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- Define cytokine and chemokine and name 3 inflammatory cytokines.
- State the mechanism forinflammation and state why it is primarily beneficial to the body.
- Briefly describe why inflammation during a minor or moderate infection is essentially beneficial while
- inflammation during a massive infection can cause cons... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[6.1A: Overall Mechanism](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_3%3A_Bacterial_Pathogenesis/6%3A_Virulence_Factors_that_Damage_the_Host/6.1%3A_The_Ability_of_PAMPs_to_Trigger_the_Production_of_Inflam... |
nucleusinc.com
[Concept Map for Synthesizing and Secreting Inflammatory Cytokines and Chemokines in Response to PAMPs](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/~gkaiser/puzzles/Unit%203/Answers_Cytokines_PAMPs_PRRs.html)
#### Sepsis and Systemic Inflammatory Response Syndrome (SIRS)
Keep in mind that a primary function of the c... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[6.1A: Overall Mechanism](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_3%3A_Bacterial_Pathogenesis/6%3A_Virulence_Factors_that_Damage_the_Host/6.1%3A_The_Ability_of_PAMPs_to_Trigger_the_Production_of_Inflam... |
Prolonged vasodilation results in plasma leaving the bloodstream and entering the surrounding tissue.
2. A drop in blood pressure or hypotension. This is a result of the following events:
a. Prolonged vasodilation causes decreased vascular resistance within blood vessels decreases blood pressure.
b. High levels o... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[6.1A: Overall Mechanism](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_3%3A_Bacterial_Pathogenesis/6%3A_Virulence_Factors_that_Damage_the_Host/6.1%3A_The_Ability_of_PAMPs_to_Trigger_the_Production_of_Inflam... |
- State what is meant by endotoxin and indicate where it is normally found.
- List 3 Gram-negative PAMPS and briefly describe how they initiate SIRS.
Define healthcare-associated infection and name 3 common Gram-negative bacteria that cause HAIs.
**Highlighted Bacterium** 1. Read the description of *Pseudomonas aer... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[6.1B: Gram-Negative Bacterial PAMPs](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_3%3A_Bacterial_Pathogenesis/6%3A_Virulence_Factors_that_Damage_the_Host/6.1%3A_The_Ability_of_PAMPs_to_Trigger_the_Producti... |
[Flash animation of extracellular killing by neutrophils triggered by the binding of LPS and chemokines to receptors on](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit3/bacpath/exkill_lps_fl.html) neutrophils.
[html version of animation for iPAD illustrating extracellular killing by neutrophils triggered by... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[6.1B: Gram-Negative Bacterial PAMPs](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_3%3A_Bacterial_Pathogenesis/6%3A_Virulence_Factors_that_Damage_the_Host/6.1%3A_The_Ability_of_PAMPs_to_Trigger_the_Producti... |
**This leads to increased vascular permeability that enables serous fluids, red blood cells, and leukocytes to enter the air spaces of the lung where gas exchange occurs**. This prevents normal gas exchange and the person drowns on his or her own serous fluids *(def)*.
Medically important Gram-negative bacteria inclu... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[6.1B: Gram-Negative Bacterial PAMPs](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_3%3A_Bacterial_Pathogenesis/6%3A_Virulence_Factors_that_Damage_the_Host/6.1%3A_The_Ability_of_PAMPs_to_Trigger_the_Producti... |
Some of these paragraphs are the same as 1.B.
Describe how Gram-positive PAMPS initiate SIRS.
Name 2 Gram-positive bacteria that commonly cause healthcare-associated infections (HAIs).
In this section on Bacterial Pathogenesis we are looking at **virulence factors that damage the host**. Virulence factors that da... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[6.1C: Gram-Positive Bacterial PAMPs](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_3%3A_Bacterial_Pathogenesis/6%3A_Virulence_Factors_that_Damage_the_Host/6.1%3A_The_Ability_of_PAMPs_to_Trigger_the_Producti... |
These defenses will be covered in greater detail in Units 5 and 6. 6.1C. 2
[For More Information: Inflammation from Unit 5](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit5/innate/inflammation.html)
[For More Information: the Complement Pathways from Unit 5](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[6.1C: Gram-Positive Bacterial PAMPs](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_3%3A_Bacterial_Pathogenesis/6%3A_Virulence_Factors_that_Damage_the_Host/6.1%3A_The_Ability_of_PAMPs_to_Trigger_the_Producti... |
pneumoniae* often invades the blood, crosses the blood-brain barrier, and enters the meninges.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Health care-associated infection's website reports that "In American hospitals alone, health care-associated infections account for an estimated 1.7 million infections an... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[6.1C: Gram-Positive Bacterial PAMPs](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_3%3A_Bacterial_Pathogenesis/6%3A_Virulence_Factors_that_Damage_the_Host/6.1%3A_The_Ability_of_PAMPs_to_Trigger_the_Producti... |
Name the common PAMPs associated with acid-fast bacteria that stimulate cytokine production and an inflammatory response. Name pathogenic 2 acid-fast bacteria and state the infection each causes.
In order to protect against infection, one of the things the body must initially do is detect the presence of microorganis... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[6.1D: Acid-Fast Bacterial PAMPs](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_3%3A_Bacterial_Pathogenesis/6%3A_Virulence_Factors_that_Damage_the_Host/6.1%3A_The_Ability_of_PAMPs_to_Trigger_the_Production_o... |
Define exotoxin and list three types of exotoxins. State the major way the body defends itself against exotoxins.
Exotoxins *(def)* are toxins, often proteins in nature, secreted from a living bacterium but also released upon bacterial lysis. In addition, some bacteria use various secretion systems such as the [type ... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[6.2: The Ability to Produce Harmful Exotoxins: An Overview](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_3%3A_Bacterial_Pathogenesis/6%3A_Virulence_Factors_that_Damage_the_Host/6.2%3A_The_Ability_to_Produc... |
#### Learning Objectives
- 1. Define superantigen.
- 2. Briefly describe the mechanism by which superantigens cause harm to the body.
- 3. Name 2 superantigens and give an example of a bacterium that produces each.
