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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM#290
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ting Pivot". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved October 10, 2020. - ^ Bendor-Samuel, Peter. "IBM Splits Into Two Companies". Forbes. Retrieved October 10, 2020. - ^ Moorhead, Patrick. "IBM Spinning Off Infrastructure Managed Services Group To Focus On Cloud Is A Good Move". Forbes. Retrieved October 10, 2020. - ^ Condon, Stephanie (January 21, 2022). "IBM sells Watson Health assets to investment firm Francisco Partners". ZDNet. Retrieved January 21, 2022. - ^ Wiggers, Kyle (July 6, 2022). "IBM a
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21, 2022. - ^ Wiggers, Kyle (July 6, 2022). "IBM acquires Databand to bolster its data observability stack". TechCrunch. Retrieved July 11, 2022. - ^ Ghoshal, Anirban (December 8, 2022). "IBM to acquire Octo to boost its US government business". CIO. Retrieved December 8, 2022. - ^ "IBM to acquire digital modernisation solutions provider Octo". NS Business. December 8, 2022. Retrieved December 8, 2022. - ^ Humphries, Matthew (December 13, 2022). "Japan to Manufacture 2nm Chips With a Little Help
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"Japan to Manufacture 2nm Chips With a Little Help From IBM". PCMAG. - ^ Field, Hayden (August 22, 2023). "IBM selling The Weather Channel and the rest of its weather business". CNBC. Retrieved August 22, 2023. - ^ a b Cortada, James W. (Spring 2018). "Change and Continuity at IBM: Key Themes in Histories of IBM". Business History Review. 92 (1). Harvard College: 117–48. doi:10.1017/S0007680518000041. - ^ Yeager, Peter (2006). Corporate Crime. Transaction Publishers. p. 229. ISBN 9781412804936.
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ansaction Publishers. p. 229. ISBN 9781412804936. IBM's skill, industry, and foresight, the judge pointed out, resulted in "a sophisticated, refined, highly organized, and methodologically processed" campaign to restrict the operations of many competitors. - ^ "International Business Machines Corp. v. United States, 298 U.S. 131 (1936)". U.S. Supreme Court. April 27, 1936. Retrieved July 6, 2019. - ^ Richman, Barak D.; Usselman, Steven W. (Spring 2014). "THE CONSENT DECREE OF 1936 – UNBUNDLING A
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2014). "THE CONSENT DECREE OF 1936 – UNBUNDLING ACCOUNTING MACHINES AND PUNCH CARDS". Tulsa Law Review. 49 (3): 693–694. Retrieved August 7, 2024. Culminating in a consent decree, IBM agreed to create a separate market for the punched cards. - ^ a b "IBM 1956 Consent Decree". U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York. January 25, 1956. Retrieved July 7, 2019. - ^ a b c d Passell, Peter (June 9, 1994). "I.B.M. and the Limits of a Consent Decree". The New York Times. Retrieved Jul
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Consent Decree". The New York Times. Retrieved July 8, 2019. - ^ "Judge Schwartz Pleases All in IBM Consent Decree Case". Computer Business Review. July 9, 1996. Retrieved July 7, 2019. - ^ a b Kerjan, Lilliane (February 1988). "Antitrust Laws: the IBM and AT&T cases". Revue Française d'Études Américaines. 35 (35). Editions Belin: 89–102. doi:10.3406/rfea.1988.1304. JSTOR 20871797. - ^ a b c Krohnke, Duane (July 30, 2011). "The IBM Antitrust Litigation". Retrieved May 26, 2019. - ^ Behr, Peter (
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gation". Retrieved May 26, 2019. - ^ Behr, Peter (June 2, 1981). "IBM, Justice Rests Cases In Historic Antitrust Trial". The Washington Post. Retrieved May 26, 2019. - ^ "Software Becomes a Product". Computer History Museum. Retrieved July 28, 2019. With software either custom made or given away free, there was a limited commercial market for it. At least, not until a lawsuit against IBM changed the game. - ^ "United States' Memorandum on the 1969 Case". United States Department Of Justice. Octo
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9 Case". United States Department Of Justice. October 5, 1995. Retrieved July 28, 2019. - ^ Datamation, April 15, 1971, p. 51 - ^ Smith, William D. (September 18, 1973). "I.B.M. Is Found Guilty in Antitrust Suit And Told to Pay Telex $352.5-Million". The New York Times. Retrieved May 26, 2019. - ^ Smith f, William D (October 4, 1975). "I.B.M. and Telex Halt Litigation". The New York Times. Retrieved May 26, 2019. - ^ Datamation, March 1977, pp. 162–64, Directed verdict against CalComp on Februar
