text stringlengths 1 22.8M |
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```python
from chapter_04.binary_search_tree import BinarySearchTree
from chapter_04.binary_tree import BinaryTree
def is_binary_search_tree(tree):
return _is_bst(tree.root)
def _is_bst(node, min_val=None, max_val=None):
if not node:
return True
if (min_val and node.key < min_val) or (max_val and node.key >= max_val):
return False
return _is_bst(node.left, min_val, node.key) and _is_bst(
node.right, node.key, max_val
)
def test_is_binary_search_tree():
bst = BinarySearchTree()
bst.insert(20)
bst.insert(9)
bst.insert(25)
bst.insert(5)
bst.insert(12)
bst.insert(11)
bst.insert(14)
t = BinaryTree()
n1 = t.insert(5, None)
n2 = t.insert(4, n1)
n3 = t.insert(6, n1)
n4 = t.insert(3, n2)
t.insert(6, n2)
t.insert(5, n3)
t.insert(2, n4)
assert not is_binary_search_tree(t)
assert is_binary_search_tree(bst)
``` |
The Chamber of Labour (German: Kammer für Arbeiter und Angestellte, shortform Arbeiterkammer or AK), is an organisation that represents the interests of 3 million Austrian employees and consumers. Membership is compulsory for all employees working in Austria, and it is thus not to be confused with Austrian labour unions, where membership is voluntary and which are organized in an umbrella organisation, the ÖGB. Together, the ÖGB and the Arbeiterkammer represent the interests of employees in the Austrian system of Sozialpartnerschaft ("Social Partnership"), which plays a major role in the regulation of wages and prices.
The Austrian Chamber of Labour is based on the nine Chambers of labour for each federal state in Austria. The president of the Chamber of Labour for Vienna is also the president of the Austrian Chamber of Labour.
The Chamber of Labour was founded in 1920 after the collapse of the Austrian-Hungarian monarchy. During 1934 and 1938 the Chamber of Labour were integrated into the fascist unitary trade union centres. In 1938 they were liquidated by the National Socialists.
One of the main projects of the Chamber of Labour is the creation of the work climate index (Arbeitsklima Index), which was established in 1997 and till today (2010) includes about 42,000 interviews of workers in Austria.
References
External links
Chamber of Labour
Labor in Austria
Workers' rights organizations
Consumer rights organizations
Political organisations based in Austria
Trade unions established in 1920 |
Asplundia brunneistigma is a species of largely terrestrial plant (although sometimes shortly climbing) belonging to the family Cyclanthaceae. It has a long stem up to 2 (exceptionally 3) m long bearing petioles up to 40 cm long terminating in shallowly bifid leaves up to 75 cm long.
This plant is found in primary rainforest habitats from Costa Rica to Panama.
References
New Species of Cyclanthaceae from southern Central America and northern South America
brunneistigma
Plants described in 2003 |
Prolepsis may refer to:
Prolepsis (rhetoric), a figure of speech in which the speaker raises an objection and then immediately answers it
Prolepsis (literary), anticipating action, a flash forward, see Foreshadowing
Cataphora, using an expression or word that co-refers with a later expression in the discourse
Flashforward, in storytelling, an interjected scene that represent events in the future
Prolepsis, one of the three criteria of truth in Epicureanism
Prolepsis (fly), a genus of robber flies
Prolepsis (album), by Arrogance
See also
Déjà vu, the experience of feeling sure that one has already witnessed or experienced a current situation
Paralipsis, providing full details or drawing attention to something while pretending to pass it over
Proleptic (disambiguation)
pt:Prolepse |
wake is the second album released from the band emmet swimming. This album was released twice; first as an independent release and later as an Epic Records release. The 1994 Screaming Goddess Music release differs from the Epic Records re-release of wake. The 1994 release included the song "I Believe" and has a varied track sequence. The song "Boones Farm Wine" is re-titled "I'll Be Fine" on the Epic Records re-release of wake. The 1995 Epic Records release added the songs "Jump In The Water" and "Ed's Song." The song "Broken Oar" also differs with a new production of the song.
Track listing (1994 Screaming Goddess release)
Track listing (1995 Epic release)
Awards
Personnel
Todd Watts - Vocals, Guitar
Erik Wenberg - Guitar, backing vocals
Robert Shaw - Bass
Tamer Eid - Drums
Marco Delmar - Engineer
Steve Boyer (1995 Epic Release Tracks 1,3 and 8) - Engineer
David Amoroso - Cover Art/Photography
References
Emmet Swimming albums
1994 albums
1995 albums |
Nimanburru is an extinct Western Nyulnyulan language formerly spoken on the eastern shore of the Dampier Peninsula in the north-west of Australia. Archival records exist in the Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies and some of the material in Hermann Nekes and Ernest Ailred Worms' Australian Languages is from the language.
References
Nyulnyulan languages |
Touré Kunda is a Senegalese band, noted for their musical versatility and political activism. Their 40-year career encompasses recordings in over six languages and collaborations with well-known musicians such as Carlos Santana and Talking Heads. They have had considerable success in Africa and Europe and are active in social causes such as children's rights and advocates for the homeless.
Biography
Born twenty-two days apart in 1950 in Ziguinchor in Casamance, Senegal, Ismaïla and Sixu Tidiane Touré were introduced to music by their elder brother Amadou, a singer and musician.
They moved to Paris, France, in 1979 to complete their musical education. They worked their way up in the Parisian scene. The group sings in Soninké, Wolof, Fula, Mandingo, Diola, and Portuguese creole, reflecting the multilingual mixture of the people of Casamance.
Their first album, Ismaïla do Sixu, was released in 1979. It was followed by É'mma Africa in 1980 and Touré Kunda in 1981. In 1985, following the death of their brother and mentor Amadou, Ismael and Sixu Tidiane toured throughout Africa.
Upon returning to France, they found considerable success and critical acclaim among the French music press. In 1992, they were invited to play for Nelson Mandela at the Courtyard of Human Rights.
In 1999, their album Légendes, a retrospective of their 20-year career, was released. Shortly thereafter, they participated in Carlos Santana's album Supernatural and toured with him. A greatest hits album, Best Of, was released in 2006. Another album, Santhiaba, came out in 2008.
Ismaïla and Sixu Tidiane Touré are members of the sponsoring committee of the United Nations' Decade for the Promotion of a Culture of Peace and Non-Violence for the Children of the World.
On 27 February 2023, Ismaïla died in Paris, France, at the age of 73.
Discography
1980: É'mma Africa
1981: Touré Kunda
1983: Amadou Tilo
1984: Casamance au clair de lune (Toure Kunda - distribution: Wagram Music)
1984: Paris Ziguinchor (Live) (Toure Kunda - distribution: Wagram Music)
1985: Natalia
1986: Toubab Bi (Toure Kunda - distribution: Wagram Music)
1987: Best of Touré Kunda (Toure Kunda - distribution: Wagram Music)
1988: Karadindi
1990: Salam
1991: Sounké (Live)
1992: Sili Beto
1996: Mouslai (Toure Kunda - distribution: Wagram Music)
1996: The Touré Kunda Collection (Putumayo World Music)
1999: Légende (Compilation, Sony)
2000: Terra Saabi (Toure Kunda - distribution: Wagram Music)
2008: Santhiaba (Toure Kunda - distribution: Wagram Music)
2018: Lambi Golo
See also
Music of Senegal
References
Bibliography
Nathalie Steinberg, Touré Kunda, Paris, Encre, 1985
External links
Official site
Biography at RFI Musique
Senegalese musical groups
Family musical groups |
Weißenbrunn is a municipality in the district of Kronach in Bavaria in Germany.
References
Kronach (district) |
Parvimolge is a genus of salamanders in the family Plethodontidae, the lungless salamanders. It is currently considered as monotypic, although this may yet change as molecular data suggest that it is embedded within a paraphyletic Pseudoeurycea. Parvimolge townsendi is endemic to the northern Sierra Madre de Oaxaca in central and southern Veracruz, Mexico, between 900 and 1900 meters elevation. It is represented by the species Parvimolge townsendi, commonly known as Townsend's dwarf salamander.
Habitat and conservation
Natural habitats of Parvimolge townsendi are cloud and oak forests. They are usually found living in bromeliads or on the ground. They are somewhat adaptable and can survive in shaded coffee plantations as long as humidity levels are maintained.
Parvimolge townsendi has never been common, but it has undergone significant population declines. It has only been observed once since 1997, despite efforts to locate it. It is threatened by habitat loss, but more information on the reasons for the decline of this species is needed.
Parvimolge townsendi was once considered abundant, however Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, a chytrid fungus, infected this species' geographic range about 40 years ago, devastating many amphibian populations, including Townsend's dwarf salamander (Sandoval-Comte, 2012). The IUCN has even labeled this species as 'possibly extinct,' under geographic range because it has only been spotted once since 1997. However, surveys throughout the 2010s found it to be present in most areas, and even moderately abundant in some places.
References
External links
AmphibiaWeb: Information on amphibian biology and conservation. 2008. Berkeley, California: Parvimolge. AmphibiaWeb, available at http://amphibiaweb.org/. (Accessed: August 1, 2008).
Plethodontidae
Amphibians described in 1922
Endemic amphibians of Mexico
Fauna of the Sierra Madre de Oaxaca
Taxa named by Emmett Reid Dunn
Taxonomy articles created by Polbot
Monotypic amphibian genera |
Pectinivalva scotodes is a moth of the family Nepticulidae. It is found in New South Wales and southern Queensland.
The wingspan is 5.2–5.7 mm for males and 5.0–5.2 mm for females. In males, the thorax and forewings are entirely blackish brown with a row of long blackish androconial scales projecting from the dorsum. The hindwings are rather broad, dark brown and have a small narrow androconial pocket basally. Females have a paler thorax and forewings. These are yellowish, overlain more or less extensively with brownish fuscous scales. The hindwings are grey and narrower than in males.
The larvae feed on Eucalyptus pilularis, Eucalyptus carnea, Eucalyptus acmenoides and probably Eucalyptus saligna. They mine the leaves of their host plant. The mine starts as a tight spiral around the egg, causing a raised red-brown spot on the leaf. It later broadens into a more or less contorted linear gallery with black frass, leaving narrow clear margins. The exit-hole is located on the leaf underside and has the form of a crescentic hole. Several mines may be found in a single leaf. Pupation takes place in a reddish-brown cocoon.
Etymology
The specific name is derived from the Greek skotodes (meaning either dark or dizzy) and refers to both the blackish coloration of the adult male moth, and to the habit of the young larvae, which mine in tight circles.
References
Moths described in 2013
Moths of Australia
Nepticulidae |
The National Shrine and Church of Our Lady of the Sacred Heart is a Roman Catholic church in Randwick, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. It is heritage-listed.
History and description
The church is situated in Avoca Street, Randwick, adjacent to the commercial centre of the area. It was designed by Sheerin and Hennessy in a Gothic Revival style and built in 1888. It consists predominantly of brick with sandstone trimmings, with a spire on its southern side. Inside, there is a trussed timber roof and a stained-glass window behind the altar. A Gothic-style octagonal chapel and shrine are located near the altar.
The church is listed on the local government heritage register. The sandstone building next door, known as Ventnor, is owned and used by the church. It was built in 1870 and was the home of George Kiss, Mayor of Randwick. It also is listed on the local government heritage register.
Work
Our Lady of the Sacred Heart Parish, Randwick, St. Margaret Mary’s Parish, Randwick North, are Catholic parishes under the care of the Missionaries of the Sacred Heart and share a common heritage and administration in the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Sydney. The parishes are located within a busy urban centre and include two regional Catholic high schools, two parish primary schools, a large public teaching hospital complex, a major university and aged care facilities.
Gallery
See also
Roman Catholicism in Australia
References
External links
Official site
Randwick
Randwick, New South Wales
Roman Catholic churches completed in 1888
1888 establishments in Australia
Gothic Revival architecture in Sydney
Randwick
Gothic Revival church buildings in Australia
19th-century Roman Catholic church buildings in Australia |
William Borough (1536–1599) was a British naval officer who was Comptroller of the Navy and the younger brother of Stephen Borough. He participated in the British attack on Cádiz in 1587. He was responsible for the drawing of several early maps including one of Russia.
Early life
Borough was born at Borough House, Northam Burrows, Northam, Devon, and his childhood experiences of voyages were those accompanying his older brother Stephen Borough and their uncle John Borough. In 1580 Borough was appointed Comptroller of the Navy, which post he shared initially with William Holstocke. In June 1583 he took ten pirate ships into custody and ensured that all ten masters were hanged at Wapping. In 1587 he sailed with Sir Francis Drake and was indicted for mutiny and cowardice but later acquitted and given command of the galley Bonavolia.
Family
In 1571 he married Judith Jones; they had one son and one daughter. He later married Lady Jane Wentworth.
Works
A Discourse of the Variation of the Cumpas or Magneticall Needle (1581) – Internet Archive (bound with New Attractive by Robert Norman)
References
External links
16th-century Royal Navy personnel
1536 births
1599 deaths
William
Military personnel from Devon
Royal Navy officers |
Catherine Holland (1637 – 6 January 1720) was an English Roman Catholic convert, a nun, and an autobiographer.
Life
Holland was born in 1637 to Sir John Holland and Lady Holland (nee Lady Alathea Sandys). She had four sisters and six brothers .The family seat was Quidenham Hall in Norfolk. Her mother had been married before to William Sandys, fourth Baron Sandys. Holland was a Catholic Welsh heiress while her father was a Protestant who had been knighted in 1629. He became a member of parliament in 1640 for Castle Rising in Norfolk.
Holland was born in England but lived in Bergen op Zoom from 1641-1652, along with other members of her family.
Her father was asked by his fellow members of parliament to get rid of any Catholic members in his household. He objected to this request, knowing that his wife was Catholic and pointed out that people were entitled to follow the Catholic faith in England. Although he allowed Lady Holland freedom of religion, he made every effort to raise his children as Protestants of the Church of England. He made Catherine copy sermons and learn catechisms. If she failed to do said tasks, she would be punished . She later wrote that she knew that Catholics believed that suicide was a grave sin and it was for this reason that she endured her fathers harsh treatment.
Her education changed in 1652 when the Holland family moved to Bruges and her father went back to England. During this time she attended Catholic masses in secret.
By 1660 the Hollands had returned to England and Sir John began serving on the new Council of State, in order to bring about the restoratoion of the monarchy. To the displeasure of her father, Holland's attraction to Catholicism became stronger during this time and she began corrosponding in secret with Mary Bedingfield, the prioress at the English Augustinian convent in Bruges , in 1661. Bedingfield offered Holland help to leave England and, in 1662 she wrote a letter each to her mother and father, left them on a table in her room and crept out of their home in London in the early morning. She then met an accomplice at a pre arranged place and they travelled to Dover together. Because what she was doing was illegal she gave a false name to the border officials.
Mary Bedingfield was prioress at the English Augustinian convent in Bruges in 1661 and it was she who offered to assist Holland to leave England. She sent someone to accompany her from England to the convent.
Holland's journey was successful and she became choir a nun on 3 September 1664 in Bruges at the English convent of Nazareth. Less than two weeks later she completed her auto-biography,"'How I came to change my religion" ,which she dedicated to her fellow nuns and marked her conversion to Roman Catholicism from Anglicanism. Holland's time at the convent was spent writing. She was said to have translated several books and lives of saints from French and Dutch into English.
Death and legacy
Holland died in Bruges in 1720. Over two hundred years later a fellow Nazareth nun, Catherine Sidney Durrant, published How I came to change my religion within her book Link Between Flemish Mystics and English Martyrs.
References
1637 births
1720 deaths
Nuns of the Austrian Netherlands
17th-century English Roman Catholic nuns
18th-century English Roman Catholic nuns
Converts to Roman Catholicism from Anglicanism
Nuns from the Spanish Netherlands |
Skorpa prisoner of war camp () was a facility built by the Norwegian 6th Division to hold German prisoners of war during the 1940 Norwegian Campaign of the Second World War. Skorpa was the main PoW camp in Northern Norway and held around 500 civilian and military prisoners when it was shut down at the end of the Norwegian Campaign.
Background
With the outbreak of war between Norway and Nazi Germany following the German invasion of Norway increasing numbers of German prisoners fell into Norwegian hands in the fighting that followed. While many of these were soon liberated by the advancing German forces, the situation for those captured in Northern Norway was different. The Germans fighting at Narvik were on the defensive against superior Norwegian and Allied forces. Prisoners taken during the fighting were sent behind Allied lines, outside the reach of the Wehrmacht. After having first interned the German prisoners at various locations around the region the decision was made by the Norwegian 6th Division command to establish a central prisoner of war camp at the small and isolated island of Skorpa in Kvænangen in Troms county. Access to the island was by boat. The nearest Norwegian armed forces other than the guard force were 10 to 12 hours away from the camp.
Construction
When the first prisoners were sent to the camp they had to live in tents designed for 16 occupants each. By May the construction of wooden barracks had begun, with the prisoners providing the labour force under the guidance of civilian Norwegian craftsmen. Around 100 prisoners were at any time taking part in construction work, much of this outside the barbed wire. The construction was overseen by a second lieutenant of the Norwegian Army engineers. The barracks were meant to provide proper accommodation for the prisoners in the next winter.
Camp population
All Germans captured in Northern Norway were supposed to be gathered at Skorpa, the main Norwegian PoW camp in the region. Amongst the inmates at the camp were military personnel belonging to all three services of the German Wehrmacht; the Heer, the Kriegsmarine and the Luftwaffe. In addition to the military prisoners there were also civilians from trawlers and merchant vessels sunk or captured off the Northern Norwegian coast. In all some 500 Germans were imprisoned at Skorpa. Because of the lack of an internment camp for civilian Germans the sailors were placed as an interim measure in the same camp as the military captives.
The senior German prisoner held at the camp was Fregattenkapitän Alfred Schulze-Hinrichs, who had been captured after his destroyer, the Erich Koellner, was sunk on 13 April during the naval battles off Narvik. Along with 154 other prisoners he had first been sent to an internment camp at Vardøhus Fortress in Finnmark on the 1,382 ton Norwegian steamship Nova. After having been held at Vardøhus from 24 April to 13 May, the 155 Germans were shipped to Skorpa, again on the Nova. On the way to Skorpa another 25 prisoners were picked up at the western Finnmark port of Hammerfest. The prisoner transport from Finnmark to Skorpa was escorted by the patrol boat Ingrid – a captured German trawler operated by the Royal Norwegian Navy. Prisoners kept arriving at the camp until early June 1940; Germans that had been captured at the front-line near Narvik, shot-down pilots, and prisoners taken by the remaining pockets of Norwegian resistance on the coast of southern Helgeland and smuggled past German lines to Skorpa. Eight of the German airmen at the camp had been captured when two German Heinkel He 115s ran out of fuel on the return from an aborted mission to Narvik on 13 April 1940, landing at Ørnes and Brønnøysund respectively. The crews, led by Leutnant zur See Joachim Vogler and Oberleutnant zur See Bärner, were captured by local Norwegian militia forces and the aircraft transferred intact to the Royal Norwegian Navy Air Service.
The prisoners were guarded by 80 Norwegian soldiers, 45 of whom belonged to the Varanger Battalion from eastern Finnmark while the remaining 35 were troops that had escaped the collapse of the fighting in the southern parts of Norway and made their way to Northern Norway by way of neutral Sweden. Command of the camp had been transferred to Captain Rei Sandberg by the commander of the Norwegian armed forces in Finnmark, Edvard Os, after disturbances had broken out in the inmate population. During the camp's existence two prisoners died. One merchant navy sailor was killed by a stray warning shot during a disturbance in the camp, and Oberleutnant Hans Hattenbach (the pilot of Oberleutnant zur See Bärner's He 115) was shot on 6 June by a Finnish volunteer soldier when he approached the camp fence and failed to heed orders from a guard to stop. Hattenbach was buried with full military honours in the presence of 30 prisoners and a 14-strong Norwegian military honour guard.
Dissolution
On 5 June 1940, Captain Rei Sandberg, the commander of Skorpa prisoner of war camp from early May 1940, received a call from the district military command asking how many airmen were held at the camp. At that time the number was 40, however later that day another 51 prisoners arrived at the camp, 19 of whom were airmen. Thus, when the order came in the late evening to transfer the 40 airmen to Harstad for interrogation at the British headquarters in Norway there were 59 Luftwaffe personnel at Skorpa. District Command concluded that it was best to send the requested 40 prisoners, rather than to send all 59. The 40 sent from Skorpa were the highest ranking of the 59, including all the pilots. None of these prisoners ever reached Harstad, instead being embarked on Allied ships and taken to the United Kingdom as the Allies evacuated Northern Norway only days later. Shortly after the departure of the Luftwaffe prisoners orders came through for the southern Norwegian soldiers guarding the camp to be transferred for front service against the Germans. Before any of the soldiers could leave Skorpa, however, word reached the camp at 0130hrs on 8 June of the forthcoming capitulation of the Norwegian mainland.
Many of the Norwegian guards left Skorpa prisoner of war camp on 10 June 1940, being sent to Altagård army camp in Alta on two fishing boats. The German prisoners were told of the capitulation, released and transported from the camp under the leadership of Schulze-Hinrichs in the late evening of 12 June, on the Norwegian steamships Barøy and Tanahorn. The released prisoners were first sent to the port city of Tromsø for bathing and delousing. Tromsø was not occupied by German forces until two days later, on 14 June. The last guards, belonging to the Varanger Battalion, left the camp on 15 June, with the commander and administrative officers departing on 19 June.
Aftermath
Following the release of the German prisoners from the camp many of the Norwegian guards made their way over the mountains to Sweden to escape the German occupation of Norway. Captain Sandberg was arrested by the Gestapo in Trondheim on 28 June 1940, accused of mistreating the prisoners while in charge of Skorpa, but was released on 5 August 1940.
References
Bibliography
Buildings and structures in Troms og Finnmark
Norwegian campaign
World War II prisoner-of-war camps in Norway
1940 establishments in Norway
History of Troms og Finnmark |
The 1953–54 season was the 44th season of competitive football in Germany.
National teams
West Germany national football team
1954 FIFA World Cup qualification
Group 1
1954 FIFA World Cup
Final
Friendly matches
League season
Oberliga Nord
The 1953–54 season saw two new clubs in the league, Eintracht Braunschweig and Victoria Hamburg, both promoted from the Amateurliga.
Oberliga Berlin
The 1953–54 season saw two new clubs in the league, Kickers 1900 Berlin and Hertha Zehlendorf, both promoted from the Amateurliga Berlin.
Oberliga West
The 1953–54 season saw two new clubs in the league, Rheydter SV and VfL Bochum, both promoted from the 2. Oberliga West.
Oberliga Südwest
The 1953–54 season saw two new clubs in the league, ASV Landau and VfR Frankenthal, both promoted from the 2. Oberliga Südwest.
Oberliga Süd
The 1953–54 season saw two new clubs in the league, Jahn Regensburg and KSV Hessen Kassel, both promoted from the 2. Oberliga Süd.
German championship
The 1954 German football championship was contested by the six qualified Oberliga teams and won by Hannover 96, defeating 1. FC Kaiserslautern in the final. The six clubs played single round of matches at neutral grounds in two groups of three. The two group winners then advanced to the final.
Group 1
Group 2
Final
DFB–Pokal
The 1953–54 DFB-Pokal consisted eight teams competing in three rounds of a knockout tournament. VfB Stuttgart became champions by defeating 1. FC Köln 1–0 in the final.
Sources
Seasons in German football |
Cvitan Galić (29 November 1909 – 6 April 1944) was a Croatian World War II fighter ace.
Born in the village of Gorica near Grude, in present-day Bosnia and Herzegovina, Galić finished grade school in the town of Sovići. In 1927 he joined the Royal Yugoslav Air Force completing pilot training with 7. Vazduhoplovni Puk (VP - aviation regiment) at Mostar on 1 November 1930.
During the German-led invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941, Galić serving with the Mostar-based III. PS. The following month, Galić flew to Sinj where he joined the newly formed Air Force of the Independent State of Croatia. He joined the Croatian Air Force Legion and went to Fürth near Nürnberg for special training before going to the Eastern Front as part of 15 (kroat.)/JG 52, a Croat staffel attached to Jagdgeschwader 52 of the Luftwaffe. Flying a Bf 109E-4, he scored his first victory on 2 March 1942, a R-10 shot down over Magnitovka.
By June 1943 Galić had scored 38 confirmed air victories and had completed 2 tours with the Croatian Air Force Legion. He was awarded the German Cross in Gold on 23 June 1943. From Germany he also received the Iron Cross 1st Class and 2nd Class. He received the Ante Pavelić Award for Bravery which gave him the title of vitez (knight).
He was killed by strafing Spitfire IXs of No.2 Squadron SAAF South African Air Force on 6 April 1944 at Zalužani airfield near Banja Luka when a bomb hit his Morane-Saulnier M.S.406. He had just moments earlier landed after completing a patrol and was in the act of leaving the cockpit when the attack occurred. He was buried at Mirogoj Cemetery, but his grave was destroyed by the Yugoslav Partisans in 1945.
In 439 sorties Galić claimed a DB-3, Pe-2, Spitfire and R-10, two MDR 6 flying boats, five Il-2s, four MiG-ls, four I-153s, five I-16s, five MiG-3s and nine LaGG-3s.
References
Savic, D. and Ciglic, B. Croatian Aces of World War II Osprey Aircraft of the Aces - 49, Oxford, 2002 .
1909 births
1944 deaths
People from Grude
Recipients of the Gold German Cross
Recipients of the Medal of Poglavnik Ante Pavelić for Bravery
Royal Yugoslav Army personnel
Croatian Home Guard personnel
Croatian World War II pilots
Croatian military personnel killed in World War II
Deaths by airstrike during World War II |
Back in Action is an upcoming American action comedy film directed by Seth Gordon from a screenplay he co-wrote with Brendan O'Brien, and starring Jamie Foxx, Cameron Diaz, Kyle Chandler, and Glenn Close. The film is set to be distributed by the streaming service Netflix.
Cast
Jamie Foxx
Cameron Diaz
Glenn Close
Kyle Chandler
Andrew Scott
Jamie Demetriou
McKenna Roberts
Rylan Jackson
Production
In June 2022, it was reported that Cameron Diaz was coming out of retirement for a Seth Gordon and Brendan O'Brien penned action comedy entitled Back in Action, also set to star Jamie Foxx. Beau Bauman was revealed to be producing for Good One Productions with Seth Gordon producing for Exhibit A and Foxx, Datari Turner, O'Brien and Mark McNair executive producing. In August 2022, Foxx spoke about persuading Diaz out of retirement to make her first film since 2014, telling Entertainment Tonight that "Cameron is such an incredible force and she has done so much in this business" and that he asked her "'Do you wanna have some fun? Just have some fun!' And I think that's what brought her to it...we're so happy that it's happening and looking forward to it".
In November 2022, Glenn Close and Kyle Chandler were added to the cast. In February 2023, Andrew Scott, McKenna Roberts, Rylan Jackson and Jamie Demetriou joined the cast.
Filming
Principal photography took place in London from December 2, 2022 to March 9, 2023. In late February 2023, Diaz shot scenes at the River Thames. Filming began in Atlanta on March 27 and wrapped in late April. In mid-April, while Foxx was hospitalized for a medical emergency, body doubles were used in place of him on set to film the remaining scenes.
References
External links
Upcoming films
American action comedy films
Chernin Entertainment films
English-language Netflix original films
Films directed by Seth Gordon
Films produced by Peter Chernin
Films shot in Atlanta
Films shot in London
Upcoming English-language films
Upcoming Netflix original films |
Calliotropis eltanini is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Eucyclidae.
Description
The length of the shell reaches 14.1 mm.
Distribution
This species occurs off the South Shetland Islands at a depth of 900 m.
References
Engl W. (2012) Shells of Antarctica. Hackenheim: Conchbooks. 402 pp.
External links
eltanini
Gastropods described in 1990 |
Srimastha is a Village Development Committee in Humla District in the Karnali Zone of north-western Nepal. At the time of the 1991 Nepal census it had a population of 915.
References
External links
UN map of the municipalities of Dolpa District
Populated places in Humla District |
Bernard Bosson (25 February 1948 – 16 May 2017) was a French politician and lawyer. He served as Minister of Transport, Minister of Tourism, and Minister of Public Works under Prime Minister Édouard Balladur from 1993 to 1995. He was a member of the 12th French National Assembly, representing Haute-Savoie as a member of the Union for French Democracy. He was also the mayor of Annecy. Bosson died in hospital in Lyon, France on 16 May 2017.
Early life
Bosson was born in Annecy, France to Charles Bosson, former Mayor of Annecy, centrist deputy and senator.
He has degrees in labor law and public law.
