source
stringlengths 36
80
| text
stringlengths 51
500
|
|---|---|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#190
|
the 700C. The ThinkPad,[236] a premium machine which then cost US$4350, included a 25 MHz Intel 80486SL processor, a 10.4-inch active matrix display, removable 120 MB hard drive, 4 MB RAM (expandable to 16 MB) and a TrackPoint II pointing device.[237] The design by noted designer Richard Sapper made the Thinkpad successful with the digerati, and the cool factor of the ThinkPad brought back some of the cachet to the IBM brand that was lost in the PC wars of the 1980s. Instrumental to this popula
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#191
|
PC wars of the 1980s. Instrumental to this popular resurgence was the 1997 chess match between IBM's chess-playing computer system Deep Blue and reigning world chess champion Garry Kasparov. Deep Blue's victory was a historic first for a computer over a reigning world champion. Also helping the company reclaim its position as a technology leader was its annual domination of supercomputer rankings[238] and patent leadership statistics.[239] Ironically, a contributor in reviving the company's rep
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#192
|
cally, a contributor in reviving the company's reputation was the Dot-com bubble collapse in 2000, where many of the edgy technology high flyers of the 1990s failed to survive the downturn. These collapses discredited some of the more fashionable Internet-driven business models that IBM was previously compared against.
Another factor was the company's revival of the IBM brand. The company's marketing during the economic downturn was chaotic, presenting different, sometimes discordant voices in t
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#193
|
enting different, sometimes discordant voices in the marketplace. This brand chaos was attributable in part to the company having 70 different advertising agencies in its employ. In 1994, IBM consolidated its advertising in one agency. The result was a coherent, consistent message to the marketplace.[240]
As IBM recovered its financial footing, it sought to redefine the Internet age in ways that played to traditional IBM strengths, couching the discussion in business-centric manners with initiat
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#194
|
iscussion in business-centric manners with initiatives like e-commerce and On Demand.[241] It supported open source initiatives, forming ventures with partners and competitors alike.[242]
The company also revamped its philanthropic practices to bring focus on improving K-12 education. It ended its 40-year technology partnership with the International Olympic Committee after a successful engagement at the 2000 Olympic Games in Sydney, Australia. On the human resources front, IBM adopted and integ
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#195
|
n the human resources front, IBM adopted and integrated diversity principles and practices ahead of the industry. It added sexual orientation to its non-discrimination practices in 1984, in 1995 created executive diversity task forces, and in 1996 offered domestic partner benefits to its employees. The company is listed as among the best places for employees, employees of color, and women to work.[243] And in 1996, the Women in Technology International Hall of Fame inducted three IBM employees a
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#196
|
tional Hall of Fame inducted three IBM employees as part of its inaugural class of 10 women: Ruth Leach Amonette, the first woman to hold an executive position at IBM; Barbara Grant, PhD, first woman to be named an IBM site general manager; and Linda Sanford, the highest-placed technical woman in IBM. Fran Allen – a software pioneer for her innovative work in compilers over the decades – was inducted in 1997.[244]
In 1998, IBM merged the enterprise-oriented Personal Systems Group of the IBM PC C
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#197
|
se-oriented Personal Systems Group of the IBM PC Co. into IBM's own Global Services personal computer consulting and customer service division. The resulting merged business units then became known simply as IBM Personal Systems Group.[245] A year later, IBM stopped selling their computers at retail outlets after their market share in this sector had fallen considerably behind competitors Compaq and Dell.[246] Immediately afterwards, the IBM PC Co. was dissolved and merged into IBM Personal Syst
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#198
|
o. was dissolved and merged into IBM Personal Systems Group.[247]
Gerstner retired at the end of 2002, and was replaced by long-time IBMer Samuel J. Palmisano.
In 2005, the company sold all of its personal computer business to Chinese technology company Lenovo[248] and, in 2009, it acquired software company SPSS Inc. Later in 2009, IBM's Blue Gene supercomputing program was awarded the National Medal of Technology and Innovation by U.S. President Barack Obama. In 2011, IBM gained worldwide atten
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#199
|
Barack Obama. In 2011, IBM gained worldwide attention for its artificial intelligence program Watson, which was exhibited on Jeopardy! where it won against game-show champions Ken Jennings and Brad Rutter. The company also celebrated its 100th anniversary in the same year on June 16. In 2012, IBM announced it had agreed to buy Kenexa and Texas Memory Systems,[249] and a year later it also acquired SoftLayer Technologies, a web hosting service, in a deal worth around $2 billion.[250] Also that y
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#200
|
n a deal worth around $2 billion.[250] Also that year, the company designed a video surveillance system for Davao City.[251]
In 2014, IBM announced it would sell its x86 server division to Lenovo for $2.1 billion.[252][better source needed] while continuing to offer Power ISA-based servers.
