text string | pmid string | accession_id string | license string | last_updated string | retracted string | citation string |
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Background
Although the HIV-1 genome contains only 9 genes, it is capable of generating more than 19 gene products. These products can be divided into three major categories: structural and enzymatic (Gag, Pol, Env); immediate-early regulatory (Tat, Rev and Nef), and late regulatory (Vif, Vpu, Vpr) proteins. Tat, Rev a... | 15757512 | PMC555852 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:36:40 | no | Retrovirology. 2005 Mar 9; 2:18 |
Background
The use of short DNA sequences for the standardized identification of organisms has recently gained attention under the terms DNA barcoding or DNA taxonomy [1-3]. Among the promising applications of this method are the assignments of unknown life-history stages to adult organisms [4,5], the large-scale ident... | 15771783 | PMC555853 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:38:34 | no | Front Zool. 2005 Mar 16; 2:5 |
Discussion
Australia has developed a unique blend of medical research institutions, from universities, teaching hospitals, independent medical research institutes to a range of smaller centres. Universities with medical schools have been the primary forces in medical research and many of the university teaching hospita... | 15771773 | PMC555854 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:38:28 | no | Aust New Zealand Health Policy. 2005 Mar 16; 2:5 |
Background
Protein interaction datasets are typically presented as graphs (or networks), in which the nodes are proteins and the edges represent the interactions between the proteins. These graphs can be used to investigate the functions of unannotated proteins through their interactions with neighbouring annotated pro... | 15740614 | PMC555937 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:02:51 | no | BMC Bioinformatics. 2005 Mar 1; 6:39 |
Background
Biological phenomena at different organismic levels have revealed some sophisticated systematic architectures of cellular and physiological activities implicitly. These architectures were built upon the biochemical processes before the emergence of proteome and transcriptome [1-3]. Under the molecular machin... | 15748298 | PMC555938 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:35:47 | no | BMC Bioinformatics. 2005 Mar 7; 6:44 |
Background
Understanding the molecular etiology of disease processes is a pressing goal of 21st century medicine. Completion of the mouse genome holds considerable promise in the discovery of genes responsible for genetically determined complex diseases. Quantitative trait loci (QTL) are allelically variant regions det... | 15760467 | PMC555939 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:38:18 | no | BMC Genet. 2005 Mar 10; 6:12 |
Background
Pathogens have evolved many ingenious mechanisms to manipulate innate and adaptive host immune responses [1-6]. The nematode parasite Brugia malayi is a causative agent of the disease lymphatic filariasis, which afflicts over 100 million people in tropical countries. Mosquito-borne infective stage larvae gai... | 15788098 | PMC555940 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:02:56 | no | BMC Biol. 2005 Mar 23; 3:8 |
Background
Eukaryotic cells rely on de novo nucleation mechanisms to generate actin filaments in order to elicit spatial and temporal remodeling of their actin cytoskeleton. Besides the Arp2/3 complex, nucleation activity has been recently demonstrated also for formins (reviewed in [1]). Formins are multidomain protein... | 15740615 | PMC555941 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:39:33 | no | BMC Genomics. 2005 Mar 1; 6:28 |
Background
Eschericia coli remains a useful resource to the genomic community as it provides important knowledge which can be applied to the analysis of most microbial genomes. Its central role devolves from two facts; first, the accumulated results of seven decades of laboratory experimentation have identified the fun... | 15757509 | PMC555942 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:39:33 | no | BMC Genomics. 2005 Mar 9; 6:33 |
Background
Most environmental viruses are phages (a.k.a., bacteriophages) that infect prokaryotic cells, both Bacteria and Archaea. On average there are about ten phage particles per host cell [1]. Extrapolations from the number of prokaryotes [2] make phages the most abundant biological entities in the biosphere with ... | 15743531 | PMC555943 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:02:49 | no | BMC Bioinformatics. 2005 Mar 2; 6:41 |
Background
Biological taxonomy provides the central link between diverse items of information about an organism. Given the scientific name of an organism, a researcher can query a wide range of databases for information on that organism's genome, development, morphology, geographic distribution, behaviour, phylogeny, a... | 15757517 | PMC555944 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:02:51 | no | BMC Bioinformatics. 2005 Mar 9; 6:48 |
Background
Elucidating the factors involved in threonine homoeostasis is important for the development of nutritional strategies in human clinical diets for treating patients suffering from wasting diseases. In farmed animals the regulation of livestock feed is required to ensure optimal growth and to reduce nitrogen e... | 15757516 | PMC555945 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:39:32 | no | BMC Genomics. 2005 Mar 9; 6:32 |
Background
