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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#190 | the 700C. The ThinkPad,[236] a premium machine which then cost US$4350, included a 25 MHz Intel 80486SL processor, a 10.4-inch active matrix display, removable 120 MB hard drive, 4 MB RAM (expandable to 16 MB) and a TrackPoint II pointing device.[237] The design by noted designer Richard Sapper made the Thinkpad succes... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#191 | PC wars of the 1980s. Instrumental to this popular resurgence was the 1997 chess match between IBM's chess-playing computer system Deep Blue and reigning world chess champion Garry Kasparov. Deep Blue's victory was a historic first for a computer over a reigning world champion. Also helping the company reclaim its posi... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#192 | cally, a contributor in reviving the company's reputation was the Dot-com bubble collapse in 2000, where many of the edgy technology high flyers of the 1990s failed to survive the downturn. These collapses discredited some of the more fashionable Internet-driven business models that IBM was previously compared against.... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#193 | enting different, sometimes discordant voices in the marketplace. This brand chaos was attributable in part to the company having 70 different advertising agencies in its employ. In 1994, IBM consolidated its advertising in one agency. The result was a coherent, consistent message to the marketplace.[240]
As IBM recove... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#194 | iscussion in business-centric manners with initiatives like e-commerce and On Demand.[241] It supported open source initiatives, forming ventures with partners and competitors alike.[242]
The company also revamped its philanthropic practices to bring focus on improving K-12 education. It ended its 40-year technology pa... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#195 | n the human resources front, IBM adopted and integrated diversity principles and practices ahead of the industry. It added sexual orientation to its non-discrimination practices in 1984, in 1995 created executive diversity task forces, and in 1996 offered domestic partner benefits to its employees. The company is liste... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#196 | tional Hall of Fame inducted three IBM employees as part of its inaugural class of 10 women: Ruth Leach Amonette, the first woman to hold an executive position at IBM; Barbara Grant, PhD, first woman to be named an IBM site general manager; and Linda Sanford, the highest-placed technical woman in IBM. Fran Allen – a so... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#197 | se-oriented Personal Systems Group of the IBM PC Co. into IBM's own Global Services personal computer consulting and customer service division. The resulting merged business units then became known simply as IBM Personal Systems Group.[245] A year later, IBM stopped selling their computers at retail outlets after their... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#198 | o. was dissolved and merged into IBM Personal Systems Group.[247]
Gerstner retired at the end of 2002, and was replaced by long-time IBMer Samuel J. Palmisano.
In 2005, the company sold all of its personal computer business to Chinese technology company Lenovo[248] and, in 2009, it acquired software company SPSS Inc. L... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#199 | Barack Obama. In 2011, IBM gained worldwide attention for its artificial intelligence program Watson, which was exhibited on Jeopardy! where it won against game-show champions Ken Jennings and Brad Rutter. The company also celebrated its 100th anniversary in the same year on June 16. In 2012, IBM announced it had agree... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#200 | n a deal worth around $2 billion.[250] Also that year, the company designed a video surveillance system for Davao City.[251]
In 2014, IBM announced it would sell its x86 server division to Lenovo for $2.1 billion.[252][better source needed] while continuing to offer Power ISA-based servers.
