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During the 2010s, international media reports revealed new operational details about the Anglophone cryptographic agencies'global surveillance[1]of both foreign and domestic nationals. The reports mostly relate totop secretdocumentsleakedby ex-NSAcontractorEdward Snowden. The documents consist of intelligence files rel... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010s_global_surveillance_disclosures |
Theglobal surveillance disclosurereleased to media byEdward Snowdenhas caused tension in thebilateral relationsof theUnited Stateswith several of its allies and economic partners as well as in its relationship with theEuropean Union. In August 2013,U.S. PresidentBarack Obamaannounced the creation of "a review group on ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactions_to_global_surveillance_disclosures |
In cryptography,subliminal channelsarecovert channelsthat can be used to communicate secretly in normal looking communication over aninsecure channel.[1]Subliminal channels indigital signaturecrypto systems were found in 1984 byGustavus Simmons.
Simmons describes how the "Prisoners' Problem" can be solved through para... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subliminal_channel |
Action at a distanceis ananti-patternincomputer sciencein which behavior in one part of aprogramvaries wildly based on difficult or impossible to identifyoperationsin another part of the program.
The way to avoid the problems associated with action at a distance is a proper design, which avoidsglobal variablesand alte... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_at_a_distance_(computer_programming) |
Indigital logic, adon't-care term[1][2](abbreviatedDC, historically also known asredundancies,[2]irrelevancies,[2]optional entries,[3][4]invalid combinations,[5][4][6]vacuous combinations,[7][4]forbidden combinations,[8][2]unused statesorlogical remainders[9]) for a function is an input-sequence (a series of bits) for ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don%27t-care_term |
InCandC++, asequence pointdefines any point in acomputer program'sexecutionat which it is guaranteed that allside effectsof previous evaluations will have been performed, and no side effects from subsequent evaluations have yet been performed. They are a core concept for determining the validity of and, if valid, the p... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequence_point |
Incomputer programming, a program exhibitsundefined behavior(UB) when it contains, or is executing code for which itsprogramming language specificationdoes not mandate any specific requirements.[1]This is different fromunspecified behavior, for which the language specification does not prescribe a result, and implement... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undefined_behaviour |
Incomputer programming,unspecified behavioris behavior that may vary on different implementations of aprogramming language.[clarification needed]Aprogramcan be said to contain unspecified behavior when itssource codemay produce anexecutablethat exhibits different behavior when compiled on a differentcompiler, or on the... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unspecified_behaviour |
Inartificial intelligence, with implications forcognitive science, theframe problemdescribes an issue with usingfirst-order logicto express facts about a robot in the world. Representing the state of a robot with traditional first-order logic requires the use of manyaxiomsthat simply imply that things in the environmen... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frame_problem |
Inmathematicsandcomputing,universal hashing(in arandomized algorithmor data structure) refers to selecting ahash functionat random from a family of hash functions with a certain mathematical property (see definition below). This guarantees a low number of collisions inexpectation, even if the data is chosen by an adver... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_hashing |
Themin-entropy, ininformation theory, is the smallest of theRényi familyof entropies, corresponding to themost conservativeway of measuring the unpredictability of a set of outcomes, as the negative logarithm of the probability of themost likelyoutcome. The various Rényi entropies are all equal for a uniform distribut... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Min-entropy |
Ininformation theory, theRényi entropyis a quantity that generalizes various notions ofentropy, includingHartley entropy,Shannon entropy,collision entropy, andmin-entropy. The Rényi entropy is named afterAlfréd Rényi, who looked for the most general way to quantify information while preserving additivity for independen... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9nyi_entropy |
Acryptosystemis considered to haveinformation-theoretic security(also calledunconditional security[1]) if the system is secure againstadversarieswith unlimited computing resources and time. In contrast, a system which depends on the computational cost ofcryptanalysisto be secure (and thus can be broken by an attack wit... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information-theoretic_security |
Asecure cryptoprocessoris a dedicatedcomputer-on-a-chipormicroprocessorfor carrying outcryptographicoperations, embedded in a packaging with multiplephysical securitymeasures, which give it a degree oftamper resistance. Unlike cryptographic processors that output decrypted data onto a bus in a secure environment, a se... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptoprocessor |
Steven Levy(born 1951) is an American journalist and editor at large forWiredwho has written extensively for publications on computers, technology, cryptography, the internet,cybersecurity, andprivacy. He is the author of the 1984 bookHackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution, which chronicles the early days of the co... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Levy |