High concentrations (mM) of the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate can accumulate in the brain and are thought to be involved in the etiology of a number of neurodegenerative disorders including Alzheimer's disease [1-4]. A number of in vitro studies indicate that at high concentrations, glutamate is a po... | 15730564 | PMC555946 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:03:47 | no | BMC Neurosci. 2005 Feb 24; 6:13 |
Background
Campylobacter infection is a zoonotic disease, observed in most parts of the world. The disease is caused by Campylobacter jejuni, or less commonly Campylobacter coli. It is estimated to cause 5–14% of diarrhoea, worldwide [1], and also in the Western world Campylobacter infection has emerged to be the most ... | 15752427 | PMC555947 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:28:14 | no | BMC Infect Dis. 2005 Mar 7; 5:11 |
Background
Scientific journal impact factor (IF) is directly linked to the probability of a paper being cited. It is currently accepted that a higher IF indicates a better journal quality, existing a correlation among IF and quality indicators at least in some health disciplines [1]. As a result these indices are progr... | 15777471 | PMC555948 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:28:55 | no | BMC Public Health. 2005 Mar 18; 5:24 |
Background
The availability of a variety of DNA markers, such as restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP), amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP), random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD), simple sequence repeat (SSR) and intersimple sequence repeat (ISSR) has enabled researchers to investigate genetic div... | 15777470 | PMC555949 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:38:18 | no | BMC Genet. 2005 Mar 18; 6:17 |
Background
Actin provides vital functions as a cytoskeletal component in eukaryotic and in prokaryotic cells. In eukaryotes, actin filaments give mechanical strength to cells in form of a dynamic cytoskeleton, and are structural fibers in muscle contraction. Additionally, actin proteins have motor like functions [1-3],... | 15745453 | PMC555950 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:39:11 | no | BMC Cell Biol. 2005 Mar 3; 6:10 |
Introduction
Data on the causes, levels and patterns of mortality are critical to support the development of evidence-based health policy. Cause of death statistics represent the longest historical series of data on the health of populations, in some cases extending back well over 150 years [1]. Yet, complete vital reg... | 15769298 | PMC555951 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:37:42 | no | Popul Health Metr. 2005 Mar 16; 3:3 |
Background
During the past decade, inflammation has often been cited as a major factor in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis and its clinical sequelae, including ischemic heart disease. It was found that traditional risk factors such as hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, diabetes, and smoking could not fully account ... | 15790413 | PMC555952 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:47:32 | no | Curr Control Trials Cardiovasc Med. 2005 Mar 24; 6(1):4 |
Background
Starving Dictyostelium discoideum amoebae form a multicellular organism by chemotactic aggregation. The signaling molecule that mediates aggregation and development is cAMP. Aggregation proceeds in a rhythmic fashion; cAMP is secreted periodically by cells in the center of the aggregate. Cells in the neighbo... | 15752425 | PMC555953 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:39:11 | no | BMC Cell Biol. 2005 Mar 7; 6:12 |
Review
In clinical research it has become increasingly common to assess the patients' perspective of their symptoms and their impact on their daily life as a tool for determining treatment and a means of evaluating the outcome of the treatment chosen [1,2]. The added value of measuring Patient-Reported Outcomes (PRO) s... | 15755325 | PMC555954 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:38:15 | no | Health Qual Life Outcomes. 2005 Mar 8; 3:12 |
Background
Enterococci, generally regarded as normal flora of gastrointestinal and genitourinary tract of humans, have emerged as the etiogen of several nosocomial as well community-acquired infections since last two decades. Globally, many studies have revealed that enterococci tend to be one of the leading causes of ... | 15774018 | PMC555955 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:28:14 | no | BMC Infect Dis. 2005 Mar 17; 5:14 |
Introduction
Solid tumors derived from epithelial organs are the main form of cancer in industrialized countries. The first phase of the metastatic development consists of local tumor cell invasion, followed by tumor cell circulation in the blood and homing to secondary distant organs [1,2]. As indicator organ for earl... | 15771776 | PMC555956 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:39:29 | no | J Transl Med. 2005 Mar 16; 3:12 |
Background
Ghrelin, a peptide secreted by endocrine cells in the gastrointestinal tract, is thought to play a significant role in the regulation of energy balance due to its effects on the stimulation of food intake [1,2] and weight gain [1-3] in rodents. It has been suggested that ghrelin may also play a role in meal ... | 15745452 | PMC555957 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:37:37 | no | J Negat Results Biomed. 2005 Mar 3; 4:2 |
Background
Clinical significance of pre-eclampsia
World-wide, over half a million women die each year of pregnancy related causes with 99% of these occurring in low resource countries [1,2]. An estimated 10–15% of these maternal deaths are associated with hypertensive disorders of pregnancy [3].