Key events
[edit]1993
[edit]... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#201 | ses more than $8 billion in 1993, its third straight year of billion-dollar losses. Since 1991, the company lost $16 billion, and many feel IBM is no longer a viable player in the industry.[253]
- Louis V. Gerstner Jr. Gerstner arrives as IBM's chairman and CEO on April 1, 1993. For the first time since the arrival of ... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#202 | or four years and had previously spent 11 years as a top executive at American Express.[254]
- IBM RS/6000 SP system. IBM introduces the Scalable POWERparallel System, the first in a family of microprocessor-based supercomputers using RS/6000 technology. IBM pioneers scalable parallel system technology of joining small... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#203 | broken down into a series of smaller jobs that are run concurrently ("in parallel") to speed their completion.[255]
1994
[edit]- IBM reports a profit for the year, its first since 1990. Over the next few years, the company focuses less on its traditional strengths in hardware, and more on services, software, and its ab... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#204 | evel cache, RAID 5, and redundant components, RAMAC advances information storage technology. Consisting of the RAMAC Array Direct Access Storage Device (DASD) and the RAMAC Array Subsystem, almost 2,000 systems shipped to customers in its first three months of availability.[257]
- Speech recognition. IBM releases the I... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#205 | VoiceType, and its capabilities are expanded to include control of computer applications and desktops simply by talking to them, without touching a keyboard. In 1997 IBM announces ViaVoice Gold, software that provides a hands-free way to dictate text and navigate the desktop using natural, continuous speech.[258]
1995
... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#206 | Notes software improves collaboration across an enterprise and whose acquisition makes IBM the world's largest software company.[259]
- Glueball calculation. IBM scientists complete a two-year calculation – the largest single numerical calculation in the history of computing – to pin down the properties of an elusive e... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#207 | J. Watson Research Center.[260]
1996
[edit]- IBM Austin Research Laboratory opens. Based in Austin, Texas, the lab is focused on advanced circuit design as well as new design techniques and tools for very high performance microprocessors.[261]
- Atlanta Olympics. IBM suffers a highly public embarrassment when its IT su... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#208 | Partner Benefits for gay and lesbian employees.[263]
1997
[edit]- Deep Blue. The 32-node IBM RS/6000 SP supercomputer, Deep Blue, defeats World Chess Champion Garry Kasparov in the first known instance of a computer beating a reigning world champion chess player in a tournament-style competition.[264]
- eBusiness. IBM ... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#209 | rmation. e-business becomes synonymous with doing business in the Internet age.[265]
1998
[edit]- CMOS Gigaprocessor. IBM unveils the first microprocessor that runs at 1 billion cycles per second. IBM scientists develop new Silicon on insulator chips to be used in the construction of a mainstream processor. The breakth... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#210 | ooperative project with the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, the United States Department of Energy (which is partially funding the project), and academia to build new supercomputers (4) capable of more than one quadrillion operations per second (one petaflop). Nicknamed "Blue Gene", the new supercomputers perfo... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#211 | nanotechnology. IBM scientists discover a way to transport information on the atomic scale using electrons instead of conventional wiring. This new phenomenon, called the quantum mirage effect, may enable data transfer within future nanoscale electronic circuits too small to use wires. The quantum mirage technique can ... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#212 | Fastest supercomputer. IBM delivers the world's most powerful computer to the US Department of Energy, powerful enough to process an Internet transaction for every person on Earth in less than a minute. IBM built the supercomputer to test the safety and effectiveness of the nation's aging nuclear weapons stockpile. Thi... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#213 | le transistors. IBM creates flexible transistors, combining organic and inorganic materials as a medium for semiconductors. By eliminating the limitations of etching computer circuits in silicon, flexible transistors make it possible to create a new generation of inexpensive computer displays that can be embedded into ... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#214 | IBM ends its 40-year technology partnership with the International Olympic Committee.[271]
2001
[edit]- The book IBM and the Holocaust written by Edwin Black is released. The book accuses IBM of having knowingly assisted Nazi authorities in the perpetuation of the Holocaust through the provision of tabulating products ... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#215 | . All lawsuits related to this issue were eventually dropped without recovery.[272][better source needed]
- Carbon nanotube transistors. IBM researchers build the world's first transistors out of carbon nanotubes – tiny cylinders of carbon atoms that are 500 times smaller than silicon-based transistors and 1,000 times ... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#216 | hips when silicon-based chips can't be made smaller.[273]
- Low power initiative. IBM launches its low-power initiative to improve the energy efficiency of IT and accelerates the development of ultra-low power components and power-efficient servers, storage systems, personal computers and ThinkPad notebook computers.[2... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#217 | etic coating – "pixie dust" – that eventually quadruples data density of current hard disk drive products. IBM also unveils "strained silicon", a breakthrough that alters silicon to boost chip speeds by up to 35 percent.[275][276]
2002
[edit]2003