Digital Fortressis atechno-thrillernovel written by American authorDan Brownand published in 1998 bySt. Martin's Press. The book explores the theme of government surveillance of electronically stored information on the private lives of citizens, and the possiblecivil libertiesand ethical implications of using such tech... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Fortress |
Ahardware backdooris abackdoorimplemented within the physical components of acomputer system, also known as itshardware. They can be created by introducing malicious code to a component'sfirmware, or even during the manufacturing process of anintegrated circuit.[1][2]Often, they are used to undermine security insmartca... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardware_backdoor |
Titaniumis a very advancedbackdoormalwareAPT, developed byPLATINUM, acybercrimecollective. The malware was uncovered byKaspersky Laband reported on 8 November 2019.[1][2][3][4][5][6][7]According toGlobal Security Mag, "Titanium APT includes a complex sequence of dropping, downloading and installing stages, with deploym... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titanium_(malware) |
Flash memoryis anelectronicnon-volatilecomputer memorystorage mediumthat can be electrically erased and reprogrammed. The two main types of flash memory,NOR flashandNAND flash, are named for theNORandNANDlogic gates. Both use the same cell design, consisting offloating-gate MOSFETs. They differ at the circuit level, de... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_memory |
Alogic gateis a device that performs aBoolean function, alogical operationperformed on one or morebinaryinputs that produces a single binary output. Depending on the context, the term may refer to anideal logic gate, one that has, for instance, zerorise timeand unlimitedfan-out, or it may refer to a non-ideal physical ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_gate#Symbols |
TheNAND Boolean functionhas the property offunctional completeness. This means that any Boolean expression can be re-expressed by anequivalentexpression utilizingonlyNANDoperations. For example, the function NOT(x) may be equivalently expressed as NAND(x,x). In the field ofdigital electronic circuits, this implies that... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NAND_logic |
Inlogicandmathematics, thelogical biconditional, also known asmaterial biconditionalorequivalenceorbidirectional implicationorbiimplicationorbientailment, is thelogical connectiveused to conjoin two statementsP{\displaystyle P}andQ{\displaystyle Q}to form the statement "P{\displaystyle P}if and only ifQ{\displaystyle Q... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_biconditional |
↔⇔≡⟺Logical symbols representingiff
Inlogicand related fields such asmathematicsandphilosophy, "if and only if" (often shortened as "iff") is paraphrased by thebiconditional, alogical connective[1]between statements. The biconditional is true in two cases, where either both statements are true or both are false. The ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/If_and_only_if |
TheNIMPLY gateis a digitallogic gatethat implements amaterial nonimplication.
A right-facing arrow with a line through it (↛{\displaystyle \nrightarrow }) can be used to denote NIMPLY in algebraic expressions. Logically, it is equivalent tomaterial nonimplication, and the logical expression A ∧ ¬B.
The NIMPLY gate is... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NIMPLY_gate |
Alogic gateis a device that performs aBoolean function, alogical operationperformed on one or morebinaryinputs that produces a single binary output. Depending on the context, the term may refer to anideal logic gate, one that has, for instance, zerorise timeand unlimitedfan-out, or it may refer to a non-ideal physical ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_gates |
Anand-inverter graph (AIG)is a directed, acyclicgraphthat represents a structural implementation of the logical functionality of acircuit or network. An AIG consists of two-input nodes representinglogical conjunction, terminal nodes labeled with variable names, and edges optionally containing markers indicatinglogical... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/And-inverter_graph |
Inintegrated circuits,depletion-load NMOSis a form of digitallogic familythat uses only a single power supply voltage, unlike earlierNMOS(n-typemetal-oxide semiconductor) logic families that needed multiple power supply voltages. Although manufacturing these integrated circuits required additional processing steps, imp... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depletion-load_NMOS_logic |
Intheoretical computer science, acircuitis amodel of computationin which input values proceed through a sequence of gates, each of which computes a function. Circuits of this kind provide a generalization ofBoolean circuitsand a mathematical model for digitallogic circuits. Circuits are defined by the gates they contai... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_circuit |
Anelectronic symbolis apictogramused to represent variouselectricalandelectronicdevices or functions, such aswires,batteries,resistors, andtransistors, in aschematic diagramof an electrical orelectronic circuit. These symbols are largely standardized internationally today, but may vary from country to country, or engi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_symbol |
TheESPRESSO logic minimizeris a computer program usingheuristicand specificalgorithmsfor efficiently reducing thecomplexityof digitallogic gatecircuits.[1]ESPRESSO-I was originally developed atIBMby Robert K. Brayton et al. in 1982.[2][3]and improved as ESPRESSO-II in 1984.[4][5]Richard L. Rudell later published the va... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espresso_heuristic_logic_minimizer |
In electronics,emitter-coupled logic(ECL) is a high-speedintegrated circuitbipolar transistorlogic family. ECL uses abipolar junction transistor(BJT)differential amplifierwith single-ended input and limited emitter current to avoid thesaturated(fully on) region of operation and the resulting slow turn-off behavior.[4]A... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emitter-coupled_logic |
Indigital electronics, thefan-outis the number of gate inputs driven by the output of another single logic gate.