High blood pressure is... | 15833147 | PMC555958 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:32:05 | no | BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 2005 Mar 18; 5:7 |
Introduction
The paca (Agouti paca, L) is a South American rodent that lives in forested habitats near water and feeds largely on fallen fruit. It is hunted for its meat, which is considered a delicacy, and is an important source of animal protein for rural populations. This has led to indiscriminate exploitation, resu... | 15737234 | PMC555959 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:37:11 | no | Reprod Biol Endocrinol. 2005 Feb 28; 3:9 |
Introduction
Oxidative modification of low density lipoprotein (LDL) plays a major role in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. The first stage of atherogenesis is characterized by an influx and accumulation of LDL in the intima, followed by recruitment of blood-derived monocytes and lymphocytes to the developing lesio... | 15745457 | PMC555960 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:39:18 | no | Lipids Health Dis. 2005 Mar 4; 4:6 |
Background
Since its isolation in 1983 [1,2], human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) continues to cause 5 million new infections each year, and since the beginning of the epidemic, 31 million people have died as a result of HIV/AIDS [3]. One of the major mechanisms employed by the immune system to counteract the e... | 15737233 | PMC556014 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:39:00 | no | Virol J. 2005 Feb 28; 2:17 |
Introduction
Stimulus discrimination and generalisation constitute two major abilities exhibited by most living animals. Discrimination allows treating different signals as distinct, while generalisation allows treating different but similar stimuli as equivalents [1,2,3]. Similarity along one or several perceptual dim... | 15736975 | PMC1043859 | CC BY | 2021-01-05 08:21:20 | no | PLoS Biol. 2005 Apr 22; 3(4):e60 |
Introduction
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs that serve as post-transcriptional regulators of gene expression in plants and animals. They act by binding to complementary sites on target mRNAs to induce cleavage or repression of productive translation (reviewed in [1,2,3,4]). The importance of miRNAs for de... | 15723116 | PMC1043860 | CC BY | 2021-01-05 08:21:20 | no | PLoS Biol. 2005 Mar 15; 3(3):e85 |
Compare the gene number of fruitfly (13,000) to human (20,000), and it's pretty clear that complexity emerges not just from gene number but from how those genes are regulated. In recent years, it's become increasingly clear that one class of molecules, called microRNAs (miRNAs), exert significant regulatory control ove... | 0 | PMC1043861 | CC BY | 2021-01-05 08:21:20 | no | PLoS Biol. 2005 Mar 15; 3(3):e114 |
For Proust, a taste of cookie was enough to trigger vivid recollections of his childhood, the first of a long string of reveries that he fashioned into his famous memoir Remembrance of Things Past. For many animals, too, tastes and smells are evocative and play a crucial role in finding food, allowing them to build on ... | 15736988 | PMC1043862 | CC BY | 2021-01-05 08:21:20 | no | PLoS Biol. 2005 Apr 22; 3(4):e122 |
Introduction
Sex differences in recombination were discovered in the first linkage studies on Drosophila [1,2] and Bombyx (Tanaka [1914] in [3]) almost one century ago. However, this observation remains today largely unexplained despite several attempts. Based on very limited observations (see Table 1), especially of B... | 15736976 | PMC1044830 | CC BY | 2021-01-05 08:21:20 | no | PLoS Biol. 2005 Mar 22; 3(3):e63 |
Introduction
Engineering a system to emulate a particular behaviour can be an extremely informative approach to systems biology [1,2,3,4,5]. Even if the natural biochemical interactions are well characterized, it remains a considerable challenge to reconstruct a physical system with the appropriate behaviour. Step-by-s... | 15736977 | PMC1044831 | CC BY | 2021-01-05 08:21:20 | no | PLoS Biol. 2005 Mar 22; 3(3):e64 |
Introduction
The Mlabri are an enigmatic group of about 300 people who nowadays range across the Nan, Phrae, and Phayao provinces of north and northeastern Thailand and the Sayaburi province of western Laos [1,2]. Their traditional lifestyle is to move frequently through the dense forests of the high mountains, buildin... | 15736978 | PMC1044832 | CC BY | 2021-01-05 08:28:12 | no | PLoS Biol. 2005 Mar 22; 3(3):e71 |
Introduction
Complex positive species interactions have been shown to expand the ecological niche and increase the persistence of the organisms involved in a variety of systems. In terrestrial systems, increased diversity of mycorrhizal symbionts is correlated with increased biodiversity of plant communities, resulting... | 15736979 | PMC1044833 | CC BY | 2021-01-05 08:21:20 | no | PLoS Biol. 2005 Mar 22; 3(3):e77 |
Introduction
Topographic representation is a hallmark of cortical organization: primary somatosensory cortex contains a somatotopic map of the body surface, primary visual cortex contains a retinotopic map of visual (retinal) space, and primary auditory cortex contains a cochleotopic map of sound frequency. The necessi... | 15736980 | PMC1044834 | CC BY | 2021-01-05 08:28:12 | no | PLoS Biol. 2005 Mar 22; 3(3):e78 |
Introduction
The ability to understand the intentions associated with the actions of others is a fundamental component of social behavior, and its deficit is typically associated with socially isolating mental diseases such as autism [1,2]. The neural mechanisms underlying this ability are poorly understood. Recently, ... | 15736981 | PMC1044835 | CC BY | 2021-01-05 08:28:12 | no | PLoS Biol. 2005 Mar 22; 3(3):e79 |