#### Highlighted Bacterium
1. Read the description of *Streptococcus pyogenes* and match the bacter... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[6.2A: Type I Toxins: Superantigens](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_3%3A_Bacterial_Pathogenesis/6%3A_Virulence_Factors_that_Damage_the_Host/6.2%3A_The_Ability_to_Produce_Harmful_Exotoxins%3A_A... |
**Briefly describe** the roles of alpha toxin, kappa toxin, and mu toxin, and fermentation by *Clostridium*
*perfringens* in the pathogenesis of gas gangrene. State how the following toxins cause harm and name a bacterium producing each:
a. leukotoxins such as leukocydin
- b. *Bordetella* tracheal cytotoxin
- Sta... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[6.2B: Type II Toxins: Toxins that Damage Host Cell Membranes](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_3%3A_Bacterial_Pathogenesis/6%3A_Virulence_Factors_that_Damage_the_Host/6.2%3A_The_Ability_to_Prod... |
Type II toxins are typically phospholipases or pore-forming cytotoxins that disrupt the integrity of eukaryotic cell membranes. Damages host cells release danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) *(def)* that bind to pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs) causing the release of inflammatory cytokines. This inflammato... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "**b. Type II Toxins: Toxins that Damage Host Cell Membranes**",
"token_count": 2017,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Full.pdf"
} |
Type II toxins are typically phospholipases or pore-forming cytotoxins that disrupt the integrity of eukaryotic cell membranes.
- 2. Damages host cells release danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) that bind to pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs) causing the release of inflammatory cytokines. This inflammatory ... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "**b. Type II Toxins: Toxins that Damage Host Cell Membranes**",
"token_count": 537,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Full.pdf"
} |
| Define A-B toxins and state the functions of the A component and the B component.<br>State how the following exotoxins cause harm and name a bacterium producing each:<br>a. diphtheria exotoxin<br>b. cholera exotoxin<br>c. enterotoxins<br>d. shiga toxin<br>e. anthrax lethal toxin and edema toxin<br>f. botulism exotoxi... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[6.2C: Type III Toxins: A-B Toxins and other Toxins that Interfere with Host Cell](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_3%3A_Bacterial_Pathogenesis/6%3A_Virulence_Factors_that_Damage_the_Host/6.2%3A... |
Anthrax toxins, produced by *[Bacillus anthracis](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit3/bacpath/endobant.html).* In the case of the two anthrax exotoxins, two different A-components known as lethal factor (LF) and edema factor (EF) share a common B-component known as protective antigen (PA). Protectiv... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[6.2C: Type III Toxins: A-B Toxins and other Toxins that Interfere with Host Cell](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_3%3A_Bacterial_Pathogenesis/6%3A_Virulence_Factors_that_Damage_the_Host/6.2%3A... |
State what is meant by autoimmunity. Name three bacterial diseases that may result from autoimmunity.
#### The Ability to Induce Autoimmune Responses
Autoimmunity *(def)* is when the body's immune defenses mistakenly attack the body. In certain cases, bacteria can serve as a trigger for this response.
One way bac... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[6.3: The Ability to Induce Autoimmune Responses](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_3%3A_Bacterial_Pathogenesis/6%3A_Virulence_Factors_that_Damage_the_Host/6.3%3A_The_Ability_to_Induce_Autoimmune... |
The cell is the basic unit of life. Based on the organization of their cellular structures, all living cells can be divided into two groups: prokaryotic and eukaryotic (also spelled procaryotic and eucaryotic). Animals, plants, fungi, protozoans, and algae all possess eukaryotic cell types. Only bacteria have prokaryot... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[7.0: Eukaryotic Cell Anatomy](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_4%3A_Eukaryotic_Microorganisms_and_Viruses/07%3A_The_Eukaryotic_Cell/7.0%3A_Eukaryotic_Cell_Anatomy)",
"token_count": 664,
"so... |
State the chemical composition and major function of the cytoplasmic membrane in eukaryotic cells. State the net flow of water when a cell is placed in an isotonic, hypertonic, or hypotonic environment and relate this to the solute concentration.
- Define the following means of transport:
- a. passive diffusion
- b. ... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[7.1: The Cytoplasmic Membrane](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_4%3A_Eukaryotic_Microorganisms_and_Viruses/07%3A_The_Eukaryotic_Cell/7.1%3A_The_Cytoplasmic_Membrane)",
"token_count": 2026,
... |
A Review of Proton Motive Force from Unit 6
#### A Review of ATP from Unit 6
Transport proteins involved in active transport include antiporters, symporters, the proteins of the ATP-powered pumps.
Antiporters are transport proteins that transport ... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[7.1: The Cytoplasmic Membrane](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_4%3A_Eukaryotic_Microorganisms_and_Viruses/07%3A_The_Eukaryotic_Cell/7.1%3A_The_Cytoplasmic_Membrane)",
"token_count": 1081,
... |
State which eukaryotic organisms possess a cell wall and which lack a cell wall. State the function of the cell wall in those eukaryotic cells that have one.
Figure : Candida albicans (Eukaryotic Cell) and 36: Segment of a Mold Hypha 7.2.32
#### Summary
- 1. Algae, fungi, and plant... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[7.2: The Cell Wall](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_4%3A_Eukaryotic_Microorganisms_and_Viruses/07%3A_The_Eukaryotic_Cell/7.2%3A_The_Cell_Wall)",
"token_count": 249,
"source_pdf": "datasets... |
Describe the structure and the function of the nucleus in eukaryotic cells.
- Define the following:
- a. nuclear envelope
- b. nucleolus
- c. nucleosome
Figure ). The pores in the nuclear membrane allow ribosomal subunits and mRNA transcribed off genes in the DNA to leave the nucleus... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[7.3A: The Nucleus](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_4%3A_Eukaryotic_Microorganisms_and_Viruses/07%3A_The_Eukaryotic_Cell/7.3%3A_The_Endomembrane_System/7.3A%3A_The_Nucleus)",
"token_count": 1... |
Briefly describe the Golgi complex and state its functions. Briefly describe how the Golgi complex packages materials for secretion from the cell.