In most designs, logic gates are connected to form more complex circuits. While no logic gate input can be fed by more than one output at a time without causing contention, it is common for one output to be... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan-out |
Afield-programmable gate array(FPGA) is a type of configurableintegrated circuitthat can be repeatedly programmed after manufacturing. FPGAs are a subset of logic devices referred to asprogrammable logic devices(PLDs). They consist of an array ofprogrammablelogic blockswith a connecting grid, that can be configured "in... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field-programmable_gate_array |
Inelectronics,flip-flopsandlatchesarecircuitsthat have two stable states that can store state information – abistable multivibrator. The circuit can be made to change state bysignalsapplied to one or more control inputs and will output its state (often along with itslogical complementtoo). It is the basic storage eleme... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flip-flop_(electronics) |
Integrated injection logic(IIL,I2L, orI2L) is a class ofdigital circuitsbuilt with multiple collectorbipolar junction transistors(BJT).[1]When introduced it had speed comparable toTTLyet was almost as low power asCMOS, making it ideal for use inVLSI(and larger)integrated circuits. The gates can be made smaller with thi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_injection_logic |
AKarnaugh map(KMorK-map) is a diagram that can be used to simplify aBoolean algebraexpression.Maurice Karnaughintroduced the technique in 1953[1][2]as a refinement ofEdward W. Veitch's 1952Veitch chart,[3][4]which itself was a rediscovery ofAllan Marquand's 1881logical diagram[5][6]orMarquand diagram.[4]They are also k... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karnaugh_map |
Inautomata theory,combinational logic(also referred to astime-independent logic[1]) is a type ofdigital logicthat is implemented byBoolean circuits, where the output is apure functionof the present input only. This is in contrast tosequential logic, in which the output depends not only on the present input but also on ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combinational_logic |
The following is alist ofCMOS4000-seriesdigital logicintegrated circuits. In 1968, the original 4000-series was introduced byRCA. Although more recent parts are considerably faster, the 4000 devices operate over a wide power supply range (3V to 18V recommended range for "B" series) and are well suited to unregulated ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_4000_series_integrated_circuits |
The following is alist of 7400-series digital logic integrated circuits. In the mid-1960s, the original7400-seriesintegrated circuitswere introduced byTexas Instrumentswith the prefix "SN" to create the name SN74xx. Due to the popularity of these parts, other manufacturers released pin-to-pin compatiblelogicdevices and... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_7400_series_integrated_circuits |
Incomputer engineering, alogic familyis one of two related concepts:
Before the widespread use of integrated circuits, various solid-state and vacuum-tube logic systems were used but these were never as standardized and interoperable as the integrated-circuit devices. The most common logic family in modernsemiconducto... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_family |
Indigital circuits, alogic levelis one of a finite number ofstatesthat adigital signalcan inhabit. Logic levels are usually represented by thevoltagedifference between the signal andground, although other standards exist. The range of voltage levels that represent each state depends on thelogic familybeing used.
