a las Potencias Centrals o 23 d'agosto de 1914 . Por a suya distancia d'os frents de batalla, as tropas chaponesas no participoron en a guerra terrestre, encara que sí en bellas accions contra as bases alemanas en China y en l' Oceano Pacifico , amás d'a protección de convois navals con l' Armata Imperial Chaponesa y d'o suministro de material militar. Ta evitar o suyo aislamiento, China declaró tamién a guerra a as Potencias Centrals. Dimpués d'a guerra, en o Tractau de Vesailles , o Chapón s'apoderó d'as antigas colonias alemanas en Asia y l' Oceano Pacifico , encara que no podió apoderar-se de territorios chinos. Sí s'apoderó de bases en Manchuria que antis yeran de l' Imperio Ruso , aprofitando d'a situación causata por a Revolución rusa en o país, dentrando en Siberia ta luchar contra l' Exercito Royo . Istos beneficios pareixioron muy chicoz a os nacionalistas chaponeses, que se vulcoron en a conquiesta de China , que yera en situación de desgubierno. China , dimpués d'a proclamación d'a Republica por Sun Yat-sen en 1912 y a participación d'o país en a Primera Guerra Mundial , dentró en una situación caotica, y o país yera dominato por os clamatos sinyors d'a guerra , que controlaban partis d'o país. Bi heba dos grupos politicos que intentaban rendrezar a situación: o Kuomitang de Chiang Kai-shek , politicament conservador, y o Partiu Comunista Chino , líderato por Mao Cedong ; istos dos grupos s'enfrontoron entre sí y con os sinyors d'a guerra, con os chaponeses aprofitando-se d'a situación, con a excusa de pacificar o país y protecher a os ciudadans europeus y chaponeses . Con a situación colonial en Corea y con a intervención militar en China, o Gubierno chaponés preteneba tierras ta instalar colons chaponeses y amás, extender a suya ideolochía de superioridat racial d'os nipons en Asia , con o corolario d'o suyo dreito a dominar tot o continent. Istas teorías preparaban a lucha con Francia en as suyas colonias en Indochina , con o Reino Uniu y a suyas colonias en India y Malaisia , con os Países Baixos y as suyas colonias en Indonesia y con os Estaus Unius y a suya colonia en Filipinas . O Chapón necesitaba toz istos territorios por as suyas materias primas y alimentos ( petrolio , caucho , roz ...) ta mantener o suyo esfuerzo militar en China. Espanya [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Molimento a Miguel Primo de Rivera , o dictador d' Espanya ( 1923 - 1930 ), en Xerez de la Frontera . Ta mas detalles, veyer l'articlo Dictadura de Primo de Rivera veyer os articlos [[{{{2}}}]] y [[{{{3}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{4}}}]] , [[{{{5}}}]] y [[{{{6}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{7}}}]] , [[{{{8}}}]] , [[{{{9}}}]] y [[{{{10}}}]] . Ta mas detalles, veyer l'articlo Segunda Republica Espanyola veyer os articlos [[{{{2}}}]] y [[{{{3}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{4}}}]] , [[{{{5}}}]] y [[{{{6}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{7}}}]] , [[{{{8}}}]] , [[{{{9}}}]] y [[{{{10}}}]] . Ta mas detalles, veyer l'articlo Guerra Civil Espanyola veyer os articlos [[{{{2}}}]] y [[{{{3}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{4}}}]] , [[{{{5}}}]] y [[{{{6}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{7}}}]] , [[{{{8}}}]] , [[{{{9}}}]] y [[{{{10}}}]] . Dimpués d'a suya redota en 1898 en a Guerra Hispano-Estausunidense a mans d'os Estaus Unius y a perdida d'os zaguers restos d'o suyo imperio colonial, Espanya se cerró en o dominio d'os territorios en Africa d'o Norte que le concedió a Conferencia d'Alchecira en 1906 , que yeran o Protectorau espanyol de Marruecos , con batallas y redotas como a batalla d'o Barranco d'o Lobo u a batalla del Gurugú contra os rifenyos , causantes de disturbios internos, como a Semana Trachica de Barcelona en 1909 . Asinas, Espanya no partecipó en a Primera Guerra Mundial . Sindembargo, a implicación de l' Exercito espanyol en a continua guerra colonial fació que os militars asumiesen o creixent nacionalismo espanyol no partidario d'o sistema democratico en o país, apareixendo asinas en 1923 un golpe d'estato d'o cheneral Miguel Primo de Rivera , con refirme d'o rei Alifonso XIII , ta intentar evitar o creiximento d'o socialismo y d'o anarquismo en o país. Se creyó asinas a dictadura de Primo de Rivera . En 1931 a situación d'o país, mesmo con pronunciamientos militars contra a Monarquía como en Chaca ( sublevación de Chaca en aviento de 1930 ) fació que se proclamase a Segunda Republica Espanyola , dimpués d'a redota en as eleccions municipals d'o 12 d'abril de 1931 d'os partius politicos monarquicos. A dreita politica espanyola, que no acceptaba o sistema democratico , derivó ta o faixismo con a Falange Espanyola de las JONS y José Antonio Primo de Rivera , fillo d'o dictador, dimpués de fracasar a sanjurjada d'o cheneral José Sanjurjo en 1932 . O 18 de chulio de 1936 , dimpués d'un golpe d'estato fracasato, prencipió a Guerra Civil Espanyola . En ista guerra, combatioron tropas d'a Wehrmacht alemana (a Lechión Condor , que bombardeyó, entre d'atros lugars, Bielsa mientres a bolsa de Bielsa ) y d'o Regio Esercito italiano, en aduya d'o sublevatos. Espanya Dimpués d'a suya redota en 1898 en a Guerra Hispano-Estausunidense a mans d'os Estaus Unius y a perdida d'os zaguers restos d'o suyo imperio colonial, Espanya se cerró en o dominio d'os territorios en Africa d'o Norte que le concedió a Conferencia d'Alchecira en 1906 , que yeran o Protectorau espanyol de Marruecos , con batallas y redotas como a batalla d'o Barranco d'o Lobo u a batalla del Gurugú contra os rifenyos , causantes de disturbios internos, como a Semana Trachica de Barcelona en 1909 . Asinas, Espanya no partecipó en a Primera Guerra Mundial . Sindembargo, a implicación de l' Exercito espanyol en a continua guerra colonial fació que os militars asumiesen o creixent nacionalismo espanyol no partidario d'o sistema democratico en o país, apareixendo asinas en 1923 un golpe d'estato d'o cheneral Miguel Primo de Rivera , con refirme d'o rei Alifonso XIII , ta intentar evitar o creiximento d'o socialismo y d'o anarquismo en o país. Se creyó asinas a dictadura de Primo de Rivera . En 1931 a situación d'o país, mesmo con pronunciamientos militars contra a Monarquía como en Chaca ( sublevación de Chaca en aviento de 1930 ) fació que se proclamase a Segunda Republica Espanyola , dimpués d'a redota en as eleccions municipals d'o 12 d'abril de 1931 d'os partius politicos monarquicos. A dreita politica espanyola, que no acceptaba o sistema democratico , derivó ta o faixismo con a Falange Espanyola de las JONS y José Antonio Primo de Rivera , fillo d'o dictador, dimpués de fracasar a sanjurjada d'o cheneral José Sanjurjo en 1932 . O 18 de chulio de 1936 , dimpués d'un golpe d'estato fracasato, prencipió a Guerra Civil Espanyola . En ista guerra, combatioron tropas d'a Wehrmacht alemana (a Lechión Condor , que bombardeyó, entre d'atros lugars, Bielsa mientres a bolsa de Bielsa ) y d'o Regio Esercito italiano, en aduya d'o sublevatos. Estonia [ editar | modificar o codigo ] En a Primera Guerra Mundial , os alemans ocuporon Estonia , que yera parte de l' Imperio Ruso , dica noviembre de 1918 . En ixas, calendatas os alemans albandonaron o país, y dentró en Estonia l' Exercito Royo sovietico . En as luchas, os estonios recebioron l'aduya d'antigos militars alemans, encuadratos en os Freikorps , amanatos a l' extrema dreita . O 2 de febrero de 1920 , con o Tractau de Tartu , a Unión Sovietica reconoixeba a independencia d'Estonia. En os anyos 20 y primers anyos 30 , o país yera una democracia , con vinclos con atros países d'a mar Baltica , prencipalment con Finlandia . Sindembargo, en 1934 , Estonia pasa a estar una dictadura , con o dictador Konstantin Päts , autoproclamato Riigihoida (protector d'o estato) en 1937 . O Eesti Vabadussõjalaste Liit (Liga de Veterans d'a Guerra d'a Independencia), establito en 1933 , era un partiu politico d'ideyas faixistas , nacionalistas y antisovieticas, que refirmó a o president Päts. Estonia En a Primera Guerra Mundial , os alemans ocuporon Estonia , que yera parte de l' Imperio Ruso , dica noviembre de 1918 . En ixas, calendatas os alemans albandonaron o país, y dentró en Estonia l' Exercito Royo sovietico . En as luchas, os estonios recebioron l'aduya d'antigos militars alemans, encuadratos en os Freikorps , amanatos a l' extrema dreita . O 2 de febrero de 1920 , con o Tractau de Tartu , a Unión Sovietica reconoixeba a independencia d'Estonia. En os anyos 20 y primers anyos 30 , o país yera una democracia , con vinclos con atros países d'a mar Baltica , prencipalment con Finlandia . Sindembargo, en 1934 , Estonia pasa a estar una dictadura , con o dictador Konstantin Päts , autoproclamato Riigihoida (protector d'o estato) en 1937 . O Eesti Vabadussõjalaste Liit (Liga de Veterans d'a Guerra d'a Independencia), establito en 1933 , era un partiu politico d'ideyas faixistas , nacionalistas y antisovieticas, que refirmó a o president Päts. Francia [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Con o Tractau de Versailles , Francia recuperó Alsacia y Lorena , territorios que heba perdito en 1870 con a Guerra franco-prusiana , y que yeran uno d'os obchectivos prencipals d'o nacionalismo francés, encara que Alsacia yera un territorio de luenga alemana . Amás, ta evitar a recuperación d' Alemanya y a posibilidat d'una nueva guerra, yera Francia quien insistía en as clausulas que obligaban a os alemans a o pago d'indemnizacions de guerra. A situación interna de Francia estió en ixas anyadas 20 economicament difícil, encara que muito millor que en Alemanya. Sindembargo, o nacionalismo francés de dreita derivó ta actitudes politicas amanatas a o faixismo en bels partius y politicos franceses, como Action Française , Camelots du Roi , Croix-de-feu , Charles Maurras , François de la Rocque u Robert Brasillach . Una parte important d'istas personas estió dimpués colaboracionista en 1940 - 1945 . A extrema dreita , organizada en cuantas Ligas , intentó un difuso golpe d'estato mientres una manifestación convocata en París o 6 d'octubre de 1934 , en os clamatos escaicimientos d'o 6 d'octubre de 1934 . Iste golpe u a percepción por as ezquierdas de un golpe fallito fació que a ezquierda politica francesa s'uniese, creyando o Frent Popular francés , que ganó as eleccions de 1936 , establindo mesuras de gran importancia social, como as vacacions pagatas. Os Gubiernos d'o Partiu Radical y d'o Frent Popular no colabororon con a esfensa d'a Segunda Republica Espanyola en a Guerra Civil Espanyola , por temor a provocar un ataque d'o Tercer Reich de Hitler y d'a Italia de Mussolini . Francia Con o Tractau de Versailles , Francia recuperó Alsacia y Lorena , territorios que heba perdito en 1870 con a Guerra franco-prusiana , y que yeran uno d'os obchectivos prencipals d'o nacionalismo francés, encara que Alsacia yera un territorio de luenga alemana . Amás, ta evitar a recuperación d' Alemanya y a posibilidat d'una nueva guerra, yera Francia quien insistía en as clausulas que obligaban a os alemans a o pago d'indemnizacions de guerra. A situación interna de Francia estió en ixas anyadas 20 economicament difícil, encara que muito millor que en Alemanya. Sindembargo, o nacionalismo francés de dreita derivó ta actitudes politicas amanatas a o faixismo en bels partius y politicos franceses, como Action Française , Camelots du Roi , Croix-de-feu , Charles Maurras , François de la Rocque u Robert Brasillach . Una parte important d'istas personas estió dimpués colaboracionista en 1940 - 1945 . A extrema dreita , organizada en cuantas Ligas , intentó un difuso golpe d'estato mientres una manifestación convocata en París o 6 d'octubre de 1934 , en os clamatos escaicimientos d'o 6 d'octubre de 1934 . Iste golpe u a percepción por as ezquierdas de un golpe fallito fació que a ezquierda politica francesa s'uniese, creyando o Frent Popular francés , que ganó as eleccions de 1936 , establindo mesuras de gran importancia social, como as vacacions pagatas. Os Gubiernos d'o Partiu Radical y d'o Frent Popular no colabororon con a esfensa d'a Segunda Republica Espanyola en a Guerra Civil Espanyola , por temor a provocar un ataque d'o Tercer Reich de Hitler y d'a Italia de Mussolini . Grecia [ editar | modificar o codigo ] En as Guerras balcanicas de prencipios d'o sieglo XX , Grecia heba adquirito bels territorios, adquisicions completatas con o Tractau de Sèvres , seguntes o cual Turquía cedeba a Grecia bels territorios en Asia , como Esmirna , y con o Tractau de Neuilly , seguntes o cual Bulgaria cedía a Tracia Ocidental , con as costas d'a mar Echea y Tesalonica . Sindembargo, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk no acceptó o Tractau y prencipió a Guerra Greco-turca , que concluyó con os acuerdos en a Conferencia de Lausana ( Tractau de Lausana ) en 1923 , seguntes os cuals Turquía recuperó toz os territorios que heba perdito antis. Antiparte, bi habió en o país una reforma agraria , ta acomodar a os campesins griegos fuixitos de Turquía, d'os Balcans y d'a Unión Sovietica . En 1924 se proclamó a Republica en o país, dimpués d'un golpe d'estato pro-monarquico fracasato d' Ioannis Metaixas , derrocando a o rei Chorche II , y o país dentró en un periodo de luchas politicas entre os venicelistas republicanos d' Eleftherios Venizelos y os monarquicos. En 1935 se restablió a Monarquía, y en 1936 s'instauró o rechimen faixista d'o cheneral Ioannis Metaixas , con aduya d'o rei. Grecia En as Guerras balcanicas de prencipios d'o sieglo XX , Grecia heba adquirito bels territorios, adquisicions completatas con o Tractau de Sèvres , seguntes o cual Turquía cedeba a Grecia bels territorios en Asia , como Esmirna , y con o Tractau de Neuilly , seguntes o cual Bulgaria cedía a Tracia Ocidental , con as costas d'a mar Echea y Tesalonica . Sindembargo, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk no acceptó o Tractau y prencipió a Guerra Greco-turca , que concluyó con os acuerdos en a Conferencia de Lausana ( Tractau de Lausana ) en 1923 , seguntes os cuals Turquía recuperó toz os territorios que heba perdito antis. Antiparte, bi habió en o país una reforma agraria , ta acomodar a os campesins griegos fuixitos de Turquía, d'os Balcans y d'a Unión Sovietica . En 1924 se proclamó a Republica en o país, dimpués d'un golpe d'estato pro-monarquico fracasato d' Ioannis Metaixas , derrocando a o rei Chorche II , y o país dentró en un periodo de luchas politicas entre os venicelistas republicanos d' Eleftherios Venizelos y os monarquicos. En 1935 se restablió a Monarquía, y en 1936 s'instauró o rechimen faixista d'o cheneral Ioannis Metaixas , con aduya d'o rei. Italia [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Italia Letonia [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Letonia Lituania [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Lituania Hongría [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Hongría Polonia [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Polonia Reino Uniu [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Reino Uniu Rumanía [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Rumanía Rusia [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Rusia Servia [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Servia Turquía [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Turquía Unión Sovietica [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Unión Sovietica Minorías no estatals [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Eslovacos [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Bosnios [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Bosnia-Hercegovina fue adhibita a lo Reino d'os Serbios, Croatas y Eslovenos a fins de 1918. Mientres o gubierno d'o estato recientment constituito preneba o control de Bosnia-Herzegovina os bosnios musulmans cayoron vitimas d'os voluntarios serbios que saqueyaban o territorio. Muitos musulmans se'n fuoron ta Turquía . Una vegata que l'orden yera establito en a propaganda nacionalista serbia os musulmans yeran presentatos como galbans, maltraballas y inutils y que lis caleva rehabilitación pa recuperar a identidat serbia. En a reforma agraria de 1919 espropioron a los propietarios musulmans. Os musulmans de totas as clases socials creyan un frente unito, a Organización Yugoslava, con seu en Sarajevo . En 1929 Bosnia-Hercegovina desapareixe como entidat administrativa y ye repartita en cuatre banovinas con unas mugas que preban de deixar a los bosnios musulmans como minoritarios en cadaguna. Os musulmans no podeban influir sobre o gubierno, dominato por o centralismo serbio. Os musulmans optoron por o yugoslavismo, que lis ofreixeba un refuchio entre os nacionalismos serbio y croata. Croatas [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Os dirichents politicos croatas participan en o Comité nacional formato mientres a Primera Guerra Mundial en Londres, dimpués en o Consello nacional de Zagreb d'octubre de 1918 . O 29 d'octubre de 1918 a Dieta proclama a independencia de Croacia y dimpués a unión a lo Reino d'os serbios, croatas y eslovenos l' 1 d'aviento . A fitación d'as mugas d'o nuevo reino afecta a los croatas. Por o norte en 1920 Hongría se vei obligata por o Tractau de Trianón a ceder o districto de Mur, habitato por croatas en o sud y una porción de Baranya (a lo sud-este de Pécs ). En o sud Yugoslavia y Italia se disputan Istria y Dalmacia. En 1919 uns voluntarios italiants prenen Fiume , y ye declarata ciudat libre. En 1920 o tractau de Rapallo atribuye Chadra , tota Istria y bellas islas d'a redolata a