Key events
[edit]1993
[edit]- IBM misreads two significant trends in the computer industry: personal computers and client-server computing: and as a result loses more than $8 billion in 1993, its third straig
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#201
|
ses more than $8 billion in 1993, its third straight year of billion-dollar losses. Since 1991, the company lost $16 billion, and many feel IBM is no longer a viable player in the industry.[253]
- Louis V. Gerstner Jr. Gerstner arrives as IBM's chairman and CEO on April 1, 1993. For the first time since the arrival of Thomas J. Watson Sr., in 1914, IBM has a leader pulled from outside its ranks. Gerstner had been chairman and CEO of RJR Nabisco for four years and had previously spent 11 years as
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#202
|
or four years and had previously spent 11 years as a top executive at American Express.[254]
- IBM RS/6000 SP system. IBM introduces the Scalable POWERparallel System, the first in a family of microprocessor-based supercomputers using RS/6000 technology. IBM pioneers scalable parallel system technology of joining smaller, mass-produced computer processors rather than relying on one larger, custom-designed processor. Complex queries could then be broken down into a series of smaller jobs that are
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#203
|
broken down into a series of smaller jobs that are run concurrently ("in parallel") to speed their completion.[255]
1994
[edit]- IBM reports a profit for the year, its first since 1990. Over the next few years, the company focuses less on its traditional strengths in hardware, and more on services, software, and its ability to craft technology solutions.[256]
- IBM RAMAC Array Storage Family. With features like highly parallel processing, multi-level cache, RAID 5, and redundant components, RAMA
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#204
|
evel cache, RAID 5, and redundant components, RAMAC advances information storage technology. Consisting of the RAMAC Array Direct Access Storage Device (DASD) and the RAMAC Array Subsystem, almost 2,000 systems shipped to customers in its first three months of availability.[257]
- Speech recognition. IBM releases the IBM Personal Dictation System (IPDS), the first wave of speech recognition products for the personal computer. It is later renamed VoiceType, and its capabilities are expanded to in
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#205
|
VoiceType, and its capabilities are expanded to include control of computer applications and desktops simply by talking to them, without touching a keyboard. In 1997 IBM announces ViaVoice Gold, software that provides a hands-free way to dictate text and navigate the desktop using natural, continuous speech.[258]
1995
[edit]- Lotus Development Corporation acquisition. IBM acquires the outstanding shares of the Lotus Development Corporation, whose Notes software improves collaboration across an e
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#206
|
Notes software improves collaboration across an enterprise and whose acquisition makes IBM the world's largest software company.[259]
- Glueball calculation. IBM scientists complete a two-year calculation – the largest single numerical calculation in the history of computing – to pin down the properties of an elusive elementary particle called a "glueball". The calculation was carried out on GF11, a massively parallel computer at the IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center.[260]
1996
[edit]- IBM A
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#207
|
J. Watson Research Center.[260]
1996
[edit]- IBM Austin Research Laboratory opens. Based in Austin, Texas, the lab is focused on advanced circuit design as well as new design techniques and tools for very high performance microprocessors.[261]
- Atlanta Olympics. IBM suffers a highly public embarrassment when its IT support of the Olympic Games in Atlanta experiences technical difficulties.[262]
- Domestic partner benefits. IBM announces Domestic Partner Benefits for gay and lesbian employees.[2
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#208
|
Partner Benefits for gay and lesbian employees.[263]
1997
[edit]- Deep Blue. The 32-node IBM RS/6000 SP supercomputer, Deep Blue, defeats World Chess Champion Garry Kasparov in the first known instance of a computer beating a reigning world champion chess player in a tournament-style competition.[264]
- eBusiness. IBM coins the term and defined an enormous new industry by using the Internet as a medium for real business and institutional transformation. e-business becomes synonymous with doing
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#209
|
rmation. e-business becomes synonymous with doing business in the Internet age.[265]
1998
[edit]- CMOS Gigaprocessor. IBM unveils the first microprocessor that runs at 1 billion cycles per second. IBM scientists develop new Silicon on insulator chips to be used in the construction of a mainstream processor. The breakthrough ushers in new circuit designs and product groups.[266]
1999
[edit]- Blue Gene. IBM Research starts a computer architecture cooperative project with the Lawrence Livermore Nat
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#210
|
ooperative project with the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, the United States Department of Energy (which is partially funding the project), and academia to build new supercomputers (4) capable of more than one quadrillion operations per second (one petaflop). Nicknamed "Blue Gene", the new supercomputers perform 500 times faster than other powerful supercomputers and can simulate folding complex proteins.[267]
2000
[edit]- Quantum mirage nanotechnology. IBM scientists discover a way to
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#211
|
nanotechnology. IBM scientists discover a way to transport information on the atomic scale using electrons instead of conventional wiring. This new phenomenon, called the quantum mirage effect, may enable data transfer within future nanoscale electronic circuits too small to use wires. The quantum mirage technique can send information through solid forms and could do away with wiring that connects nanocircuit components.[268]
- IBM ASCI White – Fastest supercomputer. IBM delivers the world's mo
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#212
|
Fastest supercomputer. IBM delivers the world's most powerful computer to the US Department of Energy, powerful enough to process an Internet transaction for every person on Earth in less than a minute. IBM built the supercomputer to test the safety and effectiveness of the nation's aging nuclear weapons stockpile. This computer is 1,000 times more powerful than Deep Blue, the supercomputer that beat Garry Kasparov in chess in 1997.[269]
- Flexible transistors. IBM creates flexible transistors,
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#213
|
le transistors. IBM creates flexible transistors, combining organic and inorganic materials as a medium for semiconductors. By eliminating the limitations of etching computer circuits in silicon, flexible transistors make it possible to create a new generation of inexpensive computer displays that can be embedded into curved plastic or other materials.[270]
- Sydney Olympics. After a its successful engagement at the 2000 Olympic games in Sydney, IBM ends its 40-year technology partnership with t
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#214
|
IBM ends its 40-year technology partnership with the International Olympic Committee.[271]
2001
[edit]- The book IBM and the Holocaust written by Edwin Black is released. The book accuses IBM of having knowingly assisted Nazi authorities in the perpetuation of the Holocaust through the provision of tabulating products and services. Several lawsuits are later filed against IBM by Holocaust victims seeking restitution for their suffering and losses. All lawsuits related to this issue were eventual
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#215
|
. All lawsuits related to this issue were eventually dropped without recovery.[272][better source needed]