Males and females of the same species can be strikingly different. Peacocks strut around
with flashy feathers to attract mates, while peahens blend into their surroundings with
more subdued colors. But differences are not always as obvious or easily explainable as
in this classic exa... | 15736982 | PMC1044836 | CC BY | 2021-01-05 08:36:13 | no | PLoS Biol. 2005 Mar 22; 3(3):e99 |
Navigating one's environment requires sensory filters to distinguish friend from foe, zero in on prey, and sense impending danger. For a barn owl, this boils down mostly to homing in on a field mouse scurrying in the night. For a human—no longer faced with the reputedly fearsome saber-toothed Megantereon—it might mean ... | 15736983 | PMC1044837 | CC BY | 2021-01-05 08:28:12 | no | PLoS Biol. 2005 Mar 22; 3(3):e103 |
When it comes to making the perfect body, it's all about expressing the right genes in the right place at the right time. This process begins even before the sperm and egg combine to form a zygote, because maternal factors are laid down in the egg that help establish the key axes of the body. After fertilization, preci... | 15736984 | PMC1044838 | CC BY | 2021-01-05 08:21:20 | no | PLoS Biol. 2005 Mar 22; 3(3):e104 |
Any organism may be limited by some essential nutrient in short supply—nitrogen for a plant on poor soil, for instance, or iron for phytoplankton in the open ocean. For the long-lived tubeworm Lamellibrachia luymesi, what it needs most and has least is sulfide. L. luymesi lives clustered around hydrocarbon-releasing oc... | 15736985 | PMC1044839 | CC BY | 2021-01-05 08:28:11 | no | PLoS Biol. 2005 Mar 22; 3(3):e108 |
One of the more intriguing recent discoveries in brain science is the existence of “mirror neurons,” a set of neurons in the premotor area of the brain that are activated not only when performing an action oneself, but also while observing someone else perform that action. It is believed mirror neurons increase an indi... | 15736986 | PMC1044840 | CC BY | 2021-01-05 08:28:12 | no | PLoS Biol. 2005 Mar 22; 3(3):e109 |
Invested with the arguably unique capacity for self-reflection, humans may well have asked the question, “Where did we come from?” ever since the dawn of self-awareness. From this universal question come origin stories as diverse as the cultures who tell them. In some cases, little is known about a population's evoluti... | 15736987 | PMC1044841 | CC BY | 2021-01-05 08:21:20 | no | PLoS Biol. 2005 Mar 22; 3(3):e116 |
Introduction
From the broad level of the whole chromosome down to the individual gene, interphase chromosomes in every organism studied adhere to common organizational principles (reviewed in [1]). An aspect of chromosome structure important for organism function is long-range chromosomal interactions (LRCIs) between d... | 15737020 | PMC1054879 | CC BY | 2021-01-05 08:21:20 | no | PLoS Biol. 2005 Mar 1; 3(3):e67 |
Introduction
Understanding cortical function requires unraveling synaptic connectivity in cortical circuits, that is, establishing the wiring diagrams. Although smaller wiring diagrams can be reconstructed using electron microscopy [1], reconstruction on the scale of a cortical column is impossible with current technol... | 15737062 | PMC1054880 | CC BY | 2021-01-05 08:21:20 | no | PLoS Biol. 2005 Mar 1; 3(3):e68 |
Introduction
Faithful inheritance of the genome depends on its accurate replication and correct distribution to the two daughter cells. In eukaryotes, the two copies of a chromosome that are generated in S-phase (sister chromatids) remain connected until they are separated in anaphase of mitosis. This physical associat... | 15737063 | PMC1054881 | CC BY | 2021-01-05 08:21:20 | no | PLoS Biol. 2005 Mar 1; 3(3):e69 |
Introduction
Cohesion between sister chromatids ensures that traction of sister chromatids towards opposite poles (known as bi-orientation) generates a tug-of-war between microtubules attempting to pull sisters apart and cohesion between them resisting this. The resulting tension is thought to stabilize the attachment ... | 15737064 | PMC1054882 | CC BY | 2021-01-05 08:28:13 | no | PLoS Biol. 2005 Mar 1; 3(3):e86 |
Introduction
Major recommendations from several Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and Institute of Medicine reports on emerging diseases underscore the importance of improving and developing new surveillance strategies to better inform interventions limiting the impact of novel and reemerging disease [1,... | 15737065 | PMC1054883 | CC BY | 2021-01-05 08:28:13 | no | PLoS Biol. 2005 Mar 1; 3(3):e88 |
Introduction
As increasing numbers of full-length viral sequences become available, recombinant or mosaic viruses are being recognized more frequently [1,2,3]. Recombination events have been demonstrated to be associated with viruses expanding their host range [4,5,6,7] or increasing their virulence [8,9], thus accompa... | 15737066 | PMC1054884 | CC BY | 2021-01-05 08:28:13 | no | PLoS Biol. 2005 Mar 1; 3(3):e89 |
DNA replication leaves the cell with two identical copies of each chromosome. To ensure their proper segregation during the anaphase stage of mitosis, the members of each pair, called sister chromatids, are held together by a protein complex, aptly named cohesin, that links the two not only at the centromere, but also ... | 0 | PMC1054885 | CC BY | 2021-01-05 08:21:21 | no | PLoS Biol. 2005 Mar 1; 3(3):e98 |
