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Contents Reddit Reddit (/หrษdษชt/ โ RED-it, formerly stylized reddit) is an American proprietary social news aggregation and forum social media platform. Registered users (commonly referred to as "redditors") submit content to the site such as links, text posts, images, and videos, which are then voted up or down ("upvoted" or "downvoted") by other members. Posts are organized by subject into user-created boards called "subreddits". Submissions with more upvotes appear towards the top of their subreddit and, if they receive enough upvotes, ultimately on the site's front page. Reddit administrators moderate the communities. Moderation is also conducted by subreddit-specific moderators, who are unpaid volunteers. It is operated by Reddit, Inc., based in San Francisco. As of December 2025, Reddit is one of the most-visited websites in the world. According to data provided by Similarweb, 51.75% of the website traffic comes from the United States, followed by Canada at 7.01%, the United Kingdom at 6.97%, Australia at 3.97%, Germany at 3%, and the remaining 28.37% split among other countries. Reddit was founded by University of Virginia roommates Steve Huffman and Alexis Ohanian in June 2005, who were joined by Aaron Swartz that November. Condรฉ Nast Publications acquired the site in October 2006. In 2011, Reddit became an independent subsidiary of Condรฉ Nast's parent company, Advance Publications. Reddit debuted on the stock market on the morning of March 21, 2024, with the ticker symbol RDDT. The current market cap as of July 2024 is US$10 billion. Reddit has been noted for its role in political activism, particularly in the United States, with notable left-wing and anti-theist subcultures on the website. It has received praise for many of its features, such as the ability to create several subreddits for niche communities. It has been criticized for the spread of misinformation and its voting system which can encourage online echo chambers. History The idea and initial development of Reddit originated with college roommates Steve Huffman and Alexis Ohanian in 2005, who attended a lecture by programmer-entrepreneur Paul Graham in Boston during their spring break from University of Virginia. After speaking with Huffman and Ohanian following the lecture, Graham invited the two to apply to his startup incubator Y Combinator. Their initial idea, My Mobile Menu, was unsuccessful, and was intended to allow users to order food by SMS text messaging. During a brainstorming session to pitch another startup, the idea was created for what Graham called the "front page of the Internet". For that idea, Huffman and Ohanian were accepted in Y Combinator's first class. Supported by the funding from Y Combinator, Huffman coded the site in Common Lisp and together with Ohanian launched Reddit in June 2005. Embarrassed by an empty-looking site, the founders created hundreds of fake users for their posts to make it look more populated. The team expanded to include Christopher Slowe in November 2005. Between November 2005 and January 2006, Reddit merged with Aaron Swartz's company Infogami, and Swartz became an equal owner of the resulting parent company, Not A Bug. Swartz then helped rewrite the software running Reddit using web.py, a web framework he developed. The passage from Aaron Swartz's blog post "Rewriting Reddit" reveals that the switch from Lisp to Python, specifically using the web.py framework developed by Swartz, was driven by a desire for simplicity, maintainability, and performance. Despite facing skepticism and critique from the Lisp community, the change was justified by the efficiency and clarity Python provided for the project. This initiative not only influenced the technical evolution of Reddit but also contributed to the broader web development community by inspiring other frameworks and remaining a significant part of Reddit's history. In 2011, Ohanian claimed that rather than Swartz being a co-founder, the correct description would be that Swartz's company was acquired by Reddit six months after the website was founded. Huffman and Ohanian sold Reddit to Condรฉ Nast Publications, owner of Wired, on October 31, 2006, for a reported $10 million to $20 million and the team moved to San Francisco. In November 2006, Swartz posted to his blog, complaining about the new corporate environment, criticizing its level of productivity. In January 2007, Swartz was fired for undisclosed reasons. Huffman and Ohanian left Reddit in 2009. Huffman went on to co-found Hipmunk with Adam Goldstein, and later recruited Ohanian and Slowe to the new company. After Huffman and Ohanian left Reddit, Erik Martin, who joined the company as a community manager in 2008 and later became general manager in 2011, played a role in Reddit's growth. VentureBeat noted that Martin was "responsible for keeping the site going" under Condรฉ Nast's ownership. Yishan Wong joined Reddit as CEO in 2012. Wong resigned from Reddit in 2014, citing disagreements about his proposal to move the company's offices from San Francisco to nearby Daly City, but also the "stressful and draining" nature of the position. Ohanian credited Wong with the company's newfound success as its user base grew from 35 million to 174 million. Wong oversaw the company as it raised $50 million in funding and spun off as an independent company. Also during this time, Reddit began accepting the digital currency Bitcoin for its Reddit Gold subscription service through a partnership with bitcoin payment processor Coinbase in February 2013. Ellen Pao replaced Wong as interim CEO in 2014 and resigned in 2015 amid a user revolt over the firing of a popular Reddit employee. During her tenure, Reddit initiated an anti-harassment policy, banned involuntary sexualization, and banned several forums that focused on bigoted content or harassment of individuals. After five years away from the company, Ohanian and Huffman returned to leadership roles: Ohanian became the full-time executive chairman in November 2014 following Wong's resignation, while Pao's departure on July 10, 2015, led to Huffman's return as the company's chief executive. After Huffman rejoined Reddit as CEO, he launched Reddit's iOS and Android apps, improved Reddit's mobile website, and created A/B testing infrastructure. The company launched a major redesign of its website in April 2018. Huffman said new users were turned off from Reddit because it had looked like a "dystopian Craigslist". Reddit also instituted several technological improvements, such as a new tool that allows users to hide posts, comments, and private messages from selected redditors in an attempt to curb online harassment, and new content guidelines. These new content guidelines were aimed at banning content inciting violence and quarantining offensive material. Slowe, the company's first employee, rejoined Reddit in 2017 as chief technology officer. Ohanian resigned as a member of the board on June 5, 2020 in response to the George Floyd protests and requested to be replaced "by a Black candidate". Michael Seibel, then-CEO of Y Combinator, was subsequently named to the board. On March 5, 2021, Reddit announced that it had appointed Drew Vollero, who had worked at Snapchat's parent company, Snap Inc., as its first chief financial officer (CFO) weeks after the site was thrust into the spotlight due to its role in the GameStop trading frenzy. Vollero's appointment spurred speculation of an initial public offering, a move that senior leaders have considered publicly. As of August 2021[update], Reddit was valued at more than $10 billion following a $410 million funding round. The company was looking to hire investment bankers and lawyers to assist in making an initial public offering. However, CEO Steve Huffman said the company had not decided on the timing for when to go public. In December 2021, Reddit revealed that it had confidentially filed for an initial public offering with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. Reddit's initial public offering opened on March 20, 2024, at $34 per share and a $6.4 billion valuation. They went public the next day on the New York Stock Exchange at $47 per share and rose to $50.44 at market close on their first day of trading, reaching a market cap of $9.5 billion. The market cap as of July 2024 was $10 billion. Site overview Reddit is a website comprising user-generated contentโincluding photos, videos, links, and text-based postsโand discussions of this content in what is essentially a bulletin board system. The name "Reddit" is a play-on-words with the phrase "read it", i.e., "I read it on Reddit." According to Reddit, in 2019, there were approximately 430 million monthly users, who are known as "redditors". The site's content is divided into categories or communities known on-site as "subreddits", of which there are more than 138,000 active communities. As a network of communities, Reddit's core content consists of posts from its users. Users can comment on others' posts to continue the conversation. A key feature to Reddit is that users can cast positive or negative votes, called upvotes and downvotes respectively, for each post and comment on the site. The number of upvotes or downvotes determines the posts' visibility on the site, so the most popular content is displayed to the most people. Users can also earn "karma" for their posts and comments, a status that reflects their standing within the community and their contributions to Reddit. Posts are sometimes automatically archived after six months, meaning they can no longer be commented or voted on. The most popular posts from the site's numerous subreddits are visible on the front page to those who browse the site without an account. By default for those users, the front page will display the subreddit r/popular, featuring top-ranked posts across all of Reddit, excluding not-safe-for-work communities and others that are most commonly filtered out by users (even if they are safe for work). The subreddit r/all originally did not filter topics, but as of 2021 it does not include not-safe-for-work content. Registered users who subscribe to subreddits see the top content from the subreddits to which they subscribe on their personal front pages. Additionally, some subreddits have a karma and account age requirement to discourage bots and spammers from posting. Front-page rankโfor both the general front page and for individual subredditsโis determined by a combination of factors, including the age of the submission, positive ("upvoted") to negative ("downvoted") feedback ratio, and the total vote-count. Registering an account with Reddit is free and requires an email address. In addition to commenting and voting, registered users can also create their own subreddit on a topic of their choosing. In Reddit style, usernames begin with "u/". Noteworthy redditors include u/Poem_for_your_sprog, who responds to messages across Reddit in verse, u/Shitty_Watercolour who posts paintings in response to posts, and u/spez, the CEO of Reddit (Steve Huffman). Subreddits are overseen by moderators, Reddit users who earn the title by creating a subreddit or being promoted by a current moderator. Reddit users may also request to moderate a sub that has no moderators or very inactive ones in r/redditrequest. These requests are reviewed by the Reddit admins. Moderators are volunteers who manage their communities, set and enforce community-specific rules, remove posts and comments that violate these rules, and often work to keep discussions in their subreddit on topic. Admins, by contrast, are employees of Reddit. Early on, Reddit implemented shadow banning, purportedly to address spam accounts, while saying, "it's still the only tool we have to punish people who break the rules". In 2015, Reddit added an account suspension feature which they said would replace sitewide shadowbans, however, moderators are still able to shadowban users or their individual posts. Reddit releases transparency reports annually which have information like how many posts have been taken down by moderators and for what reason. It also details information about requests law enforcement agencies have made for information about users or to take down content. In 2020, Reddit removed 6% of posts made on the platform (approx. 233 million). More than 99% of removals were marked as spam; the remainder made up of a mix of other offensive content. Around 131 million posts were removed by the automated moderator (~56 %) and the rest were taken down manually. It is estimated that Reddit's moderators work 466 hours every day, which is $3.4 million in unpaid work each year. That roughly equates to 2.8% of the company's annual revenue. Subreddits (officially called communities) are user-created areas of interest where discussions on Reddit are organized. There are about 138,000 active subreddits (among a total of 1.2 million) as of July 2018[update]. Subreddit names begin with "r/"; for instance, "r/science" is a community devoted to discussing scientific publications, while "r/gaming" is a community devoted to discussing video games, and "r/worldnews" is for posting news articles from around the world. In a 2014 interview with Memeburn, Erik Martin, then the general manager of Reddit, remarked that their "approach is to give the community moderators or curators as much control as possible so that they can shape and cultivate the type of communities they want". Subreddits often use themed variants of Reddit's alien mascot, Snoo, in the visual styling of their communities. Today subreddits exist not only for interests and topics but also for organizations. The Wayanad Literature Festival has a subreddit where they host discussions based on the sessions they host and encourage people to post about literature, politics and media. Reddit Premium (formerly Reddit Gold) is a premium membership that allows users to view the site ad-free. Until 2023, subscribers could also use coins to award posts or comments they valued, generally due to humorous or high-quality content. Reddit Premium unlocks several features not accessible to regular users, such as comment highlighting, exclusive subreddits such as r/lounge, a personalized Snoo (known as a "snoovatar"), and a Reddit premium trophy that can be displayed on the user's profile. Reddit Gold was renamed to Reddit Premium in 2018. In addition to gold coins, users were able to gift silver and platinum coins to other users as rewards for quality content. On the site, redditors commemorate their "cake day" once a year, on the anniversary of the day their account was created. Cake day adds an icon of a small slice of cake next to the user's name for 24 hours. In August 2021, the company introduced a TikTok-like short-form video feature for iOS that lets users rapidly swipe through a feed of short video content. In December 2021, the company introduced a Spotify Wrapped-like feature called Reddit Recap that recaps various statistics from January 1 to November 30 about each individual user, such as how much time they spent on Reddit, which communities they joined, and the topics that they engaged with, and allows the user to view it. On July 7, 2022, Reddit announced "blockchain-backed Collectible Avatars", customizable avatars which are available on the subreddit r/CollectibleAvatars for purchase separate from Reddit Premium. The avatars were created by independent artists who post work on other subreddits, and who receive a portion of the profits. They use Reddit's Polygon blockchain-powered digital wallet the Vault. Richard Lawler of The Verge described them as "non-fungible tokens (NFTs) that are available for purchase in the Reddit Avatar Builder". In 2017, Reddit developed its own real-time chat software for the site. While some established subreddits have used third-party software to chat about their communities, the company built chat functions that it hopes will become an integral part of Reddit. Individual chat rooms were rolled out in 2017 and community chat rooms for members of a given subreddit were rolled out in 2018. Reddit Talk was announced in April 2021 as a competitor to Clubhouse. Reddit Talk lets subreddit moderators start audio meeting rooms that mimic Clubhouse in design. In 2022, Reddit Talk was updated to support recording audio rooms and work on the web version of Reddit. A desktop app is reportedly slated for a late February release. Reddit Chat replaced the Reddit private messaging system in June 2025. Reddit acquired MeaningCloud, a natural language processing company in June 2022. In February 2024, Reddit announced a partnership with Google in a deal worth about $60 million per year, to license its real-time user content to train Google's AI model. The partnership also lets Reddit get access to Google's "Vertex AI" service which would help improve search results on Reddit. It was announced that Reddit and OpenAI had reached a deal that will allow OpenAI access to the Reddit API to train its models, while Reddit will receive certain AI tools for moderators and users. In December 2024, Reddit announced Reddit Answers, an AI search tool that summarizes conversations in response to a question from the user. Reddit's search function has had many iterations; the one on the new site currently uses Lucidworks Fusion, while the search on old reddit uses Reddit's own in-house search In 2009, Reddit released their official mobile app, called iReddit. This app was sparsely updated, and was superseded by a new mobile website in 2010. For several years, most Redditors relied on third-party apps to access Reddit on mobile devices. In October 2014, Reddit acquired one of them, Alien Blue, which became the official iOS Reddit app. Reddit removed Alien Blue and released its official application, Reddit: The Official App, on Google Play and the iOS App Store in April 2016. The company released an app for Reddit's question-and-answer Ask Me Anything subreddit in 2014. The app allowed users to see active Ask Me Anythings, receive notifications, ask questions and vote. As of September 2025, all versions of the iReddit and Alien Blue apps still work on older versions of iOS; they were not affected by the API shutdown due to both of them being official Reddit apps. The 2010 mobile site, however, was shut down in 2024. The site has undergone several products and design changes since it originally launched in 2005. When it initially launched, there were no comments or subreddits. Comments were added in 2005 and interest-based groups (called 'subreddits') were introduced in 2008. Allowing users to create subreddits has led to much of the activity that redditors would recognize that helped define Reddit. These include subreddits "WTF", "funny", and "AskReddit". Reddit rolled out its multireddit feature, the site's biggest change to its front page in years, in 2013. With the multireddits, users see top stories from a collection of subreddits. In 2015, Reddit enabled embedding and as a result users could share Reddit content on other sites. In 2016, Reddit began hosting images using a new image uploading tool, a move that shifted away from the uploading service Imgur that had been the de facto service. Users still can upload images to Reddit using Imgur. Reddit's in-house video uploading service for desktop and mobile launched in 2017. Previously, users had to use third-party video uploading services, which Reddit acknowledged was time-consuming for users. Reddit released its "spoiler tags" feature in January 2017. The feature warns users of potential spoilers in posts and pixelates preview images. Reddit unveiled changes to its public front page, called r/popular, in 2017; the change creates a front page free of potentially adult-oriented content for unregistered users. In late 2017, Reddit declared it wanted to be a mobile-first site, launching several changes to its apps for iOS and Android. The new features included user-to-user chat, a theater mode for viewing visual content, and mobile tools for the site's moderators. "Mod mode" lets moderators manage content and their subreddits on mobile devices. Reddit launched its redesigned website in 2018, with its first major visual update in a decade. Development for the new site took more than a year. It was the result of an initiative by Huffman upon returning to Reddit, who said the site's outdated look deterred new users. The new site features a hamburger menu to help users navigate the site, different views, and new fonts to better inform redditors if they are clicking on a Reddit post or an external link. The nominal goal was not only for Reddit to improve its appearance, but also to make it easier to accommodate a new generation of Reddit users. Additionally Reddit's growth had strained the site's back end; Huffman and Reddit Vice President of Engineering Nick Caldwell told The Wall Street Journal's COI Journal that Reddit needed to leverage artificial intelligence and other modern digital tools. Users can opt-out of the redesign by using the old.reddit.com domain. On May 15, 2024, the dedicated login flow was removed from the old domain, although site admins said they had "no plans" to remove the old domain entirely. In November 2023, Fast Company reported that Reddit began rolling out a comprehensive rebrand, including a new logo, typeface, brand colors, and an updated version of its mascot Snoo, as part of its preparation for a potential 2024 IPO and in response to its expanding user base and global reach. Reddit's logo consists of a time-traveling alien named Snoo and the company name stylized as "reddit". The alien has an oval head, pom-pom ears, and an antenna. Its colors are black, white, and orange-red. The mascot was created in 2005 while company co-founder Alexis Ohanian was an undergraduate at the University of Virginia. Ohanian drew a doodle of the creature while he was bored during a marketing class. Originally, Ohanian sought to name the mascot S'new, a play on "What's new?", to tie the mascot into Reddit's premise as the "front page of the Internet". Eventually, the name Snoo was chosen. In 2011, Ohanian outlined the logo's evolution with a graphic that showcased several early versions, including various spellings of the website name, such as "Reditt". Snoo is genderless, so the logo is moldable. Over the years, the Reddit logo has frequently changed for holidays and other special events. Many subreddits have a customized Snoo logo to represent the subreddit. Redditors can also submit their own logos, which sometimes appear on the site's front page, or create their own customized versions of Snoo for their communities (or "subreddits"). When Reddit revamped its website in April 2018, the company imposed several restrictions on how Snoo can be designed: Snoo's head "should always appear blank or neutral", Snoo's eyes are orange-red, and Snoo cannot have fingers. Snoo's purpose is to discover and explore humanity. Discontinued features Starting in 2023 with the discontinuation of the Reddit API's free tier, Reddit has been silently discontinuing legacy features and reducing the functionalities of the old site. All of these changes have been met with significant backlash by the Reddit community. Reddit's private messaging system, which had been present on the site ever since its launch in 2005, was discontinued in 2025 in favor of Reddit Chat. Reddit discontinued its free API tier for commercial applications in April 2023. This was met with significant backlash by the community, leaving the website in a state of disarray for months. In early 2023, Reddit silently discontinued its legacy mobile site, known as i.reddit, and reddit compact and previously accessible at i.reddit.com. This was despite a Reddit admin stating that iReddit was "here to stay". The original 2017 redesign of Reddit, also known as new.reddit and old new Reddit and previously accessible at new.reddit.com, was discontinued on December 11, 2024. No changes were made to the pre-2017 legacy desktop site, still accessible at old.reddit.com. In 2023, the Reddit coin and award system was discontinued in favor of a "golden upvote". This was deeply unpopular, and Reddit added awards back under a new implementation a few months later. However, these new awards are not accessible or viewable on the legacy desktop site. On June 4, 2025, Reddit announced that they would be removing custom emoji from comments. Login: Login functionality was removed from the old site sometime in 2024. You can still log in to the old site, but you must do it through the new site. Age trophies: Account age trophies past Year 15 are not visible on the old site. Private messaging: Sending a private message (like a modmail) now requires you to use the new site. FAQ, terms, and official Wiki pages: All official information pages were migrated from the legacy site's wiki to the new site sometime in 2020. Reddit notifications: Official Reddit notifications were moved from the legacy inbox to the Notifications section, which is only accessible on the new site. The Reddit Public Access Network, commonly known as RPAN, was a live streaming service run by Reddit. Viewers interacted with streams by upvoting or downvoting, chatting, and giving paid awards. During the off-air hours, 24/7 streaming was possible to the dedicated subreddits, but with limited slots and capabilities. On August 19, 2019, Reddit announced RPAN. It was said to be in testing, but they were experimenting with making it a permanent program, as well as a way to increase revenue for the platform. Later, a five-day testing period began. During the testing period, streaming was for a select group of users, allowing 30 minutes of streaming per person and 100 slots. On July 1, 2020, RPAN Studio was released, an application that allows users to broadcast live from desktop computers. RPAN Studio has been built on top of OBS, an open-source streaming and recording program. On January 28, 2021, Reddit permanently increased streaming times to three hours. RPAN was officially discontinued on November 15, 2022. Corporate affairs Reddit is a public company based in San Francisco. In 2023, it downsized from an office in the Mid-Market neighborhood to an office in the South of Market neighborhood. Reddit doubled its headcount in 2017; as of 2018[update], it employed approximately 350 people. In 2017, the company was valued at $1.8 billion during a $200 million round of new venture funding. The company was previously owned by Condรฉ Nast, but was spun off as an independent company. As of April 2018[update], Advance Publications, Condรฉ Nast's parent company, retained a majority stake in Reddit. Reddit's key management personnel includes co-founder and CEO Steve Huffman, Chief Technology Officer Chris Slowe, who was the company's original lead engineer, and Chief Operating Officer Jen Wong, a former president of digital and chief operating officer at Time Inc. Reddit does not disclose its revenue figures. The company generates revenue in part through advertising and premium memberships that remove ads from the site. As part of its company culture, Reddit operates on a no-negotiation policy for employee salaries. The company offers new mothers, fathers, and adoptive parents up to 16 weeks of parental leave. Advertising Reddit launched two different ways of advertising on the site in 2009. The company launched sponsored content and a self-serve ads platform that year. Reddit launched its Reddit Gold benefits program in July 2010, which offered new features to editors and created a new revenue stream for the business that did not rely on banner ads. On September 6, 2011, Reddit became operationally independent of Condรฉ Nast, operating as a separate subsidiary of its parent company, Advance Publications. Reddit's users tend to be more privacy-conscious than on other websites, often using tools like ad-blocking software and proxies, and they dislike "feeling manipulated by brands" but respond well to "content that begs for intelligent viewers and participants." Lauren Orsini writes in ReadWrite that "Reddit's huge community is the perfect hype machine for promoting a new movie, a product release, or a lagging political campaign" but there is a "very specific set of etiquette. Redditors don't want to advertise for you, they want to talk to you." Journalists have used the site as a basis for stories, though they are advised by the site's policies to respect that "reddit's communities belong to their members" and to seek proper attribution for people's contributions. Reddit announced that they would begin using VigLink to redirect affiliate links in June 2016. Since 2017, Reddit has partnered with companies to host sponsored AMAs and other interactive events, increased advertising offerings, and introduced efforts to work with content publishers. In 2018, Reddit hired Jen Wong as COO, responsible for the company's business strategy and growth, and introduced native mobile ads. Reddit opened a Chicago office to be closer to major companies and advertising agencies located in and around Chicago. In 2019, Reddit hired former Twitter ad director Shariq Rizvi as its vice president of ad products and engineering. Community and culture The website is known for its open nature and diverse user community that generate its content. Its demographics allows for wide-ranging subject areas, as well as the ability for smaller subreddits to serve more niche purposes. The user base of Reddit has given birth to other websites, including image sharing community and image host Imgur, which started in 2009 as a gift to Reddit's community. In its first five months, it jumped from a thousand hits per day to a million total page views. Data collected by Pew Research Center in 2013 found that Reddit users were much more likely to be from urban communities than rural ones. Women were greatly under-represented on the website. Reddit's userbase had a disproportionately high number of Hispanic users. With regards to education, high school dropouts were over-represented among Reddit users. Reddit has been noted for its role in political activism, with notable left-wing and anti-theist subcultures on the website. Statistics from Google Ad Planner suggest that 74% of Reddit users are male. In 2016, the Pew Research Center published research showing that 4% of U.S. adults use Reddit, of which 67% are men, while 78% of users get news from Reddit. Users tend to be significantly younger than average with less than 1% of users being 65 or over. Politically, 43% of Reddit users surveyed by Pew Research Center in 2016 identified as liberal, with 38% identifying as moderate and 19% as conservative. Reddit is known in part for its passionate user base, which has been described as "offbeat, quirky, and anti-establishment". Similar to the "Slashdot effect", the Reddit effect occurs when a smaller website crashes due to a high influx of traffic after being linked to on Reddit; this is also called the Reddit "hug of death". Users have used Reddit as a platform for their charitable and philanthropic efforts. Redditors raised more than $100,000 for charity in support of comedians Jon Stewart's and Stephen Colbert's Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear; more than $180,000 for Haiti earthquake relief efforts; and delivered food pantries' Amazon wish lists. In 2010, Christians, Muslims, and atheists held a friendly fundraising competition, where the groups raised more than $50,000. A similar donation drive in 2011 saw the atheism subreddit raise over $200,000 for charity. In February 2014, Reddit announced it would donate 10% of its annual ad revenue to non-profits voted upon by its users. As a result of the campaign, Reddit donated $82,765 each to each of the selected recipients. Reddit has been used for a wide variety of political engagement including the presidential campaigns of Barack Obama, Donald Trump, Hillary Clinton, and Bernie Sanders. It has also been used for self-organizing sociopolitical activism such as protests, communication with politicians and active communities. Reddit has become a popular place for worldwide political discussions. The March for Science originated from a discussion on Reddit over the deletion of all references to climate change from the White House website, about which a user commented that "There needs to be a Scientists' March on Washington". On April 22, 2017, more than 1 million scientists and supporters participated in more than 600 events in 66 countries across the globe. Reddit users have been engaged in the defense of Internet privacy, net neutrality and Internet anonymity. Reddit created an Internet blackout day and was joined by Wikipedia and other sites in 2012 in protest of the Stop Online Piracy and PROTECT IP acts. On January 18, Reddit participated in a 12-hour sitewide blackout to coincide with a congressional committee hearing on the measures. During that time, Reddit displayed a message on the legislation's effects on Reddit, in addition to resources on the proposed laws. In May 2012, Reddit joined the Internet Defense League, a group formed to organize future protests. The site and its users protested the Federal Communications Commission as it prepared to scrap net neutrality rules. In 2017, users upvoted "Battle for the Net" posts enough times that they filled up the entire front page. On another day, the front page was overtaken by posts showcasing campaign donations received by members of Congress from the telecommunications industry. Reddit CEO Steve Huffman has also advocated for net neutrality rules. In 2017, Huffman told The New York Times that without net neutrality protections, "you give internet service providers the ability to choose winners and losers". On Reddit, Huffman urged redditors to express support for net neutrality and contact their elected representatives in Washington, D.C. Huffman said that the repeal of net neutrality rules stifles competition. He said he and Reddit would continue to advocate for net neutrality. As a response to Glenn Beck's August 28, 2010, Restoring Honor rally, in September 2010 Reddit users started a movement to persuade satirist Stephen Colbert to have a counter-rally in Washington, D.C. The movement, which came to be called "Restoring Truthiness", was started by user mrsammercer, in a post where he described waking up from a dream in which Stephen Colbert was holding a satirical rally in D.C. Over $100,000 was raised for charity to gain the attention of Colbert. The campaign was mentioned on-air several times, and when the Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear was held in Washington, D.C., on October 30, 2010, thousands of redditors made the journey. During a post-rally press conference, Reddit co-founder Ohanian asked, "What role did the Internet campaign play in convincing you to hold this rally?" Jon Stewart responded by saying that, though it was a very nice gesture, he and Colbert had already thought of the idea and the deposit for using the National Mall was already paid during the summer, so it acted mostly as a "validation of what we were thinking about attempting". In a message to the Reddit community, Colbert later added, "I have no doubt that your efforts to organize and the joy you clearly brought to your part of the story contributed greatly to the turnout and success." Reddit has been blocked in multiple countries due to Internet censorship performed by the governments of some countries. As of October 2023, Reddit is blocked in Indonesia, China, North Korea, Turkey, and partially blocked in Bangladesh. Reddit was blocked in Russia in 2015 and later unblocked. Since May 2014, Reddit has been blocked in Indonesia by the Ministry of Communication and Information Technology for hosting content containing nudity. In August 2015, the Federal Drug Control Service of Russia determined that Reddit was promoting conversations about psychedelic drugs. The Roskomnadzor banned the website, citing advice on how to grow magic mushrooms as the reason. The Russian government had asked Reddit before to remove drug-related posts to no response. The site was later unblocked. ISPs in India were found to be blocking traffic over Reddit for intermittent periods in some regions in 2019. In July 2025, Reddit began requiring age verification in order to access certain features, to comply with the UK's Online Safety Act 2023, using a service called Persona. Content covered includes sexually explicit material, encouragement of suicide and eating disorders, and expressions of hatred based on race, religion, or sexual orientation. Over the years, Reddit has done multiple pranks and events for April Fools' Day. Since 2013, they have often taken the form of massive social experiments. Noteworthy events include The Button in 2015, which included a global "button" that could only be clicked once per user. It attracted more than a million clicks. 