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62–64, Directed verdict against CalComp on February 11, 1977. - ^ "Memorex And I.B.M. In Mistrial". The New York Times. July 6, 1978. Retrieved July 28, 2019. The jury was deadlocked 9 to 2 in favor of Memorex. - ^ "Transamerica Computer Co. v. International Business Machines Corp., 481 F. Supp. 965 (N.D. Cal. 1979)". December 20, 1979. Retrieved July 9, 2019.. Directed verdict after hung jury. - ^ "The Multinational's Dilemma: The IBM Proceeding in Europe". Penn State International Law Review:
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in Europe". Penn State International Law Review: Vol. 3: No. 2, Article 6. 1985. Retrieved May 26, 2019. Further reading [edit]Commentary, general histories [edit]For more recent IBM subject books see: IBM#Further reading - Bakis, Henry (1977). IBM. Une multinationale régionale (in French). Presses Universitaires de Grenoble. - Boyett, Joseph H.; Schwartz, Stephen; Osterwise, Laurence; Bauer, Roy (1993) The Quality Journey: How Winning the Baldrige Sparked the Remaking of IBM, Dutton - Cortada,
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ige Sparked the Remaking of IBM, Dutton - Cortada, James W. (2019). IBM: The Rise and Fall and Reinvention of a Global Icon. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0262039444. - Richard Thomas DeLamarter (1986). Big Blue: IBM's Use and Abuse of Power. Dodd, Mead. ISBN 0-396-08515-6. - Engelbourg, Saul (1954) International Business Machines: A Business History, 385pp (doctoral dissertation). Reprinted by Arno, 1976 - Fisher, Franklin M.; McGowan, John J.; Greenwood, Joen E. (1983). Folded, Spindled, and Mutilated:
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Joen E. (1983). Folded, Spindled, and Mutilated: Economic Analysis and U.S. v. IBM. MIT. ISBN 0-262-06086-8. - Fisher, Franklin M.; McKie, James W.; Mancke, Richard B. (1983). IBM and the US Data Processing Industry: An Economic History. Praeger. ISBN 0-03-063059-2. - Foy, Nancy (1975) The Sun Never Sets on IBM, William Morrow, 218pp (published in UK as The IBM World) - IBM (1936) Machine Methods of Accounting This book is constructed from 18 pamphlets, the first of which (AM-01) is Development
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mphlets, the first of which (AM-01) is Development of International Business Machines Corporation – a 12-page 1936 IBM-written history of IBM. - Malik, R. (1975) And Tomorrow the World: Inside IBM, Millington, 496pp - Mills, D. Quinn (1988) The IBM Lesson: The Profitable Art of Full Employment, Times Books, 216pp - Richardson, F.L.W. Jr.; Walker, Charles R. (1948). Human Relations in an Expanding Company. Labor and Management Center Yale University. Reprinted by Arno, 1977. - Rodgers, Buck (1986
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ty. Reprinted by Arno, 1977. - Rodgers, Buck (1986). The IBM Way. Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0060155223. - Rodgers, William (1969). THINK: A Biography of the Watsons and IBM. Stein and Day. ISBN 0-8128-1226-3. - Sobel, Robert (1981). IBM: Colossus in Transition. Times Books. ISBN 0-8129-1000-1. - Sobel, Robert (2000) [1981]. Thomas Watson Sr.: IBM and the Computer Revolution. Beard Books. ISBN 1-893122-82-4. – A paperback reprint of IBM: Colossus in Transition. - Sobel, Robert (1986). IBM vs. Japan:
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Transition. - Sobel, Robert (1986). IBM vs. Japan: The Struggle for the Future. Stein and Day. ISBN 0-8128-3071-7. Technology [edit] For Punched card history, technology, see: Unit record equipment#Further reading For Herman Hollerith see: Herman Hollerith#Further reading - Baker, Stephen (2012) Final Jeopardy: The Story of Watson, the Computer That Will Transform Our World, Mariner Books - Baldwin, Carliss Y; Clark, Kim B. (2000) Design Rules: The Power of Modularity, vol.1, MIT. unique perspec
