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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#290 | he multibillion-dollar software and services industries, of which IBM is today a world leader
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Further reading
[edit]Commentary, general histories
[edit]For more recent IBM subject books see: IBM#Further reading
- Bakis, Henry (1977). IBM. Une multinationale régionale (in French). Presses Universitaires de Gr... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#347 | ige Sparked the Remaking of IBM, Dutton
- Cortada, James W. (2019). IBM: The Rise and Fall and Reinvention of a Global Icon. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0262039444.
- Richard Thomas DeLamarter (1986). Big Blue: IBM's Use and Abuse of Power. Dodd, Mead. ISBN 0-396-08515-6.
- Engelbourg, Saul (1954) International Business Machin... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#348 | Joen E. (1983). Folded, Spindled, and Mutilated: Economic Analysis and U.S. v. IBM. MIT. ISBN 0-262-06086-8.
- Fisher, Franklin M.; McKie, James W.; Mancke, Richard B. (1983). IBM and the US Data Processing Industry: An Economic History. Praeger. ISBN 0-03-063059-2.
- Foy, Nancy (1975) The Sun Never Sets on IBM, Willia... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#349 | mphlets, the first of which (AM-01) is Development of International Business Machines Corporation – a 12-page 1936 IBM-written history of IBM.
- Malik, R. (1975) And Tomorrow the World: Inside IBM, Millington, 496pp
- Mills, D. Quinn (1988) The IBM Lesson: The Profitable Art of Full Employment, Times Books, 216pp
- Ric... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#350 | ty. Reprinted by Arno, 1977.
- Rodgers, Buck (1986). The IBM Way. Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0060155223.
- Rodgers, William (1969). THINK: A Biography of the Watsons and IBM. Stein and Day. ISBN 0-8128-1226-3.
- Sobel, Robert (1981). IBM: Colossus in Transition. Times Books. ISBN 0-8129-1000-1.
- Sobel, Robert (2000) [1981... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#351 | Transition.
- Sobel, Robert (1986). IBM vs. Japan: The Struggle for the Future. Stein and Day. ISBN 0-8128-3071-7.
Technology
[edit] For Punched card history, technology, see: Unit record equipment#Further reading
For Herman Hollerith see: Herman Hollerith#Further reading
- Baker, Stephen (2012) Final Jeopardy: The Sto... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#352 | he Power of Modularity, vol.1, MIT. unique perspective on the 360 (Tedlow p. 305)
- Bashe, Charles J.; Pugh, Emerson W.; Johnson, Lyle R./Palmer, John H. (1986). IBM's Early Computers. MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-02225-7.
- Chposky, James; Leonsis, Ted (1988). Blue Magic: The People, Power, and Politics Behind the IBM Person... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#353 | Hsu, Feng-hsiung (2002). Behind Deep Blue: Building the Computer that Defeated the World Chess Champion. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-09065-8.
- Kelly, Brian W. (2004) Can the AS/400 Survive IBM?, Lets Go
- Killen, Michael (1988) IBM: The Making of the Common View, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich
- Mills, H.D.;... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#354 | 19, No. 4, 1980, pp. 414–77 http://www.research.ibm.com/journal/sj/
- Pugh, Emerson W. (1995). Building IBM: Shaping and Industry and Its Technology. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-16147-3.
- Pugh, Emerson W.; Johnson, Lyle R.; Palmer, John H. (1991). IBM's 360 and Early 370 Systems. MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-16123-0.
- Pugh, E... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#355 | s, Frank G. (2002) Fortress Rochester: The Inside Story of the IBM iSeries, 29th Street Press
- Yost, Jeffrey R. (2011) The IBM Century: Creating the IT Revolution, IEEE Computer Society
Locations – plants, labs, divisions, countries
[edit]- Brennan, Jean Ford (1971). The IBM Watson Laboratory at Columbia University: A... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#356 | k, 223pp (history, strategy, key people in Electric Typewriter and successor Office Products Div)
- France, Boyd (1961) IBM in France, Washington National Planning Assoc
- Harvey, John (2008) Transition The IBM Story, Switzer (IBM IT services in Australia)
- Heide, Lars (2002) National Capital in the Emergence of a Cha... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#357 | stralia, Focus
- Joseph, Allan (2010) Masked Intentions: Navigating a Computer Embargo on China, Trafford, 384pp
- Meredith, Suzanne; Aswad, Ed (2005) IBM in Endicott, Arcadia, 128pp
- Norberg, Arthur L.; Yost, Jeffrey R. (2006) IBM Rochester: A Half Century of Innovation, IBM
- Robinson, William Louis (2008) IBM's Sha... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#358 | rs
[edit]For IBM's corporate biographies of former CEOs and many others see: IBM Archives Biographies Builders reference room
- Amonette, Ruth Leach (1999). Among Equals, A Memoir: The Rise of IBM's First Woman Vice President. Creative Arts Book Company. ISBN 0-88739-219-9.