2017's experiment r/place involved making a collaborative pixel art. Millions of users worked together in communities to place pixels one at a time to create a larger canvas. This experiment was very successful and repeated in 2022's April Fools experiment and in 2023. AMAs, or "Ask Me Anything" interviews, during an AMA on r/IAmA and other subreddits, users can ask questions to interviewees. Notable participants include former-United States President Barack Obama (while campaigning for the 2012 election), Bill Gates (multiple times), and Donald Trump (also while campaigning). AMAs have featured CEO Steve Huffman, as well as figures from entertainment industries around the world (including Priyanka Chopra and George Clooney), literature (Margaret Atwood), space (Buzz Aldrin), privacy (Edward Snowden), fictional characters (including Borat and Cookie Monster) and others, such as experts who answered questions about the transgender community. The Atlantic wrote that an AMA "imports the aspirational norms of honesty and authenticity from pseudonymous Internet forums into a public venue". RedditGifts was a program that offers gift exchanges throughout the year. The fan-made RedditGifts site was created in 2009 for a Secret Santa exchange among Reddit users, which has since become the world's largest and set a Guinness World record. In 2009, 4,500 redditors participated. For the 2010 holiday season, 92 countries were involved in the secret Santa program. There were 17,543 participants, and $662,907.60 was collectively spent on gift purchases and shipping costs. In 2014, about 200,000 users from 188 countries participated. Several celebrities have participated in the program, including Bill Gates, Alyssa Milano, and Snoop Dogg. Eventually, the secret Santa program expanded to various other occasions through RedditGifts, which Reddit acquired in 2011. As with most public online forums, Reddit is vulnerable to the use of disruptive or manipulative practices by its members, from sources such as troll farms, click farms and astroturfing. Another example is brigading, notable in the case of Reddit as it is often cited as the origin of the practice and use of the word in this context. Though all of these examples are in some form, against the rules of Reddit's content policy, at least in the case of brigading, they are not always malicious in intent. A notable example is the case of "Mr. Splashy Pants", when organized brigading of another website, by redditors, appears to have been tacitly encouraged by the Reddit administration. In the aftermath, the target of this vote brigading appeared to take it in good humor. Reddit communities occasionally coordinate Reddit-external projects such as skewing polls on other websites, like the 2007 incident when Greenpeace allowed web users to decide the name of a humpback whale it was tracking. Reddit users voted en masse to name the whale "Mister Splashy Pants", and Reddit administrators encouraged the prank by changing the site logo to a whale during the voting. In December of that year, Mister Splashy Pants was announced as the winner of the competition. Criticism and controversies In general, the website grants subreddit moderators discretion in deciding what content is and is not allowed on their subreddits, so long as site-wide rules are not being violated. This relative freedom has allowed for a wide diversity of subreddits to exist, and some of them have attracted controversy. Many of the default subreddits are highly moderated, with the "science" subreddit banning climate change denialism, and the "news" subreddit banning opinion pieces and columns. Reddit has changed its site-wide editorial policies several times, sometimes in reaction to controversies. Reddit has historically been a platform for objectionable but legal content, and in 2011, news media covered the way that jailbait was being shared on the site before the site changed their policies to explicitly ban "suggestive or sexual content featuring minors". Reddit also received controversy over hosting misogynistic content, including the doxing of erotic models and revenge porn. Following some controversial incidents of Internet vigilantism, Reddit introduced a strict rule against the online publication of non-public personally-identifying information (a common internet harassment tool colloquially known as doxxing) via the site. Those who break the rule are subject to a site-wide ban, which can result in the deletion of their user-generated content. Due to Reddit's decentralized moderation, user anonymity, and lack of fact-checking systems, the platform is highly prone to spreading misinformation and disinformation. It has been suggested that those who use Reddit should exercise caution in taking user-created unsourced content as fact. Concerns have been raised in particular about dangerous medical misinformation on the platform. A 2022 study of 300 comments and posts discussing urinary tract infections found that fewer than 1% cited a source for their content, and several contained harmful medical misinformation that may dissuade readers from seeking medical care or lead to dangerous self-medication, such as proposing fasting as a cure for UTIs. Reddit communities exhibit the echo chamber effect, in which repeated unsourced statements come to be accepted among the community as fact, leading to distorted worldviews among users. It has been suggested that since 2019, Russian state-sponsored troll accounts and bots have engaged in a broad campaign to take over subreddits, such as r/antiwar. After the Boston Marathon bombing in April 2013, Reddit faced criticism after users wrongly identified a number of people as suspects in the subreddit r/FindBostonBombers. Notable among misidentified bombing suspects was Sunil Tripathi, a student reported missing before the bombings took place. A body reported to be Sunil's was found in Providence River in Rhode Island on April 25, according to Rhode Island Health Department. The cause of death was not immediately known, but authorities said they did not suspect foul play. The family later confirmed Tripathi's death was a result of suicide. Reddit general manager Erik Martin later issued an apology for this behavior, criticizing the "online witch hunts and dangerous speculation" that took place on the website. The incident was later referenced in the season 5 episode of the CBS TV series The Good Wife titled "Whack-a-Mole", as well as The Newsroom. In August, private sexual photos from the celebrity photo hack were widely disseminated across the site. A dedicated subreddit, "TheFappening", was created for this purpose, and contained links to most if not all of the criminally obtained explicit images. Some images of McKayla Maroney and Liz Lee were identified by redditors and outside commentators as child pornography because the photos were taken when the women were underage. The subreddit was banned on September 6. The scandal led to wider criticisms concerning the website's administration from The Verge and The Daily Dot. After Ellen Pao became CEO in 2014, she was initially a target of criticism by users who objected to the deletion of content critical of herself and her husband. Later on June 10, 2015, Reddit shut down the 150,000-subscriber "fatpeoplehate" subreddit and four others citing issues related to harassment. This move was seen as very controversial; some commenters said that the bans went too far, while others said that the bans did not go far enough. One of the latter complaints concerned a subreddit that was "expressing support" for the perpetrator of the Charleston church shooting. Responding to the accusations of "skewed enforcement", Reddit reaffirmed their commitment to free expression and stated, "There are some subreddits with very little viewership that get highlighted repeatedly for their content, but those are a tiny fraction of the content on the site." On July 2, Reddit began experiencing a series of blackouts as moderators set popular subreddit communities to private, in an event dubbed "AMAgeddon", a portmanteau of AMA ("ask me anything") and Armageddon. This was done in protest of the recent firing of Victoria Taylor, an administrator who helped organize citizen-led interviews with famous people on the popular AMA subreddit. Organizers of the blackout also expressed resentment about the recent severance of the communication between Reddit and the moderators of subreddits. The blackout intensified on July 3 when former community manager David Croach gave an AMA about being fired. Before deleting his posts, he stated that Ellen Pao dismissed him with one year of health coverage when he had cancer and did not recover quickly enough. Following this, a Change.org petition to remove Pao as CEO of Reddit Inc. reached over 200,000 signatures. Pao posted a response on July 3 as well as an extended version of it on July 6 in which she apologized for bad communication and not delivering on promises. She also apologized on behalf of the other administrators and noted that problems already existed over the past several years. On July 10, Pao resigned as CEO and was replaced by former CEO and co-founder Steve Huffman. In August, Steve Huffman introduced a policy which led to the banning of several offensive and sexual communities. Included in the ban was lolicon, to which Huffman referred as "animated CP [child porn]". Some subreddits had also been "quarantined" due to having "highly-offensive or upsetting content" such as r/European, r/swedenyes, r/drawpeople, r/kiketown, r/blackfathers, r/greatapes, and r/whitesarecriminals. In April 2023, Reddit announced its intentions to charge large fees for its application programming interface (API), a feature of the site that has existed for free since 2008, causing an ongoing dispute. The move forced multiple third-party applications to shut down and threatened accessibility applications and moderation tools. On May 31, Apollo developer Christian Selig stated that Reddit's pricing would force him to cease development on the app. The resulting outcry from the Reddit community ultimately led to a planned protest from June 12 to 14 in which moderators for the site would make their communities private or restricted posting. Following the release of an internal memo from Reddit CEO Steve Huffman and defiance from Reddit, some moderators have continued their protest. Alternate forms of protest have emerged in the days following the initial blackout. Upon reopening, users of r/pics, r/gifs, and r/aww voted to exclusively post about comedian John Oliver. Multiple subreddits labeled themselves as not safe for work (NSFW), affecting advertisements and resulting in administrators removing the entire moderation team of some subreddits. The protest has been compared to a strike. /r/place had its third launch on July 20, 2023; however, the launch was heavily protested by users and developers due to the event following the 2023 Reddit API controversy; Reddit CEO Steve Huffman's decision to make it prohibitively expensive for third-party app developers drew widespread condemnation. In February 2017, Reddit banned the alt-right subreddit r/altright for violating its terms of service, more specifically for attempting to share private information about the man who attacked alt-right figure Richard B. Spencer. The forum's users and moderators accused Reddit administrators of having political motivations for the ban. After the 2021 storming of the United States Capitol, Reddit banned the subreddit r/DonaldTrump in response to repeated policy violations and alluding to the potential influence the community had on those who participated in or supported the storming. The move followed similar actions from social media platforms, Twitter, YouTube, TikTok and more. The ban was criticized by those who believed it furthered an agenda and censorship of conservative ideologies. The subreddit had over 52,000 members just before it was banned. In May 2016, CEO Steve Huffman said in an interview at the TNW Conference that, unlike Facebook, which "only knows what [its users are] willing to declare publicly", Reddit knows its users' "dark secrets" at the same time that the website's "values" page was updated regarding its "privacy" section. The video reached the top of the website's main feed. Shortly thereafter, announcements concerning new advertisement content drew criticism on the website. In September, a user named "mormondocuments" released thousands of administrative documents belonging to the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, an action driven by the ex-Mormon and atheist communities on Reddit. Previously, on April 22, the same user had announced his plans to do so. Church officials commented that the documents did not contain anything confidential. On November 23, Huffman admitted to having replaced his username with the names of r/The_Donald moderators in many insulting comments. He did so by changing insulting comments made towards him and made it appear as if the insult were directed at the moderators of r/The_Donald. On November 24, The Washington Post reported Reddit had banned the "Pizzagate" conspiracy board from their site, stating it violated their policy of posting personal information of others, triggering a wave of criticism from users on r/The_Donald, who felt the ban amounted to censorship. After the forum was banned from Reddit, the words "we don't want witchhunts on our site" now appears on the former page of the Pizzagate subreddit. On November 30, Huffman announced changes to the algorithm of Reddit's r/all page to block "stickied" posts from a number of subreddits, such as r/The_Donald. In the announcement, he also apologized for personally editing posts by users from r/The_Donald, and declared intentions to take actions against "hundreds of the most toxic users" of Reddit and "communities whose users continually cross the line". In March 2018, it was revealed that Huffman had hidden Russian troll activity from users. In February 2019, Chinese company Tencent invested $150 million into Reddit. This resulted in a large backlash from Reddit users, who were worried about potential censorship. Many posts featuring subjects censored in China, such as Tiananmen Square, Tank Man, and Winnie the Pooh, received popularity on Reddit. In late August 2021, more than 70 subreddits went private to protest against COVID-19 misinformation on Reddit, as well as Reddit's refusal to delete subreddits undermining the severity of the pandemic. A 2021 letter from the United States Senate to Reddit CEO Steve Huffman expressed concern about the spread of COVID-19 misinformation on the platform. In January 2025, over 100 Reddit communities banned users from posting links from the X social media site after Elon Musk, its CEO, made an arm gesture at a speech which critics claimed was a Nazi salute. The Verge reported that Musk had "privately pressur[ed]" the CEO of Reddit Steve Huffman to moderate content critical of him and the Trump administration, and that after their exchange, Reddit took action and temporarily banned r/WhitePeopleTwitter due to "policy violations". On March 5, 2025, Reddit announced that they will be issuing warnings to users who upvote "violent content", and "may consider" taking other actions against the users. The Verge reported two days later that Reddit's automatic moderation tool has been flagging the word "Luigi" as "potentially violent", including in comments or context unrelated to Luigi Mangione, the suspect in the killing of the UnitedHealthcare CEO. The moderator of r/popculture, a subreddit with over 125,000 members, stated that Reddit's AutoModerator system flagged a comment about Nintendo video game Luigi's Mansion because it included the word "Luigi", and instructed them to "check for violence"; other comments that mentioned "Luigi", even in non-violent context, were also flagged. On July 12, 2018, the creator and head moderator of the GamerGate subreddit, r/KotakuInAction, removed all of the moderators and set the forum to private, alleging it to have become "infested with racism and sexism". A Reddit employee restored the forum and its moderators an hour later. During the George Floyd protests in early June 2020, over 800 moderators signed an open letter demanding a policy banning hate speech, a shutdown of racist and sexist subreddits, and more employee support for moderation. Bloomberg News pointed out the company's slow reaction to r/watchpeopledie, a subreddit dedicated to videos of people dying in accidents and other situations, and the harassment that accompanied new unmoderated features like icons for purchase and public chats. On June 29, 2020, Reddit updated its content policy and introduced rules aimed at curbing the presence of communities they believed to be "promoting hate", and banned approximately 2,000 subreddits that were found to be in violation of the new guidelines on the same day. Larger subreddits affected by the bans included r/The_Donald, r/GenderCritical (the platform's largest and most active anti-transgender radical feminist subreddit), and r/ChapoTrapHouse (a far-left subreddit originally created by fans of the podcast Chapo Trap House). Some media outlets and political commentators also condemned the banning of the r/The_Donald and r/ChapoTrapHouse subreddits as a violation of the right to free political expression. A 2025 TIMES article listed Reddit "The Most Xenophobic Social Media Site" after the Anti-Defamation League denounced Reddit for allowing public communities to engage in racism, antisemitism, and routine hate speech without consequence. In February 2013, Betabeat published a post that recognized the influx of multinational corporations like Costco, Taco Bell, Subaru, and McDonald's posting branded content on Reddit that was made to appear as if it was original content from legitimate Reddit users. PAN Communications wrote that marketers want to "infiltrate the reddit community on behalf of their brand," but emphasized that "self-promotion is frowned upon" and Reddit's former director of communications noted that the site is "100 percent organic." She recommended that advertisers design promotions that "spark conversations and feedback." She recommended that businesses use AMAs to get attention for public figures but cautioned "It is important to approach AMAs carefully and be aware that this may not be a fit for every project or client." Nissan ran a successful branded content promotion offering users free gifts to publicize a new car, though the company was later ridiculed for suspected astroturfing when the CEO only answered puff piece questions on the site. Taylor described these situations as "high risk" noting: "We try hard to educate people that they have to treat questions that may seem irreverent or out of left field the same as they would questions about the specific project they are promoting." In March 2021, Reddit users discovered that Aimee Challenor, an English politician who had been suspended from two UK political parties, was hired as an administrator for the site. Her first suspension from the Green Party came for retaining her father as her campaign manager after his arrest on child sexual abuse charges. She was later suspended from the Liberal Democrats after tweets describing pedophilic fantasies were discovered on her partner's Twitter account. Reddit banned a moderator for posting a news article which mentioned Challenor, and some Reddit users alleged that Reddit were removing all mention of Challenor. Many subreddits, including r/Music, which had 27 million subscribers, and 46 other subreddits with over 1 million subscribers, went private in protest. On March 24, Reddit's CEO Steve Huffman said that Challenor had been inadequately vetted before being hired and that Reddit would review its relevant internal processes. Huffman attributed user suspensions to over-indexing on anti-harassment measures. Challenor was also removed from her role as a Reddit admin. The GameStop short squeeze was primarily organized on the subreddit r/wallstreetbets in January 2021. In October 2023, Reddit Moons (a site-specific cryptocurrency launched in May 2020) had seen a surge of value in 2023, at one point in mid-2023 rising past 50 cents per moon, but it crashed by more than 90% after it was announced on October 17 that the token would be "wound down" on November 8, allegedly due to scaling and regulatory issues; Reddit-centric coins DONUT and BRICK also crashed upon the news. In June 2023, The BlackCat hacker gang claimed responsibility for a February 2023 breach of Reddit's systems. On its data leak site, it claimed that it stole 80 GB of compressed data and demanded a $4.5 million ransom from Reddit. This attack did not involve data encryption like typical ransomware campaigns. In September 2024, the Federal Trade Commission released a report summarizing nine company responses (including from Reddit) to orders made by the agency pursuant to Section 6(b) of the Federal Trade Commission Act of 1914 to provide information about user and non-user data collection (including of children and teenagers) and data use by the companies that found that the companies' user and non-user data practices put individuals vulnerable to identity theft, stalking, unlawful discrimination, emotional distress and mental health issues, social stigma, and reputational harm. In 2025, researchers from the University of Zurich conducted a experiment on the debate subreddit r/changemyview. The researchers deployed AI-run Reddit accounts to pose as humans and actively push desired viewpoints in order to study how AI could influence opinions among human participants. The experiment was run without the consent or knowledge of the subreddit moderators for four months until one of the researchers informed them. Critics of the experiment argued it was unethical as it involved impersonation and involuntarily used Redditors as experiment participants. On December 2025, Reddit filed a lawsuit in an attempt to overturn Australia's social media ban for children, as Australia was one of Reddit's biggest markets, and the ban would prevent people under 16 from accessing the site. See also Notes References Further reading External links |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II] | [TOKENS: 15355] |
Contents United States home front during World War II The United States home front during World War II supported the war effort in many ways, including a wide range of volunteer efforts and submitting to government-managed rationing and price controls. There was a general feeling of agreement that the sacrifices were for the national good during the war. The labor market changed radically. Peacetime conflicts concerning race and labor took on a special dimension because of the pressure for national unity. The Hollywood film industry was important for propaganda. Every aspect of life from politics to personal savings changed when put on a wartime footing. This was achieved by tens of millions of workers moving from low to high productivity jobs in industrial centers. Millions of students, retirees, housewives, and unemployed moved into the active labor force. The hours they had to work increased dramatically as the time for leisure activities declined sharply. Gasoline, meat, clothing, and footwear were tightly rationed. Most families were allocated 3 US gallons (11 L; 2.5 imp gal) of gasoline a week, which sharply curtailed driving for any purpose. Production of most durable goods, like new housing, vacuum cleaners, and kitchen appliances, was banned until the war ended. In industrial areas housing was in short supply as people doubled up and lived in cramped quarters. Prices and wages were controlled. Americans saved a high portion of their incomes, which led to renewed growth after the war. Full employment and federal economic policies The U.S. reached full employment after entering World War II in December 1941. Under the special circumstances of war mobilization, massive war spending doubled the gross national product (GNP). Military Keynesianism brought full employment and federal contracts were cost-plus. Instead of competitive bidding to get lower prices, the government gave out contracts that promised to pay all the expenses plus a modest profit. Factories hired everyone they could find regardless of their lack of skillsโthey simplified work tasks and trained the workers, with the federal government paying all the costs. Millions of farmers left marginal operations, students quit school and housewives joined the labor force. The policy was to insist on providing war supplies as soon as possible, regardless of cost and inefficiencies. Industry quickly absorbed the slack in the labor force and the tables turned such that employers needed to actively and aggressively recruit workers. As the military grew, new labor sources were needed to replace the 12 million men serving in the military. Propaganda campaigns started pleading for people to work in the war factories. The barriers for married women, the old, the unskilledโand (in the North and West) the barriers for racial minoritiesโwere lowered. In 1929, federal expenditures accounted for only 3% of GNP. Between 1933 and 1939, federal expenditures tripled. Spending on the war effort quickly eclipsed spending on New Deal programs. In 1944, government spending on the war effort exceeded 40% of GNP. These controls shared broad support among labor and business, resulting in cooperation between the two groups and the U.S. government. This cooperation resulted in the government subsidizing business and labor through both direct and indirect methods. Conservative domination of Congress during the war meant that all welfare projects and reforms had to have their approval, which was given when business supported the project. For example, the Coal Mines Inspection and Investigation Act of 1941 significantly reduced fatality rates in the coal-mining industry, saving workers' lives and company money. In terms of welfare, the New Dealers wanted benefits for everyone according to need. However, conservatives proposed benefits based on national serviceโespecially tied to military service or working in war industriesโand their approach won out. The Community Facilities Act of 1940 (the Lanham Act) provided federal funds to defense-impacted communities where the population had soared and local facilities were overwhelmed. It provided money for the building of segregated housing for war workers as well as recreational facilities, water, and sanitation plants, hospitals, day care centers, and schools. The Servicemen's Dependents Allowance Act of 1942 provided family allowances for dependents of enlisted men. Emergency grants to states were authorized in 1942 for programs for day care for children of working mothers. In 1944, pensions were authorized for all physically or mentally helpless children of deceased veterans regardless of the age of the child at the date the claim was filed or at the time of the veteran's death, provided the child was disabled at the age of sixteen and that the disability continued to the date of the claim. The Public Health Service Act, which was passed that same year, expanded federal-state public health programs and increased the annual amount for grants for public health services. The Emergency Maternity and Infant Care Program (EMIC), introduced in March 1943 by the Children's Bureau, provided free maternity care and medical treatment during an infant's first year for the wives and children of military personnel in the four lowest enlisted pay grades. One out of seven births was covered during its operation. EMIC paid $127 million to state health departments to cover the care of 1.2 million new mothers and their babies. The average cost of EMIC maternity cases completed was $92.49 for medical and hospital care. A striking effect was the sudden rapid decline in home births as most mothers now had paid hospital maternity care. Under the 1943 Disabled Veterans Rehabilitation Act, vocational rehabilitation services were offered to wounded World War II veterans and some 621,000 veterans would go on to receive assistance under this program. The G.I. Bill (Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944) was a landmark piece of legislation, providing 16 million returning veterans with benefits such as housing, educational and unemployment assistance and played a major role in the postwar expansion of the American middle class. In response to the March on Washington Movement led by A. Philip Randolph, Roosevelt promulgated Executive Order 8802 in June 1941, which established the President's Committee on Fair Employment Practices (FEPC) "to receive and investigate complaints of discrimination" so that "there shall be no discrimination in the employment of workers in defense industries or government because of race, creed, color, or national origin". A major result of the full employment at high wages was a sharp, long-lasting decrease in the level of income inequality (Great Compression). The gap between rich and poor narrowed dramatically in the area of nutrition because food rationing and price controls provided a reasonably priced diet to everyone. White collar workers did not typically receive overtime and therefore the gap between white collar and blue collar income narrowed. Large families that had been poor during the 1930s had four or more wage earners and these families shot to the top one-third income bracket. Overtime provided large paychecks in war industries and average living standards rose steadily, with real wages rising by 44% in the four years of war, while the percentage of families with an annual income of less than $2,000 fell from 75% to 25% of the population. In 1941, 40% of all American families lived on less than the $1,500 per year defined as necessary by the Works Progress Administration for a modest standard of living. The median income stood at $2,000 per year, and 8 million workers earned below the legal minimum. From 1939 to 1944, wages and salaries more than doubled, with overtime pay and the expansion of jobs leading to a 70% rise in average weekly earnings during the course of the war. Membership in organized labor increased by 50% between 1941 and 1945 and because the War Labor Board sought labor-management peace, new workers were encouraged to participate in the existing labor organizations, thereby receiving all the benefits of union membership such as improved working conditions, better fringe benefits, and higher wages. As noted by William H. Chafe, "with full employment, higher wages and social welfare benefits provided under government regulations, American workers experienced a level of well-being that, for many, had never occurred before". According to one study over 60% of Americans lived in poverty in 1933, and under 40% did so by 1945. As a result of the new prosperity, consumer expenditures rose by nearly 50%, from $61.7 billion at the start of the war to $98.5 billion by 1944. Individual savings accounts climbed almost sevenfold during the course of the war. The share of total income held by the top 5% of wage earners fell from 22% to 17% while the bottom 40% increased their share of the economic pie. In addition, during the course of the war, the proportion of the American population earning less than $3,000 (in 1968 dollars) fell by half. Controls and taxes Federal tax policy was highly contentious during the war, with President Franklin D. Roosevelt opposing a conservative coalition in Congress. However, both sides agreed on the need for high taxes (along with heavy borrowing) to pay for the war: top marginal tax rates ranged from 81% to 94% for the duration of the war, and the income level subject to the highest rate was lowered from $5,000,000 to $200,000. Roosevelt tried unsuccessfully, by executive order 9250, to impose a 100% surtax on after-tax incomes over $25,000 (equal to roughly $465,144 today). However, Roosevelt did manage to impose this cap on executive pay in corporations with government contracts. Congress also enlarged the tax base by lowering the minimum income to pay taxes, and by reducing personal exemptions and deductions. By 1944 nearly every employed person was paying federal income taxes (compared to 10% in 1940). Many controls were put on the economy. The most important was price controls, imposed on most products and monitored by the Office of Price Administration. Wages were also controlled. Corporations dealt with numerous agencies, especially the War Production Board (WPB), and the War and Navy departments, which had the purchasing power and priorities that largely reshaped and expanded industrial production. In 1942 a rationing system was begun to guarantee minimum amounts of necessities to everyone (especially poor people) and prevent inflation. Tires were the first item to be rationed in January 1942 because supplies of natural rubber were interrupted. Gasoline rationing proved an even better way to allocate scarce rubber. In June 1942 the Combined Food Board was set up to coordinate the worldwide supply of food to the Allies, with special attention to flows from the U.S. and Canada to Britain. By 1943, government-issued ration coupons were required to purchase coffee, sugar, meat, cheese, butter, lard, margarine, canned foods, dried fruits, jam, gasoline, bicycles, fuel oil, clothing, silk or nylon stockings, shoes, and many other items. Some items, like automobiles and home appliances, were no longer made. The rationing system did not apply to used goods like clothes or cars, but they became more expensive since they were not subject to price controls. To get a classification and a book of rationing stamps, people had to appear before a local rationing board. Each person in a household received a ration book, including babies and children. When purchasing gasoline, a driver had to present a gas card along with a ration book and cash. Ration stamps were valid only for a set period to forestall hoarding. All forms of automobile racing were banned, including the Indianapolis 500 which was canceled from 1942 to 1945. Sightseeing driving was banned. Personal savings Personal income was at an all-time high, and more dollars were chasing fewer goods to purchase. On the eve of Pearl Harbor, advertising trade journals overflowed with evidence of a siege mentality. One warned that "advertising is threatened today as it has never been threatened before." Another concluded that "all of American industry is in a mental state like anticipating a trip to the dentist. This was a recipe for economic disaster that was largely avoided because Americansโpersuaded daily by their government to do soโwere also saving money at an all-time high rate, mostly in War Bonds but also in private savings accounts and insurance policies. Per capita war spending was less concentrated than total spending as the ratio of the standard deviation to the mean was 3.6 compared to 6.5 for total spending. Consumer saving was strongly encouraged through investment in war bonds that would mature after the war. Most workers had an automatic payroll deduction; children collected savings stamps until they had enough to buy a bond. Bond rallies were held throughout the U.S. with celebrities, usually Hollywood film stars, to enhance the bond advertising effectiveness. Several stars were responsible for personal appearance tours that netted multiple millions of dollars in bond pledgesโan astonishing amount in 1943. The public paid ยพ of the face value of a war bond and received the full face value back after a set number of years. This shifted their consumption from the war to postwar and allowed over 40% of GDP to go to military spending, with moderate inflation. With the mobilization of the U.S. economy for war, an unprecedented demand for new workers arose. In response to this need, some 6.5 million women entered the work force. Additionally, with the personal spending of many Americans, the necessity of facilities and spending by the government depended on specific counties and what they had to offer for the war effort. One of these particular groups that helped with specific parts of the war effort were comic book readers. Readers could assist the heroes by solving puzzles, buying American made goods, and recycling to aid the war effort. With relief, Americans celebrated restaffed factories and restuffed wallets for the first time in years. Those favorable conditions in turn produced others: booming demand for consumer products, record-breaking retail sales, and the creation of even more jobs to manufacture and to sell long coveted goods. Americans were challenged to put "at least 10% of every paycheck into Bonds". Compliance was very high, with entire factories of workers earning a special "Minuteman" flag to fly over their plant if over 90% workers belonged to the "Ten Percent Club". Real GNP advanced 40 percent between 1941 and 1945, which represents an average annual growth rate of 8.4 percent. There were seven major War Loan drives, all of which exceeded their goals. Labor The unemployment problems of the Great Depression largely ended with the mobilization for war. Out of a labor force of 54 million, unemployment fell by half from 7.7 million in spring 1940 (when the first accurate statistics were compiled) to 3.4 million by fall of 1941 and fell by half again to 1.5 million by fall of 1942, hitting an all-time low of 700,000 in fall 1944. There was a growing labor shortage in war centers, with sound trucks going street by street begging for people to apply for war jobs. Greater wartime production created millions of new jobs, while the draft reduced the number of young men available for civilian jobs. So great was the demand for labor that millions of retired people, housewives, and students entered the labor force, lured by patriotism and wages. The shortage of grocery clerks caused retailers to convert from service at the counter to self-service. With new shorter women clerks replacing taller men, some stores lowered shelves to 5 feet 8 inches (1.73 m). Before the war, most groceries, dry cleaners, drugstores, and department stores offered home delivery service. The labor shortage and gasoline and tire rationing caused most retailers to stop delivery. They found that requiring customers to buy their products in person increased sales. Women also joined the workforce to replace men who had joined the forces, though in fewer numbers.