Italia. En 1922 a Italia faixista ocupa Fiume , feito reconoixito por Yugoslavia en 1924 por l'Alcuerdo de Roma. Si os croatas heban estato adeptos d'o ilirismo, os serbios teneban atra conceción de Yugoslavia, considerando que conseguiban a "Gran Serbia". Os nacionalistas serbios consideraban que fendo parte Serbia d'o bando vencedor, teneban dreito a gobernar sobre os atros pueblos eslaus de Yugoslavia, que heban estato en l'Imperio Austrongaro, on no yeran independients. Dimpués de 1918 os croatas se troboron ensopinatos en una "Gran Servia", en cuenta d'a Yugoslavia que heban deseyato. En o periodo d'entreguerras amaneixió por primera vegata l'odio a los serbios, que dominaban o gubierno. O centralismo serbio fa que os croatas queden desencantatos con o ilirismo u o yugoslavismo . En 1925 ye engarcholato Stjepan Radic , cabo d'o Partiu Campesín Croata, y ye asasinato en o mesmo Parlamento en 1928. En 1933 o suyo succesor Macek tamién ye engarcholato. Ye o inte que amaneix o movimiento ustaixa un movimiento nacionalista croata d'inspiración faixista baixo a dirección d' Ante Palevic . O 9 d'octubre de 1934 os ustaixas asasinan a lo rei Aleixandre de Yugoslavia . Cuan se desfa Checoslovaquia os serbios y croatas alcuerdan creyar a Banovina Autonoma de Croacia , y una parte de Bosnia con población croata ( Posavina y Hercegovina occidental sobretot) pasa a fer parte de Croacia. Macek pasa a fer parte d'o gubierno yugoslau en 1941. Minorías no estatals Eslovacos [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Eslovacos Bosnios [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Bosnia-Hercegovina fue adhibita a lo Reino d'os Serbios, Croatas y Eslovenos a fins de 1918. Mientres o gubierno d'o estato recientment constituito preneba o control de Bosnia-Herzegovina os bosnios musulmans cayoron vitimas d'os voluntarios serbios que saqueyaban o territorio. Muitos musulmans se'n fuoron ta Turquía . Una vegata que l'orden yera establito en a propaganda nacionalista serbia os musulmans yeran presentatos como galbans, maltraballas y inutils y que lis caleva rehabilitación pa recuperar a identidat serbia. En a reforma agraria de 1919 espropioron a los propietarios musulmans. Os musulmans de totas as clases socials creyan un frente unito, a Organización Yugoslava, con seu en Sarajevo . En 1929 Bosnia-Hercegovina desapareixe como entidat administrativa y ye repartita en cuatre banovinas con unas mugas que preban de deixar a los bosnios musulmans como minoritarios en cadaguna. Os musulmans no podeban influir sobre o gubierno, dominato por o centralismo serbio. Os musulmans optoron por o yugoslavismo, que lis ofreixeba un refuchio entre os nacionalismos serbio y croata. Bosnios Bosnia-Hercegovina fue adhibita a lo Reino d'os Serbios, Croatas y Eslovenos a fins de 1918. Mientres o gubierno d'o estato recientment constituito preneba o control de Bosnia-Herzegovina os bosnios musulmans cayoron vitimas d'os voluntarios serbios que saqueyaban o territorio. Muitos musulmans se'n fuoron ta Turquía . Una vegata que l'orden yera establito en a propaganda nacionalista serbia os musulmans yeran presentatos como galbans, maltraballas y inutils y que lis caleva rehabilitación pa recuperar a identidat serbia. En a reforma agraria de 1919 espropioron a los propietarios musulmans. Os musulmans de totas as clases socials creyan un frente unito, a Organización Yugoslava, con seu en Sarajevo . En 1929 Bosnia-Hercegovina desapareixe como entidat administrativa y ye repartita en cuatre banovinas con unas mugas que preban de deixar a los bosnios musulmans como minoritarios en cadaguna. Os musulmans no podeban influir sobre o gubierno, dominato por o centralismo serbio. Os musulmans optoron por o yugoslavismo, que lis ofreixeba un refuchio entre os nacionalismos serbio y croata. Croatas [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Os dirichents politicos croatas participan en o Comité nacional formato mientres a Primera Guerra Mundial en Londres, dimpués en o Consello nacional de Zagreb d'octubre de 1918 . O 29 d'octubre de 1918 a Dieta proclama a independencia de Croacia y dimpués a unión a lo Reino d'os serbios, croatas y eslovenos l' 1 d'aviento . A fitación d'as mugas d'o nuevo reino afecta a los croatas. Por o norte en 1920 Hongría se vei obligata por o Tractau de Trianón a ceder o districto de Mur, habitato por croatas en o sud y una porción de Baranya (a lo sud-este de Pécs ). En o sud Yugoslavia y Italia se disputan Istria y Dalmacia. En 1919 uns voluntarios italiants prenen Fiume , y ye declarata ciudat libre. En 1920 o tractau de Rapallo atribuye Chadra , tota Istria y bellas islas d'a redolata a Italia. En 1922 a Italia faixista ocupa Fiume , feito reconoixito por Yugoslavia en 1924 por l'Alcuerdo de Roma. Si os croatas heban estato adeptos d'o ilirismo, os serbios teneban atra conceción de Yugoslavia, considerando que conseguiban a "Gran Serbia". Os nacionalistas serbios consideraban que fendo parte Serbia d'o bando vencedor, teneban dreito a gobernar sobre os atros pueblos eslaus de Yugoslavia, que heban estato en l'Imperio Austrongaro, on no yeran independients. Dimpués de 1918 os croatas se troboron ensopinatos en una "Gran Servia", en cuenta d'a Yugoslavia que heban deseyato. En o periodo d'entreguerras amaneixió por primera vegata l'odio a los serbios, que dominaban o gubierno. O centralismo serbio fa que os croatas queden desencantatos con o ilirismo u o yugoslavismo . En 1925 ye engarcholato Stjepan Radic , cabo d'o Partiu Campesín Croata, y ye asasinato en o mesmo Parlamento en 1928. En 1933 o suyo succesor Macek tamién ye engarcholato. Ye o inte que amaneix o movimiento ustaixa un movimiento nacionalista croata d'inspiración faixista baixo a dirección d' Ante Palevic . O 9 d'octubre de 1934 os ustaixas asasinan a lo rei Aleixandre de Yugoslavia . Cuan se desfa Checoslovaquia os serbios y croatas alcuerdan creyar a Banovina Autonoma de Croacia , y una parte de Bosnia con población croata ( Posavina y Hercegovina occidental sobretot) pasa a fer parte de Croacia. Macek pasa a fer parte d'o gubierno yugoslau en 1941. Croatas Os dirichents politicos croatas participan en o Comité nacional formato mientres a Primera Guerra Mundial en Londres, dimpués en o Consello nacional de Zagreb d'octubre de 1918 . O 29 d'octubre de 1918 a Dieta proclama a independencia de Croacia y dimpués a unión a lo Reino d'os serbios, croatas y eslovenos l' 1 d'aviento . A fitación d'as mugas d'o nuevo reino afecta a los croatas. Por o norte en 1920 Hongría se vei obligata por o Tractau de Trianón a ceder o districto de Mur, habitato por croatas en o sud y una porción de Baranya (a lo sud-este de Pécs ). En o sud Yugoslavia y Italia se disputan Istria y Dalmacia. En 1919 uns voluntarios italiants prenen Fiume , y ye declarata ciudat libre. En 1920 o tractau de Rapallo atribuye Chadra , tota Istria y bellas islas d'a redolata a Italia. En 1922 a Italia faixista ocupa Fiume , feito reconoixito por Yugoslavia en 1924 por l'Alcuerdo de Roma. Si os croatas heban estato adeptos d'o ilirismo, os serbios teneban atra conceción de Yugoslavia, considerando que conseguiban a "Gran Serbia". Os nacionalistas serbios consideraban que fendo parte Serbia d'o bando vencedor, teneban dreito a gobernar sobre os atros pueblos eslaus de Yugoslavia, que heban estato en l'Imperio Austrongaro, on no yeran independients. Dimpués de 1918 os croatas se troboron ensopinatos en una "Gran Servia", en cuenta d'a Yugoslavia que heban deseyato. En o periodo d'entreguerras amaneixió por primera vegata l'odio a los serbios, que dominaban o gubierno. O centralismo serbio fa que os croatas queden desencantatos con o ilirismo u o yugoslavismo . En 1925 ye engarcholato Stjepan Radic , cabo d'o Partiu Campesín Croata, y ye asasinato en o mesmo Parlamento en 1928. En 1933 o suyo succesor Macek tamién ye engarcholato. Ye o inte que amaneix o movimiento ustaixa un movimiento nacionalista croata d'inspiración faixista baixo a dirección d' Ante Palevic . O 9 d'octubre de 1934 os ustaixas asasinan a lo rei Aleixandre de Yugoslavia . Cuan se desfa Checoslovaquia os serbios y croatas alcuerdan creyar a Banovina Autonoma de Croacia , y una parte de Bosnia con población croata ( Posavina y Hercegovina occidental sobretot) pasa a fer parte de Croacia. Macek pasa a fer parte d'o gubierno yugoslau en 1941. O nazismo alemán [ editar | modificar o codigo ] O nazismo alemán O militarismo chaponés [ editar | modificar o codigo ] O militarismo chaponés Inoperancia d'a Sociedat de Nacions [ editar | modificar o codigo ] A Sociedat estió establita dimpués d'a Primera Guerra Mundial con o prencipal obchectivo d'evitar una atra guerra mundial. Con ista sociedat es creyeba que os conflictos es podeban de resolver de forma diplomatica potenciando a colabolación entre os países y sin necesidat de conflictos armatos ni mortaleras. amás amás atros obchectivos yeran amillorar a condicions de vita en tot o mundo. Os prencipals problemas estioron a mancanza d'un exercito propio y a dificultat ta fer asambleas chenerals, que facioron que no es podeban solucionar conclictos como a Invasión de Manchuria , a Segunda Guerra Italo-Etíope y a Guerra Civil Espanyola entre d'atros. Alemanya deixó a sociedat en 1933 , siet anyos dimpués d'a suya admisión, iste anyo tamién surte Chapón y cuatre anyos Italia , toz ellas potencias faixistas, a sociedat no podió impedir o rearme d'Alemanya, ni el expansionismo faixista y o principio d'a Segunda Guerra Mundial deixó a sociedat sin efecto. O 19 d'abril de 1946 , una vegata terminata a guerra y en a suya zaguera sesión se disuelve, transfiriendo-i-e as suyas funcions, servicios, y propiedaz a l' Organización d'as Nacions Unidas , establita en a Conferència de Ialta l'anyo 1945. Inoperancia d'a Sociedat de Nacions A Sociedat estió establita dimpués d'a Primera Guerra Mundial con o prencipal obchectivo d'evitar una atra guerra mundial. Con ista sociedat es creyeba que os conflictos es podeban de resolver de forma diplomatica potenciando a colabolación entre os países y sin necesidat de conflictos armatos ni mortaleras. amás amás atros obchectivos yeran amillorar a condicions de vita en tot o mundo. Os prencipals problemas estioron a mancanza d'un exercito propio y a dificultat ta fer asambleas chenerals, que facioron que no es podeban solucionar conclictos como a Invasión de Manchuria , a Segunda Guerra Italo-Etíope y a Guerra Civil Espanyola entre d'atros. Alemanya deixó a sociedat en 1933 , siet anyos dimpués d'a suya admisión, iste anyo tamién surte Chapón y cuatre anyos Italia , toz ellas potencias faixistas, a sociedat no podió impedir o rearme d'Alemanya, ni el expansionismo faixista y o principio d'a Segunda Guerra Mundial deixó a sociedat sin efecto. O 19 d'abril de 1946 , una vegata terminata a guerra y en a suya zaguera sesión se disuelve, transfiriendo-i-e as suyas funcions, servicios, y propiedaz a l' Organización d'as Nacions Unidas , establita en a Conferència de Ialta l'anyo 1945. Aislacionismo estausunidense [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Aislacionismo estausunidense Os antecedents d'o conflicto [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Invasión de Manchuria y guerra en China [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Annexión d'Austria [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Guerra Civil Espanyola [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Ta mas detalles, veyer l'articlo Guerra Civil Espanyola veyer os articlos [[{{{2}}}]] y [[{{{3}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{4}}}]] , [[{{{5}}}]] y [[{{{6}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{7}}}]] , [[{{{8}}}]] , [[{{{9}}}]] y [[{{{10}}}]] . Annexión de Checoslovaquia [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Os antecedents d'o conflicto Invasión de Manchuria y guerra en China [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Invasión de Manchuria y guerra en China Annexión d'Austria [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Annexión d'Austria Guerra Civil Espanyola [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Ta mas detalles, veyer l'articlo Guerra Civil Espanyola veyer os articlos [[{{{2}}}]] y [[{{{3}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{4}}}]] , [[{{{5}}}]] y [[{{{6}}}]] veyer os articlos [[{{{7}}}]] , [[{{{8}}}]] , [[{{{9}}}]] y [[{{{10}}}]] . Guerra Civil Espanyola Annexión de Checoslovaquia [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Annexión de Checoslovaquia Os países en conflicto [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Os países en conflicto Teatros d'operacions militars [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Teatros d'operacions militars O desarrollo d'a guerra [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Guerra en Europa, Africa y Orient Meyo [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Guerra en Extremo Orient y l'Oceano Pacifico [ editar | modificar o codigo ] O desarrollo d'a guerra Guerra en Europa, Africa y Orient Meyo [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Guerra en Europa, Africa y Orient Meyo Guerra en Extremo Orient y l'Oceano Pacifico [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Guerra en Extremo Orient y l'Oceano Pacifico Consecuencias d'a guerra [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Organización d'as Nacions Unidas [ editar | modificar o codigo ] A Sociedat de Nacions no aconsiguió prevenir o principio d'a Segunda Guerra Mundial y una vegata teminata a guerrra, as nacions integrants y as partecipants d'a Segunda Guerra Mundial creyoron l' Organización d'as Nacions Unidas ta prevenir guerras y solucionar conflictos y problemas internacionals. Consecuencias d'a guerra Organización d'as Nacions Unidas [ editar | modificar o codigo ] A Sociedat de Nacions no aconsiguió prevenir o principio d'a Segunda Guerra Mundial y una vegata teminata a guerrra, as nacions integrants y as partecipants d'a Segunda Guerra Mundial creyoron l' Organización d'as Nacions Unidas ta prevenir guerras y solucionar conflictos y problemas internacionals. Organización d'as Nacions Unidas A Sociedat de Nacions no aconsiguió prevenir o principio d'a Segunda Guerra Mundial y una vegata teminata a guerrra, as nacions integrants y as partecipants d'a Segunda Guerra Mundial creyoron l' Organización d'as Nacions Unidas ta prevenir guerras y solucionar conflictos y problemas internacionals. Crimens de guerra [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Crimens de guerra Aragoneses en a Segunda Guerra Mundial [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Aragoneses en a Segunda Guerra Mundial Bibliografía [ editar | modificar o codigo ] ( es ) Diego Gaspar Celaya. Republicanos aragoneses en la Segunda Guerra Mundial. Una historia de exilio, trabajo y lucha (1939-1945) . Prensas Universitarias de Zaragoza y o Departamento d'Educación, Cultura y esporte d'o Gubierno d'Aragón, 2010. ISBN 978-84-92582-17-4 . Bibliografía ( es ) Diego Gaspar Celaya. Republicanos aragoneses en la Segunda Guerra Mundial. Una historia de exilio, trabajo y lucha (1939-1945) . Prensas Universitarias de Zaragoza y o Departamento d'Educación, Cultura y esporte d'o Gubierno d'Aragón, 2010. ISBN 978-84-92582-17-4 . Se veiga tamién [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Campo de exterminio . Guerra Civil Espanyola . Holocausto . Plan Marshall . Se veiga tamién Campo de exterminio . Guerra Civil Espanyola . Holocausto . Plan Marshall . Vinclos externos [ editar | modificar o codigo ] Se veigan as imáchens de Commons sobre Segunda Guerra Mundial . ( de ) A Segunda Guerra Mundial . ( en ) A Segunda Guerra Mundial en Spartacus Educational . ( en ) A Segunda Guerra Mundial , articlos, biografías y armas. ( es ) Cronología de la II Guerra Mundial : detalles día a día, licencia Creative Commons . ( es ) A Segunda Guerra Mundial en www.exordio.com . ( fr ) Recopilación de recursos en Internet en quantas luengas . ( fr ) A Segunda Guerra Mundial , cronolochía. ( fr ) 1939-1945 . ( es ) Dentrata en a Gran Enciclopedia Aragonesa . Vinclos externos Se veigan as imáchens de Commons sobre Segunda Guerra Mundial . ( de ) A Segunda Guerra Mundial . ( en ) A Segunda Guerra Mundial en Spartacus Educational . ( en ) A Segunda Guerra Mundial , articlos, biografías y armas. ( es ) Cronología de la II Guerra Mundial : detalles día a día, licencia Creative Commons . ( es ) A Segunda Guerra Mundial en www.exordio.com . ( fr ) Recopilación de recursos en Internet en quantas luengas . ( fr ) A Segunda Guerra Mundial , cronolochía. ( fr ) 1939-1945 . ( es ) Dentrata en a Gran Enciclopedia Aragonesa . Referencias [ editar | modificar o codigo ] 1 2 ( es ) Kinder, Hermann y Hilgemann, Werner: Atlas Histórico Mundial , Ediciones Istmo, Madrit , 5ª edición, octubre de 1971 . .mw-parser-output .mw-authority-control{margin-top:1.5em}.mw-parser-output .mw-authority-control .navbox table{margin:0}.mw-parser-output .mw-authority-control .navbox hr:last-child{display:none}.mw-parser-output .mw-authority-control .navbox+.mw-mf-linked-projects{display:none}.mw-parser-output .mw-authority-control .mw-mf-linked-projects{display:flex;padding:0.5em;border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);background-color:var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0);color:var(--color-base,#202122)}.mw-parser-output .mw-authority-control .mw-mf-linked-projects ul li{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .mw-authority-control .navbox{margin:auto;padding:1px;border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;background-color:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .mw-authority-control .navbox-group{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .mw-authority-control .navbox-list{line-height:1.8em;border-color:#f8f9fa}.mw-parser-output .mw-authority-control .navbox th{background-color:#eeeeff}.mw-parser-output .mw-authority-control .