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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืืื_ื ืกืืจื] | [TOKENS: 2522] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืืื ื ืกืืจื ืืื ื ืกืืจื ืื ืืื ืื ืืกืจืช ืืื ืืื ืฉืขืืจื ื ืืกืืจ ืืืฉืืฉืช ืืืืคืื ืืื ืื. ืืืื ืืชืืืื ืกืืชืืช ืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืชืงืืคื ืืืืืจื ืืช, ืืืืจ ืืืฆืืื, ื ืืืืื ืื ืกืจ ืืช ืืืฉ ืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืงืื ืฉืืืชื ื ืืชื ืืขืื ืขืืืื ื ืืกืฃ. ืืืืืืช ืืืื ื ืงืจืืื ืืื ื ืกืืจื ืื ืืชื ืืืคืืช ืืื ืืื ืื ืื ืืืฆืื ืืื. ืืืื ืื ืกืืจื ืืืจื ืืื ืืืืขื ืืฆืืจืช ืืจืืืื ืืืื ืืื. ืฉืืืืฉ ืืืื ืืืจืืฉืืื ืืจืืฉืืื ืืชืืคืืื ื ืืืืจื ืืฉื ืื ืืื ืืื ืืืื. ืืชืืืืช ืชืงืืคืช ืืื ืื ืืืจืืื ืืืงืง ืืืฉื ืืจืืฉืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืืืขื ืืืจืืืื ืจืื ืื ืกืืืจืก ืืืง ืขืืจืื ื ืืืืืื ืื ืงืืจ ืืืฆืื ื ืืืจืืฉืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืคื ืืืื ืืกืืชืชืช. ืืืง ืื ืืืงืง ืืืืง ืืชืืื ืืช ืืงืืื, ืชืืื ืืช ืืืชืืจ ืืขืืจืื ืืช ืฉื ืขืจืื ืืฉื ืช 1918 ืขื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืงืืื, ืืื ืืก ืืขืืจ ืืืืกื ืืจืื. ืืืจืช ืืืงืืงื ืืืืชื ืืฉืืจ ืืช ืกืื ืื ืืื ืืื ืืขืืจ ืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืืจืื ืืืืจื ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืื. ืงืืจืืชืืื ืืืืฆืื ืืื ืืขืืืืืื ืฉื ืืชืื ืืืืืช ืื ืงืืจ ืืืืื ืืจื ืืืื ืืฆืืคืื ืืื ื-ืืืืช ืืืขืืืช ืืจืืืขืืช ืืชืืืืช ืืืื ืืขืฉืจืื ืืฉืชืืืื ืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืื ืืื ืืืงืจืืช ืฉื ืืช ื-30 ืฉื ืืืื ืืืจ ื ืื ื ืจืื ืืชื ืืจืืฉืืื ืืืืื ืืืืื ืืฆืืคื ืืืื, ืืืืืจืื ืืคืื ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืจืง ืืฆืืจื ืืืคืื ืืงืืจืืช ืืืืฆืื ืืื. ืืื ืฉืขืืจื ืืฉื ืื, ืืงืฉืชื ืืชืงื ื ืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืขื ืืืื ืื. ืืจืืฉืืช ืฉื ืืช ื-60 ืงืืื ื ืื ืืื ืขืืจื ืืื ืืช ืืืคืื ืืื ืื ืืืื ื ืกืืจื, ืืฉืื ืฉืืืืจื ื ืืื ืืืชืจ ืืื ื ืืชื ืืื ืืขื ืืช ืขื ืฆืืจืื ืืจืืฉืืื ืืืชืคืชืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืขืืจ ืืื ืื ืจืืื ืืืื ืืืขื. ืกืืื ืืืจืช ืืืขืืคืช ืืืื ืื ืกืืจื ืขื ืคื ื ืืืื ืืืจืืฉืืืืช ื ืืฆืจื ืืฉื ืืื ืืื ืืืืื. ืืจืืื ืืขืืื ื ืืื ืืื ืืช ืืื ืื ืจืื ืงืืืืช ืืืืจืื ืฉืืงืื ืืืืืจืื ืืืืจื ืืื ืืื ืืืืืืช ืืคืืื ืืืขื ืืงืื ืืืกืชืื ืขื ืืื ืืื ืื ืืขื ืงืืื ืชืืืฉืช ืงืืืืืช. ืืืจืืฉืืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืชืื ื ืื ืืื ืืช ืืืื, ืื ืืืคืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืื ื ืืฉืื ืืืื ืื ืืืืืื. ืืืื ืื ืกืืจื ืื ืขืืจื ืืฉืืืช ืืืืืืื ืฆืืจื ืืืืจื ืืช ืืงืื ืืขืืืช ืชืืืฉืช ืืืืื ืืืืคืืื ืืช ืืืชืื ืืืื ืืจืืฉืืืืช. ืืฉื ืืช ื-80 ืืืื ืืืชืืืืช ืืืงืืื ืื ืืื ืืืื ืื ืจืืื ืฉืืืคื ืืืื ื ืกืืจื ืืืจืืฉืืื, ืืขืืงืจ ื ืคืืื ืฉื ืืื ื ืืืคืื. ืืืขืื ืืขืืงืจืืช ืืืืชื ืฉืฉืื ืืื ืืื ืขืฉืื ืืืื ืืืืื, ืืชืืคื ืืืชืืืืฅ, ืืชืืฆืื ืืฉืื ืืื ืืืคืจืืืจื, ืื ืืืื ืื ืืืืืงื ืืจืื ืืืื ื ืขื ืืื ืจื ืืืชืืืืฅ ืืืชืจืื ืืืืืจืืช ืฉืื ื. ืืฆืืงืช ืฉืืืช ืืืื ืืืืชื ืื ืื ืืงืฆืืขืืช ืืืื ืื ืจืืื. ืืืื ืื ื ืืื ืืื ืฉืื ืืคื ืื ืฉื ืืืื ืื ืืฆืจืื ืืืกื ืืืืืจ, ืืืชืืืืื ืืื ืืฉืืื ืืืคืืจืจืื ืืช ืืืื. ืืชืื ืฉื ืื ืกืคืืจืืช ืืจืืข ืกืืื ืืื ืืื ืืชืืืืื ืืืชืขืงื ืงืฆืืช ืืืืืืช, ืื ื ืกืืงืื ืื ืืคืืื. ืืื ืืจืฉื ืขืืจืืืช ืืจืืฉืืื ืฉืืืืืช ืืืืคืื ืืื ืืืื ืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืงื ืืืจืืื ืืชืื ืืืื ื. ืืขืื ื ืืกืคืช ืฉืืชืืื ืืืืชื ืฉืืืื ืื ืกืืจื ืืชืืืืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืื ืื ื ืกืืจื. ืฉืืืืช ืื ืืื ืืืืจื ืืืช ืืงืืื ื ืืช ืืกืืืื ืฉื ืืืงืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืจื ืื ืคืืืช ืืื ื ืืืืคืื. ืืฉืืืช ืืจื ืืืืฅ ืืื ื ืืืืคืื ืื ืืืง ืืืฆืืงืช ืืืืื ืฉื ืืงืืจ ืืืืฆืื ื. ืืฉืืื ืืจืืืื ืืืืืจื ืืช ืืฆืืืืื ืจืฉืช ืคืืื ืื ืงืืจ ืืืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืจืืื ืืื ืืจืฉืช ืืืืจืื ืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืื ืืจืื ืื ืขืืื ืื ืืคืืืช ืื-ืืื. ืืืฉืืืช "ืืงืืจ ืืืคืื", ืืืืคืื ืืืื ืืจืืฉ ืืืขืืื ืืืื ื. ืืงืจืืื ื ืืกืคืช ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/complete-story-program/] | [TOKENS: 574] |
ืืืืื ืืืืกืกืช ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืกืืคืืจ ืืฉืื - ืชืืื ืืช ืืืขืฆืืช ืืืจืฉืช ืืืืืช ืกืคืจื ืืืืืจื ืขื ืืื, ืื ืื ืืกืืคืืจ ืืฉืืืืื ืืช ืืคืจืงืื ืืืกืจืื ืืกืืคืืจ ืฉื ืืืื ื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื ืืืืฉื ืืช ืืกืงื ืืช ืืขืืช ืืืืื ืืืขืฆืืช ืืืจืฉืช ืืืืืช ืืืืจื ืืืขืจืืช ืืืื ืื ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืืฉืืืืช ืืกืืคืืจ ืืฉืื - ืชืืื ืืช ืืืขืฆืืช ืืืจืฉืช ืืืืืช ืกืคืจื ืืืืืจื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืฉืืจืืชืื ืืืจื ืืงืฆืจื ื... ืคืืจืื ืื ื ืื ื ืขืืืจ ืืืจืื ืื ืืขื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฆืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืื. ืืขืืื ืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืชืจื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืชืืื ืืชืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืืื (ืืจืืืช ืคืจืกืืืืช) ืืื ื ืืืืจืืืช ืืขืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืื. ืื ื ืชืงืืชื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืฉ ืืื ืืฆืขืืช ืื ืืขืจืืช ืื ืืืข ืืชืืื, ืืืคืฉืจืืชืื ืืคื ืืช ืืืื ื ืืงืืฉืืจ ืื. |
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/sherutey-tiksuv-bachinuch/students-online-courses/preparatory-courses-matriculation/] | [TOKENS: 359] |
ืืืืื ืืืืกืกืช ืืืืื ืืืืช ืงืืจืกื ืืื ื ืืืืจืืช ืืืืื ืืฉืืืืช ืืืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืฉืืจืืชืื ืืืจื ืืงืฆืจื ื... ืคืืจืื ืื ื ืื ื ืขืืืจ ืืืจืื ืื ืืขื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฆืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืื. ืืขืืื ืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืชืจื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืชืืื ืืชืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืืื (ืืจืืืช ืคืจืกืืืืช) ืืื ื ืืืืจืืืช ืืขืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืื. ืื ื ืชืงืืชื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืฉ ืืื ืืฆืขืืช ืื ืืขืจืืช ืื ืืืข ืืชืืื, ืืืคืฉืจืืชืื ืืคื ืืช ืืืื ื ืืงืืฉืืจ ืื. |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reddit#cite_ref-UTIs_254-1] | [TOKENS: 12221] |
Contents Reddit Reddit (/หrษdษชt/ โ RED-it, formerly stylized reddit) is an American proprietary social news aggregation and forum social media platform. Registered users (commonly referred to as "redditors") submit content to the site such as links, text posts, images, and videos, which are then voted up or down ("upvoted" or "downvoted") by other members. Posts are organized by subject into user-created boards called "subreddits". Submissions with more upvotes appear towards the top of their subreddit and, if they receive enough upvotes, ultimately on the site's front page. Reddit administrators moderate the communities. Moderation is also conducted by subreddit-specific moderators, who are unpaid volunteers. It is operated by Reddit, Inc., based in San Francisco. As of December 2025, Reddit is one of the most-visited websites in the world. According to data provided by Similarweb, 51.75% of the website traffic comes from the United States, followed by Canada at 7.01%, the United Kingdom at 6.97%, Australia at 3.97%, Germany at 3%, and the remaining 28.37% split among other countries. Reddit was founded by University of Virginia roommates Steve Huffman and Alexis Ohanian in June 2005, who were joined by Aaron Swartz that November. Condรฉ Nast Publications acquired the site in October 2006. In 2011, Reddit became an independent subsidiary of Condรฉ Nast's parent company, Advance Publications. Reddit debuted on the stock market on the morning of March 21, 2024, with the ticker symbol RDDT. The current market cap as of July 2024 is US$10 billion. Reddit has been noted for its role in political activism, particularly in the United States, with notable left-wing and anti-theist subcultures on the website. It has received praise for many of its features, such as the ability to create several subreddits for niche communities. It has been criticized for the spread of misinformation and its voting system which can encourage online echo chambers. History The idea and initial development of Reddit originated with college roommates Steve Huffman and Alexis Ohanian in 2005, who attended a lecture by programmer-entrepreneur Paul Graham in Boston during their spring break from University of Virginia. After speaking with Huffman and Ohanian following the lecture, Graham invited the two to apply to his startup incubator Y Combinator. Their initial idea, My Mobile Menu, was unsuccessful, and was intended to allow users to order food by SMS text messaging. During a brainstorming session to pitch another startup, the idea was created for what Graham called the "front page of the Internet". For that idea, Huffman and Ohanian were accepted in Y Combinator's first class. Supported by the funding from Y Combinator, Huffman coded the site in Common Lisp and together with Ohanian launched Reddit in June 2005. Embarrassed by an empty-looking site, the founders created hundreds of fake users for their posts to make it look more populated. The team expanded to include Christopher Slowe in November 2005. Between November 2005 and January 2006, Reddit merged with Aaron Swartz's company Infogami, and Swartz became an equal owner of the resulting parent company, Not A Bug. Swartz then helped rewrite the software running Reddit using web.py, a web framework he developed. The passage from Aaron Swartz's blog post "Rewriting Reddit" reveals that the switch from Lisp to Python, specifically using the web.py framework developed by Swartz, was driven by a desire for simplicity, maintainability, and performance. Despite facing skepticism and critique from the Lisp community, the change was justified by the efficiency and clarity Python provided for the project. This initiative not only influenced the technical evolution of Reddit but also contributed to the broader web development community by inspiring other frameworks and remaining a significant part of Reddit's history. In 2011, Ohanian claimed that rather than Swartz being a co-founder, the correct description would be that Swartz's company was acquired by Reddit six months after the website was founded. Huffman and Ohanian sold Reddit to Condรฉ Nast Publications, owner of Wired, on October 31, 2006, for a reported $10 million to $20 million and the team moved to San Francisco. In November 2006, Swartz posted to his blog, complaining about the new corporate environment, criticizing its level of productivity. In January 2007, Swartz was fired for undisclosed reasons. Huffman and Ohanian left Reddit in 2009. Huffman went on to co-found Hipmunk with Adam Goldstein, and later recruited Ohanian and Slowe to the new company. After Huffman and Ohanian left Reddit, Erik Martin, who joined the company as a community manager in 2008 and later became general manager in 2011, played a role in Reddit's growth. VentureBeat noted that Martin was "responsible for keeping the site going" under Condรฉ Nast's ownership. Yishan Wong joined Reddit as CEO in 2012. Wong resigned from Reddit in 2014, citing disagreements about his proposal to move the company's offices from San Francisco to nearby Daly City, but also the "stressful and draining" nature of the position. Ohanian credited Wong with the company's newfound success as its user base grew from 35 million to 174 million. Wong oversaw the company as it raised $50 million in funding and spun off as an independent company. Also during this time, Reddit began accepting the digital currency Bitcoin for its Reddit Gold subscription service through a partnership with bitcoin payment processor Coinbase in February 2013. Ellen Pao replaced Wong as interim CEO in 2014 and resigned in 2015 amid a user revolt over the firing of a popular Reddit employee. During her tenure, Reddit initiated an anti-harassment policy, banned involuntary sexualization, and banned several forums that focused on bigoted content or harassment of individuals. After five years away from the company, Ohanian and Huffman returned to leadership roles: Ohanian became the full-time executive chairman in November 2014 following Wong's resignation, while Pao's departure on July 10, 2015, led to Huffman's return as the company's chief executive. After Huffman rejoined Reddit as CEO, he launched Reddit's iOS and Android apps, improved Reddit's mobile website, and created A/B testing infrastructure. The company launched a major redesign of its website in April 2018. Huffman said new users were turned off from Reddit because it had looked like a "dystopian Craigslist". Reddit also instituted several technological improvements, such as a new tool that allows users to hide posts, comments, and private messages from selected redditors in an attempt to curb online harassment, and new content guidelines. These new content guidelines were aimed at banning content inciting violence and quarantining offensive material. Slowe, the company's first employee, rejoined Reddit in 2017 as chief technology officer. Ohanian resigned as a member of the board on June 5, 2020 in response to the George Floyd protests and requested to be replaced "by a Black candidate". Michael Seibel, then-CEO of Y Combinator, was subsequently named to the board. On March 5, 2021, Reddit announced that it had appointed Drew Vollero, who had worked at Snapchat's parent company, Snap Inc., as its first chief financial officer (CFO) weeks after the site was thrust into the spotlight due to its role in the GameStop trading frenzy. Vollero's appointment spurred speculation of an initial public offering, a move that senior leaders have considered publicly. As of August 2021[update], Reddit was valued at more than $10 billion following a $410 million funding round. The company was looking to hire investment bankers and lawyers to assist in making an initial public offering. However, CEO Steve Huffman said the company had not decided on the timing for when to go public. In December 2021, Reddit revealed that it had confidentially filed for an initial public offering with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. Reddit's initial public offering opened on March 20, 2024, at $34 per share and a $6.4 billion valuation. They went public the next day on the New York Stock Exchange at $47 per share and rose to $50.44 at market close on their first day of trading, reaching a market cap of $9.5 billion. The market cap as of July 2024 was $10 billion. Site overview Reddit is a website comprising user-generated contentโincluding photos, videos, links, and text-based postsโand discussions of this content in what is essentially a bulletin board system. The name "Reddit" is a play-on-words with the phrase "read it", i.e., "I read it on Reddit." According to Reddit, in 2019, there were approximately 430 million monthly users, who are known as "redditors". The site's content is divided into categories or communities known on-site as "subreddits", of which there are more than 138,000 active communities. As a network of communities, Reddit's core content consists of posts from its users. Users can comment on others' posts to continue the conversation. A key feature to Reddit is that users can cast positive or negative votes, called upvotes and downvotes respectively, for each post and comment on the site. The number of upvotes or downvotes determines the posts' visibility on the site, so the most popular content is displayed to the most people. Users can also earn "karma" for their posts and comments, a status that reflects their standing within the community and their contributions to Reddit. Posts are sometimes automatically archived after six months, meaning they can no longer be commented or voted on. The most popular posts from the site's numerous subreddits are visible on the front page to those who browse the site without an account. By default for those users, the front page will display the subreddit r/popular, featuring top-ranked posts across all of Reddit, excluding not-safe-for-work communities and others that are most commonly filtered out by users (even if they are safe for work). The subreddit r/all originally did not filter topics, but as of 2021 it does not include not-safe-for-work content. Registered users who subscribe to subreddits see the top content from the subreddits to which they subscribe on their personal front pages. Additionally, some subreddits have a karma and account age requirement to discourage bots and spammers from posting. Front-page rankโfor both the general front page and for individual subredditsโis determined by a combination of factors, including the age of the submission, positive ("upvoted") to negative ("downvoted") feedback ratio, and the total vote-count. Registering an account with Reddit is free and requires an email address. In addition to commenting and voting, registered users can also create their own subreddit on a topic of their choosing. In Reddit style, usernames begin with "u/". Noteworthy redditors include u/Poem_for_your_sprog, who responds to messages across Reddit in verse, u/Shitty_Watercolour who posts paintings in response to posts, and u/spez, the CEO of Reddit (Steve Huffman). Subreddits are overseen by moderators, Reddit users who earn the title by creating a subreddit or being promoted by a current moderator. Reddit users may also request to moderate a sub that has no moderators or very inactive ones in r/redditrequest. These requests are reviewed by the Reddit admins. Moderators are volunteers who manage their communities, set and enforce community-specific rules, remove posts and comments that violate these rules, and often work to keep discussions in their subreddit on topic. Admins, by contrast, are employees of Reddit. Early on, Reddit implemented shadow banning, purportedly to address spam accounts, while saying, "it's still the only tool we have to punish people who break the rules". In 2015, Reddit added an account suspension feature which they said would replace sitewide shadowbans, however, moderators are still able to shadowban users or their individual posts. Reddit releases transparency reports annually which have information like how many posts have been taken down by moderators and for what reason. It also details information about requests law enforcement agencies have made for information about users or to take down content. In 2020, Reddit removed 6% of posts made on the platform (approx. 233 million). More than 99% of removals were marked as spam; the remainder made up of a mix of other offensive content. Around 131 million posts were removed by the automated moderator (~56 %) and the rest were taken down manually. It is estimated that Reddit's moderators work 466 hours every day, which is $3.4 million in unpaid work each year. That roughly equates to 2.8% of the company's annual revenue. Subreddits (officially called communities) are user-created areas of interest where discussions on Reddit are organized. There are about 138,000 active subreddits (among a total of 1.2 million) as of July 2018[update]. Subreddit names begin with "r/"; for instance, "r/science" is a community devoted to discussing scientific publications, while "r/gaming" is a community devoted to discussing video games, and "r/worldnews" is for posting news articles from around the world. In a 2014 interview with Memeburn, Erik Martin, then the general manager of Reddit, remarked that their "approach is to give the community moderators or curators as much control as possible so that they can shape and cultivate the type of communities they want". Subreddits often use themed variants of Reddit's alien mascot, Snoo, in the visual styling of their communities. Today subreddits exist not only for interests and topics but also for organizations. The Wayanad Literature Festival has a subreddit where they host discussions based on the sessions they host and encourage people to post about literature, politics and media. Reddit Premium (formerly Reddit Gold) is a premium membership that allows users to view the site ad-free. Until 2023, subscribers could also use coins to award posts or comments they valued, generally due to humorous or high-quality content. Reddit Premium unlocks several features not accessible to regular users, such as comment highlighting, exclusive subreddits such as r/lounge, a personalized Snoo (known as a "snoovatar"), and a Reddit premium trophy that can be displayed on the user's profile. Reddit Gold was renamed to Reddit Premium in 2018. In addition to gold coins, users were able to gift silver and platinum coins to other users as rewards for quality content. On the site, redditors commemorate their "cake day" once a year, on the anniversary of the day their account was created. Cake day adds an icon of a small slice of cake next to the user's name for 24 hours. In August 2021, the company introduced a TikTok-like short-form video feature for iOS that lets users rapidly swipe through a feed of short video content. In December 2021, the company introduced a Spotify Wrapped-like feature called Reddit Recap that recaps various statistics from January 1 to November 30 about each individual user, such as how much time they spent on Reddit, which communities they joined, and the topics that they engaged with, and allows the user to view it. On July 7, 2022, Reddit announced "blockchain-backed Collectible Avatars", customizable avatars which are available on the subreddit r/CollectibleAvatars for purchase separate from Reddit Premium. The avatars were created by independent artists who post work on other subreddits, and who receive a portion of the profits. They use Reddit's Polygon blockchain-powered digital wallet the Vault. Richard Lawler of The Verge described them as "non-fungible tokens (NFTs) that are available for purchase in the Reddit Avatar Builder". In 2017, Reddit developed its own real-time chat software for the site. While some established subreddits have used third-party software to chat about their communities, the company built chat functions that it hopes will become an integral part of Reddit. Individual chat rooms were rolled out in 2017 and community chat rooms for members of a given subreddit were rolled out in 2018. Reddit Talk was announced in April 2021 as a competitor to Clubhouse. Reddit Talk lets subreddit moderators start audio meeting rooms that mimic Clubhouse in design. In 2022, Reddit Talk was updated to support recording audio rooms and work on the web version of Reddit. A desktop app is reportedly slated for a late February release. Reddit Chat replaced the Reddit private messaging system in June 2025. Reddit acquired MeaningCloud, a natural language processing company in June 2022. In February 2024, Reddit announced a partnership with Google in a deal worth about $60 million per year, to license its real-time user content to train Google's AI model. The partnership also lets Reddit get access to Google's "Vertex AI" service which would help improve search results on Reddit. It was announced that Reddit and OpenAI had reached a deal that will allow OpenAI access to the Reddit API to train its models, while Reddit will receive certain AI tools for moderators and users. In December 2024, Reddit announced Reddit Answers, an AI search tool that summarizes conversations in response to a question from the user. Reddit's search function has had many iterations; the one on the new site currently uses Lucidworks Fusion, while the search on old reddit uses Reddit's own in-house search In 2009, Reddit released their official mobile app, called iReddit. This app was sparsely updated, and was superseded by a new mobile website in 2010. For several years, most Redditors relied on third-party apps to access Reddit on mobile devices. In October 2014, Reddit acquired one of them, Alien Blue, which became the official iOS Reddit app. Reddit removed Alien Blue and released its official application, Reddit: The Official App, on Google Play and the iOS App Store in April 2016. The company released an app for Reddit's question-and-answer Ask Me Anything subreddit in 2014. The app allowed users to see active Ask Me Anythings, receive notifications, ask questions and vote. As of September 2025, all versions of the iReddit and Alien Blue apps still work on older versions of iOS; they were not affected by the API shutdown due to both of them being official Reddit apps. The 2010 mobile site, however, was shut down in 2024. The site has undergone several products and design changes since it originally launched in 2005. When it initially launched, there were no comments or subreddits. Comments were added in 2005 and interest-based groups (called 'subreddits') were introduced in 2008. Allowing users to create subreddits has led to much of the activity that redditors would recognize that helped define Reddit. These include subreddits "WTF", "funny", and "AskReddit". Reddit rolled out its multireddit feature, the site's biggest change to its front page in years, in 2013. With the multireddits, users see top stories from a collection of subreddits. In 2015, Reddit enabled embedding and as a result users could share Reddit content on other sites. In 2016, Reddit began hosting images using a new image uploading tool, a move that shifted away from the uploading service Imgur that had been the de facto service. Users still can upload images to Reddit using Imgur. Reddit's in-house video uploading service for desktop and mobile launched in 2017. Previously, users had to use third-party video uploading services, which Reddit acknowledged was time-consuming for users. Reddit released its "spoiler tags" feature in January 2017. The feature warns users of potential spoilers in posts and pixelates preview images. Reddit unveiled changes to its public front page, called r/popular, in 2017; the change creates a front page free of potentially adult-oriented content for unregistered users. In late 2017, Reddit declared it wanted to be a mobile-first site, launching several changes to its apps for iOS and Android. The new features included user-to-user chat, a theater mode for viewing visual content, and mobile tools for the site's moderators. "Mod mode" lets moderators manage content and their subreddits on mobile devices. Reddit launched its redesigned website in 2018, with its first major visual update in a decade. Development for the new site took more than a year. It was the result of an initiative by Huffman upon returning to Reddit, who said the site's outdated look deterred new users. The new site features a hamburger menu to help users navigate the site, different views, and new fonts to better inform redditors if they are clicking on a Reddit post or an external link. The nominal goal was not only for Reddit to improve its appearance, but also to make it easier to accommodate a new generation of Reddit users. Additionally Reddit's growth had strained the site's back end; Huffman and Reddit Vice President of Engineering Nick Caldwell told The Wall Street Journal's COI Journal that Reddit needed to leverage artificial intelligence and other modern digital tools. Users can opt-out of the redesign by using the old.reddit.com domain. On May 15, 2024, the dedicated login flow was removed from the old domain, although site admins said they had "no plans" to remove the old domain entirely. In November 2023, Fast Company reported that Reddit began rolling out a comprehensive rebrand, including a new logo, typeface, brand colors, and an updated version of its mascot Snoo, as part of its preparation for a potential 2024 IPO and in response to its expanding user base and global reach. Reddit's logo consists of a time-traveling alien named Snoo and the company name stylized as "reddit". The alien has an oval head, pom-pom ears, and an antenna. Its colors are black, white, and orange-red. The mascot was created in 2005 while company co-founder Alexis Ohanian was an undergraduate at the University of Virginia. Ohanian drew a doodle of the creature while he was bored during a marketing class. Originally, Ohanian sought to name the mascot S'new, a play on "What's new?", to tie the mascot into Reddit's premise as the "front page of the Internet". Eventually, the name Snoo was chosen. In 2011, Ohanian outlined the logo's evolution with a graphic that showcased several early versions, including various spellings of the website name, such as "Reditt". Snoo is genderless, so the logo is moldable. Over the years, the Reddit logo has frequently changed for holidays and other special events. Many subreddits have a customized Snoo logo to represent the subreddit. Redditors can also submit their own logos, which sometimes appear on the site's front page, or create their own customized versions of Snoo for their communities (or "subreddits"). When Reddit revamped its website in April 2018, the company imposed several restrictions on how Snoo can be designed: Snoo's head "should always appear blank or neutral", Snoo's eyes are orange-red, and Snoo cannot have fingers. Snoo's purpose is to discover and explore humanity. Discontinued features Starting in 2023 with the discontinuation of the Reddit API's free tier, Reddit has been silently discontinuing legacy features and reducing the functionalities of the old site. All of these changes have been met with significant backlash by the Reddit community. Reddit's private messaging system, which had been present on the site ever since its launch in 2005, was discontinued in 2025 in favor of Reddit Chat. Reddit discontinued its free API tier for commercial applications in April 2023. This was met with significant backlash by the community, leaving the website in a state of disarray for months. In early 2023, Reddit silently discontinued its legacy mobile site, known as i.reddit, and reddit compact and previously accessible at i.reddit.com. This was despite a Reddit admin stating that iReddit was "here to stay". The original 2017 redesign of Reddit, also known as new.reddit and old new Reddit and previously accessible at new.reddit.com, was discontinued on December 11, 2024. No changes were made to the pre-2017 legacy desktop site, still accessible at old.reddit.com. In 2023, the Reddit coin and award system was discontinued in favor of a "golden upvote". This was deeply unpopular, and Reddit added awards back under a new implementation a few months later. However, these new awards are not accessible or viewable on the legacy desktop site. On June 4, 2025, Reddit announced that they would be removing custom emoji from comments. Login: Login functionality was removed from the old site sometime in 2024. You can still log in to the old site, but you must do it through the new site. Age trophies: Account age trophies past Year 15 are not visible on the old site. Private messaging: Sending a private message (like a modmail) now requires you to use the new site. FAQ, terms, and official Wiki pages: All official information pages were migrated from the legacy site's wiki to the new site sometime in 2020. Reddit notifications: Official Reddit notifications were moved from the legacy inbox to the Notifications section, which is only accessible on the new site. The Reddit Public Access Network, commonly known as RPAN, was a live streaming service run by Reddit. Viewers interacted with streams by upvoting or downvoting, chatting, and giving paid awards. During the off-air hours, 24/7 streaming was possible to the dedicated subreddits, but with limited slots and capabilities. On August 19, 2019, Reddit announced RPAN. It was said to be in testing, but they were experimenting with making it a permanent program, as well as a way to increase revenue for the platform. Later, a five-day testing period began. During the testing period, streaming was for a select group of users, allowing 30 minutes of streaming per person and 100 slots. On July 1, 2020, RPAN Studio was released, an application that allows users to broadcast live from desktop computers. RPAN Studio has been built on top of OBS, an open-source streaming and recording program. On January 28, 2021, Reddit permanently increased streaming times to three hours. RPAN was officially discontinued on November 15, 2022. Corporate affairs Reddit is a public company based in San Francisco. In 2023, it downsized from an office in the Mid-Market neighborhood to an office in the South of Market neighborhood. Reddit doubled its headcount in 2017; as of 2018[update], it employed approximately 350 people. In 2017, the company was valued at $1.8 billion during a $200 million round of new venture funding. The company was previously owned by Condรฉ Nast, but was spun off as an independent company. As of April 2018[update], Advance Publications, Condรฉ Nast's parent company, retained a majority stake in Reddit. Reddit's key management personnel includes co-founder and CEO Steve Huffman, Chief Technology Officer Chris Slowe, who was the company's original lead engineer, and Chief Operating Officer Jen Wong, a former president of digital and chief operating officer at Time Inc. Reddit does not disclose its revenue figures. The company generates revenue in part through advertising and premium memberships that remove ads from the site. As part of its company culture, Reddit operates on a no-negotiation policy for employee salaries. The company offers new mothers, fathers, and adoptive parents up to 16 weeks of parental leave. Advertising Reddit launched two different ways of advertising on the site in 2009. The company launched sponsored content and a self-serve ads platform that year. Reddit launched its Reddit Gold benefits program in July 2010, which offered new features to editors and created a new revenue stream for the business that did not rely on banner ads. On September 6, 2011, Reddit became operationally independent of Condรฉ Nast, operating as a separate subsidiary of its parent company, Advance Publications. Reddit's users tend to be more privacy-conscious than on other websites, often using tools like ad-blocking software and proxies, and they dislike "feeling manipulated by brands" but respond well to "content that begs for intelligent viewers and participants." Lauren Orsini writes in ReadWrite that "Reddit's huge community is the perfect hype machine for promoting a new movie, a product release, or a lagging political campaign" but there is a "very specific set of etiquette. Redditors don't want to advertise for you, they want to talk to you." Journalists have used the site as a basis for stories, though they are advised by the site's policies to respect that "reddit's communities belong to