[citation needed] From 1890 to 1990, the percentage of married women in the workforce rose from 5% to 60%. Most of this change in workforce participation was during World War II. Roosevelt stated that the efforts of civilians at home to support the war through personal sacrifice was as critical to winning the war as the efforts of the soldiers themselves. "Rosie the Riveter" became the symbol of women laboring in manufacturing. Women worked in defense plants and volunteered for war-related organizations. Women even learned to fix cars and became "conductorettes" for the train. The war effort brought about significant changes in the role of women in society as a whole. During the duration of the war, women had access to job opportunities beyond the traditionally โpink-collarโ jobs. These jobs were often previously filled exclusively by men, and were higher paying and typically required more skill. Afterwards, there was a reversion to traditional gender roles and an expectation for women to become housewives, or at least take on more traditionally female jobs. Alice Throckmorton McLean founded the American Women's Voluntary Services (AWVS) in January 1940, 23 months before the United States entered the war. When Pearl Harbor was bombed, the AWVS had more than 18,000 members who were ready to drive ambulances, fight fires, lead evacuations, operate mobile kitchens, deliver first aid, and perform other emergency services. By war's end the AWVS counted 325,000 women at work and selling an estimated $1 billion in war bonds and stamps. At the end of the war, most of the munitions-making jobs ended. Many factories were closed; others retooled for civilian production. In some jobs, women were replaced by returning veterans who did not lose seniority because they were in service. However, the number of women at work in 1946 was 87% of the number in 1944, leaving 13% who lost or quit their jobs. Many women working in machinery factories and more were taken out of the workforce. Many of these former factory workers found other work at kitchens, being teachers, etc. The table shows the development of the United States labor force by sex during the war years. Women also took on new roles in sport and entertainment, which opened to them as more and more men were drafted. The All-American Girls Professional Baseball League was the creation of Chicago Cubs owner Philip Wrigley, who sought alternative ways to expand his baseball franchise as top male players left for military service. In 1943, he created an eight-team league in small industrial cities around the Great Lakes. Night games offered affordable, patriotic entertainment to working Americans who had flocked to wartime jobs in the Midwest hubs of Chicago and Detroit. The league provided a novel entertainment of women playing baseball well while wearing short, feminine uniform skirts. Players as young as fifteen were recruited from white farm families and urban industrial teams. Fans supported the League to the extent that it continued well past the conclusion of the war, lasting through 1953. Labor shortages were felt in agriculture, even though most farmers were given an exemption and few were drafted. Large numbers volunteered or moved to cities for factory jobs. At the same time, many agricultural commodities were in greater demand by the military and for the civilian populations of Allies. Production was encouraged and prices and markets were under tight federal control. Between December 1941 and December 1942 it was estimated 1.6 million men & women left agricultural work for military service or to get higher paying jobs in war industries. Civilians were encouraged to create "victory gardens", farms that were often started in backyards and lots. Children were encouraged to help with these farms, too. The Bracero Program, a bi-national labor agreement between Mexico and the U.S., started in 1942. Some 290,000 braceros ("strong arms", in Spanish) were recruited and contracted to work in the agriculture fields. Half went to Texas, and 20% to the Pacific Northwest. Between 1942 and 1946 some 425,000 Italian and German prisoners of war were used as farm laborers, loggers, and cannery workers. In Michigan, for example, the POWs accounted for more than one-third of the state's agricultural production and food processing in 1944. To help with the need for a larger source of food, the nation looked to school-aged children to help on farms. Schools often had a victory garden in vacant parking lots and on roofs. Children would help on these farms to help with the war effort. The slogan, "Grow your own, can your own", also influenced children to help at home. With the war's ever-increasing need for able-bodied men consuming America's labor force in the early 1940s, industry turned to teen-aged boys and girls to fill in as replacements. Consequently, many states had to change their child-labor laws to allow these teenagers to work. The lures of patriotism, adulthood, and money led many youths to drop out of school and take a defense job. Between 1940 and 1944, the number of teenage workers tripled from 870,000 in 1940 to 2.8 million in 1944, while the number of students in public high schools dropped from 6.6 million in 1940 to 5.6 million in 1944, about a million studentsโand many teachersโtook jobs. Policymakers did not want high school students to drop out. Government agencies, parents, school administrations and employers would cooperate in local "Go-to-School Drives" to encourage high school students to stay whether this be part or full-time. The Victory Farm Volunteers under the US Crop Corps accepted teenagers from 14โ18 to work in agricultural jobs. However some states did lower their age limit with the youngest being 9. At the program's peak in 1944 there would be 903,794 volunteers which made it larger than the amount in the Women's Land Army, foreign migrant workers and the number of prisoners of war who were laborers. These volunteers were mainly from the cities and urban areas. Volunteers mostly worked for three months in the summer and for a fourth if high schools decided to push starting dates back. To join, a volunteer needed the consent of their parent(s)/guardian(s). There were three types of work environments for the volunteers. The most common (80% of volunteers) involved them being transported to a worksite daily via buses or farming trucks and returned home at night. Another program involved where volunteers lived with farming families and worked alongside them with about 1 in 5 doing this. There was also camps set up which were not very common as only 4% of all VFV volunteers lived there between 1943 & 1945. The war mobilization changed the relationship of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) with both employers and the national government. Both the CIO and the larger American Federation of Labor (AFL) grew rapidly in the war years. Nearly all the unions that belonged to the CIO were fully supportive of both the war effort and of the Roosevelt administration. However, the United Mine Workers, who had taken an isolationist stand in the years leading up to the war and had opposed Roosevelt's reelection in 1940, left the CIO in 1942. The major unions supported a wartime no-strike pledge that aimed to eliminate not only major strikes for new contracts but also the innumerable small strikes called by shop stewards and local union leadership to protest particular grievances. In return for labor's no-strike pledge, the government offered arbitration to determine the wages and other terms of new contracts. Those procedures produced modest wage increases during the first few years of the war but not enough to keep up with inflation, particularly when combined with the slowness of the arbitration machinery. Even though the complaints from union members about the no-strike pledge became louder and more bitter, the CIO did not abandon it. The Mine Workers, by contrast, who did not belong to either the AFL or the CIO for much of the war, threatened numerous strikes including a successful twelve-day strike in 1943. The strikes and threats made mine leader John L. Lewis a much-hated man and led to legislation hostile to unions. All the major unions grew stronger during the war. The government put pressure on employers to recognize unions to avoid the sort of turbulent struggles over union recognition of the 1930s, while unions were generally able to obtain maintenance of membership clauses, a form of union security, through arbitration and negotiation. Employers gave workers new untaxed benefits (such as vacation time, pensions, and health insurance), which increased real incomes even when wage rates were frozen. The wage differential between higher-skilled and less-skilled workers narrowed, and with the enormous increase in overtime for blue-collar wage workers (at time and a half pay), incomes in working-class households shot up, while the salaried middle class lost ground. The experience of bargaining on a national basis, while restraining local unions from striking, also tended to accelerate the trend toward bureaucracy within the larger CIO unions. Some, such as the Steelworkers, had always been centralized organizations in which authority for major decisions resided at the top. The UAW, by contrast, had always been a more grassroots organization, but it also started to try to rein in its maverick local leadership during these years. The CIO also had to confront deep racial divides in its membership, particularly in the UAW plants in Detroit where white workers sometimes struck to protest the promotion of black workers to production jobs, but also in shipyards in Alabama, mass transit in Philadelphia, and steel plants in Baltimore. The CIO leadership, particularly those in further left unions such as the Packinghouse Workers, the UAW, the NMU, and the Transport Workers, undertook serious efforts to suppress hate strikes, to educate their membership, and to support the Roosevelt Administration's tentative efforts to remedy racial discrimination in war industries through the Fair Employment Practices Commission. Those unions contrasted their relatively bold attack on the problem with the AFL. The CIO unions were progressive in dealing with gender discrimination in the wartime industry, which now employed many more women workers in nontraditional jobs. Unions that had represented large numbers of women workers before the war, such as the UE (electrical workers) and the Food and Tobacco Workers, had fairly good records of fighting discrimination against women. Most union leaders saw women as temporary wartime replacements for the men in the armed forces. The wages of these women needed to be kept high so that the veterans would get high wages. The South in wartime The war marked a time of dramatic change in the poor, heavily rural South as new industries and military bases were developed by the Federal government, providing badly needed capital and infrastructure in many regions. People from all parts of the US came to the South for military training and work in the region's many bases and new industries. During and after the war millions of hard-scrabble farmers, both white and black, left agriculture for urban jobs. The United States began mobilizing for war in a major way in the spring of 1940. The warm sunny weather of the South proved ideal for building 60 percent of the Army's new training camps and nearly half the new airfields, In all 40 percent of spending on new military installations went to the South. For example, sleepy Starke, Florida, a town of 1,500 people in 1940, became the base of Camp Blanding. By March 1941, 20,000 men were constructing a permanent camp for 60,000 soldiers. Money flowed freely for the war effort, as over $4 billion went into military facilities in the South, and another $5 billion into defense plants. Major shipyards were built in Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and along the Gulf Coast. Huge warplane plants were opened in Dallas-Fort Worth and Atlanta. The most secret and expensive operation was at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, where unlimited amounts of locally generated TVA electricity were used to prepare uranium for the atom bomb. The number of production workers doubled during the war. Most training centers, factories and shipyards were closed in 1945 and the families that left hardscrabble farms often remained to find jobs in the urban South. The region had finally reached the take off stage into industrial and commercial growth, although its income and wage levels lagged well behind the national average. Nevertheless, as George B. Tindall notes, the transformation was, "The demonstration of industrial potential, new habits of mind, and a recognition that industrialization demanded community services." The North Carolina Shipbuilding Company was launched at the behest of the U.S. Maritime Commission decision to open a series of shipyards along the coasts. The South was favored because its economy needed stimulation and it had a large underutilized rural labor force. The opening of the shipyard in 1941, a subsidiary of a Virginia company, transformed Wilmington into the "Defense Capital of the State". By the time it closed in 1946 it had launched 243 cargo ships, including 126 Liberty and 117 of the larger Victory vessels. They proved critical for transporting munitions to Europe and the Pacific. It employed upwards of 21,000 workers, including 1,600 women and 6,000 Blacks. The impact was to swell the local population from 33,000 to 50,000. Civilian support for war effort Early in the war, it became apparent that German U-boats were using the backlighting of coastal cities in the Eastern Seaboard and the South to destroy ships exiting harbors. It became the first duty of civilians recruited for the local civilian defense to ensure that lights were either off or thick curtains drawn over all windows at night. State Guards were reformed for internal security duties to replace the National Guardsmen who were federalized and sent overseas. The Civil Air Patrol was established, which enrolled civilian spotters in air reconnaissance, search-and-rescue, and transport. Its Coast Guard counterpart, the Coast Guard Auxiliary, used civilian boats and crews in similar rescue roles. Towers were built in coastal and border towns, and spotters were trained to recognize enemy aircraft. Blackouts were practiced in every city, even those far from the coast. All exterior lighting had to be extinguished, and black-out curtains placed over windows. The main purpose was to remind people that there was a war on and to provide activities that would engage the civil spirit of millions of people not otherwise involved in the war effort. In large part, this effort was successful, sometimes almost to a fault, such as the Plains states where many dedicated aircraft spotters took up their posts night after night watching the skies in an area of the country that no enemy aircraft of that time could hope to reach. The United Service Organizations (USO) was founded in 1941 in response to a request from President Franklin D. Roosevelt to provide morale and recreation services to uniformed military personnel. The USO brought together six civilian agencies: the Salvation Army, YMCA, Young Women's Christian Association, National Catholic Community Service, National Travelers Aid Association, and the National Jewish Welfare Board. Women volunteered to work for the Red Cross, the USO, and other agencies. Other women previously employed only in the home, or in traditionally female work, took jobs in factories that directly supported the war effort or filled jobs vacated by men who had entered military service. Enrollment in high schools and colleges plunged as many high school and college students dropped out to take war jobs. Various items, previously discarded, were saved after use for what was called "recycling" years later. Families were requested to save fat drippings from cooking for use in soap making. Neighborhood "scrap drives" collected scrap copper and brass for use in artillery shells. Milkweed was harvested by children ostensibly for lifejackets. In 1940, Congress passed the first peace-time draft legislation. It was renewed (by one vote) in summer 1941. It involved questions as to who should control the draft, the size of the army, and the need for deferments. The system worked through local draft boards comprising community leaders who were given quotas and then decided how to fill them. There was very little draft resistance. The nation went from a surplus manpower pool with high unemployment and relief in 1940 to a severe manpower shortage by 1943. The industry realized that the Army urgently desired production of essential war materials and foodstuffs more than soldiers. (Large numbers of soldiers were not used until the invasion of Europe in summer 1944.) In 1940โ43 the Army often transferred soldiers to civilian status in the Enlisted Reserve Corps to increase production. Those transferred would return to work in essential industry, although they could be recalled to active duty if the Army needed them. Others were discharged if their civilian work was deemed essential. There were instances of mass releases of men to increase production in various industries. Working men who had been classified 4F or otherwise ineligible for the draft took second jobs.[citation needed] In the figure below an overview of the development of the United States labor force, the armed forces and unemployment during the war years. One contentious issue involved the drafting of fathers, which was avoided as much as possible. The drafting of 18-year-olds was desired by the military but vetoed by public opinion. Racial minorities were drafted at the same rate as Whites and were paid the same. The experience of World War I regarding men needed by industry was particularly unsatisfactoryโtoo many skilled mechanics and engineers became privates (there is a possibly apocryphal story of a banker assigned as a baker due to a clerical error, noted by historian Lee Kennett in his book "G.I.") Farmers demanded and were generally given occupational deferments (many volunteered anyway, but those who stayed at home lost postwar veteran's benefits.) Later in the war, in light of the tremendous amount of manpower that would be necessary for the invasion of France in 1944, many earlier deferment categories became draft eligible. In the 1930s, pacifism was a very strong force in most of the Protestant churches. Only a minority of religious leaders, typified by Reinhold Niebuhr, paid serious attention to the threats to peace posed by Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, or Imperial Japan. After Pearl Harbor in December 1941, practically all the religious denominations gave some support to the war effort, such as providing chaplains. Typically, church members sent their sons into the military without protest, accepted shortages and rationing as a war necessity, purchased war bonds, working munitions industries, and prayed intensely for safe return and for victory. Church leaders, however, were much more cautious while holding fast to the ideals of peace, justice and humanitarianism, and sometimes criticizing military policies such as the bombing of enemy cities. They sponsored 10,000 military chaplains, and set up special ministries in and around military bases, focused not only on soldiers but their young wives who often followed them. The mainstream Protestant churches supported the "Double V" campaign of the black churches to achieve victory against the enemies abroad, and victory against racism on the home front. However, there was little religious protest against the incarceration of Japanese on the West Coast or against segregation of Blacks in the services. The intense moral outrage regarding the Holocaust largely appeared after the war ended, especially after 1960. Many church leaders supported studies of postwar peace proposals, typified by John Foster Dulles, a leading Protestant layman and a leading adviser to top-level Republicans. The churches promoted strong support for European relief programs, especially through the United Nations. The major churches showed much less pacifism than in 1914. The pacifist churches such as the Quakers and Mennonites were small but maintained their opposition to military service, though many young members, such as Richard Nixon voluntarily joined the military. Unlike in 1917โ1918, the positions were generally respected by the government, which set up non-combat civilian roles for conscientious objectors. The Church of God had a strong pacifist element reaching a high point in the late 1930s. This small Fundamentalist Protestant denomination regarded World War II as a just war because America was attacked. Likewise, the Quakers generally regarded World War II as a just war and about 90% served, although there were some conscientious objectors. The Mennonites and Brethren continued their pacifism, but the federal government was much less hostile than in the previous war. These churches helped their young men to both become conscientious objectors and to provide valuable service to the nation. Goshen College set up a training program for unpaid Civilian Public Service jobs. Although young women pacifists were not eligible for the draft, they volunteered for unpaid Civilian Public Service jobs to demonstrate their patriotism; many worked in mental hospitals. The Jehovah's Witness denomination, however, refused to participate in any forms of service, and thousands of its young men refused to register and went to prison. As part of the 1940 Selective Service and Training Act, the Civilian Public Service would be formed for conscientious objectors to do work considered to be of "national importance". What type of work varied based on the location of the camps and what was needed. Overall, about 43,000 conscientious objectors (COs) refused to take up arms. About 6,000 COs went to prison, especially the Jehovah's Witnesses. About 12,000 served in Civilian Public Service (CPS)โbut never received any veterans benefits. About 25,000 or more performed noncombatant jobs in the military, and did receive postwar veterans benefits. A rare but notable example of pacifism from within the government came from Jeannette Rankin's opposition to the war. Rankin voted against the war particularly because she saw women and peace to be 'inseparable', and even actively encouraged women to do more to prevent the war in America. Civilian support for the war was widespread, with isolated cases of draft resistance. The F.B.I. was already tracking elements that were suspected of loyalty to Germany, Japan, or Italy, and many were arrested in the weeks after the attack on Pearl Harbor. 7,000 German and Italian aliens (who were not U.S. citizens) were moved back from the West Coast, along with some 100,000 of Japanese descent. Some enemy aliens were held without trial during the entire war. The U.S. citizens accused of supporting Germany were given public trials, and often were freed. Population movements There was large-scale migration to industrial centers, especially the West Coast. Millions of wives followed their husbands to military camps; for many families, especially from farms, the moves were permanent. One 1944 survey of migrants in Portland, Oregon and San Diego found that three quarters wanted to stay after the war. Many new military training bases were established or enlarged, especially in the South. Large numbers of African Americans left the cotton fields and headed for the cities. Housing was increasingly difficult to find in industrial centers, as there was no new non-military construction. During the war, the Office of Defense Transportation (ODT) would be created to help regulate transportation. During the war people would reduce travelling for personal reasons. Those that drove cars would do less and carpool. People would end up walking and bicycling more often while bus and rail usages would increase to levels that were never seen until that point. When the United States entered World War II, it was a vastly motorized country as about 85% of all passenger travel came from private cars while all other forms of mass transit made up about 14% of passenger travel. Commuting by car would be limited by the ODT through car, tire and gasoline rationing, banning pleasure driving, regulating the movement of commercial vehicles, establishing a national 35 miles per hour (56 km/h) speed limit along with public campaigns and carpooling programs. What was defined as pleasure driving was ambiguous and the policy banning it was unpopular. The newly established speed limit was enforced by state and local level officials. Exemptions were made to the national speed limit for military and emergencies vehicles that were on duties that required speedier travel times. During the war, taxis were also regulated by the ODT. Railroads previously saw a decline in travel during the 1920s and 30s with World War 2 reversing this decline as the number of passenger travel dramatically increased. This gain in railroad travel largely came from soldiers who were travelling. During the war 43 million soldiers were transported at an average of 1 million per month. In 1941 prior to the United States entering the war, 3.4 million passengers were transported both across the Atlantic Ocean and throughout the United States. Many airlines ended up cancelling their regular flights and turned over the 200 out of 360 airlines to the military, which would be placed under the Air Transport Command. During the war "casual" air travel would practically disappear in the United States. The large-scale movement of black Americans from the rural South to urban and defense centers in the North and the West (and some in the South) during the Second Great Migration led to local confrontations over jobs and housing shortages. The cities were relatively peaceful; much-feared large-scale race riots did not happen, but there was nevertheless violence on both sides, as in the 1943 race riot in Detroit and the anti-Mexican Zoot Suit Riots in Los Angeles in 1943. The "zoot suit" was a highly conspicuous costume worn by Mexican American teenagers in Los Angeles. As historian Roger Bruns notes, "the Zoot suit also represented a stark visual expression of culture for Mexican Americans, about making a statementโa mark of defiance against the place in society in which they found themselves." They gained admiration from within their in-group, and "disgust and ridicule from others, especially the Anglos." Role of women Standlee (2010) argues that during the war the traditional gender division of labor changed somewhat, as the "home" or domestic female sphere expanded to include the "home front". Meanwhile, the public sphereโthe male domainโwas redefined as the international stage of military action. Wartime mobilization drastically changed the sexual divisions of labor for women, as young able-bodied men were sent overseas and wartime manufacturing production increased. Throughout the war, according to Susan Hartmann (1982), an estimated 6.5 million women entered the labor force. Women, many of whom were married, took a variety of paid jobs in a multitude of vocational jobs, many of which were previously exclusive to men. The greatest wartime gain in female employment was in the manufacturing industry, where more than 2.5 million additional women represented an increase of 140 percent by 1944. This was catalyzed by the "Rosie the Riveter" phenomenon. The composition of the marital status of women who went to work changed considerably throughout the war. One in every ten married women entered the labor force during the war, and they represented more than three million of the new female workers, while 2.89 million were single and the rest widowed or divorced. For the first time in the nation's history, there were more married women than single women in the female labor force. In 1944, thirty-seven percent of all adult women were reported in the labor force, but nearly fifty percent of all women were employed at some time during that year at the height of wartime production. In the same year the unemployment rate hit an all-time historical low of 1.2%. According to Hartmann (1982), the women who sought employment, based on various surveys and public opinion reports at the time suggests that financial reasoning was the justification for entering the labor force; however, patriotic motives made up another large portion of women's desires to enter. Women whose husbands were at war were more than twice as likely to seek jobs. Fundamentally, women were thought to be taking work defined as "men's work;" however, the work women did was typically catered to specific skill sets management thought women could handle. Management would also advertise women's work as an extension of domesticity. For example, in a Sperry Corporation recruitment pamphlet the company stated, "Note the similarity between squeezing orange juice and the operation of a small drill press." A Ford Motor Company at Willow Run bomber plant publication proclaimed, "The ladies have shown they can operate drill presses as well as egg beaters." One manager was even stated saying, "Why should men, who from childhood on never so much as sewed on buttons be expected to handle delicate instruments better than women who have plied embroidery needles, knitting needles, and darning needles all their lives?" In these instances, women were thought of and hired to do jobs management thought they could perform based on sex-typing. Following the war, many women left their jobs voluntarily. One Twin Cities Army Ammunition Plant (formally Twin Cities Ordnance Plant) worker in New Brighton, Minnesota confessed, "I will gladly get back into the apron. I did not go into war work with the idea of working all my life. It was just to help out during the war." Other women were laid off by employers to make way for returning veterans who did not lose their seniority due to the war. There are a few examples of reluctance of women to take on wartime jobs. For example, due to labour shortages the American government had to actively promote the war to civilians and the War Manpower Commission used propaganda to sell the war to American women. There was a change in attitudes regarding women in employment in wartime America, and the government started to promote women in work as part of nature, and those that resisted or were reluctant to find work were slackers. By the end of the war, many men who entered into the service did not return. This left women to take up the sole responsibility of the household and provide economically for the family. Nursing became a highly prestigious occupation for young women. A majority of female civilian nurses volunteered for the Army Nurse Corps or the Navy Nurse Corps. These women automatically became officers. Teenaged girls enlisted in the Cadet Nurse Corps. To cope with the growing shortage on the homefront, thousands of retired nurses volunteered to help out in local hospitals. Women staffed millions of jobs in community service roles, such as nursing, the USO, and the Red Cross. Unorganized women were encouraged to collect and turn in materials that were needed by the war effort. Women collected fats rendered during cooking, children formed balls of aluminum foil they peeled from chewing gum wrappers and also created rubber band balls, which they contributed to the war effort. Hundreds of thousands of men joined civil defense units to prepare for disasters, such as enemy bombing. The Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASP) mobilized 1,000 civilian women to fly new warplanes from the factories to airfields located on the east coast of the U.S. This was historically significant because flying a warplane had always been a male role. No American women flew warplanes in combat. Marriage and motherhood came back as prosperity empowered couples who had postponed marriage. The birth rate started shooting up in 1941, paused in 1944โ45 as 12 million men were in uniform, then continued to soar until reaching a peak in the late 1950s. This was the "Baby Boom". In a New Deal-like move, the federal government set up the "EMIC" program that provided free prenatal and natal care for the wives of servicemen below the rank of sergeant. Housing shortages, especially in the munitions centers, forced millions of couples to live with parents or in makeshift facilities. Little housing had been built in the Depression years, so the shortages grew steadily worse until about 1949 when a massive housing boom finally caught up with demand. (After 1944 much of the new housing was supported by the G.I. Bill.) Federal law made it difficult to divorce absent servicemen, so the number of divorces peaked when they returned in 1946. In long-range terms, divorce rates changed little. Juggling their roles as mothers due to the Baby Boom and the jobs they filled while the men were at war, women strained to complete all tasks set before them. The war caused cutbacks in automobile and bus service and migration from farms and towns to munitions centers. Those housewives who worked found the dual role difficult to handle. Stress came when sons, husbands, fathers, brothers, and fiancรฉs were drafted and sent to faraway training camps, preparing for a war in which nobody knew how many would be killed. Millions of wives tried to relocate near their husbands' training camps. Racial politics of the war During World War II the trend in immigration policies was both more and less restrictive. The United States immigration policies focused more on national security and were driven by foreign policy imperatives. Legislation such as the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 was finally repealed. This Act was the first law in the United States that excluded a specific groupโthe Chineseโfrom migrating to the United States. But during World War II, with the Chinese as allies, the United States passed the Magnuson Act, also known as the Chinese Exclusion Repeal Act of 1943. There was also the Nationality Act of 1940, which clarified how to become and remain a citizen. Specifically, it allowed immigrants who were not citizens, like the Filipinos or those in the outside territories to gain citizenship by enlisting in the army. In contrast, the Japanese and Japanese-Americans were subject to internment in the U.S. There was also legislation like the Smith Act, also known as the Alien Registration Act of 1940, which required indicted communists, anarchists, and fascists. Another program was the Bracero Program, which allowed over two decades, nearly 5 million Mexican workers to come and work in the United States. When World War II broke out in 1939, a common belief spread that Germany was planting spies and saboteurs in the US under the guise of immigrants. American consuls under the encouragement of US Assistant Secretary of State Breckinridge Long who was the head of visa related affairs in the US State Department to screen visa applicants so much to the point that few could ever pass "the endless criteria to prove they were not 'likely to become a public charge.'" Long was described as being anti-Semitic and is credited with making it harder for Jewish refugees to come to the United States. After World War II, there was also the Truman Directive of 1945, which did not allow more people to migrate but did use the immigration quotas to let in more displaced people after the war. There was also the War Brides Act of 1945, which allowed spouses of US soldiers to get an expedited path towards citizenship. In contrast, the 1952 Immigration and Nationality Act, also known as the McCarran-Walter Act, turned away migrants based not on their country of origin but rather whether they are moral or diseased. When World War II began in Europe during 1939, the United States would attempt to repatriate approximately 100,000 Americans who were in Europe. The Special Division was created within the US State Department to handle matters involving the war and giving assistance to Americans who were abroad and being repatriated with Breckinridge Long being given responsibility of the Special Division. The US government would end up chartering 6 ships from United States Lines to repatriate Americans. On November 4, 1939, the Neutrality Act was signed into law which banned American ships from traveling to "'states engaged in armed conflict.'" and by early November 75,000 Americans had been repatriated from Europe. Upon the declaration of war on Germany and the beginning of The Final Solution, the State Department once again attempted to repatriate more Americans. This was difficult as there was no way to communicate with them and tell them about the possibility of repatriation. Joseph Green of the Special Division suggested looking at passports issued in Europe in 1941 along with those who got passports validated in 1940 or 1941 if they were looking to stay in Europe but Long said that was impractical leaving it to the Swiss to handle this matter but denied the Swiss from looking at American files. A memo written by Joseph Green found that 5,111 Americans were interned in Germany with 1,191 having passports. Germany said that Americans would be treated similar to the way POWs with Germany arresting American civilians in Berlin "and the Eastern territories" in what they said was in response to how the United States was treating German citizens. The United States did not repatriate Americans in Slovakia as Slovakia was trying to use them as political leverage and Hungary for logistical reasons. By September 1944, 30,000 Americans were in Europe. In 1942 the War Department demanded that all enemy nationals be removed from war zones on the West Coast. The question became how to evacuate the estimated 120,000 people of Japanese ancestry living on the Pacific Coast of the continental United States. Roosevelt looked at the secret evidence available to him: the Japanese in the Philippines had collaborated with the Japanese invasion troops; most of the adult Japanese in California had been strong supporters of Japan in the war against China. There was evidence of espionage compiled by code-breakers that decrypted messages to Japan from agents in North America and Hawaii before and after the attack on Pearl Harbor. These MAGIC cables were kept a secret from all but those with the highest clearance, such as Roosevelt. On February 19, 1942, Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066 which set up designated military areas "from which any or all persons may be excluded." The most controversial part of the order included American born children and youth who had dual U.S. and Japanese citizenship. In February 1943, when activating the 442nd Regimental Combat Teamโa unit composed mostly of American-born American citizens of Japanese descent living in HawaiiโRoosevelt said, "No loyal citizen of the United States should be denied the democratic right to exercise the responsibilities of his citizenship, regardless of his ancestry. The principle on which this country was founded and by which it has always been governed is that Americanism is a matter of the mind and heart; Americanism is not, and never was, a matter of race or ancestry." In 1944, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the legality of the executive order in the Korematsu v. United States case. The executive order remained in force until December when Roosevelt released the Japanese internees, except for those who announced their intention to return to Japan. Fascist Italy was an official enemy, and citizens of Italy were also forced away from "strategic" coastal areas in California. Altogether, 58,000 Italians were forced to relocate. Known spokesmen for Benito Mussolini were arrested and held in prison. The restrictions were dropped in October 1942, and Italy became a co-belligerent of the Allies in 1943. In the east, however, the large Italian populations of the northeast, especially in munitions-producing centers such as Bridgeport and New Haven, faced no restrictions and contributed just as much to the war effort as other Americans. By the time of WWII, the United States had a large population of ethnic Germans. Among residents of the United States in 1940, more than 1.2 million persons had been born in Germany, 5 million had two native-German parents, and 6 million had one native-German parent. Many more had distant German ancestry. During WWII, the United States detained at least 11,000 ethnic Germans, overwhelmingly German nationals between the years 1940 and 1948 in two designated camps at Fort Douglas, Utah, and Fort Oglethorpe, Georgia. The Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC) was a federal executive order requiring companies with government contracts not to discriminate based on race or religion. It assisted African Americans in obtaining defense industry jobs during the second wave of the Great Migration of southern blacks to Northern and Western war production and urban centers. Under pressure from A. Philip Randolph's growing March on Washington Movement, on June 25, 1941, President Roosevelt created the Fair Employment Practices Committee (FEPC) by signing Executive Order 8802. It said, "there shall be no discrimination in the employment of workers in defense industries or government because of race, creed, color, or national origin". In 1943 Roosevelt greatly strengthened FEPC with a new executive order, #9346. It required that all government contracts have a non-discrimination clause. FEPC was the most significant breakthrough ever for Blacks and women on the job front. During the war, the federal government operated airfields, shipyards, supply centers, ammunition plants, and other facilities that employed millions. FEPC rules applied and guaranteed equality of employment rights. These facilities shut down when the war ended. In the private sector, the FEPC was generally successful in enforcing non-discrimination in the North and West but did not attempt to challenge segregation in the South, and in the border region, its intervention led to hate strikes by angry white workers. The African American community in the United States resolved on a Double V campaign: victory over fascism abroad, and victory over discrimination at home. During the second phase of the Great Migration, five million African-Americans relocated from rural and poor Southern farms to urban and munitions centers in Northern and Western states in search of racial, economic, social, and political opportunities. Racial tensions remained high in these cities, particularly in overcrowding in housing as well as competition for jobs. As a result, cities such as Detroit, New York, and Los Angeles experienced race riots in 1943, leading to dozens of deaths. Black newspapers created the Double V campaign to build black morale and head off radical action. Most black women had been farm laborers or domestics before the war. Working with the federal Fair Employment Practices Committee, the NAACP, and CIO unions, these Black women fought a "Double V campaign"โfighting against the Axis abroad and restrictive hiring practices at home. Their efforts redefined citizenship, equating their patriotism with war work, and seeking equal employment opportunities, government entitlements, and better working conditions as conditions appropriate for full citizens. In the South, black women worked in segregated jobs; in the West and most of the North, they were integrated. However, wildcat strikes erupted in Detroit, Baltimore, and Evansville, Indiana where white migrants from the South refused to work alongside black women. Pro-American media during the war tended to portray the Axis powers in a negative light. Germans were portrayed as weak, barbaric, or stupid, and were heavily associated with Nazism and Nazi imagery. For example, the comic book Captain America No. 1 features the titular superhero punching Hitler. Similar anti-German sentiments existed in cartoons as well. The Popeye cartoon, Seein' Red, White, 'N' Blue (aired on February 19, 1943), ends with Uncle Sam punching a sickly-looking Hitler. In the Donald Duck cartoon Der Fuehrer's Face, Donald Duck is