Alogic... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_level |
Magnetic logicisdigital logicmade using the non-linear properties of woundferrite cores.[1]Magnetic logic represents 0 and 1 by magnetising cores clockwise or anticlockwise.[2]
Examples of magnetic logic includecore memory. Also, AND, OR, NOT and clocked shift logic gates can be constructed using appropriate windings,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_logic |
NMOSornMOSlogic (from N-type metal–oxide–semiconductor) usesn-type(-)MOSFETs(metal–oxide–semiconductorfield-effect transistors) to implementlogic gatesand otherdigital circuits.[1][2]
NMOS transistors operate by creating aninversion layerin ap-typetransistor body. This inversion layer, called the n-channel, can conduc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NMOS_logic |
Theparametronis alogic circuitelement invented byEiichi Gotoin 1954.[1]The parametron is essentially aresonant circuitwith a nonlinear reactive element which oscillates at half the driving frequency.[2]The oscillation can be made to represent a binary digit by the choice between two stationary phases π radians (180 deg... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parametron |
Processor designis a subfield ofcomputer scienceandcomputer engineering(fabrication) that deals with creating aprocessor, a key component ofcomputer hardware.
The design process involves choosing aninstruction setand a certain execution paradigm (e.g.VLIWorRISC) and results in amicroarchitecture, which might be descri... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Processor_design |
Aprogrammable logic controller(PLC) orprogrammable controlleris an industrialcomputerthat has beenruggedizedand adapted for the control of manufacturing processes, such asassembly lines, machines,roboticdevices, or any activity that requires high reliability, ease of programming, and process fault diagnosis.
PLCs can ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmable_logic_controller |
Aprogrammable logic device(PLD) is anelectroniccomponent used to buildreconfigurabledigital circuits. Unlike digital logic constructed using discretelogic gateswith fixed functions, the function of a PLD is undefined at the time of manufacture. Before the PLD can be used in a circuit it must be programmed to implement ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmable_logic_device |
Arace conditionorrace hazardis the condition of anelectronics,software, or othersystemwhere the system's substantive behavior isdependenton the sequence or timing of other uncontrollable events, leading to unexpected or inconsistent results. It becomes abugwhen one or more of the possible behaviors is undesirable.
The... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_hazard |
Superconducting logicrefers to a class oflogic circuitsorlogic gatesthat use the unique properties ofsuperconductors, including zero-resistance wires, ultrafastJosephson junctionswitches, and quantization of magnetic flux (fluxoid). As of 2023, superconducting computing is a form ofcryogenic computing, as superconducti... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superconducting_computing |
This is alist of notable mathematicalconjectures.
The following conjectures remain open. The (incomplete) column "cites" lists the number of results for aGoogle Scholarsearch for the term, in double quotes as of September 2022[update].
The conjecture terminology may persist: theorems often enough may still be referr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_conjectures |
There are many longstandingunsolved problems in mathematicsfor which a solution has still not yet been found. Thenotable unsolved problems instatisticsare generally of a different flavor; according to John Tukey,[1]"difficulties in identifying problems have delayed statistics far more than difficulties in solving probl... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_statistics |
The following is a list of notableunsolved problemsgrouped into broad areas ofphysics.[1]
Some of the major unsolved problems inphysicsare theoretical, meaning that existingtheoriesseem incapable of explaining a certain observedphenomenonor experimental result. The others are experimental, meaning that there is a diff... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics |
List of unsolved problemsmay refer to several notableconjecturesoropen problemsin various academic fields: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_unsolved_problems |
Open Problems in Mathematicsis a book, edited byJohn Forbes Nash Jr.and Michael Th. Rassias, published in 2016 by Springer (ISBN978-3-319-32160-8). The book consists of seventeen expository articles, written by outstanding researchers, on some of the central open problems in the field of mathematics. The book also feat... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Problems_in_Mathematics |
The Great Mathematical Problems[note 1]is a 2013 book byIan Stewart. It discusses fourteen[1]mathematical problems and is written for laypersons.[2]The book has received positive reviews.
Stewart describes important open or recently closed problems in mathematics:
Ian Stewart belongs to a very small, very exclusive c... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Great_Mathematical_Problems |
TheScottish Book(Polish:Księga Szkocka) was a thick notebook used by mathematicians of theLwów School of MathematicsinPolandfor jotting down problems meant to be solved. The notebook was named after the "Scottish Café" where it was kept.
Originally, the mathematicians who gathered at the cafe would write down the prob... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Book |
Inmathematical logic, given anunsatisfiableBooleanpropositional formulainconjunctive normal form, a subset of clauses whose conjunction is still unsatisfiable is called anunsatisfiable coreof the original formula.