Control of gene expression plays a role in determining cell fate, differentiation, and the maintenance of specific cell lineages. In the absence of regulation, aberrant gene expression can lead to developmental defects and disease. As a result, gene expression is highly regulated and that regulation takes many forms. C... | 0 | PMC1054886 | CC BY | 2021-01-05 08:28:12 | no | PLoS Biol. 2005 Mar 1; 3(3):e106 |
Introduction
Mammalian genomic sequence is littered with various classes of endogenous retroviruses that have populated genomes during the course of evolution [1,2]. In the case of humans, approximately 8.3% of the genome sequence consists of long terminal repeat (LTR) and endogenous retrovirus elements classified into... | 15737067 | PMC1054887 | CC BY | 2021-01-05 08:21:20 | no | PLoS Biol. 2005 Apr 1; 3(4):e110 |
How is the brain wired up? Each neuron may connect with hundreds or even thousands of others, and the human brain has a hundred billion neurons. Determining the connection diagram for a whole brain is a truly daunting prospect, and currently well beyond reach. But one way into this thicket is to look for patterns in a ... | 0 | PMC1054888 | CC BY | 2021-01-05 08:28:13 | no | PLoS Biol. 2005 Mar 1; 3(3):e111 |
Rabies recently hit the national headlines when a Wisconsin teenager survived after showing full-blown symptoms. Even more remarkable, the girl—who was bitten by a bat—recovered after receiving a novel therapy, since doctors felt her case was too advanced for the standard rabies inoculations to work. Rabies is nearly a... | 0 | PMC1054889 | CC BY | 2021-01-05 08:21:20 | no | PLoS Biol. 2005 Mar 1; 3(3):e115 |
In theory, a cell's nuclear membrane guards its contents by barring access to potential foes. In reality, pathogens employ a diverse bag of tricks to circumvent this barrier. The murine leukemia virus (a retrovirus), for example, waits until the nuclear membrane degrades during cell division. Other retroviruses, like H... | 0 | PMC1054890 | CC BY | 2021-01-05 08:28:13 | no | PLoS Biol. 2005 Mar 1; 3(3):e117 |
It's been known for a long time that only 2%–3% of human DNA codes for proteins. Much of the rest of our genomes—often referred to as junk DNA—consists of retroelements: genomic elements that are transcribed into RNA, reverse-transcribed into DNA, and then reinserted into a new spot in the genome. Human endogenous retr... | 0 | PMC1054891 | CC BY | 2021-01-05 08:21:20 | no | PLoS Biol. 2005 Apr 1; 3(4):e126 |
Introduction
B lymphocytes follow a highly ordered program of development in the bone marrow (BM), beginning with the commitment of lymphoid progenitors to the B lineage and the somatic recombination of heavy chain (HC) immunoglobulin (Ig) alleles [1]. Following an initial diversity (DH) to joining (JH) gene segment re... | 15752064 | PMC1059451 | CC BY | 2021-01-05 08:21:20 | no | PLoS Biol. 2005 Mar 8; 3(3):e82 |
Development generally proceeds in one direction. Undifferentiated, pluripotent cells, which can become several different cell types, first of all become committed to restricted cell lineages. Then, under the control of developmental signals, committed cells gradually take on specialized characteristics, eventually prod... | 0 | PMC1059452 | CC BY | 2021-01-05 08:21:20 | no | PLoS Biol. 2005 Mar 8; 3(3):e112 |
Introduction
The production of substandard and fake drugs is a vast and underreported problem, particularly affecting poorer countries. It is an important cause of unnecessary morbidity, mortality, and loss of public confidence in medicines and health structures. The prevalence of counterfeit drugs appears to be rising... | 15755195 | PMC1062889 | CC BY | 2021-01-05 11:13:38 | no | PLoS Med. 2005 Apr 14; 2(4):e100 |
Introduction
Tumour invasion and metastasis associated with neoplastic progression are the major causes of cancer deaths. The invasive process occurs through a complex series of interactions with the host tissue, resulting in infiltration and penetration of normal tissue by cancer cells [1]. Recent advances have highli... | 15535843 | PMC1064074 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:04:32 | no | Breast Cancer Res. 2004 Sep 13; 6(6):R616-R628 |
Introduction
Until recently, the role of progesterone on mammary gland tumorigenesis was not well understood. Data from epidemiological studies revealed a higher risk for breast cancer in postmenopausal women who used a combination of estrogens and progestins, in comparison with those women who used estrogens alone [1... | 15535845 | PMC1064075 | CC BY | 2021-04-27 23:14:50 | no | Breast Cancer Res. 2004 Sep 22; 6(6):R636-R639 |
Introduction
More than 90% of the body's oxygen is consumed by the electron transport chain in mitochondria [1], and about 1–5% of it is released as superoxide (O2•-) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) [2]. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) may also be generated from estrogen metabolism through catechol estrogen redox cycling [3... | 15535847 | PMC1064076 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:04:31 | no | Breast Cancer Res. 2004 Sep 22; 6(6):R647-R655 |
Introduction
Architectural and cytological patterns have been the basis for mammary tumor categorization for more than a century [1]. Over the past 20 years, immunohistochemistry has added a molecular dimension to the categorization of mammary neoplasms: altered expression of oncogenes, oncosuppressor genes, hormone re... | 15535849 | PMC1064077 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:04:31 | no | Breast Cancer Res. 2004 Oct 6; 6(6):R668-R679 |
Introduction