- Beardsley, Max (2001) International Busines... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#359 | Pioneering: On the Frontier of Electronic Data Processing, A Personal Memoir, self-published, 72pp
- Lewis M. Branscomb#Books by Lewis Branscomb
- Drandell, Milton (1990) IBM: The Other Side, 101 Former Employees Look Back, Quail
- Charles Ranlett Flint#Bibliography
- Louis V. Gerstner Jr.#References
- Gould, Heywood (... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#360 | an Hollerith#Further reading
- Lamassonne, Luis A. (2001). My Life With IBM. Protea. ISBN 1-883707-65-X.
- Maisonrouge, Jacques (1985). Inside IBM: A Personal Story. McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-07-039737-6.
- William W. Simmons#Selected publications
- Ulrich Steinhilper#IBM and later life
- Thomas, Charles (1993) Black and Blu... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#361 | mson, Gordon R. (2009) Memoirs of My Years with IBM: 1951–1986, Xlibris, 768pp[self-published source]
External links
[edit]- IBM Archives, History of IBM
- IBM at 100 – IBM reviews and reflects on its first 100 years
- THINK: Our History of Progress; 1890s to 2001. IBM Archived March 24, 2014, at the Wayback Machine
- ... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#362 | ident and subsequently as Director of Product Planning and Market Analysis at IBM. In this oral history, Birkenstock discusses the metamorphosis of the company from leader of the tabulating machine industry to leader of the data processing industry. He describes his involvement with magnetic tape development in 1947, t... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#363 | the emergence of magnetic-core memory from the SAGE project. He then recounts the entry of IBM into the commercial computer market with the IBM 702. The end of the interview concerns IBM's relationship with other early entrants in the international computer industry, including litigation with Sperry Rand, its cross-lic... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Watson#0 | IBM Watson
IBM Watson is a computer system capable of answering questions posed in natural language.[1] It was developed as a part of IBM's DeepQA project by a research team, led by principal investigator David Ferrucci.[2] Watson was named after IBM's founder and first CEO, industrialist Thomas J. Watson.[3][4]
The co... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Watson#1 | ystem competed on Jeopardy! against champions Brad Rutter and Ken Jennings,[3][6] winning the first-place prize of US$1 million.[7]
In February 2013, IBM announced that Watson's first commercial application would be for utilization management decisions in lung cancer treatment, at Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Watson#2 | ing (QA) computing system that IBM built to apply advanced natural language processing, information retrieval, knowledge representation, automated reasoning, and machine learning technologies to the field of open domain question answering. The system is named DeepQA (though it did not involve the use of deep neural net... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Watson#3 | generate hypotheses, find and score evidence, and merge and rank hypotheses."[10]
In recent years[when?], Watson's capabilities have been extended and the way in which Watson works has been changed to take advantage of new deployment models (Watson on IBM Cloud), evolved machine learning capabilities, and optimized har... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Watson#4 | UIMA (Unstructured Information Management Architecture) framework implementation. The system was written in various languages, including Java, C++, and Prolog, and runs on the SUSE Linux Enterprise Server 11 operating system using the Apache Hadoop framework to provide distributed computing.[11][12][13]
Other than the ... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Watson#5 | according to the confidence score on getting the answer right, and the current scores of all contestants. One module used the Bayes rule to calculate the probability that each unrevealed question might be the Daily Double, using historical data from the J! Archive as the prior. If a Daily Double is found, the amount to... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Watson#6 | mmon, developed by Gerald Tesauro in the 1990s.[14] The parameters in the strategy modules were tuned by benchmarking against a statistical model of human contestants fitted on data from the J! Archive, and selecting the best one.[15][16][17]
Hardware
[edit]The system is workload-optimized, integrating massively parall... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Watson#7 | analyze data.[1] Watson employs a cluster of ninety IBM Power 750 servers, each of which uses a 3.5 GHz POWER7 eight-core processor, with four threads per core. In total, the system uses 2,880 POWER7 processor threads and 16 terabytes of RAM.[18]
According to John Rennie, Watson can process 500 gigabytes (the equivalen... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Watson#8 | bout three million dollars.[20] Its Linpack performance stands at 80 TeraFLOPs, which is about half as fast as the cut-off line for the Top 500 Supercomputers list.[21] According to Rennie, all content was stored in Watson's RAM for the Jeopardy game because data stored on hard drives would be too slow to compete with ... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Watson#9 | wire articles and literary works. Watson also used databases, taxonomies and ontologies including DBPedia, WordNet and Yago.[22] The IBM team provided Watson with millions of documents, including dictionaries, encyclopedias and other reference material, that it could use to build its knowledge.[23]
Operation