The cell is the basic unit of life. Based on the organization of their cellular structures, all living cells can be divided into two groups: prokaryotic and eukaryotic (al... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[7.3C: The Golgi Complex](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_4%3A_Eukaryotic_Microorganisms_and_Viruses/07%3A_The_Eukaryotic_Cell/7.3%3A_The_Endomembrane_System/7.3C%3A_The_Golgi_Complex)",
"tok... |
The cell is the basic unit of life. Based on the organization of their cellular structures, all living cells can be divided into two groups: prokaryotic and eukaryotic (also spelled procaryotic and eucaryotic). Animals, plants, fungi, protozoans, and algae all possess eukaryotic cell types. Only bacteria have prokaryot... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[7.4: Other Internal Membrane-Bound Organelles](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_4%3A_Eukaryotic_Microorganisms_and_Viruses/07%3A_The_Eukaryotic_Cell/7.4%3A_Other_Internal_Membrane-Bound_Organel... |
Briefly describe mitochondria and state their function.
- State where in the mitochondria the electron transport chain is located.
- State where in the mitochondria the enzymes for the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) are located.
Figure .1.1: Two mitochondria from mammalian lung tiss... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[7.4A: Mitochondria](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_4%3A_Eukaryotic_Microorganisms_and_Viruses/07%3A_The_Eukaryotic_Cell/7.4%3A_Other_Internal_Membrane-Bound_Organelles/7.4A%3A_Mitochondria)",... |
Briefly describe chloroplasts and state their function. State where in the chloroplasts the pigments and the electron transport chains needed to convert light energy into ATP are located.
Chloroplasts [\(see Figure \)](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit4/eustruct/u4fg41.html) are disk-shaped struc... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[7.4B: Chloroplasts](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_4%3A_Eukaryotic_Microorganisms_and_Viruses/07%3A_The_Eukaryotic_Cell/7.4%3A_Other_Internal_Membrane-Bound_Organelles/7.4B%3A_Chloroplasts)",... |
Briefly describe and state the function of eukaryotic ribosomes.
Ribosomes are composed of rRNA and protein and consist of 2 subunits. In eukaryotic cells, the subunits have densities of 60S and 40S ("S" refers to a unit of density called the Svedberg unit) and are composed of longer rRNA molecules and more proteins ... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[7.5: Ribosomes](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_4%3A_Eukaryotic_Microorganisms_and_Viruses/07%3A_The_Eukaryotic_Cell/7.5%3A_Ribosomes)",
"token_count": 379,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websour... |
#### State 4 different functions associated with the cytoskeleton of eukaryotic cells.
The cytoskeleton is a network of microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules. The cytoskeleton functions to:
- 1. give shape to cells lacking a cell wall;
- 2. allow for cell movement,e.g. , the crawling movement of ... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[7.6: The Cytoskeleton](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_4%3A_Eukaryotic_Microorganisms_and_Viruses/07%3A_The_Eukaryotic_Cell/7.6%3A_The_Cytoskeleton)",
"token_count": 575,
"source_pdf": "da... |
State the difference between eukaryotic flagella and cilia.
Briefly describe and state the function of eukaryotic flagella and cilia.
#### Flagellar arrangement schemes
Different species of bacteria have different numbers and arrangements of flagella (Figure 7.7.7.1).
- Monotrichous bacteria have a single flagell... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "7.7: Flagella and Cilia",
"token_count": 835,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Full.pdf"
} |
#### Learning Objectives
- Briefly describe what is meant by the endosymbiotic theory.
- Give some evidence supporting the theory that mitochondria and chloroplasts may have arisen from prokaryotic organisms.
It is thought that life arose on earth around four billion years ago. The endosymbiotic theory states that ... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[7.8: The Endosymbiotic Theory](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_4%3A_Eukaryotic_Microorganisms_and_Viruses/07%3A_The_Eukaryotic_Cell/7.8%3A_The_Endosymbiotic_Theory)",
"token_count": 963,
"... |
Name 3 groups of fungi. Define mycosis.
Mycology is the study of fungi. Fungi include yeasts, molds, and fleshy fungi. They:
- 1. are eukaryotic;
- 2. have a rigid cell wall;
- 3. are chemoheterotrophs (organisms that require organic compounds for both carbon and energy sources);
- 4. obtain their nutrients by abso... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[8.1: Overview of Fungi](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_4%3A_Eukaryotic_Microorganisms_and_Viruses/08%3A_Fungi/8.1%3A_Overview_of_Fungi)",
"token_count": 346,
"source_pdf": "datasets/webso... |
- Briefly describe yeasts and state how they reproduce asexually.
- Briefly describe pseodohypae, hyphae, blastoconidia (blastospores), and chlamydoconidia
- (chlamydospores) and name a yeast producing these structures.
- Name three potentially pathogenic yeasts and state an infection each causes.
#### Yeast Morpholo... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[8.2: Yeasts](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_4%3A_Eukaryotic_Microorganisms_and_Viruses/08%3A_Fungi/8.2%3A_Yeasts)",
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"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_text... |
Some yeast are dimorphic in that they can grow as an oval, budding yeast, but under certain culture conditions, they may produce filament-like structures called hyphae similar to molds.
- 3. Components of the yeast cell wall that function as pathogen-associated molecular patterns or PAMPs include lipoteichoic acids, zy... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[8.2: Yeasts](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_4%3A_Eukaryotic_Microorganisms_and_Viruses/08%3A_Fungi/8.2%3A_Yeasts)",
"token_count": 443,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textb... |
- Define:
- a. mold
- b. hyphae
- c. mycelium
- d. vegetative mycelium
- e. aerial mycelium.
- Briefly describe the following fungal asexual reproductive spores:
- a. conidiospores
- b. macroconidia,
- c. microconidia
- d. sporangiospores
- e. arthrospores
- Define dermatophyte, list 2 genera of dermatophytes, and name... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[8.3: Molds](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_4%3A_Eukaryotic_Microorganisms_and_Viruses/08%3A_Fungi/8.3%3A_Molds)",
"token_count": 2048,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbo... |
Name at least three fungal virulence factors that promote fungal colonization. Name at least two fungal virulence factors that damage the host.
As with the bacteria, fungal virulence factors can be divided into two categories: virulence factors that promote fungal colonization of the host; and virulence factors that ... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[8.4: Fungal Pathogenicity](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_4%3A_Eukaryotic_Microorganisms_and_Viruses/08%3A_Fungi/8.4%3A_Fungal_Pathogenicity)",
"token_count": 1258,
"source_pdf": "dataset... |
Briefly describe 3 different ways antifungal chemotherapeutic agents may affect fungi and give an example of an antibiotic for each way.