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .mw-authority-control .hlist li{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .mw-authority-control .hlist li:after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .mw-authority-control .hlist li:last-child:after{content:none}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .mw-authority-control .mw-mf-linked-projects{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#72777d);background-color:var(--background-color-neutral,#27292d);color:var(--color-base,#eaecf0)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .mw-authority-control .navbox{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#72777d)!important;background-color:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#202122)!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .mw-authority-control .navbox-list{border-color:#202122!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .mw-authority-control .navbox th{background-color:#27292d!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .mw-authority-control .mw-mf-linked-projects{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#72777d)!important;background-color:var(--background-color-neutral,#27292d)!important;color:var(--color-base,#eaecf0)!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .mw-authority-control .navbox{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#72777d)!important;background-color:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#202122)!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .mw-authority-control .navbox-list{border-color:#202122!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .mw-authority-control .navbox th{background-color:#27292d!important}} Control d'autoridaz Prochectos Wikimedia Datos: Q362 Multimedia: World War II / Q362 Identificadors BNE : XX526764 BNF : 11996115g (data) GND : 4079167-1 LCCN : sh85148273 NDL : 00570524 NKC : ph117270 NLI : 987007566075005171 NARA : 10644634 KulturNav : id Diccionarios y enciclopedias HDS : 008927 LIR : 1129 Britannica : url Identificadors medicos MeSH : D047789 DeCS : 38892 UMLS: C0681710 Datos: Q362 Multimedia: World War II / Q362 Referencias 1 2 ( es ) Kinder, Hermann y Hilgemann, Werner: Atlas Histórico Mundial , Ediciones Istmo, Madrit , 5ª edición, octubre de 1971 . Control d'autoridaz Prochectos Wikimedia Datos: Q362 Multimedia: World War II / Q362 Identificadors BNE : XX526764 BNF : 11996115g (data) GND : 4079167-1 LCCN : sh85148273 NDL : 00570524 NKC : ph117270 NLI : 987007566075005171 NARA : 10644634 KulturNav : id Diccionarios y enciclopedias HDS : 008927 LIR : 1129 Britannica : url Identificadors medicos MeSH : D047789 DeCS : 38892 UMLS: C0681710 Prochectos Wikimedia Datos: Q362 Multimedia: World War II / Q362 Identificadors BNE : XX526764 BNF : 11996115g (data) GND : 4079167-1 LCCN : sh85148273 NDL : 00570524 NKC : ph117270 NLI : 987007566075005171 NARA : 10644634 KulturNav : id Diccionarios y enciclopedias HDS : 008927 LIR : 1129 Britannica : url Identificadors medicos MeSH : D047789 DeCS : 38892 UMLS: C0681710 Datos: Q362 Multimedia: World War II / Q362 Segunda Guerra Mundial Biquiprochecto:Grafía/Articlos con grafía EFA Articlos que toda Wikipedia habría de tener (mas de 30k) Pachinas que fan servir vinclos machicos d'ISBN Wikipedia:Articlos con identificadors BNE Wikipedia:Articlos con identificadors BNF Wikipedia:Articlos con identificadors GND Wikipedia:Articlos con identificadors LCCN Wikipedia:Control d'autoridaz con 17 elementos Zaguera edición d'ista pachina o 23 oct 2025 a las 13:15. La página fue renderizada con Parsoid . O texto ye disponible baixo a Licencia Creative Commons Atribución/Compartir-Igual ; talment sigan d'aplicación clausulas adicionals. Mire-se os termins d'uso ta conoixer más detalles. Politica de privacidat Sobre Biquipedia Alvertencias chenerals Código de conducta Desembolicadors Estatisticas Declaración de cookies Versión ta mobils
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Help | Advanced Search quick links Login Help Pages About Computer Science > Artificial Intelligence Title: From Single to Multi-Agent Reasoning: Advancing GeneGPT for Genomics QA Abstract: Comprehending genomic information is essential for biomedical research, yet extracting data from complex distributed databases remains challenging. Large language models (LLMs) offer potential for genomic Question Answering (QA) but face limitations due to restricted access to domain-specific databases. GeneGPT is the current state-of-the-art system that enhances LLMs by utilizing specialized API calls, though it is constrained by rigid API dependencies and limited adaptability. We replicate GeneGPT and propose GenomAgent, a multi-agent framework that efficiently coordinates specialized agents for complex genomics queries. Evaluated on nine tasks from the GeneTuring benchmark, GenomAgent outperforms GeneGPT by 12% on average, and its flexible architecture extends beyond genomics to various scientific domains needing expert knowledge extraction. Comments: Accepted paper by the 48th European Conference on Information Retrieval (ECIR'26) Subjects: Artificial Intelligence (cs.AI) ; Information Retrieval (cs.IR) Cite as: arXiv:2601.10581 [cs.AI] (or arXiv:2601.10581v1 [cs.AI] for this version) Focus to learn more arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite (pending registration) Submission history Access Paper: View PDF HTML (experimental) TeX Source References & Citations NASA ADS Google Scholar Semantic Scholar BibTeX formatted citation Bookmark Bibliographic and Citation Tools Code, Data and Media Associated with this Article Demos Recommenders and Search Tools Author Venue Institution Topic arXivLabs: experimental projects with community collaborators arXivLabs is a framework that allows collaborators to develop and share new arXiv features directly on our website. Both individuals and organizations that work with arXivLabs have embraced and accepted our values of openness, community, excellence, and user data privacy. arXiv is committed to these values and only works with partners that adhere to them. Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? Learn more about arXivLabs . About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status arXiv Operational Status
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early life 2 Career Toggle Career subsection 2.1 Riverboat education 2.2 Chicago period recordings 2.3 Fletcher Henderson Orchestra 2.4 The Hot Five 2.5 The Harlem Renaissance 2.6 Emerging as a vocalist 2.7 Work during hard times 2.8 Reviving his career with the All-Stars 2.9 A jazz ambassador 2.1 Riverboat education 2.2 Chicago period recordings 2.3 Fletcher Henderson Orchestra 2.4 The Hot Five 2.5 The Harlem Renaissance 2.6 Emerging as a vocalist 2.7 Work during hard times 2.8 Reviving his career with the All-Stars 2.9 A jazz ambassador 3 Personal life Toggle Personal life subsection 3.1 Pronunciation of name 3.2 Family 3.3 Personality 3.4 Health problems 3.5 Nicknames 3.6 Race 3.7 Religion 3.8 Personal habits 3.9 Writings 3.10 Social organizations 3.1 Pronunciation of name 3.2 Family 3.3 Personality 3.4 Health problems 3.5 Nicknames 3.6 Race 3.7 Religion 3.8 Personal habits 3.9 Writings 3.10 Social organizations 4 Music Toggle Music subsection 4.1 Horn playing and early jazz 4.2 Vocal popularity 4.3 Composing 4.4 Colleagues and followers 4.5 Hits and later career 4.6 Stylistic range 4.1 Horn playing and early jazz 4.2 Vocal popularity 4.3 Composing 4.4 Colleagues and followers 4.5 Hits and later career 4.6 Stylistic range 5 Film, television, and radio 6 Death 7 Awards and honors Toggle Awards and honors subsection 7.1 Grammy Awards 7.2 Grammy Hall of Fame 7.3 Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 7.4 Inductions and honors 7.5 Film honors 7.1 Grammy Awards 7.2 Grammy Hall of Fame 7.3 Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 7.4 Inductions and honors 7.5 Film honors 8 Legacy 9 The Louis Armstrong House Museum 10 Essential discography 11 See also 12 References 13 Works cited 14 Further readings 15 External links Louis Armstrong Адыгэбзэ Адыгабзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch Алтай тил አማርኛ العربية Aragonés অসমীয়া Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bislama Български Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Galego 贛語 한국어 Hausa Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ Kapampangan ქართული Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Limburgs Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala Lombard Magyar Madhurâ Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം მარგალური مصرى Bahasa Melayu Монгол Nederlands 日本語 Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Papiamentu Patois Picard Piemontèis Plattdüütsch Polski Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Română Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Sardu Seeltersk Shqip Sicilianu 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li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} Satchmo Satch Pops Louie Satchmo Satch Pops Louie Education Colored Waifs' Home for Boys, Fisk School for Boys Occupations Musician singer Musician singer Spouses .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} .mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-inline{display:inline} Daisy Parker ( m. 1919; div. 1923) Lil Hardin Armstrong ( m. 1924; div. 1938) Alpha Smith ( m. 1938; div. 1942) Lucille Wilson ( m. 1942) .mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-inline{display:inline} Children 2 Musical career Genres Jazz Dixieland swing blues traditional pop Jazz Dixieland swing blues traditional pop Instruments Vocals trumpet Vocals trumpet Works Louis Armstrong discography Years active 1918–1971 Musical artist Signature Louis Daniel Armstrong (August 4, 1901 – July 6, 1971), nicknamed " Satchmo ", " Satch ", and " Pops ", [ 2 ] was an American jazz and blues trumpeter and vocalist. [ 3 ] He was among the most influential figures in jazz. His career spanned five decades and several eras in the history of jazz. [ 4 ] Armstrong received numerous accolades including the Grammy Award for Best Male Vocal Performance for Hello, Dolly! in 1965, as well as a posthumous win for the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 1972. His influence crossed musical genres, with inductions into the DownBeat Jazz Hall of Fame , the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame , and the National Rhythm & Blues Hall of Fame , among others. [ 5 ] Armstrong was born and raised in New Orleans . Coming to prominence in the 1920s as an inventive trumpet and cornet player, he was a foundational influence in jazz, shifting the focus of the music from collective improvisation to solo performance. [ 6 ] Around 1922, Armstrong followed his mentor, Joe "King" Oliver , to Chicago to play in Oliver's Creole Jazz Band. Armstrong earned a reputation at " cutting contests ", and his fame reached band leader Fletcher Henderson . Armstrong moved to New York City, where he became a featured and musically influential band soloist and recording artist. By the 1950s, Armstrong was an international musical icon, appearing regularly in radio and television broadcasts and on film. Apart from his music, he was also beloved as an entertainer, often joking with the audience and keeping a joyful public image at all times. Armstrong's best known songs include " What a Wonderful World ", " La Vie en Rose ", " Hello, Dolly! ", " On the Sunny Side of the Street ", " Dream a Little Dream of Me ", " When You're Smiling " and " When the Saints Go Marching In ". He collaborated with Ella Fitzgerald , producing three records together: Ella and Louis (1956), Ella and Louis Again (1957), and Porgy and Bess (1959). He also appeared in films such as A Rhapsody in Black and Blue (1932), Cabin in the Sky (1943), High Society (1956), Paris Blues (1961), A Man Called Adam (1966), and Hello, Dolly! (1969). With his instantly recognizable, rich, gravelly voice, Armstrong was also an influential singer and skillful improviser. He was also skilled at scat singing . By the end of Armstrong's life, his influence had spread to popular music. He was one of the first popular African-American entertainers to "cross over" to wide popularity with white and international audiences. Armstrong rarely publicly discussed racial issues, sometimes to the dismay of fellow black Americans, but took a well-publicized stand for desegregation in the Little Rock Crisis . He could access the upper echelons of American society at a time when this was difficult for black men. Early life Armstrong is believed to have been born in New Orleans on August 4, 1901, but the accuracy of this date has been heavily debated. Armstrong himself often claimed he was born on July 4, 1900. [ 7 ] [ 8 ] [ 9 ] His parents were Mary Estelle "Mayann" Albert and William Armstrong. Mary Albert was from Boutte, Louisiana , and gave birth at home when she was about 16. Less than a year and a half later, they had a daughter, Beatrice "Mama Lucy" Armstrong (1903–1987), whom Albert raised. [ 10 ] William Armstrong abandoned the family shortly after that. [ 11 ] Louis Armstrong was raised by his grandmother until the age of five, when he was returned to his mother. [ 11 ] Armstrong spent his youth in poverty in a rough neighborhood known as The Battlefield, [ 12 ] on the southern section of Rampart Street . [ 13 ] At the age of six, Armstrong started attending the Fisk School for Boys, [ 14 ] a school that accepted black children in the racially segregated school system of New Orleans. Armstrong lived with his mother and sister during this time and worked for the Karnoffskys, [ 15 ] a family of Lithuanian Jews , at their home . Armstrong helped their sons Morris and Alex collect "rags and bones" and deliver coal. In 1969, while recovering from heart and kidney problems at Beth Israel Hospital in New York City, Armstrong wrote a memoir called Louis Armstrong + the Jewish Family in New Orleans, LA., the Year of 1907 , describing his time working for the Karnoffsky family. [ 16 ] Armstrong writes about singing "Russian Lullaby" with the Karnoffsky family when their baby son David was put to bed and credits the family with teaching him to sing "from the heart." [ 16 ] Curiously, Armstrong quotes lyrics for it that appear to be the same as the "Russian Lullaby", copyrighted by Irving Berlin in 1927, about 20 years after Armstrong remembered singing it as a child. [ 17 ] Gary Zucker, Armstrong's doctor at Beth Israel hospital in 1969, shared Berlin's song lyrics with him, and Armstrong quoted them in the memoir. [ 16 ] This inaccuracy may be because he wrote the memoir over 60 years after the events described. Regardless, the Karnoffskys treated Armstrong exceptionally well. Knowing he lived without a father, they fed and nurtured Armstrong. [ 18 ] [ 19 ] In his memoir, Louis Armstrong + the Jewish Family in New Orleans, La., the Year of 1907 , he described his discovery that this family was also subject to discrimination by "other white folks" who felt that they were better than Jews: "I was only seven years old but I could easily see the ungodly treatment that the white folks were handing the poor Jewish family whom I worked for." [ 16 ] Armstrong wrote about what he learned from them: "how to live—real life and determination." [ 18 ] His first musical performance may have been at the side of the Karnoffskys' junk wagon. Armstrong tried playing a tin horn to attract customers to distinguish them from other hawkers. Morris Karnoffsky gave Armstrong an advance toward purchasing a cornet from a pawn shop. [ 20 ] Later, as an adult, Armstrong wore a Star of David given to him by his Jewish manager, Joe Glaser, until the end of his life, in part in memory of this family who had raised him. [ 16 ] When Armstrong was 11, he dropped out of school. [ 14 ] His mother moved into a one-room house on Perdido Street with Armstrong, Lucy, and her common-law husband, Tom Lee, next door to her brother Ike and his two sons. [ 21 ] Armstrong joined a quartet of boys who sang in the streets for money. Cornetist Bunk Johnson said he taught the eleven-year-old to play by ear at Dago Tony's honky tonk. [ 22 ] In his later years, Armstrong credited King Oliver. Armstrong said about his youth, "Every time I close my eyes blowing that trumpet of mine—I look right in the heart of good old New Orleans ... It has given me something to live for." [ 23 ] Borrowing his stepfather's gun without permission, Armstrong fired a blank into the air and was arrested on December 31, 1912. He spent the night at New Orleans Juvenile Court and was sentenced the next day to detention at the Colored Waif's [sic] Home. [ 24 ] Life at the home was spartan. Mattresses were absent, and meals were often little more than bread and molasses. Captain Joseph Jones ran the home like a military camp and used corporal punishment. [ 25 ] Armstrong developed his cornet skills by playing in the band. Peter Davis , who frequently appeared at the home at the request of Captain Jones, [ 26 ] became Armstrong's first teacher and chose him as the bandleader. With this band, the 13-year-old Armstrong attracted the attention of Kid Ory . [ 27 ] On June 14, 1914, Armstrong was released into the custody of his father and his new stepmother, Gertrude. Armstrong lived in this household with two stepbrothers for several months. After Gertrude gave birth to a daughter, Armstrong's father never welcomed him, so Armstrong returned to his mother, Mary Albert. Armstrong had to share a bed in her small home with his mother and sister. His mother still lived in The Battlefield, leaving Armstrong open to old temptations, but he sought work as a musician. [ 28 ] Armstrong found a job at a dance hall owned by Henry Ponce, who had connections to organized crime. He met the six-foot tall drummer Black Benny , who became Armstrong's guide and bodyguard. [ 28 ] Around the age of 15, he pimped for a prostitute named Nootsy. However, that relationship failed after she stabbed Armstrong in the shoulder, and his mother choked her nearly to death. [ 29 ] Armstrong briefly studied shipping management at the local community college but was forced to quit after being unable to afford the fees. [ 30 ] While selling coal in Storyville , he heard spasm bands , groups that played music out of household objects. Armstrong listened to the early sounds of jazz from bands that played in brothels and dance halls, such as Pete Lala's, where King Oliver performed. [ 31 ] Career Riverboat education Early in his career, Armstrong played in brass bands and riverboats in New Orleans, in the late 1910s. He traveled with the band of Fate Marable , which toured on the steamboat Sidney with the Streckfus Steamers line up and down the Mississippi River. [ 32 ] Marable was proud of Armstrong's musical knowledge, and he insisted that Armstrong and other musicians in his band learn sight reading . Armstrong described his time with Marable as "going to the University" since it gave him a wider experience working with written arrangements . In 1918, Armstrong's mentor, King Oliver , decided to go north and resigned his position in Kid Ory's band; Armstrong replaced him. Armstrong also became the second trumpet for the Tuxedo Brass Band . [ 33 ] Throughout his riverboat experience, Armstrong's musicianship began to mature and expand. At age 20, he could read music. Armstrong became one of the first jazz musicians to be featured on extended trumpet solos, injecting his own personality and style. Armstrong also started singing in his performances. [ 34 ] Chicago period recordings In 1922, Armstrong moved to Chicago at the invitation of King Oliver, [ 35 ] although Armstrong would return to New Orleans periodically for the rest of his life. [ 36 ] Playing second cornet to Oliver in Oliver's Creole Jazz Band in the black-only Lincoln Gardens on the South Side of Chicago, Armstrong could make enough money to quit his day jobs. Although race relations were poor, Chicago was booming. The city had jobs for blacks, who made good wages at factories, with some left for entertainment. [ 35 ] : 86 Oliver's band was among Chicago's most influential jazz bands in the early 1920s. Armstrong lived luxuriously in his apartment with his first private bath. Excited to be in Chicago, Armstrong began his career-long pastime of writing letters to friends in New Orleans. Armstrong could blow 200 high Cs in a row. As his reputation grew, Armstrong was challenged to cutting contests by other musicians. [ 37 ] Armstrong's first studio recordings were with Oliver for Gennett Records on April 5–6, 1923. They endured several hours on the train to remote Richmond, Indiana , and the band was paid little. The quality of the performances was affected by a lack of rehearsal, crude recording equipment, bad acoustics, and a cramped studio. These early recordings were true acoustic , the band playing directly into a large funnel connected directly to the needle making the groove in the master recording. The much improved Electrical recording system with a better dynamic range was not invented until 1926. Initially, because Armstrong's playing was so loud, Oliver could not be heard on the recording when he played next to Oliver. Armstrong had to stand 15 feet from Oliver in a far corner of the room to remedy this. [ 38 ] Lil Hardin , whom Armstrong would marry in 1924, urged Armstrong to seek more prominent billing and develop his style apart from the influence of Oliver. At her suggestion, Armstrong began playing classical music in church concerts to broaden his skills and dressing more stylishly to offset his girth. Her influence eventually undermined Armstrong's relationship with his mentor, especially concerning his salary and additional money that Oliver held back from Armstrong and other band members. [ 39 ] Armstrong's mother, Mayann Albert, came to visit him in Chicago during the summer of 1923 after being told that Armstrong was "out of work, out of money, hungry, and sick"; Hardin located and decorated an apartment for her to live in while she stayed. [ 40 ] Fletcher Henderson Orchestra Armstrong and Oliver parted amicably in 1924. Shortly afterward, Armstrong was invited to go to New York City to play with the Fletcher Henderson Orchestra, the top African-American band of the time. He switched to the trumpet to blend in better with the other musicians in his section. Armstrong's influence on Henderson's tenor sax soloist, Coleman Hawkins , can be judged by listening to the records made by the band during this period. [ 41 ] [ 42 ] Armstrong adapted to Henderson's tightly controlled style, playing the trumpet and experimenting with the trombone. The other members were affected by Armstrong's emotional style. His act included singing and telling tales of New Orleans characters, especially preachers. [ 43 ] The Henderson Orchestra played in prominent venues for white patrons only, including the Roseland Ballroom , with arrangements by Don Redman . Duke Ellington 's orchestra went to Roseland to catch Armstrong's performances. During this time, Armstrong recorded with Clarence Williams (a friend from New Orleans), the Williams Blue Five, Sidney Bechet , and blues singers Alberta Hunter , Ma Rainey , and Bessie Smith . [ 44 ] [ 45 ] The Hot Five In 1925, Armstrong returned to Chicago largely at the insistence of Lil, who wanted to expand his career and income. In publicity, much to his chagrin, she billed Armstrong as "The World's Greatest Trumpet Player." For a time, he was a member of the Lil Hardin Armstrong Band and worked for his wife. [ 46 ] Armstrong formed Louis Armstrong and his Hot Five and recorded the hits " Potato Head Blues " and "Muggles". The word "muggles" was a slang term for marijuana , something Armstrong often used during his life. [ 35 ] The Hot Five included Kid Ory (trombone), Johnny Dodds (clarinet), Johnny St. Cyr (banjo), Lil Armstrong on piano, and usually no drummer. Over a 12-month period starting in November 1925, this quintet produced twenty-four records. [ 47 ] Armstrong's band leading style was easygoing, as St. Cyr noted: "One felt so relaxed working with him, and he was very broad-minded ... always did his best to feature each individual." [ 48 ] Among the Hot Five and Seven records were "Cornet Chop Suey", "Struttin' With Some Barbecue", "Hotter Than That", and "Potato Head Blues", all featuring highly creative solos by Armstrong. According to Thomas Brothers , recordings such as "Struttin' with Some Barbeque" were so superb, "planned with density and variety, bluesyness, and showiness", that the arrangements were probably showcased at the Sunset Café. [ 49 ] His recordings soon after with pianist Earl "Fatha" Hines , their famous 1928 " Weather Bird " duet and Armstrong's trumpet introduction to and solo in " West End Blues ", remain some of the most influential improvisations in jazz history. Young trumpet players across the country bought these recordings and memorized his solos. Armstrong was now free to develop his style as he wished, which included a heavy dose of effervescent jive, such as "Whip That Thing, Miss Lil" and "Mr. Johnny Dodds, Aw, Do That Clarinet, Boy!" [ 50 ] Armstrong also played with Erskine Tate 's Little Symphony, mostly at the Vendome Theatre. They furnished music for silent movies and live shows, including jazz versions of classical music, such as " Madame Butterfly ", which gave Armstrong experience with longer forms of music and with hosting before a large audience. He began scat singing (improvised vocal jazz using nonsensical words) and was among the first to record it on the Hot Five recording " Heebie Jeebies " in 1926. The recording was so popular that the group became the most famous jazz band in the United States, even though they had seldom performed live. Young musicians across the country, black or white, were turned on by Armstrong's new type of jazz. [ 51 ] After separating from Lil, Armstrong started to play at the Sunset Café for Al Capone 's associate Joe Glaser in the Carroll Dickerson Orchestra, with Earl Hines on piano, which was renamed Louis Armstrong and his Stompers. [ 52 ] However, Hines was the music director, and Glaser managed the orchestra. Hines and Armstrong became fast friends and successful collaborators. It was at the Sunset Café that Armstrong accompanied singer Adelaide Hall . During Hall's tenure at the venue, she experimented, developed, and expanded her scat singing with Armstrong's guidance and encouragement. [ 53 ] In the first half of 1927, Armstrong assembled his Hot Seven group, which added drummer Al "Baby" Dodds and tuba player Pete Briggs while preserving most of his original Hot Five lineup. John Thomas replaced Kid Ory on the trombone. Later that year, Armstrong organized a series of new Hot Five sessions, which resulted in nine more records. In the last half of 1928, he started recording with a new group: Zutty Singleton (drums), Earl Hines (piano), Jimmy Strong (clarinet), Fred Robinson (trombone), and Mancy Carr (banjo). [ 54 ] The Harlem Renaissance Armstrong made a huge impact during the 1920s Harlem Renaissance . [ 55 ] His music touched well-known writer Langston Hughes . Hughes admired Armstrong and acknowledged him as one of the most recognized musicians of the era. [ 56 ] Hughes wrote many books that celebrated jazz and recognized Armstrong as one of the leaders of the Harlem Renaissance's newfound love of African-American culture. [ 57 ] The sound of jazz, along with musicians such as Armstrong, helped shape Hughes as a writer. Just like the musicians, Hughes wrote his words with jazz. [ 58 ] Armstrong changed jazz during the Harlem Renaissance. As "The World's Greatest Trumpet Player" during this time, [ 59 ] Armstrong cemented his legacy and continued a focus on his vocal career. His popularity brought together many black and white audiences. [ 60 ] Emerging as a vocalist Armstrong returned to New York in 1929, where he played in the pit orchestra for the musical Hot Chocolates , an all-black revue written by Andy Razaf and pianist Fats Waller . Armstrong made a cameo appearance as a vocalist, regularly stealing the show with his rendition of " Ain't Misbehavin' ." Armstrong's version of the song became his biggest-selling record yet. [ 61 ] Armstrong started to work at Connie's Inn in Harlem, chief rival to the Cotton Club , a venue for elaborately staged floor shows, [ 62 ] and a front for gangster Dutch Schultz . Armstrong had considerable success with vocal recordings, including versions of songs composed by his old friend Hoagy Carmichael . His 1930s recordings took full advantage of the RCA ribbon microphone , introduced in 1931, which imparted warmth to vocals and became an intrinsic part of the " crooning " sound of artists like Bing Crosby . Armstrong's interpretation of Carmichael's " Stardust " became one of the most successful versions of this song ever recorded, showcasing Armstrong's unique vocal sound and style and his innovative approach to singing songs that were already standards. Armstrong's radical re-working of Sidney Arodin and Carmichael's " Lazy River ", recorded in 1931, encapsulated his groundbreaking approach to melody and phrasing. The song begins with a brief trumpet solo. Then, the main melody is introduced by sobbing horns, memorably punctuated by Armstrong's growling interjections at the end of each bar: "Yeah! ..."Uh-huh"..."Sure"..."Way down, way down." In the first verse, Armstrong ignores the notated melody and sings as if playing a trumpet solo, pitching most of the first line on a single note and using strongly syncopated phrasing. In the second stanza, he breaks into an almost entirely improvised melody, which then evolves into a classic passage of Armstrong's scat singing. As with his trumpet playing, Armstrong's vocal innovations served as a foundation for jazz vocal interpretation. The uniquely gravelly coloration of his voice became an archetype that was endlessly imitated. Armstrong's scat singing was enriched by his matchless experience as a trumpet soloist. His resonant, velvety lower-register tone and bubbling cadences on sides such as "Lazy River" greatly influenced younger white singers such as Bing Crosby. Work during hard times The Great Depression of the early 1930s was especially hard on the jazz scene. After a long downward spiral, the Cotton Club closed in 1936, and many musicians stopped playing altogether as club dates evaporated. Bix Beiderbecke died, and Fletcher Henderson's band broke up. King Oliver made a few records but otherwise struggled. Sidney Bechet became a tailor, later moving to Paris, and Kid Ory returned to New Orleans and raised chickens. [ 63 ] Armstrong moved to Los Angeles in 1930 to seek new opportunities. He played at the New Cotton Club in Los Angeles with Lionel Hampton on drums. The band drew the Hollywood crowd, which could still afford a lavish nightlife, while radio broadcasts from the club connected with younger audiences at home. Bing Crosby and many other celebrities were regulars at the club. In 1931, Armstrong appeared in his first movie, Ex-Flame . He was also convicted of marijuana possession but received a suspended sentence. [ 64 ] Armstrong returned to Chicago in late 1931 and played in bands more in the Guy Lombardo vein, and he recorded more standards. When the mob insisted that he get out of town, [ 65 ] Armstrong visited New Orleans, had a hero's welcome, and saw old friends. He sponsored a local baseball team called Armstrong's Secret Nine and had a cigar named after him. [ 66 ] However, Armstrong was on the road again soon. After a tour across the country shadowed by the mob, he fled to Europe. After returning to the United States, Armstrong undertook several exhausting tours. His agent, Johnny Collins's erratic behavior and his own spending ways left Armstrong short of cash. Breach of contract violations plagued him. Armstrong hired Joe Glaser as his new manager, a tough mob-connected wheeler-dealer who began straightening out his legal mess, mob troubles, and debts. Armstrong also began to experience problems with his fingers and lips, aggravated by his unorthodox playing style. As a result, Armstrong branched out, developing his vocal style and making his first theatrical appearances. Armstrong appeared in movies again, including Crosby's 1936 hit Pennies from Heaven . In 1937, Armstrong substituted for Rudy Vallee on the CBS radio network and became the first African American to host a sponsored national broadcast. [ 67 ] Reviving his career with the All-Stars After spending many years on the road, Armstrong settled permanently in Queens, New York, in 1943 with his fourth wife, Lucille. Although subject to the vicissitudes of Tin Pan Alley and the gangster-ridden music business, as well as anti-black prejudice, Armstrong continued to develop his playing. Bookings for big bands tapered off during the 1940s due to changes in public tastes. Ballrooms closed, and competition from other types of music, especially pop vocals, became more popular than big band music. Under such circumstances, it became impossible to finance a 16-piece touring band. A widespread revival of interest in the 1940s in the traditional jazz of the 1920s made it possible for Armstrong to consider a return to the small-group musical style of his youth. Armstrong was featured as a guest artist with Lionel Hampton's band at the famed second Cavalcade of Jazz concert held at Wrigley Field in Los Angeles, produced by Leon Hefflin Sr. , on October 12, 1946. [ 68 ] Armstrong also led a highly successful small-group jazz concert at New York Town Hall on May 17, 1947, featuring him with trombonist/singer Jack Teagarden . During the concert, Armstrong and Teagarden performed a duet on Hoagy Carmichael's " Rockin' Chair " they then recorded for Okeh Records . Armstrong's manager, Joe Glaser, changed the Armstrong big band on August 13, 1947, into a six-piece traditional jazz group featuring Armstrong with (initially) Teagarden, Earl Hines and other top swing and Dixieland musicians, most of whom were previously leaders of big bands. The new group was announced at the opening of Billy Berg's Supper Club. This smaller group was called Louis Armstrong and His All-Stars and included at various times Earl "Fatha" Hines, Barney Bigard , Edmond Hall , Jack Teagarden, Trummy Young , Arvell Shaw , Billy Kyle , Marty Napoleon , Big Sid "Buddy" Catlett , Cozy Cole , Tyree Glenn , Barrett Deems , Mort Herbert , Joe Darensbourg , Eddie Shu , Joe Muranyi and percussionist Danny Barcelona . On February 28, 1948, Suzy Delair sang the French song " C'est si bon " at the Hotel Negresco during the first Nice Jazz Festival . Armstrong was present and loved the song. On June 26, 1950, he recorded the American version of the song (English lyrics by Jerry Seelen ) in New York City with Sy Oliver and his Orchestra. When it was released, the disc was a worldwide success, and the song was then performed by the greatest international singers. Armstrong was the first jazz musician to appear on the cover of Time magazine on February 21, 1949. He and his All-Stars were featured at the ninth Cavalcade of Jazz concert also at Wrigley Field in Los Angeles produced by Leon Hefflin Sr. held on June 7, 1953, along with Shorty Rogers , Roy Brown , Don Tosti and His Mexican Jazzmen, Earl Bostic , and Nat "King" Cole . [ 69 ] Over 30 years, Armstrong played more than 300 performances a year, making many recordings and appearing in more than 30 films. A jazz ambassador By the 1950s, Armstrong was a widely beloved American icon and cultural ambassador who commanded an international fanbase. However, a growing generation gap became apparent between him and the young jazz musicians who emerged in the postwar era, such as Charlie Parker , Miles Davis , and Sonny Rollins . The postwar generation regarded their music as abstract art and considered Armstrong's vaudevillian style, half-musician and half-stage entertainer, outmoded and Uncle Tomism . "... he seemed a link to minstrelsy that we were ashamed of." [ 70 ] Armstrong called bebop "Chinese music". [ 71 ] While touring Australia in 1954, he was asked if he could play bebop. "'Bebop?' he husked. 