their members" and to seek proper attribution for people's contributions. Reddit announced that they would begin using VigLink to redirect affiliate links in June 2016. Since 2017, Reddit has partnered with companies to host sponsored AMAs and other interactive events, increased advertising offerings, and introduced efforts to work with content publishers. In 2018, Reddit hired Jen Wong as COO, responsible for the company's business strategy and growth, and introduced native mobile ads. Reddit opened a Chicago office to be closer to major companies and advertising agencies located in and around Chicago. In 2019, Reddit hired former Twitter ad director Shariq Rizvi as its vice president of ad products and engineering. Community and culture The website is known for its open nature and diverse user community that generate its content. Its demographics allows for wide-ranging subject areas, as well as the ability for smaller subreddits to serve more niche purposes. The user base of Reddit has given birth to other websites, including image sharing community and image host Imgur, which started in 2009 as a gift to Reddit's community. In its first five months, it jumped from a thousand hits per day to a million total page views. Data collected by Pew Research Center in 2013 found that Reddit users were much more likely to be from urban communities than rural ones. Women were greatly under-represented on the website. Reddit's userbase had a disproportionately high number of Hispanic users. With regards to education, high school dropouts were over-represented among Reddit users. Reddit has been noted for its role in political activism, with notable left-wing and anti-theist subcultures on the website. Statistics from Google Ad Planner suggest that 74% of Reddit users are male. In 2016, the Pew Research Center published research showing that 4% of U.S. adults use Reddit, of which 67% are men, while 78% of users get news from Reddit. Users tend to be significantly younger than average with less than 1% of users being 65 or over. Politically, 43% of Reddit users surveyed by Pew Research Center in 2016 identified as liberal, with 38% identifying as moderate and 19% as conservative. Reddit is known in part for its passionate user base, which has been described as "offbeat, quirky, and anti-establishment". Similar to the "Slashdot effect", the Reddit effect occurs when a smaller website crashes due to a high influx of traffic after being linked to on Reddit; this is also called the Reddit "hug of death". Users have used Reddit as a platform for their charitable and philanthropic efforts. Redditors raised more than $100,000 for charity in support of comedians Jon Stewart's and Stephen Colbert's Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear; more than $180,000 for Haiti earthquake relief efforts; and delivered food pantries' Amazon wish lists. In 2010, Christians, Muslims, and atheists held a friendly fundraising competition, where the groups raised more than $50,000. A similar donation drive in 2011 saw the atheism subreddit raise over $200,000 for charity. In February 2014, Reddit announced it would donate 10% of its annual ad revenue to non-profits voted upon by its users. As a result of the campaign, Reddit donated $82,765 each to each of the selected recipients. Reddit has been used for a wide variety of political engagement including the presidential campaigns of Barack Obama, Donald Trump, Hillary Clinton, and Bernie Sanders. It has also been used for self-organizing sociopolitical activism such as protests, communication with politicians and active communities. Reddit has become a popular place for worldwide political discussions. The March for Science originated from a discussion on Reddit over the deletion of all references to climate change from the White House website, about which a user commented that "There needs to be a Scientists' March on Washington". On April 22, 2017, more than 1 million scientists and supporters participated in more than 600 events in 66 countries across the globe. Reddit users have been engaged in the defense of Internet privacy, net neutrality and Internet anonymity. Reddit created an Internet blackout day and was joined by Wikipedia and other sites in 2012 in protest of the Stop Online Piracy and PROTECT IP acts. On January 18, Reddit participated in a 12-hour sitewide blackout to coincide with a congressional committee hearing on the measures. During that time, Reddit displayed a message on the legislation's effects on Reddit, in addition to resources on the proposed laws. In May 2012, Reddit joined the Internet Defense League, a group formed to organize future protests. The site and its users protested the Federal Communications Commission as it prepared to scrap net neutrality rules. In 2017, users upvoted "Battle for the Net" posts enough times that they filled up the entire front page. On another day, the front page was overtaken by posts showcasing campaign donations received by members of Congress from the telecommunications industry. Reddit CEO Steve Huffman has also advocated for net neutrality rules. In 2017, Huffman told The New York Times that without net neutrality protections, "you give internet service providers the ability to choose winners and losers". On Reddit, Huffman urged redditors to express support for net neutrality and contact their elected representatives in Washington, D.C. Huffman said that the repeal of net neutrality rules stifles competition. He said he and Reddit would continue to advocate for net neutrality. As a response to Glenn Beck's August 28, 2010, Restoring Honor rally, in September 2010 Reddit users started a movement to persuade satirist Stephen Colbert to have a counter-rally in Washington, D.C. The movement, which came to be called "Restoring Truthiness", was started by user mrsammercer, in a post where he described waking up from a dream in which Stephen Colbert was holding a satirical rally in D.C. Over $100,000 was raised for charity to gain the attention of Colbert. The campaign was mentioned on-air several times, and when the Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear was held in Washington, D.C., on October 30, 2010, thousands of redditors made the journey. During a post-rally press conference, Reddit co-founder Ohanian asked, "What role did the Internet campaign play in convincing you to hold this rally?" Jon Stewart responded by saying that, though it was a very nice gesture, he and Colbert had already thought of the idea and the deposit for using the National Mall was already paid during the summer, so it acted mostly as a "validation of what we were thinking about attempting". In a message to the Reddit community, Colbert later added, "I have no doubt that your efforts to organize and the joy you clearly brought to your part of the story contributed greatly to the turnout and success." Reddit has been blocked in multiple countries due to Internet censorship performed by the governments of some countries. As of October 2023, Reddit is blocked in Indonesia, China, North Korea, Turkey, and partially blocked in Bangladesh. Reddit was blocked in Russia in 2015 and later unblocked. Since May 2014, Reddit has been blocked in Indonesia by the Ministry of Communication and Information Technology for hosting content containing nudity. In August 2015, the Federal Drug Control Service of Russia determined that Reddit was promoting conversations about psychedelic drugs. The Roskomnadzor banned the website, citing advice on how to grow magic mushrooms as the reason. The Russian government had asked Reddit before to remove drug-related posts to no response. The site was later unblocked. ISPs in India were found to be blocking traffic over Reddit for intermittent periods in some regions in 2019. In July 2025, Reddit began requiring age verification in order to access certain features, to comply with the UK's Online Safety Act 2023, using a service called Persona. Content covered includes sexually explicit material, encouragement of suicide and eating disorders, and expressions of hatred based on race, religion, or sexual orientation. Over the years, Reddit has done multiple pranks and events for April Fools' Day. Since 2013, they have often taken the form of massive social experiments. Noteworthy events include The Button in 2015, which included a global "button" that could only be clicked once per user. It attracted more than a million clicks. 2017's experiment r/place involved making a collaborative pixel art. Millions of users worked together in communities to place pixels one at a time to create a larger canvas. This experiment was very successful and repeated in 2022's April Fools experiment and in 2023. AMAs, or "Ask Me Anything" interviews, during an AMA on r/IAmA and other subreddits, users can ask questions to interviewees. Notable participants include former-United States President Barack Obama (while campaigning for the 2012 election), Bill Gates (multiple times), and Donald Trump (also while campaigning). AMAs have featured CEO Steve Huffman, as well as figures from entertainment industries around the world (including Priyanka Chopra and George Clooney), literature (Margaret Atwood), space (Buzz Aldrin), privacy (Edward Snowden), fictional characters (including Borat and Cookie Monster) and others, such as experts who answered questions about the transgender community. The Atlantic wrote that an AMA "imports the aspirational norms of honesty and authenticity from pseudonymous Internet forums into a public venue". RedditGifts was a program that offers gift exchanges throughout the year. The fan-made RedditGifts site was created in 2009 for a Secret Santa exchange among Reddit users, which has since become the world's largest and set a Guinness World record. In 2009, 4,500 redditors participated. For the 2010 holiday season, 92 countries were involved in the secret Santa program. There were 17,543 participants, and $662,907.60 was collectively spent on gift purchases and shipping costs. In 2014, about 200,000 users from 188 countries participated. Several celebrities have participated in the program, including Bill Gates, Alyssa Milano, and Snoop Dogg. Eventually, the secret Santa program expanded to various other occasions through RedditGifts, which Reddit acquired in 2011. As with most public online forums, Reddit is vulnerable to the use of disruptive or manipulative practices by its members, from sources such as troll farms, click farms and astroturfing. Another example is brigading, notable in the case of Reddit as it is often cited as the origin of the practice and use of the word in this context. Though all of these examples are in some form, against the rules of Reddit's content policy, at least in the case of brigading, they are not always malicious in intent. A notable example is the case of "Mr. Splashy Pants", when organized brigading of another website, by redditors, appears to have been tacitly encouraged by the Reddit administration. In the aftermath, the target of this vote brigading appeared to take it in good humor. Reddit communities occasionally coordinate Reddit-external projects such as skewing polls on other websites, like the 2007 incident when Greenpeace allowed web users to decide the name of a humpback whale it was tracking. Reddit users voted en masse to name the whale "Mister Splashy Pants", and Reddit administrators encouraged the prank by changing the site logo to a whale during the voting. In December of that year, Mister Splashy Pants was announced as the winner of the competition. Criticism and controversies In general, the website grants subreddit moderators discretion in deciding what content is and is not allowed on their subreddits, so long as site-wide rules are not being violated. This relative freedom has allowed for a wide diversity of subreddits to exist, and some of them have attracted controversy. Many of the default subreddits are highly moderated, with the "science" subreddit banning climate change denialism, and the "news" subreddit banning opinion pieces and columns. Reddit has changed its site-wide editorial policies several times, sometimes in reaction to controversies. Reddit has historically been a platform for objectionable but legal content, and in 2011, news media covered the way that jailbait was being shared on the site before the site changed their policies to explicitly ban "suggestive or sexual content featuring minors". Reddit also received controversy over hosting misogynistic content, including the doxing of erotic models and revenge porn. Following some controversial incidents of Internet vigilantism, Reddit introduced a strict rule against the online publication of non-public personally-identifying information (a common internet harassment tool colloquially known as doxxing) via the site. Those who break the rule are subject to a site-wide ban, which can result in the deletion of their user-generated content. Due to Reddit's decentralized moderation, user anonymity, and lack of fact-checking systems, the platform is highly prone to spreading misinformation and disinformation. It has been suggested that those who use Reddit should exercise caution in taking user-created unsourced content as fact. Concerns have been raised in particular about dangerous medical misinformation on the platform. A 2022 study of 300 comments and posts discussing urinary tract infections found that fewer than 1% cited a source for their content, and several contained harmful medical misinformation that may dissuade readers from seeking medical care or lead to dangerous self-medication, such as proposing fasting as a cure for UTIs. Reddit communities exhibit the echo chamber effect, in which repeated unsourced statements come to be accepted among the community as fact, leading to distorted worldviews among users. It has been suggested that since 2019, Russian state-sponsored troll accounts and bots have engaged in a broad campaign to take over subreddits, such as r/antiwar. After the Boston Marathon bombing in April 2013, Reddit faced criticism after users wrongly identified a number of people as suspects in the subreddit r/FindBostonBombers. Notable among misidentified bombing suspects was Sunil Tripathi, a student reported missing before the bombings took place. A body reported to be Sunil's was found in Providence River in Rhode Island on April 25, according to Rhode Island Health Department. The cause of death was not immediately known, but authorities said they did not suspect foul play. The family later confirmed Tripathi's death was a result of suicide. Reddit general manager Erik Martin later issued an apology for this behavior, criticizing the "online witch hunts and dangerous speculation" that took place on the website. The incident was later referenced in the season 5 episode of the CBS TV series The Good Wife titled "Whack-a-Mole", as well as The Newsroom. In August, private sexual photos from the celebrity photo hack were widely disseminated across the site. A dedicated subreddit, "TheFappening", was created for this purpose, and contained links to most if not all of the criminally obtained explicit images. Some images of McKayla Maroney and Liz Lee were identified by redditors and outside commentators as child pornography because the photos were taken when the women were underage. The subreddit was banned on September 6. The scandal led to wider criticisms concerning the website's administration from The Verge and The Daily Dot. After Ellen Pao became CEO in 2014, she was initially a target of criticism by users who objected to the deletion of content critical of herself and her husband. Later on June 10, 2015, Reddit shut down the 150,000-subscriber "fatpeoplehate" subreddit and four others citing issues related to harassment. This move was seen as very controversial; some commenters said that the bans went too far, while others said that the bans did not go far enough. One of the latter complaints concerned a subreddit that was "expressing support" for the perpetrator of the Charleston church shooting. Responding to the accusations of "skewed enforcement", Reddit reaffirmed their commitment to free expression and stated, "There are some subreddits with very little viewership that get highlighted repeatedly for their content, but those are a tiny fraction of the content on the site." On July 2, Reddit began experiencing a series of blackouts as moderators set popular subreddit communities to private, in an event dubbed "AMAgeddon", a portmanteau of AMA ("ask me anything") and Armageddon. This was done in protest of the recent firing of Victoria Taylor, an administrator who helped organize citizen-led interviews with famous people on the popular AMA subreddit. Organizers of the blackout also expressed resentment about the recent severance of the communication between Reddit and the moderators of subreddits. The blackout intensified on July 3 when former community manager David Croach gave an AMA about being fired. Before deleting his posts, he stated that Ellen Pao dismissed him with one year of health coverage when he had cancer and did not recover quickly enough. Following this, a Change.org petition to remove Pao as CEO of Reddit Inc. reached over 200,000 signatures. Pao posted a response on July 3 as well as an extended version of it on July 6 in which she apologized for bad communication and not delivering on promises. She also apologized on behalf of the other administrators and noted that problems already existed over the past several years. On July 10, Pao resigned as CEO and was replaced by former CEO and co-founder Steve Huffman. In August, Steve Huffman introduced a policy which led to the banning of several offensive and sexual communities. Included in the ban was lolicon, to which Huffman referred as "animated CP [child porn]". Some subreddits had also been "quarantined" due to having "highly-offensive or upsetting content" such as r/European, r/swedenyes, r/drawpeople, r/kiketown, r/blackfathers, r/greatapes, and r/whitesarecriminals. In April 2023, Reddit announced its intentions to charge large fees for its application programming interface (API), a feature of the site that has existed for free since 2008, causing an ongoing dispute. The move forced multiple third-party applications to shut down and threatened accessibility applications and moderation tools. On May 31, Apollo developer Christian Selig stated that Reddit's pricing would force him to cease development on the app. The resulting outcry from the Reddit community ultimately led to a planned protest from June 12 to 14 in which moderators for the site would make their communities private or restricted posting. Following the release of an internal memo from Reddit CEO Steve Huffman and defiance from Reddit, some moderators have continued their protest. Alternate forms of protest have emerged in the days following the initial blackout. Upon reopening, users of r/pics, r/gifs, and r/aww voted to exclusively post about comedian John Oliver. Multiple subreddits labeled themselves as not safe for work (NSFW), affecting advertisements and resulting in administrators removing the entire moderation team of some subreddits. The protest has been compared to a strike. /r/place had its third launch on July 20, 2023; however, the launch was heavily protested by users and developers due to the event following the 2023 Reddit API controversy; Reddit CEO Steve Huffman's decision to make it prohibitively expensive for third-party app developers drew widespread condemnation. In February 2017, Reddit banned the alt-right subreddit r/altright for violating its terms of service, more specifically for attempting to share private information about the man who attacked alt-right figure Richard B. Spencer. The forum's users and moderators accused Reddit administrators of having political motivations for the ban. After the 2021 storming of the United States Capitol, Reddit banned the subreddit r/DonaldTrump in response to repeated policy violations and alluding to the potential influence the community had on those who participated in or supported the storming. The move followed similar actions from social media platforms, Twitter, YouTube, TikTok and more. The ban was criticized by those who believed it furthered an agenda and censorship of conservative ideologies. The subreddit had over 52,000 members just before it was banned. In May 2016, CEO Steve Huffman said in an interview at the TNW Conference that, unlike Facebook, which "only knows what [its users are] willing to declare publicly", Reddit knows its users' "dark secrets" at the same time that the website's "values" page was updated regarding its "privacy" section. The video reached the top of the website's main feed. Shortly thereafter, announcements concerning new advertisement content drew criticism on the website. In September, a user named "mormondocuments" released thousands of administrative documents belonging to the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, an action driven by the ex-Mormon and atheist communities on Reddit. Previously, on April 22, the same user had announced his plans to do so. Church officials commented that the documents did not contain anything confidential. On November 23, Huffman admitted to having replaced his username with the names of r/The_Donald moderators in many insulting comments. He did so by changing insulting comments made towards him and made it appear as if the insult were directed at the moderators of r/The_Donald. On November 24, The Washington Post reported Reddit had banned the "Pizzagate" conspiracy board from their site, stating it violated their policy of posting personal information of others, triggering a wave of criticism from users on r/The_Donald, who felt the ban amounted to censorship. After the forum was banned from Reddit, the words "we don't want witchhunts on our site" now appears on the former page of the Pizzagate subreddit. On November 30, Huffman announced changes to the algorithm of Reddit's r/all page to block "stickied" posts from a number of subreddits, such as r/The_Donald. In the announcement, he also apologized for personally editing posts by users from r/The_Donald, and declared intentions to take actions against "hundreds of the most toxic users" of Reddit and "communities whose users continually cross the line". In March 2018, it was revealed that Huffman had hidden Russian troll activity from users. In February 2019, Chinese company Tencent invested $150 million into Reddit. This resulted in a large backlash from Reddit users, who were worried about potential censorship. Many posts featuring subjects censored in China, such as Tiananmen Square, Tank Man, and Winnie the Pooh, received popularity on Reddit. In late August 2021, more than 70 subreddits went private to protest against COVID-19 misinformation on Reddit, as well as Reddit's refusal to delete subreddits undermining the severity of the pandemic. A 2021 letter from the United States Senate to Reddit CEO Steve Huffman expressed concern about the spread of COVID-19 misinformation on the platform. In January 2025, over 100 Reddit communities banned users from posting links from the X social media site after Elon Musk, its CEO, made an arm gesture at a speech which critics claimed was a Nazi salute. The Verge reported that Musk had "privately pressur[ed]" the CEO of Reddit Steve Huffman to moderate content critical of him and the Trump administration, and that after their exchange, Reddit took action and temporarily banned r/WhitePeopleTwitter due to "policy violations". On March 5, 2025, Reddit announced that they will be issuing warnings to users who upvote "violent content", and "may consider" taking other actions against the users. The Verge reported two days later that Reddit's automatic moderation tool has been flagging the word "Luigi" as "potentially violent", including in comments or context unrelated to Luigi Mangione, the suspect in the killing of the UnitedHealthcare CEO. The moderator of r/popculture, a subreddit with over 125,000 members, stated that Reddit's AutoModerator system flagged a comment about Nintendo video game Luigi's Mansion because it included the word "Luigi", and instructed them to "check for violence"; other comments that mentioned "Luigi", even in non-violent context, were also flagged. On July 12, 2018, the creator and head moderator of the GamerGate subreddit, r/KotakuInAction, removed all of the moderators and set the forum to private, alleging it to have become "infested with racism and sexism". A Reddit employee restored the forum and its moderators an hour later. During the George Floyd protests in early June 2020, over 800 moderators signed an open letter demanding a policy banning hate speech, a shutdown of racist and sexist subreddits, and more employee support for moderation. Bloomberg News pointed out the company's slow reaction to r/watchpeopledie, a subreddit dedicated to videos of people dying in accidents and other situations, and the harassment that accompanied new unmoderated features like icons for purchase and public chats. On June 29, 2020, Reddit updated its content policy and introduced rules aimed at curbing the presence of communities they believed to be "promoting hate", and banned approximately 2,000 subreddits that were found to be in violation of the new guidelines on the same day. Larger subreddits affected by the bans included r/The_Donald, r/GenderCritical (the platform's largest and most active anti-transgender radical feminist subreddit), and r/ChapoTrapHouse (a far-left subreddit originally created by fans of the podcast Chapo Trap House). Some media outlets and political commentators also condemned the banning of the r/The_Donald and r/ChapoTrapHouse subreddits as a violation of the right to free political expression. A 2025 TIMES article listed Reddit "The Most Xenophobic Social Media Site" after the Anti-Defamation League denounced Reddit for allowing public communities to engage in racism, antisemitism, and routine hate speech without consequence. In February 2013, Betabeat published a post that recognized the influx of multinational corporations like Costco, Taco Bell, Subaru, and McDonald's posting branded content on Reddit that was made to appear as if it was original content from legitimate Reddit users. PAN Communications wrote that marketers want to "infiltrate the reddit community on behalf of their brand," but emphasized that "self-promotion is frowned upon" and Reddit's former director of communications noted that the site is "100 percent organic." She recommended that advertisers design promotions that "spark conversations and feedback." She recommended that businesses use AMAs to get attention for public figures but cautioned "It is important to approach AMAs carefully and be aware that this may not be a fit for every project or client." Nissan ran a successful branded content promotion offering users free gifts to publicize a new car, though the company was later ridiculed for suspected astroturfing when the CEO only answered puff piece questions on the site. Taylor described these situations as "high risk" noting: "We try hard to educate people that they have to treat questions that may seem irreverent or out of left field the same as they would questions about the specific project they are promoting." In March 2021, Reddit users discovered that Aimee Challenor, an English politician who had been suspended from two UK political parties, was hired as an administrator for the site. Her first suspension from the Green Party came for retaining her father as her campaign manager after his arrest on child sexual abuse charges. She was later suspended from the Liberal Democrats after tweets describing pedophilic fantasies were discovered on her partner's Twitter account. Reddit banned a moderator for posting a news article which mentioned Challenor, and some Reddit users alleged that Reddit were removing all mention of Challenor. Many subreddits, including r/Music, which had 27 million subscribers, and 46 other subreddits with over 1 million subscribers, went private in protest. On March 24, Reddit's CEO Steve Huffman said that Challenor had been inadequately vetted before being hired and that Reddit would review its relevant internal processes. Huffman attributed user suspensions to over-indexing on anti-harassment measures. Challenor was also removed from her role as a Reddit admin. The GameStop short squeeze was primarily organized on the subreddit r/wallstreetbets in January 2021. In October 2023, Reddit Moons (a site-specific cryptocurrency launched in May 2020) had seen a surge of value in 2023, at one point in mid-2023 rising past 50 cents per moon, but it crashed by more than 90% after it was announced on October 17 that the token would be "wound down" on November 8, allegedly due to scaling and regulatory issues; Reddit-centric coins DONUT and BRICK also crashed upon the news. In June 2023, The BlackCat hacker gang claimed responsibility for a February 2023 breach of Reddit's systems. On its data leak site, it claimed that it stole 80 GB of compressed data and demanded a $4.5 million ransom from Reddit. This attack did not involve data encryption like typical ransomware campaigns. In September 2024, the Federal Trade Commission released a report summarizing nine company responses (including from Reddit) to orders made by the agency pursuant to Section 6(b) of the Federal Trade Commission Act of 1914 to provide information about user and non-user data collection (including of children and teenagers) and data use by the companies that found that the companies' user and non-user data practices put individuals vulnerable to identity theft, stalking, unlawful discrimination, emotional distress and mental health issues, social stigma, and reputational harm. In 2025, researchers from the University of Zurich conducted a experiment on the debate subreddit r/changemyview. The researchers deployed AI-run Reddit accounts to pose as humans and actively push desired viewpoints in order to study how AI could influence opinions among human participants. The experiment was run without the consent or knowledge of the subreddit moderators for four months until one of the researchers informed them. Critics of the experiment argued it was unethical as it involved impersonation and involuntarily used Redditors as experiment participants. On December 2025, Reddit filed a lawsuit in an attempt to overturn Australia's social media ban for children, as Australia was one of Reddit's biggest markets, and the ban would prevent people under 16 from accessing the site. See also Notes References Further reading External links |
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[SOURCE: https://www.matific.com/isr/he/home/contact-us/partner-enquiry/] | [TOKENS: 419] |
ืชืคืจืื ื ืืืฉืืช ืืขืฆืืื ืืช ืืืชืชืื ืขื ืืืืื ืืชืืืืช ืืจืชืงืช ืืืืืกืกืช ืจืืืืช ืชืืื ืืืกืข ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืขืืจืช ืืชืืืืงื ืืื ืืจืืงืืืืืช ืืืื ื ืืืืช ืฉืชืคื ืคืขืืื ืขื ืืืืคืืง ืืื ืืฉืคืจ ืืช ืชืืฆืืืช ืืืืืื ืืื ืจืื ืืคืื ืืฉืืชืคืื ืืืืคืืง ืขืืืืช ืขื ืืฉืจืื ืืื ืื, ืงืืืฆืืช ืืชื ืกืคืจ, ืืจืืื ื CSR ืืืืจืืช ืืืจืืช ืืจืืื ืืขืืื. ืืืืื ืฉืื ื ืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืื ื ืืืืื ืืชืืืืงื ืืกืืืื ืืืืืืชืืช ืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืืืชืจ. ืฆืจื ืงืฉืจ ืื ืฉืื ื ืืฆืืขืื ืคืขืืืืืืช ืืชืืืืืช ืืืฆืจ ืืืืข ื ืืกืฃ ืืืจื |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A9%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%99] | [TOKENS: 3226] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืืฉืจืื ืืืืืื, ืึทืฉึฐืืจึทืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืื ืืชื ืช ืืืื ืื ืืืืจื ืขื ืืื ืืืกื ืคืื ื ืกื, ืชืืืจืช ืืชืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืื ืืืฉืื ืืช ืืืืืืื, ืืชืืกืคืช ืจืืืืช, ืืขืืืจ ืืื ืงืฆืจ (ืืจืื ืืืืืฉ) ืื ืืฉืืขืืจืื ("ืงืจืืื", ืืจืื ืืืืื ืืกืคืจ ืืืืฉืื). ืืืืืืช ืืฉืจืื ื ืืชื ืช ืืจืื ืชืืืจืช ืขืจืืื ืืช ืืฉืืจืื (ืืื ืืืกืืื 'ื ืขืื' ืืืืื ืืกืืื) ืื ืขืงืืคืื, ืื ืฉื ืืื. ื ืืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืฉืจืื ื ืขืฉืืช ืชืื ืืฆืืจืช ืืื ืืืคื ืืืืกื ืืคืื ื ืกื, ืืืืืื ืืจืื ืืจืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืฉืืื ืฉืืฉ ืืืืื ืืืืกื ืืคืื ื ืกื (ืืืืืื, 'ืืื ืืก' ืืื ืง), ืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืฆืื 'ืืืกื' ืืืืงืฆืืช ืื ืืื ืืืืืืช ืืฉืจืื. ืืืกื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืืืจื ื ืืื ืื ืืื ืขื ืืชืจืืืืช ืืืืฆืืจ ืืชืขืฉืืืชื ืืืชืคืฉืืืชื ืขื ืคื ื ืืขืืื ืืืื. ืืคื ืฉื ืืกื ืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืกืืืจืืื ืืืืืื ืคืจืืค' ืืืคืจื ืืื ื: "ืืื ืืื ืืคืจืื ืื ืืืืจืื ืฉืืืืฆืืจ ืืืืืจื ื ืื ืืื ืืคืฉืจื ืืืืื ืืืฉืจืื, ืืืืฉืจืื ืืฆืืจืชื ืืืืืจื ืืช ืืื ื ืืื ืืฆืืจืช ืืื ืงืื". ืืจืืืกื ืืฉืจืื ืืฆื ืืงืืืืช ืจืืืืื ืืื ืงืื, ื ืืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืืจื ืืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืื ืืื ืืจืืืก ืืฉืจืื. ืืืฉืจืื, ืืืืืื, ืืืฉืจ ืืื ืืฉืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืจืืืก ืืฉืจืื, ืืื ื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืจืช ืืจืืืกื ืืืฉืจืื, ืืืชื ืืื ืคืืจืข ืืชืื ืืืืืฉ ืื ืืฉืืขืืจืื. ืจืื ืืืืืืืืช ืื ืืืืืช ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืจืืืก ืืฉืจืื ืื ืืฆืืจื ืชืฉืืื ืืขืืืจ ืืืฆืจื ืฆืจืืื ืฉืื ืื ืืขื ืื ืืืืืืช ืืืจื ืืื ืชืืกืคืช ืจืืืืช ืกืืืื ืืืืืช ืืขืืืช ืืืืจ, ืฉืืืืฆืขืืชื ืืคืฆื ืืช ืขืฆืื ืืขืกืง ืืืืฆืข ืืช ืืืืื ืขื ืืชืฉืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืจืฉ ืืฉืื ืืืืจืช ืืจืืืกื ืืืฉืจืื ืขืืืจ ืืืืงืช ืืขืกืงื, ืืืฉืืจื ืืจืืฉืืื ("ืืื ืกืืืงื") ืืืจืื ืื ืคืืฆืื ืขื ืคืจืง ืืืื ืฉืืื ืืจืืืฉื ืืืขืืจืช ืืชืฉืืื ืืืืจืช ืืจืืืกื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืืืจ. ืืืฉืจ ืืขืกืง ืืฆืืข ืื ืื ืืืฉืืืื ืืืืืื, ืืจืืืืช ืืกืืืื ืืืคืืช ืืืืืื. ืืฉืจืื ืกืคืงืื ืกืื ื ืืกืฃ ืฉื ืืฉืจืื ืืืื ื "ืืฉืจืื ืกืคืงืื" ืื "ืฉืืืฃ ืคืืืก", ืืืื ืืฉืจืื ืฉืกืคืงืื ื ืืืืื ืืืขื ืืง ืืืงืืืืชืืื. ืืืชืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื ืืืช, ืกืคืง ืืืฆืจืื ืื ืฉืืจืืชืื ืืกืคืง ืืช ืืืืฆืจ ืื ืืขื ืืง ืืช ืืฉืืจืืช ืืืงืื, ืื ืื ืืงืื ืืช ืืชืฉืืื ืืขืืืจื ืืืืคื ืืืื ืืื ืืขืืืจ ืืื. ืืืฉืจืื, ืืืืจ ืืชื ืืฉืจืื ืืื ืืฉื "ืฉืืืฃ ืคืืืก" ืืื ืืชืฉืืื ืืชืืฆืข ืืกืคืจ ืืืืื ืืืฆืืื ืืืืจ ืกืืฃ ืืืืืฉ ืฉืื ืืชืืฆืขื ืืขืืืื, ืื "ืฉืืืฃ ืคืืืก 30" ืืขืกืงืืืช ืฉืืื 1 ื-28 ืืคืืจืืืจ ืืฉืืืื ื-30 ืืืจืฅ. ืืกืคืจ ืืื ืืืฉืจืื ืืขืืจ ืืฉืืืฃ ืชืืื ืืืกืื ืืื ืืกืคืง ืืืงืื. ืืืชืืื ืช ืื, ืกืคืง ืืืืฆืจ ืื ืืฉืืจืืช ืืืืชืจ ืขื ืชืฉืืืื ืจืืืืช ืืืชื ืืื ืืืื ืืงืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืกืฃ ืืืขืืจ ืืจืฉืืชื ืืืืืช. ืืงืื ืืฉืืจืืช, ืืขืืืชื, ื ืื ื ืืชืฉืืืื ืจืืืืช ืขื ืกืืืื ืืืกืฃ ืฉืืช ืืืฆืืชื ืขืืื. ืืชืจ ืขื-ืื, ืืกืคืง ืืืืื ืืชืฉืืืืื ืฉืืืคืื ืืืจืื ืฉืืื ืืขืืื. ืืืืืื, ืกืคืงืื ื ืืจืฉืื ืืฉืื ืืช ืกืืื ืืืข"ื ืฉืืืกืืคื ืืขืกืงื, ืืฉืื ืืฉืืืจืชื ืฉื ืขืืืืื, ืืืืืื. ืืืจืฅ 2017 ื ืืงืง ืืืฉืจืื ืืืง ืืืกืจ ืชืฉืืืืื ืืกืคืงืื, ืืืืืื ืืช ืืฉื ืืืื ืฉืื ืืืฉืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืืืคืื ืืืชืืงืฆืืื ืขื ืืื ืจืฉืืื ืืืืืช ืชืฉืืื ืืกืคืงืื. ืืืืืืื ืืืืืืื (ืืืืื ืืช "Obligo" ืคืืจืืฉื ืืชืืืืืืช, ืืืืื) ืืื ืืื ื ืืชืืื ืืื ืงืืืช ืืืืืื ืกืืืื ืื ืืกืืืืื ืฉืขืกืง ืื ืืงืื ืืชืืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืื ืง ืืืื ืืกืืจืืช ืืฉืจืื, ืืืืืืืช ืืืจืืืก ืืฉืจืื, ืืืืืืืช ื ืืกืคืืช ืืฉืขืืืืื ืืื ืกืื ืฉืื. ืืืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืช ืืฆื ืืขืกืง ืื ืืืงืื ืืื ืฉืื ืืืืืฆืจ ืืฆื ืื ืืชืืืืืืืืชืื ืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืจืื ืืื ืฉืืื ืืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืขืชืื. ืฉืืจ ืืืฉืจืื ืขื ืคื ืืืืื ืื ืืฉื ืืื ืช ืฉืืจ, ืืฉ ืืฉืื ืชืืืจืช ืขืืืื ืืื ืขื ืกืืื ืืืฆืืขื. ืขื-ืคื ืืชืคืืกื ืืืจืงืกืืกืืืช, ืื ืขืืื ืืืืฆืข ืืช ืขืืืืชื ืืืืืช ืืืงืื ืืช ืฉืืจื ืืืืขื ืงืืืข (ืฉืืืขืืช ืื ืืืืฉืืช) ืืขื ืืง ืืืขืฉื ืืฉืจืื ืืืขืกืืง, ืฉืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืืืืืง ืืืกืฃ ืืืืืขื ืืขืืื ืคืจืง ืืื ื ืืกืฃ. ืื ืงืืืช ืืื ืืคืืื, ืืื ืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืคืื ืืื-ืืืืืจืง ืืืฉื, ืืืฉืจืื ื ืืชื ืืืืงื ืขื-ืืื ืืืขืกืืง, ืืืฉืื ืืขืืื ืืืืคื ืจืฆืืฃ ืขืื ืืคื ื ืฉืงืืื ืืช ืืชืืืจื ืืขืืืจ ืืขืืืื ืื ืืฆืจืื, ืฉืื ืืืืจ ืขื ืืงืจืื ืืื ืืืฉืงืขืช ืขืืืื, ืืฉืืื ืฉืืจ ืขืืืจื, ืื ืื ืืืคืงืช ืชืืืจื ืืืฉืื (ืืืืืื, ืืืฉืจ ืืฉ ืขืกืงื ืฉืืฉืื). ืืชืืืืืืช ืขื ืกืืืื ืืฉืจืื ืงืืืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืืจืืื ืืกืืกืืืช ืฉืืื ืืืจืืช ืืืืืืช ืืคืขืื ืขื ืื ืช ืืืชืืืื ืขื ืกืืืื ื ืืฉืจืื: ืจืื ืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/final-projects/] | [TOKENS: 1894] |