ManySAT solverscan produce aresolution graphwhich proves the unsatisfiability of the original problem. T... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unsatisfiable_core |
Incomputer scienceandmathematical logic,satisfiability modulo theories(SMT) is theproblemof determining whether amathematical formulaissatisfiable. It generalizes theBoolean satisfiability problem(SAT) to more complex formulas involvingreal numbers,integers, and/or variousdata structuressuch aslists,arrays,bit vectors,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satisfiability_modulo_theories |
Incomputer science, theSharp Satisfiability Problem(sometimes calledSharp-SAT,#SATormodel counting) is the problem of counting the number ofinterpretationsthatsatisfya givenBooleanformula, introduced by Valiant in 1979.[1]In other words, it asks in how many ways the variables of a given Boolean formula can be consisten... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharp-SAT |
Incomputer science, theplanar 3-satisfiability problem(abbreviatedPLANAR 3SATorPL3SAT) is an extension of the classicalBoolean 3-satisfiability problemto aplanarincidence graph. In other words, it asks whether the variables of a given Boolean formula—whose incidence graph consisting of variables and clauses can beembed... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planar_SAT |
TheKarloff–Zwick algorithm, incomputational complexity theory, is arandomisedapproximation algorithmtaking an instance ofMAX-3SATBoolean satisfiability problemas input. If the instance is satisfiable, then the expected weight of the assignment found is at least 7/8 of optimal. There is strong evidence (but not amathe... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karloff%E2%80%93Zwick_algorithm |
TheCircuit Value Problem(or Circuit Evaluation Problem) is the computational problem of computing the output of a givenBoolean circuiton a given input.
The problem is complete forPunder uniformAC0reductions. Note that, in terms oftime complexity, it can be solved inlinear timesimply by atopological sort.
TheBoolean F... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circuit_Value_Problem |
Inmathematical logic, aformulaissatisfiableif it is true under some assignment of values to itsvariables. For example, the formulax+3=y{\displaystyle x+3=y}is satisfiable because it is true whenx=3{\displaystyle x=3}andy=6{\displaystyle y=6}, while the formulax+1=x{\displaystyle x+1=x}is not satisfiable over the intege... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satisfiability_problem |
Constraint satisfaction problems(CSPs) are mathematical questions defined as a set of objects whosestatemust satisfy a number ofconstraintsorlimitations. CSPs represent the entities in a problem as a homogeneous collection of finite constraints overvariables, which is solved byconstraint satisfactionmethods. CSPs are t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constraint_satisfaction_problem |
Inmathematics, aconstraintis a condition of anoptimizationproblem that the solution must satisfy. There are several types of constraints—primarilyequalityconstraints,inequalityconstraints, andinteger constraints. The set ofcandidate solutionsthat satisfy all constraints is called thefeasible set.[1]
The following is a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constraint_(mathematics) |
Inmathematical optimizationandcomputer science, afeasible region,feasible set,orsolution spaceis the set of all possible points (sets of values of the choice variables) of anoptimization problemthat satisfy the problem'sconstraints, potentially includinginequalities,equalities, andintegerconstraints.[1]This is the init... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candidate_solution |
Decision theoryor thetheory of rational choiceis a branch ofprobability,economics, andanalytic philosophythat usesexpected utilityandprobabilityto model how individuals would behaverationallyunderuncertainty.[1][2]It differs from thecognitiveandbehavioral sciencesin that it is mainlyprescriptiveand concerned with ident... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_theory |
Knowledge-based configuration, also referred to asproduct configurationorproduct customization, is an activity ofcustomisinga product to meet the needs of a particular customer. The product in question may consist of mechanical parts, services, and software. Knowledge-based configuration is a major application area for... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge-based_configuration |
Inmathematical logic,computational complexity theory, andcomputer science, theexistential theory of the realsis the set of all true sentences of the form∃X1⋯∃XnF(X1,…,Xn),{\displaystyle \exists X_{1}\cdots \exists X_{n}\,F(X_{1},\dots ,X_{n}),}where the variablesXi{\displaystyle X_{i}}are interpreted as havingreal numb... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential_theory_of_the_reals#Complete_problems |
Here are some of the more commonly known problems that arePSPACE-completewhen expressed asdecision problems. This list is in no way comprehensive.
Generalizedversions of:
Type inhabitation problemfor simply typed lambda calculus
Integer circuitevaluation[24] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_PSPACE-complete_problems |
This is a list of feature films and documentaries that includemathematicians, scientists who use math or references to mathematicians.