'I just play music. Guys who invent terms like that are walking the streets with their instruments under their arms.'" [ 72 ] After finishing his contract with Decca Records , Armstrong went freelance and recorded for other labels. [ 73 ] [ 74 ] He continued an intense international touring schedule, but suffered a heart attack in 1959 while in Italy and had to rest. [ 75 ] In 1964, after more than two years without setting foot in a studio, Armstrong recorded his biggest-selling record, " Hello, Dolly! ", a song by Jerry Herman , originally sung by Carol Channing . Armstrong's version remained on the Hot 100 for 22 weeks, longer than any other record produced that year, and went to No. 1, making him the oldest person to accomplish that feat at 62 years, nine months, and five days. Armstrong's hit dislodged The Beatles from the No. 1 position they had occupied for 14 consecutive weeks with three different songs. [ 76 ] External audio Louis Daniel Armstrong talks with Studs Terkel on WFMT; 1962/6/24 , 33:43, Studs Terkel Radio Archive [ 77 ] Armstrong toured well into his 60s, even visiting part of the Communist Bloc in 1965. Armstrong also toured Africa, Europe, and Asia under the sponsorship of the US State Department with great success, earning the nickname "Ambassador Satch" and inspiring Dave Brubeck to compose his jazz musical The Real Ambassadors . His travels included performances in Egypt , Ghana and Nigeria . [ 78 ] [ 79 ] By 1968, Armstrong was approaching 70, and his health was failing. His heart and kidney ailments forced him to stop touring, though he continued to record, including " What a Wonderful World ", which topped the British charts for a month. Armstrong did not perform publicly in 1969 and spent most of the year recuperating at home. Meanwhile, his longtime manager, Joe Glaser, died. By the summer of 1970, Armstrong's doctors pronounced him fit enough to resume live performances. Armstrong embarked on another world tour, but a heart attack forced him to take a break for two months. [ 80 ] Armstrong made his last recorded trumpet performances on his 1968 album Disney Songs the Satchmo Way . [ 81 ] Personal life Pronunciation of name The Louis Armstrong House Museum website states: Judging from home recorded tapes now in our Museum Collections, Louis pronounced his own name as "Lewis." On his 1964 record "Hello, Dolly", he sings, "This is Lewis, Dolly", but in 1933, he made a record called "Laughin' Louie." Many broadcast announcers, fans, and acquaintances called him "Louie", and in a videotaped interview from 1983, Lucille Armstrong calls her late husband "Louie" as well. Musicians and close friends usually called him "Pops". [ 82 ] Judging from home recorded tapes now in our Museum Collections, Louis pronounced his own name as "Lewis." On his 1964 record "Hello, Dolly", he sings, "This is Lewis, Dolly", but in 1933, he made a record called "Laughin' Louie." Many broadcast announcers, fans, and acquaintances called him "Louie", and in a videotaped interview from 1983, Lucille Armstrong calls her late husband "Louie" as well. Musicians and close friends usually called him "Pops". [ 82 ] In a memoir written for Robert Goffin between 1943 and 1944, Armstrong stated, "All white folks call me Louie", suggesting that he himself did not, or that no whites addressed him by one of his nicknames such as Pops. [ 83 ] [ 84 ] That said, Armstrong was registered as "Lewie" for the 1920 U.S. census . On various live records, he is called "Louie" on stage, such as on the 1952 "Can Anyone Explain?" from the live album In Scandinavia vol.1 . The same applies to his 1952 studio recording of the song "Chloe", where the choir in the background sings "Louie ... Louie", with Armstrong responding, "What was that? Somebody called my name?". "Lewie" is the French pronunciation of "Louis" and is commonly used in Louisiana. Family Armstrong was performing at the Brick House in Gretna, Louisiana when he met Daisy Parker, a local prostitute, and started an affair as a client. Armstrong returned to Gretna on several occasions to visit her. He found the courage to look for her home to see her away from work. There, Armstrong found out she had a common-law husband . Not long after that, Parker traveled to Armstrong's home on Perdido Street [ 85 ] and they checked into Kid Green's hotel that evening. On the next day, March 19, 1919, Armstrong and Parker married at City Hall. [ 85 ] [ 86 ] They adopted a three-year-old boy, Clarence, whose mother, Armstrong's cousin Flora, had died soon after giving birth. Clarence Armstrong was mentally disabled as a result of a head injury at an early age. Armstrong spent the rest of his life taking care of him. [ 87 ] His marriage to Parker ended when they separated in 1923. On February 4, 1924, Armstrong married Lil Hardin Armstrong , King Oliver's pianist. She had divorced her first husband a few years earlier. Armstrong's second wife helped him develop his career, but they separated in 1931 and divorced in 1938. Armstrong then married Alpha Smith. [ 88 ] His relationship with Alpha began while he was playing at the Vendome during the 1920s and continued long after. [ 89 ] Armstrong's marriage to her lasted four years; they divorced in 1942. He then married Lucille Wilson, a singer at the Cotton Club in New York, in October 1942. They remained married until his death in 1971. [ 90 ] Armstrong's marriages produced no offspring. [ 91 ] However, in December 2012, 57-year-old Sharon Preston-Folta claimed to be his daughter from a 1950s affair between Armstrong and Lucille "Sweets" Preston, a dancer at the Cotton Club. [ 92 ] In a 1955 letter to his manager, Joe Glaser, Armstrong affirmed his belief that Preston's newborn baby was his daughter, and ordered Glaser to pay a monthly allowance of $400 ($5,869 in 2024 dollars) [ 93 ] to mother and child. [ 94 ] Personality Armstrong was colorful and charismatic. His autobiography vexed some biographers and historians because Armstrong had a habit of telling tales, particularly about his early childhood when he was less scrutinized, and his embellishments lack consistency. [ 95 ] In addition to being an entertainer, Armstrong was a leading personality. He was beloved by an American public that usually offered little access beyond their public celebrity to even the most significant black performers, and Armstrong was able to live a private life of access and privilege afforded to few other black Americans during that era. [ 95 ] Armstrong generally remained politically neutral, which sometimes alienated him from other black Americans who expected him to use his prominence within white America to become more outspoken during the civil rights movement . However, Armstrong criticized President Eisenhower for not acting forcefully on civil rights. [ 95 ] Health problems The trumpet is notoriously hard on the lips , and Armstrong suffered from lip damage over most of his life. This was due to Armstrong's aggressive playing style and preference for narrow mouthpieces that would stay in place more easily but tended to dig into the soft flesh of his inner lip. During his 1930s European tour, Armstrong suffered an ulceration so severe that he had to stop playing entirely for a year. Eventually, Armstrong took to using salves and creams on his lips and also cutting off scar tissue with a razor blade. By the 1950s, Armstrong was an official spokesman for Ansatz-Creme Lip Salve. [ 96 ] During a backstage meeting with trombonist Marshall Brown in 1959, Armstrong was advised to see a doctor and receive proper treatment for his lips instead of relying on home remedies. However, Armstrong did not get around to that until his final years, by which point his health was failing, and the doctors considered surgery too risky. [ 97 ] In 1959, Armstrong was hospitalized for pneumonia while on tour in Italy. Doctors were concerned about his lungs and heart, but by the end of June, Armstrong rallied on. [ 98 ] Nicknames The nicknames "Satchmo" and "Satch" are short for "Satchelmouth". The nickname origin is uncertain. [ 95 ] The most common tale that biographers tell is the story of Armstrong as a young boy in New Orleans dancing for pennies. He scooped the coins off the street and stuck them into his mouth to prevent bigger children from stealing them. Someone dubbed Armstrong "satchel mouth" for his mouth acting as a satchel . Another tale is that because of his large mouth, Armstrong was nicknamed "satchel mouth", which was shortened to "Satchmo." [ 95 ] Early on, Armstrong was also known as "Dipper", short for "Dippermouth", a reference to the piece Dippermouth Blues [ 99 ] and something of a riff on his unusual embouchure . The nickname "Pops" came from Armstrong's own tendency to forget people's names and simply call them "Pops" instead. The nickname was turned on Armstrong himself. It was used as the title of a 2010 biography of Armstrong by Terry Teachout. [ 95 ] After a competition at the Savoy, he was crowned and nicknamed "King Menelik", after the Emperor of Ethiopia, for slaying " ofay jazz demons." [ 100 ] Race Armstrong celebrated his heritage as a black man from a poor New Orleans neighborhood and tried to avoid what he called "putting on airs." Many younger black musicians criticized Armstrong for playing in front of segregated audiences and for not taking a stronger stand in the American civil rights movement . [ 101 ] When Armstrong did speak out, it made national news. In 1957, journalism student Larry Lubenow scored a candid interview with Armstrong while the musician was performing in Grand Forks, North Dakota, shortly after the conflict over school desegregation in Little Rock, Arkansas . Armstrong denounced both Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus and President Dwight D. Eisenhower , saying the President had "no guts" and was "two-faced." Armstrong told his interviewer that he would cancel a planned tour of the Soviet Union on behalf of the State Department , saying, "The way they're treating my people in the South, the government can go to hell"; he could not represent his government abroad when it was in conflict with its own people. [ 102 ] [ 103 ] The FBI kept a file on Armstrong for his outspokenness about integration. [ 104 ] Armstrong’s outburst drew both praise and backlash; figures like Jackie Robinson and Lena Horne publicly supported him, while a Mississippi radio station banned his records. His longtime road manager, Pierre Tallerie , attempted to walk back Armstrong’s comments to the press, prompting a sharp public rebuke from Armstrong, who nearly fired Tallerie and insisted on speaking for himself going forward. [ 105 ] [ 106 ] Religion When asked about his religion, Armstrong answered that he was raised a Baptist , always wore a Star of David , and was friends with the pope. [ 107 ] Armstrong wore the Star of David in honor of the Karnoffsky family who took him in as a child and lent him money to buy his first cornet. Armstrong was baptized a Catholic in the Sacred Heart of Jesus Church in New Orleans, [ 107 ] and he met Pope Pius XII and Pope Paul VI . [ 95 ] Personal habits Armstrong was concerned with his health. Armstrong used laxatives to control his weight, a practice he advocated both to acquaintances and in the diet plans he published under the title Lose Weight the Satchmo Way . [ 95 ] Armstrong's laxative of preference in his younger days was Pluto Water , but when he discovered the herbal remedy Swiss Kriss , he became an enthusiastic convert, [ 95 ] extolling its virtues to anyone who would listen and passing out packets to everyone he encountered, including members of the British royal family . Armstrong also appeared in humorous risqué cards that he had printed to send to friends. The cards bore a picture of Armstrong sitting on a toilet—as viewed through a keyhole—with the slogan "Satch says, 'Leave it all behind ya! ' " [ 108 ] The cards have sometimes been incorrectly described as ads for Swiss Kriss. [ 109 ] In a live recording of " Baby, It's Cold Outside " with Velma Middleton , he changes the lyric from "Put another record on while I pour" to "Take some Swiss Kriss while I pour." [ 110 ] Armstrong's laxative use began as a child when his mother would collect dandelions and peppergrass around the railroad tracks to give to her children for their health. [ 111 ] Armstrong was a heavy marijuana smoker for much of his life and spent nine days in jail in 1930 after being arrested outside a club for drug possession. Armstrong described marijuana as "a thousand times better than whiskey." [ 112 ] Armstrong's concern with his health and weight was balanced by his love of food, reflected in such songs as "Cheesecake", "Cornet Chop Suey", [ 113 ] and "Struttin' with Some Barbecue", though the latter was written about a fine-looking companion, and not food. [ 114 ] Armstrong kept a strong connection throughout his life to the cooking of New Orleans , always signing his letters, " Red beans and ricely yours ...". [ 115 ] A fan of Major League Baseball, Armstrong founded a team in New Orleans that was known as Raggedy Nine and transformed the team into his Armstrong's " Secret Nine Baseball ." [ 116 ] Writings Armstrong's gregariousness extended to writing. On the road, he wrote constantly, sharing favorite themes of his life with correspondents around the world. Armstrong avidly typed or wrote on whatever stationery was at hand, recording instant takes on music, sex, food, childhood memories, his heavy "medicinal" marijuana use, and even his bowel movements, which Armstrong gleefully described. [ 117 ] Social organizations Louis Armstrong was not, as claimed, a Freemason . Although he has been cited as a Montgomery Lodge No. 18 (Prince Hall) member in New York, no such lodge ever existed. In his autobiography, Armstrong stated that he was a member of the Knights of Pythias of North America, South America, Europe, Asia, Africa and Australia , an African American non-Masonic fraternal organization. [ 118 ] During the krewe's 1949 Mardi Gras parade, Armstrong presided as King of the Zulu Social Aid & Pleasure Club , for which he was featured on the cover of Time magazine . [ 119 ] Music Horn playing and early jazz In his early years, Armstrong was best known for his virtuosity with the cornet and trumpet. Along with his "clarinet-like figurations and high notes in his cornet solos", Armstrong was also known for his "intense rhythmic 'swing', a complex conception involving accented upbeats, upbeat to downbeat slurring, and complementary relations among rhythmic patterns. [ 120 ] The most lauded recordings on which Armstrong plays trumpet include the Hot Five and Hot Seven sessions , as well as those of the Red Onion Jazz Babies . Armstrong's improvisations, while unconventionally sophisticated for that era, were also subtle and highly melodic. The solo that Armstrong plays during the song " Potato Head Blues " has long been considered his best solo of that series. [ 95 ] [ 121 ] Prior to Armstrong, most collective ensembles playing in jazz, along with its occasional solos, simply varied the melodies of the songs. He was virtually the first to create significant variations based on the chord harmonies of the songs instead of merely on the melodies. This opened a rich field for creation and improvisation, and significantly changed the music into a soloist's art form. [ 95 ] Often, Armstrong re-composed pop tunes he played, simply with variations that made them more compelling to jazz listeners of the era. At the same time, Armstrong's oeuvre includes many original melodies, creative leaps, and relaxed or driving rhythms. His playing technique, honed by constant practice, extended the range, tone, and capabilities of the trumpet. In his records, Armstrong almost single-handedly created the role of the jazz soloist, taking what had been essentially a piece of collective folk music and turning it into an art form with tremendous possibilities for individual expression. [ 95 ] Armstrong was one of the first artists to use recordings of his performances to improve himself. Armstrong was an avid audiophile. He had a