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Angular momentum coupling | In quantum mechanics, angular momentum coupling is the procedure of constructing eigenstates of total angular momentum out of eigenstates of separate angular momenta. For instance, the orbit and spin of a single particle can interact through spin–orbit interaction, in which case the complete physical picture must incl... | 0.77918 | 0.982739 | 0.76573 |
Ariadne's thread (logic) | Ariadne's thread, named for the legend of Ariadne, is solving a problem which has multiple apparent ways to proceed—such as a physical maze, a logic puzzle, or an ethical dilemma—through an exhaustive application of logic to all available routes. It is the particular method used that is able to follow completely throug... | 0.771591 | 0.992401 | 0.765728 |
Van Allen radiation belt | The Van Allen radiation belt is a zone of energetic charged particles, most of which originate from the solar wind, that are captured by and held around a planet by that planet's magnetosphere. Earth has two such belts, and sometimes others may be temporarily created. The belts are named after James Van Allen, who publ... | 0.76586 | 0.99982 | 0.765723 |
Geoid | The geoid is the shape that the ocean surface would take under the influence of the gravity of Earth, including gravitational attraction and Earth's rotation, if other influences such as winds and tides were absent. This surface is extended through the continents (such as might be approximated with very narrow hypothet... | 0.768807 | 0.995961 | 0.765702 |
Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics | In statistical mechanics, Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics describes the distribution of classical material particles over various energy states in thermal equilibrium. It is applicable when the temperature is high enough or the particle density is low enough to render quantum effects negligible.
The expected number of pa... | 0.772758 | 0.990867 | 0.765701 |
Rayleigh–Jeans law | In physics, the Rayleigh–Jeans law is an approximation to the spectral radiance of electromagnetic radiation as a function of wavelength from a black body at a given temperature through classical arguments. For wavelength λ, it is
where is the spectral radiance (the power emitted per unit emitting area, per steradian... | 0.769981 | 0.994436 | 0.765697 |
Convective available potential energy | In meteorology, convective available potential energy (commonly abbreviated as CAPE), is a measure of the capacity of the atmosphere to support upward air movement that can lead to cloud formation and storms. Some atmospheric conditions, such as very warm, moist, air in an atmosphere that cools rapidly with height, can... | 0.775436 | 0.987396 | 0.765662 |
Electric current | An electric current is a flow of charged particles, such as electrons or ions, moving through an electrical conductor or space. It is defined as the net rate of flow of electric charge through a surface. The moving particles are called charge carriers, which may be one of several types of particles, depending on the co... | 0.765935 | 0.999614 | 0.76564 |
Collision | In physics, a collision is any event in which two or more bodies exert forces on each other in a relatively short time. Although the most common use of the word collision refers to incidents in which two or more objects collide with great force, the scientific use of the term implies nothing about the magnitude of the ... | 0.771826 | 0.991953 | 0.765615 |
Avrami equation | The Avrami equation describes how solids transform from one phase to another at constant temperature. It can specifically describe the kinetics of crystallisation, can be applied generally to other changes of phase in materials, like chemical reaction rates, and can even be meaningful in analyses of ecological systems... | 0.780204 | 0.981283 | 0.765601 |
Artificial gravity | Artificial gravity is the creation of an inertial force that mimics the effects of a gravitational force, usually by rotation.
Artificial gravity, or rotational gravity, is thus the appearance of a centrifugal force in a rotating frame of reference (the transmission of centripetal acceleration via normal force in the ... | 0.768849 | 0.995773 | 0.765599 |
Laser cooling | Laser cooling includes several techniques where atoms, molecules, and small mechanical systems are cooled with laser light. The directed energy of lasers is often associated with heating materials, e.g. laser cutting, so it can be counterintuitive that laser cooling often results in sample temperatures approaching abs... | 0.771512 | 0.992332 | 0.765596 |
History of gravitational theory | In physics, theories of gravitation postulate mechanisms of interaction governing the movements of bodies with mass. There have been numerous theories of gravitation since ancient times. The first extant sources discussing such theories are found in ancient Greek philosophy. This work was furthered through the Middle A... | 0.770039 | 0.994221 | 0.765589 |
Day length fluctuations | The length of the day (LOD), which has increased over the long term of Earth's history due to tidal effects, is also subject to fluctuations on a shorter scale of time. Exact measurements of time by atomic clocks and satellite laser ranging have revealed that the LOD is subject to a number of different changes. These s... | 0.780514 | 0.980877 | 0.765588 |
Exploratory data analysis | In statistics, exploratory data analysis (EDA) is an approach of analyzing data sets to summarize their main characteristics, often using statistical graphics and other data visualization methods. A statistical model can be used or not, but primarily EDA is for seeing what the data can tell us beyond the formal modelin... | 0.768661 | 0.995991 | 0.765579 |
Popular Mechanics | Popular Mechanics (often abbreviated as PM or PopMech) is a magazine of popular science and technology, featuring automotive, home, outdoor, electronics, science, do it yourself, and technology topics. Military topics, aviation and transportation of all types, space, tools and gadgets are commonly featured.
