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micturition : also called urination or voiding | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
myogenic mechanism : mechanism by which smooth muscle responds to stretch by contracting; an increase in blood pressure causes vasoconstriction and a decrease in blood pressure causes vasodilation so that blood flow downstream remains steady | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
nephrons : functional units of the kidney that carry out all filtration and modification to produce urine; consist of renal corpuscles, proximal and distal convoluted tubules, and descending and ascending loops of Henle; drain into collecting ducts | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
net filtration pressure (NFP) : pressure of fluid across the glomerulus; calculated by taking the hydrostatic pressure of the capillary and subtracting the colloid osmotic pressure of the blood and the hydrostatic pressure of Bowmanâs capsule | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
oliguria : below normal urine production of 400â500 mL/day | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
osteomalacia : softening of bones due to a lack of mineralization with calcium and phosphate; most often due to lack of vitamin D; in children, osteomalacia is termed rickets; not to be confused with osteoporosis | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
pedicels : finger-like projections of podocytes surrounding glomerular capillaries; interdigitate to form a filtration membrane | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
peritubular capillaries : second capillary bed of the renal portal system; surround the proximal and distal convoluted tubules; associated with the vasa recta | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
physiological sphincter : sphincter consisting of circular smooth muscle indistinguishable from adjacent muscle but possessing differential innervations, permitting its function as a sphincter; structurally weak | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
podocytes : cells forming finger-like processes; form the visceral layer of Bowmanâs capsule; pedicels of the podocytes interdigitate to form a filtration membrane | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
polyuria : urine production in excess of 2.5 L/day; may be caused by diabetes insipidus, diabetes mellitus, or excessive use of diuretics | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
principal cell : found in collecting ducts and possess channels for the recovery or loss of sodium and potassium; under the control of aldosterone; also have aquaporin channels under ADH control to regulate recovery of water | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
proximal convoluted tubules (PCTs) : tortuous tubules receiving filtrate from Bowmanâs capsule; most active part of the nephron in reabsorption and secretion | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
renal columns : extensions of the renal cortex into the renal medulla; separates the renal pyramids; contains blood vessels and connective tissues | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
renal corpuscle : consists of the glomerulus and Bowmanâs capsule | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
renal cortex : outer part of kidney containing all of the nephrons; some nephrons have loops of Henle extending into the medulla | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
renal fat pad : adipose tissue between the renal fascia and the renal capsule that provides protective cushioning to the kidney | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
renal hilum : recessed medial area of the kidney through which the renal artery, renal vein, ureters, lymphatics, and nerves pass | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
renal papillae : medullary area of the renal pyramids where collecting ducts empty urine into the minor calyces | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
renal pyramids : six to eight cone-shaped tissues in the medulla of the kidney containing collecting ducts and the loops of Henle of juxtamedullary nephrons | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
renin : enzyme produced by juxtaglomerular cells in response to decreased blood pressure or sympathetic nervous activity; catalyzes the conversion of angiotensinogen into angiotensin I | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
retroperitoneal : behind the peritoneum; in the case of the kidney and ureters, between the parietal peritoneum and the abdominal wall | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
sacral micturition center : group of neurons in the sacral region of the spinal cord that controls urination; acts reflexively unless its action is modified by higher brain centers to allow voluntary urination | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
specific gravity : weight of a liquid compared to pure water, which has a specific gravity of 1.0; any solute added to water will increase its specific gravity | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
systemic edema : increased fluid retention in the interstitial spaces and cells of the body; can be seen as swelling over large areas of the body, particularly the lower extremities | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
trigone : area at the base of the bladder marked by the two ureters in the posteriorâlateral aspect and the urethral orifice in the anterior aspect oriented like points on a triangle | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
tubuloglomerular feedback : feedback mechanism involving the JGA; macula densa cells monitor Na+concentration in the terminal portion of the ascending loop of Henle and act to cause vasoconstriction or vasodilation of afferent and efferent arterioles to alter GFR | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
urethra : transports urine from the bladder to the outside environment | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
urinalysis : analysis of urine to diagnose disease | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
urochrome : heme-derived pigment that imparts the typical yellow color of urine | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
vasa recta : branches of the efferent arterioles that parallel the course of the loops of Henle and are continuous with the peritubular capillaries; with the glomerulus, form a portal system | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/25-key-terms |
Your body is mostly water. Body fluids are aqueous solutions with differing concentrations of materials, called solutes. An appropriate balance of water and solute concentrations must be maintained to ensure cellular functions. If the cytosol becomes too concentrated due to water loss, cell functions deteriorate. If th... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/26-chapter-review |
Homeostasis requires that water intake and output be balanced. Most water intake comes through the digestive tract via liquids and food, but roughly 10 percent of water available to the body is generated at the end of aerobic respiration during cellular metabolism. Urine produced by the kidneys accounts for the largest... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/26-chapter-review |
