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electron transport chain (ETC) : ATP production pathway in which electrons are passed through a series of oxidation-reduction reactions that forms water and produces a proton gradient | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
energy-consuming phase : first phase of glycolysis, in which two molecules of ATP are necessary to start the reaction | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
energy-yielding phase : second phase of glycolysis, during which energy is produced | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
enterokinase : enzyme located in the wall of the small intestine that activates trypsin | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
evaporation : transfer of heat that occurs when water changes from a liquid to a gas | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
FADH2 : high-energy molecule needed for glycolysis | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
fatty acid oxidation : breakdown of fatty acids into smaller chain fatty acids and acetyl CoA | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) : coenzyme used to produce FADH2 | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
glucokinase : cellular enzyme, found in the liver, which converts glucose into glucose-6-phosphate upon uptake into the cell | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
gluconeogenesis : process of glucose synthesis from pyruvate or other molecules | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
glucose-6-phosphate : phosphorylated glucose produced in the first step of glycolysis | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
glycogen : form that glucose assumes when it is stored | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
glycolysis : series of metabolic reactions that breaks down glucose into pyruvate and produces ATP | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
hexokinase : cellular enzyme, found in most tissues, that converts glucose into glucose-6-phosphate upon uptake into the cell | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
hydroxymethylglutaryl CoA (HMG CoA) : molecule created in the first step of the creation of ketone bodies from acetyl CoA | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
inactive proenzymes : forms in which proteases are stored and released to prevent the inappropriate digestion of the native proteins of the stomach, pancreas, and small intestine | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
insulin : hormone secreted by the pancreas that stimulates the uptake of glucose into the cells | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
ketone bodies : alternative source of energy when glucose is limited, created when too much acetyl CoA is created during fatty acid oxidation | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
Krebs cycle : also called the citric acid cycle or the tricarboxylic acid cycle, converts pyruvate into CO2and high-energy FADH2, NADH, and ATP molecules | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
lipogenesis : synthesis of lipids that occurs in the liver or adipose tissues | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
lipolysis : breakdown of triglycerides into glycerol and fatty acids | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
metabolic rate : amount of energy consumed minus the amount of energy expended by the body | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
metabolism : sum of all catabolic and anabolic reactions that take place in the body | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
minerals : inorganic compounds required by the body to ensure proper function of the body | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
monoglyceride molecules : lipid consisting of a single fatty acid chain attached to a glycerol backbone | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
monosaccharide : smallest, monomeric sugar molecule | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
NADH : high-energy molecule needed for glycolysis | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) : coenzyme used to produce NADH | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
oxidation : loss of an electron | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
oxidation-reduction reaction : (also, redox reaction) pair of reactions in which an electron is passed from one molecule to another, oxidizing one and reducing the other | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
oxidative phosphorylation : process that converts high-energy NADH and FADH2into ATP | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
pancreatic lipases : enzymes released from the pancreas that digest lipids in the diet | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
pepsin : enzyme that begins to break down proteins in the stomach | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
polysaccharides : complex carbohydrates made up of many monosaccharides | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
postabsorptive state : also called the fasting state; the metabolic state occurring after digestion when food is no longer the bodyâs source of energy and it must rely on stored glycogen | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
proteolysis : process of breaking proteins into smaller peptides | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
pyruvate : three-carbon end product of glycolysis and starting material that is converted into acetyl CoA that enters the Krebs cycle | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
radiation : transfer of heat via infrared waves | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
reduction : gaining of an electron | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
salivary amylase : digestive enzyme that is found in the saliva and begins the digestion of carbohydrates in the mouth | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
secretin : hormone released in the small intestine to aid in digestion | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
sodium bicarbonate : anion released into the small intestine to neutralize the pH of the food from the stomach | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
terminal electron acceptor : oxygen, the recipient of the free hydrogen at the end of the electron transport chain | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