References
External links
Official website
1948 births
2017 deaths
People from Annecy
Union for French Democracy politicians
Centre of Social Democrats politicians
The Centrists politicians
Transport ministers of France
Deputies of the 8th National Assembly of the French Fifth Republic
Deputies of the 9th National Assembly of the French Fifth Republic
Deputies of the 10th National Assembly of the French Fifth Republic
Deputies of the 11th National Assembly of the French Fifth Republic
Deputies of the 12th National Assembly of the French Fifth Republic
Members of Parliament for Haute-Savoie
Regional councillors of France
French general councillors
Mayors of places in Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes
20th-century French lawyers
Deaths from cancer in France |
Emerald Air was an airline headquartered in Austin, Texas, United States. Founded by William Ford and Richard Martel It was formerly known as Emerald Valley Airlines. Emerald Airlines' brief history is marked by arrangements to feed connecting flights into both passenger airlines (such as Continental Airlines and Pan Am) and cargo airlines (such as Purolator Courier) much larger route systems. The airline also independently operated scheduled passenger flights within the state of Texas during the mid-1980s with Douglas DC-9-10 jet and Fairchild Hiller FH-227 turboprop aircraft and briefly served Oklahoma City, Oklahoma and later Wichita, Kansas and Omaha, Nebraska as well.
Operations for Purolator Courier
Emerald began operating scheduled cargo flights, which fed Purolator Courier's Columbus, Ohio hub, in October 1978.
Operations for Pan American World Airways (Pan Am)
In June 1981, the airline began scheduled Douglas DC-9-10 jet service as well as Fairchild Hiller FH-227 turboprop service to feed Pan American World Airways (Pan Am) flights at Houston Intercontinental Airport (IAH) via a code sharing agreement. Emerald was promoted in print advertising by the carriers as 'Emerald the Pan Am Express.' and operated flights on behalf of Pan Am between Houston and Austin, Corpus Christi, McAllen and San Antonio in Texas.
Operations for Continental Airlines
For a brief time in the mid-1980s, Emerald Air operated a connecting jet shuttle service on behalf of Continental Airlines between Houston Intercontinental Airport (IAH) and Houston Hobby Airport (HOU), which was called the 'Houston Proud Express.' Unlike the Pan Am operations in which Pan Am markings and aircraft livery were not used, Emerald painted its aircraft to mimic those of Continental Airlines' then present orange colors and scheme. This "cross-town" service in Houston was operated with Douglas DC-9-10 jet aircraft via a code sharing agreement.
Independent operations
Emerald Air also independently operated scheduled passenger flights primarily within the state of Texas and also briefly to Kansas, Nebraska and Oklahoma during the early and mid-1980s. According to an Emerald Air route map dated July 15, 1982 as well as the airline's system timetables dated March 15, 1984 and September 15, 1984, the following cities were served:
Austin, TX (AUS)
Corpus Christi, TX (CRP)
Dallas/Fort Worth, TX (DFW)
Houston, TX - Hobby Airport (HOU) and Intercontinental Airport (IAH)
McAllen, TX (MFE)
Oklahoma City, OK (OKC)
Omaha, NE (OMA)
San Antonio, TX (SAT)
Wichita, KS (ICT)
According to its March 15, 1984 timetable, Emerald Air was flying nonstop service on the following routes: Austin-Houston, Corpus Christi-Dallas/Ft. Worth, Corpus Christi-Houston, Corpus Christi-McAllen, Dallas/Ft. Worth-McAllen, Houston-McAllen, Houston-San Antonio and McAllen-San Antonio. These flights were operated with Douglas DC-9-10 jet and Fairchild Hiller FH-227 turboprop aircraft. Emerald was an intrastate airline in Texas at this time as it was no longer serving Oklahoma City.
In September 1984, Emerald Air then extended its scheduled passenger service north from Dallas/Ft. Worth with a DC-9 jet flight nonstop to Wichita, KS (ICT) with continuing same plane service to Omaha, NE (OMA).
According to the October 1, 1989 edition of the Official Airline Guide (OAG), Emerald Air was operating nonstop DC-9 jet service between Newport News (PHF) and Orlando (MCO) twice a week.
Bankruptcy and acquisition by Bia Cor Holdings Inc.
By 1985, Emerald ceased operations primarily in Texas and filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy. In 1991, BIA-COR Holdings Inc., acquired Emerald Air's FAA and DOT operating certificate, along with Emerald's three Douglas DC-9-14 aircraft; and renamed the carrier Braniff International Airlines, Inc., before promptly going out of business. Parts of Emerald thus became the third and final resurrection of the Braniff name.
Fleet
Emerald Air operated a small fleet of the following jet and turboprop aircraft types:
Douglas DC-9-14
Fairchild Hiller FH-227
See also
List of defunct airlines of the United States
References
Defunct airlines of the United States
Airlines established in 1978
Airlines disestablished in 1991
Companies based in Austin, Texas
Defunct companies based in Texas
1978 establishments in Ohio |
In philosophy, rationalism is the epistemological view that "regards reason as the chief source and test of knowledge" or "any view appealing to reason as a source of knowledge or justification", often in contrast to other possible sources of knowledge such as faith, tradition, or sensory experience. More formally, rationalism is defined as a methodology or a theory "in which the criterion of truth is not sensory but intellectual and deductive".
In a major philosophical debate during the Enlightenment, rationalism (sometimes here equated with innatism) was opposed to empiricism. On the one hand, the rationalists emphasized that knowledge is primarily in-born and the intellect, the inner faculty of the human mind, can therefore directly grasp or derive logical truths; on the other hand, the empiricists emphasized that knowledge is not primarily in-born and is best gained by careful observation of the physical world outside the mind, namely through sensory experiences. Rationalists asserted that certain principles exist in logic, mathematics, ethics, and metaphysics that are so fundamentally true that denying them causes one to fall into contradiction. The rationalists had such a high confidence in reason that empirical proof and physical evidence were regarded as unnecessary to ascertain certain truthsin other words, "there are significant ways in which our concepts and knowledge are gained independently of sense experience".
Different degrees of emphasis on this method or theory lead to a range of rationalist standpoints, from the moderate position "that reason has precedence over other ways of acquiring knowledge" to the more extreme position that reason is "the unique path to knowledge". Given a pre-modern understanding of reason, rationalism is identical to philosophy, the Socratic life of inquiry, or the zetetic (skeptical) clear interpretation of authority (open to the underlying or essential cause of things as they appear to our sense of certainty). In recent decades, Leo Strauss sought to revive "Classical Political Rationalism" as a discipline that understands the task of reasoning, not as foundational, but as maieutic.
Background
Rationalismas an appeal to human reason as a way of obtaining knowledgehas a philosophical history dating from antiquity. The analytical nature of much of philosophical enquiry, the awareness of apparently a priori domains of knowledge such as mathematics, combined with the emphasis of obtaining knowledge through the use of rational faculties (commonly rejecting, for example, direct revelation) have made rationalist themes very prevalent in the history of philosophy.
Since the Enlightenment, rationalism is usually associated with the introduction of mathematical methods into philosophy as seen in the works of Descartes, Leibniz, and Spinoza. This is commonly called continental rationalism, because it was predominant in the continental schools of Europe, whereas in Britain empiricism dominated.
Even then, the distinction between rationalists and empiricists was drawn at a later period and would not have been recognized by the philosophers involved. Also, the distinction between the two philosophies is not as clear-cut as is sometimes suggested; for example, Descartes and Locke have similar views about the nature of human ideas.
Proponents of some varieties of rationalism argue that, starting with foundational basic principles, like the axioms of geometry, one could deductively derive the rest of all possible knowledge. Notable philosophers who held this view most clearly were Baruch Spinoza and Gottfried Leibniz, whose attempts to grapple with the epistemological and metaphysical problems raised by Descartes led to a development of the fundamental approach of rationalism. Both Spinoza and Leibniz asserted that, in principle, all knowledge, including scientific knowledge, could be gained through the use of reason alone, though they both observed that this was not possible in practice for human beings except in specific areas such as mathematics. On the other hand, Leibniz admitted in his book Monadology that "we are all mere Empirics in three fourths of our actions."
Political usage
In politics, rationalism, since the Enlightenment, historically emphasized a "politics of reason" centered upon rational choice, deontology, utilitarianism, secularism, and irreligionthe latter aspect's antitheism was later softened by the adoption of pluralistic reasoning methods practicable regardless of religious or irreligious ideology. In this regard, the philosopher John Cottingham noted how rationalism, a methodology, became socially conflated with atheism, a worldview:
Philosophical usage
Rationalism is often contrasted with empiricism. Taken very broadly, these views are not mutually exclusive, since a philosopher can be both rationalist and empiricist. Taken to extremes, the empiricist view holds that all ideas come to us a posteriori, that is to say, through experience; either through the external senses or through such inner sensations as pain and gratification. The empiricist essentially believes that knowledge is based on or derived directly from experience. The rationalist believes we come to knowledge a priorithrough the use of logic and is thus independent of sensory experience. In other words, as Galen Strawson once wrote, "you can see that it is true just lying on your couch. You don't have to get up off your couch and go outside and examine the way things are in the physical world. You don't have to do any science."
Between both philosophies, the issue at hand is the fundamental source of human knowledge and the proper techniques for verifying what we think we know. Whereas both philosophies are under the umbrella of epistemology, their argument lies in the understanding of the warrant, which is under the wider epistemic umbrella of the theory of justification. Part of epistemology, this theory attempts to understand the justification of propositions and beliefs. Epistemologists are concerned with various epistemic features of belief, which include the ideas of justification, warrant, rationality, and probability. Of these four terms, the term that has been most widely used and discussed by the early 21st century is "warrant". Loosely speaking, justification is the reason that someone (probably) holds a belief.
If A makes a claim and then B casts doubt on it, As next move would normally be to provide justification for the claim. The precise method one uses to provide justification is where the lines are drawn between rationalism and empiricism (among other philosophical views). Much of the debate in these fields are focused on analyzing the nature of knowledge and how it relates to connected notions such as truth, belief, and justification.
At its core, rationalism consists of three basic claims. For people to consider themselves rationalists, they must adopt at least one of these three claims: the intuition/deduction thesis, the innate knowledge thesis, or the innate concept thesis. In addition, a rationalist can choose to adopt the claim of Indispensability of Reason and or the claim of Superiority of Reason, although one can be a rationalist without adopting either thesis.
The indispensability of reason thesis: "The knowledge we gain in subject area, S, by intuition and deduction, as well as the ideas and instances of knowledge in S that are innate to us, could not have been gained by us through sense experience." In short, this thesis claims that experience cannot provide what we gain from reason.
The superiority of reason thesis: '"The knowledge we gain in subject area S by intuition and deduction or have innately is superior to any knowledge gained by sense experience". In other words, this thesis claims reason is superior to experience as a source for knowledge.
Rationalists often adopt similar stances on other aspects of philosophy. Most rationalists reject skepticism for the areas of knowledge they claim are knowable a priori. When you claim some truths are innately known to us, one must reject skepticism in relation to those truths. Especially for rationalists who adopt the Intuition/Deduction thesis, the idea of epistemic foundationalism tends to crop up. This is the view that we know some truths without basing our belief in them on any others and that we then use this foundational knowledge to know more truths.
Intuition/deduction thesis
Generally speaking, intuition is a priori knowledge or experiential belief characterized by its immediacy; a form of rational insight. We simply "see" something in such a way as to give us a warranted belief. Beyond that, the nature of intuition is hotly debated. In the same way, generally speaking, deduction is the process of reasoning from one or more general premises to reach a logically certain conclusion. Using valid arguments, we can deduce from intuited premises.
For example, when we combine both concepts, we can intuit that the number three is prime and that it is greater than two. We then deduce from this knowledge that there is a prime number greater than two. Thus, it can be said that intuition and deduction combined to provide us with a priori knowledgewe gained this knowledge independently of sense experience.
To argue in favor of this thesis, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, a prominent German philosopher, says,
Empiricists such as David Hume have been willing to accept this thesis for describing the relationships among our own concepts. In this sense, empiricists argue that we are allowed to intuit and deduce truths from knowledge that has been obtained a posteriori.
By injecting different subjects into the Intuition/Deduction thesis, we are able to generate different arguments. Most rationalists agree mathematics is knowable by applying the intuition and deduction. Some go further to include ethical truths into the category of things knowable by intuition and deduction. Furthermore, some rationalists also claim metaphysics is knowable in this thesis. Naturally, the more subjects the rationalists claim to be knowable by the Intuition/Deduction thesis, the more certain they are of their warranted beliefs, and the more strictly they adhere to the infallibility of intuition, the more controversial their truths or claims and the more radical their rationalism.
In addition to different subjects, rationalists sometimes vary the strength of their claims by adjusting their understanding of the warrant. Some rationalists understand warranted beliefs to be beyond even the slightest doubt; others are more conservative and understand the warrant to be belief beyond a reasonable doubt.
Rationalists also have different understanding and claims involving the connection between intuition and truth. Some rationalists claim that intuition is infallible and that anything we intuit to be true is as such. More contemporary rationalists accept that intuition is not always a source of certain knowledgethus allowing for the possibility of a deceiver who might cause the rationalist to intuit a false proposition in the same way a third party could cause the rationalist to have perceptions of nonexistent objects.
Innate knowledge thesis
The Innate Knowledge thesis is similar to the Intuition/Deduction thesis in the regard that both theses claim knowledge is gained a priori. The two theses go their separate ways when describing how that knowledge is gained. As the name, and the rationale, suggests, the Innate Knowledge thesis claims knowledge is simply part of our rational nature. Experiences can trigger a process that allows this knowledge to come into our consciousness, but the experiences don't provide us with the knowledge itself. The knowledge has been with us since the beginning and the experience simply brought into focus, in the same way a photographer can bring the background of a picture into focus by changing the aperture of the lens. The background was always there, just not in focus.
This thesis targets a problem with the nature of inquiry originally postulated by Plato in Meno. Here, Plato asks about inquiry; how do we gain knowledge of a theorem in geometry? We inquire into the matter. Yet, knowledge by inquiry seems impossible. In other words, "If we already have the knowledge, there is no place for inquiry. If we lack the knowledge, we don't know what we are seeking and cannot recognize it when we find it. Either way we cannot gain knowledge of the theorem by inquiry. Yet, we do know some theorems." The Innate Knowledge thesis offers a solution to this paradox. By claiming that knowledge is already with us, either consciously or unconsciously, a rationalist claims we don't really learn things in the traditional usage of the word, but rather that we simply use words we know.
Innate concept thesis
Similar to the Innate Knowledge thesis, the Innate Concept thesis suggests that some concepts are simply part of our rational nature. These concepts are a priori in nature and sense experience is irrelevant to determining the nature of these concepts (though, sense experience can help bring the concepts to our conscious mind).
In his book Meditations on First Philosophy, René Descartes postulates three classifications for our ideas when he says, "Among my ideas, some appear to be innate, some to be adventitious, and others to have been invented by me. My understanding of what a thing is, what truth is, and what thought is, seems to derive simply from my own nature. But my hearing a noise, as I do now, or seeing the sun, or feeling the fire, comes from things which are located outside me, or so I have hitherto judged. Lastly, sirens, hippogriffs and the like are my own invention."
Adventitious ideas are those concepts that we gain through sense experiences, ideas such as the sensation of heat, because they originate from outside sources; transmitting their own likeness rather than something else and something you simply cannot will away. Ideas invented by us, such as those found in mythology, legends and fairy tales, are created by us from other ideas we possess. Lastly, innate ideas, such as our ideas of perfection, are those ideas we have as a result of mental processes that are beyond what experience can directly or indirectly provide.
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz defends the idea of innate concepts by suggesting the mind plays a role in determining the nature of concepts, to explain this, he likens the mind to a block of marble in the New Essays on Human Understanding,
Some philosophers, such as John Locke (who is considered one of the most influential thinkers of the Enlightenment and an empiricist), argue that the Innate Knowledge thesis and the Innate Concept thesis are the same. Other philosophers, such as Peter Carruthers, argue that the two theses are distinct from one another. As with the other theses covered under the umbrella of rationalism, the more types and greater number of concepts a philosopher claims to be innate, the more controversial and radical their position; "the more a concept seems removed from experience and the mental operations we can perform on experience the more plausibly it may be claimed to be innate. Since we do not experience perfect triangles but do experience pains, our concept of the former is a more promising candidate for being innate than our concept of the latter.
History
Rationalist philosophy in Western antiquity
Although rationalism in its modern form post-dates antiquity, philosophers from this time laid down the foundations of rationalism. In particular, the understanding that we may be aware of knowledge available only through the use of rational thought.
Pythagoras (570–495 BCE)
Pythagoras was one of the first Western philosophers to stress rationalist insight. He is often revered as a great mathematician, mystic and scientist, but he is best known for the Pythagorean theorem, which bears his name, and for discovering the mathematical relationship between the length of strings on lute and the pitches of the notes. Pythagoras "believed these harmonies reflected the ultimate nature of reality. He summed up the implied metaphysical rationalism in the words 'All is number'. It is probable that he had caught the rationalist's vision, later seen by Galileo (1564–1642), of a world governed throughout by mathematically formulable laws". It has been said that he was the first man to call himself a philosopher, or lover of wisdom.
Plato (427–347 BCE)
Plato held rational insight to a very high standard, as is seen in his works such as Meno and The Republic. He taught on the Theory of Forms (or the Theory of Ideas) which asserts that the highest and most fundamental kind of reality is not the material world of change known to us through sensation, but rather the abstract, non-material (but substantial) world of forms (or ideas). For Plato, these forms were accessible only to reason and not to sense. In fact, it is said that Plato admired reason, especially in geometry, so highly that he had the phrase "Let no one ignorant of geometry enter" inscribed over the door to his academy.
Aristotle (384–322 BCE)
Aristotle's main contribution to rationalist thinking was the use of syllogistic logic and its use in argument. Aristotle defines syllogism as "a discourse in which certain (specific) things having been supposed, something different from the things supposed results of necessity because these things are so." Despite this very general definition, Aristotle limits himself to categorical syllogisms which consist of three categorical propositions in his work Prior Analytics. These included categorical modal syllogisms.
Middle Ages
Although the three great Greek philosophers disagreed with one another on specific points, they all agreed that rational thought could bring to light knowledge that was self-evidentinformation that humans otherwise could not know without the use of reason. After Aristotle's death, Western rationalistic thought was generally characterized by its application to theology, such as in the works of Augustine, the Islamic philosopher Avicenna (Ibn Sina), Averroes (Ibn Rushd), and Jewish philosopher and theologian Maimonides. The Waldensians sect also incorporated rationalism into their movement. One notable event in the Western timeline was the philosophy of Thomas Aquinas who attempted to merge Greek rationalism and Christian revelation in the thirteenth-century. Generally, the Roman Catholic Church viewed Rationalists as a threat, labeling them as those who "while admitting revelation, reject from the word of God whatever, in their private judgment, is inconsistent with human reason."
Classical rationalism
René Descartes (1596–1650)
Descartes was the first of the modern rationalists and has been dubbed the 'Father of Modern Philosophy.' Much subsequent Western philosophy is a response to his writings, which are studied closely to this day.
Descartes thought that only knowledge of eternal truthsincluding the truths of mathematics, and the epistemological and metaphysical foundations of the sciences could be attained by reason alone; other knowledge, the knowledge of physics, required experience of the world, aided by the scientific method. He also argued that although dreams appear as real as sense experience, these dreams cannot provide persons with knowledge. Also, since conscious sense experience can be the cause of illusions, then sense experience itself can be doubtable. As a result, Descartes deduced that a rational pursuit of truth should doubt every belief about sensory reality. He elaborated these beliefs in such works as Discourse on the Method, Meditations on First Philosophy, and Principles of Philosophy. Descartes developed a method to attain truths according to which nothing that cannot be recognised by the intellect (or reason) can be classified as knowledge. These truths are gained "without any sensory experience," according to Descartes. Truths that are attained by reason are broken down into elements that intuition can grasp, which, through a purely deductive process, will result in clear truths about reality.
Descartes therefore argued, as a result of his method, that reason alone determined knowledge, and that this could be done independently of the senses. For instance, his famous dictum, cogito ergo sum or "I think, therefore I am", is a conclusion reached a priori i.e., prior to any kind of experience on the matter. The simple meaning is that doubting one's existence, in and of itself, proves that an "I" exists to do the thinking. In other words, doubting one's own doubting is absurd. This was, for Descartes, an irrefutable principle upon which to ground all forms of other knowledge. Descartes posited a metaphysical dualism, distinguishing between the substances of the human body ("res extensa") and the mind or soul ("res cogitans"). This crucial distinction would be left unresolved and lead to what is known as the mind–body problem, since the two substances in the Cartesian system are independent of each other and irreducible.
Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677)
The philosophy of Baruch Spinoza is a systematic, logical, rational philosophy developed in seventeenth-century Europe. Spinoza's philosophy is a system of ideas constructed upon basic building blocks with an internal consistency with which he tried to answer life's major questions and in which he proposed that "God exists only philosophically." He was heavily influenced by Descartes, Euclid and Thomas Hobbes, as well as theologians in the Jewish philosophical tradition such as Maimonides. But his work was in many respects a departure from the Judeo-Christian tradition. Many of Spinoza's ideas continue to vex thinkers today and many of his principles, particularly regarding the emotions, have implications for modern approaches to psychology. To this day, many important thinkers have found Spinoza's "geometrical method" difficult to comprehend: Goethe admitted that he found this concept confusing. His magnum opus, Ethics, contains unresolved obscurities and has a forbidding mathematical structure modeled on Euclid's geometry. Spinoza's philosophy attracted believers such as Albert Einstein and much intellectual attention.
Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716)
Leibniz was the last major figure of seventeenth-century rationalism who contributed heavily to other fields such as metaphysics, epistemology, logic, mathematics, physics, jurisprudence, and the philosophy of religion; he is also considered to be one of the last "universal geniuses". He did not develop his system, however, independently of these advances. Leibniz rejected Cartesian dualism and denied the existence of a material world. In Leibniz's view there are infinitely many simple substances, which he called "monads" (which he derived directly from Proclus).
Leibniz developed his theory of monads in response to both Descartes and Spinoza, because the rejection of their visions forced him to arrive at his own solution. Monads are the fundamental unit of reality, according to Leibniz, constituting both inanimate and animate objects. These units of reality represent the universe, though they are not subject to the laws of causality or space (which he called "well-founded phenomena"). Leibniz, therefore, introduced his principle of pre-established harmony to account for apparent causality in the world.
Immanuel Kant (1724–1804)
Kant is one of the central figures of modern philosophy, and set the terms by which all subsequent thinkers have had to grapple. He argued that human perception structures natural laws, and that reason is the source of morality. His thought continues to hold a major influence in contemporary thought, especially in fields such as metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, political philosophy, and aesthetics.
Kant named his brand of epistemology "Transcendental Idealism", and he first laid out these views in his famous work The Critique of Pure Reason. In it he argued that there were fundamental problems with both rationalist and empiricist dogma. To the rationalists he argued, broadly, that pure reason is flawed when it goes beyond its limits and claims to know those things that are necessarily beyond the realm of every possible experience: the existence of God, free will, and the immortality of the human soul. Kant referred to these objects as "The Thing in Itself" and goes on to argue that their status as objects beyond all possible experience by definition means we cannot know them. To the empiricist, he argued that while it is correct that experience is fundamentally necessary for human knowledge, reason is necessary for processing that experience into coherent thought. He therefore concludes that both reason and experience are necessary for human knowledge. In the same way, Kant also argued that it was wrong to regard thought as mere analysis. "In Kant's views, a priori concepts do exist, but if they are to lead to the amplification of knowledge, they must be brought into relation with empirical data".
Contemporary rationalism
Rationalism has become a rarer label of philosophers today; rather many different kinds of specialised rationalisms are identified. For example, Robert Brandom has appropriated the terms "rationalist expressivism" and "rationalist pragmatism" as labels for aspects of his programme in Articulating Reasons, and identified "linguistic rationalism", the claim that the contents of propositions "are essentially what can serve as both premises and conclusions of inferences", as a key thesis of Wilfred Sellars.
Outside of academic philosophy, some participants in the internet communities surrounding Less Wrong and Slate Star Codex have described themselves as "rationalists." The term has also been used in this way by critics such as Timnit Gebru. OnlyFans star Aella has been described as a "rationalist" of the contemporary sort.
Criticism
Rationalism was criticized by American psychologist William James for being out of touch with reality. James also criticized rationalism for representing the universe as a closed system, which contrasts with his view that the universe is an open system.
See also
References
Sources
Primary
Descartes, René (1637), Discourse on the Method.
Spinoza, Baruch (1677), Ethics.
Leibniz, Gottfried (1714), Monadology.
Kant, Immanuel (1781/1787), Critique of Pure Reason.
Secondary
Audi, Robert (ed., 1999), The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1995. 2nd edition, 1999.
Blackburn, Simon (1996), The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1994. Paperback edition with new Chronology, 1996.
Bourke, Vernon J. (1962), "Rationalism," p. 263 in Runes (1962).
Douglas, Alexander X.: Spinoza and Dutch Cartesianism: Philosophy and Theology. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015)
Förster, Eckart; Melamed, Yitzhak Y. (eds.): Spinoza and German Idealism. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012)
Fraenkel, Carlos; Perinetti, Dario; Smith, Justin E. H. (eds.): The Rationalists: Between Tradition and Innovation. (Dordrecht: Springer, 2011)
Hampshire, Stuart: Spinoza and Spinozism. (Oxford: Clarendon Press; New York: Oxford University Press, 2005)
Huenemann, Charles; Gennaro, Rocco J. (eds.): New Essays on the Rationalists. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999)
Lacey, A.R. (1996), A Dictionary of Philosophy, 1st edition, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1976. 2nd edition, 1986. 3rd edition, Routledge, London, 1996.
Loeb, Louis E.: From Descartes to Hume: Continental Metaphysics and the Development of Modern Philosophy. (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1981)
Nyden-Bullock, Tammy: Spinoza's Radical Cartesian Mind. (Continuum, 2007)
Pereboom, Derk (ed.): The Rationalists: Critical Essays on Descartes, Spinoza, and Leibniz. (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1999)
Phemister, Pauline: The Rationalists: Descartes, Spinoza and Leibniz. (Malden, MA: Polity Press, 2006)
Runes, Dagobert D. (ed., 1962), Dictionary of Philosophy, Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ.
Strazzoni, Andrea: Dutch Cartesianism and the Birth of Philosophy of Science: A Reappraisal of the Function of Philosophy from Regius to 's Gravesande, 1640–1750. (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2018)
Verbeek, Theo: Descartes and the Dutch: Early Reactions to Cartesian Philosophy, 1637–1650. (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1992)
External links
John F. Hurst (1867), History of Rationalism Embracing a Survey of the Present State of Protestant Theology
Epistemological theories
Philosophical schools and traditions
Reasoning |
First Family 4 Life is the third studio album by American hip hop duo M.O.P. from Brownsville, New York. It was released on August 11, 1998 via Relativity Records. DJ Premier produced five songs on the album and also serves as an executive producer of the project (with Laze E Laze). The LP features more guest-appearances than previous M.O.P. projects; cameos include Jay-Z, Freddie Foxxx, Gang Starr, O.C., Heather B., Teflon, and Treach.
Track listing
Charts
References
External links
1998 albums
M.O.P. albums
Albums produced by DJ Premier
Albums produced by Da Beatminerz |
Si-ngan is a village in Shwegu Township in Bhamo District in the Kachin State of north-eastern Burma.
References
Populated places in Kachin State
Shwegu Township |
Radanovići may refer to:
Radanovići, Kiseljak, village in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Radanovići, Kotor, village in Montenegro
See also
Radanović, people with the surname
Radinovići (disambiguation) |
The Green Cove Springs Historic District is a U.S. historic district (designated as such on March 28, 1991) located in Green Cove Springs, Florida. The district is bounded by Bay Street, CSX RR tracks, Center Street, Orange Avenue, St. Elmo Street and St. Johns Road. It contains 78 historic buildings and 1 structure.
References
External links
Clay County listings at National Register of Historic Places
National Register of Historic Places in Clay County, Florida
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Florida |
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= apoc.refactor.mergeNodes
:description: This section contains reference documentation for the apoc.refactor.mergeNodes procedure.
label:procedure[] label:apoc-core[]
[.emphasis]
apoc.refactor.mergeNodes([node1,node2],[{properties:'overwrite' or 'discard' or 'combine'}]) merge nodes onto first in list
== Signature
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apoc.refactor.mergeNodes(nodes :: LIST? OF NODE?, config = {} :: MAP?) :: (node :: NODE?)
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== Input parameters
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[[usage-apoc.refactor.mergeNodes]]
== Usage Examples
include::partial$usage/apoc.refactor.mergeNodes.adoc[]
xref::graph-updates/graph-refactoring/merge-nodes.adoc[More documentation of apoc.refactor.mergeNodes,role=more information]
``` |
Brad Swanson was an American popular organist based in Western Pennsylvania and New York. His recordings, targeted towards older audiences, were popular jukebox selections and one of his albums made the national Billboard chart.