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he Power of Modularity, vol.1, MIT. unique perspective on the 360 (Tedlow p. 305) - Bashe, Charles J.; Pugh, Emerson W.; Johnson, Lyle R./Palmer, John H. (1986). IBM's Early Computers. MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-02225-7. - Chposky, James; Leonsis, Ted (1988). Blue Magic: The People, Power, and Politics Behind the IBM Personal Computer. Facts on File. - Dell, Deborah; Purdy, J. Gerry. ThinkPad: A Different Shade of Blue. Sams. ISBN 978-0-672-31756-9. - Hsu, Feng-hsiung (2002). Behind Deep Blue: Buildi
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Hsu, Feng-hsiung (2002). Behind Deep Blue: Building the Computer that Defeated the World Chess Champion. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-09065-8. - Kelly, Brian W. (2004) Can the AS/400 Survive IBM?, Lets Go - Killen, Michael (1988) IBM: The Making of the Common View, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich - Mills, H.D.; O'Neill, D.; Linger, R.C.; Dyer, M.; Quinnan, R.E. (1980) The Management of Software Engineering, IBM Systems Journal (SJ), Vol. 19, No. 4, 1980, pp. 414–77 http://www.research.i
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19, No. 4, 1980, pp. 414–77 http://www.research.ibm.com/journal/sj/ - Pugh, Emerson W. (1995). Building IBM: Shaping and Industry and Its Technology. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-16147-3. - Pugh, Emerson W.; Johnson, Lyle R.; Palmer, John H. (1991). IBM's 360 and Early 370 Systems. MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-16123-0. - Pugh, Emerson W. (1984). Memories That Shaped an Industry: Decisions Leading to IBM System/360. MIT. p. 323. ISBN 0-262-16094-3. - Soltis, Frank G. (2002) Fortress Rochester: The Inside
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s, Frank G. (2002) Fortress Rochester: The Inside Story of the IBM iSeries, 29th Street Press - Yost, Jeffrey R. (2011) The IBM Century: Creating the IT Revolution, IEEE Computer Society Locations – plants, labs, divisions, countries [edit]- Brennan, Jean Ford (1971). The IBM Watson Laboratory at Columbia University: A History. IBM. p. 68. - DeLoca, Cornelius E.; Kalow, Samuel J. (1991) The Romance Division ... A Different Side of IBM , D & K Book, 223pp (history, strategy, key people in Electri
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k, 223pp (history, strategy, key people in Electric Typewriter and successor Office Products Div) - France, Boyd (1961) IBM in France, Washington National Planning Assoc - Harvey, John (2008) Transition The IBM Story, Switzer (IBM IT services in Australia) - Heide, Lars (2002) National Capital in the Emergence of a Challenger to IBM in France - Jardine, Diane (ed) (2002) IBM @ 70: Blue Beneath the Southern Cross: Celebrating 70 Years of IBM in Australia, Focus - Joseph, Allan (2010) Masked Inten
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stralia, Focus - Joseph, Allan (2010) Masked Intentions: Navigating a Computer Embargo on China, Trafford, 384pp - Meredith, Suzanne; Aswad, Ed (2005) IBM in Endicott, Arcadia, 128pp - Norberg, Arthur L.; Yost, Jeffrey R. (2006) IBM Rochester: A Half Century of Innovation, IBM - Robinson, William Louis (2008) IBM's Shadow Force: The Untold Story of Federal Systems, The Secretive Giant that Safeguarded America, Thomas Max, 224pp Biographies, memoirs [edit]For IBM's corporate biographies of former
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rs [edit]For IBM's corporate biographies of former CEOs and many others see: IBM Archives Biographies Builders reference room - Amonette, Ruth Leach (1999). Among Equals, A Memoir: The Rise of IBM's First Woman Vice President. Creative Arts Book Company. ISBN 0-88739-219-9. - Beardsley, Max (2001) International Business Marionettes: An IBM Executive Struggles to Regain His Sanity after a Brutal Firing, Lucky Press - Birkenstock, James W. (1999). Pioneering: On the Frontier of Electronic Data Pro
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Pioneering: On the Frontier of Electronic Data Processing, A Personal Memoir, self-published, 72pp - Lewis M. Branscomb#Books by Lewis Branscomb - Drandell, Milton (1990) IBM: The Other Side, 101 Former Employees Look Back, Quail - Charles Ranlett Flint#Bibliography - Louis V. Gerstner Jr.#References - Gould, Heywood (1971). Corporation Freak, Tower, 174pp ("hired as an audio-visual consultant by the Advanced Systems Development Division") - Herman Hollerith#Further reading - Lamassonne, Luis A.