Electrolytes serve various purposes, such as helping to conduct electrical impulses along cell membranes in neurons and muscles, stabilizing enzyme structures, and releasing hormones from endocrine glands. The ions in plasma also contribute to the osmotic balance that controls the movement of water between cells and th... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/26-chapter-review |
A variety of buffering systems exist in the body that helps maintain the pH of the blood and other fluids within a narrow rangeâbetween pH 7.35 and 7.45. A buffer is a substance that prevents a radical change in fluid pH by absorbing excess hydrogen or hydroxyl ions. Most commonly, the substance that absorbs the ion ... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/26-chapter-review |
Acidosis and alkalosis describe conditions in which a person's blood is, respectively, too acidic (pH below 7.35) and too alkaline (pH above 7.45). Each of these conditions can be caused either by metabolic problems related to bicarbonate levels or by respiratory problems related to carbonic acid and CO2levels. Several... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/26-chapter-review |
antidiuretic hormone (ADH) : also known as vasopressin, a hormone that increases the volume of water reabsorbed from the collecting tubules of the kidney | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/26-key-terms |
dehydration : state of containing insufficient water in blood and other tissues | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/26-key-terms |
dihydroxyvitamin D : active form of vitamin D required by the intestinal epithelial cells for the absorption of calcium | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/26-key-terms |
diuresis : excess production of urine | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/26-key-terms |
extracellular fluid (ECF) : fluid exterior to cells; includes the interstitial fluid, blood plasma, and fluids found in other reservoirs in the body | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/26-key-terms |
fluid compartment : fluid inside all cells of the body constitutes a compartment system that is largely segregated from other systems | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/26-key-terms |
hydrostatic pressure : pressure exerted by a fluid against a wall, caused by its own weight or pumping force | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/26-key-terms |
hypercalcemia : abnormally increased blood levels of calcium | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/26-key-terms |
hypercapnia : abnormally elevated blood levels of CO2 | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/26-key-terms |
hyperchloremia : higher-than-normal blood chloride levels | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/26-key-terms |
hyperkalemia : higher-than-normal blood potassium levels | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/26-key-terms |
hypernatremia : abnormal increase in blood sodium levels | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/26-key-terms |
hyperphosphatemia : abnormally increased blood phosphate levels | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/26-key-terms |
hypocalcemia : abnormally low blood levels of calcium | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/26-key-terms |
hypocapnia : abnormally low blood levels of CO2 | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/26-key-terms |
hypochloremia : lower-than-normal blood chloride levels | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/26-key-terms |
hypokalemia : abnormally decreased blood levels of potassium | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/26-key-terms |
hyponatremia : lower-than-normal levels of sodium in the blood | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/26-key-terms |
hypophosphatemia : abnormally low blood phosphate levels | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/26-key-terms |
interstitial fluid (IF) : fluid in the small spaces between cells not contained within blood vessels | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/26-key-terms |
intracellular fluid (ICF) : fluid in the cytosol of cells | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/26-key-terms |
metabolic acidosis : condition wherein a deficiency of bicarbonate causes the blood to be overly acidic | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/26-key-terms |
metabolic alkalosis : condition wherein an excess of bicarbonate causes the blood to be overly alkaline | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/26-key-terms |
plasma osmolality : ratio of solutes to a volume of solvent in the plasma; plasma osmolality reflects a personâs state of hydration | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/26-key-terms |
respiratory acidosis : condition wherein an excess of carbonic acid or CO2causes the blood to be overly acidic | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/26-key-terms |
respiratory alkalosis : condition wherein a deficiency of carbonic acid/CO2levels causes the blood to be overly alkaline | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/26-key-terms |
Gametes are the reproductive cells that combine to form offspring. Organs called gonads produce the gametes, along with the hormones that regulate human reproduction. The male gametes are called sperm. Spermatogenesis, the production of sperm, occurs within the seminiferous tubules that make up most of the testis. The ... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/27-chapter-review |
Spermatogenesis begins with mitotic division of spermatogonia (stem cells) to produce primary spermatocytes that undergo the two divisions of meiosis to become secondary spermatocytes, then the haploid spermatids. During spermiogenesis, spermatids are transformed into spermatozoa (formed sperm). Upon release from the s... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/27-chapter-review |
The penis is the male organ of copulation. Columns of erectile tissue called the corpora cavernosa and corpus spongiosum fill with blood when sexual arousal activates vasodilatation in the blood vessels of the penis. Testosterone regulates and maintains the sex organs and sex drive, and induces the physical changes of ... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/27-chapter-review |
The external female genitalia are collectively called the vulva. The vagina is the pathway into and out of the uterus. The penis is inserted into the vagina to deliver sperm, and the baby exits the uterus through the vagina during childbirth. | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/27-chapter-review |
The ovaries produce oocytes, the female gametes, in a process called oogenesis. As with spermatogenesis, meiosis produces the haploid gamete (in this case, an ovum); however, it is completed only in an oocyte that has been penetrated by a sperm. In the ovary, an oocyte surrounded by supporting cells is called a follicl... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/27-chapter-review |