Biography
Born in Buffalo, New York, Swanson began playing the organ in Olean, New York. He began his professional career at the age of eighteen, touring the country while giving concerts in clubs. In 1948 he was appearing twice daily at The Capitol Hill restaurant in Olean. In the early 1960s Swanson had a radio show entitled Dinner Serenade which broadcast on WKJF. His album Quentin's Theme appeared on Billboard'''s album charts in October 1969 for two weeks, the highest listing being at position #185. In 1971 he was employed as an organist at the Erie, Pennsylvania Holiday Inn. By that time he had released ten LP records on Thunderbird Records and was active as a promoter for the Music Operators of America.
Style and influence
His marketing tag was "and his Whispering Organ Sound". Swanson played Allen organs, which he would extensively modify. Richard Nixon was reported to be a fan of Swanson's music. In the late 1960s and very early 1970s his singles appeared among the most popular selection in the Midwest for jukeboxes oriented towards "adult" and "oldies" locations. A "Greatest Hits" compilation released on Thunderbird in 1970 was accorded a four-star rating (the highest possible) by Billboard''. His recordings were reviewed three decades later as "majestically cheezy."
References
American organists
Musicians from Buffalo, New York
Thunderbird Records artists |
American country and Christian music artist Cristy Lane has released 18 studio albums, 23 compilation albums, one video album, one music video, 33 singles and appeared on one album. Lane first recorded for various labels in the 1960s. In the 1970s, Lane's husband formed his own label titled LS Records and she recorded exclusively for the company. In 1977, Lane had her first charting singles on the Billboard country songs chart. This was followed by 1977's "Let Me Down Easy," which reached the top ten and became her first major country hit. She had further top ten country hits that year with "I'm Gonna Love You Anyway" and "Penny Arcade". Her first LS album was released in 1978 titled Cristy Lane Is the Name and featured her major hits from the year. In 1978, she had a top five hit with the single "I Just Can't Stay Married to You" and it appeared on her next studio album titled Love Lies. The album was her first to reach the Billboard country albums chart. In 1979, Lane switched to United Artists Records and had three more hits, including the top ten country single "Simple Little Words".
In 1980, Lane's cover of the Christian piece titled "One Day at a Time" reached number one on the country chart. The song became the most commercially-successful single of her music career and became a hit in multiple countries. It was followed by Lane's final top ten country hit called "Sweet Sexy Eyes". Both singles appeared on her 1980 studio album called Ask Me to Dance, which reached number 14 on the country albums chart. In 1981, Lane's cover of ABBA's "I Have a Dream" reached the top 20 and appeared on an album of the same name. She continued recording for her label through the 1980s. With United Artists (re-named Liberty Records), Lane released Here's to Us (1982) and Footprints in the Sand (1983). Both studio albums were her final to chart on the Billboard country LP's chart. Lane and her husband also began marketing music on television. The marketing strategy allowed Lane to continue releasing compilation albums through the 1990s and 2000s. Among her more recent compilations, 22 All Time Favorites, reached the Billboard country albums chart, peaking at number 62.
Albums
Studio albums
Compilation albums
Singles
Videography
Music videos
Video albums
Other album appearances
Notes
References
External links
Cristy Lane music at her official website
Country music discographies
Discographies of American artists
Christian music discographies |
Dańków is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Błędów, within Grójec County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland.
References
Villages in Grójec County |
Kenneth Campbell (born June 17, 1983) known by his stage name Young Scrilla, Scrilla, or Scrillz, is an American rapper from Atlanta, Georgia. Scrilla has been active since 2006, and is a member of the Atlanta-based entertainment group, No Line Gang. He is also a former member of Young Jeezy's label CTE World. He posted via Twitter that he is no longer part of CTE World on December 31, 2012.
Early life
Scrilla was born and raised in Atlanta, Georgia and grew up on Campbellton Road in Atlanta's zone 4. Scrilla started rapping at the young age of 11, and in 2007 Scrillz won the BMI Urban Showcase.
Career
Ben Hill Beast
In 2008, Scrilla made his debut mixtape Ben Hill Beast with direction from Franklin Family Entertainment, Don Music Group, and Nitti. Ben Hill Beast was a free release on the internet.
Smoke & Mirrors
On April 20, 2011, Scrilla released Smoke & Mirrors (host Black Bill Gates) on the internet for free, which featured the remix to "I Ball, I Stunt" featuring CTE World President Young Jeezy. Shortly after Smoke & Mirrors was released Scrilla signed to CTE World.
The Demonstration
On June 19, 2012, Scrilla had his first and only full-length release with CTE World The Demonstration(host Bigga Rankin) which had production and feature collaborations with Southside, Killer Mike, Young Jeezy, SuperCed, Freddie Gibbs, and more. On December 31, 2012, Scrilla announced via Twitter that he was leaving Jeezy's CTE World label, but he also expressed that there were "no hard feelings".
Influences
Scrilla states his influences to be artists such as 2Pac, Young Jeezy, Michael Jackson, Killer Mike, Jay-Z, Anthony Hamilton, and many others.
Discography
Mixtapes
Ben Hill Beast (2008)
Smoke & Mirrors (2011)
The Demonstration (2012)
References
1983 births
African-American male rappers
American male rappers
Living people
Rappers from Atlanta
Southern hip hop musicians
21st-century American rappers
21st-century American male musicians
21st-century African-American musicians
20th-century African-American people |
John W. Holter (April 1, 1916 – December 22, 2003) was a toolmaker working for the Yale and Town Lock Company Stamford Connecticut. His son Charles Holter was born on November 7, 1955 with a severe form of spina bifida. Shortly after birth he contracted meningitis, which caused his head to expand rapidly. His parents were told that he had developed "water on the brain" or hydrocephalus.
As luck would have it Holter's son was being looked after in Philadelphia, where the surgeons Nulsen and Spitz had already demonstrated that a ventricle-to-atrium diversion system could work. What they needed was an inexpensive and practical valve that could control the direction of the flow and maintain normal cranial pressure.
A chance discovery showed Holter, after a failed attempt in which a young boy died, that he could use a silicone one-way valve (pressure sealing). After a medically suitable grade of Silastic (silicone rubber) was found, the device was patented, and John Holter set up a company, Holter-Hausner International, to manufacture the cerebral shunts.
Although he was unable to save his son Casey, his design, the Spitz-Holter valve (also called the Spitz-Holter shunt) continues to help millions around the world since the late 1950s.
References
1916 births
2003 deaths
Medical technology companies of the United States
American inventors |
Ruhun Duymaz () is a Turkish rom-com drama television series produced by O3 Medya. Created by Aytaç Çiçek, it stars Şükrü Özyıldız and Burcu Özberk as Onur Karasu and Ece Çetinel. It premiered on Fox Turkey on July 24, 2023.
Plot
Onur Karasu is a successful intelligence agent who becomes the head of his department at a young age. His target is Civan Koral, the owner of Turkey's largest jewelry company, who is involved in illegal activities. Onur believes that he keeps incriminating documents about his illegal business at a safe in his house.
In order to gain access to the mansion, Onur fakes a romantic relationship with Hilal, Civan's sister. His focus is get to infiltrate Civan's life and activities. In the process, he meets Ece Cetinel, a skilled thief who ends up working with him on the mission. They end up falling madly in love with each other despite trying to ignore their feelings throughout the operation.
Cast
Main
Şükrü Özyıldız as Onur Karasu: a leading agent of MIT; chief of his intelligence team; jewelry maker; Bayhan's son; Ece's boyfriend
Burcu Özberk as Ece Çetinel: a skilled thief; a gourmet chef; Elif's sister; Onur's girlfriend
Recurring
Tuğrul Tülek as Civan Koral: head of the Koral jewelry company; a diamond smuggler; Hilal and Murat's brother; Ece's one-sided lover
Aslı Sümen as Hilal Koral: a major in business administration; core member of the Koral jewelry company; Civan and Murat's sister; Onur's former fake fiance
Ülkü Duru as Ayla Karasu: first female agent of MIT; member of Onur's intelligence team; Bayhan's sister; Mufit's fiancée; Onur's aunt
Şehsuvar Aktaş as Müfit: a jewelry expert; Bayhan's childhood best friend; Ayla's fiancé; Onur's foster parent
Kadir Polatçı as Ali: an agent in Onur's intelligence team; Melek's love interest
Ilgaz Kaya as Melek: an agent in Onur's intelligence team; Ali's love interest
Burak Acar as Melih: an agent in Onur's intelligence team; Melek's one-sided lover
Mert Oner as Musti: Ece's childhood best friend and foster brother
Serkan Beşiroğlu as Kadir Turan: a security agent; Civan and Hilal's personal bodyguard
Gürsu Gür as Murat Koral: Civan and Hilal's brother; Selvi's husband
Funda Kadıoğlu as Selvi Koral: Murat's wife
Sena Kalip as Elif Çetinel: Ece's sister; Civan, Hilal, and Murat's adoptive sister
Emre Özcan as Hazar: a drugs and weapons smuggler; Ece and Musti's foster keeper
Zuhal Gencer as Handan Koral: Civan, Hilal and Murat's mother; Elif's adoptive mother
Alper Türedi as Firuz: President of the MIT intelligence agency; Ayla's friend
Beren Tektas as Young Ece "Mavi" Çetinel: Elif's sister; Musti's best friend
Ali Cesim Yildiz as Young Musti: Ece's best friend and foster brother
Yunus Emre Orhan as Hazar's goon
Episodes
Overview
Season 1 (2023)
Production
Filming
Ruhun Duymaz is filmed in Istanbul, Turkey. It features various iconic locations in Istanbul, including Beşiktaş and Galata.
Awards and nominations
References
External links
Ruhun Duymaz on Fox Turkey
Ruhun Duymaz on YouTube
Ruhun Duymaz on Twitter
Ruhun Duymaz on Instagram
Ruhun Duymaz on Facebook
Turkish romantic comedy television series
2023 Turkish television series debuts |
Rodolfo "Jun" Adaptar Sabayton Jr. (born November 23, 1973) is a Filipino actor, comedian, host, and director. He is known as "Bayaw” due to his works with Lourd de Veyra at News5’s History with Lourd, Wasak, Word of the Lourd, Kontrabando, B.A.Y.A.W. for President advocacy campaign.
Jun Sabayton was born on November 23, 1973, in Cebu City. Jun's debut on TV was Strangebrew. He was a producer and a special participant in the show with his co-stars Angel "Erning" Rivero and the late Tado Jimenez in 2002.
Sabayton has also acted in movies. He was a host on TV5 and then moved to the Kapamilya Network, ABS-CBN 2, in around 2018. He was also a host of comedy science program You Have Been Warned Asia broadcast on the Discovery Channel.
Filmography
Television
2022: Jose & Maria's Bongga Villa
2022: Happy Together
2022: My Papa Pi
2022: Lakwatsika
2021: Wag Po!
2021: Chika Besh
2021: Daddy's Gurl
2021: Sing Galing
2021: Unang Hirit
2020: Kaibigan
2020: LOL: Lunch Out Loud
2020: All Out Sundays
2020: Mars Pa More
2020: Pepito Manaloto
2019: Wagas
2019: Dear Uge
2019: Bubble Gang
2019: Tadhana
2018: Karelasyon
2018: Wish Ko Lang
2018: Funny Ka, Pare Ko
2018: Home Sweetie Home
2018: Banana Sundae
2017: You Have Been Warned Asia
2017: It's Showtime
2017: Eat Bulaga
2017: Trops
2017: Aksyon Sa Umaga
2016: My Candidate
2016: Barangay Utakan
2016: Demolition Job
2016: History With Lourd De Veyra
2016: Funny Ka Pare Ko!
2015-2016: News5 Kontrabando
2015: Wattpad Presents
2015: Tanod (TV Series)
2015: Mac & Chiz (TV Series)
2015: Sapul Sa 5
2015: Sunday PinaSaya
2014: Party Pilipinas
2013: Aksyon Primetime Balita
2012: Cassandra, Warrior Angel
2011: Wasak With Lourd & Jun
2010: Baikinggu
2009: Baywalk
2008: Shall We Dance
2007: SOP: Sobrang Okay Pare
2006-2012: Wow Mali
2005: Maynila
2005: Bubble Gang
2005: Wowowee
2004: Magpakailanman
2004: MTB: Ang Saya Saya
2003: ASAP Natin To!
2003: Maalala Mo Kaya
2002: Strangebrew
Films
2021: Ang Fraile
2019: Pandanggo Sa Hukay
2018: Goyo: Ang Batang Heneral
2018: Kusina Kings
2017: Dormitoryo: Mga Walang Katapusang Kuwarto
2016: My Candidate
2014: Kubot The Aswang Chronicles 2
2014: Mumbai Love
2013: Blue Bustamante
2011: Rakenrol
2006: Wag kang lilingon
2006: Imahe Nasyon
2005: Sa Ilalim ng Cogon
2003: Keka
References
External links
Male actors from Cebu
Filipino film directors
Living people
1973 births
Filipino male film actors
Filipino male television actors
Filipino television personalities
Filipino male comedians |
This is a list of the competitive matches played by the Syrian football team since its inception.
International matches
1940s
1950s
1960s
1970s
1980s
1990s
2000s
2010s
External links
1940
1940s in Syrian sport
1950s in Syrian sport
1960s in Syrian sport
1970s in Syrian sport
1980s in Syrian sport
1990s in Syrian sport |
Haydon Warren-Gash (born 8 August 1949) is a retired British diplomat, and a noted lepidopterist who has described several new species.
Diplomatic career
Haydon Boyd Warren-Gash was educated at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge. He joined the Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) in 1971 and after language training at SOAS served at Ankara, Madrid and Paris as well as at the FCO. He was deputy High Commissioner at Nairobi 1991–1994; head of the Southern Europe department at the FCO 1994–1997; Ambassador to Côte d’Ivoire, Niger, Burkina Faso and Liberia 1997–2001 (during which he had to deal with a crisis when four Britons were among a group taken hostage by Liberian rebels); Ambassador to Morocco and Mauritania 2002–2005; and Ambassador to Colombia 2005–2008.
Lepidopterology
Warren-Gash is a lepidopterist. While he was ambassador to Colombia he was accused of collecting rare butterflies without a licence, which he denied. He has described the following species:
Cymothoe hartigi vanessae
Euphaedra cyparissa nimbina
Euphaedra sarcoptera ferrea
Euphaedra sarcoptera styx
Euriphene taigola
Iolaus alexanderi
Lepidochrysops labeensis
Liptena bia
Liptena seyboui
Various species are named after Warren-Gash:
Baliochila warrengashi
Bebearia warrengashi
Euptera dorothea warrengashi
Pseudaletis agrippina warrengashi
Publications
New records of Lycaenidae from Kenya: a postscript (1993), in Metamorphosis (Official Journal of the Lepidopterists' Society of Africa) Volume 4, Issue 3: 113
The liptenids of the Banco Forest: a case study in conservation (1999), in Metamorphosis (Official Journal of the Lepidopterists' Society of Africa) Volume 10, Issue 2: 75-80Collecting and conserving in Côte d'Ivoire, West Africa (2002), in Metamorphosis (Official Journal of the Lepidopterists' Society of Africa) Volume 13, Issue 2: 44-50
References
WARREN-GASH, Haydon Boyd, Who's Who 2014'', A & C Black, 2014; online edn, Oxford University Press, 2014
Haydon Warren-Gash - Career Highlights, Experience and Skills, Foro Consulting
1949 births
Living people
Alumni of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge
Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Ivory Coast
Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Niger
Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Burkina Faso
Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Liberia
Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Morocco
Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Mauritania
Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Colombia
British lepidopterists |
Oper may refer to:
Technology
Operator (disambiguation)
IRC operator
Outstanding Physical Education Preparation, a website for PE preparation
Opera
Deutsche Oper Berlin, Oper Leipzig, Komische Oper Berlin, Alte Oper
Romantische Oper, genre of German opera
Surname
Andres Oper, Estonian football player
Mathematics
Oper (mathematics) (as defined by Alexander Beilinson and Vladimir Drinfeld), a mathematical bundle on a punctured disc, equipped with a flat connection and an additional extra structure, called the "oper structure" |
Buyiswa Fazzie (; 7 July 1931 – 8 September 2018), also known as Ethesian Fazzie, was a South African politician and former anti-apartheid activist who represented the African National Congress (ANC) in the National Assembly from 1994 to 1999. During apartheid, she was the president of the Port Elizabeth Women's Organisation, the women's wing of the Port Elizabeth Black Civic Organisation.
Early life and activism
Fazzie was born on 7 July 1931 in Grahamstown in the former Cape Province. During apartheid, she was a member of the women's committee of the Port Elizabeth Black Civic Organisation (PEBCO); with Ivy Gcina, she founded the Port Elizabeth Women's Organisation as a wing of PEBCO. She was the inaugural president of PEWO from 1983 to 1991.
Parliament: 1994–1999
In South Africa's first post-apartheid elections in 1994, Fazzie was elected to represent the ANC in the National Assembly, the lower house of the new South African Parliament. She held her seat until the next general election in 1999. She later worked as a civil servant in the Department of Health.
Personal life and death
She was married to Umkhonto we Sizwe activist Henry Fazzie, who was detained for long periods during apartheid and with whom she had children. She died on 8 September 2018 after a long illness.
References
External links
"ANC pays tribute to Fazzie" at the Herald
1931 births
2018 deaths
African National Congress politicians
Women members of the National Assembly of South Africa
Members of the National Assembly of South Africa
20th-century South African politicians
20th-century South African women politicians
Anti-apartheid activists
People from Makana Local Municipality |
Caldoramide is a pentapeptide isolated from the cyanobacteria Caldora penicillata. It has cytotoxic effects on cancer cells and has been the subject of extensive oncological research. It is structurally analogous to belamide A and dolastatin 15. Its appearance is that of a powdery, white, substance.
Structure
The N-terminus for Caldoramide is N,N-dimethylvaline which is attached to a valine which is attached to an N-Me-valine connected to an N-Me-isoleucine which is attached to the C-terminus. The molecule can also be written as N,N-diMe-Val-Val-N-Me-Val-N-Me-Ile-3-O-Me-4-benzylpyrrolinone.
Extraction
Freeze-dried samples of Caldora penicillata had EtOAc−MeOH and H2O−EtOH applied to them in order to extract Caldoramide. The extracts were partitioned with n-BuOH and H2O and then fractions were taken based on solubility in either EtOAc or BuOH. Caldoramide was extracted from the BuOH soluble fraction.
Pharmacological activity
Caldoramide has been found to be cytotoxic against HCT116 colorectal cancer cell lines.
See also
Laucysteinamide A
References
Pentapeptides
Cyanotoxins |
The Western Treatment Plant (formerly the Metropolitan Sewage Farm or, more commonly, the Werribee Sewage Farm) is a sewage treatment plant in Cocoroc, Victoria, Australia, west of Melbourne's central business district, on the coast of Port Phillip Bay. It was completed in 1897 by the Melbourne and Metropolitan Board of Works (MMBW), and is currently operated by Melbourne Water. The plant's land is bordered by the Werribee River to the east, the Princes Freeway to the north, and Avalon Airport to the west. It forms part of the Port Phillip Bay (Western Shoreline) and Bellarine Peninsula Ramsar Site as a wetland of international importance. The Western Treatment Plant treats around fifty percent of Melbourne's sewage — about per day — and generates almost of recycled water a year. (The Eastern Treatment Plant treats 40%.)
History
The need for a solution
The discovery of gold in Victoria in 1851 led to Melbourne becoming the richest city in the world at the time and thus, with a population of about 500,000 by the 1880s, also Australia's most populous.
The rapidly expanding metropolis faced an increasing pollution problem. While it was described by British journalists as "Marvellous Melbourne" and "a city of magnificent intentions", it was also being dubbed "Marvellous Smellbourne" because of its primitive and unsanitary waste disposal methods. The majority of waste water from industries and homes, including chamber pots and overflowing cesspits, ran into street channels and open drains which emptied into rivers and creeks, turning them into open sewers. As a consequence, cholera and typhoid were rife.
Conception and planning
In 1888, a Royal Commission was formed to come up with a solution to Melbourne's waste problems. The Commission's findings led to an ambitious plan for the construction of a sewerage system - a system of pipes, sewers and drains built underground to carry sewage from homes and factories to a sewage treatment farm.
In 1892, the newly established Melbourne and Metropolitan Board of Works (MMBW) began buying land at Werribee, chosen for its low rainfall and suitable soils. Western Treatment Plant (then known as Werribee Farm) began operations in 1897.
Eminent British engineer James Mansergh was appointed to advise on a suitable system, while local engineer William Thwaites was ultimately responsible for the design and implementation of the system. At a time when most cities dumped their untreated wastes directly into rivers and the sea, Mansergh advised treatment of Melbourne's sewage by broad irrigation with a capacity large enough able to deal with the expansion in population expected over 50 years. The system he conceived and which was implemented in only slightly modified form began with a water closet at every property which delivered the sewage by gravity through a network of underground sewers of increasing diameter to a steam pumping station at Spotswood where it was forced up wrought iron rising mains to Brooklyn to begin its 25 kilometre journey along the Main Outfall Sewer to the sewage farm at Werribee.
Main Outfall Sewer
The Main Outfall Sewer was constructed in 1892-4 and was a vital link in the sewerage system of Melbourne which, when it was constructed in the 1890s, was the largest civil engineering project ever undertaken in Victoria. The sewer was constructed by seven contractors employing 1300 workers and cost £240,748.
The Main Outfall Sewer consists of a semicircular brick or concrete lined channel (in places arched over to form a circular tunnel with an earth covering) and three brick arched aqueducts. It runs for approximately from the old pumping station in Spotswood (now part of Scienceworks Museum) to the Western Treatment Plant, spanning the suburbs of Brooklyn, Laverton North, Williams Landing, Hoppers Crossing and Werribee in the cities of Brimbank, Hobsons Bay and Wyndham.
The Main Outfall Sewer's function has now been entirely replaced by the more modern Western Trunk Sewer. The Main Outfall Sewer has been listed on the Victorian Heritage Register for being "of historical and scientific (engineering) significance to the State of Victoria."
The Federation Trail — a cycling and pedestrian trail — runs mostly alongside the Main Outfall Sewer.
Upgrades
In 1996, a Port Phillip Bay Environmental Study by the CSIRO found that Port Phillip Bay could be damaged if nitrogen loads entering its waters continued to increase, and thus recommended a reduction in nitrogen loads going into the bay. In 2004, Melbourne Water completed a $160 million upgrade of the plant to reduce nitrogen loads. Recycled water irrigation replaced sewage irrigation across the site. Land and grass filtration methods previously used were stopped.
General
Most of the Federation Trail, a major arterial pedestrian and bicycle path that runs for 23-kilometres from Werribee to Altona North, follows the heritage-listed Main Outfall Sewer.
"Greening the Pipeline" is a project aimed to transform approximately the pipeline into a 40-metre (43 yd) wide parkland in Melbourne's western suburbs to connect its communities. The pilot stage will be a 100m section in Williams Landing.
Sewage treatment
System of treatment
There are three modern lagoon systems at the Western Treatment Plant. A modern lagoon is typically made up of 10 large ponds, each of which can hold around 600 million litres of water. Sewage flows slowly through these ponds, allowing bacteria to break down the organic material. The water progressively becomes cleaner as it flows through each of the ponds. Two main types of ponds are used in lagoon treatment - anaerobic (without oxygen) and aerobic (with oxygen) - both producing different types of bacteria needed to break down the sewage.
Electricity from biogas and odour control
Using huge covers over the ponds, methane gas produced as a by-product of sewage treatment (known as biogas) is captured and turned into renewable energy. The Western Treatment Plant generates 70,000 MWh annually which means that it sometimes exceeds its own need for electricity and exports it back to the grid. Capturing and using biogas to generate electricity also means greenhouse gas and odour emissions are significantly reduced. Around 90% of odour emissions from the Western Treatment Plant have been cut since the first methane covers were installed in 1992.
Water recycling
A water recycling disinfection plant was built at the Western Treatment Plant in 2004. This plant treats Class C recycled water to Class A standard which means this water is suitable for a greater number of uses. In 2010/11, about 29.972 billion litres of recycled water was supplied from the Western Treatment Plant. Of this, about 28.051 billion litres of recycled water (mostly Class C) was used to irrigate 85 km2 of pasture for grazing 15,000 cattle and 40,000 sheep and manage soil salinity onsite, and to maintain the health of the Ramsar listed wetlands. A further 1.921 billion litres of recycled water (Class A) was supplied to Southern Rural Water and City West Water for offsite customers, such as the Werribee market garden area to grow vegetables, and to local councils to irrigate sports grounds, parks and gardens.
The remaining treated effluent is discharged into Port Phillip Bay under an accredited EPA Victoria licence.
Environment
In 1921 parts of Port Phillip Bay and Bellarine Peninsula including the Western Treatment Plant were declared a sanctuary for native animals. In 1983 the plant was declared a Ramsar site, internationally recognised for its wetland habitat especially for waterfowl.
The Western Treatment Plant is one of Australia's best-known sites for recreational birding, with about 270 species of birds recorded there. On the south-western boundary lies the 1550 ha Murtcaim Wildlife Area, containing one of the last unmodified areas of saltmarsh on Port Phillip. The sewage treatment lagoons, Lake Borrie, creeks, saltmarsh, and coast host large numbers of sedentary and migratory waterbirds and waders. It adjoins the Spit Nature Conservation Reserve and is one of the few wintering sites for the critically endangered orange-bellied parrot. Access to the Western Treatment Plant for birdwatching is by permit only; permits can be obtained from Melbourne Water. The site is part of the Werribee and Avalon Important Bird Area, identified as such by BirdLife International because of its importance for waterbirds as well as for orange-bellied parrots.
See also
Eastern Treatment Plant
Altona Treatment Plant
References
Sewage treatment plants in Australia
Ramsar sites in Australia
Birdwatching sites in Australia
Water management in Victoria (state)
1897 establishments in Australia
Important Bird Areas of Victoria (state)
Industrial buildings in Victoria (state)
Sewerage infrastructure in Victoria (state)
Werribee, Victoria
Buildings and structures in the City of Wyndham |
Besik Kharanauli (; ; born 11 November 1939, in Tianeti) is a Georgian poet and writer.
Biography
Besik Kharanauli Born in 1939, Tianeti, Georgia. In 1962 he graduated Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi University, the Department of Philology. After he worked the Literature and Art publishing hose and in the literary magazine Mnatobi.
Besik Kharanauli started his literary career in 1954. He is the author of more than twenty poetic collections and two novels.
Poetry by Besik Kharanauli is translated in German, Dutch, Italian, Czech, Hungarian, Russian, Bulgarian. In 2010 his long poem The book of Amba Besarion was published in France. In 2018 Poetry Collection by Besik Kharanauli 'Fünf Dichtungen' was translated and published by German Publishing House Dagyeli Verlag with support of the Georgian National Book Center, translated into German by Nana Chigladze and Norbert Hummelt.
In 2011 and 2015 Besik Kharanauli was nominated for the Nobel prize for literature by the Georgian government. In 2015 he won literary prize SABA for the Contribution to the Development of Georgian Literature.
Books
Translations from American, Intelekti Publishing, 2014,
Poems 2003 – 2013, Intelekti Publishing, 2013,
The Chief Gamer, Intelekti Publishing, 2012,
Poems 1954 – 2005, Intelekti, 2012
Epigraphs for Forgotten Dreams, Sulakauri, 2005; Palitra L, 2010
Sixty Knights Riding Mules, Sezane, 2010,
100 Poems, Intelekti, 2007,
Two Pages about the Sky and Earth, 2005
Amba Besarion's Book, Arete, 2003,
An Afternoon Book, Nakaduli, 1991,
Verses, Poems, Merani, 1988
Dictate, Angelina!, Merani, 1985
Agonic, Merani, 1991
The Lame Doll, Merani, 1973
Prizes and awards
Literary award Saba, 2016
Literary Prize Litera, 2016
Honorary award Saba, 2015 for his Contribution to the Georgian Literature
Literary Prize GALA, 2012
President's Order of Eminence, 2010
Literary Award Saba, 2004
Shota Rustaveli State Prize, 2002
The State Prize of Georgia, 1992 for his Contribution to the Georgian Literature
References
External links
KHARANAULI BESIK
Death of My Grandmother
BESIK KHARANAULI
Besik Kharanauli – Poems
From THE LAME DOLL by Besik Kharanauli, translated by Timothy Kercher and Ani Kopaliani
Male writers from Georgia (country)
Poets from Georgia (country)
1939 births
Living people
Tbilisi State University alumni
20th-century writers from Georgia (country)
21st-century writers from Georgia (country)
Postmodern writers
Laureates of the State Prize of Georgia (country) |
Unguturu mandal is one of the 25 mandals in the Krishna district of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh.
See also
Villages in Unguturu mandal
References
Mandals in Krishna district |
Gallagher Ridge () is a ridge that trends northeast from Mount Newall, Asgard Range, and descends to lower Wright Valley to the east of Decker Glacier, in Victoria Land, Antarctica. It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names (1997) after Charles Gallagher, Command Master Chief, U.S. Naval Support Force, Antarctica, who served four austral summers at McMurdo Station, 1991–92 through 1994–95. Upon Navy retirement, Gallagher joined Antarctic Support Associates as Housing Coordinator at McMurdo Station, 1995–96 and 1996–97. He became ill during the winter-over period and died at McMurdo Station, May 1, 1997.