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an Hollerith#Further reading - Lamassonne, Luis A. (2001). My Life With IBM. Protea. ISBN 1-883707-65-X. - Maisonrouge, Jacques (1985). Inside IBM: A Personal Story. McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-07-039737-6. - William W. Simmons#Selected publications - Ulrich Steinhilper#IBM and later life - Thomas, Charles (1993) Black and Blue: Profiles of Blacks in IBM, Atlanta Aaron, 181pp - Thomas J. Watson#Further reading - Thomas Watson Jr.#Further reading - Williamson, Gordon R. (2009) Memoirs of My Years with IB
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mson, Gordon R. (2009) Memoirs of My Years with IBM: 1951–1986, Xlibris, 768pp[self-published source] External links [edit]- IBM Archives, History of IBM - IBM at 100 – IBM reviews and reflects on its first 100 years - THINK: Our History of Progress; 1890s to 2001. IBM Archived March 24, 2014, at the Wayback Machine - Oral History with James W. Birkenstock, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. Birkenstock was an adviser to the president and subsequently as Director of Product Plan
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ident and subsequently as Director of Product Planning and Market Analysis at IBM. In this oral history, Birkenstock discusses the metamorphosis of the company from leader of the tabulating machine industry to leader of the data processing industry. He describes his involvement with magnetic tape development in 1947, the involvement of IBM in the Korean War, the development of the IBM 701 computer (known internally as the Defense Calculator), and the emergence of magnetic-core memory from the SA
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the emergence of magnetic-core memory from the SAGE project. He then recounts the entry of IBM into the commercial computer market with the IBM 702. The end of the interview concerns IBM's relationship with other early entrants in the international computer industry, including litigation with Sperry Rand, its cross-licensing agreements, and cooperation with Japanese electronics firms. - IBM Archives - Biographies - Builders reference room
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IBM Watson IBM Watson is a computer system capable of answering questions posed in natural language.[1] It was developed as a part of IBM's DeepQA project by a research team, led by principal investigator David Ferrucci.[2] Watson was named after IBM's founder and first CEO, industrialist Thomas J. Watson.[3][4] The computer system was initially developed to answer questions on the popular quiz show Jeopardy![5] and in 2011, the Watson computer system competed on Jeopardy! against champions Brad
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ystem competed on Jeopardy! against champions Brad Rutter and Ken Jennings,[3][6] winning the first-place prize of US$1 million.[7] In February 2013, IBM announced that Watson's first commercial application would be for utilization management decisions in lung cancer treatment, at Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York City, in conjunction with WellPoint (now Elevance Health).[8] Description [edit]Watson was created as a question answering (QA) computing system that IBM built to apply
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ing (QA) computing system that IBM built to apply advanced natural language processing, information retrieval, knowledge representation, automated reasoning, and machine learning technologies to the field of open domain question answering. The system is named DeepQA (though it did not involve the use of deep neural networks).[1] IBM stated that Watson uses "more than 100 different techniques to analyze natural language, identify sources, find and generate hypotheses, find and score evidence, and
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generate hypotheses, find and score evidence, and merge and rank hypotheses."[10] In recent years[when?], Watson's capabilities have been extended and the way in which Watson works has been changed to take advantage of new deployment models (Watson on IBM Cloud), evolved machine learning capabilities, and optimized hardware available to developers and researchers. [citation needed] Software [edit]Watson uses IBM's DeepQA software and the Apache UIMA (Unstructured Information Management Architec
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UIMA (Unstructured Information Management Architecture) framework implementation. The system was written in various languages, including Java, C++, and Prolog, and runs on the SUSE Linux Enterprise Server 11 operating system using the Apache Hadoop framework to provide distributed computing.[11][12][13] Other than the DeepQA system, Watson contained several strategy modules. For example, one module calculated the amount to bet for Final Jeopardy, according to the confidence score on getting the
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according to the confidence score on getting the answer right, and the current scores of all contestants. One module used the Bayes rule to calculate the probability that each unrevealed question might be the Daily Double, using historical data from the J! Archive as the prior. If a Daily Double is found, the amount to wager is computed by a 2-layered neural network of the same kind as those used by TD-Gammon, a neural network that played backgammon, developed by Gerald Tesauro in the 1990s.[14