ืืืืื ืืืืกืกืช ืืืืื ืืืืช ืขืืืืืช ืืืจ ืื ืืืฉ? ืืืืขืื ืืืจืื | ืืจืกื ื ืืืฉื ืืืฆืฆื ืืืขืืืช ืืืฆื ืืื. ืืืืืื ืชืืื ืืืื ื ืืชืืืืืื ืืืืฉื ืขืืืืืช ืืืืช-ืืกืคืจ ืืืืจืืืืื ืืื ืืกืคืืืืจ 2025 (ืืืืืืืช ืืืืื) - ืชืืช ืืฉืื ืืช "ืขืืืืืช ืืืจ". ืืคืืฉ ืืคืชืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืฉืืืฉื 18/11 ืืฉืขื 16:00. ืืืฉ! ืืจืืฉืื ื ืื ืฉื ืื ืจืืืช, ืื ื ืฉืืืื ืืืฉืจ ืขื ืืืืื ืืขืจืืืช ืืืืืฉืืืช ืื ืฉืื ืฉืืื ืืืืฉื ืืืื ืืืขืจืืช ืืืืืฉืืช ืืืช ืืืืื โ ืืขืจืืช ืืฉืืืืืืช. ืืืขืจืืช ืืืฉื ื ืืืืฉืช ืืฆืขืืช ืืืงืจ ืชืืกืืจ ืืคืขืืืืช. ืืฆืืจืคื ืืชืืื ืืช "ืขืช ืืืงืืจ" ืืฉืช"ืค ืขื ืืกืคืจืืื ืืืืืืืช. ืชืืื ืืื ืืจืืืืช ืืืจืืืื ืฉืืื ืืืชื ื ืืื ืก ืืจืืืื ืืืจืฆื, ืืคืืฉ ืืฉืืขืืชื ืฉืืื ืืช ืื ืืืืืืฉืื ืืชืืื, ืคืจืื ืืฆืืืช ืฉื ืชืืืืืืช ืืืคื ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืช"ื ืื ืืขืจ, ืคืื ื ืจืืืื ืืกืื ืื "ืกืืืื ืขื ืืฉืืื" ืืกืืืจ ืืจืชืง ืืืืืืืื ืื ื. ืืืืขื ืจืืืื ืืื ืจืืื ืืืจืฅ, ืืืืืช ืืขื ืจืืช ืืืืื, ืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืืืืจืื. ืืืื ืื-ืืืจ ืืงืืื ืชืืจืืช ืืขืืืืืช ืืืจ ืืฆืืืื ืืช ืืืืขื ืืจืื.ืืชืืจืืช ืืืืขืืช ืืชืืืืืื ืฉืืืืฉื ืขืืืืืช ืืืจ ืืืืขื ืืจืื ืืชืงืืคื ืฉืืื 2.4.2025 ื-17.3.2026.ืื ืืืืช, ืชืืืื ืืขืช ืืคืจืืื ื ืืกืคืื ืชืืฆืื ืืงืื ืืงืืจื. ืืืขื ืืืจืื ืืืืฉืช ืืืขืืืืช: 17.3.2026. ืืื ืก ืืืืืจื ืืขืืืืืช ืืืจ ืืืืขืื ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืชืงืืื ืืชืืจืื 16.3.2026 ืืชื ืื (ืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืงืจืืืช ืฉืืื ื, ืืืงืื).ืืื ืก ืคืชืื ืืื ืชืืืืื ืืฆืคืื, ืืืืงืจืื ืืชืืืื ืืืืขืื ืืืืื ืืืืืื, ืืืืืฉืื ืืช ืขืืืืืชืืื ืืฉื ืช ืืืืืืืื ืชืฉืค"ื.ืืชืืืืืื ืืฆืืื ืืช ืขืืืืืชืืื ืืคื ื ืงืื ืืืืจ ืฉืืคืืื. ืืขืืืืืช ืืืฆืืืื ืืช ืืืื ืืคืจืก.ืืืจืฉืื ืชืกืชืืื ื-16.2.2026. ืชืืจืืช ืืื-ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืชืืช, ืืขืืกืงืช ืืืืงืจ ืืืืืฉื ืืช ืืชืืื ืืืฉืื ืืขืชืื ืืื ืืฉืืช - ืืื. ืืชืืจืืช ืืชืงืืืืช ืืฉืืืงืืืื ืืืกืืจืช ืฉืืืข ืืืื ืืขืืืื. ื ืฆืืื ืืฉืจืื ืืชืืจืืช ืืืื-ืืืืืืช ืืืืืจื ืืฉืื ืืืืื ืืืจืฆื, ืื ืืฉื ืคืจืกืื ืืืืืื.ืจืฉืืื ืืืฉืชืชืฃ ืชืืืืืื ืื ื 19-14, ืืฉืจ ืืชืื ืขืืืืช ืืืจ ืืื ืชืืื ืืขืช, ืืขืืกืงืช ืืืงืืจืืช ืืื ืืฉืืืืจื.ืืืขื ืืืจืื ืืืืฉืช ืืืขืืืืช: 28.2.2026. ืขืืืืืช ืืืจ ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืฉืืจืืชืื ืืืจื ืืงืฆืจื ื... ืคืืจืื ืื ื ืื ื ืขืืืจ ืืืจืื ืื ืืขื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฆืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืื. ืืขืืื ืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืชืจื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืชืืื ืืชืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืืื (ืืจืืืช ืคืจืกืืืืช) ืืื ื ืืืืจืืืช ืืขืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืื. ืื ื ืชืงืืชื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืฉ ืืื ืืฆืขืืช ืื ืืขืจืืช ืื ืืืข ืืชืืื, ืืืคืฉืจืืชืื ืืคื ืืช ืืืื ื ืืงืืฉืืจ ืื. |
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/matriculation-exams-final-projects/unique-programs/] | [TOKENS: 1201] |
ืืืืื ืืืืกืกืช ืืืืื ืืืืช ืชืืื ืืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืชืืื ืืช ืืืืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืื ืชืืื ืืช ืืืืจืืช ืฉืืืช ืกืคืจ ืืืื ืืืคืชื ืืขืฆืื ืื ืืฉืืชืืฃ ืขื ืืืจื ืืืฆืื ื. ืืืืืง ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืคืืืืืืช ืืืชื ืืกืคืจ ืืื ืืื ืืืืขืืื ืฉื ืืขืจืืช ืืืื ืื ืืืื. ืืชืืื ืืืคืขืื ืฉื ืชืืื ืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืื ืืจืืื ืืคืฉืจืืืช ืืืืืืฉ ืืืืขืฆืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืืื ืคืืืืืืช ืืืืช ืืกืคืจ. ืชืืื ืืช ืืืืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืคืฉืจืช ืืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืขืืืื ื ืืคืชื ืืืืื ืชืืื ืืช ืืืืืืื ืืชืืื ืืืืืื ืฉืืืชื ืื ืืขืื ืืื ืื ืืคืชื ืืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืืืืืื ืืช ืชืืืืืืื ืืืืื ืช ืืืจืืช ืฉื ืืชืืช ืื ืืืงืช ืขื-ืืืืื. ืขื ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืชืืกืก ืขื ืชืืื ืืืืืื ืื ืขื ืืจืื ืืืจืื-ืืืืื-ืืขืจืื ืืืืืืืืช (ืืืืืื ืืืฅ-ืืืชืชืืช, ืืืจืื ืืงืืืฆืืช, ืืขืจืื ืืชืืงืื) ืื ืขื ืฉืืืื ืฉื ืฉื ืืื. ืืื ืืฉ ื ืืฉื ืฉืชืืื ืจืฆืืช ืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืื ื ื ื ืืฆื ืืชืืื ืืืช ืืืืืืืื ืืงืืืืืช? ืืื ืจืฆืืช ืืคืชื ืืจืื ืืืืื ืืืขืจืื ืืืืืืืืช ืืื ืื ืืืืชื ืื ืืืกืืจืช ืืืชืืืื? ืืื ืจืฆืืช ืืืฆืืข ืืชืืืืืื ืฉืื ืืืื ืฉ"ืชืฆืืข" ืืช ืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืืืืคื ืืืืืื? ืื ืืชืฉืืื ืืืืช ืื ืืืชืจ ืืืฉืืืืช ืืืื ืืื โ ืื, ืืืื ืื ืืืืืง ืืคืฉืจืืช ืืคืชื ืชืืื ืืช ืืืืืืืช. ืืืื ืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืขืจืื ืืืืคืืช ืคืืจืื ืื ื ืื ื ืขืืืจ ืืืจืื ืื ืืขื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฆืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืื. ืืขืืื ืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืชืจื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืชืืื ืืชืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืืื (ืืจืืืช ืคืจืกืืืืช) ืืื ื ืืืืจืืืช ืืขืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืื. ืื ื ืชืงืืชื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืฉ ืืื ืืฆืขืืช ืื ืืขืจืืช ืื ืืืข ืืชืืื, ืืืคืฉืจืืชืื ืืคื ืืช ืืืื ื ืืงืืฉืืจ ืื. |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Pulitzer_Prize_for_Explanatory_Journalism_winners] | [TOKENS: 151] |
Category:Pulitzer Prize for Explanatory Journalism winners These people have won or shared the American Pulitzer Prize for Explanatory Journalism (1985โ1997), also known as the prize for Explanatory Reporting (1998-present). See also Pulitzer Prize for Beat Reporting winners, people who won or shared the prizes for Specialized Reporting (1985โ1990) and Beat Reporting (1991โ2006). After 2006 the Board observed that various beat reporters contend for the Explanatory, Local, and National Reporting Pulitzers. Pages in category "Pulitzer Prize for Explanatory Journalism winners" The following 67 pages are in this category, out of 67 total. This list may not reflect recent changes. |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืืกืืจ_(ืืจืืืืช)] | [TOKENS: 1403] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืืกืืจ (ืืจืืืืช) ืึถืกึฐืึตึผืจ ืื ืงึธืจึธื ึฐืึดืื ึธื (ืืืืืืงืืช: Quarantena) ืืื ืกืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืจืคืืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืื, ืงืืืฆื ืื ืชืืฉืื ืืืืจ ืืืืืจืคื ืืกืืื ืืืื ืฉืืจ ืืืืืืืกืืื. ืืืกืืจ ืืืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืื ืจืง ืขื ืคืจืืื ืื ืงืืืฆืืช ืฉืืืื ืื ืฉืืื ืคืืื ืฆืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืกืื ื ืืฆืืืืจ. ืืืืืืืืืื ืืืื ื "ืงืจื ืืื ื" ื ืืืจ ืืืืืื ืืืืืืงืืช "ืงืืืจื ืื", ืฉืคืืจืืฉื ืืจืืขืื โ ืืจืืขืื ืืื ืืืกืืจ ืฉืืืืื ืืขืืจ ืขื ืืื ืฉืื ืฉืืืืขื ืืืืคื ืืืืืื ืืืงืืืืช ืฉืืื ืืื ืืืคืืช. ืืจืืขืื ืืืืื ื ืกืคืจื ืืืขืช ืื ืืคืกืืงื ืื ืฉืื ืืืืืืง ืืืืื ืขื ืืื ืืฉืื. ืืืจืื ืฉื ืืชืงืืคื ื ืืืจ ืืืืจื ืชืงืืคืช ืืืืืจื ืฉื ืืืืคืืช ืื ืืจืืืช ืฉืืืืขื ืืืืจืืคื โ ืืืืจื, ืืืจ, ืืืขืืืขืืช ืฉืืืจืืช ืืขืื. ืืชืื ืืจืืขืื ืืืืื ืืื ืขืืื ืขื ืืื ืืฉืื ืจืืคื ืืืืืง ืื ืืฉ ืืืืื, ืืื ืื ืืื, ื ืืชื ืืืฉืืจ ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืงืฉืจ ืขื ืชืืฉืื ืืืงืื. ืืืฉื, ืืืืคืช ืืืืืจื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืืฉื ืื ืืืืื ืืกืืจืื. ืืืืคืช ืืงืืจืื ื ืืืื ืืกืืจ ืขื ืืขืืจ ืืืืื ืฉืืกืื. ืขื ืืชืคืฉืืืช ืื ืืืฃ ืืขืืื ืืืื ืืกืืจ ืืืงืืืืช ื ืืกืคืื ืืืืืืจื ืืืืืืืช ืขื ืชื ืืขื ืืืคืฉืืช, ืืืืืื ืืืืงืื ืืืืืืงืืช ืืคืขืืืื ืืืืชืจ. ืืืืช ืืืคื ืืฉืจืืืื ื ืฉืืื ืืืืืื ืืืช ื-14 ืืืื, ืืื ืืืืื ืฉืื ืืื. ืกืืื ืืกืืจ ื ืืกืฃ ืขื ืกืืจ ืืื, ืืฉ ืื ืืกืืจ ืขื ืืืืฉื, ืืชืื ืืืืงืฆื ืืืืืื ืื ืฉืืงืจืื ืืื, ืขื ืฉืืืืืจ ืฉืืื ื ืืืืื. ืืขืืชืื ืืืชืืืื ืืืื ืกืืืจืื ืืฉืืืจืื. ืืขืืชืื ืืงืืืืช ืฉืฉืืืฉื ืืงืจื ืืื ืืช ื ืฉืืจืื ืขื ืืฉื ืื ืืืืจ ืฉืืืกืืจ ืืืจ ืืืื, ืืื ืืฉ ืืืงืืืืช ืฉืื ืื ืฉืืื ืืช ืื ืืฉืืืช ืืช ืืฉื "ืงืจื ืืื ื". ืืฉ ืื ืืกืืจ ืืืขืื ืืืื, ืืืืชื ืกืืืืช ืืืืืชื ืชืืืืช. ืืกืืจ ืืื ื ืืืืื ืืขื ื ืืื, ืฉืื ืืฉ ืืืืืช ืืืื ืฆืจืขืช ืฉืชืงืืคืช ืืืืืจื ืฉืืื ืืจืืื ืืืฃ ืืฉืชื ื. ืจืื ืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืืืืื_ืืืกืืืจื_ืฉื_ืฉืืืืืฅ] | [TOKENS: 1208] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืืืืื ืืืกืืืจื ืฉื ืฉืืืืืฅ ืืืืื ืืืกืืืจื ืฉื ืฉืืืืืฅ (ืืืจืื ืืช: Historisches Lexikon der Schweiz; ืืฆืจืคืชืืช: Dictionnaire historique de la Suisse; ืืืืืืงืืช: Dizionario storico della Svizzera) ืืื ืื ืฆืืงืืืคืืื ืืงืืคื ืขื ืืืืกืืืจืื ืฉื ืฉืืืืืฅ, ืืคื ืฉืืื ืืฉืชืงืคืช ืืืืงืจ ืืืืกืืืจื ืืืืืจื ื, ืืืืจื ืืื ืืืฉ ืืช ืืกืงื ืืชืื ืืงืื ืจืื ืืื ืืืคืฉืจ. ืคืจืืืงื ืขืจืืืช ืืืืืื ืืื ืืฉื ืช 1988 ืืขื ืืฉืืืชื ืืกืืฃ 2014, ืืื ืืืื 13 ืืจืืื, ืืืืืืื ื-36,000 ืขืจืืื. ืืืืืื ืืื ืฆืืงืืืคืืื-ืืืืื ืืชืคืจืกืืช ืขื ืืื ืงืจื ืฉื ืืืงืืืื ืืฉืืืืืฆืจืืช ืืืืขื ืืจืื ืืืืืจื (SAGW/ASSH) ืืืืืจื ืืืืกืืืจืืช ืืฉืืืืืฆืจืืช (SGG-SHH), ืืืืืื ืช ืืขืืงืจ ืืืขื ืงื ืืืงืจ ืืืฉืืชืืื. ืฆืืืช ืืขืืจืืื ืฉื ืืื ืฆืืงืืืคืืื ืืืื 35 ืืืฉ ืืืจืืืื ืืช ืืขืจืืื ืืืืืฆืื ืืืืจ, ืืืฆืืื ืคืืขืืื ื-100 ืืืขืฆืื ืืงืืืืื, 2,500 ืืืกืืืจืืื ืื ื-100 ืืชืจืืืื. ืืื ืฆืืงืืืคืืื ื ืขืจืืช ืืฉืืืฉ ืืฉืคืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืืฉืืืืืฆืจืืืช ืืืงืืื, ืืืจืื ืืช ("Historisches Lexikon der Schweiz", ืืืงืืฆืืจ: HLS), ืฆืจืคืชืืช ("Dictionnaire Historique de la Suisse", ืืืงืืฆืืจ: DHS) ืืืืืืงืืช (Dizionario storico della Svizzera). ืืืืืื ืืืื ื-40,000 ืขืจืืื, ืืืืืืื: ืืืืืจืคืืืช, ืขืจืืื ืขื ืืฉืคืืืช ืฉืืืืืฆืจืืืช, ืขื ืืงืืืืช (ืขืจืื, ืงื ืืื ืื, ืืืื ืืช ืืืื ืืืจืืช, ืืืฆืจืื, ืืขืื) ืืืืืจืื ืื ืฆืืงืืืคืืืื ืืื ืืืจืกืืืื (ืชืืคืขืืช ืืืืฉืืื ืืืกืืืจืืื, ืืืกืืืช, ืืืจืืขืื ืืืืืื). ืืืืืจื ืืงืืื ืช ืืื ืึพ1998, ืืืื ื ืืจืฉืช ืืืื ืืจื ื ืืืืืจื ืืงืืื ืช ืฉื ืืืืืื. ืืื ืื ืืืฉื ืืืืฆืื ืืช ืื ืืชืืื ืืืงืกืืืืื ืฉืืืืืืจื ืืืืืคืกืช ืืืื ื ืืงืื ืืืืืฉืื. ื ืืชื ืช ืืืฉื ืืื ืืืืืจืื, ืืืื ืชืืื ืืช ืืืืืจืื ืืื ื ืืืฆืืื. ืชืืื ืืจืื ืืืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%9B%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%94] | [TOKENS: 1357] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืืืืจื ืืืืจื ืืื ืคืขืืื ืขืกืงืืช ืฉื ืืขืืจืช ืืขืืืช (ืืืืช ืืงื ืืื) ืื ืืก ืื ืืืคืฅ ืืกืืื, ืืฆื ืืืืืจ ืื ืฆื ืืงืื ื. ืืืืืจื ืืืืืจืื: ื ืฉืื ืืืืืจื (ืืืคืฅ ืื ืืืจ), ืืชืืืจื (ืืจืื ืืืืจ ืืืืืจื) ืืืชื ืืื. ืืคืขืืื ืื ืืืืช (ืืฆื ืืงืื ื) ืืื ืคืขืืืช ืืจืืืฉื. ืคืขืืืืช ืืืืจื ืืจืืืฉื ืืืืืช ืืช ืืืืื ืืืกืืกื ืืืืฆืืข ืคืขืืืืช ืืืืืืช, ืืืคืจื ืืืืฆืืข ืืืกื ืืกืืจ. ืืชื ืฉืืจืืช (ืื ืฉืื ืืืืจื) ืขืฉืื ืืืืืฉื ืืคืขืืืช ืืืืจื, ืื ืืืืืคืื ืืืืฆืืข ืขืืืื, ืฉืชืืืจืชื ืืื ืฉืืจ ืขืืืื ืื ืฉืืจ ืืจืื. ืืขืืจื ืฉื ืืขืืืช ืืื ืชืืืจื (ืืืฉื ืืชื ืืชื ื) ืืื ื ืคืขืืืช ืืืืจื. ืชืืืื ืืืืืจื ืืื ื ืืฉื ืืืงืจ ืืฉืืขืืชื ืืชืืื ืืฉืืืืง, ืืฉื ืืจืฆืื ืืืฆืข ืืช ืืคืขืืืืช ืืขืกืงืืช. ืื ืืฉื ืืขืืงืจ ืืฉืืขืืช ืื ืืกืืื ืฉื ืืืืจืื ืืืืจืืช ืืืชืจ ืืช ืืืืจืืื ืืืฉืคืืขืื ืขื ืืงืื ื ืืืฆืข ืขืกืงื. ืขืกืงืช ืืืืคืื, ืืจืืจ (Barter), ืืื ืขืกืงื ืฉืื ืื ืฆื ืืื ืื ืืืืจ ืืื ืงืื ื. ืืื ื ืืืืกืื ืืชืืืืกืื ืื ืขืกืงืช ืืืืืคืื ืืื ืฉืชื ืขืกืงืืช ืืืืจื ื ืคืจืืืช, ืฉืืชืืืจื ืืืกืคืืช ืืืื ื ืืชืงืืืช. ืืจืืืช ืคืขืืืืช ืืืืืจื ืืฆืจืื ืืกืืคื ืืชืืฆืขืืช ืืื ืืืืช, ืืืชืืืืืช ืืื ืืืฆืจื ืืืื ืืฆืจืื ืืกืืคื. ืืื ืืช ืขืืกืงืช ืืืืืจื ืงืืขืื ืืืช, ืืืขืืชืื ืืชืืื ืืื ื ืืืื ืืืฆืจื ืืืฃ ืืขืืกืง ืืืืืจื ืกืืืื ืืืช. ื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืฉื ื ืกืืืื ืขืืงืจืืื ืฉื ืืืืจื: ืืฉื ืืื ืขืงืจืื ืืช ืืืื ืื ืฉืืืืช ืืืฉืื ืฉืื ืืช. ืืืืง ืืชืืืืื ืืืืืจื, ืืชืงืืื ืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืงืื ืืืื ืืฉื ืืืชื ืฉืืืจืชื ืืฉืคืจ ืืช ืชื ืื ืืขืกืงื, ืืื ืืื ืืืฆืืืื. ืขื ืืชืคืชืืืช ืืืื ืืจื ื ืืื ืืคื ืืืื ืืืืจืืช ืืืื, ืืื ืืืืช ืืงืืื ืืช ืืืืชืจ ืืืืคืฉืจืื ืืชืงืฉืจืืืืช ืืื ืคืจืืื. ืืฉื ื ืืืืืงืช ืืืกืจืืช ืืืืจ ืืืืจืชื ืฉื ืืืจืื ืืกืืืืื, ืืื ืืื ืื ืืขืื ืืืื. ืจืื ืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืืฆื ื ืขืฉืืช ืืืืจื ืืืืืื ืจ |
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/olimpiadot-madaim/] | [TOKENS: 1030] |
ืืืืื ืืืืกืกืช ืืืืื ืืืืช ื ืืืจืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืืืขืื ืืืืื ืื ืื ืืืจืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืืืขืื ืืชืงืืืืื ืืื ืฉื ื, ืืืืืขืืื ืืชืืืืืืช ืืชืืืืืื ืืืืฉืจืื ืืชืืืื ืืชืืืืงื, ืืืขื ืืืืฉื, ืืืืื, ืคืืืืงื ืืืืืืืืื. ืืืจืื ืืืืจืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืขืืืื ื ืืืืื ืื ืืืชืขืืื ืืืืขืืื ืืื, ืืฉืจืืื ืืืชืืช ืืืฉืืื ืืืืขื ืืง ืืืืื ืืช ืืชืืืืืื ืืืชืืืืืืช ืืงืืช ืืืง ืื ืืืจืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืืืขืื ืืืืฉืืืืช ืืืืืืชืืืช ืืืชืืจืืช ืืชืืจืืืืช ืืื-ืืืืืืืช.ืืจืื ืืืฆืืื! ืืืืื ืื ืื ืืืจืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืืืขืื ืืชืงืืืืื ืืื ืฉื ื, ืืืืืขืืื ืืชืืืืืืช ืืชืืืืืื ืืืืฉืจืื ืืชืืืื ืืชืืืืงื, ืืืขื ืืืืฉื, ืืืืื, ืคืืืืงื ืืืืืืืืื. ืืืจืื ืืืืจืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืขืืืื ื ืืืืื ืื ืืืชืขืืื ืืืืขืืื ืืื, ืืฉืจืืื ืืืชืืช ืืืฉืืื ืืืืขื ืืง ืืืืื ืืช ืืชืืืืืื ืืืชืืืืืืช ืืงืืช ืืืง ืื ืืืจืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืืืขืื ืืืืฉืืืืช ืืืืืืชืืืช ืืืชืืจืืช ืืชืืจืืืืช ืืื-ืืืืืืืช.ืืจืื ืืืฆืืื! ื ืืืจืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืืืขืื ืืืจื ืืงืฆืจื ื... ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืฉืืจืืชืื ืคืืจืื ืื ื ืื ื ืขืืืจ ืืืจืื ืื ืืขื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฆืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืื. ืืขืืื ืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืชืจื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืชืืื ืืชืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืืื (ืืจืืืช ืคืจืกืืืืช) ืืื ื ืืืืจืืืช ืืขืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืื. ืื ื ืชืงืืชื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืฉ ืืื ืืฆืขืืช ืื ืืขืจืืช ืื ืืืข ืืชืืื, ืืืคืฉืจืืชืื ืืคื ืืช ืืืื ื ืืงืืฉืืจ ืื. |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%9B%D7%A8] | [TOKENS: 7428] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืฉืืจ ืฉืืจ ืืื ืชืฉืืื ืืขืืืจ ืขืืืื, ืืืกืฃ ืื ืืฉืืื ืืกืฃ. ืืชื ืืื ืฉื ืืฉืง ืืืืจื ื, ืืฉืืจ ื ืงืืข ืืืกืืื ืืื ื ืืชื ืืฉืืจ ืืืื ืืขืืื. ืืกืื ืื ืคืืฅ ืืืืชืจ ืืื ืฉืืจ ืืืืฉื ืืืฉืืื ืขื ืืื ืืืขืืื ืืขืืื, ืฉื ืงืจื ืื ืืฉืืืจืช ืื ืืฉืืืจืช ืืืืฉืืช. ืฉืืจ ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืฉืืื ืืื ืฉืืืข ืื ืืื ืืื. ืฉืืจ ืืืื ืืืืืช ืื ืืฉืืื ืืงืืื ืืช, ืืืื ื: ืขื ืคื ืืืกืช ืขืืืื ืืขื ืคื ืชืขืจืืฃ ืืืกืืืื ืืจืืฉ. ืชืฉืืื ืฉืืจ ืืื ืืื ืืชืืืืืื ืืืกืืกืืื ืืชืจืืืช ืืื ืืฉืืช ืืื ืืืขืืื, ืฉืื ืืืื ืืืจื ืืืืคืฉืจืช ืืืจืืืช ืืื ืฉืื ืืงืืื ืืช ืขืฆืื: ืื ืขืืืืื, ืืงืืืื ืชืฉืืื ืืืืืฆืขืืชื ืจืืืฉืื ืืขืฆืื ืฆืืจืื ืงืืื โ ืืืืื ืืกืืกื ืืขื ืืืืชืจืืช. ืขื ืืื ื ืฉืืจ ืืืฉืืืจืช ืืืคืืขืื ืืืจ ืืืงืืจืืช ืงืืืืื ืืืืชืจ, ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืจืืฉืืช, ืืืืจ ืืืืงื ืืืืจืื ืืืฆืืื ืืืื ืชืฉืืื ืืฉืืืจืช. ืืชืืจื ืืคืจืฉืช ืืืฆื ืืกืืคืจ ืขื ืืื ืืฉืจ ืืขืกืืง ืืืืชื ืืช ืืขืงื ืืืืืจ ืื: "ืืื ืืื ืืชื ืืขืืืชื ื ืืื ื, ืืืืื ืื ืื ืืฉืืืจืชื?". ืืืงืื ืืืื ืชืฉืืื ืฉืืจ ืฉืืืจ ืืืคืืขืื, ืืื ืืฉืืจ ืืคืจืฉืช ืืฉืคืืื. ืืืืื ื, ืชืฉืืื ืฉืืจ ืืื ืขื ืืื ืืืจืื ืืงืฉืืจ ืืชืฉืืืื ืืกืื ืืืืืืืืืืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืืื ืื ืืชื ืืืื ืืืงืื, ืืขื ืื ื ืขืฉื ืืืื ืื ืฉืื ืฉืจืืฉื ืืฉืืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืชืืืื ืืืฉืืื ืืืช ืืืืืกืื. ืขื ืืื ื ืฉืืจ ืืืืืื ื ืืื ืืกืืกื ืืชืืืื ืืืฉืคืืื ืืืืืืื, ืืืื ืืืชืจ: ืืืื ื ืขืืืื, ืืชืงืฆืื ืืืืื ื, ืืืืกืืืื ืงืืืืฆืืื. ืืืจื ืืื, ืืฉืืืจืช ืืื ืขื ืืื ืืืฉื ืืื ืืขืืื ืืืขืืื, ืื ืื ืืืืจืืช ืฆืืืืจืืืช ื ืืื ืืคืจืกื ืืฉืืืจืืช ืืกืืืืืช, ืืขืืงืจ ืฉื ืขืืืืื ืืืืจืื. ืืกืื ืฉืืจ ืืฉืื ืืืกืืกื ืืชืฉืืื ืฉืืจ ืืื ืขื ืืื ืืืกืืื ืขื ืืชืืืจื. ืืกืืื ืื ื ืขืฉืืช ืืืจื ืืื ืืคื ื ืชืืืืช ืืขืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืจืืืืื ื ืืกืคืื ืืงืฉืืจืื ืื ืืื: ืืืงืคื, ืืกืืจืช ืืฉืขืืช, ืืชื ืืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืืฆืืขื. ืืกืืื ืขืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืฉืชื ืืช ืื ืืืืื ืืขืืืื, ืืื ืืืช ืขื ืคื ืืกืืื ืืืชื ืืืขื ืคื. ืืกืืืื ืืื ื ืขืฉืื ืืื ืืืขืืื ืืขืืื ืื ืืฉืืืืื ืื ืืงืืืฆืช ืขืืืืื โ ืืื ืื ืืกืืื ืขืืืื ืงืืืืฆืืื. ืกืืื ืฉืืจ ืงืืืืื ืฉืืืฉื ืกืืืื ืขืืงืจืืื ืฉื ืชืฉืืื ืฉืืจ: ืื ืืกืฃ ืืืื ืงืืืืืช ืืฉืืืจืช ืื-ืคืขืืืช ืืืฉืืืืช ืืืื ืคืจืืืงื ืื ืขื ืคื ืืืื ืืชืงืฉืจืืช, ืืื: ืฉืืจ ืืจืฆื, ืฉืืจ ืกืืคืจืื, ืฉืืจ ืืฉืชืชืคืืช ืืืฉืืืืช ืืืจืงืืืจืืื ืื ืืขืื. ืืืืจ ืืืฆืืืช ืืขืื, ืฉืขืืื ืืืฆืื ืขืืืจ ืืขืืืื, ืืื ื ืืืืจ ืฉืืจ. ืืขืืืช ืืืช, ืืืืจ ืืืฆืืืช ื ืกืืขื ืืขืืืื, ื ืืฉื ืืขืืชืื ืืืืง ืืืฉืืจ (ืืืืืื, ืืคื ืืื ื ืืืก), ืืืขืืชืื ืืื ื ืืืง ืืืฉืืจ (ืืืืืื, ืืขื ืืื ืคืืฆืืื ืคืืืืจืื). ืืฉืืจ ืืืืืืื ืืืืื ื, ืชืฉืืื ืืฉืืจ ืขืืืจ ืขืืืื, ืืื ืืืื ืืืืืื ืขื ืคื ืืืง ืืจืืฉืื ืืืืืื ืื ืืกืคืจื ืืขืกืง ืืืฉืื ืืื ืืจืฉืืืืช ืืืืกืื. ืืจืืฉืื ืืืืืืื ืืืคืฉืจืื ืืจืฉืืืืช ืืืก ืืืืื ืืช ืืขืืจืช ืืืืกืื ืืืืฆืจ ืืืืื ื, ืื ืืืคืฉืจืื ืืืขืกืืง ืืืฉื ืืืืคื ืืกืืืจ ืืช ืืืฆืืืช ืืืฉืืืจืช, ืืืขืืื โ ืื ืืืืื ืขื ืืืืื ืืืืืชืื ืืฉืืืื ืืช ืืืก. ืงืืืืช ืืขืจืืช ืืงืืืื ืฉื ืชืฉืืืื ืฉืืจ ืืขืืืืื ืฉืื ืืืจื ืืจืืฉืื ืืืืืืื. ืืขืจืืช ืื ืืืืื ืืืง ืื"ืืืืื ืืฉืืืจื". ืืชืืืจื ืืขืืืื ื ืขืฉืืช ืืืจื ืืื ืืืืืื ืื ืืืื ืื ืขืงืืืช ืืืขืืืืช ืขื ืงืืืื. ืชืฉืืืื ืฉืืจ ืืื ืืืืื ื ืืืื ืืคืฉืืืื ืื ืืืงืื ืืื ืื ืืชื ืื ืืื ืขืื ืืช ืืชืจืื ืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืื ื ืืขืืื ืืืืขืืื. ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืช ืืฉืืจ ืชืืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืช ืืืฉืืืจืช ื ืขืฉืื ืขื ืืื ืืฉืืื ืื ืืืืื, ืืื ืืืืฉ ืืขืืืจ ืืืืืฉ ืืงืืื ืื, ืื ืืชืื ืืขืืืื. ืืชืื ืืื ืช ืืฉืืจ ืืืคืง ืชืืืฉ ืืฉืืืจืช ืืืืขืืจ ืืชืฉืืื ืืคืืขื. ืืื ืช ืืืฉืืื ืืืฉืืืจืช ืืื ื ืชืืืื ืืืืขื ืืชืฉืืื, ืืืืืืืช ืืื ืืงืจื, ืื ืื ืืื ื ืขืจืืช ืืืืจ ืืชืฉืืื ืื ืื ืืชืฉืืื ืืชืืฆืข ืืืืขื ืืืืืจ ืืืชืจ. ืืืฉืื ืืฉืืจ ืืืฆืจ ืืืืงื ืืื ืฉืืจ ืืจืืื โ ืฉืืื ืืชืฉืืื ืืฉืจ ืฉืืื ืขื ืืื ืืืขืืื, ืืืื ืฉืืจ ื ืื โ ืฉืืื ืืชืฉืืื ืืคืืขื ืฉืงืืื ืืขืืื. ืืืจื ืืื, ืฉืืจ ืืืจืืื ื ืืฉื ืืฉืืจื ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืขืืื ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืืคืืขื ืืื ืงืืื ืคืืืช. ืืืืฉื "ืฉืืจ ืืจืืื" ืืื ืกื ืื ืจืืืื ืืฉืืจ ืฉืฉืืืื ืืขืืื, ืืคื ื ืฉืืืคืืชื ืืื ื ื ืืืืืื ืืืฉืืจ, ืืืื ืืก ืืื ืกื ืืืืืจ ืืืืืื ืฉืงืืื ืืขืืื. ืืืืฉืื ืืฉืืจ ืืจืืื ืืืงืืื ืืืฉืืื ืืช ืืฉืืจ ืืืกืืกื ืืืช ืื ืจืืืื ืืฉืืจ ืื ืืกืคืื, ืืื ืืื ืืืจืื, ืืื ืืืคืฉื, ืืืืจ ืืืฆืืืช ื ืกืืขื, ืืืืงืช ืจืื, ืชืืกืคืช ืืื ื ืืช, ืืืืงืช ืืืคืื, ืืืืื ืืืฉ"ื. ืื ืืืืืช ืืขืื (ืืืืืจ ืืืืืช ืฉืืื ื ื ืืชื ืืช ืืืกืฃ) ืื ืืืง ืืืฉืืจ ืืจืืื ืืฆืืจื ืืก. ืืืืืื, ืจืื ืฆืืื ืฉืืืขืืื ื ืชื ืืขืืื, ืืืฉืจ ืืฉืืฉ ืืืชื ืื ืืืืฅ ืืขืืืื โ ืฉืืื ืืืืื ื ืืื ืืฉืืจ ืืจืืื. ืืฉืืจ ืืจืืื ืืฉืืฉ ืืกืืก ืืืืฉืื ืืืืกืื ืืืืื ืขื ืืฉืืจ. ืชืฉืืืืื ืฉืื ืืืืจ ืืืฆืื ืืืืจืช ืืืขืกืืง ืืื ื ืืืง ืืืืจืืื. ืืืืืื, ืืฉ ืืืื ืืื ืืืืจ ืืืฆืืืช ื ืกืืขื ืืืืืช ืืขืืืื ืืืืจื ืฉื ืืฉืืืช ืืืืง ืืืืจืืื, ืืืื ืืืืจ ืืืฆืืืช ืืืื ื ืกืืขื ืืชืืืืจื ืฆืืืืจืืช ืืืกืืจืช ืืขืืืื (ืืืฉื ื ืกืืขื ืืืงืื ืืขืืืื ืืืงืื) ืฉืืื ืืืฆืื ืืืืจืช ืืืขืกืืง ืืืื ืืื ื ื ืืฉื ืืืืง ืื"ืฉืืจ ืืจืืื". ืืืืจ ืืืฉืื ืืืจืืื, ื ืขืจื ืืืืฉืื ืฉื ื ืืืืื ืืืืื โ ื ืืืื ืืืก ืืื ืกื, ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืจืืืืช. ื ืืืืืื ืืื ืืืืฉืืื ืขื ืคื ืงืจืืืจืืื ืื ืฉื ืงืืขืื ืืืงืืงื ืืื: ืืืื ืืฉืืจ, ืืฆืื ืืืืฉื ืฉื ืืืงืื, ืืืืืื. ืืืงืืื ืื ืืืืื ืืืืื, ืืชืืฆืข ืจืืฉืื ื ืืืืืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืืืืื ืืืง ืืืกืืื ืืฉืืจ. ืืืื ืื ื ืืืืื ืงืืคืช ืืื, ืงืจื ืืฉืชืืืืช, ืืืืืื ืื ืืืื, ื ืืืืื ืืงืืืืช ืืืคืจืขืืช. ืฉืืจ ืืจืืื ืืงืืืื ืื ื ืืืืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืจืื โ ืืื ืฉืืจ ืื ืื ืืชืฉืืื, ืืื ืฉืืงืื ืืขืืื ืืคืืขื. ืื ืืคืขืืืืช ืืืื ื ืขืจืืืช ืืืจื ืฉื ืืื ืช ืืืืจ ืืืืฉื ืืืขืื ืืช ืื ืชืื ืื, ืืืคืืง ืชืืืฉ ืืฉืืืจืช. ืขื ืคื ืชืืืฉ ืื ืืืขืืจ ืืชืฉืืื ืืขืืื. ืืืงืจืื ืจืืื ื ืงืืข ืืืกืื ืขืืืื ืชืฉืืื ืฉืืจ ื ืื. ืืืงืจื ืืื ืชืืืฉื ืืืฉืืืจืช ืืืกืืฃ: ืกืืื ืื ืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืกืืก ืืืืฉืืื ืื ืืืจืืืืื ืืืืจืื ืืฉืจ ืืืืืจื ืืกืืคื ืฉื ืืืจ ืืช ืกืืื ืืืจืืื. ืคืขืืืช ืืืขืืจ ืื ืื ืืืจืืื ืงืจืืื ืืืืื. ืื ืืกืฃ ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืฉืืจ ืืืื ื ืืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืจืืืื ืฉืืจ ืืกืืืืื, ืืืฉื ืืืืกืื ืืืืื ืขื ืืืืืช ืืฉืืื ืืกืฃ (ืจืื ืฆืืื, ืฉื ืืื ืืืืืื). ืืืืื ืช ืชืงืฆืืื ืฉื ืืืขืกืืง, ื ืืืขืช ืืฉืืืืช ืืขืืืช ืืฉืืจ โ ืืืืฆืื ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืขืกืืง ืืฉื ืชืฉืืื ืฉืืจื ืฉื ืืขืืื. ืื ืืกืฃ ืืฉืืจ ืืจืืื ืืืืืช ืขืืืช ืืฉืืจ ืืช ืขืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืืช ืืฉืืื ืืกืฃ ืฉื ืืชื ื ืืขืืื (ืืืื ืขืืืชื ืฉื ืจืื ืฆืืื ืฉื ืืชื ืืขืืื) ืืืช ืขืืืชื ืฉื ืืคืจืฉืืช ืืฆื ืฉืืืฉื ืืืืืืช ืืช ืชืฉืืื ืืฉืืจ, ืืืื ืืคืจืฉืช ืืืขืืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืื, ืืงืืคืืช ืืื ืืืคืืฆืืื ืคืืืืจืื, ืืื ืืกืื ืืืืื ืืขืืชืื ืขื ืืืขืืื ืืืชืื ืืฉืืจ ืฉืฉืืื. ืืฉืืจ ืืืืจื ืืืืืืื ืชืฉืืื ืฉืืจ ืืืืื ืืืื ืืกืืื ืืืื ืืืจื ืชืงืื ืื. ืืฉืืจ ืืชืฉืืืื ืืฉืคืืขืื ืขื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืื ืืืจื ืืกืืืจืช ืืืืืจืื ืช, ืื ืืจืืช ืืืื ืืื ืืจืืช ืืคืจื. ืืจืืช ืืืื โ ืืืฆืืืช ืืฉืืจ ืืืืืื ืืจืืื ืืืจืืข ืื ืืืื ืืืฉืืื ืื ืฉื ืื ืขืกืง, ืืจืืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืฃ ืฉืืืื ื, ืืืฉืคืืขืื ืขื ืืจืืืืืืช ืฉืื. ืืืืืืช ืืฉืื ืืฉืืืจืช ืืืืื ืืืขืื ืขื ืืขืื ืืืืฃ ืืืฉืื, ืืืืืคื ืื ืืขืกืืงืื ืืฉืืืื ืืฉืืืจืช ืื ืืกืงืืืจ ืืคืจืื ืืื ืืกืงืืืจ ืืฆืืืืจื ืืืืืื ืืืขืื ืขื ืืืกื ื ืฉื ืืืืืื ืืืงืืืืช. ืื ืืืฉื, ืจืืช ืฉืืจ ืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืขืื ืขื ืจืืืื ืืืืืืช, ืืืืคื. ืืจืื ืืืืฉืืช โ ืืฉืืจ ืืขืื ืื ืขื ืืขืืื ืืืืฉื ืฉื ืื ืืื ืืืืจืื ืืืงืืื ืืืืจื ืืืฉืืืื ืืืขืื ืืขืฉืืจ ืื ืืขื ื. ืืฉืืจ ืืืืื ื ืงืืืช ืืคืชื ืืขืืืืช ืืงืืื ืืื ืืืชืืื ืืื ืืขืื ืืืื, ืืืขืกืืงืื, ืืืื ืืขืืืืื ืืืฉืชืืจืื ืืฉืืจื. ืืืื ืืงืืืืช ืืจืื ืืืื ืืช ืขืืื ืฉืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืคืฉืืช, ืืืืืืช ืืช ืฉืืจื ืฉื ืืื ืืคื ืืชืืขืืช ืฉืืื ืืคืืง ืืืขืกืืง. ืื ืืืืืื ืฉื ื ืื ืฉืื ืืขืื ื ืืกืืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืื โ ืืืจืืืื ืฉืืจ ืฉืื ื ืืืืชื ืืงืื ืขืืืื ืื ืืืงืืืืช ืฉืื ืื. ืฉืืจ ืืขืช ืืขืชืืงื ืืขืื ืืืื ื ืืื ืืฉืื ืืช ืืฉืืจ ืืขืืื ืืืกืฃ, ืืจื ืฉืื ืชืืื ืืื ืื. ืืจืืื ืืขืชืืงื ื ืืื ืืื ืืฉืื ืืืืืืื ืืืื. ืืืขืฉื ืืื ืืงืืจ ืืืืื ืืื ืืืืช Salary. ืฉืืืงืช ืฉืืจ ืืฉืืจ ื ืงืืข ืืืจื ืืื ืืขืช ืืชืืื ืขื ืืืื ืืขืกืงื ืืื ืืขืืื ืืืืขืืื. ืขืจืื ืฉื ืืฉืืจ ืื ืงืื ืืืืื ืืฉืชื ื ืืืชืื ืืืื ืคืืฆืื / ืืืคืืฆืื ืฉื ืืืกืฃ. ืืขืืชืื ืืขืกืืงืื ืืกืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืื ืขืืืื ืกืขืืฃ ืืฆืืื ืฉื ืืฉืืจ ืืืื ืื ืืืืืข ืืจ ืืืฉืื. ืืืืคื ืื ื ืฉืืจ ืฉืืืื ืืจืืืื ืฉื ืืฉืืจ. ืืคืฉืจืืช ื ืืกืคืช ืืื ืืขืจืื ืืกืื ืงืืืืฆื ืืื ืืขืช ืฉืืืงืช ืืฉืืจ. ืืกืื ืฉืืื ืืขื ืืง ืชืืกืคืช ืืืงืจ ืืขืืืืื. ืขื ืคื ืืชืืืจืื ืืืืงืจื-ืืืืืืช, ืืขืืืืช ืฉืืจ ืืืจืืืช ืืืื ืคืืฆืื, ืืืงืคืืช ืฉืืจ ืขืืฆืจืช ืืืชื. ืขื ืื ืืฆืืื ืืืจืคืช ืฉื ืืฉืืจ ืืืื ืขืืืื ืืืื ืืก ืืช ืืืฉืง ืืกืืจืืจ ืืื ืคืืฆืืื ื, ืืืงืคืืช ืฉืืจ ืืฉืืฉืช ืืขืฆืืจืชื ืฉื ืกืืจืืจ ืฉืืื. ืจืื ืื: ืืืื ืคืืฆืื ืืืฉืจืื. ืืงืฉืจ ืืื ืฉืืจ, ืืืืืืฆืื ืืืืฆืืขืื ืืืงืจืื ืืืืจื ืืื ืืจืืื ืื ืืขืื ืืืืืช ืฉืืจ ืืืื ืืฉืคืจืช ืืช ืืืืฆืืขืื ืฉื ืขืืื ืืืฉืจ ืืืฉืืื ืืืจืฉืช ืืชืืื ืื ืืืืฅ ืืืคื ื ืืชืืฉื, ืืืฉืจ ื ืืจืฉืช ืืืฉืื, ืืืืจืื, ืื ืืฆืืจืชืืืช โ ืืคืฉืจืืช ืืชืืืื ืืืื ืืืฆืจืช ืืชืืื ืฉืคืืืขืื ืืืืฆืืขืื.[ืืจืืฉ ืืงืืจ] ืืคืืื, ืืงืืืืช ืืืื ืืชืคืืกื ืฉืืฉ ืืืฉืชืืฉ ืืฉืืืืช ืชืืืื ืืืจืืช ืขื ืื ืช ืืืจืื ืขืืืืื, ืืืขืืงืจ ืืืืจืื, ืขื ืื ืช ืืฉืคืจ ืืช ืชืคืืงืชื. ืืืืืื, ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืคืฆืืืช ืื ืชืืื ืืืช ืืืื ืืื ืืืช, ืฉืืฆื ืืื ืืขื ืืงืืช ืชืืืื ืืจืื ืืืื ืืงืืฉืจ ืืช ืืขืืื ืืืจืืื ืืืฆื ืฉื ื ืื ืืืฆืจืืช ืืชื ืืคืืืข ืืืืฆืืขืื. ืืื ืื, ืืฉื ื ืขืืืืืช ืืื ืืขืืื ืืชืคืงื ืืฉืืืื ืืื ืืจืื ืฉืขืืช ืืื ืขืืืืชื ืืืชืื ืืงืืืช ืืืฆืืข ืืขืืืื ืืืขืกืืงื. ืืืื ืืืชื ื ืื ืืขืืื ืฉืจืื ืืืฆื ืื ืงืจื "ืฉืขืืื", ืืืชืืื ืืขืืืคืืช ืืืืกืจ ืืืืืืฆืื ืื ืืืฉืจ ืืชืงืืืช ืืืฆืืข ืขืืืื ืืืืขืกืืง ืืืื ื ืืื ืืืืชื ืขืืืืื "ืืฉืืขืืืื" ืืืขืืืช ืืช ืืฉืืจ ืืืื ืชืขืื ืืืืืืืฆืื[ืืจืืฉื ืืืืจื]. ืืฉืืจ ืืืฉืจืื ืืืฉืจืื ืงืืืืช ืจืืืืฆืื ืืชืืื ืงืืืขืช ืฉืืจ ืืขืืืืื, ืชืื ืงืืืขืช ืฉืืจ ืืื ืืืื. ืืื ืื ืงืืืืช ืืืืืช ืฉืืจ ืืงืกืืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืชืืืืืื ืคืื ื ืกืืื. ืืงืจืืื ื ืืกืคืช ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://www.matific.com/isr/he/home/contact-us/partner-enquiry] | [TOKENS: 419] |
ืชืคืจืื ื ืืืฉืืช ืืขืฆืืื ืืช ืืืชืชืื ืขื ืืืืื ืืชืืืืช ืืจืชืงืช ืืืืืกืกืช ืจืืืืช ืชืืื ืืืกืข ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืขืืจืช ืืชืืืืงื ืืื ืืจืืงืืืืืช ืืืื ื ืืืืช ืฉืชืคื ืคืขืืื ืขื ืืืืคืืง ืืื ืืฉืคืจ ืืช ืชืืฆืืืช ืืืืืื ืืื ืจืื ืืคืื ืืฉืืชืคืื ืืืืคืืง ืขืืืืช ืขื ืืฉืจืื ืืื ืื, ืงืืืฆืืช ืืชื ืกืคืจ, ืืจืืื ื CSR ืืืืจืืช ืืืจืืช ืืจืืื ืืขืืื. ืืืืื ืฉืื ื ืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืื ื ืืืืื ืืชืืืืงื ืืกืืืื ืืืืืืชืืช ืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืืืชืจ. ืฆืจื ืงืฉืจ ืื ืฉืื ื ืืฆืืขืื ืคืขืืืืืืช ืืชืืืืืช ืืืฆืจ ืืืืข ื ืืกืฃ ืืืจื |
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/hekerut-hinuh-tehology/] | [TOKENS: 4484] |
ืืืืื ืืืืกืกืช ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืื ืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืจืืช ืขื ืืืืืช ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืชืืช ื ืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืืืืช - ืกืจืืื ืืืืจืืช ืืขืจื ืฉืืขืืจ ืืืืจืืช ืขื ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืืืืช - ืืฉืืขืืจ ืืืืขื ืืชืืืืื ืืืชืืช ื' ืืจืืื ืืืจืฅ ืืืชืืืืื ืืืชืืช ื' ืืืชื ืกืคืจ 8 ืฉื ืชืืื. ืฉืืขืืจ ืืื ื โ ืืืืจืืช ืขื ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืืืืช: ืขืืจืืช | ืขืจืืืช ืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืืืืช - ืกืจืืื ืืืืจืืช ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืงืฆืืขื ืืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื ืืื ื ืืกืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืชืืื ืืืืชื ื' ืืขื ืืืชื ืื'. ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื ื ืืื ืื- 1050 ืืชื ืกืคืจ ืืคืจืืกื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืื, ืืื ืืขื ืืืืช. ืืืืืื ืื ื- 163,700 ืชืืืืืื, ืฉืื 39.7% ืืืื ืืชืืืืืื ืืงืืืฆืช ืืืื. ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืฆืืข ืืืื - 23 ืืืืืช ืืืืื ืฉืื ืืช, ืืืืื ืืช, ืฉืืงืืคืืช ืชืืืื ืขื ืืื ืจืืื: ืื ืืกืช ืชืืื ื ืืกืืืืจ, ืื ืืกืช ืืืื ืืช, ืืขืจืืืช ืืฆืืจ ืืืืืฉืืืช, ืื ืืกืช ืืืงืืจืื ืืงื ืืืืฉืืื, ืืขืจืืืช ืืงืจื ืืื ืจืืื, ืืืื ืืืืช ืืขืืฆืื, ืืืืืื ืืืืืื, ื ืืืื ืืขืกืงื, ืื ืืกืช ืชืขืฉืืื ืื ืืืื, ืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืืช, ืชืืืืจื ืืชืงืืืช, ืชืืืจืืช ืืคื ืื, ืืืื ืืืช, ืื ืืกืช ืื ืื ืืืืจืืืืืช, ืืื ืืืืืืืช ืชืงืฉืืจืช, ืืขืจืืืช ืืจืืืืช, ืืื ืื, ืืขืจืืืช ืืืืืช, ืืืื ืืคืจืกืื, ืขืืฆืื ืฉืืขืจ ืืืืคืื ืืื, ืชืงืฉืื, ืืืืข ืื ืชืื ืื DATA ANALYSIS, ืืืขืืช ืืื ืืืืืืช. ืชืืืืื ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืงืื ืืืืืช ืฉืืจืืช ืืืืืฉืื ืืืืชื ืื' ืืืงืื ืชืขืืืช ืืื ืืื. ืืืฉืจ ืื ืืืฉืืืื ืืืืชื ืื' ืื ืืงืืืื ืชืขืืืช ืื ืืกืืื. (ืืืื, ืืฉื ื ืืชื ืกืคืจ ืจืืื ืืื ืืคืฉืจ ืืงืื ืชืขืืืช ืืื ืื ืืืจ ืืกืืฃ ืืืชื ืื'). ืื ื ืืชื ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื-ืืงืฆืืขื?1. ืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืช ืงืจืฉ ืงืคืืฆื ืืืจืงืืืื ืื ืืืกืืืื ืืื ืืกื ืืืงืืืื ืืื ืืฉืืง ืืขืืืื ืืืฆืืจืื ืืชืขืฉืืื ืฉื ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื. ืืืืืืช ืืชืขืืื ืืช ืืืืื ืช ืชืื ื ืืืืืื ืืืชืืืงืืช ืื ืืืชืื ืืฆืจืื ืืชืขืฉืืื ืืืืงืืืื.2. ืชืืืืื ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืงืฆืืขื ืืืืืื ืืงืื ืชืขืืืช ืืงืฆืืข ืจืืืื ืืืช ืืฆื ืชืขืืืช ืืืืจืืช ืืืื ื ืคืชืืืช ืืืืื ืืืืช ืจืืืช ืืืชืจ ืืฉืืจืืช ืืฆืืื ืืืืฉืชืืืืช ืืฉืืง ืืขืืืื ืืขืชืื.3. ืชืืืืื ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืงืฆืืขื ืืืืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืกืืื. ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืงืฆืืขื ืืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื ืืื ื ืืกืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืชืืื ืืืืชื ื' ืืขื ืืืชื ืื'. ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื ื ืืื ืื- 1050 ืืชื ืกืคืจ ืืคืจืืกื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืื, ืืื ืืขื ืืืืช. ืืืืืื ืื ื- 163,700 ืชืืืืืื, ืฉืื 39.7% ืืืื ืืชืืืืืื ืืงืืืฆืช ืืืื. ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืฆืืข ืืืื - 23 ืืืืืช ืืืืื ืฉืื ืืช, ืืืืื ืืช, ืฉืืงืืคืืช ืชืืืื ืขื ืืื ืจืืื: ืื ืืกืช ืชืืื ื ืืกืืืืจ, ืื ืืกืช ืืืื ืืช, ืืขืจืืืช ืืฆืืจ ืืืืืฉืืืช, ืื ืืกืช ืืืงืืจืื ืืงื ืืืืฉืืื, ืืขืจืืืช ืืงืจื ืืื ืจืืื, ืืืื ืืืืช ืืขืืฆืื, ืืืืืื ืืืืืื, ื ืืืื ืืขืกืงื, ืื ืืกืช ืชืขืฉืืื ืื ืืืื, ืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืืช, ืชืืืืจื ืืชืงืืืช, ืชืืืจืืช ืืคื ืื, ืืืื ืืืช, ืื ืืกืช ืื ืื ืืืืจืืืืืช, ืืื ืืืืืืืช ืชืงืฉืืจืช, ืืขืจืืืช ืืจืืืืช, ืืื ืื, ืืขืจืืืช ืืืืืช, ืืืื ืืคืจืกืื, ืขืืฆืื ืฉืืขืจ ืืืืคืื ืืื, ืชืงืฉืื, ืืืืข ืื ืชืื ืื DATA ANALYSIS, ืืืขืืช ืืื ืืืืืืช. ืชืืืืื ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืงืื ืืืืืช ืฉืืจืืช ืืืืืฉืื ืืืืชื ืื' ืืืงืื ืชืขืืืช ืืื ืืื. ืืืฉืจ ืื ืืืฉืืืื ืืืืชื ืื' ืื ืืงืืืื ืชืขืืืช ืื ืืกืืื. (ืืืื, ืืฉื ื ืืชื ืกืคืจ ืจืืื ืืื ืืคืฉืจ ืืงืื ืชืขืืืช ืืื ืื ืืืจ ืืกืืฃ ืืืชื ืื'). ืื ื ืืชื ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื-ืืงืฆืืขื?1. ืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืช ืงืจืฉ ืงืคืืฆื ืืืจืงืืืื ืื ืืืกืืืื ืืื ืืกื ืืืงืืืื ืืื ืืฉืืง ืืขืืืื ืืืฆืืจืื ืืชืขืฉืืื ืฉื ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื. ืืืืืืช ืืชืขืืื ืืช ืืืืื ืช ืชืื ื ืืืืืื ืืืชืืืงืืช ืื ืืืชืื ืืฆืจืื ืืชืขืฉืืื ืืืืงืืืื.2. ืชืืืืื ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืงืฆืืขื ืืืืืื ืืงืื ืชืขืืืช ืืงืฆืืข ืจืืืื ืืืช ืืฆื ืชืขืืืช ืืืืจืืช ืืืื ื ืคืชืืืช ืืืืื ืืืืช ืจืืืช ืืืชืจ ืืฉืืจืืช ืืฆืืื ืืืืฉืชืืืืช ืืฉืืง ืืขืืืื ืืขืชืื.3. ืชืืืืื ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืงืฆืืขื ืืืืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืกืืื. ืืฉืื ืืืืืข ืืช ืืชืืืืืื: ืืกืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื-ืืงืฆืืขื ืคืืชืื ืขื ืื ืช ืืืคืฉืจ ืืืืืื ืืชืืืืืื ืืืฆืื ืืช ืชืืื ืืขื ืืื ืฉื ืื ืืื ืืื ืืืื, ืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืฉืืจืืื ืืืืฉืืื. ืืฆื ืืืืื ืขืืื ืืช, ืืชืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืืื-ืืงืฆืืขืืื ืืชื ืกืื ืืชืืื ืืืืืื ืฉืืืจื ืืืืคื ืืขืฉื ืืกืืืื ืขืชืืจืช ืืื ืืืืืื ืฉืืืคืืช ืืช ืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืืฉืืช, ืืขื ืืื ืช ืืืืืื ืช. ืชืืืืืื ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืงืื ืื ืชืขืืืช ืืืจืืช ืืื ืชืขืืืช ืืกืืื ืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืชืืืืช ืืื ืื ืืื ืืช ืื ืืื, ืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืฉืื ืื ืืืืืืืืืื ืืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื. ืชืืืืื ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื-ืืงืฆืืขื ืืืืืื ืืงืฆืืข ืืืขื ืืชืฉืชืืช ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื, ืืืงื ืืืืืืืื ืืืืืจืื. ืืืจื ืื, ืืชืืคืฉืจืื ืืกืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืจืืช ืืืื ืขื ืืชืืืืืืช ืืืฉื ืืืช ืืจืืืื ืืืืช. ืืืงืืฉ ืืืื ืืืขืื ืืืข ืืงืฆืืขื ืืฆืื โ ืืืื ืืกืืืข ืืชืืืืื ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื-ืืงืฆืืขื ืฉืืจืืช ืืฉืืขืืชื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืฆืืืจ ื ืืกืืื ืืงืฆืืขื ืจืืฉืื ืืงืจืืืจื. ืืื ืื, ืืืงืืฉ ืืื ืืืืื ืืืขืื ืืงืฆืืข ืืื ืืืืืืื ืืจืืช ืฉืืจ ืืืื ืขื ืืืืื ืชืขืกืืงืชื ืืืื ืืืกืืช. ืืืืืื ืืงืฆืืข ืืืคืฉืจืื ืืชืืืืืื ืืขืกืืง ืืื ืฉืืขื ืืื ืืืชื ืืืืื ืขืืืื ืืืื, ืืืืืื ืืืืืืฉ ืขืฆืื. ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื ืืื ื ืืืจืื ืขื ื ืืฉืืื ืฉืงืฉืืจืื ืืืืืก ืืฆื"ื ืื ืืงืืืืืช ืืฉืืจืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืกืืืืืช. ืื ืืืจืืจ ืฆืจืื ืืืืขืฉืืช ืืื ืืืจืื ืฆื"ื ืืืืกืืืื. ืืฉืื ืืืืืข ืืช ืืชืืืืืื: ืืื ืื ืืื ืืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืฉืืจืืชืื ืืืจื ืืงืฆืจื ื... ืคืืจืื ืื ื ืื ื ืขืืืจ ืืืจืื ืื ืืขื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฆืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืื. ืืขืืื ืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืชืจื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืชืืื ืืชืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืืื (ืืจืืืช ืคืจืกืืืืช) ืืื ื ืืืืจืืืช ืืขืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืื. ืื ื ืชืงืืชื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืฉ ืืื ืืฆืขืืช ืื ืืขืจืืช ืื ืืืข ืืชืืื, ืืืคืฉืจืืชืื ืืคื ืืช ืืืื ื ืืงืืฉืืจ ืื. |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืื ืืจื_ืงืจื ืื] | [TOKENS: 1770] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืื ืืจื ืงืจื ืื ืื ืืจื ืงืจื ืื (ืืื ืืืืช: Andrew Carnegie;โ 25 ืื ืืืืืจ 1835 - 11 ืืืืืืกื 1919) ืืื ืืืฉ ืขืกืงืื ืื ืืื ืืืจืืงืื. ืืืืืจืคืื ืงืจื ืื ื ืืื ืืกืงืืืื ื ืืฉืคืืชื ืขืกืงื ืืืจืืื. ืืืื 12 ืืขืจื, ืขืื ืืช ืกืงืืืื ื ืืื ืขื ืืืจืื ืืขืงืืืช ืงืฉืืื ืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืฉืคืื ืืขืืจ ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืฉืืืืชื ืฉื ืื ืคืชืื ืืช ืฉืขืจืื ืืืืืจืื ืืจืืื ืืขืืื. ืืื ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืื ืื ืขืจ ืืกืจ ืื ืืฉืขืื ืืืคืขื ืืงืกืืื ืืคื ืกืืืื ืื ื'ื ืขืจ ืกืืืืื' ืืืจืืืื ื-20 ืกื ื ืืืื. ืืื ืืชืงืื ืืืืืช ืืจืืฆืืชื ืืืืืจ ืฉืขืื ืืืคืขื ืคืืื ืจืืฉ ืืช ืืืคืขื ืืืื ืืืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืชืขืฉืืื ื ืืคืืื. ืืืืื ืืืื ืื ืคื ื'ืื ื. ืจืืงืคืืจ ืืืื ืงืื ื'ืื. ืคื. ืืืจืื ืืื ืงืจื ืื ืชืขืฉืืื ืจื ืขืืฆืื ืฉืฉืื ืขื ืชืขืฉืืืช ืืืฆืืจ ืืคืืื, ืืื ืืืจืืืชื (ืืืจืื ืืืืื) ืืืืจืื ืืืืืชื ืืืคืขืืื ืืขื ืืืืฆืืจ. ืืฉืื ืืกืืื ืฉืื ืงืจืื ื ืืจืื ืืคืขืื ืืคืืื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืฉื ืช 1900 ืืืฆืจื ืืคืขืืื ืืืืช ืคืืื ืืืืื ืืืชืจ ืืื ืฉืืืฆืจ ืืืจืืื ืื ืืืื. ืงืจื ืื ืืืื ืืช ืื ืืื ืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืคืื ืืืจืืงืื, ืืื ืืืชื ื ืฉืืื ืืฉื ืช 1910. ืงืจื ืื ืืืื ืื ืืช ืื ืืืช ืืจืืื ืืฉืืื ืืืื, ืืืฉืืฉ ืืงืื ืืืฉืื ืฉื ืืืช ืืืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืฆืืง, ืืงืจื ืงืจื ืื ื ืืฉืืช ืืขืืช ืืืื ื ืขื ืืืื. ืืขืช ืืงื ืืชื ื ืงืืข ืืกืืกืื ืขื ืฉืืชืคื ืื ืจื ืคืจืืง ืืขืงืืืช ืกืืกืื ืืจืื ืขื ืืืืื ืขืืืืื ืฉื ืืคืขื ืคืืื ืฉื ืืื ืคืจืืง ืฉืืืืื ืืืืชื ืฉื ืคืืขืืื ืืืืืืืื, ืืคืจืืง ืืื ืื ืืืช ืืืืจื. ืืืืจ ืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืขืืืฃ ืืืืืจ ืืช ืืืืจื. ืืื ืฉื ืื ืืืืจ ืืื ืืื ืืืจ ืืช ืืืจืช ืืขื ืง ืฉืื 'ืงืจื ืื ืกืืื' ืืืืฆื ืืืืืืจื ืืืืจืื ืืื ืงืื ื'ืื. ืคื. ืืืจืื ืืืงืืืฉ ืืช ืจืื ืืื ื ืืคืขืืืืช ืคืืื ืชืจืืคืืช ืืืื ืืืื ืื ืืื ืื ืืืืืืื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืื ืชืจื ืืกืคืื ืืื ืืืช ืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืงืจื ืื ืืืื, ืืืื ืงืจื ืื ืืืืข ืืืื ืืงืื ืฆืจืืื ืงืจื ืื ืืื ืืื ืกืคืจืืืช ืฆืืืืจืืืช, ืืชืืืจื ืืืชืืืืืืช ืืจืฉืืช ืืืงืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืชืืืืงืชื. ืืืจื ืื ืืืงืื ืืืืืชื ื-1,600 ืกืคืจืืืช. ืงืจื ืื ืืื ืืืจ ืงืจืื ืฉื ืืชืื ืืจื ืืื. ืืื ืืืง ืืืืื ื ืฉืืื ืืฉืืคืืจ ืืืื ืื, ืืืงืืืฉ ืืืง ื ืืืจ ืืืื ื ืืคืจืื ืืืคืฆืช ืืฉื ืชื ืฉื ืืจื ืืื ืืืจืฆืืช-ืืืจืืช. ืืืกืืจืืืื 671 ืงืจื ืืื ืืฉืจ ืืชืืื ื-21 ืืกืคืืืืจ 1908 ืขื ืืื ืืืกืืจืื ืื ืืืืกืืจื ืืืืื ืคืืืืื ื ืงืจื ืขื ืฉืื ืฉื ืื ืืจื. ืืชืืื ืฉืชืืจืืื ืืขืืจืืช ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืงืืืฅ:VP_Pence_visits_the_Knesset_VP_Pence_visits_the_Knesset_(25968756598)_(cropped).jpg] | [TOKENS: 389] |