References
Ridges of Victoria Land
McMurdo Dry Valleys |
Manarola railway station (Stazione di Manarola) is located on the Genoa–Pisa railway, Italy. It serves Manarola, which is one of the five towns of the Cinque Terre.
History
The station was inaugurated on 24 October 1874, at the same time as the – line.
Freight operations were introduced in Manarola on 15 September 1913.
Double track between Manarola and was opened in 1920 and extended on 14 November 1933 as far as the Gaggiola tunnel and between Riomaggiore and Corniglia on 31 May 1959. In 1959, a new passenger building and a loading area for goods were built, as well as a pedestrian tunnel to connect with the town.
On 1 December 1949, the station became an assuntoria (a station operated by an agent under contract). It is currently operated as an unstaffed halt.
In June and July 2011, the station was also served by the Treni del Mare ("trains of the sea") managed by the private company Arenaways, which became bankrupt shortly afterwards.
Buildings and infrastructure
The station has two platforms; platform 1 is used mainly by trains to La Spezia and platform 2 by trains to Genoa.
A pedestrian tunnel gives access to the town centre. Another pedestrian path, built when the line was built, skirts the cliffs to Riomaggiore. It is a well-known tourist destination now called the Via dell'Amore ("the Way of Love"), although it has been closed for some years due to a landslide.
Services
The station, which RFI manages and classified in 2008 in the silver category, has:
Ticket counter managed by Cinque Terre National Park.
ticket machines
toilets.
Rail services
The station is served by Trenitalia regional services operated under a contract with the region of Liguria.
References
Footnotes
Sources
Railway stations in Liguria
Railway stations opened in 1874
Railway stations in Italy opened in the 1870s |
"Kultanaamio" is the second single from the Finnish rock band CMX's 1994 album Aura. It also appears on the group's first compilation album Cloaca Maxima. "Kultanaamio" means "Golden Mask" in Finnish.
Helsingin Sanomat published in 2007 the top 50 Finnish rock songs as voted by readers. "Kultanaamio" placed third after "Moottoritie on kuuma" by Pelle Miljoona and "Get On" by Hurriganes. The top 10 also included CMX's previous single, "Ruoste".
Interpretation
Music journalist Tero Valkonen wrote in 1998 an analysis of the lyrics of "Kultanaamio". It was published in the Rumba magazine, 24/1998, as a part of a column series about important Finnish rock lyricists. Valkonen argues that, even though the song is disguised as a catchy pop tune, it conseals "an immense amount of disappointment, suffering and falsehood" that may not be instantly noticeable. Indeed, the song starts with the phrase "I hate you."
Track listing
"Kultanaamio" (single version) – 4:39
"Kultanaamio" (album version) – 4:56
"Keskellä" – 2:18
Personnel
A. W. Yrjänä – bass, vocals
Janne Halmkrona – guitar
Timo Rasio – guitar, backing vocals
Pekka Kanniainen – drums
Mara Salminen – keyboards
Risto Salmi – saxophone
Henna Valvanne
Frida Segerstråle
Kaarina Kilpiö
See also
CMX discography
References
External links
The song's lyrics on cmx.fi
CMX (band)
Finnish rock songs
1994 singles
1994 songs
Finnish-language songs |
Skin is a 48-page graphic novel written by Peter Milligan, created and drawn by Brendan McCarthy and colored by Carol Swain. It tells the story of a young skinhead, Martin Atchitson, who grew up in 1970s London with thalidomide-related birth defects. Milligan has said the story partially addresses "universal themes of major companies shafting people, and corruption in terms of drugs and mass marketing."
Publication history
Skin was planned to be published in the 2000 AD spin-off magazine Crisis in 1989, but the story's controversial subject matter and explicit language made the publisher, Fleetway, uncomfortable. Printers refused to print it, citing similar reasons. The story remained in limbo until it was published as a graphic novel by Kevin Eastman's Tundra Publishing in 1992 with little controversy. Dark Horse Comics reprinted Skin in 2013, as part of the trade-paperback collection The Best of Milligan and McCarthy.
Reception
Tom Palmer, Jr. included Skin in "Palmer's Picks", calling it "a powerful, disturbing book".
Awards
1993: nominated for the "Best Graphic Album: New" Eisner Award
Notes
References
External links
Review at Comics Nexus
Comics by Peter Milligan
Tundra Publishing titles
Skinhead
1992 graphic novels
Diseases and disorders in comics |
In Bocca al Lupo is an Italian restaurant in Juneau, Alaska. Established in March 2016, the business was included in The New York Times 2023 list of the 50 best restaurants in the United States. The menu has included King Crab Pappardelle and Salsiccia Pizza.
See also
List of Italian restaurants
References
External links
2016 establishments in Alaska
Culture of Juneau, Alaska
Italian restaurants in the United States
Restaurants established in 2016
Restaurants in Alaska |
Buvik is a former municipality in the old Sør-Trøndelag county, Norway. Buvik existed from 1855 until 1965. The municipality encompassed the extreme northeastern part of what is now the municipality of Skaun in Trøndelag county. It encompassed the roughly area surrounding the Vigda river south of the Gaulosen fjord. The administrative centre was located in the village of Buvika.
History
The municipality was established in 1855 when it split off from the larger municipality of Byneset. Initially, Buvik had a population of 841. During the 1960s, there were many municipal mergers across Norway due to the work of the Schei Committee. On 1 January 1964, the Langørgen farm area (population: 11) was merged into the neighboring municipality of Melhus. Then, on 1 January 1965, the rest of Buvik (population: 1,267) was merged with the neighboring municipalities of Børsa and Skaun to form a new, larger municipality of Skaun.
Name
The municipality (originally the parish) is named after the Buvik inlet (), a small bay located on a southern branch of the main Trondheimsfjorden. The first element is which is a word that describes "waves breaking over hidden rocks". The last element is which means "inlet" or "cove". Historically, the name was spelled , using the definite singular form of the word.
Government
While it existed, this municipality was responsible for primary education (through 10th grade), outpatient health services, senior citizen services, unemployment, social services, zoning, economic development, and municipal roads. During its existence, this municipality was governed by a municipal council of elected representatives, which in turn elected a mayor.
Mayors
The mayors of Buvik:
1848–1856: Erik Walseth
1857-1857: Claus J. Huusby
1858–1861: Jens Christian Walseth
1862–1863: John T. Saltnes
1864–1871: Ole Larsen Huseby
1872–1875: Jens Christian Walseth
1876–1883: Ole Larsen Huseby
1884–1901: Arnt Einum (V)
1902–1904: Alt Evensen Onsøien (V)
1905–1916: John Saltnessand (V)
1917–1922: Erik Huseby (V)
1923–1925: Ole O. Krogstad (V)
1926–1932: John Lereggen (Bp)
1932–1934: Ola Olstad (Bp)
1935–1941: Elling Svange (Bp)
1942–1945: Anders Presthus (NS)
1945-1945: Elling Svange (Bp)
1946–1947: Fredrik Hammer (Ap)
1948–1950: Johan Snøfugl (Bp)
1950–1951: Anders Grøthe (V)
1951-1951: Gisle Overskott (Bp)
1952–1964: Fredrik Hammer (Ap)
Municipal council
The municipal council of Buvik was made up of representatives that were elected to four year terms. The party breakdown of the final municipal council was as follows:
References
Skaun
Former municipalities of Norway
1855 establishments in Norway
1965 disestablishments in Norway |
Carlos Augusto dos Santos da Silva (born ), known as Kaká, is a Brazilian-born Italian futsal player who plays as a pivot for Fuorigrotta and the Italy national futsal team.
Honours
Individual
Serie A top scorer (3): 2008-09, 2012-13, 2015-16
References
External links
The Final Ball profile
1987 births
Living people
Brazilian men's futsal players
Italian men's futsal players
Sportspeople from São Paulo (state) |
Mammalian embryogenesis is the process of cell division and cellular differentiation during early prenatal development which leads to the development of a mammalian embryo.
Difference from embryogenesis of lower chordates
Due to the fact that placental mammals and marsupials nourish their developing embryos via the placenta, the ovum in these species does not contain significant amounts of yolk, and the yolk sac in the embryo is relatively small in size, in comparison with both the size of the embryo itself and the size of yolk sac in embryos of comparable developmental age from lower chordates. The fact that an embryo in both placental mammals and marsupials undergoes the process of implantation, and forms the chorion with its chorionic villi, and later the placenta and umbilical cord, is also a difference from lower chordates.
The difference between a mammalian embryo and an embryo of a lower chordate animal is evident starting from blastula stage. Due to that fact, the developing mammalian embryo at this stage is called a blastocyst, not a blastula, which is more generic term.
There are also several other differences from embryogenesis in lower chordates. One such difference is that in mammalian embryos development of the central nervous system and especially the brain tends to begin at earlier stages of embryonic development and to yield more structurally advanced brain at each stage, in comparison with lower chordates. The evolutionary reason for such a change likely was that the advanced and structurally complex brain, characteristic of mammals, requires more time to develop, but the maximum time spent in utero is limited by other factors, such as relative size of the final fetus to the mother (ability of the fetus to pass mother's genital tract to be born), limited resources for the mother to nourish herself and her fetus, etc. Thus, to develop such a complex and advanced brain in the end, the mammalian embryo needed to start this process earlier and to perform it faster.
Another difference is that during the development of embryonic genitourinary tract, in case of female embryo of placental and marsupial mammals, the uterus is formed, a structure that neither monotremata nor lower chordates have. In every case, including monotremata embryos, the milk glands also develop.
Difference from human embryogenesis
Most mammals develop similarly to humans; during the earliest stages of development, the embryo is largely indistinguishable from another mammal. However, there are phenomena found in human beings not found in all other mammals, as well as phenomena occurring in other mammals, but not in humans.
Humans
Mammals do not have the same human chorionic gonadotropin released from their embryo.
Non-human mammals
The anatomy of the area surrounding an embryo or fetus is different in litter-bearing animals compared to humans: each unborn animal is surrounded by placental tissue and is lodged along one of two long uterine horns rather than in the center of the pear-shaped uterus found in a human female.
See also
Embryogenesis
Mammalian Parthenogenesis
Drosophila embryogenesis
Plant embryogenesis
Developmental biology
Blastomere
Morula
Cdx2
References
External links
Photo of blastocyst in utero
Animal developmental biology |
The Fall of Robespierre is a three-act play written by Robert Southey and Samuel Coleridge in 1794. It follows the events in France after the downfall of Maximilien Robespierre. Robespierre is portrayed as a tyrant, but Southey's contributions praise him as a destroyer of despotism. The play does not operate as an effective drama for the stage, but rather as a sort of dramatic poem with each act being a different scene. According to Coleridge, "my sole aim to imitate the impassioned and highly figurative language of the French Orators and develop the characters of the chief actors on a vast stage of horrors."
Background
To raise money, Southey and Coleridge began to work together in August 1794. According to Southey the project began in "sportive conversation" at the house of their friend Robert Lovell. The three intended to collaborate on a play that would deal with the beheading of Robespierre in July 1794. Their source was news articles that described the final moments of a dispute within the National Assembly. During composition, they were able to write 800 lines in just two days. The play was divided between the three collaborators, with Coleridge composing the first act, Southey composing the second act and Lovell the third. Southey and Lovell completed their acts but Coleridge had only finished part of his the following evening. Southey felt that Lowell's contribution was not "in keeping" and so rewrote the third act himself. Coleridge completed his act. When they turned to Joseph Cottle to publish the work, he refused and Coleridge had to search for another publisher. He took the manuscript to Cambridge, revising and improving his own contribution. Eventually, the work was published in October 1794 by Benjamin Flower. Five hundred copies were printed and circulated in Bath, Cambridge, and London, which brought the writers fame while their personal relationship grew tense.
The events that inspired the work involve Robespierre's taking over of the National Assembly and removing the moderate members. During this time, he also allowed the executions of many individuals and became the center of power during the summer of 1793. The next summer, 28 July 1794, he was executed by guillotine along with 21 others.
Play
The play is filled with various speeches on the topic of liberty. The first scene is set in the Tuileries, in which Bertrand Barère, Jean-Lambert Tallien and Louis Legendre, opponents of Robespierre discuss their plans to challenge the "tyrant". Their conversation comprises highly rhetorical speeches as if they were part of a public meeting.
The peaceful virtues
And every blandishment of private life,
The father's cares, the mother's fond endearment,
All sacrificed to liberty's wild riot.
The third act, originally written by Lovell, was rewritten by Southey. Within the act, the opponents of Robespierre compare themselves to the assassins of Julius Caesar who are restoring the republic. In the final speech, Bertrand Barère discusses the history French Revolution and lists the various would-be despots who have attempted to usurp liberty for Louis XVI to Robespierre himself, concluding that France will be a beacon of liberation to the world.
Never, never,
Shall this regenerated country wear
The despot yoke. Though myriads round assail
And with worse fury urge this new crusade
Than savages have known; though all the leagued despots
Depopulate all Europe, so to pour
The accumulated mass upon our coasts,
Sublime amidst the storm shall France arise
And like the rock amid surrounding waves
Repel the rushing ocean. — She shall wield
The thunder-bolt of vengeance – She shall blast
The despot's pride, and liberate the world.
Themes
Act one reflects Coleridge's feelings about those Robespierre executed, including Madame Roland and Brissot. The tone of the piece is not revolutionary, but it does include themes connected to his other works and reveals Coleridge's thoughts on marriage, politics, and childhood. It also incorporates Coleridge's view that individuals are naturally innocent in a manner similar to Rousseau's belief. This idea, combined with a belief in achieving some sort of paradise, was developed in the works following the play.
The play as a whole deals with many Shakespearean themes and emphasises the precedents of both Brutus and Mark Antony throughout. Southey's third act captures his feelings on the French Revolution and incorporates his radical views. The act also contains his feelings on despotism and liberty.
Critical response
An anonymous review in the November 1794 Critical Review argued that the subject matter would have been appropriate for a tragedy but the events happened too soon to allow for it to be dealt with in an appropriate manner. The reviewer also commented on the haste of the work and that it "must, therefore, not be supposed to smell very strongly of the lamp. However, the review does praise aspects of the poem, as the author writes, "By these free remarks, we mean not to under-rate Mr. Coleridge's historical drama. It affords ample testimony, that the writer is a genuine votary of the Muse, and several parts of it will afford much pleasure to those who can relish the beauties of poetry. Indeed a writer who could produce so much beauty in so little time, must possess powers that are capable of raising him to a distinguished place among the English poets." In the British Critic, an anonymous reviewer argued in 1795 that "The sentiments ... in many instances are naturally, though boldly conceived, and expressed in language, which gives us reason to think the Author might, after some probation, become no unsuccessful wooer of the tragic muse."
Notes
References
Ashton, Rosemary. The Life of Samuel Taylor Coleridge. Oxford: Blackwell, 1997.
Holmes, Richard. Coleridge. New York: Pantheon Books, 1989.
Madden, Lionel (ed). Robert Southey: The Critical Heritage. London: Routledge and Keegan Paul, 1972.
Speck, W. A. Robert Southey. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006.
External links
Online text of The Fall of Robespierre
Works by Samuel Taylor Coleridge
Works by Robert Southey
1794 plays
British poems
Plays set in the French Revolution
Works about Maximilien Robespierre
Cultural depictions of Maximilien Robespierre
Plays based on real people |
The Abacaxis River is a river in the Amazonas state in north-western Brazil. It is located east of the Madeira River and these two are connected via the Paraná Urariá.
Through the Paraná Urariá it is also connected to several other smaller rivers and ultimately Paraná do Ramos, which is a side channel of the Amazon River itself. The Abacaxis River also passes through Lake Guaribas.
The river flows through the Acari National Park created by president Dilma Rousseff in 2016 in the last week before her provisional removal from office.
The river forms the western boundary of the Alto Maués Ecological Station and of the Pau-Rosa National Forest.
References
Rivers of Amazonas (Brazilian state) |
David Bronner (b. 1973) is an American corporate executive and activist. As the top executive at Dr. Bronner's Magic Soaps, he has become known for his activism around a range of issues, especially fair trade, sustainable agriculture, animal rights, and drug policy reform.
Family and education
David Bronner was born in Los Angeles, California, the son of Jim Bronner and Trudy Bronner. He graduated from Harvard University in 1995 with a degree in biology. He is the grandson of Emanuel Bronner, founder of Dr. Bronner's Magic Soaps, an American producer of organic soap and personal care products. His father worked for the company in the 1980s and 1990s, and his mother is the company's chief financial officer.
Business career
In 1997 David Bronner began working for the family business, which was then under the leadership of his father. Following his father's death in 1998, David became the company's president and, working with his brother Michael, grew the company from $4 million in annual revenue in 1998 to $120 million in 2017. In 1999, he joined the small handful of top U.S. executives who voluntarily capped their salaries out of commitment to fair labor principles; Dr. Bronner's Magic Soaps still has its top salary capped at five times that of the company's lowest-paid workers. In 2015, David moved into the newly created position of Cosmic Engagement Officer (CEO), while Michael took over as president.
In 2019 Bronner founded the company Brother David's to produce organic sun-grown cannabis in partnership with the supply chain company Flow Kana and independent small farmers.
The company states that all profits will go to support regenerative agriculture and reform of drug-prohibition laws.
Activism and philanthropy
Dr. Bronner's Magic Soaps has supported causes related to drug policy reform, animal rights, organic labeling, sustainable agriculture, and fair trade practices. Roughly 10 percent of the company's revenue goes to charitable giving and activist causes annually. Organizations that have been supported under Bronner's leadership include the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies (for which Bronner serves on the board of directors), and Sea Shepherd Conservation Society.
A particular target of Bronner's activism has been efforts to protect the hemp industry in the United States. Under his leadership in 2001, the company funded and coordinated with the Hemp Industry Association on its lawsuit against the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), seeking to prevent a ban of hemp food sales in the United States. The Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals granted a stay in the case in 2002 and ruled in favor of the hemp industry in 2004.
Bronner has been arrested twice for civil disobedience while protesting limitations on the domestic production of hemp. In 2009, he was arrested for planting hemp seeds on the lawn at DEA headquarters.
In 2012, he was arrested after harvesting hemp and milling hemp oil while locked in a metal cage in front of the White House. In 2015 he was named Cannabis Activist of the Year by the Seattle Hempfest.
In 2014 Bronner wrote an advertorial drawing attention to the ways that GMO crops have led to increased pesticide use in the United States. It was initially published as a short article in the Huffington Post and subsequently as an ad in various wide-circulation magazines, ranging from The New Yorker to Scientific American. Two leading journals, Science and Nature, refused to carry the ad, in at least one case due to concern over backlash from the GMO industry.
In 2019, David Bronner pledged his company’s matching contribution of $150,000 to Oregon’s statewide ballot initiative to legalize psilocybin assisted therapy.
Personal life
In honor of National Coming Out Day in 2022, Bronner announced in an essay on his website that he uses he/him and they/them pronouns, describing himself as "about 25% girl" and not being "‘straight,’ ‘gay,’ or ‘man’ or ‘woman’". The essay also mentioned Bronner's wife Mia, who is bisexual and genderfluid, and their 25-year-old non-binary child Maya as having inspired him in his gender exploration.
Notes
References
American chief executives of manufacturing companies
Harvard College alumni
People from Los Angeles
1973 births
Living people
Businesspeople from Los Angeles
Non-binary activists
American LGBT businesspeople |
José Alfredo Quintero Ordóñez (born June 20, 1990) is an Ecuadorian footballer who plays as a defender or midfielder for Ecuadorian Serie A side L.D.U. Quito. He made his debut for Ecuador on 22 February 2017 in a match against the Honduras.
Honours
LDU Quito
Ecuadorian Serie A: 2018
Copa Ecuador: 2019
Supercopa Ecuador: 2020, 2021
Copa Sudamericana : 2023
References
1990 births
Living people
Ecuadorian men's footballers
Ecuadorian Serie A players
S.D. Aucas footballers
L.D.U. Quito footballers
Copa Sudamericana-winning players
Ecuador men's international footballers
People from Quinindé Canton
Men's association football midfielders
Men's association football defenders
2019 Copa América players |
Agonidium explanatum is a species of ground beetle in the subfamily Platyninae. It was described by Henry Walter Bates in 1889.
References
explanatum
Beetles described in 1889 |
```javascript
"use strict";
/* eslint-disable max-statements */
const Fs = require("fs");
const Path = require("path");
const util = require("./util");
const subappUtil = require("subapp-util");
const _ = require("lodash");
const assert = require("assert");
const { getXRequire } = require("@xarc/app").isomorphicLoader;
module.exports = function setup(setupContext) {
const cdnEnabled = _.get(setupContext, "routeOptions.cdn.enable");
const distDir = process.env.NODE_ENV === "production" ? "../dist/min" : "../dist/dev";
const clientJs = Fs.readFileSync(Path.join(__dirname, distDir, "subapp-web.js")).toString();
const cdnJs = cdnEnabled
? Fs.readFileSync(Path.join(__dirname, distDir, "cdn-map.js")).toString()
: "";
const loadJs = Fs.readFileSync(require.resolve("loadjs/dist/loadjs.min.js"), "utf8");
//
// TODO: in webpack dev mode, we need to reload stats after there's a change
//
const metricReport = _.get(setupContext, "routeOptions.reporting", {});
const { assets } = util.loadAssetsFromStats(setupContext.routeOptions.stats);
assert(assets, `subapp-web unable to load assets from ${setupContext.routeOptions.stats}`);
setupContext.routeOptions.__internals.assets = assets;
const cdnJsBundles = util.getCdnJsBundles(assets, setupContext.routeOptions);
const bundleAssets = {
jsChunksById: cdnJsBundles,
// md === mapping data for other assets
md: util.getCdnOtherMappings(setupContext.routeOptions),
entryPoints: assets.entryPoints,
basePath: ""
};
// For subapp version 2, when using to do dynamic import,
// code to translate for webpack 4 jsonp bundle loading.
// requires processing done by xarc-webpack/src/plugins/jsonp-script-src-plugin
// TBD: need to update when upgrade to webpack 5
const webpackJsonpJS = cdnEnabled
? Fs.readFileSync(Path.join(__dirname, distDir, "webpack4-jsonp.js")).toString()
: "";
const namespace = _.get(setupContext, "routeOptions.namespace");
let inlineRuntimeJS = "";
let runtimeEntryPoints = [];
if (process.env.NODE_ENV === "production") {
runtimeEntryPoints = Object.keys(assets.chunksById.js).filter(ep =>
assets.chunksById.js[ep].startsWith("runtime.bundle")
);
inlineRuntimeJS =
"/*rt*/" +
runtimeEntryPoints
.map(ep => Path.resolve("dist", "js", Path.basename(cdnJsBundles[ep])))
.filter(fullPath => Fs.existsSync(fullPath))
.map(fullPath => Fs.readFileSync(fullPath))
.join(" ")
.replace(/\/\/#\ssourceMappingURL=.*$/, "") +
"/*rt*/";
inlineRuntimeJS += `\nwindow.xarcV1.markBundlesLoaded(${JSON.stringify(runtimeEntryPoints)}${
namespace ? ", " + JSON.stringify(namespace) : ""
});`;
}
const namespaceScriptJs = namespace ? `window.__default__namespace="${namespace}";` : "";
const scriptId = namespace ? namespace : "bundle";
const { scriptNonce = "" } = util.getNonceValue(setupContext.routeOptions);
const webSubAppJs = `<script${scriptNonce} id="${scriptId}Assets" type="application/json">
${JSON.stringify(bundleAssets)}
</script>
<script${scriptNonce}>/*LJ*/${loadJs}/*LJ*/
${webpackJsonpJS}
${namespaceScriptJs}
${clientJs}
${cdnJs}
${inlineRuntimeJS}
</script>`;
let subAppServers;
const getSubAppServers = () => {
if (subAppServers) {
return subAppServers;
}
// TODO: where and how is subApps set in __internals?
const { subApps } = setupContext.routeOptions.__internals;
// check if any subapp has server side code with initialize method and load them
return (subAppServers =
subApps &&
subApps
.map(({ subapp }) => subappUtil.loadSubAppServerByName(subapp.name, false))
.filter(x => x && x.initialize));
};
const setupIsomorphicCdnUrlMapping = () => {
const extRequire = getXRequire();
if (!extRequire) return;
const cdnAssets = util.loadCdnAssets(setupContext.routeOptions);
const cdnKeys = Object.keys(cdnAssets).map(k => Path.basename(k));
extRequire.setUrlMapper(url => {
const urlBaseName = Path.basename(url);
return (cdnKeys.includes(urlBaseName) && cdnAssets[urlBaseName]) || url;
});
};
if (cdnEnabled) {
setupIsomorphicCdnUrlMapping();
}
return {
process: context => {
context.user.assets = assets;
context.user.includedBundles = {};
runtimeEntryPoints.forEach(ep => {
context.user.includedBundles[ep] = true;
});
if (metricReport.enable && metricReport.reporter) {
context.user.xarcSSREmitter = util.getEventEmiiter(metricReport.reporter);
}
getSubAppServers();
// invoke the initialize method of subapp's server code
if (subAppServers && subAppServers.length > 0) {
for (const server of getSubAppServers()) {
server.initialize(context);
}
}
return webSubAppJs;
}
};
};
``` |
Canal 7 (call sign LW 81 TV) is an television station broadcasting from Santiago del Estero, Argentina and carries programs from Telefe. Founded in 1962 and beginning operations, it was the second station in the country to start broadcasting in color (Canal 7 in Buenos Aires was the first). Currently, it shows most of the network's programs, aside from the weekend cartoons which are preempted as the station doesn't start weekend programming until noon. It also chooses not to show one or two primetime shows, instead showing local interest programs.
Local programming
8:00 AM - Debate Abierto - talk show (Monday to Friday)
1:15 PM - Noticiero 7 Primera Edición - news - (Monday to Friday)
2:00 PM - Portal UNSE - Weekly summary of UNSE news - (every Saturday)
8:15 PM - Noticiero 7 Edición Central - news - (Monday to Friday)
9:15 PM - Libertad de Opinión - talk show - (every Tuesday)
11:00 PM - Opinión Deportiva - sports - (every Sunday)
External links
Official website
Television stations in Argentina
Television channels and stations established in 1965 |
The Society for Endocrinology is an international membership organisation and registered charity representing scientists, clinicians and nurses who work with hormones. The Society was established in 1946, and currently has approximately 3,000 members.
Charitable aims and activities
The Society's aims are:
To advance scientific and clinical education and research in endocrinology for the public benefit.
To attract high quality scientists, doctors and nurses into endocrinology and support their professional development to advance science and medicine.
To engage the public with endocrinology and its impact.
To raise the profile and be the voice of endocrinology in the UK.
To promote and support the global endocrine community through collaboration.
According to the Association of Medical Research charities, in 2015 the Society spent £1,605,456 on charitable activities, with £998,776 directly funding health research in the UK.
History
The Society for Endocrinology was officially formed in 1946. John Folley FRS was elected as the Society’s first Secretary, Cliff Emmens was elected Treasurer, and Lord Zuckerman was made Honorary Editor of the Society's Proceedings. Writing in the Journal of Endocrinology, Zuckerman explained that he actually conceived of creating a Society for Endocrinology with his colleagues, Sir Charles Dodds, Sir Frank Young, and Sir Alan Parkes as early as 1937, but the creation of the Society was postponed due to the outbreak of World War II.
In 1996, the Society established a commercial subsidiary, Bioscientifica, to raise funds for the Society by providing services to third parties.
Publications
The Society for Endocrinology has the following official journals:
Clinical Endocrinology
Journal of Endocrinology
Journal of Molecular Endocrinology
Endocrinology, Diabetes & Metabolism Case Reports
Endocrine Connections
Endocrine-Related Cancer
Endocrine Abstracts.
The Society also publishes a quarterly magazine, The Endocrinologist.
Events
The Society for Endocrinology organises a variety of conferences and training events. Its flagship event is the annual Society for Endocrinology BES conference, which draws an international delegation of scientists, clinicians, nurses and trainee endocrinologists.
References
External links
Endocrinology organizations
Organizations established in 1946
Academic organisations based in the United Kingdom
International medical associations
Medical associations based in the United Kingdom |
Millsap High School is a public high school located in Millsap, Texas, United States. It is part of the Millsap Independent School District serving students in southwest Parker County and classified as a 3A school by the UIL. In 2013, the school was rated "Met Standard" by the Texas Education Agency.
Notable alumni
Casey James - Country singer and American Idol contestant.
References
External links
Millsap ISD
Schools in Parker County, Texas
Public high schools in Texas |
Old Bennington is a village in Bennington County, Vermont, United States. It is located entirely within the town of Bennington. As of the 2020 census, the village had a population of 156.