large collection of recordings, including reel-to-reel tapes, which he took on the road with him in a trunk during his later career. Armstrong enjoyed listening to his own recordings, and comparing his performances musically. In the den of his home, Armstrong had the latest audio equipment and would sometimes rehearse and record along with his older recordings or the radio. [ 122 ] Vocal popularity As Armstrong's music progressed and popularity grew, his singing also became very important. Armstrong was not the first to record scat singing, but he was masterful at it and helped popularize it with the first recording on which he scatted, " Heebie Jeebies ." At a recording session for Okeh Records , when the sheet music supposedly fell on the floor, and the music began before Armstrong could pick up the pages, he simply started singing nonsense syllables while Okeh President E.A. Fearn, who was at the session, kept telling him to continue. Armstrong did, thinking the track would be discarded, but that was the version that was pressed to disc, sold, and became an unexpected hit. Although the story was thought to be apocryphal, Armstrong himself confirmed it in at least one interview as well as in his memoirs. [ 123 ] On a later recording, Armstrong also sang out "I done forgot the words" in the middle of recording "I'm A Ding Dong Daddy From Dumas." Such records were hits, and scat singing became a major part of his performances. Long before this, Armstrong was playing around with his vocals, shortening and lengthening phrases, interjecting improvisations, and using his voice as creatively as his trumpet. [ 95 ] Armstrong once told Cab Calloway that his scat style was derived "from the Jews rockin ", an Orthodox Jewish style of chanting during prayer. [ 124 ] [ 125 ] Composing Armstrong was a gifted composer who wrote more than 50 songs, some of which have become jazz standards (e.g., "Gully Low Blues", "Potato Head Blues", and "Swing That Music"). Colleagues and followers During his long career, Armstrong played and sang with some of the most important instrumentalists and vocalists of the time, including Bing Crosby, Duke Ellington , Fletcher Henderson , Earl Hines , Jimmie Rodgers , Bessie Smith , and Ella Fitzgerald . His influence upon Crosby is particularly important with regard to the subsequent development of popular music. Crosby admired and copied Armstrong, as is evident on many of his early recordings, notably "Just One More Chance" (1931). [ 95 ] The New Grove Dictionary of Jazz describes Crosby's debt to Armstrong in precise detail, although it does not acknowledge Armstrong by name: Crosby ... was important in introducing into the mainstream of popular singing an Afro-American concept of song as a lyrical extension of speech ... His techniques—easing the weight of the breath on the vocal cords, passing into a head voice at a low register, using forward production to aid distinct enunciation , singing on consonants (a practice of black singers), and making discreet use of appoggiaturas , mordents , and slurs to emphasize the text—were emulated by nearly all later popular singers. Crosby ... was important in introducing into the mainstream of popular singing an Afro-American concept of song as a lyrical extension of speech ... His techniques—easing the weight of the breath on the vocal cords, passing into a head voice at a low register, using forward production to aid distinct enunciation , singing on consonants (a practice of black singers), and making discreet use of appoggiaturas , mordents , and slurs to emphasize the text—were emulated by nearly all later popular singers. Armstrong recorded two albums with Ella Fitzgerald, Ella and Louis and Ella and Louis Again , for Verve Records . The sessions featured the backing musicianship of the Oscar Peterson Trio with drummer Buddy Rich on the first album and Louie Bellson on the second. Norman Granz then had the vision for Ella and Louis to record Porgy and Bess . Armstrong's two recordings for Columbia Records , Louis Armstrong Plays W.C. Handy (1954) and Satch Plays Fats (all Fats Waller tunes) (1955), were both considered masterpieces, as well as moderately well selling. In 1961, the All-Stars participated in two albums, The Great Summit and The Great Reunion (now together as a single disc) with Duke Ellington . The albums feature many of Ellington's most famous compositions (as well as two exclusive cuts) with Duke sitting in on piano. Armstrong's participation in Dave Brubeck 's high-concept jazz musical The Real Ambassadors (1963) was critically acclaimed and features "Summer Song", one of Armstrong's most popular vocal efforts. In the week beginning May 9, 1964 , Armstrong's recording of the song " Hello, Dolly! " went to number one. An album of the same title was quickly created around the song, and also shot to number one, knocking The Beatles off the top of the chart. The album sold very well for the rest of the year, quickly going "Gold" (500,000). His performance of "Hello, Dolly!" won for best male pop vocal performance at the 1964 Grammy Awards . Hits and later career Armstrong had 19 "Top Ten" records [ 126 ] including " Stardust ", " What a Wonderful World ", " When The Saints Go Marching In ", " Dream a Little Dream of Me ", " Ain't Misbehavin' ", " You Rascal You ", and " Stompin' at the Savoy ". " We Have All the Time in the World " was featured on the soundtrack of the James Bond film On Her Majesty's Secret Service , and enjoyed renewed popularity in the UK in 1994 when it was featured on a Guinness advertisement. It reached number 3 in the charts on being re-released. In 1964, Armstrong knocked The Beatles off the top of the Billboard Hot 100 chart with " Hello, Dolly! ", which gave the 63-year-old performer a U.S. record as the oldest artist to have a number one song. His 1964 song "Bout Time" was later featured in the film Bewitched . [ 95 ] In February 1968, Armstrong appeared with Lara Saint Paul on the Italian RAI television channel, where he performed "Grassa e Bella", a track Armstrong sang in Italian for the Italian market and C.D.I. label. [ 127 ] In 1968, Armstrong scored one last popular hit in the UK with " What a Wonderful World ", which topped the British charts for a month. Armstrong appeared on the October 28, 1970, Johnny Cash Show , where he sang Nat King Cole 's hit " Ramblin' Rose " and joined Cash to re-create his performance backing Jimmie Rodgers on "Blue Yodel No. 9". Stylistic range Armstrong enjoyed many types of music, from blues to the arrangements of Guy Lombardo , to Latin American folksongs, to classical symphonies and opera. Armstrong incorporated influences from all these sources into his performances, sometimes to the bewilderment of fans who wanted him to stay in convenient narrow categories. Armstrong was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as an early influence . Some of his solos from the 1950s, such as the hard rocking version of " St. Louis Blues " from the WC Handy album, show that the influence went in both directions. [ 95 ] Film, television, and radio Armstrong appeared in more than a dozen Hollywood films, usually playing a bandleader or musician. His most familiar role was as the bandleader cum narrator in the 1956 musical High Society , starring Bing Crosby, Grace Kelly , Frank Sinatra , and Celeste Holm . Armstrong appears throughout the film, sings the title song, and performs the duet " Now You Has Jazz " with Crosby. [ 128 ] In 1947, Armstrong played himself in the movie New Orleans opposite Billie Holiday, which chronicled the demise of the Storyville district and the ensuing exodus of musicians from New Orleans to Chicago. In the 1959 film The Five Pennies , Armstrong played himself, sang, and played several classic numbers. He performed a duet of "When the Saints Go Marching In" with Danny Kaye , during which Kaye impersonated Armstrong. He had a part in the film alongside James Stewart in The Glenn Miller Story . In 1937, Armstrong was the first African American to host a nationally broadcast radio show . [ 129 ] In 1969, he had a cameo role in Gene Kelly 's film version of Hello, Dolly! as the bandleader Louis where he sang the title song with actress Barbra Streisand . Armstrong's solo recording of " Hello, Dolly! " is one of his most recognizable performances. [ 95 ] Armstrong was heard on such radio programs as The Story of Swing (1937) and This Is Jazz (1947), and he also made television appearances, especially in the 1950s and 1960s, including appearances on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson . [ 95 ] In 1949 , Armstrong's life was dramatized by scriptwriter Richard Durham in the Chicago WMAQ radio series Destination Freedom . [ 130 ] [ 131 ] Argentine writer Julio Cortázar , a self-described Armstrong admirer, asserted that a 1952 Louis Armstrong concert at the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées in Paris played a significant role in inspiring him to create the fictional creatures called Cronopios that are the subject of a number of Cortázar's short stories. Cortázar once called Armstrong himself "Grandísimo Cronopio" (The Great Cronopio). [ 95 ] There is a pivotal scene in Stardust Memories (1980) in which Woody Allen is overwhelmed by a recording of Armstrong's " Stardust " and experiences a nostalgic epiphany. [ 132 ] In 2022, Armstrong was subject of the documentary film Louis Armstrong's Black & Blues . [ 133 ] Death Against his doctor's advice, Armstrong played a two-week engagement in March 1971 at the Waldorf-Astoria 's Empire Room. At the end of it, he was hospitalized for a heart attack . [ 134 ] Armstrong was released from the hospital in May and quickly resumed practicing his trumpet playing. Still hoping to get back on the road, Armstrong died of a heart attack in his sleep on July 6, 1971. Armstrong was residing in Corona, Queens , New York City, at the time of his death. [ 135 ] Armstrong was interred in Flushing Cemetery , Flushing , in Queens , New York City. His honorary pallbearers included Bing Crosby , Ella Fitzgerald , Duke Ellington , Dizzy Gillespie , Pearl Bailey , Count Basie , Harry James , Frank Sinatra , Ed Sullivan , Earl Wilson , Benny Goodman , Alan King , Johnny Carson and David Frost . [ 136 ] [ 137 ] [ 138 ] Peggy Lee sang " The Lord's Prayer " at the services while Al Hibbler sang " Nobody Knows the Trouble I've Seen " and Fred Robbins , a long-time friend, gave the eulogy. [ 139 ] Awards and honors Grammy Awards Armstrong was posthumously awarded the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 1972 by the Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences. This Special Merit Award is presented by vote of the Recording Academy's National Trustees to performers who, during their lifetimes, have made creative contributions of outstanding artistic significance to the recording field. [ 140 ] Year Category Title Genre Label Result 1964 Male Vocal Performance " Hello, Dolly! " Pop Kapp Winner Grammy Hall of Fame Recordings of Armstrong were inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame , which is a special Grammy award established in 1973 to honor recordings that are at least 25 years old and that have "qualitative or historical significance." [ 141 ] [ 142 ] Year recorded Title Label Year inducted Notes 1925 " St. Louis Blues " Columbia 1993 Bessie Smith with Louis Armstrong, cornet 1926 " Heebie Jeebies " OKeh 1999 1928 " West End Blues " OKeh 1974 1928 " Weather Bird " OKeh 2008 with Earl Hines 1929 " St. Louis Blues " OKeh 2008 with Red Allen 1930 " Blue Yodel No. 9 (Standing on the Corner) " Victor 2007 Jimmie Rodgers (featuring Louis Armstrong) 1932 " All of Me " Columbia 2005 1938 " When the Saints Go Marching In " Decca 2016 1955 " Mack the Knife " Columbia 1997 1958 Porgy and Bess Verve 2001 Album, with Ella Fitzgerald 1964 " Hello, Dolly! " Kapp 2001 1967 " What a Wonderful World " ABC 1999 Rock and Roll Hall of Fame The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame listed Armstrong's "West End Blues" on the list of 500 songs that shaped Rock and Roll. [ 143 ] Year recorded Title Label Group 1928 " West End Blues " Okeh Louis Armstrong and his Hot Five Inductions and honors In 1995, the U.S. Post Office issued a Louis Armstrong 32-cent commemorative postage stamp. Year inducted Title Notes 1952 DownBeat Jazz Hall of Fame First inductee into DownBeat Hall of Fame 1960 [ 144 ] Hollywood Walk of Fame Star at 7601 Hollywood Blvd. 1978 Big Band and Jazz Hall of Fame 1990 Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Early influence 2004 Nesuhi Ertegun Jazz Hall of Fame At Jazz at Lincoln Center 2007 Louisiana Music Hall of Fame 2007 Gennett Records Walk of Fame, Richmond , Indiana 2007 Long Island Music Hall of Fame 2017 National Rhythm & Blues Hall of Fame Early influence Film honors In 1999, Armstrong was nominated for inclusion in the American Film Institute 's 100 Years ... 100 Stars . [ 145 ] Legacy In 1950, Bing Crosby , the most successful vocalist of the first half of the 20th century, said, "He is the beginning and the end of music in America." [ 146 ] Duke Ellington, DownBeat magazine in 1971, said, "If anybody was a master, it was Louis Armstrong. He was and will continue to be the embodiment of jazz." [ 147 ] Though Armstrong is widely recognized as a pioneer of scat singing, Ethel Waters and others preceded his scatting on record in the 1920s according to Gary Giddins and others. [ 148 ] According to literary critic Harold Bloom, "The two great American contributions to the world's art, in the end, are Walt Whitman and, after him, Armstrong and jazz ... If I had to choose between the two, ultimately, I wouldn't. I would say that the genius of this nation at its best is indeed Walt Whitman and Louis Armstrong". [ 149 ] In 2023, Rolling Stone ranked Armstrong at No. 39 on their list of the 200 Greatest Singers of All Time. [ 150 ] In 1991, an asteroid was named 9179 Satchmo in Armstrong's honor. [ 151 ] In the summer of 2001, in commemoration of the centennial of his birth, New Orleans's main airport was renamed Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport . The entrance to the airport's former terminal building houses a statue depicting Armstrong playing his cornet. In 2002, the Louis Armstrong's Hot Five and Hot Seven recordings (1925–1928) were preserved in the United States National Recording Registry, a registry of recordings selected yearly by the National Recording Preservation Board for preservation in the National Recording Registry of the Library of Congress . [ 152 ] The US Open tennis tournament's former main stadium was named Louis Armstrong Stadium in honor of Armstrong who had lived a few blocks from the site. [ 153 ] Congo Square was a common gathering place for blacks in New Orleans for dancing and performing music. The park where Congo Square is located was later renamed Louis Armstrong Park . [ 154 ] Dedicated in April 1980, the park includes a 12-foot (3.7 m) statue of Armstrong, trumpet in hand. [ 155 ] A Wonderful World , a musical based on his life story, had its world premiere run at Miami New Drama from December 4, 2021, to January 16, 2021, [ 156 ] after mounting previews beginning March 5, 2020 [ 157 ] and canceling opening night (March 14) due to COVID concerns. [ 158 ] Mirroring Armstrong's musical journey, the show stars James Monroe Iglehart and makes "pre-Broadway" [ 159 ] stops in New Orleans on October 1–8, 2023, and Chicago on October 11–29, 2023. The new musical charts the rise of Armstrong from the perspective of his four wives. It is conceived by Drama Desk Award winner and Tony Award nominee Christopher Renshaw and novelist Andrew Delaplaine , and directed by Renshaw, A Wonderful World features an original book by Aurin Squire . The show will debut on Broadway in 2024. [ 160 ] The Louis Armstrong House Museum The house where Armstrong lived for almost 28 years was declared a National Historic Landmark and opened to the public for guided tours in 2003. [ 161 ] The Louis Armstrong House Museum , at 34–56 107th Street between 34th and 37th avenues in Corona, Queens , presents concerts and educational programs, [ 162 ] operates as a historic house museum and makes materials in its archives of writings, books, recordings and memorabilia available to the public for research. [ 163 ] The museum is administered by the Queens College, City University of New York , following the dictates of Lucille Armstrong's will and is operated by the nonprofit Louis Armstrong House Museum. The museum opened to the public on October 15, 2003. A new visitors center opened across the street from the Armstrong home in the summer of 2023. [ 164 ] The Museum website also includes the digitized Armstrong Archives, searchable to the public 24 hours a day. [ 165 ] Essential discography The Complete Hot Five & Hot Seven Recordings The Complete Louis Armstrong Decca Sessions (1935–1946) (Mosaic Records, 2009) All Stars (Louis Armstrong's Town Hall Concert) (1947) Struttin' (1947) Satchmo Serenades (1950) Satchmo at Pasadena (1951) Louis Armstrong Plays W.C. Handy (1955) Louis Armstrong at the Crescendo, Vol. 1 (1955) Satch Plays Fats (1955) The Complete Ella Fitzgerald & Louis Armstrong on Verve – contains Ella and Louis, Ella and Louis Again, Porgy and Bess (1997) Louis and the Angels (1957) Louis and the Good Book (1958) Satchmo In Style (1959) Hello, Dolly! (1964) See also Biography portal Black and tan clubs Ella Fitzgerald and Louis Armstrong collaborations Little Satchmo , 2022 documentary film References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Anderson, Gene H. (2015). Louis Armstrong . Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0190268756 . ^ For background on nicknames, see Laurence Bergreen (1997). Louis Armstrong: An Extravagant Life . New York: Broadway Books. pp. 4–5 . ISBN 978-0553067682 . ^ "Louis Armstrong: All That and More" . American Songwriter . August 17, 2021 . Retrieved October 12, 2025 . ^ Cook, Richard (2005). Richard Cook's Jazz Encyclopedia . London: Penguin Books. pp. 18– 19. ISBN 978-0141006468 . ^ "Louis Armstrong – Artist" . Grammy.com . November 19, 2019 . Retrieved May 27, 2020 . ^ Bergreen (1997), p. 1. ^ Gary Giddins (2001). Satchmo: The Genius of Louis Armstrong . Da Capo. p. 21 . ISBN 978-0-306-81013-8 . ^ Teachout (2009), pp. 26–27. ^ Bergreen (1996), pp. 14–15. ^ Teachout, Terry (2009). Pops . Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 30. ^ a b Giddins (2001), pp. 22–23 ^ Giddins (2001), p. 26. ^ "Jazz Neighborhoods – New Orleans Jazz National Historical Park (U.S. National Park Service)" . nps.gov . 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Retrieved October 5, 2023 . ^ Clement, Olivia (March 5, 2020). "Louis Armstrong Musical A Wonderful World Kicks Off World Premiere in Miami" . Playbill.com . Archived from the original on October 22, 2023 . Retrieved October 5, 2023 . ^ "Exclusive Photos/Video: Final Preview of A WONDERFUL WORLD; Opening Night Cancelled at the Colony Theatre" . Broadway World . March 14, 2020. Archived from the original on October 22, 2023 . Retrieved October 5, 2023 . ^ Gans, Andrew (July 12, 2023). "Cast Complete for A Wonderful World Musical Starring James Monroe Iglehart; Vanessa Williams Joins Producing Team" . Playbill.com . Archived from the original on September 25, 2023 . Retrieved October 5, 2023 . ^ "A Wonderful World: The Louis Armstrong Musical" . The Press Room, NYC . Archived from the original on April 6, 2024 . Retrieved April 6, 2024 . ^ "The Museum – About" . Louis Armstrong House Museum . Retrieved January 18, 2025 . ^ "Events" . Louis Armstrong House Museum . Retrieved January 18, 2025 . ^ "Research Archives – Collections" . Louis Armstrong House Museum . Retrieved January 18, 2025 . ^ "Louis Armstrong House Museum and CUNY Celebrate Opening of New Center" . The City University of New York. July 7, 2023. Archived from the original on November 27, 2023 . Retrieved November 30, 2023 . ^ "Catalogs" . Louis Armstrong House Museum . Retrieved January 18, 2025 . Works cited External videos Presentation by Teachout about Pops: A Life of Louis Armstrong , January 7, 2010 , C-SPAN Q&A interview with Teachout about Pops: A Life of Louis Armstrong , January 31, 2010 , C-SPAN Armstrong, Louis (1954). Satchmo: My Life in New Orleans . ISBN 0306802767 . Bergreen, Laurence (1997). Louis Armstrong: An Extravagant Life . ISBN 0553067680 . Cogswell, Michael (2003). Armstrong: The Offstage Story . ISBN 1888054816 . Elie, Lolis Eric. A Letter from New Orleans . Originally printed in Gourmet . Reprinted in Best Food Writing 2006 , ed. by Holly Hughes, Da Capo Press, 2006. ISBN 1569242879 . Teachout, Terry (2009). Pops: A Life of Louis Armstrong . ISBN 978-0151010899 . Further readings Brothers, Thomas (2006). Louis Armstrong's New Orleans , New York, N.Y. W. W. Norton & Company Brothers, Thomas (2014). Louis Armstrong: Master of Modernism . New York: W. W. Norton & Company Giddins, Gary (1988). Satchmo: The Genius of Louis Armstrong . Da Capo Press Jones, Max , and Chilton, John (1988). Louis: The Louis Armstrong Story, 1900–1971 . Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0306803246 . Riccardi, Ricky (2012). What a Wonderful World: The Magic of Louis Armstrong's Later Years . New York: Vintage. ISBN 9780307473295 . OCLC 798285020 . —— (2020). Heart Full of Rhythm: The Big Band Years of Louis Armstrong . New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190914110 . OCLC 1137836373 . —— (2025). Stomp off, Let's Go: The Early Years of Louis Armstrong . New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780197614488 . OCLC 1427941152 . Storb, Ilse (1999). Louis Armstrong: The Definitive Biography . ISBN 0820431036 . Willems, Jos (2006). All of Me: The Complete Discography of Louis Armstrong . Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0810857308 . External links Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Louis Armstrong House Museum Louis Armstrong at IMDb Louis Armstrong discography at Discogs Louis Armstrong collected news and commentary at The New York Times .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Louis Armstrong v t e Discography Filmography Discography Filmography Top Ten singles " Muskrat Ramble " (1926) "Hotter Than That" " West End Blues " (1928) " Ain't Misbehavin' " (1929) " Chinatown, My Chinatown " (1932) " You Can Depend on Me " " All of Me " "Love, You Funny Thing" "Sweethearts on Parade" " Body and Soul " (1932) "Hobo, You Can't Ride This Train" (1933) " I'm in the Mood for Love /You Are My Lucky Star" (1935) "Public Melody Number One" (1937) " When the Saints Go Marching In " (1939) " You Won't Be Satisfied (Until You Break My Heart) " (1946) "When We Are Dancing" (1951) " What a Wonderful World " (1968) " Muskrat Ramble " (1926) "Hotter Than That" " West End Blues " (1928) " Ain't Misbehavin' " (1929) " Chinatown, My Chinatown " (1932) " You Can Depend on Me " " All of Me " "Love, You Funny Thing" "Sweethearts on Parade" " Body and Soul " (1932) "Hobo, You Can't Ride This Train" (1933) " I'm in the Mood for Love /You Are My Lucky Star" (1935) "Public Melody Number One" (1937) " When the Saints Go Marching In " (1939) " You Won't Be Satisfied (Until You Break My Heart) " (1946) "When We Are Dancing" (1951) " What a Wonderful World " (1968) Albums Satchmo at Pasadena (1951) Louis Armstrong Plays W.C. Handy (1955) Louis Armstrong at the Crescendo, Vol. 1 (1955) Satch Plays Fats (1955) Louis and the Angels (1957) Louis and the Good Book (1958) Satchmo In Style (1959) Hello, Dolly! (1964) Struttin' (1996) Satchmo at Pasadena (1951) Louis Armstrong Plays W.C. Handy (1955) Louis Armstrong at the Crescendo, Vol. 1 (1955) Satch Plays Fats (1955) Louis and the Angels (1957) Louis and the Good Book (1958) Satchmo In Style (1959) Hello, Dolly! (1964) Struttin' (1996) With Ella Fitzgerald Armstrong-Fitzgerald history Ella and Louis (1956) Ella and Louis Again (1957) Porgy and Bess (1959) The Complete Ella Fitzgerald & Louis Armstrong on Verve Armstrong-Fitzgerald history Ella and Louis (1956) Ella and Louis Again (1957) Porgy and Bess (1959) The Complete Ella Fitzgerald & Louis Armstrong on Verve Other collaborations Louis Armstrong Meets Oscar Peterson (1957) Bing & Satchmo (1960) The Great Summit (1961) The Real Ambassadors (1961) Louis Armstrong Meets Oscar Peterson (1957) Bing & Satchmo (1960) The Great Summit (1961) The Real Ambassadors (1961) Songs " Willie the Weeper " " West End Blues " (1928) " Ain't Misbehavin' " " When the Saints Go Marching In " " Mack the Knife " (1956) " Autumn in New York " " On My Way " (1959) " Uncle Satchmo's Lullaby " (1959) " Hello, Dolly! " (1964) " What a Wonderful World " (1967) " We Have All the Time in the World " (1969) " Alexander's Ragtime Band " " April in Paris " " Back Home Again in Indiana " " Basin Street Blues " " Big Butter and Egg Man " " Blue Turning Grey Over You " " Blueberry Hill " " C'est si bon " " Can't We Be Friends? " " Cheek to Cheek " " Cold, Cold Heart " " Cool Yule " " Dippermouth Blues " " Do You Know What It Means to Miss New Orleans? " " Dream a Little Dream of Me " " East of the Sun (and West of the Moon) " " El Choclo " " Everybody Loves My Baby " " Frankie and Johnny " " Georgia on My Mind " " Get Together " " Gone Fishin' " " The Gypsy in My Soul " " Heebie Jeebies " " Hello, Dolly! " " Hey Lawdy Mama " " High Society Calypso " " I Get Ideas " " I Wonder " " I've Got the World on a String " " It's Been a Long, Long Time " " Jeepers Creepers " " A Kiss to Build a Dream On " " (Up A) Lazy River " " Let's Call the Whole Thing Off " " Let's Do It, Let's Fall in Love " " Mame " " Moon River " " Moonlight in Vermont " "Muggles" " Muskrat Ramble " " Nobody Knows the Trouble I've Seen " " Now You Has Jazz " " On a Little Bamboo Bridge " " On My Way " " On the Sunny Side of the Street " " Pennies from Heaven " " Potato Head Blues " " Red Sails in the Sunset " " Rockin' Chair " " Saint Louis Blues " " Shine " " Skokiaan " " Sometimes I Feel Like a Motherless Child " " St. James Infirmary Blues " " Standing on the Corner (Blue Yodel No. 9) " " Stardust " " Stars Fell on Alabama " " Takes Two to Tango " " That Lucky Old Sun " " That's My Desire " " There Must Be Somebody Else " " They All Laughed " " Uncle Satchmo's Lullaby " " La Vie en rose " " When It's Sleepy Time Down South " " When You Wish Upon a Star " " When You're Smiling " " Willow Weep for Me " " Winter Wonderland " " Zip-a-Dee-Doo-Dah " " Willie the Weeper " " West End Blues " (1928) " Ain't Misbehavin' " " When the Saints Go Marching In " " Mack the Knife " (1956) " Autumn in New York " " On My Way " (1959) " Uncle Satchmo's Lullaby " (1959) " Hello, Dolly! " (1964) " What a Wonderful World " (1967) " We Have All the Time in the World " (1969) " Alexander's Ragtime Band " " April in Paris " " Back Home Again in Indiana " " Basin Street Blues " " Big Butter and Egg Man " " Blue Turning Grey Over You " " Blueberry Hill " " C'est si bon " " Can't We Be Friends? " " Cheek to Cheek " " Cold, Cold Heart " " Cool Yule " " Dippermouth Blues " " Do You Know What It Means to Miss New Orleans? " " Dream a Little Dream of Me " " East of the Sun (and West of the Moon) " " El Choclo " " Everybody Loves My Baby " " Frankie and Johnny " " Georgia on My Mind " " Get Together " " Gone Fishin' " " The Gypsy in My Soul " " Heebie Jeebies " " Hello, Dolly! " " Hey Lawdy Mama " " High Society Calypso " " I Get Ideas " " I Wonder " " I've Got the World on a String " " It's Been a Long, Long Time " " Jeepers Creepers " " A Kiss to Build a Dream On " " (Up A) Lazy River " " Let's Call the Whole Thing Off " " Let's Do It, Let's Fall in Love " " Mame " " Moon River " " Moonlight in Vermont " "Muggles" " Muskrat Ramble " " Nobody Knows the Trouble I've Seen " " Now You Has Jazz " " On a Little Bamboo Bridge " " On My Way " " On the Sunny Side of the Street " " Pennies from Heaven " " Potato Head Blues " " Red Sails in the Sunset " " Rockin' Chair " " Saint Louis Blues " " Shine " " Skokiaan " " Sometimes I Feel Like a Motherless Child " " St. James Infirmary Blues " " Standing on the Corner (Blue Yodel No. 9) " " Stardust " " Stars Fell on Alabama " " Takes Two to Tango " " That Lucky Old Sun " " That's My Desire " " There Must Be Somebody Else " " They All Laughed " " Uncle Satchmo's Lullaby " " La Vie en rose " " When It's Sleepy Time Down South " " When You Wish Upon a Star " " When You're Smiling " " Willow Weep for Me " " Winter Wonderland " " Zip-a-Dee-Doo-Dah " Related Louis Armstrong Hot Five and Hot Seven Sessions (1925–1928) Louis Armstrong House Louis Armstrong Stadium Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport Satchmo the Great A Wonderful World Louis Armstrong Hot Five and Hot Seven Sessions (1925–1928) Louis Armstrong House Louis Armstrong Stadium Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport Satchmo the Great A Wonderful World Discography Jazz Portal Discography Jazz Portal v t e Voyager Golden Record v t e Contents Voyager program Voyager 1 Voyager 2 Contents Voyager program Voyager 1 Voyager 2 Sound first movement of Brandenburg Concerto No. 2, BWV 1047 "Cavatina" from Beethoven's String Quartet No. 13 Chakrulo " Dark Was the Night, Cold Was the Ground " "Gavotte en Rondeau" from Partita for Violin No. 3, BWV 1006 " Izlel ye Delyo Haydutin " " Johnny B. Goode " Mugham Prelude and Fugue in C major, BWV 870, from The Well-Tempered Clavier , Book II Puspawarna Queen of the Night aria from The Magic Flute "Sacrificial Dance" from The Rite of Spring Songs of the Humpback Whale first movement of Beethoven's Symphony No. 5 first movement of Brandenburg Concerto No. 2, BWV 1047 "Cavatina" from Beethoven's String Quartet No. 13 Chakrulo " Dark Was the Night, Cold Was the Ground " "Gavotte en Rondeau" from Partita for Violin No. 3, BWV 1006 " Izlel ye Delyo Haydutin " " Johnny B. Goode " Mugham Prelude and Fugue in C major, BWV 870, from The Well-Tempered Clavier , Book II Puspawarna Queen of the Night aria from The Magic Flute "Sacrificial Dance" from The Rite of Spring Songs of the Humpback Whale first movement of Beethoven's Symphony No. 5 Contributors Louis Armstrong and His Hot Seven Valya Balkanska Bavarian State Opera with Edda Moser , conductor: Wolfgang Sawallisch Budapest String Quartet Johann Sebastian Bach Ludwig van Beethoven Chuck Berry Columbia Symphony Orchestra conductor: Igor Stravinsky John Cohen Tom Djäwa Ann Druyan Glenn Gould Arthur Grumiaux Guan Pinghu Anthony Holborne Kamil Jalilov Blind Willie Johnson Kesarbai Kerkar Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart Münchener Bach-Orchester conductor: Karl Richter David Munrow with the Early Music Consort K. P. H. Notoprojo Philharmonia Orchestra conductor: Otto Klemperer Carl Sagan Nick Sagan Laurie Spiegel Gorō Yamaguchi Louis Armstrong and His Hot Seven and His Hot Seven Valya Balkanska Bavarian State Opera with Edda Moser , conductor: Wolfgang Sawallisch with Edda Moser , conductor: Wolfgang Sawallisch Budapest String Quartet Johann Sebastian Bach Ludwig van Beethoven Chuck Berry Columbia Symphony Orchestra conductor: Igor Stravinsky conductor: Igor Stravinsky John Cohen Tom Djäwa Ann Druyan Glenn Gould Arthur Grumiaux Guan Pinghu Anthony Holborne Kamil Jalilov Blind Willie Johnson Kesarbai Kerkar Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart Münchener Bach-Orchester conductor: Karl Richter conductor: Karl Richter David Munrow with the Early Music Consort with the Early Music Consort K. P. H. Notoprojo Philharmonia Orchestra conductor: Otto Klemperer conductor: Otto Klemperer Carl Sagan Nick Sagan Laurie Spiegel Gorō Yamaguchi Category Commons Category Commons v t e Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance v t e 1950s " Catch a Falling Star " – Perry Como (1959) " Catch a Falling Star " – Perry Como (1959) 1960s Come Dance with Me! – Frank Sinatra (1960) " Georgia on My Mind " – Ray Charles / The Genius of Ray Charles – Ray Charles (1961) " Lollipops and Roses " – Jack Jones (1962) " I Left My Heart in San Francisco " – Tony Bennett (1963) " Wives and Lovers " – Jack Jones (1964) " Hello, Dolly! " – Louis Armstrong (1965) " It Was a Very Good Year " – Frank Sinatra (1966) " Strangers in the Night " – Frank Sinatra (1967) " By the Time I Get to Phoenix " – Glen Campbell (1968) " Light My Fire " – José Feliciano (1969) Come Dance with Me! – Frank Sinatra (1960) " Georgia on My Mind " – Ray Charles / The Genius of Ray Charles – Ray Charles (1961) " Lollipops and Roses " – Jack Jones (1962) " I Left My Heart in San Francisco " – Tony Bennett (1963) " Wives and Lovers " – Jack Jones (1964) " Hello, Dolly! " – Louis Armstrong (1965) " It Was a Very Good Year " – Frank Sinatra (1966) " Strangers in the Night " – Frank Sinatra (1967) " By the Time I Get to Phoenix " – Glen Campbell (1968) " Light My Fire " – José Feliciano (1969) 1970s " Everybody's Talkin' " – Harry Nilsson (1970) " Everything Is Beautiful " – Ray Stevens (1971) " You've Got a Friend " – James Taylor (1972) " Without You " – Harry Nilsson (1973) " You Are the Sunshine of My Life " – Stevie Wonder (1974) Fulfillingness' First Finale – Stevie Wonder (1975) Still Crazy After All These Years – Paul Simon (1976) Songs in the Key of Life – Stevie Wonder (1977) " Handy Man " – James Taylor (1978) " Copacabana (At the Copa) " – Barry Manilow (1979) " Everybody's Talkin' " – Harry Nilsson (1970) " Everything Is Beautiful " – Ray Stevens (1971) " You've Got a Friend " – James Taylor (1972) " Without You " – Harry Nilsson (1973) " You Are the Sunshine of My Life " – Stevie Wonder (1974) Fulfillingness' First Finale – Stevie Wonder (1975) Still Crazy After All These Years – Paul Simon (1976) Songs in the Key of Life – Stevie Wonder (1977) " Handy Man " – James Taylor (1978) " Copacabana (At the Copa) " – Barry Manilow (1979) 1980s 52nd Street – Billy Joel (1980) " This Is It " – Kenny Loggins (1981) Breakin' Away – Al Jarreau (1982) " Truly " – Lionel Richie (1983) Thriller – Michael Jackson (1984) " Against All Odds (Take a Look at Me Now) " – Phil Collins (1985) No Jacket Required – Phil Collins (1986) " Higher Love " – Steve Winwood (1987) Bring On the Night – Sting (1988) " Don't Worry, Be Happy " – Bobby McFerrin (1989) 52nd Street – Billy Joel (1980) " This Is It " – Kenny Loggins (1981) Breakin' Away – Al Jarreau (1982) " Truly " – Lionel Richie (1983) Thriller – Michael Jackson (1984) " Against All Odds (Take a Look at Me Now) " – Phil Collins (1985) No Jacket Required – Phil Collins (1986) " Higher Love " – Steve Winwood (1987) Bring On the Night – Sting (1988) " Don't Worry, Be Happy " – Bobby McFerrin (1989) 1990s " How Am I Supposed to Live Without You " – Michael Bolton (1990) " Oh, Pretty Woman (live 1987) " – Roy Orbison (1991) " When a Man Loves a Woman " – Michael Bolton (1992) " Tears in Heaven " – Eric Clapton (1993) " If I Ever Lose My Faith in You " – Sting (1994) " Can You Feel the Love Tonight " – Elton John (1995) " Kiss from a Rose " – Seal (1996) " Change the World " – Eric Clapton (1997) " Candle in the Wind 1997 " – Elton John (1998) " My Father's Eyes " – Eric Clapton (1999) " How Am I Supposed to Live