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d Socher CEO and Founder, You.com". Time Magazine.
- ^ Robertson, Adi (November 9, 2021). "You.com wants to remake the search engine". The Verge. Retrieved March 21, 2022.
- ^ Baranouski, Artsiom (January 30, 2024). "Top 10 Salesforce SPQ Alternatives for the North American Market". Medium. Retrieved February 1, 2024.
- ^ a b c Paresh, Dave (November 9, 2021). "Salesforce CEO Benioff invests in search engine startup You.com". Reuters.
- ^ Primack, Dan (July 14, 2022). "You.com raises $25 million
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, Dan (July 14, 2022). "You.com raises $25 million to challenge Google's search dominance". Axios. Retrieved April 7, 2023.
- ^ Wiggers, Kyle (July 14, 2022). "You raises $25M to fuel its AI-powered search engine". TechCrunch. Retrieved April 7, 2024.
- ^ Newman, Jared. "You.com: This Google alternative combines search with an app store". Fast Company.
- ^ Press, Gil. "Want To Experience The Future Of Search? Go To You.com". Forbes.
- ^ Kahn, Imad (December 23, 2022). "Search Engine You.com Laun
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d (December 23, 2022). "Search Engine You.com Launches ChatGPT-Style Chatbot, But Don't Trust It Fully Yet". CNET. Retrieved April 7, 2024.
- ^ Kulp, Patrick (January 24, 2024). "How this early LLM researcher is taking on ChatGPT with his own search engine". Tech Brew.
- ^ a b c d Eliaçık, Eray. "You.com's AI-powered features are already in use, unlike Google". Dataconomy.
- ^ You.com (May 10, 2023). "Introducing YouChat — The AI Search Assistant that Lives in Your Search Engine". Medium.
- ^ Ro
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that Lives in Your Search Engine". Medium.
- ^ Roth, Emma. "Meet the companies trying to keep up with ChatGPT". The Verge.
- ^ You.com (May 10, 2023). "Introducing YouChat 2.0 — Unlock the Power of AI with the Search Assistant that Works for You". Medium.
- ^ a b Nuñez, Michael. "VentureBeat Q&A: Richard Socher, cofounder and CEO of You.com, says Google is facing a classic innovator's dilemma". VentureBeat.
- ^ a b Nuñez, Michael. "You.com challenges Google, Microsoft with launch of 'multimodal
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enges Google, Microsoft with launch of 'multimodal conversational AI' in search". VentureBeat.
- ^ a b Özergin, Özgürcan. "How to use You.com: YouChat, YouImagine, and more". TechBriefly.
- ^ Deutscher, Maria. "You.com debuts multimodal AI chatbot for search". SiliconANGLE.
- ^ "YouChat 3.0 is here — Experience the Ultimate Chat Search". You.com. Retrieved June 12, 2023.
- ^ a b c d Oritz, Sabrina (March 20, 2024). "YouPro lets me access every popular premium AI chatbot for $20/month - but there
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pular premium AI chatbot for $20/month - but there's a catch". ZDNET.
- ^ Press, Gil (June 21, 2023). "You.com Launches Subscription Service For Cutting-Edge Generative AI Search Chatbot". Forbes.
- ^ Jain, Osheen (March 17, 2022). "You.com launches YouWrite, an AI-powered writing tool powered by OpenAI". Analytics Drift. Retrieved April 13, 2022.
- ^ Wiggers, Kyle (March 15, 2022). "You.com launches an AI-powered writing tool powered by OpenAI". VentureBeat. Retrieved April 13, 2022.
- ^ You.co
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VentureBeat. Retrieved April 13, 2022.
- ^ You.com. "Introducing YouWrite — an AI writing assistant on You.com". Medium.
- ^ a b McCracken, Harry. "Search upstart You.com is melding its AI chatbot with mini-apps". Fast Company.
- ^ a b Wiggers, Kyle. "You raises $25M to fuel its AI-powered search engine". TechCrunch.
- ^ "YOU.com AI is Everything Google, ChatGPT, MidJourney, and Code Writer Plus More". Trenzle.
- ^ "Humanize AI". Retrieved November 27, 2023.
- ^ "You.com: A Comprehensive Review
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ber 27, 2023.
- ^ "You.com: A Comprehensive Review of the Search Engine Powered by AI". Metaroids.
- ^ You.com (November 30, 2022). "Make AI Art in seconds. For free. In your search engine". Medium.
- ^ Wheatley, Mike. "You.com creates an app store-based search experience to take on Google". SiliconANGLE.
- ^ Wiggers, Kyle (July 14, 2022). "You raises $25M to fuel its AI-powered search engine". TechCrunch.
- ^ You.com (October 4, 2022). "New AI tools every developer should use in 2022". Medium.
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ools every developer should use in 2022". Medium.
- ^ a b Preimesberger, Chris J. "You.com launches open search platform for developers". VentureBeat.
- ^ a b "A Search Engine for Software Developers". Tech Smart.
- ^ Glen, Stephanie. "Developer search engine for code snippets comes with caveats". TechTarget.
- ^ You.com (August 4, 2022). "Why we built the best search engine for coders — Introducing YouCode". Medium.
- ^ "The Best Inventions of 2022". Time. Retrieved April 7, 2024.
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022". Time. Retrieved April 7, 2024.