Remember that like human cells, fungal cells are eukaryotic. Since fungal cells, unlike prokaryotic bacterial cells, are not that different from human cells, it is more difficult to... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[8.5: Chemotherapeutic Control of Fungi](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_4%3A_Eukaryotic_Microorganisms_and_Viruses/08%3A_Fungi/8.5%3A_Chemotherapeutic_Control_of_Fungi)",
"token_count": 1095... |
#### Learning Objectives
After completing this section you should be able to perform the following objectives.
- 1. Briefly describe protozoa.
- 2. Briefly describe 3 ways protozoans may reproduce asexually.
- 3. Define the following:
- A. trophozoite
- B. protozoan cyst.
Protozoa are unicellular eukaryotic micro... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[9.1: Characteristics of Protozoa](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_4%3A_Eukaryotic_Microorganisms_and_Viruses/09%3A_Protozoa/9.1%3A_Characteristics_of_Protozoa)",
"token_count": 1764,
"sour... |
State a disease caused by each of the following protozoans and indicate their means of motility and how they are transmitted to humans:
- a. *Entamoeba histolytica*
- b. *Acanthamoeba*
- c. *Giardia lamblia*
- d. *Trichomonas vaginalis*
- e. *Trypanosoma brucei-gambiens*
- f. *Balantidium coli*
- g. *Plasmodium* spec... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[9.2: Medically Important Protozoa](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_4%3A_Eukaryotic_Microorganisms_and_Viruses/09%3A_Protozoa/9.2%3A_Medically_Important_Protozoa)",
"token_count": 1938,
"so... |
#### Learning Objectives
- 1. State 2 living and 2 nonliving characteristics of viruses.
- 2. List 3 criteria used to define a virus.
- 3. Discuss why bacteria can be cultivated on synthetic media such as nutrient broth whereas viruses cannot.
- 4. Define bacteriophage.
Viruses are infectious agents with both livin... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[10.1: General Characteristics of Viruses](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_4%3A_Eukaryotic_Microorganisms_and_Viruses/10%3A_Viruses/10.01%3A_General_Characteristics_of_Viruses)",
"token_count... |
#### Learning Objectives
1. Compare the size of most viruses to that of bacteria.
2. List 4 shapes of viruses.
#### Size
Viruses are usually much smaller than bacteria with the vast majority being submicroscopic. While most viruses range in size from 5 to 300 nanometers (nm) , in recent years a number of giant ... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[10.2: Size and Shapes of Viruses](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_4%3A_Eukaryotic_Microorganisms_and_Viruses/10%3A_Viruses/10.02%3A_Size_and_Shapes_of_Viruses)",
"token_count": 1576,
"sour... |
#### Learning Objectives
- 1. Describe what an animal virus consists of structurally.
- 2. Define the following:
- a. capsid
- b. capsomere
- c. nucleocapsid.
- 3. Describe how most animal viruses obtain their envelope.
- 4. State why some bacteriophages are more complex than typical polyhedral or helical viruses.
... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[10.3: Viral Structure](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_4%3A_Eukaryotic_Microorganisms_and_Viruses/10%3A_Viruses/10.03%3A_Viral_Structure)",
"token_count": 2030,
"source_pdf": "datasets/web... |
The genome is typically surrounded by a protein shell called a capsid composed of protein subunits called capsomeres.
- 5. Some viruses consist of no more than a genome surrounded by a capsid and are called nucleocapsid or naked viruses.
- 6. Most animal viruses also have an envelope surrounding a polyhedral or helical... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[10.3: Viral Structure](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_4%3A_Eukaryotic_Microorganisms_and_Viruses/10%3A_Viruses/10.03%3A_Viral_Structure)",
"token_count": 295,
"source_pdf": "datasets/webs... |
#### Learning Objectives
- 1. State what criteria are used in viral classification.
- 2. Regarding the naming of enzymes involved in the replication of viral nucleic acid, state what the "dependent" part of the name refers to and what the "polymerase" part of the name refers to.
Viruses can store their genetic info... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[10.4: Classification of Viruses](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_4%3A_Eukaryotic_Microorganisms_and_Viruses/10%3A_Viruses/10.04%3A_Classification_of_Viruses)",
"token_count": 1928,
"source... |
#### Learning Objectives
- 1. Define viroid and name an infection caused by a viroid.
- 2. Define prion and name 3 protein misfolding diseases that apprear to be initiated by prions.
#### Viroids and Prions
Viroids are even more simple than viruses. They are small, circular, single-stranded molecules of infectiou... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[10.5: Other Acellular Infectious Agents: Viroids and Prions](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_4%3A_Eukaryotic_Microorganisms_and_Viruses/10%3A_Viruses/10.05%3A_Other_Acellular_Infectious_Agents... |
Adsorption (Figures 1) involves the binding of attachment sites on the viral surface with receptor sites on the host cell cytoplasmic membrane.
Figure : (A) Adsorption of an Enveloped Virus to a Susceptible Host Cell. Attachment sites on the viral envelope bind to corresponding host ce... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "Viral Attachment or Adsorption to the Host Cell",
"token_count": 1999,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Full.pdf"
} |
Fusion of the viral envelop[e with the membrane](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit4/viruses/ev_uncoat_nc01.html) of the endocytic vesicl[e enabling the vira](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit4/viruses/ev_uncoat_nc03.html)l nucleocapsid to enter the cytoplasm of the host cell (s... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "Viral Attachment or Adsorption to the Host Cell",
"token_count": 2033,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Full.pdf"
} |
10
DNA strand into ss (+) DNA genomes. To produce viral mRNA molecules, host cell-DNA-dependent RNA polymerase enzymes copy the (-) DNA strand into (+) viral mRNA. The (+) viral mRNA can then be translated into viral proteins by host cell ribosomes. Exa... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "Viral Attachment or Adsorption to the Host Cell",
"token_count": 1875,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Full.pdf"
} |
#### a. Naked viruses
Naked viruses are predominantly released by host cell lysis [\(see Figure C\)](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit4/viruses/rel_lysis_nv.html). While some viruses are cytolytic and lyse the host cell more or less directly, in many cases it is the body's immune defenses that ly... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"token_count": 2046,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Full.pdf"
} |
Most RNA viruses replicate in the host cell's cytoplasm; most DNA viruses replicate in the host cell's nucleus.