It was fou... | 0.771336 | 0.992518 | 0.765565 |
Speed | In kinematics, the speed (commonly referred to as v) of an object is the magnitude of the change of its position over time or the magnitude of the change of its position per unit of time; it is thus a non-negative scalar quantity. The average speed of an object in an interval of time is the distance travelled by the ob... | 0.767443 | 0.997529 | 0.765547 |
Recoil | Recoil (often called knockback, kickback or simply kick) is the rearward thrust generated when a gun is being discharged. In technical terms, the recoil is a result of conservation of momentum, as according to Newton's third law the force required to accelerate something will evoke an equal but opposite reactional for... | 0.771909 | 0.991749 | 0.76554 |
SHELL model | In aviation, the SHELL model (also known as the SHEL model) is a conceptual model of human factors that helps to clarify the location and cause of human error within an aviation environment.
It is named after the initial letters of its components (Software, Hardware, Environment, Liveware) and places emphasis on the h... | 0.774413 | 0.988522 | 0.765524 |
Longitudinal wave | Longitudinal waves are waves in which the vibration of the medium is parallel to the direction the wave travels and displacement of the medium is in the same (or opposite) direction of the wave propagation. Mechanical longitudinal waves are also called compressional or compression waves, because they produce compressio... | 0.769321 | 0.995047 | 0.765511 |
Thermodynamic state | In thermodynamics, a thermodynamic state of a system is its condition at a specific time; that is, fully identified by values of a suitable set of parameters known as state variables, state parameters or thermodynamic variables. Once such a set of values of thermodynamic variables has been specified for a system, the v... | 0.781188 | 0.979927 | 0.765507 |
Path integral formulation | The path integral formulation is a description in quantum mechanics that generalizes the stationary action principle of classical mechanics. It replaces the classical notion of a single, unique classical trajectory for a system with a sum, or functional integral, over an infinity of quantum-mechanically possible traje... | 0.767852 | 0.99694 | 0.765502 |
Microevolution | Microevolution is the change in allele frequencies that occurs over time within a population. This change is due to four different processes: mutation, selection (natural and artificial), gene flow and genetic drift. This change happens over a relatively short (in evolutionary terms) amount of time compared to the chan... | 0.776255 | 0.98612 | 0.76548 |
Invariant mass | The invariant mass, rest mass, intrinsic mass, proper mass, or in the case of bound systems simply mass, is the portion of the total mass of an object or system of objects that is independent of the overall motion of the system. More precisely, it is a characteristic of the system's total energy and momentum that is th... | 0.772701 | 0.990652 | 0.765478 |
Rayleigh–Taylor instability | The Rayleigh–Taylor instability, or RT instability (after Lord Rayleigh and G. I. Taylor), is an instability of an interface between two fluids of different densities which occurs when the lighter fluid is pushing the heavier fluid. Examples include the behavior of water suspended above oil in the gravity of Earth, mus... | 0.771492 | 0.992204 | 0.765477 |
Centrifugal governor | A centrifugal governor is a specific type of governor with a feedback system that controls the speed of an engine by regulating the flow of fuel or working fluid, so as to maintain a near-constant speed. It uses the principle of proportional control.
Centrifugal governors, also known as "centrifugal regulators" and "f... | 0.771832 | 0.991766 | 0.765477 |
On shell and off shell | In physics, particularly in quantum field theory, configurations of a physical system that satisfy classical equations of motion are called on the mass shell (on shell); while those that do not are called off the mass shell (off shell).