- ^ Mullich, Joe (November 10, 2022). "Ad-free Search You.com". Time.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#0
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History of IBM
International Business Machines Corporation (IBM) is a multinational corporation specializing in computer technology and information technology consulting. Headquartered in Armonk, New York, the company originated from the amalgamation of various enterprises dedicated to automating routine business transactions, notably pioneering punched card-based data tabulating machines and time clocks. In 1911, these entities were unified under the umbrella of the Computing-Tabulating-Recordi
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r the umbrella of the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company (CTR).
Thomas J. Watson (1874–1956) assumed the role of general manager within the company in 1914 and ascended to the position of President in 1915. By 1924, the company rebranded as "International Business Machines". IBM diversified its offerings to include electric typewriters and other office equipment. Watson, a proficient salesman, aimed to cultivate a highly motivated, well-compensated sales force capable of devising solutions f
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nsated sales force capable of devising solutions for clients unacquainted with the latest technological advancements.
In the 1940s and 1950s, IBM began its initial forays into computing, which constituted incremental improvements to the prevailing card-based system. A pivotal moment arrived in the 1960s with the introduction of the System/360 family of mainframe computers. IBM provided a comprehensive spectrum of hardware, software, and service agreements, fostering client loyalty and solidifyin
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greements, fostering client loyalty and solidifying its moniker "Big Blue". The customized nature of end-user software, tailored by in-house programmers for a specific brand of computers, deterred brand switching due to its associated costs. Despite challenges posed by clone makers like Amdahl and legal confrontations, IBM leveraged its esteemed reputation, assuring clients with both hardware and system software solutions, earning acclaim as one of the esteemed American corporations during the 1
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of the esteemed American corporations during the 1970s and 1980s.
However, IBM encountered difficulties in the late 1980s and 1990s, marked by substantial losses surpassing $8 billion in 1993. The mainframe-centric corporation grappled with adapting swiftly to the burgeoning Unix open systems and personal computer revolutions.[1] Desktop machines and Unix midrange computers emerged as cost-effective and easily manageable alternatives, overshadowing multi-million-dollar mainframes. IBM responded
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ng multi-million-dollar mainframes. IBM responded by introducing a Unix line and a range of personal computers. The competitive edge was gradually lost to clone manufacturers who offered cost-effective alternatives, while chip manufacturers like Intel and software corporations like Microsoft reaped significant profits.
Through a series of strategic reorganizations, IBM managed to sustain its status as one of the world's largest computer companies and systems integrators. As of 2014, the company
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and systems integrators. As of 2014, the company boasted a workforce exceeding 400,000 employees globally[2] and held the distinction of possessing the highest number of patents among U.S.-based technology firms.[3][4] IBM maintained a robust presence with research laboratories dispersed across twelve locations worldwide. Its extensive network comprised scientists, engineers, consultants, and sales professionals spanning over 175 countries.[5] IBM employees were recognized for their outstanding
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BM employees were recognized for their outstanding contributions with numerous accolades, including five Nobel Prizes, four Turing Awards, five National Medals of Technology, and five National Medals of Science.[6]
Chronology
[edit]1880s–1924: The origin of IBM
[edit]IBM traces its roots to the 1880s through the consolidation of four predecessor companies:[7][8][9][10]
- Bundy Manufacturing Company:
- Founded in 1889 by Harlow Bundy in Binghamton, New York, as the first manufacturer of time cloc
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, New York, as the first manufacturer of time clocks.
- Tabulating Machine Company:
- Initiated by Herman Hollerith, who began building punch card-based data processing machines as early as 1884.
- Founded the Tabulating Machine Company in 1896 in Washington, D.C.
- International Time Recording Company:
- Founded in 1900 by George Winthrop Fairchild in Jersey City, New Jersey, and reincorporated in 1901 in Binghamton, later relocating to Endicott, New York in 1906.
- Computing Scale Company of A
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, New York in 1906.
- Computing Scale Company of America:
- Established in 1901 in Dayton, Ohio.