[edit]- Blue Gene/L. The Blue Gene team unveils a proto-type of its Blue ... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#218 | bic meter machine is a small scale model of the full Blue Gene/L built for the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in California, which will be 128 times larger when it's unveiled two years later.[278]
2005
[edit]- Crusade Against Cancer. IBM joins forces with Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center (MSKCC), the Mole... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#219 | t integrated information management systems.[279]
- Acquisition of the IBM PC business by Lenovo. The low-margin PC division (including ThinkPads) is sold to Chinese manufacturer, Lenovo.[280]
2006
[edit]- Translation software. IBM delivers an advanced speech-to-speech translation system to U.S. forces in Iraq using bi... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#220 | izens. The software helps offset the shortage of military linguists.[281]
2007
[edit]- Renewable energy. IBM is recognized by the US EPA for its green power purchases in the US and for its support and participation in EPA's Fortune 500 Green Power Challenge. IBM ranked 12th on the EPA's list of Green Power Partners for... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#221 | es. IBM's commitment to green power helps cut greenhouse gas emissions.[282]
- River watch using IBM Stream Computing. In a unique collaboration, The Beacon Institute and IBM created the first technology-based river monitoring network. The River and Estuary Observatory Network (REON) allows for minute-to-minute monitor... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#222 | ossible by IBM's "Stream Computing", a new computer architecture that can examine thousands of information sources to help scientists better understand what is happening as it happens.[283][284]
- IBM has been granted more US patents than any other company. From 1993 to 2007, IBM was awarded over 38,000 US patents and ... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#223 | 0 patents in the US and over 40,000 patents worldwide is a direct result of that investment.[285]
2008
[edit]- IBM Roadrunner No.1 Supercomputer. For the ninth consecutive time, IBM takes the No.1 ranking of the world's most powerful supercomputers with its computer built for the Roadrunner project at Los Alamos Nation... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#224 | he world speed champion for over a year. The Los Alamos system is twice as energy-efficient as the No. 2 computer at the time, using about half the electricity to maintain the same level of computing power.[286]
- Green power. IBM opens its "greenest" data center in Boulder, Colorado. The energy-efficient facility is p... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#225 | density computing systems with virtualization technology that reduce data center carbon footprint.[287]
2011
[edit]- Watson. IBM's supercomputer Watson won on the TV game show Jeopardy! against Ken Jennings and Brad Rutter. The competition was presented by PBS.[288]
- June 16, 2011: IBM founded 100 years ago. Mark Kran... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#226 | y [today] ... demonstrated a strength shared by most 100-year-old companies: the ability to change. ...survived not only the Depression and several recessions, but technological shifts and intense competition as well."[289]
2015
[edit]- April: IBM Watson Health division created. IBM Watson Health was created largely th... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#227 | chinery (ACM) titled "What Happened To Watson Health?" described the portfolio management challenges.[290]
- October 28, Red Hat acquisition for $34 billion On October 28, 2018, IBM announced its intent to acquire Red Hat for US$34 billion, in one of its largest-ever acquisitions. The company will operate out of IBM's ... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#228 | on future platforms, according to IBM Chief Executive Arvind Krishna.[296]
In October 2020, IBM announced it is splitting itself into two public companies.[297] IBM will focus on high-margin cloud computing and artificial intelligence, built on the foundation of the 2019 Red Hat acquisition. The legacy Managed Infrastr... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#229 | ve 4,600 clients in 115 countries, with a backlog of $60 billion.[298][299] This was IBM's largest divestiture so far, and was welcomed by investors.[300][301][302]
On January 21, 2022, IBM announced that it would sell Watson Health to the private equity firm Francisco Partners.[303] In July 2022, IBM announced the acq... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#230 | oyees will join IBM's data and AI division.[304]
In December 2022, it was announced IBM had acquired the Reston-headquartered digital transformation and IT modernization services provider, Octo Consulting from Arlington Capital Partners for an undisclosed price.[305][306] IBM also signed a partnership with new Japanese... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#231 | equity firm Francisco Partners.[308]
Twentieth-century market power and antitrust
[edit]IBM dominated the electronic data processing market for most of the 20th century, initially controlling over 70 percent of the punch card and tabulating machine market and then achieving a similar share in the computer market.[309] ... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#232 | rnments and competitors asserted that the maintenance of such large shares was at least in part due to anti-competitive acts such as unfair prices, terms and conditions, tying, product manipulations and creating FUD (Fear, Uncertainty and Doubt) related to its competitors, in the marketplace.[310] IBM was thus the defe... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#233 | did settle others in ways that profoundly shaped the industry as summarized below. By the end of the 20th century, IBM was no longer so dominant in the computer industry. Some observers suggest management's attention to the many antitrust lawsuits of the 1970s was at least in part responsible for its decline.[309]
1936... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#234 | rs who leased its tabulating equipment to purchase punched cards used on such equipment. IBM lost[311] the lawsuit and in the resulting 1936 consent decree,[312] IBM agreed to no longer require only IBM cards and agreed to assist alternative suppliers of cards in starting production facilities that would compete with I... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#235 | and disk packs.