The uterus has three regions: the fundus, the body, and the cervix. It has three layers: the outer perimetrium, the muscular myometrium, and the inner endometrium. The endometrium responds to estrogen released by the follicles during the menstrual cycle and grows thicker with an increase in blood vessels in preparation... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/27-chapter-review |
The breasts are accessory organs that may be utilized after the birth of a child to produce milk in a process called lactation. Birth control pills provide constant levels of estrogen and progesterone to negatively feed back on the hypothalamus and pituitary, and suppress the release of FSH and LH, which inhibits ovula... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/27-chapter-review |
The reproductive systems of males and females begin to develop soon after conception. A gene on the Y chromosome calledSRYis critical in stimulating a cascade of events that simultaneously stimulate testis development and repress the development of female structures. Testosterone produced by Leydig cells in the embryon... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/27-chapter-review |
Whereas the gonads and some other reproductive tissues are considered bipotential, the tissue that forms the internal reproductive structures stems from ducts that will develop into only male (Wolffian) or female (Müllerian) structures. To be able to reproduce as an adult, one of these systems must develop properly an... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/27-chapter-review |
Further development of the reproductive systems occurs at puberty. The initiation of the changes that occur in puberty is the result of a decrease in sensitivity to negative feedback in the hypothalamus and pituitary gland, and an increase in sensitivity of the gonads to FSH and LH stimulation. These changes lead to in... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/27-chapter-review |
alveoli : (of the breast) milk-secreting cells in the mammary gland | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/27-key-terms |
ampulla : (of the uterine tube) middle portion of the uterine tube in which fertilization often occurs | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/27-key-terms |
antrum : fluid-filled chamber that characterizes a mature tertiary (antral) follicle | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/27-key-terms |
areola : highly pigmented, circular area surrounding the raised nipple and containing areolar glands that secrete fluid important for lubrication during suckling | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/27-key-terms |
Bartholinâs glands : (also, greater vestibular glands) glands that produce a thick mucus that maintains moisture in the vulva area; also referred to as the greater vestibular glands | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/27-key-terms |
bloodâtestis barrier : tight junctions between Sertoli cells that prevent bloodborne pathogens from gaining access to later stages of spermatogenesis and prevent the potential for an autoimmune reaction to haploid sperm | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/27-key-terms |
body of uterus : middle section of the uterus | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/27-key-terms |
broad ligament : wide ligament that supports the uterus by attaching laterally to both sides of the uterus and pelvic wall | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/27-key-terms |
bulbourethral glands : (also, Cowperâs glands) glands that secrete a lubricating mucus that cleans and lubricates the urethra prior to and during ejaculation | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/27-key-terms |
cervix : elongate inferior end of the uterus where it connects to the vagina | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/27-key-terms |
clitoris : (also, glans clitoris) nerve-rich area of the vulva that contributes to sexual sensation during intercourse | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/27-key-terms |
corpus albicans : nonfunctional structure remaining in the ovarian stroma following structural and functional regression of the corpus luteum | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/27-key-terms |
corpus cavernosum : (plural = corpora cavernosa) either of two columns of erectile tissue in the penis that fill with blood during an erection | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/27-key-terms |
corpus luteum : transformed follicle after ovulation that secretes progesterone | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/27-key-terms |
corpus spongiosum : column of erectile tissue in the penis that fills with blood during an erection and surrounds the penile urethra on the ventral portion of the penis | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/27-key-terms |
ductus deferens : (also, vas deferens) duct that transports sperm from the epididymis through the spermatic cord and into the ejaculatory duct; also referred as the vas deferens | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/27-key-terms |
ejaculatory duct : duct that connects the ampulla of the ductus deferens with the duct of the seminal vesicle at the prostatic urethra | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/27-key-terms |
endometrium : inner lining of the uterus, part of which builds up during the secretory phase of the menstrual cycle and then sheds with menses | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/27-key-terms |
epididymis : (plural = epididymides) coiled tubular structure in which sperm start to mature and are stored until ejaculation | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/27-key-terms |
fimbriae : fingerlike projections on the distal uterine tubes | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/27-key-terms |
follicle : ovarian structure of one oocyte and surrounding granulosa (and later theca) cells | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/27-key-terms |
folliculogenesis : development of ovarian follicles from primordial to tertiary under the stimulation of gonadotropins | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/27-key-terms |
fundus : (of the uterus) domed portion of the uterus that is superior to the uterine tubes | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/27-key-terms |
gamete : haploid reproductive cell that contributes genetic material to form an offspring | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/27-key-terms |
glans penis : bulbous end of the penis that contains a large number of nerve endings | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/27-key-terms |
gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) : hormone released by the hypothalamus that regulates the production of follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone from the pituitary gland | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/27-key-terms |
gonads : reproductive organs (testes and ovaries) that produce gametes and reproductive hormones | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/27-key-terms |
granulosa cells : supportive cells in the ovarian follicle that produce estrogen | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/27-key-terms |
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