The U.S. Census Bureau contracted to use Herman Hollerith's punched card tabulating technology on the 1890 United States census. That census was completed in 6-years and estimated to have saved the government $5 million.[11] The total population of 62,947,714, the family, or rough, count, was announced after only six weeks of processing (punched cards were not used for this tabulation).[12][13] Holle
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were not used for this tabulation).[12][13] Hollerith's punched cards become the tabulating industry standard for input for the next 70 years, and were initially sold as The Tabulating Machine Company.[citation needed] In 1906, Hollerith made the first tabulator with an automatic card feed and control panel.[14] Hollerith later expanded to private businesses in the United States and abroad. In 1911, due to declining health, Hollerith sold the business to financier Charles Flint for $2.3 million
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siness to financier Charles Flint for $2.3 million.[15][16]
On June 16, 1911, Flint merged the four companies into a new holding company named the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company (CTR), headquartered in Endicott.[17][18][19][20] The consolidation aimed to diversify the company's revenue sources and mitigate risks associated with dependence on a single industry.[citation needed] The consolidated entity initially had 1,300 employees and offices/plants in several locations across the United
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ces/plants in several locations across the United States and Toronto, Ontario.[21] The amalgamated companies started manufacturing, and selling or leasing machinery such as commercial scales, industrial time recorders, meat and cheese slicers, tabulators, and punched cards.[22][23] The individual companies continued operating under their established names as subsidiaries of CTR until the holding company was dissolved in 1933.[24]
To manage the diversified businesses of CTR, Flint sought assistan
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versified businesses of CTR, Flint sought assistance from Thomas J. Watson Sr., the former No. 2 executive at the National Cash Register Company (NCR).[citation needed] In 1914, Watson was made general manager of CTR. Less than a year later the court verdict was set aside. A consent decree was drawn up which Watson refused to sign, gambling that there would not be a retrial. He became president of the firm Monday, March 15, 1915.[25] Watson's managerial strategies and emphasis on customer servic
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agerial strategies and emphasis on customer service and large-scale tabulating solutions propelled revenue growth and expanded the company's operations globally.[citation needed]
In 1916, CTR started investing in its subsidiary's employees, creating an education program. Over the next two decades, the program expanded to include management education, volunteer study clubs, and the construction of the IBM Schoolhouse in 1933.[26] In 1917, CTR expanded to Brazil, invited by the Brazilian Governmen
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nded to Brazil, invited by the Brazilian Government to conduct the census.[27] In 1920, the Tabulating Machine Co. made their printing tabulator. With prior tabulators the results were displayed and had to be copied by hand.[28] In 1923, CTR acquired majority ownership of the German tabulating firm Deutsche Hollerith Maschinen Groupe (Dehomag).[citation needed]
Watson had never liked the hyphenated title of Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company and chose the new name of "International Business
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and chose the new name of "International Business Machines Corporation" (IBM) both for its aspirations and to escape the confines of "office appliance". The new name was first used for the company's Canadian subsidiary in 1917, and was formally changed on February 14, 1924.[29] The subsidiaries' names did not change; there would be no IBM labeled products until 1933 (below) when the subsidiaries are merged into IBM. Under Watson's leadership, he established key initiatives that shaped IBM's orga
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established key initiatives that shaped IBM's organizational culture, including hiring disabled workers, promoting employee education, and fostering a culture of thinking ("THINK" was a slogan made in 1915[30]). His Open Door Policy and initiatives to support employees and their families became integral aspects of IBM's culture.[citation needed]
1925–1929: IBM's early growth
[edit]Our products are known in every zone. Our reputation sparkles like a gem. We've fought our way through and new field
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a gem. We've fought our way through and new fields we're sure to conquer too. For the ever-onward IBM
— "Ever Onward", IBM employee songbook[31]
Thomas J. Watson, during his tenure at IBM, implemented strict guidelines for employees, encompassing a dress code stipulating dark suits, white shirts, and striped ties. The consumption of alcohol, whether during working hours or otherwise, was prohibited. Watson actively led singing sessions during meetings, featuring songs such as "Ever Onward" from
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etings, featuring songs such as "Ever Onward" from the official IBM songbook.[31] Additionally, the company initiated the publication of an employee newspaper named Business Machines, consolidating coverage of all IBM businesses into one publication.[32]
Several employee recognition programs were introduced, including the Quarter Century Club[33] to honor those with 25 years of service and the Hundred Percent Club[34] to reward sales personnel meeting annual quotas. In 1928, IBM launched the Sug
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eting annual quotas. In 1928, IBM launched the Suggestion Plan program,[35] providing cash rewards to employees for valuable ideas aimed at improving IBM products and procedures. Over a span of 70 years, IBM and its predecessor companies specialized in manufacturing clocks and other time recording products,[36][37] culminating in the 1958 sale of the IBM Time Equipment Division to Simplex Time Recorder Company.[38] This division produced a range of equipment, including dial recorders, job record
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of equipment, including dial recorders, job recorders, recording door locks, time stamps, and traffic recorders.
IBM expanded its product line through innovative engineering, driven by notable inventors such as James W. Bryce, Clair Lake,[39] Fred Carroll,[40] and Royden Pierce.[41] Significant product innovations were introduced, including the first complete school time control system[42] and the first printing tabulator[43] in 1920. In 1923, the company pioneered the first electric keypunch.[4
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e company pioneered the first electric keypunch.[44] The Carroll Rotary Press introduced in 1924 revolutionized the production of punched cards by achieving record-setting speeds.[32] In 1928, IBM introduced the 80-column punched card, known as the "IBM Card", effectively doubling its information capacity.[45] This format became an industry standard until the 1970s.[citation needed]
Key events in IBM's history during this period include the first tabulator sold to Japan in 1925, through a partne
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tabulator sold to Japan in 1925, through a partnership with Morimura-Brothers.[46][47][48] IBM established its presence in Italy by opening its first office in Milan in 1927, facilitating operations with national insurance and banks. A significant advancement in tabulator technology occurred in 1928 with the introduction of the Hollerith Type IV tabulator capable of subtraction.[49] This year also marked the debut of the Hollerith 80-column punched card, a format that became an industry standar
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hed card, a format that became an industry standard, superseding the prior 45-column card and eventually ending vendor compatibility.[citation needed]
1930–1938: The Great Depression