1956 Consent Decree
[edit]On January 21, 1952, the U.S. Government filed a lawsuit which resulted in a consent decree entered as a final judgment on January 25, 1956.[313] The government's goal to increase competition in the data processing industry was effected through several provisions in the decree:... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#236 | easing the same equipment from IBM. Prior to this decree, IBM had only rented its equipment. This created markets both for used IBM equipment[314] and enabled lease financing of IBM equipment by third parties (leasing companies).[314]
- IBM was required to provide parts and information to independent maintainers of pur... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#237 | processing services through a subsidiary that could be treated no differently than any company independent of IBM, enabling competition in the data processing services business.
- IBM was required to grant non-exclusive, non-transferable, worldwide licenses for any and all patents at reasonable royalty rates to anyone,... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#238 | on in the data processing industry and enabled the emergence of manufacturers of equipment plug compatible to IBM equipment.
While the decree did little to limit IBM's future dominance of the then-nascent computer industry, it did enable competition in segments such as leasing, services, maintenance, and equipment atta... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#239 | ed in effect until 1996; they were phased out over the next five years.[315]
1968–1984 Multiple government and private antitrust complaints
[edit]In 1968 the first of a series of antitrust suits against IBM was filed by Control Data Corp (CDC). It was followed in 1969 by the US government's antitrust complaint, then by... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#240 | US government's case sustained by four US Presidents and their Attorneys General was dropped as "without merit" in 1982 by William Baxter, US President Reagans' Assistant Attorney General in charge of the Antitrust Division of the U.S. Department of Justice.[316]
1968–1973 Control Data Corp. v. IBM
[edit]CDC filed an a... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#241 | of section 2 of the Sherman Antitrust Act by among other things announcing products it could not deliver.[317] A 1965 internal IBM memo by an IBM attorney noted that Control Data had publicly blamed its declining earnings on IBM, "and its frequent model and price changes. There was some sentiment that the charges were ... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#242 | reau Corporation to CDC.[317]
1969–1982 U.S. v. IBM
[edit]On January 17, 1969, the United States of America filed a complaint in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, alleging that IBM violated Section 2 of the Sherman Antitrust Act by monopolizing or attempting to monopolize the gener... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#243 | government alleged IBM violated the antitrust laws in IBM's actions directed against leasing companies and plug-compatible peripheral manufacturers.
In June 1969 IBM unbundled its software and services in what many observers believed was in anticipation of and a direct result of the 1969 US Antitrust lawsuit. Overnight... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#244 | ation such as giving away software services.
- Bundling of software with "related computer hardware equipment" for a single price.
- Predatorily priced and preannounced specific hardware "fighting machines".
- Developed and announced specific hardware products primarily for the purpose of discouraging customers from ac... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#245 | in the announced time frame.
- Engaged in below cost and discount conduct in selected markets in order to injure peripheral manufacturers and leasing companies.
It was in some ways one of the great single firm monopoly cases of all times. IBM produced 30 million pages of materials during discovery; it submitted its exe... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#246 | another six years. The trial transcript contains over 104,400 pages with thousands of documents placed in the record. It ended on January 8, 1982, when William Baxter, the then Assistant Attorney General in charge of the Antitrust Division of the Department of Justice dropped the case as "without merit".[316]
1969–1981... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#247 | one of which IBM ultimately won. Some notable lawsuits include:
Greyhound Computer Corp.
[edit]Greyhound, a leasing company, filed a case under Illinois' state antitrust law in Illinois state court.[321] This case went to trial in federal court in 1972 in Arizona with a directed verdict for IBM on the antitrust claims;... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#248 | und settled the case for $17.7 million.[317]
Telex Corp.