- Carbon nanotube transistors. IBM researchers build the world's first transistors out of carbon nanotubes – tiny cylinders of carbon atoms that are 500 times smaller than silicon-based transistors and 1,000 times stronger than steel. The breakthrough is thought to be an important step in finding materials that can be used to build computer chips when silicon-based chips can't be made smalle
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#216
|
hips when silicon-based chips can't be made smaller.[273]
- Low power initiative. IBM launches its low-power initiative to improve the energy efficiency of IT and accelerates the development of ultra-low power components and power-efficient servers, storage systems, personal computers and ThinkPad notebook computers.[274]
- Greater density & chip speeds. IBM is first to mass-produce computer hard disk drives using a revolutionary new type of magnetic coating – "pixie dust" – that eventually quad
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#217
|
etic coating – "pixie dust" – that eventually quadruples data density of current hard disk drive products. IBM also unveils "strained silicon", a breakthrough that alters silicon to boost chip speeds by up to 35 percent.[275][276]
2002
[edit]2003
[edit]- Blue Gene/L. The Blue Gene team unveils a proto-type of its Blue Gene/L computer roughly the size of a standard dishwasher that ranks as the 73rd most powerful supercomputer in the world. This cubic meter machine is a small scale model of the fu
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#218
|
bic meter machine is a small scale model of the full Blue Gene/L built for the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in California, which will be 128 times larger when it's unveiled two years later.[278]
2005
[edit]- Crusade Against Cancer. IBM joins forces with Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center (MSKCC), the Molecular Profiling Institute and the CHU Sainte-Justine Research Center to collaborate on cancer research by building state-of-the-art integrated information management systems.[279]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#219
|
t integrated information management systems.[279]
- Acquisition of the IBM PC business by Lenovo. The low-margin PC division (including ThinkPads) is sold to Chinese manufacturer, Lenovo.[280]
2006
[edit]- Translation software. IBM delivers an advanced speech-to-speech translation system to U.S. forces in Iraq using bidirectional English to Arabic translation software that improves communication between military personnel and Iraqi forces and citizens. The software helps offset the shortage of m
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#220
|
izens. The software helps offset the shortage of military linguists.[281]
2007
[edit]- Renewable energy. IBM is recognized by the US EPA for its green power purchases in the US and for its support and participation in EPA's Fortune 500 Green Power Challenge. IBM ranked 12th on the EPA's list of Green Power Partners for 2007. IBM purchased enough renewable energy in 2007 to meet 4% of its US electricity use and 9% of its global electricity purchases. IBM's commitment to green power helps cut gree
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#221
|
es. IBM's commitment to green power helps cut greenhouse gas emissions.[282]
- River watch using IBM Stream Computing. In a unique collaboration, The Beacon Institute and IBM created the first technology-based river monitoring network. The River and Estuary Observatory Network (REON) allows for minute-to-minute monitoring of New York's Hudson River via an integrated network of sensors, robotics and computational technology. This project is made possible by IBM's "Stream Computing", a new compute
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#222
|
ossible by IBM's "Stream Computing", a new computer architecture that can examine thousands of information sources to help scientists better understand what is happening as it happens.[283][284]
- IBM has been granted more US patents than any other company. From 1993 to 2007, IBM was awarded over 38,000 US patents and has invested about $5 billion annually in research, development, and engineering since 1996. IBM's active portfolio is about 26,000 patents in the US and over 40,000 patents worldw
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#223
|
0 patents in the US and over 40,000 patents worldwide is a direct result of that investment.[285]
2008
[edit]- IBM Roadrunner No.1 Supercomputer. For the ninth consecutive time, IBM takes the No.1 ranking of the world's most powerful supercomputers with its computer built for the Roadrunner project at Los Alamos National Laboratory. It is the first in the world to operate at speeds faster than one quadrillion calculations per second and remains the world speed champion for over a year. The Los A
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#224
|
he world speed champion for over a year. The Los Alamos system is twice as energy-efficient as the No. 2 computer at the time, using about half the electricity to maintain the same level of computing power.[286]
- Green power. IBM opens its "greenest" data center in Boulder, Colorado. The energy-efficient facility is part of a $350 million investment by IBM to help meet customer demand for reducing energy costs. The new data center includes high-density computing systems with virtualization tech
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#225
|
density computing systems with virtualization technology that reduce data center carbon footprint.[287]
2011
[edit]- Watson. IBM's supercomputer Watson won on the TV game show Jeopardy! against Ken Jennings and Brad Rutter. The competition was presented by PBS.[288]
- June 16, 2011: IBM founded 100 years ago. Mark Krantz and Jon Swartz in USA Today state "It has remained at the forefront through the decades ... the fifth-most-valuable U.S. company [today] ... demonstrated a strength shared by mo
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#226
|
y [today] ... demonstrated a strength shared by most 100-year-old companies: the ability to change. ...survived not only the Depression and several recessions, but technological shifts and intense competition as well."[289]
2015
[edit]- April: IBM Watson Health division created. IBM Watson Health was created largely through a series of acquisitions with the intention of using Watson in healthcare. A 2021 post from the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) titled "What Happened To Watson Heal
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#227
|
chinery (ACM) titled "What Happened To Watson Health?" described the portfolio management challenges.[290]
- October 28, Red Hat acquisition for $34 billion On October 28, 2018, IBM announced its intent to acquire Red Hat for US$34 billion, in one of its largest-ever acquisitions. The company will operate out of IBM's Hybrid Cloud division.[291][292][293][294][295]
2019–present
[edit]The 2019 acquisition of Red Hat enabled IBM to change its focus on future platforms, according to IBM Chief Execu
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#228
|
on future platforms, according to IBM Chief Executive Arvind Krishna.[296]
In October 2020, IBM announced it is splitting itself into two public companies.[297] IBM will focus on high-margin cloud computing and artificial intelligence, built on the foundation of the 2019 Red Hat acquisition. The legacy Managed Infrastructure Services unit will be spun off into a new public company Kyndryl to manage clients' IT infrastructure and accounts, and have 4,600 clients in 115 countries, with a backlog
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#229
|
ve 4,600 clients in 115 countries, with a backlog of $60 billion.[298][299] This was IBM's largest divestiture so far, and was welcomed by investors.[300][301][302]
On January 21, 2022, IBM announced that it would sell Watson Health to the private equity firm Francisco Partners.[303] In July 2022, IBM announced the acquisition of Databand, a data observability software developer, for an undisclosed amount. Following the acquisition, Databand employees will join IBM's data and AI division.[304]