[edit]The 1930s Great Depression posed an extraordinary economic test, yet IBM displayed resilience by maintaining investments in personnel, manufacturing, and technological advancements during this challenging period. Rather than downsizing its workforce, Watson opted to hire additional salesmen and engineers in al
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ed to hire additional salesmen and engineers in alignment with President Franklin Roosevelt's National Recovery Administration plan.[citation needed]
During this era, IBM emerged as a pioneering corporation by instituting employee benefits such as group life insurance (1934), survivor benefits (1935), and paid vacations (1936). The company furthered its commitment to education and research by establishing the IBM Schoolhouse in Endicott and constructing a modern research laboratory at the same l
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ructing a modern research laboratory at the same location. Watson's strategic decisions during this time represented IBM's initial 'Bet the Company' gamble, marked by substantial internal investments to secure the future.[citation needed]
In an effort to manage the strain on resources caused by factories running at maximum capacity for six years without a market to sell to, IBM opted to sell the struggling Dayton Scale Division (food services equipment business) to Hobart Manufacturing in 1933.[
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ipment business) to Hobart Manufacturing in 1933.[50][51] An opportune moment arrived with the enactment of the Social Security Act of 1935, hailed as "the biggest accounting operation of all time",[52] wherein IBM secured the exclusive bid by promptly providing the necessary equipment. This landmark government contract involved maintaining employment records for 26 million individuals, propelling IBM's success and paving the way for additional government orders. By the decade's end, IBM had not
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overnment orders. By the decade's end, IBM had not only navigated through the Depression but had also ascended to a prominent position in the industry.[citation needed]
Watson's visionary focus on international expansion emerged as a pivotal aspect of IBM's 20th-century growth and triumph. Influenced by the devastating impact of World War I on society and businesses, he advocated for commerce as a deterrent to war, emphasizing the compatibility of business interests and peace. Watson's belief wa
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f business interests and peace. Watson's belief was so strong that he inscribed his slogan "World Peace Through World Trade" on the façade of IBM's new World Headquarters (1938) in New York City.[53] This phrase became a fundamental IBM business tenet, and Watson actively campaigned for this idea with international business and government leaders. He played a role as an informal government host to visiting world leaders in New York and received numerous awards from foreign governments in recogni
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umerous awards from foreign governments in recognition of his efforts to enhance international relations through the establishment of business connections.[citation needed]
In 1936, following a loss at the US Supreme Court, IBM agreed to a consent decree which created a separate market for the punched cards and in effect for subsequent computer supplies such as magnetic tapes and disk packs.
Key events
[edit]1931
[edit]- The first Hollerith punched card machine capable of multiplication is intro
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ed card machine capable of multiplication is introduced, known as the Hollerith 600 Multiplying Punch.[54]
- The first Hollerith alphabetical accounting machine, the Alphabetic Tabulator Model B, was swiftly followed by the full alphabet ATC.[55]
- The New York World newspaper coins the term "Super Computing Machine" to describe the Columbia Difference Tabulator, a specialized tabulator-based machine created for the Columbia Statistical Bureau. It was exceptionally massive and earned the nicknam
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t was exceptionally massive and earned the nickname "Packard". Institutions such as the Carnegie Foundation, Yale University, Harvard University, and others became users.[56][57][58]
1933
[edit]- Subsidiary companies merge into IBM, leading to the disappearance of names like the Tabulating Machine Company.[59][60]
- IBM introduces removable control panels.[61]
- IBM implements a standard 40-hour work week for both manufacturing and office locations.[citation needed]
- IBM purchases the Electroma
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ns.[citation needed]
- IBM purchases the Electromatic Typewriter Co., primarily to secure essential patents. Electric typewriters later become one of IBM's prominent products.[62][63]
1934
[edit]- IBM establishes a group life insurance plan for all employees with at least one year of service.[64]
- Watson Sr. transitions IBM's factory employees to a salary-based payment system, eliminating piece work and enhancing economic stability for employees and their families.[65]
- IBM introduces the IBM
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and their families.[65]
- IBM introduces the IBM 801 Bank Proof machine, a new type of proof machine that improved the efficiency of the check clearing process.[66]
1935
[edit]- During the Great Depression, IBM maintains production of new machines, positioning the company to win a significant government contract related to the Social Security Act, termed "the biggest accounting operation of all time".[67]
1936
[edit]- IBM agreed to 1936 consent decree
1937
[edit]- IBM establishes a tabulating m
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decree
1937
[edit]- IBM establishes a tabulating machine data center at Columbia University, known as the Thomas J. Watson Astronomical Computing Bureau, dedicated to scientific research.[68]
- IBM introduces the first collator, the IBM 077 Collator.[69]
- IBM produces five to ten million punched cards every day, employing 32 presses in Endicott, N.Y., for this purpose.[70]
- Rey Johnson of IBM designs the IBM 805 Test Scoring Machine, revolutionizing the test scoring process with innovative pen
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izing the test scoring process with innovative pencil-mark sensing technology and the phrase, "Please completely fill in the oval."[71]
- Watson Sr., as president of the International Chamber of Commerce, presides over the ICC's 9th Congress in Berlin and received a Merit Cross of the German Eagle with Star medal from the Nazi government, later returned.[72][73]
- IBM announces a policy of paying employees for six annual holidays, marking one of the first instances of holiday pay in U.S. compani
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the first instances of holiday pay in U.S. companies. Paid vacations also commenced.[74]
- Japan Wattoson Statistics Accounting Machinery Co., Ltd. (now IBM Japan) is established.[47]
1938
[edit]- IBM dedicates its new World Headquarters at 590 Madison Avenue, New York City, and by that time, the company had operations in 79 countries.[53]
1939–1945: World War II
[edit]In the years preceding the commencement of World War II, the International Business Machines Corporation (IBM) had established o
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iness Machines Corporation (IBM) had established operational presences across various nations that later became embroiled in the global conflict, aligning with either the Allies or the Axis powers. IBM maintained the financially significant subsidiary, DEHOMAG, in Germany, where it held a majority ownership stake (from 1922 to 1949), alongside operations in Poland, Switzerland, and several other European countries. In line with the fate of numerous enterprises under enemy ownership in Axis-contr
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us enterprises under enemy ownership in Axis-controlled territories, these IBM subsidiaries were seized by the Nazi regime and other Axis-affiliated governments early in the war. Concurrently, the corporation's central headquarters in New York redirected its efforts towards supporting the American war endeavor.