[edit]Telex, a peripherals equipment manufacturer, filed suit on January 21, 1972, charging that IBM had monopolized and had attempted to monopolize the worldwide manufacture, distribution, sales, and leasing of electronic data processing equipment including the ... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#249 | rcising monopoly power" over the "plug-compatible peripheral equipment market", and ordered to pay triple damages of $352.5‐million and other relief including disclosure of peripheral interface specifications. Separately Telex was found guilty of misappropriated IBM trade secrets.[322] The judgment against IBM was over... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#250 | private lawsuits
[edit]Other private lawsuits ultimately won by IBM include California Computer Products Inc.,[324] Memorex Corp.,[325] Marshall Industries, Hudson General Corp., Transamerica Corporation[326] and Forro Precision, Inc.
1980–1984 European Union
[edit]The European Economic Community Commission on Monopoli... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#251 | uter business and abusing its dominant market position by engaging in business practices designed to protect its position against plug-compatible manufacturers. The case was settled in 1984 with IBM agreeing to change its business practices with regard to disclosure of device interface information.[327]
Products and te... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#252 | ystems, operating systems represented a relatively modest level of investment, and were essentially viewed as an adjunct to the hardware. By the time of the System/360, however, operating systems had assumed a much larger role, in terms of cost, complexity, importance, and risk.[citation needed]
High-level languages
[e... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#253 | rts through the 1950s and early 1960s led to the development of many new high-level languages (HLL) for programming. IBM played a complicated role in this process. Hardware vendors were naturally concerned about the implications of portable languages that would allow customers to pick and choose among vendors without c... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#254 | ss, IBM had a significant role in the following major computer languages:[citation needed]
- FORTRAN – for years, the dominant language for mathematics and scientific programming
- PL/I – an attempt to create a "be all and end all" language
- COBOL – eventually the ubiquitous, standard language for business application... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#255 | to IBM
- RPG – an acronym for 'Report Program Generator', developed on the IBM 1401 to produce reports from data files. General Systems Division enhanced the language to HLL status on its midrange systems to rival COBOL.
- SQL – a relational query language developed for IBM's System R; now the standard RDBMS query lang... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#256 | d authored by IBM Fellow Mike Cowlishaw
IBM and AIX/UNIX/Linux/SCO
[edit]IBM developed an inconsistent relationship with the UNIX and Linux worlds. The importance of IBM's large computer business placed pressures on all of IBM's attempts to develop other lines of business. All IBM projects faced the risk of being seen ... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#257 | 0 platform, this also meant that a decision had been made against the highly profitable and entrenched mainframe platform. So despite having some excellent technology, IBM often placed itself in a compromised position.[citation needed]
A case in point is IBM's GFIS products for infrastructure management and GIS applica... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#258 | trying to build workstation-based solutions to replace its existing mainframe-based products. Some customers moved to new technologies from other vendors; many felt betrayed by IBM.[citation needed]
While IBM better embraced open source technologies in the 1990s, it later became embroiled in a complex litigation with S... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#259 | erences
[edit]- ^ Jim Spohrer, "IBM's service journey: A summary sketch". Industrial Marketing Management 60 (2017): 167–72.
- ^ "Worldwide IBM Research Locations". IBM. Retrieved September 26, 2014.
- ^ "IBM, Fortune 500, 2015". Fortune. Retrieved September 26, 2015.
- ^ "IBM maintains patent lead, moves to increase p... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#260 | ements". IBM. Retrieved August 13, 2009.
- ^ Bennett, Frank P.; Company (1911). United States Investor. Vol. 22, Part 2. p. 1298 (26).
{{cite book}}
:|author2=
has generic name (help) - ^ Belden, Martin; Belden, Marva (1961). The Life of Thomas J. Watson, Little, Brown; p. 92
- ^ "IBM Archives: Computing-Tabulating-Rec... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#261 | rien, Jeffrey M. (2011). Making the World Work Better: The Ideas That Shaped a Century and a Company, IBM Press; p. 19
- ^ Report of the Commissioner of Labor In Charge of The Eleventh Census to the Secretary of the Interior for the Fiscal Year Ending June 30, 1895. Washington, D.C., July 29, 1895. p. 9: {{You may conf... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#262 | rk during the present calendar year. ... The condition of the work of the Census Division and the condition of the final reports show clearly that the work of the Eleventh Census will be completed at least two years earlier than was the work of the Tenth Census.}} Carroll D. Wright Commissioner of Labor in Charge
- ^ T... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#263 | an, 1982, p. 69)
- ^ "Computing at Columbia: Timeline – Early". Columbia.edu. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Officemuseum.com – early Hollerith history, with good photographs of period equipment
- ^ "IBM Archives: Charles R. Flint". Archived from the original on December 15, 2005.