I
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#230
|
oyees will join IBM's data and AI division.[304]
In December 2022, it was announced IBM had acquired the Reston-headquartered digital transformation and IT modernization services provider, Octo Consulting from Arlington Capital Partners for an undisclosed price.[305][306] IBM also signed a partnership with new Japanese 2 nm process manufacturing company Rapidus.[307]
In August 2023, IBM announced that it would sell The Weather Company to private equity firm Francisco Partners.[308]
Twentieth-cen
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#231
|
equity firm Francisco Partners.[308]
Twentieth-century market power and antitrust
[edit]IBM dominated the electronic data processing market for most of the 20th century, initially controlling over 70 percent of the punch card and tabulating machine market and then achieving a similar share in the computer market.[309] IBM asserted that its successes in achieving and maintaining such market share were due to its skill, industry and foresight; governments and competitors asserted that the maintena
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#232
|
rnments and competitors asserted that the maintenance of such large shares was at least in part due to anti-competitive acts such as unfair prices, terms and conditions, tying, product manipulations and creating FUD (Fear, Uncertainty and Doubt) related to its competitors, in the marketplace.[310] IBM was thus the defendant in more than twenty government and private antitrust actions during the 20th century. IBM lost only one of these matters but did settle others in ways that profoundly shaped
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#233
|
did settle others in ways that profoundly shaped the industry as summarized below. By the end of the 20th century, IBM was no longer so dominant in the computer industry. Some observers suggest management's attention to the many antitrust lawsuits of the 1970s was at least in part responsible for its decline.[309]
1936 Consent Decree
[edit]In 1932, U.S. Government prosecutors asserted as anti-competition tying IBM's practice of requiring customers who leased its tabulating equipment to purchase
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#234
|
rs who leased its tabulating equipment to purchase punched cards used on such equipment. IBM lost[311] the lawsuit and in the resulting 1936 consent decree,[312] IBM agreed to no longer require only IBM cards and agreed to assist alternative suppliers of cards in starting production facilities that would compete with IBM's; thereby create a separate market for the punched cards and in effect for subsequent computer supplies such as magnetic tapes and disk packs.
1956 Consent Decree
[edit]On Janu
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#235
|
and disk packs.
1956 Consent Decree
[edit]On January 21, 1952, the U.S. Government filed a lawsuit which resulted in a consent decree entered as a final judgment on January 25, 1956.[313] The government's goal to increase competition in the data processing industry was effected through several provisions in the decree:[314]
- IBM was required to sell equipment on terms that would not place purchasers at a disadvantage with respect to customers leasing the same equipment from IBM. Prior to this
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#236
|
easing the same equipment from IBM. Prior to this decree, IBM had only rented its equipment. This created markets both for used IBM equipment[314] and enabled lease financing of IBM equipment by third parties (leasing companies).[314]
- IBM was required to provide parts and information to independent maintainers of purchased IBM equipment,[314] enabling and creating a demand for such hardware maintenance services.
- IBM was required to sell data processing services through a subsidiary that coul
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#237
|
processing services through a subsidiary that could be treated no differently than any company independent of IBM, enabling competition in the data processing services business.
- IBM was required to grant non-exclusive, non-transferable, worldwide licenses for any and all patents at reasonable royalty rates to anyone, provided the licensee cross-licensed its patents to IBM on similar terms.[313] This removed IBM patents as a barrier to competition in the data processing industry and enabled the
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#238
|
on in the data processing industry and enabled the emergence of manufacturers of equipment plug compatible to IBM equipment.
While the decree did little to limit IBM's future dominance of the then-nascent computer industry, it did enable competition in segments such as leasing, services, maintenance, and equipment attachable to IBM systems and reduced barriers to entry through mandatory reasonable patent cross-licensing.
The decree's terms remained in effect until 1996; they were phased out over
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#239
|
ed in effect until 1996; they were phased out over the next five years.[315]
1968–1984 Multiple government and private antitrust complaints
[edit]In 1968 the first of a series of antitrust suits against IBM was filed by Control Data Corp (CDC). It was followed in 1969 by the US government's antitrust complaint, then by 19 private US antitrust complaints and one European complaint. In the end IBM settled a few of these matters but mainly won. The US government's case sustained by four US Presiden
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#240
|
US government's case sustained by four US Presidents and their Attorneys General was dropped as "without merit" in 1982 by William Baxter, US President Reagans' Assistant Attorney General in charge of the Antitrust Division of the U.S. Department of Justice.[316]
1968–1973 Control Data Corp. v. IBM
[edit]CDC filed an antitrust lawsuit against IBM in Minnesota's federal court alleging that IBM had monopolized the market for computers in violation of section 2 of the Sherman Antitrust Act by among
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#241
|
of section 2 of the Sherman Antitrust Act by among other things announcing products it could not deliver.[317] A 1965 internal IBM memo by an IBM attorney noted that Control Data had publicly blamed its declining earnings on IBM, "and its frequent model and price changes. There was some sentiment that the charges were true."[318] In 1973 IBM settled the CDC case for about $80 million in cash and the transfer of assets including the IBM Service Bureau Corporation to CDC.[317]
1969–1982 U.S. v. IB
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#242
|
reau Corporation to CDC.[317]
1969–1982 U.S. v. IBM
[edit]On January 17, 1969, the United States of America filed a complaint in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, alleging that IBM violated Section 2 of the Sherman Antitrust Act by monopolizing or attempting to monopolize the general-purpose electronic digital computer system market, specifically computers designed primarily for business. Subsequently, the US government alleged IBM violated the antitrust law
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#243
|
government alleged IBM violated the antitrust laws in IBM's actions directed against leasing companies and plug-compatible peripheral manufacturers.
In June 1969 IBM unbundled its software and services in what many observers believed was in anticipation of and a direct result of the 1969 US Antitrust lawsuit. Overnight a competitive software market was created.[319]
Among the major violations asserted were:[320]
- Anticompetitive price discrimination such as giving away software services.
- Bun
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#244
|
ation such as giving away software services.
- Bundling of software with "related computer hardware equipment" for a single price.
- Predatorily priced and preannounced specific hardware "fighting machines".