ืงืืืฅ:VP Pence visits the Knesset VP Pence visits the Knesset (25968756598) (cropped).jpg ืชืงืฆืืจ Vice President of the United States Mike Pence visits the Knesset and delivers remarks in front of a special parliamentary session, Jerusalem January 22, 2018. ืจืืฉืืื ืืืกืืืจืืืช ืืงืืืฅ ื ืืชื ืืืืืฅ ืขื ืชืืจืื/ืฉืขื ืืื ืืจืืืช ืืช ืืงืืืฅ ืืคื ืฉื ืจืื ืืืืชื ืืื. ืฉืืืืฉ ืืงืืืฅ ืืืฃ ืืื ืืฉืชืืฉ ืืงืืืฅ ืื: ืืืึพื ืชืื ืื ืงืืืฅ ืื ืืืื ืืืืข ื ืืกืฃ, ืฉืื ืจืื ืืืืข ืืืฆืืื ืืืืืืืืช ืื ืืกืืจืง ืฉืืื ืืงืืืฅ ื ืืฆืจ ืื ืขืืจ ืืืืืืฆืื. ืื ืืงืืืฅ ืฉืื ื ืืืฆืื ืืจืืฉืื ื, ืืื ืืื ืชืื ืื ืืืื ืขืืืืื ืฉืื ืืฉืงืฃ ืืืืคื ืืื ืืช ืืงืืืฅ ืื ืืืื. |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืืื ืืคืื] | [TOKENS: 7926] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืืื ืืคืื ืืึนื ืึนืคึผืึนื (ืืืืื ืืช: ฮผฯฮฝฮฟฯ, "ืืึนื ืึนืก" โ ืืื ืึพฯฯฮปฮตแฟฮฝ "ืคึผืึนืึธืึถื" โ ืืืืืจ) ืืื ืืื ื ืืืืืืจ ืืขืืืช ืื ืฉืืืื ืืืขืืืช ืฉื ืืืจื ืืกืืื ืืชืืื ืืืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืืืืง ืืืจื ืฉืื. ืืชืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืื ื ืืฆื ืื ืืฉืืง ืฉื ืืืฆืจ (ืื ืฉืืจืืช) ืืกืืื ืงืืื ืืืืจ ืืืื ืืฉืจ ืืืืฉ ืขื ืจืื ืืฉืืง ืื ืืื ืืืืืืง ืืื ืฉืืง ืืฉืืขืืชื ืืืืก ืืืกืคืงืช ื ืืกืื. ืืืจ ืื ืืงื ื ืืืืชื ืืืจื, ืืงืจืื "ืืขื ืืืื ืืคืื" ืื ืืื ืืคืืืืกื, ืฉืืืื ืืชืืื ืคืขืืืืช ืืฉืืง, ืืจืื ืชืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืชืืจืืช ืื. ืืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืคืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืื ืกืืื ืืงืชืืืืช ืืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืืจืืคื, ืืืืฉืจืื: ืืืจืช ืืืฉืื, ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื (ืืืจื ืืคืจืืช ืื ืืืื) ืืืืจืช "ืืื" ืืชืืื ืชืขืืืจืช ืื ืืกืขืื ืืืฉืจืื, ืืืจื ืื ืืกืชื ืฉื ืืืจืืื ื ืืกืคืื ืืคืขืืืืช. ืืฉ ืืืืืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืคืื ืืืขื ืื ืืฆืจ ืขื ืืื ืืืืชื ืืืขืื ืื ืืื ืืืืชืจ ืืฉืืง ืืืื ืืื ืืคืื ืืืฉืืชื ืื ืคืจืื ืืืกืืช ืืืืฉืื ืืงืืื ืืืืืช ืืกื ืื ืืกื ืืฉืืง, ืืืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืคืจืืืงืฆืืื ืืกืืืืช ืื ืืจืงื ืืืืกืืืืช, ืืืฉืจ ืืื ืืคืื ืืืขื ืืื ื ืืืื ืืื ืืข ืื ืืกื ืฉื ืฉืืงื ืื ืืืฉืื ืืฉืืง ืืืืื, ืขื ืืฃ ืฉืืืื ืื ืกืืช ืขื ืืื ืืกืืจืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืจื ืืืืืจื ืืืฆืฃ. ืขื ืคื ืชืคืืกืืช ืืืืืืืช ืจืืืืืช ืชืืคืขืช ืืืื ืืคืื ืืื ืฉืืืืืช ืืืฉ ืืืงืื ืืจืืื ืื ืืืฉืืชืืื ืฉืืชืขืจืื ืื (ืืืฉืจืื - ืืืืื ื ืขื ืืชืืจืืช) ืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืช ืืฉืืง ืืืฆืื ื"ืืืขื". ืชืืืจืืืช ืืืงืืจืชืืืช ืืืขื ื ืฉืฉืื ืืืื ืืคืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืืกืืืช ืืช ืืขืืืื ืฉืืืขืฉื ืฉืืง ืืืคืฉื ืืื ืฉืืง ืืื ืืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืกืืื ืืืืช ืืืฉืืชืืืช ืืืืืืจืืช ืจืืืืฆืืืช ืืฉืืขืืชืืืช. ืจืืื ืืืืืื ืืื ื ืื ืืืื ืืื ืืงืืจืืื ืืื ืืึนื ืึนืคึฐึผืกืึนื, ืืืืืฆื ืืฆื ืฉืื ืืฉ ืจืง ืงืื ื ืืื ืืืืฆืจ ืื ืฉืืจืืช ืื ืืืืืืืคืกืื, ืฉืื ืืฉ ืืกืคืจ ืืืื ืฉื ืงืื ืื ืืืืฆืจ ืื ืฉืืจืืช; ืงืจืื, ืฉืืื ืชืืคืขื ืืืื ืืืงืืฉืจืช ืฉื ืฉืืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืืืจืืช ืฉืืื ืืื ืืฉ ืืกืืื ืืืงืืช; ืืืืืืืืคืื, ืฉืื ืืฉ ืืกืคืจ ืงืื ืฉื ืืืืจืื ืืฉืืง, ืขื ืื ืืื ืืชืืจืื ืืช ืงืจืืืืช. ืืฆื ืืืืื ืืื ืืคืื ืืฉืืฉืช ืื ืืฆืืจื ืืื ืืคืืืื. ืืคื ืงืืืขืช ืืืงืืืื ืืืฉืื ืืขืืจืืช, ืืื ื ืืืงืืืงื ืฉื ืื ืืื ืืฉื ื ืืฉืืืช ืืืื ืืื ืืืจ ืืืกืคืจื ืืืื ('ืืื ืื ืืื ืืคืืืื'). ืืืคืืื ื ืืืื ืืคืื ืืืื ืืคืื ืืกืคืจ ืืืคืืื ืื ืืืืืงืื, ืืืชื ื ืืชื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืื ืืคืื ืืืืชื, ืืื ืื ืื ื ืืืฆืืืืช ืืฉืืง (ืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืคืื ืืื ื ืื ืืืืฃ): ืกืืื ืืืื ืืคืืืื ื ืืชื ืืืืืื ืืื ืกืืื ืืื ืืคืืืื ืขื-ืคื ื ืกืืืืช ืืืืืฆืจืืชื ืืขื-ืคื ืืืคื ืืชื ืืืืชื ืืฉืืง. ืขื-ืคื ืืืฉื ืื, ื ืืชื ืืืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืคืื ืืืืฉืืจ ืืืฉืืชื ืืืื ืืคืื ืขื ืคื ืืืง, ืืืืืกืกืื ืขื ืืืื ืืืช ืืืฉืืชืืช ืื ืืงืืงื ืื ืื ืื ืืืขืื ืืื ืืคืืืืกืื ืืืืืช ืงืืืขื ืืืืง; ืืื ืืคืื ืืืขื, ืฉืืื ืชืืฆืจ ืฉื ืืื ื ืืขืืืืืช ืืฉืืง (ืืืื ื, ืฉืจืง ืืืจื ืืื ืืกืืื ืืืชืืจืืช ืืฉืืง); ืืืื ืืคืื ืชืืจืืชื, ืฉืืื ืืื ืืคืื ืฉื ืืฆืจ ืืขืงืืืช ืชืืจืืช ืืืคืฉืืช. ืขื-ืคื ืืืฉื ืืืจืช, ืืืงืืืืช ืืขืืงืจ ืขื ืืขืื ืืืฉื ืืชืืืืช ืืงืคืืืืืื ืืืืืืจืืืื, ืืื ืืคืื ืืืขื ืืื ื ื ืืฆืจ ืืคืืขื ืืืฆื ืฉื ืชืืจืืช ืืืคืฉืืช ืืืืื ืืื ืืคืื ืชืืจืืชื ืืื ื ืจืืื ืืืืงืจื ืืื ืืคืื, ืืืืื ืฉืืขืื ืืฉืืืื ืฉืื ืืฉืืง ืืื ื ืืฆืื, ืื ืืจืฉ ืืืื ืืคืื ืืืื ืขืฉืื ืืืฉืชื ืืช ืืืืคื ืืืขื ืืื ืืื ื ืชืื. ืืืื ื ืืืจืช ืืื ืกืืื ืืื ืืคืืืื ื ืืืขืช ืืืืคื ืื ืืืฆืข ืืฉืืจืืช ืื ืืืืฆืจ. ืืชืืื ืื, ืืฉื ื ืืื ืืคืืืื ืื ืืืื, ืืฉืืืืื ืืืกืคืงืช ืฉืืจืืช ืื ืืืฆืจ ืืื ืืืจื ืืืจื, ืืืืืจ ืืื ืืขื ืืืืฆืจ ืืฆืจืืื ืืืืฆืข ืืฆืจืื. ืืืืื ืืืคืืกืืช ืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืกืคืงืช ืืฉืื, ืืฉืืืืืช ืืจืื ืื ืืืืฆืืจ ืืืฉืื, ืื ืืืืืืชื ืืื ืืืคืฆืชื ืืืืืคืื ืืฆืจืื. ืืื ืืคืื ืืกืื ืฉื ื ืืื ืืืคืงื: ืฉืืืื ืืืืจื ืจืืื ืฉื ืฉืืจืืชืื ืื ืืืฆืจืื ืืกืื ืืกืืื. ืืืืืื, ืืืจื ืืืืฆืืื ืืืืจ ืืช ืจืื ืืืืืื ืื ืื ืืืจืื ืืืืื ื ืืกืืืืช ืขืฉืืื ืืืืืฉื ืืขืืช ืืื ืืคืื ืืืคืงื. ืืืื ื ื ืืกืคืช ืืื ืกืืื ืืื ืืคืืืื ื ืืืขืช ืืืืคื ืื ื ืงืืข ืืืืืจ ืืืคื ืคืืื ืืืืืืกืืื ืฉืื ืื. ืืชืืื ืื ืืฉื ื ืืืื ืืคืื ืืคืฉืื, ืื ืืืขืฉื ื ืงืืข ืืืืจ ืืื ืขืืืจ ืื ืืฉืืง, ืืืื ืืคืื ืืคืื - ืืื ืืคืื ืืฉืจ ืงืืืข ืจืื ืฉืื ื ืฉื ืืืืจืื ืืคืืื ืฉืืง ืฉืื ืื ืืคื ืจืฆืื ื. ืืืืื ืืืื ืืคืื ืืคืฉืื ืืื ืืืื ืืคืืคืงืืจื ืืงืืื ืืข ืื ืืืืืจืื ืืืืืื (ืืื ืืืืจื ืืืื) ืื ืืืืืื. ืืืืื ืืืื ืืคืื ืืคืื ืืืฉืื ืืื ืจืืคื ืืืืื ืื ืขื"ื ืืืืืื ืฉืืจ ืืืคืจื ืฆืืืื (ืฉืื ื) ืืื ืืงืื ืืืงืื ืืคื ืืืืจืชื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืคืืืื ืืืงืกืืืื. ืืื ืืคืื ืขื-ืคื ืืืง ืืื ืืื ืืคืื ืฉืื ืืฉื ื ืืืกืืจ ืืคืืจืฉ ืืืืง, ืืชืงื ื ืื ืื ืืื, ืขื ืชืืจืืช ืืืกืคืงืช ืืืฆืจ ืื ืฉืืจืืช, ืืฉืืฉืืืื ืืืกืคืงืช ืืืฆืจ ืื ืฉืืจืืช ืื ืืืขื ืงืช ืืืืจื ืืืื. ืืื ืืคืื ืขื-ืคื ืืืง ืขืฉืื ืืืืืช ืขื ืืืฆืจ ืื ืฉืืจืืช ืืงืืื ืื ืืื-ืืจืฆื ืืืืื ืืืขืช ืืื ืกืื ืฉื ืฉืืจืืช ืื ืืืฆืจ. ืืื ืืคืื ืขื-ืคื ืืืง, ืืืืฉืืจ ืืืฉืืชื ืื ืืืืืื ืืืฉืืชื, ืืืื ื ืืขืืชืื ืื ืืื ืืคืื ืืืคื. ืืืืืื, ืจืฉืืช ืืฉืืืืจ ืืืฉืจืื ื ืื ืชื ืืืื ืืคืื ืขื-ืคื ืืืง ืืชืืื ืฉืืืืจื ืืืืืืืืื ืืืจืฆืืื ืืื ืชืืืืช ืฉืืืืจืื ืืื ืืขื ืฉื ืช 1992. ืืื ืืคืืืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืืืจืช "ืืืง" ืขื ืฉืืืืช ืืืคืื ืืงืืืืืช, ืืืืจืช "ืคืืืคืื" ืขื ืฉืืจืืชื ืืืคืื ืกืืืืจื, ืืืืจืช ืืืฉืื ืขื ืืกืคืงืช ืืฉืื ืื ืืืืจืืช ืืืืืื ืขื ืฉืืืืจื ืืืืืื ืืืืืจื ืืืจืฅ ืืฉืื ืื. ืื ืงืืืช ืืื ืื, ื ืืชื ืืจืืืช ืื ืืืืขืืืืช ืืืืขื ืงืช ืืืืคืื ืืื "ืืืืื ืืืืื" ืื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื ืขื ืฉืืจืืชืื ืืกืืืืื ืืื ืืคืื. ืืจืื, ื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืคืืืื ืืืฉืืชืืื ืื ืืืขืืืช ืืืฉืืชืืช, ืืื ืืฉืจืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืืืจืืช ืืืฉืืชืืืช; ืืืื ืืคืืืื ืืืขืืืช ืคืจืืืช, ืื ืื ืื ืืืืขืืืืช ืขื ืืชื ืืฉืืจืืช ืื ืืืืฆืจ ืฉืืืื ืืคืื. ืืื ืืคืืืื ืื ืืกืื ืืฉื ื ืืืื ืื ืื ืืื ืืคืืืื ืืืืฉืืจ ืืืฉืืชื. ืืืืื ืืขืืงืจื ืืื ืฉื ื ืกืืื ืืืืคืื ืืื ืฉืขื ืืืคืื ืคืจืืืื ืืขืื ืืื ืืคืื ืืืื ืืจืื ืคืืงืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืจืฉืืืืช ืคืืงืื, ืืขืื ืฉืขื ืืืง ื ืืืจ ืืืืื ืืคืืืื ืืืืฉืืชืืื ืืื ืคืืงืื ืืื ืื ืฉืืคืืงืื ืืื ืื ืืื ืืื ืจืืืืืืื. ืืืืืื, ืืืจืืช ืคืจืืืืช ืืคืืงืืืช ืขื-ืืื ืจืฉืืช ืืชืืจืืช ืืืืื ืืืคืื ืืืฉืืชืืื ืืคืืงืืื ืขื-ืืื ืืืงืจ ืืืืื ื. ืืื ืืคืื ืืืขื, ืืืขื ืช ืืื ืืกืืืจืื ืื ืืื ืืคืื ืืื ืงืืื, ืืื ืืื ืืคืื ืืฆืืื ืืชืขืฉืืืช ืฉืืื ืืชืฉืชืืช ืื ืืจืฉืช ืืืกืคืงืช ืืฉืืจืืช ืื ืืืืฆืจ ืืื ืื ืจืืื ืขื ืื ืจืง ืืืจื ืืืช ืืกืืืืช ืืกืคืง ืฉืืจืืช ืื ืืืฆืจ ืืื. ืืืจื ืืื, ื ืืฉืืื ืชืืืื ืืกืคืงืช ืืืฉืื ืืืืื, ืืื ื ืืจืฉืช ืชืฉืชืืช ืคืืืืช ืจืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืฆืจืื, ืืชืืืืื ืฉืืื ืงืืื ืื ื ืืฆืจ ืืื ืืคืื ืืืขื. ืชืืืืื ื ืืกืคืื ืขืชืืจื ืชืฉืชืืช, ืฉืืื ืืืขื ืื ืื ื ืืขื ืื ืงืืื ืืื ืืคืื ืืืขื, ืื ืชืืืื ืืกืคืงืช ืืื, ืืื ืืื, ืฉืืืืช ืืืคืื, ืืืคืื ืกืืืืจื, ืืืืืช ืืืขื ืื ืื ืืกืขืื, ืฉืืจืืชื ืชืขืืคื ืืขืื. ืืื ืืคืื ืืืขื ืืชืคืชื, ื ืืขื, ืืชืืฆืื ืืื ืฉืืขืืืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืจืืืืช ืืืงืืช ืชืฉืชืืช ืืืจืืืช ืืขืืืืช ืื ืืืืจืืช ืืคืจืืืืช ืืช ืืฉืืง ืืืฉืชืืืืช ืขืืื ืฉื ืืืืจื ืืืืืื โ ืคืขืืื ืจืืืช, ืืจืืฉืื ื โ ืืืกืืืืช ืืขืืื ืืขืืืืืช ืืื. ืื ืืกืชื ืฉื ืืืจืืื ืืืฉืื ืืฉืืง ืืืืขื ืืืืืจ ืืืชืจ ื ืื ืขืช ืืืื ืืกื ืื ืืกื ืืฉืืง ืืืื ืืืืืช ืขืืืืืช ืืงืืช ืืชืฉืชืืช ืืืืืืืช, ืื ืืืฉืจ ืืขืืืืชื ืขืฉืืื ืืืืืช ืจืื ืืืชืจ ืืฉื ืืืื ืืคืืืืกื. ืขื-ืคื ืืขื ืืช ืืืืจืืจืืื ืืืช ืืืืจืืช, ืืืืืฆืจืืช ืืื ืืคืื ืืืขื ืืื ื ืืคืฉืจืืช ืืื ืืชื ืืื ืฉื ืฉืืง ืืืคืฉื. ืืืขื ืชื, ืืชืืคืขื ืืืืื ื "ืืื ืืคืื ืืืขื" ืืื ืืื ืืืงืจืื ืืื ืืคืื ืืืืฉืืจ ืืืฉืืชื. ืืืืืจ, ืืื ืืคืื ืฉื ืืฆืจ ืืชืืฆืื ืืืืคืื ืฉื ืืืจื ืจืืฉืื ืืช ืื ืืืืืื ืืชืืื ืืกืืื, ืชืื ืืชื ืขืืืคืืช ืื ืืืขืืืืช ืืืืชื ืืืจื ืืืขื ืงืช ืืฉืืจืืช ืื ืืืืฆืจ ืฉืืืื ืืคืื. ืืขืืืช, ืื ืืฆืืืขืื ืขื-ืื ืฉืืฉืืืงืื ืืื ืื ืืืืชื ืืขืืจืืืช ืืืฉืืชืืช ืืกืื ืื, ืื ื ืืฆืจ ืืขืืื ืืื ืืคืื ืืืขื ืืื. ืืชืืืืื ืจืืื ืฉื ืืฉืื ืืขืืจ ื"ืืื ืืคืื ืืืขื" ืืชืงืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืืจื ืชืืจืืช ืืืคืฉืืช ืขื ืืกืจืช ืืคืืงืื ืื ืืฉืืืื ืืืืฉืืชืืช (ืืืจื ืืคืจืื), ืืื ืชืืืื ืืกืคืงืช ืืื, ืืื ืืื, ืืืืคืื ืืกืืืืจื, ืืืืืช ื ืืกืขืื, ืฉืืืืช ืืืคืื ืืืช ืืื"ื ืืืงืืืืืช, ืืขืื. ืืฉ ืืืืขื ืื ืื ืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืคืืืืกืืืช ืืชืืืืื ืืื ื ืืฆืจื ืืขืืงืจ ืืฉืื ืฉืงืืื ืคืืงืื (ืจืืืืฆืื) ืืืฉืืชื, ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืคืฉืจืืช ืืืชืืจืืช ืืืขืืื ืืฆืืจืช ืืื ืืคืืืื. ืขื ืืืช, ืืฉ ืืืืืจ ืื ืืชืืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืฉื ืื ืืืืจืื ืืช ืืชืคืชืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืฉืืขืืชืืืช, ืืฉืจ ืืืืืื ืืืืื ื ืืืจืช ืืช ืขืืืช ืืงืืช ืืชืฉืชืืช ืืืกืคืงืชื, ืืืคืฉืจื ืืืืคืื ืขืกืงืืื ืืืฉืื ืืืืื ืก ืืฉืืืงืื ืืื. ืื ืืกืฃ, ืืืืืฃ ืืื ืืคืชืืืช ืืฉืืง ืืชืืจืืช, ื ืืืจืช ืืืื ืฉื ืงืื ืกืืืืืฆืื ืืื ืืืืจืืช ืืืืฉืืช, ืืืืืช ืฉืืง ืืชืงืฉืืจืช, ืืืืจื ืืืกืื ืืขืืืืืช ืืชืคืขืื ืืืืืืืช. ืืืืคื ืื ืขืฉืืืื ืืืืืืฆืจ ืืืืืคืืืื ืื ืืืืืืืคืืืื ืืกืืจืืื, ืืืืืืคืื ืืช ืืืื ืืคืื ืืืืขื. ืคืชืจืื ืืขืืืช ืืืื ืืคืื ืืืจื ืืคืืขืืช ืืืฉืง ืชืืจืืชื ืืฉืืืื, ืืืืืจ ืืฉืง ืฉืื ืืกืคืจ ืจื ืฉื ืืืจืืช, ืืงืืืช ืืืืจ ืื ืชืื, ืฉืื ืืื ืงืื ื ืืืืก ืืฉืืง, ืืืื ืืื ืื ืืืืืช ืืืฉืคืืข ืขื ืืืืืจ. ืืขืืืช ืืืช, ืืื ืืคืื, ืืคื ื ืฉืืื ืืืืจื ืืืืืื ืฉืคืืขืืช ืืฉืืง, ืืืื ืืงืืืข ืืฆืืจื ืืืืืืช ืืช ืืืืืจ ืืฉืืง (ืืื ืื ืฉืืื ืืกืืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืื ืจืืืืฆืื ืืืฉืืชืืช ืื ืืืื ืฉื ืืืื). ืชืืช ืืกืคืจ ืชื ืืื ืกืื ืืจืืืื, ืคืชืจืื ืืขืืืช ืืืื ืืคืื ืืชืงืื ืืืฉืืืืช ืืขืืืช ืืฉืืืืช (Marginal Cost - MC) ืืคืืืื ืืฉืืื (Marginal Revenue - MR). ืืืืืจ, ืืืื ืืคืื ืืืืจ ืืืืจ ืื ืืืืช ืื ืฉืืคืืืื ืฉืืื ืืงืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืจืื ื ืฉืืื ืืืืฆืจ ืืืื ืืื ืืขืืืช ืืืืฆืืจ ืฉื ืืืชื ืืืืื. ืืืืืื ืฉืืคืืืื ืืฉืืื ืชืืื ืืืจื ืืฆืืจื ืชืืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืืืงืืฉ, ื ืงืื ืฉืืืืืช ืฉืืืื ืืคืื ืงืืืข ืงืื ื ืืืืืช ืฉื ืชืืจืืช ืืฉืืืืืช, ืืืืืืจ ืืืื ืืืชืจ. ืืื ืืคืื ืชืืจืืชื ืืื ืืคืื ืชืืจืืชื ืงืืื ืืืฉืจ ืืืจื ืืืืืช ืฉืืืืช ืืจืื ืืฉืืง ืืืกืคืงืช ืฉืืจืืช ืื ืืืฆืจ ืืกืืื. ืืืื ืืคืื ืืคืืขื ืฉื ืืืืจื ืืื ื ืืขืืื ืืืืง ืื ืชืงื ื, ืื ืืฆืจ ืืขืงืืืช ืชืืจืืช ืืืคืฉืืช ืืื ืืืจืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืชื ืืฉืืจืืช ืื ืืืืฆืจ. ืืขืืชืื ืงืจืืืืช, ืืื ืืคืื ืชืืจืืชื ืืื ื ืืฆืื, ืืืืื ืื ืฉืชืงืืคืช ืฉืืืื ื ืงืฆืจืช ืืืื ืืจืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืฆื ืืชืืจืื ืืืฉืื ืืฉืืง. ืืืืื ืืืคืืกืืช ืืืื ืืคืื ืชืืจืืชื ืขืฉืืื ืืืืืช ืืืจืช ืืืงืจืืกืืคื, ืฉืื ืฉืืืื ืืืขื ืืืืืืช ืืฉืืง ืืขืจืืืช ืืืคืขืื ืืืืชืืืช. ืืื ืืคืื ืชืืจืืชื ืืืื ืืฉ ืืฉืจืช ืืืื ืืจื ื "ืืคืืฆ'ื" ืฉืฉืื ืืชืงืืคืืช ืืกืืืืืช ืืขื 70 ืืืื ืืฉืืง ืฉืจืชื ืืืื ืืจื ื. ืืื ืืคืื ืชืืจืืชื ืืืฉื ืืื ืืืงืจืื ืืืฉืจ ืืืจื ืืืช ืืืืฆืจืช ืืืืคื ืืขืื ืื ืืกืคืง ืืืฆืจ ืื ืฉืืจืืช ืืืืงืฉืื ืืืืืจ ืืืืงืฉ, ืืืฉืจ ืืชืืจืื ืฉื ืืืืจื ืืชืงืฉืื ืืกืคืง ืืืฆืจ ืืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืืืื. ืืขืืชืื, ื ืืขื, ื ืืงืืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืฉืืืืช ืืื ืืคืื ืฆืขืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืชืืจืื ืืืชืืจืืช ืื ืืื ืืกืื ืืืื ืขื ืืืจืืช ืืืจืืช ืื ืืืืจื ืืืืืจื ืืืฆืฃ. ืจืื ืื ืืงืจืืื ื ืืกืคืช ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืืฉืืื ืจืืื ืืงืกืืืื ืฉื ืืื ืืคืื ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%93%D7%9E%D7%94] | [TOKENS: 10786] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืคืจืืืจืกืืืืื ืคึฐึผืจืึนืึถืจึฐืกึดืืึดืืึถื ืื ืคึฐึผืจืึนืึฐืจึตืกึดืืึดืึผืึผืช (ืืื ืืืืช: Progressivism; ื ืืืจืช ืฉื ืืืืื progress; ืืขืืจืืช: ืงึดืึฐืึธื) ืืื ืคืืืืกืืคืื ืคืืืืืืช ืืืฉืงืคืช ืขืืื ืืืืจืกืช ืื ืืคืฉืจ ืืืืื ืืงืื ืืช ืืืืจื ืืื ืืฉืืช ืืืืฆืขืืช ืฉืื ืื ืืืจืชื. ืืชื ืืขื ืคืืืืืืช ืืคืจืืืจืกืืืืืช ืืืขื ืช ืื ืืชืงืืืืช ืืืขืืช, ืืื ืืืืืืช, ืืชืคืชืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืจืืื ืืืจืชื ืืืื ืืื ืืฉืืคืืจ ืืฆื ืืื ืืฉืืช. ืจืขืืื ืืงืืืื ืืืคืจืืืจืกืืื ืืคืื ืืจืขืืื ืจื-ืืฉืืขืืช ืืชืงืืคืช ืขืืื ืื ืืืจืืช ืืืืจืืคืืช, ืฉืืืื ืืืชืืกืกืืช ืขื ืื ืื ืื ืืืข ืืืคืืจื ืืืกืื ืืืืจื ืืฉืคืจ ืืช ืืชืจืืืช. ืืืจืืฆืช ืืืื ืืฉืชื ื ืืฉืืขืืืืช ืืืืฉื ืืืชืื ืืชืงืืคืืช ืืื ืงืืืืช ืืื ืฉืื ืืช. ืื ืฆืืื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช "ืืชื ืืขื ืืคืจืืืจืกืืืืช" ืฉืชืืื ืืืชืขืจืืืช ืืืฉืืชืืช ืืืืืืช ืืฉืืืงืื ืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืชืืจืืช ืืืืืืช, ืืืืงืื ืืืงืื ืืืืกืืืช ืืื ืืืงืื ื ืื ืืื ืืคืืืื (ืืืฉืจืื โ ืืืง ืืชืืจืืช ืืืืืืืช), ืงืืืื ืจืืืืฆืื ืืชืืืืื ืฉืื ืื ืืื ืื ืื ืืืืื ืืืชืจืืคืืช ืืืืจืืงืื, ืกืืืื ืจืืืืื ืขื ืืืฆืจื ืืืื ืืคืืงืื ืขื ืืืืืืช ืืืืื. ืืชื ืืขื ืื ืงืืืื ืจืคืืจืืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืืจืืืช ืงืืืื ืืคืืื ืืื. ืืฉืื ืืคืืืืื ืืืืืจื ื ืืืื ื ืคืจืืืจืกืืื ืืืืื ืืืจื ืืื ืขื ืืืืจืืืื ืืืจืชื โ ืฉื ืืื ืื ืื-ืืืืจืืืื ืืืื ื. ืกืื ืื ืฉื ืืืืจืืืื ืืฉืื ืชืืืื ืืืฉืง ืืขืืจื ืืื ืขื ืืืืจืืืื ืชืจืืืชื. ืืคืจืืืจืกืืืืื, ืืืืืืืืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืช, ืงืจืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืจืื-ืฉืืื ืืืืืจืื-ืืืจืชื ืืืฉืจ ืืฉืืื ืืจืืืงืื. ืืขืฉืืจ ืืฉื ื ืฉื ืืืื ื-21 ืืื ืืืื ื ืืฉืืฉ ืืืื ืื ืื ืื ืืืื ืื ืฉื ืืืื ืฉืืจื ืืื ืื ืคืืคืืืืกืืืื, ืืืฉืจ ืืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืขืจืืื ืืื ืืืืจืืืื ืืืจืชื, ืคืืื ืืื, ืืฉืืจ ืืืงืืื, ืงืืืืืช, ืืืืืืช ืืื"ื, ืจื-ืชืจืืืชืืืช ืืืืื ืช ืจืืืื. ืืื ืืืืฉืืช ืืื ืืืืืช ืืคืจืืืจืกืืืืื ื ืื ืืช ืฉืืจื ืืช, ืคืืคืืืืื ืืื ื, ืืชืืืช ืืจืืืงืฆืืื ืจืืืช. ืืืกืืืจืื ืขืื ืืื ืงืื ื ืืืื ืืช ืืงืืืื ืืชื ืืขื ืฉืืชืจืืงืช ืืืจืืจืืืช ืืืืืื ืืฆืืืืืืืืฆืื.[ืืจืืฉ ืืงืืจ: ืืจืืฉ ืืงืืจ ืกืคืฆืืคื ืืืืืื] ืืคืืืืกืืฃ ืืืืขื ืืืืื ื ืืืืื ื-18 ืืืจืงืื ืื ืงืื ืืืจืกื ืืื ืฉืืงืืื ืคืืืืืืช ืชืืื ืืจืืื ืืืขืืืช ืืขืืืืช, ืขืืืืช ืืืืจืืื ืืช, ืืคืืชืช ืื ืืฉืืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืื, ืจืคืืจืืืช ืืชื ืื ืืืืืื (ืฉืืื ืงืฉืื ืืืืชื ืชืงืืคื) ืืืจืืื ืืขืื ื. ืืืืจื ืืืช ืื ืืืืจื ืืืฆืื ืืืืชื ืืจืืื ืืจืืื ืฉื ืจืขืืื ืืงืืืื ืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืจืืื ืงืืืกืืื ืืืืืช ื-19 ืื-20, ืฉืงืจืื ืืืืืจื ืืืฆืื ืืืืจื ืฉื ืืืืืื ืืืืืจื ืืื ืืืกืืจ ืืช ืืืืฉืืืื ืืืกืืจืชืืื ืฉืืื ืขื ืฉืืืงืื ืืืืคืฉืืื ืืืชื ืืขืืช ืืืืคืฉืืืช ืฉื ืื ืฉืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืช. ืืกืืฃ ืืืื ื-19 ืืชืืืงื ืืขืืื ืืืขืจืื ืืคืืคืืืจืืืช ืฉื ืชืคืืกื ืคืืืืืืช, ืืคืื ืืงืืืื ื ืื ืงืช ืขื ืืื ืื ืฉืืืืื ืืืืื ืขืฆืื ืืื ืืขืฉืืจืื ืืขื ืืื, ืงืคืืืืืื ืืขื ืจืืืืฆืื ืืื ืืืืืช ืฉืื ืคืืขืืื ืชืืืืืื ืืื ืืคืืืืกืืืื, ืืกืืกืืืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืืขืื ืืื ืืขืืืืื. ืืคืจืืืจืกืืืืื ืืฉืคืืข ืขื ืชื ืืขืืช ืคืืืืืืืช ืฉืื ืืช. ืืืืืจืืืื ืืืืจืชื ืืืฉืคืข ืืชืคืืกืชื ืฉื ืืคืืืืกืืฃ ืืืืืจืื ืืืจืืื ื'ืื ืกืืืืืจื ืืื ืฉืื ื ืืืื ืื "ืืฆืืจืื ืคืจืืืจืกืืืืื". ืจืืฉ ืืืฉืืช ืืจืืื ืื ืื ื'ืืื ืืืืจืืื ืคืืชื ืฉืืจื ืืช ืืชืงืืืช ืชืืช ืืืืจืืื ืฉื "ืฉืืจื ืืช ืฉื ืขื ืืื" (ืื '). ืืฆืจืคืช, ืืืื ืืื ืืืืคืื ืืืืจืชืืช ืืืื ืืืจืื-ืืืื ืืฉืืจื ื ืืืืื ื ืืืจืชืืช ืืชืืื ืืืืคืขืชื ืฉื ืืจืืืงืืืื ืฉืืฉื ืฉืืงืืื ืืืจืชืืช ืืืืืืช ืื ืื-ืงืืจืืงืืืื, ืืืื ืืื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืืื. ืืืืืื ืื ืื-ืงืืจืืงืืืื ืืื ืืืฉืคืขื ืืืืืื ื ืืืช ืขื ืืืจืื-ืฉืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืจืืืช ืืืืจืืช ืฆืจืคืชืืช ืืจืืืื ืืช ืขื ืืืฆืข ืืืื ื-20. ืืืจืื ืื ืืงืืกืจืืช, ืืงื ืฆืืจ ืืืื ืคืื ืืืกืืจืง ืืืงืง ืืืฆืขื ืจืืืื ืกืืฆืืืืืื ืคืจืืืจืกืืืืื ืฉืื ืื ืืชืื ืื ืืขืื ืฉืืจื ืืื ืคืืจื ืืืกืืืื ืืืืจื ืืืจืืืง ืขืืืืื ืืืชื ืืขื ืืกืืฆืืืืืกืืืช ืฉื ืืืชื ืชืงืืคื ืืืืจื ืืกืืืข ืืฉืืืจื ืขื ืืืืคืื ืืชืขืฉืืืชืืช. ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืคืจืืืจืกืืืืืช ืืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืจื ืืื ืืืงืืืืื ื ืื ืืคืืืืกืืคืื ืืคืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืงืชืืืช (ืื ') ืืคื ืฉืืืืขื ืขื ืืื ื'ืื ืืืง ืืืืืกืื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืืืืจืืงืืืช, ืืคืื ืกืืืืช ืืฉืืืื ืชืืืื ืืืงืคืื ืขื ืืืืืืช ืขื ืกืืืืืืชืื ืืฆืืืงืืช. ืืชื ืืขื ืืคืจืืืจืกืืืืช ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืื ืืชื ืืขื ืืืจืชืืช ืืฉื ืืช ื-90 ืฉื ืืืื ื-19 ืืชื ืืขืช ื ืื ืืื ืืืจืื ืื ืืฉืืืืื ืฉืฆืืจื ืขืื ืืขืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืื ืืชืงืืคื ืฉืืืืจ ืืืืืช ืืืืจืืื ืืืืจืืงื ืืช. ืืืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืื ืื ืชืืืืช ืืงืฉืจืื ืืืืฉื, ืืชืจืื ืืช ืืืืื ืืงืืืื ืฉื ืืื ืฉืืง ืืื ืืขืื ืขืกืงืื ืื ืชืื ืฉืืง ืืืืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืืชืจ ืชืื ืฉืื ืืืืฉืื ืขื ืืืงืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืชืืืื ืืช ืืชื ืืื ืขืืืจ ืฆืจืื ืื, ืขืืืืื, ืกืคืงืื ืืืชืืจืื. ืืฉื ืช 1873 ืืชื ืืกืืคืจ ืืืจืง ืืืืืื ืกืคืจ ืืืงืืจืชื ืขื ืืืจืื ืื ืืืชืงืืคื ืืฉื "ืขืืื ืืฆืืคื ืืื: ืกืืคืืจ ืืืืืื" (The Gilded Age: A Tale of Today). ืืกืคืจ, ืฉืชืืืจ ืืช ืืฉืืืชืืช ืืคืืืืืืช ืฉืืืืชื ืืืื ื, ืืคื ืืจื-ืืืจ. ืืื ืืฃ ืืขื ืืง ืืชืงืืคื ืื ืืช ืฉืื โ "ืืขืืื ืืฆืืคื ืืืื" (ืืืงืื ืืขืืื ืืืืืื) Gilded Age. ืืืืืจื ืืื ื ืืฆืฅ ืืืืื โ ืืื ืืืฉืจ ืืงืืคืื ืืช ืืฆืืคืื ืืชืืื ืืฆืืืืช ืงืฉื. ืืฉืืื ืขืืื ืื ืืชืืืื ืฉื ื ืื ืฉืื, ื'ืื ื. ืจืืงืคืืจ ืื'ืื. ืคื. ืืืจืื, ืืขืื ืืืืคืจืืืช ืขืกืงืืืช ืฉืฉืืื ืขื ืขื ืคืื ืจืืื ืืืื ืขื ืฃ ืืื ืงืืืช ืืืืงืื ืืื ืงืืืืืช ืขื ืืืื. ืจืืงืคืืจ ืืื ืืขื ืืื ืืคืื ืืืื ืคืกืื ืืชืืื ืืคืงืช ืื ืคื ืื ืฉืืื ืืืชืื ืืช ืืืืืจืื ืื ืืฆืจืื ืื ืืื ืืกืคืงืื ืืืฃ ืืืจืื ืืช ืืืจืืช ืืจืืืืช ืืชืช ืื ืื ืื ืืืืงืืื ืื ืืืงืฉืืช ืืช ืืชื ืืื ืขื ืืชืืจืื. ืืืจืื ืืคืขืื ืงืืืฆืืช ืืฉื "ืืจืืกืืื" ืฉืืื ืงืจืืืื ืืืงืืื ืืขื ืคืื ืฉืืืื ืฉืงืืขื ืืช ืืืืืจืื ืืืช ืืชื ืืื. ืื ืื ืืื ืืืงื ืืืืืจืื ืืฉื ืืฉืคืขืช ืืืืจืืช ืืืืืืืช ืขื ืืืืฉื ืืืฆืจ ืืขื ืืืื ืืืื ืืงืจื ืืืืจืื, ืคืืขืืื ืืืื ืืืงืืืืืื. ืืขื ืื ืืชืคืจืฅ ืืคืขืืื ืืฉืืืชืืช ืืืชื ืืฉืืืืช ืืื ืฉืืืจื ืืจื ืืืจืืื ืื ืฉื ืืขืื ืืืคืขืืื ืืืืืืื. ืืขืืื ืื ืขืื ืื ืืื ืื ืง ืืจืืื ืืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืืชื ืชืืืื ืืืืืืืืช ืืกืคืื ืืืื ืงืื ืืืืืืื. ืืืขืืจ ืื ืง ืืจืืื ืืคืงื ืืคืฉืจ ืื ืืื ืงืื ืื ืคื ืืืขืืช ืคืื ื ืกืืืช ืฉืืฆืจื ืื ืจืืฆืืช ืขื ืืื ืง. ืืื ืืืฆืืืง ืืช ืืคืขืจืื ืืืืืืืื ืืืืืื, ืืจืืืืื ืืขืฆืืืื ืื ืืื ืขืื ื ืฉื ืืืืจืื ืืคืืขืืื, ืืฆืืืงื ืืืจืื ืื ืืฉืืืืื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืื ืชื ืืงืจืืชื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืฆื ืืืขื ื ืฉืื ืฆืจืืื ืืขืืื ืืืืื ืงืคืืืืืกืืืช ืชืืจืืชืืช โ ืืืืืจ ื ืืืืช ืืชืขืจืืืช ืืืฉืืชืืช. ืืื ืืืงื ืืช ืืืขื ืืช ืฉืืื ื ืืคื ืืืขื ืื ืืฆืืืงื ืืืชื ืื ืืืขื ืืช ืฉื ืืจืืืื ืืื ืืืจืชื ืืคืืื ืืืืืจื ืื ืฉืื ืืืืฉืจืื ืจืืืืื ืืืืืช ืขืฉืืจืื ืืื ืฉืื ืืขืื ื ื ืืฆื ืฉื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืข ืื ืขืฆืืืช. ืืขืื ืฉืืืื ื ืคืจืืืจืกืืื ืืืฆื ืืืืื ืฉื ืงืืืฆืืช ืืืฅ ืคืืืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช, ืื ืชืืื ืืืืืืืช, ืืคืจืืืจืกืืืื ืืื ืืช ืืืจืืืื ืืื ืืืืจืชื, ืืชืื ืืืื ื ืฉื ืืชื ืืืคื ืืืขืืืช ืฉืืืืจื ืืชืืืืืช ืืืชื, ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืขืืืืช, ืืืื ืืช, ืขืื ื, ืืืขื ืืช ืืืืืืืช, ืขื ืืื ืืชื ืืื ืื ืืื. ืกืืืื ืืืืื ืืืงืื ืขืืืื ืืขืื. ืคืจืืืจืกืืืื ืืื ืืขืืงืจ ืืขืจืื, ืืื ืืขืื ืืฉืืื ืืจืืช ืงืืื' ืืืืืื ื ืืฉืืืื ืืจืืื ืืืง. ืคืืืืืืงืืื ืคืจืืืจืกืืืื ืคืขืื ืืฉืชื ืืืคืืืืช ืืืืืืืช, ืืืื ืื ืฉืืืื ืชืืืืืจ ืจืืืืืื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ื ืืืืืจื ืืืืกืื ืืืืืงืจืื. ืืื ืืกืคืจ ื ืืกืืื ืืช ืืืงืื ืืคืืืืช ืคืืืืืืืช ืคืจืืืจืกืืืืืช. ืื ืืืฉื, ื-1912 ืืงืื ืชืืืืืจ ืจืืืืืื ืืคืืื ืคืจืืืจืกืืืืช ืืฉืื ืืฆืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืฉ ืืืืขืืืืช ืืืคืืื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืืช, ืื ืืืืข ืืืืืจืืช ืจืง ืืืงืื ืืฉื ื โ ืืืจื ืืืืจื ืืืืกืื ืืืคื ื ืืืืืื ืืืืืจื ืืืคื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ื. ืขื ืจืงืข ืืืกืจ ืื ืืช ืืคืขืืืืชื ืฉื ืืชืืืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืื ืฉืืืฉืช ืืืืขืืืื ืื ืฉืืืืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืขื ื ืฉืื ืคืจืืืจืกืืืื. ืจืืืืืื ืืืจืื ืื ืืื "ืชืืื ืืืืื ืฉืคืจืืืจืกืืืืืช ื ืืื ื ืืฉืืจื ืืช ื ืืื ื ืืืืืื ืื ืืื." ื-1924 ืฉืื ืืืงืื ืืคืืื ืคืจืืืจืกืืืืช ืืจืืฉืืช ืจืืืจื ืื ืคืืื, ืืกื ืืืืจ ืืจืคืืืืืงื ื ืืืืืกืงืื ืกืื, ืืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืชื ืืขื ืืคืจืืืจืกืืืืช, ืฉืืฆืืื ืืืืืข ืจืง ืืืงืื ืืฉืืืฉื. ืืฉื ื ืืืงืจืื ืืชืคืืจืจื ืืืคืืืืช ืืืืจ ืืืืฉืืื ืืืืืจืืช. ืืืื ืืืจืืช ืืืกืจ ืืืฆืืื ืืืงืื ืืคืืื, ืืืชืืื ืืชื ืืขื ืืืืื ืจืื ืืช ืกืืจ ืืืื ืืคืืืืื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืฉื ื ืืขืฉืืจืื ืืจืืฉืื ืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืขืฉืจืื, ืชืงืืคื ืฉื ืงืจืืช "ืืขืืื ืืคืจืืืจืกืืื", ืืืืชืืจื ืืืจืฉืช ืฉื ืืืจืช ืขื ืืืื ื. ืืชื ืืขื ืืืืืื ืจืคืืจืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืจืืืช ืืชืงืืคื ืื, ืืื ืืืืจืืช ืืฉืืจืืช ืืกื ืื (ืืชืืงืื ื-17 ืืืืงืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช), ืื ืืืช ืืืืจืืช ืืงืืืืืช ืืฉืืจืืช, ืืชื ืืืืช ืืืืจื ืื ืฉืื (ืืชืืงืื ื-19 ืืืืงืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช), ืืงืืงืช ืืืงืื ื ืื ืงืจืืืื (ืืืงื ืื ืื-ืืจืืกื โ ืืืงืื ื ืื ืืืืืื ืขืกืงืืื) ืชืื ืคืืจืืง ืืืื ืืคืืืื ืืืืืืื, ืื ืืืช ืจืืืืฆืื ืืชืืืืื ืฉืื ืื ืืื ืืืื ืื ืชืจืืคืืช, ืืืงืืงื ืกืืืืชืืช ืืกืืฆืืืืืช. ืจืื ืืฆืขืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืฆืืื ืจืื ืืืืืฉื ืืืืฆื ืขื ืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืจืืช ืืื ืืงืืืืื ืขื ืืืื. ืคืจืืืจืกืืืืืช ืืืื ื-21 ืืชืืืืช ืืืื ื-21 ืืืื ื "ืคืจืืืจืกืืืืื" ืื "ืคืจืืืจืกืืืืืช" ืืฉืืฉ ืืืื ืื ืื ืืืืืืืืืืืืช ืฉืืื ืฉืื ืืช ืืื ืกืืฆืืืืืื, ืกืืืืชื ืืช, ืงืืกืืืคืืืืืืืช, ืจื-ืชืจืืืชืืืช, ืคืืืืืืงืช ืืืืืืช,[ืืจืืฉื ืืืืจื] ืืชืืืื ืืื ืื-ืืชืืืช,[ืืจืืฉ ืืงืืจ] ืคืืื ืืื ืืืฃ ืคืืื ืืื ืจืืืงืื, ืืืืืืช ืืื"ื, ืชืืืืจืื ืงืืืืจืืช, ืชืืืืจืื ืืืงืืจืชืืช ืืชืงืื ืืช ืคืืืืืืช. ืืืื ื ื ืคืืฅ ืืขืืงืจ ืืคืืืืืืงื ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืื ื-21 ืื ืขื ืืืื ืืชืคืฉื ืื ืืคืืืืืืงื ืฉื ืฉืืจ ืืขืืื ืืืขืจืื, ืืจืืืช ืืคืืืืืืงื ืฉื ืืฉืจืื. ืืืืืืืืืืื ืื ืืืืช ืืคืจืืืจืกืืืืืช ืืื ืฉืืจื ืืช.[ืืจืืฉื ืืืืจื] ืขืงืจืื ืืช ืืืกืื ืฉื ืืคืจืืืจืกืืืืืช ืืืืฉื ืื ืฉืืืืื, ืคืืืืืืงืช ืืืืืืช ืืืฆืืจื ืืืฆืข ืจืคืืจืืืช ืืชืืงืื ืืืจืชื.[ืืจืืฉื ืืืืจื] ืืืช ืืคืจืงืืืงืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืืชืจ ืขื ืืคืจืืืจืกืืืืืช ืืื ืืชืงืื ืืช ืืคืืืืืืช. ืืคืจืืืจืกืืืื ืืฉืชืืฉืื ืืชืงืื ืืช ืืคืืืืืืช ืืืืฆืขื ืืงืืืื ืืืจืืชืืื, ืืชืื ืืืื ื ืฉืืฉืื (ืืืขื ืืืืจื) ืงืืืข ืืช ืืืืืืื ืืืืจืชืืช ืืืืกื ืืืืืืช ืืคืืืืืืื, ืืขื ืื ืขื ืืื ืืฉืืืจ ืืฉืื ืืคืฉืจ ืืฉื ืืช ืืช ืืืื ื ืืืืจืชื ืืงืืื ืืืงืื ืืืจืืช ืคืืืืืืืช ืืืืืืืืืืืืช. ืืืฉื: ืฉืืืืฉ ืืืื ื "ืืืืชืืจ ืฉืืืืช" ืืืงืื "ืืคืืจ" ืืืืจ ืืฉืคืจ ืืช ืืขืืื ืืืื ืืข ืืืืืืื ืคืืืขื ืื ืืืคืืื. ืืชืงืื ืืช ืืคืืืืืืช ืจืืืืช ืืืื ืืืงืืืื ืืืชืงืฉืืจืช ืืืืืจืืืช, ืฉื ืืืคืขืืืช ืกื ืงืฆืืืช ืืืจืชืืืช โ ืืืื ืืืืฉ (ืฉืืืืื ื), ืืจื ืืืจืชื, ืืืจืื ืืืฃ ืคืืืืจืื โ ื ืื ืื ืฉืืชืืื ืืฆืืจื ืฉื ืชืคืฉืช ืืคืืืขื ืืช ืืื ืชืงืื ื ืคืืืืืืช, ืชืืคืขื ืฉืืืชื ืืฉื ืชืจืืืช ืืืืืื. ืืชื ืืื ืืชืงืื ืืช ืืคืืืืืืช ืืืขื ืื ืฉืืืืืจ ื"ืืจืืจ ืืฉืื ื" ืฉืืกืจืก ืืช ืืืืฉืื, ืืฉืืื ืืืืขื ืืจืืืช ืงืืฆืื ืืืช ืืจืืื ืืืืกืืืช ืืืงืืืื ืืขืืื ืืืื ืืืืคื ืฉืคืืืข ืืืฉืืื ืืืงืืจืชืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืงืจืื. ืืคืืืืืืงื ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืคืจืืืจืกืืืืืช ืืืืฉื ืืืืื ืขื ืืืืฃ ืืฉืืืื ืฉื ืืืคืืื ืืืืืงืจืืืช, ืืืืืืื ืขื ืคืืืืืืงืืื ืืืื ืืกื ืืืืจ ืืจื ื ืกื ืืจืก, ืืืจืช ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืืกื ืืจืื ืืืงืกืื-ืงืืจืื ืืฉืืจ ืืืจืืช ืืงืื ืืจืก ืฉืืจืืืืืช ืืช ืืกืงืืื. ืืคืืืืืืงื ืฉื ืืฉืจืื ืืคืจืืืจืกืืืืืช ืืืืื ืขื ืืฉืืื ืืคืืืืื. ืืคืืืืช ืฉื ืฉืื ืืช ืืืื ืืคืจืืืจืกืืื ืื ืืจืฆ, ืืืคืืืช ืืขืืืื ืืืฉืจืืืืช ืืชืงืืคืช ืืจื ืืืืืื. ืืขืื ืืคืจืืืจืกืืืืืช ืืืื ืืชืืืื ืืืงืืืื ืืืชืงืฉืืจืช ืืืขืจืื ืืืืจืืืืช ืืืืืช ืชื ืืืื-ืืคื,[ืืจืืฉ ืืงืืจ] ืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืชื ืืืืช ืืืืืื ืฉืืจื ืืื ืืืชืืื. ืื ืืืฉื, ืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืกืช ื-24 ืืืื ืกืช ื-25 ืืชืืืืื ืื ืื ืกื ืืื ืกืช ืืคืืืช ื ืขื - ืืคืืื ืืจืืืช-ืืืืืืช ืฉืืชื ืืืช ื"ืคืจืืืจืก" (ืื ืืืฉืื ื ืฉื ืจืืฉ ืืืคืืื ืืื ืืขืื) ืืืขื ื ืฉืืคืจืืืจืกืืืืืช ืคืืืขืช ืืขืจืื ืืืืืืช ืืขืจืื ืืืฉืคืื, ืืืืืื ืืื ืื ืืืข ืืชืืืืจืื ืงืืืืจืืช ืืืืืช ืืื"ืืืช, ืฉืืืืืืืช ืขื ืืืฉืคืื ืืืกืืจืชืืช.[ืืจืืฉื ืืืืจื] ืืกืคืจื ืขืืื, ืืืืจื ืืขื ืืืื ืชืงืฉืืจืช ืืื ืืื, ืืชืืื ืืฉืืจื ืื ืืจืืื ืืืืจ ืืื ืื ืขื "ืืืจืืื ืืคืจืืืจืกืืื" ืืืืงืจืื ืืช ืคืืืืืืงืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืชืงืื ืืช ืืคืืืืืืช ืื ืืืื ืืืจืก ืขืฆืื ืฉื ืืืืืจืืืื ืืืขืจืื ืืืืืจื ื. ืืืงืืจืช ื ืื ืืคืจืืืจืกืืืืืช ืืจืืืงืืืช ืฉืืชืคืชืื ืืืืฃ ืืฉืืืื-ืจืืืงืื[ืืจืืฉ ืืงืืจ] ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืงืืืื ื ืืชืื ืืืงืืจืช ืจืื. ืืืืงืืจืช ื ืืชืื ืขื ืคืืืืืืงืช ืืืืืืืช, ืงืืืื ืืืจืกืืื ืฉื ืชืืืจืื ืงืืืืจืืช, ืคืจืงืืืงืืช ืืชืงืื ืืช ืืคืืืืืืช, ืืืืฉื ืืคืืกื-ืืืืจื ืืกืืืช, ืชืืืื ืื ืจืืืืื ืืืคืจืืื ืืื ืืืืชื "ืืืืืืืื ืฉืืืืฉืืื" ืฉืชืืืืื ืืืจืืื ื ืืจืืจ ืืกืืืืื ืืืืขืฉื ืืืืขืืช (ืืขืืงืจ ื ืื ืืืืืื) ืืื ืืืฉืืืืช ืืฉื ืขืจืืื ืืืืจืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืื. ืืคื ืืจื ืืืื ื ืืื, ืืืชื ืื ืืคืจืืืจืกืืืืื, ืืคืจืืืจืกืืืืืช ืืืืฉื ืืืืกืกืช ืขื ืื ืฉืืื ืจืืื ืืชืืจ "ื ืื-ืืจืงืกืืื" โ ืคืืืืกืืคืื ืคืืืืืืช ืฉืืืืกืกืช ืขื ืืืจืงืกืืื ืืื ืชืืช ืืช ืืืืจื ืืืคืืืืืืงื ืืืืืืช ืืขืืืืช, ืื ืืขืืืจื ืืช ืืืืงื ืืืืืฉืืจ ืืืืืื ืืืืฉืืจ ืืืืจืชื, ืืืชื ื, ืืืืืจื ืืืืืืชื. ืื ืื ืคืืืืืืงืช ืืืืืืืช ื ืืขื ืฉืืื ืืืขืฉื ืืื ื ืื-ืืจืงืกืืกืื ื ืื ืืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืจืื (ืืืื ืืช ืืืืื) ืืืืจืชื ืืคืจืง ืืช ืืืื ืช ืืืืื. ื-2018 ื ืืฉืคื ืคืจืฉืช "ืืืขื ืืืจืืืจ" ืื ืฉืืืฉื ืคืจืืคืกืืจืื ืืืฆืขื ืืชืืื ืืงืืืืช ืืืชืื ืืืืจืื ืืืคืจืืื ืืจืื ืืคืจืืืจืกืืืืืช ืืจืืืงืืืช ืื'ืจืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืืืืืืื ืื, ืืฉืืื ืืืชื ืืืชืื ืขืช ืืืขืืื ืฉื ืืืขื ืืจืื, ืืืขื ืืืืจื, ืืืืืื ืืืืจ, ืชืืืจืื ืงืืืืจืืช ืืชืืืจืื ืืืงืืจืชืืช ืืืืจื ืืืืืื, ืืืืจืืื, ืืช ืื ืืืื ืืืฉืืชืช ืืกืื ืืจืืืื ืืืืขืืื ืืชืืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืืฉื ืืคืืกืืืืืจื ืืกืืืช ืืืืืคืคืช ืืืืช ืืืืืืืืืืื ืืคืจืืืจืกืืืืช. ืืืง ืืืืืืจืื ืคืืจืกืื ืืืชืื ืขืช ืืชืืืืื ืืื ืขื ืฉืขืืชืื ืืื ืืืืื ืกืืจืื ื'ืืจื ื ืืฉืคื ืืช ืืืชืืื. ื-The Chronicle of Higher Education, ืืช'ืจ ืื ืืืืื ื ืฆืืื ื ืฉืืืชืืื ืกืืืขื ืืืฉืืฃ ืคืชืืืืืืืช ืจืืืช ืฉื ืืืขื ืืืืจื ืืืืืจื ืืื, ืืื "ืืืืฉืช ืืืืข ืืืืืืืื" ื"ืืขืืคืช ืืืงืืืืืื ืขื ืคื ื ืืืืงืจ". ืืืจืื ืฆืืื ื ืฉืืืื ืืคืืกืืืืืจื ืืื ืืืืฉืช ืืชืืืืจืื ืืืืงืืจืชืืช, ืชืืืื ืืืงืจ ืืื ืืืื ืื ืืคืจืกื ืื ืฉืืืช ืืืงืื ืืืชื, ืื ืขืื ืืื ืชืืืืช ืืืืืืืืืืื ืืคืจืืืจืกืืืืช ืืืืืจืืช ืืืชื ืืื ืจืืฆื ืืงืื. ืืขืืืชื, ืืืงืจืื ืืชืืืืื ืืื ืืืืืฉื ืืช ืื ืฉืืืชืืื ื ืืกืชื ืืืืืื ืืืืงืจื ืืืชื ืืืขื ื ืฉืืื ืืคืจื ืืืื ืืชืืงื ืืืขืืช ืืืชืืงื ืืงืืืืช. ืืืืืืื ืฉืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืคืจืืืจืกืืืืืช ืฉื ืชืืืืช ืืืื ื-21 ืื "ืืืจืืื ืืคืจืืืจืกืืื" ื-"Woke". ืจืื ืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืืืืื_ืืืืคืกืื] | [TOKENS: 2536] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืงืจืืืช ืืืืคืกืื ืงืจืืืช ืืืืคืกืื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืืืจืื ืืงืืื'ืื ืืืืจืืื ืืืจืืฉืืื, ืืฉืืื ืืฉืืื ืืช ืฉืขืจื ืืกื ืืจืืืื. ืืฉืืื ื ืงืจืืื ืขื ืฉื ืืืฉ ืืขืกืงืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืืื-ืืจืืื ืืฆืืง ืืืืคืกืื, ืฉื ืื ื ืขื ืืืืื. ืืชื ืืฉืืื ื ืืฉืงืืคืื ืขื ืขืืง ืืืฆืืื, ืื ืกืืงืจ ืืืืขืช ืจื. ืืื ืืืืชื ืืืืจืช ืืฉืืื ืช ืืืงืจื ืืืืืืืกืืื ืืืืื, ืืจืืื ืืชืืฉืืื ืขืืืื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืจืืืื. ืืืื ืืชืืคืืื ืช ืืฉืืื ื ืืืืืืืกืืื ืืจืืืช[ืืจืืฉ ืืงืืจ] ืืืืจืช ืื ืืืืช ืืฆืจืคืชืืช. ืืืกืืืจืื ืืืืฆืข ืฉื ืช 1962 ืชืืื ื ืืืงืื ืืฉืื ืืงืจืื ืื ืืื ืื ืื ื 6โ8 ืงืืืืช. ืืกืืฃ 1962 ื ืืืจ ืืฉืื ืฉื ืฉืืื ืช ืืืืคืกืื, ืื 31.5 ืืื ื, ืืืืจื. ืืืืืืื ืืืงืื ืืฉื ืืช ื-70 ืฉื ืืืื ื-20 ืขื ืืื ืืืจืช ืืืืคืกืื ืงืืืจ ืืืืจ ืืข"ื (ืฉืืงืืื ืื ืืช ืืืื ืฉืืื ืืชื ืืืื). ืืจืืฉ ืืืืื ืขืืื ืืืืื ืืจืืื ืืืฉื ืืืืจ, ืฉืืื ืืขืืืื ืฉื ืืจืืื ืืืฉ ืฉืืื, ืืืฉื ืจืืฉ ืืืจ ืืื ืืืื ืฉื ืื ืง ืืจืืฉืืื, ืขื ืงืจืงืข ืฉืจืืฉื ืชืืืจืช 1.2 ืืืืืื ืืืืจ ืืืื ืกืืื ืืืืื ืืช-ืืืืจืชืืืืงืกืืช ืืืื ืื ืืงืจืงืขื ืืฉืจืื. ืืชืื ืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืฉื ืืืืืืื ื ืขืฉื ืขื ืืื ืืืืจืืื ืืื ืื ืคืื, ืฉืืฆืืข ืฉืืืฉื ืืืืืื ืื ื 29 ืงืืืืช ืื ืืื. ืืืืขืื ืืืงืืืืช ืืชืื ืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืฉืจื ืืช ืืชืืื ืืช, ืืืื ืขืจืขืืจ ืืืืขืื ืืืืืืืช ืืชืงืื ืืืืฉืจื ืืืืืื ืื ื 16 ืงืืืืช ืืืื, ืืคืื ืคืจืฉ ืืืืืืช ืืืืื. ืื ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืฉื ืืืืื ืช ืืืืืื, ืืฉืื ืฉืื ืืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืืชื ืงืืืืช ืืืจืืฉืืื ืฉื ืืืชื ืขืช. "ื ืจืื ืฉืืื ืืชื ืืืื ืฉืืืฉ ืืชืื ืื ืฉื ืืืจืืื ืขืืืื ืืจื ืืชื ื ืืกืืืข ืืืฉืืช ืืืจืืช ืชืื ืื ืฉืืขืื ืืฆืืืืจืืช ืืชืงืฉื ืืงืืื", ืืชื ืขื ืื ืฉื ืืืืจ, ืื ื ืฉื ืืจืืื ืืืืจ. ืืช ืคืื ืืืืืฃ ืืืืจืืื ืืฆืืง ืคืจืืฉืืืื, ืฉืชืื ื ืฉืืื ื ืืช ืืืืฉื ืืืืื ืืืืจืื ืื ื 16 ืงืืืืช ืื ืืื, ืฉืืืจืืืืชืืื ืืื ืขืฉืจืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืจืืืช (ืืชืืืืืช ืืช ืืืื ื ืืืืคืืืจืคื ืฉื ืืืืืจ) ืืืจืื ืืกืืจื. ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืฉืจื ืืืืื ืฉื ืช 1970 ืืืจืืช ืืขื ืืช ืฉืชืกืชืืจ ืืช ืืฉืืฉ ืืชืืฉืื ืฉืขืจื ืืกื, ืืืืฆืื ืืฆืืืืจ ืืืกืืืช ืขืืชืื ืืื ืืืืืืกื 1970. ืืฉื ืช 1972, ืืขืื ืงืฆืื ืืื ืกืช ืืช ืืืฉืฉ ืฉืืืืืืืื ื ืืชื ืืืื ืืฆืืืฃ ืขื ืืื ืกืช, ืืืื ืืื ืื ืืืืืจ ืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืชืืื ืืช. ืืคืืจืืืจ 1973 ืืชืื ืกื ืืฉืืื ืฉื ื ืฉืืืืช ืืื ืกืช ืขื ืฉืจ ืืคื ืื, ืฉืจ ืืืฉืืจื ืืฉืจ ืืืฉืคืืื ืื ืขืืชื ืืืฆืขื ืืจืืืฉ ืืช ืืงืืืืช ืืขืืืื ืืช ืฉื ืืืืืืื ืืื ืฉืื ืืืืื ืืฉืืฉ ืืฆืืืคื ืขื ืืื ืกืช. ืืืืจ ืืงืืชื ืฉื ืฉื ื ืืืืืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืื ืงืื ืืืื ืฆืืืืจืืช. ืจืืฉ ืืขืืจืืื ืืืืฉ, ืืื ืงืืืง, ืืืงืฉ ืืืืื ืชืืื ืืช ืืืืคืืช ืืฉืืืฉืช ืืืืืืื ืฉืืจื ื ืื ื, ืื ืืืื ืืจืืื ืืืืจ ืื ื ืขื ื ืืืฆืขื ืื. ืืฉืืื ื ื ืื ื ื-400 ืืืจืืช ืืืจืื ืืกืืจื ืืฉืื 10,000 ื"ืจ. ืืืืื ืืฉื ืื ืืชืื ืืขืืชืื ืืช ื ืื ืืืืืืื. ืืืจื ืืื ืงืจื ืืื "ืืืืื ืกืจืื ื", ื"ืืืื ืืช ืฆื ืืืืื ืืืื ืฉืื ืขื ืื ืื ืืฃ ืืืืจืื ืฉื ืืจืืฉืืื, ืขื ืฉืืื ืืชืื ืืขืชืืงืืช ืืขื ืขืืจื ืืขื ืืืคืื". ืืจืืง ืื ืืจ ืื ื ืืช ืืืืืืื ืืื "ืืืืืืื ืฉืคืขืจื ืคืฆืขืื ืขืืืงืื ืื ืืฃ ืืขืืจ". ืืงืจืื ืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืืจืช ื ืืืื ืืืชืืืงืช ืืช ืืื ืืื ืื ืืืฉืืืื ืืฆืืืืจืืื ืืื ืืื. ืืจืืื ืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืฆื ืคืกืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืขืงื ืืื "ืื ืคืืขื ื-18 ืืืื ื ืืื" (1986) ืืขืฉืื ืืคืืืช ืื-ืืื ืืืงืฆื ืืฉืืื ื ืืืืจ ืจืืืืื ื ืืฆืืื ืืคืกืืื "ืขืฆืื ืืืืืื" ืฉื ืืืื ืื ืฉื ืงืืืฉืื (1975). ืืงืจืืื ื ืืกืคืช ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/scientific-education/] | [TOKENS: 652] |