IBM in America
[edit]During World War II, IBM underwent a significant transformation in its product line[75] and operations to support the war effort. Originally known for its tabulating
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e war effort. Originally known for its tabulating equipment and time recording devices, IBM shifted its focus to manufacturing various military ordnance items and essential products. The product line expanded to include Sperry and Norden bombsights, Browning Automatic Rifles, the M1 Carbine, and engine parts, comprising over three dozen major ordnance items and 70 products overall. Thomas J. Watson, the president of IBM at the time, set a nominal one percent profit on these war-related products.
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one percent profit on these war-related products. The profits generated were used to establish a fund dedicated to assisting the widows and orphans of IBM employee war casualties.[76]
The contributions of IBM during this period were instrumental in aiding Allied military forces. The company's tabulating equipment found extensive use in mobile records units, ballistics, accounting, logistics, and other war-related purposes. Particularly notable was the use of IBM punched-card machines at Los Ala
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as the use of IBM punched-card machines at Los Alamos National Laboratory in the Manhattan Project for speeding up calculations necessary for the development of the first atomic bombs.[77]
IBM also played a vital role in technological advancements during the war. In collaboration with the U.S. Navy, IBM built the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator, also known as the Harvard Mark I, which was the first large-scale electromechanical calculator in the United States.
In the early 1930s, IBM ha
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r in the United States.
In the early 1930s, IBM had acquired the rights to Radiotype, an electric typewriter attached to a radio transmitter.[78] This technology proved to be crucial during the war, as Admiral Richard E. Byrd successfully sent a test Radiotype message over 11,000 miles from Antarctica to an IBM receiving station in Ridgewood, New Jersey in 1935.[79] During the war, Radiotype installations were extensively used, processing up to 50,000,000 words a day,[80] and were selected by th
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0,000,000 words a day,[80] and were selected by the Signal Corps for war-related communications.
To meet the demands of wartime production, IBM significantly expanded its manufacturing capacity. New buildings were constructed at its Endicott, New York plant in 1941, and new facilities were established in Poughkeepsie, New York (1941), Washington, D.C. (1942), and San Jose, California (1943).[81][82] The decision to establish a presence on the West Coast, particularly in San Jose, was strategic a
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t Coast, particularly in San Jose, was strategic and capitalized on the burgeoning electronics research and high technology innovation base in the region, which later became known as Silicon Valley.[citation needed]
Additionally, IBM was subcontracted by the U.S. government for a critical project related to the Japanese internment camps. IBM provided punched card equipment and services for the administration and management of these camps.[83]
IBM's punched card equipment also played a vital role
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's punched card equipment also played a vital role in code breaking and cryptanalysis efforts by various U.S. Army and Navy organizations, including Arlington Hall, OP-20-G, Central Bureau, Far East Combined Bureau, and similar Allied organizations. These efforts were essential for intelligence and information decryption during the war.
IBM in Germany and Nazi-occupied Europe
[edit]During the 1930s and throughout World War II, the Nazi regime extensively utilized Hollerith punch-card equipment,
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ensively utilized Hollerith punch-card equipment, a technology developed by IBM, for various administrative and discriminatory purposes. IBM's majority-owned German subsidiary, Deutsche Hollerith Maschinen GmbH (Dehomag), played a crucial role in supplying and maintaining this equipment for the Nazis. The machinery facilitated the categorization and identification of individuals in Germany and territories under Nazi control, aiding in the execution of oppressive policies, particularly the persec
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on of oppressive policies, particularly the persecution and deportation of Jews and other targeted groups during the Holocaust, leading to their internment in Nazi concentration camps.[84]
Dehomag, like numerous foreign-owned enterprises operating in Germany during that era, fell under Nazi control prior to and during World War II. An individual associated with the Nazi regime, Hermann Fellinger, assumed a prominent role within the subsidiary as an enemy-property custodian appointed by the Germa
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an enemy-property custodian appointed by the Germans. The control over Dehomag was asserted by the Nazis, although Edwin Black, a journalist and historian, contends in IBM and the Holocaust that the appearance of seizure was a deceptive maneuver. He asserts that the company was not plundered, its leased machinery was not confiscated, and IBM continued to receive funds through its Geneva-based subsidiary.[85] Black argues that IBM persisted in its business relations with the Nazi regime beyond th
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business relations with the Nazi regime beyond the point where they should have ceased, maintaining and expanding services to the Third Reich,[85] until the United States declared war against Germany in 1941, at which point Germany took control of Dehomag and appointed Hermann Fellinger as enemy-property custodian.[85] IBM countered these claims by stating that the allegations were based on known facts and previously disclosed documents, asserting the absence of new revelations. The company fur
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ng the absence of new revelations. The company further denied any withholding of relevant documentation.[86] Notable historians have expressed varying views on IBM's complicity and awareness of Nazi utilization of tabulating machines as asserted by Black.[87][88][89]
In parallel to these events during World War II, key developments within IBM included initiatives beyond the geopolitical context of the war. Noteworthy events included IBM's launch of a program in 1942 to train and employ disabled