Recent epidemiologic studies have investigated the possibility that very early life exposures increase adult cancer risk. Trichopoulos [1] postulated that a highly estrogenic intrauterine environment would create a 'fertile soil' for carcinogenesis in breast tissue and lead to higher risk for breast cancer... | 15535848 | PMC1064078 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:04:31 | no | Breast Cancer Res. 2004 Sep 22; 6(6):R656-R667 |
Introduction
Cell-cycle checkpoint kinase (CHEK)2 has been shown to play a role in cell cycle regulation, apoptosis, and DNA repair, at least in part through phosphorylation of p53 and BRCA1 in response to DNA damage [1,2]. Several studies have reported associations of germline mutations in CHEK2, especially the 1100de... | 15535844 | PMC1064080 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:04:31 | no | Breast Cancer Res. 2004 Sep 22; 6(6):R629-R635 |
Introduction
Breast cancer is the most common neoplasm in women. Nodal status as determined by pathologic examination of lymph nodes has repeatedly been shown to be the single most important predictor of survival in breast cancer [1]. The absolute number of pathologically involved nodes has also been shown to be an imp... | 15535850 | PMC1064081 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:04:31 | no | Breast Cancer Res. 2004 Oct 6; 6(6):R680-R688 |
Introduction
Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA; 1- or 2-acyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphate), the simplest glycerophospholipid, mediates a broad range of cellular responses including smooth muscle cell contraction, platelet aggregation, neurite retraction/cell rounding, regulation of cell proliferation, protection from apoptosis, mod... | 15535846 | PMC1064082 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:04:31 | no | Breast Cancer Res. 2004 Sep 22; 6(6):R640-R646 |
Introduction
The 1970s and 1980s witnessed a revolution in the conventional approach to the treatment of primary breast cancer. Early in the 1970s, the favourable results of postoperative systemic adjuvant therapy in women with positive axillary lymph nodes [1,2] started an avalanche of clinical trials that explored th... | 15535851 | PMC1064084 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:04:31 | no | Breast Cancer Res. 2004 Oct 11; 6(6):R689-R696 |
Introduction
The bioreductive drugs, aziridinylbenzoquinones, are a class of compounds designed to exploit one of the features of solid tumor biology caused by an inadequate blood supply to the solid tumor; namely, tumor hypoxia. Such regions generally are resistant to radiation and other oxygen-requiring treatment [1-... | 15642166 | PMC1064093 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:04:32 | no | Breast Cancer Res. 2005 Nov 4; 7(1):R19-R27 |
Introduction
Breast cancer is the most frequently diagnosed cancer among women in the USA, and the incidence of breast carcinoma has increased by more than 40% over 25 years [1]. The aetiology of breast cancer remains unknown. Many risk factors have been associated with the pathogenesis of this disease, including famil... | 15642157 | PMC1064094 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:04:32 | no | Breast Cancer Res. 2005 Oct 22; 7(1):R1-R11 |
Introduction
The role of organochlorine compounds such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) as etiologic agents for breast cancer has been investigated in several epidemiologic studies, but findings are inconsistent [1]. Initial studies examining breast tissue or serum showed significantly higher concentrations of PCBs ... | 15642161 | PMC1064095 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:54:48 | no | Breast Cancer Res. 2005 Oct 22; 7(1):R12-R18 |
Introduction
Ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) of the breast, alone or in the presence of an invasive tumor (invasive ductal carcinoma [IDC]), presents a problem in its detection and treatment. DCIS represents a number of biologically different processes that exhibit variable frequencies of occult invasion and variable r... | 15642168 | PMC1064097 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:54:49 | no | Breast Cancer Res. 2005 Nov 8; 7(1):R33-R45 |
Introduction
The structure and homeostasis of normal breast parenchyma is maintained by dynamic interactions between breast epithelial cells and their associated stroma. These stromal elements include the vasculature, adipocytes, resident immune cells, and fibroblasts with their numerous cellular products, including va... | 15642169 | PMC1064098 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:04:32 | no | Breast Cancer Res. 2005 Nov 8; 7(1):R46-R59 |
Introduction
Systemic chemotherapy is an important part of treatment for breast cancer in both the adjuvant and palliative settings. Despite the consistent improvement in overall survival afforded by systemic adjuvant chemotherapy, about 1% of patients develop secondary leukaemia and/or myelodysplasia, probably as a co... | 15642167 | PMC1064099 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:54:49 | no | Breast Cancer Res. 2005 Nov 4; 7(1):R28-R32 |
Introduction
Cumulative exposure to circulating estrogen is considered to be of primary importance in breast cancer etiology. Estrogen biosynthesis, cellular binding and metabolism involve many steps, and the genes controlling these steps may contribute to inherent variability in breast cancer susceptibility. Endogenou... | 15642171 | PMC1064100 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:54:48 | no | Breast Cancer Res. 2005 Nov 11; 7(1):R71-R81 |