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mmon, developed by Gerald Tesauro in the 1990s.[14] The parameters in the strategy modules were tuned by benchmarking against a statistical model of human contestants fitted on data from the J! Archive, and selecting the best one.[15][16][17] Hardware [edit]The system is workload-optimized, integrating massively parallel POWER7 processors and built on IBM's DeepQA technology,[18] which it uses to generate hypotheses, gather massive evidence, and analyze data.[1] Watson employs a cluster of ninet
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analyze data.[1] Watson employs a cluster of ninety IBM Power 750 servers, each of which uses a 3.5 GHz POWER7 eight-core processor, with four threads per core. In total, the system uses 2,880 POWER7 processor threads and 16 terabytes of RAM.[18] According to John Rennie, Watson can process 500 gigabytes (the equivalent of a million books) per second.[19] IBM master inventor and senior consultant Tony Pearson estimated Watson's hardware cost at about three million dollars.[20] Its Linpack perfor
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bout three million dollars.[20] Its Linpack performance stands at 80 TeraFLOPs, which is about half as fast as the cut-off line for the Top 500 Supercomputers list.[21] According to Rennie, all content was stored in Watson's RAM for the Jeopardy game because data stored on hard drives would be too slow to compete with human Jeopardy champions.[19] Data [edit]The sources of information for Watson include encyclopedias, dictionaries, thesauri, newswire articles and literary works. Watson also used
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wire articles and literary works. Watson also used databases, taxonomies and ontologies including DBPedia, WordNet and Yago.[22] The IBM team provided Watson with millions of documents, including dictionaries, encyclopedias and other reference material, that it could use to build its knowledge.[23] Operation [edit]Watson parses questions into different keywords and sentence fragments in order to find statistically related phrases.[23] Watson's main innovation was not in the creation of a new alg
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in innovation was not in the creation of a new algorithm for this operation, but rather its ability to quickly execute hundreds of proven language analysis algorithms simultaneously.[23][24] The more algorithms that find the same answer independently, the more likely Watson is to be correct. Once Watson has a small number of potential solutions, it is able to check against its database to ascertain whether the solution makes sense or not.[23] Comparison with human players [edit]Watson's basic wo
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parison with human players [edit]Watson's basic working principle is to parse keywords in a clue while searching for related terms as responses. This gives Watson some advantages and disadvantages compared with human Jeopardy! players.[25] Watson has deficiencies in understanding the context of the clues. Watson can read, analyze, and learn from natural language, which gives it the ability to make human-like decisions.[26] As a result, human players usually generate responses faster than Watson,
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ers usually generate responses faster than Watson, especially to short clues.[23] Watson's programming prevents it from using the popular tactic of buzzing before it is sure of its response.[23] However, Watson has consistently better reaction time on the buzzer once it has generated a response, and is immune to human players' psychological tactics, such as jumping between categories on every clue.[23][27] In a sequence of 20 mock games of Jeopardy!, human participants were able to use the six t
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dy!, human participants were able to use the six to seven seconds that Watson needed to hear the clue and decide whether to signal for responding.[23] During that time, Watson also has to evaluate the response and determine whether it is sufficiently confident in the result to signal.[23] Part of the system used to win the Jeopardy! contest was the electronic circuitry that receives the "ready" signal and then examines whether Watson's confidence level was great enough to activate the buzzer. Gi
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level was great enough to activate the buzzer. Given the speed of this circuitry compared to the speed of human reaction times, Watson's reaction time was faster than the human contestants except when the human anticipated (instead of reacted to) the ready signal.[28] After signaling, Watson speaks with an electronic voice and gives the responses in Jeopardy!'s question format.[23] Watson's voice was synthesized from recordings that actor Jeff Woodman made for an IBM text-to-speech program in 2
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oodman made for an IBM text-to-speech program in 2004.[29] The Jeopardy! staff used different means to notify Watson and the human players when to buzz,[28] which was critical in many rounds.[27] The humans were notified by a light, which took them tenths of a second to perceive.[30][31] Watson was notified by an electronic signal and could activate the buzzer within about eight milliseconds.[32] The humans tried to compensate for the perception delay by anticipating the light,[33] but the varia