- Developed and announced specific hardware products primarily for the purpose of discouraging customers from acquiring competing products.
- Announced certain future products knowing that it was unlikely to be able to ship such products within the announced time frame.
- Engaged in below co
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#245
|
in the announced time frame.
- Engaged in below cost and discount conduct in selected markets in order to injure peripheral manufacturers and leasing companies.
It was in some ways one of the great single firm monopoly cases of all times. IBM produced 30 million pages of materials during discovery; it submitted its executives to a series of pretrial depositions. Trial began six years after the complaint was filed and then it battled in court for another six years. The trial transcript contains o
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#246
|
another six years. The trial transcript contains over 104,400 pages with thousands of documents placed in the record. It ended on January 8, 1982, when William Baxter, the then Assistant Attorney General in charge of the Antitrust Division of the Department of Justice dropped the case as "without merit".[316]
1969–1981 Private antitrust lawsuits
[edit]The U.S.'s 1969 antitrust lawsuit was followed by about 18 private antitrust complaints all but one of which IBM ultimately won. Some notable laws
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#247
|
one of which IBM ultimately won. Some notable lawsuits include:
Greyhound Computer Corp.
[edit]Greyhound, a leasing company, filed a case under Illinois' state antitrust law in Illinois state court.[321] This case went to trial in federal court in 1972 in Arizona with a directed verdict for IBM on the antitrust claims; however, the court of appeals in 1977 reversed the decision. Just before the retrial was to start in January 1981, IBM and Greyhound settled the case for $17.7 million.[317]
Telex
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#248
|
und settled the case for $17.7 million.[317]
Telex Corp.
[edit]Telex, a peripherals equipment manufacturer, filed suit on January 21, 1972, charging that IBM had monopolized and had attempted to monopolize the worldwide manufacture, distribution, sales, and leasing of electronic data processing equipment including the relevant submarket of plug-compatible peripheral devices. After a non-jury trial in 1973, IBM was found guilty "possessing and exercising monopoly power" over the "plug-compatible
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#249
|
rcising monopoly power" over the "plug-compatible peripheral equipment market", and ordered to pay triple damages of $352.5‐million and other relief including disclosure of peripheral interface specifications. Separately Telex was found guilty of misappropriated IBM trade secrets.[322] The judgment against IBM was overturned on appeal and on October 4, 1975, both parties announced they were terminating their actions against each other.[323]
Other private lawsuits
[edit]Other private lawsuits ult
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#250
|
private lawsuits
[edit]Other private lawsuits ultimately won by IBM include California Computer Products Inc.,[324] Memorex Corp.,[325] Marshall Industries, Hudson General Corp., Transamerica Corporation[326] and Forro Precision, Inc.
1980–1984 European Union
[edit]The European Economic Community Commission on Monopolies initiated proceedings against IBM under article 86 of the Treaty of Rome for exploiting its domination of the continent's computer business and abusing its dominant market posi
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#251
|
uter business and abusing its dominant market position by engaging in business practices designed to protect its position against plug-compatible manufacturers. The case was settled in 1984 with IBM agreeing to change its business practices with regard to disclosure of device interface information.[327]
Products and technologies
[edit]Evolution of IBM's operating systems
[edit]IBM operating systems have paralleled hardware development. On early systems, operating systems represented a relatively
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#252
|
ystems, operating systems represented a relatively modest level of investment, and were essentially viewed as an adjunct to the hardware. By the time of the System/360, however, operating systems had assumed a much larger role, in terms of cost, complexity, importance, and risk.[citation needed]
High-level languages
[edit]Early IBM computer systems, like those from many other vendors, were programmed using assembly language. Computer science efforts through the 1950s and early 1960s led to the d
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#253
|
rts through the 1950s and early 1960s led to the development of many new high-level languages (HLL) for programming. IBM played a complicated role in this process. Hardware vendors were naturally concerned about the implications of portable languages that would allow customers to pick and choose among vendors without compatibility problems. IBM, in particular, helped create barriers that tended to lock customers into a single platform.
Nevertheless, IBM had a significant role in the following ma
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#254
|
ss, IBM had a significant role in the following major computer languages:[citation needed]
- FORTRAN – for years, the dominant language for mathematics and scientific programming
- PL/I – an attempt to create a "be all and end all" language
- COBOL – eventually the ubiquitous, standard language for business applications
- APL – an early interactive language with a mathematical notation
- PL/S – an internal systems programming language proprietary to IBM
- RPG – an acronym for 'Report Program Gen
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#255
|
to IBM
- RPG – an acronym for 'Report Program Generator', developed on the IBM 1401 to produce reports from data files. General Systems Division enhanced the language to HLL status on its midrange systems to rival COBOL.
- SQL – a relational query language developed for IBM's System R; now the standard RDBMS query language
- Rexx – a macro and scripting language based on PL/I syntax originally developed for Conversational Monitor System (CMS) and authored by IBM Fellow Mike Cowlishaw
IBM and AI
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#256
|
d authored by IBM Fellow Mike Cowlishaw
IBM and AIX/UNIX/Linux/SCO
[edit]IBM developed an inconsistent relationship with the UNIX and Linux worlds. The importance of IBM's large computer business placed pressures on all of IBM's attempts to develop other lines of business. All IBM projects faced the risk of being seen as competing against company priorities. This was because, for example, if a customer decided to build an application on an RS/6000 platform, this also meant that a decision had be
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#257
|
0 platform, this also meant that a decision had been made against the highly profitable and entrenched mainframe platform. So despite having some excellent technology, IBM often placed itself in a compromised position.[citation needed]
A case in point is IBM's GFIS products for infrastructure management and GIS applications. Despite long having a dominant position in such industries as electric, gas, and water utilities, IBM stumbled in the 1990s trying to build workstation-based solutions to re
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#258
|
trying to build workstation-based solutions to replace its existing mainframe-based products. Some customers moved to new technologies from other vendors; many felt betrayed by IBM.[citation needed]
While IBM better embraced open source technologies in the 1990s, it later became embroiled in a complex litigation with SCO group over intellectual property rights related to the UNIX and Linux platforms.[citation needed]
See also
[edit]Notes and references
[edit]- ^ Jim Spohrer, "IBM's service jour
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#259
|
erences
[edit]- ^ Jim Spohrer, "IBM's service journey: A summary sketch". Industrial Marketing Management 60 (2017): 167–72.