- 5. During replication, the viral genome directs the host cell's metabolic machinery (ribosomes, tRNA, nutrients, energy, enzymes, etc.) to synthesize viral enzymes and viral parts. The viral genome has to b... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"token_count": 822,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Full.pdf"
} |
State the major difference between the productive life cycle of animal viruses and the latent life cycle.
- Define provirus.
- Name 3 herpes viruses that may have a latent cycle, state in what cell types they become latent, and name
- the diseases each cause.
Some animal viruses, such as the herpes viruses and a gr... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"Header 3": "[10.6B: Productive Life Cycle with Possible Latency](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_4%3A_Eukaryotic_Microorganisms_and_Viruses/10%3A_Viruses/10.06%3A_Animal_Virus_Life_Cycles%3A_An_Overview/10.6B%3A_Pr... |
#### Learning Objectives
- 1. Describe how the retrovirus HIV-1 accomplishes each of the following steps during its life cycle. (Include the following key words in your description: gp120, CD4, chemokine receptors, gp41, capsid, RNA genome, reverse transcriptase, double-stranded DNA intermediate, provirus, polyprotei... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"Header 3": "[10.6C: The Life Cycle of HIV](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_4%3A_Eukaryotic_Microorganisms_and_Viruses/10%3A_Viruses/10.06%3A_Animal_Virus_Life_Cycles%3A_An_Overview/10.6C%3A_The_Life_Cycle_of_HIV)",... |
(The T-tropic HIV, found later in HIV infection, are faster-replicating, more virulent, and lead to syncytia formation.)
As time goes by, mutation in the gene coding for gp120 enables some of the HIV to become dual tropic and able to infect both macrophages via the CCR5 chemokine receptor found on these cells, and T4... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"Header 3": "[10.6C: The Life Cycle of HIV](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_4%3A_Eukaryotic_Microorganisms_and_Viruses/10%3A_Viruses/10.06%3A_Animal_Virus_Life_Cycles%3A_An_Overview/10.6C%3A_The_Life_Cycle_of_HIV)",... |
These polyproteins will eventually be cleaved by HIV [proteases to becom](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit4/viruses/u2fig14a.html)e HIV matrix [proteins \(MA; p17\), capsid proteins \(CA; p24\), and nucleocapsid proteins \(NC, p7\). See Figure A and Figure](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"Header 3": "[10.6C: The Life Cycle of HIV](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_4%3A_Eukaryotic_Microorganisms_and_Viruses/10%3A_Viruses/10.06%3A_Animal_Virus_Life_Cycles%3A_An_Overview/10.6C%3A_The_Life_Cycle_of_HIV)",... |
describe how this might prevent HIV infection in the person receiving the transplant.
#### [Concept Map for Life Cycle of HIV](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/~gkaiser/puzzles/Unit%204/Answers_HIV%20_Life_Cycle.html)
Medscape article on infections associated with organisms mentioned in this Learning Object. Registration ... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"Header 3": "[10.6C: The Life Cycle of HIV](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_4%3A_Eukaryotic_Microorganisms_and_Viruses/10%3A_Viruses/10.06%3A_Animal_Virus_Life_Cycles%3A_An_Overview/10.6C%3A_The_Life_Cycle_of_HIV)",... |
- State the median incubation period for AIDS and, in terms of viral load, exhaustion of the lymphopoietic system, and immune responses, briefly describe what marks the progression to AIDS. Briefly describe the following:
- a. early or acute HIV infection
- b. chronic HIV infection
#### c. AIDS
According to WHO est... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"Header 3": "[10.6D: Natural History of a Typical HIV Infection](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_4%3A_Eukaryotic_Microorganisms_and_Viruses/10%3A_Viruses/10.06%3A_Animal_Virus_Life_Cycles%3A_An_Overview/10.6D%3A_Nat... |
Describe how certain viruses may contribute to the development of tumors by altering proto-oncogenes or tumor-suppressor genes. Name 3 viruses that have been implicated in human cancers.
Some viruses can also play a role in converting normal host cells into tumor cells. These viruses are capable of viral transformati... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"Header 3": "[10.6E: The Role of Viruses in Tumor Production](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_4%3A_Eukaryotic_Microorganisms_and_Viruses/10%3A_Viruses/10.06%3A_Animal_Virus_Life_Cycles%3A_An_Overview/10.6E%3A_The_Ro... |
#### Name the 2 types of bacteriophage life cycles and state what the bacteriophage capable of each is called.
[As mentioned in an earlier section, bacteriophages are viruses that only infect bacteria \(also see](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit4/viruses/u2fig2e.html) [Figure C](http://faculty.c... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"Header 3": "[10.7: Bacteriophage Life Cycles: An Overview](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_4%3A_Eukaryotic_Microorganisms_and_Viruses/10%3A_Viruses/10.07%3A_Bacteriophage_Life_Cycles%3A_An_Overview)",
"token_coun... |
#### Learning Objectives
- 1. Describe the steps involved in the lytic life cycle of bacteriophages.
- 2. Define the following:
- a. lytic bacteriophage
- b. eclipse period
[As mentioned in](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit4/viruses/u2fig2e.html) an earlier section, bacteriophages are viruses ... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"Header 3": "[10.7A: The Lytic Life Cycle of Bacteriophages](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_4%3A_Eukaryotic_Microorganisms_and_Viruses/10%3A_Viruses/10.07%3A_Bacteriophage_Life_Cycles%3A_An_Overview/10.7A%3A_The_Ly... |
Describe the lysogenic life cycle of temperate phages (including spontaneous induction).
- Define the following:
- a. temperate phage
- b. lysogen
- c. prophage
Bacteriophages capable of a lysogenic life cycle are termed temperate bacteriophages. When a temperate bacteriophage infects a bacterium, it can either rep... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"Header 3": "[10.7B: The Lysogenic Life Cycle of Bacteriophages](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_4%3A_Eukaryotic_Microorganisms_and_Viruses/10%3A_Viruses/10.07%3A_Bacteriophage_Life_Cycles%3A_An_Overview/10.7B%3A_Th... |
Briefly describe at least 4 ways viruses can damage infected host cells. Briefly describe at least 3 different ways viruses can evade host immune defenses.