Films where mathematics is central to the plot:
Biographical films based on real-life mathematicians:
Films where one or more of the main characters are mathematicians, but that are ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_films_about_mathematicians |
Incomputational complexity theory,P, also known asPTIMEorDTIME(nO(1)), is a fundamentalcomplexity class. It contains alldecision problemsthat can be solved by adeterministic Turing machineusing apolynomialamount ofcomputation time, orpolynomial time.
Cobham's thesisholds that P is the class of computational problems t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P_(complexity) |
Inextractortheory, arandomness mergeris a function which extracts randomness out of a set of random variables, provided that at least one of them is uniformly random. Its name stems from the fact that it can be seen as a procedure which "merges" all the variables into one, preserving at least some of the entropy contai... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomness_merger |
Fuzzy extractorsare a method that allowsbiometricdata to be used as inputs to standardcryptographictechniques, to enhance computer security. "Fuzzy", in this context, refers to the fact that the fixed values required forcryptographywill be extracted from values close to but not identical to the original key, without co... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuzzy_extractor |
Instatisticsanddata mining,affinity propagation(AP) is aclustering algorithmbased on the concept of "message passing" between data points.[1]Unlike clustering algorithms such ask-meansork-medoids, affinity propagation does not require the number of clusters to be determined or estimated before running the algorithm. Si... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affinity_propagation |
Alatent space, also known as alatent feature spaceorembedding space, is anembeddingof a set of items within amanifoldin which items resembling each other are positioned closer to one another. Position within the latent space can be viewed as being defined by a set oflatent variablesthat emerge from the resemblances fro... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latent_space |
Indata analysis, theself-similarity matrixis a graphical representation ofsimilarsequences in a data series.
Similarity can be explained by different measures, like spatial distance (distance matrix),correlation, or comparison of localhistogramsorspectral properties(e.g. IXEGRAM[1]). A similarity plot can be the start... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-similarity_matrix |
Semantic similarityis ametricdefined over a set of documents or terms, where the idea of distance between items is based on the likeness of their meaning orsemantic content[citation needed]as opposed tolexicographicalsimilarity. These are mathematical tools used to estimate the strength of the semantic relationship bet... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_similarity |
Similarityin network analysis occurs when two nodes (or other more elaborate structures) fall in the same equivalence class.
There are three fundamental approaches to constructing measures of network similarity: structural equivalence, automorphic equivalence, and regular equivalence.[1]There is a hierarchy of the thr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Similarity_(network_science) |
In philosophy,similarityorresemblanceis a relation between objects that constitutes how much these objects are alike. Similarity comes in degrees: e.g. oranges are more similar to apples than to the moon. It is traditionally seen as aninternal relationand analyzed in terms of sharedproperties: two things are similar be... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Similarity_(philosophy) |
In descriptivestatisticsandchaos theory, arecurrence plot(RP) is a plot showing, for each momentj{\displaystyle j}in time, the times at which the state of adynamical systemreturns to the previous state ati{\displaystyle i},
i.e., when thephase spacetrajectory visits roughly the same area in the phase space as at timej{... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recurrence_plot |
Inmathematical logic, thearithmetical hierarchy,arithmetic hierarchyorKleene–Mostowski hierarchy(after mathematiciansStephen Cole KleeneandAndrzej Mostowski) classifies certainsetsbased on the complexity offormulasthatdefinethem. Any set that receives a classification is calledarithmetical. The arithmetical hierarchy... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetical_hierarchy |
Inphysics, theBekenstein bound(named afterJacob Bekenstein) is an upper limit on thethermodynamic entropyS, orShannon entropyH, that can be contained within a given finite region of space which has a finite amount of energy—or conversely, the maximum amount of information that is required to perfectly describe a given ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bekenstein_bound |
BlooPandFlooP(Bounded loopandFree loop) are simpleprogramming languagesdesigned byDouglas Hofstadterto illustrate a point in his bookGödel, Escher, Bach.[1]BlooP is aTuring-incomplete programming languagewhose main control flow structure is a boundedloop(i.e.recursionis not permitted[citation needed]). All programs in ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BlooP_and_FlooP |
In thecomputer sciencesubfield ofalgorithmic information theory, aChaitin constant(Chaitin omega number)[1]orhalting probabilityis areal numberthat, informally speaking, represents theprobabilitythat a randomly constructed program will halt. These numbers are formed from a construction due toGregory Chaitin.