The village and its surrounding area were added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1984 as Old Bennington Historic District. It is roughly bounded by the former Rutland railroad bed, Monument Avenue, West Road, Seminary Lane, Elm Street, and Fairview Street. The district is noted for its well-preserved Revolutionary War-era homes, and is significant as one of the earliest settlements in Vermont. The centerpieces of the district are the Old First Church (built in 1806 and restored in 1937) and the Bennington Battle Monument.
Geography
Old Bennington is located near the geographic center of the town of Bennington, on a hill overlooking downtown Bennington, which lies to the east. Vermont Route 9 passes through the village, leading east into downtown Bennington and west to the New York state line.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of , all land.
Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 232 people, 101 households, and 62 families residing in the village. The population density was 533.6 people per square mile (208.3/km2). There were 118 housing units at an average density of 271.4/sq mi (106.0/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 93.10% White, 3.88% African American, 0.86% Asian, and 2.16% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.59% of the population.
There were 101 households, out of which 27.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 58.4% were married couples living together, 1.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 38.6% were non-families. 28.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 19.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.30 and the average family size was 2.89.
In the village, the age distribution of the population shows 23.3% under the age of 18, 4.7% from 18 to 24, 17.7% from 25 to 44, 29.3% from 45 to 64, and 25.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 48 years. For every 100 females, there were 88.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 83.5 males.
The median income for a household in the village was $67,500, and the median income for a family was $85,776. Males had a median income of $66,250 versus $48,750 for females. The per capita income for the village was $40,884. About 3.6% of families and 4.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 4.3% of those under the age of eighteen and 4.4% of those 65 or over.
Notable people
William Ellery Channing, a leading Unitarian theologian; died in Old Bennington
Robert Frost, poet
Esther Morgan McCullough, author and musician, is buried at Old Bennington Cemetery
Brevet Lieutenant Colonel Martin Scott, U.S. Army officer who was killed in action in the Mexican–American war
References
Incorporated villages in Vermont
Old Bennington
Villages in Bennington County, Vermont
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Vermont
Historic districts in Bennington County, Vermont |
Alejandra Vallejo (born 21 October 1958) is a Mexican former professional tennis player.
Between 1976 and 1987, Vallejo represented Mexico in 16 Federation Cup ties. She was winless in her eight singles rubbers, but fared better in doubles, finishing with a 6/7 record.
Vallejo regularly competed at the Pan American Games and won four medals for Mexico, all in doubles.
Since retiring she has remained involved in Mexican tennis, serving in roles such as President of the local tennis association and as Fed Cup captain.
ITF finals
Singles: 1 (0–1)
References
External links
1958 births
Living people
Mexican female tennis players
Pan American Games medalists in tennis
Pan American Games silver medalists for Mexico
Pan American Games bronze medalists for Mexico
Central American and Caribbean Games medalists in tennis
Central American and Caribbean Games gold medalists for Mexico
Central American and Caribbean Games silver medalists for Mexico
Tennis players at the 1975 Pan American Games
Tennis players at the 1979 Pan American Games
Tennis players at the 1983 Pan American Games
Medalists at the 1975 Pan American Games
Medalists at the 1979 Pan American Games
Medalists at the 1983 Pan American Games
20th-century Mexican women |
Hendrik Arnoldus "Henk" Vermetten (19 August 1895 – 7 August 1964) was a Dutch footballer.
Starting his career with DVS from Schiedam, Vermetten spent his senior career with HBS. There, he won the Netherlands Football League Championship in the 1924–25 season.
Between 1924 and 1925 and in 1930 he gained six caps for the Netherlands, where he was captain twice. With the Netherlands he took part in the men's tournament at the 1924 Summer Olympics, where they finished fourth. After a five-year absence, he made his return to the Netherlands national team in 1930.
Honours
HBS
Netherlands Football League Championship: 1924–25
References
External links
1895 births
1964 deaths
Dutch men's footballers
Netherlands men's international footballers
Olympic footballers for the Netherlands
Footballers at the 1924 Summer Olympics
Footballers from Rotterdam
Men's association football forwards
Hermes DVS players
HBS Craeyenhout players |
Nicholas Richard Garratt (6 December 1947 – 8 July 2019) was an Australian rowing coach. He was the head coach of Rowing ACT, coaching the ACT High Performance Program along with the ACT Academy of Sport Rowing Program, in Canberra, Australia.
Biography
Garratt previously held down the role as the head coach at Haberfield Rowing Club (now UTS Rowing Club) from 1988 to 1992. He moved back to Western Australia to take on the role of talent identification coach at the Western Australian Institute of Sport, a position he held until 1995. From there he held the head coach position at Mosman Rowing Club, in Sydney, Australia, until early 2017.
In 1995 he coached his first Australian crew, Tim Perkins and Stuart Reside at the 1995 World Junior Rowing Championships in Poznan, Poland. The West Australian combination suffered an ill-fated campaign with Reside being struck down by food poisoning, with the illness affecting more than half of the Australian team. Cameron Taylor (Queensland) was subbed into the crew for Reside and after making it through the heats, the crew had to withdraw to allow Taylor to focus on his other event.
The following year in Strathclyde, Scotland, Garratt's crews enjoyed considerable success coaching at the 1996 World Junior Rowing Championships. Stuart Reside won gold in the Men's Single Scull, while Garratt also coached the gold medal winning Men's Double Scull of Jonathan Fievez and Tim Perkins.
Success continued for Garratt in 1997 at the World Junior Rowing Championships as he coached Amber Bradley to a gold medal in the Women's Single Scull.
His first Olympics as a coach was at the Sydney Olympic Games in 2000. Garratt coached the Men's Quad Scull of Peter Hardcastle, Jason Day, Stuart Reside and Duncan Free to a 4th-placed finish.
Garratt coached two crews at the 2004 Olympics in Athens, Greece. Craig Jones placed 11th in the Men's Single Scull, while Brendan Long and Peter Hardcastle finished 12th in the Men's Double Scull.
Garratt coached five Mosman athletes onto the 2008 Olympic team (Peter Hardcastle, Tom Laurich, Daniel Noonan, Zoe Uphill and Amy Clay). Two (Uphill and Clay) were part of the Women's Quad Scull crew with Amber Bradley and Kerry Hore. The crew were coached by Nick Garratt and made the A Final where they placed 6th.
The 2012 London Olympics were Garratt's fourth as a coach. He coached the Australian Women's Eight to a 6th placing after qualifying the boat earlier in the year in Europe.
In 2016, Garratt was appointed a Member in the General Division of the Order of Australia (AM) in the Australia Day Honours.
In the same year his latest young charge, Tom Schramko, achieved all (1x, 2x,4x) National under-23 men's heavyweight sculling gold as well as stroking the Australian Under23 quad scull to World Championship success in Rotterdam.
Nick died on 8 July 2019 at the age of 71, while coaching the Australian under-23 rowing team.
References
1947 births
2019 deaths
Australian rowing coaches
People educated at Aquinas College, Perth
Members of the Order of Australia |
Acantholeberis is a genus of crustaceans belonging to the monotypic family Acantholeberidae.
Species:
Acantholeberis curvirostris
Acantholeberis dentata
References
Branchiopoda
Branchiopoda genera |
The Peruvian Athletics Sport Federation () (FDPA) is the governing body for the sport of athletics in Perú.
History
FDPA was founded on November 22, 1918 as Federación Atlética Peruana. First president was Alfredo Benavides Canseco. It joined CONSUDATLE in 1925, and Perú's first international appearance was at the IV South American Championships in Montevideo, Uruguay. Later that year, the Peruvian Olympic Committee (Comité Olímpico Peruano) installed a commission for the integration of the sport of athletics. The process resulted in the foundation of the Federación Peruana de Atletismo on February 15, 1927, with president Pedro Villanueva.
After the resignation of Enrique Cusicanqui in 2011, former vice-president Jorge Julián came into office. In December 2012, Miguel Ignacio Mendo was elected president for the period 2013-2016. However, the result was not recognized, and a new election was scheduled, where ex-sprinter Óscar Fernández was nominated and confirmed as new president.
Affiliations
FDPA is the national member federation for Perú in the following international organisations:
International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF)
Confederación Sudamericana de Atletismo (CONSUDATLE; South American Athletics Confederation)
Association of Panamerican Athletics (APA)
Asociación Iberoamericana de Atletismo (AIA; Ibero-American Athletics Association)
Moreover, it is part of the following national organisations:
Peruvian Olympic Committee (Spanish: Comité Olímpico Peruano)
Members
FDPA comprises the regional ligas and/or athletics clubs of Perú.
National records
FDPA maintains the Peruvian records in athletics.
References
External links
Peru
Sports governing bodies in Peru
Sport in Peru
National governing bodies for athletics
Sports organizations established in 1927 |
The ARPA Host Name Server Protocol (NAMESERVER), is an obsolete network protocol used in translating a host name to an Internet address. IANA Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP) port 42 for NAMESERVER; this port is more commonly used by the Windows Internet Name Service (WINS) on Microsoft operating systems.
Application
The NAMESERVER protocol is used by the DARPA Trivial Name Server, a server process called tnamed that is provided in some implementations of UNIX.
Replacement
Support for the NAMESERVER protocol has been deprecated, and may not be available in the latest implementations of all UNIX operating systems. The Domain Name System (DNS) has replaced the ARPA Host Name Server Protocol and the DARPA Trivial Name Server.
See also
List of TCP and UDP port numbers
List of Unix operating systems
Domain Name System
References
External links
IEN 116 Internet Name Server
Development of the domain name system
Application layer protocols
Domain Name System |
Boom Bam (born Gene Heisser, 1971) is one of the founding members of Compton's Most Wanted and underground rap group N.O.T.R.
Heisser was born in Compton, California. He met MC Eiht and Tha Chill while attending Junior High school, and a lifelong friendship developed. In 1987 they created the rap group Compton's Most Wanted and their first album It's A Compton Thang! was released in 1989. The group quickly became famous on the West Coast, and international fame soon followed. After the group dissolved in 1993, Boom Bam appeared with MC Eiht on several of his solo projects. Bam, Eiht, and Chill formed N.O.T.R. in 1995. Atlantic Records bought the album and subsequently shelved the entire project. Underground copies of the album are all that survived.
Boom Bam also had a brief movie career with a minor role in the blockbuster hit Menace II Society and in the movie Rhyme & Reason. He also briefly appeared in the backyard scene of Boyz n the Hood.
Later years
Boom Bam is currently in the studio working with Hard Head Productions on his first solo album titled Still Wanted. It was originally scheduled for release in early 2012, however as of 2021, work still continues on the album. The album will feature a track titled ‘No Vasoline #2’, a diss track against MC Eiht inspired by ‘No Vaseline’ by Ice Cube.
He is currently working as an electrician working on alternative energy systems.
References
1971 births
African-American male rappers
American male rappers
Living people
Rappers from Los Angeles
Gangsta rappers
21st-century American rappers
21st-century American male musicians
21st-century African-American musicians
20th-century African-American people |
Bishop Atanáz László Orosz (born 11 May 1960 in Nyíregyháza, Hungary) is a Hungarian Greek Catholic hierarch as the Eparchial Bishop of the new elevated Hungarian Catholic Eparchy of Miskolc since 20 March 2015 and was the Titular Bishop of Panium and Apostolic Exarch of Apostolic Exarchate of Miskolc from 5 March 2011 until 20 March 2015. Also he served as the Apostolic Administrator of the new created Hungarian Catholic Eparchy of Nyíregyháza from 20 March 2015 until 31 October 2015.
Life
Bishop Orosz was born in the family of the Greek-Catholic priest and, after graduation of the school education, joined the Theological Faculty of the Pázmány Péter Catholic University. He was ordained as a priest on August 4, 1985 in Budapest, after completed philosophical and theological studies. Orosz continued a superior studies in the Alphonsian Academy in Rome (1985–1987). Also he was a prefect, and after – rector of the Major Theological Seminary in Nyíregyháza and experienced monastic life in the Benedictine Chevetogne Abbey. In 1999, together with his friend Péter Fülöp Kocsis, they founded a Hungarian Greek-Catholic monastery in Dámóc.
On March 5, 2011, he was appointed by the Pope Benedict XVI as an Apostolic Exarch of the Apostolic Exarchate of Miskolc and Titular Bishop of Panium. On May 21, 2011, he was consecrated as bishop by Archbishop Cyril Vasiľ and other hierarchs of the Eastern Catholic Churches.
References
1960 births
Living people
People from Nyíregyháza
Pázmány Péter Catholic University alumni
Alphonsian Academy alumni
Hungarian bishops
Hungarian Eastern Catholics
21st-century Eastern Catholic bishops
Bishops of the Hungarian Greek Catholic Church |
Francis III may refer to:
Francesco III Ordelaffi (1357–1405)
Francis III, Duke of Brittany (1518–1536)
Francesco III Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua (1533–1550)
Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor, also Francis III, Duke of Lorraine (1708–1765)
Francesco III d'Este, Duke of Modena (1737–1780) |
Henry Skipwith (died 14 August 1588) was a Member of the Parliament of England for Leicester in 1584 and 1586.
Skipwith was a child of William Skipwith (died 1547) and Alice Dymoke. He married Jane Hall, and had thirteen children, including William Skipwith (died 1610).
See also
Skipwith baronets
References
Members of the Parliament of England for Leicestershire
1588 deaths
English MPs 1584–1585
English MPs 1586–1587
Henry |
Mary Russell (born Mary Marcia Kalbach; April 22, 1912 – August 22, 2005) was an American actress in the 1930s who appeared in Western films and serials. She was born in Oskaloosa, Iowa and died in San Rafael, California. Despite a short film career from 1934 to 1938, Russell had parts in thirty films including the Westerns The Big Show and Riders of the Whistling Skull (1937). In the latter, she was the female lead alongside The Three Mesquiteers.
Filmography
The Personality Kid (1934) as waitress (uncredited)
Friends of Mr Sweeney (1934) as Prime's secretary (uncredited)
The Man with Two Faces (1934) as debutante (uncredited)
A Lost Lady (1934) – undetermined role (uncredited)
Happiness Ahead (1934) as Bob's friend at the Pekin
A Perfect Weekend (1934) as Trucking Company's office girl (uncredited)
Flirtation Walk (1934) as girl (uncredited)
The Secret Bride (1934) as Holdstock's secretary (uncredited)
Bordertown (1935) as Miss Martin - Dale's other friend (uncredited)
A Night at the Ritz (1935) as Miss Barry, Vincent's Secretary
Gold Diggers of 1935 (1935) as second lady (uncredited)
Black Fury (1935) as Mary (uncredited)
Front Page Woman (1935) as information clerk (uncredited)
The Payoff (1935) as secretary (uncredited)
Ah, Wilderness! (1935) as Elsie Rand (uncredited)
The Murder of Dr Harrigan (1936) as Nurse Bertha (uncredited)
My Marriage (1936) as guest (uncredited)
The Luckiest Girl in the World (1936) as manicurist
The Big Show (1936) as Mary
Roarin' Lead (1936) as Orphanage Assistant Mary
Beware of Ladies (1936) as Williams' secretary (uncredited)
The Mandarin Mystery (1936) as girl on street corner
Riders of the Whistling Skull (1937) as Betty Marsh
Larceny on the Air (1937) as nurse (uncredited)
The Silver Trail (1937) as Molly Welburn aka Mary Allen
Murder in Greenwich Village (1937) as Antoinette aka Angel Annie McGillicutty
Man Bites Lovebug (1937; short) as Imogen
Women in Prison (1938) as prisoner (uncredited)
Extortion (1938) as Betty Tisdelle
Squadron of Honor (1938) as Eve Rogers
References
External links
1912 births
2005 deaths
20th-century American actresses
American film actresses
Film serial actresses
Western (genre) film actresses |
Cecil William Kaye (25 June 1865 – 15 May 1941) was a British educationalist. He was headmaster of three schools; Loughborough Grammar School, 1893–1900; Bedford Modern School, 1901–1916 (and Principal of Bedford Evening Institution 1901–1916); and St Bees School, 1916–1926.
Kaye was educated at Marlborough College; University College, Oxford and the University of Würzburg.
Kaye married Dora Millicent, daughter of late Judge William Barber, QC.
References
1865 births
1941 deaths
Alumni of University College, Oxford
Heads of schools in England
People educated at Marlborough College |
Bostrichini is a tribe of horned powder-post beetles in the family Bostrichidae. There are about 16 genera and at least 150 described species in Bostrichini.
Genera
These 16 genera belong to the tribe Bostrichini:
Amphicerus LeConte, 1861 i c g b
Apatides Casey, 1898 i c g b
Bostrichus Geoffroy, 1762 i g
Bostrycharis Lesne, 1925 i c g
Bostrychoplites Lesne, 1899 i c g
Bostrychopsis Lesne, 1899 i g
Calophorus Lesne, 1906 i c g
Dexicrates Lesne, 1899 i c g
Dolichobostrychus Lesne, 1899 i c g
Heterobostrychus Lesne, 1899 i c g b
Lichenophanes Lesne, 1899 i c g b
Megabostrichus Chûjô, 1964 i c g
Micrapate Casey, 1898 i c g b
Neoterius Lesne, 1899 i c g
Parabostrychus Lesne, 1899 i c g
Sinoxylodes Lesne, 1899 i c g
Data sources: i = ITIS, c = Catalogue of Life, g = GBIF, b = Bugguide.net
References
Further reading
External links
Bostrichidae |
The Ethiopia-United States Mapping Mission, also known as the Ethi-U.S. Mapping Mission, was an operation undertaken by the United States Army during the 1960s to provide up-to-date topographic map coverage of the entire country of Ethiopia. The soldiers who conducted the mapping operations on the ground during that time used the latest surveying and mapping techniques and were exposed to many hardships and dangers, but they completed their mission near the end of the decade. The maps that were created still serve as the base maps for the country of Ethiopia and are presently being updated and maintained by the Ethiopian Mapping Authority.
The mission
The Ethiopia-United States Mapping Mission was a mission of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 64th Engineer Battalion, 29th Engineer Company and U.S. Army Map Service, later U.S. Army Topographic Command (TOPOCOM), Special Foreign Activity during the Cold War in the 1960s to survey and map the entire country of Ethiopia, then under the rule of Emperor Haile Selassie I. Aviation support for the Army Map Service was primarily provided by the 572nd Engineer Platoon (Topographic Aviation) and civilian pilots under contract, along with some early support from the U.S. Air Force and Ethiopian Airlines. Battalion Headquarters was located in Leghorn (Livorno), Italy, and the Mapping Mission itself was headquartered in Addis Ababa, the nation's centrally located capital.
The men
The topographic surveyors and their aviation support pilots and crew served on field parties that endured sweltering heat in this Sub Saharan region of Africa. They also struggled to subsist in remote areas of the country that included jungles, deserts, dense bush, mountains and swamps that harbored deadly snakes, crocodiles, lions, leopards, hyenas, hippos, cape buffalo, elephants, wild dogs, dangerous bees and ants, aggressive tribes of baboons and sometimes hostile natives, not to mention any number of malignant diseases. In addition, these troops and their support personnel were frequently required to conduct their operations in active war zones along the Somalia and Sudan borders, where brutal wars and indiscriminate killing had been going on for years, and the area of the country that is now Eritrea, where the Eritrean Liberation Front was engaged in armed struggle with imperial Ethiopian forces as part of the Eritrean War of Independence. According to a country study commissioned by the U.S. Army, the Eritrean War of Independence began in 1961, and intensified in 1962 in response to Ethiopia dissolving the Eritrean-Ethiopian federation. By 1965, the Ethiopian Army devoted a division to fighting the ELF insurgency, including three battalions to guard cities in Eritrea, and a counterinsurgency battalion focused on direct action. The U.S. State Department also noted the effect of the increased insurgency in March of 1965, as the Ethiopian government requested an increase in security assistance aid due to the disruption caused by "Eritrean dissidence."
Consequences of armed conflict in Ethiopia
In at least one case, a survey team was taken captive by insurgent members of the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF) in July 1965. The team consisted of CW3 Jack Kalmbach (UH-1 pilot), Specialist 4 Ronald Dolecki (field classifier), and Habte Mesmer (Ethiopian interpreter). The ELF burned the helicopter and marched the captives approximately 150 miles into Sudan. After 12 days, Dolecki successfully escaped, and the other captives were eventually released. The U.S. government characterized the insurgents as "well armed bandits," apparently an attempt to appease the Ethiopian government. As a consequence of the attacks, the Ethiopian Army began escorting the survey teams. This had already been authorized per the 1953 defense installation treaty between the U.S. and Ethiopia, which authorized the mapping survey and allowed "Ethiopian security forces" to accompany the survey teams outside of installations. In October 1965, another survey team was attacked by insurgents, resulting in one Ethiopian soldier wounded and one ELF insurgent killed in action.
The methods
The aerial photography used by the Ethiopia-United States Mapping Mission was flown by the U.S. Air Force, normally at an altitude above 30,000 feet for optimum coverage. The geographic coordinates (latitude and longitude) of the location of the aircraft (and therefore the aerial photo camera station) with respect to known stations on the ground was controlled horizontally by a system known as HIRAN (High Range Navigation Radar), a large and heavy system that required a large aircraft, such as the RB-50. High-quality horizontal geodetic control was established by the topographic surveyors on the bulky HIRAN ground stations by measuring their cardinal direction distances from nearby photo-identifiable points on which the surveyors established horizontal positions using theodolites and electronic distance meters (EDM) and triangulation and traverse techniques.
A device known as a Terrain Profile Recorder (TPR), which used the boiling point of a liquid chemical at a specific altitude and a gyroscopically stabilized radar altimeter was used to determine and maintain the altitude of the aircraft above a known elevation, such as a large body of water, while taking a series of aerial photographs that overlapped in the direction of flight and across flight lines in order to provide stereoscopic photo coverage of the entire area. Strategically located photo-identifiable points were selected in areas of overlap between photo flight lines and elevations were established on these points by the topographic surveyors using differential levelling techniques.
Geographic coordinates and elevations (representing all three dimensions) were later extended by Army Map Service personnel to other strategically located points on the photos using computers and analytical methods of photogrammetric modeling. These computer-generated photo control points were then used to compile, or draw, the planimetric map to the desired scale and delineate its contours from stereo models of the photos using special stereoscopic mapping equipment. Once the map images were drawn in detail to uniform scale and made into detailed map reproducibles through photographic processes, printing plates were produced and maps were printed in volume on an offset printing press, a fast and efficient process that is still in use today.
Gravimeters, small portable units that provide measurements of the force of gravity, were also used by the surveyors to conduct gravity surveys to further understand the topography of the country and the geodetic datum.
Field classification specialists, soldiers as well as civilians from Army Map Service, were utilized to conduct research on the ground in order to provide names of cities and towns and any other prominent named features, as well as classify types of roads, buildings, hydrographic features such as lakes and rivers, and any other features to be depicted on the maps. Interpreters were used to interview local officials and residents to determine proper names, spelling and usage of features.
The maps
The Ethiopia-U.S. Mapping Mission was activated in July 1963 and during its lifespan involved about a thousand U.S. military and civilian personnel. It was closed out in July 1970 after its topographic surveying mission in Ethiopia was complete. Photogrammetric and cartographic map finishing operations based on these surveys were subsequently completed by Army Map Service/TOPOCOM in Bethesda, Maryland. The primary 1:250,000-scale map series and 1:50,000-scale maps of special interest areas that were created as a result of this operation still serve as the base maps for the country of Ethiopia, and are presently being maintained and updated by the Ethiopian Mapping Authority in Addis Ababa.
Sources
External links
Geoinfo - United Nations Economic Commission for Africa web site, Ethiopia, EMA
ETHIOPIA: The Foreign Minister's Delusion web site
Project King's Ransom Project web site
ETHIOPIA TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS East View Cartographic web site
Ethiopia-United States Mapping Mission
Stars and Stripes Article refers to U.S. Cold War mapping of Ethiopia
Buying Maps from EMA
Cartography organizations
United States Army projects
Maps of Ethiopia
Ethiopia–United States relations |
Storvik is a locality situated in Sandviken Municipality, Gävleborg County, Sweden with 2,165 inhabitants in 2010.
Storvik was and still is an important railway junction for freight trains. Here the Northern Main Line, the Bergslagen Line and the goods route through Bergslagen meet up.
Storvik once had the longest train platform in Europe.
References
Populated places in Sandviken Municipality
Gästrikland |
Clain may refer to:
Clain is a surname. Notable people with the name include:
People with the surname
Elvira Clain-Stefanelli (1914–2001), American numismatist and advisor to the US Mint
Fabien Clain (1978–2019), French purported veteran jihadist terrorist
Médéric Clain (born 1976), French cyclist
Pablo Clain (1652–1717), Jesuit missionary and scientist in the Philippines
See also
Similar surnames: Clein, Cline, Clyne, Klein, Kleine, Kline, Klyne |
Muster may refer to:
Military terminology
Muster (military), a process or event for the accounting for members in a military unit
Muster list, list of the functions for team members
A mustering, in military terminology, is a specialised formation, similar to an administrative corps
People
Bill Muster (1926–1989), photographer, publisher, and marketing executive in Los Angeles
Brad Muster (born 1965), former American football fullback
Miki Muster (1925–2018), Slovenian cartoonist and animator
Peter Muster (born 1952), Swiss sprinter
Thomas Muster (born 1967), former World Number 1 tennis player
Places
Mustér, the Romansh name for the municipality of Disentis, Switzerland
Other uses
Muster drill, also known as a lifeboat drill
Muster (livestock), the rounding-up of livestock
Muster (grape), another name for the Italian wine grape Avarengo
Muster (event), a competitive skills event held between fire departments
Muster (census), an official population count, conducted by a government
Muster (Texas A&M University), a tradition at Texas A&M University in the US.
Ute muster, an auto show
See also
Must (disambiguation)
Musters, a surname (with a list of people of this name) |
Ēriks Vanags (born 20 January 1893 in Riga) was a Latvian track and field athlete who competed for the Russian Empire in the 1912 Summer Olympics. In 1912 he finished 20th in the shot put competition and 39th in the discus throw event.
References
External links
list of Latvian athletes
1893 births
Year of death missing
Latvian male shot putters
Male shot putters from the Russian Empire
Athletes (track and field) at the 1912 Summer Olympics
Athletes from Riga
Olympic athletes for the Russian Empire |
A tablet (also known as a pill) is a pharmaceutical oral dosage form (oral solid dosage, or OSD) or solid unit dosage form. Tablets may be defined as the solid unit dosage form of medication with suitable excipients. It comprises a mixture of active substances and excipients, usually in powder form, that are pressed or compacted into a solid dose. The main advantages of tablets are that they ensure a consistent dose of medicine that is easy to consume.
Tablets are prepared either by moulding or by compression. The excipients can include diluents, binders or granulating agents, glidants (flow aids) and lubricants to ensure efficient tabletting; disintegrants to promote tablet break-up in the digestive tract; sweeteners or flavours to enhance taste; and pigments to make the tablets visually attractive or aid in visual identification of an unknown tablet. A polymer coating is often applied to make the tablet smoother and easier to swallow, to control the release rate of the active ingredient, to make it more resistant to the environment (extending its shelf life), or to enhance the tablet's appearance.
Medicinal tablets were originally made in the shape of a disk of whatever colour their components determined, but are now made in many shapes and colours to help distinguish different medicines. Tablets are often imprinted with symbols, letters, and numbers, which allow them to be identified, or a groove to allow splitting by hand. Sizes of tablets to be swallowed range from a few millimetres to about a centimetre.
The compressed tablet is the most commonly seen dosage form in use today. About two-thirds of all prescriptions are dispensed as solid dosage forms, and half of these are compressed tablets. A tablet can be formulated to deliver an accurate dosage to a specific site in the body; it is usually taken orally, but can be administered sublingually, buccally, rectally or intravaginally. The tablet is just one of the many forms that an oral drug can take such as syrups, elixirs, suspensions, and emulsions.
History
Pills are thought to date back to around 1500 BC. Earlier medical recipes, such as those from 4000 BC, were for liquid preparations rather than solids. The first references to pills were found on papyruses in ancient Egypt and contained bread dough, honey, or grease. Medicinal ingredients, such as plant powders or spices, were mixed in and formed by hand to make little balls, or pills.
In ancient Greece, such medicines were known as katapotia ("something to be swallowed"), and the Roman scholar Pliny, who lived from 23 to 79 AD, first gave a name to what we now call pills, calling them pilula.
Pills have always been difficult to swallow, and efforts have been made to make them go down easier. In mediaeval times, people coated pills with slippery plant substances. Another approach, used as recently as the 19th century, was to gild them in gold and silver, although this often meant that they would pass through the digestive tract with no effect. In the 1800s, sugar coating and gelatin coating were invented, as were gelatin capsules.
In 1843, the British painter and inventor William Brockedon was granted a patent for a machine capable of "Shaping Pills, Lozenges, and Black Lead by Pressure in Dies". The device was capable of compressing powder into a tablet without the use of an adhesive.