portrayed as a Nazi living in Germany, where the Nazi war effort is heavily satirized and caricatured. American media portrayed the Japanese negatively as well. While attacks on Germans were generally focused on high-level Nazi officials such as Hitler, Himmler, Goebbels, and Gรถring, the Japanese were targeted more broadly. Portrayals of the Japanese ranged from showing them being vicious and feral, as on the cover of Marvel Comics' Mystery Comics no. 32, to mocking their physical appearance and speech patterns. In the Looney Tunes cartoon Tokio Jokio (aired May 13, 1943), the Japanese people are all shown to be dim-witted, obsessed with being polite, cowardly, and physically short with buckteeth, big lips, squinty eyes, and glasses. The entire cartoon is also narrated in broken English, with the letter "R" often replacing "L" in pronunciation of words, a common stereotype. Japanese slurs were commonly used, such as "Jap", "monkey face", and "slanty eyes". These stereotypes are also seen in Theodor Geisel's comics created during the Second World War. Wartime politics When World War 2 began, the United States was initially neutral until the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. Polling done immediately after the war found over 90% opposed entering the war. However, as time went on public opinion began to shift toward joining the war. The most notable non-interventionist group was the America First Committee which was formed in September 1940. Another smaller non-interventionist group was Keep America Out of War Congress (originally known as the Keep America Out of War Committee) or KAOWC which was a socialist-pacifist organization formed in March 1938 lasting until the Attack on Pearl Harbor. With regards for pro-interventionist forces, one organization was the Committee to Defend America by Aiding the Allies (CDAAA) which was formed in May 1940. After the attack on Pearl Harbor, the United States joined the war and this practically ended any debate about entering the war. Roosevelt easily won the bitterly contested 1940 election, but the Conservative coalition maintained a tight grip on Congress regarding taxes and domestic issues. Wendell Willkie, the defeated GOP candidate in 1940, became a roving ambassador for Roosevelt. After Vice President Henry A. Wallace became enmeshed in a series of squabbles with other high officials, Roosevelt stripped him of his administrative responsibilities and dropped him from the 1944 ticket. Roosevelt in cooperation with big-city party leaders replaced Wallace with Missouri Senator Harry S. Truman. Truman was best known for investigating waste, fraud, and inefficiency in wartime programs. Despite conspiracy theories saying FDR would cancel the 1942 elections, they went ahead as they previously had prior to the war. Among the 80 million men and women eligible to vote, only 28 million did so. The election would not go well for FDR and his party as they lost 7 seats in the Senate and 47 in the House of Representatives; with a Conservative coalition of Republicans and Southern Democrats taking control of both houses on domestic issues. Reducing the draft age to 18, regulations & restrictions from the war along with rationing and a drift away from the New Deal are credited with hurting the Democrats that year. In the 1944 presidential election, Roosevelt would end up defeating Thomas Dewey who came from the conservative wing of the Republican Party in a close election. Several Republicans would run for the presidential nomination which were: Wendell Willkie, New York Governor Thomas E. Dewey and Ohio Governor John W. Bricker. Dewey would win the nomination selecting Bricker as his running mate. Willkie would mobilize liberal Republicans while Dewey and Bricker attracted Republicans from the conservative bloc of the party. Campaigning would carry out during the 1944 presidential election just like in previous ones. During World War II, traditional means of voting were unavailable to soldiers drafted into the military along with women serving in auxiliary corps or volunteer organizations like the Red Cross; so instead those working/serving away from home had to cast absentee ballots if they chose to vote. Many states during the war did not have absentee voting laws and those that did, did not take into account the circumstance generated by the war. To solve this issue with absentee voting, US Congress would pass the 1942 and later 1944 Soldier Voting Acts. The Soldier Voting Act of 1942 would be enacted on September 16, 1942, allowing for men and women serving the country to cast an absentee ballot if they still lived in the United States. It would disregard any state voting registration requirement and prohibited the use of poll taxes for those covered by the act. However, turnout was low in the 1942 elections and of the 4 million men serving in the military along with "tens of thousands of women" 28,000 absentee ballots were cast making this a less than 1% turnout rate for those in the armed forces. Also because of the timing of the act, states did not have much time to prepare ballots. The Soldier Voting Act of 1944 would pass in April 1944. As part of the act a federal ballot was created that allowed for states that did not have adequate voting mechanisms and the act encouraged states to amend absentee voting laws. The 1944 elections did see a significant increase in the number of absentee ballots cast by soldiers with an estimated 3.4 million absentee votes being cast or about 25% of those in the armed forces casting an absentee ballot. Propaganda and culture Patriotism became the central theme of advertising throughout the war, as large scale campaigns were launched to sell war bonds, promote efficiency in factories, reduce ugly rumors, and maintain civilian morale. The war consolidated the advertising industry's role in American society, deflecting earlier criticism. The media cooperated with the federal government in presenting the official view of the war. All movie scripts had to be pre-approved. For example, there were widespread rumors in the Army to the effect that people on the homefront were slacking off. A Private SNAFU film cartoon (released to soldiers only) belied that rumor. Tin Pan Alley produced patriotic songs to rally the people. Posters helped to mobilize the nation. Inexpensive, accessible, and ever-present, the poster was an ideal agent for making war aims the personal mission of every citizen. Government agencies, businesses, and private organizations issued an array of poster images linking the military front with the home frontโcalling upon every American to boost production at work and home. Some resorted to extreme racial and ethnic caricatures of the enemy, sometimes as hopelessly bumbling cartoon characters, sometimes as evil, half-human creatures. A strong aspect of American culture then as now was a fascination with celebrities, and the government used them in its eight war bond campaigns that called on people to save now (and redeem the bonds after the war, when houses, cars, and appliances would again be available). The War Bond drives helped finance the war. Americans were challenged to put at least 10% of every paycheck into bonds. Compliance was high, with entire workplaces earning a special "Minuteman" flag to fly over their plant if all workers belonged to the "Ten Percent Club". Hollywood studios also went all-out for the war effort, as studios encouraged their stars (such as Clark Gable and James Stewart) to enlist. Hollywood had military units that made training filmsโRonald Reagan narrated many of them. Nearly all of Hollywood made hundreds of war movies that, in coordination with the Office of War Information (OWI), taught Americans what was happening and who the heroes and the villains were. Ninety million people went to the movies every week. Some of the most highly regarded films during this period included Casablanca, Mrs. Miniver, Going My Way, and Yankee Doodle Dandy. Even before active American involvement in the war, the popular Three Stooges comic trio were lampooning the Nazi German leadership, and Nazis in general, with a number of short subject films, starting with You Nazty Spy! released in January 1940 โ the very first Hollywood film of any length to satirize Hitler and the Nazis โ nearly two years before the United States was drawn into World War II. Cartoons and short subjects were a major sign of the times, as Warner Brothers Studios and Disney Studios gave unprecedented aid to the war effort by creating cartoons that were both patriotic and humorous, and also contributed to remind movie-goers of wartime activities such as rationing and scrap drives, war bond purchases, and the creation of victory gardens. Warner shorts such as Daffy โ The Commando, Draftee Daffy, Herr Meets Hare, and Russian Rhapsody are particularly remembered for their biting wit and unflinching mockery of the enemy (particularly Adolf Hitler, Hideki Tลjล, and Hermann Gรถring). Their cartoons of Private Snafu, produced for the military as "training films", served to remind many military men of the importance of following proper procedure during wartime, for their safety. MGM also contributed to the war effort with slyly pro-US short cartoon The Yankee Doodle Mouse with "Lt." Jerry Mouse as the hero and Tom Cat as the "enemy". To heighten the suspense, Hollywood needed to feature attacks on American soil and obtained inspirations for dramatic stories from the Philippines. Indeed, the Philippines became a "homefront" that showed the American way of life threatened by the Japanese enemy. Especially popular were the films Texas to Bataan (1942), Corregidor (1943), Bataan (1943), They Were Expendable (1945), and Back to Bataan (1945). The OWI had to approve every film before they could be exported. To facilitate the process the OWI's Bureau of Motion Pictures (BMP) worked with producers, directors, and writers before the shooting started to make sure that the themes reflected patriotic values. While Hollywood had been generally nonpolitical before the war, the liberals who controlled OWI encouraged the expression of New Deal liberalism, bearing in mind the huge domestic audience, as well as an international audience that was equally large. Prior to entering the war, the US government had already done two years of planning in terms of how to conduct censorship. Censorship would officially begin one hour after the Attack on Pearl Harbor which took place on December 7, 1941, censoring all cable, radiotelephone and telegraphic messages between the rest of the United States and Hawaii. Control of censorship was temporarily placed under FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover from December 8 to the 19th when the Office of Censorship was created via a presidential executive order with Byron Price leading the office for the duration of the war. Censorship was both practiced mandatorily and voluntarily depending on the circumstance. International communication was subjected to mandatory censorship while the domestic press participated on a voluntary basis as the federal government decided mandatory censorship would not be needed as long as patriotic broadcasters and publishers withheld any information that was deemed to harm the Allied war effort. The war would be covered by over 2,000 correspondents supplying their reports to newsreels, radios, magazines, newspapers and television which was an emerging technology. In the 1930s and 40s most Americans relied on print journalist to get their news. The news was prohibited from covering the travels of the president, the location of the newly moved National Archives or any diplomatic or military missions. Local activism One way to enlist everyone in the war effort was scrap collection (called "recycling" decades later). Many everyday commodities were vital to the war effort, and drives were organized to recycle such products as rubber, tin, waste kitchen fats (raw material for explosives), newspaper, lumber, steel, and many others. Popular phrases promoted by the government at the time were "Get into the scrap!" and "Get some cash for your trash" (a nominal sum was paid to the donor for many kinds of scrap items) and Thomas "Fats" Waller even wrote and recorded a song with the latter title. Such commodities as rubber and tin remained highly important as recycled materials until the end of the war, while others, such as steel, were critically needed at first. War propaganda played a prominent role in many of these drives. Nebraska had perhaps the most extensive and well-organized drives; it was mobilized by the Omaha World Herald newspaper. Sports In July 1942, the Office of Defense Transportation ordered an indefinite ban on auto racing in an effort to conserve rubber and gasoline. Baseball was at a peak in its popularity as the national pastime at the outset of the war. In January 1942, however, Commissioner of Baseball and former federal judge Kenesaw Mountain Landis handwrote a letter to President Roosevelt asking whether the President felt "professional baseball should continue to operate" given that "these are not ordinary times." Roosevelt wrote back the following day in what became known as the "Green Light Letter" that it would be "thoroughly worthwhile" and "best for the country to keep baseball going." He reasoned that the public would be working longer and harder hours than ever before and therefore had a greater need for recreation than ever before. In 1943 and 1944, Commissioner Landis, with input from Joseph Bartlett Eastman of the Office of Defense Transportation, ordered that all spring training take place north of the Potomac River and east of the Mississippi River in order to cut down on travel.: 134 Major League Baseball (MLB) teams regularly played exhibition games to raise money and morale for the war effort, often against military teams; Ford Frick testified in 1951 before the House Judiciary Committee that MLB teams played 61 games on military bases between 1942 and 1944. The league raised more than $2.1 million (equivalent to $38.4 million in 2025).: 134 Because many of the able-bodied young men of the United States enlisted or were drafted into service, many MLB roster spots went to players deemed physically unfit for service. They ranged from players such as Tommy Holmes, who had a chronic sinus condition,: 25 to Pete Gray, who had only one arm.: 332 Older stars such as Jimmie Foxx, Lloyd Waner, Ben Chapman, Babe Herman and Hal Trosky also found new playing opportunities and came out of retirement. After the United States entered the war, the country's two professional basketball leagues, the American Basketball League and National Basketball League, both shrunk to four teams. Much of the country's best basketball was played on military bases. More than 1,000 players left or postponed their professional football careers due to the war. Due to the depletion of rosters, the Pittsburgh Steelers merged with the Philadelphia Eagles in 1943 to become the Steagles and with the Chicago Cardinals in 1944 to become Card-Pitt. In 1943, the Cleveland Rams suspended operations altogether. During this time, due to the lack of well-rounded athletes available, the National Football League also began allowing free substitutions, which revolutionized the game. The U.S. Open was not held between 1942 and 1945 because of the scarcity of the rubber essential to the manufacture of golf balls. Many of the nation's golf courses were also converted to more practical use. For example, Augusta National Golf Club was used to raise cows for beef for Camp Gordon and Congressional Country Club was used as a special ops training ground while several others were converted to farmland. Attacks on U.S. soil Although the Axis powers never launched a full-scale invasion of the United States, there were attacks and acts of sabotage on U.S. soil. See also Notes References Further reading External links |
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/sustainability-education/] | [TOKENS: 2478] |
ืืืืื ืืืืกืกืช ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืื ืื ืืงืืืืืช ืืืื ืื ืืงืืืืืช ืคืืขื ืืืขืจืืช ืืืื ืื ืืคืืจืืืืช ืืืฉืจืื, ืืืกืืจืช ืืืฃ ื' ืืืขืื ืืืืืืจืืช ืืคืืืืืืช ืืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืืืื ืื ืืงืืืืืช ืืชืืืืก ืืชืคืืกื ืืจืืื ืฉื ืืงืืืืืช ืืืขืจืืช ืืืื ืื ืืืกืืก ืืืื ืื ืืงืืืืืช ืืฉืงืคื ืืืคืืืืืช ืืืืืจืช "ืื" ืืืืื ืืืคืขืืืืช ืืืื. ืืฉืงืคื ืืจืืื ืืืฉืืจืื ืืกืืืืชืืื ืืืชื ืื ื ืืืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืื ืืืจ ืฉืืฆืืจ ืืืจื ืืชืืฉืืช ืืืชืจ. ืืฉืงืคื ืืืืื ืช ืืืืืืื ืืืข, ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืช ืืืขืืืืื ืืืืจืืืช ืคืขืืื, ืืืฉืืื ืืืงืืจืชืืช ืืืกืืืืืจืืืช ืืืจืชืืช. "ืงืืืืืช ืืื ืืฉืงืคืช ืขืืื ืืืืงืจืืืช ืืืคืืืืืช, ืฉืฉืื ืืืจืื ืืช ืืืื ืืืื ืืืืจืืชื ืืชืื ืืื ื ืขืืืงื ืฉืืืื ื ืืืง ืืืืจื ืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืงืืื ืืช ืื ืืืฆืืจืื ืขื ืคื ื ืืืืจ ืืืจืฅ" (ืืจืื ืืฉื). ืืืจื, ืกืืืื ืืืืืื ืื ืขืืืืืช ืชืืื ืจืืืื ืฉืืืืฉืง ืืืชืงืืื ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืชืฉืชืืช ืืืชืืืืช ืฉื ืืงืืืืืช ืืืืื ืื ืืงืืืืืช. ืืงืืืืืช ืืืืื ืช ืืืฆืืจืช ืกืืืื ืืืื ืืืชืจ ืขืืืจ ืืืืจ ืื ืืืื ืืขืืืจ ืืืืจืืช ืืืืื, ืืืืื ื ืกืืืืชืืช, ืืืืืืช, ืืจืืืืชืืช ืืืืจืชืืช, ืชืื ืฆืืฆืื ืืคืืืขื ืืืืข ืืืกืืืื ืฉื ืืจืืช ืขื ืืื ืื ื ืืืื. ืืืจื ืืืื ืืงืืื ืืืืื ืืื ืชื ืื ืืืจืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืจืืืื ืืืืื ืืืจืื. ืงืืืืืช ืืื ืฆื ืืฉืขื ืืืื ื ืขืื ืืืืจ ืืืชืจืืช. ืืฉื ืื ืืืืจืื ืืช ืืืื ื ืืืช ืืืืืืกืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืชืจืืืืช, ืฆืขืืจืื ืืืืืืจืื ืืืื. ืืฆืขืืจืื ืืืื ื ืื ืขืืืื ืืชืงื ืืช ืื ืืงืื ืืืฉื ืืช ืืืืื; ืืืืื ืืืืืืจืื ืืืื ื ืื ืืื ื ืืืจืืฉืื ืืืืจ ืืฆืขืืจ ืขืืื ืืื ืืืชืจ, ืืื ืขืืืื ืืชืงื ืืืชืืื ืืฆืขืืจืื. ืืื ืื ืืงืืืืืช ืืื ืืชืืจ ืืื ืืื ืืืืจืชื ืืืฉืื ืื ืืชืืจืื ืคืืืืืืื ืืืืืืืื. ืืขืืจืืื ืื ืืืจืืืช ืกืืืืชืืช, ืฆืืง ืืืจืชื, ืืืงืื ืืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืืื, ืืืข ืืืขื, ืืืืืฅ ืกืื ืื ืืืื ืืชืืฉื, ืคืืชืื ืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืฉืืช ืืขืื. ืืืข ืืืขื, ืชืืืขื ืืืจืชืืช ืืืฉืืื ืืชืืืืช ืื ืืืกืืก ืืคืืชืื ืืืื ื ืฉื ืืชืืืืืื ืืืื ืืฆืืจื ืืฉืืืจื ืขื ืืกืืืื, ืื ืืชืืงืฃ ืืืืืืืช ืฉืืฉ ืืกืืืื ืืฉืืขืฆืื ืืื ืืื ืฉืื ื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืชืงืืื ืืืืง ืืืชื ื ืคืจื ืืื ื. ืื ืืืช ืืืืข ืืขืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืงืืืืืื, ืคืขืื ืืช ืืืืจืืืช ืกืืืืชืืช ืืืฆืจืื ืืื ืืช ืืฉืื ืื ืืืืจื ืืืืื ืฉืืืขืืื ืื ื ืฆืืื ืืฉืืืจ ืขื ืืกืืืื ืืขื ืืื ืืฉืืช. ืืืืข ืืืืขื ืืชืืืืก ืืืขืจืืืช ืืกืืืืชืืืช ืืืจืืืืช ืื ืืื, ืืืขืจืืืช ืืืืขืืืช ืืืื ืฉืืฆืจ ืืืื. ืืฉืืืคื ืืื ืฉืชืืืืืื ืืืื ื ืืช ืืืฉืคืขืืช ืืืืจืืืืช ืขื ืืืืจ ืืืจืฅ ืืืืืื ืืืกืืง ืืขืฆืื ืืื ืืชื ืืืืช ืจืฆืืื. ืืื ืชืชืคืชื ืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืฉื ืืชื ืืืืืืช ืืงืืืืืช ืื ืืืงืฉืจืื ืืืชื ืืืืจืื ืืืฆืืื ืืืฉืื ืฉืืืฉืืืื ืืืืคืืข ืืืืชืคืชื. ืื ื ืคืื, ืืืืื ื ืขื ืืืื ืื ืืงืืืืืช ืืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื ืื ืฉื ืงืฉืจ ืืชืืื ืืืื ืื ืืงืืืืืช ืืืืช ืขืื ื, ืืืจืืื ืืจืืืช ืชืืื ืืื ืื ืืงืืืืืช ืืืฉืจื ืืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืืงืืจืื ื: haogni@gmail.comืืืคืื: 052-8701132 ืืื ืื ืืงืืืืืช ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืฉืืจืืชืื ืืืจื ืืงืฆืจื ื... ืคืืจืื ืื ื ืื ื ืขืืืจ ืืืจืื ืื ืืขื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฆืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืื. ืืขืืื ืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืชืจื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืชืืื ืืชืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืืื (ืืจืืืช ืคืจืกืืืืช) ืืื ื ืืืืจืืืช ืืขืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืื. ืื ื ืชืงืืชื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืฉ ืืื ืืฆืขืืช ืื ืืขืจืืช ืื ืืืข ืืชืืื, ืืืคืฉืจืืชืื ืืคื ืืช ืืืื ื ืืงืืฉืืจ ืื. |
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/mabat/] | [TOKENS: 3446] |
ืืืืื ืืืืกืกืช ืืืืื ืืืืช ืชืืื ืืช ืื"ื - ืืฆืืื ืืช ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืชืืื ืืช ืื"ื ืืื ื ืชืืื ืืช ืืืืืืืช ืื ืืชื ืช ืืขื ื ืืชืืืืืื ืืฆืืืื ืื ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืขืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืืื, ืืืขืื ืืื ืื ืืฉืื ืืช ืืืืืืืื ืขื ื ืืฉืืื ืืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืืืช, ืชืื ืืชืืงืืืช ืืืืฉืืจืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืช ืืืืชืืืื ืืืื ื-21. ืืืืช ืืืืชืจืช ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืื ืคืจืืืงื ืืืืจ ืืืงืฆืืข ืืืชืืืืช.ืืชืืื ืืช ืืื ื ืชืืช ืฉื ืชืืช ืืืชืืืื ืืืืชื ื' ืืืืคืฉืจืช ืืชืืืืืื ืืฆืืืื ืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืงืฆืืข ืืืชืืืืช ืืืืฆืข ืืช ืคืจืืืงื ืืืืจ ืืฆืืจื ืืชื ืกืืชืืช ืืืขืฉืืช. ืื ืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืจืืื ืืืืืื ืืืงืฆืืขืืื ืืืขืืืืช ืืืงืจ ืืืืกืืืช ืืงืืืืื, ืืืืจืืช ืืืื-ืืง ืืืชืขืฉืืื ืืืืืืืืช ืืืฉืง ืืืฆื"ื.ืืคืจืืืงื ืฉืืืฆืขื ืืชืืืืืื ืืืื ืคืืจืฅ ืืจื, ืืขื ืืฉืืขืืช ืืจืืืื ืืืืช ืืืืืืื ืฉืื ืื, ืืืื ืืื ื ืืืืืืชืืช, ืจืืืืืืงื, ืขืืืื ืชืืื ื, ืืืงืจื-ืืขืืืื ืืฉืืืื ืฉื ืืกืคืจ ืชืืืื ืืขืช. ืืืกืืจืช ืืชืืื ืืช ืืฉืชืชืคื ืืชืืืืืื ืืืชืืืืืืช ืืชืืจืืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืชืื ืชื ืืืคืฉืจืืช ืืืืืื ืืืฉืชืชืฃ ืืชืืจืืืืช ืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืงืจืชืืืช ืืืืืฆื ืืช ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื. ืจืืฉืื ืืชืืื ืืช ืชืืืืื ืืืชื ื', ืืฉ ืืื ืจืขืืื? ืชืื ืืช ืื"ื - ืืืจืฉืื ืืขืืฆืืื! ืืฉืืืืช ื ืืชื ืืคื ืืช ืืืืื ืืืชืืืช: mabat@education.gov.il ืื ืืืืคืื 073-3931702 ืืื ืืืืขืืช ืืชืืื ืืช? ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืืขืืช ืืชืืืืืื ืืฆืืืื ืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืชื ื' ืืืืืืื ืืงืจืืช ืฆืืจ ืืืงืฆืืขืืช ืืื: 5 ืื"ื ืืชืืืืงื5 ืื"ื ืื ืืืืช5 ืื"ื ืืืขืื (ืืืืื, ืคืืืืงื ืื ืืืืืืืื) - ืืงืฆืืข ืืืื5 ืื"ื ืืงืฆืืข ืืืืื ืื ืืื ืืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืืืช:1. ืื ืืกืช ืืืื ืืช ืืจืืืืืืงื2. ืื ืืกืช ืชืืื ื3. ืื ืืกืช ืืืงืืจืื ืืงื4. ืืืขืืช ืื ืืกืืช - ืืื ืืืืืืช5. ืืืืืื ืืืืืื6. ืืืืข ืื ืชืื ืื Data Analysisืืืืื ืืื ืื ืขืืืืื ืืื ืืงืจืืืจืืื ืื ืืืฆืืื ืื ืืขืื, ืื ืื ืจืฉืืื ืืืืจืฉื ืืืืขืืืื ืืชืืื ืืช. ืืชืจืื ืืช ืืชืืื ืืช ืืื ืืชืงืืืื ืืชืืื ืืช? ืชืืืืืื ืืขืืืื ืืืืชื ื' ืืฉื ื"ื ืชืฉืค"ื ืืืขืืืืื ืืืจืืฉืืช ืืชืืื ืืช, ื ืืจืฉืื ืืขืืืจ ืืช ืืฉืืืื ืืืืื ืขื ืื ืช ืืืชืงืื ืืชืืื ืืช: ืฉืื ื- ืจืืฉืื ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืืื ืืืคืก ืืงืืื ืฉืื ื- ืื ืก ืคืชืืื ืืงืืื ืฉื ืชืืื ืืช ืื"ื ืืืื ืื ืจืฉืืื ืฉืื ื- ืืืืจืช ื ืืฉื ืืคืจืืืงื, ืืฉืชืชืคืืช ืืืคืืฉื ืืืจืื ืืงืืื ืื ืืืืฉืช ืืืฆืขื ืฉืื ื- ืืืืขื ืืชืืืืืื ืขื ืงืืื ืื ืื ืงืืื ืืชืืื ืืช ืฉืืื ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืืจ ืืงืืื ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืืกืืจืช ืืืืืืืื, ืืชืืืืืื ืืฉืชืชืคื ืืื ืกืื, ืกืื ืืืช ืืืคืืฉื ืื ืืืื ืืืืฅ ืืืืช ืืกืคืจ, ืืืช ืืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืื ืงืืืช ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืฉืจ ืืกืืืขื ืืชืื ืื ืืืืืฉืื ืืคืจืืืงื. ืืชืืืืืื ืืงืืื ืื ืืืื ืืจืื ืืฉืืืขืืช ืืื ืืื ืืืชืขืฉืืื, ืืืงืืืื ืืฆื"ื. ืฉืื ื: ืจืืฉืื ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืืื ืืืคืก ืืงืืื ืืืชืจ.ืฉืื ื: ืื ืก ืคืชืืื ืืงืืื ืฉื ืชืืื ืืช ืื"ื ืืืื ืื ืจืฉืืื.ืฉืื ื: ืืืืจืช ื ืืฉื ืืคืจืืืงื, ืืฉืชืชืคืืช ืืืคืืฉื ืืืจืื ืืงืืื ืื ืืืืฉืช ืืฆืขื.ืชืืจืื ืืืจืื ืืืืฉืช ืืฆืขืช ืืคืจืืืงื - 12 ืืืื 2022.ืฉืื ื: ืืืืขื ืืชืืืืืื ืขื ืงืืื ืื ืื-ืงืืื ืืชืืื ืืช. ืืกืืฃ ืืฉื ื: ืืื ื ืงืืฅ ืื ืืืจืช ืชืืื ืืช ืคืจืืืงื ืื"ื. ืืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืช ืืืืืืืื ืข"ื ืื ืืื ืืงืฆืืขืืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื, ืืชืขืฉืืื, ืืงืืืื ืืฆื"ืืกืื ืช ืื ืืื: ืืฆืื ืจืืฉืื ืืช ืฉื ืืคืจืืืงืืืืกืื ืช ืคืกื: ืืืืืช ืขืืืชืืืกืื ืช ืงืืฅ: ืืฆืืช ืชืืฆืจ ืืืื ืืื ืืืืฉืช ืื"ื ืฉืื ื - ืกืคืืืืจ-ืื ืืืจ: ืืืฉื ืืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืข"ื ืื ืืื ืืงืฆืืขืืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื, ืืชืขืฉืืื, ืืงืืืื ืืฆื"ืืฉืื ื - ืคืืจืืืจ: ืืืฉืช ืกืคืจ ืืคืจืืืงืืฉืื ื - ืืจืฅ: ืืฆืืช ืืคืจืืืงืืื, ืืชืืจืืช ืืืจืฆืืช ืืงืืืขืช ืฆืืื ืืืืจืืช.ืืืขืื ืืชืืจืืช ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืงืืข ืื ืืฆืืื ืฉื ืืืื ืช ืืืืจืืช ืขื ืืื ื ืฆืื ืืืคื"ืจ ืฉืืฉืชืชืฃ ืืืืชื ืฉืื.ืชืืืื ืืชืืื ืืช, ืฉืืื ื ื ืืื ืืืกืืจืช ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื (ืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืช ืืกืคืจ) ืืืืื ืืช ืืืงืฆืืข ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืช ืกืคืจื, ืืืืฉืจ ืืชืืืื ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืขื ืฆืืื ืืืงืฆืืข ืืืชืืืืช ืืืฉืืื ืืช ืืืืื.ืฉืื ื - ืืื: ืงืืืขืช ืืฉืืืช ืื ืกืืขื ืืชืืจืืช ืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืชืืื ืืช ื ืืชื ืช ืืชืืืืืื ืืฆืืืื ืื ืืื ืขืืืช ืืืกืืจืช ืืืืฃ ืืืฆืืื ืืช ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื, ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื ืชืืื ืืช ืื"ื - ืืฆืืื ืืช ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืฉืืจืืชืื ืืืจื ืืงืฆืจื ื... ืคืืจืื ืื ื ืื ื ืขืืืจ ืืืจืื ืื ืืขื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฆืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืื. ืืขืืื ืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืชืจื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืชืืื ืืชืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืืื (ืืจืืืช ืคืจืกืืืืช) ืืื ื ืืืืจืืืช ืืขืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืื. ืื ื ืชืงืืชื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืฉ ืืื ืืฆืขืืช ืื ืืขืจืืช ืื ืืืข ืืชืืื, ืืืคืฉืจืืชืื ืืคื ืืช ืืืื ื ืืงืืฉืืจ ืื. |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืื_ืืขืฆืืืืช_(ืืจืืฉืืื)] | [TOKENS: 4464] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืื ืืขืฆืืืืช (ืืจืืฉืืื) ืื ืืขืฆืืืืช (ืืฉืื ืืจืฉืื: ืื ืืจื ืืืืฃ) ืืื ืคืืจืง ืขืืจืื ื ืืืจืื ืืจืืฉืืื, ืืืฉืชืจืข ืืื ืจืืื ืืืื ื'ืืจื' ืืืขืจื ืืจืืื ืืจืฉืื ืืืจืื ืืืืืจ ืฆืจืคืช ืืืจืื, ืจืืื ืืื ืืฆืคืื ืืจืืื ืื ืฉื ืื ืืฉืจืื ืืืืช ืืงืืจืืช ืืืืกืืื ืืืฉื ืืืืืืืื ืืกืืืื ืืช ืืืืจื. ืืืกืืืจืื ืฉืื ืืื ืืื ืืจืืื ืืืง ืืืืช ืืงืืจืืช ืืืืื. ืืืจืฅ 1921, ืืืื ืืืืจืืื ืฆ'ืืจืืก ืจืืืจื ืืฉืื ืชืืื ืืช ืื ืืื ืขืืจ ืื ืืืืืจื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืฉืืืืฉื ืืงืจืงืข ืืขืืจ. ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืืืจ ืฉืื ืคืชืื ื ืจืื ืืื ืื ืืื ืืกืืื ืืขืืจ ืืขืชืืงื, ืขื ืืกืคืจ ืฉืืืืืช ืืฆืคืื ืืืขืจื ืืขืืจ. ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืืืจ ืืฉืื ื-"Park system or reserve for open spaces (public or private) โ". ืืฉื ืช 1924 ื ืื ื ืจืืื ืืืื ื'ืืจื' ืืชืืื ืืช ืืื ืืืขืจื. ืืจืืื ืชืืื ื ืืืืจ ืืื ืจืืื ืืคื ืืชืื ืช ืืจืืืช, ืื ืชืืืื ื ืกืื ืขื ืืืืจ ืฆืจืคืช. ืืฉื ืืช ื-30 ืืืงื ืืืงื ืืจืืฉืื ืฉื ืืื, ืืงืจืื ืืืื ืื ืืืืจ ืฉืจืื. ืฉืืจ ืืฉืื ืืืฉืื ืืฉืืฉ ืืืืช ืงืืจืืช ืืืื ืืืขืืืช ืืืืงืฃ. ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืชืืจ ืฉื ืืจืืฉืืื, ืฉืืืื ืืืืจืืื ืื ืจื ืงื ืื ื-1944, ืฉืื ืื ืืืืจ ืฉืจืื ืืืืืจ ืืฉืื ืฆืืืืจื ืคืชืื, ืืฉืืจ ืืฉืื ืืืืช ืงืืจืืช. ืืฉื ืช 1948 ืขืืจ ืฉืื ืืืช ืืงืืจืืช ืืืื ืืืคืืืจืืคืืก ืื ืืกื ื ืคืงืืื ืืื ืืขืืืจื ืืฉื ืช 1952 ืืืื ืขืืจืืืช ืืจืืฉืืื. ื-1957 ืืืื ืขืืืืืช ืคืืชืื ืืืืฉืจืช ืืืงื ืืืขืจืื ืืคืืจืง ืฆืืืืจื ืืชืจืืืช ืืืืืช ืืจืื ืืคืจืืงื. ืืื ื ืื ื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืืื ืืขืฆืืืืช 1958, ืืฉืื ืืกืืฃ ืฉื ืช 1959, 10 ืืืื ืืคื ื ืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืกืช ืืจืืืขืืช ืื ืืืืืช ืืื ืื-ืืืจืืื, ืขืืืื ืฉืืจืจื ืืืงืืจืช ืืขืืชืื ื ืืชืงืืคื ืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืฉืืื. ืืืงืืื ืืคืืชืื ืืื ืืืื ืขืืจืืืช ืืจืืฉืืื ืืคืืชืื ืืฉืืืื ืกืืื ืืื, ืชืื ืฆืืฆืื ืฉืืื. ื-1957 ืืืงื ืืืขืจื ืืื ืืืช ืกืืื ืืื ื ืืจืืฉืืื ืื ืกืื ืจืืื ืืืืืข, ืืืืฉ ืืืฉื ืืื ืืื ืืืื ื. ื-1960 ืืืงื ืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืืจืืืืืจืื ืืืืงื ืืฆืคืื ื ืฉื ืืื (ืืืื ืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืื ืืกืืื ืืจืืฉืืื). ืืื ืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืืืงื ืืืจืฉ ืื ืืื ืืฉื ืช 1968 ืืืื ืืืช ืืืจืื (ืฉืืืงื ืืืืชื ืฉื ื). ืืื ืืื ืคืขื ืขื ืฉื ืช 2005. ืืฉื ื ืื ืืื ืืจืื ืฉืืขืื ืืืื ืื ืืื ืืช ืขื ืฉืื ืืื ืืื ืืช ืืืืืืื ืืกืืืื ืืช. ื-1961 ื ืื ื ืื ืืื ืืจืื ืืืืจ ืืคืื ืช ืืจืืืืืช ืืืื ื'ืืจื' ืืืืจืื, ืื-1962 ืจืืฉื ืืขืืจืืื ืืช ืืืืจืฉ ืืืืื ืื, ืืฆืืจื ืื ืืืช ืืืช ืืขืืจืืื. ืืฉื ืช 1964 ืืืจืืื ืืขืืจืืื ืขื ืชืืจืืช ืืืจืืืืื ืื ืืื ืืืืจืืื ืคืจืืค' ืืืคืจื ืื ืกืคืื. ืื ืกืคืื ืชืื ื ืืขืืืจ ืืขืืจืืื ืืืื ืื 22 ืงืืืืช ืืืื ืืขืืจืืื ืื ืืฆืืืื ืืืืืก ืชืงืฆืื ืืืงืืช ืืืื ื ืืืคืจืืืงื ื ืืื. ืืฉื ืช 1965 ื ืืืจ ืืื ืงืืืง ืืจืืฉืืช ืืขืืจืืื ืืืืืื ืฉืื ืืื ืืขืืจืืื ืฆืจืื ืืืืืช ืขื ืืืืื ืืื ืืืงื ืืขืืจ ืืกืื ืืฉืืืคื ืืืืืืื. ืืืืฉื ืื ืชื ืืขืืจืืื ืืช ืงืจืืืช ืขืืจืืืช ืืจืืฉืืื ืืืืืจ ืกืคืจื. ืืืืจ ืืืืื ืืชืืื ืืช ืืื ืืืช ืืขืืจืืื ืืืชืื ืืืจื ืืขืืจืืื ืืช ืืฉืื ืืืืืื ืคืจืืืื ืืฆืืจื ืืงืืช ืืืื ืืืื ืจืื ืคืืืื ืืจืืฉืืื ืฉืืืฉืื ื-1975. ืืฉื ืืช ื-60 ืฉื ืืืื ื-20, ืฉื ืื ืกืคืืจืืช ืืืืจ ืฉืืืงื, ืืืื ื ืืื. ืืคื ืืืืืืืื ืืขืืชืื ืืช, ืืืื ืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืืกืืื ืืคืจืืืื ืืื ืืฉืืืชืื ืืช ืืฆืืืืื ืืคืืืขืื ืืืชืงื ื ืืื. ืืืง ืืืจ ืฉืืืฉ ืืืืืื (ืื ืจืื ืืฉืื ืฉืขืืื ืืืงื ืืื ืืื ื-1968) ืืืฉืื ืฉืกืืื ืืืื ืืจื ืืคื ืืืืจืฉ ืื ืืื ืืืืืชืจ. ืืื ืื ืืืื ืฉืื-ืืืจืืื ืืขืืืจ ืืืงืืจืช ืขื ืืื ืืืจ ืืืงืก ืืคืชืืื ืขื ืื ืฉืื ื ืฉืชืื ืื ืืจืื ืขืฆืื. ื-1970, ืืื ืฉืืคืืฅ ืืืง ืืื ืืืชืงืืคื ืืื ืืืืจืืช ืืืืืื ืชืจืืืืช ืฉืืืืกื ืืงืจื ืืืจืืฉืืื. ื-1971 ื ืื ื ืืืงืื ืืคืกื "ืกืฃ ืืจืืฉืืื", ืืขืฉื ืืื ืืคืกื ืืฉืืืืืฆืจื ื'ืื ืืจืค ืืืืงืื ื ืงืจื ืฉื ืฉืื ืฉื ืืืืจ ืฉืจืื. ืืคืกื ื ืงื ื ืืฉื ืื ืืืืจืื ืืช ืืืืื ืฉื ืืจืค ืืืื ื ืืฆืจ ืืืืจ ืืืชื ืืคื ืืชืืื ืฉืืืื. ืืกืืื ืืคืกื ืืืงื ืืื ื ืขืืื, ืฉืื ืคืขื ืืฉื ืฉื ืื ืจืืืช "ืงืคื ืจืื ืื", ืืืจ ืื ืกื ืืฃ ืฉื ืงืคื ื'ื ืืืกืขืืช "ืืืืืก". ืืงืืื ืืชืืชืื ื ืฉื ืืืื ื ืืงืื ืืฉื ืช 2011 ืืืกืขืื ืืืจืืฉืืื ืืืื ืืจืืกื ืืช ืืกืขืืช "ืฆ'ืืงืจื". ืืืืง ืื ืฉื ืืื ืืืืงื ืื "ืงืืืกืง ืกืืืืงื" ืืืขืืืชื ืฉื ื ืืกืื "ืกืืืืงื" ืฉืื, ืืืืื ื ืืืืื ืืกืคืจ ืืืช ืฉื ืงืืืฆืช ืืืช"ืจ ืืจืืฉืืื. ืืื ืฉืืคืฅ ืืืืืฉ ืฉืื ืืฉื ืืช ื-90 ืืืืงืืฉ ืืืืจื ืฉื ืืืจื ืืืืฃ (ืื '). ืืฉื ืช 2014, ื ืื ื ืืืืืืช ืืขืืจืืื ืืืช ืงืคื ืืืจืื ืืื, ืฉืฉืืืง ืืืืจื ืฉืืืฆืืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืคืืชืื ืืจืืฉืืื. ืืืฉ ืืขืกืงืื ืืืจืืฉืืื ืขืื ืืืืืจ ืืื ืืืืจื ืืืืืื ืืคืชืื ืืช ืืืช ืืงืคื ืื ืืฉืืชืืช. ืืืืืืกื 2015 ืืืจืืื ืขืืจืืืช ืืจืืฉืืื ืขื ืชืืจืืช ืคืชืืื ืืชืืฉืืื ืืืืืจืืืืื ืืจืขืืื ืืช ืืฉืืงืื ืืืขืืฆืื ืืืืฉ ืฉื ืืจืืืช ืืืืื ืืกืืืืชื, ืืฉืืืืื ืืืืง ืืฉืืจ ืืืงื ืืื, ืืืช ืืืืจ ืฉืืืื ืื ืืืฉื ืขืฉืจืืช ืฉื ืื. ืืืฆืืืจ 2015 ืืืฆืื ืืจืืข ืืืฆืขืืช ืืืืืืช. ืคืขืืืืช ืืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืขืฆืืืืช ืืชื ืืืื, ืืืงืื ืฉืืืฉ ืืืจืช "ืงืจืืืื ื" ืืืคืืฉืื ืืืืืกืงืกืืืืื ืืืจืืฉืืื, ืื ืืคื ืืืจืืื ืคืืืช ืืืืื ื ืื ืืฉื ืื ืืืืจืื ืืช. ืืืื ืกืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืื, ืืชืงืืืื ืื ืขืฆืจืืช ืฉื ืืืืช ืืคืชืื ืืืจืืฉืืื, ืืื ืืื ืฉืืืฉ ื ืงืืืช ืืกืืื ืื ืืคืชืืื ืืืฆืขื ืืืืืื ืืืจืืฉืืื. ืื ืืขืฆืืืืช ืืฉืืฉ ืืืงืื ืื ืืื, ืืืื ืื ืืคืฉ ืืขืืืืื ืืืงืื ืื ืืืจืื ืืจืืฉืืื. ืืกืืื ืืื ืฉืืื ืืืช ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืืืฉืื ืื ื ืขืจืืืช ืื ืืขืืชืื ืขืฆืจืืช, ืืื ืื ืืืืืจ ืฆืจืคืช ืืกืืืื. ืืื ืืกืืืื ื ืฉื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืื ืืขืืจืืช ื ืขืจื ืืื ืืฉื ืื 2006โ2010, ืืื ืืืคืขืืช ืืืจืื ืืืื ืื ืืืืจืืขืื ืฉืื ืื. ืืื ืืฉื ืช 2004 ืืชืงืืื ืืื ืืื ืฉื ื ืืืืืฉ ืืืืืกื ืคืกืืืื ืืืืจื ืืืจืืฉืืื โ "ืขืืจ ืืืืจื". ืืื ืคืขื ืืชืงืืื ืืื ืืืจืืข "ืืืจืช ืื ืืขืจ". ืืืงืื ืืจืืืืื ืืกืจื "ืืคืืจ" ืฉื ืืืชื ืคืืงืก ืืชืจืืฉืื ืืฉืื ืืื. ืืคืื ืช ืืื ืงืืื ืืงืื ืฆืืืืจื ืฉืืืกื ืืืืขืืื ืืืืืงื ืื ืืขืจ ืขื ืืื 21. ืจืื ืื ืขืืื ื ืื ืืคืืจืื ืคืืจืื ืืจืืฉืืื ืืื ืฉืขืจ ืืื ืื ืืฉืืื ืืงืฉืืจืื ืืขืืจ ืืจืืฉืืื, ืืขืืจ ืืงืืืฉื ืืฉืืืฉ ืืืชืืช ืืืขืืช ืืืืกืืืจืื ืืืจืืื ืืืืืจืืืช. ืืคืืจืื ืืฆืื ืืช ืืืืกืืืจืื ืฉื ืืขืืจ, ืืชืจืื ืงืืืฉืื ืืืื ืื ืืฉืืืื ืืขืืจ, ืืืฉืื, ืจืืืืืช, ืฉืืื ืืช ืืื ืงืืืืืช ืืขื ืืื ืืช ืืืืืชืื. ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://www.matific.com/isr/he/home/contact-us] | [TOKENS: 604] |
ืชืคืจืื ื ืืืฉืืช ืืขืฆืืื ืืช ืืืชืชืื ืขื ืืืืื ืืชืืืืช ืืจืชืงืช ืืืืืกืกืช ืจืืืืช ืชืืื ืืืกืข ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืขืืจืช ืืชืืืืงื ืืื ืืจืืงืืืืืช ืืืื ื ืืืืช ืฉืชืคื ืคืขืืื ืขื ืืืืคืืง ืืื ืืฉืคืจ ืืช ืชืืฆืืืช ืืืืืื ืืื ืจืื ืฆืจื ืงืฉืจ ืืื ืขืื ืขื ืืืืคืืง, ืืงืืื ืืืืข ืขื ืืืืจืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืชืืืืช ืืืฉืืช ืืคื ืืจืืฉืืชืืื. ืจืื ืืืฆื ื ืืชื ืืืคืืง ืืช ืืืืจื ืืืกืืืื ืืืืืืืืืช ืืืืงืืคื ืืืชืืืืงื, ืืืืชื ืืืืืช ืืกืคืจ. ืืฆืื ืืช ืืืฉืืืื ืืืจืืฉืื ืืื ืืื ืืฉืคืจ ืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืคืืง ืฉืืื. ืืื ืขืื ืขื ืืืืคืืง, ืืืฆื ืืื ืืืืื ืืขืืืจ ืืฉืคืจ ืืช ืชืืฆืืืช ืืืชืืืืงื ืืืงืื ืืืืข ืขื ืืืืจืื. ืืฆืื ืืช ืืืฉืืืื ืืืจืืฉืื ืืื ืืื ืืฉืคืจ ืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืคืืง ืฉืืื. ืื ืฉืื ื ืืฆืืขืื ืคืขืืืืืืช ืืชืืืืืช ืืืฆืจ ืืืืข ื ืืกืฃ ืืืจื |
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/hi-tech/] | [TOKENS: 6609] |
ืืืืื ืืืืกืกืช ืืืืื ืืืืช ืชืืื ืืช ืืืืืืง ืชืืื ืืช ืืืืืืง ืืื ืชืืื ืืช ืคืืจืฆืช ืืจื, ืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืฉื ืืช ืฉื ืืขืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืฉื ืฉืืฉืืื ืฉื ืืฉืจืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืง ืืืืืื. ืืืื ืงืจืืื ืืคืขืืื ืขืืืจ ืืื ืืฉืืชืคืื ืืขืืฆืื ืืืจ ืืขืชืื ืฉื ืืฉืจืื โ ืืืจ ืฉืืืืื ืฉืื ืื ืขืืืง ืืจื ืืื ืื ืืืืฉื ืืช- ืืืืืื ืืช ืืื ืืคืืขื ืฉื ืืืืืืง ืืืืืืื ืืืฉืจืืืืช ืืืื. ืชืืื ืืช ืืืืืืง ืืื ืืืฉืื ืฉืชื ืืืืืืช ืืืฉืื: ืืืืื 172, ืฉืขื ืืื ื ืืืฆืช ืฉืืง ืืขืืืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืงืืืื ืืื ืื ืืฉื ืืืชืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืช ืืขืืื ืืืืืืืื, ืืืืืื 550, ืฉืขื ืืื ื ืฆืืฆืื ืคืขืจืื ืืืืจื ืืขืจืืืช. ืืชืืื ืืช ื ืืขืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืงืฃ ืืืื ืืื ืืฉื ืืืืืื ืืชืขืฉืืืช ืืืืืืง ืืืฉืจืื, ืืืืฆืขืืช ืงืืืื ืชืืืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืชืืืืงื, ืคืืืืงื ืืืืขื ืืืืฉื, ืชืื ืืงื ืืืช ืืืืข ืืืืืืื ืืืืช ืื ืืจืฉืื ืืืฉืชืืืืช ืขืชืืืืช ืืชืืื.ืืชืืื ืืช ืฉืื ืืืฉ ืืืืื ืขื ืฉืืืื ืืืืืืกืืืช ืืืืฆืื ืืกืจ โ ืืืื ื ืฉืื, ืืืืจื ืืขืจืืืช ืืชืืฉืื ืืคืจืืคืจืื โ ืืชืื ืืืจื ืืงืื ืืืฉื ืืช, ืฉืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืืืืืืืืช ืืืจืชืืช. ืืฉื ืื, ืืชืืื ืืช ืืฆืืขื ืืขื ืื ืืขืจืืชืืื ืืืืฉื ืืื ืืจืืืช ืฉืื ืืช: ืจืฉืืชืืช, ืืืช-ืกืคืจืืช ืืคืจืื ืืช. ืืืช ืืจืืืช ืืืฉืจืืช ืืฆืืืชืื ืืื ืืืืื, ืคืืชืื ืืกืืืื ืืฆืืื ืืช ืืืฆืืจืช ืืืืืจืื ืืื ืืขืจืืช ืืืื ืื ืืชืขืฉืืื ืืืฆืื. ืืืืืืืกืืืช ืืืืขืืืืืช ืืชืืื ืืช ืืงืืืืช ืืขื ืื ืคืจืื ืืื ืืืืืช ืชืืื ืืืช ืืงืืืื ืื ืืช ืืชืืื ืืืช ืืืืจื ืืขืจืืืช. ืขื ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืืื ืืืืช ืกืคืจื ื ืืขื ืืืืืืข ืืฆืืื ืืช ืืืขืืช- ืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืืื ืืช ืฉืืขืืจ ืชืืืืื ืืขื ืืกืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืกืืืืื ืืืฆืืื ืืกืืื "ืืืจืืืง" ืืืืช ืืกืคืจ. ืืืืื ืืขื ืืง ืืืชื ืืกืคืจ ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืขื ืื ืืืคืจื ืฆืืืืื ืืืืืืง ืืขืจื ืืืฆืืืื ืืช ืืืืช ืกืคืจื ืขื ืื ืจืืืื: ืื ืืืื, ืืืืืื ืืฆืืืื ืืช ืืืช ืกืคืจืืื, ืกืืื ืืืจืื ืืชืืืืืื. ืืืืื ืืชืืงื ืืฉืืืฉื ืฆืืจื ืคืขืืื ืกืื ืจืืืืื: ืืื ืืืช ืกืคืจ ืืชืืื ืืช ืืฆืืจืฃ ืืืืื ืืงืฆืืขื ืืืขื ืชืืื ืืช ืืืืืืง, ืืฉืจ ืชืืื ืืืืืืฉ ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืืช ืกืคืจืืช, ืืืฆืืจืช ืืขื ืื ืืืงืืืื ืชืืืืืื ืืืืงืื ืชืืฆืื. ืื ืื ืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืืืืื ืคืืจืื ืืืืื ืืฆืืื ืืช ืืืช ืกืคืจื ืืืชืืื ืืืืืขืช ืชืืื ืืช ืขืืืื ืืืช ืกืคืจืืช ืืืืกืกืช ื ืชืื ืื ืืืขืืื.ืืืืื ืืืืช ืกืคืจื ื ืฉืขื ืขื ืืงืืกืืกืื ืฉื ืฉืืชืคืืืืช ืืืื ืคืืช ืืืืงืืช ืื ืืกืื ืืงืืืืื ืืืืืจืืื, ืืืืืฆืจืืช ืืืืืจืื ืืฉืืขืืชืืื ืืชืขืฉืืื, ืืืงืืืื ืืืชืืื ืืืช ืืืชื ืคืืจืืืืืช ืืืฉืืฉืืช ืืืืคืืืืช ืืื. ืื ืืื ื ืืขืื ืืืกืก ืชืฉืชืืช ืืฆืืื ืืช ืืืกืืืช ืืืืื ืืจืื, ืืืฆืืจ ืืืืืจ ืจืฆืืฃ ืืื ืฉืืื ืืืื ืื (ื'-ื"ื), ืืืืขืฆืื ืืช ืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืช ืกืคืจืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืฉืื ืื. ืืชืืื ืืช ืฉืืืคืช ืืืขื ืืง ืืชืืืืืืช ืืืชืืืืืื ืืช ืืืืฉืืจืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืช ืืืจืืฉืื ืืืฉืชืืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืชืขืฉืืืช ืืืืืืง ืืขืชืื, ืชืื ืืชืืงืืืช ืืืขื ื ืืืืืกืื โ ืืืจืื ืืจืฉืืชืืช ืืขื ืืจืื ืืคืจืื ืืช. ืืื ืืืืกืกืช ืขื ืฉืืืฉื ืฆืืจืื ืืจืืืืื: ืฆืืจืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืื ืืขื ืื ืืชืื ืืช: ืชืืืืจ ืืืืืื ืืจื ืืืืงืืืคืื, ืืจืชืื ืื ืืืืงืชืื ืื; ืฉืืืื ืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืชืงืืืืช ืืืืื ืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืขืฆืืช ืฉืืืื ืืื ืืืืช ืืืืืจืช; ืคืืชืื ืฆืืืชื ืืืจืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืืจืืช ืืืืกืฆืืคืืื ืืช ืืืืคื ืืืืกืก ืืืืื ืืืืช; ืืืืืง ืืชืืื ืืื ืืื ืฉื ืชืืืืืืช, ืชืืืืืื, ืืืจืื ืืฆืืืชืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืกืื ืืืช ืืืืืื ืคืจืืืงืืืืืช ืืื ืคืืชืื ืชืืืฉืช ืืกืืืืืช ืืงืืืื ืฉืืืืื ืืืืจื; ืืฆื ืืื, ืืืงืืฉืช ืชืฉืืืช ืื ืืืืฉืจืช ืื ืืืื, ืืืขืฆืืช, ืืืจื ืืง ืืืืืืื ืืฆืืื ืืช, ืืื ืืขื ืงืช ืชืืจืืฆืื ืืืชื ืกืคืจ ืืฉืคืจื ืืืจืืืง. ืืชืืจ ืืื ืืืืจืื ืืืืคื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืงืืืืืช ืืืจืื ืืงืฆืืขืืืช, ืืกืืืช ืืืืจืืช ืืงืฆืืขืืช ืืืง, ืฉืืืื ืืชื ืืืื, ืืื ืืฉืช ืืขื ืื ืืืจืืืืืืื ืขืืื ืืื. ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืืืืง ืฉื ื ืืืืื ืืคืขืื ืืฉืืืืื โ ืืืืื ืืจืฉืืชื ืืืืืื ืืืืชึพืกืคืจื. ืืฉื ืืื ื ืืชื ืื ืืขื ืื ืืืืื, ืืืืชืืืื ืืชืืืืืื, ืืฆืืืชืื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืช, ืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืื ืงืืืช ืืืืฆื ืืืื ืื ืื ืืืคืขืื. ืฉื ื ืืืืืืื ืืืืกืกืื ืขื ืชืืื ืืช ืขืืืื ืืืขืืืืช, ืืขื ืื ืืืคืจื ืฆืืืืืื ืืืืชืืืื ืืฆืจืืื ืืืงืืืืื, ืืฉืืชืคืืช ืืืื ืืื ืื ืืืืจืืื ืืจืืืื ืืืื. ืืืืื ืืจืฉืืชื ืืืคืขื ืืจื ืืจืฉืืืืช ืืืงืืืืืช, ืืชืื ืจืืืื ืืขืจืืชืืช ืจืืื, ืืืืจื ืืืฆืืจ ืชื ืืื ืืชืฉืชืืืช ืืงืืืื ืืฆืืื ืืช ืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืืกืืืช ืืืื ืื ืืจืฉืืช. ืืื ืืชืืงื ืืชืื ืื ืืืืืื ืจืฉืืชืืื, ืชืื ืืคืขืืช ืงืืืืืช ืืืจืื, ืืืืื ืืืขืจืื, ืืืืกืืก ืฉืืชืืคื ืคืขืืื ืจืืืื. ืื ืืืช ืชืื ืืืฆืืืืช ืืชืืื ืืช ืขืืืื ืจืฉืืชืืช ืืืขื ืงืช ืืขื ืื ืืืืชืืืื ืืฆืืจืื ืืฉืื. ืืืืื ืืืืชึพืกืคืจื ืคืืขื ืืชืื ืืืกืืืช ืืืื ืื ืขืฆืื, ืืืชืืงื ืืขืืืืช ืขืืืง ืขื ืื ืืื, ืฆืืืชืื, ืชืืืืืื ืืงืืืื ืืืฆืืจืช ืฉืื ืื ืชืจืืืชื ืืคืืืืื ืืชืืฉื. ืืื ืืืืกืก ืขื ืชืืื ืืช ืขืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืื ืืืกื, ืืืืืื ืืืืืขืช ืืฆืืื ืืช ืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืง ืืืชื ื ืคืจื ืืืขืฉืืื ืืืืชึพืกืคืจืืช โ ืชืื ืืืืืง ืืืืืื ืืคื ืืืืช, ืคืืชืื ืืงืฆืืขื ืืืืืื ืืืฉื, ืืืคืขืืช ืืขื ืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืืชืืืื ืืฆืืจืื ืืืช ืืกืคืจ. ืืงืื ืืงืืจื ืืืชื ืืกืคืจ ืืืฆืืจืฃ ืืชืืื ืืช ืืชืคืจืกื ืืืืืฉ ืืืื ืืืื ืืืืขื ืืืชื ืกืคืจ ืืืื ืืืคืื 4-10 ืืื ืืืจืฅ.ืืื ืื, ืืืงืืื ืขืชืืื ืืืชืคืจืกื ืื ืืงืจืืื ืืจืฉืืืืช ืืืฆืืจืฃ ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืื ืืืืขืืช ืืืื ืืจืฉืืืืช. ืืื ืืขืงืจืื ืืช ืืืจืืืืื ืฉื ืชืืื ืืช ืืืืืืง ืืื ืืืคืจื ืฆืืืืืืช ืืืืืฉืืช โ ืื ืจืฉืืช ืืื ืืืกื ืืื ืืื ืืงืืืื ืืช ืืืขื ืื ืืืชืื ืืฆืจืืื, ืืืืคืืื ืื ืืืืชืืจืื ืืืืืืืืื ืฉืืื. ืืฆืืจื ืื ืืืฆืขืช ืืขืจืืช ืืขื ืื ืจืืื, ืืื ื ื ืืชื ืืืืืจ ืืช ืืืืื ืืืชืืื ืืืช ืืจืืืื ืืืื ืืืืชืจ. ืื ืืื ืืจืฉืืืืช ืืืชื ืืกืคืจ ืืืื ืขื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืขืืื ืืืขื ืืชืืื ืืช, ืืฉืจ ืืกืืืข ืืื ืืืช ืชืืื ืืช ืขืืืื ืืืชืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืชืืืื ืืืืจื ืืื. ืืกื ืืืขื ืื ืืืืืฉ ืืืฆืข ืืื ืืืชืจ: ืชืืืืจ ืืืืืื ืืจื ืืืืงืืืคืื, ืืจืชืื ืื ืืืืงืชืื ืื; ืฉืืืื ืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืชืงืืืืช ืืืืื ืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืขืฆืืช ืฉืืืื ืืื ืืืืช ืืืืืจืช; ืคืืชืื ืฆืืืชื ืืืจืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืืจืืช ืืืืกืฆืืคืืื ืืช ืืืืคื ืืืืกืก ืืืืื ืืืืช; ืืืืืง ืืชืืื ืืื ืืื ืฉื ืชืืืืืืช, ืชืืืืืื, ืืืจืื ืืฆืืืชืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืกืื ืืืช ืืืืืื ืคืจืืืงืืืืืช ืืื ืคืืชืื ืชืืืฉืช ืืกืืืืืช ืืงืืืื ืฉืืืืื ืืืืจื; ืืฆื ืืื, ืืืงืืฉืช ืชืฉืืืช ืื ืืืืฉืจืช ืื ืืืื, ืืืขืฆืืช, ืืืจื ืืง ืืืืืืื ืืฆืืื ืืช, ืืื ืืขื ืงืช ืชืืจืืฆืื ืืืชื ืกืคืจ ืืฉืคืจื ืืืจืืืง. ืืชืืจ ืืื ืืืืจืื ืืืืคื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืงืืืืืช ืืืจืื ืืงืฆืืขืืืช, ืืกืืืช ืืืืจืืช ืืงืฆืืขืืช ืืืง, ืฉืืืื ืืชื ืืืื, ืืื ืืฉืช ืืขื ืื ืืืจืืืืืืื ืขืืื ืืื. ืชืืื ืืช ืืืืืืง ืคืืขืืช ืืฉื ื ืืืืื ืืคืขืื ืืืืื ืื, ืฉืื ืืื ืืื ืืืชืื ืืืืืืืกืืืช ืืขื ืฉืื ื.ืืืืื ืืืืชึพืกืคืจื, ืืืชืืงื ืืขืืืื ืืฉืืจื ืขื ืืืกืืืช ืืื ืื, ืืืืขื ืืืชื ืกืคืจ ืืืื ืืืคืื 4โ10, ืืืื ืคืื ื ืืขืืงืจ ืืืชื ืกืคืจ ืืืฆืืืื ืืคืจืืคืจืื ืืืืจืชืืช ืืืืืืืืจืคืืช. ืืืืกื ืืชืืฆืข ืืืืฆืขืืช ืงืื ืงืืจื ืืืขืืื ืืืชื ืืกืคืจ. ืืขืืืชื, ืืืืื ืืจืฉืืชื ืืืืขื ืืืื ืืจืฉืืืืช ืืืงืืืืืช ืืขืืืืืช ืืชื ืื ืืกืฃ ืฉืืคืืจืื ืืืกืื ืืชืืืื ืื, ืืืืืื ื ืืืืืฉ ืืืขืืืืช ืืืืฆืขืืช ืงืื ืงืืจื ื ืคืจื. ืืืื ืืจืฉืืืืช ืฉืืืืฉื ืืงืฉื, ืืืืืจื 50 ืจืฉืืืืช ืืขืืืช ืคืืื ืฆืืื ืืืืื ืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืื ืกืืื, ืืื 70 ืจืฉืืืืช ื ืืกืคืืช ืฉืืงืืื ืืืืื ืืืืงืฃ ืืฆืืืฆื ืืืชืจ. ืืื ืืื ืฉืืืฉื ืืฉืขื ืฉืืืฉ, ืฆืืืช ืืืืืื ืฉื ืชืื ืืช ืืืืืืง ืขืืื ืืืืืื ืจ ืคืชืื ืืงืื ืืจืื ืืืชื ืืกืืจ ืจืื ืขื ืืชืื ืืช ืืืืขื ื ืขื ืฉืืืืช ืืืฉืื. ืืืืืื ืจ ืืืืขื ืืื ืืื ืืชื ืกืคืจ, ืืืืงืืช ืืื ืื ืืฉืืชืคืื- ืืงืจืืช ืืฆืืืช ืืงืืืืช ืืงืืจืืื ืืืืกืืืช/ืืขืืืืืช ืืืจืฉืืืืช ืืืืืจืืื. ืืชื/ื ืืืืื ืื/ืืช ืืืฆืืจืฃ ืืืื ื ืืื ืืื ืฉืืืฉื ืืฉืขื 15:00. ืชืื ืืช ืืืืืืง ืืชืขืืื ืช ืืืชื/ื ืืืืื ืื/ืืช ืืืฆืืจืฃ!ืื ืืชื ืื ืืื ืืืช ืกืคืจ ืขืึพืืกืืื ืฉืจืืฆื ืืืื ืืก ืืืฉื ืืช, ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืฆืืื ืืช ืืืืชื โ ืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืฉืืื/ื!ืืืจืฉืื ืืงืื ืืงืืจื ืืืฆืืจืคื ืืืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืจ ืืืืืืง ืืื ืฉื ืืฉืจืื. ืชืืจืื ืืืจืื ืืืืฉืช ืืงืฉืืช: 9/9/2025 ืืืฉ ืงืฉืจ ืคืืืืื:ืืืฉื ืืืื, ืจืืืช ืืงืจื ืื ืชืื ืื ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืืืืง ืงืจืืื ืืจืฉืืืืช ืืืฆืืจืฃ ืืชืื ืืช ืืืืืืง ืฉื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื!ืืืืื ืืช ืืจืฉืืืืช ืืืฆืืจืฃ ืืืืืื ืืื ืืืืช ืืืืืืช ืคืืจืฆืช ืืจื, ืืืื ืืช ืืืจ ืืขืชืื ืฉื ืืฉืจืื ืืืืืง ืืช ืืขืืื ืฉื ืืืืื ื ืืืืืช ืืืืืง ืืืืืื. ืชืืจืื ืืืจืื ืืืืฉืช ืืงืฉืืช: 9/9/2025 ืืืฉ ืงืฉืจ ืคืืืืื:ืืืฉื ืืืื, ืจืืืช ืืงืจื ืื ืชืื ืื ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืืืืง ืชืืื ืืช ืืืืืืง ืืืจื ืืงืฆืจื ื... ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืฉืืจืืชืื ืคืืจืื ืื ื ืื ื ืขืืืจ ืืืจืื ืื ืืขื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฆืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืื. ืืขืืื ืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืชืจื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืชืืื ืืชืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืืื (ืืจืืืช ืคืจืกืืืืช) ืืื ื ืืืืจืืืช ืืขืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืื. ืื ื ืชืงืืชื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืฉ ืืื ืืฆืขืืช ืื ืืขืจืืช ืื ืืืข ืืชืืื, ืืืคืฉืจืืชืื ืืคื ืืช ืืืื ื ืืงืืฉืืจ ืื. |