Introduction
Women predisposed to hereditary or familial breast cancer form a heterogeneous group. It would be useful if we could identify carriers of the high-risk BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes and target the expensive and time-consuming genetic testing to individuals who most probably carry those mutations. Besides family hi... | 15642173 | PMC1064101 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:54:48 | no | Breast Cancer Res. 2005 Nov 19; 7(1):R93-R100 |
Introduction
The development and progression of breast cancer is dependent on steroid sex hormones and polypeptide growth factors. Oestrogen action has been implicated in the development of breast cancers and frequently contributes to tumour growth. The action of oestrogen is relayed through its specific nuclear oestro... | 15642172 | PMC1064102 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:04:32 | no | Breast Cancer Res. 2005 Nov 16; 7(1):R82-R92 |
Introduction
Both estrogen receptor (ER) subtypes, ERα and ERβ, are ligand-activated transcription factors. ERα is the major ER in mammary epithelium and is an important regulator of cell growth, differentiation and malignant transformation. After binding to estrogen, the receptors associate with specific estrogen resp... | 15642170 | PMC1064103 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:04:32 | no | Breast Cancer Res. 2005 Nov 8; 7(1):R60-R70 |
Introduction
It has long been recognized that cAMP is an important intracellular messenger that is capable of regulating diverse functions such as steroidogenesis in the ovary, sugar metabolism in the liver, and contractility of the cardiac muscle [1-5]. In addition to these crucial and specific physiological functions... | 15642158 | PMC1064104 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:04:32 | no | Breast Cancer Res. 2005 Nov 24; 7(1):R101-R112 |
Introduction
Estrogen receptor (ER)-α has traditionally been defined as a ligand-dependent transcription factor that regulates its target genes by binding to estrogen response elements present in the promoters of many responsive genes [1]. However, an ever-increasing number of reports indicate that the cellular actions... | 15642162 | PMC1064105 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:04:32 | no | Breast Cancer Res. 2005 Nov 26; 7(1):R130-R144 |
Introduction
The management of breast cancer currently relies on surgery, chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Despite recent advances in clinical management of breast cancer once metastasis has occurred, the probability of a complete cure is greatly reduced. Of the women who have no detectable lymph node metastases at the t... | 15642163 | PMC1064108 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:04:32 | no | Breast Cancer Res. 2005 Nov 29; 7(1):R145-R155 |
Introduction
Insulin-like growth factors (IGF-I and IGF-II) regulate the cellular growth of normal and malignant breast epithelial cells with a role in malignant transformation [1-3]. IGFs are potent mitogens and are synergistic with oestrogen and epidermal growth factor (EGF) to stimulate cellular proliferation[B4]. T... | 15642160 | PMC1064109 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:04:32 | no | Breast Cancer Res. 2005 Nov 23; 7(1):R119-R129 |
Introduction
Most breast cancers overexpress oestrogen receptor-α (ER-α), and this molecule is the major target of the anti-estrogens, such as tamoxifen, used to treat the disease. Not all patients respond to anti-oestrogen treatment and many who do respond later relapse. The reasons for treatment failure are still unc... | 15642159 | PMC1064111 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:04:32 | no | Breast Cancer Res. 2005 Nov 23; 7(1):R113-R118 |
Introduction
Ataxia-telangiectasia is an autosomal-recessive disease that affects neuro-immunologic functions, and is associated with increased susceptibility to malignancy, chromosomal instability and hypersensitivity to ionizing radiation [1,2]. ATM (ataxia-telangiectasia mutated) heterozygous deficiency has been pro... | 15642165 | PMC1064114 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:04:32 | no | Breast Cancer Res. 2005 Dec 10; 7(1):R164-R170 |
Introduction
The aromatase inhibitor letrozole has been shown to be superior to tamoxifen (TAM) in the first-line treatment of metastatic breast cancer [1,2]. A randomized clinical trial comparing these two drugs in the adjuvant setting is currently ongoing, and should soon provide insight into the relative efficacy of... | 15642164 | PMC1064115 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:04:32 | no | Breast Cancer Res. 2005 Dec 7; 7(1):R156-R163 |
Introduction
A CAG length polymorphism within exon 1 of the androgen receptor (AR) gene encodes a string of 9–32 glutamines. Even within this normal range, CAG repeat number is inversely associated with AR-mediated transcriptional activation in vitro [1,2]. Involvement of the AR in breast tumourigenesis is suggested by... | 15743497 | PMC1064126 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:54:49 | no | Breast Cancer Res. 2005 Dec 16; 7(2):R176-R183 |
Introduction
Truncation mutations in the BRCA1 gene are high-penetrance, low-prevalence factors in risk of breast cancer. BRCA1 is hypothesized to be a locus under recombinational inhibition, and very few haplotypes have been described. In fact, only one haplotype block and two major haplotypes have been shown to exist... | 15743496 | PMC1064127 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:54:49 | no | Breast Cancer Res. 2005 Dec 16; 7(2):R171-R175 |