- ^ "Certificate of Incorporation of Co... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#264 | ongress, on H. R. 4523, Part III, United States Government Printing Office, 1935 [Incorporation paperwork filed 16 June 1911]
- ^ Martin Campbell-Kelly and William Aspray, Computer a History of the Information Machine – Second Edition, Westview Press, pp. 37–39 2004
- ^ "IBM Archives: Chronological History of IBM 1880s... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#265 | 69). THINK. Stein and Day. p. 83.
- ^ Flint, Charles R. (1923). Memories of an Active Life: Men, and Ships, and Sealing Wax. G.P. Putnam's Sons. p. 312.
- ^ Certificate of Incorporation of Computing-Tabulating-Recording-Co, 14th day of June 1911
- ^ Pugh, Emerson W. (1995). Building IBM: Shaping an Industry and Its Tec... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#266 | 2nd ref shows the consolidation into IBM in 1933 The Inventory Simplified Archived October 4, 2013, at the Wayback Machine, published in 1923, states: "The Tabulating Machine Company – Division of – International Business Machines Corporation".
- ^ Maney (2003) p. 57
- ^ Pugh (1995) p. 57
- ^ "IBM Archives: Frequently ... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#267 | 2003. Archived from the original on January 17, 2005.
- ^ Belden (1962) p. 125
- ^ Rodgers, William; THINK: A Biography of the Watsons and IBM Stein and Day, New York, p. 52.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Greenwald, John (July 11, 1983). "The Colossus That Works". Time. Archived from the original on May 14, 2008. Retrieved May 1... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#268 | 11.
- ^ "First quarter Century Club". IBM. January 23, 2003. Archived from the original on January 22, 2005. Retrieved May 29, 2011.
- ^ "Hundred Percent Club "main tent"". IBM. January 23, 2003. Archived from the original on January 13, 2005. Retrieved May 29, 2011.
- ^ "IBM Archives: 1988". IBM. January 23, 2003. Arc... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#269 | 2003. Archived from the original on August 21, 2006. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "IBM's swing era oldies (vol. 1)". IBM. January 23, 2003. Archived from the original on January 16, 2005. Retrieved May 29, 2011.
- ^ IBM Archives: Text of IBM's October 24, 1958 press release announcing the sale of its time equipment (c... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#270 | H. (1986). IBM's Early Computers. MIT Press. pp. 8–34. ISBN 0-262-02225-7.
- ^ "IBM Archives/Business Machines: Fred M. Carroll". 03.ibm.com. Archived from the original on September 4, 2006. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Bashe (1986) pp. 9–14
- ^ "IBM Archives: 1920s". IBM. January 23, 2003. Archived from the original ... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#271 | ary 17, 2005. Retrieved May 29, 2011.
- ^ "IBM Archive: 1923". 03.ibm.com. January 23, 2003. Archived from the original on January 17, 2005. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "IBM Archives: 1928". IBM. January 23, 2003. Archived from the original on January 17, 2005. Retrieved May 29, 2011.
- ^ "History". morimura.co.jp. M... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#272 | on the 75th anniversary of founding IBM Japan". ibm.com. IBM. Retrieved February 1, 2014.
- ^ "IBM Highlights, 1885–1969" (PDF). ibm.com. IBM. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 15, 2005. Retrieved February 1, 2014.
- ^ "IBM 301 Accounting Machine (the Type IV)". 03.ibm.com. January 23, 2003. Archived from th... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#273 | ein and Day. p. 108.
- ^ Maney, Kevin (2003). The Maverick and His Machine. Wiley. p. 154. ISBN 0-471-41463-8.
- ^ "IBM Archives: 1930s". 03.ibm.com. January 23, 2003. Archived from the original on December 16, 2004. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ a b "IBM Archives: World Headquarters, N.Y. City". IBM Archives. January ... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#274 | , John H.; Pugh, Emerson W. (1986). IBM's Early Computers. MIT. p. 14. ISBN 0-262-02225-7.
- ^ Pugh (1995) p. 50
- ^ Eames, Charles; Eames, Ray (1973). A Computer Perspective. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. p. 95. The date given, 1920, should be 1931 (see the Columbia Difference Tabulator web site)
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Rather than offer hardware, services and softwar... |
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