- ^ "Worldwide IBM Research Locations". IBM. Retrieved September 26, 2014.
- ^ "IBM, Fortune 500, 2015". Fortune. Retrieved September 26, 2015.
- ^ "IBM maintains patent lead, moves to increase patent quality". IBM. January 10, 2006.
- ^ "2014 IBM Annual Report" (PDF). IBM. Retrieved September 26, 2015.
- ^ "Awards & Achievements". IBM. Retrieved August 13, 2009.
- ^ Benne
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#260
|
ements". IBM. Retrieved August 13, 2009.
- ^ Bennett, Frank P.; Company (1911). United States Investor. Vol. 22, Part 2. p. 1298 (26).
{{cite book}}
:|author2=
has generic name (help) - ^ Belden, Martin; Belden, Marva (1961). The Life of Thomas J. Watson, Little, Brown; p. 92
- ^ "IBM Archives: Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company (1911–1924)". January 23, 2003. Archived from the original on December 21, 2004.
- ^ Maney, Kevin; Hamm, Steve; O'Brien, Jeffrey M. (2011). Making the World Work Bet
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#261
|
rien, Jeffrey M. (2011). Making the World Work Better: The Ideas That Shaped a Century and a Company, IBM Press; p. 19
- ^ Report of the Commissioner of Labor In Charge of The Eleventh Census to the Secretary of the Interior for the Fiscal Year Ending June 30, 1895. Washington, D.C., July 29, 1895. p. 9: {{You may confidently look for the rapid reduction of the force of this office after the 1st of October, and the entire cessation of clerical work during the present calendar year. ... The condi
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#262
|
rk during the present calendar year. ... The condition of the work of the Census Division and the condition of the final reports show clearly that the work of the Eleventh Census will be completed at least two years earlier than was the work of the Tenth Census.}} Carroll D. Wright Commissioner of Labor in Charge
- ^ Truesdell, Leon E. (1965) The Development of Punch Card Tabulation in the Bureau of the Census 1890–1940, US GPO, p. 61
- ^ (Austrian, 1982, p. 69)
- ^ "Computing at Columbia: Timel
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#263
|
an, 1982, p. 69)
- ^ "Computing at Columbia: Timeline – Early". Columbia.edu. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Officemuseum.com – early Hollerith history, with good photographs of period equipment
- ^ "IBM Archives: Charles R. Flint". Archived from the original on December 15, 2005.
- ^ "Certificate of Incorporation of Computing-Tabulating-Recording-Co", Appendix to Hearings Before the Committee on Patents, House of Representatives, Seventy-Fourth Congress, on H. R. 4523, Part III, United States Go
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#264
|
ongress, on H. R. 4523, Part III, United States Government Printing Office, 1935 [Incorporation paperwork filed 16 June 1911]
- ^ Martin Campbell-Kelly and William Aspray, Computer a History of the Information Machine – Second Edition, Westview Press, pp. 37–39 2004
- ^ "IBM Archives: Chronological History of IBM 1880s". IBM. January 23, 2003. Archived from the original on December 11, 2004. Retrieved September 27, 2015.
- ^ Rodgers, Williams (1969). THINK. Stein and Day. p. 83.
- ^ Flint, Charl
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#265
|
69). THINK. Stein and Day. p. 83.
- ^ Flint, Charles R. (1923). Memories of an Active Life: Men, and Ships, and Sealing Wax. G.P. Putnam's Sons. p. 312.
- ^ Certificate of Incorporation of Computing-Tabulating-Recording-Co, 14th day of June 1911
- ^ Pugh, Emerson W. (1995). Building IBM: Shaping an Industry and Its Technology. MIT Press. pp. 24–27. ISBN 978-0-262-16147-3.
- ^ The last page of this ref shows continued use of established names. The 2nd ref shows the consolidation into IBM in 1933
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#266
|
2nd ref shows the consolidation into IBM in 1933 The Inventory Simplified Archived October 4, 2013, at the Wayback Machine, published in 1923, states: "The Tabulating Machine Company – Division of – International Business Machines Corporation".
- ^ Maney (2003) p. 57
- ^ Pugh (1995) p. 57
- ^ "IBM Archives: Frequently Asked Questions" (PDF). IBM. p. 15. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 14, 2005.
- ^ "IBM Archives: 1920". IBM. January 23, 2003. Archived from the original on January 17, 20
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#267
|
2003. Archived from the original on January 17, 2005.
- ^ Belden (1962) p. 125
- ^ Rodgers, William; THINK: A Biography of the Watsons and IBM Stein and Day, New York, p. 52.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Greenwald, John (July 11, 1983). "The Colossus That Works". Time. Archived from the original on May 14, 2008. Retrieved May 18, 2019.
- ^ a b "IBM Archives: 1924". IBM. January 23, 2003. Archived from the original on January 17, 2005. Retrieved May 29, 2011.
- ^ "First quarter Century Club". IBM. January
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#268
|
11.
- ^ "First quarter Century Club". IBM. January 23, 2003. Archived from the original on January 22, 2005. Retrieved May 29, 2011.
- ^ "Hundred Percent Club "main tent"". IBM. January 23, 2003. Archived from the original on January 13, 2005. Retrieved May 29, 2011.
- ^ "IBM Archives: 1988". IBM. January 23, 2003. Archived from the original on December 16, 2004. Retrieved May 29, 2011.
- ^ "IBM Archives: IBM Time Device". 03.ibm.com. January 23, 2003. Archived from the original on August 21, 20
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#269
|
2003. Archived from the original on August 21, 2006. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "IBM's swing era oldies (vol. 1)". IBM. January 23, 2003. Archived from the original on January 16, 2005. Retrieved May 29, 2011.