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of a program in 1942 to train and employ disabled individuals,[90] beginning in Topeka, Kansas, and expanding to New York City the following year. Also in 1943, IBM appointed its first female vice president,[91] marking a significant milestone. In the realm of technology, IBM introduced the world's first large-scale calculating computer, the Automatic Sequence Control Calculator (ASCC),[92] in 1944, developed in collaboration with Harvard University. This electromechanical machine, also known as
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ity. This electromechanical machine, also known as the Mark I, revolutionized calculation speed. Moreover, during 1944, IBM actively participated in supporting education through its involvement with the United Negro College Fund(UNCF).[93] Following the war, in 1945, IBM established its first research facility, the Watson Scientific Computing Laboratory, signifying a pivotal step in the evolution of the company's research endeavors.[94] In 1961, IBM relocated its research headquarters to the T.J
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IBM relocated its research headquarters to the T.J. Watson Research Center in Yorktown Heights, New York.[citation needed]
1946–1959: Postwar
[edit]IBM experienced significant growth in the aftermath of World War II. The company anticipated potential challenges due to a potential decrease in military spending after the war. To address this concern, IBM initiated an ambitious international expansion, leading to the establishment of the World Trade Corporation in 1949, tasked with managing and exp
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Corporation in 1949, tasked with managing and expanding foreign operations. Under the leadership of Arthur K. 'Dick' Watson, the youngest son of Watson Sr., the World Trade Corporation played a crucial role in contributing to half of IBM's profits by the 1970s.[citation needed]
IBM introduced its first computer in 1951, closely following Remington Rand's UNIVAC. Remarkably, within five years, IBM captured 85% of the computer market, prompting a UNIVAC executive to express dissatisfaction at the
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UNIVAC executive to express dissatisfaction at the competitive advantage IBM had garnered through effective sales strategies.[31] Tragically, the passing of Thomas J. Watson., the company's founding father, on June 19, 1956, marked a significant shift in IBM's leadership. His eldest son, Thomas J. Watson, Jr., took over as the chief executive, after being president since 1952.[citation needed]
The new CEO faced formidable challenges, navigating a rapidly evolving technological landscape with eme
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rapidly evolving technological landscape with emerging computer technologies like electronic computers, magnetic tape storage, disk drives, and programming, creating both competitors and market uncertainties. Internally, the company experienced substantial growth, leading to organizational and management complexities. The absence of Watson Sr.'s charismatic leadership raised concerns among senior executives about managing IBM effectively during this transformative period. In response, Watson Jr
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this transformative period. In response, Watson Jr. undertook a radical restructuring of the organization, implementing a modern management structure to enhance oversight and efficiency.[95]
Watson Jr. institutionalized IBM's well-known but unwritten practices and philosophies into formal corporate policies and programs, such as the Three Basic Beliefs, Open Door, and Speak Up! He notably introduced the company's first equal opportunity policy letter in 1953, preceding the U.S. Supreme Court dec
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tter in 1953, preceding the U.S. Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education by a year and anticipating the Civil Rights Act of 1964.[96] by 11 years.[97]
Furthermore, Watson Jr. expanded the company's physical capabilities, establishing key research and development laboratories in various locations. Acknowledging the need to embrace transistor technology, he mandated a corporate policy in 1957, advocating the use of solid-state circuitry in all machine developments and discouraging th
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ry in all machine developments and discouraging the use of tube circuitry in new commercial machines or devices.[98]
IBM continued its collaboration with the U.S. government, driving computational innovation, particularly during the Cold War. This collaboration was instrumental in projects like the SAGE interceptor early detection air defense system.[99] Beginning in 1952, IBM collaborated with MIT's Lincoln Laboratory to design an air defense computer, and later became the primary computer hard
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mputer, and later became the primary computer hardware contractor for developing SAGE for the United States Air Force. This initiative enabled IBM to access groundbreaking research on real-time, digital computers and various technological advancements.[citation needed]
These strategic government partnerships, combined with pioneering computer technology research and successful commercial products, including the IBM 700 series of computer systems, IBM 650, IBM 305 RAMAC with disk drive memory, an
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IBM 650, IBM 305 RAMAC with disk drive memory, and IBM 1401, positioned IBM as the world's leading technology firm by the end of the 1950s.[100] In the five years following Watson Sr.'s passing, IBM's size had more than doubled, its stock had quintupled, and a significant majority of computers in operation in the United States were IBM machines.[101]
Key events
[edit]During the period from 1946 to 1959, International Business Machines Corporation (IBM) witnessed several significant events and d
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n (IBM) witnessed several significant events and developments that played a crucial role in shaping the company's trajectory and influence in the emerging computer and technology industry. These events are outlined below:
1946
[edit]- IBM 603 Electronic Multiplier: IBM announces the IBM 603 Electronic Multiplier, marking the company's first commercial product to incorporate electronic arithmetic circuits.[102]
- Chinese Character Typewriter: IBM introduces an electric Chinese ideographic charact