In quantum field theory, virtual particles are termed off shell because they do no... | 0.778512 | 0.983248 | 0.76547 |
Length contraction | Length contraction is the phenomenon that a moving object's length is measured to be shorter than its proper length, which is the length as measured in the object's own rest frame. It is also known as Lorentz contraction or Lorentz–FitzGerald contraction (after Hendrik Lorentz and George Francis FitzGerald) and is usua... | 0.769323 | 0.994984 | 0.765465 |
Homogeneity and heterogeneity | Homogeneity and heterogeneity are concepts relating to the uniformity of a substance, process or image. A homogeneous feature is uniform in composition or character (i.e. color, shape, size, weight, height, distribution, texture, language, income, disease, temperature, radioactivity, architectural design, etc.); one th... | 0.769475 | 0.994774 | 0.765454 |
Scalar potential | In mathematical physics, scalar potential describes the situation where the difference in the potential energies of an object in two different positions depends only on the positions, not upon the path taken by the object in traveling from one position to the other. It is a scalar field in three-space: a directionles... | 0.776217 | 0.986074 | 0.765407 |
Synchrotron radiation | Synchrotron radiation (also known as magnetobremsstrahlung radiation) is the electromagnetic radiation emitted when relativistic charged particles are subject to an acceleration perpendicular to their velocity. It is produced artificially in some types of particle accelerators or naturally by fast electrons moving thro... | 0.770622 | 0.993219 | 0.765396 |
Fluid mechanics | Fluid mechanics is the branch of physics concerned with the mechanics of fluids (liquids, gases, and plasmas) and the forces on them.
It has applications in a wide range of disciplines, including mechanical, aerospace, civil, chemical, and biomedical engineering, as well as geophysics, oceanography, meteorology, astrop... | 0.767462 | 0.997298 | 0.765388 |
Non-exercise activity thermogenesis | Non-exercise activity thermogenesis, also known as non-exercise physical activity (NEPA), is energy expenditure during activities that are not part of a structured exercise program. NEAT includes physical activity at the workplace, hobbies, standing instead of sitting, walking around, climbing stairs, doing chores, and... | 0.781632 | 0.979211 | 0.765383 |
Facilitated diffusion | Facilitated diffusion (also known as facilitated transport or passive-mediated transport) is the process of spontaneous passive transport (as opposed to active transport) of molecules or ions across a biological membrane via specific transmembrane integral proteins. Being passive, facilitated transport does not directl... | 0.768682 | 0.995702 | 0.765378 |
Chemical kinetics | Chemical kinetics, also known as reaction kinetics, is the branch of physical chemistry that is concerned with understanding the rates of chemical reactions. It is different from chemical thermodynamics, which deals with the direction in which a reaction occurs but in itself tells nothing about its rate. Chemical kinet... | 0.76941 | 0.994699 | 0.765331 |
Astrophysics for People in a Hurry | Astrophysics for People in a Hurry is a 2017 popular science book by Neil deGrasse Tyson, centering around a number of basic questions about the universe. Published on May 2, 2017, by W. W. Norton & Company, the book is a collection of Tyson's essays that appeared in Natural History magazine at various times from 1997 ... | 0.781648 | 0.979113 | 0.765322 |
Boltzmann distribution | In statistical mechanics and mathematics, a Boltzmann distribution (also called Gibbs distribution) is a probability distribution or probability measure that gives the probability that a system will be in a certain state as a function of that state's energy and the temperature of the system. The distribution is express... | 0.767186 | 0.997565 | 0.765318 |
Mass in special relativity | The word "mass" has two meanings in special relativity: invariant mass (also called rest mass) is an invariant quantity which is the same for all observers in all reference frames, while the relativistic mass is dependent on the velocity of the observer. According to the concept of mass–energy equivalence, invariant ma... | 0.770734 | 0.992951 | 0.765301 |
Quasistatic process | In thermodynamics, a quasi-static process, also known as a quasi-equilibrium process (from Latin quasi, meaning ‘as if’), is a thermodynamic process that happens slowly enough for the system to remain in internal physical (but not necessarily chemical) thermodynamic equilibrium. An example of this is quasi-static expan... | 0.772834 | 0.990252 | 0.7653 |
Stone–von Neumann theorem | In mathematics and in theoretical physics, the Stone–von Neumann theorem refers to any one of a number of different formulations of the uniqueness of the canonical commutation relations between position and momentum operators. It is named after Marshall Stone and John von Neumann.