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/scientific-technological-reserve/] | [TOKENS: 4368] |
ืืืืื ืืืืกืกืช ืืืืื ืืืืช ืขืชืืื ืืืขืืช ืืื ืืืืืืช ืขืชืืื ืืืขืืช ืืื ืืืืืืช (ืขื"ื) ืืื ืชืืื ืืช ืืฆืืื ืืช ืืืงืจืชืืช ืฉื ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืขืจืืช ืืืื ืื. ืืชืืื ืืช ืืงืืืช ืขืืืื ืืฉืืขืืจ ืืกืคืจ ืืชืืืืืื ืืืชืืืืืืช ืืืกืืืืื ืขื ืชืขืืืช ืืืจืืช ืืื ืืืืืืช-ืืืขืืช ืืืืืชืืช. ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืืงืจืชืืช ืืืคืขืืช ืื-270 ืืชื ืกืคืจ ืฉืื ืื ืืจืื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืกืืื ืฉืฉ ืฉื ืชื (ื-ืื) ืืืขืืช ืืืฉืืื ืืฉืืขืืชืืื ืืงืืืื ืืืื ืื ืืืืขื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื. ืื ืชืคืกืคืกื! ืืืงืจ ืืขืืกืง ืืืขืจืืช ืืืคืงืืืืืืช ืฉื ืชืืื ืืช ืขื"ื ืืืืืช ืืชืืื ืืช ืืกืืื ืขืชืืื ืืืขืืช ืืื ืืืืืืช ืืื ืฉืฉ ืฉื ืชื (ืืืชืืช ื-ืื). ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืื ืืงืืืื ืชืืืืื ืืชืืื ืืช ืฉืขืืช ืชืืกืคืชืืืช ืืืชืืืืงื, ืืคืืืืงื ืืืืืขื ืืืืฉื ืขื ืคื ืชืืื ืืช ืืืืืืืช. ืืืืืื ืืขืืืื ื ืืงืืืื ืชืืืืื ืืชืืื ืืช ืฉืืขืืจื ืชืืืืจ ืืืชืืืืงื ืืืืืขืื ืืืืชืืืื ืืฆืืจืืืื ืืืืืืืืื ืืืืืฉืืื. ืฉืืขืืจื ืืชืืืืจ ืืืืืื ืืขืืืื ื, ื ืืชื ืื ืืืืจื ืืกืืืข ืืชืืืืืื ืืขืืื ืืืืืืืืช ืฉืืงืื ืขื ืขืฆืื ืืืืืืื ืืืชืืืืงื, ืืืืขืื ืืืืื ืืืืืื. ืืกืืื ืืืืืืืื ืืชืืืื ืืื ืืงืืืื ืชืืืืื ืชืืื ืืช ืืืฆืืื ืืช ืชืขืืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืขืืช ืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืชืืช. ืื ืชืกืคืง ืืื ืืคืชืืืช ืฉืื ืื ืืขืฉืืืื ืืคืชืื ืืื ืืืชืืช ืจืืืช ืืฆืื, ืืืื ืืืจืกืืื ืืืืืื ืืืื. ืืืืืฉ ืื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื ืืื ื ืืืจืื ืื ืืฉืืื ืืงืฉืืจืื ืืืืืก ืืฆื"ื ืื ืืงืืืืืช ืืฉืืจืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืกืืืืืช, ืืื ืื ืืืจืืจ ืฆืจืื ืืืืขืฉืืช ืืื ืืืืจืืื ืืืืกืืืื ืืฆื"ื. ืืืืจื ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืืืื ืืชืขืืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืขืืช-ืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืชืืช ืขืฉืืืื ืืงืื ืืงืืื ืืืื (ืืื ืืก) ืืืืืืื ืืืืกืืืช ืืืื: ืืืื ืืื โ ืืงืื ืืืืื ืขืฉืื ืืืืืช ืชืืกืคืช ืฉื 30 ื ืงืืืืช ืืืชืืืืงื 5 ืืืืืืช ืืืืื, 30 ื ืงืืืืช ืืืงืฆืืข ืืืขื ื-30 ื ืงืืืืช ืืืงืฆืืข ืืืขื ืื ืืื ืืืืื ื ืืกืฃ ืืืืงืฃ ืฉื 5 ืืืืืืช ืืืืื ืื ืืื.ืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืืืคื (ืกืขืืฃ 6) โ ืขืฉืื ืืืื ืชื ืืื ืืก ืชืืกืคืช ืฉื 10% ืืฆืืื ืืืืฆืข ืืืืจืืช.ื ืืกืฃ ืขื ืื ืชืืชืื ืืคืฉืจืืช ืงืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืื ืฆืืื ืคืกืืืืืืจื ืืืขืื ืืืจืืช ืืฆืืืื ืช ืืคื ืืชื ืืื ืืืคืืจืืื. ืงืืืช ืืงืื ืืืื (ืืื ืืก) ืืืื ืืงืฆืืข ืืืืื ืืฉืชื ื ืืื ืืืกื ืืืฉืืื ืืืืื. ืืืืจืืืช ืืชืืืื ืืืืื ืก ืืืชืจื ืืจืืฉืื ืืืืกืืืช ืืืฉืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืื ืืฉื. ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื ืืื ื ืืืจืื ืืงืืืช ืืงืื ืืืืื (ืืื ืืก) ืืืืกืืืช ืืืฉืืื ืืืืื. ืืกืืื ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืืื ืืื ืืชืืืืืื ืืืฉืชืชืคืื ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืืืื ืืช ืชืืื ืืช ืืืืืืืื ืืจืืืื ืื ืืกืฃ ืขืืื ืชืื ืื ืืืขืืื ืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืคืฉืจืื ืืืฆื, ืืจืืื, ืืขืืงื ืืืขืฉืจื ืืชืืืืื ืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืื. ืชืืื ืืืช ืืืืืืืื ืืชืืืื ืืืขืช ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืื ืืืืื ื ืชืื ื ืขื"ื ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืื ืืชื ืืกืคืจ ืืชืืื ืืช "ืขืชืืื ืืืขืืช ืืื ืืืืืืช" ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืขื ืืคืขืืช ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืืฆืขืืช ืชืืื ืช ืื ืืืื ืืคืืืืื ืืืืช ืกืคืจืืช. ืืืืืื ืืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืืื ืืืืจืืืช ืจืืื ืขืชืืื ืืืขืืช ืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืช ืืืื ืืื. ืืจืืืื ื ืืจืฉืื ืืืืื ืืฉืืชืืฃ ืคืขืืื ืขื ื ืฆืื ืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืฉืื ืงืืืืืช ืืจืฉืืืช ืืชืืืืืช ืืืืืื. ืืืืื ืื ืืืืืฃ ืืช ืืืืื ืืจืืืื ืืคื ืฉืืื ื ืืื ืขื ืื ืืืชืจ ืขื"ื. ื ืืงืฉ ืืืฉืืื ืืช ืืืืืืืื ืื ืืืืืจ ืืืืฆืข ืืืืฉ ื ืืืืืจ. ืืฉ ืืืฆืืจ ืฉืืืฉ ืงืืืฆืืช ืืืืื ืืื ืฉืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืื ืืืงืฆืืขืืช ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืฉืืืช ืืืื ืืืื: ืคืืืืงื, ืืืขื ืืืืฉื ืืืชืืืืงื. ืืคืื ืงืฆืืื ืืืืืืจื ืฉืืื ืืชืืื ืืช ืืื ืืืืช ืขืืืื ืืฉืืื ืืช ืืงืืืฆืืช ืฉืืืืจืชื ืืชืืื ืืช "ืขืชืืื ืืืขืืช ืืื ืืืืืืช" (ืืก' 829) ืื ืืชืืื ืืช ืขื"ื-ืืง 36616. ืืคืื ืงืฆืืื ืืืืืืจื ืืช ืฉืืื ืคืจืื ืจืื ืืชืืื ืืช ืขืืืื ืืจืฉืื ืืช ืคืจืื ืจืื ืื ืจืืืช ืชืืื ืืช ืขืชืืื ืืืขืืช ืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืื. ืืืืื ืขืืืื ื ืืืกืื ืชืืื ืืช ืจื ืฉื ืชืืช ืฉืชืืืื ืืฉืืขืืชืืช ืืช ืืกืคืจ ืืืืืจืื ืืืกืืืืื ืขื ืชืขืืืช ืืืจืืช ืืื ืืืืืืช-ืืืขืืช ืืืืืชืืช ืืืืืืช ืืื ืืืกืืืืื ืืืื: ืืชื ืฉืขืืช ืฉืืืขืืืช ืชืืกืคืชืืืช ืืืืืืง ืชืืืืื ืืืกืืื. ืืืืื ืฆืืืช ืื ืืืื, ืืขืฆืืช ืจืืื ืขื"ื ืืืืืืช ืฉืืชืืคื ืคืขืืื ืขืืจืื ืืื ืืืืืจืืื. ืืืืื ื ืชืื ื ืขื"ื ืืืืืื ืืขืืืื ื ืืชื ืืกืคืจ ืืชืืื ืืช "ืขืชืืื ืืืขืืช ืืื ืืืืืืช" ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืขื ืืคืขืืช ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืืฆืขืืช ืชืืื ืช ืื ืืืื ืืคืืืืื ืืืืช ืกืคืจืืช. ืืืืืื ืืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืืื ืืืืจืืืช ืจืืื ืขืชืืื ืืืขืืช ืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืื ืขืืืื ื. ืืจืืืื ื ืืจืฉืื ืืืืื ืืฉืืชืืฃ ืคืขืืื ืขื ื ืฆืื ืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืฉืื ืงืืืืืช ืืจืฉืืืช ืืชืืืืืช ืืืืืื. ืืืืื ืื ืืืืืฃ ืืช ืืืืื ืืจืืืื ืืคื ืฉืืื ื ืืื ืขื ืื ืืืชืจ ืขื"ื. ื ืืงืฉ ืืืฉืืื ืืช ืืืืืืืื ืื ืืืืืจ ืืืืฆืข ืืืืฉ ื ืืืืืจ. ืืฉ ืืืืื ืจืืช ืืืืื 5 ืืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืื ืฉืืื ืืืืืื ืืขืืืื ื ืืืงืฆืืขืืช ืืืื: ืฉืืืขื"ื ืฉืืืขื"ื ืืื ืฉืืืข ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืื ืืืชื ืืกืคืจ ืืืฉืชืชืคืื ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืฆืืื ืืช ืืืืงืจืชืืช ืฉื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื โ ืขืชืืื ืืืขืืช ืืื ืืืืืืช (ืขื"ื).ืืืจืชื ืืขืืงืจืืช ืฉื ืฉืืืขื"ื ืืื ืืฉืืคืช ืืชืืืืืื ืื ืืฉืืื ืืืขืืื ืืืื ืืืืืืื ืขืชืืื ืืื ืืงืืื ืคืขืืืืืืช ืืจืื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืื ืืชืืืืืืช ืืืชืืืืืื ืฉื ืขื"ื ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืื.ืขื ืืชื ืขืช ืืคืขืืืืืืช ืืฉืื ืืช ืืืืฉืืื ืืืื ืื ืจืืื ืืชืืื ืืช ืขื ืืืืืืืื ืืืืืจืืื ืืื ืืื ืืชืืื ืืช ืืคืืขืืื ืืืืื ืื ืจืชืืื ืืืืคื ืืื ืืืฆืืืชื ืฉื ืฉืืืข ืื. ืืฉื ื ืฉืืืขื"ื ืืชืงืืื ืืชืืจืืืื 13-8 ืืคืืจืืืจ 2026. ืืชืจืื ืืคืจืกืืืื ืืคืจืืื ื ืืกืคืื ืืฉืืืืช ืืืืืืจืืช ืืคืฉืจ ืืคื ืืช ืื: ืื ืฉื ืงืฉืจ ื ืืกืคืื ืืขืชืืื ืืืขืืช ืืื ืืืืืืช >> ืขืชืืื ืืืขืืช ืืื ืืืืืืช ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืฉืืจืืชืื ืืืจื ืืงืฆืจื ื... ืคืืจืื ืื ื ืื ื ืขืืืจ ืืืจืื ืื ืืขื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฆืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืื. ืืขืืื ืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืชืจื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืชืืื ืืชืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืืื (ืืจืืืช ืคืจืกืืืืช) ืืื ื ืืืืจืืืช ืืขืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืื. ืื ื ืชืงืืชื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืฉ ืืื ืืฆืขืืช ืื ืืขืจืืช ืื ืืืข ืืชืืื, ืืืคืฉืจืืชืื ืืคื ืืช ืืืื ื ืืงืืฉืืจ ืื. |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A9%D7%A7%D7%A2%D7%94] | [TOKENS: 3223] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืืฉืงืขื ืืืืืื ืืืืืืื, ืืฉืงืขื, ืืื ืืขืืจื ืฉื ืกืืื ืืกืฃ (ืื ืืื) ืืืืจื ืืืจ ืืื ืืืืฆืจ ืืื ืกื ืืฉื ื ืกืืืื: ืืืืื ืืื ืืืฆืื ืืืฉืงืขื ืืื ืืขืืชืื ืืง ืืืื ื ืืจืืจ, ืื ื ืืชื ืืืืจ ืฉืืืฆืื ืืื ืืืืฉืืจ ืืคืืจืืชื, ืืืืืจ ืืื ืืืคืืขื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืกื ืืฉืืืคืช, ืืืืจืืืช ืืฉื ืืืฆืืจื, ืืขืื ืฉืืฉืงืขื ืืื ืืืืฉืืจ ืืืื ื, ืืืืืจ ืชืืื ืืืื ืกืืช ืืขืชืื ืื ืขื ืคื ื ืชืงืืคื ืืจืืื. ืืืงืจื ืืืืื ืืืงืจื ืืืืื ืืฉืงืขื ืืื ืจืืืฉื ืื ืืืฆืืจ ืฉื ื ืืกืื ืฉืืื ื ืืืืขืืื ืืฆืจืืื ืื ืื ืืืขืืืช ืจืืช ืืืืฆืืจ ืืขืชืื, ืืื ืืชืงื ื ืชืฉืชืืช, ืฆืืื ืืืคืขืืื, ืฆืืื ืชืืืื ืืขืื. ืืฉืงืขื ื ืืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืจืืืื ืืชื"ื ืื ืืกืื: G D P = C + I + G + ( e X โ i ) {\displaystyle \mathrm {GDP} =C+I+G+\left(\mathrm {eX} -i\right)} ืืฉืงืขื ื ืงืืื ืืืงืืื ืืืฉืงืขื ืืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืขืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืืช ืืืื ืืืฉืง ืืืช ืืืฉืจ ืืืืฆืืจ ืฉืื, ืืฉ ืืจืืื ืฆืคืืื ืืืืืช ืืืื ืืฉื ืืืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืงืืื ืื ื ืืงืื ืื ืฆืคืืืื ืฉื ืืจืืื ืืชืืฆืื ืืืกืื ืืช ืืืข ืื ืืืืืืช. ืืืฉืงืขื ืื ืงืืื ืืื ืืืฉืงื ืื ืืืื ืืืจืืื ืืืืืช ืืืื; ืืืืชืื ืืฆื ืฉื ืืฉืงืขื ื ืงืืื ืฉืืืืืช ืืชืืฆืื ืืืืื ืื ื ืืงืื ืืชืฉืชืืืช ืฉืขืืืื ืขื ืืืฉืงืขื ืืืืืืืช ืืืืชื ืฉื ื. ืกืืื ืืฉืงืขืืช ืงืืืืื ืฉืืืฉื ืกืืื ืืฉืงืขื ืขืืงืจืืื: ืืฉื ื ืืขืฉืืจืื ืืจืืฉืื ืื ืฉื ืืืื ื-21 ืฆืืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืฉืงืขืืช, ืืฉืจ ืฉืืื ืืืฉ ืื ืจืง ืขื ืชืฉืืื, ืืื ืื ืขื ืขืืืื ืืงืจืืืจืืื ืื ืขืจืืืื, ืืืฉื, ืฉืืืจื ืขื ืืกืืืื, ืืฆืืจืช ืฉืืคืืจ ืืืจืชื ืื ืฉืืืจื ืขื ืจืฃ ืืกืืื ืฉื ืืืืืืช ืขืืืืื. ืืฉืงืขืืช ืืืจืืืืช ืื ืืื ืืฉืจ ืืกืืืข ืืงืืืขืช ืืจืื ืชืืงื ืืฉืงืขืืช ืฉื ืื ืงืื ืืืืกืืืช ืืจืืืืื ืืจืืื ืืขืืื. ืืืฉืงืขื ืืืจืืืช ื ืื ืขืื ืืืฉืงืืขืื ืืืืฉืงืืข ืืืืกืืืช ืืืขืืจืืื ืืขื ืคืื ืืกืืืืื, ืืืืืื, ืืืฆืืจ ืื ืืคืฆื ืฉื ืืืืืืื, ืืืฆืจื ืืืง, ืืืืืจืื, ืคืืจื ืืืจืคืื, ืืืฆืขื ืืืืื ืื ืืืฆืจืื ืฆืืืืื. ืืืื ืืืื ืขืืช ืืืฉืงืขืืช ืืชืืืืื ืฉืื ืื, ืืฉืงืขืืช ืืืจืืืืช ืืขืืืืืช ืืฆืืจื ืฉื ื ืืจืืืช ืขืกืงืืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืขื ืืกืืืื ืืืืืจื. ืกื ืืืฉืงืขืืช ืืคืืขืืืช ืขื ืคื ืขืงืจืื ืืช ืฉื ืืืจืืืช ืืืจืชืืช ืืกืืืืชืืช ื ืืื ืืฉื ืช 2018 ืืงืฆืช ืคืืืช ื-5 ืืืืืืจื ืืืืจ. ืืฉืงืขืืช ืืืืคืงื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืกืคืื ืื ืืืฉืงืขืื ืืืืจื ืืืืจืืช ืืขืืืช ืชืืืืช ืืชืฉืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืชืจ, ืืื ืืืืจืืช ืืฆืคืืืืช ืืืืืช ืจืืืืืืช ืืื ื, ืืฆื ืชืจืืื ืืืจืชืืช ืื ืกืืืืชืืช. ืืืืื ืื ืืืืชืื ืืืคื ืืืฉืงืขืืช ืืืื ืชืืขืืช ืืกืคืืช ืคืขืืืืช ืืืจืชืืืช ืฉืื ืืช (ืืืืืื, ืชืืกืคืช ืืงืื ืขืืืื ืฉืืื ืืืืื ื 24,931 ืืืฉ"ื, ืื ืืขืช ืฉื ืช ืืืกืจ ืฉืืื ืืืืื ื 34,840 ืืืฉ"ื, ืืฉืืจืช ืืื ืืืกืืจืช ืืฉืคืืชืืช ืฉืืื 134,184 ืืืฉ"ื), ืืืืชืืื ืขื ืืกืื ืชืฉืืืืื ืืื ืืืืจืืื ืฉืืืกืื ืืกืฃ ืืืฆืืืช ืืืืืืื (ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืจ ืืืกื ืืกืฃ ืขืืืจ ืื ืืืืื ืฉืืืฆื ืขืืืื, ืื ืงืืคืืช ืืืืื ืฉืืืกืืืช ืืกืฃ ืขื ืืืืืช ืฉื ืื ืขืืช). ืืฉื ืช 2017 ืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืจืืช ืืืืคืงื ืคืจืกืื ื ืชืื ืื ืืคืืื ืืืงืฃ ืืืกืคืื ืืืืฉืงืขืื ืืขื ืฃ ืืืืืคืงื ืขืืื ืขื 114 ืืืืืืจื ืืืืจ. ืืกืืจืืืื ืืืฉืงืขืช ืขืืืคื ืืืืื ืื ืืกืืจืืืื ืืืฉืงืขืช ืขืืืคื ืืืืื ืื ืืืจืืื, ืืืืื ืช ืืืืคืืื ืช ืคืขืืืืช ืืชืืืืื ืงืืืช ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืืื ืื ืืจืืื ืืืืื ืงืฆืจ ืื ืืจืื ืชืื ืืงืฆืืช ืืืฉืืืื ืื ืืจืฉืื ืืืฉืืช ืืืจืืช ืืื. ืืกืืจืืืืืช ืืฉืงืขืช ืขืืืคื ืืืืื ืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืช ืืืฉืงืขื ืฉื ืืืกืฃ ืื ืืื ืงืจื ืืืืื ืื ืืกืคืื ืืืืฉืงืขืื ืืืคืืงืื ืงืฆืจื ืืืขื ืฉื ืขื ืฉืืืฉื ืืืืฉืื. ืืืจืช ืืืฉืงืขื ืืืื ืงืฆืจ ืืื ืฉืืืจืช ืื ืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืื ืื ืืืจืืื ืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืชื ืืขื ื ืืืืจ ืืชื ืื ืืฉืืง ืืืฉืชื ืื ืืืืื ืืืื. ื ืืืื ืขืืืคื ืืืืืื ืื ื ืขืฉื ืืืชืื ืืืืื ืืืช ืืืฉืงืขื ืืคืจืืคืื ืืกืืืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืื ืืืืจื. ืืื ืื ืื ืืกืืจืืืื ืื ืืงืืื ืืฉืืืจ ืขื ืืืกื ื ืืืืืช ืืกืืืืื, ืืฉืจ ืืืคืฉืจืื ืืืฉืงืืข ื ืืืืช ืกืืืื ืืจืื ืฉืืืืืจื. ืืืกืื ืืก ืืื ืกื ืื ืขืงืจืื ืืช ืขื ืื ืกืืื ืืืื ืกืืช, ืืืืชืื ืืื ืืื ืื ืื ืขื ืืื ืกื ืืืืืืฉ ืืฉืงืขื, ืืื ืื ืืื ืืื ืกื ืคืืจืืชืืช ืืืื ืื ืืื ืืื ืกื ืืื ืืช. ืขื ืืืช, ืขื ืกืืื ืืื ืกืืช ืฉืื ืื ืืืื ืืขืืชืื ืฉืืขืืจื ืืก ืฉืื ืื, ืืืขืืชืื ื ืืชื ืคืืืจ ืืืก ืืืฉืงืขื ืืขืืืืช ืืชื ืืื ืืกืืืืื, ืขื ืื ืช ืืขืืื ืืฉืงืขืืช ืืืื. ืืืื ืืืก ืืฉืคืืข ืขื ืืืื ืกื ื ืื ืื ืืชื ืช ืืืฉืงืืข, ืืืื ืืฉืืงืืื ืืก ืืฉืืืืช ืจืื ืืขืช ืืืืจื ืฉื ืืกืืื ืืฉืงืขื. ืจืื ืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืืืื_ืืืื ืจืื_ืคืืืื_ืืจืืฉืืื] | [TOKENS: 2616] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืื ืจืื ืคืืืื ืืจืืฉืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืจืื ืคืืืื ืืื ืืืช ืืืื ืืจืืื ืืืื ื'ืืจื' ืืืจืืฉืืื, ืกืืื ืืืืืจ ืฆืจืคืช. ื ืงืจื ืืขืืจ ืืืื ืคืืืื ืืืืื ืฉืจืชืื ืคืืืื. ืืืืกืืืจืื ืฉื ืืฉืื ืืฉื ืช 1873 ืืืืขื ืืืจืฅ ืืฉืจืื ื'ืื ืืจืงืืก, ืขืฉืืจื ืืืื ืืืช ืืฉืืืืช. ืืื ืืืืชื ืืืืื ืฉืืืืืื ืงืจืืื ืืืืืืื ืืื ืืช ืืืื ืืืื ืืงืืืืช ืขืฉืจืืช ืืืคื ืื ืืืืื ืฉืืืืขื ืืืจืฅ. ืืื ืงื ืชื ืฉืื ืืืื ืืืืฅ ืืืจืืฉืืื ืืืืืจ ืืชื ืฉืืื ืจื ืืืื ืืื ืืื ืฉื ืืื ื ืฉืึผืื ื "ืืืื ืืืืืื". ืืื ืชืืื ื ืกืขื ืืฉื ืช 1875 ืืกืืืข ืืืืจืืื ืืืชืงืืืืืช ืืจืฆืืืืื ื. ืืื ืืืืชื ืืช ืจืื ืืกืคื ืขื ืืืจื, ืฉืื ืฆืื, ืืืฉืืืจื ืืืจืฅ ืื ื ืฉืืจ ืื ืืกืฃ ืืืืฉื ืื ืืืช ืืืืื. ืกืคืงื ืืื ืืื ืืขืจืืื ืชืืขื ืืืชื ืืืื ืืืื ืืชืืืขื. ืืฉืืืขืืื ืืืืจ ืืืจ ืืืื ืคืฉืื ืืืืืื ืืืจืงืื ืขื ืืชืจ ืืื ืืื, ืืื ืืช ืืืื ืืก ืืืืจืืื ืืช ืืืชืจ. ืืืงืื ืขืื ืืฉืืืืื ื ืฉื ืื ืจืืืช ืขื ืืฉื ืช 1958 ืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืช ืืจืื ืืืืจ ืขื ืืืงื ืืืจืืื ืฉื ืืืืจืฉ. ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืงืืจืืช ืฉื ืืจืื ืืืืจ ืืืื ืฉืืืฉื ืื ืืื ืื ืืืืืืืืจืืื ืืืื ืขืืจืืืช ืืจืืฉืืื ืงื ืชื ืืช ืืฉืื ืืชืื ื ื ืืื ืืช ืื ืืช ืืืช ืืขืืจืืื ืืืืฉ ืฉืื. ืืฉื ืช 1964 ืืืจืืื ืืขืืจืืื ืขื ืชืืจืืช ืืืจืืืืื ืื ืืื ืืืืจืืื ืคืจืืค' ืืืคืจื ืื ืกืคืื. ืื ืกืคืื ืชืื ื ืืขืืืจ ืืขืืจืืื ืืืื ืื 22 ืงืืืืช ืืืื ืืขืืจืืื ืื ืืฆืืืื ืืืืืก ืชืงืฆืื ืืืงืืช ืืืื ื ืืืคืจืืืงื ื ืืื. ืืฉื ืช 1965 ื ืืืจ ืืื ืงืืืง ืืจืืฉืืช ืืขืืจืืื ืืืืืื ืฉืื ืืื ืืขืืจืืื ืฆืจืื ืืืืืช ืขื ืืืืื ืืื ืืืงื ืืขืืจ ืืกืื ืืฉืืืคื ืืืืืืื. ืืืืฉื ืื ืชื ืืขืืจืืื ืืช ืงืจืืืช ืขืืจืืืช ืืจืืฉืืื ืืืืืจ ืกืคืจื. ืืืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืื ืืชืืื ืืช ืืื ืืืช ืืขืืจืืื ืืืชืื ืืืจื ืืขืืจืืื ืืช ืืฉืื ืืืืืื ืคืจืืืื, ืืื ืืื ืืืืจื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืฉืคืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืืฆืืจื ืืงืืช ืืืื. ืืขืืจืืื ืื ืืชื ืฉืืืื ืืืืื ืืฆืืจืชื ืืืืืืช ืืชืืื ื ื ืืคื ืืชืืื ืืช ืฉืืืฉืจื ืืื ืืื ืืขืืจืืื. ืืืืจืืื ืืจืืื ืื ืืืจืื ืชืื ื ืืช ืืื ื ืืืืื ืืคื ืขืงืจืื ืืช ืืื. ืืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืชืืฆืขื ืืจืืืืช ืื ืืื ืืืืงืฃ ืฉื 2768 ื"ืจ ืฉืืืฉืจื ืืืคืจืข ืืืืจ ืฉืืขืื ืืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืืื ืืฉืืื ืืขืืจืืื. ืื ืื ืืืืื ื ืืืขื ืฉืืื ืืืืขืจ ืืืืื ืืช ืืขืืจ ืืขืชืืงื. ืื ืื ืืขื ืื ื"ื ืืืืจื ืืืฉืจืื ืฉืืื ื ืืืืื ืืืฆืจ ืืืืืื ืืืงืฉืช ืืืืื ืืืืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืข ืคืืืขื ืื ืืฃ. ืืืจืืฉืืื ืืฉื ื ืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืื ืฉืืืจื ืืื ืืื ืื ืืืืืื ืืืจืืืช ืืืืื ืืืื. ืืื "ืืจืื" ืืช ืื ืืื ืชืื ื ืื ืืืจืื ืืขืืื "ืชืืจืช ืืื" ืืงืืืืช ืืขืืืื ืืช ืฉื ืืืืื. ืืจืืื ื ืืกืคืืช ืฉืืื ืืฉืชืืฉ ืื ืืืจืื ืืืคืืชืช ืืืืื ืฉื ืืื ืืื ืื ืืืคืื ืืืื ื ืกืืจื ืฉืืื ืืช ืืฆืืจื ืื ืืืช ื"ืืืื ืืช ืจืฆืืขื" ืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืื. ืืืืื ื ืื ื ืืฉื ืื 1971โ1974 ืืฉื ืืืื ืื-ืืืจ, ืืชืฉืืืืช ืฉื ืืืจื ืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืืจ (ืฉื ืจืืฉื ืืจืืื ืขื ืืื ืชืืฉืื ืื"ื ืืืืฉืืจื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฉืืืฃ ืฉื ืืืืื). ืืืืจ ืฉื ืชืืื ืฉื ื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืืจื ืืืฉืจืืืืช ืงืจื-ืืืจ, ืืืขืืจ ืื ืืืื ืืจืฉืช ืืืืื ืืช CP Hotels ืฉื ืืืจืช ืืชืขืืคื ืืงื ืืืช ืงื ืืืื ืคืกืืคืืง ืืืืืื ืืื ืืคืขืื ืืฉื ืืืื ืคืืืื. ืืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืชืืืื ืืืจืืฉืืช ืืงืื ืืืจืื-ืืืจืืงืื, ืืืืชืื ืืื ืืื ืื ืืฉืจืืช ืืืืืจืื. ืืขืืืช ืืชืืืืช ืฉื ืช 1971 ืจืืฉื ืืืืจื ืืืฉืจืื 60% ืืื ืืืช ืืืืื. ืืืืื ื ืื ื ืืฉื ืช 1974 ืืืืื "ืคืืืื" ืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืจืช ืงื ืืืื ืคืกืืคืืง. ืืฉื ืช 1985 ืขืืจ ื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืืจืช ืืืื ืืช ืฉืจืชืื, ืืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืขืืืช ืขื ืืืืื, ืืฉืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืฉืื ื ื"ืฉืจืชืื ืคืืืื". ืืฉื ืช 2009 ืืคื ืืืืื ื"ืืืื ืจืื ืคืืืื". ืืงืจืืื ื ืืกืคืช ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://www.matific.com/isr/he/login-page/] | [TOKENS: 381] |
ืชืคืจืื ื ืืืฉืืช ืฉืืืชื ืืช ืืกืืกืื? ืื ื ื ืฉืื ืงืืฉืืจ ืืฉืืืืจ ืื ืฉืืืชื ืืช ืืกืืกืื? ืื ืืฉืืื ืืฉืืื ืื , ืชืงืืื ืงืืฉืืจ ืืืืคืืก. ืื ืจืืืชื ืืืืขืช ืืื"ื ืืืจื 10 ืืงืืช? ืืืงื ืืช ืชืืงืืืช ืืกืคืื ืฉืืื, ืื ื ืกื ืืคื ืฉื ืืฉืชืืฉ ืืืจ ืขืืืื ืื ืงืืืืชื ืืืืขืช ืืื"ื? ืฆืจื ืงืฉืจ ืขื ืฆืืืช ืืชืืืื ืืืชืืืช support@slatescience.com ask your teacher Your teacher has your password. Please ask them. ืชืงืืคืช ืื ืืกืืื ืฉืืื ืืกืชืืืื ืืฉืชืืฉ ืื ืืื ื ืืืจืฉื ืืืชืืืจ. ืฉืืื ืื ืฉืจืง ืืฉืืื ืืช ืชืืืื ืื ืืืจื ืืืืืื ืืืชืืืจ ืืืคืืืงืฆืื ืื. |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ืจืคืืื&oldid=42562496] | [TOKENS: 23513] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืจืคืืื ืขืืื ื ืื ืืคืืจืื ืคืืจืื ืืจืคืืื ืืื ืฉืขืจ ืืชืืื ืืจืคืืื ืืืืืงืืคืืื. ืืคืืจืื ื ืืชื ืืืฆืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืขืจืืื ืจืืื ืื ืืฉื ืืืฃ ืืืื, ืืจืืืืช, ืชืืืื ืขื ืฃ ืืจืคืืื, ืืืืืช ืืขืื. ืจืคืืื (ืื ืงืจืืช ืืขืืชืื ืื ืจืคืืื ืงืื ืื ืฆืืื ืืืช ืื ืจืคืืื ืืงืืืืช), ืืื ืขื ืฃ ืฉื ืืืืข ืืืงืฆืืข, ืืขืืกืง ืืืืืื, ืืืงืจ, ืืืืคืื ืืืืืืช, ืืฉืืคืืจ ืืืจืืืืช ืืืจืคืืื ืืื ืขืช. ืืจืคืืื ืืชืืกืกืช ืขื ืืืฉืืืื ืฉื ืืืขื ืืืืข, ืืืืจื, ืืืจืื ืืืชืงืืืช ืืืงืืื ืืื. ืืืจืืฆืช ืืฉื ืื ืืชืคืชืื ืืืงืฆืืข ืืชืืืืืืช ืืขื ืคืื ืืจืืืื, ืืคื ืงืจืืืจืืื ืื ืฉืื ืื: ืืืืื ืื ืืื ืจืคืืื ืคื ืืืืช, ืจืคืืืช ืืืจืื, ืจืคืืื ืืืจืืจืืืช, ืจืคืืืช ืขืื ืืื, ืืฃ ืืืื ืืืจืื ืืื', ืืืคื ืืชืืืืื ืืืืจืชืืื โ ืจืคืืื ืฆืืืืช, ืจืคืืื ืืฉืคืืืช, ืจืคืืื ืชืขืฉืืืชืืช, ืจืคืืืช ืืืช ืืืืื ืืื'. ืืืฉืืื ืฉื ืืจืคืืื ืืืืืจื ืืช ื ืืืจืื, ืืคืจื ืืืืืื ืืืฉืืขืืชื ืืชืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืื ืืฉื ืื ืืืืจืื ืืช, ืืืืื ืฉืืขืืงืจื ื ืืืข ืืืืฉืืื ืฉื ืืจืคืืื, ืืืื ืื ืืืืืืืืงื ืืืืกืื ืื, ืื ืื ืืฉืืคืืจ ืืชืืจืืื (ืกื ืืืฆืื) ืืืชืืื ื. ืืขืืชืื ืงืฆืจื ืืื ืฉื ืืจืคืืื, ืืืืืืืช ืืกืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืื ืืืฆืืข ืืืคืื ืกืืืคืืืืื ืืืกืืืข ืืืืื, ืื ืืื ื ืืืืขืช ืืจืคื ืื ืืกืืืข ืืืืืื. ืืื ืฉืืื ืืขื ืืืฉืจื ืืืืชืจ ืืขืกืืง ืืจืคืืื ื ืงืจื ืจืืคื, ืืืื ืืืจืฉื ืืขืกืืง ืืจืคืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืชืืืืช ืืืืช ืื ืืืชืจ ืืืืชืืืืืืช ืืจืคืืืืืช ืืฉืื ืืช. ืืืกืืืจืื ืจืืฉืืชื ืฉื ืืจืคืืื ืขืื ืืชืงืืคืืช ืคืจื-ืืืกืืืจืืืช. ืืืื ืืื ืื ืืกืืื ื ืืช ืืืื ืฉื ืืฆืืืื ืืกืืืืชื (ืืืืืื, ืจืขืืืื, ืืจืคืืื), ืืืคื ืืคืฆืขืื, ื ืืกื ืืจืคื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืงืืช ืื, ืืืคืืื ืงืื ืืืืืืืืืช. ืื ืืกืืื ืืืขืืจ ืืืืจ ืืืืจ, ืืืจืื ืืฉืืืื. ืืืืืื ืฉืืืืข ืืชืืกืก ืขื ื ืืกืืื ืืืืื ื ืืื ืขื ืฉืืืืช ืืืขืืืช, ืืจืคืืื ืืขืืืืช ืฉืืืฉื ืืขืจืืืืื ืืกืืืืช ืจืฆืืื ืืืื ืืืืชื ืจืฆืืื ืืืื, ืืืืงืื ืืืืขืืืื ืืืืื. ืืืื ืงืื ืื ืจืื ืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืืช ืชืืืืืื ืืืขืืื, ืื ืื ืคืจื ืืชืขืจืืืช ืฉื ืืืืืช ืขืืืื ืื โ ืจืืืืช, ืืืื, ืืืืฉืคืื. ื"ืจืืคืืื" ืืจืืฉืื ืื ืืื ืฉืืืื ืื ืืืืื ื ืืช ืฉืืืคืฉื ืืจืืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืคืจ ืขื ืขืืื ืืืืืื. ืื ืืืืื ื ื ืฉืืจ ืืงืฉืจ ืืืืืง ืืื ืืจืคืืื ืืชืืจืช ืื ืกืชืจ ืืืืช. ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืชืคืืืืช, ืงืืขืืช ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ื ืืคื ื ืืืืืช, ืจืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืื ืืคืืชืืืช ืืงืืื ืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืคืืชืืืช. ืืงืกืืื ืืจืืฉืืช ืืฆืืืืืืืืฆืื ืืขืืืื ืขื ืืชืงืืืืช ืืจืคืืื ืื ืืกืืื ืืช ืืฉืืืช ืื ืืืคื ืจืฆืืื ืื ืืืชืจ, ืื ืขืืืื ืื ืคืกืง ืืืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืคืืืช ืืืืืืื. ืืืืข ืืื ืืืืื ืืืคืืืืืืืืื ืืื ืืืขื ืืืื ืขื ืืขืช ืืืืฉื, ืืขืืงืจ ืืฉื ืืืืกืืจืื ืืืชืืช ืืฉืื ืืช ืขื ื ืืชืืื ืืืคืืช. ืืืฆืจืื ืืขืชืืงื ืืชืืกืกื ืืจืคืืื ืขื ืฉืืืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืช, ืชืจืืคืืช ืืืืคืืืื. ืืขืืจ ืืืคืืก, ืื ืืฉื ืืืืกื ืืจืคืืื ืืืฆืจืืช, ืืืืืชืค (ื-2650 ืืคื ื ืืกืคืืจื), ืืื ืงืืื ืืืช ืกืคืจ ืืจืคืืื, ืฉืื ืืื ื ืคืืฅ ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืฉืืฉืืื ืืืืืฆืขื ืืงืื "ืืืืืืจ ืืื ืืืงืืืงื". ืืืงืกื ืฉื ืืฉื ืืืงืกื ืืจืคืืื ืืงืืื ืืืืชืจ, ืคืคืืจืืก ืืืืืื ืกืืืช' ืืืืืืก ืืืืืืชืค, ืขืืกืง ืื ืืชืืื ืืืจืื ืืืคืจื ืืืื ืคืืืขืืช ืจืืฉ, ืฆืืืืจ ืืืืฃ. ืืื ืืืื ืืจืืขืื ืืฉืืื ื ืกืืื ืคืืืขืืช ืืืืืคืื ืืืชืืื ืืื. ืืืง ืืืืืืืื ืืืชืืืจืื ื ืืฉืืื ืืืืืื ืจืคืืืืื ืกืืืจืื ืืชืงืืคืชื. ืคืคืืจืืก ืืืจืก (ืืืื ื-16 ืืคื ื"ืก) ืืชืืจ ืืชืืื ืื ืืฉืฉ ืืืืช ืฉืืขืื ืืฉืืข ืชืจืืคืืช, ืืื ืชืืืืจืื ืื ืืืืืื ืืคืืืืืืืืืื. ืืืชืื ืืื ืฉื ืืืืจืื ืืืื (ืืืื ื-18 ืืคื ื"ืก) ื ืืชื ืื ืืกืืืืช ืืืืืืช ืื ืืืืืื, ืฉืืื, ืชืืืขืื ืืฉืืจืฆืื ืื ืืจืืช ืืฉืื ืืืื ืืื. ืืชืืื ืืื ืืจืื ืืื ื ืืคืขืืืืืืช ืืืจืืจืืืืช ืืกืืกืืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืขื ืืืืื. ืืืงืจื ืืืืืจืืช ืืืืืช ืจืืืช, ืืืื ืืื ืคืจืืื ืจืืื ืขื ืืจื ืจืืคืืื. ืืขืืืช ืืืช, ืืื ืื ืจืืื ืืขืืกืงืื ืืจืคืืื ืืืืืืชื, ืืจืืื ืขื ืชืืจืืื ืฉืืืืช ืืืืฉืืช ืืคืืชืืช ืืขื ืืืข ืจืคืืื. ืืชืงืืคืช ืืืฉื ื ืืืชืืืื, ืืืฉืคืขื ืืจืคืืื ืืชืจืืืืืช ืืกืืืื. ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืชื ืงืืืื ืฉื ืืกืคืจ ืืฆืืืช, ืืจืืคื ืืื ืื ืชื ืืจืืงื ืืืืื ืืงืืช ืืื ื ืขืฉืชื ืขื ืืื "ืืืื". ืืืืื ืืขืชืืงื ืืืฉืื ืืชืงืืืืช ืืืืจืืจืืื ืืื ืืชืืืื ืคืืกืืืื. ืืืืฉืืจ ืืื ืขืืื ืืืขืื, ืืชืคืชืื ืืืืขืืช ืืืืื ืืชืืจืืื ืืืืฉืืช (ืืืคืื ืืขืืจ, ืืชืขืืืืช, ืชืืื ื ื ืืื ื, ืจืืฆื ืื ืืงืืื). ืขืืงืจ ืืจืืคืื ืืื ืืฆืืืื ืืื ืืชืจืืคืืช ืืื ืจืืืืช ืืื ืืื. ืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืื ื ืขื ืกืื ืืื ืืืืฃ, ืื ืฉืืื ืืืคืจืฉืืช ืืืืฃ. ืจืืฉืืช ืืจืคืืื ืืกืื ืขืื ืืืืฃ ื-4 ืืคื ื ืืกืคืืจื. ืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืื ื ืขื ืคื ืืืฉืื ืืขื ืืื ืืืฉืืฉ ืืืืคืง, ืืกืื ืื ืืืืจื 10 ื ืงืืืืช ืืื ืืคืฉืจ ืืืืฉ ืืืชื. ืื ืชืืืจื ืืืืืืง ืืืืืช ืืืืคืืก, ืืืืจื ืืงืืืช ืืืืจืืช. ืืกืื ืืืจืื ืื ืืื ืื ืจืื ืืืืกืื ืื ืื ืืืขืืืขืืช ืฉืืืจืืช ืฉื ืื ืจืืืช ืืคื ื ืฉืขืฉื ืืืช ืืืืืจื ื'ื ืจ, ืฉืื ืืืืืก ืชืจืืื ืืืืกืื ืืจืืฉืื ืืขืืื. ืืฉ ืกืืจื ืืคืื ืืกืื ืื ืืื ืืืืช ืืจืืคืื ืืืื. ืขืืงืจ ืืืืคืื ืืื ืืฆืืืื ืืืืืขืื ืืืื ืืืขืจื ืืืืืืื ืืืง ืืืจืคืืื ืืืืืจื ืืช. ืฉืืืช ืจืืคืื ืกืื ืืช ืขืชืืงื ืืื ืืืืงืืจ ืืืืืื. ืืืืืช ืืจืคืืื ืืืืขืืช ืืื ืืืื ืืขืชืืงื, ืฉืืืฉืคืขื ืืืืฉืื ืืจืคืืื ืืืื ืืืืฆืจืื. ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืจืืจืืื ืืื ืืืจืื ืืืืื, ืืืจ ืืชืงืืคื ืืืืืจืืช. ืืื ืืจืคืืื ืืกืงืืคืืืก ื ืื ื ืืืืืื ืจืืื, ืฉืืื ืืขืื ืืจืืื ืืจืืืืช ืืฉืืจืชื ืืื ืืืื ื ืืื. ืืืจ ืืืื ื-5 ืืคื ื"ืก ืขืกืงื ืืืงืฆืืข ืจืืคืืื ืืืืื ืืื, ืืื ืคืืืืกืืคืื ื ืืืขืื. ื"ืืื ืืจืคืืื" ื ืืฉื ืืืคืืงืจืืก (460โ357 ืืคื ื"ืก) ืฉืืฉืชืืช ืืช ืขืืืืชื ืขื ืชืฆืคืืืช ืื ืืกืืืื, ืขื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืชืืฆืืืชืื. ืืื ืื ืื ืื ืงืืืืืช ืืืืฃ ืืจืืข ืืืืืช (ืื, ืจืืจ, ืืจื ืฆืืืื, ืืจื ืฉืืืจื). ืืื ืงืืข ืฉืืืืื ืืื ืชืืคืขื ืืืขืืช, ืืกืืื ืื ืืจืืื ืืช ืชืืืืช ืืืืฃ ื ืืื, ืืืื ืืืฉืคืขืช ืืชื ืื ืืืงืืื, ืืื ืืืื, ืืืืจืืื ืกืืืืชืืื ืืืจืื. ืืื ืื ืื ืืช ืืืกืืืืช ืืืชืืงื ืืจืคืืืืช, ืืงืจืืื ืืืื "ืฉืืืขืช ืืืคืืงืจืืก": ืฉืืืจืช ืกืืืืชืื ืฉื ืืืืื, ืืืฉืช ืขืืจื ืจืคืืืืช ืืื ืืืื ืืื'. ืืชืืื ืฉืืืืกื ืื ืฉืืืฉื ืกืคืจื ืืืืื ืขื ืืืื ื-19. ืืจืืกืื ื ืืฉื ืืืื ืืืืืืืืื. ืืื ืื ืื ืืกืืืืช ืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืืืืชืืช ืืืืืืจืืืืืืื (ืชืืจืช ืืชืคืชืืืช ืืขืืืจ). ืืชืงืืคื ืืืื ืืกืืืช ื ืืกื ืืืช ืกืคืจ ืืจืคืืื ืืืืืกื ืืจืื ืฉืืืฆืจืื ืื ื ืืงืจื ืืขืืืง ืืื ืืืืื ืืืคืืืืืืืืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ื ืืชืื ืืืคืืช ืฉื ืคืืฉืขืื. ืืจืคืืื ืืจืืื ืืขืชืืงื, ืืื ืฉืืจ ืชืืืื ืืืืข, ืืืฉืคืขื ืืืืื. ืืกืงืืคืืืืก ืืืืื ื (ืืืื ื-1 ืืคื ื"ืก) ืืืืื ืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืช ืืืจืื ืืืช, ืืื ืืก ืืช ืฉืืืช ืืืชืื ืืงื ื (ืืืื ืงืื ืืืืืืื), ืืฉืชืืฉ ืืขืืกืืืื, ืืืืจ ืืืืืช ื ืคืฉ ืืืืืืฅ ืขื ืจืืคืื ืืขืืกืืง ืืืืคืืื. ืืืืื ื ืงืืืืืืืก ืืื ืืก (129โ200), ืืืื ืืืื ืืจืคืืื ืืืืืคืจืื ืืจืืืืช, ืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืฉืคื ื ืื ืืกืืืื ืคืืืืืืืืืื, ืงืืข ืื ืืขืืจืงืื ืืืจื ืื (ืื ืืืืืจ ืืืขืช ืงืืืืื) ืืืื ืฉืืืืจ ืืช ืืืืืจืืืช ืืื, ืืงืจ ืืช ืืขืจืืช ืืขืฆืืื ืืืจืืืืช (ืขืจื ื ืืกืืืื ืืงืืคืื ืืืื ืืืฉืืจ ืืื ืงืื). ืืืืืจืื ืืืืขืืื ืืจืืื ืืืื ืืช ืกืคืจืืช ืืจืคืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืื, ืืืื ืืฉื ืจืืืื ืืขืืช ืืืืขืืช, ืขืืืื ืืชืคืชืืืช ืืจืคืืื ืืืฉื ืชืงืืคื ืืืืฉืืช. ืจืืคืืื ืืืื ืื ืืฉืชืืฉื ืืืืจืืกืงืืคืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืช. ืขื ืืชืคืืจืจืืช ืืงืืกืจืืช ืืจืืืืช, ืฉืงืข ืื ืืืืข ืืืืื ื-ืืื ืืกืื ืื ืฉืืื ืจืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืจืคืืื. ืืื ืืืืจืื ืื ืกืืื ืืืืชื ืขืืืืชื ืฉื ืื ืฆืจืืช, ืฉืจืืชื ืืืืืืช ืขืื ืฉ ืขื ืืืืื ืืืชืคืืืืช ืืืฆืขื ืจืืคืื. ืืกืคืจืืช ืืจืคืืืืช ืืืืชื ืืชืืช-ืืงืจืืืช, ืืืืช ืฉืื ืคืืขื ืืขืืืื ืืช ืืื ืกืืื (ืฉืื ืืืชืื ืงืืืืืืืก ืืื ืืก). ืืชืงืืืืช ืืจืคืืื ืืืืชื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืืืคืืช ืืืืกืืืืช, ืงืืืื ืขื ืืื ืขืจืืื ืืืืืืื, ืืื ืคืืืืกืืคืื ื ืืืขืื. ืืชืื ืืืื ืืก ืืืืคืืงืจืืก ืชืืจืืื ืืขืจืืืช ืืขืืจืืช, ืืืฃ ืืืืจื ืกืคืจื ืจืคืืื ืืงืืจืืื. ื ืืกืื ืืชื ืกืคืจ ืืจืคืืื ืืงืืจืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืกืืืืืช. ืื-ืจืืื ืืืืืื (865โ923) ืชืจื ืืืืื ื ืืืืืช ืืื ืืืขืืืขืืช ืืืฆืืช. ืืื ืกืื ื (980โ1037) ืืืืจ ืืช "ืงืื ืื" ืฉืจืืื ืืช ืื ืืืืข ืืจืคืืื, ืืืื ืืกืคืจ ืืืฉืื ืืืืชืจ ืืืื ืืืื ืืื. ืืจืคืืื ืืขืจืืืช ืชืจืื ืืฉืื ืืืืืื ืืคืืชืื ืืชืจืืคืืช ืืืืืจืืช ืขื ืืืื. ืืืืื ืืจืืคืืื ืืืืืืืื ืืื ืืกืฃ ืืจืืคื (ืืืื ื-6~), ืฉืืชื ืืื ืืื (913โ982 ืืืืืืื), ืืฆืืง ืืืจืขืืื ืืงึทืืจืึผืึทืื, ืืฆืืง ืื ืฉืืื ืืืฉืจืืื (ืืืื ื-10 ืืืฆืจืื), ืืืจืื"ื (ืืืื ื-12) ืืฉืจ ืืื ืืกืืืื ืืืจื ืืจืคืืื ืืืื ืขืช. ืืจืื"ื ืืื ืื ืจืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืืืงืจืื ืืฉืืืชืืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืก (ืืคืืืช ืืืฆืืช ืืืื ืืคื ื ืจืื'ืจ ืืืืงืื). ืืกืืฃ ืคืจืงื ืืฉื ืืจืคืืื ืืื ืืขืืื ืืช ืืงืืจื-ืืืชืืื ืืืงืจ ืืช ืืืจืื ืขื ืกืื ืืืืืืื ืืื ืืกืืื ืืืืฉื. ืืจืืคืืื ืืืืืืืื ืงื ื ืืขืฆืื ืืื ืืืื ืจื, ืจืืื ืืื ืืืฆืจืืช ืืืืืื ืืืงืืจืืื ืืืฆืืืืช, ืื ืืฉื ืืชื ืื ืืืจืฉื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืืืช. ืขื ืืชืคืืจืจืืช ืืืืืคืืช ืืืืกืืืืช, ืขืื ืืืจื ืืืืืื ืืืขืจื. ืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืืจืืฉืื ืืจืคืืื ืืืืจืืคื, ืงื ืืกืืืจื ื ืืืืืื ืืืื ื-9, ืืืืื ืื ืืืจืื ืืืืืจื ืืืืืฉื ืืืงืื ืืืจืื ืืจืืื ืืืืืื ืฉืืืืชื ืืืจืื ืจืคืืื. ืขื ืชืืืืช ืืืืข ืืืืคืืจื ืืืื ื-13, ืืืืืกืก ืขื ื ืืกืืืื ืืชืฆืคืืืช, ืืืื ืืื ืื ืืช ืืชืืืจืืืช ืืืฉื ืืช ืฉื ืืืื ืืก ืืืื ืกืื ื. ืืืื ื-14 ืืืจื ืืืชืขื ืืื ืืช ืืื ืืืืื ืืืคืืืืืืืืื, ืืืืขืื ืืื ืคืืชืื ืืชืงืืคืช ืืจื ืกืื ืก. ืืกืืืืก ืืืืจืชื ืฉื ืืจืืคื ืืื ื ืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืื, ืขืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืช ืืชืคืชืืืช ืืจืคืืื. ืืื ืฉืื ืืืืฉื ืขืืื ืืคืืื, ืืืืชื ืืืืืช ืื ืืชืื ืืืื ืืื (ืฉืืืืจื ืขื ืืื ืจืืคื). ืืืื ืขืกืง ืืืงืืช ืื, ืืขืืืช ืืืกืืช ืจืื ืืืืคืื ืืขืืืงืืช (ืฉืืื ืืืืจืืช ืืืืคืื ืืขืื ืขื ืืกืืฃ ืืืื ื-19). ืจืง ืืื ืืืืื ื-15, ืขื ืขืืืืช ืจืืช ืืืืืืืื ืืืชื ืืกืคืจ ืืจืคืืื, ืืื ืืืงืืฉ ืืืืฉ ืืืงืฆืืข, ืขืืชื ืืืงืจืชื ืืฉืืจื ืืืืืจ ืืืงืฆืืข ืืืคืฉื. ืขื ืืืชืขื ืืื ืืช ืืืชืืืฉืช ืืื ืืืืื ืืืคืืืืืืืืื, ืชื ืขืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืชืงืืคืช ืืจื ืกืื ืก. ื-1543 ืืืืจ ืืกืืืืืก ืืช ืกืคืจ ืืื ืืืืื, ืฉืฉืื ืืช ืื ืชืืจืชื ืฉื ืืืื ืืก ืืืฆืืืืจ ืืืืืืง ืืืืื ืืืชืจ. ืืืื ืจืื ืื ืืื ืฆ'ื ืขืกืง, ืืื ืืฉืืจ, ืื ืชืืืช ืืชืื ืืืขืฉืืจ ืืช ืืืืขืืชืื ื ืืืืืช ืืืฃ ืืืื. ืคืืจืืฆืืกืืก, 1493โ1541, ืืืื ืืช ืชืืจืช ืืืืืช ืืืืฃ, ืืงืจ ืืช ืืืืืฃ ืืืืืจืื, ืืชืืื ืืช ืืชืจืืคืืช ืืืืืขืืช ืื ืืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืขื ืืช ืืฉืคืขืชื, ืืืืืืจ ืืช ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืชืืฉืืจืื ืืืืืื. ืื ืฉืื ืืื ื ืืฉืืื ืืืืืช ืืจืคืืื ืืืืืจื ืืช. ืคืืจื ืืฆืจืคืช ืฉืื ืืืื ื-16 ื ืืฉื ืืืื ืืืืจืืจืืื ืืืืืจื ืืช. ืืืืื ืกืจืืืืืก, ืกืคืจืื ืฉืืชืืืจืจ ืืฆืจืคืช ืืืื ืืืื ื-16 ืืช ืืืืืจ ืืื ืืงืื (ืื ืื ืืืืืจ ืืื ืืจืืืชื). ืืืื ื-17 ืืืื ืืจืคืืื ืืืชืงืื, ืืืืฉืขื ื ืขื ืืืืขืื ืืืืจืื: ืืชืงืืืืช ื ืืกืคืช ืืื ืืฉืืื ืืืืจืืจืืื, ืืืืืืืืช ืืืคืชืืืืืื. ืืืกืืช (ืกืืืืกืงืืค) ืืืืฉืืจ ืืจืคืืงืกืื ื ืขืฉื ืืืจืืื ืืจืืื ืืืืืงื ืืงืืื ืืช. ืืืืจื ืืฉืืืืช ืืืืืช ืืืื ืืฆื ืืื ืืืืืื. ืืื ืืืืื ืืคืชืืืืืืช ืื ืชืืืช ืืืืคืืช, ื ืขืฉื ืืฉืืขืืจื ืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืจืคืืื. ืืงืจ ืืขืจืืช ืืขืฆืืื ืืชืคืชื ืื ืขืฉื ืืืืข ืืชืื ืืจืคืืื. ืืืืืจื ื'ื ืจ ืืื ืืื, ืืจืืื ื-1796 ืืช ืืืืกืื ืืืืขืืืขืืช ืฉืืืจืืช, ืืื ืื ืืกืื ืืจืคืืืช ืืื ืืขื ืืืืืจื ืืช. ืชืจืื ืืื ืืืืงืื ืืกื ืืืจืืื ืืืืืืจืื ืืื ืืืื, ืืืื ืืช ืฆืืืืื ืืืขืชืืช ืืืืื. ืืชืืืืช ืืืื ื-19 ืืืจ ืืืืจื ืืจืืคืืื ืืช ืืืฃ ืืืื ืืคืจืืื, ืืืืื ื ืืืกืืืืืช ืืชืืืืืื ืืคืืืืืืืืืื. ืืื ืืงืจ ืืชื ืขื ืืื ืจืืืืืฃ ืืืจืื ืืืืคืจืื ืชืืืืจืืช ืืืืืช ืืืืฃ. ืืืคืงืื ื ืจืืืื ืืขืื ืื ืืกืื, ืฉืืืืืื ืืงืจ ืงืืื ืืจื ืืจ ืืงืจืงืขืืช ืืืืจ ืืจืืืขื ืฉื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืคืจืฉืช ืกืืืจ ืืฉืชื. ืืจื ืืจ ืืืืื ืื ืืกืืื ืืจืืื ืืช ืืฉืื ื ืืื ืืืืืืช ืืคืจืฉื ืืืฆืื ืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืคืจืฉื ืคื ืืืืช, ืืืื ื ืืฉื ืืืื ืืื ืืืงืจืื ืืืืืื. ืืืฆืืช ืืืื ืืืืืงืช ืคื ืื ืืขืื ืืืืืื, ืืขืืื ืขื ืขืืืื ืืืืืงืืช ืฉื ืืืืจื ืืืืฃ, ืืขื ืืคืฉืจืืืืช ืืืืื ืืกืืืืช ื ืืกืคืืช, ืืืื ืืื ืช ืืื ืืืื. ืชืืืจืืืช ืืืืืืงืื ืืืืจืื ืืืืืช ืฉืคืืชืื ืืขืืงืจ ืืขืงืืืช ืชืืืืืช ืืืืฆืืช ืืฉื ืืื ืฉื ืืืื ื-19 ืืืืืื ืืืชืงืืืืช ืขืฆืืื ืืชืืื ืืจืคืืื, ืืืงืืืืช, ืืืืืืืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืคืืชื ื ืืืจืช ืืชืืืชืช ืชืื ืืงืืช ืืืืืื, ืืจืืื ืืชืืืืื ืฉื ืื ื ืืื ืืืขืื ืืืื ืืชืืจืืชืื ืืืืืจืืช ืชืืืืช ืืืืื ืฉื ืืื ืืื ืืฉืืช. ืืชืืืจืื ืืืืชื ืฉืืกืคืจ ืจื ืฉื ืืืืืช ืงืืื ืืืช ืืงืจื ืืขืื ืืืื (ืืจืืืช ืื ื ืืื) ืืฆืืืื, ืืื ืืืืื ืคืฆืขืื ื ืืจืืื ืขื ืืื ืืืืืืื ืืขืืจืื ืืืืชืจ โ ืืืืืืงืื. ืืืืฉื ื ืืฆืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืขืืจืื ื ืืกืคืื ืืื ืืืจืืกืื, ืืื ืชืืืจื ืืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืขืงื ืคืืจืืืช ืืืืงืจื-ืืืจืื ืืืืื ืืืจืื. ื-1862 ืืืื ืคืกืืจ ืฉื ืงืฅ ืืืขื ืฉืืืืื ื ืืฆืจืื ืืขืฆืื. ืืื ืืฆืจ ืืืกืื ืื ืื ืื ืืืืช, ืืืืช, ืืืืืจื, ืืืืืืฅ ืขื ืฉืืืช ืืืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืฉืืจื ืืืืืืงืื โ ืคืืกืืืจ. ืืืื ืคืกืืจ ืฉืืืงื ื-1888 ืงืืื ืืช ืขื ืฃ ืืืืงืจืืืืืืืืื ืืืช ืืืืจื ืืืืืืงืื ืืืืจืื ืืืื. ืืื ืชื ืืื ืืื ื'ืืืฃ ืืืกืืจ, ืงืจื ืืช ืขืืืืืชืื ืฉื ืคืกืืจ, ืืืขืงืืืช ืืืช, ืืื ืืก ืืืืจืืจืืื ืฉืืืืช ืืืืื ืฉื ืคืฆืขืื, ืืืฉืืจื ื ืืชืื, ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืคื ืื (ืฉืื ืืืืงืื ืืืืฆื ืงืจืืืืืช), ืืืืืืจ ืืืชืจ ืืื ืืก ืืช ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืคืคืืช ืืืืกืืืช. ืื ืชืจื ืืืคืืชืช ืืืืืื ืืฆื ืืืืื ืืืคืืืช ืืช ืืงืจื ืืชืืืชื ืฉื ืื ืฉืื ืืืจืืช ืืืืจ ืืืืืช ืืืื ืืื ื ืืฉื ืืื ืื ืืชืื ืืืืืจื ื. ืจืืืจื ืงืื ืฉืืื ืจืืคื ืืคืจื ืืจืื ื, ืืงืจ ืืช ืืืืืงื ืืืืืช (ืืื ืชืจืงืก). ืืื ืืฆืืื ืืืื ืืืืืงืื ืืชืจืืืช ืืืจื ืืขืืืจืื ืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืืืช ืขื ืืื ืืืจืงื ืฉื ืืืืืืงืื ืืขืืืจืื. ืขืืืืชื ืืงืคืื ืืช ืฉื ืงืื ืกืืคืงื ืืกืืก ื ืืกืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช, ืฉืืืื ืืืฆืืข ื ืืกืืืื ืืืขืื ืืืื ืืืื ื ืืื. ืืืืงืจ ืฉืื ืืืืื ืืืืืื "ืืขืืงืจืื ืฉื ืงืื" โ ืืจืืขื ืงืจืืืจืืื ืื ืฉื ืืขืื ืืงืืืข ืงืฉืจ ืกืืืชื ืืื ืืืจื ืืืงืจืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืฉืื. ืงืื ืืืื ืืืืฉื ืืช ืืชื ืืฉืืคืช, ืืชืืืืื ืคืจืืืจืื ืืคืืจ ืืืื ืืช ืืชื ืืืืคืืจืืื. ืขื ืืืจื ืื ืืืื ืคืจืืืืื ืืกืืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืืช โ ืืืจืื, ืืงืืืช ืฆืืืื. ืืืืืืช ืืื, ืืื ืื ืืืืืช ืืฉืื ื, ืืชืืจืจ ืืืืงืจืื ืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืขืืืืืช ืืืืืืง ืื ืฉืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืขืงืืฆืช ืืจืงืื. ืืขืงืืืช ืชืืืืืช ืืื ืืืื ืืืืืก ืขืจื ืชืืืืื ืืจืขืื ืื ืฉืืงืืจื ืืืืืืงืื, ืืขืจื ืืื ืชื ืื ืืืื ืื ืืื. ืืืืื ืืฆ'ื ืืงืื ืืืืื ืืช ืชืคืงืืื ืฉื ืืืืจืืืช ืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืขืจืืช ืืืื ื ืฉื ืืืืฃ. ืคืืชืื ืืืกืื ืื ืืืื ืืก, ืืืจ, ืืืื ืืจืื ืืขืื. ื ืืงืจื ืืืืืช ืจืืืช ืืขืืืช ืืงืืืช ืืืืจืืช. ืืชืืืื ืจืคืืื ืืืจืื ืืืขืืง ืืืืข ืืืื ืืขืืืช ืื ืืืงืจืื ืืืช, ืืจืืื, ืืืืืช ืืืืืช ืืื ืืขืื. ื-1846 ืืืืื ืชืืืืก ืืืจืืื ืืจืืื ืืืืืช ืืืชืจ ืืฉื ื ืืืืืจ ืืืชืจ ืืืื ืก ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืืจืืคืืจื, ืืฉืจ ืคืชื ืืคืฉืจืืืืช ืืืฉืืช ืืชืืื ืืืืจืืจืืื. ืืฉืืื ืืืื ื-19 ืืืฉืืื ืืชืืืืืช ืืืกืขืืจืืช ืฉืฉืื ื ืืช ืขืืื ืืจืคืืื. ืืฉื ืช 1895 ืืืื ืืืืืื ืจื ืืื ืืช ืงืจื ื ื-X (ืงืจื ื ืจื ืืื). ื-1898 ืืืื ืคืืืจ ืืืืจื ืงืืจื ืืช ืงืจื ื ืืจืืืื. ืืชืืื ืืืืืช ืื ืคืฉ ืืื ื ืืกืื ืืชืืจืช ืืคืกืืืืื ืืืื ืฉื ืืืืืื ื ืคืจืืื. ืื ืืกืฃ, ืืื ืืชืงืืืืช ืืชืืืื ืืืืืืชืจืคืื, ืืืืื ืืืืืื, ืืืืข ืืชืืื ื, ืฉืคืืชืื ืืฉืืืืื ืืืื ื-20. ืืืืคืื ืืืืงืจืืืืืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืืช ืจืืืช ืืชืืืื ืืจืคืืื ืืื ืืฉืืช, ืจืคืืื ืฉื ืืขืื ืืืื (ืืืจืื ืจืื) ืืื ืืขืช ืืืืืช ืืงืจื ืฆืืืื ืืืฉืืื ืืืืื ืืืื ื-20. ืืกืืฃ ืืืื ื-19 ืืืชืืืืช ืืืื ื-20 ืืชืืื ืื ืืืง ืืืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืช ืืฉืื ื, ืืืจืื ืืงืืืช ืฆืืืื, ืฉืืขืืจืชื ื ืืฉืื ืืกืชืืจืืช ืืืกืจืช ืืคืืก ืืจืืจ, ืืืขืืจืืช ืขื ืืื ืขืงืืฆืืช ืฉื ืืจืงืื ืืื ืืชืืฉืื ืืืืืืื ืฉืืขืืืจืื ืืืจืืื ืืืืืืืื ืืื ืืืจืืกืื ืื ืืืืืงืื. ืืืืจ ืืืืื ืชืืจืช ืืืืืืงืื ืืฉื ืช 1876, ืืงืฆืืข ืืจืคืืื ืืฉืชื ื ืืืืืจืืช ืืืืืคื ืืกืืื. ืืืืืื, ืืื ืืฉื ืื 1900 ื-1910 ืืืืื ืืจืคืืื ืืืืจืืงืื ืืื ื-8,400 ืืืจืื ื-70,000 ืืืจืื. ืฆืืืื ืื ืืืฆืื ืืช ืืืขืืจ ืืคืจืงืืืงืืช ืจืคืืืืืช ืืงืืืืืช ืขื ืืขืืืืช ืืคืืงืคืงืืช, ืืืงืฆืืข ืืืืจืื ืืืืื ืืคืืขื ืืฉืืืจ ืกืฃ ืืืกืื ืืคืจืงืืืงืืช ืืืืกืกืืช ืืืข. ื-1928 ืืืืื ืืจืืคื ืืืืืืืืื ืืืืกื ืืจ ืคืืืื ื, ืื ืืืืื ืคืืจืืืชื ืคืืข ืืืืฉืืืช ืืืืืงืื. ืืื ืืืื ืฉืืืืจ ืคืขืื ืืกืืื ืฉืืืืฆืจืช ืืคืืจืืื ืืื ืืืืจื ืืืจื ืืืืืืงืื ืืงืจื ืืืืืจ ืคื ืืฆืืืื. ืคืืืื ื ืคืจืกื ืืช ืืืฆืืื ืืฉื ืช 1929, ืื ืื ืื ืขืืจืจื ืขื ืืื ืืงืจื ืืฆืืืืจ ืืืงืจื ืขืืืชืื ืืืืขื ืื. ืคืืืื ื ืขืื ืืืื ืืืกืจ ืืช ืืฆืืื ืืืจืืฉ ืืืืฆืืข ืืืงืจืื ืืกืืจ ืืืืื ืื ืืจืฉ. ืขืฉืจ ืฉื ืื ืืืืจ ืืืืื ืืคื ืืฆืืืื ืขื ืืื ืคืืืื ื ืืื ืืืืืจื ืคืืืจื ืืืชืขื ืืื ืื ืืฉื ืืืืงืจ ืืื ืืืืืืื, ืืืืืื ืืืคืืฉืื ืืืจ ืืืืจืื ืื ืืฉื ื ืชืงื ืืื ืฉื ืคืืืื ื ืืืชืขื ืืื ืืชื ืื ืืฉื ืืชืขืืจืจื. ืคืืืจื ืืื ืืืงืืจ ืืช ืืคื ืฆืืืื ืืื ืขื ืืจื ืกื ืืืจืืก ืฆ'ืืื ืืขืื ืืืขืืื ืืฆืืืืช ืืืืืื ืช ืืืื. ืฆ'ืืื ืืคืืืจื ืืืื ืื ืกืืช ืืช ืืื ืืืืืืืืงื ืขื ืืฆืืจืื ืืืื ืืืืจืืงื ืืช ืืคื ืืฆืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืืคื ืฉื ืืืืช ืืขืืื. ืื ืืกืืืื ืืืืชืจื ืืืฆืืื ืืืืืืช ืื ื ืืจื ืฉืื ื ืืง. ืคืืืจื ืืฆ'ืืื ืืืืืื ืื ืืคื ืืฆืืืื ืืื ืืฉ ืคืืื ืฆืืื ืืชืจืืคื ืื ืืืืืืืืช. ืขื ืืืช ืืคืงืช ืืื ืืืืืืืืงื ื ืืชืจื ืืงืจื ืืื. ืืคื ืืฆืืืื ื ืื ืก ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืฉื ืช 1942. ืขื ืืชืงืืืืช ืืืืืช ืืขืืื ืืฉื ืืื ืืืืจืืคื, ืืคื ืืคื ืืฆืืืื ืืืืฆืจ ืืงืจ ืขืจื ืขื ืืืื, ืืืืืจืื ืื ืืื ืฉืืื ืคื ืืื ืืืฉืงืื ืืืื, ืืื ืื ื ืืฉื ืกืื ืฆืืื ืฉื ืืขืืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืืืืจ ืืืชืจ ืคืืชืื ืฉืืืืช ืืืคืงืช ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืจืื ืฉื ืื ืืืืืืืืงื ืืคืืชืื ืกืืื ืื ืืืืืืืืงื ื ืืกืคืื. ืืืชืืืืช ืืืงืฆืืขืืช ืืืคืืฆืื ืืชืืืื ืืชืืืืช ืฆืจืื ืืืื ืืืื; ืืืืจ ื ืืืข ืืจืืืื ืืจืืคืืื ืืื ืืืฆืืืจืืช ืืืฉื ืืฉื ืื ืฉื ืืืืช ืจืื ืฉื ืืืข ืืื ืืื ืืชืืืื ืืจืคืืื, ืืืจ ืืืืคืฉืจ ืืชืืงืืืช ืืืื ืืืชืจ. ืืืืคืื ื ืืชื ืืืื ืืืจืคืืืช, ืืืชื ืืืืื, ืืงืืื ืืงืืช ืคืจืืืืช ืืืขืืชืื ืืฃ ืืืืช ืืืืื. ืืจืืคื ืืื ื ืขืืื ืืืื, ืืื ืขืืจ ืจืืื ืขืืืืื ืืจืฉืืชื: ืืืื ื ืืืงืจ, ืืืื ื ืจื ืืื, ืืขืืืืช ืืืื ืืื. ืืืืจ ืืืชืคืชืืืช ืืืืืจื ืฉื ืืืขื ืืจืคืืื ืืฉืื ืืืื ืขืืืื ืืชืืื ืฉื ืืขืืกืงืื ืืชืืื ืืืชืคืชืืืืืช ืืืืจืื ืืช. ืืืงืฉืจ ืืื ืืืง ืืืฉืชืืืืืืช ืืืืจืื ืืช ืขื ืืื ืืืคืื ืืกืืจืืื ืืืื ืืฆืจื ื ืืชืจืืคืืช. ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืฉืืื ืืืฉ ืืืืื ืขื ืืฉืชืืืืืืช ืืืกืืจืช ืฉืื ืชืืืื ืืืืคืื ืืกืืจืืื โ ืคืืจืื ืืงืืื. ืืืื ื-21 ืืืืื ืืื ืคืื ืกืืจืช ืืืคืืืช ื ืืกืคืืช ืฉืืฉื ืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืคื ื ืืจืคืืื ืืืืืจื ืืช ืืืื: ืืชืคืชืืืช ืืืืืืื ืืืืืื, ืืืงืจ ืืชืื ืืืข, ืืืงืจืื ืคืืจืฆื ืืจื ืืชืืื ืืื ืืืงื ืืืชืงืืืืช ืืืืจื ืืชืืื ืื ื ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืคืฉืจืืช ืืืื ืืืคืื ืจืคืืื ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืฉืื ืืขืืจ ืืกืจืืช ืืจืคื ืื ื ืืชื ืืช ืืจืืคืื ืื ืืงืืฉื. ืืืืื ืืจืคืืื ืืชืืืืช ืืืืฃ ืืืืฉ ื ืืืฆืช ืืืชืืืื ืขื ืืชืืจืื ืืืฉืื ืฉืื ืืื ืืขืืจ: ืืืืืืก, ืฉืืืืืช ืืืืื ืฉื ืกืจืื ืืงืจื ืืืืืืืกืืื ืืขืื. ืืืืืื ืจืคืืื ืืขืืื ืืืื, ืืืืืื ืจืคืืื ืืืจืืื ืืืจื ืืื 6โ7 ืฉื ืื, ืืืฉืจ ืฉื ื ืขื ืฉื ืชืืื ืืื ืืืงืืฉืืช ืืืฉืืืช ืืืข ืืกืืกื ืืืืืื ืืืืกืก ืืช ืืืืืืืื ืขืฆืื (ืืืืืจ, ืจืืืฉืช ืืืข ืืืืกืก ืืช ืืขืืกืืง ืืจืคืืื ืืื ืืืข ืืกืืกื ืืคืืืืงื, ืืื, ืืืข ืืืืืื, ืืืืืืืื, ืคืจืืงืืืืืื, ืคืกืืืืืืืื, ืืืืืื ืืืืืื, ืชืืื ื, ืืืกืืืจืื ืฉื ืืจืคืืื, ืกืืฆืืืืืืื, ืคืืืืกืืคืื, ืืงืฆืืขืืช ืคืจื-ืจืคืืืืื, ืืขืื), ืืืช ืืืฉืจ ืืืฉ ืืืฉื ืขื ืชืืื ืืืืืื (ืืฉืจ ืืืืข ืื ืจืืฉ ืืืงืฉืจื ืืฉืืฉ ืืืจ ืื ืืฆืข ืืืืืื ืืขืืืงื ืฉื ืกืืืืืช ืคืจืืงืืืืืืืช). ืืืฉ ืจื ืืืฉื ืื ืขื ืืืืืืืื ืืืืืืืืื, ืฉืื ืืจืคืืื, ืื ืื ืืืืืขืืช ืืื ื ืืื ืืื ืื ืืืืืขืืช ืืืขืื ืืืื ืืืจืื (ืืืจืื ืจืื), ืืื ืืืขืฉื, ืืคืืืช ืืจืื ืืืื ืืช, ืืขืืงืจ ืืืฉืื ืฉื ืืืข ืืืืืืื ืืืืืืืื ืืคืชืืจืช ืืขืืืช ืื ืืืขืืช ืืืื ื ืืืืฃ ืืชืคืงืืื, ืื ืืจืฉ ืืฉืืจืืช ืจืคืืื ืืืืื. ืืืืจ ืฉืืกืืืื ื ืจืืืฉ ืืืข ืืืขื, ืืืื ื, ืืคืจื-ืจืคืืื ืืกืืกื ืืคื ืฉืชืืืจ, ืื ืืืืืคืื, ืืืจื ืฉืืจืื ืืงืืืืช ืืกืคืงืช ืื, ืืื ืืชืืื ืืืืื ืืืชืจ ืกืืืืืช ืื ืืืขืืช ืืืงืฆืืข ืืจืคืืื ืขืฆืื. ืชืืืื ืืืฉื ืืืฉ ืขื ืขืงืจืื ืืช ืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืืฃ ืืืื ืื ืืขืื ืืืื ื ืคืืฆืื (ืืืืืืื ืืืจืื ืจืื), ืืืืืจืื ืืกืชืขืฃ ืืกืืืื ืืืืืื ืขื ืืคืืืืืืืืื ืืืคืชืืคืืืืืืืืื, ืจืืืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืกืืืงื ืฉื ืคืชืืืืืืืช ืฉืื ืืช. ืืืืื ืืช ืืกืืืืืช ืืกืืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืืชืืืจ ืืื, ืฉืืืจืื ืืฉืฉ ืื ืฉืืข ืฉื ืื; ืืื ืืืกืืื ืืืงืืื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืจืื ืืขืืื. ืืืืจืืช, ืืชืืืจ ืืคืืฆื ืืืกืคืจ ืชืืจืื ืื ืืืืื ืืืืกืืืช ืฉืื ืื; ืื ืืืกืืื ืืืงืืื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืืกืืื ืืื ืืืืืืืื ืืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืืจืคืืื ืืืจืืื ืืืจืืข ืฉื ืื ืืืืฆืขืื ืืืจื ืืื ืืืขืื ืชืืืจ ืจืืฉืื, ืืชืืื ืงืจืื ืืืื ืืืืืืืื, ืืืืืืืื, ืืืืื, ืจืืงืืืช, ืื ืืืขื ืืืื ืืคืกืืืืืืืื. ืืืฉืจืื ืคืืขืืื ืฉืืฉื ืืชื ืกืคืจ ืืจืคืืื: ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืื-ืืืจืืื, ืืืื ืืืจืกืืื ืืขืืจืืช, ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืชื ืืืื, ืืืื ืืื, ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืืจ-ืืืื (ืืคืงืืืื ืืจืคืืื ืืืืื) ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืืจืืื. ืืืืจืื ื ืืืฉืจื ืืืืขืฆื ืืืฉืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืชืืื ืืช ืืืืืื ืืจืคืืื ืืืขืื ืชืืืจ ืจืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืจืืืืื "ืืืืขืฆื ืืืฉืืื ืืืืื ืืืฉืจื ืคืชืืืช ืชืื ืืช ืืจืคืืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืจืืืืื". ืืืืขืฆ. 2024-11-12.. ืืืฆืืช ืืืคืงืืืืืช ืืืฉืจืื ืื ืืชืืื ืืืช ืืืืืืช (ืฉืฉ-ืฉื ืชืืืช) ืืืืืฆืืช ืืฉื ืืื ืืื ืืชืืืจ M.D ืืจืืข-ืฉื ืชื ืืืืจ ืชืืืจ ืจืืฉืื, ืืคืงืืืื ืืจืคืืื ืืฆืคืช ืฉื ืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืืจ-ืืืื, ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืชื ืืืื, ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืจืืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืืจืืื. ืืกืคืจ ืืืงืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืชื ืืกืคืจ ืืงืืืืื ืืืืงืืฉ ืืืื ืืืงืืืืช ืืื ืืจืจ ืฉืชื ืชืืคืขืืช ืืงืฉืืจืืช ืื ืืื. ืืฆื ืืื, ืชื ืื ืืงืืื ืืืชื ืืกืคืจ ืืืื ืงืฉืื ืืืื, ืืืืฉื ืฉื ืื ืจืืืช ืจืฃ ืืงืืื ืืืืืืื ืจืคืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืื ืชืืืื ืืืืืื. ืืฆื ืฉื ื, ืืืืช ืชื ืื ืืงืืื ืืืืืืื ืชืืืจ ืืืงืืืจ ืืจืคืืื ืืืฉืจืื ื ืืฉืืื ืืชืืืขื ืืื ืืืืชืจ, ืืจื ืฉืืฉืจืืืื ืจืืื ื ืืืฆืื ืืฆืืช ืืืืื ืจืคืืื ืืืืฅ ืืืฉืจืื, ืฉื ืชื ืื ืืงืืื ืืืืืจืื ืคืืืช, ืืืฃ ืืกืืืื ืืืืืื ืงืฆืจืื ืืืชืจ. ืืขืืื ื ืคืืฆืื ืืืืจื ืื ืื ืืื ืืจืื, ืืืงืจืืื ื, ืืืืืืื. ืื ืืื, ืืืง ื ืืืจ ืืืจืืคืืื ืืืฉืจืื ืื ืืืืจื ืืืกืืืช ืืจืื. ื ืืฉื ืื ืืขืกืืง ืจืืืช ืืช ืืื ืกืช ืืืฉืจื ืืืจืืืืช[ืืจืืฉ ืืงืืจ] ืืืืืื ืฉืืฉื ื ืืขื ืืช ืฉืจืืชื ืฉื ืืจืืคืืื ืืื"ื ื ืืืื ืื ืฉืืื ื ืืคืืงืืช ืขื ืืื ืืฉืจื ืืืจืืืืช. ืืขืืกืืง ืืจืคืืื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืชืจ ืืขืืกืืง ืืจืคืืื ืืืฉืจืื ื ืืชื ืจืง ืืื ืฉืจืืฉ ืชืืืจ ืืืงืืืจ ืืจืคืืื ืงืื ืื ืฆืืื ืืืช ืืืืกื ืืงืืื ืืืืจ ืืืจืฅ ืื ืืืืฅ ืื, ืืขืื ืืืืื ืืช ืกืืื ืื ืขืจืืืช ืืืจืฅ. ืืขืืกืืง ืืจืคืืื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืืืจ ืืคืงืืืช ืืจืืคืืื (ื ืืกื ืืืฉ), ืืชืฉื"ืโ1976 ื"ืืืืงืช ืืืืื ืืคืฆืืขืื, ืืืืื ื, ืจืืคืืืื, ืืชื ืืจืฉื ืืื, ืคืืงืื ืขื ื ืฉืื ืืืืงื ืืืืจืืื ืืืืืื, ืื ืฉืืจืืชืื ืืืจืื ืื ืืชื ืื ืืืจื ืืื ืืืื ืจืืคื; ืืจืืืช ืจืืคืื ืืืงืืคืื ืงืืืจื". ืจืฉืืื ืืขืกืืง ืืจืคืืื ืจืืคืืื ืืืจืฉืื ืืืื. ืืืฆืืื ืืืืื ืื ืจืืงืืื ืืืจืฉืื, ืืืืืืื ืืืจืฉืื ืืจืืคืื ืฉืื ืืื ืืืจืฉืื ืืคื ืืคืงืืืืช ืืืืืช ืขืืืื ืื ืืืคืืื ืืืืืขืฆืื ืืืงืจืื ืืืื ืฉืืจ ืื ืืืื ืืื ืืขืืืืื ืชืืช ืคืืงืืื ืืืฉืืจ ืฉื ืจืืคื ืืืจืฉื. ืืกืืฃ 2014 ืืื ืืืฉืจืื 34,231 ืจืืคืืื ืจืฉืืืื, ืฉืื 342 ืืื 100,000 ื ืคืฉ. ืืกืคืจ ืืกืืืื ืืืืืื ืืจืคืืื ืืืฉืจืื ืขืื ืืืืจืื ืื-250 ื-1990 ืื-400 ื-2012. ืืื 2005 ื ืืชื ืื ืืื ืฉื ื ื-120 ืจืืฉืืื ืืช ืืขืืืื. ืืจืืคืืื ืืืชืืืื ืืืฉืจืื ืืชืืื ื ืื ืขื ืชื ืื ืขืืืื ืืฉืืจ ืืจืืืื, ืืืฉื ืช 2011 ื ืงืื ืฆืขืื ืืืื ืืจืืคืื, ืชืื ืขืืืืช ืื ืจืง ืขื ืืืขืกืืงืื, ืืื ืื ืขื ืืืกืชืืจืืช ืืจืคืืืืช ืืืฉืจืื. ืืืขืจืืช ืืืจืืืืช ืืืฉืจืื ืฉืืขืืจื ืฉื ืื ืฉืื ืืืื ืืขืืืืื ืืื ืืืื, ืืืื ืืงืจื ืืจืืคืืื, ืืื ืืืฆืืื ืืฉืืจืืช ืืื ืืืื ืืื ื ืืื ืืืจืื. ืืืืงืจ ืฉืขืจื ืืืื ืืจืืงืืืื ืืฉื ืช 2019 ืขืื ืฉืืืชืืจ ืืขืืงืจื ืื ืชืื ืืืชืงืืืืช ืืืงืฆืืขืืช ืืื ื ืืืื ืืงืื ืคืืืงื ืืืช-ืขืืืื. ืืชืืจืื ื ืืกืคืื ืฉืขืื ืืื ืืืกืืจ ืืื ืืื (ืื ืืืจืื ื), ืชืจืืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืงืืืืช ืืขืืืื, ืืฉืืืจืืช ื ืืืืืช ืืฉื ืืืจืื ืืชืคืงืืืื ืืงืืืืื ืืงืืฉื ืืฉืื ืคืขืืืืช ืืงืืืืช ืืขืืืื. ืชืืืื ืืขืช ืจืคืืืืื ืืืฉืช ืืชืืืืื ืืขืืงืจืืื ืืจืคืืื (ืืืฉืจ ืืขืืงืจ ื ืืืืื ืืืชื ืืกืคืจ) ืื ืจืคืืื ืคื ืืืืช, ืืืจืืจืืื, ืืื ืงืืืืืื (ืจืคืืืช ื ืฉืื, ืืืืืืืช ืืคืจืืื) ืคืืืืืจืื (ืจืคืืืช ืืืืื) ืืคืกืืืืืืจืื. ืขื ืคื ืจืื, ื ืืชื ืืืืง ืืช ืืืชืืืืืืช ืืจืคืืื ื-3, ืืืคืืจื ืืืืื ืืืื [ืืจืืฉ ืืงืืจ]: ืจืคืืื ืคื ืืืืช: ืชืืื ืืขืืกืง ืืื ืืขื, ืืืืื ืืืืืคืื ืชืจืืคืชื ืื ืืืกืื ื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืจืื ืฉืื ืืืจืฉืช ืืชืขืจืืืช ื ืืชืืืืช. ืจืคืืื ืืืจืืจืืืช: ืชืืื ืืจืคืืื ืืขืืกืง ืืจืืคืื ืืืืืช, ืคืฆืืขืืช ืืืฆืืื ืจืคืืืืื ืืืจืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ื ืืชืื ืคืืืฉื ื ืฉื ืืืฃ ืืืืื. ื ืืชืืืื ืืืฉืชืืืืื ืืชืืื ืื ืื: ื ืืชืืื ืืื, ืืืก ืืจื ืืจืื ืืืจื, ื ืืชืืื ืื, ืขืฆืืื ืืขืืื ืืฉืืจื. ืืชืืื ืืืืจืืจืืื ื ืขืฉื ืื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืฆืขื ืชืจืืืช ืืืืจืื ืืืื ืืืืจืื ืชืืชืืื, ืืืืจื ืืืืืืฃ ืืืืจืื ืื ืจืงืืืช ืฉืืืืขื ืืื-ืกืคืืงื ืกืืคื ืืช. ืืืื ืืืืง ืืชืืื ืืื ืืกื ืืื ืืืช ืงืืื ืื ืืคืฉืจืืช ืืคืฉืจืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืจืื ืืืขืืื ืืืฆืืจืช ืืืืจืื ืืืฉืชืื ืืืืคืกื ืชืืช-ืืืืืช. ืืื ืงืืืืืื: ืชืืื ืืจืคืืืช ืื ืฉืื ืืืืื ืคืขืืืืช ืืื ืืืคืื ืืืืืืช ืืื, ืื-ืคืืจืืืช ื ืฉืืช, ืืืืงืืช ืจืคืืืืืช ืืงืฉืืจืืช ืืืืจืืื ื ืฉื ืืืืื, ืืจืืืช ื ืืชืื ืงืืกืจื, ืื ืืืืืช ืืื ืืื ืืง ืืืืคืืื ืคืืจืืืช. ืจืคืืืช ืืืืื: ืืืคืื ืืืืืื (ืขื ืืื 18) ืืืคืืื, ืืจืืืช ืืืืื ืืืืืื, ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืื ืงืืืืืื. ืจืคืืืช ืื ืคืฉ: ืืืคืืืื ืืงืฉืืจืื ืืชืืื ืื ืคืฉ ืืจืืืช ืืคืกืืืืืืืื ืืืคืกืืืืืืจืื. ืจืคืืื ืืกืชืืืช: ืื ืื-ืึถืืื'ืื ื (Anti-Aging) ืืื ืชืืื ืืจืคืืื ืืขืืกืง ืืืงืจ ืืืืื ืฉื ืชืืืืื ืืืืงื ืืช ืืขืจืืืช ืืืืื ืฉื ืืืื. ืืืืงื ืืช ืืืืฆืช ืคืืืขืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืืืฉืจ ืืืืคื ื ืืืงืฆืจืช ืืช ืชืืืืช ืืืืื. ืชืืืื ืืืจืื ืื ืฉื ืขืืืื ืืฉืื ืืืื ืืขืืจ[ืืจืืฉื ืืืืจื] ืืฉืืคืืจ ืืจืืื ืืืจืืืืชื ืืื ืชืืืื ืืืืฉื ืืืฉ ืฆืืจื ืืืชืืื ืืืืฆืืข ืืืคืืืื ืืฉืืจืื [ืืจืืฉื ืืืืจื] ืืืคืืื ืื ืื-ืืืืืื ื ืืืืจืงืืช: ืืืืืจ ืืืืจืงืืช ืืืืื, ืฉืืืจืชื ืืืื ืงืืืื, ืฉืงืขืื, ืืืืื ืืฆืืงืืช, ืื ืืืืจืงืช ืืืืืงืช ืงืืื ืืืขื, ืฉืืฉืื ืืฉืืื ืฉื ืืงืืืื ืืื ืฉืืื ืืืจื ืืืจืคืืืช ืืฉืจืืจืื, ืืจื ืฉืืชืืฆืื ืืื ืขืืจ ืืืง ืืืชืจ ืืืจืื ืฆืขืืจ ืืืจืื [ืืจืืฉื ืืืืจื] ืืืคืืื ืืืืืงืก: ืืงืืื ืืงืืช ืืจืคืืื ืืกืชืืืช ืืืคืืื ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืืฉื ืืืช, ืฉืืืจืชื ืขืืืื ืืืืืงื ืืช ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืฃ ืขื ืืชืงืืืืช ืืืื.[ืืจืืฉื ืืืืจื] ื ืืืจืืืืืื: ืชืืื ืืขืืกืง ืื ืืชืื ืืืืืืื ืืฉืื ืื ืฉื ืืขืจืืช ืืขืฆืืื, ืืืืขืจืืช ืืืืืืจืืช ืืงืฉืืจืื ืืืื (ื ืืืจืืืืืื), ืืกืืืข ืืืืืื ืืชืืื ืืื ืืืงืจืื ืืืืืื, ืืืข ืืงืืื ืืฆืื, ืืืืข ืืืื ืชืื ืืชืืงืืืช ืืืฆืืืช ืคืชืจืื ืืช ืืืืืืช ืืคืชืืืืืื ืฉืืงืืจื ืืืขืจืืช ืืขืฆืืื, ืืืชืืงืืืช ืืชืืื ืืคืกืืืืืืจืื ืืืืืืช ื ืคืฉ. ืืขืืชืื ืื ืืจื ืืืื ืช ืจืืช ืืคืจืฉืช ืืืืจืืื ืื ืืืืคืืืืืืช ืืฆืืจื ืืืขื ืืืคืืืืฆืื ืืกืืืืช ืืชืืื ืืกืืื, ืืื ืื ืืชืืื ืืงืฉื (ืืื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืจืืืืื), ืืืืืจืืงื, ืจืืืื ืืขืื. ืจืคืืืช ืฉืื ืืื: ืชืืื ืืขืืกืง ืืฉืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืืื, ืชืืงืื ืืืจืื, ืืฉืืืช ืฉืื ืืื, ืฉืชื ืื ืืื, ืฉืื ืืื ืชืืชืืืช ืืืืฉืืจ ืฉืื ืืื. ืืจืืืช ืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืจืฉืช ืฉืื ืืื ืืืฉืืช ืฉืื ืืื, ืืฉืืืคืช ืคื. ืืขืืื ืืช ืจืคืืืืช: ืชืืื ืืขืืกืง ืืืืืื ืืืืืงืืช ืืจืคืืืืืช ืืืจืืฉืืช ืืงืืืช ืืืืืช ืืจืืคื ืืืืก ืืืืื ืืืฆื ืืจืืืืชื, ืืืชืืืืก ืืืืืื, ืืืคืื, ืื ืืขืช ืืืืืช ืืืฆืืจืช ืืืกืื ืื ืืชืจืืคืืช ืขื-ืคื ืืืืืื ืืืืืงืืช ืืืืื. ืืงืืืช ืืืืืื ืืชืืฆืขืื ืืืขืืื ืจืคืืืืช, ืืื ืืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืืืืจื ื ืืฉืืชืืฆืืืช ื ืฉืืืืช ืืจืืคื ืืืฉืคืื. ืืืื ื ืขืฉืื ืืืืืื ืืงืืืื ืจืคืืื ืคืจืืืช ืืืกืืจืช ืฉืืจืืชื ืืืจืืืืช ืืืืืื, ืฉืชืชืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืืคื ืืืฉื, ืืืชืื ืื ืชืืืื ืืืืืื ืืชืืื ืจืคืืื ืจืืฉืื ืืช, ืฉื ืืื ืืช, ืฉืืืฉืื ืืช ืืจืืืขืื ืืช, ืจืคืืื ืืืืกืกืช ืจืืืืช, ืจืคืืื ืืืืจืืช, ืชืื ืฉืงืืื ืืืชืืฉืืืช ืืืื ืจืฉืืืืช ืืจืคืืืืช ืืืืฉืืืช ืฉื ืืืืื ืืืืืคื. ืชืืื ืืจืืืืืืืื ืขืืกืง ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืฆืขื ืืืืืช ืจืคืืื ืืฆืืจื ืืืฆืืข ืืืื ื. ืืืืืืืืื ืืกืื ืชืืืช ื ืืขื ืืงืื ืืื ืื ืืืฉืืจ ืืชืืื ืืชืืื ืืื ืืกื ืืืื-ืจืคืืืืช, ืืื ืื ืืืช ืืืฉืืจ ืืชืืื ืืืืฆืืข ืืืืงืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืืืื: ืืืืงืช ืืืืืจื ืกืืื ื ืจืคืืืืช, MRI ืึพCT. ืืขืืกืงืื ืืชืืื ืื ืืขืืื ืื ืจืคืืืืื. ืจืคืืื ืืฉืคืืืช: ืชืืื ืืขืืกืง ืืจืคืืื ืืฆืืจื ืืืืื ืืืืืจื ืืชืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืคืืืื ืื ืืืฉืคื ืืืืจืื. ืจืื ืืขืืกืงืื ืืชืืื ืื ืืชืืืื ืืชืืื ืืคืชืืืืืื. ืืฉืขืืงืจ ืชืจืืืช ืจืืคืืื ืืื ืืคืขื ืื ืชืืงืื ืคืชืืืื ืื ืืงืจื ืืืืช ืืืืข ืืืืฆืืข ื ืชืืื ืฉืืืืจ ืืืืืช, ืื ื ืืชืื ืคืกืืืืืืื ืืงืจืืืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืืฉื. ืจืคืืืช ืืืจืื: ืชืืื ืืืืื ืคืขืืืืช ืจืคืืืืืช ืืืืคืืช, ืืจืื ืืืืจื ืืื ืืข ืคืืืขื ืงืฉื ืื ืคืฉ, ืืจืืืช ืืืืช. ืจืคืืืช ืืืจืื ืืืืืช ืคืขืืืืช ืขืืจื ืจืืฉืื ื ืืื ืฉืื, ืื ืฉืื ืืืืืืชืืช ืืื ืืช ืืืืืืื. ืืืืืื ืืืืขืื ืืจืื ืืืืจ ืืืื ืืฉื ืืงืจื ืืืจืื ืฉืื ืื, ืืจืืืช ืืฉืืื ืืืขืจืืช ืืืืกืื ืืืืืืืื ืืกืื ื ืืืื. ืชืขืฉืืืช ืืชืจืืคืืช: ืขื ืฃ ืืชืืื ืืจืคืืื ืืขืืกืง ืืคืืชืื ืืืคืงืช ืชืจืืคืืช ืชืื ืืงืจ ืืืืื ืืืืื, ืื ืืืงืจืื ืืืืื, ืคืจืืงืืื ืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืง ืืืงืจ ืืชืจืืคืืช ืืืฉืืืื ืืฉืื ืื ืฉืขื ืืืจื ืืืืงืฉืช ืืื ืคืืง ืชืจืืคื ืืืฉื ืืขืืืจ ืืจื ืงืืืช ืืืฉืืจ ืืืฉืจื ืืืจืืืืช ืื ืึพFDA ืขื-ืคื ืืกืืืื ืืืืฉืืจ ืืฉืื ืื (ืืืืืืช ืืกืืื ืชืจืืคื ืืชืืื), ืืื ืื ืืฉืืงืืืื ืฉื ืืืชื ืืืืคืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืชืจืืคื ืื ืืกื ืืืจืืืืช. ืืืืง ืืฉืื ืืืฆืืจ, ื ืืกืื ืืืืฉืืจ ืืชืจืืคื ืขื ืืชืจืืคื ืืขืืืจ ืืกืคืจ ืชืืืืืื, ืืฉืืงืจืืืืื ืฉืืื ืื: ืฉืื ืื ืืกืื ืืงืืื ื ืืืืืงืช ืืคืงืืืืืืช ืืืขืืืืช ืืชืจืืคื, ืฉืืืืฉ ืืงืืืฆืืช ืืงืจื, ืืืื ืืจืืืช ืคืืฆืื, ืืืืืืช ืชืืงืฃ ืืชืจืืคื (ืคืจืืงืืืืืื). ืืฉืืื ืื ื ืืกืื ืื ืืกืื ื ืืจืฉืช ืืคืกืงื ืฉื ืืื ืืกืคืจ ืืืืฉืื ืืฉื ืื. ืืขืืชืื ื ืขืฉื ืื ืฉืืืืฉ ืื ืืกืืืื ืืืขืื ืืืื. ืื ืืื ืื ืืื, ืืืืฆืจ ืืกืืื ืืืื, ืืืชื ืืกืก ืขืืื ืกืืืื ืืฆืืจืช ืืจื ื. ืชืขืฉืืืช ืืชืจืืคืืช ืขืืฉื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืฉืงืืืืื ืฉืื ืื ืืชืืืืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืืจื ืืืืืง ืืฉืคืขื ืคืืืืืืืืืช ืกืืืืชืืช ืื ืืืขืช ืืืืื ืื ืืื ืช, ืชืื ืืงืฉื ืืืืืข ืืืืคืืืืืืฆืื ืชืจืืคืชืืช ืืืืฆืืจ ืชืจืืคื. ืืืช ืชืื ืืงืจ ืชืืคืขืืช ืคืืืืงืืืืช ืืคืืืืืืืืืืช ืืืฆืืจืื ืืืื ืืฆืืืื (ืืชื ืืืืืืืืื) ืืฆืืจื ืืืืงืช ืืฉืคืขืช ืืกืืืื, ืืืขืืงืจ ืืงืืื, ืจืืช ืงืจืื ืช ืฉืืฉ, ืื ืืืืืื ืืืขืจืืช ืืฉืืฉ, ืคืืจืืืช ืืงืจืงืข ืืืชืคืชืืืชื ืืืื ื, ืืืืจื ืืืืืืช ืื ืฉืืืืจ ืจืื ืืจืืืืชืืช. ืืืคืฉืจืืช ืงืืืื, ื ืืืืชื ืื ืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืจืื ืืืืื ืฉืื ืื, ืืืืืจืื ืฉืื ืื ืืขืืื ืชืื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืื ืฉืื ืื ืืชืืื ืืืืืืืจืื. ืชืื ืืกืชืืืขืืช ืืืืงืจ ืืชืืืืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืื: ืืืืืจืืืืืื, ืืืืืืืื ืงืืื ืืืช, ืืืืคืืืืงื, ืืืงืืื ืืืจืคืื, ืืืืืื ืคืืจืืืืงื, ืืืืคืืืืงื, ืืืขื ืืจืคืืื, ืืืืืืืื ืืขืจืืชืืช, ืคืืืืืืืืจืคืื, ืืืืืืืืจืคืื, ืืืืืืืื, ืืืืืืฆืื, ืืงืืืืืื, ืงืืกืืืืืืื. ืชืขืฉืืืช ืืชืจืืคืืช ืขืืกืงืช ืืืื ื ืืืชืคืงืื ืฉื ืืืงืจืืืืจืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืคืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืืขืืืืื ืืืจืื ืืืืืื (ืืคืืืืืืืืืื), ืืืืื ืืืงืฉืืช ืืืฆืื ืืชืืคืขื ืชืจืืคื ืืคืงืืืืืช, ืืื ืื ืืืืืช ืื ืืืืืืืืช. ืืื ืื ืืืืืจ ืืืืืืช ืืืืืจืืช ืื ืืฆืจืืช ืืชืืืื ืืฉืืคืื ืืขืฆืื ืืืืชืืจื ืืงืืื ืืชืืืื ืืจืืืื ืืชืืืช (ืชืื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืื ืืชืืื ืืื ืืืืงื) ืืืืจืื ืืืืจื ืืกืืื ืืืคืื ืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืกืืืืช, ืืื ืืืืืก. ืื ืืืืืช ืื ืืฆืจืืช ืขื ืืื ืคืืืฉืช ืืืืืง ืืจ, ืืืงืจื ืื ืืชืจืืคื ืชืืื ืืจืื ืืืกืื. ืงืืืืื ืกืืืื ืฉืื ืื ืฉื ืชืจืืคืืช ืืื ืงืื-ืชืจืืคื. ืื ืืกืฃ ืืืคืงืช ืชืจืืคืืช ืืืจืืช ืืชืจืืคืืช ืืจืื ืคืื ืืช ืื ืืืืฆืืจ ืืืืจื ืืืืจืช ืืืืงืื ืืืชืคืืช ืืื, ืืื ืขื ืชืื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืืืงืืื ืื ืืืจืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืกืื ืื ืืืช ืืืืจื ืื. ืกืืืืืช ืืจืคืืื ืจืื ืื ืืงืจืืื ื ืืกืคืช ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืชืื ืขืช ืจืคืืืืื ืืื ืืืืช: ืืืืืื ืจืคืืื ืืื"ื (ืืืจืืคื): ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/jamtech/] | [TOKENS: 841] |
ืืืืื ืืืืกืกืช ืืืืื ืืืืช ื'ืื ืืง โ ืืืืื ืืื-ืชืืืืืช ืชืืื ืืช ื'ืื ืืง ืืืงืื ืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืฉืื ืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืืืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืืืืืื ืืื-ืชืืืืืช. ืืืจืชื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืชืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืฉืื ืืช ืืืชื ืกืืช ืืชืื ืื ืืืฆืจืื ืืจืืืืช ืืืื ืืจื ืขืืืืช ืฆืืืช ืืื-ืชืืืืืช. ืืืืื ืืืืฉืืช ืืชืืืืืืืืืช ืฉื ืขืืืื ืงืืืฆืชืืช, ืืฉืืื ืขืืฆืืืืช ืืืฆืืจืชืืช ืืจื ืคืชืจืื ืืขืืืช ืืืจืืืืช ืืชืืืื ืฉื Design Thinking. ืื ืืื ืืืืจื ืืฆืืืช ืชืืจื ืืชืืืื ืืช ืชืืื ืืืืข ืฉืื ืืืกืืจืช ืืืชืืงืฆืขืืช ืฉื ืืืืื ืฉืื ืืืื. ืืชืืื ืืช ืืคืฉืจื ืืืฉืื ืืืืื ืืื-ืชืืืืืช ืืจื ืขืฉืืืช ืคืจืืืงืืื ืืฉืืชืคืื ืืืืฉืช ืคืจืืืงืื ืืืจ ืืื-ืชืืืืืื ืืืืชื ื"ื. ืกืจืืื ื ื'ืื ืืง ื'ืื ืืง โ ืืืืื ืืื-ืชืืืืืช ืืืจื ืืงืฆืจื ื... ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืฉืืจืืชืื ืคืืจืื ืื ื ืื ื ืขืืืจ ืืืจืื ืื ืืขื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฆืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืื. ืืขืืื ืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืชืจื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืชืืื ืืชืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืืื (ืืจืืืช ืคืจืกืืืืช) ืืื ื ืืืืจืืืช ืืขืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืื. ืื ื ืชืงืืชื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืฉ ืืื ืืฆืขืืช ืื ืืขืจืืช ืื ืืืข ืืชืืื, ืืืคืฉืจืืชืื ืืคื ืืช ืืืื ื ืืงืืฉืืจ ืื. |
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/classroom-teachers/] | [TOKENS: 1496] |
ืืืืื ืืืืกืกืช ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืื ืืืช ืืืชื ืืืื ืื ืืืกืืื ืืืื ืื ืืืกืืื ืืื ืื ืืืืชืืช ืื ืืฆืืืช ืืืจืืื ืืืงืฉืจ ืืื ืืืื, ืืืืชื, ืืืืจืื ืืืืขืจืืช. ืืฉ ืืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืฉืื ืื ืืชื ืืขื ืฉืืขืฉื ืืืื, ืืื ืืืงืื ืฉืื ื ืืื ืืืื ืขืชืืื. ืืืืืจื ืืืชืืงื ืืืื ืื ืืืืชื ืืกืืื ื ืฉืื ืื ืืงืืืื ืฉืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืืืืืืืืช ืืืจืชืืช, ืืืืกืกืช ืืืงืจ ืืืจืื ืื ืืืื ืื ืืืืชื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืืืฉืคืืข ืขื ืืืืจืืื ืืืงืืืื ืืืฉืืื, ืฆืืฆืื ืคืขืจืื, ืฉืืฉืืฉ ืืืฆืืื, ืืฉื ืืช ืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืืืืืื ืืืืืจืื. ืืืืฃ ืืืื ืื ืืกืืื ืืฉืืชืืฃ ืขื ืืืืฃ ืืคืืชืื ืืงืฆืืขื, ืืืื ืืืคืช ืืงืจื ืืฉืคืืช ืืืืื ืืงืืืื ืืช ืคืืชืื ืชืคืืกืช ืชืคืงืื ืืื ืื ืืืืชืืช ืืคืจืืคืกืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืช ืืืื ืื ืฉื ืืืื ืื. ืืืืจื ืืื ืืื ืืืฉ ืืืืืืืข ืชืคืืกืช ืชืคืงืื ืจืืื, ืืืืฉืชืชืช ืขื ืืืงืจืื ืขืืื ืืื, ืขื ืืืข ืืืืืื ืืขื ืคืจืงืืืงืืช ืืืขืืืืืช ืืชืคืงืื ืืื ืื ืืืืชื. ืจืืฉืืช: ืงืืืืืช ืืื ืืืช | ืืชืืืชื: ืืืื ืืืื ืืืช ืืืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืื ืืช ืคืจืงืืืงืืช ืืืฆืืืืช ืคืชืจืื ืืช ืจืืืื ืืืื ืืืชืืจื ืืืื-ืืื ืืืื ืื ืืืชืืืืืืจ ืืืืืจืช: ืืขืืจืืช | ืืขืจืืืช ืกืจืืื ืฉืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืช | ืกืจืืื 24/7 | ืฉืืืจ ืฉืืืืื โ ืขืจืืช ืงืืคืื ืืฉืื ืชืืืืืื: ืขืืจืืช | ืขืจืืืชืงืืืืช ืืื ืืืช ืืฉื ืฉืื ืื ืืคืืืกืืืง ืืืงืจืื ืืงืืืืื ืืืฉืืืื ืืชืืื ืืื ืื ืืืชื ืืืืง ืืืฆืืจืช ืืคืจืืคืกืื - ืืืืงืจืื | ืืืืจื ืืกืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืืืชื - ืืืืืจืื ืืคืจืืื ื ืืกืคืื ืืืืืืืขืฆืืช ืืจืื ืคืจื, ืืืจืืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืืฃ ืืืื ืื ืืกืืืืืื"ื: miriamper@education.gov.il ืืื ืืื ืฆืืจ, ืืืจืืื ืืจืฆืืชืืื"ื: taliev.reshit@gmail.com ืืื ืืืช ืืืชื ืืืกืืื ืคืืจืื ืื ื ืื ื ืขืืืจ ืืืจืื ืื ืืขื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฆืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืื. ืืขืืื ืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืชืจื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืชืืื ืืชืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืืื (ืืจืืืช ืคืจืกืืืืช) ืืื ื ืืืืจืืืช ืืขืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืื. ืื ื ืชืงืืชื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืฉ ืืื ืืฆืขืืช ืื ืืขืจืืช ืื ืืืข ืืชืืื, ืืืคืฉืจืืชืื ืืคื ืืช ืืืื ื ืืงืืฉืืจ ืื. |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%98%D7%92%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94:%D7%A8%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%90%D7%94] | [TOKENS: 491] |
ืงืืืืจืื:ืจืคืืื ืืฉืขืจ ืื ืืฉืืื, ืืืฉืื ืืืืืจืื ืืจืคืืื, ืจืื ืคืืจืื ืืจืคืืื. ืงืืืืจืื ืื ืืจืืืช ืืช ืื ืขืจืื ืืจืคืืื ืืืืืงืืคืืื. ืืืื ืืกืคืจ ืื ืืืืช ืืืงืืช ืืืืืช ืืืืื: ืื ืขืจื ืืืฉืชืืื ืืืืช ืืงืืืืจืืืช ืฉืืขืื ืื ืืงืืืืจืืืช ืืฉื ื ืืืจืช ืืืกืจ ืืงืืืืจืืืช ืืจืคืืื ืืจืืฉืืช, ืืืขื ืขืจืืื ืืกืืกืืื ืืืืชืจ (ืจืืคื, ืืืื ืืชืกืืื, ืืืฉื). ืงืืืืจืืืชึพืืฉื ื ืืฃ ืงืืืืจืื ืื ืืืื ืืช 43 ืงืืืืจืืืช ืืืฉื ื ืืืืืช, ืืชืื 43 ืืงืืืืจืื ืืืื. (ืืชืฆืืืช ืขืฅ) ืืคืื ืืงืืืืจืื "ืจืคืืื" ืืฃ ืงืืืืจืื ืื ืืืื ืืช 115 ืืืคืื ืืืืื, ืืชืื 115 ืืงืืืืจืื ืืืื. (ืืชืฆืืืช ืขืฅ) |
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[SOURCE: https://www.matific.com/isr/he/home/why-matific/validation/] | [TOKENS: 5096] |
ืชืคืจืื ื ืืืฉืืช ืืขืฆืืื ืืช ืืืชืชืื ืขื ืืืืื ืืชืืืืช ืืจืชืงืช ืืืืืกืกืช ืจืืืืช ืชืืื ืืืกืข ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืขืืจืช ืืชืืืืงื ืืื ืืจืืงืืืืืช ืืืื ื ืืืืช ืฉืชืคื ืคืขืืื ืขื ืืืืคืืง ืืื ืืฉืคืจ ืืช ืชืืฆืืืช ืืืืืื ืืื ืจืื ืืืงืจืื ืฉื ืฆื ืฉืืืฉื ืืืืืืื ืืช ืืืขืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืคืืง ืืืงืจืื ืขืฆืืืืื ืืืืืื ืื ืชืื ืื ืืจืืื ืืขืืื ืืจืืื ืืืฆื ืืืืคืืง ืืฉืคืจืช ืืช ืืืฉืื ืืืชืืืืงื ืฉื ืชืืืืืื, ืืืืืจื ืืช ืืืขืืจืืืช ืืืืชื ืืชืืืืช ืืืืจืื ืืขืืื. ืฉืืคืืจ ืชืืฆืืืช ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืชืืืืืื ืืืงืจ ืื, ืฉื ืขืจื ืืฉืืื ื ืืชื ืกืคืจ ืืกืืืืื ืืืืกืืจืืื, ืืื ืืช ืืืฆืืขื ืืชืืืืืื ืืืชืืืืงื ืืคื ื ืืืืจื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืืคืืง ืืืืชื ืืืืืช. ืืชืืืืืื ืืจืื ืฉืืคืืจ ืืืืฆืข ืฉื 34% ืืฆืืื ื ืืืืื ืื, ืืืฉืจ ืืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืขื ืืขืืจืืืช ืืืืื ืืืชืจ ืืคืชืจืื ืืขืืืช ืืืื ื ืืขืืืงื ืืืชืจ ืฉื ืืืฉืืื ืืชืืืืื. ืืืืงืจ ืืืืข ืืืกืงื ื ืฉืืืืคืืง ืชืืืืช ืืืื ื ืืืฉืืืช ืืืฉืคืจืช ืืช ืืืฉืื ืืชืืืืืื ืืืื ืงืฆืจ. ืืืงืจ ืจืื ืืืงืฃ ืฉื SEG Measurement ืขืงื ืืืจ ืืืขื 1,500 ืชืืืืื ืืืช ืกืคืจ ืืกืืื ืืืฉื ืฉื ืช ืืืืืืื ืืืื. ืืชืืฆืืืช ืืื ืืจืืจืืช: ืชืืืืืื ืฉืืฉืชืืฉื ืืืืืคืืง ืืฆืืืื ืืืืคื ืขืงืื ืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืื ืฉืื, ืืืจืื ืืชืงืืืืช ืืืืจื ืืืชืจ, ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืืงืืช ืืืชืจ ืืืืืืื ืจื ืืืชืจ ืืืชืืืืงื. ืขืืืจ ืืืืืื ืฆืขืืจืื ืืืชืจ, ืืืชืจืื ืืช ืืื ืืืืืื ืืฃ ืืืชืจ โ ืื ืฉื ืชื ืืื ืืชืจืื ืืฉืื ืืฉืืืื ืืืืฉืืื ืืจืืืืื. ืืฉืื ืืฆืืื, ืฉืืืฉืคืขืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืืื ืขืงืืืืช ืืื ืืจืงืขืื, ืื ืฉืืจืื ืฉืืืืคืืง ืขืืืืช ืขืืืจ ืื ืืื. ืืืกืืจืช ืืคืืืืื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืจืืืืืื ืื ืืฉื ืืื ืืืืืื ืขืืืืช (High Touch High Tech - HTHT), ืืืงืจ ืขืฆืืื ืฉื ืขืจื ืืงืจื ืืืชืจ ื-2,700 ืชืืืืื ืืืชื ื' ืืฆื ืื ืชืืืืืื ืืืฉืชืืฉืื ืืืืืคืืง ืืืืขื ืืืืฉืืื ืืืืืื ืืืจืื ืืืชืืืืงื ืืืฉืจ ืืื ืฉืื. ืืืืืฆืข, ืืืืื ืฉืืฉืชืืฉื ืืืืืคืืง ืืืื ืืฉืืขืืชืืช ืืืชืจ ืืืืจืืื โ ืืชืงืืื ืืฉืืขืืจ ืืืงืืื ืืืื ืืืืฉื ืืชืืืืงื ื ืืกืคืื ืืฉื ืช ืืืืืืื ืืืช ืืืื. ืืื ืฉืืฉืชืืฉื ืืืืืคืืง ืืืืคื ืืงืืืข ืืืืชืจ ืืฉืืื ืืช ืืืืฉืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืชืจ, ืืืชืงืืื ืืืืชืจ ืืคื ืฉื ืืื ืืชืืืืืื ืืืืชืืช ืจืืืืืช. ืืขืืจ ืืฆืืื ื ืืืื ืื ืืืืืื ืืืชืจ, ืืชืืืืืื ืคืืชืื ืืชืืื, ืืืืืื ืขืฆืื ืืืืฉืืจื ืืืืื ืขืฆืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืชืจ. ืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืื ืืืืคืืง ืฉืืจื ืขื ืืขืืจืืืช ืืืืื ืฉื ืืชืืืืืื ืืืืคืื ืขืืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืชืจ ืืืคื ืืชืืืืงื, ืื ืฉืืืื ืืช ืืืื ืืืฆืืื ืืชืืฉืืช. ืืืงืจ ืขื ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืจืืืืช ืืขืจืืืืช (2024) ืืืงืจ ืฉื ืขืจื ืืงืจื ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืืจ ืื ืืืคืจื ืืืืืื ืืืืืจืืืืช ืืขืจืืืืช ืืืื ืื ืื ืืชืืืืืื ืืจืื ืฉืืคืืจ ืืฉืืขืืชื ืืืืืื ืืืืช ืืกืืกืืืช ืืืชืืืืงื (ืกืคืืจื, ืืืืืจ/ืืืกืืจ ืคืฉืืืื, ืฆืืจืืช, ืชืื ืืืช, ืืืืื ืืคืชืจืื ืืขืืืช) ืืืืจ ืืจืืขื ืฉืืืขืืช ืืืื ืฉื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืืคืืง. ืื ืื ืืื ืืช ืืืื ืืคืืงื ืชืืขืืช ืฉืืื, ืืื ืืืืื ืืืฆืืขืื ืืคื ืืื. ืืฉืืคืืจืื ืืื ืืืืืงืื ืกืืืืกืืืช, ืืืจืื ืืขืืืืช ืืจืืจื ืืคืืื ืืฆื ืืืืืื ืืฉืื ืืืงืื ืืืื. ืืขืจืื ืฉืขืจื ืคืจืืคืกืืจ ืืืืืจื ืกืืจืื ืืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืืขืืจืื ื ืฉื ืืกืงืืื (ืงืืืืจืื, ืืจืืื) ืืฆืื ืื ืืื ืกืช ืืืืคืืง ืืฉืืขืืจื ืืชืืืืงื ืืืฉื ืฉืืืขืืื ืืืืืื ืืืจืืื ืืจืืืืช ืืฉืืขืืจื ืืืืฉืืื. ืืคื ื ืืืืคืืง, 31.8% ืืืชืืืืืื ืืืืชืืช ื' ืขื ื' ื ืืฉืื ืืืชืืืืงื ืื ื ืืงืงื ืืืืฉืืจ ืืืืื ืืื ืืขืืืจ. ืืืืจ ืฉื ื ืฉื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืืคืืง, ื ืชืื ืื ืืจื ื-4% ืืืื โ ืืจืืื ืฉื 87% ืืืกืคืจ ืืชืืืืืื ืฉืื ืขืืื ืืกืื ืืจื ืื ืืจืฉ. ืืืฉืืืื ืืืชื ืกืคืจ ืืงืืืืื ืืืจืื ืฉืื ืืฉืชืืฉื ืืืืืคืืง, ืืฉืืคืืจ ืืื ืืืื: ืืขืื ืฉืจืืื ืจืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืขื ืื ืืฃ ืฉืืขืืจื ืืืฉืืื ืืืืืื ืืืชืจ, ืชืืฆืืืช ืืชื ืืกืคืจ ืฉืืฉืชืืฉื ืืืืืคืืง ืืฉืชืคืจื ืืื ืืืืชืืช. ืืขืฆืื ืืืจืื ืืืฉืคืจ ืืช ืืืืจืื ืืืืงืจ SEG ืืืจื"ื, ืืืขื 9 ืืชืื 10 ืืืจืื ืืืจื ืฉืื ืืืืืฆื ืขื ืืืืคืืง, ื-78% ืชืื ื ื ืืืืฉืื ืืืฉืชืืฉ ืื ืืฉื ื ืฉืืืืจ ืืืโืืืจ ืืืฉืงืฃ ืฉืืืขืืช ืจืฆืื ืืืืื ืืืืืืืืช ืืชืืฉืืช. ืืืขืจืื ืืืจืฆืืช ืฉื ืชืืื ืืช HTHT ืืืืจืืืืืื, ืฉืืืื ืืืขืื ื-2,700 ืชืืืืืื, ืืืจืื ืฉืืฉืชืืฉื ืืืขืืืืช ืืืืืคืืง ืจืื ืืช ืืืชืืชืืื ืืฉืืืืืช 20% ืืืชืจ ืคืขืืืืืืช ืืืืืขืืช ืืืืฉืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืฉืืขืืชืืช. ืืืืงืจ ืืจืื ืฉืืืืคืืง ืืื ืฉืืชืฃ ืืืงืจื ืขืืืจ ืืืจืื, ืืืืงืช ืืช ืืืืจืื ืืืืืืจื ืืช ืืืฉืคืขื ืืืืชื. ืืืงืจ ืขืฆืืื ืืฆื ืื ืืืืคืืง ืืกืืืขืช ืืืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืืฉืืื ืืชืืืืื ืืฆืืจื ืืจืืจื ืืืชืจ ืืืืคืื ืืช ืืฉืืขืืจืื ืืจืืืื ืืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืื ืืืืืืื. ืืืขืื ืืฉืืืฉื ืจืืขืื ืืืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืขื ืืืืืืช ืืจืืจืืช ืืืชืจ ืฉื ืืืฉืืื ืืชืืืืื (77%), ืืขืื 82% ืืืจื ืฉืื ืืจื ืืฉืืขืืจืื ืืืจืืืฉ ืืืืืจืื ืืืชืจ ืืขืืื ืืืืืชื. ืืืจืื ืื ืืืืื ื ืืืขืืจืืืช ืืืงื ืืืชืจ ืฉื ืืชืืืืืื ืืืืืฉืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืชืจ ืืืคื ืืชืืืืงื ืืขืช ืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืืคืืง. ืืืืืจ ืืช ืืขืืจืืืช ืืืืืืื ืืชืืืืืื ืืขืฆืื ืืืืงืจ ืืงืจื ืฉื ืขืจื ื-8 ืืชื ืกืคืจ ืืกืืืืื ืืืงืฉืจืื ืกืืฆืื-ืืงืื ืืืืื ืืืืื ืื, ืชืืืืืื ืืืฉืชืืฉืื ืืืืืคืืง ืืคืืื ื ืฆืืืื ืืฉืืขืืชืืช: ืฆืืื ืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืื ืื ืืจืื ืฉืืคืืจ ืืืืฆืข ืฉื 34% ืืฆืืื ืื ืืืืื ืื. ืืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืื ืื ืืืืคืืง ืืคืื ืืช ืืืชืืืืงื ืืืจืชืงืช ืืืชืจ - ืืชืืืืืื ืชืืืจื ืืช ืืืชืืืืงื ืโืืื ืโ - ืื ืืืืช ืืจืืืฉื ืฉืื ืืืืืื, ืชืื ืืื ืืฉืืง. ืืืืฉืื ืืจืฆื ื-328 ืืชื ืกืคืจ, ืชืืื ืืช Click Learning ืืฆืื ืฉ-78% ืืืชืืืืืื ื ืื ื ืืืืืื ืขื ืืืืคืืง โ ืืืืจืื ืืืืื ืืืืชืจ ืืืื ืฉืืืฉื ืืื ืืฉืืื ืฉื ืืืงื. ืืืืจืื ืืืืืฉื ืืช ืืขืืฆืื ืืืื ืืืฉืืง ืฉื ืืืืคืืง, ืืช ืืืฉืื ืืืืืื ืืืช ืืชืืืื ืืืชืืืืงื ืื ืืืืช ืืืืจืืื ืืจืืืืื ืืืขืืจืืืช. ืขื ืคื ืืืื ืกืืื, ืืืืชืืช ืฉืืื ืืฉืชืืฉื ืืืืืคืืง ื ืจืฉืื ืืขืืจืืืช ืืืืื ืืืชืจ ืฉื 95% ืืืชืืืืืื, ืืืฉืจ ืืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืขื ืขืืืื ืืฉืืขืืชืืช ืืกืงืจื ืืช (84%) ืืืื ืื (98%). ืืื ืืื ืฆืืื ื ืื ืฉืืืืคืืง ืืคืื ืืช ืืฉืืขืืจืื ืืืจืืจืื ืืจืืืื ืืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืชืืืืืื. ืืคืจืืืงื ืคืืืืื ืฉื ืขืจื ืืืชื ืกืคืจ ืืกืืืืื ื ืืืจืื ืืคืื'ื, ืืืฉืช ืืืืืื ืืืืกืกืช ืืืฉืืง ืฉื ืืืืคืืง ืืืืืื ืืืขืืจืืืช ืืืืื ืืืชืจ ืฉื ืืชืืืืืื ืืืืื ื ืืืื ืืืชืจ ืฉื ืืืฉืืื ืืชืืืืื ืงืฉืื. ืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืขื ืืฉืชืชืคืืช ืืืืื ืืืืชื ืืฉืืคืืจ ืืืืฉืืช ืืชืืืืืื ืืืคื ืืชืืืืงื. ืชืืืืืื ืืงืืืฆืืช ืฉื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืืื ืืืืืื ืขื ืืชืืื ืจืื ืืืชืจ (ืฆืืื ื GRIT), ืืืืื ืขืฆืืืืช ืืืืฉืืช ืืืงืืช ืืืชืจ ืืืคื ืืชืืืืงื. ืืืจืื ืฆืืื ื ืื ืืืืืืื ืืคืื ืื ืืื ืื ืืืชืจ ืืืชืืืื ืขื ืืชืืจืื ืืืืชืืื ืืืขืืืช โ ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืืช ืืืฆืืื ืืจืืืช ืืืื ืืืชืืืืงื. ืขืืฆืื ืคืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืคืืง ืงืืืื ืืืจืื โืืืืคืชโ ืืื ืฉืืืฉ ืืงืืืืจืืืช ืืืจืืืืืช - ืืืืืช ืชืืื, ืืชืืื ืคืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืขืืฆืื - ืืืชืื ืืืกืืจืช EdTech Tulna ืืืืชืืช ื'-ื'. ืืืขืจืื ืืืืืฉื ืืช ืืคืืืืืื ืืงืื ืกืืจืืงืืืืืกืืืช ืฉื ืืืืคืืง ืืืืืืชื ืืชืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืจืื ืืืคืืืืืช ืืืืกืกืช ืืฉืืงืื. ืืืื ืื ืืจืืืช ืืช ืืชืืฆืืืช ืืขืฆืืื? ืืฉืชืื ืืฆืืจื ืืืงื ืขื ืื ืฉืื ื ืืฆืืขืื ืคืขืืืืืืช ืืชืืืืืช ืืืฆืจ ืืืืข ื ืืกืฃ ืืืจื |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืื_ืืืขื_ืืืฉืจืื] | [TOKENS: 19234] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืื ืืืขื ืืืฉืจืื ืื ืืืขื ืืื ืืื ืืืงืืจืืช ืืื ืจืืื ืืขืืงืจืืื ืืืฉืืฉืื ืืช ืืฉืจืื, ืืื ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืื ื-21. ืขื ืืชืืืืช ืืืื ืึพ21 ืืืขื ืื ืืื ืืื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืงืืจ ืื ืจืืื, ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืฉืืขืืชื ืื ืืื ืืขืงืืืช ืืชืืืืช ืืืฉืืขืืชืืช ืืจืืฉืื ื ืฉื ืฉืืืช ืื ืขื ืืื ืืืจืืช ืืฉืจืืืืืช ืืื ืืชืืืื, ืืชืืื ืืืื ืืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืฉืจืื, ืืฉื ืช 1999. ืืืงืืื ืืืืืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืฉื ืื ืืืขื ืืืฉืจืื ื ืขืฉื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืื ืืืขื ืฉืืืื ืืฉืืืช ืื ืืืฆืจืื, ืื ืืืืจ ืืืืืช ืืืืจืืช ืื ืฉื ืืช ืืฆืื ืืจืืช ืืื ืืกืื ื, ืืขืงืืืช ืืืคืืื ืืืฆืจืื, ื ืคืกืงื ืืกืคืงืช ืืื ืืืงืืจ ืื. ืืืื ืืกืืคืงืื ืฆืืจืื ืืื ืฉื ืืฉืจืื ืืขืืงืจ ืืืืืจื ืืื ืืืฉืจืืืื, ืืฆื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืืขื ืืื ืืืขื ื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืื. ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืขืืงืจื ืืื ืืืืขื ืืืฉืจืื ืืื ืืฆืืจื ืืคืขืืชื ืฉื ืชืื ืืช ืืืื ืฉื ืืืจืช ืืืฉืื ืืฉื ืืฆืจื ืื ืคืจืืืื, ืืืฉืืืืฉ ืืฉื ื ืื ืืืจืืช ืขืชืืจืืช ืื ืจืืื, ืืืื ืื"ื, ืฆืืจืืืช ืืช ืืื ืืชืืืืฃ ืืืืื ืืืกืืืจ. ืืืคืืฉ ืืืคืงื ืฉื ืื ืืืขื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืกืืจืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืง ืื ืคื, ืืชืฉื"ื-1952. ืขื ืืืืื ืฉื ืื ืืืขื ืืฆืจืื ืื ืืืื ืื ื ืชืืื ืืื ืืืืขื ืืืฉืจืื ืืชืืงืฃ ืืืง ืืฉืง ืืื ืืืืขื, ืืชืฉืก"ื-2002. ืืฉื ืช 2024 ืขืืื ืืคืงืช ืืื ืืืืขื ืขื 27.1 BCM. ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืงืืื ืืืงืฆื ื-2024 ื-13.9 BCM ืืืืฆืื ื-13.2 BCM. ืืฉื ืช 2024 57.4% ืืชืคืืงืช ืืืฉืื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืฆืจื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืื ืืืขื. ืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืขื ืืืืจ ืืืฉืื ืืืฉืจืื ื ืืื ืื-50% ืืืืืืจ ืืืืจืืคื. ืืชืืืืช ืืืคืืช ืืื ืืืืขื ืืืฉืจืื ื-2013 ืืกืชืื ืืืืกืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืื ืืฆืืจืื ืืฉืง ืืื ืจืืื ืืืฉืจืื ื-425 ืืืืืืจื ืฉ"ื, ื-1000 ืฉ"ื ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืืฉ. ืคืืืืืช ืืืืืืื ืืืงืืืฒื ืื ืคืฉ ืืืฉืง ืืืฉืื ืคืืชื ืืืืชืจ ื-80% ืืขืฉืืจ ืืฉื ื ืฉื ืืืื ื-21, ืืขืืงืจ ืืฉื ืฉืื ืฑ ืืชืืืื ืืืืงืื (ืื ืืืขื ืืื ืจืืื ืืชืืืฉืช ืืืฃ ืคืื) ืืืชืงื ืช ืกืืืงื ืื ืืชืื ืืช ืืคืืืืืช ืืืืืืืช. ืืื ืืื ืืืจ 2017 ืืฉืจืื ืืื ืืฆืืื ืืช ืื ืืืขื ืืืืืชื ืืกืคืงืืช ืืื ืจืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืจื ืืื ืืชืืืื. ืืืืฆืื ืืื ืืืืขื ืชืจืืื ืืฉืืขืืชืืช ืืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืฉืืืจื ืขื ืืืฆืืืืช ืืืืืจืืช. ืืคื ืืขืจืืืช, ืืืชืจ ื-80% ืืชืฆืจืืืช ืืืฉืื ืฉื ืืจืื ืืื ืขื ืืกืืก ืื ืืฉืื ืืื ืืืืืชื. ืขื ืคื ืืขืจืืืช ื ืืื ื-2025 ืืฉืจืื ืืกืคืงืช ืืืฆืจืื 15%-20% ืืชืฆืจืืืช ืืื ืฉืื ืืืืืื ืืืฉืจืื ืืกืชืื ื-60% ืืกื ืื ืืืื ืืื ืฉื ืืฆืจืื. ื ืืื ืืืื ื 2024 ืืฆืืืจื ืืงืจื ืืขืืฉืจ ื-6.8 ืืืืืืจื ืฉ"ื. ืชืืืืช ืืืื ืกืืช ืืงืจื ืืืื ื-55โ72 ืืืืืืจื ืืืืจ. ืืืืข ืืกืืกื ืขื ืคื ืกืงืืจื ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืจืื ืืืืงืจ ืืืืืืข ืฉื ืืื ืกืช ืืืืก ืืื ืืืืขื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืืืฉ ืืืื 2023, ืขืืื ืื ืืขืชืืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืื ืืืืขื ืฉื ืืฉืจืื ืืกืชืืืืช ืื-1087 BCM ืืื ืืจืืืืืช ืืฉืืืฉื ืืืืจื ืื ืืืขื ืคืขืืืื: ืชืืจ (ืขืชืืืืช ืืืืืืช ื-293 BCM), ืืืืืชื (ืขืชืืืืช ืืืืืืช ื-619 BCM), ืืืจืืฉ-ืชื ืื (ืขืชืืืืช ืืืืืืช ื-102 BCM). ืื ืืกืฃ, ื-31 ืืืื 2023 ื ืืชื ืืืฉืืจ "ืชืืืืช" ืืืืืจ ืืื ืงืืื (ืขืชืืืืช ืืืืืืช ื-68 BCM) ืืขืื 13 BCM ืืืกืคืจ ืืืืจืื ืืขืืจืื. ืื ืืกืฃ, ืืืฉืจืื ืืฉ ืืืง ืืืืืจ ืืคืจืืืืื ืืืืืงื ืืื ืงืคืจืืกืื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืืง ืืืืืจ ืฆืืืื, ืืืืจ ืื ืืืขื ืืืฆื ืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืฉืจืื ืืืื ืื, ืฉืืกืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืฉืจืื ืืืื ืื ื-2022 ืืกืืืจ ืืช ืืืืงืชื ืืคืืฆืืืื ืืืฉืจืื ืื ืืชืืืฉ ืืคืืื ืฆืืื ืืืืื ืื. ืืฉื ืช 2022 ืกื ืืกืคืงืช ืืื ืืืืขื ืขืื ืขื ื-21.9 BCM, ืืชืืื ื-12.7 BCM ืืฆืจืืื ืืงืืืืช ืื-9.2 BCM ืืืฆืื. ืืชืื ืืฆืจืืื ืืืงืืืืช, ื-10.1 BCM ืืื ืืืืฆืืจ ืืฉืื, ื-2.3 BCM ืืฉืืืืฉื ืชืขืฉืืื, ืื-0.35 BCM ืืฆืจืื ื ืืืืงื. ืืชืื ืืืฆืื, ื-5.8 BCM ืืื ืืืฆืจืื ืื-3.4 BCM ืืืจืื. ืขื ืคื ืชืจืืืฉ ืืืกืืก ืฉื ืืฉืจื ืืื ืจืืื, ืืชืืืืืช ืืกื ืฆืจืืืช ืื ืืืขื ืืฉื ืื ืืืืืช ืืืชืื ืืืขืจืืช ืฆืคื ืืืืืื ืืืืงืืฉ ืืืฉืื ืืฆืคื ืืืขืืจ ืืื ืจืืืืช ืืชืืืฉืืช, ืขืืื ืขื ื-492 BCM ืขื ืืฉื ืช 2045. ืืืฉืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืฉื ืจืืจืืืช ืืื ืืืืขื ืื ืคืฉ, ืขืืื ืื ืืืืืฆืข ืขืืื ืขื ื-35 BCM, ืืืืช ืืขืืืช ืืืืฆืข ืืืื ืืช ื-OECD ืืขืืื ืขื ื-32 BCM ืื ืคืฉ ืืืฉืจืื ื-116 BCM ืื ืคืฉ. ื-2023 ืืืคืงื ืืืฉืจืื 24.7 BCM ืื ืืืขื. ื-2024 ืืืื ืืคืงืช ืืื ืืืืขื ื-27.1 BCM. ืฉืืืืฉืื ืืฉืจืื ืื ืฆืืช ืืช ืืฉืืื ืืื ืืืืขื ืืฉื ื ืืืคื ืื: ืืฉืืืืฉ ืคื ืืื ืฉื ืืฉืง ืืื ืจืืื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืืฆืื. ืืฉืง ืืื ืจืืื ืืืฉืจืื ืื ืฆื ืืช ืืฉืืื ืืื ืืืืขื ืืื ืขืชื ืฉื ืชืื ืืช ืืื ืืืืฆืืจ ืืฉืื ืืจืฉืช ืืืฉืื ืืืจืฆืืช, ืชืื ืืช ืืื ืืืฆืจืืื ืฉื ืฆืจืื ื ืื ืจืืื ืคืจืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืช ืืืงืืง ืืืชืงื ืืชืคืื ืืืชืืืืจื ืืฉืืขืืจ ืืคืกื. ื ืชืืื ืืื ืืืืขื ืืืฉืจืื ืืงืืืื ืืืชืคืขืืื ืืช ืืขืจืืช ืืืืืช ืื ืืืขื ืืืืฅ ืืืื ืืชืื ืืช ืืงืืื ืืืืฃ ืืชืื ืืช ืืืื. ืืชืื ื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืฉืืืกืื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืื ืืืขื ืืื ืชืื ืช ืืืื ืืฉืืื ืืืฉืืื. ืืื ืืืืขื ืืกืืคืง ืืชืื ื ืืืืคื ืืฉืืจ ืืืกืื ืืืชืจ "ืื ืชืืืก". ืืืกืื ืฉืืืืช ืืช ืืื ืืืืจ ืฉื ืงืืื ืืงืจืงืขืืช ืืื, ืืื ืืืคื ืืฉืงืืื, ืืืกืคืงืช ืืช ืืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืฆืื ืืจ ืืืืจื 40 ืงืืืืืืจ ืืืืฉืจ ืื ืืชืงื ื ืงืืืืช ืืื ืฉืืชืื ืืชืื ืชืื ืืช ืืืื. ืืืขืืจ ืืืืฆืืจ ืืื ืืคืืืช ืืืืคื ืืฉืืขืืชื ืืช ืจืืช ืืืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืืฉืืื, ืฉืกืืื ืืืขืจืคืื ืฉืืงืืจื ืืชืื ืช ืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืกืื. ืืืืจืื ืืืฆืขื ืืกืื ืฉื ืชืื ืืช ืืื ื ืืกืคืืช ืืขืืืื ืืื ืืืขื. ืืื ืืืขื ืืืคืขืืืช ืชืื ืืช ืืืื ืืืืช, ืืืจ, ืจืืื ื, ืฆืคืืช ืืจืืช ืืืื (ืืืช ืื ืืกืฃ ืืชืื ืช ืืื ืืฉืืื). ืืื ืื ืืืคืขืืืช ืืื ืืืขื ืชืื ืืช ืืื ืคืจืืืืช ืืืฉืงืืื (ืืืฉืืื ืขื ืืชืงื ืืชืคืื), ืืฉืืื (ืืฉืืืืช ืืคื ืืืช ืืืงืืง ืืฉืืื) ืืจืืื (ืืฉืืืืช ืืืคืขื ื ืฉืจ ืจืืื) ืืืคืขืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืืจ ืกืืื. ืืฉื ืช 2024 57.4% ืืชืคืืงืช ืืืฉืื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืฆืจื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืื ืืืขื. ืฆืจืืืช ืืื ืขื ืืื ืืืจืช ืืืฉืื ืืืืืจ "ืืจื" ืืื ืืฉื ืช 2004 ืืขื 2010 ื ืืืื ืขื ืืื ืืขืืช ืฉืฉืื ืกืงื ืืึพ17 ืืืืืืจื ืืืจ ืืขืืงื (BCM). ืืฆืจืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืฉืง ื ืืืื ืืฉื ืช 2010 ืืืื ืืืขื 5 ืืืืืืจื ืืืจ ืืขืืงื (BCM), ืืืืงืฃ ืฉื ืืฉืืืฉื ืืืืืืจื ืฉืงื. ืชืืืืืช ืืืืขืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืงืฃ ืืฆืจืืื ืืฉื ืช 2015 ืึพ10 ืืืืืืจื ืืืจ ืืขืืงื (BCM) ืืฉื ื, ืืืงืจืืช 2030 ืึพ17 ืืืืืืจื ืืืจ ืืขืืงื. ืึพ23 ืืืื ื 2013 ืืืืืื ืืืฉืืช ืืฉืจืื ืื ื ืืชื ืืืืฆื ืขื 40% ืืืื ืืืืขื, ืชืื ืืืืืฅ ืจืื ืืืืฆืืช ืืขืืช ืฆืื, ืขื ืืืกืคื ืฉื ืึพ100 BCM ืืืืืช ืืืกืืจื ืืืืฆืื. ืืขืงืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืฉื ืขืชืืจืืช ืืื"ืฅ ืืืขื ื ืฉ"ืืืืืช ืืืืฉืื ืืื ื ืืืืื ืืขืืช ืืฉืคืขืืช ืืกืืจืืืืืช, ืืจืืืงืืช ืืืช ืืืฉืืืืช ืืจืืืืช ืืืื ืขื ืืืจืื ืืืืื ื, ืขื ืืืืจื ืืขื ืืืฉืง ืืืฉืจืื ืืขื ืื ืืืืื ืื ืฆืจืืื ืืืชืงืื ืจืง ืืืืจ ืืืื ืืื ืกืช". ืืืืื ืฉื ืขืจื ืืื"ืฅ ืึพ20 ืืืืงืืืืจ, ืืืจืื ืืืจืื ืฉื ืฉืืขื ืฉืืคืืื, ื ืืื ืืขืชืืจืืช. ืืฆืื ืื ืืื ืืคืืขื ืืืจืฅ 2017, ืขื ืืืืืจื ืฉื ืืืจืืช ืชืขืฉืืื ืืจืื ืืืช ืืืืืจ ืื ืืืื ืืฆืื ืืจ ืืืฆืื ืฉืืชืืืจ ืืจืฉืช ืืืืืงื ืฉื ื ืชื"ื ืืืืืจ ื ืืืช ืืืืืจ ืืื ืฉืืกืืคืง ืืืืืจ "ืชืืจ". ืืืืื ืฉื ืช 2018 ืืืืขื ื ืืื ืื ืจื'ื ืืืืง ืงืืืืืื ืืืกืื ืืจืืืฉืช ืฆืื ืืจ ืืื ืืืืขื ืฉืืื ื ืืื ืืฆืจืื ืืืฉืจืื, ืฆืื ืืจ ืฉืฉืืืฉ ืืขืืจ ืืืืื ืื ืืืขื ืืืฉืจืื. ืืฆืื ืืจ ื ืจืืฉ, ืืืื ืขื ืืืจืช EMED ืืืฆืจืืช, ืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืฆืื ืื ืืืขื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืฆืจืื. ืืืืืฉ ืืื ื 2019 ืืฉืืืื ื ืืื ืื ืจื'ื ืืืืง ืงืืืืืื ืืช ืืืืขืจืืืช ืืืืฆืื ืื ืืืขื ืืืฆืจืื, ืืืืืจ ืชืืจ ืืืืืฉื ืืืืืืืชื, ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืฆืื ืืจ ืฉืฉืืืฉ ืืขืืจ ืืืืืื ืื ืืฆืจื ืืืฉืจืื. ืืืกืื ืืืืฆื ืืืฆืจืื ืื ืืืขื ืืืืงืฃ ืฉื 60 BCM. ืืชืืืืช 2020 ื ืื ืก ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฆืื ืืจ ืืืฆืื ืฉื ืืชื ืืจืฉืช ืืืืืงื ืฉื ื ืชื"ื ืืืืืจ ืขืืง ืืืจืขืื ืื ืฆืคืื ืืจืื, ืฉื ืืื ืืชืืืจ ืืฆืื ืืจ ืืื ืืขืจืื ืืืกืคืง ืืช ืจืื ืชืฆืจืืืช ืืื ืฉื ืืืืืช ืืจืื. ืืืฆืื ืฉื ืื ืื ืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืืืืชื. ืืฉื ืช 2025 ื ืืชื ืืกืื ืืืืฆื ืืืฆืจืื 130 BCM ื ืืกืคืื ืขื ืืฉื ืช 2040. ื-2015 ืืขื ืืืกื ืื ืืืฆืงื, ืขื ืกืื ืกืงืจืื ืืืืืืืืื, ืฉืชื ืขืืื ืืชืืืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืฉืง ืืื ืืืืขื ืืืื ืืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืฉืจืื. ืืืืจ ืืืื ื ืฉื ืืฉืจื ืืื ืจืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืช ืืืฆืื ืืืืืจื ืืื, ืคื ื ืืืื ื 2023 ืืืืื ื ืขื ืืชืงืฆืืืื ืืืฉืจื ืืืืฆืจ ืืืื ืืจืืืก ืื ืื ื"ื ืืฉืจื ืืื ืจืืื ืงืืื ืืืืืฉืืืื, ืืืงืฉ ืืืืื ืืืืฉ ืืช ืืืื ืืืช ืืืฆืื ืืืชืจืืข ืฉืืืฉื ืืืื ืืืช ืืืฆืื ืืืื ืืื ืฉืชืื 15 ืฉื ืื ืชืฆืืจื ืืฉืจืื ืืืชืืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืขื ืืืกืื ืช ืืช ืืืืืืื ืืื ืจืืื ืฉื ืืฉืจืื. ืืืขืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืืจื ืืื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืืืื ืึพ1,000 BCM ืื, ืืืชืืื ืืืืฆืืช ืืืืขืืช ืืฉืืง ืืืงืืื ืืืืืฆืืช ืืืืจืช ืืืืฆืื. ืืฆืจืืื ืืืงืืืืช ืขืืืืช ืขื ืึพ13 BCM ืืฉื ื, ืืฆืคืืื ืืขืืืช ืขื 2030 ืื-20 BCM ืืฉื ื. ืจืื ืืชืฆืจืืืช ืืืืขื ืืืืืืืจืื ืืืงืืืืื, ืืืืขืืื ืืืืื. ืื ืฉืื ืืฆืจืืื ืืืืืจืช, ืฆืคืื ืืื ืืืกืคืืง ืืืืชืจ ื-15 ืฉื ื. ืขื ืืืช, ืืืฉืฉ ืฉืืืืข ืืื ื ืืชืืืืก ืืืืืืช ืืื ืืืฆืื ืืืืืืจืื, ืืื ืืืืืื ืืฉื ืชืืช, ืืฉื ืืืืืื ืืงืฉืืืื ืืจืืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืชืื ืขื ืืืจืืช ืืืคืงื, ืฉืขืฉืืื ืืืฆืืจ ืืฆื ืฉืืฉื ื ืืกืืืืช ืืืคื ืื ืืฉืืื ืื ืจืืื ืืื ืืืฆืื ืขื ืืฉืืื ืืฉืืง ืืืงืืื, ืืืืืกืืจ ืืฉืืง