thermoneutral : external temperature at which the body does not expend any energy for thermoregulation, about 84 °F | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
thermoregulation : process of regulating the temperature of the body | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
transamination : transfer of an amine group from one molecule to another as a way to turn nitrogen waste into ammonia so that it can enter the urea cycle | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA) : also called the Krebs cycle or the citric acid cycle; converts pyruvate into CO2and high-energy FADH2, NADH, and ATP molecules | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
triglycerides : lipids, or fats, consisting of three fatty acid chains attached to a glycerol backbone | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
trypsin : pancreatic enzyme that activates chymotrypsin and digests protein | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
trypsinogen : proenzyme form of trypsin | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
urea cycle : process that converts potentially toxic nitrogen waste into urea that can be eliminated through the kidneys | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
vitamins : organic compounds required by the body to perform biochemical reactions like metabolism and bone, cell, and tissue growth | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-key-terms |
The kidney glomerulus filters blood mainly based on particle size to produce a filtrate lacking cells or large proteins. Most of the ions and molecules in the filtrate are needed by the body and must be reabsorbed farther down the nephron tubules, resulting in the formation of urine. Urine characteristics change depend... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-chapter-review |
The urethra is the only urinary structure that differs significantly between males and females. This is due to the dual role of the male urethra in transporting both urine and semen. The urethra arises from the trigone area at the base of the bladder. Urination is controlled by an involuntary internal sphincter of smoo... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-chapter-review |
As noted previously, the structure of the kidney is divided into two principle regionsâthe peripheral rim of cortex and the central medulla. The two kidneys receive about 25 percent of cardiac output. They are protected in the retroperitoneal space by the renal fat pad and overlying ribs and muscle. Ureters, blood ve... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-chapter-review |
The functional unit of the kidney, the nephron, consists of the renal corpuscle, PCT, loop of Henle, and DCT. Cortical nephrons have short loops of Henle, whereas juxtamedullary nephrons have long loops of Henle extending into the medulla. About 15 percent of nephrons are juxtamedullary. The glomerulus is a capillary b... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-chapter-review |
The entire volume of the blood is filtered through the kidneys about 300 times per day, and 99 percent of the water filtered is recovered. The GFR is influenced by hydrostatic pressure and colloid osmotic pressure. Under normal circumstances, hydrostatic pressure is significantly greater and filtration occurs. The hydr... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-chapter-review |
The kidney regulates water recovery and blood pressure by producing the enzyme renin. It is renin that starts a series of reactions, leading to the production of the vasoconstrictor angiotensin II and the salt-retaining steroid aldosterone. Water recovery is also powerfully and directly influenced by the hormone ADH. E... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-chapter-review |
Mechanisms of solute recovery include active transport, simple diffusion, and facilitated diffusion. Most filtered substances are reabsorbed. Urea, NH3, creatinine, and some drugs are filtered or secreted as wastes. H+and HCO3âare secreted or reabsorbed as needed to maintain acidâbase balance. Movement of water fro... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-chapter-review |
The kidneys are innervated by sympathetic nerves of the autonomic nervous system. Sympathetic nervous activity decreases blood flow to the kidney, making more blood available to other areas of the body during times of stress. The arteriolar myogenic mechanism maintains a steady blood flow by causing arteriolar smooth m... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-chapter-review |
Endocrine hormones act from a distance and paracrine hormones act locally. The renal enzyme renin converts angiotensinogen into angiotensin I. The lung enzyme, ACE, converts angiotensin I into active angiotensin II. Angiotensin II is an active vasoconstrictor that increases blood pressure. Angiotensin II also stimulate... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-chapter-review |
The major hormones regulating body fluids are ADH, aldosterone and ANH. Progesterone is similar in structure to aldosterone and can bind to and weakly stimulate aldosterone receptors, providing a similar but diminished response. Blood pressure is a reflection of blood volume and is monitored by baroreceptors in the aor... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-chapter-review |
The effects of failure of parts of the urinary system may range from inconvenient (incontinence) to fatal (loss of filtration and many others). The kidneys catalyze the final reaction in the synthesis of active vitamin D that in turn helps regulate Ca++. The kidney hormone EPO stimulates erythrocyte development and pro... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-chapter-review |
anatomical sphincter : smooth or skeletal muscle surrounding the lumen of a vessel or hollow organ that can restrict flow when contracted | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
angiotensin I : protein produced by the enzymatic action of renin on angiotensinogen; inactive precursor of angiotensin II | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
angiotensin II : protein produced by the enzymatic action of ACE on inactive angiotensin I; actively causes vasoconstriction and stimulates aldosterone release by the adrenal cortex | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) : enzyme produced by the lungs that catalyzes the reaction of inactive angiotensin I into active angiotensin II | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