ืืืืื ืืืืกืกืช ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืื ืื ืืืขื ืืืืื ืืืืจืื ืืคื ืืื ืชืื ืื ืืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืชืขื ืืื ืื ืืชืืืื ืืืขืช ืืืืขืืื ืืืืืืื ืคืืจืื ืขื ืื ืืื ืืชืืืื ืืืขืช, ืชืืื ืืืช ืืืืืืื, ืืืืจื ืืืจืื ืืืืจืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืฆืืืืืืช ืืืขืืืืช ืืืงืจ, ืืื ืื ืืืืข ืขื ืืคืขืืืืช ืืขื ืคื ืื ืขืฉืืช ืืชืืืื ืืืขืช ืืฉืื ืื. ืืืฃ ืืืขืื | ืืืฃ ืืืข ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืงืจ ืืืกืืื ืืืื ืืืช | ืชืืื ืืืช ืืืืืืื ืงืืืืืช ื ืืฉืืื ืืืื ืื ืืืืขื ืืื ืื ืืืขื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืฉืืจืืชืื ืืืจื ืืงืฆืจื ื... ืคืืจืื ืื ื ืื ื ืขืืืจ ืืืจืื ืื ืืขื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฆืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืื. ืืขืืื ืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืชืจื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืชืืื ืืชืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืืื (ืืจืืืช ืคืจืกืืืืช) ืืื ื ืืืืจืืืช ืืขืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืื. ืื ื ืชืงืืชื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืฉ ืืื ืืฆืขืืช ืื ืืขืจืืช ืื ืืืข ืืชืืื, ืืืคืฉืจืืชืื ืืคื ืืช ืืืื ื ืืงืืฉืืจ ืื. |
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/academy-points/] | [TOKENS: 937] |
ืืืืื ืืืืกืกืช ืืืืื ืืืืช ืกืืกืืจ ืจืืฉืื ืืืจ ืืชืืืื ืืืืืื ืืชืืืจ ืืืจ ืืชืืืื! ืืืจืฉืื ืืืื ืืงืืจืกืื ื ืกืืจื ืืชืืจืื 18.6.2025, ื"ื ืืกืืืื ืชืฉืค"ื. ืืคืฉืจ ืืืืจืฉื ืขื ืืชืืจืื 30.6.2025, ื' ืืชืืื ืชืฉืค"ื, ืืงืืจืกืื ืฉืืื ื ืืชืจ ืืงืื ืคื ืื. ืืืืจ ืชืืจืื ืื (30.6.2025) ืืชื ืกืคืจ ืฉืืืงืฉื ืืืฆืืจืฃ ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืื ืกื ืืจืฉืืืช ืืืชื ื ืืชืื ืชื ืืื ืชืฉืืื ืืืืืจืช. ืืขืจืืช ืืืื ืื ืืฉืืงื ืืช ืืชืืื ืืช "ืืืงืืืื ืืืืฉื - ืกืืกืืจ ืจืืฉืื ืืชืืืื" โ ืชืืื ืืช ืืืฉื ืืช ืฉืืฉืืืช ืืืืืืื ืืงืืืืื ืืืกืืจืช ืืืชืชืืช ืืืืช ืืกืคืจ. ืืชืืื ืืช ื ืืฆืจื ืืชืื ืจืืืืช ืืืฉืืืืช ืืจืื ืืงืืืื ืชืืื ื ืขืชืืืืช ืฉืืืืืช ืืฉืืื ืืงืืืืช ืืงืจื ืืืืจื ืืขืจืืช ืืืื ืื, ืืจืืืช ืชืืืืืื ืืืคืจืืคืจืื ืืืืจืชืืช ืืืืืืืจืคืืช. ืืืฉืืจ ืืืจืื ืืืฆืืจืคืืช ื"ืกืืกืืจ ืจืืฉืื ืืืจ ืืชืืืื" ืกืืกืืจ ืจืืฉืื ืืืจ ืืชืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืฉืืจืืชืื ืืืจื ืืงืฆืจื ื... ืคืืจืื ืื ื ืื ื ืขืืืจ ืืืจืื ืื ืืขื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฆืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืื. ืืขืืื ืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืชืจื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืชืืื ืืชืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืืื (ืืจืืืช ืคืจืกืืืืช) ืืื ื ืืืืจืืืช ืืขืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืื. ืื ื ืชืงืืชื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืฉ ืืื ืืฆืขืืช ืื ืืขืจืืช ืื ืืืข ืืชืืื, ืืืคืฉืจืืชืื ืืคื ืืช ืืืื ื ืืงืืฉืืจ ืื. |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_imperialism] | [TOKENS: 12463] |
Contents American imperialism American imperialism is the exercise of power by the United States outside its borders. The US expanded its territory initially via conquest, later shifting to controlling/influencing other countries without conquest, using techniques such as alliances; aid; gunboat diplomacy; treaties; trade; support for preferred political factions; regime change; economic influence via private companies; and cultural influence. American expansion ended in the late 19th century, with the exception of some Caribbean and Western Pacific islands. While the US does not typically identify itself and its territorial possessions as an empire, commentators such as Max Boot, Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., and Niall Ferguson have done so. US foreign interventions have been debated throughout US history. Opponents claimed that such actions were inconsistent with US beginnings as a colony that rebelled against an overseas king, as well as with American values of democracy, freedom, and independence. Conversely, American presidents who intervened militarilyโmost notably William McKinley, Woodrow Wilson, Theodore Roosevelt, and William Howard Taftโcited American economic interests, such as trade and debt management; preventing European intervention (colonial or otherwise) in the Western Hemisphere, (under the 1823 Monroe Doctrine); and the benefits of keeping "good order".[citation needed] Donald Trump has revived these tactics in his second term. History Following Columbus, the European and then American presence steadily expanded across what became the US, driving Native Americans out by treaty or by force, including multiple wars. Many Native American settlements were depopulated by unwittingly imported diseases, such as smallpox. Native Americans became citizens in 1924 and experience a form of tribal sovereignty. President James Monroe promulgated his Monroe Doctrine in 1823, in order to end European interventions in Latin America. Territorial expansion was explicit in the 19th century idea of manifest destiny. The 1803 Louisiana Purchase transferred 828,000 sq mi (2,140,000 km2) of territory claimed by France to the US. Via the 1846-1848 MexicanโAmerican War, the US annexed 525,000 sq mi (1,360,000 km2) of Mexican territory. In 1867, the Andrew Johnson administration purchased Alaska's 665,384 sq mi (1,723,340 km2) from Russia. American foreign policy pivoted to "containing" communism during the Cold War. In accordance with the Truman Doctrine and the Reagan Doctrine, the US attempted to limit the Soviet Union and its allies. During the Vietnam War, the US's attempt to protect South Vietnam from its communist neighbor to the north and a domestic insurgency ended in failure at tremendous cost in US and Vietnamese lives and a Khmer Rouge-perpetrated genocide in neighboring Cambodia. US tactics included attempts at regime change in countries including Iran, Cuba, Panama, and Grenada, along with interference in other countries' elections. US acquisitions on the North American continent became states, and their residents became citizens. Residents of Hawaii voted for statehood in 1959. Other island jurisdictions remain territories, namely Guam, Puerto Rico, the US Virgin Islands, American Samoa, and the Northern Mariana Islands, but their residents are also citizens. The remainder of US territories eventually became independent, including three freely associated states that participate in US government programs in exchange for military basing rights, to Cuba, which severed diplomatic relations with the US during the Cold War. The US was a public advocate of European decolonization after World War II (completing a ten-year independence transition for its Philippines territory in 1944). The US often came in conflict with national liberation movements. In 1786, then-private citizen George Washington described the new nation as an "infant empire". Then-Minister Plenipotentiary Thomas Jefferson asserted that year that the US "must be viewed as the nest from which all America, North & South is to be peopled. [...] The navigation of the Mississippi we must have". The notion of manifest destiny was a popular 19th century rationale for US expansion. Discontent with British rule came in part from the Royal Proclamation of 1763, which barred settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains. The Indian Wars featured British (initially) and later US militaries battling Native American sovereign groups. That sovereignty was repeatedly undermined by US state policy (usually involving unequal or broken treaties) and the ever-expanding settlements. Following the Dawes Act of 1887, Native American systems of land tenure ended in favor of private property. This resulted in the loss of some 100 million acres of land from 1887 to 1934. In the 1786-1795 Northwest Indian War the US fought the Northwestern Confederacy over land around the Great Lakes. Treaties such as the Treaty of Greenville and the Treaty of Fort Wayne drove anti-US sentiment among Native Americans in the region, leading to Tecumseh's Confederacy, defeated during the War of 1812. The Indian Removal Act of 1830 culminated in the relocation of 60,000 Native Americans West of the Mississippi river in an event known as the Trail of Tears, killing 16,700. In the 1846โ1849 MexicanโAmerican War, the US conquered Mexican territory reaching from Texas to the Pacific coast. Settlement of California accelerated, including the California genocide. Estimates of deaths vary from 2,000 to 100,000. The discovery of gold drew many miners and settlers who formed militias to kill and displace Native Americans. The California government supported expansion and settlement through the passage of the Act for the Government and Protection of Indians which legalized the forced indenture (effectively enslavement) of Native Americans. Some California towns offered and paid bounties for the killing of Native Americans. American expansion in the Great Plains spurred conflict between many western tribes and the US. The 1851 Treaty of Fort Laramie gave the Cheyenne and Arapaho tribes territory from the North Platte River in present-day Wyoming and Nebraska southward to the Arkansas River in what became Colorado and Kansas. The land was initially not wanted by settlers, but following the discovery of gold in the region, settlers came in volume. In 1861, six chiefs of the Southern Cheyenne and four of the Arapaho signed the Treaty of Fort Wise, surrendering 90% of their land. The refusal of various warriors to recognize the treaty led settlers to expect war. The subsequent Colorado War included the Sand Creek Massacre in which up to 600 Cheyenne were killed, mostly children and women. On October 14, 1865, the chiefs of what remained of the Southern Cheyenne and Arapahos agreed to move south of the Arkansas, sharing land that belonged to the Kiowas, and thereby relinquished all claims in Colorado territory. Following Red Cloud's victory in Red Cloud's War, the Treaty of Fort Laramie was signed. This treaty led to the creation of the Great Sioux Reservation. However, the discovery of gold in the Black Hills resulted in a settlement surge. The gold rush was profitable for settlers and the government: the Black Hill Mine produced $500 million in gold. Attempts to purchase the land failed, triggering the Great Sioux War. Despite initial success by Native American forces, most notably the Battle of the Little Bighorn, the government won and carved the reservation into smaller tracts. In the southwest, settlers waged war against native tribes. By 1871, Tucson had a population of three thousand, including "saloon-keepers, traders and contractors who had profited during the Civil War". In the Camp Grant Massacre of 1871, up to 144 Apache were killed, mostly women and children. Up to 27 Apache children were captured and sold by Christianized Papago Indians into slavery in Mexico. In the 1860s, the Navajo faced deportation, which became known as the Long Walk of the Navajo. The journey started in spring 1864. Navajo led by the US Army were relocated from eastern Arizona Territory and western New Mexico Territory to Fort Sumner. Around 200 died during the walk. New Mexican slavers, assisted by Utes, attacked isolated bands, killing the men, taking the women and children, and capturing horses and livestock. As part of these raids, Navajo were sold throughout the region. In 1820, the private American Colonization Society began subsidizing free black Americans to colonize the west coast of Africa. In 1822, it established the colony of Liberia, which became independent in 1847. By 1857, Liberia had merged with colonies formed by other societies, including the Republic of Maryland, Mississippi-in-Africa, and Kentucky in Africa. In older historiography mercenary William Walker's attempts to create private colonies epitomized antebellum American imperialism. His brief seizure of Nicaragua in 1855 followed his attempt to expand slavery into Central America and establish colonies in Mexico. Walker failed in his escapades and never had US backing. Historian Michel Gobat claimed that Walker was invited by Nicaraguan liberals seeking modernization and liberalism. Walker's government included those liberals, as well as Yankee colonizers and European radicals. In the late 19th century, Great Britain, France, Germany and Belgium rapidly expanded their territorial possessions, particularly in Africa. The US expanded also, annexing Pacific Islands such as Hawaii. As Assistant Secretary of the Navy, Theodore Roosevelt was instrumental in preparing for the SpanishโAmerican War and was an enthusiastic proponent of testing the US military in battle, at one point stating "I should welcome almost any war, for I think this country needs one." Roosevelt rejected imperialism, but embraced expansionism. Rudyard Kipling wrote the poem "The White Man's Burden" for Roosevelt, who told colleagues that it was "rather poor poetry, but good sense from the expansion point of view". Roosevelt proclaimed what became the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine (in turn replaced by Herbert Hoover's endorsement of the Clark Memorandum). One causal factor was racism, evidenced by philosopher Fiske's belief in "Anglo-Saxon" racial superiority and clergyman Strong's call to "civilize and Christianize" other peoples. The concepts were related to Social Darwinism in some schools of American thought. Industry and trade were other justifications. American intervention in Latin America and Hawaii supported investments, including sugar, pineapple, and bananas. When the US annexed a territory, it achieved trade access there. In 1898, Senator Albert Beveridge claimed that market expansion was necessary, writing "American factories are making more than the American people can use; American soil is producing more than they can consume. Fate has written our policy for us; the trade of the world must and shall be ours." The US claimed to intervene in Cuba in the name of freedom: "We are coming, Cuba, coming; we are bound to set you free! We are coming from the mountains, from the plains and inland sea! We are coming with the wrath of God to make the Spaniards flee! "(lyrics to "Cuba Libre", 1898). Cuba became independent in 1898 following the SpanishโAmerican War. However, from 1898 until the Cuban revolution, the US directly influenced the Cuban economy. By 1906, up to 15% of Cuba was owned by Americans. The 1901 Platt Amendment prevented Cuba from entering into agreements with foreign nations and granted the US the right to build naval stations on Cuban soil. In 1899, Filipino revolutionary General Emilio Aguinaldo remarked: "The Filipinos fighting for Liberty, the American people fighting them to give them liberty. The two peoples are fighting on parallel lines for the same object." American rule of ceded Spanish territory was first contested in the PhilippineโAmerican War, ultimately resulting in the end of the short-lived Philippine Republic. After Philippine independence, the US continued to direct the country through Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) operatives such as Edward Lansdale who controlled President Ramon Magsaysay until 1948, physically beating him when the Philippine leader attempted to reject a speech the CIA had written for him.[citation needed] American agents drugged President Elpidio Quirino and prepared to assassinate Senator Claro Recto. Filipino historian Roland G. Simbulan called the CIA "US imperialism's clandestine apparatus in the Philippines". The US established dozens of military bases, including some that were large. Philippine independence was gated by American legislation. For example, the Bell Trade Act provided a mechanism whereby US import quotas could be established on Philippine goods that competed with US products. It further required US citizens and corporations be granted equal access to Philippine natural resources. In 1946, Assistant Secretary of State for Economic Affairs William L. Clayton described the law as "clearly inconsistent with the basic foreign economic policy of this country" and "clearly inconsistent with our promise to grant the Philippines genuine independence." Philippine independence came on July 4, 1946. In the 1800s the US became concerned that Great Britain or France might have colonial ambitions for the Hawaiian Kingdom. In 1849 the US and the Kingdom signed a friendship treaty. In 1885, King David Kalฤkaua, Hawaii's last king, signed a treaty with the US allowing tariff-free sugar exports to the US mainland. On July 6, 1887, the Hawaiian League, an illegal secret society, threatened the king and forced him to enact a new constitution that stripped him of much of his power. King Kalฤkaua died in 1891 and was succeeded by his sister Queen Lili'uokalani. In 1893 with support from marines from the USS Boston, the Queen was deposed in a bloodless coup. Hawaii became a US territory and later became the 50th US state in 1959. Congress' procedure for annexing territory was explained in an 1898 report by the Senate Foreign Relations Committee in the context of Hawaii: "If, in the judgment of Congress, such a measure is supported by a safe and wise policy, or is based upon a natural duty that we owe to the people of Hawaii, or is necessary for our national development and security, that is enough to justify annexation, with the consent of the recognized government of the country to be annexed." President Woodrow Wilson launched seven overseas armed interventions (Nicaragua, the Dominican Republic, Haiti, Cuba, Panama, Mexico and Honduras), more than any other president. General Smedley Butler, the most-decorated Marine of that era, considered virtually all of the operations to have been economically motivated. In a 1933 speech he averred: I was a racketeer, a gangster for capitalism. I suspected I was just part of a racket at the time. Now I am sure of it...I helped make Mexico, especially Tampico, safe for American oil interests in 1914. I helped make Haiti and Cuba a decent place for the National City Bank boys to collect revenues in. I helped in the raping of half a dozen Central American republics for the benefits of Wall Street ... Looking back on it, I feel that I could have given Al Capone a few hints. The best he could do was to operate his racket in three districts. I operated on three continents. The US invaded Haiti on July 28, 1915, and administered it until 1934. Haiti had been independent before the intervention. The Haitian government agreed to US terms, including American oversight. By the 1930s, Standard Oil of California (SOCAL) had made a series of acquisitions, which achieved decades-long control over Saudi oil. At the start of World War II, the US administered multiple Pacific territories. The majority of these territories hosted military bases, such as Midway, Guam, Wake Island, and Hawaii. Japan's surprise attack on Pearl Harbor brought the US into the war. Japan occupied Guam, Wake Island, and other American territories. By early 1942 Japan had conquered the Philippines. Many battles were needed to retake allied territory and other Japanese-occupied territories. The US liberated the Philippines; Japanese troops surrendered in August 1945. The maximum extension of American direct control came after the war, and included the occupations of Germany and Austria in May and Japan and Korea in September 1945. The US began planning for the post-war world at the war's outset. This vision originated in the Council on Foreign Relations (CFR), an economic organization that worked closely with government leaders. CFR's War and Peace Studies group offered its services to the State Department in 1939 and a secret partnership developed. CFR leaders Hamilton Fish Armstrong and Walter H. Mallory saw World War II as a "grand opportunity" for the US to emerge as "the premier power in the world". In an October 1940 report to Roosevelt, geographer Isaiah Bowman, a key liaison between the CFR and the State Department, wrote, "...the US government is interested in any solution anywhere in the world that affects American trade. In a wide sense, commerce is the mother of all wars." In 1942 this economic globalism was articulated as the "Grand Area" concept in secret documents. Under that policy the US would have sought control over the "Western Hemisphere, Continental Europe and Mediterranean Basin (excluding Russia), the Pacific Area and the Far East, and the British Empire (excluding Canada)." The Grand Area encompassed all known major oil-bearing areas outside the Soviet Union. Bowman's "American economic Lebensraum" (lebensraum is a German word advanced by the Nazis as one reason for conquering Europe): Better than the American Century or the Pax Americana, the notion of an American Lebensraum captures the specific and global historical geography of U.S. ascension to power. After World War II, global power would no longer be measured in terms of colonized land or power over territory. Rather, global power was measured in directly economic terms. Trade and markets now figured as the economic nexuses of global power, a shift confirmed in the 1944 Bretton Woods agreement, which not only inaugurated an international currency system but also established two central banking institutionsโthe International Monetary Fund and the World Bankโto oversee the global economy. These represented the first planks of the economic infrastructure of the postwar American Lebensraum. โ Isaiah Bowman Cold War Prior to his death in 1945, President Roosevelt was planning to withdraw all US forces from Europe. Soviet actions in Poland and Czechoslovakia led his successor Harry Truman to reconsider. Heavily influenced by George Kennan, Washington policymakers decided that the Soviet Union was an expansionary dictatorship that threatened the free world. In their view, Moscow's weakness was that it had to keep expanding to survive; and that, by containing or stopping its growth, European stability could be achieved. The result was the Truman Doctrine (1947). Initially regarding only Greece and Turkey, NSC-68 (1951) extended it to the entire non-Communist world. Thus, the Truman Doctrine was described as globalizing the Monroe Doctrine.: 1186 A second consideration was the need to restore the world economy, which required rebuilding Europe and Japan. This was the main rationale for the 1948 Marshall Plan. Europeโs requirements for the next three or four years of foreign food and other essential products... are so much greater than her present ability to pay that she must have substantial additional help or face economic, social, and political deterioration of a very grave character. โ George C. Marshall A third factor was the acceptance, especially by Britain and Benelux, that American military involvement was needed to contain the USSR.[citation needed] American involvement in Panama began as a result of its interest in building a canal there, and led to its support for Panamanian independence (from Colombia) in 1903. The US funded the construction and maintained ownership of the Panama Canal Zone until President Carter ceded it to Panama as of the end of 1999. After an attack on the US Embassy in mid-1987, the indictment of Manuel Noriega on drug charges, and Noriega's annulment of the 1989 election (alleging US fraud), the US invaded and deposed and arrested him, withdrawing its forces the following month. Some of the ports on either end of the canal were then purchased by Chinese company Hutchison Whampoa, before Black Rock purchased the rights following President Trump's objections to its continued ownership. Following the Guatemalan Revolution, Guatemala expanded labor rights and land reforms that granted property to landless peasants. Lobbying by the United Fruit Company, whose profits were damaged by these policies, as well as fear of Communist influence, culminated in US support for Operation PBFortune to overthrow Guatemalan President Jacobo รrbenz in 1952. The US provided weapons to exiled Guatemalan military officer Carlos Castillo Armas, who was to lead an invasion from Nicaragua. This culminated in the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'รฉtat. The subsequent military junta assumed dictatorial powers, banned opposition parties and reversed the social reforms. After the coup, American influence grew in the country, in the government and the economy. The US continued to support Guatemala throughout the Cold War, including during the Guatemalan genocide in which up to 200,000 people were killed. A 1949 U.S. National Security Council study stated that the US should find ways of "exerting economic pressures" on countries that do not accept their role as suppliers of "strategic commodities and other basic materials". According to Noam Chomsky, following World War II, the U.S. sought to reestablish the former colonial world as a service appendage to the global capitalist system. Each region was allocated a specific โfunctionโ for the โwelfare of the global capitalist system.โ Policy documents framed the main danger as โeconomic nationalismโโalso labeled โradicalโ or โultra-nationalismโ, which โembraces policies designed to bring about a broader distribution of wealth and to raise the standard of living of the masses,โ and insists that โthe first beneficiaries of the development of a countryโs resources should be the people of that country.โ Such developments were viewed as unacceptable and had to be curbed. Instead, the principal beneficiaries must be U.S. investors and their international partners, who seek an investment-friendly environment offering favorable terms and unrestricted access to labor and raw materials. In the Middle East, there was a concern that local populations might attempt to be the beneficiaries of the regionโs vast wealth, which policymakers expected to flow instead to the United States and its allies. These assumptions were stated openly in internal planning papers. Despite the intense U.S. Cold War rhetoric regarding the spread of 'international communism' in the Middle East, the socialist Arab Nationalist regimes were never drawn to communism. In reality, these regimes were deeply anti-communist and embraced variations of semi-socialism; the only genuine exception throughout the Cold War was South Yemen. Historian Mark Curtis highlights that: In the earlier postwar period, the major threat of nationalism was countered by a mix of economic policies, covert action to remove wayward governments and outright military intervention. The constant pretext was the Soviet threat. The chief proponents of the nationalist threat were 'radical' governments (that is, those independent of the West) and liberation movements. In the era of globalisation, independent forces are being countered primarily by economic instruments like the WTO and by military/political strategies like the 'war on terrorism'. The latter is aimed at bolstering friendly regimes (under the guise of anti-terrorism) and provides a cover for a new phase of global intervention to remove unwanted governments. According to William Blum, in almost all U.S. interventions in the Third World since World War II, the target was overthrowing "a policy of 'self- determination': the desire, born of perceived need and principle, to pursue a path of development independent of US foreign policy objectives." Stephen Gowans asserts that the aim of every U.S. regime change operation is the "promotion of US free enterprise", and that "the pre-existing economic supremacy of US firms tilts the field decisively in their favor." Walden Bello contends that neoliberalism promoted by the U.S., the World Bank, and the IMF in the Third World aims to weaken producers by removing protectionist barriers to Western imports, eliminating regulations on foreign investment, eroding labor protections, and integrating the local economies into a Western-dominated global system. Chris Doran sees that the U.S. promotes neoliberalism domestically and internationally "to restore the class power to the uber-wealthy and take back the gains they had lost under Keynesianism and its government-focused policies of wealth distribution." Economist Ha-Joon Chang argued that all developed countries, during their development, from the 14th century until the East Asian newly industrialized countries in the late 20th century, used state-interventionist activist industrial, trade and technology policies to promote infant industries and economic development. Consequently, the free-market package of 'good policies' that is promoted by the developed countries and the international development policy establishment they control is at odds with historical experience. He added that: Important as tariff protection may have been in the development of most NDCs [Now Developed Countries], it was - I repeat - by no means the only, nor even necessarily the most important, policy tool used by these countries in promoting infant industries. There were many other tools, such as export subsidies, tariff rebates on inputs used for exports, conferring of monopoly rights, cartel arrangements, directed credits, investment planning, manpower planning, R&D supports and the promotion of institutions that allow public-private cooperation. The United States and the United Kingdom launched covert and overt campaigns to encourage and strengthen Islamists in the Middle East and southern Asia. These Islamists were seen as a hedge against potential expansion by the Soviet Union, and as a counterweight against nationalists and socialists that were seen as a threat to the interests of the Western nations. An internal U.S. State Department memo reporting a meeting between President Eisenhower with US Secretary of State John F. Dulles and the Joint Chiefs of Staff in 1957 stated the following: The President said he thought we should do everything possible to stress the โholy warโ aspect. Mr. Dulles commented that if the Arabs have a โholy warโ they would want it to be against Israel. The President recalled, however, that Saud, after his visit here, had called on all Arabs to oppose Communism. He said he thought we should at once send an emissary out to Saud who had asked for such an individual three times in order to avoid having to send messages through his diplomatic channels. Rashid Khalidi notes that during the Arab Cold War, the popularity and strength of the socialist Arab Nationalists "seemed to place the United States and its allies in a highly unfavorable position. To this apparently unbalanced situation, Saudi Arabia brought the powerful ideological weapon of Islam." Saudi Arabia leveraged Islamic organizations to challenge the spread of Nasser's Arab nationalist ideology and its secular socialist appeal According to some estimates, between the 1960s and 2016, the Saudis have funnelled over USD 100 billion into funding schools and mosques all over the world with the mission of spreading puritanical Wahhabi Islam. According to political scientist Alex Alexiev, the impetus for the international propagation of Salafism and Wahhabism was "the largest worldwide propaganda campaign ever mounted", David A. Kaplan described it as "dwarfing the Soviets' propaganda efforts at the height of the Cold War". In 2013, the European Parliament identified Wahhabism as the main source of global terrorism. In 2018, Mohammed bin Salman, the de facto ruler of Saudi Arabia, said that Saudi Arabia's international propagation of the Salafi movement and Wahhabism campaign "was rooted in the Cold War, when allies asked Saudi Arabia to use its resources to prevent inroads in Muslim countries by the Soviet Union." According to a 2014 study by The RAND Corporation, there were only three Salafi-Jihadi groups in the world in 1988, but that number has steadily increased, reaching 49 by 2013. Economist Michael Hudson argues that Saudi Arabia mobilizes Wahhabi militant groups on behalf of the U.S., using its religious influence to frame geopolitical targets as enemies of Islam. In addition to its key role in stabilizing the U.S. balance of payments through the recycling of petrodollars into U.S. stocks, bonds and other investments, Saudi Arabia "provides manpower by supporting the Wahhabi members of Americaโs foreign legion." In 1945, a US State Department analysis concluded that Saudi Arabia's oil resources "constitute a stupendous source of strategic power, and one of the greatest material prizes in world history." In 1943, U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt stated that "the defense of Saudi Arabia is vital to the defense of the United States." Noam Chomsky highlights that keeping Europe and East Asia dependent on corporate America for energy is โone of the main reasons the United States has been so interested in Middle Eastern oil.โ He added, โWe didnโt need the oil for ourselves;โ until the early 1970s โNorth America led the world in oil production. But we do want to keep our hands on this lever of world power," further, a secondary objective is to ensure that "the flow of petrodollars should be largely funnelled to the U.S. through military purchases, construction projects, bank deposits, investment in Treasury securities, etc." During the Arab Cold War and beyond, socialist Arab nationalists were viewed as the main threat to the Saudi monarchy. Nasserโs slogan โArab oil for the Arabsโ epitomized this challenge, while the Baโathists of Syria and Iraq similarly rejected Saudi stewardship of a resource they deemed the patrimony of all Arabs. The United States has actively worked to undermine Arab nationalists, with Israel playing a key role. Stephen Gowans argues that one reason behind U.S. special relationship with Israel is that the latter helps prevent indigenous forces in the Middle East from aligning with Arab nationalists who champion the slogan, "Arab oil for the Arabs". Similarly, Noam Chomsky contends that Israel serves U.S. interests by protecting U.S.