Types
Pills
A pill was originally defined as a small, round, solid pharmaceutical oral dosage form of medication. The word's etymology reflects the historical concepts of grinding the ingredients with a mortar and pestle and rolling the resultant paste or dough into lumps to be dried. Today, in its strict sense, the word pill still refers specifically to tablets (including caplets) rather than capsules (which were invented much later), but because a simple hypernym is needed to intuitively cover all such oral dosage forms, the broad sense of the word pill is also widely used and includes both tablets and capsules — colloquially, any solid oral form of medication falls into the "pill" category (see pill § Usage notes).
An early example of a pill comes from ancient Rome. They were made of zinc carbonates, hydrozincite and smithsonite. The pills were used for sore eyes and were found aboard a Roman ship that wrecked in 140 BC. However, these tablets were meant to be pressed on the eyes, not swallowed.
Factors affecting during tablet manufacturing (Defects)/(Imperfections).
Formulation related— Sticking, picking, binding.
Tablets processing— Capping, lamination, cracking, chipping.
Machine— Double Impression.
Caplets
A caplet is a smooth, coated, oval-shaped medicinal tablet in the general shape of a capsule. Many caplets have an indentation running down the middle, so they may be split in half more easily. Consumers have viewed capsules as the most effective way to take medication ever since they first appeared. For this reason, producers of drugs such as OTC analgesics wanting to emphasize the strength of their product developed the "caplet", a portmanteau of capsule-shaped tablet, in order to tie this positive association to more efficiently produced tablet pills as well as being an easier-to-swallow shape than the usual disk-shaped tablet.
Orally disintegrating tablets (ODT)
An orally disintegrating tablet or orodispersible tablet (ODT), is a drug dosage form available for a limited range of over-the-counter (OTC) and prescription medications.
Tabletting formulations
In the tablet-pressing process, it is important that all ingredients be fairly dry, powdered or granular, somewhat uniform in particle size, and freely flowing. Mixed particle sized powders segregate during manufacturing operations due to different densities, which can result in tablets with poor drug or active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) content uniformity, but granulation should prevent this. Content uniformity ensures that the same API dose is delivered with each tablet.
Some APIs may be compressed into tablets as pure substances, but this is rarely the case; most formulations include excipients. Normally, a pharmacologically inactive ingredient (excipient), termed a binder, is added to help hold the tablet together and give it strength. A wide variety of binders may be used, with some common ones including lactose, dibasic calcium phosphate, sucrose, corn (maize) starch, microcrystalline cellulose, povidone polyvinylpyrrolidone and modified cellulose (for example, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose and hydroxyethylcellulose).
Often, an ingredient is also needed to act as a disintegrator to aid tablet dispersion once swallowed, releasing the API for absorption. Some binders, such as starch and cellulose, are also excellent disintegrators.
Tablet properties
Tablets can be made in virtually any shape, although the requirements of patients and tableting machines mean that most are round, oval, or capsule-shaped. More unusual shapes have been manufactured, but patients find these harder to swallow, and they are more vulnerable to chipping or manufacturing problems.
Tablet diameter and shape are determined by the machine tooling used to produce them; a die plus an upper and a lower punch are required. This is called a station of tooling. The amount of tablet material and the placement of the punches in relation to one another during compression determine the thickness. Once this is done, we can measure the corresponding pressure applied during compression. The shorter the distance between the punches, the greater the pressure applied during compression, and sometimes the harder the tablet. Tablets need to be hard enough that they do not break up in the bottle, yet friable enough that they disintegrate in the gastric tract.
Tablets need to be strong enough to resist the stresses of packaging, shipping, and handling by the pharmacist and patient. The mechanical strength of tablets is assessed using a combination of simple failure and erosion tests, and more sophisticated engineering tests. The simpler tests are often used for quality control purposes, whereas the more complex tests are used during the design of the formulation and manufacturing process in the research and development phase. Standards for tablet properties are published in the various international pharmacopeias (USP/NF, EP, JP, etc.). The hardness of tablets is the principal measure of mechanical strength. Hardness is tested using a tablet hardness tester. The units for hardness have evolved since the 1930s but are commonly measured in kilograms per square centimetre. Models of testers include the Monsanto (or Stokes) Hardness Tester from 1930, the Pfizer Hardness Tester from 1950, the Strong Cob Hardness Tester and the Heberlain (or Schleeniger) Hardness Tester.
Lubricants prevent ingredients from clumping together and from sticking to the tablet punches or capsule filling machine. Lubricants also ensure that tablet formation and ejection can occur with low friction between the solid and die wall, as well as between granules, which helps in uniform filling of the die.
Common minerals like talc or silica, and fats, e.g. vegetable stearin, magnesium stearate or stearic acid are the most frequently used lubricants in tablets or hard gelatin capsules.
Manufacturing
Manufacture of the tableting blend
In the tablet pressing process, the appropriate amount of active ingredient must be in each tablet. Hence, all the ingredients should be well mixed. If a sufficiently homogenous mix of the components cannot be obtained with simple blending processes, the ingredients must be granulated prior to compression to assure an even distribution of the active compound in the final tablet. Two basic techniques are used to granulate powders for compression into tablets: wet granulation and dry granulation. Powders that can be mixed well do not require granulation and can be compressed into tablets through direct compression ("DC"). Direct compression is desirable as it is quicker. There is less processing, equipment, labor, and energy consumption. However, DC is difficult when a formulation has a high content of poorly compressible active ingredients.
Wet granulation
Wet granulation is a process of using a liquid binder to lightly agglomerate the powder mixture. The amount of liquid has to be properly controlled, as over-wetting will cause the granules to be too hard and under-wetting will cause them to be too soft and friable. Aqueous solutions have the advantage of being safer to deal with than solvent-based systems but may not be suitable for drugs which are degraded by hydrolysis.
Procedure
The active ingredient and excipients are weighed and mixed.
The wet granulate is prepared by adding the liquid binder–adhesive to the powder blend and mixing thoroughly. Examples of binders/adhesives include aqueous preparations of cornstarch, natural gums such as acacia, cellulose derivatives such as methyl cellulose, gelatin, and povidone.
Screening the damp mass through a mesh to form pellets or granules.
Drying the granulation. A conventional tray-dryer or fluid-bed dryer are most commonly used.
After the granules are dried, they are passed through a screen of smaller size than the one used for the wet mass to create granules of uniform size.
Low shear wet granulation processes use very simple mixing equipment, and can take a considerable time to achieve a uniformly mixed state. High shear wet granulation processes use equipment that mixes the powder and liquid at a very fast rate, and thus speeds up the manufacturing process. Fluid bed granulation is a multiple-step wet granulation process performed in the same vessel to pre-heat, granulate, and dry the powders. It is used because it allows close control of the granulation process.
Dry granulation
Dry granulation processes create granules by light compaction of the powder blend under low pressures. The compacts so-formed are broken up gently to produce granules (agglomerates). This process is often used when the product to be granulated is sensitive to moisture and heat. Dry granulation can be conducted on a tablet press using slugging tooling or on a roll press called a roller compactor. Dry granulation equipment offers a wide range of pressures to attain proper densification and granule formation. Dry granulation is simpler than wet granulation, therefore the cost is reduced. However, dry granulation often produces a higher percentage of fine granules, which can compromise the quality or create yield problems for the tablet. Dry granulation requires drugs or excipients with cohesive properties, and a 'dry binder' may need to be added to the formulation to facilitate the formation of granules.
Hot melt extrusion
Hot melt extrusion is utilized in pharmaceutical solid oral dose processing to enable delivery of drugs with poor solubility and bioavailability. Hot melt extrusion has been shown to molecularly disperse poorly soluble drugs in a polymer carrier increasing dissolution rates and bioavailability. The process involves the application of heat, pressure and agitation to mix materials together and 'extrude' them through a die. Twin-screw high shear extruders blend materials and simultaneously break up particles. The extruded particles can then be blended and compressed into tablets or filled into capsules.
Granule lubrication
After granulation, a final lubrication step is used to ensure that the tableting blend does not stick to the equipment during the tableting process. This usually involves low shear blending of the granules with a powdered lubricant, such as magnesium stearate or stearic acid.
Manufacture of the tablets
Whatever process is used to make the tableting blend, the process of making a tablet by powder compaction is very similar. First, the powder is filled into the die from above. The mass of powder is determined by the position of the lower punch in the die, the cross-sectional area of the die, and the powder density. At this stage, adjustments to the tablet weight are normally made by repositioning the lower punch. After die filling, the upper punch is lowered into the die and the powder is uniaxially compressed to a porosity of between 5 and 20%. The compression can take place in one or two stages (main compression, and, sometimes, pre-compression or tamping) and for commercial production occurs very fast (500–50 mg per tablet). Finally, the upper punch is pulled up and out of the die (decompression), and the tablet is ejected from the die by lifting the lower punch until its upper surface is flush with the top face of the die. This process is repeated for each tablet.
Common problems encountered during tablet manufacturing operations include:
Fluctuations in tablet weight, usually caused by uneven powder flow into the die due to poor powder flow properties.
Fluctuations in dosage of the Active Pharmaceutical Ingredient, caused by uneven distribution of the API in the tableting blend (either due to poor mixing or separation in process).
Sticking of the powder blend to the tablet tooling, due to inadequate lubrication, worn or dirty tooling, or a sticky powder formulation
Capping, lamination or chipping. This is caused by air being compressed with the tablet formulation and then expanding when the punch is released: if this breaks the tablet apart, it can be due to incorrect machine settings, or due to incorrect formulation: either because the tablet formulation is too brittle or not adhesive enough, or because the powder being fed to the tablet press contains too much air (has too low bulk density).
Capping can also occur due to high moisture content.
Consequently, permanent consistency checks are required during the manufacturing process.
Tablet compaction simulator
Tablet formulations are designed and tested using a laboratory machine called a Tablet Compaction Simulator or Powder Compaction Simulator. This is a computer controlled device that can measure the punch positions, punch pressures, friction forces, die wall pressures, and sometimes the tablet internal temperature during the compaction event. Numerous experiments with small quantities of different mixtures can be performed to optimise a formulation.
Mathematically corrected punch motions can be programmed to simulate any type and model of production tablet press. Initial quantities of active pharmaceutical ingredients are very expensive to produce, and using a Compaction Simulator reduces the amount of powder required for product development.
Tablet presses
Tablet presses, also called tableting machines, range from small, inexpensive bench-top models that make one tablet at a time (single-station presses), with only around a half-ton pressure, to large, computerized, industrial models (multi-station rotary presses) that can make hundreds of thousands to millions of tablets an hour with much greater pressure. The tablet press is an essential piece of machinery for any pharmaceutical and nutraceutical manufacturer. Tablet presses must allow the operator to adjust the position of the lower and upper punches accurately, so that the tablet weight, thickness and density/hardness can each be controlled. This is achieved using a series of cams, rollers, or tracks that act on the tablet tooling (punches). Mechanical systems are also incorporated for die filling, and for ejecting and removing the tablets from the press after compression. Pharmaceutical tablet presses are required to be easy to clean and quick to reconfigure with different tooling, because they are usually used to manufacture many different products.
There are two main standards of tablet tooling used in pharmaceutical industry: American standard TSM and European standard EU. TSM and EU configurations are similar to each other but cannot be interchanged.
Modern tablet presses reach output volumes of up to 1,700,000 tablets per hour. These huge volumes require frequent in-process quality control for the tablet weight, thickness and hardness. Due to reduce rejects rates and machine down-time, automated tablet testing devices are used on-line with the tablet press or off-line in the IPC-labs.
Tablet coating
Many tablets today are coated after being pressed. Although sugar-coating was popular in the past, the process has many drawbacks. Modern tablet coatings are polymer and polysaccharide based, with plasticizers and pigments included. Tablet coatings must be stable and strong enough to survive the handling of the tablet, must not make tablets stick together during the coating process, and must follow the fine contours of embossed characters or logos on tablets. Coatings are necessary for tablets that have an unpleasant taste, and a smoother finish makes large tablets easier to swallow. Tablet coatings are also useful to extend the shelf-life of components that are sensitive to moisture or oxidation. Special coatings (for example with pearlescent effects) can enhance brand recognition.
If the active ingredient of a tablet is sensitive to acid, or is irritant to the stomach lining, an enteric coating can be used, which is resistant to stomach acid, and dissolves in the less acidic area of the intestines. Enteric coatings are also used for medicines that can be negatively affected by taking a long time to reach the small intestine, where they are absorbed. Coatings are often chosen to control the rate of dissolution of the drug in the gastrointestinal tract. Some drugs are absorbed better in certain parts of the digestive system. If this part is the stomach, a coating is selected that dissolves quickly and easily in acid. If the rate of absorption is best in the large intestine or colon, a coating is used that is acid resistant and dissolves slowly to ensure that the tablet reaches that point before dispersing. To measure the disintegration time of the tablet coating and the tablet core, automatic disintegration testers are used which are able to determine the complete disintegration process of a tablet by measuring the rest height of the thickness with every upward stroke of the disintegration tester basket.
There are two types of coating machines used in the pharmaceutical industry: coating pans and automatic coaters. Coating pans are used mostly to sugar coat pellets. Automatic coaters are used for all kinds of coatings; they can be equipped with a remote control panel, a dehumidifier, and dust collectors. An explosion-proof design is required for applying coatings that contain alcohol.
Pill-splitters
It is sometimes necessary to split tablets into halves or quarters. Tablets are easier to break accurately if scored, but there are devices called pill-splitters which cut unscored and scored tablets. Tablets with special coatings (for example, enteric coatings or controlled-release coatings) should not be broken before use, as this exposes the tablet core to the digestive juices, circumventing the intended delayed-release effect.
See also
Reagent testing
References
Further reading
Kibbe, A.H., ed. Handbook of Pharmaceutical Excipients. 3rd Edition ed. 2000, American Pharmaceutical Association & Pharmaceutical Press: Washington, DC & London, UK.
Hiestand, E.N., 2003. Mechanics and physical principles for powders and compacts, SSCI Inc., West Lafayette, In, USA.
United States Pharmacopeia, United States Pharmacopeia / National Formulary (USP25/NF20). 2002, Rockville, MD: United States Pharmacopeia Convention Inc.
Chemical engineering
Pharmaceutical industry
Drug delivery devices
Dosage forms |
Carry the Meek is the debut album by Irish band Ham Sandwich. It was released on 18 February 2008 and has received average to favourable reviews. It didn't initially appear on streaming platforms, being released across them on 18th April 2023 for the band's 20th anniversary
Production
Ham Sandwich had been performing live for several years and had already released several singles before beginning work on their first album in 2006. Carry the Meek was recorded starting at JAM Studios, Kells with Producer Martin Quinn and also in a home-made studio at Headfort House in their home-town of Kells, produced by Karl Odlum and mastered by Fred Kevorkian. The album was released on 15 February 2008 on the band's own label, Route 109A Records. On the day that the album was released the band won the Hope for 2008 Award at the Meteor Music Awards.
The artwork for the album was designed with the help of the band's fans, who were encouraged to send the band their photographs on the theme of heartbreak.
Reception
Upon its release the album peaked at 23 on the Irish album charts. Reviews from the Irish media were generally positive.
Patrick Freyne of Hot Press gave the album 4 out of 5 stars, saying "Generally the tracks have a real heart tugging quality to them, with rising melodies and great musical diversions as middle eighths – the band really know how to build a song to an epic climax", singling out the vocal interplay between McNamee and Farrell as the band's "secret weapon". Harry Guerin writing for RTÉ Entertainment gave an equally positive review, declaring that "Ham Sandwich turn in as assured and alluring a debut as you'll get".
A less positive review by Lauren Murphy of entertainment.ie gave the album 2 out of 5 stars, saying that "Carry the Meek is a disappointing, characterless album that offers little or no sense of individuality. Like a ham sandwich, it fills a void and will do for the time being - but sometimes, you need to sink your teeth into something a bit more nutritious".
Track listing
Sources:
Personnel
Ham Sandwich
Niamh Farrell - lead vocals
Podge McNamee - lead vocals, guitar
Brian Darcy - guitar
John Moore - bass
Ollie Murphy - drums
Production
Karl Odlum - production
Martin Quinn - engineering
Charts
References
2008 debut albums
Ham Sandwich (band) albums |
Frank-Manuel Peter (born 1959) is a German dance researcher and historian.
Life and work
Born in Berlin, Peter studied theatre, history of art, German studies and library science at the Free University of Berlin and graduated as a master's degree. In 2004, he was promoted to Ph.D. with a thesis on Dore Hoyer.
Peter has been director of the Deutsches Tanzarchiv Köln since 1986. He has been a lecturer since 2005 and an honorary professor for the dance studies programme at the Hochschule für Musik und Tanz Köln since 2012.
He is in charge of the book series Studien und Dokumente zur Tanzwissenschaft published by the Deutsches Tanzarchiv Köln, with Walter Salmen and from volume 8 onwards with Gabriele Busch-Salmen the series Terpsichore - Tanzhistorische Studien and the Bibliographie deutschsprachiger Hochschulschriften zur Tanzwissenschaft/Tanzforschung.
Peter is a member of the advisory board of the Alexander and Renata Camaro foundation.
Publications
Valeska Gert. Tänzerin, Schauspielerin, Kabarettistin. With a foreword by Volker Schlöndorff. Frölich und Kaufmann, Berlin 1985; 2nd edition: Hentrich, Berlin 1987;
with Hedwig Müller & Garnet Schuldt: Dore Hoyer. Tänzerin. Hentrich, Berlin 1992;
Zwischen Ausdruckstanz und Postmodern Dance. Dore Hoyers Beitrag zur Weiterentwicklung des modernen Tanzes in den 1930er Jahren. Dissertation. Freie Universität Berlin 2004 (Online-Zugang).
Das Berliner Hansaviertel and the Interbau 1957. Sutton, Erfurt 2007;
(co-author): Musikstadt Köln. Geschichte und Gegenwart. Dohr, Cologne 2013;
Der Maler/The Painter Ernst Oppler. Berliner Secession & Russisches Ballett/The Berlin Secession & The Russian Ballet. Wienand, Cologne 2017;
Editorship:
with Susan Au: Documentation beyond performance. Dance scholarship today. Internationales Theaterinstitut, Berlin 1989;
Der Tänzer Harald Kreutzberg. Hentrich, Berlin 1997;
Birgit Åkesson. Postmoderner Tanz aus Schweden/Postmodern Dance from Sweden. Wienand, Cologne 1998;
Tanz & Eros/Dance & Eros, Ausstellungskatalog. Photographs by Dieter Blum. Deutsches Tanzarchiv, Cologne 1998;
Isadora & Elizabeth Duncan in Deutschland. Wienand, Cologne 2000; .
Annelise Löffler, Anneliese Planken, Wilhelm Gorré: Pas de trois. Deutsches Tanzarchiv Köln, Cologne 2001.
with Rainer Stamm: Die Sacharoffs. Zwei Tänzer aus dem Umkreis des Blauen Reiters. Wienand, Cologne 2002, .
Henri Justamant: Giselle ou les Wilis. Ballet fantastique en deux actes. Olms, Hildesheim 2008;
Die Tanzkritiken von Artur Michel in der Vossischen Zeitung von 1922 bis 1934 nebst einer Bibliographie seiner Theaterkritiken. Lang, Frankfurt, 2015;
With Thomas Thorausch: „Man ist kühn genug, um unmodern zu sein“. Klaus Geitels Tanzkritiken 1959–1979. Henschel, Leipzig 2019;
Valeska Gert: Ich bin eine Hexe. Kaleidoskop meines Lebens. Alexander, Berlin 2019; .
with Yvonne Hardt: Yvonne Georgi. Tagebuch und Dokumente zu Tanztourneen mit Harald Kreutzberg (1929–1931). Eine andere Recherche zu den Potenzialen einer kritischen Nachlassforschung. Wienand, Cologne 2019;
He is for the "Deutsche Tanzarchiv Köln" editor or co-editor of monographs by other authors on Kurt Jooss, Oda Schottmüller, Hanna Berger, Alexander von Swaine, and Gret Palucca, as well as three CD-ROMs.
References
External links
Kurzbiografie Frank-Manuel Peter on the website of the Hochschule für Musik und Tanz Köln
Cultural academics
Academic staff of the Hochschule für Musik und Tanz Köln
1959 births
Living people
Artists from Berlin |
Nuno Frazão (born 25 December 1971) is a Portuguese fencer. He competed in the individual épée event at the 1996 Summer Olympics.
References
External links
1971 births
Living people
Portuguese male épée fencers
Olympic fencers for Portugal
Fencers at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Sportspeople from Lisbon |
Oceanian records in the sport of athletics are ratified by the Oceania Athletics Association (OAA).
Outdoor
Key to tables:
+ = en route to a longer distance
h = hand timing
OT = oversized track (> 200m in circumference)
A = affected by altitude
a = aided road course according to IAAF rule 260.28
Men
Women
Mixed
Indoor
Men
Women
Notes
References
General
Oceania Records 24 July 2023 updated
Specific
External links
OAA web site
Oceanian Rankings, Records and Best Performances
records |
The Rural Municipality of Dundurn No. 314 (2016 population: ) is a rural municipality (RM) in the Canadian province of Saskatchewan within Census Division No. 11 and Division No. 5. It is located in the north-central portion of the province along the South Saskatchewan River and surrounds the Town of Dundurn.
History
The RM of Dundurn No. 314 incorporated as a rural municipality on December 13, 1909.
Geography
Notable geographical features in the RM include Brightwater Lake, Blackstrap Lake, Indi Lake, Mount Blackstrap, Brightwater Creek, and Allan Hills.
Communities and localities
The following urban municipalities are surrounded by the RM.
Towns
Dundurn
Resort villages
Shields
Thode
The following unincorporated communities are within the RM.
Organized hamlets
Beaver Creek
The RM is also home to the Hillcrest Hutterite Colony and the Canadian Forces Ammunition Depot Dundurn Canadian Forces Base.
Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, the RM of Dundurn No. 314 had a population of living in of its total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of . With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021.
In the 2016 Census of Population, the RM of Dundurn No. 314 recorded a population of living in of its total private dwellings, a change from its 2011 population of . With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2016.
Attractions
Indi Lake
Blackstrap Lake
Blackstrap Provincial Park
Lakeside Golf Resort
Otopasso MX Par
Circle H Ranch
Haultain Trinity Lutheran Church
Government
The RM of Dundurn No. 314 is governed by an elected municipal council and an appointed administrator that meets on the third Tuesday of every month. The reeve of the RM is Vacant while its Chief Administrative Officer is G. Craig Baird. The RM's office is located in the Town of Dundurn.
Saskatoon—Biggar is the federal electoral district for the RM, which is represented by an elected member of parliament. The member of the legislative assembly represents the Arm River-Watrous provincial constituency.
References
External links
D
Division No. 11, Saskatchewan |
Geoffrey II of Thouars (990 - 1055), was the son of Savary III. He was the viscount of Thouars from 1015 to 1043.
Viscount
Geoffrey succeeded his uncle Ralph I in 1015, continuing the war against William V of Poitiers and Hugues IV of Lusignan, and capturing the castle of Mouzeuil. After years of indecisive warfare, peace was sealed with the marriage of the daughter of Ralph I, Audéarde, with Hugh IV of Lusignan.
Geoffrey's relations with Fulk III Nerra, Count of Anjou, were strained as a result of the castle built by Geoffrey at in 1026. The castle was a threat to the county of Anjou; in response, Fulk's castellan, Girorius, halted the castle's construction at the cost of his own life.
Despite this hostility, Geoffrey allied with the son of Fulk Nerra, Geoffrey II of Anjou, and assisted him in his attempt to seize power in the County of Poitiers and the Duchy of Aquitaine. They devastated the surroundings of Poitiers, while William VI, Duke of Aquitaine did the same in the Angevin regions of Loudun and Mirebeau. On 9 September 1033, Geoffrey Martel and Geoffrey II of Thouars defeat William at Moncontour.
Geoffrey de Thouars became a monk at Saint-Michel-en-l'Herm just before dying in 1055.
Marriage and family
Geoffrey married Agnès de Blois, daughter of Odo I, Count of Blois and Bertha of Burgundy, they have:
Aimery IV
Savary, Viscount of Fontenay
Geoffrey
Raoul
Hélène born about 1030, who married Archambaud I Janvre, lord of Bouchetière.
See also
Viscounts of Thouars
References
Sources
990 births
1055 deaths
11th-century French people
Medieval French nobility |
"May God have mercy upon your soul" or "may God have mercy on your soul" is a phrase used within courts in various legal systems by judges pronouncing a sentence of death upon a person found guilty of a crime that carries a death sentence. The phrase originated in beth din courts in the Kingdom of Israel as a way to attribute God as the highest authority in law. The usage of the phrase later spread to England and Wales' legal system and from there to usage throughout the colonies of the British Empire whenever a death sentence was passed.
Depending on where it is used, the phrase has had different emphasis through the years. It was formally intended as a prayer for the soul of the condemned. However, in later times, particularly in the United States, it has only been said as a result of legal tradition where the religious meaning and origin is not founded on belief.
Wording
The phrase is used by the presiding judge pronouncing the sentence of death after putting on a black cap and black gloves. In England, the black gloves were a deliberate contrast with the white gloves normally worn at the end of an Assize sitting, which indicated there had been no death sentence passed during the Assize. The wording of the traditional phrase has changed over time. In England, the wording in the 18th century was "and the Lord have mercy upon thy soul". This later developed into "may God have mercy upon your soul", which was used as the traditional closing sentence by judges passing the death sentence in England and Wales, Canada and Australia. The phrase is treated as a prayer and would traditionally be followed by "amen". Newspaper reports would cite the usage of the phrase as "the usual words had been said".
In the 18th century, the common wording of the phrase in England was "the law is that thou shalt return to the place whence thou camest and from thence to a place of execution where thou shalt hang by the neck till the body be dead. Dead. Dead. And the Lord have mercy upon thy soul". This phrase later developed over time until the 1940s when the phrase in Dominions of the British Empire was:
History
The phrase is likely to have originated in the Kingdom of Israel following the Law of Moses in beth din courts as a way of giving credence to the authority of God as the author of all law. It is likely to have come from Deuteronomy 16:18 where it stated: "Judges and officers shalt thou make thee in all thy gates, which the Lord thy God giveth thee, tribe by tribe; and they shall judge the people with righteous judgment". This gave rise to the theory that judges had been given authority from God to exercise judgment on matters of the law and would use the phrase to attribute this fact to God. The phrase continued to be used in courts, passing from Jewish to Christian context as a way to continue to affirm God as the highest authority in law. Clarence Darrow, Oliver O'Donovan and the Chicago Law Journal have stated that the phrase's continual usage may have come about as a result of judges feeling that while they could pass a sentence of death upon a person, they personally did not have the authority to destroy souls and that only God had the authority to do that. As a result, some judges would cross their fingers whenever they said the phrase as a result of concern for the criminal's soul as they said it as a prayer. While the phrase is intended to be said by judges with conviction, it is also said because of legal tradition and not necessarily due to belief in its meaning. During the 17th century in the Massachusetts Bay Colony, the Puritan majority of judges at the time did not believe that stating "may God have mercy on your soul" had any meaning unless the accused had made a confession of the crime in open court. They, and other Puritan office holders, would also regularly press the condemned up until the point of execution to make a confession of the crime they had been convicted of to ensure that the phrase satisfactorily had meaning according to their views.
In the United States, following independence from Great Britain, the phrase was not commonly used. However, when the first death sentence was passed in Taos County, New Mexico, the judge used the phrase but immediately followed it with a statement that the court would not be responsible for asking "an all wise providence" to do something the jury could not do due to the American principle of separation of church and state. In the 19th century, due to American law moving away from moral judgments based on Christian principles towards the principle of a judgment that was "beyond reasonable doubt", the phrases "not having the fear of God before your eyes" and "may God have mercy upon your soul" were the very few remainders within the American court system of the British colonial morality-based trials. Despite this, "may God have mercy on your soul" has been used as a closing statement in modern times by American judges when passing a sentence of death. Sometimes as it is mandated by state law, other times as a result of legal tradition. A version of the phrase was used by a Florida judge when Aileen Wuornos was sentenced to death, the judge in this case stated "and may God have mercy on your corpse".
References
Courts
Quotations from religion
Legal terminology
Legal procedure
Religion and capital punishment
English legal terminology
American legal terminology |
Aaron Fairooz (born November 10, 1983) is a former Canadian football wide receiver. Fairooz signed as a free agent on March 19, 2010, with the Saskatchewan Roughriders. He was released by the Riders on September 6, 2011.
References
External links
Saskatchewan Roughriders bio
http://www.fairoozimaging.com
1983 births
Living people
Canadian football wide receivers
Hamilton Tiger-Cats players
Players of American football from Arlington, Texas
Players of Canadian football from Texas
Saskatchewan Roughriders players
Arkansas Twisters players
Winnipeg Blue Bombers players
Dallas Vigilantes players
Spokane Shock players |
P was a streetcar line in Los Angeles, California. It was operated by the Los Angeles Railway from 1895 to 1958, and by the Los Angeles Metropolitan Transit Authority from 1958 to 1963.