Representation issues of the commutat... | 0.778653 | 0.982835 | 0.765287 |
Euler's pump and turbine equation | The Euler pump and turbine equations are the most fundamental equations in the field of turbomachinery. These equations govern the power, efficiencies and other factors that contribute to the design of turbomachines. With the help of these equations the head developed by a pump and the head utilised by a turbine can be... | 0.784456 | 0.975526 | 0.765257 |
Thermodynamic square | The thermodynamic square (also known as the thermodynamic wheel, Guggenheim scheme or Born square) is a mnemonic diagram attributed to Max Born and used to help determine thermodynamic relations. Born presented the thermodynamic square in a 1929 lecture. The symmetry of thermodynamics appears in a paper by F.O. Koenig... | 0.783701 | 0.976462 | 0.765254 |
Statcoulomb | The franklin (Fr), statcoulomb (statC), or electrostatic unit of charge (esu) is the unit of measurement for electrical charge used in the centimetre–gram–second electrostatic units variant (CGS-ESU) and Gaussian systems of units. It is a derived unit given by
That is, it is defined so that the CGS-ESU quantity that t... | 0.776703 | 0.985253 | 0.765248 |
Anthropogenic cloud | A homogenitus, anthropogenic or artificial cloud is a cloud induced by human activity. Although most clouds covering the sky have a purely natural origin, since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the use of fossil fuels and water vapor and other gases emitted by nuclear, thermal and geothermal power plants yie... | 0.783555 | 0.976634 | 0.765246 |
Power transmission | Power transmission is the movement of energy from its place of generation to a location where it is applied to perform useful work.
Power is defined formally as units of energy per unit time. In SI units:
Since the development of technology, transmission and storage systems have been of immense interest to technologi... | 0.782426 | 0.978019 | 0.765227 |
Vacuum permittivity | Vacuum permittivity, commonly denoted (pronounced "epsilon nought" or "epsilon zero"), is the value of the absolute dielectric permittivity of classical vacuum. It may also be referred to as the permittivity of free space, the electric constant, or the distributed capacitance of the vacuum. It is an ideal (baseline) p... | 0.766001 | 0.998974 | 0.765215 |
Mean squared displacement | In statistical mechanics, the mean squared displacement (MSD, also mean square displacement, average squared displacement, or mean square fluctuation) is a measure of the deviation of the position of a particle with respect to a reference position over time. It is the most common measure of the spatial extent of random... | 0.771799 | 0.991408 | 0.765168 |
Electrodynamic tether | Electrodynamic tethers (EDTs) are long conducting wires, such as one deployed from a tether satellite, which can operate on electromagnetic principles as generators, by converting their kinetic energy to electrical energy, or as motors, converting electrical energy to kinetic energy. Electric potential is generated acr... | 0.783084 | 0.97711 | 0.765159 |
Cognitive inertia | Cognitive inertia is the tendency for a particular orientation in how an individual thinks about an issue, belief, or strategy to resist change. Clinical and neuroscientific literature often defines it as a lack of motivation to generate distinct cognitive processes needed to attend to a problem or issue. The physics t... | 0.787653 | 0.971426 | 0.765147 |
Magnetomotive force | In physics, the magnetomotive force (abbreviated mmf or MMF, symbol ) is a quantity appearing in the equation for the magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit, Hopkinson's law. It is the property of certain substances or phenomena that give rise to magnetic fields:
where is the magnetic flux and is the reluctance of the ... | 0.774881 | 0.987404 | 0.765121 |
Mie scattering | In electromagnetism, the Mie solution to Maxwell's equations (also known as the Lorenz–Mie solution, the Lorenz–Mie–Debye solution or Mie scattering) describes the scattering of an electromagnetic plane wave by a homogeneous sphere. The solution takes the form of an infinite series of spherical multipole partial waves.... | 0.768837 | 0.995162 | 0.765118 |
Cherenkov radiation | Cherenkov radiation (also known as Čerenkov radiation) is electromagnetic radiation emitted when a charged particle (such as an electron) passes through a dielectric medium (such as distilled water) at a speed greater than the phase velocity (speed of propagation of a wavefront in a medium) of light in that medium. A ... | 0.766018 | 0.998817 | 0.765112 |
Alice in Wonderland syndrome | Alice in Wonderland Syndrome (AIWS), also known as Todd's Syndrome or Dysmetropsia, is a neurological disorder that distorts perception. People with this syndrome may experience distortions in their visual perception of objects, such as appearing smaller (micropsia) or larger (macropsia), or appearing to be closer (pel... | 0.76577 | 0.99914 | 0.765111 |