-backed reactionary monarchies, and by being "a crucial part of the elaborate U.S. base and backup system for the Rapid Deployment Force ringing the Middle East oil producing regions." On March 15, 1951, the Iranian parliament passed legislation proposed by Mohammad Mosaddegh to nationalize the Anglo-Persian Oil Company, whose revenues from Iranian oil were greater than the Iranian government budget. Mosaddegh was elected Prime Minister by the Majlis. Mosadeggh's support by the Tudeh as well as a boycott by various businesses against the nationalized industry produced fears in the UK and the US that Iran would turn to Communism. America officially remained neutral, but the CIA covertly supported various candidates in the 1952 Iranian legislative election. In late 1952, with Mosaddegh in power, the CIA launched a coup via Operation Ajax with UK support. The coup increased the monarchy's power. In the aftermath of the coup, Shah Reza Pahlavi replaced the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company with a consortiumโBritish Petroleum and eight European and American oil companies. In 1979, the Iranian Revolution ended the rule of the Shah and American influence in the country. In August 2013, the US formally acknowledged its role in the coup, including bribing Iranian politicians, security, and army officials, as well as pro-coup propaganda. The US occupied Japan after WWII until 1952, and maintained control of Okinawa Prefecture until 1972, before returning control to Japan. After Japan surrendered the land they had ruled since 1910, the US and the USSR divided the Korean peninsula along the 38th parallel, with the Southern end occupied by the US and the Northern end by the USSR. The two countries agreed to grant Korean independence in 1950. Kim Ku and Syngman Rhee led the anti-trusteeship movement against the US and the USSR. The USAMGIK banned strikes on December 8 and outlawed the PRK Revolutionary Government and People's Committees on December 12. Following further unrest, the USAMGIK declared martial law. The UN decided to hold an election to create an independent Korea. The Soviets and Korean communists refused to participate. Due to concerns about division caused by an election without North Korea's participation, many South Korean politicians boycotted it. The 1948 South Korean general election was held in May. The resultant South Korean government promulgated a national political constitution on July 17 and elected Rhee as president. The Republic of Korea (South Korea) was established on August 15. The 1948 Jeju uprising was violently suppressed and led to the deaths of 14,000-30,000 people, mostly civilians.: 139, 193 The North invaded the South in June 1950, launching the bloody Korean War that killed millions of Koreans. Based on National Security Council document 68, the US adopted a policy of "rollback" against communism in Asia. The US initially supported France's counterinsurgency program, but not its continued rule. US support was in response to China's support for Vietnam's communists. After ฤiแปn Biรชn Phแปง, the US pressured France to free the pro-French government. The US assumed military and financial support for South Vietnam following France's defeat in the First Indochina War. The US and South Vietnam refused to sign agreements at the 1954 Geneva Conference arguing that fair elections weren't possible in North Vietnam. Beginning in 1965, the US sent forces to protect the South from invasions by the North and local insurgencies. In part the Vietnam War was a proxy war between the USSR and the US. The Paris Peace accords triggered the departure of US troops by March 1973, while 150,000-200,000 Northern soldiers remained in the South in violation of the accords. Peace continued until the US slashed aid to the South by 70% in 1974. The North launched its final offensive in March 1975, and Saigon fell on April 30. After the murder of six Indonesian Army generals, which Suharto blamed on the Communist Party of Indonesia and a failed coup attempt by the 30 September Movement, he began an anti-communist purge, ultimately killing up to one million. Ethnic Chinese, trade unionists, teachers, activists, artists, ethnic Javanese Abangan, ethnic Chinese, atheists, so-called "unbelievers", and alleged leftists were targeted. Historians and journalists have documented that the US, UK, and their allies, were essential in facilitating and encouraging the campaign. The campaign purged the Communist Party, and shifted Indonesia towards the West. American trade expanded. By 1967, companies such as Freeport Sulphur (see Grasberg mine), Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company, General Electric, American Express, Caterpillar Inc., StarKist, Raytheon Technologies and Lockheed Martin, began to explore business opportunities. Declassified documents released in October 2017 stated that the US government had detailed knowledge of the massacres. Commenting on the documents, historian Bradley Simpson said these previously secret cables, telegrams, letters, and reports "contain damning details that the U.S. was willfully and gleefully pushing for the mass murder of innocent people." From 1968 through 1989, the US supported attempts to defeat left-wing insurgencies and governments. It supported political repression and state terrorism including intelligence operations, coup d'รฉtats, and assassinations as part of Operation Condor. It began in November 1975, led by the dictatorships of the Southern Cone of South America in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru, and Uruguay. In 1991 the US and allies invaded Iraq to force it to withdraw from Kuwait, which Iraq had conquered the year before. The Gulf War lasted 9 days before the two parties accepted a ceasefire and Iraq withdrew its forces. The Bush Administration noted that possession of Kuwait would give Iraq control of 45% of global oil production. While the US gained no direct control of territory or (oil or other) assets, it strengthened relations with Kuwait and neighboring countries (save for Iran). The US established no-fly zones over Iraq following the conflict, with the announced purpose of protecting Iraqi Kurds in the north and Shia Muslims in the south. The US invaded Iraq again in 2003 in the aftermath of 9/11. One outcome of Iraq's rapid defeat was Order 39, which privatized the Iraqi economy and permitted 100% foreign ownership of Iraqi assets. International oil companies from the US, Europe, and China secured technical service contracts (but not ownership of reserves) starting in 2009, and invested billions of dollars that increased production from ~1.5 million barrels per day (mb/d) in 2003 to ~4.6 mb/d by 2023. 75%+ of the resulting revenues went to the Iraqi National Oil Company. Yeah, there is one thing. My own morality. My own mind. It's the only thing that can stop me. I don't need international law. I'm not looking to hurt people. During both of his presidencies, U.S. President Donald Trump expressed a desire to expand the United States' territory through both land purchases and military means. Trump first stated his desire to annex Greenland during his first presidency. In his second presidency, Trump has pursued a campaign to acquire Greenland. He has also suggested annexation or taking control of Canada, Mexico, the Panama Canal, and the Gaza Strip. After proposing invasion of Venezuela, Trump's second administration removed President Nicolรกs Maduro as part of Operation Absolute Resolve and claimed the U.S. would "run" Venezuela, although the Venezuelan government remains in place. Trump's determination to treat the Western Hemisphere as a U.S. sphere of influence has been characterized as a revival of the Monroe Doctrine in what became known as the Donroe Doctrine. Numerous politicians outside of the United States have criticized Trump's annexation comments. The Democratic Party has introduced bills to curb Trump from invading countries without Congress's approval. On January 3, 2026, the United States launched Operation Absolute Resolve, a strike on Venezuela. After bombing military installations there, US Special Forces captured Venezuelan President Nicolรกs Maduro and his wife, Cilia Flores, charging them with narco-terrorism. Trump said that the US would temporarily "run" Venezuela and exploit its oil resources, which are among the world's largest. Critics and experts described the attack as illegal and as "resource imperialism". The New York Times editorial board called it an act of "latter-day imperialism" which lacked "any semblance of international legitimacy". Strategy Kennan designed in 1948 a globe-circling system of alliances embracing non-Communist countries. Disregarding George Washington's dictum of avoiding entangling alliances, in the early Cold War the US established 44 formal alliances and other relationships with nearly 100 countries. The enthusiasm was reciprocal. Most of the world was interested to ally with the US. In the early 1940s, observing the attitudes of other nations, Isaiah Bowman, Henry Luce, and Wendell Willkie stressed the potential of such relationships. This unprecedented scale was aided by the eagerness with which America was welcomed. On the eve of the Rio Treaty and NATO, political theorist James Burnham envisaged: A federation however in which the federal units are not equal, in which one of them leads ... and holds the decisive instrument of material power, is in reality an empire. The word ... would in practice doubtless never be employed. Whatever the words, it is well also to know the reality. In reality, the only alternative to the Communist World Empire is an American Empire which will be, if not literally worldwide in formal boundaries, capable of exercising decisive world control. โ James Burnham Zbigniew Brzezinski listed three goals of US geostrategy: "to prevent collusion and maintain security dependence among the vassals, to keep tributaries pliant and protected and to keep the barbarians from coming together." Toynbee and Ostrovsky associated US alliances with the Roman client system during the late Roman Republic. Cicero defended the strategy, claiming that by defending its allies, Rome gained world dominion. However, American influence was largely welcomed. Ostrovsky claimed that although all earlier empires, especially persistent empires, were in some measure by bargain, cooperation and invitation, in the post-1945 world this took an extreme form. In 1989, political scientist Huntington stated that most democratic states entered "hegemonic" alliances, while Krauthammer stated that "[Western] Europe achieved the single greatest transfer of sovereignty in world history",: 49 as Eastern Europe followed suit. Russell theorized about the "military unification of the world" led by the Anglo-American powers. Since President Dwight Eisenhower, US administrations claimed that the US carried a disproportionate share of the military and financial burden for maintaining NATO. In 2025, President Trump announced that he wanted NATO countries to raise their contributions from 2 to 5% of their respective GDPs, to which they later agreed. The Trump administration also pushed allies and others over trade and investment, a shift from decades of advocating free trade and the rule of law. Trump made (possibly chimerical) territorial claims on Greenland and Canada. Canada and others engaged in designing an anti-hegemonic "common front" with the Europeans, particularly with Denmark, and Latin America, particularly Mexico and Panama. During World War II, Roosevelt promised that the American eagle will "fly high and strike hard." "But he can only do so if he has safe perches around the world." After the war, the US established a network of bases. NCS-162/2 of 1953 stated, "The military striking power necessary to retaliate depends for the foreseeable future on having bases in allied countries.": 349 No foreign bases were present on US soil. In his New Frontier speech in 1960, future President John F. Kennedy noted that America had established "frontiers" on every continent.: 71 On Guam, a common joke had it that few people other than Kremlin nuclear targeters knew about their island. While territories such as Guam, the US Virgin Islands, the Northern Mariana Islands, American Samoa, and Puerto Rico are US territories, the US supported independence for many one-time territories. Examples include the Philippines (1946), the Panama Canal Zone (1979), Palau (1981), the Federated States of Micronesia (1986), and the Marshall Islands (1986). Most of them continued to host US bases. In 2003, the US had bases in over 36 countries, The US operates a base in Guantรกnamo Bay, Cuba, despite the country's objections. As of 2024, the US deployed approximately 160,000 active-duty personnel outside the US and its territories. In 2015 the Department of Defense reported that its bases numbered 587, while an independent look reported 800, including 174 in Germany, 113 in Japan, and 83 in South Korea. Some bases, such as Rammstein Air Base, are city-sized, with schools, hospitals and power plants. The US network of military alliances and bases is coordinated by the Unified combatant command (UCC).[better source needed] The UCC system is rooted in WWII. The UCC was founded to contain the USSR, but outlived it and expanded. As of 2025, the US operated six geographic commands.: 69 Dick Cheney served as Secretary of Defense during the end of the Cold War, and afterwards recommended, "The strategic command, control and communication system should continue to evolve toward a joint global structure..." In 1998, the US assigned Russia, the former Soviet Republics and its former satellite states in Europe to EUCOM and those of the Central Asia to CENTCOM. In 2002, for the first time, the US divided the entire Earth among US commands. The final unassigned regionโAntarcticaโfell to PACOM, which included the half of the globe covered by the Pacific Ocean.[citation needed] No other nation has anything approaching the US network of overseas bases, forward deployed forces and military relationships. US cultural exports have dominated key cultural sectors since the advent of movies in the early 20th century. The US introduced many new cultural sectors, and at least initially dominated them. US cultural products (video, video games, music, literature, science, fashion) typically spread ideas of individualism, innovation, and consumerism, often welcomed as modern/aspirational. In 2025 their share varied by medium and region. As of 2025: However, US cultural dominance is waning, as other cultures increase consumption (Bollywood, Reggaeton) and exports (K-pop, anime/manga) of their own products.[citation needed] In territories such as Hawaii, missionaries dedicated themselves to converting locals to Christianity and teaching them English (while creating a written form of the Hawaiian language). In the 19th century the indigenous dance culture of Hula was banned. for a time. In 1896 territorial authorities eliminated Hawaiian from schools. The 1970s Hawaiian Renaissance restored Hawaiian culture across many institutions.[citation needed] The art and media that emerged in the 1800s was often concerned with westward expansion. The Hudson River School was a romantic-inspired art movement that formed in 1826 that depicted landscapes and natural scenes. These paintings admired the marvels of American territory and portrayed the US as a promised land. Common themes included: discovery; exploration; settlement and promise. These themes resurfaced in other artistic expression of the time. John Gast, known for his 1872 painting American Progress, displayed themes of discovery and the beneficial prospects of American expansion. Manifest destiny appeared in some art of the time. Art was also used to justify the belief that the new nation was inevitably destined to grow. Motivating factors American exceptionalism is the belief that the US is unique among nations based on its values, political system, and historical development. Tocqueville was the first to identify the US as qualitatively unique. Reagan notably celebrated US exceptionalism, tying it to Winthrop's "city on a hill" sermon. One facet of that exceptionalism is America's self concept as a protector of freedom, democracy, and free markets. The arms industry, petroleum, and finance industries, in alliance with military and political bureaucracies. have been accused of benefiting from war profiteering and exploiting natural resources. The US ($5.3T) was second to China ($6.2T) in world trade (2024). The US dominated arms exports, although this represented less than 15% of its export total.[citation needed] A key role for the US military is to protect trade routes, with spillover benefits to other trade-dependent nations such as China. For example, the Strait of Malacca is the main shipping route between the Indian and Pacific Oceans and has at times faced piracy. It carries nearly 100,000 ships/year. An older argument that the Global North (Europe, Japan, Canada, and the US) had arrayed itself against the Global South became less salient as more of the latter countries began exporting significant amounts of industrial goods, such as airplanes (Brazil), electronics (Vietnam), vehicles (India), and container ships (China). The advent of nuclear weapons led multiple US administrations to discount the effectiveness of the oceanic moat that had made invading the US impractical for the world's other powerful, later ballistic missile/nuclear, nations. Presidents Truman, Kennedy, and Clinton accepted this conclusion. Thus they sought other means to ensure national security.[citation needed] One facet of this was to prevent the Eurasian land mass from coming under control of any single power or combination of powers. However, this containment strategy, designed for the Cold War, long outlived it. In 2005, the US Army War College initiated a study of empires. It classed the American Empire as accidental and defensive (rather than intentional and aggressive), driven by the need for defense against Soviet Communism. In the process the US acquired enormous influence, but did not do so deliberately.: XXIV September 11 created a security crisis that triggered intervention,: 3 accompanied by heated debates. It was the first significant attack on American soil since Pearl Harbor (the 1993 bombing led by Pakistani terrorist Ramzi Yousef did not do enough damage to trigger a major response). Views The extent to which US actions are properly described as imperialism and the US as an empire have been debated since the country's founding, complicated by the lack of standard definitions of the terms and their applicability to the rapidly evolving ways in which nations form and interact. Annexation is the traditional way empires expand. The US expanded westward via repeated annexations, conquests, and purchases of lands claimed by other nations. The last time the US annexed territory was the Philippines in 1899, then a Spanish colony. Thereafter, the US limited itself to other means. Historian Immerwahr considered American territorial expansion across North America at the expense of Native Americans to fit the definition of imperialism. In 1980 Williams claimed that prosperity, liberty and security were merely justifications for imperial behavior. Author Miller stated that the public's sense of innocence limited popular recognition of US imperial conduct. Historian LaFeber saw the Spanish-American War as a culmination of US westward expansion. In 1988 linguist/activist Chomsky argued systematic propaganda had been used to establish support for the concept of exceptionalism and provide alternative descriptions of what he viewed as imperialism. In 2008 he stated, "the US is the one country...that was founded as an empire explicitly". Historians such as Meinig (1993) and Beard[citation needed] considered the US' entire westward expansion to be imperialism. By contrast, in 1999 Buchanan, a pundit, contrasted the US' later drive to empire with the earlier expansion. Historian Bacevich argued in 2004 that the US had not fundamentally changed its foreign policy following the Cold War, and continued to attempt to expand its span of control. David Hendrickson claimed that absolute security implies universal empire. Chalmers Johnson claimed in 2004 that America's version of the colony was the military base, despite the reduced footprint that the bases provide. He argued that the resistance to occupying foreign territory led to other means, including governing other countries via surrogates or puppet regimes, where domestically unpopular governments survived only through US support. After September 11 criticisms also continued, as geographer Neil Smith called the official war on terror a third attempt at empire.: XIโXII Petrodollar warfare (coined by William R. Clark) or oil currency war refers to the alleged US foreign policy of preserving by force the status of the US dollar as the world's reserve currency and as the currency in which oil is priced. Clark cited the 2003 Iraq invasion, 2011 intervention in Libya, and use of force against Iran as examples. Paul Kramer noted the resemblance between US policies in the Philippines and European actions in their colonies in Asia and Africa during this period. Historian Lundestad claimed that the US interfered in Italian and French politics in order to defeat elected communist officials. Matteo Capasso claimed that the 2011 military intervention in Libya was US-led imperialism and the conclusion of a war begun in the 1970s, fought via "gunboat diplomacy, military bombings, international sanctions and arbitrary use of international law". Capasso argued that the war was intended to strip Libya of its autonomy and resources and weaken and fragment the African/Arab political position. Educator Kieh claimed that strategic factors such as a fear of subsequent invasion of Saudi Arabia and other local pro-American monarchies drove the US response in the Gulf War. Iraqi control was feared to threaten a major corridor of international trade. Kieh also noted various economic factors. William Robinson claimed that the US was aiding transnational capitalist groups, a form of economic imperialism. He claimed that the goal was economic subjugation.[citation needed] Historian Kennedy asserted, "From the time the first settlers arrived in Virginia from England and started moving westward, this was an imperial nation, a conquering nation." Sociologist Robinson characterized American empire since the 1980s as a front for the imperial designs of the American capitalist class, arguing that Washington D.C. had become the seat of the 'empire of capital' from which nations are colonized and re-colonized. Following the September 11 attack, the conversation about "American empire" shifted from decrying US overseas actions as imperial. Instead, multiple authors started to call for the US to explicitly seek imperial power. Historian Maier stated that it had become acceptable to ask whether the US had become a conventional empire. Ferguson noted that post-9/11, various commentators had started using the term "American empire" ambivalently or positively.: pp. 3โ4 He concluded that US military and economic power had elevated the US into history's most powerful empire. He supported this, claiming that it worked to promote global economic growth, enhance the rule of law and promote representative government, while fearing that the US lacked the long-term commitment to maintain it. Boot advocated for the US to explicitly seek empire. Journalist Lowry recommended "low-grade colonialism" to topple dangerous regimes beyond Afghanistan. The phrase "American empire" appeared more than 1000 times in news stories from November 2002 โ April 2003. Academic publications also surged.: 222 In 2005, two notable journals, History and Theory and Daedalus, each devoted a special issue to empires. Historian Hopkins argued that traditional economic imperialism was obsolete, noting that major oil companies opposed the 2003 US invasion of Iraq. Instead, anxieties about globalization were driving support for US interventions.: 95 Boot located the beginning of US imperialism to "at least 1803", claiming, "US imperialism has been the greatest force for good in the world during the past century. It has defeated communism and Nazism and has intervened against the Taliban and Serbian ethnic cleansing." Other neoconservatives, such as British historian Paul Johnson and writers D'Souza and Steyn and some liberal hawks, such as political scientists Zbigniew Brzezinski and Michael Ignatieff have supported it. Ferguson stated, "the US is an empire and [...] this might not be wholly bad.": 21 He cited parallels between the British Empire and the US in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, though he likens the US more to the Roman Empire. Ferguson argues that these empires had both positive and negative aspects, and that if it continues to learn from history, the US' positives will far outweigh the negatives.: 286โ301 Rosen defined an empire as a political unit that has overwhelming military superiority and uses that power to control the internal behavior of other states. Because the US did not govern or control others' territory, he termed it an "indirect" empire. On April 28, 2003, then-Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld stated, "We don't seek empires. We're not imperialistic. We never have been." Many โ perhaps most โ scholars[who?] claim that the US lacks the essentials of an empire. For example, while despite American military bases around the world, America does not rule those countries, and the US government does not send out governors or permanent settlers like all the historic empires did. Historian Maier says the traditional understanding of "empire" does not apply, because the US does not exert formal control over other nations or engage in systematic conquest. He advanced the term "hegemon" instead. Its enormous influence through high technology, economic power, and impact on popular culture gives it an international outreach that stands in sharp contrast to the inward direction of historic empires. Historian Pagden stated that America's unmatched military capability did not demonstrate that it is imperial. Unlike European empires, it has no significant settler populations in its overseas territories and exercises no direct rule anywhere else. It reliably attempts to leave when circumstances permit,: p 52โ53 as in Iraq in 2011 and Afghanistan in 2021 after withdrawing most of its forces in 2014. Historian Bemis argued that SpanishโAmerican War expansionism was an "aberration", different than that of earlier American history. Historian Mary Renda claimed that the goal was to create political stability, rather than expansion or exploitation. Geographer Harvey argued that three empires had emerged by the twenty-first century, based on geographical blocs and unequal development. He named the US, the European Union, and Asia (China and Russia) as the imperial blocs,[verification needed] but did not include the Iranian version. This 'new' imperialism align the interests of business and politicians, preventing the rise of economic and political rivals. Thorton claimed that the term had been widely abused, writing, "imperialism is more often the name of the emotion that reacts to a series of events than a definition" of them". Liberal internationalists argued that even though the post-Cold War era was dominated by the US, that dominance was not imperial. International relations scholar Ikenberry claimed that international institutions had taken the place of empire. Walzer claimed that hegemony is a better term than empire to describe the US, as its dominates external relations, but not internal affairs. Keohane rejected word 'empire' for the US, because it conflated it with the territorial British and Soviet empires,: 435 also preferring hegomony or hegemonic stability. Nexon and Wright claimed that neither 'empire' nor 'hegemony' properly describes foreign relations of the US. They concluded that US foreign relations has moved away from imperialism.: 266โ267 Scholars such as Layne, Art, Lundestad, and Tunander claimed that they were instruments through which the US perpetuated its "hegemonic" role. Before he predicted the Clash of Civilizations, Huntington had concluded that since 1945 most democratic countries had become members of the "alliance system" within which the "position of the US was 'hegemonic'". According to Ostrovsky, the pattern known as "defensive imperialism" in Roman studies may apply to the US. It involved isolationism via geographic barriers followed by growing imperialism in response to growing external threats. Kaplan draws parallels between the US bases and Roman garrisons that were established to defend the frontiers and for surveillance of the areas beyond. Ostrovsky and Falk saw it differently: "This time there are no frontiers and no areas beyond. The global strategic reach is unprecedented in world history.": 233 "The US is by circumstance and design an emerging global empire, the first in the history of the world." Kagan inscribed over a map of US bases: "The Sun never sets." an ironic commentary on a common description of the 19th century British Empire. Ostrovsky concluded that, disregarding national pride, many states, some of them recent great powers, "surrender their strategic sovereignty en mass[sic]". They hosted US bases, partly covered their expenses,: 938โ939, 942 integrated their strategic forces, contributed 1-2% of their GDP, and tipped military, economic and humanitarian contributions in aid of the hegemonic operations worldwide.: 938, 942, 960 : 8 Unlike economic globalization, Ostrovsky claimed that military globalization involved centralizationโintegration under a central command.: 299 Lebow, Kelly, Robinson, and Mรผnkler drew parallels between NATO and the Delian League, which evolved into the Athenian Empire.: p 45โ46 : 163 According to political scientist Waltz, US alliances do not match the Westphalian system that was characterized by balance of power, equal relations among states, and impermanence. Historians Preston and Rossinow claimed that while the Monroe Doctrine contained a commitment to resist European colonialism, it included no limiting principles on US action. Sexton stated that the tactics implementing the doctrine were modeled after those employed by European imperial powers during the 17th and 18th centuries. See also References Sources Further reading External links |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืื ืืจื_ื'ืื ืกืื] | [TOKENS: 44620] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืื ืืจื ื'ืื ืกืื ืื ืืจื ื'ืื ืกืื (ืืื ืืืืช: Andrew Johnsonโ; 29 ืืืฆืืืจ 1808 โ 31 ืืืืื 1875) ืืื ื ืฉืืื ื-17 ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืืื ืืคืจืื 1865 ืืืจืฅ 1869. ืืื ืืื ืืช ืืืื ืชื ืื ืฉืื ืืืืจ ืืืชื ืงืฉืืช ืื ืฉืื ืืืจืื ืืื ืงืืื, ืืขืช ืฉืืืื ืืกืื ืื ืฉืื ืืฆืื. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืื ืืืจ ืืืคืืื ืืืืืงืจืืืช ืฉืืฆืืจืฃ ืื ืืื ืงืืื ืืื ืืืคืืื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืืช, ืชืืช ืืฉื "ืืคืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืืื", ืื ืืืจ ืืฉืืืืืช ืืืืจืืื ืืืืจืืงื ืืช ืืกืชืืืื. ืื ืฉืื ืืืืฉ ื ืื ืก ืืฉืืจืืช ืื ืชืงืืคืช ืืฉืืงืื, ืืชืื ืืฉืืงืื ืืืืจ ืฉื ืืืืื ืืช ืืคืืจืฉืืช, ืืืฆืืจืืคื ืืืืืจ ืื ืืืืืื. ืชืืื ืืืชืื ืื ืืืื ืืื ื ืขื ืืขืืืื ืืืฉืืืจืจืื, ืืืงืื ืืจืก ืืจืคืืืืืงื ื ืืชืขืืช ืืืื ืจืืืช. ืืืกืืฃ, ืืฆืืืข ืืืช ืื ืืืจืื ืขื ืืืืชื. ืืื ืืื ืื ืฉืื ืืจืืฉืื ืฉืืืื ืืืื ืืืช ืื ืืืจืื, ืืืื ืืืื ืืืคืจืฉ ืฉื ืงืื ืืื ืืกื ืื. ื'ืื ืกืื ื ืืื ืืจืืื, ืงืจืืืืื ื ืืฆืคืื ืืช. ืืื ืืชืืื ืืืืื ืืขืื ืืืื ืขืจื ืกืคืจ ืืคื ื ืฉืืฉืชืงืข ืืืจืื ืืืื, ืื ืกื. ืืื ืฉืืจืช ืืืืจ ืืืืขืฆื ืืขืืจืื ืืช ืืจืืฉ ืืขืืจ ืืคื ื ืฉื ืืืจ ืืืืช ืื ืืืจืื ืฉื ืืืืื ื ื-1835. ืืืืจ ืชืงืืคื ืงืฆืจื ืืกื ืื ืฉื ืื ืกื, ื ืืืจ ืืืืช ืื ืืืจืื ืืืืืื ื-1843, ืืืืื ืืืฉ ืืืื ืืช ืืืฉื ืขืฉืจ ืฉื ืื. ืืืืจ ืืื ืืคื ืืืืฉื ืื ืกื, ืชืคืงืื ืื ืืืื ืืจืืข ืฉื ืื, ืื ืืืจ ืืืื ืืืืขืฆื ืืืืืงืงืช ืืกื ืื ื-1857. ืืงืื ืืจืก, ืืื ืชืื ืืืืง ืืืืืจืช ืงืจืงืขืืช ืฆืืืืจ, ืฉืขืืจ ืืขื ืืืืจ ืฉืขืื ืืช ืืกื ืื ื-1862. ืืขืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืจืื ืฉืชืืื ืืขืืืืช, ืืืื ืื ืกื, ืคืจืฉื ืืืงืืื ืืช ืงืื ืคืืจืฆืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืฉื ืืืจืืงื, ืชืื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืืืื. ืืื ืืื ืืกื ืืืืจ ืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืขื ืืืื ืช ืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืฉืกืืจื ืืืชืคืืจ ืืืืจ ืคืจืืฉืช ืืืื ืชื. ื-1862, ืืื ื ืืืชื ืืื ืงืืื ืืชืคืงืื ืืืืฉื ืืฆืืื ืฉื ืื ืกื ืืืืจ ืฉืืืช ื ืืืฉื ืืืืฉ. ื-1864, ืืคื ื'ืื ืกืื, ืืืืืงืจื ืฉืชืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืขื ืืืจืื, ืืืืขืื ืืืืขื ืืชืคืงืื ืกืื ื ืฉื ืืื ืงืืื, ืฉืืืงืฉ ืืฉืืื ืืกืจ ืฉื ืืืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืืืฉ. ืื ื ืืฆืื ืืงืืืช. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืฉืืข ืืกืื ื ืฉืื ืืืจืฅ 1865, ืื ืืืื ืืื ืื ืื ืืจืืข ืขื ืฉืืืืื ืืืชืืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืข ืืขืจืขืืจ ืืขืืื. ืืขืืืจ ืฉืืฉื ืฉืืืขืืช, ืืืจืฆืื ืฉื ืืื ืงืืื ืืคื ืืืชื ืื ืฉืื. ืื ืฉืื ืืชืงืืคืช ืืฉืืงืื, ืื ืืื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืื ืืืช ืฉื ืืืื ืืืืืืงืช โ ืืื ืงืืข ืฉืขื ืืืืื ืืช ืฉืคืจืฉื ืืื ืก ืืกืคืืช ืืืขืจืื ืืืืจืืช ืืื ืืืงืื ืืืืฉ ืืช ืืืืฉืืืช ืฉืืื. ืืคืืขื, ืืืื ืืช ืืืจืื ืืืจื ืืจืืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืฉื ืื ืืืขืืืจื ืืืงืื ืฉื ืืฉืื ืืช ืืฉืืืจืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืจืืืืช. ืืชื ืืืื, ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื, ืกืืจืื ืืชืช ืืืืจื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืจืืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืขืืืจื ืืืงืื ืื ืื ืืืจืื. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืื ืืื ืขื ืืืืงืื, ืืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืขืงืคื ืืช ืืืื, ืืคืืก ืฉื ืฉืืจ ืืืฉื ืฉืืจืืช ืืืื ืชื (ืืืฉ ืขืฉืจื ืคืขืืื, ืืืชืจ ืืื ื ืฉืื ืืืจ, ืืืฉืจื ืืืืฉ ืืืงืื ืฉืืืื ืืืื ืืงืื ืืจืก). ื'ืื ืกืื ืขืฆืื ืืืื ืคืงืืื ืึพืคืืฆืื ืขืืืื ืืฉืืืจืจืื. ืืื ืืฃ ืืชื ืื ืืืขืืจืช ืืชืืงืื ืืืจืืขื ืขืฉืจ ืืืืงืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืฉืืขื ืืง ืืืจืืืช ื-4 ืืืืืื ืขืืืื ืืฉืืืจืจืื. ื-1866, ืืฆื ืืืกืข ืืจืืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืื ืืงืื ืืช ืขืฆืื, ืื ืืกืืื ืืืืืจ ืขื ืืจืืืื ืืคืืืืืืื. ืืฉืืขืืืืช ืืื ืื ืฉืื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืจ, ืืืืื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืช ืืืืชื ืฉื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืคืืจ ืืช ืืืจื ืืงืืื ื ืฉืื, ืืืื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืกืืช ืืคืืจ ืืช ืืชื ืืืื. ืืฉื ืืกื ืืคืืจ ืืช ืืืืืจ ืืืืืื ืฉืื, ื ืืกื ืืืช ืื ืืืจืื ืืืืื ืืืชื ืืืื ืืืง ืจืง ืืงืืฉื ืืืืื ืืกื ืื. ืืืืจ ื ืฉืืืืชื, ืืืจ ืืื ืกื ืื ืืืจ ืืกื ืื ืฉืื ื-1875, ืืืืฉืื ืกืคืืจืื ืืคื ื ืืืชื. ืืื ืื ืฉืื ืืฉืขืืจ ืืืืื ืฉืฉืืจืช ืืกื ืื. ืขืงื ืืชื ืืืืชื ืืงืืฆืื ืืช ืืืชื ืืืืืืช ืืฉืืืจืื, ืืืกื ืืฉืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืจืืงืืื, ืืขืืจ ืืืื ืืจืฆืฃ ืงืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืจืืขืืช ืืจืืช ืืืจื ืืืืจืืช ืฉืืืจืื, ืืืกืืืจืืื ืื ืจืืื ืจืืืื ืื'ืื ืกืื ืืืื ืืื ืฉืืืื ืืืจืืขืื ืืชืืืืืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืจืืฉืืช ืืืื ืืชืืืืช ืืงืจืืืจื ืื ืืจื ื'ืื ืกืื ื ืืื ืืจืืื, ืงืจืืืืื ื ืืฆืคืื ืืช ื-29 ืืืฆืืืจ 1808, ืื'ืืืงืื (1778โ1812) ืืืืจื ("ืคืืื") ืืงืืื ืื (1783โ1856), ืืืืกืช. ืืื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืื ืืื, ืกืงืืื ืืืืจื. ืืื ืื ืื ืืื, ืืืืืื, ืฉืืื ืืืืจ ืืื ื ืืืจืืข ืฉื ืื, ืืืืืช ืืฉื ืืืืืืช' ืฉืืชื ืืืืืืชื. ื'ืื ืกืื ื ืืื ืืืงืชืช ืขืฅ, ืืืืืืฉ ืจืืืช ืืืืื ืืงืจืืืจื ืืคืืืืืืช ืฉืื ืฉืืชืืื ืืืงืื ืฆื ืืข. ื'ืืืงืื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืื ืืืฉ ืขื ื, ืืื ืืืื ืืืืืื, ืืืื ืืคื ืืฉืืืจ ืืขืืจ ืืคื ื ื ืืฉืืืื. ืืื ืืช ืืืชืงืฃ ืื ืืฉืฆืืฆื ืืคืขืืื ืืขืืจ, ืืืืจ ืฉืืืืฅ ืฉืืืฉื ืื ืฉืื ืืืืืขื, ืืฉืื ืืจื ืืื ืื ืฉืืืฉ. ืคืืื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืคืื ืืืคืจื ืกืช ืืืืืื. ืืืงืฆืืข ืฉืื ื ืืฉื ืืืืื, ืืืขืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืืื ืืืชืื ืฉื ืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืฉืืืขืืช ืฉืื ืืจื ืืื ืื ื ืฉื ืืืฉ ืืืจ, ืืืืื ืฉืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืืืชื. ืคืืื ื'ืื ืกืื ื ืืฉืื ืืืืฉ ืืืจื ืจ ืืืืืจืื, ืฉืืื ืขื ื ืืืื. ืคืืื ืืฆืืืื ืืช ืื ื ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืฉื ื'ืืืืก ืกืืื. ืื ืืจื ืืคื ืืฉืืืื ืฉื ืกืืื ืืืื ืขืฉืจ. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืจ ืขื ืืื, ืืืื ืืืขืืืืื ืฉื ืกืืื ืืืื ืืืชื ืงืจืื ืืืชืื ืืจืื ืืกืืกืืช. ืืืืจืืื ืฉืืื ืืื ืืช ืืงืจืื ืืช ืืชืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืชื ืืงืจืื. ื'ืื ืกืื ืื ืืื ืฉืื ืืขืืืืชื, ืืืืืจ ืืืฉ ืฉื ืื ืืจื ืขื ืืืื (ืื ืืื ืฆืจืืืื ืืืืืช ืฉื ืขื ืืืื ืขืฉืจืื ืืืืช). ืกืืื ืฉื ืคืจืก ืขื ืจืืฉื. ืืืืื ืืจืื ืืงืืจืืืื', ืื ืขืื ืื ืืจื ืืืืื. ืืจืื ืืฉืฉ ืฉืืืขืฆืจ, ืขืืจ ืื ืืจื ืืืืจื ืก, ืฉืืงืจืืืืื ื ืืืจืืืืช. ืืื ืืฆื ืขืืืื ืืืืืจืืช, ืืคืืฉ ืืืืืืชื ืืจืืฉืื ื, ืืจื ืืื. ืืื ืกืืจืื ืืืฆืขืช ืื ืืฉืืืื ืฉืื. ืืื ืืืจ ืืจืืื ืืชืงืืื ืฉืืืื ืืฆืืช ืืืืืื ืขื ืกืืื, ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืื ืืคืชืืจ ืืช ืืขื ืืื. ืืืื ืืกืืืื ืืืขืฆืจ ืืจืืื, ืืืืื ืืขืืืจ ืืขืจืื. ื'ืื ืกืื ืขืื ืืื ืกื, ืืืื ืืฉื ืืจืื. ืืืืจ ืชืงืืคื ืงืฆืจื ืื ืืงืกืืืื, ืขืืจ ืืืืจืกืืืื, ืืืืื. ืืืืจ ืืื ืขืื ืืืืื ืืงืืืืืืื, ืื ืกื, ืืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืจื, ืฉืื ืจืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืจืื, ืงืจืื ืื ืืืืืจ ืืืืชื ืืืืืจ ืืืชื ืืืขืจื. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืฉืคืืชื ืขืืจื ืื ืืจืื ืืืื. ืืืจืื ืืืื, ืืงืื ืืชืคืจื ืืืฆืืืช ืืืืชื. ื-1827, ืืืื ืฉืืื ื ืขืฉืจื, ื ืืฉื ืืืืืืื ืืงืจืื ืืช ืืฉืฉ-ืขืฉืจื, ืฉืืืืชื ืืชื ืฉื ืกื ืืืจ ืืงืืื. ืืช ืืืื ืืืชื ืฉืืคื ืืฉืืื ืืจืืื ืืื ืงืืื, ืื ืืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืฉื ืชืืืืก ืืื ืงืืื, ืฉืื ื ืืคื ืื ืฉืื. ืื'ืื ืกืื ืื ืืื ื ืฉืืืื ืืืฉื ืืืืฉืื ืฉื ืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืฉื ืืืืื: ืืจืช'ื (1828), ืฆ'ืืจืืก (1830), ืืจื (1832), ืจืืืจื (1834) ืืื ืืจื ืืื (1852). ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืกืืื ืืฉืืคืช, ืืืืืื ืชืืื ืืืขืื. ืืื ืืืืื ืืืชื ืืฉืืื ืืกืืกื ืืืืฆื ืืฉืคืจ ืืช ืืืชืืื ืฉืื. ืืื ืืืืชื ืืืืฉื ืืช ืืืกืืืจืช, ืืืืจื ืืื ืืืืชื ืืืจืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืงืจืืืจื ืืคืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืขืื. ืืื ืื ื ืจืืชื ืืฆืืืืจ ืืืืื ืืืื ืชื ืฉื ืืขืื, ืืืชื ืืจืช'ื ืืืืชื ืืืืจืืช ืืจืฉืืืช. ืขืกืงื ืืืืืืืช ืฉื ื'ืื ืกืื ืฉืืฉืื ืขื ืชืืืืช ื ืืฉืืืื, ืืืื ืืฉืงืืข ืืช ืืจืืืืื ืื ืื"ื. ืืื ืืชืคืืจ ืืขืืืืชื ืืืืื, ืืืขื ื ืฉืืืืื ืืขืืื ืื ื ืงืจืขื. ืืื ืงืจื ืจืืืช ืขื ื ืืืืื ืืคืืจืกืืื ืืืื ืืืชืขื ืืื ืืคืืืืืืงื. ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืื ืืฉืืื ืขื ืืงืืืืช. ืขืืืืชื ืืคืืืืืืช ื'ืื ืกืื ืืจืื ืืช ืืคืืืช ืืคืืขืืื ืืืืืจืืช ืฉื ืืจืื ืืืื ื-1829. ืืื ื ืืืจ ืืืืจ ืืืืขืฆื ืืขืืจืื ืืช. ืืืืจ ืืจื ื ื ืืจื ืจ ื-1831, ืืขืืืจื ืืขืืืช ืืืืื ื ืืืงื ืืืฉื, ืืืื ืืืฉืืจ ืืฉืืื ืืืืืืช ืืฆืืขื ืืฆืืขืื ืืื ืืืคืฉืืื. ืืืืขืืื ืื ืืจืฉื ืจืคืืจืื ืืฉืืขืืจื ืืืก ืื ืื"ื ืืืืื ืืช ืืฉืืคืืจืื ืืชืฉืชืืืช ืฉื ืื ืกื. ืืืืงื ืืืืฉื ืืืืฉืืจ ืืฆืืืืจ, ืื'ืื ืกืื ื ืื ืืืืืชื. ืืื ืืื ืืืฉืืคื ืืืืืืช. ื-4 ืืื ืืืจ 1834, ืืืจื ืื ืืืจื ืืืืขืฆื ืืชืคืงืื ืจืืฉ ืขืืจืืืช ืืจืื ืืืื. ื-1835, ืืืืื ื'ืื ืกืื ืื ืกืืช ืืืืืืจ ืืืืช ืื ืืืจืื ืฉื ืื ืกื. ืืื ื ืืฆื ืืืืืจืืช ืขื ืฉื ื ืฉืืืฉืื ืืืงืืืืช. ืืืืจ ืืื ืจืืฉ ืืช ืืฉืคืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืฉืื, ืืืื, ืืืื ืืจืืข ืขืฉืจื. ืืื ืื ืฉืืืฉื ืืืืื ืืืืื ืืฉื ืื. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืชืืืืก ืืขืืืื ืืืืืืืช, ืืืื ืืขืืืื ืฉืื ื ืฉื ืืืื ืืื ืืืืจ ืืืชืจ ืืื ื ืืืืื ืืฉืืืขืืช ืฉืืื ืืืื. ืืืืื ืืืื ืืืจืื ืืืื, ืืฆืืจืฃ ืืืืืืฆืื ืืืงืืืืช. ืืื ืืืืข ืืืจืืช ืงืืืื ื. ืืืืื ืชื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืืืช ืืืืืงืงืื, ืฉืืชืื ืก ืื ืืฉืืืื, ื'ืื ืกืื ืื ืชืื ืืืืจื ืืืฆืขืืชืื ืฉื ืืืคืืื ืืืืืงืจืืืช ืื ืืืฆืขืืชืื ืฉื ืืืคืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืืฉื, ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืืขืจืืฅ ืืช ืื ืืจื ื'ืงืกืื, ืื ืฉืื ืืืืื ืช ืื ืกื. ืืืคืืืืช ืขืืืื ืื ืืืืฉื ืืช ืขืจืืืื. ืืืคืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืชื ืืื ืื'ืงืกืื ืืชืื ืืฉืฉ ืืจืืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืื ืฉืื. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืชื ืื ืืืขืืจืืืช ืืืฉืืชืืช ืฉืืื ื ืืื ืืืืืช ืืืชื ืื ืืกืืืข ืืืจืืื ื ืืกืืืืช ืืจืืืช. ืืืืจ ืฉืืืืก ืื ืืกืืื ื ืืืืืืจ ืืืืฉ ื-1837, ืืื ืื ืืคืกืื ืืขืื ืืจืืฅ ืืืฉื ืฉืืืฉืื ืฉื ื. ื-1839, ื ืืกื ืืืืืืจ ืืืืืื ืืชืคืงืื, ืืืื ืืฉืืืขืื ืืืจ ืืฉืื ืืช ืืืืขืืืืช ืืืืืืืช, ืืื ื ืืืจ ืืืืืงืจื. ืืืืชื ืจืืข ืืื ืืชืืื ืืืคืืื ืืืืืงืจืืืช ืืื ื ืื ืื ืื ืคืืืืื ืืืง. ื'ืื ืกืื ืชืื ืืืคืืื, ืื ืืฉื ืื ืืื ืืขืืื ืืชืงืืคืชื. ื-1840, ื ืืืจ ืืืืืช ืืืงืืืจ ืืืขื ืื ืกื ืืืชืคืจืกื ืืฃ ืืืชืจ. ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืื ืฉืื ืืืืืงืจืื ืืจืืื ืืื ืืืืจื ืืืืก ืืืื ืืกื ืืืืจ ืืฉืขืืจ ืืืืืื, ืืืืืื ืื ืจื ืืจืืกืื, ืืฆืืื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืฉืืืจ ืขื ืืขืื ืืืืืงืจืืื ืืื ืกื. ืืื ื ืืืจ ืืกื ืื ืฉื ืื ืกื ื-1841 ืืฉืืจืช ืฉื ืฉื ืชืืื. ืืื ืืฆืืื ืืืืื ื ืืกืคืืช, ืืืืจ ืืช ืืขืกืง ืฉืื ืืื ืืืชืืงื ืืคืืืืืืงื. ืื ืืกืฃ ืจืืฉ ื ืื"ื, ืืืื ืืืช ืืืื ืืืืื ืฉืื ืืจื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืจื. ืื ืืกืฃ ืืื ืื ืฉืืื ื ืื ืชืฉืขื ืขืืืื. ืืืืจ ืฉืฉืืจืช ืืฉื ื ืืชื ืืืืขืฆื ืืืืืงืงืช ืืืงืืืืช, ืจืื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืช ืืืืืจืืช ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืฆืขื ืืื ืืงืจืืืจื ืฉืื. ืืื ืืื ืืขืืจื ืืืกืคืจ ืืืืืื ืคืืืืืืื ืืื ืืืฉืื ืืช ืชืืืืช ืืืืืงืจืืื, ืืืื ืืขืืจืช ืื ืื ืืืืืจ ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืจืื ืืืื ืืชืคืงืืื, ืื ืืฆื ืืืกืืฃ ืืืขืื ืืชืืจื ืืืคืจืฉ ืฉื 603 ืงืืืืช ืืืื. ืืืืฉืื ืืืื, ืืฆืืจืฃ ืืจืื ืืืืืงืจืื ืืืืช ืื ืืืจืื. ื'ืื ืกืื ืชืื ืืขื ืืื, ืืชื ืื ืืืืืื ืืขืืืืช, ืชืื ืืืืฆืื ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืฉืื ืืืชื ืื ืืืืกื ืืื. ืืืืืื ื ืฉืืจื ืืืจืื ืืืื, ืื'ืื ืกืื ืืขืืืฃ ืืืืื ืข ืืืคืืฉืื ืืืจืชืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืกืคืจืืืช ืืงืื ืืจืก. ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืืืืงืจื ืืืจ ืืื ืกื, ื'ืืืืก ืคืืืง, ื ืืืจ ืื ืฉืืืืช ื-1844, ืื'ืื ืกืื ืชืื ืื, ืืฉื ื ืืื ืฉืื ืืืืชื ืืขืจืืช ืืืกืื ืงืฉื, ืืื ืฉืื ืคืืืง ืกืืจื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืคืืืืืืื ืฉื'ืื ืกืื ืืฆืืข. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืืื, ืืืืืงืจืืื ืืจืืืืื ืจืืื, ืฉืืืืงื ืืื ื ืขื ืืงื ืืื ืืคืจืื, ืืืื ืขื ืืขืืืื, ืืืกืจื ืขื ืืืืฉืื ืืขื ืืจืฉืืืืช ืืืงืืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืขืืืืช. ืืื ื ืืืจ ืืืืฉ ื-1845. ืืืืื ืชื ืืฉื ืืื, ืชืื ืืืืืืช ืืืฉื ืคืืืง ืืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืชโืืงืกืืงื, ืฉืืื ืฆืคืื ืืื ืจืื ืื ืืจื ืืืฉืื ืฉืื ืืืืจืืื ืืช ืืขืืืืช ืืขืจืื. ืืื ืืชื ืื ืืืฆืขืช ืืืืืื, ืืฆืขื ืฉื ืืขืื ืืืกืืจ ืขื ืืขืืืืช ืืฉืืืื ืืืืฉืื. ืืื ืืืืฉ ืืืง ืฉืืื ืืืืจ ืืืขื ืืง 160 ืืืืงืจืื ืืื ืืื ืฉืืื ืืืื ืืืชืืืฉื ืืฉืืืื ืืืืฉืื. ืื ืืฉื ืืื ืืฉืื ืื'ืื ืกืื ืืืื ืืืชืืื ืืฆื ืืขื ืฉืื. ืืืืืจืืช ืฉื 1848, ืืืืืงืจืืื ืืื ืืคืืืืื ืืืื ืืขืืืืช, ืืืชื ืืื ืืขืืืืช ืืงืืื ืืช ืืคืืืช ืืืจืฅ ืืืืคืฉืืช, ืืฉืื ืฉืื ืืฉืขืืจ ืืื ืืืืจื ืืื ืืืขืืื. ื'ืื ืกืื ืชืื ืืืืขืื ืืืืืงืจืื, ืืกื ืืืืจ ืืฉืขืืจ ืืืืฉืืื, ืืืืืก ืงืืก. ืืฉืืืคืืื ืืชืคืืื, ืืืืขืื ืืืืืื, ืืื ืจื ืืืืจื ืืืืืืจ ื ืืฆื ืืงืืืช, ืืื ืืื ืกื. ืืืกืื ืฉื ื'ืื ืกืื ืขื ืคืืืง ื ืืชืจื ืจืขืืขืื. ืื ืฉืื ืืขื ืฉื'ืื ืกืื ืืื ืขืืื ืืืคืื ืื ืืืื ืชื, ืฉื'ืื ืกืื ืืื ืืื ื ืงืื ื ืืืืฉืืช. ืืื ืื ืืขื ืฉื'ืื ืกืื ืื ืืืจืื ืขื ืืชื ืืืืชื ืืืื ืืื ืฉืืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืืืช ืื ืืืจืื. ื'ืื ืกืื, ืืืื ืืขื ืืื ืืฆืืืืจื ืืจื ืืื ืืืช ืืกืืืืช ืจืืืช ืืืืื ืืฆืืจื ืืชืขืืืจื ืืืื ืืืืืื, ืชืื ืืกืืืข ืืืฉืืชื ืืืงืืช ืืกืืืช ืจืืืช ืืืืจื ืื ืกื ืืืืืืจื'ืื ืื. ืืืกืข ืืืืืจืืช ืืจืืืขื ืฉืื, ืืชืืงื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืฉืืืฉื ื ืืฉืืื: ืขืืืืช, ืืืืจืช ืงืจืงืขืืช ืืืืืจืืช ืืจืฉืืช ืืฉืืคืืช. ืืื ื ืืฆื ืืช ืืจืืื ืืืืืืกื 1849 ืืืคืจืฉ ืืืื. ืืฉืืืช ืื ืืืจืื ืืชืื ืก ืืืฆืืืจ, ืืืคืืื ื ืืชืจื ืืคืืืืช ืืืื ืืขืืืืช, ืืื ืืฆืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืฉื ืจืืฉ. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืฆืืข ืืืง ืฉืื ืข ืืจืืฉืช ืจืื ืืืืื ืืืืืจืช ืืืฉื ืืจืืฉ, ืฉืคืชืจ ืืช ืืชืกืืืืช. ืืืืจ ืฉืืืฉื ืืจืืฉ ื ืืืจ, ืืงืื ืืจืก ืขืกืง ืืืืงืื, ืื ืืฉื ืืขืืืืช ืืคื ืื ืืฉื ืืืจืืื. ืืฆืคืื ืืื ืจืฆื ืืฆืจืฃ ืืช ืงืืืคืืจื ืื, ืืืื ื ืืืคืฉืืช, ืื ืืืืืื. ืื ืจื ืงืืื ืืงื ืืงื ืืืืฉ ืืกืคืจ ืืืืืืช ืืกื ืื, ืคืฉืจืช 1850, ืืื ืืฆืจืฃ ืืช ืงืืืคืืจื ืื ืืืืขืืืจ ืืงืืงื ืฉืชืคืืืก ืืช ืฉื ื ืืฆืืืื. ื'ืื ืกืื ืชืื ืืื ืืืฆืขืืช ืคืจื ืืืืืื ืืขืืืืช ืืืืจืช ืืืืื ื. ืืื ืืืฅ ืืืขืืืจ ืชืืงืื ืื ืืืงืชืืื ืืฆืืจื ืืืืจืช ืกื ืืืืจืื (ืฉื ืืืจื ืื ืืืื ืืืืขืฆืืช ืืืืืงืงืืช), ืืืืจืืช ืืฉืืจืืช ืืชืคืงืื ืื ืฉืื (ืืื ืืืื ืืืงืืืจืื) ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืช ืืฉืืคืืื ืืฉืชืื ืขืฉืจื ืฉื ืื. ืื ืืืืงืื ืื ืขืืจื. ืืื ืืืืงืจืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืขืื ืืืืคื ืืื ื'ืื ืกืื ืฉื ืืกื ืืืืืืจ ืืืืื ื ืืืืฉืืช. ืืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืื ืืืืืจ ืืืขืื ืืฉืืื. ื ืืขื ืฉืืืง ืืืืจืช ืืงืจืงืขืืช ืฉื ื'ืื ืกืื ืจืง ืืงื ืขื ืืืืื ืืขืืืืช, ืืืื ืืื ื ืืฆื ืืืืืจืืช ืืืคืจืฉ ืฉื 1,600 ืงืืืืช. ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืื ืชืื ืืืืขืื ืื ืฉืืืืชื ื-1852, ืืกื ืืืืจ ืืฉืขืืจ ืื ืื ืืืคืฉืืืจ ืคืจื ืงืืื ืคืืจืก, ื ืืื ืืกืข ืืืืจืืช ืขืืืจื. ืคืืจืก ื ืืืจ, ืืืื ืื ื ืืฆื ืืื ืกื. ื-1852, ืืฆืืื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืขืืืจ ืืช ืืืง ืืืืจืช ืืงืจืงืขืืช ืืืืช ืื ืืืจืื, ืืืื ืืืืง ืื ืขืืจ ืืกื ืื. ืืืืืืื ืืฉืชืืื ืขื ืืืืขืฆื ืืืืืงืงืช ืืื ืกื, ืืกืืืจื ืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืืฉ ืืืขืื, ืื ืฉืกืืืืืื ืฉื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืืืืจ ืืืืฉ ืงืื ื ืืืื. ื'ืื ืกืื ืฉืงื ืืคืจืืฉ ืืคืืืืืืงื ืืืืจ ืฉืืืืื ืื ืื ืกืืช ืืืืืืจ ืืืืฉ, ืืืื ืฉืื ื ืืช ืืขืชื. ืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืื ืกืืช ืืืคืื ืืืชื ืืืืฉื ืืืืื ื. ืืืคืืื ืืืืืงืจืืืช ืชืืื ืื ืคื ืืื, ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืืื ืืืจืื ืื ืืื ืฉืืืื ืืื. ืืืืืืื ื ืืฆืื ืืฉืชื ืืขืจืืืช ืืืืืจืืช ืืืืจืื ืืช ืืฉืืื ืืืืขืฆื ืืืืืงืงืช. ืืืคืืื ืืืจื ืืืืกืืืืก ืื ืจื, ืืืชื ืืืขืื ืฉืืื ืืืจืื ืืืืืงื ืืืืฉ ืฉื ืืืืืืืช. ืฉื ื ืืืืฉืื ืขืจืื ืขืืืืชืื ืืื ืื ืกื ืืืืื ืืขืจืืช ืืืืืจืืช. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืฉืื 63,413 ืงืืืืช ืืขืืืช 61,163 ืืื ืจื. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืฆืืื ืืืฉืื ืืื ืงืืืืช ืืฉืืืืื ืฉืืชืืื ืืืืขืื ืืืืืื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืขื ืืืืื. ืืืืฉื ืื ืกื ืื ืืืืชื ืขืืฆืื ืจืื: ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืฆืืข ืืงืืงื ืืืื ืื ืืืืื ืขืืื ืืื, ืืจืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืื ื ืืืื ืืืืขืฆื ืืืืืงืงืช ืืืืืืืช. ืืืจืืช ืืืช, ืืชืคืงืื ืืคืฉืจ ืื ืืืชืคืจืกื. ืืื ืืฆืืื ืืืฉืื ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืคืืืืืืื ืชืืืจืช ืชืืืื ืื'ืื ืื, ืืืืืื, ืืืืขืื ืืกื ืื. ืื ืืืื ืืื-ืฉื ืชื ืืจืืฉืื, ืชืื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืคืืฉืื ืืขืจืืช ืืืฉืคื ืฉื ืืืืื ื, ืืืืื ืื ืง ืื ืกื ืืืงืืช ืจืฉืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืืืช. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืงืจ ืืช ืืขืจืืช ืืืื ืื ืฉื ืืืืื ื ืืืฆืืข ืืืืื ืืขืืจืช ืืืกืื. ืขืื ืจืคืืจืืืช ืืืื ืืงืืช ืกืคืจืืื ืฆืืืืจืืช ืืืขืจืืช ืืชื ืืกืคืจ ืืฆืืืืจืืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืืืื ื. ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืืืคืืื ืืืืืืืช ืขืืื ืืืชืคืจืง, ืืื ื ืืชืจื ืืืจื ืืื ืกื, ืืืฆื ืืืืืงืจืืื ื-1855 ืืื ืงืฉื. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืจืืืฉ ืฉืืื ืฆืจืื ืืืืืืจ ืืืืฉ, ืืืกืข ืืืืจืืช ืฉืื ืืฉืืื ืืืจืืืืื ืื ืืื ืืขืืืืช, ืืืกืืจ ืขื ืืืืืืื, ืืขืืืืชืื ืื ืืืืืืืกืืืืช ืฉื ืชื ืืขืช ืฉืืื ื ืืืืขืื ืืืจ. ื'ืื ืกืื ืชืื ืืขืืืืช ืืืชื ืื ืื ืืืืืืืื ืืืืืกืืจ ืขื ืืืืืืื. ื'ืื ืกืื ื ืืฆื ืืช ืืจืืื, ืฉืชืื ืืชื ืืขืช ืฉืืื ื ืืืืขืื ืืืจ, ืืืคืจืฉ ืงืื. ืืฉืืืืืจืืช ืฉื 1856 ืืชืงืจืื, ืงืืืื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืืืืจ ืืืืขืื. ืืื ืืขืืืืช ืืื ืกื ืชืืื ืื ืืืืขืื ืืงืืื. ืืื ืืขื ืฉืขืืืฃ ืืืืืื ืืฉืืืจ ืขื ืขืืืืช ืืืืืจืื ืืกืืืืื ืื ืืฉื ืืืืขืื ืคืฉืจื. ืืืจืืช ืืืช, ืืื ืื ืืื ืืืขืื ืืืื, ืืืืกืืฃ ื ืืืจ ืืกื ืืืืจ ืืคื ืกืืืื ืื, ื'ืืืืก ืืืืงื ื. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืกืืื ืืชืืื ืืืืืงื ื ืืืกืื ื, ื'ืื ืืจืงืื ืจืืื', ืฉื ืืืจื ืืืกืืฃ. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืืื ืื ืื ืกืืช ืืืืืืจ ืืืืื ื ืฉืืืฉืืช ืืืืฉื, ืืืืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืกื ืื. ื-1857, ืืฉืืืจ ืืืืฉืื ืืืื, ืืจืืืช ืฉืื ืืจืื ืืืคืกืื, ืืืื ื ืคืฆืข ืืืจืืขื ืืืื ืืช. ืืื ืฆืืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืืืขืฆื ืืืืืงืงืช ื-1857, ืืืืจ ืคืืืฉืชื ืืืืงืืืืจ, ื ืืืฆื ืืืืืจ ืืกื ืืืืจ. ืืืืืืื ืจืฆื ืืืฉืื ืจืื ืืืื ืืข ืื'ืื ืกืื ืืืืืืจ ืืกื ืืืืจ ืืืืืงืจืื. ืืืืฉื ืืืืจ ืจืืืช ืืืืื ืืกืข ืืืืืจืืช, ืืืืคืืื ืฉืื ืืฆืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืจืืช ืืชืคืงืื ืืืืฉื ืืื ืืืืขืฆื ืืืืืงืงืช. ืื ืืืื ืืืืจืื ืืืืฉื ืืฉืคืืข ืขื ืืืืจืื, ืืืฆืืข ืืฆืขืืช ืืืืืืช ืืงืจื ืืืืืงืจืืื. ืืขืืืจ ืืืืืื, ืืืจื ืื ืืืืขืฆื ืืืืืงืงืช ืืกื ืื. ืืชื ืืืื ืืขื ื ืฉืืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืืื ื. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืื ืืืื ืืงืจื ืืืงืืืื ืืงืื ืื ืืืกืืืจืื ืืขืฆืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืจืื ืืื ืกื. ืืื ืืื ืคืืืช ืืืื ืืงืจื ืืขืื ืืืืขืื ืืขืืจืื ืืืื ืฉืฉืืื ืืืคืืื, ืืืื ืืื ืืืข ืืืืืก ืืฆืืืขืื. ืืืืจ ืืืชื, ื ืืขื ืฉืืชืืืืก ืืฉืืืืื ืืืืื. ืืื ืชืืื ืืื ืืืืฉ ืืืื ืืืื ืืจืฉืื, ืืื ืืกืฃ ื ืื ื ืืืืื ืจืืื. ืืื ืืชื ืื ืืื ืื ืื ืืืคืืืชื ืืืกืชืื ืขื ืืืจืื, ืืืขืฆืื ืืืืจืื. ืืกื ืืืืจ ืืืืฉ ื ืื ืก ืืชืคืงืืื ืืฉืืงืื ืืจืก ืืชืื ืก ืืืฆืืืจ 1857. ืืื ืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืื ืืฉืชื ืืืฉืคืืชื; ืืืืืื ืืืงืจื ืืืชื ืจืง ืคืขื ืืืช ืืชืืจ ืกื ืืืืจ, ื-1860. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืงืื ืืช ืืืง ืืืืจืช ืืงืจืงืขืืช ืืกื ืื, ืืืื ืจืื ืืกื ืืืืจืื ืฉืชืืื ืื ืืื ืฆืคืื ืืื (ืืจืืื ืืื ืชืืื ืืืคืืื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืืช ืืืืฉื), ืืื ืืฉื ืืชืงืฉืจ ืืืฉืื ืืช ืื ืืฉื ืืขืืืืช. ืืกื ืืืืจืื ืืืจืืืืื ืืจืืืฉื ืฉืื ืฉืืงืื ืืช ืืงืจืงืขืืช ืืืื ืฆืคืื ืืื ืืื ืขืืืื. ื ืืฉื ืืขืืืืช ืืืจ ืืกืชืื ืืืื ืคืกืืงืช ืืืช ืืืื ืืคืกืง ืืื ืืจื ืกืงืื ื ืื ืกื ืืคืืจื. ื ืงืืข ืฉืืกืืจ ืืืกืืจ ืขื ืขืืืืช ืืืจืืืืจืืืช. ื'ืื ืกืื, ืฉืืื ืกื ืืืืจ ืืขื ืขืืืื ืืืืื ื ืืจืืืืช, ื ืื ืืกื ืื ืืืื ืื ืืกืืื ืืืขืื ืฉืืืง ืืืืจืช ืืงืจืงืขืืช ืื ืืชื ืื ืืขืืืืช. ืืืจืืช ืืืช, ืืืจืื ืืชื ืื ืืืงืืงื. ื-1859, ื ืืืฅ ืกืื ืื ืฉืื ืืจืงืื ืจืืื' ืืฉืืืจ ืืช ืืฉืืืืื ืื ืืฉื ืืืืง ืืืืกืื ืืืชื, ืื-1860, ืืฉืืืง ืคืืืช ืืืื ืขืืจ ืืฉื ื ืืชื ืื ืืืจืื, ืืืื ืขืืื ืืืืงื ื ืืื ืืชืืืืช ืืืจืื. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืฉืื ืืืชื ืื ืืืืืื ืืืฉืืชื, ืื ืืื ืืขืื ืื ืืฉื. ืืื ืืชื ืื ืืืืืื ืชืฉืชืืืช ืืืืจืช ืืืืื ื, ืืชืืืฉื ืฉืื ืื ืืืื ืฉืืืจืื ืืืืื ื ืืฉืืื ืขื ืจืืืืืช ืืขืืจ, ืืคืืื ืื ืืื ืืืฉืื ืฉื ืืืืฉืื. ืืื ืืชื ืื ืืืฉืงืขืช ืืกืคืื ืืืืืืื ืฉืืืืื ืืช ืืืจืืืืช ืืืืจืืื ืืืช ืืืืื, ืืชืื ืืืืืก ืืชื ืืืื ืืืืชื ืืืืช ืืฆืื ืงืืข. ืืืืงืืืืจ 1859, ืืืืื ืืชื ืื ืืขืืืืช ื'ืื ืืจืืื ืชืืืืื ืืคืฉืืื ืขื ืืืกื ื ืฉืง ืืืฉืืชื ืืืืจืคืจ'ืก ืคึตืจึดื, ืืืจื'ืื ืื (ืืืื ืืืจื'ืื ืื ืืืขืจืืืช). ืืืชืืืืช ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืื ืชืืืื ืืืชื ืืื ืืขืืืืช ืขืืชื. ื'ืื ืกืื ื ืื ืืกื ืื ืืืฆืืืจ, ืืืชื ืื ืืฆืคืื ืืื ืฉืกืืื ื ืืช ืืืืืื ืืืื ืจืฆืื ื ืืืกืืจ ืขื ืืขืืืืช. ืืื ืืขื ืฉืืืฆืืจื ืืืืจืืช ืืขืฆืืืืช ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช โ "ืื ืื ื ืืืื ื ืืจืื ืฉืืืื" โ ืืื ื ืชืงืคื ืืืื ืืฉืืืจืื, ืืืืื ืฉืืืงืช ืืืืื ืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืกืจื ืืืืช ืืฆืืขื ืืฉืืืจืื. ื'ืื ืกืื ืงืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืืขืื ืคืฉืจื ืืืขื ืืืคืืื ืืืืืงืจืืืช ืฉืืชืคืืื ืื ืืฉื ืืขืืืืช. ืืื ืืชืขืกืง ืืืืง ืืืืจืช ืืงืจืงืขืืช ืืืืขืืื ืืืืืงืจืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืฉื 1860, ืฉื ืขืจืื ืืฆ'ืืจืืกืืื, ืงืจืืืืื ื ืืืจืืืืช. ืืื ืฉืื ืืช ืฉื ื ืื ืื ืืืช ืืืขืฆื ืืคืืืืื ืืืืฆื ืืืชื ืืืืืจื ืืงืืขืื. ืืืืขืืื ืืืืชื ืืคืืืืช, ืืืฃ ืืืขืื ืื ืืฉืื ืชืืืื ืืฉื ื ืฉืืืฉืื ืืืฆืืจืื. ืืืจืืช ืืืช, ืืฃ ืฆื ืื ืจืฆื ืืืืืจ ืื'ืื ืกืื. ืืืคืืื ืืชืคืฆืื, ืืฉืืฆืคืื ืืื ืชืืื ืืกื ืืืืจ ืืืืืื ืื ืกืืืื ืืืืืก, ืืืืจืืืืื, ืืืื ื'ืื ืกืื, ืชืืื ืืกืื ืื ืฉืื ืืจืงืื ืจืืื'. ืืฉืืกื ืืืืจ ืืฉืขืืจ ืืื ืกื, ื'ืื ืื, ื ืืกื ืืืชืืืื ืื ืืื, ื ืืืจ ืื ืฉืื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ื ืืจืืฉืื, ืืืจ ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืฉืขืืจ ืืืืืื ืื, ืืืจืื ืืื ืงืืื. ืืืืืจื ืฉื ืืื ืงืืื, ืฉืืื ืืชื ืื ืืืืข ืืืจืืืช ืืขืืืืช, ืื ืืืืชื ืืงืืืืช ืขื ืจืืื ืืืจืื. ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืคืจืืฉื ืืืืืืื ืื ืืืืชื ื ืืฉื ืืืกืข ืืืืืจืืช, ืืืืื ืืช ืืืจืืืืืช ืืืื ืืืื ืื ืืฉื. ื'ืื ืกืื ื ืื ืืกื ืื ืืืืจ ืืืืืจืืช, ืืื ืืื ืฉืืชืงืื ืืื ืืฆืคืื, ืืขื ืฉืืขืืื ืื ืืืืชืจ ืขื ืืืืฉืื ืืืชืืื ืื. ืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืื ืืคืืจืืืืื ืืืชืืื ืกืืื ืืืืื ื, ืืืฆืื ืืช ืืืืงื ืืืฉืืืจ ืขื ืืืืืื. ืืกื ืืืืจืื ืืืจืืืืื ืืืจืืื ืฉืืชืคืืจื ืื ืืืื ืืชืืื ืืคืจืฉื, ืื'ืื ืกืื ืืืืืจ ืืกื ืืืืจ ืืืืกืืกืืคื, ื'ืคืจืกืื ืืืืืืืก, ืฉืื ืืืจืืืืื ืืืฉืืจื ืืชืคืงืืื, ืืืืืงืจืืื ืืฉืืื ืืกื ืื, ืืืืืื ืืขืฆืืจ ืืืืืืช ืืงืืงื ืฉื ืืื ืงืืื ืฉืืคืืขื ืืืจืื. ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉื'ืื ืกืื ืืืืื ืืืืืื, ืืื ืืจื ืืืชืจืืงืืช ืฉื ืื ืืืืื ืืจืืืืื ืจืืื ืืื ื, ืืืื ืืืืืืืก, ืฉืขืื ืืืชืื ืืช ืืชืคืงืื ื ืฉืืื ืฉื ืงืื ืคืืจืฆืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืฉื ืืืจืืงื, ืฉืืืืื ืืช ืืคืืจืฉืืช ืืงืืื. ืื ืืื ืืืื ืืชืืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื, ืื ืืืืชื ืื ืืฉืคืขื ืจืื ืขืืื. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืจ ืืืืชื ืืฉืืืืื ื ืฉืื ืืืื ืืืื ืื ืืฉื ืืคืจืืฉื. ืืืจืฉื ืืชืคืงืื ืืืืฉื ืืืืืขืฆื ืืืืืงืงืช ืืจืื ื ืืฉืื ืขื ืื ืืฉื ืขืจืืืช ืืขืืื ืืืงืชืืช ืื ืืฉื ืืคืจืืฉื. ืืฉืืฉืื ืืขื ื ืืฉื, ืื ืืืืืื ืืชืช ืืขื ืืืฆืืืข ืื ืืฉื ืืคืจืืฉื. ื'ืื ืกืื, ืืืจืืช ืืืืืื ืขื ืืืื, ืืชื ืื ืืื. ืืืืื ืืชื ืื ืืคืจืืฉื, ืืืื ืืฉืื ืืขื ืขืืจ, ืืืืื ื 1861, ืืฆืืจืคื ืื ืกื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืืื ืฉืืืืจื ืื ืืืฉืืจ ืื, ืืืจื ืืืืืื ื ืืฉืืฉืคืืชื ืืืฉืชื ื ืฉืืจื ืืืจืื ืืืื. ืืชืืจ ืืืืจ ืืืืื ืืืืื ื ืฉืคืจืฉื ืฉื ืฉืืจ ืืกื ืื, ืืชืืื ืืืืืื ืืืจืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืืชืจ, ืืชืงืจื ื'ืื ืกืื ืื ืืื ืงืืื. ืจืื ืื ืกื ืืืืชื ืืืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื, ืืืช ืชืงืืคืืช ืืคืืจื ืืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืงื ืืงื ืืืืืืื, ืื ืืกืืื ืืฉืื ืข ืื ืืคืงื ืืืืืื ืืืืืฉ ืืช ืืืจื ืื ืกื. ืืืื ืชื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืฉื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืกื ืื ืืกืชืืืื ืืืจืฅ 1862, ืืฉืืื ืงืืื ืืื ื ืืืชื ืืืืฉื ืืฆืืื ืฉื ืื ืกื. ืจืื ืืจืื ืืืขืจื ืืืืื ื ื ืืืฉื ืืืืฉ. ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืจืืื ืืขื ื ืฉืืฉ ืืืงืื ืืืืฉ ืืช ืืืืฉื ืืืืจืื ืืจืืข ืฉืื ืฆืื ืืช ืชืืืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื, ืืืจ ืืื ืงืืื ืืืฉืชืืฉ ืืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืช ืืืฉืืื ืฆืืืืื ืขื ืืืืืืืช ืืืจืืืืื ืฉืืืืืื ืืืฉ. ืืกื ืื ืืืฉืจ ืืืืืจืืช ืืช ืืืขืืืืชื ืฉื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืชืคืงืื ืืืื ื ืืืชื ืืืจืืืืืจ ืื ืจื. ืืชืืืื, ืชืืืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืืจืืื ืืช ืืืืชื ืืืช ืขืืืื, ืืืคืื ืืช ืืืชื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืฆืืื. ื-1862, ืืืืจ ืฉืขืื ืืช ืืกื ืื, ืกืืคืกืืฃ ืขืืจ ืืืง ืืืืจืช ืืงืจืงืขืืช. ืืื ืขื ืืงืืงื ืฉืืงืืื ืืกืืืช ืจืืืช ืืจืืื ืืืืฉืช, ืืืืง ืืืืื ืืืชืืืฉืืืช ืืืขืจื ืืืืจืืงื ื. ืืืืฉื ืฆืืื, ื ืืกื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืขืฆืืจ ืืช ืืืจืืืืช ืืืืื ื. ืืื ืืจืฉ ืื ืฆืืื ืืฆืืืืจ ืืืืฉืืข ืืืื ืื, ืืกืืจ ืืช ืื ืืขืืชืื ืื ืฉื ืชืืืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื. ืจืื ืืืจื ืื ืกื ื ืืชืจื ืืืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื, ืืืงืจืืืช ืืื ืงืจืืืื ืื ืืฉืืืื. ืืืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืจืฉืชื ืืืฉืชื ืืืืฉืคืืชื ืืขืืืจ ืืช ืืงืืืื ืืืืฆืืจืฃ ืืืื. ื'ืื ืกืื ื ืืกื ืืืื ืขื ื ืืฉืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืชื ืืคื ื ืคืฉืืืืชืื ืฉื ื ืืืชื ืืืคืืจื ืคืืจืกื. ืืชืืืื ืืฆื ืืืืืื ืื ืืืืขื ืขื ืืชืืืืช 1863. ืจืื ืืืจื ืื ืกื ื ืืืฉื ืืืืฉ ืืืืื ืืฉื ื. ืืฉืืื ืงืืื ืคืจืกื ืืช ืืฆืืจืช ืืืื ืฆืืคืฆืื, ืืฉืืจืจ ืืช ืื ืืขืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื, ืืื ื ืื ืข ืืืฉืืจืจ ืืช ืืขืืืื ืืื ืกื ืืืงืฉืชื ืฉื ื'ืื ืกืื. ืืืฆืืจื ืืขืืชื ืืช ืืืืืืื ืื ืืืข ืืืขืื ืืขืืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืืื, ืืืืื ืฉืื ืื ืชืืืื ืืืืืื ืชืืื ืืืืืื ืืขืืืืช. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืืื ืืืกืืฃ ืฉืืฉ ืืกืืื ืืช ืืขืืืืช, ืืืืื ืฉืืืืกื ืจืฆื ืืืกื ืืช ืืืืฉืื, ืืืื ื ืชื ืืืืฉืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืืืกื ืืืชื. ืืื ืชืื ืืืืกืจ ืจืฆืื ืื ืืกืืื ืืืืืก ืขืืืื ืืฉืขืืจ ืื ืฆืื ืืืืืื, ืืชืืืฉื ืฉืขื ืืฉืืืจืื ืืชืช ืืืื ืื ืืืืืื. ืืืจืืช ืืืช ืืฆืืื ืืืืืก 20,000 ืืืืืื ืฉืืืจืื ืืฆืื. ืกืื ื ืฉืื (1865) ื-1860 ืืื ืกืื ื ืฉื ืืื ืงืืื ืืกื ืืืืจ ืืืืื, ืืื ืืื ืืืืื. ืกืื ืื ืฉืื ืืื ืืืฆืื, ืืจืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืจืืฅ ืฉืื. ืืืื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืคื ืืกืื ื ืฉื ืืื ืงืืื ืื ืืกืืื ื ืืืืืืจ ืืืืฉ ื-1864. ืืื ืงืืื ืฉืงื ืืื ืืืืงืจืืื ืชืืืื ืืืืื ืืชืืจ ืกืื ืื ื-1864. ืืื ืงืืื ืืชืจืฉื ืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืื ืกื ืืืื ื'ืื ืกืื. ืืขืืืื ืฉื'ืื ืกืื, ืืืืงืจื ืืืืืชื ืืืจืืื, ืชืื ืืืื ืงืืื, ื ืืกืชื ืืืคืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืืช. ืืฆืขื ืฉื ืืืืืช, ืงืจื ืืื ืงืืื ืืืคืืืชื "ืืคืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืืื". ืืืืขืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืืืืืืืจ ืืืื ื, ื ืืืจ ืืงืืืช ืืืืื ื ื ืืกืคืช. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืืื ืขื ืืืชืืื ืงืืืืช ืืขืืืช ืืื ืืืืืฉืื ืืืืืื. ืืกืืืื ืืฉื ื ืชืืื ืื ืงื ืืงื, ืืืืจืื ืืืื ืืชืืื ืื ืื ืื. ืืื ืืฉืื 491 ืงืืืืช ืืขืืืช 17 ืืืื ืืืืืื. ืืื ืงืืื ืืืืข ืฉืืืขืืช ืจืฆืื. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืขื ืฉืืืืืจื ืืืจืืื ืืชืคืงืื ืืืืขืื ืืืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืช ืืืจืื ืื ืขืืื ืืช ืืืืืื. ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืืื ืืจืื ืฉืืืขืื ืื ืื ืืกืข ืืืืจืืช, ื ืื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืื ื ืืืืื ืืื ืกื, ืงื ืืงื, ืืืืื ืืืื ืืืื ื. ืืื ืจืฆื ืืืืง ืืช ืืขืืื ืืื ืกื ืืืืฉืืืข ืืช ืืืืืจืื ืืืชื ืืืืช ืืืกืื ืขื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื. ืืืืขืื ืืืืืงืจืื ืื ืฉืืืืช, ื'ืืจื' ืืงืืื, ืงืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืื ืืข ืืช ืืืืืื ืืขืืจืช ืืฉื ืืืชื, ืืืฉืืืขื ืืืืช ืืืกืื ืืช ืชืืืืื. ืืื ืงืืื ื ืืฆื ืืืืื ื ืืืคืจืฉ ืฉื 25,000 ืงืืืืช. ืืงืื ืืจืก ืกืืจื ืืกืคืืจ ืืช ืืืืงืืืจืื ืฉื ืื ืกื, ืืืื ืืืืื ืื ืืื ืฆืืจื ืืื, ืืืืื ืฉืืื ืงืืื ืื'ืื ืกืื ื ืืฆืื ืืจืื ืืืืื ืืช ืฉืฉืืื ืืืงืืืจืื ืืงืืืช. ืืกืื ืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืจ, ืืืืื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืกืก ืืืืฉ ืืช ืืืืฉื ืืืืจืื ืืื ืกื, ืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืขืฉืืช ืืืช ืจืง ืืืืจ ืืืื ืกื ืืชืคืงืื ื-4 ืืืจืฅ. ืืื ืงืืืื ืืืืฉืืจ ืื ืืฉืืืื, ืืืื ื ืืืฅ ืื ืกืืข ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืงืก ืืืฉืืขื. ืืฆืื ืืืจ ืืืฉ ืืช ืืืจื ืื ืกื, ืืืื ืืจืื ืืืื. ืืคื ื ืขืืืืชื, ืชืืฉืื ืื ืกื ืืฉืจืจื ืืืงื ืืืฉื, ืืื ืขืืืืช, ื-22 ืืคืืจืืืจ 1865. ืคืขืืืชื ืืืืจืื ื ืืืืฉื ืฆืืื ืืืืชื ืืืฉืจ ืืช ืืชืืฆืื. ื'ืื ืกืื ื ืกืข ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืฉืืขืชื. ืืืจืืช ืืืช, ืืื ืื ืจืื ืืื ืืืื. ืืขืจื 3 ืืืจืฅ, ื ืื ืืืกืืื ืืฉืชื ืืจืื. ืืืื ืืืฉืืขื ืืืงืฉ ืืกืื ืื ืฉืื ืืืืื ืืืืกืงื. ืืกื ืื, ื ืื ื ืืื ื ืืจืื ืืื ืืื ืงืืื, ืืืจื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืืืืืื. ืื ืืื ืืื ืืืชื ืืืื, ืืืืืื ืืฉืืืข ืืืชื ืืืืคืื ืืชืคืงืื ืกืื ืื ืฉืื. ืืื ืงืืื, ืฉืฆืคื ืืขืฆื, ืืืฉืืข ืื ืืื ืื ืื ื ืืื ืืขืืื. ืืฉืืืขืืช ืืืืจ ืืื, ื ืืื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืช ืืฉืืืืช ืืกื ืื, ืืืกืชืชืจ ืืืฆืืืืจ ืืืืช ืฉื ืืืจ ืืืจืืื ื. ืืฉืืืจ ืืืืฉืื ืืืื, ืจืฆื ืืืืืจ ืืื ืกื ืืืืกืก ืืืืฉ ืืช ืืฉืคืืชื. ืืืื ืืื ื ืฉืืจ ืฉื ืืืืจ ืฉืืืื ืฉืืื ืจื ืืืืืกืก ืก. ืืจื ื ืืื ืืืืฉ ืืช ืจืืฆ'ืืื ื, ืืกืืื ืืช ืืืืืื. ืืื ืงืืื ืืืื, ืืชืืืื ืืืชื ืืืืชื ืฉื ื'ืื ืกืื, ืฉืืื ื ืฉืืืืจ. ื ืฉืืืืชื (1865โ1869) ื-14 ืืืคืจืื 1865, ืขื ืกืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืจืืื ืืืืจืืงื ืืช, ื ืืจื ืื ืฉืื ืืื ืงืืื ืืืื ื'ืื ืืืืงืก ืืืช', ืชืืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื. ืืืืชื ืชืืื ืืช ืืจืฆืื ืืช ืืื ืงืืื, ื'ืื ืกืื, ืืืช ืืืืืจ ืืืืื ื ืืืืืื ืกืืืืจื ืืืืชื ืืืืื. ืกืืืืจื ืืงืืฉื ืฉืจื ืืช ืืืชื ืงืฉืืช ืื, ืืืืื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืฆืืื ืืืจืื ืืฉืืืื ืฉืืืขื ืืืชื ืงืฉ ืื ืืฉืชืืจ. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืืื ืืจืืืช ืืช ืืืคืชื ืฉื ืื ืฉืื, ืืืืืื ืฉืื ืฉืื ืืกืืื ืืื. ืืื ืงืืื ืืช ืืฉืืข ืืืืงืจ ืืืืจืช, ืื'ืื ืกืื ืืืฉืืข ืืื ืขืฉืจ ืืืืช ืขืฉืจื ืืืืงืจ, ืืื ืจืื ืืงืืื ื. ืืขืืชืื ืืช ืืขื ื ืฉืืื ืืืืคืง ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืืขืชื. ืืื ื ืืื ืืช ืืงืก ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืื ืงืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืื, ืืคื ื ืฉืืืคืชื ืฉื ืงืืืื ื ืฉืืื ืื ืืืืื ืื, ืืงืืืจื. ืืชืืืืช ืืชืืืข ืืืืื, ืชืื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืขืืืช ืืจืืฆืืื ืืืื ืืคื ื ืืืช ืืื ืฆืืื. ืืฉืคื ืื ืฉืืฉื ืฉืืืขืืช ืืืืื ืืขืื ืฉ ืืืืช ืืืจืืขื ืื ืฉืื. ืขืืืืชื ืฉื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืชืคืงืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืฉืืืืงืจื ืืจืืื ืืฉืขืืจ ืืื ืื ืฉืื ืืกืืฃ ืืืืืช ืืืืจืืื, ืฉืืกืืื ืื ืืืืชื ืืืืืจื ืฉื ืืืจืื ืืื ืงืืื, ืจืคืืืืืงื ื ืฆืคืื ื, ืื ืฉืืืืช. ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉื'ืื ืกืื ืื ืืื ืจืคืืืืืงื ื, ืืฉืืชืื ื ืืชืคืงืื ืืื ืืชืืืืช ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืืจืืืงืืืื ืืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืืฉืืจื ืื. ืืืื ืืืื ืืืช ืืฉืืงืื ืฉืื ืืจืืืงื ืืื ื ืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืจืืื, ืืืืื ืืืื ืืคืืืืืืื ืฉืื ืืชืืืืชื ืืกืืืืจื ืืจืื ืืืชืจืืงืืช ืืืืืงืจืืื ืืื ื. ืืืงืื ืื ืกืืช ืืืชืืืจ ืืืคืืืืช ืืงืืืืืช, ืืืงืฉ ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืงืื ืืคืืื ืืืฉื ืขื ืฉืืจื ืื ืืฉืชื ืืืคืืืืช. ืืืืืืกื 1866, ืืื ืก ืืช ืชืืืืื ืืคืืืืืคืื. ืื ืืืืขื ืชืืืื ืืชืืื ืืชื. ืืงืจืืช ืกืืฃ ืืืื ืชื, ื ืืกื ืืืืืืจ ืืืืขืื ืืืืงืจืื, ืืืื ืืจืืชื ืขื ืืื ืงืืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืฉืืื ืื ืืืืืื ืจืืื ืืืคืืื. ืขื ืืืื ืกื ืืชืคืงืื, ืืืืื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืฉืืืจ ืขื ืืืื ืืืช ืืื ืงืืื, ืืฉืืจ ืขื ืืงืืื ื ืฉืื. ืืืืืจ ืืืืื ื ืืืืืื ืกืืืืจื ืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืืฉืคืืขืื ืืงืืื ื, ืื'ืื ืกืื ืืคืฉืจ ืื ืืคืขืื ืืืชืจืืืืช ืืืืื ื. ืืืืืจ ืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืกืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืช ืืฉืืงืื ืืชืืืืช ื ืฉืืืืชื. ืืืื ื 1866 ืืชืคืืจื ืฉืจ ืืืืืจ, ืืชืืืข ืืืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืคื ืื, ืืืืจ ืืกืืกืื ืฉื ื'ืื ืกืื ืขื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื. ืืืจืื ืืชืคืืจื ืืืื ืืฉืคื ืืืืื ืฉื ื'ืื ืกืื. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืฉืขื ืืช ืกืื ืืื ืืืื ืกืืกืื ืื ืืืข ืืืืื ืืืช ืืฉืืงืื ืฉืื, ืืืืืืฃ ืืืชื ืืืืืืกืก ืก. ืืจื ื. ืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืืื. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืฆืืข ืืช ืืชืคืงืื ืืื ืจื ืืืืืื ืฉืจืื ืฉืกืืจื. ืืืืื ืืฉืคื ืืืืื ืฉืื, ื ืืกื ืืื ืืช ืจืคืืืืืงื ื ืืชืื ืืชืคืงืื. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืื ื ืชืฉืขื ืฉืืคืืื ืืืชื ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืชื. ืืฉื ืืกื ืืื ืืช ืืืขืื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื, ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืขืืืจ ืืืง ืฉืืงืืื ืืช ืืกืคืจ ืืฉืืคืืื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื. ืื ืืกืฃ ืืขืืืจ ืขืื ืืืง ืฉืงืืข ืฉืืกืคืจ ืืฉืืคืืื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืงืื ืืฉืืฉืืคื ืืื ืืคืจืืฉ. ื'ืื ืกืื ื ืื ืก ืืชืคืงืื ืืืืจ ืฉืืื ืจื ืจืืืจื ืื ื ืื ืข, ืืืื ืฆืืืืช ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ื ืืชืจื ืืฉืื ืืงืจื. ื-21 ืืืคืจืื 1865, ืฆืืืื ื'ืื ืกืื, ืืชืืืืช ืืงืืื ื, ืืื ืจื ืืืืืกืก ืก. ืืจื ื ืืกืจื ืืืืืืื ืืืกืื ืฉืืืชืช ื ืฉืง. ืืืกืื ืงืืข ืืืจื ืืืืฉืืืช ืืืงืืืืืช ืฉื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื. ื-2 ืืืื ืืืื ื'ืื ืกืื ืคืจืก ืฉื ืืื ืืืฃ ืืืืจ ืขื ืจืืฉื ืฉื ื ืฉืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื, ื'ืคืจืกืื ืืืืืืืก, ืฉืจืืื ืืฉืื ืฉืืื ืืขืืจื ืืืชื ืงืฉืืช ืืืื ืงืืื. ืืืืืืืก ื ืืื ื-10 ืืืื. ืืกืืฃ ืืื, ื ืื ืข ืืืื ืืืืจืื ืฉื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื, ืื'ืื ืกืื ื ืืื ืืฆืขื ืฆืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืฆื ืืืจื ืืงืืื ื ืืืื ืจืืื. ืืืืจ ืคืืืช ืืืืืฉืืื, ื ืืฉื ืืืื ืฉืืืื ื ืืงืฉื ืืืคื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื, ืืืืฉืื ืืืืืช ืืชืืืื ืืืืื ืืงืจื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื. ืขื ืกืืฃ ืืืืืช ืืืืจืืื, ื ืืืฅ ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืชืืืื ืขื ืืืื ืืช ืงืื ืคืืจืฆืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืฉื ืืืจืืงื ืืฉืขืืจ. ืืื ืงืืื ืืกืืื ืืงืืช ืืืฉืืืช ื ืืื ืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืืจื'ืื ืื, ืืืจืงื ืกื, ืืืืืืืืื ื ืืืื ืกื ืืืืจ ืฉืืืืืื ืืฉืชืื ืขื ืืืื ืืช ืืื, ืืืฆืืข ืชืืื ืืช ืื ืขืฉืจื ืืืืืื ืืืืืืจืื ืืฉืืขื ื ืืื ืืช ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืฉืืืืจืื ืืืขืจืื ืืืืจืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืฉืืช. ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืขื ืฉืืชืืื ืืช ืจืื ืืื, ืืืจืฉ ืฉืจืื ืืืืืจืื ืืฉืืขื ืืืื ืื ืืืืืื. ืืื ืงืืื ืืืื ืืื ืขื ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืืช. ืืฉื'ืื ืกืื ืืื ื ืืชืคืงืืื, ืืฆืจื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืืื ืคืืืื. ืืจืืืงืืื ืืจืฉื ืืชื ืืืืช ืืฆืืขื ืืืืืืืช ืืืจื ืืฉืืืจืื. ืื ืืืืื ื ืฉืืฉืืืจืื ืืชืืื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืืืฉืืจื ืขืืืื ืืฉืืืื, ืืฉืืืืืงืจืืื ืืืจืืืืื ืืืืืจืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืคืขื. ืื ืืกืฃ, ืื ืชืืื ืืืขื ืฉืช ืชืืืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื. ืืืชืื ืื ืืืชืจ ืืจืฉื ืฉืืืืืงืจืืื ืื ืืฉืืื ืขืืืืช ืืฉืคืขื ืืจืื ืืืืืืืช, ืืืขื ืฉืช ืืืืจืืื. ืื ืคืืืช ืืชืืืื ืื ืืืข ืืืชื ืืืืืืช ืืฆืืขื ืืฉืืืจืื. ืืืืืงืจืืื ืืฆืคืื ืืื ืืขืืืคื ืฉืืงืื ืืื ืชื ืื ืฉื ืืืจืื, ืืื ืชืืื ืืืชื ืืืืืืช ืืฆืืขื ืืฉืืืจืื, ืืืจ ืฉืืื ืคืืืข ืืืขืืื ืฉื ืืืืืงืจืืื ืืืจืื. ืืชืืื ืืช ืืฉืืงืื, ืืื ืื'ืื ืกืื ืฉืืืฉ ืืืจืืช. ืืื ืจืฆื ืฉืืืืื ืืช ืืฉืืงืื ืืืืคื ืืืืจ, ืืืืื ืฉืืืขืชื ืคืจืืฉืชื ืื ืืืืชื ืืืงืืช, ืืืื ืขืืืื ืืืชืืจืื ืืืืฉ ืขื ืืืฉืืืช ืืืฉืืช. ืขืืืจ ื'ืื ืกืื, ืืชื ืืืืืืช ืืฆืืขื ืืฉืืืจืื ืืื ืืกืืช ืืขืช, ืืขื ืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืขืฆืื. ืฉื ืืช, ืืืขืชื ืืืื ืืคืืืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืื ืฆืจืื ืืขืืืจ ืืืขืื ืืืืขืื ืื ืคืฉืืื ืืขื, ืืชืื ืืฉืฉ ืฉืืขืืืื ืืืฉืืืจืจืื ืืชืืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืฉืขืืจ. ืืืจืชื ืืฉืืืฉืืช ืืืืชื ืืืืืืจ ื-1868, ืืืฉื ืฉืืฃ ืกืื ื ืฉืื ืื ืืฆืืื ืืขืฉืืช, ืืืื ื ืืกื ืืืฉืื ืืช ืชืืืืช ืืืืืงืจืืื ืืืจืื. ืืืกืืฃ, ืืืืื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืชืื ื ืืืื ืืืช ืฉืืงืื ืืฉืื ืืื ืืืฉืืจ ืืงืื ืืจืก, ืืืืจ ืฉืื ืืฆื ืืคืืจื ืขื ืืฆืืืจ 1865. ืืจืืืงืืื ืืขื ื ืฉืืืจืื ื ืืฆื ืืืฆื ืืืืื ืจืข, ืืฉืขืืื ืื ืฆื ืืืช ืืฆืืจื ืืชื ืืืืืืช ืืขืืืื ืืืฉืืืจืจืื ืืชื ืื ืืืืจื ืืืืืื. ืืงืืื ื ืืื ืืคืืื ืื ืืืข ืืขื ืืื. ืื ืืกืฃ ืืขื ืฉืืืื ืืช ืืืจืื ืืขืืื ืื ืคืจืฉื, ืืฉืืืืจ ืกืืื ืืืจื, ืขื ืืืจืื ืืืืืจ ืืืืืช ืฉืืชืฃ ืฉืืื ืืฆืคืื ืชืืช ืืืืงื. ืืืจืืช ืจืฆืื ืืฉืืืจืื ืืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืืงืื ืืจืก, ืืืจืื ื'ืื ืกืื ืฉืืืืช ืืืฆืืขื ืืื ืขื ืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืื ืืืืฉื, ืืฉืื ืจืฆื ืืืฉืชืืฉ ืืืืื ืืื ืืืจืื ืืจืคืืจืืืช ืืืจืื ืืืืืก. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืืื ืืืจืื ืืช ืืืืฉืืืช ืืืจืื, ืขื ืืื ืชื ืืื. ื-9 ืืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืฉืืช ืืืจื'ืื ืื. ื-29 ืืืื, ืืื ื ืืืฉื ืืงืจืืืืื ื ืืฆืคืื ืืช. ืืื ืืื ื ืืืฉืืื ืฉืชืืื ืืืืืื ืืฉืืจ ืืืืื ืืช. ืืื ืืืจ ืืืฉืืื ืืื ืงืฉืจ ืืืืืืืืืืื ืฉืืื, ืืื ืจืง ืืคื ื ืืื ืืชื ืืืืืื. ืืื ืืืงืฉ ืืืืืฉืืื ืืืฉืจืจ ืืช ืืชืืงืื ื-13 ืืืืงืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืืืื ืชืงื ืืช ืืืื ืคืจืืฉืชื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื. ืืื ืืืืื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืืฉืฉื ืฉืืืื ืชื ืฉื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืฉืืงืื ืืคื ื ืืืชืื ืกืืช ืืืืฉ ืฉื ืืงืื ืืจืก. ืื ืืกืฃ ืืืงืืช ืืืืฉืืืช ืืืืืจื, ืชืื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืืืจืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืจื ืืืงื ืืื ืืืจืืืืื ืืืื ืื. ื-29 ืืืื ืืขื ืืง ืื ืื ื ืืื ืืืืจืืื ืืฉืขืืจ, ืืืื ืืืืจื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื, ืคืืฉืขื ืืืืืื, ืืืื ืฉืืืืืงื ืืจืืืฉ ืฉืฉืืืื ืขืื ืขื 20,000 ืืืืจืื. ืืืจืืช ืืืช, ืืื ืืขื ืืง ืืื ืื ืื ืืช ืืื ืฉื ืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืืืจืื. ืืกืคืืืืจ 1865, ืืืื ืืื ืขื ืคืงืืื ืฉื ืืฉืืช ืืขืืืื ืืฉืืืจืจืื, ืฉืืขื ืืงื ืืืื ื ืืืฉื ืืขืืืื ืืฉืืืจืจืื. ื'ืื ืกืื ืฆืืืื ืขื ืืืืจืช ืืืืื ืืืขืืื ืืืคื ื ืืืืืื. ืืืืฉืืื ืืืจืืืืื ืฉืืื ื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืจืื ื ืืืฉืืืช ืืืฉืืช ืืขืจืื ืืืืจืืช ืืืฉืืช, ืืื ื ืืฆืื ืจืืื ืฉืชืืื ืืคืจืืฉื. ืืืจืื ืืขืืืจ ืืืงืื ืฉืืืื ืืช ืืขืืืืื ืืฉืืืจืื ืืืงืืืื ืืืืืื ื ืืงืฉืื, ืฉื ืืฉืื ืืืืืื ืืืขื ืืืขืืืืช. ื'ืื ืกืื ืกืืจื ืืืชืขืจื, ืืืืื ื ืฉืื ืืฉืืื ืืืื ืืื ืฉืืืืื ืืืืื ื, ืืื ืืืืฉืื. ืขื ืืืืจื ืืืืืจื ืฉื ืืืื ืืช ืืืจืื, ื ืืืื ืืชืงืืืช ืืืืืคืช ืืืืืืช ืืืฆืืขื ืืฉืืืจืื, ืืืืจืืืืื ืืืื ืื ืฉืืฉืชืืื ืขื ืืืจืื ืื ืืื ืืืื ืื ืืฉื ืืช ืืช ืืฆืื ืืืคื ื ืืืืืื. ืขื ืืืจืชื ืฉื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืฆืืืจ 1865, ืกืืจื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืคืฉืจ ืืืืจื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืจืืืืื ืฉื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืืืจ ืืืื. ืื ืืฉืืื ืืืจืื, ืื ืจืฆื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืชืขืืช ืืื ืื ืฉืื, ืื ืืกื ืจืง ืืืงืฉืื ืืช ืืืื ืืืชื ืืืคื ืืืจืื. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืืืข ืืืกืื ืขื ืืืชืื ืื ืืืคืืื. ืื ืฉืื ืขืฆืื ืื ืืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืข ืืคืขืืืืช ืืืจืื, ืืื ืืืข ืืืืฉื ืฉืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืืจ, ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืจ ืฉืื ืืฆืืจื, ืืืืืื ืฉืืืจืื ืืืืชื ืืืืืช ืืคืขืื ืื, ืืคืืื ืื ืื ืืืืชื ืืืช ืืจื ืคืขืืื ืืืื. ืืกืืฃ ืื ืืืจ 1866, ืืื ืืื ืืฉืืื ืข ืฉืืื ืืืืก ืืช ืืจืืืงืืื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืืจื ืืืืืืจ ืืืืฉ. ืืื ืืขืืืฃ ืืืฆืืจ ืืืืืงืช ืื ืืืข ืื ืืกืืื ืืช ืืืขื ืืง ืืืืช ืืฆืืขื ืืฉืืืจืื ืืืืื ืงืืืืืืื, ืืฆืขื ืฉื ืคืื ืืืฉืื ืขื ืฉืจืง ืืื ืื ืืฉืชืชืคื ืื. ืืืช ืื ืืืจืื ืืขืืืจ ืืืง ืื ืืฉื, ืืืื ืืืืง ืื ืขืืจ ืืกื ืื, ืืฆืขืจื ืฉื ื'ืื ืกืื, ืฉืจืฆื ืืืืื ืืื ืขื ืืืืง. ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืืืชืื ืื ื ืืกื ืืืืืข ืืืื ื ืขื ืื ืฉืื, ืื ืืกื ืืืจืืื ืืช ืืืง ืืฉืืช ืืขืืืื ืืืฉืืืจืจืื ืืคื ื ืฉืืคืงืข ืชืืงืคื. ืื ืืกืฃ, ืื ื ืืกื ืืืขืืืจ ืืืง ืฉืืขื ืืง ืืืจืืืช ืืขืืืื ืืืฉืืืจืจืื. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืชื ืื ืืฉื ื ืืืืงืื ืืืขื ืฉืื ืคืืืขืื ืืจืืืื ืืช ืืืืื ืืช. ื'ืื ืกืื ืื ืจืฆื ืืืืขืืก ืืช ืืืจืื, ืืงืืืื ืืชืืืืชื ืื ืืกืืื ื ืืืืืืจ ืืืืฉ. ืืื ืืืื ืืื ืขื ืืืง ืืฉืืช ืืขืืืื ืืืฉืืืจืจืื ื-18 ืืคืืจืืืจ 1866, ืืฉืืืช ืืืจืื ืืืืขืกื ืฉื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื. ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืื ืืฆืืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืื ืฉืื ืืกื ืื. ืขืืฉืื ืืืืื ื'ืื ืกืื ืฉื ืืฆื ืืช ืืจืืืงืืื, ืืฉืืืชืื ืื ืืืืืจืื. ืืื ืืขื ืืืืืืื. ืืืื ืืืืืชื ืฉื ื'ืืจื' ืืืฉืื ืืืื ื-22 ืืคืืจืืืจ 1866, ื ืื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืคื ื ืชืืืืื ืืืืช ืืืื. ืื ืืื ืื ืฉืขื, ืืชืืืืก ืืขืืงืจ ืืขืฆืื, ืืืขื ืฉืืชื ืืื ืืืืืื ืื ืืื ืฉืื ืืืฉืืื ืื ืืืืืืช ืืืจืื. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืชืืืืก ืืขืืงืจ ืืฆ'ืืจืืก ืกืืื ืจ, ืกื ืืืืจ ืืืกืฆ'ืืกืืก, ืืืชืืืืืก ืกืืืื ืก, ืืืจ ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืคื ืกืืืื ืื, ืืืชื ืืืฉืื ืืชืื ืื ื ืืกืืื ืืชื ืงืฉืืช ืื. ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืืืฉืืื ืืืช ืืืืจืืช ืืืืื. ื ืืขื ืฉ-200,000 ืืืจืืื ืกืืจืื ืืชืืื ืืืืืงืจืืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืื ืื ืืื. ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืืืชืื ืื ืงืืื ืฉืืชืืื ืืืืง, ืืืื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืื ืขื ืืืง ืืืืืืช ืืืืจื ืฉื 1866 ืืืขื ื ืฉืืืืง ืืขื ืืง ืืืจืืืช ืืขืืืื ืืฉืืืช ืขืฉืจื ืืืื ืืช ืืชืื ืฉืืืฉืื ืืฉืฉ ืื ืืืฆืื ืืงืื ืืจืก, ืืฉืืืืง ืชืื ืืฉืืืจืื ืขื ืคื ื ืืืื ืื. ืืืืจ ืืืืช ืืืื ื-27 ืืืจืฅ, ืืื ืืจืืจ ืฉื'ืื ืกืื ื ืคืจื ืืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื. ืืชืื ืฉืืืฉื ืฉืืืขืืช, ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืื ืืช ืืืื, ืืคืขื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืฉืืืง ืืจืืื ืืืื ืื. ืืืชืื ืื ืคืืจืงื ืืช ืืฉืืชืคืืช ืืืชื, ืืฉืืื ืืฉืืื ืขืื ืฉืื ืืคืฉืจ ืืขืืื ืขื ื'ืื ืกืื, ืืืขืชื ืืืืื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืชืืื ืืืืง ืืืื. ืืืกืืืจืืื ืื ืืขื ื ืฉืืืืืจ ืืืขืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืชืจ ืฉื ื'ืื ืกืื. ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืฉืจ ืืช ืืืง ืืฉืืช ืืขืืืื ืืืฉืืืจืจืื ืื'ืื ืกืื ืืืื ืขืืื ืฉืื ืืื. ืืคืขื, ืืืื ืืืื. ืืืจืืช ืื ืืฆืืื, ืืคืืื ืืื ืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืฉืชืืื ืืืืจืืช ืืืง ืืืืืืช ืืืืจื ืคืงืคืงื ืื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืื ืืื ืืืงืชื ืืืคืื ืืืชื ืืืืงืื. ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืืจืืืงืืื ืืืืชืื ืื ืืืืืื ืืคืขืื ืืืื ื ืืืงืชืืช ืขื ืืขืืืื ืืืฉืืืจืจืื, ืืืงืื ืืืกืชืื ืขื ืจืื ืคืืืืื ืืื ื. ืืกืืฃ 1865, ืืฆืืขื ืืขืื ืืฉืืชืคืช ืฉื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืชืืงืื ืืืงืชื ืฉืืงืืข ืฉืื ืืืจื ืฉื ืคืกืื ืืืืชื ืืืฆืืืข ืขื ืืกืืก ืืืขื ืื ืืืืฉื ืืืกืืจืช ืืืฆืื ืืืืื ื. ืืืืง ืขืืจ ืืืืช ืื ืืืจืื ืืืื ืืกื ืื ืืกื ืืืชื ืืชืืืืช ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืืจืืืงืืื. ืืืง ื ืืกืฃ, ืฉื ืืขื ืืืกืืื ืืช ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืื ืขื ืืืืื, ืืืจืืชื ืืจืืืฉื ืฉื ืื ืืืืจืืื, ืื ืขืืจ ืืืืช ืื ืืืจืื. ืืืคืจืื 1866, ืืืฆืข ืืืง ืฉืฉืืื ืืช ืฉืชื ืืืฆืขืืช, ืืืชืืืืก ืืชืฉืืื ืืืืืช ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืืืืืืืช ืืืฆืืขื ืฉื ืชืืืืื. ืืืช ืื ืืืจืื ืืขืืืจ ืืช ืืืืง, ืืืกื ืื ืชืืงื ืืื ืคืกืงืืืช ืืชืืื. ืืืช ืื ืืืจืื ืืกืืื ืืื. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืชื ืื ืืชืืงืื, ืฉืจืื ืื ืคืืืขื ืืืืฉืื. ืืืจืืช ืืชื ืืืืชื, ืฉื ื ืืชื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืฉืจื ืืืชื ืืืื ื ืฉืื ืืืืฉืืจ ืืืืื ืืช. ืืงืืฅ 1866, ืืฉืืงืื ืืจืก ืืชืคืืจ, ื ืืกืืื ื ืฉื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืฆืจืฃ ืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืจืื ืืื ืืื ื ืืขืืืื ืืืฉืืืจืจืื, ืืืืชื ืืฆืจืืช. ืขื ืืืชื ืืืืช ืืงืื ืืจืก, ื ืืกื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืืง ืืช ืชืืืืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืงืื ืืจืก ืฉื 1866. ืืืืืืกื 1866, ืขืจื ืืขืืื ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืชืืืืื, ืชืืช ืืฉื "ืืืืืื ืืืืืื". ืืื ืขืจื ืืกืข ื ืืืืื ืจืื ืืฉืืงืื, ืกื ื ืืืืืก, ืืื ืืืื ืคืืืืก ืืงืืืืืืืก, ืืืื ืื ืืืืื ืฉืื ืืืื ืืฉืคืืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืืืืืงืช, ืืื ืืฉืืืืชื ืืืฉื. ืืืืืืืืื ืฉื ืื ืก ืืืืื ืขื ืฆืืคืื ืื ืืืืื ืืืจืืื ืืืขืืื, ืืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ื ืืฆืื ืืงืืืช ืืืืืจืืช. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืขื ืฉืืืืืงืจืืื ืื ืืขื ืืงื ืื ืชืืืื ืืืงื ืืกืคืืง. ืื ืืืืจ ื ืืฆืืื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืืืืืจืืช ืฉื 1866, ืกืืจ ื'ืื ืกืื ืฉืืื ืืืฆื ืืืง. ืจืง ืื ืกื (ืฉืฆืืจืคื ืืืืฉ ืืืืืื ืขื ืืฉืจืืจ ืืชืืงืื ืืืืื 1866) ืืืฉืจื ืืช ืืชืืงืื ื-14 ืืืืงืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืืงื ืืงื, ืืืืืืจ ืืืจืืื ื ืืื ืืืชื. ืืืืื ืฉืฉืืืฉื-ืจืืขืื ืืืืืื ืืช ื ืืืฆื ืืืฉืจ ืืช ืืชืืงืื ืืืืงื, ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืืื ืืืืืืื ืฉืืฆืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืืืฉ. ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืชืื ืก ืฉืื ืืืฆืืืจ 1866, ืืืชืืื ืืืขืืืจ ืืืงืื ืืขื ืืืื ืื ืฉืืืืชื. ืืืืงืื ืืขื ืืงื ืืืืช ืืฆืืขื ืืฉืืืจืื ืืืืื ืงืืืืืืื ืืฆืืจืืฃ ื ืืจืกืงื ืืืืืื (ืืื ืืขืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืืกื ืืืืจืื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืืืขืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืฉืืืฉืจื ืืช ืืชืืงืื). ืืืื ืฉืืืื ืขื ืฆืืจืืฃ ืงืืืืจืื ืืืืืื ื ืฉืืจ ืืชืืงืฃ, ืืืืื ืฉืืกื ืืืืจืื ืกืืจืื ืืืืืจ ืืืืื ืขื 30,000 ืชืืฉืืื ืืืืื ื. ืืื ืืืจ 1867, ืืขืืืจ ืืืจ ืืงืื ืืจืก ืชืืืืืก ืกืืืื ืก ืืืง ืฉืคืืจืง ืืช ืืืืฉืืืช ืืืจืื ืืืืืง ืืช ืืืจืื ืืืืืฉื ืืืืืืช ืฆืืืืื, ืชืืช ืืืฉื ืฆืืื. ืืืืื ืืช ืืชืืืื ืฉืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืื ืืก ืืขืืืืช ืืืงืชืืืช. ืืฉืืืจืื ืืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืืืืืจ, ืืืืื ืชืืืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืื. ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืขื ืฉืืืืจ ืืืฉืืจ ืืชืืงืื ืืืืงื, ืืืืื ื ืชืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืืืื. ื'ืื ืกืื ื ืืกื ืืฉืื ืคืฉืจื, ืืืืขืืืจ ืชืืงืื ืืจืืื ืืืชืจ ืืื ืื ืืขืช ืืฉืชืชืคืืช ืืชืืืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืขื ืคืืืช ืืืืช ืืฆืืขื ืืฉืืืจืื. ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืืชืขืงืฉื. ื'ืื ืกืื ื ืืกื ืืืืื ืืื ืขื ืืืืง ืืืื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืื ืืืช ืขืื ืืืืชื ืืืื. ืื ืืกืฃ ืืขืืืจ ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืง ืฉืืื ืก ืืช ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืืฉ ืืืจืฅ 1867, ืืื ืืืฆืืืจ. ืืืง ืืฉืืงืื ืืจืืฉืื ืงืืข ืืื ืื ืฉื ืืืืฉื ืืคืงืืื ืฆืืืืื ืขื ืืืื ืืช ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืคืจื ืืื ืกื. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืื ื ืืช ืืื ืจืืื ืืชืืืื ืขื ืืจื ื. ืืื ืืืืืงืื ืืจืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืขืืืจ ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืื ืืืง ืฉืืงืื ืฉื ื, ืืืจืืช ืืืื ืฉื ื'ืื ืกืื. ืืืืง ืงืืข ืจืืฉืื ืืฆืืืขืื ื ืืื ืื ืืืืืื ืืืื, ืืืื ืืก ืืขืืืืช ืฉืืืฆืจื ืืช ืืืืฉืืืช ืืืืฉืืช. ืืืจืืช ืืืช, ืืื ืืจืืจ ืฉืืืืฉืืืช ืืืืจืืืืช ืฉืืงืื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืื ืืฉืืืืืช, ืืื ืืืืฉื ืืฆืืื ืฉื ืืงืื ืืจืก. ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืชืื ืก ืืืืฉ ืืืืื ืืืขืืืจ ืืืง ืฉืืงืื ืฉืืืฉื, ืฉืงืืข ืืช ืขืืืื ืืช ืืืืฉื ืืฆืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืื ืืคืืจ ืขืืืื ืืืื ื. ืืืืจ ืฉืืืืืจ ืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืกืื ืืื ืืชื ืื ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืฉื ื'ืื ืกืื, ืืืืื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืคืืจ ืืืชื, ืื ืฉืืืื ืืช ืืงืจืงืข ืืงืจืืช ืืงืจื ืืืฆื ืืฉื ื ืฉื ื ืฉืืืืชื. ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืขืืืจ ืืืง ืฉืืงืื ืจืืืขื ื-27 ืืคืืจืืืจ 1868. ื'ืื ืกืื ืกืืจื ืืืชืื ืขืืื, ืืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืื ืืช ืืืื ื-11 ืืืจืฅ. ืืืืง ืงืจื ืืืฉืจืืจ ืืืืงืืช ืืืืฉืืช ืืืจืื ืืชืืืืช ืจืื ืืืฆืืืขืื, ืืื ืจืื ืืืฆืืืขืื ืืจืฉืืืื. ืืืืง ืืืืื ืืื ืฉืืงืื ืืจืก ืจืฆื: ื-21 ืืืืื 1868, ืืืืฆื ืฉืืข ืืืื ืืช ืืจืืืืืช (ืืจืงื ืกื, ืคืืืจืืื, ืงืจืืืืื ื ืืฆืคืื ืืช, ืืืืืืืื ื, ืงืจืืืืื ื ืืืจืืืืช, ืืืืื ืื'ืืจื'ืื) ืืืงืืช ืืืฉืืช, ืืงืืื ืืืฉืืืช ืืืฉืืช, ืืืฉืจืจื ืืช ืืชืืงืื ื-14 (ืื ืฉืืืืื ืืืืฉืืจื), ืืกืืื ืืช ืืจืื ืืืฆืืจืคืืช ืืืืฉ ืืืืืื. ืืืจื'ืื ืื ื ืื ืขื ืืืืงืืืืจ 1869, ืืืืกืืกืืคื ืืืงืกืก ื-1870. ื-2 ืืืจืฅ 1867, ืืืจืืช ืืืื ืฉื ื'ืื ืกืื, ืืขืืืจ ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืง ืื ืืืข ืืืขืื ืชืคืงืืืื. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืฆืืืจ ืืืกืข ืืืืืจืืช ืฉื 1866 ืฉืืืืื ืชื ืืคืืจ ืืืจื ืงืืื ื ืื ื ืืื ืื. ืืืืง ืืจืฉ ืืช ืืืฉืืจ ืืกื ืื ืืฆืืจื ืคืืืืจื ืืืจื ืงืืื ื ืืืืื ืืืื ืชื ืฉื ืื ืฉืื ืฉืืื ื ืืืชื ืืืืืฉ ืืื ืืืืจ ืืื. ืืืช ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืจืื ืืืจื ืืงืืื ื ืฉื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืื ื ืืชืงืืคืช ืืื ืงืืื. ืืืืืจ ืืืืืื, ืืืืืื ืกืื ืืื, ืืื ืืื ืงืฉื. ื'ืื ืกืื ืฉืงื ืืคืืจ ืืืชื, ืืืื ืืืื ืืืชื ืขื ืชืคืงืืื ืืืืืื. ืืืจืืช ืืืช, ืกืื ืืื ืืืจื ื ืขืืื ืืืื ืื ืืกืืื ืืคืืืข ืืืืื ืืืช ืืฉืืงืื. ืกืื ืืื ืกืืจื ืืืชืคืืจ ืืืจืืช ืื ืืืกืืื ืขื ืื ืฉืื. ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืืฉ ืืชืื ืก ืืืจืฅ 1867, ืื ืืกื ืืืืืง ืืื ืืฉ ืกืืืืช ืืืืืช ื'ืื ืกืื. ืืืืขืื ืฉืืืงืื ืืื ืืืื ื ืืืจื ืงืืื ื ืืืขืื ื ืืื, ืืืื ื ืืช ืืฉืืื ืืช ืืื ืง ืฉืื. ืืืืจ ืฉื'ืคืจืกืื ืืืืืืืก ืฉืืืจืจ ืืขืจืืืช, ืืืืขืื ืืงืจื ืืื ืื ืฉืื ืืื ืืขืืจื ืืื. ื'ืื ืกืื ืจืฆื ืฉืืืืืืืก ืืืฉืคื, ืืืื ืืืืขืื ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืช ื ืืกืืื ืืืืื ืืืชืคืืจื ื-3 ืืืื ื. ืืืื ื, ืืชืขืืชื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืกืื ืืื ืื ืืืข ืืฉืืื ืืื ืืืคืงืืื ืืฆืืืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืช ืืจืฉืืืืช ืืืืจืืืืช ืืืจืื. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืชืืืข ืืืืื ืืขื ื ืฉืื. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืื ืืื ืกืื ืืื ืืชืืื ืื, ืื ืฉืืชื ืื ืื ืืืฉืืจ ืืงืืื ื. ืกืื ืืื ื ืื ืข ืืื ืืฉื. ืืฉืืงืื ืืจืก ืืชืื ืก ืืืืื, ืืื ืืขืืืจ ืืืง ืฉืืงืื ืื ืื ืืขืชื ืฉื ื'ืื ืกืื, ืืืืืจ ืืื ืฉืื ืขืงืฃ ืืช ืืืื ืฉืื. ืืืืง ืืืืืจ ืืช ืกืืืืืืช ืืื ืจืืื ืืืจืื ืืื ืื ืข ืืื ืฉืื ืฉืืืื ืขื ืืฆืื ืืืจืื. ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืฆื ืืคืืจื ืขื ื ืืืืืจ, ืืืื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืืื ืืคืืจ ืืช ืกืื ืืื ืืืืืืืฃ ืืื ืืคืงืืื ืฆืืืืื ืืืจืื, ืืืจืืช ืืชื ืืืืช ืืจื ื. ื-5 ืืืืืืกื, ืืจืฉ ื'ืื ืกืื ืฉืกืื ืืื ืืชืคืืจ, ืืืื ืกืื ืืื ืกืืจื ืืืชืคืืจ ืืฉืืงืื ืืจืก ืื ื ืืฆื, ืืืื ืืฉืขื ืืืชื ื'ืื ืกืื ืขื ืฉืืงืื ืืจืก ืืชืื ืก. ืืืืืกืก ืก. ืืจื ื ืฉืืืฉ ืืืืืืฃ ืืื ื. ืืจื ื ืืืื ืืช ืคืงืืืืชืื ืฉื ื'ืื ืกืื, ืืืจืืช ืืืืชื, ืืืืืืฃ ืื ืจืืื ืฉืืชื ืืื ืืืื. ืื ืฉืื ืื ืื ื ืืช ืจืื ืชืืืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื, ืืคืืจ ืืช ืืื ืฉืืื ืืชืคืงืื ืจืฉืื ืืืขืื ืื ืฉืืืื ื ืืืืฉื ืืคืืจืื ืืคื ื ืืืืืื ืืืขืืื ืืืื. ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืืขืื ืขื ืื, ืืืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืืงืืืืืช ื-1867 ืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืงืจืืื. ืืืืืจืื ืกืืจืื ืืืขื ืืง ืืืืืืช ืืืืจื ืืฉืืืจืื. ืืชืืฆืืืช ืืฆืืืื ืืขืฆืืจ ืืช ื ืืกืืื ืืช ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืืืืื ืืช ื'ืื ืกืื. ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืชืื ืก ืื ืืืืืจ, ืืืืืขืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืฉ ื ืืกืืื ืืืื ืื ืื ื'ืื ืกืื. ืื ืืืืชื ืชืืืฉื ืฉืื ืฉืื ืืืฆืข ืคืฉืข ืืืืจ, ืืืืกืืฃ 108 ื ืฆืืืื ืืชื ืืื ืืื. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืืข ืืช ืืงืื ืืจืก ืขื ืืฉืขืืืช ืกืื ืืื ืืขื ืืื ืืื ืฉื ืืจื ื. ืืกื ืื ืกืืจื ืืืืืจ ืืื ืืื ืืืจ 1868, ืืืืืืจ ืืช ืกืื ืืื ืืชืคืงืืื. ืื ืืขื ื ืฉืื ืฉืื ืืคืจ ืืช ืืืืง. ื'ืื ืกืื ืคืืืจ ืืช ืกืื ืืื ืืืืืืฃ ืืืชื, ืืงืื ืืืืืชืื ืฉื ืืจื ื, ืืืื ืื ืกืืจื ืกืื ืืื ืืขืืื ืืช ืืืฉืจื. ื-24 ืืคืืจืืืจ 1868, ืืจืฉืืข ืืืช ืื ืืืจืื ืืช ืื ืฉืื ืืืคืจืช ืืืืง, ืืจืื ืฉื 128 ืืขืืืช 47. ืืืช ืื ืืืจืื ืืืฉืื ืืช ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืื-ืขืฉืจ ืกืขืืคื ืืืฉืื ืฉืื ืื, ืืืื ืคืงืคืืง ืืกืืืืช ืืงืื ืืจืก. ื-5 ืืืจืฅ 1868, ืืื ืืฉืคืื ืฉื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืกื ืื, ืื ืืฉื ืฉืืืฉื ืืืืฉืื. ืืื ืืชืืืขืื ืืื ืื ื'ืืื ืืืืืจ ืืชืืืืืก ืกืืืื ืก. ืืืื ื ืืขื ื ืฉืืืืื ืฉืกืื ืืื ืืื ื ืืืื ืืื ืงืืื, ืืืืง ืื ืืื ืขืืื, ืืฉืื ืืกืฃ, ืื ืฉืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืงืืืช ืคืขืืืืช ืืงืื ืืจืก. ื'ืื ืกืื ืื ืืืคืืข ืืฆืืืืจ ืื ืืืื ืื ืืืข ืืืืืืื, ืคืจื ืืืื ืจืืืื ืืช ืืืคืจืื. ืืืกืืจืช ื ืืกืืื ืืชืื ืืืฉืื ืืืืื, ืืืืื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืืจื ืงืื ืืจืก ืฉืื ืืชืขืจื ืื ืืกืืื ืืช ืืฉืืงืื, ืืฉืืืืงืืช ืฉืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืืจืืืงืืื ืืขืืืจื ืืงืจืืืืื ื ืืืจืืืืช ืืืืจืงื ืกื ืืืขืืจื ืืืืฉืืจ ืืงืื ืืจืก. ืืืชืื ืื ืืกืืืื ืืชืืื ืืืืืืื. ืื ืืกืฃ, ืกื ืืืืจืื ืืืจืื ืกืืจืื ืืชืืื ืืืืื ืืืืื, ืืื ืืื ืืข ืืื ืฉืื ืืืื ื ืฉื ืืกื ืื ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืื ื'ืืื ืืืืื, ืืืืืืฃ ืืช ื'ืื ืกืื, ืฉืื ืืืืื ื ืืฉื ืืจืืืงืื ืฉืชืื ืืืืืืืช ืืฆืืขื ืื ืฉืื. ืื ืืกืฃ, ืจืฆื ืืจื ื ืืืืืืจ ืื ืฉืืืืช ืืขืฆืื. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืื ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืื ื, ืืืขืืชืื ืืช ืืืืืื ืฉืืจืืืงืืื ืืื ืืืช ืกืืืื ืก ืืืชืจื. ื-16 ืืืื, ืืฆืืืข ืืงืื ืืจืก ืขื ืกืขืืฃ ืืืืฉืื ืืืื-ืขืฉืจ, ืืคืจืช ืืืืง ืืคืืืืจื ืกืื ืืื. ืฉืืืฉืื ืืืืืฉื ืกื ืืืืจืื ืชืืื ืืืจืฉืขื, ืืชืฉืขื-ืขืฉืจ ืืืื ืชืืื ืืืืืื. ืืื ืืืจืฉืืข ื ืฉืื, ืืื ืฆืืจื ืืจืื ืฉื ืฉื ื ืฉืืืฉืื ืืืกื ืื, ืืืื ืืื ืืกืจ ืขืื ืงืื ืืื ืืื ืฉืืืืื ืชืืื ืชืงืคื. ืฉืืขื ืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืชืืื ืืืืืื ื'ืื ืกืื. ืืืืจ ืืื ืืืคืืื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืืช ืืืจื ืืืืืืกืก ืก. ืืจื ื ืืืืขืืื ืื ืฉืืืืช, ืื-26 ืืืื ืืกื ืื ืืฆืืืข ืื ืืืข ืืกืขืืคืื ืืฉื ื ืืืฉืืืฉื ืืืชื ืืืืฉืื. ืืชืืฆืื ืืืืชื ืืืื, ืืืืืื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืคืกืืงื ืขื ืืืืื ืืืืื. ืกืื ืืื ืคืจืฉ ืืชืคืงืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืชืจ ืืืืชื ืืืื. ืืืืขืื ืืกืชืืจ ืฉืื ืืื ืืกืืก ืืืืฉืืืช, ืืืื ืื ื ืืกืืื ืฉื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืืจืืืงืืื ืืืืืื, ืื ืืกืืื ืืืคืื ืืช ืื ืฉืืืืช ืืืฉืจื ืืืคืืคื ืืจืฆืื ืืงืื ืืจืก. ืืืจืืช ืืืช, ืืื ืื ืฉืื ืืขื ื ืฉื'ืื ืกืื ืฉืืื ืืืจื ืงืื ืืจืก ืืชืืื ืื. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืื ืื ืฉืื ืืจืืฉืื ืฉืขืื ืืคื ื ืืฉืคื ืืืื ืืกื ืื, ืืืืืื ืขื ืื ืืกืืื ืืืืชื ืฉื ืืื ืงืืื ืืื ื-1998. ืืืฆืืขื ืืืืจืื ื ืืืฉืจื ืืช ืืขืืงืจืื ืฉืืงืื ืืจืก ืื ืืืื ืืื ืืคืืจ ื ืฉืื ืจืง ืืืืื ืฉืื ืืกืืื ืขื ืืืื ืืืชื ืืกืื ืื ื. ืืืจืืช ืืืช, ืื ืฉืื ืื ืฉืืจ ืขื ืืืื. ืืืฉื ืืฉื ื ืืืื, ื'ืื ืกืื ืื ืืฆืืื ืืืฉืคืืข ืขื ืืืื ืืืช ืฆืืืืจืืช. ืืื ื ืืกื ืืืืื ืข ืืืืชืขืจื ืื ืืฉื ืืฉืืงืื, ืืืื ืืืื ื ืกืืจื ืืฆืืจืืฃ ืืืื ืืช ืืจืืืืืช (ืืืื ืคืจื ืืืืกืืกืืคื, ืืงืกืก ืืืืจื'ืื ืื) ืืืขื ื ืฉืืืงื ืืฉืืงืื ืื ืืื ื ืืืงืชืืื. ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืื ืืช ืืืื, ืืื ืืื ืขื ืืืง ืฉืื ืข ืกืคืืจืช ืืืงืืืจืื ืืืืื ืืช ืฉืื ืืืจืื ื ืืืืฉ. ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืชืคืืจ ืืืืื. ืืืจื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืจืฆื ืืืชืื ืก ืืกืคืืืืจ ืืืงืจื ืฉื'ืื ืกืื ืื ืกื ืืคืืืข ืืื, ืืืื ืื ืืชืื ืกื ืืืืฉ ืจืง ืืืืจ ืืืืืจืืช ืฉื 1868. ืืืื ื 1866, ืืืืจื ืืจืืืืจืืืช ื ืืจืกืงื ืืืฉืจื ืืจืื ืืืืง ืืืงื. ืืื ืืกืขืืคืื ืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืฆืืขื ืืืืจืื ืืื ืื. ืืืืฉ ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืง ืืฆืืจืืฃ ื ืืจืกืงื ืืืืืื, ืืืืืง ืืืฉืจ ืืืฉ ืืคื ื ืกืืื ืืืืฉื ืืกืืฃ ืืืื, ืืืจืืช ืืชื ืืืืช ืืกืืืืช ืืกืขืืฃ ืืืืืื ืืฉืชืชืคืืช ืืื ื ืืืขืจืืช ืืืืืจืืช, ืืืชื ืืืืช ืืืืงืจืืืช ืืฆืืจืืฃ ืืืื ื ืจืคืืืืืงื ืืช ืืืืืื. ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืชืคืืจ, ืื'ืื ืกืื ืคืฉืื ืื ืืชื ืขื ืืืืง. ืื ืืฉื ืืืจ ืืืืื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืขื ืืชืื ืกืืชื ืืืฆืืืจ 1866. ืชืืงืื ืืืฉ ืืจืฉ ืฉืืืื ื ืืืฉื ืื ืชืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืฆืืขื ืืคื ืืืข ืื ืฆืืข. ืืชืืงืื ืืื ืืชืืืืช ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืืจืืืงืืืื ืฉืงืืื ืืืืืฃ ืืืชื ืื ืขื ืืืื ืืช ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื. ืืืืืงืจืืื ืื'ืื ืกืื ืืชื ืืื ืืื, ืืืขื ื ืฉืืืืฉืื ืื ืืืืื ืืงืืช ืืืืืื ืืช ืืช ืืืื ืืงืืืข ืืช ืืืืช ืืืฆืืขื ืืชืืื. ื ืืฉื ืฆืืจืืฃ ืืืืื ื ืืคื ืืฉืืื ืื ืืฉื ืืคืืจืืืื, ืืืืืืง ืืื ืื ืฉืื ืืงืื ืืจืก. ืืืจืืช ืืชื ืืืืชื ืฉื ื'ืื ืกืื, ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืฉืจ ืืช ืืืืง ืืื ืืืจ 1867, ืื'ืื ืกืื ืืืื ืขืืื ืืื. ืคืืืช ืืฉืืืขืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืื ืฆืืจืืฃ ื ืืจืกืงื, ืฉื ื ืืชื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืืื ืืช ืืืื. ืืืืขืฆื ืืืืืงืงืช ืืกืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืืช ืขื ืืืืช ืืืฆืืขื. ื-1 ืืืจืฅ 1867, ืฆืืจืคื ื ืืจืกืงื ืืืืืื, ืืืืื ื ืืืืืื ืฉืฆืืจืคื ืืขืืจืช ืืืืื ืืื. ืืืื ื 1866, ืืชื ื'ืื ืกืื ืขื ืืืง ืืืืืงื ืืืืฉ ืฉื ืืืืืช ืืืจืื, ืืืืื ื ืฉืืืืง ืืกืืืข ืืืื ืื ืืขื ืืื. ืืื ืืฆืืื ืืืคื ื-28,000 ืคื ืืืช ืืืืืงืช ืืืื, ืืืื ืืืืืงื ืื ืืืืชื ืืขืืื. ืจืื ืืืืื ื ืฉืืจื ืืืกืืืืช ืจืืืช ืื ืืืืฆืื ืฆืื. ืืืื ื 1868, ืืชื ื'ืื ืกืื ืขื ืืืง ืืืขื ืืื ืขืืืื ืื ืฉืืื ื ืฉืขืืช ืืคืืขืืื ืืฉืืจืืช ืืฆืืืืจื. ืืืืง ืืจื ืืืจืืื ืฉื 20% ืืืฉืืืจืืช. ืขื ืื ืืกืชื ืืชืคืงืื, ืืืืข ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืกืื ืขื ืืืืืจ ืืืืื ื, ืืืืืื ืกืืืืจื, ืฉืื ืืืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืืื ืืืช ืืืืฅ. ืกืืืืจื ืืืื ืงืืื ืืชืืจื ืขื ืืืืขืืืืช ื-1860, ืืืื ืงืืื ืงืืืื ืฉืกืืืืจื ืืืจืฉ ืืืชื ื-1869. ืืฉื'ืื ืกืื ื ืื ืก ืืชืคืงืืื, ืฉืืื ืฆืจืคืช ืืืืืื ืื ืืงืกืืงื, ืืจืืื ืงืจืื ืืคืขืืื ื ืืื. ืกืืืืจื ืืขืืืฃ ืืช ืืืืฉืืจ ืืืืคืืืืื, ืืืืืืจ ืืช ืืฆืจืคืชืื ืฉื ืืืืืชื ืืืงืกืืงื ืืื ื ืืงืืืืช. ืื ืฉืื ืืขืืืฃ ืืืฉื ืชืงืืคื ืืืชืจ, ืืืื ืืืคืจืื 1866 ืืกืืืื ืืฆืจืคืชืื ืืืกืื ืืช ืืืืืชืืื ืืืงืกืืงื ืืฉืืืื, ืืื ืืฆืื ืื ืืืืืจ 1867. ืกืืืืจื ืชืื ืืืจืืืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืคืฉ ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืจืืืฉืช ืืืืืช. ื-1867, ืืืืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืจืืกืืช ืฉืืงืืืื ืื ืฉืื ืืฆืคืื ืืืจืืงื (ืืืกืงื) ืืื ื ืื, ืืืฉืฉื ืืืื ืฉืืืื ืขื ืืืงืื ืืฉืืืชืืืฉืืื ืืืืจืืงื ืื ืืืืจื ืืฉื. ืืฉืืจืืจ ืืจืืกื ืืืืื ืื ืกืืช ืืืืืจ ืืช ืืืกืงื ืืื ืคืืืช ืืืืืฉื ืืืืืื ืืืืจืื, ืืืื ืืฆืืื ืืฉืื ืข ืืช ืกืืืืจื ืืงื ืืช ืืช ืืืกืงื ืืฉืืขื ืืืืืื, ืืืื 123 ืืืืืื ืืืืจืื. ืืืกืื ื ืืชื ื-30 ืืืจืฅ 1867. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืื ืก ืืช ืืกื ืื ื-1 ืืืคืจืื, ืืืื ืืืฉืจ ืืช ืืืกืื ืืจืื ืฉื ืฉืืืฉืื-ืืฉืืขื ืืื ืฉื ืืื. ืกืืืืจื ื ืืกื ืืจืืืฉ ืขืื ืฉืืืื, ืืืื ืืฆืืื ืืืฉืื ืจืง ืืช ืืืืง (ืฉืื ืื ืืื ืืืืฉื), ืืืืขื ืืฆืืื ืืจืืืฉ ืงืืืื ืืืช ืฉื ืื ืืจืง ืืืืื ืืงืืจืืืืื, ืืฆืขื ืฉื ืคืื ืืืืจ ืฉืืกื ืื ืื ืื ืืืกืื ืฉืืืืข ืืืื. ืืกืื ืืืจ ืืื ืขื ืืจืืื ืื, ืืื ืืคืฆืืช ืืช ืืืืจืืงื ืื ืขื ื ืืง ืฉื ืืจื ืืกืคืื ืืชืืื ืืฆื ืกืคืื ืืช ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืฉืืืจืืืื ืกืืืขื ืืื ืืช. ืืกืืฃ 1868, ืืกื ืื ืืืืื ืืืชืขืื ืืื ืืฉื, ืืืืฉื ืืจื ื ืืฆืืื ืืืืืข ืืืกืื ืืื ืืืชืจ. ืฉื ืชืืื ืืคื ื ืืืืืจืืช, ืืื ืืืืืกืก ืืจื ื ืืืืขืื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ื ืืืืขืืฃ. ืืขืืืืช ืฉืื ืขื ื'ืื ืกืื ืื ืืืข ืืชืงืืคืช ืืฉืืงืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืฉืกืืจื ืืฉืืฉ ืืืืืืจ ืืืืืื ืืืงืื ืกืื ืืื. ืืชืืืื ืืืจื ื ืืืืชื ืืืืื ืื ืื ืขื ืฉืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืกืืจืื ืืืืื ืืช ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืฉืฉ ืฉืืจื ื ืืกืจื ืืืืืช ื ืฉืื. ืืืืขืืื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืืช ืืืืืืืช ืฉื 1868 ืืืจื ืืืจื ื ืืืืขืืื, ืืืืืฉื ืจืืฉ ืืืช ืื ืืืจืื, ืกืงืืืืจ ืงืืืคืงืก, ืืกืื ื. ืืฆืข ืืืคืืื ืื ืชืื ืืืืืช ืืืืจื ืืื ืืืืจืื. ืืืืจ ืืืืฉืืื ืืืงืืช ืืคืืื ืืฉืื, ืืืืื ื'ืื ืกืื ืื ืกืืช ืืืืืืจ ืืืขื ืืืืืงืจืืื ืืืืขืืื ืฉืืื ืื ืื ืืืจืง ืืืืื 1868. ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืงืจื ืืืื ืื ืืืืจืื, ืืืืืง ืืช ืืืืื ืืืคืื ืืฉืืืจืื ืขื ืื ืื ื ืืื ืชืืืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืฉืื ืขืืื ืืืื, ืืืฅ ืืืืืืืืืก ืืืืื ืืืจืื. ืืกืืืื ืืจืืฉืื, ืืืืข ืืืงืื ืืฉืืืฉื ืืืืจ ืืืจ ืืืช ืื ืืืจืื ืืืืืื, ื'ืืจื' ืคื ืืืืื, ืกืื ื ืฉื ืืงืืื ื-1864. ืืชืืืื ืฉื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืืชื ืืจืืืืช ืืขืืงืจื, ืืืจืื ืืื ืฉืืกืืืืืื ืขืืจื. ืืกืืืื ืืขืฉืจืื ืืฉื ืืื, ื ืืืจ ืืืฉื ื ืื ืืืจืง ืืฉืขืืจ ืืืจืฉืื ืกืืืืจ, ืื'ืื ืกืื ืืฉืื ืจืง ืืจืืขื ืงืืืืช ืืื ืกื. ืืฆืข ืืืคืืื ืชืื ืื ืฉืืืืชื ืฉื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืืื ืื ืขื ื ืืกืืื ื ืืืชื ืื ืืคืืืขื ืฉื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืชืืืื ืืืชืืฆืื ืืชืืืืื ืืจืฉื ืืื ื ืืืฆืืจ ืืคืืื ืฉืืืฉืืช. ืื ืืื ืืกืข ืืืืืจืืช ืฉื ืกืืืืจ ืจืฆื ืืช ืชืืืืชื ืฉื ื'ืื ืกืื, ืฉืฉืชืง ืืืืื ืืกืข ืืืืืจืืช. ืจืง ืืืืงืืืืจ, ืืืืจ ืฉืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืจ ืืฆืืืขื, ืืืืืจ ืืช ืกืืืืจ, ืืืขืืื ืื ืชืื ืื. ืืจื ื ื ืืฆื ืืืืืจืืช ืขื 52.7% ืืืงืืืืช, ื-214 ืืืงืืืจืื ืืชืื 297. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืชืืจื ืขื ื ืืฆืืื ื ืฉื ืืจื ื. ืืืืืขืชื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืฆืืืจ, ืืจืฉ ืืช ืืืืื ืืืืง ืฉืืจืฉ ืืช ืืืฉืืจ ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืคืืืืจื ืืืจื ืงืืื ื, ืืืขื ืฉืื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืื ืืงืื ืืช ืืืจืื ืืืจืืืืื ื-1865, ืืืฆื ืืื ื ืคืชืจ. ืืื ืืืืื ืฉื 1868, ืืขื ืืง ื'ืื ืกืื ืื ืื ื ืืืช ืืืจืื ื, ืืคืขื ืื ืืืืืืืืก. ื-3 ืืืจืฅ, ืื ืฉืื ืืืจื ืืกืืืช ืคืจืืื ืืืืช ืืืื. ืืจื ื ืขืฆืื ืกืืจื ืืืื ืขื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืงืก ืืื ืืกื ืืชืคืงืื, ืื'ืื ืกืื ืกืืจื ืืืืช ืืืงืก. ืืช ืืืงืจ 4 ืืืจืฅ ืืืื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืขื ืืื ืื ืฉื ืืจืืข ืืืืจืื, ืืืฆืืจืืื ื ืกืข ืืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืช ืฉื ืืืจ. ืืืืจ ื ืฉืืืืชื ืืืืจ ืขืืืืช ืื ืฉืืืืช, ื ืฉืืจ ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืื ืฉืืืขืืช, ืืืืจ ืืืจืื ืืืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืฉื ืื. ืขืจื ืื ืกื, ืฉืืชื ืืื ืื ืืืืื ืืืืืื, ืงืืืื ืืืชื ืืืจืื. ืืื ืจืืฉ ืืืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืจืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืืจ ืื. ืจืืื ืฆืืคื ืฉืื ืกื ืืืืืช ืฉืื ืืืืฉื ืื ืฉืืืืืจ ืืกื ืื, ืืืืจืื ืืขื ื ืฉืืขืืื ืืขืกืงื ืืกืืืืช ืืจืืืช. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืฉืชืขืื ืืืจืื ืืืื, ืืืืื ืืคืจืืืื ืืืืจืืจื ืืฉืื ื ืจืืืจื ืืชืืื. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืืื ืื ืกืืช ืืืืืืจ ืืกื ืื ื-1869. ืื ืกื ืืคืื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืืช, ืืื ืคืกืง ืืื ืฉื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืฉืืืืืจ ืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืฆืืขื ืืืื ืื, ืืืืืืืช ืืงื ืงืืืงืก ืงืืื ืืืจืืื ืืช ืืฉืืืจืื, ืืืืืืงืจืืื ื ืืฆืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืืืขืฆื ืืืืืงืงืช ืืืืืืกื. ื'ืื ืกืื ื ืืฉื ืืืืขืื ืืืืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืกื ืื, ืืืจืืช ืืขืจืืช ืืืกืื ืขืืืจื ืขื ืืื ืืืืงืจืืื ืืืื ืืขืฉืื ืืืืื ืืืืืื. ืืืกืืฃ ืืืืก ืืืคืจืฉ ืฉื ืฉืืืฉื ืงืืืืช. ื-1872, ืืืงืฉ ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืืืืจ ืืืืืจืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืงืื ืืจืก, ืืืื ืืืกืืฃ ืืืืื ืืจืืฅ ืืขืฆืืื ืืืืืข ืืืงืื ืืฉืืืฉื. ื-1873, ืืื ืืืืืจื ืืืืืื. ืืื ืืคืกืื 73,000 ืืืืจืื ืืืืชื ืืฉื ื, ืืฉืืื ืง ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืคืฉื ืจืื, ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืงืืื ืืืืจื ืืช ืจืื ืืกืืื. ืืื ืืชืืื ื ืืืืืจืืช ืืืืืช ืืกื ืื, ืฉืืื ืืืืจืืช ืืืชืจืืฉ ื-1875. ืืื ืืฉืื ืืช ืชืืืืช ืืืงืืืื ืื ืื ืืจืืื ืืืืื ื. ืฉืืืจืื ืืขืืื ืืืื ืืืฆืืืข ืืฉืืฉืืงืื ืืื ืืืืืืฉ ืืืจืื. ืืฉืืืื ืืืื ื ื ืืฉืื ืืืขื ืืื. ืืืืืจืืช ืืืืขืฆื ืืืืืงืงืช ืืื ืกื ืืืืืืกื, ืืืืืงืจืืื ืืฉืืื ืชืฉืขืื ืืฉื ืืื ืืืจื ืืืขืฆื ืืขืืืช ืฉืืื ื ืจืคืืืืืงื ืื. ื-20 ืืื ืืืจ 1875, ืืืืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืกื ืื ืขื ืฉืืืฉืื ืงืืืืช, ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืื ืืืฉืื ืจืื ืืืืื. ืืจืืืื ืฉื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืงืฉื ืืืชืืื ืกืืื ืืืขืื ืืื, ืืืื ื ืืฉืื, ืื-26 ืืื ืืืจ, ืืกืืืื ืืืืืฉืื ืืืจืืขื, ืืื ื ืืืจ, ืืฉืืฉืื ืงืื ืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืืจืืฉ ืื. ืืกืืคืืจ ืืื ืืชืฉืืืช ืื ืืืืืืช. ื-5 ืืืจืฅ 1875, ืงืืื ืคืจืืื ืืืืฉืืข ืื ืืกื ืื ืืื ืขื ืืืืื, ืงืืืื ืืชืคืงืื ืกืื ืื ืฉืื, ืืืื ืกืื ืื ืฉืื ืืืืื, ืื ืจื ืืืืกืื, ืฉืชืื ืืืืืชื ืืกื ืืืืจ. ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืืชืขืืื ืื'ืื ืกืื, ืืืื ืืืจืื, ืืื ื'ืื ืฉืจืื (ืฉืชืื ืืืืืืื) ืืืฆื ืืช ืืื. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืื ืื ืฉืื ืืฉืขืืจ ืืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืกื ืื. ืืื ื ืื ืคืขื ืืืช ืืืื, ื-22 ืืืจืฅ, ืืฉืืืงืจ ืืช ืื ืฉืื ืืจื ื ืขื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืฆืื ืืื ืืชืืื ืืืืฉืืช ืืฉืืงืื ืฉื ืืืืืืืื ื. ืืื ืืืืืจ ืืคื ื ืขืจืืฆืืช ืฆืืืืช. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืจ ืืืืชื ืืืืจ ืกืืื ืืืืฉื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืงืื ืืจืก. ืืกืืฃ ืืืื, ืืื ื ืกืข ืืืืืื ืืฉืืฉืชืื ืข ืฉืืจืืืื ืืคืืืืืืื ืชืงืคื ืืืชื ืฉื. ืืื ืืื ืืช ืืืกืข ื-28 ืืืืื, ืืืคืกืืง ืืืชื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืชื ืืจื ืืื ืกื. ืืืืชื ืืขืจื ืกืื ืืฉืืฅ, ืืกืืจื ืืืืคืื ืจืคืืื ืขื ืืืืจืช ืืืื. ืืื ืืืื ืืจืืคืืื, ืืืื ืกืื ืขืื ืฉืืฅ ืืขืจื 30 ืืืืื, ืืืช ืืืงืื ืืืืงืจ ืืืืจืช ืืืื ืฉืืฉืื ืืฉืฉ. ืื ืฉืื ืืจื ื ื ืืืฅ ืืืืจืื ืืคื ื ืืืืื ืขื ืืืช ืื ืฉืื ืืฉืขืืจ ืืืืืื ืฉืื. ืืขืืชืื ืื ืืฆืคืื ืืื ืฉืืืื ืืช ื ืืื ืืชื ืฉื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืื, ืืืืื ืืืจืืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืช ืคืขืืืืชืื ืื ืฉืื. ืืืืืื ืฉืื ื ืขืจืื ื-3 ืืืืืืกื ืืืจืื ืืืื. ืืื ื ืงืืจ ืืฉืืืคืชื ืขืืืคื ืืืื ืืืจืืงื ื ืืืขืชืง ืฉื ืืืืงื ืืชืืช ืืจืืฉื, ืืคื ืืงืฉืชื. ืืชืจ ืืงืืืจื ืืคื ืืืืช ืงืืจืืช ืขื ืฉืื ื-1906. ืชืืืืช ืืืกืืืจืืช ืืืืจืฉืช ืืืกืืืจืืื ืื ืฉืืงืจื ืืช ื ืฉืืืืชื ืฉื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืชืืงืื ืืขืืงืจ ืืคืขืืืชื ืืืืื ืืฉืืงืื. ืืฆืคืื ืืชืืืืก ืืืื ืืื ืขืงืฉื ืืกืจ ืจืื ืฉื ืืกื ืืขืืืจ ืืืจืื ืืืืื ืชืงืืคืช ืืฉืืงืื, ืขื ืฉืืงืื ืืจืก ืขืฆืจ ืืืชื. ืขื ืชืืืืช ืืืื ืืขืฉืจืื, ืืชืื ืขืืื ืืืืกืืืจืืื ืื ืฉืกืืจื ืืืชืคืฉืจ ืขื ืืงืื ืืจืก, ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืืงืื ืืจืก ืจืฆื ืฉืืืื ืืช ืืืืื ื ืืืื ืข ืืช ืืฉืชืืืืช ืืจืืืงืืื. ืืืืงื ืขื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืื ืข ืฆืืจืืฃ ืืืื ืืช ืืืจืื ืืฆืืจื ืจืื ืืืชืจ. ืจืฆืื ื ืื ืฆื ืืืืืืชื ืืืขืชื ืืจืื ืืคืืืขื ืืืจืื ืืืืืื ื. ืืืจืื ืืืฉืืื ืืช ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืขืืืช ืืืจืื ืืืืจ ืืืืืื. ืื ืฉืื ืืืืจื ืืืืกืื ืืขื ืฉืืืื ื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืื ืืขืืืชื ืืืืื ื ืคืืืืืืช, ืืืื ื ืืกื ืืืื ืืช ืฆืืืืชื ืฉื ืืื ืงืืื ืืกืืื ืืืจืื. ืืืืกืื ืืฆืื ืืช ืชืืื ืืช ืืฉืืงืื ืืชืืื ืืช ื ืงืื ืืช ืฉืคืืขื ืื ืืืจืืืืื ืฉืชืืื ืืืืืื, ืืขืืจื ื"ืฆืงืืื ืืื" ืืฆืคืื ืืื (ืื ืฉื ืขืกืงืื ืืคืืืืืืงืืื ืืืฆืคืื ืฉืชืคืกื ืขืืืืช ืืื ืืืจืื), ืื-"Scalawags", ืืจืืืืื ืืื ืื ืฉืืจืชื ืืจืืช ืขื ืืฉืืืจืื ืืืขื ืืืื ืืจืก ืืคืืืืื ืฉืืื. ืืื ืืืกืืืจืืื ืื ืืขื ื ืฉืืืจืืช ืืืฉืืื ื ืฉื ื'ืื ืกืื ืื ืฉืื, ืืืื ืืืช ืืฉืืงืื ืฉืืฆืืข ืืืืชื ื ืืื ื. ืืฉื ืืช ืืขืฉืจืื ืืืฉืืืฉืื ืคืืจืกืื ืขืืื ืืืืืจืคืืืช ืฉืฉืืืื ืืืชื ืืืืงืจื ืืช ืืจืืืื. ืืฉื ืืช ืืืจืืขืื, ืืืื ืืืืกืืืจืืื ืื ืืืืื ืืืืฉ ืืช ืืฉืืงืื, ืืื ืืื ืื ืฉืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืืืจืื ืืื ืืจืืฉืขืื, ืฉืืฉืืืจืื ืื ืืื ืจืืืืื ืืืืืืืช, ืืฉืืขืืืื ืืช ืืืื ื ืกืืืขื ืืฆืคืื. ืืืจืืช ืืืช, ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืฉืื ืืืืืช ืืืื ืืงืจื ืืฆืืืืจ, ื ืขืฉื ืขืืื ืกืจื, ืืกืงืจ ื-1948 ืืืจื ืืืชื ืืงืจื ืื ืฉืืืื ืืืืืฆืขืื. ื-1956, ืกืงืจ ื ืืกืฃ ืงืืข ืฉืืื ืืื ืืื ืฉืืืื ืืืืืื. ืืืื ืืกืงืจืื ืืืื, ืชืงืืคืช ืืฉืืงืื ื ืืฉืื ืืชืงืืคื ืืืฉืืชืช ืฉืืชืจืืฉื ืืืื ืืชื ืืืืืืช ืืฆืืขื ืืฉืืืจืื. ืืืกืืืจืืื ืื ืืืจืื, ืืขื ื ืฉืืฉืืงืื ืืื ืืืืง ืืืืื. ืื ืงืืืื ืืช ืืื ืื ืฉืืืืจื ืฉื ืืฉืืงืื ืืืืชื ืืืืจื ืืืืืช ืคืืืก. ืืฉื ืืช ืืืืืฉืื, ืืืื ืืืืกืืืจืืื ืื ืืืชืืงื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืฉืืืจืื. ืื ืืื ืื ื ืืกืืื ืืืฆืื ืืช ืืฉืืืจืื ืื ืืืชืื, ืืืขื ื ืฉืืชื ืืขื ืืืืืืืช ืืืืจื ืืื ืชื ืืขืช ืฉืืงืื ืืืฉื. ืืืชืืื ืืืฉืื ืงืืื ืฉืขืืืืืชืืื ืขื ืืืืืื ืืงืืื ืืช ื ืืฉื ืืืืืืช ืืืืจื. ืื ืชืืื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืืจืืืงืืื ืฉื ืืกื ืืชืืื ืืฉืืืจืื, ืืจืื ืืช ื'ืื ืกืื ืืขืืื ืืขืืืื ืืืฉืืืจืจืื. ืื ืืฉืคื ืืกืคืจ ืฆืขืืื ืฉืืืฆืข ืืคืืขื ืืขืืืื ืืืฉืืืจืจืื. ืชืงืืคืช ืืฉืืงืื ืืืื ืืืืชืคืฉ ืื ืืกืืื ืืฉืื ืืช ืืขืืืื ืืืฉืืืจืจืื ืืืืจื. ืืชืืืืช ืืืื ืืขืฉืจืื ืืืืช, ื ืืฉื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืื ืืื ืฉืืืื ืืืจืืขืื ืืชืืืืืช ืืืืื ื. ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืืจื ืืชืืชืืช ืืจืฉืืื ืืืื ืืขืืืื ืฉืืืขื ืืืื, ืืืื ืืืช ืืฉืืงืื ืฉืื, ืืืืฉืืืชื ืืฉืืฆื ืืช. ืืชื ืืืืชื ืืืชื ืืืืืืช ืืืจื ืืฉืืืจืื ืืืชื ืืืืชื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืืจืืืงืืื ืืืื ืืืืงืืจืช ืืจืืคื. ื'ืื ืกืื, ืืื ืขื ืคืืจืก ืืืืืงื ื, ื ืืฉืืื ืื ืฉืืืื ืืืจืืขืื ืืืืชืจ, ืืืื ื ืืขื ืฉืชืงืืคืชื ืืืืชื ืืชืงืืคื ืืงืฉื ืืืืชืจ ืืชืืืืืช ืืืืื ื. ืืืกืืืจืืื ืื ืืืขื ืื ืฉื'ืื ืกืื ืืืืืฉ ืืช ืืขืืืื ืืช ืืืื ื ืืืช ืืฉืืจื ืืช ืืืจืืืืช. ื-2002, ื ืืขื ืฉื'ืื ืกืื ืกืื ืืืขืืืช ืจืฆืื ืืืช ืืฉืืื. ื ืืขื ืฉืืื ืืกืจ ืืืืฉืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืคืืื ืืืื ืืืฉืื. ื ืฉืืืืชื ื ืืฉืื ืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืืืงืจื ืืืืฉืื ืฉื ืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืฆืคืื ืืื. ื'ืื ืกืื ืื ื ืืืจ ืื ืฉืืืืช, ืืืืืชื ืืกืจื ืื ืกืืืืช ืขื ืืงืื ืืจืก. ืืื ืื ืืืื ืฉืืืืืช ืืืืจืืื ืืืืชื ืืืคืื ืืฉืืืื ืืืืฉืืชื ืขืื ืขื ืืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช. ืื ืืกืฃ ืืื ืืืืื ืฉืืฉืืืจืื ื ืืืชืื ืืืืื ืื, ืืฉืงืคื ื ืคืืฆื ืืงืจื ืืืื ืื ืืืืชื ืืชืงืืคื. ืจืื ืื ืืงืจืืื ื ืืกืคืช ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืืื |
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