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introduces an electric Chinese ideographic character typewriter, enabling users to type at a rate of 40 to 45 Chinese words per minute. The machine utilized a cylinder with engraved ideographic type faces, showcasing IBM's early forays into diverse language processing technologies.[103]
- First Black Salesman: IBM hires its first black salesman, demonstrating an early commitment to diversity and inclusion, occurring well before the enactment of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.[104]
1948
[edit]- IBM
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he Civil Rights Act of 1964.[104]
1948
[edit]- IBM SSEC: IBM announced the Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator (SSEC), its initial large-scale digital calculating machine. The SSEC, employing vacuum tubes and electromechanical relays, was the first computer capable of modifying a stored program, representing a landmark in computing technology.[105]
1950s
[edit]- IBM's Involvement in Space Exploration: IBM played a crucial role in space exploration endeavors, ranging from developing ballisti
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ration endeavors, ranging from developing ballistics tables during World War II to designing intercontinental missiles and supporting satellite launching and tracking, marking a significant contribution to the aerospace industry.[106]
1952
[edit]- IBM 701 Commercial Computer: IBM entered the commercial computer market with the introduction of the IBM 701, its first large-scale electronic computer manufactured in quantity. The IBM 701 played a pivotal role in establishing IBM's presence in the el
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otal role in establishing IBM's presence in the electronics industry.[107]
- Magnetic Tape Vacuum column: IBM introduced the magnetic tape drive vacuum column, revolutionizing data storage by enabling fragile magnetic tape to become a viable medium. This innovation set the stage for the widespread adoption of magnetic storage technology.[108]
- First California Research Lab: IBM opened its first West Coast laboratory in San Jose, California, a significant step that eventually contributed to the
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gnificant step that eventually contributed to the development of Silicon Valley. Within a few years, this lab played a pivotal role in inventing the hard disk drive.[107]
1953
[edit]- Equal Opportunity Policy Letter: IBM's president, Thomas J. Watson Jr., published the company's first written equal opportunity policy letter, showcasing an early commitment to promoting equality within the workplace.[96]
- IBM 650 Magnetic Drum Data-Processing Machine: IBM announced the IBM 650 Magnetic Drum Data-
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ine: IBM announced the IBM 650 Magnetic Drum Data-Processing Machine, an intermediate-sized electronic computer designed to handle both business and scientific computations. It became highly popular during the 1950s.[109]
1954
[edit]- Development of NORC: IBM developed and built the Naval Ordnance Research Computer (NORC), the fastest and most powerful electronic computer of its time, for the U.S. Bureau of Ordnance.[110]
1956
[edit]- First Magnetic Hard Disk Drive: IBM introduced the world's fi
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tic Hard Disk Drive: IBM introduced the world's first magnetic hard disk for data storage, the IBM 350 disk storage unit, which stored 5 million 6-bit characters (3.75 MB) on fifty-two 24-inch diameter disks. This innovation marked the beginning of an era of efficient data storage.[111]
- Consent Decree: The United States Justice Department entered a consent decree against IBM, preventing the company from monopolizing the market for punched-card tabulating and electronic data-processing machines
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tabulating and electronic data-processing machines. The decree established regulations for IBM's operations in this domain.[112]
- Corporate Design Initiative: IBM initiated a formal Corporate Design Program under the guidance of design consultant Eliot Noyes, seeking to create a consistent, world-class look and feel for IBM products and structures. This marked a significant step towards branding and design standardization.[113]
- First European Research Lab: IBM expanded its research capabiliti
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Research Lab: IBM expanded its research capabilities by opening its first research lab outside the United States, in Zurich, Switzerland, further enhancing its global research and development footprint.[114]
- Leadership Transition and Williamsburg Conference: Thomas J. Watson Sr. retired, passing the leadership of IBM to his son, Watson Jr. This transition was marked by a significant organizational restructuring during the Williamsburg conference, paving the way for the second generation of IBM
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e, paving the way for the second generation of IBM leadership.[115]
- Artificial intelligence: Arthur L. Samuel of IBM's Poughkeepsie, New York, laboratory demonstrated an early form of artificial intelligence by programming an IBM 704 to play checkers, showcasing the potential for machines to "learn" from their experiences.[116]
1957
[edit]- IBM introduces the FORTRAN programming language, contributing to numerical analysis and scientific computing.[117][better source needed]
1958
[edit]- SAGE
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ing.[117][better source needed]
1958
[edit]- SAGE AN/FSQ-7 Computer: IBM was contracted to build the SAGE (Semi-Automatic Ground Environment) AN/FSQ-7 computer for MIT's Lincoln Laboratory, a critical component of the North American Air Defense System.[118]
1959
[edit]- IBM 1401: IBM introduced the IBM 1401, the first high-volume, stored-program, core-memory, transistorized computer. Its versatility in running enterprise applications made it highly popular in the early 1960s.[119]
- IBM 1403 Cha
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ly popular in the early 1960s.[119]
- IBM 1403 Chain Printer: IBM launched the 1403 chain printer, marking the advent of high-speed, high-volume impact printing, a significant advancement in the field of data output and document processing.[120]
These events collectively reflect IBM's prominent role in the evolution of computing technology, its commitment to innovation, and its pioneering contributions to various aspects of the emerging computer industry during the late 1940s and 1950s.
1960–196
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industry during the late 1940s and 1950s.