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delay by anticipating the light,[33] but the variation in the anticipation time was generally too great to fall within Watson's response time.[27] Watson did not attempt to anticipate the notification signal.[31][33] History [edit]Development [edit]Since Deep Blue's victory over Garry Kasparov in chess in 1997, IBM had been on the hunt for a new challenge. In 2004, IBM Research manager Charles Lickel, over dinner with coworkers, noticed that the restaurant they were in had fallen silent. He soon
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restaurant they were in had fallen silent. He soon discovered the cause of this evening's hiatus: Ken Jennings, who was then in the middle of his successful 74-game run on Jeopardy!. Nearly the entire restaurant had piled toward the televisions, mid-meal, to watch Jeopardy!. Intrigued by the quiz show as a possible challenge for IBM, Lickel passed the idea on, and in 2005, IBM Research executive Paul Horn supported Lickel, pushing for someone in his department to take up the challenge of playing
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his department to take up the challenge of playing Jeopardy! with an IBM system. Though he initially had trouble finding any research staff willing to take on what looked to be a much more complex challenge than the wordless game of chess, eventually David Ferrucci took him up on the offer.[34] In competitions managed by the United States government, Watson's predecessor, a system named Piquant, was usually able to respond correctly to only about 35% of clues and often required several minutes t
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35% of clues and often required several minutes to respond.[35][36][37] To compete successfully on Jeopardy!, Watson would need to respond in no more than a few seconds, and at that time, the problems posed by the game show were deemed to be impossible to solve.[23] In initial tests run during 2006 by David Ferrucci, the senior manager of IBM's Semantic Analysis and Integration department, Watson was given 500 clues from past Jeopardy! programs. While the best real-life competitors buzzed in ha
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While the best real-life competitors buzzed in half the time and responded correctly to as many as 95% of clues, Watson's first pass could get only about 15% correct. During 2007, the IBM team was given three to five years and a staff of 15 people to solve the problems.[23] John E. Kelly III succeeded Paul Horn as head of IBM Research in 2007.[38] InformationWeek described Kelly as "the father of Watson" and credited him for encouraging the system to compete against humans on Jeopardy!.[39] By
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em to compete against humans on Jeopardy!.[39] By 2008, the developers had advanced Watson such that it could compete with Jeopardy! champions.[23] By February 2010, Watson could beat human Jeopardy! contestants on a regular basis.[40] During the game, Watson had access to 200 million pages of structured and unstructured content consuming four terabytes of disk storage[11] including the full text of the 2011 edition of Wikipedia,[41] but was not connected to the Internet.[42][23] For each clue,
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connected to the Internet.[42][23] For each clue, Watson's three most probable responses were displayed on the television screen. Watson consistently outperformed its human opponents on the game's signaling device, but had trouble in a few categories, notably those having short clues containing only a few words.[citation needed] Although the system is primarily an IBM effort, Watson's development involved faculty and graduate students from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Carnegie Mellon Univer
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laer Polytechnic Institute, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Massachusetts Amherst, the University of Southern California's Information Sciences Institute, the University of Texas at Austin, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and the University of Trento,[9] as well as students from New York Medical College.[43] Among the team of IBM programmers who worked on Watson was 2001 Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? top prize winner Ed Toutant, who himself had appeared on Jeopardy! in 1989
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ant, who himself had appeared on Jeopardy! in 1989 (winning one game).[44] Jeopardy! [edit]Preparation [edit]In 2008, IBM representatives communicated with Jeopardy! executive producer Harry Friedman about the possibility of having Watson compete against Ken Jennings and Brad Rutter, two of the most successful contestants on the show, and the program's producers agreed.[23][45] Watson's differences with human players had generated conflicts between IBM and Jeopardy! staff during the planning of
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en IBM and Jeopardy! staff during the planning of the competition.[25] IBM repeatedly expressed concerns that the show's writers would exploit Watson's cognitive deficiencies when writing the clues, thereby turning the game into a Turing test. To alleviate that claim, a third party randomly picked the clues from previously written shows that were never broadcast.[25] Jeopardy! staff also showed concerns over Watson's reaction time on the buzzer. Originally Watson signaled electronically, but sho