Although ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega_(computer_science) |
TheChinese room argumentholds that a computer executing aprogramcannot have amind,understanding, orconsciousness,[a]regardless of how intelligently or human-like the program may make the computer behave. The argument was presented in a 1980 paper by the philosopherJohn Searleentitled "Minds, Brains, and Programs" and p... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_room |
TheGame of Life, also known asConway's Game of Lifeor simplyLife, is acellular automatondevised by the BritishmathematicianJohn Horton Conwayin 1970.[1]It is azero-player game,[2][3]meaning that its evolution is determined by its initial state, requiring no further input. One interacts with the Game of Life by creating... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conway%27s_Game_of_Life |
The Emperor's New Mind: Concerning Computers, Minds and The Laws of Physicsis a 1989 book by the mathematical physicistRoger Penrose.
Penrose argues that humanconsciousnessis non-algorithmic, and thus is not capable of being modeled by a conventionalTuring machine, which includes adigital computer. Penrose hypothesize... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Emperor%27s_New_Mind |
Anenumeratoris aTuring machinewith an attached printer. The Turing machine can use that printer as an output device to print strings. Every time the Turing machine wants to add a string to the list, it sends the string to the printer. Enumerator is a type of Turing machine variant and is equivalent with Turing machine.... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enumerator_(in_theoretical_computer_science) |
Genetixis a virtual machine created by theoretical physicistBernard Hodsoncontaining only 34 executable instructions.[1]It was inspired by the principles ofAlan Turing[2]and allows for an entireoperating system, including aword processorand utilities, to run on 32 kilobytes.[3]
"Genes" are sequences of 50 to 100pointe... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetix |
Incomputability theory, thehalting problemis the problem of determining, from a description of an arbitrarycomputer programand an input, whether the program will finish running, or continue to run forever. The halting problem isundecidable, meaning that no generalalgorithmexists that solves the halting problem for all ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halting_problem |
TheHarvard architectureis acomputer architecturewith separatestorage[1]and signal pathways forinstructionsanddata. It is often contrasted with thevon Neumann architecture, where program instructions and data share the same memory and pathways. This architecture is often used in real-time processing or low-power applica... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_architecture |
Incomputer science,imperative programmingis aprogramming paradigmofsoftwarethat usesstatementsthat change a program'sstate. In much the same way that theimperative moodinnatural languagesexpresses commands, an imperative program consists ofcommandsfor thecomputerto perform. Imperative programming focuses on describingh... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperative_programming |
Langton's antis a two-dimensionalTuring machinewith a very simple set of rules but complexemergentbehavior. It was invented byChris Langtonin 1986 and runs on asquare latticeof black and white cells.[1]The idea has been generalized in several different ways, such asturmiteswhich add more colors and more states.
Square... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langton%27s_ant |
Incomputer science, aturmiteis aTuring machinewhich has an orientation in addition to a current state and a "tape" that consists of an infinite two-dimensional grid of cells. The termsantandvantare also used.Langton's antis a well-known type of turmite defined on the cells of a square grid.Paterson's wormsare a type of... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turmite |
Alan Turing(1912–1954), a pioneer computer scientist, mathematician, and philosopher, is theeponymof all of the things listed below. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Alan_Turing |
Amodified Harvard architectureis a variation of theHarvard computer architecturethat, unlike the pure Harvard architecture, allows memory that contains instructions to be accessed as data. Most modern computers that are documented as Harvard architecture are, in fact, modified Harvard architecture.
The original Harvar... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modified_Harvard_architecture |
Claude Elwood Shannon(April 30, 1916 – February 24, 2001) was an Americanmathematician,electrical engineer,computer scientist,cryptographerand inventor, known as the "father ofinformation theory" and credited with laying the foundations of theInformation Age.[1][2][3]Shannon was the first to describe the use ofBoolean ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Shannon |
The following are examples to supplement the articleTuring machine.
The following table is Turing's very first example (Turing 1937):
With regard to what actions the machine actually does, Turing (1936)[2]states the following:
He makes this very clear when he reduces the above table to a single instruction called "b... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turing_machine_examples |
ATuringtarpit(orTuring tar-pit) is anyprogramming languageorcomputer interfacethat allows for flexibility in function but is difficult to learn and use because it offers little or no support for common tasks.[1]The phrase was coined in 1982 byAlan Perlisin theEpigrams on Programming:[2]
54. Beware of the Turing tar-pi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turing_tarpit |
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