History
Pico Street Electric Railway (1887–90)
The first streetcar line on Pico Boulevard was short lived, running from an orange grove at Lorde Street (present-day Harvard Boulevard) to the Plaza de Los Angeles by way of Pico, Maple Avenue, 7th Street, San Julian Street, 3rd Street, and Los Angeles Street. The company began running cars in January 1887 as the first electrified streetcar in the western United States. but went under within a few years.
The modern route
The Pico and First Street Line was one of the first routes built by the new Los Angeles Railway in 1895. Its route lay between Pico and Van Ness Avenue on the west and Brooklyn and Rowan avenues on the east, via Pico Boulevard, Main Street, Broadway, 1st Street, and Rowan Avenue. In 1919, Broadway was extended south from 11th and Main to Pico Boulevard, removing the line from Main Street entirely.
In the 1920 service rerouting, the western end of the West Pico and Santa Fe Station Line was combined with the eastern portion of the Boyle Heights and West 7th Street Line to form the West Pico & East First Street Line. The new line ran from Brooklyn and Rowan via Rowan, First, Broadway, and Pico to Delaware. It was assigned the letter designation P in 1921. While the route was unchanged for the rest of its existence, the Rimpau Loop and Dozier loop were added in 1935 and 1936, respectively.
The line was commuted to the Los Angeles Metropolitan Transit Authority in 1958. Service was converted to motor coach operation on March 31, 1963.
Gage Street Shuttle Line
As part of the Los Angeles Railway's expansion, a shuttle line was built north from Rowan and Dozier along Rowan, Hammel and Gage to Blanchard Street, at the foot of what is now City Terrace. This service was designated as route 34. Ridership was very low and the route was discontinued by LATL.
Rolling stock
In 1947, Los Angeles Railway purchased 40 PCC streetcars to replace the old rolling stock on the line.
Partial restoration
The Gold Line Eastside Extension was a project by the Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority (successor to LARy services) to establish a light rail line to East Los Angeles. From the previous terminus at Union Station, trains operate primarily via 1st Street to Indiana, though the majority of the line is in a tunnel.
Sources
External links
P Line Archives — Pacific Electric Railway Historical Society
Los Angeles Railway routes
Railway services introduced in 1920
1920 establishments in California
Railway services discontinued in 1963
1963 disestablishments in California |
```kotlin
package mega.privacy.android.legacy.core.ui.controls.controlssliders
import androidx.compose.foundation.isSystemInDarkTheme
import androidx.compose.foundation.layout.Arrangement
import androidx.compose.foundation.layout.Row
import androidx.compose.foundation.selection.toggleable
import androidx.compose.material.MaterialTheme
import androidx.compose.material.Text
import androidx.compose.runtime.Composable
import androidx.compose.runtime.getValue
import androidx.compose.runtime.mutableStateOf
import androidx.compose.runtime.remember
import androidx.compose.runtime.setValue
import androidx.compose.ui.Alignment
import androidx.compose.ui.Modifier
import androidx.compose.ui.R
import androidx.compose.ui.res.stringResource
import androidx.compose.ui.semantics.Role
import androidx.compose.ui.tooling.preview.PreviewParameter
import mega.privacy.android.shared.original.core.ui.controls.controlssliders.MegaSwitch
import mega.privacy.android.shared.original.core.ui.preview.BooleanProvider
import mega.privacy.android.shared.original.core.ui.preview.CombinedTextAndThemePreviews
import mega.privacy.android.shared.original.core.ui.theme.OriginalTempTheme
import mega.privacy.android.shared.original.core.ui.theme.grey_alpha_087
import mega.privacy.android.shared.original.core.ui.theme.white_alpha_087
/**
* A switch with a label
*/
@Composable
fun LabelledSwitch(
label: String,
checked: Boolean,
onCheckChanged: (Boolean) -> Unit,
modifier: Modifier = Modifier,
) {
Row(
verticalAlignment = Alignment.CenterVertically,
horizontalArrangement = Arrangement.SpaceBetween,
modifier = modifier
.toggleable(
value = checked,
role = Role.Checkbox,
onValueChange = onCheckChanged
)
) {
Text(
text = label,
style = MaterialTheme.typography.subtitle1,
color = if (!MaterialTheme.colors.isLight) white_alpha_087 else grey_alpha_087
)
MegaSwitch(
checked = checked,
onCheckedChange = null,
)
}
}
@CombinedTextAndThemePreviews
@Composable
private fun LabelledSwitchPreview(
@PreviewParameter(BooleanProvider::class) initialValue: Boolean,
) {
var checked by remember { mutableStateOf(initialValue) }
OriginalTempTheme(isDark = isSystemInDarkTheme()) {
LabelledSwitch(label = stringResource(if (checked) R.string.on else R.string.off),
checked = checked,
onCheckChanged = { checked = !checked })
}
}
``` |
Danilo Nicolás Suárez García (born March 7, 1989 ) is a Uruguayan professional footballer who plays as a goalkeeper for Deportivo Marquense in the Liga Nacional de Fútbol de Guatemala.
Club career
Suarez started his career playing with Tacuarembó. He made his professional debut during the 2014/15 season.
References
1994 births
Living people
Uruguayan men's footballers
Club Atlético River Plate (Montevideo) players
Tacuarembó F.C. players
Miramar Misiones players
Men's association football goalkeepers
People from Artigas, Uruguay
Footballers from Artigas Department |
Pigeons have featured in numerous experiments in comparative psychology, including experiments concerned with animal cognition, and as a result there is considerable knowledge of pigeon intelligence.
Available data show, for example, that:
Pigeons have the capacity to share attention between different dimensions of a stimulus, but (like humans and other animals) their performance with multiple dimensions is worse than with a single stimulus dimension.
Pigeons can be taught relatively complex actions and response sequences, and can learn to make responses in different sequences.
Pigeons readily learn to respond in the presence of one simple stimulus and withhold responding in the presence of a different stimulus, or to make different responses in the presence of different stimuli.
Pigeons can discriminate between other individual pigeons, and can use the behaviour of another individual as a cue to tell them what response to make.
Pigeons readily learn to make discriminative responses to different categories of stimuli, defined either by arbitrary rules (e.g. green triangles) or by human concepts (e.g. pictures of human beings).
Pigeons do less well with categories defined by abstract logical relationships, e.g. "symmetrical" or "same", though some experimenters have successfully trained pigeons to discriminate such categories.
Pigeons seem to require more information than humans for constructing a three-dimensional image from a plane representation.
Pigeons seem to have difficulty in dealing with problems involving classes of classes. Thus they do not do very well with the isolation of a relationship among variables, as against a representation of a set of exemplars.
Pigeons can remember large numbers of individual images for a long time, e.g. hundreds of images for periods of several years.
All these are capacities that are likely to be found in most mammal and bird species. In addition pigeons have unusual, perhaps unique, abilities to learn routes back to their home from long distances. This homing behaviour is different from that of birds that learn migration routes, which usually occurs over a fixed route at fixed times of the year, whereas homing is more flexible; however similar mechanisms may be involved.
Pigeons showed mirror-related behaviours during the mirror test.
Discrimination abilities of pigeons
In an article from 1995, Watanabe, Sakamoto, and Wakita described an experiment which showed that pigeons can be trained to discriminate between paintings by Picasso and by Monet. The birds were first trained on a limited set of paintings. The experiment has shown that a pigeon was able to obtain food by repeated pecking when shown a painting from Picasso; when it was a Monet, pecking had no effect. After a while, the pigeons would only peck when shown Picasso paintings. They were then able to generalize and correctly discriminate between paintings of the two painters not previously shown, and even between cubist and impressionist paintings (cubism and impressionism being the two stylistic schools Picasso and Monet belong to). When the Monet paintings were shown upside down, the pigeons were not able to properly categorize anymore. Showing the cubist works upside down did not have such an effect.
In 1995, the authors won the Ig Nobel Prize in psychology for this work.
In a later paper, Watanabe showed that if pigeons and human college students undergo the same training, their performance in distinguishing between Van Gogh and Chagall paintings is comparable.
Similar experiments had shown earlier that pigeons can be trained to distinguish between photos of human beings and those that do not. Other experiments replaced the humans with trees, and among many other examples.
In all these cases, discrimination is quite easy for humans, even though the classes are so complex that no simple distinguishing algorithm or rule can be specified. It has therefore been argued that pigeons are able to form "concepts" or "categories" similar to humans, but that interpretation is controversial. Nevertheless, the experiments remain important and often cited examples in cognitive science.
Levenson et al. demonstrated in a 2015 paper that rock dove pigeons (Columba livia), which share many visual system properties with humans, can serve as promising surrogate observers of medical images, a capability not previously documented. The birds were tested on their ability to distinguish benign from malignant human breast histopathology images and could even apply what they had learned to previously unseen images. However, when faced with a more challenging task, they reverted to image memorisation and thus showed little generalisation to novel examples.
See also
Animal intelligence
Bird intelligence
Pigeon photography
Project Pigeon
Richard Herrnstein
Ludwig Huber
References
Watanabe, S.: "Van Gogh, Chagall and Pigeons: Picture Discrimination in Pigeons and Humans", Animal Cognition, vol. 4, nos. 3-4 (2001), pp. 147–151.
Porter, D. and Neuringer, A. "Music discriminations by pigeons." Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behaviour Processes, 10 (1984), pp. 138–148
External links
Avian Visual Cognition edited by Robert G. Cook - a cyber book containing much material about pigeons
Animal intelligence
Domestic pigeons |
The Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change is a 700-page report released for the Government of the United Kingdom on 30 October 2006 by economist Nicholas Stern, chair of the Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment at the London School of Economics (LSE) and also chair of the Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy (CCCEP) at Leeds University and LSE. The report discusses the effect of global warming on the world economy. Although not the first economic report on climate change, it is significant as the largest and most widely known and discussed report of its kind.
The Review states that climate change is the greatest and widest-ranging market failure ever seen, presenting a unique challenge for economics. The Review provides prescriptions including environmental taxes to minimise the economic and social disruptions. The Stern Review's main conclusion is that the benefits of strong, early action on climate change far outweigh the costs of not acting. The Review points to the potential impacts of climate change on water resources, food production, health, and the environment. According to the Review, without action, the overall costs of climate change will be equivalent to losing at least 5% of global gross domestic product (GDP) each year, now and forever. Including a wider range of risks and impacts could increase this to 20% of GDP or more, also indefinitely. Stern believes that 5–6 degrees of temperature increase is "a real possibility".
The Review proposes that one per cent of global GDP per annum is required to be invested to avoid the worst effects of climate change. In June 2008, Stern increased the estimate for the annual cost of achieving stabilisation between 500 and 550 ppm CO2e to 2% of GDP to account for faster than expected climate change.
There has been a mixed reaction to the Stern Review from economists. Several economists have been critical of the Review, for example, a paper by Byatt et al. (2006) describes the Review as "deeply flawed". Some economists (such as Brad DeLong and John Quiggin) have supported the Review. Others have criticised aspects of Review's analysis, but argued that some of its conclusions might still be justified based on other grounds, e.g., see papers by Martin Weitzman (2007) and Dieter Helm (2008).
Summary of the Review's main conclusions
The executive summary states:
The benefits of strong, early action on climate change outweigh the costs.
The scientific evidence points to increasing risks of serious, irreversible impacts from climate change associated with business-as-usual (BAU) paths for emissions.
Climate change threatens the basic elements of life for people around the world—access to water, food production, health, and use of land and the environment.
The impacts of climate change are not evenly distributed—the poorest countries and people will suffer earliest and most. And if and when the damages appear it will be too late to reverse the process. Thus we are forced to look a long way ahead.
Climate change may initially have small positive effects for a few developed countries, but it is likely to be very damaging for the much higher temperature increases expected by mid-to-late century under BAU scenarios.
Integrated assessment modelling provides a tool for estimating the total impact on the economy; our estimates suggest that this is likely to be higher than previously suggested.
Emissions have been, and continue to be, driven by economic growth; yet stabilisation of greenhouse gas concentration in the atmosphere is feasible and consistent with continued growth.
"Central estimates of the annual costs of achieving stabilisation between 500 and 550ppm CO2e are around 1% of global GDP, if we start to take strong action now. [...] It would already be very difficult and costly to aim to stabilise at 450ppm CO2e. If we delay, the opportunity to stabilise at 500–550ppm CO2e may slip away."
The transition to a low-carbon economy will bring challenges for competitiveness but also opportunities for growth. Policies to support the development of a range of low-carbon and high-efficiency technologies are required urgently.
Establishing a carbon price, through tax, trading or regulation, is an essential foundation for climate change policy. Creating a broadly similar carbon price signal around the world, and using carbon finance to accelerate action in developing countries, are urgent priorities for international co-operation.
Adaptation policy is crucial for dealing with the unavoidable impacts of climate change, but it has been under-emphasised in many countries.
An effective response to climate change will depend on creating the conditions for international collective action.
There is still time to avoid the worst impacts of climate change if strong collective action starts now.
Background
On 19 July 2005 the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Gordon Brown announced that he had asked Sir Nicholas Stern to lead a major review of the economics of climate change, to understand more comprehensively the nature of the economic challenges and how they can be met, in the UK and globally. The Stern Review was prepared by a team of economists at HM Treasury; independent academics were involved as consultants only. The scientific content of the Review was reviewed by experts from the Walker Institute.
The Stern review was not released for regular peer-review, since the UK Government doesn't undertake peer review on commissioned reviews. Papers were published and presentations held, that outlined the approach in the months preceding the release.
Positive critical response
The Stern Review attracted positive attention from several sectors. Pia Hansen, a European Commission Spokeswoman, said doing nothing is not an option, "we must act now". Simon Retallack of the UK think tank IPPR said "This [Review] removes the last refuge of the 'do-nothing' approach on climate change, particularly in the US." Tom Delay of The Carbon Trust said "The Review offers a huge business opportunity." Richard Lambert, Director General of the Confederation of British Industry, said that a global system of carbon trading is "urgently needed". Charlie Kronick of Greenpeace said "Now the government must act and, among other things, invest in efficient decentralised power stations and tackle the growth of aviation."
Asset managers F&C look to the business opportunities and say "this is an unprecedented opportunity to generate real value for our clients". Brendan Barber, General Secretary of the Trades Union Congress, was optimistic about the opportunities for industry to meet demands created by investment in technology to combat climate change. The Prince of Wales' Corporate Leaders Group on Climate Change, formed by 14 of UK's leading companies shared this hope. Chairman of Shell UK, James Smith, expressed the hope of the group that business and Government would discuss how Britain could obtain "first mover advantage" in what he described as "massive new global market".
On 1 November 2006, Australian Prime Minister John Howard responded by announcing that A$60 million would be allotted to projects to help cut greenhouse gas emissions while reiterating that Australia would not ratify the Kyoto Protocol. Much of this funding was directed at the non-renewable coal industry.
British Prime Minister, Tony Blair, stated that the Review demonstrated that scientific evidence of global warming was "overwhelming" and its consequences "disastrous" if the world failed to act. The UK Treasury, which commissioned the report, simultaneously published a document of favourable comments on the Review. Those quoted include:
Paul Wolfowitz, former President of the World Bank
Claude Mandil, Executive Director of the International Energy Agency
Kirit Parikh, Member, Planning Commission, Government of India
Adair Turner, Former Director of UK Confederation of British Industry and Economic Advisor to Sustainable Development Commission
Sir Rod Eddington, Adviser to the UK Government on the long term links between transport and economic growth, and former chief executive of British Airways
Several academic economists are also quoted praising the Review (see Response of economists).
Negative critical response
The Stern Review has received various critical responses. Some economists have argued that the Review overestimates the present value of the costs of climate change, and underestimates the costs of emission reduction. Other critics have argued that the economic cost of the proposals put forward by Stern would be severe, or that the scientific consensus view on global warming, on which Stern relied, is incorrect. By contrast, some argue that the Review emission reduction targets are too weak, and that the climate change damage estimates in the Review are too small.
General criticisms
In an article in the Daily Telegraph (2006), Ruth Lea, Director of the Centre for Policy Studies, questions the scientific consensus on climate change on which the Stern Review is based. She says that "authorities on climate science say that the climate system is far too complex for modest reductions in one of the thousands of factors involved in climate change (i.e., carbon emissions) to have a predictable effect in magnitude, or even direction." Lea questions the long-term economic projections made in the Review, commenting that economic forecasts for just two or three years ahead are usually wrong. Lea goes on to describe the problem of drawing conclusions from combining scientific and economic models as "monumentally complex", and doubts whether the international co-operation on climate change, as argued for in the Review, is really possible. In conclusion, Lea says that the real motive behind the Review is to justify increased tax on fuels.
Yohe and Tol (2007) described Lea's article as a climate sceptics "scattershot approach" aiming to confuse the public by questioning the causal role of , by emphasising the complexity of making economic predictions and by attributing a motive for Stern's conclusions.
Miles Templeman, Director-General of the Institute of Directors, said: "Without countries like the US, China or India, making decisive commitments, UK competitiveness will undoubtedly suffer if we act alone. This would be bad for business, bad for the economy and ultimately bad for our climate."
Prof. Bill McGuire of Benfield UCL Hazard Research Centre said that Stern may have greatly underestimated the effects of global warming. David Brown and Leo Peskett of the Overseas Development Institute, a UK think-tank on international development, argued that the key proposals in relation to how to use forests to tackle climate change may prove difficult to implement:
Soon after publication of the Stern Review, former Chancellor of the Exchequer Nigel Lawson gave a lecture at the Centre for Policy Studies, briefly criticising the Review and warning of what he called "eco-fundamentalism". In 2008, Lawson gave evidence before the House of Commons Treasury Select committee, criticising the Review.
Environmental writer Bjørn Lomborg criticised the Stern Review in OpinionJournal:
Reason magazine's science correspondent Ronald Bailey describes the "destructive character" of the Stern Review's policy proposals, saying that "Surely it is reasonable to argue that if one wants to help future generations deal with climate change, the best policies would be those that encouraged economic growth. This would endow future generations with the wealth and superior technologies that could be used to handle whatever comes at them including climate change. [...] So hurrying the process of switching from carbon-based fuels along by boosting energy costs means that humanity will have to delay buying other good things such as clean water, better sanitation, more and better food, and more education."
Commenting on the Review's suggested increases in environmental tax, the British Chambers of Commerce have pointed to the dangers to business of additional taxation.
Jerry Taylor of the Cato Institute, a United States libertarian think-tank, criticised Stern's conclusion, taking a calculation by himself:
In the BBC radio programme The Investigation, a number of economists and scientists argued that Stern assumptions in the Review are far more pessimistic than those made by most experts in the field, and that the Review's conclusions are at odds with the mainstream view (Cox and Vadon, 2007).
In his paper on the Jevons' Paradox, which states that improvements in energy-efficiency of technologies can potentially increase greenhouse gas emission, Steve Sorrel concludes with "A prerequisite for all the above is a recognition that rebound effects matter and need to be taken seriously. Something is surely amiss when such in-depth and comprehensive studies as the Stern(2007) review overlook this topic altogether." This criticism was rejected by the authors. They noted that by recommending a comprehensive global carbon price (see Summary above) the Stern Review proposed the most powerful mechanism for staunching the rebound effect. A carbon price imposes a wedge between the supply price received by producers and demand price paid by consumers thereby prompting substitution away from carbon-intensive activities. This insures that the substitution effect offsets the income effect.
In contrast to those who argued that the Stern Review was too pessimistic or 'alarmist', others argued that it did not go far enough. John Bellamy Foster, Brett Clark and Richard York in The Ecological Rift (2010) give considerable attention to the Stern Review, noting that the targets of 550 ppm imply a global temperature increase of at least 3 °C "well beyond what climate science consider dangerous, and which would bring the earth's average global temperature to a height last seen in the middle Pliocene around 3 million years ago" (p. 154). They posit that the basis for such high targets is "economics, pure and simple" (p. 155), that is, stronger emissions cuts were seen by the Stern Review authors as "prohibitive, destabilizing capitalism itself" (p. 155). "All of this signals that any reduction in CO2 equivalent emissions beyond around 1 per cent per year would make it virtually impossible to maintain strong economic growth—the bottom line of the capitalism economy. Consequently, in order to keep the treadmill of accumulation going the world needs to risk environmental Armageddon" (p. 156).
Stern report misused climate change study
According to the Sunday Times article "Climate change study was 'misused, the Stern report 'misused' disaster analysts research by Robert Muir-Wood, head of research at Risk Management Solutions, a US-based consultancy. The Stern report, citing Muir-Wood, said: "New analysis based on insurance industry data has shown that weather-related catastrophe losses have increased by 2% each year since the 1970s over and above changes in wealth, inflation and population growth/movement. [...] If this trend continued or intensified with rising global temperatures, losses from extreme weather could reach 0.5%–1% of world GDP by the middle of the century." According to Muir-Wood "said his research showed no such thing and accused Stern of "going far beyond what was an acceptable extrapolation of the evidence".
Response of economists
Discounting
One of the issues debated among economists was the discount rate used in the Review. Discounting is used by economists to compare economic impacts occurring at different times. Discounting was used by Stern in his calculation of the possible economic damages of future climate change. Marginal climate change damages were calculated for a "business-as-usual" greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions pathway. Residual climate change damages (at the margin) were also calculated for other emissions pathways, especially one peaking at 450 ppm CO2e GHG concentration.
There are four main reasons commonly proposed by economists for placing a lower value on consumption occurring in the future rather than in the present:
future consumption should be discounted simply because it takes place in the future and people generally prefer the present to the future (inherent discounting)
consumption levels will be higher in the future, so the marginal utility of additional consumption will be lower
future consumption levels are uncertain
improved technology of the future will make it easier to address global warming concerns
Using a high discount rate decreases the assessed benefit of actions designed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The Stern Review did not use a single discount rate, but applied a stochastic approach whereby the discount rate varied with the expected outcomes, reflecting the interaction between growth and the elasticity of marginal utility, in line with Frank Ramsey's growth model. The Stern Review's average discount rate for climate change damages is approximately 1.4%, which, at the time of the Review, was lower than that used in most previous economic studies on climate change. Accounting for risk in the stochastic framework, however, means the expected mean or certainty equivalent discount rate will be below the discount rate for the mean expected outcome (Dietz, 2008, p. 11).
In other words, accounting for risk means a greater weight is applied to worst case outcomes, as per the insurance market.
Inherent discounting
Debate over the Stern Review initially focused on the first of these points. In the Review, Stern used a social discount rate based on the "Ramsey" formula, which includes a term for inherent discounting, also called the pure rate of time preference (PTP-rate):
s = γ + η g
where s is the social discount rate, γ the PTP-rate, η the marginal elasticity of utility, and g the rate of growth of per-capita consumption (Dietz, 2008, p. 10).
Stern accepts the case for discounting, but argues that applying a PTP-rate of anything much more than zero to social policy choice is ethically inappropriate. His view is supported by a number of economists, including Geoffrey Heal, Thomas Sterner,William Cline, and Brad DeLong. Cline wrote a book on global warming, published in 1992, where he made similar ethical choices to Stern for discounting. DeLong, echoing Frank Ramsey and Tjalling Koopmans, wrote "My view—which I admit may well be wrong—of this knotty problem is that we are impatient in the sense of valuing the present and near-future much more than we value the distant future, but that we shouldn't do so." Hal Varian stated that the choice of discount rate was an inherently ethical judgement for which there was no definitive answer.
William Nordhaus, of Yale University, who has done several studies on the economics of global warming, criticised the Review for its use of a low discount rate:
{{quote|The Reviews unambiguous conclusions about the need for extreme immediate action will not survive the substitution of assumptions that are more consistent with today's marketplace real interest rates and savings rates. Hence, the central questions about global-warming policy—how much, how fast, and how costly—remain open. The Review informs but does not answer these fundamental questions.}}
The difference between Stern's estimates and those of Nordhaus can largely (though not entirely) be explained by the difference in the PTP-rate. Previous studies by Nordhaus and others have adopted PTP-rates of up to 3 per cent, implying that (other things being equal) an environmental cost or benefit occurring 25 years in the future is worth about half as much as the same benefit today. Richard Tol argues that in estimating discounting rates and the consequent social cost of carbon, the assumptions that must be made about the remote future are so uncertain that they are essentially arbitrary. Consequently, the assumptions made dominate the results and with a low discount rate the social cost of carbon is also arbitrary.
In an appearance before the House of Commons Treasury Select Committee (2008), Stern was asked about the discount rate used in the Review:
Stern: [...] We are in pretty good company here in that [the distinguished economists] Solow, Sen, Keynes, Ramsey and all kinds of people have adopted the approach to pure time discounting that we have adopted. It is not particularly unusual.
John Roemer, Humberto Llavador and Joaquim Silvestre have argued that an analysis of the problem must consider both the ethical and economic issues associated with discounting. They have made the claim that high rates of discounting as the ones proposed by Nordhaus are only consistent with the infinitely-lived-representative-agent approach to economic modelling. Intergenerational justice would require more realistic assumption: one particular view is what they call the "sustainabilitarian" approach, which seeks to maximise present consumption subject to the constraint that future generations enjoy a quality of life at least as good as that enjoyed by the current generation. They support the discount factors used in the Stern analysis, particularly the view that discounting should reflect only the probability that the world will end at a given future date, and not the "impatience" of an infinitely lived representative consumer.)
Treatment of uncertainty
Uncertainty about future consumption may be addressed either through adjustments to the discount rate or by replacing uncertain flows of consumption with certainty equivalent flows. Stern adopted the latter approach, but was criticised by Tol and Yohe (2006) for double counting, a claim rejected by the Stern Review team (Dietz et al., 2007, pp. 138–139). Whilst critical of Stern's discounting, Martin Weitzman has argued that standard discounting procedures are inherently incapable of dealing with extreme, low-probability events, such as the risk of catastrophic climate change.
Future consumption will be higher
With increasing average consumption in future, the marginal utility of consumption will decline. The elasticity of the marginal utility of consumption (part of the social discount rate) may be interpreted as a measure of aversion to inequality. Partha Dasgupta has criticised the Stern Review for parametric choices that, he argues, are inadequately sensitive to inequality. In subsequent debate, Stern has conceded the case for a higher elasticity, but noted that this would call for much more extensive redistribution of income within the current generation (Dietz et al. 2007. pp. 135–137).
Improved technology
As far as discounting is concerned, the effects of improved technology work through increased consumption and do not need to be treated separately. However, specification of an optimal response to climate change will depend on assumptions about improvements in technology and the extent to which such improvements will be induced by policies that increase the cost of emissions.
Market rates
Both supporters and opponents of Stern's discount rate have used comparisons with market rates of return on capital to justify their position. Robert Mendelsohn of Yale University is a critic of the Review and has said:
[...] investments in mitigation that cannot even earn a positive rate of return will be worth far less to future generations than those same dollars invested in the market. Placing climate change before investments in other important nonmarket services such as conservation, health, education, security, and transportation also cannot be justified in the name of future generations. From the perspective of future generations, it is in their interest that all investments earn the same rate of return. The ethical justification for intentionally overspending on selective projects with low rates of return is weak indeed.
Nordhaus has been very critical of the Ramsey zero pure time preference on the basis of utilitarian ethical stance. He takes a strictly market based view of intergenerational projects arguing that the social rate of time preference reflects the rate of return observed in the marketplace. Nordhaus also raised his view that the present generation will have to forgo a large amount of consumption now for the benefit of future generations who will be much richer than the present generation.
Dasgupta argues that there is some confusion in the Stern review about the underlying rationale for the selection of the Ramsey parameters. He states that the review mixes both market returns on investment with parameters selected on ethical grounds.
The discount rate chosen by Stern is close to the real interest rate for government bonds. The higher rates preferred by Stern's critics are closer to the weighted average cost of capital for private investment; see the extensive review by Frederick et al. (2002) According to Quiggin, the difference between the two is determined by the equity premium. Quiggin says that there is no generally accepted theory accounting for the observed magnitude of the equity premium and hence no easy way of determining which approach, if either, should be regarded as the appropriate market comparator.
General comments
HM Treasury have issued a document where several economists are quoted praising the Stern Review, including Robert Solow, James Mirrlees, Amartya Sen, Joseph Stiglitz, and Jeffrey Sachs. Sachs and Stiglitz have also written favourable articles on the Review.
Richard Tol, an environmental economist at the Economic and Social Research Institute, is highly critical of the Stern Review, and has said that "If a student of mine were to hand in this report [the Stern Review] as a Masters thesis, perhaps if I were in a good mood I would give him a 'D' for diligence; but more likely I would give him an 'F' for fail (Cox and Vadon, 2007). There is a whole range of very basic economics mistakes that somebody who claims to be a Professor of Economics simply should not make. [...] Stern consistently picks the most pessimistic for every choice that one can make. He overestimates through cherry-picking, he double counts particularly the risks and he underestimates what development and adaptation will do to impacts." Tol has referred to the Stern Review as "populist science." In a paper published in 2008, Tol showed that the Stern Review's estimate of the social cost of carbon (SCC) along a "business-as-usual" emissions pathway was an outlier in the economics literature.