Introduction
Over the past 30 years, an estimated 1.5–2 million women have received breast implants in the United States [1]. Starting in the 1980s, widespread public health concern arose regarding their potential adverse health effects [2]. Numerous epidemiologic investigations have focused on systemic complications, ... | 15743498 | PMC1064128 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:54:49 | no | Breast Cancer Res. 2005 Dec 23; 7(2):R184-R193 |
Introduction
Breast cancer is the leading cause of cancer death in women worldwide. Despite advances in detection and chemotherapy, many women with breast cancer continue to die of this malignancy [1]. Therefore, an understanding of the molecular mechanisms involved in breast cancer formation and progression should be ... | 15743499 | PMC1064129 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:04:32 | no | Breast Cancer Res. 2005 Dec 17; 7(2):R220-R228 |
Introduction
Epidemiologic evidence linking cigarette smoking to increased risk for development of breast cancer is mounting (for review [1,2]). In addition, findings from both epidemiology and molecular biology indicate that there is differential susceptibility within the population to development of malignant neoplas... | 15743503 | PMC1064130 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:54:49 | no | Breast Cancer Res. 2005 Jan 14; 7(2):R229-R237 |
Introduction
Breast cancer is a major cause of death among women. Adjuvant systemic therapy may considerably improve survival rates, but it is associated with severe toxic side effects. Especially in patients with node-negative breast cancer, the pros and cons of adjuvant systemic therapy are always critically weighted... | 15743500 | PMC1064131 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:04:32 | no | Breast Cancer Res. 2005 Jan 7; 7(2):R194-R203 |
Introduction
The anaphase-promoting complex (APC) is an E3 ubiquitin ligase that controls mitotic progression [1,2]. APC is a polymeric protein complex composed of at least 11 subunits, which contains tetratricopeptide repeat proteins (APC3, 5, 6, 7, and 8), a cullin homolog (APC2), and a ring-H2 finger domain (APC11).... | 15743504 | PMC1064132 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:54:49 | no | Breast Cancer Res. 2005 Jan 14; 7(2):R238-R247 |
Introduction
The development of distant metastases is the primary cause of death in breast cancer patients. The involvement of the axillary lymph nodes, tumour size, histopathological grade and hormone receptor status determine prognosis and treatment options at initial diagnosis [1]. Nevertheless, these parameters do ... | 15743502 | PMC1064134 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:04:32 | no | Breast Cancer Res. 2005 Jan 10; 7(2):R210-R219 |
Introduction
Breast cancer is the most common cause of cancer in women in the United Kingdom and is, after lung cancer, the most common cause of cancer death (Office for National Statistics). Positive family history is a well-established risk factor for the disease: the risk to first-degree relatives of a breast cancer... | 15743501 | PMC1064135 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:54:49 | no | Breast Cancer Res. 2005 Jan 12; 7(2):R204-R209 |
Introduction
In epithelial cells, tight junctions (TJs) are the most apical intercellular junctions, and function as selective barriers to macromolecules and prevent diffusion of lipids and proteins between apical and basolateral membrane domains. TJs appear as a network of continuous and anastomosing filaments on the ... | 15743508 | PMC1064136 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:04:32 | no | Breast Cancer Res. 2005 Jan 31; 7(2):R296-R305 |
Introduction
The claudins comprise a large family of tetraspanin membrane proteins thought to be the major barrier-forming proteins of tight junctions, the cell–cell contacts at the apical border of epithelial cells that control the paracellular movement of solutes. These proteins are highly conserved, with four transm... | 15743505 | PMC1064138 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:04:32 | no | Breast Cancer Res. 2005 Jan 17; 7(2):R248-R255 |
Introduction
Human epidermal growth factor receptor-2 is a proto-oncogene that encodes a cell-surface receptor designated HER-2/neu or c-erbB-2. Gene amplification and/or protein overexpression occurs in 14–30% of all breast cancers [1-3]. Initially, the adverse prognostic impact of HER-2/neu in breast cancer was the m... | 15743506 | PMC1064139 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:04:32 | no | Breast Cancer Res. 2005 Jan 26; 7(2):R256-R266 |
Introduction
Proto-oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes are two classes of genes with central roles in the regulation of cell growth. One of the most common genetic alterations associated with human breast cancer is the amplification of the ERBB2 proto-oncogene [1]. The ERBB2 gene located on 17q12-q21 encodes a 185 kDa... | 15743507 | PMC1064140 | CC BY | 2021-01-04 16:54:49 | no | Breast Cancer Res. 2005 Jan 26; 7(2):R267-R273 |
Introduction
The difficulty in recovery of cardiac function after cardiomyocyte death, such as occurs with a heart attack, contrasts with injury to skeletal muscle in which myocyte numbers can increase through the recruitment of new myocytes from a local stem-cell pool called satellite cells. At present, cardiac transp... | 15757365 | PMC1064849 | CC0 | 2021-01-05 08:21:21 | no | PLoS Biol. 2005 Apr 15; 3(4):e87 |
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