Animal viruses may cause cytopathic effect or CPE that damages infected host cells in a variety of means, including:
- 1. Inhibiting normal host cell DNA, RNA, ... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"Header 3": "[10.8: Pathogenicity of Animal Viruses](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_4%3A_Eukaryotic_Microorganisms_and_Viruses/10%3A_Viruses/10.08%3A_Pathogenicity_of_Animal_Viruses)",
"token_count": 1978,
"sou... |
10.8.5
- Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) down regulates several host pr[oteins involved in atta](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit4/viruses/u3fg2c_nopeptide.html)ching viral epitopes to MHC-I molecules and displaying them on the host cell's surface (see Figure D). 10.8.5
- Adenoviruses and Epstein-Barr Vi... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"Header 3": "[10.8: Pathogenicity of Animal Viruses](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_4%3A_Eukaryotic_Microorganisms_and_Viruses/10%3A_Viruses/10.08%3A_Pathogenicity_of_Animal_Viruses)",
"token_count": 1750,
"sou... |
#### Learning Objectives
1. Describe the process of lysogenic conversion and give two examples of exotoxins that result from lysogenic conversion.
- 1. Lytic bacteriophages usually cause the host bacterium to lyse ([see Figure \)](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit4/viruses/t4dil1a.html). 10.9.1... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"Header 3": "[10.9: Bacteriophage-Induced Alterations of Bacteria](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_4%3A_Eukaryotic_Microorganisms_and_Viruses/10%3A_Viruses/10.09%3A_Bacteriophage-Induced_Alterations_of_Bacteria)",
... |
#### Learning Objectives
1. State why antibiotics are of no use against viruses and what we must rely on to control viruses.
2. State the viruses the following antiviral agents are used against:
- a. amantadine, rimantidine, zanamivar, and oseltamivir
- b. acyclovir, famciclovir, penciclovir, and valacyclovir
- c... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"Header 3": "[10.10: Antiviral Agents](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_4%3A_Eukaryotic_Microorganisms_and_Viruses/10%3A_Viruses/10.10%3A_Antiviral_Agents)",
"token_count": 1981,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websource... |
|
| Antiviral | Brand Name | Use ... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"Header 3": "[10.10: Antiviral Agents](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_4%3A_Eukaryotic_Microorganisms_and_Viruses/10%3A_Viruses/10.10%3A_Antiviral_Agents)",
"token_count": 2000,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websource... |
The HIV protease then cleaves the gag polyprotein into capsid protein p17, matrix protein p24, and nucleocapsid protein p7, as well as proteins p6, p2, and p1 whose functions are not yet fully understood [\(see Figs. 4A](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit4/viruses/pase1.html), [4B](http://faculty.cc... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"Header 3": "[10.10: Antiviral Agents](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_4%3A_Eukaryotic_Microorganisms_and_Viruses/10%3A_Viruses/10.10%3A_Antiviral_Agents)",
"token_count": 732,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources... |
EIs are agents interfering with the entry of HIV-1 into cells. During the adsorption and penetration stages of the life cycle of HIV, a portion or domain of the HIV surface glycoprotein gp120 binds to a CD4 molecule on the host cell. This induces a change in shape that brings the chemokine receptor binding domains of t... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"Header 3": "Entry Inhibitors (EIs)",
"token_count": 1546,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Full.pdf"
} |
Describe and give an example of an acute viral infection, a late complication following an acute infection, a latent viral infection, a chronic viral infection, and a slow viral infection.
Most viruses that infect humans, such as those that cause routine respiratory infections (e.g., cold viruses, influenza viruses) ... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"Header 3": "[10.11: General Categories of Viral Infections](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_4%3A_Eukaryotic_Microorganisms_and_Viruses/10%3A_Viruses/10.11%3A_General_Categories_of_Viral_Infections)",
"token_count... |
Compare adaptive (acquired) immunity with innate immunity. Compare immediate innate immunity with early induced innate immunity. Define the following: a. pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) b. pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs) c. antigen d. immunogen e. epitope.
In Units 1-4 we looked at microorganisms:... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[11.1: The Innate Immune System: An Overview](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_5%3A_Innate_Immunity/11.1%3A_The_Innate_Immune_System%3A_An_Overview)",
"token_count... |
Adaptive immunity usually improves upon repeated exposure to a given infection and involves the following:
- antigen-presenting cells (APCs) such as macrophages and dendritic cells ;
- the activation and proliferation of antigen-specific B-lymphocytes ;
- the activation and proliferation of antigen-specific T-lymph... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[11.1: The Innate Immune System: An Overview](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_5%3A_Innate_Immunity/11.1%3A_The_Innate_Immune_System%3A_An_Overview)",
"token_count... |
- 1. The body has two immune systems: the innate immune system and the adaptive immune system.
- 2. Innate immunity is an antigen-nonspecific defense mechanisms that a host uses immediately or within several hours after exposure to almost any microbe.
- 3. Innate immunity is the immunity one is born with and is the ini... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "Summary",
"token_count": 472,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Full.pdf"
} |
| State what each of the following determine: CBC and leukocyte differential count.<br>State the significance of the following: | |
|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--|
| a. an elevated white blood cell count ... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[11.2: Defense Cells in the Blood: The Leukocytes](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_5%3A_Innate_Immunity/11.2%3A_Defense_Cells_in_the_Blood%3A_The_Leukocytes)",
"t... |
Macrophages and dendritic cells are very important in phagocytosis and serve as antigen-presenting cells in the 3
adaptive immune responses (see below). They produce a variety of cytokines that play numerous roles in body defense. They are long-lived (l... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[11.2: Defense Cells in the Blood: The Leukocytes](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_5%3A_Innate_Immunity/11.2%3A_Defense_Cells_in_the_Blood%3A_The_Leukocytes)",
"t... |
#### Learning Objectives
- 1. State 3 different functions of macrophages in body defense.
- 2. State the primary function of dendritic cells in body defense.
- 3. Name the cells in the tissue whose primary function is to present antigen to naive T-lymphocytes.