ืืืงืืื ืืืื ืืฆืืจื ืืืืื ืืืืืจ, ืืขืืืืช ืืืืจื ืืื, ืืืชืืฆืื ืืื ืืขืืืื ืืืืงืจ ืืืืื. ืืืช ืื ืืืชืืืืก ืืืืื ืืืช ืืืฆืื ืืืืืฆืช ืฉืืืื ืืฉืจื ืืื ืจืืื, ืืื ืืืชืืืืก ืืื ืฉืขืืืช ืืคืงืช ืืื ืขืืื ืืื ืฉืืืืืจ ืืชืงืจื ืืืืฆืื ืืืืฅ ืืื ืื ืืืจื. ืชืืืืืช ืื ืืืฉืจืื ืื ืืืขื ืืืขื (ืืืืช ืฉื ืึพ2 BCM) ืืชืืื ืืกืืฃ ืฉื ืืช ื-50 ืฉื ืืืื ื-20 ืืืืืจ ืืืืื, ืืงืืืืื "ืืืืจ", "ืืืืื" ื"ืืจ ืงื ืืื" ืืืืืจ ืืืืื ืโืขืจื. ืืื ืื ื ืขืฉื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืจื ืฉื ืื ืจืืืช ืืืคืขืื ืชืขืฉืืื ืืืืืจ, ืืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืชื ืืืืจืื ืืขืกืงืื ืงืื ืื ืืืืืื ื ืืืขืจื. ืืฉื ืช 1999 ืืชืืื ืืื ืืืฃ ืืฉืงืืื ืืืืจ "ื ืืขื", ืืืืจ ืืื ืืืืขื ืืชืชึพืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืืืฉืจืื. ืืืืืจ ืืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืฉืืชืคืืช ืื ืชืืืก ืืฉืืืืช ืืฉืืชืคืืืืช ืื ืคื "ืืืง ืงืืืืืื" ืึพ"ืืื ืจ ืืืคืืฉื ื ืคื" (ืฉืืืืืืช ืืืืืืื ืืื ืจืืื ืืจื), ืืืฉืืชืืฃ ืืืืจื ืืืืจืืงืืืช "ื ืืื ืื ืจื'ื", ืืขืงืืืช ืืฆืืืช ืืืืจื ืื ืืืขื ืืฉืืื ืืืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืืฆืจืื. ืืขืงืืืช ืืืืืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืืฆืขื ืงืืืืืื ื ืืกืคืื ืืฉื ืช 2000 ืืืืืจ "ืึธืจึดื" ืืกืืื, ืฉืืืื ืึพ32 ืืืืืืจื ืืืจ ืืขืืงื (BCM) ืื ืืืขื. ืืขืงืืืช ืืืืืื ืืื ืืืืขื ืืืื ืืืจืช ืืืฉืื ืืชืืืื ืืกืื ืืืจืืชืืช ืฉื ืืืืืืช ืืืฆืืจ ืืฉืื ืืืืื ืืกืืืจ ืืื ืืืขื, ืืืงืืื ืืคืจืืกื ืืืจืืชืืช ืฉื ืฆื ืจืช ืืืืื ืืื ืืืขื ืืืฉืจืื. ืืืงืืจ ืืื ืืืขื ืฉืืืฉื ืืืืืจืื ืืืฉืจืืืืื ืืื ืืฆืจื, ืฉืืืื ืืืฉืจืื ืืฉืืืื ืชืชึพืืืืช ืงืฆืจื ืฉืืชืคืฆืื ืืฆืื ืืจ ืืื ืืขืจืื. ืืืืจ "ืืจื" ืืชืืื ืืืขื ืขื ืชืืื ืืืงืื ืืืฆืคืื ืืจืืฉืืช 2012 ืขืงื ืฉืืืื ืืืืืจืช ืฉื ืขืฉืชื ืืื ืืคืฆืืช ืขื ืืคืกืงืช ืืกืคืงืช ืืื ืืืฆืจื ืืืืจ ืืืคืืื ืืืฆืจืื. ืืจืืฉืืช 2009 ืืชืืื ืฉืืืฉื ืืืืจื ืขื ืง ืฉื ืื ืืืขื ืืงืืืื "ืชืืจ 1" ืึพ90 ืงืืืืืืจ ืืขืจืืืช ืืืืคื. ืืช ืืืืคืืฉืื ืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืกื ืื ืืืฆืงื. ื ืืื ืืชืืืืช 2011 ืืืืช ืืื ืืืขืจืืช ืืืืชืจ ืึพ240 ืืืืืืจื ืืืจ ืืขืืงื. ืืืขืืืช ืขื ืืืืืจ ื ืืฆืืช ืืืื ืฉืืชืคืืืืช "ืืื ืจ", "ืืืง ืงืืืืืื" ื"ืืฉืจืืืงื" ืืืฉืจืืืืืช, ืึพ"ื ืืื ืื ืจืืณื" ืืืืจืืงืืืช. ืืืจืฅ 2009 ื ืชืืื ืืืืจ ื ืืกืฃ ืืื ืืืคื ืืืจื, "ืืืืช 1", ืืืจืืง 60 ืงืืืืืืจ ืืืืืฃ, ืืืืื ื ืืคืงื ืฉื ืขืจืื ืืืืืจ ืืืชืจ ื ืืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืึพ14 ืขื 15 ืืืืืืจื ืืืจ ืืขืืงื, ืื ื ืืื ืืชืื 2010 ืื ื ืืืืื ืืึพ7 ืขื 8 ืืืืืืจื ืืืจ ืืขืืงื. ืืืื ืืคืืื ืฆืืื ืืงืื ืืืจืื ืืื ืฉื ืฉืื "ืชืืจ", ืืืืืืช ืคืืชืื "ืืืืช" ืืื ื ืืจืืจื. ืืืื ื 2010 ืคืจืกืื "ืืืง ืงืืืืืื", "ืืื ืจ" ืืฉืืชืคืืช "ืจืฆืื" ืื ืงืืื ืกืืืื ืฉื 50% ืืืืืฆืืืช 432 ืืืืืืจื ืืืจ ืืขืืงื ืืืืืจ ืืืืืชื, ืื ืืฆื ืชืืช ืจืืฉืืื ืืฉืืชืฃ ืฉื ืงืืืฆืช ืืืง, ืืืจืช "ืจืฆืื" ืืืืจืช "ื ืืื ืื ืจื'ื". ืืืืืข ืืืคืง ืขื ืืื ื ืืชืื ืฉื ืืืคืื ืชืืชึพืืืื ืฉื ืืืืืจ. ืืกืืฃ ืืืชื ืฉื ื ืืืืจื ืื ืืฉืื ืื ื ืชืืื ืืืืืืืช 453 ืืืืืืจื ืืืจ ืืขืืงื. ืืคืืจืืืจ 2012 ืืชืืื ืื ืืืืืจ "ืชื ืื 1", 120 ืงืดื ืฆืคืื ืืช ืืขืจืืืช ืืืืคื, ืืฆืคืื ืืืจืืืช ื"ืืืืืชื". ืืืืืืงืืช ืืจืืฉืืื ืืืืืจ ืื "ื ืืื ืื ืจืืณื" ืืืืจืืงืืืช, "ืืืง ืงืืืืืื" ื"ืืื ืจ". ืืงืืืื ืืืฆืข ืืฉืืืช ืืงืจืงืข ืืืืืขื ื"ืืืืืช ืชืืจ", ืืขืืืง (ืงืจืงืข ืืืื) ืฉื 5,500 ืืืจ. ืืืืจ ืื ื ืืฉื ืืฉืืืฉื ืืืืืื ืืืฉืจืื, ืขื ืคื ืืืืืื ืืืืจืืช ืืฉ ืื ืึพ30 ืืืืืืจื ืืืจ ืืขืืงื. ืจืืืืืื ืฉื ืืคืืงืืช ืืื ืืืืขื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืืืื ืืืก ืืืจืืช, ืืืงืืื ืืืืก ืืื ืืืืจืืช ืืืฉืจืื. ืื ืืกืฃ ืืืืืืช ืืคืืงืืช ืืื ืืชืืืืืื ืืืืื ื ืืฉืืขืืจ ืืงืืืข ืืืืง ืื ืคื โ 12.5% ืืฉืืื ืื ืคื ืื ืืื ืืคืชื ืืืืจ. ืืขืงืืืช ืืชืืืืืช ืืืฉืืขืืชืืืช ืฉื ืื ืืืขื ืืืื ืืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืฉืจืื ืืฉื ืช 2009 ืืื ื ืฉืจ ืืืืฆืจ ืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืฅ ืืขืื ืฆืืืืจืืช ืืจืืฉืืช ืคืจืืคืกืืจ ืืืชื ืฉืฉืื ืกืงื, ืฉื ืืืขื ืืฉื ืืขืืช ืฉืฉืื ืกืงื, ืืืืื ืช ืืืื ืืืช ืืืืกืื ืฉื ืชืืืืืช ืื ืื ืคื ืืืฉืจืื. ืขื ืคื ืืืืฆืืชืื ื ืืงืง ืืืง ืืืกืื ืจืืืืื ืืืฉืืื ืืืข, ืฉืืืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืขื ืจืืืื ื ืคื โ ืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืืืจืื ืืคื ืืืื ืกืืช ืืืฆืืืจืืช. ืืืืื ืืื ื ืืืื ืืื ืืคื ื ืฉืืืคืืงืืช ืืืืืจื ืืขืฆืื ืืช ืืฉืงืขืชื ืืืืืื ืืชืืกืคืช 50% (ืืคื ื ืืก ืืืจืืช). ืืื ืกืืช ืืืืื ื ืืืืืื ืฆืคืืืืช ืืืืืข ืืืืืืืจืืื ืจืืื, ืืืชืื ืืืืืจ ืฉื ืงืืข ืขืืืจ ืืื. ืืื ืฉืืื ืกืืช ืืื ืื ืืืจืื ืืืฉืคืขื ืฉืืืืืช ืขื ืืืฉืง, ืืืื ืฉืื ืืืืจืืช ืืืืื ืืืื ื ืืคืืจืืชืืื, ืืืืื ืขื ืืงืืช ืงืจื ืืืืจืื ืืฉืจืื, ืฉืชืฉืงืืข ืืื"ื ืืช ืืืื ืกืืช ืืืืืื, ืืจืง ืคืืจืืชืืื ืฉื ืืื ืกืืช ืืื ืืืขืืจื ืืืืฆืจ ืืืืื ื ืืื ืฉื ื. ืืฉื ืช 2019 ืชืืืืื ืืื ืืืืืฆืืื ืืกืชืืื ื-860 ืืืืืื. ืืฉื ืช 2020 ืืกืชืืื ื-1.1 ืืืืืืจื ืฉ"ื. ืืืฉื ืช 2021 ืืกืชืืื ื-1.25 ืืืืืืจื ืฉ"ื. ื-2023 ืืืื ืกืืช ืืกืชืืื ื-2.081 ืืืืืื ืฉ"ื, ืื-2025 ื-2.31 ืืืืืืจื ืฉ"ื. ืืขืงืืืช ืืืืืื ืืื ืืืงืื ืืืืื 2012 ืืขืืช ืฆืื, ืืขืื ืืืึพืืฉืจืืืช ืืจืืฉืืช ืื ื"ื ืืฉืจื ืืื ืจืืื ืืืืื, ืฉืืื ืฆืื, ืืืืื ืช ืืฉืง ืืื ืืืืขื ืืืืืืืฉ ืืืืฆืืช ืืืืื ืืืช ืืืืฉืื ืืืฉืจ ืืคืืชืืื ืืขืชืืื. ืืื ืืืขืืื ืืืจืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืขืื ืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืช ืืืืื ืืืช ืืจืฆืืื ืืฉืืืจืช ืขืชืืืืช ืืืกืคืงืช ืืชืฆืจืืืช ืืืงืืืืช, ืื ืืื ืืืคืฉืจืืช ืืืืฆืื ืืื. ืืืืขืื ืงืืขื ืืช ืืืงืฃ ืืื ืฉืืฉ ืืืืืื ืืืฉืง ืืืงืืื ืืืืจื ืฉืืกืคืืง ืึพ25 ืฉื ื, ืืืชืืฆืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืืฆืื ืืื ืฉืืฉืืืืฉ ืืงืืื, ืึพ2013 ืืืืื, ืืืฉืืจื ืึพ540 BCM. ืืืืขืื ืงืืขื ืฉืืืืฆืื ื ืืืฅ ืืฆืืจื ืขืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืคืฉ ืืืืจื ืื ืืืฉืื ืืืคืชื ืืช ืืืืืจืื ืฉื ืืฆืื. ืืื ืชืืืจ ืืชืืจืืช ืขื ืืกืคืงืช ืืื ืืฆืจืื ืื ืืืืืจ ืืืืืื ืืืกืคืงื ืขืงื ืจืืืื ืืืงืืจืืช. ืืฉืืืื ืืชืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืืืืช "ืชืืจ" ืึพ"ืืืืืืชื" ืืืื ืฉืืชืคืืช ืฉื ืฉืชื ืืืจืืช: "ื ืืื ืื ืจื'ื" ืึพ"ืืืง ืื ืจืืื", ืฉืืฆืจื ืืืขืฉื ืืื ืืคืื ืืชืืื ืืคืงืช ืืื ืืืืขื ืืืฉืจืื, ืืืืื ืืชืขืจืืืช ืฉื ืืจืืืืืืจ. ืืืืจ ืคืืืืืก ืฆืืืืจื ื ืจืื ืืืฉืจ ืืกืืฃ 2015 ืืชืืื ืืื โ ืืืืื ืฉื ืืืฉืืช ืืฉืจืื ืึพ16 ืืืืืืกื 2015 ืืืกืืจืช ืืกืืืื ืืืงืืืขืช ืืืืจ ืืื ืืืืขื. ืืืชืืื ืืืื ืชืฉืขื ืคืจืงืื ืฉื ืื ืืืืช ืืืื ื ืืืื ืืฉืง ืืื ืืืืขื. ืืคืจืง ืืจืืฉืื ืืืื ืงืืืฆื ืฉื ืืืืฉื ืคืืืจืื ืืืืง ืืืืืืื ืืขืกืงืืื ืฉื ืืชื ืื ืืืืืื ื ืจืืฉืืื "ืืืืืืชื". ืกืขืืคืื ืืืืฉื ืืืชืืื ืืฆืืขืื ืืืืืื ื ืจืืฉืืื ืืช "ืืืืืืชื" ืึพ"ืชืืจ" ืคืืืจืื ืืืืืืช ืืกืืืืืช ืฉืงืืข ืืืืืงืง ืืืืงืื ืืืื: ืืืง ืื ืคื, ืืืง ืืคืืงืื ืขื ืืืืจื ืืฆืจืืื ืืฉืืจืืชืื, ืืืง ืืฉืง ืืื ืืืืขื, ืืืืง ืืืกืื ืจืืืืื ืืืฉืืื ืืืข. ืืคืืืจืื ืืืืง ืืืืืืื ืืขืกืงืืื ื ืืชื ืื ืขื ืกืื ืกืขืืฃ 52 ืืืืง, ืฉืืืคืฉืจ ืืฉืจ ืืืืืื ืืชืช ืคืืืจืื ืืืกืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืืขืืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืืช ืืืฅ ืืืืืืื ืืืืื ื. ืืืชืืื ืขืืจืจ ืคืืืืืก ืคืืืืื ืืืืื ืฆืืืืจืืช ืฉืืชืืืื ืืื ืืืชืจ ืืกืืจืช ืืคืื ืืช ืืจืืื ืืืจืฅ ืืืขืชืืจืืช ืืื"ืฅ. ืืคื ืืืืฉืื, ืืืชืืื ื ืืขื ืืงืื ืคืืชืื ืืืืจ ืฉื ืืืืืจืื, ืืืืจืื ืืื ืกืืช ืืืกืื ืืืืื ื, ืืชืจืื ืืืืืืื ืื ืจืืื ืืืืืืืื ืืืืื ื ืืืฉืคืจ ืืช ืืืกื ืืืืฅ ืฉืื. ืืืชื ืืืื ืืืชืืื ืืืขื ืื ืื ืืืืฉืืจืื ืื ืืืืืืช ืคืืชืื ืืืืจืื ืืืืจืืืช ืืืงืฃ ืืฆืื ืืื ืืืจืื ืื ืืง ืืกืคื ืืื ืืืฉืง ืืืคืืขื ืืืืืืื ืืืืื ื ืืืืืืืื ืืื ืจืืื ืฉืื. ืืขืชืืจืืช ืืื"ืฅ ืื ื ืืขื ืฉืืคืืืจืื ืืืืืงืื ืืฉืื ืื ืืืจืื ืืคืืืขืืช ืืจืืืืช ืืฆืืืืจ ืืืงืืคืช ืืืืื ื, ืืฉืจืื ืืคืืืจืื ื ืืชื ืื ืืื ืกืืืืช ืืฉืคืืืช. ืื ืืกืฃ ื ืืขื ืฉืืืชืืื ืคืืืข ืืขืฆืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืจื ืืืงืฆืืขื ืืืืฉืื ืืืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืฉืืืช ืืืืืช ืืืชื ืืืืชื ืืื ืืืจืืช ืืื. ืืืืื ื ืขื ืืืืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืื ืืขื ืฉืืืชืืื ืืื ื ืืืคื ืืจืืื ืืืกืืจืช ืชืืจืืช ืืืืื ืคืจืฉ ืืชืคืงืืื ืืืื ืขืืืชื ืืขื ืืื. ืื"ืจ ืจืฉืืช ืืืฉืื ืืืจืืช ืคืจืงืฉ-ืืืื ืคืจืกืื ืืื ืขื ืื ืืง ืฉืืืืจื ืืฆืืืืจ ืืืืกืจ ืคืืงืื ืขื ืืืืจ ืืื, ืืืคื ืืืจืืื ืืชืงืฉืืจืช, ืืชื ืืืืชื ืืืชืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืชื. ืืืืื ื ืื"ืฅ ืืืืฉืื ืืืืชื ืฉืืงืืืขื ืืืชืืื ืื ืืืืื ืคืืงืื ืขื ืืืืจ ืืื ืชืืจืื ืืขืืืื ืืืืงืจ ืืืืื. ืืืจืืช ืืกืืืชื ืืืชืืื, ืฉืจ ืืืืืื ืืจืื ืืจืขื ืืชืคืืจ ืืืฉืจื ืืืืืื ืึพ1 ื ืืืืืจ 2015 ืืืขื ื ืฉืืื ืื ืจืฆื ืืืืืช ืืืจืื ืขื ืืคืขืืช ืืกืืืืืืช ืืคื ืกืขืืฃ 52, ืืืื ืฉืืขืืืจ ืืช ืืกืืืืืืช ืืืื ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื, ืื ืืืื ื ืชื ืืื. ืืืืจ ืงืืืช ืกืืืืืืช ืฉื ืฉืจ ืืืืืื, ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืืืงืฉ ืืงืืื ืืชืืืขืฆืืช ืขื ืืขืืช ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืื ืกืช ืืืื ืืชื ืืคืืืจืื, ืื ืืจืฉ ืืืืง. ืึพ17 ืืืฆืืืจ 2015 ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืืืฉืจ ืืช ืืคืืืจืื ืืืืืืื ืขืกืงืืื, ืื ืืืื ืืืืืฆืช ืืขืืช ืืืืืื. ืืืืจ ืืืืืื ืึพ"ืชืืจ 1", ืืขื ื ืืื ืื ืฉืืฉืื ื ืืฆื ืืฉืืื ืืืื ืืืฉืืืืื ืื ืืืขื ื ืืืขืืืช ืขื ืืื. ืืื ืืืฉืืื ืืืจืืฉ ืืขืืืช ืื ืขื "ืืืืช 1" ืึพ"ืืืืืชื", ืืืฃ ืืืืื ืฉืืืืจ ืืฉืืฉ ืขืืื ืืคืขืืืืช ืืชืงืคืืืช ืืฆืืื ืืขืชืื. ืืืขื ืืช ื ืืื ืขื ืืื ืืืจืช "ื ืืื ืื ืจืืณื". ืืืจืช "ืืจืืืืฉ ืื" (BG Group) ืคืขืื ืืืฉืจืื ืืื ืืฉื ืื 1996 ืึพ2008, ืืืฉื ืช 2000 ืืฉืคื ืืืืจ ืื ืคืืื ืฆืืืื, "ืฉืื ืืจืื", ืืื ืืืคื ืขืื ืืืืขืจื ืืึพ40 BCM. ืืืืจื ืืฉื ืื, ืืขืงืืืช ืืืืืงืืช ืคืืืืืืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืืืืกืจ ืืืืืช ืืืืืข ืืืกืื ืืื ืืืจืช "ืืจืืืืฉ ืื" ืืฆืืจื ืชืืืืช ืคืขืืืืช ืงืืืื, ืฉืื ืืื ื ืืชืจ ืืืชื ืื ืืฆื. ืืืฉื ืืืชื ืืขืืจืืืช ืื ืืืจืช ืืืฉืื ืืื, ืืืฆืจืื ืืืืื. ืืฉืื ืืืืจ ืืืืืช ื ืืื ืืจืืื ืืืขืจื ืืื ืจืืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืคืืกืืื ืืช. ืืขืจืืช ืืืืื ืืืืคืื ืืื ืืืืขื ืืืืฆืข ืฉื ืืช ื-90 ืฉื ืืืื ื-20 ืืืืืื ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื ืืคืขืื ืืงืืืืช ืื ืืืขื โ ืืืงืืจ ืื ืจืืื ืืืฉ โ ืืืืจ ืฉืืื ืืืืืืชื ืืกืืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืืงืื ืืืจืื ืึผืืขื ืืชืจืื ืืช ืืืืฆืืจ ืืฉืื. ืืฆืืจื ื ืืืื ืืคืจืืืงื, ืืฉื ืช 1996 ืืืงืื ืืืฉืจื ืืชืฉืชืืืช ืื ืืืช ืืื ืืืืขื, ืฉืืืจืืืช ืขื ืจืืืฉืช ืืื, ืืืืืชื, ืืืืงืชื ืืฉืืืืงื. ืืืืฉืื ืืืืืื ืฉืืคืจืืืงื ืืืฆืข ืขื ืืื ืืกืงืืืจ ืืคืจืื, ืืืฉืจ ืืขืจืืช ืืืืืื ืชืืงื ืืฉืืืช ืื ื-ืืคืขื-ืืขืืจ ืื ืืืื ืืื ื ืืช ืืชืฉืชืืช, ืืชืคืขื ืืืชื ืืชืงืืคื ืืจืืื ืืืืืจ ืืื ืืืืืจื ืืืืื ื. ืืืจืฅ 1998 ืคืืจืกื ืืืืจื ืืืืื ืืืงืื ืืืืืจืช ืืืจืช ืืื ืืืืขื, ืฉืชืงืื ืืช ืืคืจืืืงื, ืืืื ื ืืืฉื 4 ืงืืืฆืืช. ืืกืคืงืช ืืื ืืืืชื ืขืช ืชืืื ื ื ืืืืืช ืืืฆืจืื ืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืื ื ืืืื. ืื ืืืฉื ืืฉื ืื ืงืืืื ืืคืจืืืงื ืืชืขืื. ืืฉื ืช 2003, ืืืจ ืืชืื ืืืจืช ืืืฉืื ืขื ืืกืื ืืืกืคืงืช ืื ืืฉืืชืคืืช ืื ืชืืืก, ืืืื ืฆืืจื ืืืงืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืช ืืขืจืืช ืืืืืื. ืืืจืช ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืงืื ืืช ืืชืฉืชืืช ืืขืฆืื, ืื ืืืกืืฃ ืืืืื ืืืงืื ืืืจื ืืืฉืืชืืช. ื ืชืืื ืืื ืืืืขื ืืืฉืจืื ืืข"ื ืืื ืืืจื ืืืฉืืชืืช ืฉืืืงืื ืืฉื ืช 2003, ืืืืจืช ืืงืื ืืืคืขืื ืฉื ืืขืจืืช ืืืืืช ืื ืืืขื ืืืฉืจืื. ืืขืจืืช ืืืืืื ืืืงืื ืขื ืคื ืชืืื ืืช ืืชืืจ ืืจืฆืืช 37 ืืืืืืช ืืจืืขื ืงืืื ืื ืขืืงืจืืื: ืืฉื ืช 2009 ืืื ืืฉืจื ืืื ืจืืื ืืงืื ืชืืื ืืช ืืืงืืช ืืขืจืืช ืืืืื ืคื ืืึพืืจืฆืืช ืืืืฅ ื ืืื (ืขื 16 ืืจ), ืืขืืงืจ ืืืืืจื ืชืขืฉืืื, ืืชื ืืืืื ืชืื ืืช ืืืง (ืฉืืกืคืงื ืื ืืชืืืืจื) ืืฆืจืื ืื ืงืื ืื, ืืืืช ืฉืชืืฉืื ืืืืงืื ืฉืื ื ืขืฆืจืช ืืขืจืืช ืืืืืื ืฉื ื ืชืืื ืืื ืืืืขื ืืืฉืจืื. ืืคื ืืชืืื ืืช, ืืฉืจื ืืื ืจืืื ืืืืง ืืช ืืืืื ื ืืฉืืฉื ืืืืืืช, ืื ืฉืืื ืืืืจ ืืฆื ืืืจื ืืืคืขืื ืืืจ. ืืืืจื ืจืืฉืืื ืืช ืืืืงื ืืืืืจืืช ืืืืืืช: ืืฉื ืช 2016 ืคืจืกื ืืืงืจ ืืืืื ื ืืืดื ืขื ืืคืจืืืงื ืืืืืงืช ืื ืืืขื ืืฆืจืื ืื ;ืขืืงืจ ืืืืฆืืื ืืื: ืฉืืื ื ืฉื ืื ืืืืจ ืฉืืฉืจื ืืื ืจืืื ืืื ืืคืจืืืงื ืืืืืงืช ืืื ืืืืขื ืืฆืจืื ืื, ืืฉืฉ ืฉื ืื ืืืืจ ืฉื ืชื ืืืืืื ืื ืืคืจืืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืื ืืช ืืจืืฉืืื ืืช ืืืงืืช ืฆื ืจืช ืืืืืงื, ืืืชืืจ ืืืืงืจ ืืช ืคืจืืืงื ืืืืงืช ืืื ืืืืฉืืื. ืจืง 17 ืืืืืช ืืฆืจืื ืื ืืคืืื ืฆืืืืืื ืฆืืจืืื ืื ืืืขื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืจืฉืช ืืืืืงื; ืืฆืจืื ืื ืืืืืจืื ืืฉืชืืฉืื ืืกื ืืืื ืืึพ95 ืืืืืื ืงืื ืืฉื ื, ืคืืืช ืืขืฉืืจืืช ืืืืืืช ืืฆืคืืื ืืืืืช ืืกืืคืงืช (ืืืงืฃ ืฆืจืืื ืืืขืจื ืฉื ืึพ1.5 BCM). ืขื ืืืจืฅ 2016 ื ืคืจืกื ืึพ159 ืง"ื ืฆื ืจืช, ืฉืื ืคืืืช ืืฉืืืฉ ืืืืงืฃ ืืฆื ืจืช ืืฉืจ ืืืืจื ืืืืืื ืืจืฉืช ืืืืืงื. ืืืคื ืืืชืจ ืืืจืืข ืฉื ืื ืืื ืืื ืืฉืจื ืืื ืจืืื ืืืืฉ ืชืืื ืืช ืื ืืคืืชืื ืืฉืง ืืื ืจืืื, ืืขืืืื ืื ืืืฉืจื ืืชืืื ืืช. ืืชืืืืช ืฉื ืช 2018, ืืืืข ืืกืคืจ ืืฆืจืื ืื ืืืืืืจืื ืืจืฉืช ืืืืืงื ืืืืฅ ื ืืื ืึพ40 ืืืื, ืืขืืงืจ ืืคืขืืื ืืืืืจ ืื ืื. ืชืขืฉืืื ืื ืืชืืื ื ื ืื ืืืืจืืช ืืืืืงื ืฉืืชืคืืช ืืืจืืช ืื ืืืืฉืืืืช ืืกืคืง ืืืคืขืืื ืื ืืืืก ืืืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืคืื ืืืื ืืืืขื. ืขืืงืจ ืืืขื ืืช ืืืคื ื ืืืคื ืืืจืช "ืกืืคืจ ืื .ื'ื." ืืืขืืืช ืกืืคืจืื, ืืขืืช ืืืืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืจืื ืืืขืืงืื, ืฉืื ืืืืจื ืขืืื ืืฃ ืืงืื ืืจืฉืช ืืื. ืืืื 2019, ืืืืืข ืืฉืจื ืืื ืจืืื ืฉืืืจืืช ืืืืงืช ืืื ืฉืืชืืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืงืืจืืื, ืฉื ืืชืื ืืื ื-2009, ืืคืจืืก 1,200 ืงืดื ืฉื ืงืืื ืืืืงื ื-627 ืฆืจืื ืื, ืคืจืกื ืืคืืขื ืจืง 361 ืง"ื ืืืื, ื-30% ืืืืชืืืืืืช, ืืืืจื ืจืง 73 ืฆืจืื ืื (ืคืืืช ื-12% ืืืืชืืืืืืช ืืืงืืจืืช). ืืฉืจื ืืื ืจืืื ืืฆืื ืืขื ืืืฉ, ืฉืืืืจื ืืืืง ืืชืืื ืืช ืืขื ืงืื ืืืฉื, ืฉื ืืืืืจ ืฉื ื-250 ืืคืขืืื ืืชืื ืฉื ืชืืื. ืืืื ืื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืืจ ืืฉื ืืืชื ืืืืฉื ืขื ืืฆืจืื ืฉื ืืฉื ืืขืฉืจ ืฉื ืื, ื ืืชื ืึพ21 ืืืืื 2005 ืืืกืื ืืจืืืฉืช ืื ืืืขื ืืืฆืจืื ืืืืจืืขื ืืืืืืจื ืืืืจ ืืืืืช ืฉื 7 ืืืืืืจื ืืืจ ืืขืืงื (BCM) ืืฉื ื, ืืืืืจ ืฉื 3 ืืืืจ ืืืืืืช ืื (ืืืืืื BTU). ืืคื ืืกืื ืื, ืืืืจ ืืื ืืืืืช ืืกืืคืง ืื ืืืขื ืืื ืืจืืฉืืช ืฉื ืช 2008 ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืฆืื ืืจ ืืชืชึพืืื ืืื ืขืจืืฉ ืืืฉืงืืื ืืืฉื 15 ืฉื ื, ืขื ืืืคืฆืื ืืืจืืืช ืืขืกืงื ืขื ืึพ20 ืฉื ื. ืืฉืจืื ืืืฆืจืื ืืชืื ืื ืขื ืืกืื ืื ืืชื ืขืืจืืื ืืื ืขืกืงืช ืืื. ืืืืฆืื ืืื ืืืฉืจืื ืขืกืงื ืืืจืช EMG ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืงืืข ืืืฉืจืืื ืฉื ืฆืื ืืจ ืืื ืืขืจืื ืืืืืจ ืืฆืื ืืจ ืชืชึพืืื ืืช ืื ืขืจืืฉ ืืืฉืงืืื ืืืฉื ืืชืืืจ ืืืขืจืืช ืืืืืช ืืื ืืืฉืจืืืืช. ืืคืืจืืืจ 2008 ืืื ืืืจืื ืืื ืืืฆืจืื. ืึพ5 ืืคืืจืืืจ 2011, ืคืืฆืฅ ืืจืืฉืื ื ืฆืื ืืจ ืืื ืืืืขื ืืกืื ื, ืคืืฆืืฅ ืืฉืจ ืืจื ืืืคืกืงื ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืกืคืงืช ืืื ืืืฉืจืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืฉืืืืื ืืืืจื ืืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืฆืื ืืจ ืืื ืืขืจืื (ืืจืื, ืกืืจืื) ืืืฉื 39 ืืื. ืืื ืื ืืืืชื ืืกืคืงืช ืื ืกืืืจื ืืืฆืจืื. ืขื ืืืืืฉ ืืืืจืื ืกืืคืงื ืืืืืืช ืื ืืืงืืืช ืืืื. ืืื ืืขื ืืคืืฆืืฅ ืึพ28 ืื ืืืืืจ ืืขืงืืืชืื ืื ืืืืฉื ืืืกืคืงื ืืืจืขื ืขืื ืืกืคืจ ืคืืฆืืฆืื. ืืืคืจืื 2012 ืืืืืขื ืืืจืช ืืื ืืืืฉืืชืืช ืฉื ืืฆืจืื EGAS ืืืืคื ืื ืฆืืื ืขื ืืืืื ืืืกืื ืืืืจืช ืืื EMG, ืืืื ืื ืขืืืื ืืืชืืืืืืืืช ืืกืคืืืช ืืฆื ืืืืจืื ื. ืืคืกืงืช ืืขืืจืช ืืื ืืืืืื ืืฆืจืื ืืืืฆื ืืช ืืฉืง ืืืฉืื ืืืฉืจืื ืืขืืืจ ืืืืงืื ืืงืจืื ืืืืืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืื ืกืืืจ ืืืืื ืขื ืืชืืืืช ืืกืคืงืช ืืื ืืืืืจ "ืชืืจ" ืืืคืจืื 2013. ืืืจืช ืืืฉืื ืชืืขื ืืช ืืืจืืช ืืื ืืืฆืจืืืช ืืงืืืช ืคืืฆืื ืืกืืื ืฉื 4 ืืืืืืจื ืืืืจ ืืคื ืชื ืืืืจืจืืช ืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืจื ืืงืื ืคืืฆืื ืขื ืืคืกืงืช ืืื. ืืืฆืืืจ 2015 ื ืคืกืง ืื ืืืจืืช ืืื ืืืฆืจืืืช ืฆืจืืืืช ืืคืฆืืช ืืช ืืืจืช ืืืฉืื ืึพ1.76 ืืืืืืจื ืืืืจ ืืืืจ ืืชื ืืืืช ืืืฆืจืื ืืืขืงืืืช ืืงืคืืช ืืืฉื ืืืชื ืขื ืืืืื ืื ืืืฉืจืื ืืกืชืื ื ืคืฉืจื ืขื ืืืฆืืช ืืกืืื. ืืฉื ืช 1996 ืืชื ืื ืืฉื ืืืชื ืืื ืืฉืจืื ืืงืืจ ืขื ืืืื ืื ืืืขื ื ืืืื ืืืฉืจืื, ืืืืง ืืฉืืจื ืฉื ืฆืขืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืฉืืคืืจ ืืืืกืื ืืื ืืฉืจืื ืืืืื ืืช ืขืจื. ืื ืืืืจ ืื ืืฆื ืืคืืขื ืืืกืืฃ. ืืฉื ืช 2008 ืืืื ืฉืื ืงืืืฆืช ืื ืื ืื ืืืจื ืืืืืงืืช ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืฉ ืืขืกืงืื ื ืืื ืื ืงื ืจ, ืืืขืื ืจืืฉืื ืื ืขื ืืืจืืื ืืงืืจ, ืืื ืืืืื ืก ืืคืจืืืงื ืฉื ืืืื ืื ืืืขื ืืืฉืจืื. ืืฉื ืช 1997 ืคืชื ืืืจืช ืืืฉืื ืืืืขืื ืจืืฉืื ืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืขื ื ืืืื ืื ืืจืืกืื ืืื'ืืจ, ื ืืืจืื ืื ืืจืืืืื. ืืชืืืืช 2011 ืืืจื ืฉืจ ืืชืฉืชืืืช, ืขืืื ืื ืืื, ืืงืื ืืืื ืืืืืื ืื ืืืขื ื ืืืื (LNG), ืฉืืฆืืฆื ืืช ืืชืืืช ืฉื ืืฉืจืื ืืื ืืืขื ืืืืืื ืืืฆืจืื. ืืืืื 2012 ืืืื ืืขืืืืืช ืืื ืืืช ืืฆืืฃ ืืื ืืงืืืืช ืื ืืืขื ืืืืืืืช ืื ืืืขื ื ืืืื ืืืืืืช, ืึพ10 ืง"ื ืืื ืืืคื ืืืจื. ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืฆืืฃ ืชืืื ืืขืจืืช ืืืืืื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืงืื ืื ืืืขื ืื ืคื ืฉื ืึพ2โ3 BCM ืืฉื ื. ืขื ืคื ืืฉืจ ืื ืืื, ืืคืจืืืงื ืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืกืคืง ืืืขื ืืืฆืืช ืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืขื ืืฉื ืชืืช ืืืจืืฉื ืืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื. ืืื ืืืจ 2013 ืืืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืงืืื ืื ืืื ืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืืืช, ืืืฉืจ ืืืืจืืืช ืขื ืืืฆืืฃ ืืืื ืขื ืืืจืช "ืื ืชื"ื" ืืืืื ืืืื ืช ืืืื ืืื ืืืืืืช ืืชืืืืชื ืืืืื ืขื ืืืจืช ืืืฉืื. ืึพ28 ืืืจืฅ 2013 ืคืืจืกื ืื ืื ืืื ืืืจืื ืืืืืืจ ืืืจ ืืืคืจืื 2013. ืคืืืขื ืกืืืืชืืช ืืืฉืืืื ืืชืื ืืช ืืืื ืืคืืืืืช, ืชืื ืืช ืืื ืืจืื ืืืชืจ ื ืงืืืช. ืืื ืขื ืืืช, ืื ืื ืคืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืกืืื ืื ืืื ืคืืื ืื-ืืืฆื ื, ืืชืื ืืืืืจืื ื ืืกืคืื. ืืฉืจื ืืื ืจืืื ืืืืฉืจื ืืืื ืช ืืกืืืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืืฉื ืช 2016 ืืืื ืืืคืืชืช ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืคืื ืืชืื ืืช ืืื, ืืืืช ืืขืืงืจ ืืืชืืกืก ืขื ืืกืคืงืช ืืื ืืืืขื ืืืฉืง ืืืฉืจืืื ืืืืืจ ืชืืจ ืฉืืื ืืกืคืง ืื ืืืฉืง ืืฉื ืช 2013. ืืืฉืืช ืืฉืจืื ืงืืขื ืื ืืืืืจ ืืืืจ ืืืืืืชื ืืืฉืง ืืืฉืจืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืกืืืจ ืขื ืืฉื ืช 2022 ืืืฆืืช ืืืื ืืืืฆืืจ ืฉื ืชืื ืช ืืืื ืืืืจื ืืืืืืืคื ืืืืืืืช ืฉืืื ืขื ืืื ืืืขื. ืืืืฉื ืืืืืื ืืืช ืืืืืข ืืฉืจื ืืื ืจืืื ืื ืขื ืืฉื ืช 2030 ืชืืคืกืง ืืืืืืื ืขืืืืชื ืฉื ืชืื ืืช ืืืื ืืคืืืืืช ืืืจืืช ืจืืื ืืืืจื ืืจืืื ืืจื ืืืฉืงืืื, ืืื ืืืฉืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืื. ืืืขืจืืช ืืืฉืจื ืืืื ืช ืืกืืืื ืขืืืช ืืชืืืืื ืืชืืฆืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืืจ ืฉืืงืืจื ืืืืฆืืจ ืืฉืื ืืคืื ื ืืืืช ืึพ3.6 ืืืืืืจื ืฉืงื ืืืืื ืืื ืฉื ื ืืช ืืืืื ืฉื 234 ืืฉืจืืืื. ืจืื ืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/meaningful-learning/] | [TOKENS: 360] |
ืืืืื ืืืืกืกืช ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืฉืืขืืชืืช ืืืื ืื ืืืกืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืืขืืชืืช ืืืจื ืืงืฆืจื ื... ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืฉืืจืืชืื ืคืืจืื ืื ื ืื ื ืขืืืจ ืืืจืื ืื ืืขื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฆืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืื. ืืขืืื ืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืชืจื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืชืืื ืืชืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืืื (ืืจืืืช ืคืจืกืืืืช) ืืื ื ืืืืจืืืช ืืขืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืื. ืื ื ืชืงืืชื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืฉ ืืื ืืฆืขืืช ืื ืืขืจืืช ืื ืืืข ืืชืืื, ืืืคืฉืจืืชืื ืืคื ืืช ืืืื ื ืืงืืฉืืจ ืื. |
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/additional-programs/] | [TOKENS: 312] |
ืืืืื ืืืืกืกืช ืืืืื ืืืืช ุจุฑุงู
ุฌ ุฅุถุงูููุฉ ุจุฑุงู
ุฌ ุฅุถุงูููุฉ ืคืืจืื ืื ื ืื ื ืขืืืจ ืืืจืื ืื ืืขื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฆืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืื. ืืขืืื ืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืชืจื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืชืืื ืืชืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืืื (ืืจืืืช ืคืจืกืืืืช) ืืื ื ืืืืจืืืช ืืขืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืื. ืื ื ืชืงืืชื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืฉ ืืื ืืฆืขืืช ืื ืืขืจืืช ืื ืืืข ืืชืืื, ืืืคืฉืจืืชืื ืืคื ืืช ืืืื ื ืืงืืฉืืจ ืื. |
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/place-for-everyone/] | [TOKENS: 737] |
ืืืืื ืืืืกืกืช ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืฉ ืืงืื ืืืืื - ืืงืืืื ืฉืืืืืช, ืื ืืขืช ืืืืื ืืืจืชืืช ืืืจื ืืืจ ืื ื"ื ืืืฉืจื, ืืจ ืืืืจ ืฉืืขืื ื ืืฉื ืช ืืืืืืืื ืชืฉืค"ื ืืขืจืืช ืืืื ืื ืชืคืขื ืืืชืจ ืฉืืช ืืงืืืื ืฉืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืคืืชืื ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืืจืชืืืช, ืื ืืขืช ืืืืืืช, ืืืืื ืืืจืชืืช, ืืืจื ืืืจื. ืืฆืืจื ืื ืคืืชืื ืืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื ืชืืื ืืช ืืงืืคื ืื ืืฉื: ืงืืืื ืืืืื ืจืืฉืืช ืืืจืชืืช ืืื ืืขืช ืืืืืืช "ืืืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืืช - ืืื ืืืฆืืจืช ืืจืื ืืืื". ืื ื ืืืืื | ืืกืืื | ืขื-ืืกืืื ืืฉ ืืงืื ืืืืื - ืืงืืืื ืฉืืืืืช, ืื ืืขืช ืืืืื ืืืจืชืืช ืืืจื ืืืจื ืืงืฆืจื ื... ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืฉืืจืืชืื ืคืืจืื ืื ื ืื ื ืขืืืจ ืืืจืื ืื ืืขื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฆืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืื. ืืขืืื ืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืชืจื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืชืืื ืืชืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืืื (ืืจืืืช ืคืจืกืืืืช) ืืื ื ืืืืจืืืช ืืขืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืื. ืื ื ืชืงืืชื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืฉ ืืื ืืฆืขืืช ืื ืืขืจืืช ืื ืืืข ืืชืืื, ืืืคืฉืจืืชืื ืืคื ืืช ืืืื ื ืืงืืฉืืจ ืื. |
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/student-rights/] | [TOKENS: 368] |
ืืืืื ืืืืกืกืช ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืชืืืื ืืืชืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืชืืืื ืืืชืืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืฉืืจืืชืื ืืืจื ืืงืฆืจื ื... ืคืืจืื ืื ื ืื ื ืขืืืจ ืืืจืื ืื ืืขื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฆืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืื. ืืขืืื ืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืชืจื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืชืืื ืืชืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืืื (ืืจืืืช ืคืจืกืืืืช) ืืื ื ืืืืจืืืช ืืขืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืื. ืื ื ืชืงืืชื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืฉ ืืื ืืฆืขืืช ืื ืืขืจืืช ืื ืืืข ืืชืืื, ืืืคืฉืจืืชืื ืืคื ืืช ืืืื ื ืืงืืฉืืจ ืื. |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืืจืื_ืืื] | [TOKENS: 6461] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืืจืื ืืื ืึถืจึฐืึทึผื ืึฐึผืึทื ืืื ืืชืื ืฉื ืืกืืจ ืืืฉืจืืื ืืื ืืจืืฉืืื ืืืืืงื ืืืจืื ืจืืื ืืคื, ืืืฆืื ืืฉื ื ืืจืืื ืืืจืืคืก ืกืืื ืืฉืืง ืืื ื ืืืืื. ืืืจืื ืืืื ืืงืืืืชืื ืืจืืฉืื ืืช ืืจืื ืืกืืจื ืฉืืื ืื ืืกืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืืืงืืช ืืจืื ืงื ืืืช ืืงืืจื ืืืจืืฉืืื, ืขืื ืืืจื ื ืืืข ืืืฉืจืื ืืืืฉื ืงื ืืื. ืืืจืืืืืช ืืื ืืื ืื 15 ืงืืืืช ืืืืืคืืื ืืืืจืืืืืช ืืืืจื ืืช (ืืฉืื ื ืืกืืืืชื). ืืื ืืฆืืคื ืืืื ื ืกืืจื (ืืืชืื ืืืืง ืืขืืจ ืืขืืจืื ื ืืืืชืืง ืฉืืืืื ืฆืืคืื ืืืื ืืจืืฉืืืืช) ืืืืืื ื ืืืืื ืื ืืื ืฉืืจื ืจืฆืืคื ืฉื ืืืื ืืช. ืืื ืืื ื ืืฆื ืืืืืจ ืืืืืืงื, ืืืืชื ืืืืืช ืืจืืื ืืคื, ืืืืืจืื ืืจืืื ืืืจืืคืก. ืงืื ืกืคื ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืฉื ื ืืืกืืช ืืฉื ืืช ื-70 ืืืฉืจืื, ืืืื ื ืืืฉืื ืืจืื ืืกืืจื ืืืื ืืงืืืืชืื ืืจืืฉืื ืืช ืืงืืืืช ืืฉืจืืื ืืขืืื. ืืืื ื ืืืงื ืื ืื ืืื ืชืช-ืงืจืงืขื ืขื 400 ืืงืืืืช ืื ืืื. ืืช ืืจืื ืืื ืชืื ื ืืืืจืืื ืื ืืืชื, ืฉืืืจืื ืืขืฆืื ืขื ืืืจืื ืืืืช ืืขืืืืืช ืืคืืืช ืืืฆืืืืช ืฉืื. ืืื ืงืจืืืื ืงืจ, ืืืฉืืื ืืืืจืืืืื ืืืืฉืืืจืื ืฉื ืืจืื ืืจืืฉืืื ืืืืืจ ืื ืืื ืืช ืืื ืืื ืืืฉื ืืจืืืืงืืื ื ืืกืคืจื "ืจืืื ืืคื". ืืืงืืจืช ืืจืืืืงืืื ืืช ื ืืชืื ืื ืขื ืฉืืืืื ืฉื ืืืื ื ืืืจืงื ืืขืืจ ืืืขืื ืืืืกืจ ืืืชืืื ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืกืืืืชื ืืืชืืงืืช ืืืขืืืชืืืช ืฉื ืื ืืื ืืืืจื ืืช ืืืืื ืืชืื ืืจืงื ืขืืจืื ื ืืืกืืืจื. ืืืืจืืื ืื ืืืชื ืืขื ืฉืืื ื ืืืื ืืืฉื ืืจืฉืื ื ืฉื ืืืจืช ืืื ืืืจ ืืืื ืื ืืืช ืืคืจืืืงื: "ืืืืชื ืืื ื"ื ืืื ืืืืจืชื ืื ืฉืื ื ืืืฉื ืฉืืฉืื ืื ืืื ืงืืจื ืืคืจืืืงื ืืื, ืฉืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืชื ืืืืื ืืืชื ืืืืืื ืืื ื ืืื, ืืืคืืื ืืืืชื ืื ืืืืืืืช ืฉืืื ืงืฉืืจืืช ืืืืืจืช ืืคืื ืงืฆืืืช, ืืืืืจืช ืืฉืืืืฉืื, ืืืืจืช ืืืืืจืื, ืืืืืืืืช ืืืืจ, ืืื ืืืจ". ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืงืืจืืช ืฉื ืืืชืื ืืืื 6 ืืืืืื ืื ื 18โ16 ืงืืืืช, ืกืืื ืืืืจ ืกืคืืจืืืช, ืืืฉืืฉืช ืืงืื ืืคืืฉ ืฉื ืืขืจืืช ืจืืืืืช ืคื ืืืืื ืืืฆืื ืงืืืืช ืืืืืคืกืช ืืืคืืกืื ื-4 ืงืืืืช ืืกืืจ ืืืจืชืฃ ืืืฉืืฉ ืืืจืื ืืืื ื. ืืืื ืชื ืื ืืืืคืืืจืคืื, ืืชืืคืฉืจืช ืื ืืกืช ืืืืื ืืจืื ืืืคืืกืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืจืืืืืช ืืกืืื. ืืืื ืืืฉื ืฉื ืื ืจืืืช ืืคืจืืืงื ืื ืืืฉืื. ืจืง ืืฉื ืืช ื-90 ืฉื ืืืื ื-20 ืืืืฉื ืืื ืืื ืืืฉืจ ืืชืืืกืฃ ืืืจืื ืืื ืื ืืื ืืืฉ ืขื ืฉืืื ืืฉืจืืื ืืืกืืจ ืืฉื ืื ืืื ืื"ื (ืื ืืฉืจืื ืืืจืื) ืืืืงื ืืคืื ื ืืจืืื ืืืจืืคืก. ืืจืืฉืืช ืฉื ืืช ืืืืคืืื ื ืื ื ืืืืง ืืืืจืื ืฉื ืืืชืื, ืืื ื ืืกืืจ ืืืืืจืื ืืืื ืฉื ืงืจื ืื ืื "ืืืื ืืืจืืฉืืื", ืฉืื ืขื ืคื ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืงืืจืืช ืืกืื ืื ืืืจืืืื ืฉืื ื. ืขื ืื ืืืชื ืฉื ืืจืื ืืื ื ืืชืื ืืืงืืจืช ืจืื ืืืืื ืืฉื ืื ืฉืืืืืจื ืืืืื ืจืื ืืช ืืืืงืืจืืช ืกืืื ืื ืืืช ืืืื ืฉืืื ืืชื ืืืื. ืืืืื ื ืื ื ืขื ืืืจืฉ ืืืกืืืจื ืืฉืื ืืืจืื ืืขืืจ ืื ืฉืื ืขื ืื ืชืืืื ืืืืื ืก ืืืฉื 90 ืฉื ื. ืื ืืืช ืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืจืืกืชื ืฉื ืืืื ื ืืืืกืืืจื ืืฉืืฉืจืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืชืจ ืืื ื ืืื ืฉืืืืจ ืืืงื ืฉื ืืฉืขืจ ืืจืืฉื ืฉืื. ืืืืืจ ื"ืคืฉืจืช ืฉืืืืจ" ืื ืืกื ืฉืืื ืืงืืื ืืืืชื ืชืงืืคื ืืืืืื ืืคืืจืกืืช ื ืืกืคืช ืฉืื ื ืืฆืืช ืืืจืืง ืงืฆืจ ืืฉื ืืืืช ืืืืชื ืงืืื (ืจืืืช ืืืฉืืืจ). ืืืกืืืจืื ืื ืืืช ืืืื ื ืืืื ืืฉื ืช 1972 ืขื ืืื ืืืจืช "ืืจืื ืืื ืืจืืฉืืื ืืข"ื" (ืฉืฉืื ืชื ืืช ืฉืื ืืืจ ืื ื"ืืืจ ืื ืืื ืื ืืคืืชืื ืืข"ื") ืฉืืืืชื ืฉืืชืคืืช ืฉื ืืืจืช "ืืืืจืื", ืืืจืช ืืืฉืงืขืืช "ืขืื" ืฉื ืืจืฉืื ืจืืืื ืืืืฉ ืืขืกืงืื ืืืงืืืจ ืงืจืืจ. ืืฉื ืช 1978 ืืฆื ืจืืืื ืืืืืจื ืืืืจ ืืช ืืืงื ื"ืืืืจืื", ืฉืฉืืื ืขืชื ื-75% ืืืืืจื. "ืืืืจืื" ืืืืชื ืืืจืช ืืช ืฉื ืงืื ืฆืจื ืืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืื ืืื. ืืืืื 1974 ืืืงืคืื ืื ืืื ืืื ืืฆืืืืจืืช ืืืฉืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืช ืืืจืื ืืืงืคืื ืขื ืืื 1975. ืืชืืืืช 1976 ืจืืฉ ืืฉืจื ืืืืฆืจ ืฉืืืฉ ืงืืืืช, ืฉืืืื 4500 ื"ืจ, ืขืืืจ ืจืฉืืช ืืืืกืื ืืื ืืื. ืืืจืื ื ืื ื ื-3 ืืื ืืืจ 1978 ืื ืืืืืช ืจืืฉ ืขืืจืืืช ืืจืืฉืืื, ืืื ืงืืืง, ืขืื ืืจื ืืืฉืืื ืงืืืืช ืืืฉืจืืื. ืืืจืื ืืื 150 ืื ืืืืช ืฉืืชืืื 130 ืืืจ ื ืืืจื. ืืืงืื ืืฉืชืื ื ืฉืืืฉืช ืืื ืงืื ืืืืืืื, ืื ืง ืืคืืืช, ืจืืื ืืฉืืื ืืืืจืืช ืืืืื. ืงืืืืช ื ืืกืคืืช ืฉื ืืฉืจืืื ืืืฉืืจื ืืืืฉืื. ืฉืืืฉ ืงืืืืช ืืืฉืจื ืืชืืืืจื ืืงืืื ืืืฉืจื ืืืฉืคืืื. ืืืืจืช ืืื ืืืืช ืื ืืชืจืืช ืืชืงืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืื ืืืคืจืื 1980 ืืืงื ืื ืืืืืกื. ืื ืื ืื ืงืืืืช ืืืฉืจืืื ื ืืืจื. ืืืจืช "ืืจืื ืืื ืืจืืฉืืื ืืข"ื" ืืืจื ืืช ืจืื ืืฉืืืืื ืืืกืืจืืื, ืื ืืืฉืืื ืืืืืืง ืืืืง ืืืืฉืจืืื ืืืชืื, ืืืืืืืืช ืื ืืื ืืฉืืจ ืืืชืื ืฉืขืื ืื ื ืื ื. ืื ืืืืืจ 1980 ืืืืจื ืขื ืชืืืืช ืฉืื ื' ืฉื ืืคืจืืืงื ืื ืืืงื ืืืื, ืื ืืกืฃ ืืืืื ืขื ืืงืืช ืื ืฉืงืืฃ ืืขื ืืืชืื ืืืกืืจื. ืื ืืืช ืฉืื ื' ืืชืขืืื ืืืฉื ืฉื ืื ืจืืืช, ืฉืืืืงื ืืืฉืื ืจืง ืืื ืืื ืืชืช-ืงืจืงืขื. ืืฉื ืช 1981 ืขืืจื ืื ืื ืืืช ืจืฉืืช ืืฉืืืืจ ืืื ืืื (ืขื ืฉืขืืื ืืืชื ื-1999 ืืืืืช ืื ืืื ืฉืขืจื ืฆืืง ืืืฉื). ืืฉื ืช 1982 ืจืืฉื ืืืจืช "ืฉืืืื ืขืืืืื" 50% ืืืืขืืืช, ืืืฆืืขื ืืืงืื ืืฉืืืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืคืืชืื ืืืชืื 400 ืืืจืืช ืงืื ืืช, ืืืืืชืจ ืืืงืืื ืขื ืคืืชืื ืฉืืืื ืืกืืจืืื ืืชืืื ื ืื ื ืืกืคืื. ืืฉื ืืช ื-80 ืืฉืื ืืืกืืจื ืคืขื ืืชืคืืกื ืืืืื, ืืืืจ ืฉืืคืืฆืื ืืฉืืคืืจืื ืฉื ืขืจืื ืืืื ื, ืืืื ืืืชืจ ืคืขืื ืื ืื ืืช ืืืื ืฉื ืืืจืช "ืจืื - ืจืืืื ืืจืืฉืืื", ืื ืขืื ืืื ืื ืฉืืืืง ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืืขืชืื ืื ืืืื ื ืชื ืืื. ืื ืืกืฃ ืคืขื ืื ืืืช ืงืืื ืืข "ืืคืืจ" ืฉืืื ืืืขืืืช ืืฉื ืืืฉ. ืืงืืื ืืข ืคืขื ืืฉืืช, ืืืื ืืืงื ืืืืืืช ื ืื ืืฆื ืืขืื ืืืจืืืช. ืืืื ืืงืจืืช ืกืืฃ ืฉื ืืช ื-80 ืกืื ืืืจืื ืืืกืืจื ืืืขืืจ ืฉื ืื ืืืืช ืืงืื ืื ืืืืืจ ืืชืขืฉืืื ืชืืคืืืช ืฉืืคื ืืืืืจ ืืกืืจื, ืืืจ ืื ืื ืืงื ืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืจืื ืืงื ืืื ืืืื. ืืฉืื ืืืกืืจื ืื ืกืืื ืืืขืืืื ืฉืืื ืืืืช ื ืืืจื ืืขืฉืจืืช ืืขืืื ืฉืื ืื, ืื ืืฉืื ืงืื ืืืกืืช ืืืื ืื ื ืืืื ืืจืืื ืืขืื ืืืื ืืขืืื ืืืื, ืืืืืช ืืงื ืืื ืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืชืจ. ืืฉื ืช 1984 ืฉืืืจ "ืืื ืฆื"ื" ืืืืขื ืืคืื ืืืจื "ืื ืืคืื ืืกืคืจ 1", ืืจืืื ืคืฉืข ืฉืืืจืื ื ืขืฆืจื ืืืืชื ืขืช, ืงืืจื ืืื ืฉืจืฆืื ืืืกืืืืช "ืืจืื ืืื". ืืฉืืจืช ืืฉืจืื ืฉืืื ืืช ืืืืืขื ืืฉืืืขื ืืกืจืช ืืกืืก. ืืืชืื ืืืืจื ืืื ืืคืื ืืคืืฆื ืืืืื ื ืืช ืืฉืืืขื, ืืืืจื ืืฉืืฉ ืืช ืืงืืจืช ืืืฉืืจื. ืืื ืืงืจื ืืืจื ืืื ืืคืื ื ืืฉืื ืืืืจ ืื ืืืจืฉืขื ืืืงืจื ืจืฆื ืฉืืืจืขื ืึพ1979 ืื-1980, ืืืืจ ืฉืืื ืืื ื ืื ื. ืืืจื ืืื ืืคืื, ืืื ืื-ืืจืืฉ ืืืืื ืืกืื, ืืฉืคื ืืืจ ืื ืฉืงืืจื ืฉื ืืื ืืงืจืื ืืชืืื ืืืืืืช ืืฉืืื, ืืืกืืจืช ืขืกืงืช ืืืขืื. ืืฉื ืช 1990 ืจืืฉื ืืืจืช ืฉืืืื ืขืืืืื ืืช ืืืื ืืืขืืืช ืขื ืืืจืช "ืืจืื ืืื ืืจืืฉืืื ืืข"ื" ืืืื ืืืจืช "ืืืืจืื" ืืืืืืขื ืขื ืชืืืืช ืืงืืช ืฉืื ื' ืฉืืืืื ืฉื ื ืื ืื ื ืืฉืจืืื, ืืื ืืืื ืืคื ืฉืชืืื ื ืืืงืืจ. ืคืจืืืงื ืื, ืืคืื ื ืืจืืื ืืืจืืคืก, ืืืฉืื ืืงืจืืช ืกืืฃ ืฉื ืืช ื-90, ืืฉืืืง ื"ืงื ืืื ืืจืืืืช" ืขืืืจ ืืจืคืืืช ืืขืกืงื ืืจืืืืช. ืืฉื ืช 1993 ื ืื ืกื ืืืจืช "ืฉืืืื ืขืืืืื" ืืฉืืชืคืืช ืขื ืืงืืื ืืจืืื ืืืื ืืืงืืช ืืฉืื ืืฉืืืฉื ืฉื ืืืจืื. ืคืจืืืงื ืื ืืืงื ืืืืงื ืืืืจืื ืฉื ืืืชืื, ืืคืืขื ืืคืจืืืงื ื ืคืจื ืืืืืืื ืืฉื "ืืืื ืืืจืืฉืืื", ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืืื ืฆืืื ืืขื ืงืืจ ืืฉืืชืฃ ืืืจืื ืืื. ืืืงืื ืืืงืื ืฉื ื ืืืืื ืืืจืืช, ืื ื 22 ื-18 ืงืืืืช ืืขื ืืชืื ืืกืืจื. ื-1998 ืจืืฉื ืืืื ืฉืืจืืชื ืืจืืืืช ืฉืชื ืงืืืืช ืืคืจืืืงื ืืืืืช ืืงืืช ืืจืคืื. ืืื ืงืฆืจ ืืืืจ ืกืืื ืืื ืืื, ืจืืฉื ืืืจืช ืืจืืื ืืืื ืืช ืื ืืฉืืืื ืืืกืืจืืื ืืืืฉืจืืื ืืคื ืืืื ืืคืจืืืงื. ืืฉื ืช 1994 ื ืกืืจ ืงืืื ืืข "ืืคืืจ", ืืฉื ืช 1998 ืืืฉืืจ ืืืืช ืืงืืช ืืืื ืืืจืืขืื. ืื-2001 ืืืจ ืืืชื ืืฉื ืืืฉ ืืืจืืื ื ืืฆืจื ืืืื ืืืืกืื ืฉืจืฆื ืืืงืื ืื ืืืื ืื ืกืื, ืื ืืืืื ื ืืชืจ ื ืืฉ ืืื. ื-11 ืืืื ื 2003 ืืชืคืืฆืฅ ืืืื ืืชืืื, ืกืืื ืืืจืื ืืื ืืชืื ืืืืืืืก ืืก' 14, ืจืฆื 17 ืืืจืืื ืืคืฆืข ืขืฉืจืืช. ื-23 ืืืืื 2013 ืืจื ืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืื ืืืชื ืืขืื ืืฉืจื ืขืืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืื, ืขืงื ืกืืกืื ืืกืคื. ืืื 2014 ืืื ืืื ืขืืืจ ืชืืืื ืืชืืืฉืืช ืืืืืืช ืงืืืืช ืืืกืืื ืืืฉืืชืืฃ ืืขืื ืืขืกืงืื ืืืืจืช ืื ืืืื ืฉื ืืื ืืื - "ืืืงืื". ืื ืฉืื ืืงืืื ืืขืืืื ื ืฉื ืืืจืื ืืืกืืจื ืืคื ืืืชืื ืื ืงืจื ืดืืืจืคืกืช: ื ืืื ืืืืจ ืขืืจืื ืืด ืฉืืืฉื ืืืื ืงืืืื ืืืฉืื, ืชืืฉืื ืืจืืฉืืื ืืชืืืจืื. ืืืื ืืฉืืฉ ืื ืืืจืื ืฆืืืืจื ืขื ืืื ืื. ืงืืืืช ืืืกืืื ืืืืขื ืืื ืืื ืืขืงืืืช ืงืืจืก ืฉื ืขืจื ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืืช ืืื ืืืื ืืืจืืฉืืื. ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืชืืงืฉื ืืืฆืืจ ืืฉืืชืืฃ ืคืขืืื, ืืืฉืจ ืฉื ืืื ืืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืจื ืืืฆืืจ ืืฉืืชืืฃ ืขื ืื ืืื ืืื. ืืืืฉื ืขืืจ ืื ืืงืืจืก ืื ืืื ืืื, ื ืืฆืจื ืืฆืืจืืช ืืื ืืช ืจืืฉืื ืืช ืืื ืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืื ืืื ืื ืืื ืฉื ืืขืกืงืื. ืืื ืืืจ 2020 ืื ืื ืืฉืืจืช ืืจืืฉืืื ืชืื ืช ืืฉืืจื ืืื ืืื, ืืฉื ืืจืื ืฉืืจืืช ืืจืื (ืืฉ"ื), ืืืขื ืืงื ืฉืืจืืชื ืืฉืืจื ืืงืืืื ืืฆืืืืจ ืืืจืื ืืืจืืฉืืื. ืืฉื ืช 2021 ื ืคืชืื ืืื ืืื ืฉืืืื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืืืจืืฉืืื. ืชืืื ืืช ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://www.matific.com/isr/he/home/pedagogy/principles/#Meaningful-Context] | [TOKENS: 9782] |
ืชืคืจืื ื ืืืฉืืช ืืขืฆืืื ืืช ืืืชืชืื ืขื ืืืืื ืืชืืืืช ืืจืชืงืช ืืืืืกืกืช ืจืืืืช ืชืืื ืืืกืข ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืขืืจืช ืืชืืืืงื ืืื ืืจืืงืืืืืช ืืืื ื ืืืืช ืฉืชืคื ืคืขืืื ืขื ืืืืคืืง ืืื ืืฉืคืจ ืืช ืชืืฆืืืช ืืืืืื ืืื ืจืื ืืฉืืื ืืคืืืืืืช ืฉื 'ืืืืคืืง' ืืืืื ืฉื 'ืืืืคืืง' ืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืื ื ืืืืื ืืชืืืืงื ืืกืืืื ืืืืืืชืืช ืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืืืชืจ. ืืื ืืืฉืื ืืืช, ืื ื ืืฆืืืื ืืช ืืขืงืจืื ืืช ืืคืืืืืืื ืฉืื ื ืืืจืื. ืืคืืืคืืจืื ืืืืกืกืช ืขื ืคืืืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืฉืืคืชืืช ืืื ื ืขืืืงื ืฉื ืขืงืจืื ืืช ืืชืืืืื. ืืืฉืช ืืขืงืจืื ืืช ืืคืืืืืืื ืฉืื ื, ืฉืคืืชืื ืขื ืืื ืืืืขืฆื ืืืงืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืคืืง, ืืืืืื: ืืื ื ืืืฉืืืช ืคืืชืื ืืื ื ืฉื ืืื ื ืืืกืื ืฉื ืืืชืืืืงื, ืืืืฉืื ืืืืข ืืขืืจ ืืืื ืืงืืช ืื ืืกืืืืช. ืืื ื ืืืฉืืืช ืืื ืงืืฉืืจ ืจืืืืื ื ืคืจืืื ืฉื ืืืข ืืชืืื ืืืื ืืื ื ืืืืืช ืฉื ื ืืฉื ืืกืืื. ืขื ืงืฆื ืืืืื, ืื ืืืื ื ืฉื ืืกืืืืช ืฉืขืืืืืช ืืืืืจื ืืชืฉืืื. ืื ื ืืชืืงืืื ืืคืืชืื ืืื ื ืืืฉืืืช ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืืฉื ืขืงืจืื ืืช. ืืชืงืืืืช ืืืืืฉื ืืืืคืฉื ืืชืืืืงื ืืื ืขืืื ืฉื ืืืฉืืื ืืืคืฉืืื, ืื ืืื ืืคืชื ืืื ื ืืืฉืืืช ืืืืชืืช ืืขืืืงื ืืื ืจืง ืืคืขืื ืืคื ืืืืืจืืชืืื, ืื ืื ื ืฆืจืืืื ืืขืืืจ ืืช ืื ืจืืืช ืืืคืฉืื, ืืื ืืืืืืฉื ืืืืชืจ ืืืืคืฉื ืืืืชืจ. ืคืขืืืืืืช ืืืฉืืง ืฉื ืืืืคืืง ืื ืืืืช ืืืืคื ืฉืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืื ืืืกืืื ืืืืืืฉื ืืืืชืจ ืืืืฆืืืื ืืชืืืืื ืืืคืฉืืื, ืืจื ืฉืืืื ืืืจืืชืืื ืืขืืจืช ืกืืืื ืืขื ืืกืืื ืฉืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืคืชืืจ ืชืจืืื ืื ืืืืฆืื ืืืืคืฉื ืฉืื. ืืชืงืืืืช ืื ืืืืืื ืฉืืืืืื ืื ืจืง ืืฉื ื ืื ืชืืืื ืืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืื ืืช ืืฉืืขืืชื. ืืฆืืจื ืืืืืืืื ืืจืืืื ืืฉืืืืืื ืืืฉื ืืชืืื, ืืืืืื ืืืฉืชืืฉ ืืืืืืืื ืืจืืืื ืืื ืืคืชื ืืื ื ืืฉืืขืืชืืช. ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืืืืื ืืจืืืื ืื ืื ื ืขืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืชืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืช ืืืืื ืืืชืืื ืฉื ืืขืืืช ืื ืืืืจืืช ืฉืืืฆืืืช ืืคื ืืื. ืืืืื ืกืคืืจืืืช ืืื ืืช ืืืกืืืืช ืืขืชืื ืื ื ืฉืืื ืืืฉ ืจื ืขื ืื ืืช ืืืกืืืืช ืืขืชืื ืืคื ื ืฉืื ืืืืืื ืืคืืจืืื. ืื ื ืื ืกืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืคืฉืจืืช ืืืฆืื ืืืชืจ ืืจืืืฆืืืช ืืื ืืืืืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืฉื ืืชืืื ืืื ืืขืืืจ ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืฉืื. ืื ืืืืง ืืช ืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืื, ืขืืืจ ืืืืืื ืืืืช ืฉื ืคืชืจืื ืืขืืืช ืืืกืืืข ืืืชืืืืืืช ืขื ืชืืืฉืช ืืืจืื ืืืชืืืืงื. ืืฆืืจืช ืงืฉืจืื ืืื ื ืืฉืืื ืฉืื ืื ืกืคืจื ืืืืืื ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืืืืืื ืืืชืืืืงื ืืืืงืื ืืช ืืืืจ ืืืืืื ืืืืกืฃ ืฉื ืืืืื ืืืืช. ืกืืืื ืื ืฉื ื ืืฉืืื ืขืืืจ ืื ื ืืคืชื ืืชืงืืืืช ืืืืื, ืืื ืื ืื ื ืืขืืื ืื ืฉืืืืื ืฉืื ืืฉืืื ืืื ื ืขืืืืื ืืคื ื ืขืฆืื ืืื ืงืฉืืจืื ืื ืืื. ืืืืืคืืง, ืื ืื ื ืืฉืชืืฉืื ืืงืืฉืืจืืืช ืืืืืืช ืฉืืื ืื ืืฉืืื ืืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืคืชื ืืื ื ืืืฉืืืช, ืืฉืื ืืืืื ืื ืจืง ืืช ื"ืื", ืืื ืื ืืช ื"ืืื", "ืืชื" ื"ืืื". ืืฉืื ืืขืื ืืืื ืคืืจืืืืื ืืืืคืืง ืืฉืชืืฉืช ืืจืฆืฃ ืฉื ืชืฉืืืืช ืฉืืืืืช ืืฉืืืฉื ืฉืืืื ืืื ืืกืคืง ืืชืขืจืืืช ืืืืืง ืืืื ืฉืืขืืืืช ืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืืง ืืช ืืฉืืืื ืืื ืกืืช ืฉืื. ืื ื ืืฆืืืื ืืื ืืฆืขืืช ืืืืืจืืช, ืืืืืืช ืืฆืืจื, ืืฆืืืื ืืช ืืฉืืืื ืืืืฆืขืื ืืื ืืคืชืืจ ืืช ืืชืจืืื. ืื ื ืืชื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืืื ืืคืชืืจ ืืช ืืชืจืืื ืืื ืืฆืืจื ื ืืื ื. ืืฉืืื ืืืงืืจืชืืช ืคืืชืื ืืืืื ืืืืช ืฉื ืคืชืจืื ืืขืืืช ืืืืคืื ืกืงืจื ืืช ืืืขืืช, ืขื ืืื ืขืืืื ืืชืืืืืื ืืืชื ืกืืช ืืกืืืื ืืขืฉืืช. ืืืืคืืง ืืืคืืช ืืฉืืื ืืืงืืจืชืืช ืขื ืืื ืขืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืชืืจ ืืืืจืืช ืืืกืงื ืืช. ืื ืื ื ืืืจืื ืื ืืืชื ืืฉืืื ืืืจืื ืืื "ืืชื ืืฉืชืืฉืื ืืื?" ืื "ืื ืฆืจืื ืืื ืืืคืื ืืช ืื ืืืืืื?". ืื ืื ื ืืขืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืฆืืจื ืืืืืช ืืฉืืื ืขืื, ืืืงืื ืืงืื ืืช ืืืืืื ืืคืฉืืื. ืื ื ืืคืชืืื ืืืืื ืืืืช ืฉื ืืฉืืื ืืืงืืจืชืืช ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืจืืขืช ืขืืืื ืืชืืื ืืืืื: ืคืืชืื ืืืืื ืืืืช ืฉื ืคืชืจืื ืืขืืืช ืคืชืจืื ืืขืืืช ื ืืฆื ืืืกืืก ืืืชืืืืงื. ืื ืืฉื ืืืฆื ืืื ืกืคืจื ืืืืืื ืืจืืื ืืขืืื, ืื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืคืชืจืื ืืขืืืช ืืื ืชืืืื ืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืฉืืฉื ื ืงื ืืง ืฉืืคืจืื ืืื ืืชืืจ ืืชืกืืื. ืืคืขืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืคืืง ืืชืืื ื ืืช ืืืืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืืืืื ืืืฉืช ืืืขืืืช ืืืฉืืช ืืืืฆืื ืืจืืื ืืืฉืืช ืืคืชืจืื ืืขืืืช, ืืืืืื ืืืฉืจ ืืื ืืืืืจืืชื ืืจืืจ. ืคืืชืื ืืืจืืืชืืืช ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืื ืืขืงืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืขืฆืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืชืคืชืืืช ืืขืฆืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืช ืฉืืื. ืืืืคืืง ืืกืคืงืช ืืืืืื ืกืืืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืขืืืืช ืฉืืื. ืื ืื ื ืืกืืืจืื ืืื ืืืฆื ืืคืชืืจ ืืช ืืฉืืืืืช ืฉืื ืืืจ ืฉืื ืืื ืฉืืืืื ืืจืืืช ืืืฆื ืืืืคื ืื ืืขื. ืืืืืืช ืขื ืงืืืืช ืืืชืืืืงื ืงืืืืช ืืืชืืืืงื ืขืฉืืื ืืืืจืืืช ืื ืืชืงืช ืืืืฆืืืืช ืืืืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืืื, ืืื ืื ืื ื ืจืืฆืื ืฉืืืืื ืืจืื ืืช ืืืืคื ืฉืืืชืืืืงื. ืืืืืคืืง ืืฆืจื ื ืกืืืื ืฉืื ืืืืื ืืจืืืฉืื ื ืื ืืฉืืื ืฉืืืืช, ืืืฆืข ืคืขืืืืช ืืืงืืช ืืืง ืืฉืื ืืชืืจืืื ืืืชืืืืงื. ืืกืืจืืืืืช ืืจืืืืช, ืคืชืจืื ืืช ืืจืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืชืืื, ืืืขืืืช ืืฉ ืืกืคืจ ืคืชืจืื ืืช, ืืื ืชืงืฃ ืื ืืืชืืืืงื. ืืืขืฉื, ืฉืืืืฉ ืืืกืคืจ ืืกืืจืืืืืช ืืื ืืื ืืืืคืืื ืื ืฉื ืืขืืืช ืืืจืืืืช. ืืืฉืจ ืื ื ืืฉืชืืฉืื ืืืกืคืจ ืืกืืจืืืืืช ืืคืชืจืื ืืช, ืื ืื ื ืืขืืืืื ืืฆืืจืชืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืชืืืืงื. ืืืืคืืง ืืฆืืื ืชืจืืืฉื ืืขืืืช ืขื ืืกืคืจ ืืจืืื ืืขื ืืช ืขื ืฉืืื, ืืืืคืฉืจืช ืืืืืื ืืืืืช ืชืืื ืืช ืืืฉืืช, ืืืกืืง ืืกืงื ืืช ืืฉืืื ืืืฉืคืจ ืืช ืืืืืืช ืฉืืื ืืืืื ืฉืืืืช ืืขืืืง. ืืงืฉืจ ืืฉืืขืืชื ืืขืืจืจ ืืืื ืืืชืืืืงื ืขื ืืื ืืฆืืช ืืขืืืช ืืืขืืื ืืืืืชื ืืชืจืืืฉืื ืืฆืืืืชืืื. ืืฉืื ื ืืืืืืื ืืชืืืืงื ืืืงืฉืจ ืืืชื ืื ืฉื ืจืื ืืฆืืืืชื ืืืืืื, ืื ืื ื ืืืคืฉืจืื ืืื ืืจืืืช ืืช ืืืฉืืืืช ืฉื ืืืฉืืื ืืชืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืืื ืฉืืื. ืืืืชื ืืืืช ืืื ืืืืืื ืฉืืื ืฉืืืืื ืืืืจืื ืืืชืจ ืืืืชืจ ืืืฉืืื ืืืคืฉืืื, ืื ืืืืจืช ืืื ืชืืืฉืช ืืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืฆื ืืืืฉืืื ืืืื ืืฉืชืืืื ืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืื. ืจืืืื ืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืงืคืื ืขื ืจืืืื ืืืืช ืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืฆืืจืช ืืขืืจืืืช ืืืืืืืฆืื ืืืืจื ืืื ืืืชืืืืงื. ืืจืื, ืืชืืืืงื ื ืชืคืกืช ืืืืฉื ืืืคืฉื, ืื ืคืจื ืืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืื. ืืืืืคืืง, ืื ื ืืฆืืืื ืขืืื ืฉืืขื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืคื ืืืืชื. ืืชืืื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืงืฉืืจ ืืกืจืืื ืฉืื ืฆืคื ืืื, ืืืฉืืงืื ืฉืื ืืฉืืงืื ืืื ืื ืืขืืื ืืกืืื ืืืชื. ืืกืืืื ืืืชืืืืช ืฉืื ื ืจืืืื ืืืช ืืืืื ืืจืืืืื ืฉืืื. ืื ืื ื ืื ืืืฆืจืื ืขืืืืืช ืืชืจืืืฉืื ืฉืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืฉืชืืฉ ืืืืืื ืืืืฉืืื ืืืฉืืงืืช ืฉืืื. ืื ืืืจื ืืื ืืฆืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืขืืื ืฉืื ืื ื ืื ืกืื ืืืฆืื. ืกืืืืืช ืืืชื ืืืืช ืืืช ืืืืจืืช ืฉืขืืืืืช ืืืืงื ืคืขืืืืืืช ืืืฉืืง ืฉื ืืืืคืืง ืืื ืืชืช ืชืืืฉืช ืืื ืืืืืฆืื ืืืืฉื ืืืชืืื. ืืืจื ืืืืื ืืืืชืจ ืืขืฉืืช ืืืช ืืื ืืกืืื ืขื ืืืื ืืืืืฆืืืช ืฉืืืจ ืงืืืืืช ืืืืืื. ืื ื ืขืืฉืื ืืืช ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืืืืช ืืฆืืืืชืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืืชืืื ืฉื ืืืืื. ืืชืจืืืฉืื ืฉืื ื ืชืืื ื ื ืืงืคืืื, ืื ืืืจื ืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืืืืื ืืืืื, ืืคืชื ืืืืืฉ ืจืขืืื ืืช ืืืฉืื ืืืืืื ืืฆืืื ืืฆืืืืชืืื. ืื ื ื ืื ืขืื ืืืฆืืช ืืฆืืื ืืืืืืชืืื ืฉืืื ืืืืืืืืช ืื ืืฉืงืคืืช ืืช ืืืืื ืืืืืชืืื, ืื ืฉืื ืืืฉื ื ืืืจ ืขื ืืืกืคืจ 6, ื ืฆืื ืฉืฉ ืืืฆืื ืืงืจืืื ืืื ืฉืฉ ืคืืจืืืช ืืืขืจ. ืืฉืื ืืืืชื ืฉืืืช ืืืฉืื ืืืกืืจืชืืช ืืืื ืื ืืื ืืื ืืืฆืื ื ืฉืืืืจ ืืืื "ืืขืืช", ืืื ืืชื ืืงืฉืจ ืืฉืืขืืชื ืคืืจืืฉื ืืกืคืง ืื ืืฉืื ืขื ืืงืฉืจ ืืืืชื. ืืืืืคืืง ืื ื ืืกืคืงืื ืืฉืื ืฉืืชืืื ืืกืืืื ืฉื ืืืขืื. ืืืฉืื ื ืืชื ืืฉืืจืืช ืืืืฉื ืืคืขืืืืช ืฉืืืื ืืืฆืข ืืืื ื ืืืฆื ืืืืืื ืืืฆืื ืืช. ืืืืื ืืืชืืืช ืืืฉืืช ืฉืืืืช ืฉืืชืืืืืช ืืช ืขืฆืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืื ืชืืืื ืืืฆืืื. ืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืจืืื ืืืืืืืืืช ืื, ืืื ืืงืฆื ืืืืื ืฉืื ื ืืขื ืืกืื ืื ืืช ืืืืื ืฉืื ืื. ืืฉืื ื ืืฆืืืื ืืช ืืฉืืื ืื ืืื ื ืืืื ืื ืืื ืื ืื ื ืืืืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืื ืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืกืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืื. ืืฉืื ื ืืกืคืงืื ืกืืืืช ืืืืื ืฉืื ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืงืืช ืืขืืืช ืขื ืืืืืื ืฉืืื, ืื ืื ื ืื ืจืง ืืืคืืื ืขืฆืืืืช ืืื ืื ืืืืืืื ืฉืื ืืื, ืืื ืืฉื ื ืืื ืฆืืจืื ืืืืืื ืฉืื, ืืืื ืืืฉืช ืืื ืฉืืื ืืืจื ืฉืืชืืืื ืืืืืืช ืฉืื. ืืกืืืื ืืืืื ืืืชืืืื ืืืฉืืช ืืคืขืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืคืืง ืชืืื ื ื ืืงืคืืื ืขื ืื ืช ืืืืืื ืฉืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืฉืืืื ืืงืฆื ืืืืจื ืฉืืื. ืคืืจืืฉ ืืืืจ ืฉืืื ืืืืืฆื ืืื ืืืืื ืืชืจืืื ืืืืืืื, ืืืช ืืื ืื ืื ืื ื ืืืงืฉืื ืืืชืืืืืื ืืชืจืื ืืืืื ืืช ืฉื ืฉืืืคื ืืืืจื. ืื ื ืืืคืฉืจืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืคืขืืืืช ืคืขืืื ืจืืืช ืืื ืฉืื ืจืืฆืื ืขื ืื ืช ืืฉืคืจ ืืช ืืฆืืื ืฉืืื. ืื ื ืืืืื ืื ืฉืืืืื ืืงืืงืื ืืืื ืืื ืฉืื ืืฉืืื ืืืื ืืืืืขืื, ืืืืฆืืื ืืืชืืจืื ืืขืืืืื ืืคื ืืื. ืฉืืฉืื ืืืืชื ืืืจืืื ืืช ืืฆืืื ืืืืชื ืจื-ืชืืืืืช ืืื ืงืฉื ืืคืืื ืื ืกืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืืืืจืื. ืืืืคืืง ืืกืคืงืช ืืกืคืจ ืืืื ืฉืื ืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืืคืื ืืกืืืืืช ืืฉืื ืืช ืืืืชื. ืืืืืช ืขืืืชืื: ืืืฉืจ ืืื ืืกืืืจ ืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืจ - ืฉื ืืื ืืคืืงืื ืืื ืชืืขืืช. ืืคืขืืื ืงืฉื ืื ื ืืืืืืจืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืงืืฉื ืฉื ืืืื ืื ืืืจ ืขืืจื ื ืืืื ืืช ืืืืฉืื ืืื, ืืื ืืืื ืืืจ ืฉืืชืืืจ ืืืืจืื ื ืขื ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืงื ืืืชืจ ืืืืืืืช, ืืืื ืืขืืืจ. ืืจืกืืืช ืฉื ืคืขืืืืืืช: ืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืฉืืง ืืืืชื ืืฉืืง ืื ืืจืืืช ืงืืฉื ืฉืื ืืช, ืืืชืื ืืืชืงืืืืช ืฉืืื. ืคืขืืืืืืช ืืืฉืืง ื ืจืืืช ืืืชื ืืืจ, ืืืืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืจืืช ืืงืืฉื ืฉืืื. ืื ืืืฆืืืช ืืืจืกืืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืฉื ืืืชื ืคืขืืืืช, ืืืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืฉืืื ืืจืกืืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืืืืืื ืฉืื ืื. ืืขืฉืจื: ืื ื ืืกืคืงืื ืืืืืช, ืืฉืืงื ืืฉืืื ืืืื ืกืคืืจ ืืฉืืงืื ืฉืืขืืจืชื ืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืืื ืืืชืจืื ืืื ืฉืืจืฆื. ืคืขืืืืืืช ืืขืฉืจื ืืื ืืืคืฉืจืืช ืืืืืื ืืชืงืืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืชืจืื ืืชืืืืงื ืืจืื ืืชืงืืืช ืืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืคืขืจืื ืืกืคืจื ืืืืืื. ืชืืื ืืืืื ืืืฆื ืชืืืืื: ืืืืื ืืชืขื ืืื ืื ืื ืืฉืืื ืฉืื ืื, ืืื ืื ื ืจืืฆืื ืืขืืจืจ ืืช ืืกืงืจื ืืช ืฉืืื. ืืคืขืืืืืืช ืืจืืืืช ืื ื ืืฉืืืื ืชืืื ื ืืกืฃ ืืกืคืจื ืืืืืื ืืฉืื ืื ืืฆืืจื ืืฉืขืฉืขืช ืฉืืืจืืช ืืืืืื ืืืชืขื ืืื ืืืืืืช ืืขืืจืืืช. ืืฉืื ืืจืืืื ืืืชืืืื ืืืฉืืช ืืฉืื ืืื ืืืง ืืืืชื ืืืืชื ื ืคืจื ืืชืืืื ืืืืืื, ืื ืืฉืื ืฉืืืื ืืืืข ืืืขื ืืื ืื ืจื ืืื ืื ืืขืืืจ ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืขื ืื ืืืฆื ืืคืชืืจ ืืช ืืืขืื. ืืืืืคืืง, ืื ืื ื ืืฉืชืืฉืื ืืชืฉืืืืช ืฉื ืืืื ืืื ืืชืช ืื ืืฉืื ืืืขืื ืืืืชืื ืืืฉืืช, ืฉืืชืืืืก ืืชืฉืืื ืืืืืชืืช ืฉื ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืชืขืจืืืช ืืืืืง ืืืื. ืืขืืจืืืช ืืชืื ืืืืืืฆืื ืคื ืืืืช ืกืืืื ืืฉืืงืืช ืฉืชืืื ื ื ืืงืคืืื ืืืขืืืืช ืืชืืื ืืืืคืืช ืืืื ืืืชืืืืงื. ืคืืชืื ืืืืืืืฆืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืช ืขื ืืื ืืืืชื ืืืชืืืืงื ืืื ืืืื ื ืืื ืืืช ืืกืืืืช ืืืชืืืืงื ืืื ืืืืื. ืืืืืคืืง, ืื ืื ื ืืืชืืจืื ืืช ืขืฆืื ื ืืืฆืืจ ืชืืื ืืฉืขืฉืข ืืืื ื. ืืคืฉืจ ืืืืจ ืฉืืืจืื ืฉื 'ืืืืคืืง' ืืื ืืงืื ืฉืืืืื ื ืื ืื ืืืืืช ืื. ืืืืืืืช ืืขื ืืื ืืช, ืืืฆืืื ืืจืชืงืื ืืืชืจืืืืื ื ืืืฉืื, ืื ืฉืืืืืื ืจืืฆืื ืืืืฉืื ืืฉืืง ืืื ืืืืืข ืืกืืฃ ืืกืืคืืจ. ืืื ืขื ืืืช, ืื ืื ื ืืงืคืืืื ืชืืื ืฉืืืืืืช ืืืฉืชืืฉ ืืืจืชืงืช ืืื ืื ืชืืคืื ืขื ืืืืืื. ืืืคืืืช ืืช ืชืืืฉืช ืืืจืื ืืืฉืจ ืืฉ ืจืง ืชืฉืืื ืืืช, ืื ืืจืืจ ืืืืืืื ืื ืืชืฉืืื ืฉืืืื. ืื, ืืื ืขื ืชืจืืืช ืฉืื ืืืฉืืื ืืงืืฉืจ ืืืื ืืืืื ืฆืื ื ืืืื, ืืืจื ืืชืืืฉืช ืืจืื ืืืืืื; ืฉืืืืฉื ืืืจืืช ืืื ืืืืื ืข ืืืืืืื ืืชืืืืงื ืืืืชืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืชืจ. ืชืืืฉืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืืืืื ืืื ืงืจืืืืช ืืืืืื, ืืืืืคืืง ืื ื ืืฉืชืืฉืื ืืกืืืื ืืฉืืงืืช ืืื ืืกืคืง ืกืืืื ืืืงืืจื ืืืืืื, ืชืื ืืคืืชืช ืืืจืื. ืืขืืจืจ ืกืงืจื ืืช ืืืืคื ืืชืืื ืืืคืื ืกืืืื ืฉืื ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืฉ ืืช ืืฆืจ ืืกืงืจื ืืช ืืืขืืจืจ ืืช ืืืืืช ืืืชืืื ืฉืืื ืืื ืืืง ืืฉืื ืืืืืืช ืกืืืื ืืื ืืืืช ืืืคืืช. ืื ื ืขืืฉืื ืืืช ืืื ืฉืื ืื ื ื ืืชื ืื ืืืืืื ืืืื ืจืื ืฉื ืฉืืืื ืขื ืืืชืงืืืืช ืฉืืื, ืืืืคืฉืจืื ืืื ืืืงืืจ, ืืืืืื ืื ืืขืฉืืช ืืืืฆื ืืืชืงืื ืืืืืืช ืขืฆืื. ืื ื ืืืืืื ืื ืฉืืคืขืืืืืืช ืฉืื ื ืืืื ืืืชืืจืืช, ืื ืืขื ืืื ืืช. ืื ืื ื ืืกืคืงืื ืืืืื ืืคืฉืจืืืืช ืืชืฉืืืืช ืืืขืืืืื ืืืืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืกืืื ืืช ืืืฉืืื. ืืชืช ืืงืื ืืืืฉืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืืขืืชืืช ืืชืจืืฉืช ืจืง ืืจื ืืชืืืืืืช ืืขืืื, ืฉืืืืืื ืื ื ื ืืฆืืื ืืคื ื ืืชืืจ, ื ืืฉืืื ืืกืคืจ ืคืขืืื ืืืืืจ ืืื ืืชืืืจืื ืขืืื. ืืืืืคืืง, ืื ื ืืฉืชืืฉืื ืืืืืืืื ืฉื ืกืืืื ืืฉืืงืืช ืืื ืืืืืื ืฉืืืืื ืื ืืคืืื ืืืืืฉื. ืืืืืง ืืื ืืืฉืืงืื ืฉืืื, ืืืฉืืื ืืื ืืืง ืืชืืืื ืืืชืืืจืืช ืืืืชืงืืืืช ืชืื ืืื ืคืชืจืื ืืืขืืืช. ืืฉืืืืืื ืืฉืชืืฉืื ืืืืืคืืง ืื ืจืืืื ืฉืืฉืืืืืช ืืืจ ืื ืืืืืช ืืืื, ืืื ืื ืืืง ืืชืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืขื. ืืืฆืืช ืืช ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืืืฉืื ืืขืืจืืืช ืืชืื ืืืืืืฆืื ืคื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืขื ืืงื ืื ื ืื ืื ืืจืื ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืฉืคืจ ืืช ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืช ืื ืืจืืืช ืืกืคืงืื ืืืกืืจืืื ืืฆืืขืื ืจืง ืืคื ืขืืืื ืืืืืืืืื. ืืืืืคืืง, ืื ืื ื ืืืฆืื ืืช ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืืกืคืง ืืืคื ืขืืจื ืืืืื, ืืขืืืืช ืืืจืืืืืืืช ืืกืืืืืช ืืื ืืจืืงืืืืืืช. ืืืืื ืืชืื ืขืฉืืื ืืฆืืืื ืฉื ืงืื ืคืืฆืืืก, "ืื ื ืฉืืืข ืืื ื ืฉืืื, ืื ื ืจืืื ืืื ื ืืืืจ, ืื ื ืขืืฉื ืืื ื ืืืื" ืืืฉืื ืืืืืช ื ืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืืจืื ืืืืืจื ืืช. ืืืงืจืื ืืจืืื ืฉืืืืื ืืขืฉืืช ืืคืขืืื ืืขืืื ืืจืื ืืืชืจ ืืืืืื ืคืกืืืืช. ืืืืืคืืง, ืื ืื ื ืืกืคืงืื ืชืจืืืฉืื ืฉื ืืขืืืช ืขื ืจืืืืื ืืื ืืจืืงืืืืืื ืฉืืืคืฉืจืื ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืขืฆืื, ืืืงืืืื ืจืืขืื ืืืคืืืื ืฉื ืืื ื ืขืืืงื. ืื ืฉืื ื ืืฆืืขืื ืคืขืืืืืืช ืืชืืืืืช ืืืฆืจ ืืืืข ื ืืกืฃ ืืืจื |
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[SOURCE: https://www.matific.com/isr/he/home/pedagogy/principles/#Critical-Thinking] | [TOKENS: 9782] |
ืชืคืจืื ื ืืืฉืืช ืืขืฆืืื ืืช ืืืชืชืื ืขื ืืืืื ืืชืืืืช ืืจืชืงืช ืืืืืกืกืช ืจืืืืช ืชืืื ืืืกืข ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืขืืจืช ืืชืืืืงื ืืื ืืจืืงืืืืืช ืืืื ื ืืืืช ืฉืชืคื ืคืขืืื ืขื ืืืืคืืง ืืื ืืฉืคืจ ืืช ืชืืฆืืืช ืืืืืื ืืื ืจืื ืืฉืืื ืืคืืืืืืช ืฉื 'ืืืืคืืง' ืืืืื ืฉื 'ืืืืคืืง' ืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืื ื ืืืืื ืืชืืืืงื ืืกืืืื ืืืืืืชืืช ืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืืืชืจ. ืืื ืืืฉืื ืืืช, ืื ื ืืฆืืืื ืืช ืืขืงืจืื ืืช ืืคืืืืืืื ืฉืื ื ืืืจืื. ืืคืืืคืืจืื ืืืืกืกืช ืขื ืคืืืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืฉืืคืชืืช ืืื ื ืขืืืงื ืฉื ืขืงืจืื ืืช ืืชืืืืื. ืืืฉืช ืืขืงืจืื ืืช ืืคืืืืืืื ืฉืื ื, ืฉืคืืชืื ืขื ืืื ืืืืขืฆื ืืืงืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืคืืง, ืืืืืื: ืืื ื ืืืฉืืืช ืคืืชืื ืืื ื ืฉื ืืื ื ืืืกืื ืฉื ืืืชืืืืงื, ืืืืฉืื ืืืืข ืืขืืจ ืืืื ืืงืืช ืื ืืกืืืืช. ืืื ื ืืืฉืืืช ืืื ืงืืฉืืจ ืจืืืืื ื ืคืจืืื ืฉื ืืืข ืืชืืื ืืืื ืืื ื ืืืืืช ืฉื ื ืืฉื ืืกืืื. ืขื ืงืฆื ืืืืื, ืื ืืืื ื ืฉื ืืกืืืืช ืฉืขืืืืืช ืืืืืจื ืืชืฉืืื. ืื ื ืืชืืงืืื ืืคืืชืื ืืื ื ืืืฉืืืช ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืืฉื ืขืงืจืื ืืช. ืืชืงืืืืช ืืืืืฉื ืืืืคืฉื ืืชืืืืงื ืืื ืขืืื ืฉื ืืืฉืืื ืืืคืฉืืื, ืื ืืื ืืคืชื ืืื ื ืืืฉืืืช ืืืืชืืช ืืขืืืงื ืืื ืจืง ืืคืขืื ืืคื ืืืืืจืืชืืื, ืื ืื ื ืฆืจืืืื ืืขืืืจ ืืช ืื ืจืืืช ืืืคืฉืื, ืืื ืืืืืืฉื ืืืืชืจ ืืืืคืฉื ืืืืชืจ. ืคืขืืืืืืช ืืืฉืืง ืฉื ืืืืคืืง ืื ืืืืช ืืืืคื ืฉืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืื ืืืกืืื ืืืืืืฉื ืืืืชืจ ืืืืฆืืืื ืืชืืืืื ืืืคืฉืืื, ืืจื ืฉืืืื ืืืจืืชืืื ืืขืืจืช ืกืืืื ืืขื ืืกืืื ืฉืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืคืชืืจ ืชืจืืื ืื ืืืืฆืื ืืืืคืฉื ืฉืื. ืืชืงืืืืช ืื ืืืืืื ืฉืืืืืื ืื ืจืง ืืฉื ื ืื ืชืืืื ืืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืื ืืช ืืฉืืขืืชื. ืืฆืืจื ืืืืืืืื ืืจืืืื ืืฉืืืืืื ืืืฉื ืืชืืื, ืืืืืื ืืืฉืชืืฉ ืืืืืืืื ืืจืืืื ืืื ืืคืชื ืืื ื ืืฉืืขืืชืืช. ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืืืืื ืืจืืืื ืื ืื ื ืขืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืชืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืช ืืืืื ืืืชืืื ืฉื ืืขืืืช ืื ืืืืจืืช ืฉืืืฆืืืช ืืคื ืืื. ืืืืื ืกืคืืจืืืช ืืื ืืช ืืืกืืืืช ืืขืชืื ืื ื ืฉืืื ืืืฉ ืจื ืขื ืื ืืช ืืืกืืืืช ืืขืชืื ืืคื ื ืฉืื ืืืืืื ืืคืืจืืื. ืื ื ืื ืกืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืคืฉืจืืช ืืืฆืื ืืืชืจ ืืจืืืฆืืืช ืืื ืืืืืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืฉื ืืชืืื ืืื ืืขืืืจ ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืฉืื. ืื ืืืืง ืืช ืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืื, ืขืืืจ ืืืืืื ืืืืช ืฉื ืคืชืจืื ืืขืืืช ืืืกืืืข ืืืชืืืืืืช ืขื ืชืืืฉืช ืืืจืื ืืืชืืืืงื. ืืฆืืจืช ืงืฉืจืื ืืื ื ืืฉืืื ืฉืื ืื ืกืคืจื ืืืืืื ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืืืืืื ืืืชืืืืงื ืืืืงืื ืืช ืืืืจ ืืืืืื ืืืืกืฃ ืฉื ืืืืื ืืืืช. ืกืืืื ืื ืฉื ื ืืฉืืื ืขืืืจ ืื ื ืืคืชื ืืชืงืืืืช ืืืืื, ืืื ืื ืื ื ืืขืืื ืื ืฉืืืืื ืฉืื ืืฉืืื ืืื ื ืขืืืืื ืืคื ื ืขืฆืื ืืื ืงืฉืืจืื ืื ืืื. ืืืืืคืืง, ืื ืื ื ืืฉืชืืฉืื ืืงืืฉืืจืืืช ืืืืืืช ืฉืืื ืื ืืฉืืื ืืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืคืชื ืืื ื ืืืฉืืืช, ืืฉืื ืืืืื ืื ืจืง ืืช ื"ืื", ืืื ืื ืืช ื"ืืื", "ืืชื" ื"ืืื". ืืฉืื ืืขืื ืืืื ืคืืจืืืืื ืืืืคืืง ืืฉืชืืฉืช ืืจืฆืฃ ืฉื ืชืฉืืืืช ืฉืืืืืช ืืฉืืืฉื ืฉืืืื ืืื ืืกืคืง ืืชืขืจืืืช ืืืืืง ืืืื ืฉืืขืืืืช ืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืืง ืืช ืืฉืืืื ืืื ืกืืช ืฉืื. ืื ื ืืฆืืืื ืืื ืืฆืขืืช ืืืืืจืืช, ืืืืืืช ืืฆืืจื, ืืฆืืืื ืืช ืืฉืืืื ืืืืฆืขืื ืืื ืืคืชืืจ ืืช ืืชืจืืื. ืื ื ืืชื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืืื ืืคืชืืจ ืืช ืืชืจืืื ืืื ืืฆืืจื ื ืืื ื. ืืฉืืื ืืืงืืจืชืืช ืคืืชืื ืืืืื ืืืืช ืฉื ืคืชืจืื ืืขืืืช ืืืืคืื ืกืงืจื ืืช ืืืขืืช, ืขื ืืื ืขืืืื ืืชืืืืืื ืืืชื ืกืืช ืืกืืืื ืืขืฉืืช. ืืืืคืืง ืืืคืืช ืืฉืืื ืืืงืืจืชืืช ืขื ืืื ืขืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืชืืจ ืืืืจืืช ืืืกืงื ืืช. ืื ืื ื ืืืจืื ืื ืืืชื ืืฉืืื ืืืจืื ืืื "ืืชื ืืฉืชืืฉืื ืืื?" ืื "ืื ืฆืจืื ืืื ืืืคืื ืืช ืื ืืืืืื?". ืื ืื ื ืืขืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืฆืืจื ืืืืืช ืืฉืืื ืขืื, ืืืงืื ืืงืื ืืช ืืืืืื ืืคืฉืืื. ืื ื ืืคืชืืื ืืืืื ืืืืช ืฉื ืืฉืืื ืืืงืืจืชืืช ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืจืืขืช ืขืืืื ืืชืืื ืืืืื: ืคืืชืื ืืืืื ืืืืช ืฉื ืคืชืจืื ืืขืืืช ืคืชืจืื ืืขืืืช ื ืืฆื ืืืกืืก ืืืชืืืืงื. ืื ืืฉื ืืืฆื ืืื ืกืคืจื ืืืืืื ืืจืืื ืืขืืื, ืื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืคืชืจืื ืืขืืืช ืืื ืชืืืื ืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืฉืืฉื ื ืงื ืืง ืฉืืคืจืื ืืื ืืชืืจ ืืชืกืืื. ืืคืขืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืคืืง ืืชืืื ื ืืช ืืืืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืืืืื ืืืฉืช ืืืขืืืช ืืืฉืืช ืืืืฆืื ืืจืืื ืืืฉืืช ืืคืชืจืื ืืขืืืช, ืืืืืื ืืืฉืจ ืืื ืืืืืจืืชื ืืจืืจ. ืคืืชืื ืืืจืืืชืืืช ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืื ืืขืงืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืขืฆืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืชืคืชืืืช ืืขืฆืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืช ืฉืืื. ืืืืคืืง ืืกืคืงืช ืืืืืื ืกืืืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืขืืืืช ืฉืืื. ืื ืื ื ืืกืืืจืื ืืื ืืืฆื ืืคืชืืจ ืืช ืืฉืืืืืช ืฉืื ืืืจ ืฉืื ืืื ืฉืืืืื ืืจืืืช ืืืฆื ืืืืคื ืื ืืขื. ืืืืืืช ืขื ืงืืืืช ืืืชืืืืงื ืงืืืืช ืืืชืืืืงื ืขืฉืืื ืืืืจืืืช ืื ืืชืงืช ืืืืฆืืืืช ืืืืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืืื, ืืื ืื ืื ื ืจืืฆืื ืฉืืืืื ืืจืื ืืช ืืืืคื ืฉืืืชืืืืงื. ืืืืืคืืง ืืฆืจื ื ืกืืืื ืฉืื ืืืืื ืืจืืืฉืื ื ืื ืืฉืืื ืฉืืืืช, ืืืฆืข ืคืขืืืืช ืืืงืืช ืืืง ืืฉืื ืืชืืจืืื ืืืชืืืืงื. ืืกืืจืืืืืช ืืจืืืืช, ืคืชืจืื ืืช ืืจืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืชืืื, ืืืขืืืช ืืฉ ืืกืคืจ ืคืชืจืื ืืช, ืืื ืชืงืฃ ืื ืืืชืืืืงื. ืืืขืฉื, ืฉืืืืฉ ืืืกืคืจ ืืกืืจืืืืืช ืืื ืืื ืืืืคืืื ืื ืฉื ืืขืืืช ืืืจืืืืช. ืืืฉืจ ืื ื ืืฉืชืืฉืื ืืืกืคืจ ืืกืืจืืืืืช ืืคืชืจืื ืืช, ืื ืื ื ืืขืืืืื ืืฆืืจืชืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืชืืืืงื. ืืืืคืืง ืืฆืืื ืชืจืืืฉื ืืขืืืช ืขื ืืกืคืจ ืืจืืื ืืขื ืืช ืขื ืฉืืื, ืืืืคืฉืจืช ืืืืืื ืืืืืช ืชืืื ืืช ืืืฉืืช, ืืืกืืง ืืกืงื ืืช ืืฉืืื ืืืฉืคืจ ืืช ืืืืืืช ืฉืืื ืืืืื ืฉืืืืช ืืขืืืง. ืืงืฉืจ ืืฉืืขืืชื ืืขืืจืจ ืืืื ืืืชืืืืงื ืขื ืืื ืืฆืืช ืืขืืืช ืืืขืืื ืืืืืชื ืืชืจืืืฉืื ืืฆืืืืชืืื. ืืฉืื ื ืืืืืืื ืืชืืืืงื ืืืงืฉืจ ืืืชื ืื ืฉื ืจืื ืืฆืืืืชื ืืืืืื, ืื ืื ื ืืืคืฉืจืื ืืื ืืจืืืช ืืช ืืืฉืืืืช ืฉื ืืืฉืืื ืืชืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืืื ืฉืืื. ืืืืชื ืืืืช ืืื ืืืืืื ืฉืืื ืฉืืืืื ืืืืจืื ืืืชืจ ืืืืชืจ ืืืฉืืื ืืืคืฉืืื, ืื ืืืืจืช ืืื ืชืืืฉืช ืืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืฆื ืืืืฉืืื ืืืื ืืฉืชืืืื ืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืื. ืจืืืื ืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืงืคืื ืขื ืจืืืื ืืืืช ืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืฆืืจืช ืืขืืจืืืช ืืืืืืืฆืื ืืืืจื ืืื ืืืชืืืืงื. ืืจืื, ืืชืืืืงื ื ืชืคืกืช ืืืืฉื ืืืคืฉื, ืื ืคืจื ืืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืื. ืืืืืคืืง, ืื ื ืืฆืืืื ืขืืื ืฉืืขื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืคื ืืืืชื. ืืชืืื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืงืฉืืจ ืืกืจืืื ืฉืื ืฆืคื ืืื, ืืืฉืืงืื ืฉืื ืืฉืืงืื ืืื ืื ืืขืืื ืืกืืื ืืืชื. ืืกืืืื ืืืชืืืืช ืฉืื ื ืจืืืื ืืืช ืืืืื ืืจืืืืื ืฉืืื. ืื ืื ื ืื ืืืฆืจืื ืขืืืืืช ืืชืจืืืฉืื ืฉืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืฉืชืืฉ ืืืืืื ืืืืฉืืื ืืืฉืืงืืช ืฉืืื. ืื ืืืจื ืืื ืืฆืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืขืืื ืฉืื ืื ื ืื ืกืื ืืืฆืื. ืกืืืืืช ืืืชื ืืืืช ืืืช ืืืืจืืช ืฉืขืืืืืช ืืืืงื ืคืขืืืืืืช ืืืฉืืง ืฉื ืืืืคืืง ืืื ืืชืช ืชืืืฉืช ืืื ืืืืืฆืื ืืืืฉื ืืืชืืื. ืืืจื ืืืืื ืืืืชืจ ืืขืฉืืช ืืืช ืืื ืืกืืื ืขื ืืืื ืืืืืฆืืืช ืฉืืืจ ืงืืืืืช ืืืืืื. ืื ื ืขืืฉืื ืืืช ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืืืืช ืืฆืืืืชืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืืชืืื ืฉื ืืืืื. ืืชืจืืืฉืื ืฉืื ื ืชืืื ื ื ืืงืคืืื, ืื ืืืจื ืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืืืืื ืืืืื, ืืคืชื ืืืืืฉ ืจืขืืื ืืช ืืืฉืื ืืืืืื ืืฆืืื ืืฆืืืืชืืื. ืื ื ื ืื ืขืื ืืืฆืืช ืืฆืืื ืืืืืืชืืื ืฉืืื ืืืืืืืืช ืื ืืฉืงืคืืช ืืช ืืืืื ืืืืืชืืื, ืื ืฉืื ืืืฉื ื ืืืจ ืขื ืืืกืคืจ 6, ื ืฆืื ืฉืฉ ืืืฆืื ืืงืจืืื ืืื ืฉืฉ ืคืืจืืืช ืืืขืจ. ืืฉืื ืืืืชื ืฉืืืช ืืืฉืื ืืืกืืจืชืืช ืืืื ืื ืืื ืืื ืืืฆืื ื ืฉืืืืจ ืืืื "ืืขืืช", ืืื ืืชื ืืงืฉืจ ืืฉืืขืืชื ืคืืจืืฉื ืืกืคืง ืื ืืฉืื ืขื ืืงืฉืจ ืืืืชื. ืืืืืคืืง ืื ื ืืกืคืงืื ืืฉืื ืฉืืชืืื ืืกืืืื ืฉื ืืืขืื. ืืืฉืื ื ืืชื ืืฉืืจืืช ืืืืฉื ืืคืขืืืืช ืฉืืืื ืืืฆืข ืืืื ื ืืืฆื ืืืืืื ืืืฆืื ืืช. ืืืืื ืืืชืืืช ืืืฉืืช ืฉืืืืช ืฉืืชืืืืืช ืืช ืขืฆืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืื ืชืืืื ืืืฆืืื. ืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืจืืื ืืืืืืืืืช ืื, ืืื ืืงืฆื ืืืืื ืฉืื ื ืืขื ืืกืื ืื ืืช ืืืืื ืฉืื ืื. ืืฉืื ื ืืฆืืืื ืืช ืืฉืืื ืื ืืื ื ืืืื ืื ืืื ืื ืื ื ืืืืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืื ืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืกืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืื. ืืฉืื ื ืืกืคืงืื ืกืืืืช ืืืืื ืฉืื ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืงืืช ืืขืืืช ืขื ืืืืืื ืฉืืื, ืื ืื ื ืื ืจืง ืืืคืืื ืขืฆืืืืช ืืื ืื ืืืืืืื ืฉืื ืืื, ืืื ืืฉื ื ืืื ืฆืืจืื ืืืืืื ืฉืื, ืืืื ืืืฉืช ืืื ืฉืืื ืืืจื ืฉืืชืืืื ืืืืืืช ืฉืื. ืืกืืืื ืืืืื ืืืชืืืื ืืืฉืืช ืืคืขืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืคืืง ืชืืื ื ื ืืงืคืืื ืขื ืื ืช ืืืืืื ืฉืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืฉืืืื ืืงืฆื ืืืืจื ืฉืืื. ืคืืจืืฉ ืืืืจ ืฉืืื ืืืืืฆื ืืื ืืืืื ืืชืจืืื ืืืืืืื, ืืืช ืืื ืื ืื ืื ื ืืืงืฉืื ืืืชืืืืืื ืืชืจืื ืืืืื ืืช ืฉื ืฉืืืคื ืืืืจื. ืื ื ืืืคืฉืจืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืคืขืืืืช ืคืขืืื ืจืืืช ืืื ืฉืื ืจืืฆืื ืขื ืื ืช ืืฉืคืจ ืืช ืืฆืืื ืฉืืื. ืื ื ืืืืื ืื ืฉืืืืื ืืงืืงืื ืืืื ืืื ืฉืื ืืฉืืื ืืืื ืืืืืขืื, ืืืืฆืืื ืืืชืืจืื ืืขืืืืื ืืคื ืืื. ืฉืืฉืื ืืืืชื ืืืจืืื ืืช ืืฆืืื ืืืืชื ืจื-ืชืืืืืช ืืื ืงืฉื ืืคืืื ืื ืกืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืืืืจืื. ืืืืคืืง ืืกืคืงืช ืืกืคืจ ืืืื ืฉืื ืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืืคืื ืืกืืืืืช ืืฉืื ืืช ืืืืชื. ืืืืืช ืขืืืชืื: ืืืฉืจ ืืื ืืกืืืจ ืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืจ - ืฉื ืืื ืืคืืงืื ืืื ืชืืขืืช. ืืคืขืืื ืงืฉื ืื ื ืืืืืืจืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืงืืฉื ืฉื ืืืื ืื ืืืจ ืขืืจื ื ืืืื ืืช ืืืืฉืื ืืื, ืืื ืืืื ืืืจ ืฉืืชืืืจ ืืืืจืื ื ืขื ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืงื ืืืชืจ ืืืืืืืช, ืืืื ืืขืืืจ. ืืจืกืืืช ืฉื ืคืขืืืืืืช: ืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืฉืืง ืืืืชื ืืฉืืง ืื ืืจืืืช ืงืืฉื ืฉืื ืืช, ืืืชืื ืืืชืงืืืืช ืฉืืื. ืคืขืืืืืืช ืืืฉืืง ื ืจืืืช ืืืชื ืืืจ, ืืืืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืจืืช ืืงืืฉื ืฉืืื. ืื ืืืฆืืืช ืืืจืกืืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืฉื ืืืชื ืคืขืืืืช, ืืืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืฉืืื ืืจืกืืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืืืืืื ืฉืื ืื. ืืขืฉืจื: ืื ื ืืกืคืงืื ืืืืืช, ืืฉืืงื ืืฉืืื ืืืื ืกืคืืจ ืืฉืืงืื ืฉืืขืืจืชื ืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืืื ืืืชืจืื ืืื ืฉืืจืฆื. ืคืขืืืืืืช ืืขืฉืจื ืืื ืืืคืฉืจืืช ืืืืืื ืืชืงืืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืชืจืื ืืชืืืืงื ืืจืื ืืชืงืืืช ืืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืคืขืจืื ืืกืคืจื ืืืืืื. ืชืืื ืืืืื ืืืฆื ืชืืืืื: ืืืืื ืืชืขื ืืื ืื ืื ืืฉืืื ืฉืื ืื, ืืื ืื ื ืจืืฆืื ืืขืืจืจ ืืช ืืกืงืจื ืืช ืฉืืื. ืืคืขืืืืืืช ืืจืืืืช ืื ื ืืฉืืืื ืชืืื ื ืืกืฃ ืืกืคืจื ืืืืืื ืืฉืื ืื ืืฆืืจื ืืฉืขืฉืขืช ืฉืืืจืืช ืืืืืื ืืืชืขื ืืื ืืืืืืช ืืขืืจืืืช. ืืฉืื ืืจืืืื ืืืชืืืื ืืืฉืืช ืืฉืื ืืื ืืืง ืืืืชื ืืืืชื ื ืคืจื ืืชืืืื ืืืืืื, ืื ืืฉืื ืฉืืืื ืืืืข ืืืขื ืืื ืื ืจื ืืื ืื ืืขืืืจ ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืขื ืื ืืืฆื ืืคืชืืจ ืืช ืืืขืื. ืืืืืคืืง, ืื ืื ื ืืฉืชืืฉืื ืืชืฉืืืืช ืฉื ืืืื ืืื ืืชืช ืื ืืฉืื ืืืขืื ืืืืชืื ืืืฉืืช, ืฉืืชืืืืก ืืชืฉืืื ืืืืืชืืช ืฉื ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืชืขืจืืืช ืืืืืง ืืืื. ืืขืืจืืืช ืืชืื ืืืืืืฆืื ืคื ืืืืช ืกืืืื ืืฉืืงืืช ืฉืชืืื ื ื ืืงืคืืื ืืืขืืืืช ืืชืืื ืืืืคืืช ืืืื ืืืชืืืืงื. ืคืืชืื ืืืืืืืฆืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืช ืขื ืืื ืืืืชื ืืืชืืืืงื ืืื ืืืื ื ืืื ืืืช ืืกืืืืช ืืืชืืืืงื ืืื ืืืืื. ืืืืืคืืง, ืื ืื ื ืืืชืืจืื ืืช ืขืฆืื ื ืืืฆืืจ ืชืืื ืืฉืขืฉืข ืืืื ื. ืืคืฉืจ ืืืืจ ืฉืืืจืื ืฉื 'ืืืืคืืง' ืืื ืืงืื ืฉืืืืื ื ืื ืื ืืืืืช ืื. ืืืืืืืช ืืขื ืืื ืืช, ืืืฆืืื ืืจืชืงืื ืืืชืจืืืืื ื ืืืฉืื, ืื ืฉืืืืืื ืจืืฆืื ืืืืฉืื ืืฉืืง ืืื ืืืืืข ืืกืืฃ ืืกืืคืืจ. ืืื ืขื ืืืช, ืื ืื ื ืืงืคืืืื ืชืืื ืฉืืืืืืช ืืืฉืชืืฉ ืืืจืชืงืช ืืื ืื ืชืืคืื ืขื ืืืืืื. ืืืคืืืช ืืช ืชืืืฉืช ืืืจืื ืืืฉืจ ืืฉ ืจืง ืชืฉืืื ืืืช, ืื ืืจืืจ ืืืืืืื ืื ืืชืฉืืื ืฉืืืื. ืื, ืืื ืขื ืชืจืืืช ืฉืื ืืืฉืืื ืืงืืฉืจ ืืืื ืืืืื ืฆืื ื ืืืื, ืืืจื ืืชืืืฉืช ืืจืื ืืืืืื; ืฉืืืืฉื ืืืจืืช ืืื ืืืืื ืข ืืืืืืื ืืชืืืืงื ืืืืชืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืชืจ. ืชืืืฉืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืืืืื ืืื ืงืจืืืืช ืืืืืื, ืืืืืคืืง ืื ื ืืฉืชืืฉืื ืืกืืืื ืืฉืืงืืช ืืื ืืกืคืง ืกืืืื ืืืงืืจื ืืืืืื, ืชืื ืืคืืชืช ืืืจืื. ืืขืืจืจ ืกืงืจื ืืช ืืืืคื ืืชืืื ืืืคืื ืกืืืื ืฉืื ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืฉ ืืช ืืฆืจ ืืกืงืจื ืืช ืืืขืืจืจ ืืช ืืืืืช ืืืชืืื ืฉืืื ืืื ืืืง ืืฉืื ืืืืืืช ืกืืืื ืืื ืืืืช ืืืคืืช. ืื ื ืขืืฉืื ืืืช ืืื ืฉืื ืื ื ื ืืชื ืื ืืืืืื ืืืื ืจืื ืฉื ืฉืืืื ืขื ืืืชืงืืืืช ืฉืืื, ืืืืคืฉืจืื ืืื ืืืงืืจ, ืืืืืื ืื ืืขืฉืืช ืืืืฆื ืืืชืงืื ืืืืืืช ืขืฆืื. ืื ื ืืืืืื ืื ืฉืืคืขืืืืืืช ืฉืื ื ืืืื ืืืชืืจืืช, ืื ืืขื ืืื ืืช. ืื ืื ื ืืกืคืงืื ืืืืื ืืคืฉืจืืืืช ืืชืฉืืืืช ืืืขืืืืื ืืืืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืกืืื ืืช ืืืฉืืื. ืืชืช ืืงืื ืืืืฉืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืืขืืชืืช ืืชืจืืฉืช ืจืง ืืจื ืืชืืืืืืช ืืขืืื, ืฉืืืืืื ืื ื ื ืืฆืืื ืืคื ื ืืชืืจ, ื ืืฉืืื ืืกืคืจ ืคืขืืื ืืืืืจ ืืื ืืชืืืจืื ืขืืื. ืืืืืคืืง, ืื ื ืืฉืชืืฉืื ืืืืืืืื ืฉื ืกืืืื ืืฉืืงืืช ืืื ืืืืืื ืฉืืืืื ืื ืืคืืื ืืืืืฉื. ืืืืืง ืืื ืืืฉืืงืื ืฉืืื, ืืืฉืืื ืืื ืืืง ืืชืืืื ืืืชืืืจืืช ืืืืชืงืืืืช ืชืื ืืื ืคืชืจืื ืืืขืืืช. ืืฉืืืืืื ืืฉืชืืฉืื ืืืืืคืืง ืื ืจืืืื ืฉืืฉืืืืืช ืืืจ ืื ืืืืืช ืืืื, ืืื ืื ืืืง ืืชืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืขื. ืืืฆืืช ืืช ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืืืฉืื ืืขืืจืืืช ืืชืื ืืืืืืฆืื ืคื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืขื ืืงื ืื ื ืื ืื ืืจืื ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืฉืคืจ ืืช ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืช ืื ืืจืืืช ืืกืคืงืื ืืืกืืจืืื ืืฆืืขืื ืจืง ืืคื ืขืืืื ืืืืืืืืื. ืืืืืคืืง, ืื ืื ื ืืืฆืื ืืช ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืืกืคืง ืืืคื ืขืืจื ืืืืื, ืืขืืืืช ืืืจืืืืืืืช ืืกืืืืืช ืืื ืืจืืงืืืืืืช. ืืืืื ืืชืื ืขืฉืืื ืืฆืืืื ืฉื ืงืื ืคืืฆืืืก, "ืื ื ืฉืืืข ืืื ื ืฉืืื, ืื ื ืจืืื ืืื ื ืืืืจ, ืื ื ืขืืฉื ืืื ื ืืืื" ืืืฉืื ืืืืืช ื ืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืืจืื ืืืืืจื ืืช. ืืืงืจืื ืืจืืื ืฉืืืืื ืืขืฉืืช ืืคืขืืื ืืขืืื ืืจืื ืืืชืจ ืืืืืื ืคืกืืืืช. ืืืืืคืืง, ืื ืื ื ืืกืคืงืื ืชืจืืืฉืื ืฉื ืืขืืืช ืขื ืจืืืืื ืืื ืืจืืงืืืืืื ืฉืืืคืฉืจืื ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืขืฆืื, ืืืงืืืื ืจืืขืื ืืืคืืืื ืฉื ืืื ื ืขืืืงื. ืื ืฉืื ื ืืฆืืขืื ืคืขืืืืืืช ืืชืืืืืช ืืืฆืจ ืืืืข ื ืืกืฃ ืืืจื |
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[SOURCE: https://www.matific.com/isr/he/home/pedagogy/principles/#Conceptual-Understanding] | [TOKENS: 9782] |
ืชืคืจืื ื ืืืฉืืช ืืขืฆืืื ืืช ืืืชืชืื ืขื ืืืืื ืืชืืืืช ืืจืชืงืช ืืืืืกืกืช ืจืืืืช ืชืืื ืืืกืข ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืขืืจืช ืืชืืืืงื ืืื ืืจืืงืืืืืช ืืืื ื ืืืืช ืฉืชืคื ืคืขืืื ืขื ืืืืคืืง ืืื ืืฉืคืจ ืืช ืชืืฆืืืช ืืืืืื ืืื ืจืื ืืฉืืื ืืคืืืืืืช ืฉื 'ืืืืคืืง' ืืืืื ืฉื 'ืืืืคืืง' ืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืื ื ืืืืื ืืชืืืืงื ืืกืืืื ืืืืืืชืืช ืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืืืชืจ. ืืื ืืืฉืื ืืืช, ืื ื ืืฆืืืื ืืช ืืขืงืจืื ืืช ืืคืืืืืืื ืฉืื ื ืืืจืื. ืืคืืืคืืจืื ืืืืกืกืช ืขื ืคืืืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืฉืืคืชืืช ืืื ื ืขืืืงื ืฉื ืขืงืจืื ืืช ืืชืืืืื. ืืืฉืช ืืขืงืจืื ืืช ืืคืืืืืืื ืฉืื ื, ืฉืคืืชืื ืขื ืืื ืืืืขืฆื ืืืงืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืคืืง, ืืืืืื: ืืื ื ืืืฉืืืช ืคืืชืื ืืื ื ืฉื ืืื ื ืืืกืื ืฉื ืืืชืืืืงื, ืืืืฉืื ืืืืข ืืขืืจ ืืืื ืืงืืช ืื ืืกืืืืช. ืืื ื ืืืฉืืืช ืืื ืงืืฉืืจ ืจืืืืื ื ืคืจืืื ืฉื ืืืข ืืชืืื ืืืื ืืื ื ืืืืืช ืฉื ื ืืฉื ืืกืืื. ืขื ืงืฆื ืืืืื, ืื ืืืื ื ืฉื ืืกืืืืช ืฉืขืืืืืช ืืืืืจื ืืชืฉืืื. ืื ื ืืชืืงืืื ืืคืืชืื ืืื ื ืืืฉืืืช ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืืฉื ืขืงืจืื ืืช. ืืชืงืืืืช ืืืืืฉื ืืืืคืฉื ืืชืืืืงื ืืื ืขืืื ืฉื ืืืฉืืื ืืืคืฉืืื, ืื ืืื ืืคืชื ืืื ื ืืืฉืืืช ืืืืชืืช ืืขืืืงื ืืื ืจืง ืืคืขืื ืืคื ืืืืืจืืชืืื, ืื ืื ื ืฆืจืืืื ืืขืืืจ ืืช ืื ืจืืืช ืืืคืฉืื, ืืื ืืืืืืฉื ืืืืชืจ ืืืืคืฉื ืืืืชืจ. ืคืขืืืืืืช ืืืฉืืง ืฉื ืืืืคืืง ืื ืืืืช ืืืืคื ืฉืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืื ืืืกืืื ืืืืืืฉื ืืืืชืจ ืืืืฆืืืื ืืชืืืืื ืืืคืฉืืื, ืืจื ืฉืืืื ืืืจืืชืืื ืืขืืจืช ืกืืืื ืืขื ืืกืืื ืฉืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืคืชืืจ ืชืจืืื ืื ืืืืฆืื ืืืืคืฉื ืฉืื. ืืชืงืืืืช ืื ืืืืืื ืฉืืืืืื ืื ืจืง ืืฉื ื ืื ืชืืืื ืืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืื ืืช ืืฉืืขืืชื. ืืฆืืจื ืืืืืืืื ืืจืืืื ืืฉืืืืืื ืืืฉื ืืชืืื, ืืืืืื ืืืฉืชืืฉ ืืืืืืืื ืืจืืืื ืืื ืืคืชื ืืื ื ืืฉืืขืืชืืช. ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืืืืื ืืจืืืื ืื ืื ื ืขืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืชืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืช ืืืืื ืืืชืืื ืฉื ืืขืืืช ืื ืืืืจืืช ืฉืืืฆืืืช ืืคื ืืื. ืืืืื ืกืคืืจืืืช ืืื ืืช ืืืกืืืืช ืืขืชืื ืื ื ืฉืืื ืืืฉ ืจื ืขื ืื ืืช ืืืกืืืืช ืืขืชืื ืืคื ื ืฉืื ืืืืืื ืืคืืจืืื. ืื ื ืื ืกืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืคืฉืจืืช ืืืฆืื ืืืชืจ ืืจืืืฆืืืช ืืื ืืืืืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืฉื ืืชืืื ืืื ืืขืืืจ ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืฉืื. ืื ืืืืง ืืช ืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืื, ืขืืืจ ืืืืืื ืืืืช ืฉื ืคืชืจืื ืืขืืืช ืืืกืืืข ืืืชืืืืืืช ืขื ืชืืืฉืช ืืืจืื ืืืชืืืืงื. ืืฆืืจืช ืงืฉืจืื ืืื ื ืืฉืืื ืฉืื ืื ืกืคืจื ืืืืืื ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืืืืืื ืืืชืืืืงื ืืืืงืื ืืช ืืืืจ ืืืืืื ืืืืกืฃ ืฉื ืืืืื ืืืืช. ืกืืืื ืื ืฉื ื ืืฉืืื ืขืืืจ ืื ื ืืคืชื ืืชืงืืืืช ืืืืื, ืืื ืื ืื ื ืืขืืื ืื ืฉืืืืื ืฉืื ืืฉืืื ืืื ื ืขืืืืื ืืคื ื ืขืฆืื ืืื ืงืฉืืจืื ืื ืืื. ืืืืืคืืง, ืื ืื ื ืืฉืชืืฉืื ืืงืืฉืืจืืืช ืืืืืืช ืฉืืื ืื ืืฉืืื ืืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืคืชื ืืื ื ืืืฉืืืช, ืืฉืื ืืืืื ืื ืจืง ืืช ื"ืื", ืืื ืื ืืช ื"ืืื", "ืืชื" ื"ืืื". ืืฉืื ืืขืื ืืืื ืคืืจืืืืื ืืืืคืืง ืืฉืชืืฉืช ืืจืฆืฃ ืฉื ืชืฉืืืืช ืฉืืืืืช ืืฉืืืฉื ืฉืืืื ืืื ืืกืคืง ืืชืขืจืืืช ืืืืืง ืืืื ืฉืืขืืืืช ืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืืง ืืช ืืฉืืืื ืืื ืกืืช ืฉืื. ืื ื ืืฆืืืื ืืื ืืฆืขืืช ืืืืืจืืช, ืืืืืืช ืืฆืืจื, ืืฆืืืื ืืช ืืฉืืืื ืืืืฆืขืื ืืื ืืคืชืืจ ืืช ืืชืจืืื. ืื ื ืืชื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืืื ืืคืชืืจ ืืช ืืชืจืืื ืืื ืืฆืืจื ื ืืื ื. ืืฉืืื ืืืงืืจืชืืช ืคืืชืื ืืืืื ืืืืช ืฉื ืคืชืจืื ืืขืืืช ืืืืคืื ืกืงืจื ืืช ืืืขืืช, ืขื ืืื ืขืืืื ืืชืืืืืื ืืืชื ืกืืช ืืกืืืื ืืขืฉืืช. ืืืืคืืง ืืืคืืช ืืฉืืื ืืืงืืจืชืืช ืขื ืืื ืขืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืชืืจ ืืืืจืืช ืืืกืงื ืืช. ืื ืื ื ืืืจืื ืื ืืืชื ืืฉืืื ืืืจืื ืืื "ืืชื ืืฉืชืืฉืื ืืื?" ืื "ืื ืฆืจืื ืืื ืืืคืื ืืช ืื ืืืืืื?". ืื ืื ื ืืขืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืฆืืจื ืืืืืช ืืฉืืื ืขืื, ืืืงืื ืืงืื ืืช ืืืืืื ืืคืฉืืื. ืื ื ืืคืชืืื ืืืืื ืืืืช ืฉื ืืฉืืื ืืืงืืจืชืืช ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืจืืขืช ืขืืืื ืืชืืื ืืืืื: ืคืืชืื ืืืืื ืืืืช ืฉื ืคืชืจืื ืืขืืืช ืคืชืจืื ืืขืืืช ื ืืฆื ืืืกืืก ืืืชืืืืงื. ืื ืืฉื ืืืฆื ืืื ืกืคืจื ืืืืืื ืืจืืื ืืขืืื, ืื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืคืชืจืื ืืขืืืช ืืื ืชืืืื ืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืฉืืฉื ื ืงื ืืง ืฉืืคืจืื ืืื ืืชืืจ ืืชืกืืื. ืืคืขืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืคืืง ืืชืืื ื ืืช ืืืืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืืืืื ืืืฉืช ืืืขืืืช ืืืฉืืช ืืืืฆืื ืืจืืื ืืืฉืืช ืืคืชืจืื ืืขืืืช, ืืืืืื ืืืฉืจ ืืื ืืืืืจืืชื ืืจืืจ. ืคืืชืื ืืืจืืืชืืืช ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืื ืืขืงืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืขืฆืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืชืคืชืืืช ืืขืฆืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืช ืฉืืื. ืืืืคืืง ืืกืคืงืช ืืืืืื ืกืืืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืขืืืืช ืฉืืื. ืื ืื ื ืืกืืืจืื ืืื ืืืฆื ืืคืชืืจ ืืช ืืฉืืืืืช ืฉืื ืืืจ ืฉืื ืืื ืฉืืืืื ืืจืืืช ืืืฆื ืืืืคื ืื ืืขื. ืืืืืืช ืขื ืงืืืืช ืืืชืืืืงื ืงืืืืช ืืืชืืืืงื ืขืฉืืื ืืืืจืืืช ืื ืืชืงืช ืืืืฆืืืืช ืืืืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืืื, ืืื ืื ืื ื ืจืืฆืื ืฉืืืืื ืืจืื ืืช ืืืืคื ืฉืืืชืืืืงื. ืืืืืคืืง ืืฆืจื ื ืกืืืื ืฉืื ืืืืื ืืจืืืฉืื ื ืื ืืฉืืื ืฉืืืืช, ืืืฆืข ืคืขืืืืช ืืืงืืช ืืืง ืืฉืื ืืชืืจืืื ืืืชืืืืงื. ืืกืืจืืืืืช ืืจืืืืช, ืคืชืจืื ืืช ืืจืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืชืืื, ืืืขืืืช ืืฉ ืืกืคืจ ืคืชืจืื ืืช, ืืื ืชืงืฃ ืื ืืืชืืืืงื. ืืืขืฉื, ืฉืืืืฉ ืืืกืคืจ ืืกืืจืืืืืช ืืื ืืื ืืืืคืืื ืื ืฉื ืืขืืืช ืืืจืืืืช. ืืืฉืจ ืื ื ืืฉืชืืฉืื ืืืกืคืจ ืืกืืจืืืืืช ืืคืชืจืื ืืช, ืื ืื ื ืืขืืืืื ืืฆืืจืชืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืชืืืืงื. ืืืืคืืง ืืฆืืื ืชืจืืืฉื ืืขืืืช ืขื ืืกืคืจ ืืจืืื ืืขื ืืช ืขื ืฉืืื, ืืืืคืฉืจืช ืืืืืื ืืืืืช ืชืืื ืืช ืืืฉืืช, ืืืกืืง ืืกืงื ืืช ืืฉืืื ืืืฉืคืจ ืืช ืืืืืืช ืฉืืื ืืืืื ืฉืืืืช ืืขืืืง. ืืงืฉืจ ืืฉืืขืืชื ืืขืืจืจ ืืืื ืืืชืืืืงื ืขื ืืื ืืฆืืช ืืขืืืช ืืืขืืื ืืืืืชื ืืชืจืืืฉืื ืืฆืืืืชืืื. ืืฉืื ื ืืืืืืื ืืชืืืืงื ืืืงืฉืจ ืืืชื ืื ืฉื ืจืื ืืฆืืืืชื ืืืืืื, ืื ืื ื ืืืคืฉืจืื ืืื ืืจืืืช ืืช ืืืฉืืืืช ืฉื ืืืฉืืื ืืชืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืืื ืฉืืื. ืืืืชื ืืืืช ืืื ืืืืืื ืฉืืื ืฉืืืืื ืืืืจืื ืืืชืจ ืืืืชืจ ืืืฉืืื ืืืคืฉืืื, ืื ืืืืจืช ืืื ืชืืืฉืช ืืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืฆื ืืืืฉืืื ืืืื ืืฉืชืืืื ืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืื. ืจืืืื ืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืงืคืื ืขื ืจืืืื ืืืืช ืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืฆืืจืช ืืขืืจืืืช ืืืืืืืฆืื ืืืืจื ืืื ืืืชืืืืงื. ืืจืื, ืืชืืืืงื ื ืชืคืกืช ืืืืฉื ืืืคืฉื, ืื ืคืจื ืืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืื. ืืืืืคืืง, ืื ื ืืฆืืืื ืขืืื ืฉืืขื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืคื ืืืืชื. ืืชืืื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืงืฉืืจ ืืกืจืืื ืฉืื ืฆืคื ืืื, ืืืฉืืงืื ืฉืื ืืฉืืงืื ืืื ืื ืืขืืื ืืกืืื ืืืชื. ืืกืืืื ืืืชืืืืช ืฉืื ื ืจืืืื ืืืช ืืืืื ืืจืืืืื ืฉืืื. ืื ืื ื ืื ืืืฆืจืื ืขืืืืืช ืืชืจืืืฉืื ืฉืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืฉืชืืฉ ืืืืืื ืืืืฉืืื ืืืฉืืงืืช ืฉืืื. ืื ืืืจื ืืื ืืฆืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืขืืื ืฉืื ืื ื ืื ืกืื ืืืฆืื. ืกืืืืืช ืืืชื ืืืืช ืืืช ืืืืจืืช ืฉืขืืืืืช ืืืืงื ืคืขืืืืืืช ืืืฉืืง ืฉื ืืืืคืืง ืืื ืืชืช ืชืืืฉืช ืืื ืืืืืฆืื ืืืืฉื ืืืชืืื. ืืืจื ืืืืื ืืืืชืจ ืืขืฉืืช ืืืช ืืื ืืกืืื ืขื ืืืื ืืืืืฆืืืช ืฉืืืจ ืงืืืืืช ืืืืืื. ืื ื ืขืืฉืื ืืืช ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืืืืช ืืฆืืืืชืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืืชืืื ืฉื ืืืืื. ืืชืจืืืฉืื ืฉืื ื ืชืืื ื ื ืืงืคืืื, ืื ืืืจื ืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืืืืื ืืืืื, ืืคืชื ืืืืืฉ ืจืขืืื ืืช ืืืฉืื ืืืืืื ืืฆืืื ืืฆืืืืชืืื. ืื ื ื ืื ืขืื ืืืฆืืช ืืฆืืื ืืืืืืชืืื ืฉืืื ืืืืืืืืช ืื ืืฉืงืคืืช ืืช ืืืืื ืืืืืชืืื, ืื ืฉืื ืืืฉื ื ืืืจ ืขื ืืืกืคืจ 6, ื ืฆืื ืฉืฉ ืืืฆืื ืืงืจืืื ืืื ืฉืฉ ืคืืจืืืช ืืืขืจ. ืืฉืื ืืืืชื ืฉืืืช ืืืฉืื ืืืกืืจืชืืช ืืืื ืื ืืื ืืื ืืืฆืื ื ืฉืืืืจ ืืืื "ืืขืืช", ืืื ืืชื ืืงืฉืจ ืืฉืืขืืชื ืคืืจืืฉื ืืกืคืง ืื ืืฉืื ืขื ืืงืฉืจ ืืืืชื. ืืืืืคืืง ืื ื ืืกืคืงืื ืืฉืื ืฉืืชืืื ืืกืืืื ืฉื ืืืขืื. ืืืฉืื ื ืืชื ืืฉืืจืืช ืืืืฉื ืืคืขืืืืช ืฉืืืื ืืืฆืข ืืืื ื ืืืฆื ืืืืืื ืืืฆืื ืืช. ืืืืื ืืืชืืืช ืืืฉืืช ืฉืืืืช ืฉืืชืืืืืช ืืช ืขืฆืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืื ืชืืืื ืืืฆืืื. ืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืจืืื ืืืืืืืืืช ืื, ืืื ืืงืฆื ืืืืื ืฉืื ื ืืขื ืืกืื ืื ืืช ืืืืื ืฉืื ืื. ืืฉืื ื ืืฆืืืื ืืช ืืฉืืื ืื ืืื ื ืืืื ืื ืืื ืื ืื ื ืืืืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืื ืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืกืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืื. ืืฉืื ื ืืกืคืงืื ืกืืืืช ืืืืื ืฉืื ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืงืืช ืืขืืืช ืขื ืืืืืื ืฉืืื, ืื ืื ื ืื ืจืง ืืืคืืื ืขืฆืืืืช ืืื ืื ืืืืืืื ืฉืื ืืื, ืืื ืืฉื ื ืืื ืฆืืจืื ืืืืืื ืฉืื, ืืืื ืืืฉืช ืืื ืฉืืื ืืืจื ืฉืืชืืืื ืืืืืืช ืฉืื. ืืกืืืื ืืืืื ืืืชืืืื ืืืฉืืช ืืคืขืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืคืืง ืชืืื ื ื ืืงืคืืื ืขื ืื ืช ืืืืืื ืฉืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืฉืืืื ืืงืฆื ืืืืจื ืฉืืื. ืคืืจืืฉ ืืืืจ ืฉืืื ืืืืืฆื ืืื ืืืืื ืืชืจืืื ืืืืืืื, ืืืช ืืื ืื ืื ืื ื ืืืงืฉืื ืืืชืืืืืื ืืชืจืื ืืืืื ืืช ืฉื ืฉืืืคื ืืืืจื. ืื ื ืืืคืฉืจืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืคืขืืืืช ืคืขืืื ืจืืืช ืืื ืฉืื ืจืืฆืื ืขื ืื ืช ืืฉืคืจ ืืช ืืฆืืื ืฉืืื. ืื ื ืืืืื ืื ืฉืืืืื ืืงืืงืื ืืืื ืืื ืฉืื ืืฉืืื ืืืื ืืืืืขืื, ืืืืฆืืื ืืืชืืจืื ืืขืืืืื ืืคื ืืื. ืฉืืฉืื ืืืืชื ืืืจืืื ืืช ืืฆืืื ืืืืชื ืจื-ืชืืืืืช ืืื ืงืฉื ืืคืืื ืื ืกืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืืืืจืื. ืืืืคืืง ืืกืคืงืช ืืกืคืจ ืืืื ืฉืื ืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืืคืื ืืกืืืืืช ืืฉืื ืืช ืืืืชื. ืืืืืช ืขืืืชืื: ืืืฉืจ ืืื ืืกืืืจ ืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืจ - ืฉื ืืื ืืคืืงืื ืืื ืชืืขืืช. ืืคืขืืื ืงืฉื ืื ื ืืืืืืจืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืงืืฉื ืฉื ืืืื ืื ืืืจ ืขืืจื ื ืืืื ืืช ืืืืฉืื ืืื, ืืื ืืืื ืืืจ ืฉืืชืืืจ ืืืืจืื ื ืขื ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืงื ืืืชืจ ืืืืืืืช, ืืืื ืืขืืืจ. ืืจืกืืืช ืฉื ืคืขืืืืืืช: ืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืฉืืง ืืืืชื ืืฉืืง ืื ืืจืืืช ืงืืฉื ืฉืื ืืช, ืืืชืื ืืืชืงืืืืช ืฉืืื. ืคืขืืืืืืช ืืืฉืืง ื ืจืืืช ืืืชื ืืืจ, ืืืืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืจืืช ืืงืืฉื ืฉืืื. ืื ืืืฆืืืช ืืืจืกืืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืฉื ืืืชื ืคืขืืืืช, ืืืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืฉืืื ืืจืกืืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืืืืืื ืฉืื ืื. ืืขืฉืจื: ืื ื ืืกืคืงืื ืืืืืช, ืืฉืืงื ืืฉืืื ืืืื ืกืคืืจ ืืฉืืงืื ืฉืืขืืจืชื ืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืืื ืืืชืจืื ืืื ืฉืืจืฆื. ืคืขืืืืืืช ืืขืฉืจื ืืื ืืืคืฉืจืืช ืืืืืื ืืชืงืืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืชืจืื ืืชืืืืงื ืืจืื ืืชืงืืืช ืืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืคืขืจืื ืืกืคืจื ืืืืืื. ืชืืื ืืืืื ืืืฆื ืชืืืืื: ืืืืื ืืชืขื ืืื ืื ืื ืืฉืืื ืฉืื ืื, ืืื ืื ื ืจืืฆืื ืืขืืจืจ ืืช ืืกืงืจื ืืช ืฉืืื. ืืคืขืืืืืืช ืืจืืืืช ืื ื ืืฉืืืื ืชืืื ื ืืกืฃ ืืกืคืจื ืืืืืื ืืฉืื ืื ืืฆืืจื ืืฉืขืฉืขืช ืฉืืืจืืช ืืืืืื ืืืชืขื ืืื ืืืืืืช ืืขืืจืืืช. ืืฉืื ืืจืืืื ืืืชืืืื ืืืฉืืช ืืฉืื ืืื ืืืง ืืืืชื ืืืืชื ื ืคืจื ืืชืืืื ืืืืืื, ืื ืืฉืื ืฉืืืื ืืืืข ืืืขื ืืื ืื ืจื ืืื ืื ืืขืืืจ ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืขื ืื ืืืฆื ืืคืชืืจ ืืช ืืืขืื. ืืืืืคืืง, ืื ืื ื ืืฉืชืืฉืื ืืชืฉืืืืช ืฉื ืืืื ืืื ืืชืช ืื ืืฉืื ืืืขืื ืืืืชืื ืืืฉืืช, ืฉืืชืืืืก ืืชืฉืืื ืืืืืชืืช ืฉื ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืชืขืจืืืช ืืืืืง ืืืื. ืืขืืจืืืช ืืชืื ืืืืืืฆืื ืคื ืืืืช ืกืืืื ืืฉืืงืืช ืฉืชืืื ื ื ืืงืคืืื ืืืขืืืืช ืืชืืื ืืืืคืืช ืืืื ืืืชืืืืงื. ืคืืชืื ืืืืืืืฆืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืช ืขื ืืื ืืืืชื ืืืชืืืืงื ืืื ืืืื ื ืืื ืืืช ืืกืืืืช ืืืชืืืืงื ืืื ืืืืื. ืืืืืคืืง, ืื ืื ื ืืืชืืจืื ืืช ืขืฆืื ื ืืืฆืืจ ืชืืื ืืฉืขืฉืข ืืืื ื. ืืคืฉืจ ืืืืจ ืฉืืืจืื ืฉื 'ืืืืคืืง' ืืื ืืงืื ืฉืืืืื ื ืื ืื ืืืืืช ืื. ืืืืืืืช ืืขื ืืื ืืช, ืืืฆืืื ืืจืชืงืื ืืืชืจืืืืื ื ืืืฉืื, ืื ืฉืืืืืื ืจืืฆืื ืืืืฉืื ืืฉืืง ืืื ืืืืืข ืืกืืฃ ืืกืืคืืจ. ืืื ืขื ืืืช, ืื ืื ื ืืงืคืืืื ืชืืื ืฉืืืืืืช ืืืฉืชืืฉ ืืืจืชืงืช ืืื ืื ืชืืคืื ืขื ืืืืืื. ืืืคืืืช ืืช ืชืืืฉืช ืืืจืื ืืืฉืจ ืืฉ ืจืง ืชืฉืืื ืืืช, ืื ืืจืืจ ืืืืืืื ืื ืืชืฉืืื ืฉืืืื. ืื, ืืื ืขื ืชืจืืืช ืฉืื ืืืฉืืื ืืงืืฉืจ ืืืื ืืืืื ืฆืื ื ืืืื, ืืืจื ืืชืืืฉืช ืืจืื ืืืืืื; ืฉืืืืฉื ืืืจืืช ืืื ืืืืื ืข ืืืืืืื ืืชืืืืงื ืืืืชืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืชืจ. ืชืืืฉืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืืืืื ืืื ืงืจืืืืช ืืืืืื, ืืืืืคืืง ืื ื ืืฉืชืืฉืื ืืกืืืื ืืฉืืงืืช ืืื ืืกืคืง ืกืืืื ืืืงืืจื ืืืืืื, ืชืื ืืคืืชืช ืืืจืื. ืืขืืจืจ ืกืงืจื ืืช ืืืืคื ืืชืืื ืืืคืื ืกืืืื ืฉืื ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืฉ ืืช ืืฆืจ ืืกืงืจื ืืช ืืืขืืจืจ ืืช ืืืืืช ืืืชืืื ืฉืืื ืืื ืืืง ืืฉืื ืืืืืืช ืกืืืื ืืื ืืืืช ืืืคืืช. ืื ื ืขืืฉืื ืืืช ืืื ืฉืื ืื ื ื ืืชื ืื ืืืืืื ืืืื ืจืื ืฉื ืฉืืืื ืขื ืืืชืงืืืืช ืฉืืื, ืืืืคืฉืจืื ืืื ืืืงืืจ, ืืืืืื ืื ืืขืฉืืช ืืืืฆื ืืืชืงืื ืืืืืืช ืขืฆืื. ืื ื ืืืืืื ืื ืฉืืคืขืืืืืืช ืฉืื ื ืืืื ืืืชืืจืืช, ืื ืืขื ืืื ืืช. ืื ืื ื ืืกืคืงืื ืืืืื ืืคืฉืจืืืืช ืืชืฉืืืืช ืืืขืืืืื ืืืืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืกืืื ืืช ืืืฉืืื. ืืชืช ืืงืื ืืืืฉืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืืขืืชืืช ืืชืจืืฉืช ืจืง ืืจื ืืชืืืืืืช ืืขืืื, ืฉืืืืืื ืื ื ื ืืฆืืื ืืคื ื ืืชืืจ, ื ืืฉืืื ืืกืคืจ ืคืขืืื ืืืืืจ ืืื ืืชืืืจืื ืขืืื. ืืืืืคืืง, ืื ื ืืฉืชืืฉืื ืืืืืืืื ืฉื ืกืืืื ืืฉืืงืืช ืืื ืืืืืื ืฉืืืืื ืื ืืคืืื ืืืืืฉื. ืืืืืง ืืื ืืืฉืืงืื ืฉืืื, ืืืฉืืื ืืื ืืืง ืืชืืืื ืืืชืืืจืืช ืืืืชืงืืืืช ืชืื ืืื ืคืชืจืื ืืืขืืืช. ืืฉืืืืืื ืืฉืชืืฉืื ืืืืืคืืง ืื ืจืืืื ืฉืืฉืืืืืช ืืืจ ืื ืืืืืช ืืืื, ืืื ืื ืืืง ืืชืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืขื. ืืืฆืืช ืืช ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืืืฉืื ืืขืืจืืืช ืืชืื ืืืืืืฆืื ืคื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืขื ืืงื ืื ื ืื ืื ืืจืื ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืฉืคืจ ืืช ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืช ืื ืืจืืืช ืืกืคืงืื ืืืกืืจืืื ืืฆืืขืื ืจืง ืืคื ืขืืืื ืืืืืืืืื. ืืืืืคืืง, ืื ืื ื ืืืฆืื ืืช ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืืกืคืง ืืืคื ืขืืจื ืืืืื, ืืขืืืืช ืืืจืืืืืืืช ืืกืืืืืช ืืื ืืจืืงืืืืืืช. ืืืืื ืืชืื ืขืฉืืื ืืฆืืืื ืฉื ืงืื ืคืืฆืืืก, "ืื ื ืฉืืืข ืืื ื ืฉืืื, ืื ื ืจืืื ืืื ื ืืืืจ, ืื ื ืขืืฉื ืืื ื ืืืื" ืืืฉืื ืืืืืช ื ืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืืจืื ืืืืืจื ืืช. ืืืงืจืื ืืจืืื ืฉืืืืื ืืขืฉืืช ืืคืขืืื ืืขืืื ืืจืื ืืืชืจ ืืืืืื ืคืกืืืืช. ืืืืืคืืง, ืื ืื ื ืืกืคืงืื ืชืจืืืฉืื ืฉื ืืขืืืช ืขื ืจืืืืื ืืื ืืจืืงืืืืืื ืฉืืืคืฉืจืื ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืขืฆืื, ืืืงืืืื ืจืืขืื ืืืคืืืื ืฉื ืืื ื ืขืืืงื. ืื ืฉืื ื ืืฆืืขืื ืคืขืืืืืืช ืืชืืืืืช ืืืฆืจ ืืืืข ื ืืกืฃ ืืืจื |
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