[edit]Wats... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Watson#10 | in innovation was not in the creation of a new algorithm for this operation, but rather its ability to quickly execute hundreds of proven language analysis algorithms simultaneously.[23][24] The more algorithms that find the same answer independently, the more likely Watson is to be correct. Once Watson has a small num... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Watson#11 | parison with human players
[edit]Watson's basic working principle is to parse keywords in a clue while searching for related terms as responses. This gives Watson some advantages and disadvantages compared with human Jeopardy! players.[25] Watson has deficiencies in understanding the context of the clues. Watson can re... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Watson#12 | ers usually generate responses faster than Watson, especially to short clues.[23] Watson's programming prevents it from using the popular tactic of buzzing before it is sure of its response.[23] However, Watson has consistently better reaction time on the buzzer once it has generated a response, and is immune to human ... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Watson#13 | dy!, human participants were able to use the six to seven seconds that Watson needed to hear the clue and decide whether to signal for responding.[23] During that time, Watson also has to evaluate the response and determine whether it is sufficiently confident in the result to signal.[23] Part of the system used to win... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Watson#14 | level was great enough to activate the buzzer. Given the speed of this circuitry compared to the speed of human reaction times, Watson's reaction time was faster than the human contestants except when the human anticipated (instead of reacted to) the ready signal.[28] After signaling, Watson speaks with an electronic v... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Watson#15 | oodman made for an IBM text-to-speech program in 2004.[29]
The Jeopardy! staff used different means to notify Watson and the human players when to buzz,[28] which was critical in many rounds.[27] The humans were notified by a light, which took them tenths of a second to perceive.[30][31] Watson was notified by an elect... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Watson#16 | delay by anticipating the light,[33] but the variation in the anticipation time was generally too great to fall within Watson's response time.[27] Watson did not attempt to anticipate the notification signal.[31][33]
History
[edit]Development
[edit]Since Deep Blue's victory over Garry Kasparov in chess in 1997, IBM had... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Watson#17 | restaurant they were in had fallen silent. He soon discovered the cause of this evening's hiatus: Ken Jennings, who was then in the middle of his successful 74-game run on Jeopardy!. Nearly the entire restaurant had piled toward the televisions, mid-meal, to watch Jeopardy!. Intrigued by the quiz show as a possible cha... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Watson#18 | his department to take up the challenge of playing Jeopardy! with an IBM system. Though he initially had trouble finding any research staff willing to take on what looked to be a much more complex challenge than the wordless game of chess, eventually David Ferrucci took him up on the offer.[34] In competitions managed ... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Watson#19 | 35% of clues and often required several minutes to respond.[35][36][37] To compete successfully on Jeopardy!, Watson would need to respond in no more than a few seconds, and at that time, the problems posed by the game show were deemed to be impossible to solve.[23]
In initial tests run during 2006 by David Ferrucci, t... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Watson#20 | While the best real-life competitors buzzed in half the time and responded correctly to as many as 95% of clues, Watson's first pass could get only about 15% correct. During 2007, the IBM team was given three to five years and a staff of 15 people to solve the problems.[23] John E. Kelly III succeeded Paul Horn as head... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Watson#21 | em to compete against humans on Jeopardy!.[39] By 2008, the developers had advanced Watson such that it could compete with Jeopardy! champions.[23] By February 2010, Watson could beat human Jeopardy! contestants on a regular basis.[40]
During the game, Watson had access to 200 million pages of structured and unstructur... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Watson#22 | connected to the Internet.[42][23] For each clue, Watson's three most probable responses were displayed on the television screen. Watson consistently outperformed its human opponents on the game's signaling device, but had trouble in a few categories, notably those having short clues containing only a few words.[citati... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Watson#23 | laer Polytechnic Institute, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Massachusetts Amherst, the University of Southern California's Information Sciences Institute, the University of Texas at Austin, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and the University of Trento,[9] as well as students from New York Medical Co... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Watson#24 | ant, who himself had appeared on Jeopardy! in 1989 (winning one game).[44]
Jeopardy!
[edit]Preparation
[edit]In 2008, IBM representatives communicated with Jeopardy! executive producer Harry Friedman about the possibility of having Watson compete against Ken Jennings and Brad Rutter, two of the most successful contesta... |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Watson#25 | en IBM and Jeopardy! staff during the planning of the competition.[25] IBM repeatedly expressed concerns that the show's writers would exploit Watson's cognitive deficiencies when writing the clues, thereby turning the game into a Turing test. To alleviate that claim, a third party randomly picked the clues from previo... |
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