Without You " – Michael Bolton (1990) " Oh, Pretty Woman (live 1987) " – Roy Orbison (1991) " When a Man Loves a Woman " – Michael Bolton (1992) " Tears in Heaven " – Eric Clapton (1993) " If I Ever Lose My Faith in You " – Sting (1994) " Can You Feel the Love Tonight " – Elton John (1995) " Kiss from a Rose " – Seal (1996) " Change the World " – Eric Clapton (1997) " Candle in the Wind 1997 " – Elton John (1998) " My Father's Eyes " – Eric Clapton (1999) 2000s " Brand New Day " – Sting (2000) "She Walks This Earth" – Sting (2001) " Don't Let Me Be Lonely Tonight " – James Taylor (2002) " Your Body Is a Wonderland " – John Mayer (2003) " Cry Me a River " – Justin Timberlake (2004) " Daughters " – John Mayer (2005) " From the Bottom of My Heart " – Stevie Wonder (2006) " Waiting on the World to Change " – John Mayer (2007) " What Goes Around... Comes Around " – Justin Timberlake (2008) " Say " – John Mayer (2009) " Brand New Day " – Sting (2000) "She Walks This Earth" – Sting (2001) " Don't Let Me Be Lonely Tonight " – James Taylor (2002) " Your Body Is a Wonderland " – John Mayer (2003) " Cry Me a River " – Justin Timberlake (2004) " Daughters " – John Mayer (2005) " From the Bottom of My Heart " – Stevie Wonder (2006) " Waiting on the World to Change " – John Mayer (2007) " What Goes Around... Comes Around " – Justin Timberlake (2008) " Say " – John Mayer (2009) 2010s " Make It Mine " – Jason Mraz (2010) " Just the Way You Are " – Bruno Mars (2011) " Make It Mine " – Jason Mraz (2010) " Just the Way You Are " – Bruno Mars (2011) v t e Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award v t e 1963–1990 1963 Bing Crosby 1965 Frank Sinatra 1966 Duke Ellington 1967 Ella Fitzgerald 1968 Irving Berlin 1971 Elvis Presley 1972 Louis Armstrong Mahalia Jackson 1984 Chuck Berry Charlie Parker 1985 Leonard Bernstein 1986 Benny Goodman The Rolling Stones Andrés Segovia 1987 Roy Acuff Benny Carter Enrico Caruso Ray Charles Fats Domino Woody Herman Billie Holiday B. B. King Isaac Stern Igor Stravinsky Arturo Toscanini Hank Williams 1989 Fred Astaire Pablo Casals Dizzy Gillespie Jascha Heifetz Lena Horne Leontyne Price Bessie Smith Art Tatum Sarah Vaughan 1990 Nat King Cole Miles Davis Vladimir Horowitz Paul McCartney 1963 Bing Crosby Bing Crosby 1965 Frank Sinatra Frank Sinatra 1966 Duke Ellington Duke Ellington 1967 Ella Fitzgerald Ella Fitzgerald 1968 Irving Berlin Irving Berlin 1971 Elvis Presley Elvis Presley 1972 Louis Armstrong Mahalia Jackson Louis Armstrong Mahalia Jackson 1984 Chuck Berry Charlie Parker Chuck Berry Charlie Parker 1985 Leonard Bernstein Leonard Bernstein 1986 Benny Goodman The Rolling Stones Andrés Segovia Benny Goodman The Rolling Stones Andrés Segovia 1987 Roy Acuff Benny Carter Enrico Caruso Ray Charles Fats Domino Woody Herman Billie Holiday B. B. King Isaac Stern Igor Stravinsky Arturo Toscanini Hank Williams Roy Acuff Benny Carter Enrico Caruso Ray Charles Fats Domino Woody Herman Billie Holiday B. B. King Isaac Stern Igor Stravinsky Arturo Toscanini Hank Williams 1989 Fred Astaire Pablo Casals Dizzy Gillespie Jascha Heifetz Lena Horne Leontyne Price Bessie Smith Art Tatum Sarah Vaughan Fred Astaire Pablo Casals Dizzy Gillespie Jascha Heifetz Lena Horne Leontyne Price Bessie Smith Art Tatum Sarah Vaughan 1990 Nat King Cole Miles Davis Vladimir Horowitz Paul McCartney Nat King Cole Miles Davis Vladimir Horowitz Paul McCartney 1991–2000 1991 Marian Anderson Bob Dylan John Lennon Kitty Wells 1992 James Brown John Coltrane Jimi Hendrix Muddy Waters 1993 Chet Atkins Little Richard Thelonious Monk Bill Monroe Pete Seeger Fats Waller 1994 Bill Evans Aretha Franklin Arthur Rubinstein 1995 Patsy Cline Peggy Lee Henry Mancini Curtis Mayfield Barbra Streisand 1996 Dave Brubeck Marvin Gaye Georg Solti Stevie Wonder 1997 Bobby "Blue" Bland The Everly Brothers Judy Garland Stéphane Grappelli Buddy Holly Charles Mingus Oscar Peterson Frank Zappa 1998 Bo Diddley The Mills Brothers Roy Orbison Paul Robeson 1999 Johnny Cash Sam Cooke Otis Redding Smokey Robinson Mel Tormé 2000 Harry Belafonte Woody Guthrie John Lee Hooker Mitch Miller Willie Nelson 1991 Marian Anderson Bob Dylan John Lennon Kitty Wells Marian Anderson Bob Dylan John Lennon Kitty Wells 1992 James Brown John Coltrane Jimi Hendrix Muddy Waters James Brown John Coltrane Jimi Hendrix Muddy Waters 1993 Chet Atkins Little Richard Thelonious Monk Bill Monroe Pete Seeger Fats Waller Chet Atkins Little Richard Thelonious Monk Bill Monroe Pete Seeger Fats Waller 1994 Bill Evans Aretha Franklin Arthur Rubinstein Bill Evans Aretha Franklin Arthur Rubinstein 1995 Patsy Cline Peggy Lee Henry Mancini Curtis Mayfield Barbra Streisand Patsy Cline Peggy Lee Henry Mancini Curtis Mayfield Barbra Streisand 1996 Dave Brubeck Marvin Gaye Georg Solti Stevie Wonder Dave Brubeck Marvin Gaye Georg Solti Stevie Wonder 1997 Bobby "Blue" Bland The Everly Brothers Judy Garland Stéphane Grappelli Buddy Holly Charles Mingus Oscar Peterson Frank Zappa Bobby "Blue" Bland The Everly Brothers Judy Garland Stéphane Grappelli Buddy Holly Charles Mingus Oscar Peterson Frank Zappa 1998 Bo Diddley The Mills Brothers Roy Orbison Paul Robeson Bo Diddley The Mills Brothers Roy Orbison Paul Robeson 1999 Johnny Cash Sam Cooke Otis Redding Smokey Robinson Mel Tormé Johnny Cash Sam Cooke Otis Redding Smokey Robinson Mel Tormé 2000 Harry Belafonte Woody Guthrie John Lee Hooker Mitch Miller Willie Nelson Harry Belafonte Woody Guthrie John Lee Hooker Mitch Miller Willie Nelson 2001–2010 2001 The Beach Boys Tony Bennett Sammy Davis Jr. Bob Marley The Who 2002 Count Basie Rosemary Clooney Perry Como Al Green Joni Mitchell 2003 Etta James Johnny Mathis Glenn Miller Tito Puente Simon & Garfunkel 2004 Van Cliburn The Funk Brothers Ella Jenkins Sonny Rollins Artie Shaw Doc Watson 2005 Eddy Arnold Art Blakey The Carter Family Morton Gould Janis Joplin Led Zeppelin Jerry Lee Lewis Jelly Roll Morton Pinetop Perkins The Staple Singers 2006 David Bowie Cream Merle Haggard Robert Johnson Jessye Norman Richard Pryor The Weavers 2007 Joan Baez Booker T. & the M.G.'s Maria Callas Ornette Coleman The Doors The Grateful Dead Bob Wills 2008 Burt Bacharach The Band Cab Calloway Doris Day Itzhak Perlman Max Roach Earl Scruggs 2009 Gene Autry The Blind Boys of Alabama The Four Tops Hank Jones Brenda Lee Dean Martin Tom Paxton 2010 Leonard Cohen Bobby Darin David "Honeyboy" Edwards Michael Jackson Loretta Lynn André Previn Clark Terry 2001 The Beach Boys Tony Bennett Sammy Davis Jr. Bob Marley The Who The Beach Boys Tony Bennett Sammy Davis Jr. Bob Marley The Who 2002 Count Basie Rosemary Clooney Perry Como Al Green Joni Mitchell Count Basie Rosemary Clooney Perry Como Al Green Joni Mitchell 2003 Etta James Johnny Mathis Glenn Miller Tito Puente Simon & Garfunkel Etta James Johnny Mathis Glenn Miller Tito Puente Simon & Garfunkel 2004 Van Cliburn The Funk Brothers Ella Jenkins Sonny Rollins Artie Shaw Doc Watson Van Cliburn The Funk Brothers Ella Jenkins Sonny Rollins Artie Shaw Doc Watson 2005 Eddy Arnold Art Blakey The Carter Family Morton Gould Janis Joplin Led Zeppelin Jerry Lee Lewis Jelly Roll Morton Pinetop Perkins The Staple Singers Eddy Arnold Art Blakey The Carter Family Morton Gould Janis Joplin Led Zeppelin Jerry Lee Lewis Jelly Roll Morton Pinetop Perkins The Staple Singers 2006 David Bowie Cream Merle Haggard Robert Johnson Jessye Norman Richard Pryor The Weavers David Bowie Cream Merle Haggard Robert Johnson Jessye Norman Richard Pryor The Weavers 2007 Joan Baez Booker T. & the M.G.'s Maria Callas Ornette Coleman The Doors The Grateful Dead Bob Wills Joan Baez Booker T. & the M.G.'s Maria Callas Ornette Coleman The Doors The Grateful Dead Bob Wills 2008 Burt Bacharach The Band Cab Calloway Doris Day Itzhak Perlman Max Roach Earl Scruggs Burt Bacharach The Band Cab Calloway Doris Day Itzhak Perlman Max Roach Earl Scruggs 2009 Gene Autry The Blind Boys of Alabama The Four Tops Hank Jones Brenda Lee Dean Martin Tom Paxton Gene Autry The Blind Boys of Alabama The Four Tops Hank Jones Brenda Lee Dean Martin Tom Paxton 2010 Leonard Cohen Bobby Darin David "Honeyboy" Edwards Michael Jackson Loretta Lynn André Previn Clark Terry Leonard Cohen Bobby Darin David "Honeyboy" Edwards Michael Jackson Loretta Lynn André Previn Clark Terry 2011–2020 2011 Julie Andrews Roy Haynes Juilliard String Quartet The Kingston Trio Dolly Parton Ramones George Beverly Shea 2012 The Allman Brothers Band Glen Campbell Antônio Carlos Jobim George Jones The Memphis Horns Diana Ross Gil Scott-Heron 2013 Glenn Gould Charlie Haden Lightnin' Hopkins Carole King Patti Page Ravi Shankar The Temptations 2014 The Beatles Clifton Chenier The Isley Brothers Kraftwerk Kris Kristofferson Armando Manzanero Maud Powell 2015 Bee Gees Pierre Boulez Buddy Guy George Harrison Flaco Jiménez The Louvin Brothers Wayne Shorter 2016 Ruth Brown Celia Cruz Earth, Wind & Fire Herbie Hancock Jefferson Airplane Linda Ronstadt Run-DMC 2017 Shirley Caesar Ahmad Jamal Charley Pride Jimmie Rodgers Nina Simone Sly Stone The Velvet Underground 2018 Hal Blaine Neil Diamond Emmylou Harris Louis Jordan The Meters Queen Tina Turner 2019 Black Sabbath George Clinton and Parliament-Funkadelic Billy Eckstine Donny Hathaway Julio Iglesias Sam & Dave Dionne Warwick 2020 Chicago Roberta Flack Isaac Hayes Iggy Pop John Prine Public Enemy Sister Rosetta Tharpe 2011 Julie Andrews Roy Haynes Juilliard String Quartet The Kingston Trio Dolly Parton Ramones George Beverly Shea Julie Andrews Roy Haynes Juilliard String Quartet The Kingston Trio Dolly Parton Ramones George Beverly Shea 2012 The Allman Brothers Band Glen Campbell Antônio Carlos Jobim George Jones The Memphis Horns Diana Ross Gil Scott-Heron The Allman Brothers Band Glen Campbell Antônio Carlos Jobim George Jones The Memphis Horns Diana Ross Gil Scott-Heron 2013 Glenn Gould Charlie Haden Lightnin' Hopkins Carole King Patti Page Ravi Shankar The Temptations Glenn Gould Charlie Haden Lightnin' Hopkins Carole King Patti Page Ravi Shankar The Temptations 2014 The Beatles Clifton Chenier The Isley Brothers Kraftwerk Kris Kristofferson Armando Manzanero Maud Powell The Beatles Clifton Chenier The Isley Brothers Kraftwerk Kris Kristofferson Armando Manzanero Maud Powell 2015 Bee Gees Pierre Boulez Buddy Guy George Harrison Flaco Jiménez The Louvin Brothers Wayne Shorter Bee Gees Pierre Boulez Buddy Guy George Harrison Flaco Jiménez The Louvin Brothers Wayne Shorter 2016 Ruth Brown Celia Cruz Earth, Wind & Fire Herbie Hancock Jefferson Airplane Linda Ronstadt Run-DMC Ruth Brown Celia Cruz Earth, Wind & Fire Herbie Hancock Jefferson Airplane Linda Ronstadt Run-DMC 2017 Shirley Caesar Ahmad Jamal Charley Pride Jimmie Rodgers Nina Simone Sly Stone The Velvet Underground Shirley Caesar Ahmad Jamal Charley Pride Jimmie Rodgers Nina Simone Sly Stone The Velvet Underground 2018 Hal Blaine Neil Diamond Emmylou Harris Louis Jordan The Meters Queen Tina Turner Hal Blaine Neil Diamond Emmylou Harris Louis Jordan The Meters Queen Tina Turner 2019 Black Sabbath George Clinton and Parliament-Funkadelic Billy Eckstine Donny Hathaway Julio Iglesias Sam & Dave Dionne Warwick Black Sabbath George Clinton and Parliament-Funkadelic Billy Eckstine Donny Hathaway Julio Iglesias Sam & Dave Dionne Warwick 2020 Chicago Roberta Flack Isaac Hayes Iggy Pop John Prine Public Enemy Sister Rosetta Tharpe Chicago Roberta Flack Isaac Hayes Iggy Pop John Prine Public Enemy Sister Rosetta Tharpe 2021–present 2021 Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five Lionel Hampton Marilyn Horne Salt-N-Pepa Selena Talking Heads 2022 Bonnie Raitt 2023 Bobby McFerrin Nirvana Ma Rainey Slick Rick Nile Rodgers The Supremes Ann Wilson and Nancy Wilson 2024 Laurie Anderson The Clark Sisters Gladys Knight N.W.A Donna Summer Tammy Wynette 2025 Frankie Beverly The Clash Bobby Jones Taj Mahal Prince Roxanne Shante Frankie Valli 2026 Cher Whitney Houston Chaka Khan Fela Kuti Carlos Santana Paul Simon 2021 Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five Lionel Hampton Marilyn Horne Salt-N-Pepa Selena Talking Heads Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five Lionel Hampton Marilyn Horne Salt-N-Pepa Selena Talking Heads 2022 Bonnie Raitt Bonnie Raitt 2023 Bobby McFerrin Nirvana Ma Rainey Slick Rick Nile Rodgers The Supremes Ann Wilson and Nancy Wilson Bobby McFerrin Nirvana Ma Rainey Slick Rick Nile Rodgers The Supremes Ann Wilson and Nancy Wilson 2024 Laurie Anderson The Clark Sisters Gladys Knight N.W.A Donna Summer Tammy Wynette Laurie Anderson The Clark Sisters Gladys Knight N.W.A Donna Summer Tammy Wynette 2025 Frankie Beverly The Clash Bobby Jones Taj Mahal Prince Roxanne Shante Frankie Valli Frankie Beverly The Clash Bobby Jones Taj Mahal Prince Roxanne Shante Frankie Valli 2026 Cher Whitney Houston Chaka Khan Fela Kuti Carlos Santana Paul Simon Cher Whitney Houston Chaka Khan Fela Kuti Carlos Santana Paul Simon v t e Rock and Roll Hall of Fame – Class of 1990 v t e Performers Hank Ballard Bobby Darin The Four Seasons Tom DeVito , Bob Gaudio , Nick Massi , Frankie Valli Four Tops Renaldo Benson , Abdul "Duke" Fakir , Lawrence Payton , Levi Stubbs The Kinks Mick Avory , Dave Davies , Ray Davies , Pete Quaife The Platters David Lynch , Herb Reed , Paul Robi , Zola Taylor , Tony Williams Simon & Garfunkel Art Garfunkel , Paul Simon The Who Roger Daltrey , John Entwistle , Keith Moon , Pete Townshend Hank Ballard Bobby Darin The Four Seasons Tom DeVito , Bob Gaudio , Nick Massi , Frankie Valli Tom DeVito , Bob Gaudio , Nick Massi , Frankie Valli Four Tops Renaldo Benson , Abdul "Duke" Fakir , Lawrence Payton , Levi Stubbs Renaldo Benson , Abdul "Duke" Fakir , Lawrence Payton , Levi Stubbs The Kinks Mick Avory , Dave Davies , Ray Davies , Pete Quaife Mick Avory , Dave Davies , Ray Davies , Pete Quaife The Platters David Lynch , Herb Reed , Paul Robi , Zola Taylor , Tony Williams David Lynch , Herb Reed , Paul Robi , Zola Taylor , Tony Williams Simon & Garfunkel Art Garfunkel , Paul Simon Art Garfunkel , Paul Simon The Who Roger Daltrey , John Entwistle , Keith Moon , Pete Townshend Roger Daltrey , John Entwistle , Keith Moon , Pete Townshend Early influences Louis Armstrong Charlie Christian Ma Rainey Louis Armstrong Charlie Christian Ma Rainey Non-performers (Ahmet Ertegun Award) Gerry Goffin and Carole King Holland–Dozier–Holland Brian Holland , Lamont Dozier , Eddie Holland Gerry Goffin and Carole King Holland–Dozier–Holland Brian Holland , Lamont Dozier , Eddie Holland Brian Holland , Lamont Dozier , Eddie Holland Authority control databases International ISNI 2 VIAF GND FAST WorldCat ISNI 2 2 VIAF GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Japan Italy Czech Republic Spain Portugal Netherlands Norway Latvia Croatia Chile Greece Korea Sweden Poland Vatican Israel Finland Catalonia Belgium United States France BnF data Japan Italy Czech Republic Spain Portugal Netherlands Norway Latvia Croatia Chile Greece Korea Sweden Poland Vatican Israel Finland Catalonia Belgium Academics CiNii CiNii Artists ULAN MusicBrainz Discography of American Historical Recordings Grammy Awards FID ULAN MusicBrainz Discography of American Historical Recordings Grammy Awards FID People BMLO Trove Deutsche Biographie DDB BMLO Trove Deutsche Biographie DDB Other IdRef Open Library NARA SNAC RISM Yale LUX IdRef Open Library NARA SNAC RISM Yale LUX Louis Armstrong 1901 births 1971 deaths 20th-century African-American male singers 20th-century African-American male actors 20th-century American male actors 20th-century American male singers 20th-century American jazz composers 20th-century American trumpeters ABC Records artists American adoptees African-American history in New Orleans African-American jazz composers African-American jazz musicians American baritones American jazz bandleaders American jazz cornetists American jazz singers American jazz trumpeters American male film actors American male jazz composers American male trumpeters African-American male songwriters American radio hosts American street performers American comedy musicians Audio Fidelity Records artists American big band bandleaders Louis Armstrong and His Hot Seven members Louis Armstrong and His Hot Five members Black & Blue Records artists Burials at Flushing Cemetery Columbia Records artists Culture of New Orleans Decca Records artists Dixieland bandleaders Dixieland singers Dixieland trumpeters DownBeat Jazz Hall of Fame members Gennett Records artists Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award winners Jazz musicians from New Orleans Jazz musicians from New York (state) Kapp Records artists MGM Records artists Okeh Records artists People from Corona, Queens RCA Victor artists Red Onion Jazz Babies members Scat singers Songwriters from Louisiana Stateside Records artists Swing bandleaders Swing singers Swing trumpeters Traditional pop music singers Tuxedo Brass Band members Vocalion Records artists American Catholics Webarchive template wayback links All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from August 2023 Articles with permanently dead external links Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from December 2022 Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages Use American English from September 2024 All Wikipedia articles written in American English Use mdy dates from September 2024 Articles with hCards Biography with signature Articles with hAudio microformats Commons category link from Wikidata Performing arts pages with videographic documentation This page was last edited on 9 January 2026, at 08:32 (UTC) . 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