- 4. Name the cells in the tissue whose primary function ... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[11.3: Defense Cells in the Tissue - Dendritic Cells, Macrophages, and Mast Cells](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_5%3A_Innate_Immunity/11.3%3A_Defense_Cells_in_the... |
a cytokine that can activate natural killer T-lymphocytes (NKT cells). 11.3.4
Figure : Production of Co-stimulatory Molecules by Antgen-Presenting Cells (APCs). Antigen-presenting cells such as dendritic cells and macrophages can produce both MHC-I and MH... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[11.3: Defense Cells in the Tissue - Dendritic Cells, Macrophages, and Mast Cells](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_5%3A_Innate_Immunity/11.3%3A_Defense_Cells_in_the... |
11.3.4
Another type of dendritic cell, the plasmacytoid dendritic cell, uses its TLRs to recognize viral PAMPs. This interaction results in the production and secretion of type I interferons. Antigen-presenting cells or APCs will be discussed in greater detail in Unit 6.
#### Macrophages
When monocytes leave the ... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[11.3: Defense Cells in the Tissue - Dendritic Cells, Macrophages, and Mast Cells](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_5%3A_Innate_Immunity/11.3%3A_Defense_Cells_in_the... |
State how long it takes for immediate innate immunity to become activated and what it involves. State the function of the following antimicrobial enzymes and peptides:
- a. lysozyme
- b. phospholipase A
- c. defensins
- d. cathelicidins
- e. lactotransferrin and transferrin
#### Examples include:
a. Lysozyme , fo... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[11.3A: Antimicrobial Enzymes and Antimicrobial Peptides](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_5%3A_Innate_Immunity/11.3%3A_Immediate_Innate_Immunity/11.3A%3A_Antimicrob... |
| Briefly describe how the classical complement pathway is activated.<br>Briefly describe the beneficial effects of the following complement pathway products: | |
|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[11.3B: The Complement System](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_5%3A_Innate_Immunity/11.3%3A_Immediate_Innate_Immunity/11.3B%3A_The_Complement_System)",
"token_cou... |
- 4. Cause lysis of Gram-negative bacteria, human cells displaying foreign epitopes,and viral envelopes,
- 5. Play a role in the activation of naive B-lymphocytes during adaptive immunity, and
- 6. Remove harmful immune complexes from the body.
We will now look at each of these complement pathways and see how they fu... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[11.3B: The Complement System](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_5%3A_Innate_Immunity/11.3%3A_Immediate_Innate_Immunity/11.3B%3A_The_Complement_System)",
"token_cou... |
These include:
1. Triggering inflammation: C5a is the most potent complement protein triggering inflammation. It reacts with blood vessels causing vasodilation. It also causes mast cells to release vasodilators such as histamine,increasing blood vessel permeability as well as increasing the expression of adhesion mol... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[11.3B: The Complement System](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_5%3A_Innate_Immunity/11.3%3A_Immediate_Innate_Immunity/11.3B%3A_The_Complement_System)",
"token_cou... |
C4b and C2a combine to for[m C4b2a, the C3 conv](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit5/innate/activation%20of%20lectin%20pathway%20C3.html)ertase. C3 convertase can now cleave hundreds of molecules of C3 into C3a and C3b (see Figure ). 11.3B. 11
d. Some molecules o[f ... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[11.3B: The Complement System](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_5%3A_Innate_Immunity/11.3%3A_Immediate_Innate_Immunity/11.3B%3A_The_Complement_System)",
"token_cou... |
[html5 version of animation for iPad showing the role of C5a in vasodilation, the chemotaxis of phagocytes towards C5a,](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit5/innate/comp_benefits.swf.html) and their attachment to the opsonin C3b as a result of the complement pathways.
![](_page_370_Picture_19.jpe... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[11.3B: The Complement System](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_5%3A_Innate_Immunity/11.3%3A_Immediate_Innate_Immunity/11.3B%3A_The_Complement_System)",
"token_cou... |
Describe what is meant by anatomical barriers to infection.
- List 4 ways in which the body can physically remove microorganisms or their products.
- Briefly describe how intraepithelial T-lymphocytes and B-1 cells play a role in innate immunity.
Describe how bacterial antagonism by normal microbiota acts as a non-... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[11.3C: Anatomical Barriers to Infection, Mechanical Removal of Microbes, and](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_5%3A_Innate_Immunity/11.3%3A_Immediate_Innate_Immunit... |
Figure : Pathogen-Associated Molecular Patterns Binding to Pattern-Recognition Receptors on Defense Cells. Glycoprotein molecules known as pattern-recognition receptors are found on the surface of a variety of body defense cells. They are so named because they recognize and bind to patho... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[11.4: Early Induced Innate Immunity](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_5%3A_Innate_Immunity/11.4%3A_Early_Induced_Innate_Immunity)",
"token_count": 1501,
"source... |
State how long it takes for early induced innate immunity to become activated and what it involves. State what is meant by pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), and the role PAMPs play in inducing innate immunity.
- Name at least 5 PAMPS associated with bacteria.
- Name at least 2 PAMPS associated with viru... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[11.3A: Pathogen-Associated Molecular Patterns \\(PAMPs\\) and Danger-Associated](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_5%3A_Innate_Immunity/11.4%3A_Early_Induced_Innate_... |
State the function of the following as they relate to innate immunity.
- a. pattern recognition receptors (PRRs)
- b. endocytic pattern recognition receptors
- c. signaling pattern recognition receptors
- d. danger-associated molecular patterns
- e. danger recognition receptors
- f. inflammasome
#### g. pyroptosis ... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[11.3B: Pattern-Recognition Receptors \\(PRRs\\)](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_5%3A_Innate_Immunity/11.4%3A_Early_Induced_Innate_Immunity/11.3B%3A_Pattern-Recogn... |
TLR-1/TLR-2 pairs - binds to bacterial lipopeptides, lipomannans (mycobacteria) lipoteichoic acids (Grampositive bacteria), cell wall beta gucans (bacteria and fungi), zymosan (fungi) and glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored proteins (protozoa).
e. TLR-2/TL6 pairs - also binds to bacterial lipopeptides, lipoma... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[11.3B: Pattern-Recognition Receptors \\(PRRs\\)](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_5%3A_Innate_Immunity/11.4%3A_Early_Induced_Innate_Immunity/11.3B%3A_Pattern-Recogn... |
CARD-containing proteins
CARD (caspase activating and recruitment domain)-containing proteins, such as RIG-1 (retinoic acid-inducible gene-1) and MDA-5 (melanoma differentiation-associated gene-5), are cytoplasmic sensors of viral RNA molecules that trigger the synthesis of type-1 interferons, antiviral cytokines tha... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[11.3B: Pattern-Recognition Receptors \\(PRRs\\)](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_5%3A_Innate_Immunity/11.4%3A_Early_Induced_Innate_Immunity/11.3B%3A_Pattern-Recogn... |
- Learning Objectives
- 1. Describe the following:
- a. cytokines
- b. chemokines
- c. interferons
- 2. State what is meant by the phrase "Cytokines are pleiotropic, redundant, and multifunctional."