- ^ IBM Archives: Text of IBM's October 24, 1958 press release announcing the sale of its time equipment (clocks, et al.) business to Simplex Time Recorder Company.
- ^ Bashe, Charles J.; Pugh, Emerson W.; Johnson, Lyle R.; Palmer, John H. (1986). IBM's Early Computers. MIT Press. pp.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#270
|
H. (1986). IBM's Early Computers. MIT Press. pp. 8–34. ISBN 0-262-02225-7.
- ^ "IBM Archives/Business Machines: Fred M. Carroll". 03.ibm.com. Archived from the original on September 4, 2006. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Bashe (1986) pp. 9–14
- ^ "IBM Archives: 1920s". IBM. January 23, 2003. Archived from the original on December 16, 2004. Retrieved May 29, 2011.
- ^ "IBM Archives: 1920". IBM. January 23, 2003. Archived from the original on January 17, 2005. Retrieved May 29, 2011.
- ^ "IBM Arc
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#271
|
ary 17, 2005. Retrieved May 29, 2011.
- ^ "IBM Archive: 1923". 03.ibm.com. January 23, 2003. Archived from the original on January 17, 2005. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "IBM Archives: 1928". IBM. January 23, 2003. Archived from the original on January 17, 2005. Retrieved May 29, 2011.
- ^ "History". morimura.co.jp. Morimura Brothers, Inc. Archived from the original on February 4, 2014. Retrieved February 1, 2014.
- ^ a b "History of Innovation on the 75th anniversary of founding IBM Japan". ib
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#272
|
on the 75th anniversary of founding IBM Japan". ibm.com. IBM. Retrieved February 1, 2014.
- ^ "IBM Highlights, 1885–1969" (PDF). ibm.com. IBM. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 15, 2005. Retrieved February 1, 2014.
- ^ "IBM 301 Accounting Machine (the Type IV)". 03.ibm.com. January 23, 2003. Archived from the original on August 26, 2006. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Rogers, William (1969). THINK: A Biography of the Watsons and IBM. Stein and Day. p. 108.
- ^ Maney, Kevin (2003). The
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#273
|
ein and Day. p. 108.
- ^ Maney, Kevin (2003). The Maverick and His Machine. Wiley. p. 154. ISBN 0-471-41463-8.
- ^ "IBM Archives: 1930s". 03.ibm.com. January 23, 2003. Archived from the original on December 16, 2004. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ a b "IBM Archives: World Headquarters, N.Y. City". IBM Archives. January 23, 2003. Archived from the original on January 22, 2005. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Bashe, Charles J.; Johnson, Lyle R; Palmer, John H.; Pugh, Emerson W. (1986). IBM's Early Co
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#274
|
, John H.; Pugh, Emerson W. (1986). IBM's Early Computers. MIT. p. 14. ISBN 0-262-02225-7.
- ^ Pugh (1995) p. 50
- ^ Eames, Charles; Eames, Ray (1973). A Computer Perspective. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. p. 95. The date given, 1920, should be 1931 (see the Columbia Difference Tabulator web site)
- ^ "Columbia Difference Tabulator". Columbia.edu. March 1, 1920. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Columbia Alumni News, Vol. XXIII, No. 11, December 11, 1931, p. 1
- ^ The New York Times, Ju
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#275
|
December 11, 1931, p. 1
- ^ The New York Times, July 15, 1933, All subsidiaries of the International Business Machines Corporation in this county have been merged with the parent company to obtain efficient operation.
- ^ Rodgers, William (1969). THINK: A Biography of the Watsons and IBM. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. p. 83. ISBN 9780297000235.
- ^ "Date". jeanbellec.pagesperso-orange.fr.
- ^ Rogers (1969) p. 108
- ^ Typewriter#Early electric models
- ^ "IBM highlights 1885–1996" (PDF). Archived from t
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#276
|
"IBM highlights 1885–1996" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on December 15, 2005. Retrieved July 11, 2023.
- ^ Watson, Thomas J. Jr.; Petre, Peter (1990). Father, Son & Co.: my life at IBM and beyond. Bantam. p. 73. ISBN 0-553-07011-8.
- ^ "Industry Player Business Simulation Game". Industryplayer.com. Archived from the original on February 20, 2012. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "Social Security Online, Research Note #6".
- ^ Pugh (1995) p. 72
- ^ "IBM 077 Collator". 03.ibm.com. Novembe
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#277
|
p. 72
- ^ "IBM 077 Collator". 03.ibm.com. November 27, 1957. Archived from the original on September 9, 2006. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "IBM Archive: Endicott card manufacturing". 03.ibm.com. January 23, 2003. Archived from the original on January 22, 2005. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Pugh (1995) pp. 70–71
- ^ Maney, Kevin (2003). The Maverick and His Machine: Thomas Watson Sr., and the Making of IBM. Wiley. pp. 207–10. ISBN 978-0-471-41463-6.
- ^ IBM and the Holocaust, Edwin Black, 2001
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#278
|
3-6.
- ^ IBM and the Holocaust, Edwin Black, 2001 Crown / Random House. see index.
- ^ "IBM Archives: 1937". 03.ibm.com. January 23, 2003. Archived from the original on January 17, 2005. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "IBM 1940 product brochure" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on April 4, 2014.
- ^ "IBM Archives: 1940s". 03.ibm.com. January 23, 2003. Archived from the original on December 16, 2004. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Feynman, Richard P.; Leighton, Ralph (1997). Surely You're Jo
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#279
|
chard P.; Leighton, Ralph (1997). Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman! (Adventures of a Curious Character). New York: W.W. Norton & Co. ISBN 978-0-393-31604-9.