Kutta–Joukowski theorem | The Kutta–Joukowski theorem is a fundamental theorem in aerodynamics used for the calculation of lift of an airfoil (and any two-dimensional body including circular cylinders) translating in a uniform fluid at a constant speed so large that the flow seen in the body-fixed frame is steady and unseparated. The theorem re... | 0.773918 | 0.988612 | 0.765105 |
Hamilton's principle | In physics, Hamilton's principle is William Rowan Hamilton's formulation of the principle of stationary action. It states that the dynamics of a physical system are determined by a variational problem for a functional based on a single function, the Lagrangian, which may contain all physical information concerning the ... | 0.773133 | 0.989601 | 0.765094 |
Gravity | In physics, gravity is a fundamental interaction primarily observed as mutual attraction between all things that have mass. Gravity is, by far, the weakest of the four fundamental interactions, approximately 1038 times weaker than the strong interaction, 1036 times weaker than the electromagnetic force and 1029 times w... | 0.765379 | 0.999622 | 0.765089 |
The three Rs | The three Rs are three basic skills taught in schools: reading, writing and arithmetic (the "R's", pronounced in the English alphabet "ARs", refer to "Reading, wRiting (where the W is unnecessary), and ARithmetic"). The phrase appears to have been coined at the beginning of the 19th century.
The term has also been use... | 0.771398 | 0.991817 | 0.765086 |
Boltzmann machine | A Boltzmann machine (also called Sherrington–Kirkpatrick model with external field or stochastic Ising model), named after Ludwig Boltzmann is a spin-glass model with an external field, i.e., a Sherrington–Kirkpatrick model, that is a stochastic Ising model. It is a statistical physics technique applied in the context ... | 0.770599 | 0.992839 | 0.765081 |
Reduced mass | In physics, reduced mass is a measure of the effective inertial mass of a system with two or more particles when the particles are interacting with each other. Reduced mass allows the two-body problem to be solved as if it were a one-body problem. Note, however, that the mass determining the gravitational force is not ... | 0.771929 | 0.991122 | 0.765076 |
Darcy–Weisbach equation | In fluid dynamics, the Darcy–Weisbach equation is an empirical equation that relates the head loss, or pressure loss, due to friction along a given length of pipe to the average velocity of the fluid flow for an incompressible fluid. The equation is named after Henry Darcy and Julius Weisbach. Currently, there is no fo... | 0.766679 | 0.997893 | 0.765063 |
Grand potential | The grand potential or Landau potential or Landau free energy is a quantity used in statistical mechanics, especially for irreversible processes in open systems.
The grand potential is the characteristic state function for the grand canonical ensemble.
Definition
Grand potential is defined by
where U is the internal... | 0.781747 | 0.978655 | 0.76506 |
Positive energy theorem | The positive energy theorem (also known as the positive mass theorem) refers to a collection of foundational results in general relativity and differential geometry. Its standard form, broadly speaking, asserts that the gravitational energy of an isolated system is nonnegative, and can only be zero when the system has ... | 0.779932 | 0.980926 | 0.765055 |
Orthogonality | In mathematics, orthogonality is the generalization of the geometric notion of perpendicularity. Whereas perpendicular is typically followed by to when relating two lines to one another (e.g., "line A is perpendicular to line B"), orthogonal is commonly used without to (e.g., "orthogonal lines A and B").
Orthogonalit... | 0.767128 | 0.997234 | 0.765006 |
Kinetic energy penetrator | A kinetic energy penetrator (KEP), also known as long-rod penetrator (LRP), is a type of ammunition designed to penetrate vehicle armour using a flechette-like, high-sectional density projectile. Like a bullet or kinetic energy weapon, this type of ammunition does not contain explosive payloads and uses purely kinetic ... | 0.769223 | 0.994517 | 0.765005 |
Euclidean geometry | Euclidean geometry is a mathematical system attributed to ancient Greek mathematician Euclid, which he described in his textbook on geometry, Elements. Euclid's approach consists in assuming a small set of intuitively appealing axioms (postulates) and deducing many other propositions (theorems) from these. Although man... | 0.766057 | 0.998615 | 0.764996 |
Rarefaction | Rarefaction is the reduction of an item's density, the opposite of compression. Like compression, which can travel in waves (sound waves, for instance), rarefaction waves also exist in nature. A common rarefaction wave is the area of low relative pressure following a shock wave (see picture).