1960–1969: The System/360 era, Unbundling software and services
[edit]On April 7, 1964, IBM introduced the revolutionary System/360, the first large "family" of computers to use interchangeable software and peripheral equipment, a departure from IBM's existing product line of incompatible machines, each of which was designed to solve specific customer requirements.[121] The idea of a general-purpose machine was considered a gamble at the time.[122]
Withi
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ne was considered a gamble at the time.[122]
Within two years, the System/360 became the dominant mainframe computer in the marketplace and its architecture became a de facto industry standard. During this time, IBM transformed from a medium-sized maker of tabulating equipment and typewriters into the world's largest computer company.[123]
In 1969 IBM "unbundled" software and services from hardware sales. Until this time customers did not pay for software or services separately from the high pri
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software or services separately from the high price for the hardware. Software was provided at no additional charge, generally in source code form. Services (systems engineering, education and training, system installation) were provided free of charge at the discretion of the IBM Branch office. This practice existed throughout the industry.
IBM's unbundling is widely credited with leading to the growth of the software industry.[124][125][126][127] After the unbundling, IBM software was divided
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27] After the unbundling, IBM software was divided into two main categories: System Control Programming (SCP), which remained free to customers, and Program Products (PP), which were charged for. This transformed the customer's value proposition for computer solutions, giving a significant monetary value to something that had essentially been free. This helped enable the creation of the software industry. Similarly, IBM services were divided into two categories: general information, which remain
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two categories: general information, which remained free and provided at the discretion of IBM, and on-the-job assistance and training of customer personnel, which were subject to a separate charge and were open to non-IBM customers. This decision vastly expanded the market for independent computing services companies.[citation needed]
The company began four decades of Olympic sponsorship with the 1960 Winter Games in Squaw Valley, California. It became a recognized leader in corporate social r
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t became a recognized leader in corporate social responsibility, joining federal equal opportunity programs in 1962, opening an inner-city manufacturing plant in 1968, and creating a minority supplier program. It led efforts to improve data security and protect privacy. It set environmental air/water emissions standards that exceeded those dictated by law and brought all its facilities into compliance with those standards. It opened one of the world's most advanced research centers in Yorktown,
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rld's most advanced research centers in Yorktown, New York. Its international operations produced more than half of IBM's revenues by the early 1970s. The resulting technology transfer shaped the way governments and businesses operated around the world. IBM personnel and technology played an integral role in the space program and landing the first humans on the Moon in 1969. In that same year, it changed the way it marketed its technology to customers, unbundling hardware from software and servi
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omers, unbundling hardware from software and services, effectively starting today's software and services industry. See unbundling of software and services, below. IBM was massively profitable, with a nearly fivefold increase in revenues and earnings during the 1960s.[citation needed]
In 1967, Thomas John Watson Jr. announced that IBM would open a large-scale manufacturing plant at Boca Raton, Florida, to produce its System/360 Model 20 midsized computer. On March 16, 1967, a headline in the Boc
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computer. On March 16, 1967, a headline in the Boca Raton News[128] announced "IBM to hire 400 by year's end." The plan was for IBM to lease facilities to start making computers until the new site could be developed. A few months later, hiring began for assembly and production control trainees. IBM's Juan Rianda moved from Poughkeepsie, New York, to become the first plant manager at IBM's new Boca operations. To design its new campus, IBM commissioned architect Marcel Breuer, who worked closely
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ioned architect Marcel Breuer, who worked closely with American architect Robert Gatje. In September 1967, the Boca team shipped the first IBM System/360 Model 20 to the City of Clearwater – the first computer in its production run. A year later, IBM 1130 Computing Systems were being produced and shipped. By 1970, IBM's Boca workforce grew to around 1,300 in part due to a Systems Development Engineering Laboratory being added to the division's operations.[citation needed]
Key events
[edit]1961
[
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erations.[citation needed]
Key events
[edit]1961
[edit]- IBM delivers its first 7030 Stretch supercomputer. Stretch falls short of its original design objectives, and is not a commercial success. But it is a product that pioneers numerous revolutionary computing technologies which are soon widely adopted by the computer industry.[129][130]
- IBM moves its research headquarters from Poughkeepsie, NY to Westchester County, NY, opening the Thomas J. Watson Research Center which remains IBM's larges
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Watson Research Center which remains IBM's largest research facility, centering on semiconductors, computer science, physical science, and mathematics. The lab which IBM established at Columbia University in 1945 was closed and moved to the Yorktown Heights laboratory in 1970.[131]
- IBM introduces the Selectric typewriter product line. Later Selectric models feature memory, giving rise to the concepts of word processing and desktop publishing. The machine won numerous awards for its design and
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The machine won numerous awards for its design and functionality. Selectrics and their descendants eventually captured 75 percent of the United States market for electric typewriters used in business.[132] IBM replaced the Selectric line with the IBM Wheelwriter in 1984 and transferred its typewriter business to the newly formed Lexmark in 1991.[133]
- IBM offers its Report Program Generator, an application that allows IBM 1401 users to produce reports. This capability was adopted throughout the
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eports. This capability was adopted throughout the industry, becoming a feature offered in subsequent generations of computers. It played a role in the introduction of computers into small businesses.[citation needed]
1962
[edit]- Basic beliefs. Drawing on established IBM policies, Thomas J. Watson Jr., codifies three IBM basic beliefs: respect for the individual, customer service, and excellence.[134]
- SABRE. Two IBM 7090 mainframes formed the backbone of the SABRE reservation system for Ameri
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