- 3. Name the two cytokines that are most important in stimulating acute inflammation.
- 4. Describe specifically how typ... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[11.3C: Cytokines Important in Innate Immunity](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_5%3A_Innate_Immunity/11.4%3A_Early_Induced_Innate_Immunity/11.3C%3A_Cytokines_Import... |
[Flash animation showing toll-like receptors \(TLRs\) recognizing viral double-stranded RNA.](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit5/innate/tlrviralanim.html)
[html5 version of animation for iPad showing toll-like receptors \(TLRs\) recognizing viral double-stranded RNA.](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[11.3C: Cytokines Important in Innate Immunity](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_5%3A_Innate_Immunity/11.4%3A_Early_Induced_Innate_Immunity/11.3C%3A_Cytokines_Import... |
Describe how an overactive TLR-4 receptor can increase the risk of SIRS in a person if Gram-negative bacteria enter the bloodstream. Briefly describe two specific examples of how an improper functioning PRR can lead to an increased risk of a specific infection or disease.
#### The Ability of Pathogen-Associated Molec... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[11.3D: Harmful Effects Associated with Abnormal Pattern-Recognition Receptor](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_5%3A_Innate_Immunity/11.4%3A_Early_Induced_Innate_Imm... |
People born with underactive PRRs or deficient PRR immune signaling pathways are at increased risk of infection by specific pathogens due to a decrease innate immune response.
- 3. People born with overactive PRRs or deficient PRR immune signaling pathways are at increased risk of inflammatory damage by lower numbers o... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[11.3D: Harmful Effects Associated with Abnormal Pattern-Recognition Receptor](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_5%3A_Innate_Immunity/11.4%3A_Early_Induced_Innate_Imm... |
Briefly describe the role of the following as they relate to phagocytosis:
- a. inflammation
- b. lymph nodules
- c. lymph nodes
- d. spleen
- Describe the following steps in phagocytosis:
- a. activation
- b. chemotaxis
- c. attachment (both unenhanced and enhanced)
- d. ingestion
- e. destruction
- State what happe... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[11.3E: Phagocytosis](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_5%3A_Innate_Immunity/11.4%3A_Early_Induced_Innate_Immunity/11.3E%3A_Phagocytosis)",
"token_count": 2015,
"... |
These neutrophil extracellular traps
[\(NETs\) bind to ba](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit5/innate/neutNET_illus.html)cteria, prevent them from spreading, and kill them with antimicrobial proteins [\(see Figure](http://faculty.ccb... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[11.3E: Phagocytosis](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_5%3A_Innate_Immunity/11.4%3A_Early_Induced_Innate_Immunity/11.3E%3A_Phagocytosis)",
"token_count": 1876,
"... |
+
[Flash animation showing acidification of the phagosome following ingestion.](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit5/innate/acidification_phagosome.html)
[html5 version of animation for iPad showing acidification of the phagosome following ingestion.](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecg... | {
"Header 1": "**Viral Release from the Host Cell**",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[11.3E: Phagocytosis](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_5%3A_Innate_Immunity/11.4%3A_Early_Induced_Innate_Immunity/11.3E%3A_Phagocytosis)",
"token_count": 694,
"s... |
Phagocytes contain membranous sacs called lysosomes produced by the Golgi apparatus that contain various digestive enzymes, microbicidal chemicals, and toxic oxygen radicals. The lysosomes travel alon[g microtubules within](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit5/innate/u1fig26h.html) the phagocyte and ... | {
"Header 1": "Step 5: Destruction of the Microbe or Cell",
"token_count": 2041,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Full.pdf"
} |
The oxygen-dependent system: production of reactive oxygen species (ROS)
The cytoplasmic membrane of phagocytes contains the enzyme oxidase which converts oxygen into superoxide anion (O ). This can combine with water by way of the enzyme dismutase to form hydrogen peroxide (H O ) and hydroxyl (OH) radicals. 2- 2 2 ... | {
"Header 1": "Step 5: Destruction of the Microbe or Cell",
"token_count": 1853,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Full.pdf"
} |
Describe how NK cells are able to recognize and kill infected cells and cancer cells lacking MHC-I molecules.
- State two factors that can result in a nucleated human cell not producing MHC-I molecules.
- State how iNKT cells recognize glycolipids in order to become activated.
- Describe the overall function of iNKT ... | {
"Header 1": "Step 5: Destruction of the Microbe or Cell",
"Header 3": "[11.3F: Natural Killer Cells \\(NK Cells\\) and Invariant Natural Killer T-Lymphocytes](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_5%3A_Innate_Immunity/11.4%3A_Early_Induced_Innate_Immunity/11.3F%3A_Natural_... |
It has been proposed that microbes the human body has been
traditionally exposed to from early childhood throughout most of human history might play a role in developing normal iNKT cell numbers and iNKT cell responses.
iNKT cells will be discussed in... | {
"Header 1": "Step 5: Destruction of the Microbe or Cell",
"Header 3": "[11.3F: Natural Killer Cells \\(NK Cells\\) and Invariant Natural Killer T-Lymphocytes](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_5%3A_Innate_Immunity/11.4%3A_Early_Induced_Innate_Immunity/11.3F%3A_Natural_... |
- Describe the 4 processes that make up the inflammatory mechanism.
- Briefly describe the various beneficial effects of inflammation that are associated with plasma leakage and with diapedesis.
- Briefly describe the process of diapedesis, indicating the role of P-selectins, integrins, and adhesion
- molecules. Briefl... | {
"Header 1": "Step 5: Destruction of the Microbe or Cell",
"Header 3": "[11.3G: Inflammation](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_5%3A_Innate_Immunity/11.4%3A_Early_Induced_Innate_Immunity/11.3G%3A_Inflammation)",
"token_count": 1980,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websource... |
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