Harvard economist Martin Weitzman has written a paper on the Stern Review (Weitzman, 2007). In this paper, Weitzman described himself as "skeptical" in regards to the discount rate used by Stern in the Review's formal (aggregated) assessment of climate change. One of Weitzman's conclusions was that Stern deserved credit for increasing public awareness on the dangers of climate change. However, Weitzman also commented that:
[...] in my opinion, Stern deserves a measure of discredit for giving readers an authoritative-looking impression that seemingly objective best-available-practice professional economic analysis robustly supports its conclusions, instead of more openly disclosing the full extent to which the Review's radical policy recommendations depend upon controversial extreme assumptions and unconventional discount rates that most mainstream economists would consider much too low
According to a paper Weitzman (2007), the Stern Review is "right for the wrong reasons".
At a seminar held in 2006, Cambridge economist Partha Dasgupta commented on the Stern Review.
Dasgupta (2006, p. 1) described the Review as "a long and impressive document", but felt that the authors had treated the issue of intergenerational equity (via the social discount rate) "cavalierly". Dasgupta (2006, pp. 6–7) accepted the Review's argument for a PTP-rate of 0.1%, but did not accept Stern's choice of 1 for the elasticity of marginal utility. He argued this point by calculating a saving rate of 97.5% based on the Review's values for the PTP-rate and elasticity of marginal utility. Dasgupta stated that "[a] 97.5% savings rate is so patently absurd that we must reject it out of hand." The calculation by Dasgupta was based on a model which had a deterministic economy, constant population, and no technological change.
Dasgupta's calculation was later cited by Berkeley economist Hal Varian.
Writing in the New York Times newspaper, Varian commented "Sir Partha's stripped-down model leaves out uncertainty, technological change and population growth, but even so, such a high savings rate is totally implausible." Varian also questioned whether or not it was ethical for the current generation to transfer wealth to future generations (via investment in mitigation), who, given Stern's assumptions, would be much wealthier than we presently are.
Smith (2009) responded to Dasgupta's criticism of the Stern Review's implied savings rate.
She showed that the rates of PTP and risk aversion in the Stern Review are consistent with saving rates of 25–32% rather than 97.5% when a macroeconomic model with the production function actually used by Stern and Nordhaus is used.
According to Dietz (2008, pp. 10–11), Varian's analysis had apparently confused the PTP-rate with the social discount rate. The PTP-rate, if positive, discounts the welfare of future generations even if they are poorer than the current generation. The social discount rate used by Stern, however, accounts for the possible increased wealth (consumption) of future generations through the product ηg (see the formula cited in the section on inherent discounting).
Terry Barker of the Tyndall Centre Climate Change Research wrote a paper (Barker, 2008) supportive of the Review. Barker was critical of how some economists have applied cost-benefit analysis to climate change:
[...] the Stern Review considers cost-benefit analysis as a marginal analysis inappropriately applied to a non-marginal multi-disciplinary systemic problem (p. 50). Both Stern (p. 163) and the IPCC Reports after 1995 take a multi-criteria approach rather than a narrowly monetary one and question cost-benefit analysis. This is one reason for the intemperate response from some traditional economists to the Stern Review
Eric Neumayer (2007) of the London School of Economics thought that the Review could have argued for emission reductions based on the non-substitutable loss of natural capital. Neumayer argued that the real issue is the non-substitutable loss of natural capital, that is to what extent climate change inflicts irreversible and non-substitutable damage to and loss of natural capital. Economists define natural capital as the multiple and various services of nature from which humans benefit- from natural resources to pollution absorption and environmental amenities.
Dieter Helm (2008) of Oxford University was critical of the Review's analysis but accepted its conclusion of the urgent need to reduce emissions. Helm justified this on the grounds that future damages to the environment would probably not be fully compensated for by increases in man-made capital. The draft report of the Garnaut Climate Change Review, a similar study conducted in Australia in 2008 by Ross Garnaut broadly endorsed the approach undertaken by Stern, but concluded, in the light of new information, that Stern had underestimated the severity of the problem and the extent of the cuts in emissions that were required to avoid dangerous climate change.
The Yale Symposium
In 2007, a symposium was held at Yale University on the Stern Review, with talks by several economists, including Nordhaus and Stern (Yale Symposium, 2007). Stern presented the basic conclusions of the Review, and commented on some of the criticisms of it made by other speakers. Chris Hope of Cambridge University explained how the damage estimates in the Review were calculated. Hope designed the PAGE2002 integrated assessment model that was used in the Review. Hope explained what would happen to the Stern Review's damage estimates if they were made using different assumptions, for example, a higher discount rate. Hope also pointed to the assumptions used in the model to do with adaptation.
In his talk, Nordhaus criticised the fact that the Stern Review had not been subject to a peer-review, and repeated earlier criticisms of the Review's discount rate. William Cline of the Peterson Institute supported the Review's general conclusions, but was uncomfortable about how most (greater than 90%) of the Review's monetised damages of climate change occur after 2200. Cline noted that the Review's large cost-benefit ratio for mitigation policy allows room for these long-term costs to be reduced substantially but still support aggressive action to reduce emissions.
Robert Mendelsohn was critical of the way the Stern justified his suggested mitigation policy in the Review. Mendelsohn said that rather than finding an optimal policy, the Review presented a choice of policy versus no-policy. Jeffrey Sachs of Columbia University questioned some of the assumptions used in Nordhaus's integrated assessment model (DICE) of climate change. Sachs was supportive of Stern's cost estimates of climate change mitigation.
In response to these talks, Stern accepted Cline's comment about the weighting of future damages, and said that the weighting of these damages could be reduced by the increasing the size of the elasticity of marginal utility in the social discount rate. With regards to criticisms of the discount rate, Stern accepted that differences of opinion could exist on his ethical choice for the PTP-rate (Yale Symposium, 2007, p. 118).
Other comments by Stern included what he viewed as confusion over what he had suggested as a possible level for a carbon tax. According to Stern, the tax will not necessarily be the same as the social cost of carbon due to distortions and uncertainties in the economy (p. 121). His suggested tax rate was in the range of 25 to 30 dollars per ton of carbon. Stern did not accept Mendelsohn's argument that the Review presented a choice of policy versus no policy. Stern commented that the arguments for his recommended stabilisation range were included in Chapter 13 of the Review (pp. 124–125).
The costs of mitigation
Economists have different views over the cost estimates of climate change mitigation given in the Review. Paul Ekins of King's College London (Treasury Committee, 2008) has said that Stern's central mitigation cost estimate is "reasonable", but economists Robert Mendelsohn and Dieter Helm have commented that the estimate is probably too low. According to Mendelsohn, the Stern Review is far too optimistic about mitigation costs, stating that "[one] of the depressing things about the greenhouse gas problem is that the cost of eliminating it is quite high. We will actually have to sacrifice a great deal to cut emissions dramatically" (Mendelsohn, 2007).
Professor Emeritus of Economics at Pepperdine University George Reisman has said that "Any serious consideration of the proposals made in the Stern Review for radically reducing carbon technology and the accompanying calls for immediacy in enacting them makes clear in a further way how utterly impractical the environmentalist program for controlling global warming actually is. The fundamental impracticality of the program, of course, lies in its utterly destructive character."
In a response to a paper by members of the Stern Review team, John Weyant of Stanford University commented on how the cost estimate of mitigation used in the Review was based on idealised models (Mendelsohn et al., 2008). Weyant wrote that his own high short-run cost projection for stabilisation, of possibly 10% GDP, resulted "primarily from institutional pessimism rather than technological pessimism."
Comparison with climate damages
Nobel prize winner Kenneth Arrow has commented on the Stern Review in the Economist's Voice (Arrow, 2007a) and for Project Syndicate (Arrow, 2007b):
Arrow analysed the Stern Review's conclusions by looking at the Review's central estimate of GHG stabilisation costs of 1% GNP, and high-end climate damages of 20% GNP (Arrow, 2007a, pp. 4–5). As part of the Ramsay formula for the social discount rate, Arrow chose a value of 2 for the marginal elasticity of utility, while in the Review, Stern chose a value of 1. According to Arrow, Stern's recommended stabilisation target passes a cost-benefit test even when considerably higher PTP-rate (up to around 8%) than Stern's (0.1%) is used. Arrow acknowledged that his argument depended on Stern's stabilisation central cost estimate being correct.
Gary Yohe of Wesleyan University noted that Stern's estimates of business-as-usual climate damages were given in terms of per capita consumption equivalents, but Stern's costs of mitigation were given in terms of a percentage reduction in gross world product. Yohe stated that the two different measures are "not really at all comparable". Yohe commented on how the Review gives the impression that all climate damages can be avoided through the investment of 1% of world GDP in mitigation. This, however, would still lead to global warming (as per the Review's 550 ppm CO2e mitigation target) of around 1.5 to 4.5 °C above pre-industrial temperatures. Significant portions of climate damages would therefore still persist with Stern's mitigation target. To measure the benefit of Stern's mitigation target, the residual climate damages from mitigation would need to be subtracted from Stern's business-as-usual climate damages.
Ecological Economic Critique
The main criticisms cited above concern the details of calculations and modelling choices within an orthodox economic framing of the world and mostly try to argue against substantive greenhouse gas mitigation. Ecological economists accept the need for serious action but reject the reasoning of economic commensuration of costs and benefits, the probabilistic approach to uncertainty and the application of a utilitarian intergenerational calculus. Their criticism applies equally to the likes of Nordhaus and Tol.Spash, C. L. (2007) Understanding climate change: Need for new economic thought. Economic and Political Weekly February(10th): 483–490. The orthodox economic debate is seen as a distraction from the basic ethical issues e.g. discounting instead of justice.
A more fundamental criticism of the Stern report is that it raises a series of problems which it totally fails to address because of its orthodox approach. It simultaneously ignores a range of critical literature from ecological economics and environmental ethics which challenges such orthodox thinking.Daily, G. C., P. R. Ehrlich, H. A. Mooney and A. H. Ehrlich (1991) Greenhouse economics: Learn before you leap. Ecological Economics 4: 1–10.Spash, C. L. (1993) Economics, ethics, and long-term environmental damages. Environmental Ethics 15(2): 117–132 Stern as an orthodox economist squeezes all matters and concepts into a narrow mathematical formalism which heterodox economists, such as Tony Lawson, point out fails to address economic and social reality.
In conventional cost-benefit analysis, biodiversity and ecosystem services that are not valued as losses are difficult to quantify. Neumayer argues that the real issue is non-substitutable loss of natural capital; to what extent climate change inflicts irreversible and non-substitutable damage to and loss of natural capital. For example, it would be difficult to quantify the loss of coral reefs, biodiversity loss, or species extinction. Dietz points out that in many Integrated Assessment Models (IAMs), health and ecosystem impacts are not included because the monetary valuation of these impacts is "speculative and uncertain". Dasgupta (2008) also points out most models do not consider natural capital. Although recent studies on ecosystem services have made gains in monetising the value of ecosystems, more recent studies on ecosystem services suggest the Stern Review underestimates the need for mitigation action as it is difficult for models to quantify the collapse of ecosystem services under climate change.
Thus, ecological economist Clive Spash has questioned whether the report is nothing more than an exercise in rhetoric. Spash notes that a range of serious problems challenging economic analysis is raised or mentioned in the report including: strong uncertainty, incommensurability, plural values, non-utilitarian ethics, rights, distributional inequity, poverty, and treatment of future generations. How then can this report, acknowledging so many of those aspects of climate change that render orthodox economic analysis unsuitable for generating policy recommendations, go ahead to conduct a global cost-benefit calculation based on microeconomic theory and make that the foundation for its policy recommendations? Spash has argued that issues are suppressed and sidelined in a careful and methodical manner, with the pretense they have been addressed by 'state of the art' solutions. Meanwhile, the authors maintain allegiance to an economic orthodoxy which perpetuates the dominant political myth that traditional economic growth can be both sustained and answer all our problems. Besides perpetuating myths, this diverts attention away from alternative approaches, away from ethical debates over harming the innocent, the poor and future generations, and away from the fundamental changes needed to tackle the very real and serious problems current economic systems pose for environmental systems. In addition the policy recommendation of carbon trading is seen as deeply flawed for also failing to take account of social, ecological and economic reality.
Response to criticisms
The Stern Review team have responded to criticisms of the Review in a number of papers. In these papers, they reassert their view that early and strong action on climate change is necessary:
The case for strong and urgent action set out in the Review is based, first, on the severe risks that the science now identifies (together with the additional uncertainties [...] that it points to but that are difficult to quantify) and, second, on the ethics of the responsibilities of existing generations in relation to succeeding generations. It is these two things that are crucial: risk and ethics. Different commentators may vary in their emphasis, but it is the two together that are crucial. Jettison either one and you will have a much reduced programme for action—and if you judge risks to be small and attach little significance to future generations you will not regard global warming as a problem. It is surprising that the earlier economic literature on climate change did not give risk and ethics the attention they so clearly deserve, and it is because we chose to make them central and explicit that we think we were right for the right reasons.
Members of the Stern Review team have also given several talks that have covered criticisms of the Review. A talk given by Dimitri Zenghelis at the Tyndall Centre looked at criticisms of the Review and presented an overview of its main findings. In an official letter (2008), Joan Ruddock MP of the UK Government, dismisses the criticisms of the Review made by several economists, which, in her view, show "a fundamental misunderstanding of the role of formal, highly aggregated economic modelling in evaluating a policy issue".
Stern's later comments
In April 2008 Stern said that the severity of his findings were vindicated by the 2007 IPCC report and admitted that in the Stern Review, "We underestimated the risks [...] we underestimated the damage associated with temperature increases [...] and we underestimated the probabilities of temperature increases". In June 2008, Stern said that because climate change is happening faster than predicted, the cost to reduce carbon would be even higher, of about 2% of GDP instead of the 1% in the original report.
In an interview at the 2013 World Economic Forum, Stern said "Looking back, I underestimated the risks. The planet and the atmosphere seem to be absorbing less carbon than we expected, and emissions are rising pretty strongly. Some of the effects are coming through more quickly than we thought then" in the 2006 Review. He now believes we are "on track for something like four degrees".
See also
Climate change in the United Kingdom
Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change
Economics of global warming
Garnaut Climate Change Review
Global warming controversy
Politics of global warming
World Energy Outlook
Prosperity Without Growth
References
Further reading
Jensen, P.H. and E. Webster (2007), Australian Economic Review 40(2):421–431
External links
Full text of the Stern Review, from HM Treasury
Full text of the Stern Review, archived on Wayback Machine
The Economics of Climate Change – The Stern Review
Economist.zoom: How to value a grandchild, 4 Dec 2006
Summary of key findings from the report
Gail Whiteman's findings of economic costs of arctic methane release added to the Stern review
"The Stern gang", linked index of resources.
Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy
Videos:
The RIBA Trust Annual Lecture: Lord Stern (part of the International Dialogues: Architecture and Climate Change talks series)In the media'''
2 November 2006, The Economist: Stern warning
6 November 2006, Der Spiegel'': The Day the Climate Changed
10 January 2007, BBC: Chrysler Boss says Stern Report is based on dubious economics
Climate change assessment and attribution
Reports of the United Kingdom government
2006 in the United Kingdom
Low-carbon economy
Economics and climate change
2006 in the environment
Climate change in the United Kingdom |
Pennsylvania Route 222 (PA 222) is a -long state highway located in Allentown and its immediate suburbs in the Lehigh Valley region in eastern Pennsylvania.
Most of the route runs along Hamilton Boulevard. In Center City Allentown, the route is aligned along West Hamilton, West Linden, and West Walnut Streets. The southern terminus of the route is at Interstate 78 (I-78) and PA 309 in Dorneyville, where the roadway changes designation from PA 222 to U.S. Route 222 (US 222). The northern terminus is PA 145 in Allentown.
Hamilton Street has served as the main street in Allentown since the community was founded in the 18th century. Hamilton Street and Hamilton Boulevard became part of the William Penn Highway in 1916, PA 3 in 1924, and US 22 in 1926. In 1931, US 22 was routed to a new alignment to the north, and Hamilton Boulevard and Hamilton Street west of 15th Street became a part of US 222. In the 1950s, US 222 was rerouted to bypass Allentown, leaving Hamilton Boulevard and Hamilton Street through the city unnumbered.
In 1984, the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation (PennDOT) proposed extending US 222 from I-78/PA 309 to Center City Allentown, where it would end at PA 145. The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) rejected extending US 222 into Allentown, and PA 222 was instead designated to run between I-78/PA 309 and US 222 and PA 145 in 1991.
Route description
PA 222 begins at an interchange with I-78/PA 309 in the community of Dorneyville in South Whitehall Township in Lehigh County, which is in the Lehigh Valley, where the road continues southwest as US 222 towards Reading. From this interchange, PA 222 heads northeast on four-lane divided Hamilton Boulevard. The route comes to an intersection with Lincoln Avenue that has a southbound jughandle; Lincoln Avenue provides access to the main entrance of the Dorney Park & Wildwater Kingdom amusement park. PA 222 passes between Dorney Park & Wildwater Kingdom to the north and businesses to the south. The southbound direction comes to a right-in/right-out with the exit from Dorney Park & Wildwater Kingdom along with the bus entrance to the amusement park. After passing the amusement park, the route splits into two carriageways, with PA 222 north remaining on Hamilton Boulevard and PA 222 south following the newer Hamilton Boulevard Bypass to the north; at the split, there is a pair of median U-turn ramps. A short distance to the east, the road intersects Cedar Crest Boulevard, a major north–south arterial in the Lehigh Valley area. The Da Vinci Science Center is located at the northeast corner of PA 222 southbound and Cedar Crest Boulevard on the campus of Cedar Crest College.
Northeast of Cedar Crest Boulevard, the two carriageways merge onto Hamilton Boulevard, with a U-turn ramp from the northbound direction to the southbound direction at the merge, as it passes to the south of Cedar Crest College. At this point, PA 222 leaves South Whitehall Township for the city of Allentown. The route becomes a four-lane undivided road and passes through residential areas. At the intersection with Ott Street, PA 222 curves east onto Hamilton Street and runs along the southern edge of Cedar Creek Park, where it intersects 24th Street. The road continues east through residential and commercial areas, narrowing to three lanes with two northbound lanes and one southbound lane at the 20th Street intersection. The route passes to the north of St. Luke's Hospital–Allentown Campus between 18th and 17th streets and comes to an intersection with 15th Street.
PA 222 heads into Center City Allentown, where it splits into a one-way pair at 12th Street. Northbound PA 222 turns south onto 12th Street and east onto Walnut Street while southbound PA 222 runs west along Linden Street to 12th Street, following 12th Street south to Hamilton Street. Walnut Street is two lanes and two-way until 10th Street, where it becomes one-way with two northbound lanes heading east, while Linden Street is one way southbound with two lanes heading west. The one-way paring continues east past homes and businesses in the downtown area. Southbound PA 222 passes to the north of the PPL Center sports arena, where the Lehigh Valley Phantoms of the American Hockey League play, between 8th and 7th streets. PA 222 intersects 7th Street, which carries southbound PA 145, before it reaches its northern terminus at 6th Street, which carries northbound PA 145. The Allentown Transportation Center serving LANta buses is located north of Linden Street between 7th and 6th streets.
History
From the establishment of Allentown in the 18th century to the modern age, Hamilton Street has been the main arterial of the municipality. Similar to many other Allentown-area streets at the time; Hamilton, Linden, and Walnut Streets were used for trolley car and horse transportation. Following an economic depression the city suffered in the late 19th century, it rebounded in the 20th century with the establishment of many shopping stores on Hamilton Street; the commercial center of the city, that hosted the annual Workhorse Parade, a popular attraction in the 1910s.
When the Sproul Road Bill was signed on May 31, 1911, the state began maintenance over state highways. One of those highways was Legislative Route 157, the modern Hamilton Boulevard section of PA 222, west of Allentown. Another state highway was Legislative Route 159, aligned east of Allentown to downtown Bethlehem along Hanover Avenue and Broad Street. No routes had a designation within the city of Allentown.
In 1916, the William Penn Highway was organized as an alternative to the Lincoln Highway. The roadway traversed Center City Allentown via Hamilton Street and Hamilton Boulevard. The Pennsylvania Department of Highways gave the road the PA 3 numbering in 1924 and when the United States Highway System was formed, US 22 became part of it. The William Penn Highway served New York City; the road became problematic for motorists in Lebanon along the current US 422; Reading via current US 422 and US 222; and Allentown on Hamilton Street. PA 43 was aligned as a bypass, north of the Pennsylvania Dutch Country, between Allentown and Harrisburg. On June 8, 1931, the American Association of State Highway Officials came to a resolution to the traffic problem, by replacing the PA 43 corridor with US 22 and the William Penn Highway name to match. The state truncated PA 43 to Susquehanna Street from Allentown to Bethlehem. US 222 replaced the former US 22 alignment from Reading to Allentown. Hamilton Street was numbered as US 222, west of Center City Allentown, where it turned north onto 15th Street. This portion of US 222 was seven-blocks long which ended at Tilghman Street (then US 22). Signs were changed to reflect the new designations on May 31, 1932, with the new route designations officially in place on June 1, 1932.
In the late 1950s, US 222 was realigned to a newly constructed bypass carrying US 309 and PA 29, west of Allentown. From the south, US 222 left Hamilton Boulevard and turned north onto the freeway. US 222 terminated at an interchange with US 22, US 309, and PA 29 in South Whitehall Township. By 1970, what was the US 309/PA 29/US 222 freeway had the PA 29 designation removed, US 309 downgraded to PA 309 and US 222 was truncated to end at its current northern terminus. By the 1980s, I-78 became part of the freeway that occupied PA 309.
In 1984, PennDOT was planning to extend PA 145 and US 222. Traffic engineer Samuel D. Darrohh said that Allentown is one of few Pennsylvania cities without a traffic route going through it. After the plan was introduced, he said that motorists might be aided if US 222 is extended along Hamilton Boulevard to connect with the proposed PA 145 corridor. PennDOT originally planned the road as US 222 but AASHTO denied the extension, stating that the route "is not the shortest or best available route between major control points on the system, and therefore, does not adhere to the policies established under AASHTO's 'Purpose and Policy Statement for U.S. Numbered Highways'". In addition, the route did not meet the criteria for a business route. In 1991, it was commissioned as PA 222. PA 145 was extended south of the US 22 freeway to the I-78/PA 309 overlap near Lanark.
Major intersections
See also
References
External links
Pennsylvania Highways: PA 222
Pennsylvania Roads - PA 222
222
Transportation in Lehigh County, Pennsylvania
Transportation in Allentown, Pennsylvania |
The East Kangaroo Island, part of the Big Green Group within the Furneaux Group, is a unpopulated limestone island with granite outcrops and dolerite dykes, located in the Bass Strait, west of the Flinders Island, in Tasmania, in south-eastern Australia.
Prior to its declaration as the East Kangaroo Island Nature Reserve, the island was previously used to graze sheep, with overgrazing causing severe erosion. The island is part of the Chalky, Big Green and Badger Island Groups Important Bird Area.
Fauna
Recorded breeding seabird and wader species are little penguin, short-tailed shearwater, Pacific gull, silver gull, sooty oystercatcher and crested tern. Cape Barren geese also breed on the island. Reptiles present include the metallic skink and White's skink. The only terrestrial mammal is the introduced House mouse.
See also
List of islands of Tasmania
Protected areas of Tasmania
References
Furneaux Group
Important Bird Areas of Tasmania
Islands of Bass Strait
Islands of North East Tasmania |
USNS Cedar Creek (T-AO-138) was a Suamico-class Fleet Oiler that served both the United States Navy and the Soviet Union from 1943 to 1954. She was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register in 1957 and scrapped in September 1975.
Ship History
Cedar Creek was laid down on 20 September 1943, as a Type T2-SE-A1 tanker hull under Maritime Commission contract at Sun Shipbuilding and Drydock Company in Pennsylvania. She was launched on 15 December 1943 and subsequently delivered to the Maritime Commission on 27 December 1943.
Soviet Union
On 30 April 1944, she was lent to the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) as SS Taganrog under the Lend-Lease Program. She served in this capacity until she was returned to the Maritime Commission in March 1948.
U.S. Service
Taganrog was acquired by the U.S. Navy in July 1948, where she was redesignated as (AO-138) and operated under charter for the Naval Transportation Service. In October 1949, she was assigned to the Military Sea Transportation Service as USNS Cedar Creek (T-AO-138) and continued operations with a civilian crew. On 28 September 1954, she was placed in the National Defense Reserve Fleet at San Diego, California—where she remained until 1 November 1956—when she again transferred to the MSTS.
Fate
She was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register and turned over to the Maritime Administration on 14 October 1957. She was sold for scrap on 2 September 1975 to Zidell Explorations Inc. for $261,898.99.
Ship Awards
The Cedar Creek received the National Defense Service Medal for honorable service during the Korean War.
External links
http://zidell.com/home/
http://www.nvr.navy.mil/INDEX.HTM
References
Suamico-class oilers
1943 ships
Type T2-SE-A1 tankers of the United States Navy |
The porta hepatis or transverse fissure of the liver is a short but deep fissure, about 5 cm long, extending transversely beneath the left portion of the right lobe of the liver, nearer its posterior surface than its anterior border.
It joins nearly at right angles with the left sagittal fossa, and separates the quadrate lobe in front from the caudate lobe and process behind.
Function
It transmits the following (in anterior to posterior order):
common hepatic duct (leaving)
proper hepatic artery (entering)
hepatic portal vein (entering)
The hepatic duct lies in front and to the right, the hepatic artery to the left, and the portal vein behind and between the duct and artery.
It also transmits nerves and lymphatics.
Sympathetic nerves - these provide afferent pain impulses from the liver and gall bladder to the brain. Pain may be referred to the lower pole of the right scapula (T7).
Hepatic branch of the vagus nerve (CN X).
Location
The porta hepatis runs in the hepatoduodenal ligament.
When the patient is supine, and the liver observed inferiorly (as in a surgeon's perspective), the important structures demarcating its inferior aspect can be represented by a hepatic "H" figure. The right vertical limb of the "H" defines the left and right functional lobes, while the left vertical limb of the "H" defines the right and left anatomical lobes. The horizontal line between the vertical limbs of the "H" represents the porta hepatis. The quadrate and caudate lobe lie superior and inferior to this line respectively.
See also
Portal triad
References
External links
- "Stomach, Spleen and Liver: The Visceral Surface of the Liver"
Liver anatomy |
Myron J. Layton (November 24, 1922 – March 20, 2011) was an American newspaper journalist and author who wrote for The Seattle Post-Intelligencer and The Olympian from the 1960s through the 1980s, often covering Washington state politics. Before and after Pearl Harbor, Layton served in the US Army remote Aleutian Islands. Later, in 1944–45, he served as a paratrooper in the European theater of World War II, in the 82nd Airborne Division. Layton was also a veteran of the Korean War, serving in the 11th Airborne Division and 10th Special Forces Group. Layton wrote the book Easy Blood: Ronald Reagan's Proxy Wars in Central America, about his research and experiences travelling in Central America (in particular Nicaragua), and My Very Worst Friend, a memoir and autobiography.
References
1922 births
2011 deaths
Journalists from Washington (state)
American reporters and correspondents
University of Denver alumni
Aleutian Islands campaign
United States Army personnel of World War II
United States Army personnel of the Korean War |
Largo Treze is a metro station on Line 5 (Lilac) of the São Paulo Metro in the Santo Amaro district of São Paulo, Brazil.
It was the terminus station of the line until February 12, 2014, when the Adolfo Pinheiro was inaugurated.
References
São Paulo Metro stations
Railway stations opened in 2002
Railway stations located underground in Brazil |
Hegel-Jahrbuch or Hegel Yearbook or Hegel Annual is an annual peer-reviewed academic journal covering the thought of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel published by International Hegel Society. It was established in 1961 and publishes contributions in English and German. The editors are Andreas Arndt, Brady Bowman, Myriam Gerhard and Jure Zovko. All issues are available online from the Philosophy Documentation Center.
See also
Kant Yearbook
Kant-Studien
List of philosophy journals
References
External links
Annual journals
Multilingual journals
Academic journals established in 1961
Works about Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
Hegel
1961 establishments in Germany
Academic journals published in Germany |
James Edward Frisby Jarvis (21 January 1875 – 24 January 1962) was an English cricketer. Jarvis was a right-handed batsman who played as a wicket-keeper. He was born at Leicester, Leicestershire.
Jarvis made a single first-class appearance for Leicestershire against Middlesex at Lord's in the 1900 County Championship. In Leicestershire's first-innings of 184 all out, Jarvis batted at number eleven and was dismissed for a duck by J. T. Hearne. In their second-innings, he ended not out without scoring. Middlesex won the match by 5 wickets. This was his only major appearance for the county.
He died at Knighton, Leicestershire on 24 January 1962.
References
External links
James Jarvis at Cricinfo
James Jarvis at CricketArchive
1875 births
1962 deaths
Cricketers from Leicester
English cricketers
Leicestershire cricketers
Wicket-keepers |
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