- ^ "IBM Archives: IBM Radiotype". 03.ibm.com. January 23, 2003. Archived from the original on January 19, 2005. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "IBM Archives: IBM Radiotype (continued)". 03.ibm.com. January 23, 2003. Archived from the original on January 19, 2005. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "IBM Archives: IBM Radiotype Installations". 03.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#280
|
^ "IBM Archives: IBM Radiotype Installations". 03.ibm.com. January 23, 2003. Archived from the original on January 19, 2005. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "IBM Archives: Washington Card Plant". 03.ibm.com. January 23, 2003. Archived from the original on February 26, 2006. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "IBM Archives: San Jose Card Plant". 03.ibm.com. January 23, 2003. Archived from the original on February 26, 2006. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Tyson, Thomas N; Fleischman, Richard K. (June 2006)
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#281
|
yson, Thomas N; Fleischman, Richard K. (June 2006). "Accounting for interned Japanese-American civilians during World War II: Creating incentives and establishing controls for captive workers". Accounting Historians Journal. 33 (1). Thomson Gale: 167. doi:10.2308/0148-4184.33.1.167.
- ^ Black, Edwin (2001). IBM and the Holocaust: the strategic alliance between Nazi Germany and America's most powerful corporation (1st ed.). New York: Crown Publishers. ISBN 978-0-609-60799-2.
- ^ a b c "Edwin Blac
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#282
|
ers. ISBN 978-0-609-60799-2.
- ^ a b c "Edwin Black on IBM and the Holocaust". Writing.upenn.edu. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "'I.B.M. and the Holocaust': Assessing the Culpability". The New York Times. March 7, 2001. Retrieved June 16, 2011.
- ^ "IBM Press room – "IBM Statement on Nazi-era Book and Lawsuit"". 03.ibm.com. February 14, 2001. Archived from the original on May 18, 2006. Retrieved June 16, 2011.
- ^ IBM Press Room (March 29, 2002). "Addendum to IBM Statement on Nazi-era Book and L
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#283
|
"Addendum to IBM Statement on Nazi-era Book and Lawsuit". Press Release. Armonk, New York: ibm.com. Archived from the original on July 6, 2006. Retrieved June 16, 2011.
- ^ Allen, Michael (January 1, 2002). "Stranger than Science Fiction: Edwin Black, IBM, and the Holocaust". Johns Hopkins University Press. 43 (1): 150–154. JSTOR 25147861. Retrieved March 7, 2022.
- ^ Hawthorne, Nan. "IBM Makes Inclusion a Global Priority". eSight Careers Network. Esight.org. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Amone
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#284
|
k. Esight.org. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Amonette, Ruth Leach; Among Equals, A Memoir: The Rise of IBM's First Woman Vice President Creative Arts Book ISBN 978-0-88739-219-1, pp. 86–89, 97.
- ^ Pugh (1995) pp. 72–76
- ^ Encyclopaedia of Information Technology Atlantic Publishers & Distributors 2007, p. 590.
- ^ Pugh (1995) pp. 127–29
- ^ Watson Jr. (1990) p. 284
- ^ a b Watson Jr. (1990) p. 306
- ^ Watson Jr. (1990) p. 285
- ^ Pugh (1995) p. 230
- ^ Pugh (1995) p. 210
- ^ Watson Jr. (1990) p
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#285
|
230
- ^ Pugh (1995) p. 210
- ^ Watson Jr. (1990) p. 342
- ^ Pugh (1995) pp. 216ff
- ^ Pugh (1995) p. 124
- ^ "IBM Archives: 1946". 03.ibm.com. January 23, 2003. Archived from the original on January 17, 2005. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "IBM Heritage". 03.ibm.com. Archived from the original on May 18, 2012. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Pugh (1995) pp. 124–27
- ^ "IBM Archives: Space Flight Chronology". 03.ibm.com. January 23, 2003. Archived from the original on January 19, 2005. Retrieved Apr
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#286
|
om the original on January 19, 2005. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ a b Pugh (1995) pp. 223–24
- ^ Pugh (1995) p. 222
- ^ Pugh (1995) pp. 178–82
- ^ Pugh (1995) p. 161
- ^ Pugh (1995) pp. 224–28
- ^ "CNET". News.cnet.com. July 2, 1996. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Scanlon, Jessie (January 29, 2007). "The Forgotten Pioneer of Corporate Design". Business Week. Archived from the original on February 2, 2007.
- ^ "ZRL 50th Anniversary". Zurich.ibm.com. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Pugh (1995) pp. 2
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#287
|
m. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Pugh (1995) pp. 263–65
- ^ McCarthy, John/Feigenbaum, Ed; "In Memoriam: Arthur Samuel: Pioneer in Machine Learning" AI Magazine, Vol. 11, No. 3 1990
- ^ Pugh (1995) pp. 194–97
- ^ Pugh (1995) pp. 207–19
- ^ Pugh (1995) pp. 265–68
- ^ "Columbia University Computing History". Columbia.edu. September 26, 2002. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ *E.W. Pugh, L.R. Johnson, and John H. Palmer, IBM's 360 and Early 370 Systems, MIT Press, Cambridge MA and London, ISBN 0-262-16
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#288
|
MIT Press, Cambridge MA and London, ISBN 0-262-16123-0
– extensive (819 pp.) treatment of IBM's offerings during this period - ^ Wise, T.A. (1966). "I.B.M.'s $5,000,000,000 Gamble". Fortune. Vol. LXXIV, no. 4. pp. 118–23, 224–28.
- ^ The other companies were sometimes referred to as "the BUNCH" (Burroughs, UNIVAC, NCR, CDC, and Honeywell, plus GE and RCA) "ibm-and-the-seven-dwarfs". Dvorak.org. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Burton Grad, "A Personal Recollection: IBM's Unbundling of Software and
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#289
|
nal Recollection: IBM's Unbundling of Software and Services", IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, Vol. 24, No. 1 (Jan–Mar 2002), pp. 64–71.
- ^ "IBM Archives: 1960s". IBM. January 23, 2003. Archived from the original on December 8, 2012. Retrieved November 12, 2010.
Rather than offer hardware, services and software exclusively in packages, marketers 'unbundled' the components and offered them for sale individually. Unbundling gave birth to the multibillion-dollar software and services indus
|
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.