angiotensinogen : inactive protein in the circulation produced by the liver; precursor of angiotensin I; must be modified by the enzymes renin and ACE to be activated | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
anuria : absence of urine produced; production of 50 mL or less per day | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
aquaporin : protein-forming water channels through the lipid bilayer of the cell; allows water to cross; activation in the collecting ducts is under the control of ADH | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
Bowmanâs capsule : cup-shaped sack lined by a simple squamous epithelium (parietal surface) and specialized cells called podocytes (visceral surface) that participate in the filtration process; receives the filtrate which then passes on to the PCTs | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
brush border : formed by microvilli on the surface of certain cuboidal cells; in the kidney it is found in the PCT; increases surface area for absorption in the kidney | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
calyces : cup-like structures receiving urine from the collecting ducts where it passes on to the renal pelvis and ureter | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
cortical nephrons : nephrons with loops of Henle that do not extend into the renal medulla | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
countercurrent multiplier system : involves the descending and ascending loops of Henle directing forming urine in opposing directions to create a concentration gradient when combined with variable permeability and sodium pumping | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
detrusor muscle : smooth muscle in the bladder wall; fibers run in all directions to reduce the size of the organ when emptying it of urine | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
distal convoluted tubules : portions of the nephron distal to the loop of Henle that receive hyposmotic filtrate from the loop of Henle and empty into collecting ducts | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
diuretic : compound that increases urine output, leading to decreased water conservation | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
efferent arteriole : arteriole carrying blood from the glomerulus to the capillary beds around the convoluted tubules and loop of Henle; portion of the portal system | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
endothelins : group of vasoconstrictive, 21-amino acid peptides; produced by endothelial cells of the renal blood vessels, mesangial cells, and cells of the DCT | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
external urinary sphincter : skeletal muscle; must be relaxed consciously to void urine | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
fenestrations : small windows through a cell, allowing rapid filtration based on size; formed in such a way as to allow substances to cross through a cell without mixing with cell contents | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
filtration slits : formed by pedicels of podocytes; substances filter between the pedicels based on size | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
forming urine : filtrate undergoing modifications through secretion and reabsorption before true urine is produced | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
glomerular filtration rate (GFR) : rate of renal filtration | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
glomerulus : tuft of capillaries surrounded by Bowmanâs capsule; filters the blood based on size | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
glycosuria : presence of glucose in the urine; caused by high blood glucose levels that exceed the ability of the kidneys to reabsorb the glucose; usually the result of untreated or poorly controlled diabetes mellitus | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
incontinence : loss of ability to control micturition | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
intercalated cell : specialized cell of the collecting ducts that secrete or absorb acid or bicarbonate; important in acidâbase balance | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
internal urinary sphincter : smooth muscle at the juncture of the bladder and urethra; relaxes as the bladder fills to allow urine into the urethra | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
inulin : plant polysaccharide injected to determine GFR; is neither secreted nor absorbed by the kidney, so its appearance in the urine is directly proportional to its filtration rate | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA) : located at the juncture of the DCT and the afferent and efferent arterioles of the glomerulus; plays a role in the regulation of renal blood flow and GFR | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
juxtaglomerular cell : modified smooth muscle cells of the afferent arteriole; secretes renin in response to a drop in blood pressure | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
juxtamedullary nephrons : nephrons adjacent to the border of the cortex and medulla with loops of Henle that extend into the renal medulla | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
leaky tight junctions : tight junctions in which the sealing strands of proteins between the membranes of adjacent cells are fewer in number and incomplete; allows limited intercellular movement of solvent and solutes | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
leukocyte esterase : enzyme produced by leukocytes that can be detected in the urine and that serves as an indirect indicator of urinary tract infection | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
loop of Henle : descending and ascending portions between the proximal and distal convoluted tubules; those of cortical nephrons do not extend into the medulla, whereas those of juxtamedullary nephrons do extend into the medulla | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
macula densa : cells found in the part of the DCT forming the JGA; sense Na+concentration in the forming urine | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
medulla : inner region of kidney containing the renal pyramids | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
mesangial : contractile cells found in the glomerulus; can contract or relax to regulate filtration rate | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
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