Rarefaction waves expand ... | 0.775538 | 0.986393 | 0.764985 |
Poincaré group | The Poincaré group, named after Henri Poincaré (1905), was first defined by Hermann Minkowski (1908) as the isometry group of Minkowski spacetime. It is a ten-dimensional non-abelian Lie group that is of importance as a model in our understanding of the most basic fundamentals of physics.
Overview
The Poincaré group... | 0.770076 | 0.993368 | 0.764969 |
Luminiferous aether | Luminiferous aether or ether (luminiferous meaning 'light-bearing') was the postulated medium for the propagation of light. It was invoked to explain the ability of the apparently wave-based light to propagate through empty space (a vacuum), something that waves should not be able to do. The assumption of a spatial ple... | 0.767202 | 0.997024 | 0.764919 |
Convection | Convection is single or multiphase fluid flow that occurs spontaneously due to the combined effects of material property heterogeneity and body forces on a fluid, most commonly density and gravity (see buoyancy). When the cause of the convection is unspecified, convection due to the effects of thermal expansion and buo... | 0.766581 | 0.997829 | 0.764916 |
Electromagnetic wave equation | The electromagnetic wave equation is a second-order partial differential equation that describes the propagation of electromagnetic waves through a medium or in a vacuum. It is a three-dimensional form of the wave equation. The homogeneous form of the equation, written in terms of either the electric field or the mag... | 0.769955 | 0.993437 | 0.764901 |
Armature (electrical) | In electrical engineering, the armature is the winding (or set of windings) of an electric machine which carries alternating current. The armature windings conduct AC even on DC machines, due to the commutator action (which periodically reverses current direction) or due to electronic commutation, as in brushless DC mo... | 0.77057 | 0.992624 | 0.764887 |
Euler–Lagrange equation | In the calculus of variations and classical mechanics, the Euler–Lagrange equations are a system of second-order ordinary differential equations whose solutions are stationary points of the given action functional. The equations were discovered in the 1750s by Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler and Italian mathematicia... | 0.766534 | 0.997823 | 0.764866 |
Maggie Aderin-Pocock | Dame Margaret Ebunoluwa Aderin-Pocock (; born 9 March 1968) is a British space scientist and science educator. She is an honorary research associate of University College London's Department of Physics and Astronomy, and has been the chancellor of the University of Leicester since 1 March 2023. Since February 2014, sh... | 0.767406 | 0.996659 | 0.764842 |
Unified field theory | In physics, a unified field theory (UFT) is a type of field theory that allows all that is usually thought of as fundamental forces and elementary particles to be written in terms of a pair of physical and virtual fields. According to modern discoveries in physics, forces are not transmitted directly between interactin... | 0.767528 | 0.996494 | 0.764837 |
Physical cosmology | Physical cosmology is a branch of cosmology concerned with the study of cosmological models. A cosmological model, or simply cosmology, provides a description of the largest-scale structures and dynamics of the universe and allows study of fundamental questions about its origin, structure, evolution, and ultimate fate.... | 0.768853 | 0.994736 | 0.764806 |
Ecological pyramid | An ecological pyramid (also trophic pyramid, Eltonian pyramid, energy pyramid, or sometimes food pyramid) is a graphical representation designed to show the biomass or bioproductivity at each trophic level in an ecosystem.
A pyramid of energy shows how much energy is retained in the form of new biomass from each troph... | 0.767384 | 0.996617 | 0.764788 |
Stopping power (particle radiation) | In nuclear and materials physics, stopping power is the retarding force acting on charged particles, typically alpha and beta particles, due to interaction with matter, resulting in loss of particle kinetic energy.
Stopping power is also interpreted as the rate at which a material absorbs the kinetic energy of a charg... | 0.775162 | 0.986614 | 0.764785 |
Physical paradox | A physical paradox is an apparent contradiction in physical descriptions of the universe. While many physical paradoxes have accepted resolutions, others defy resolution and may indicate flaws in theory. In physics as in all of science, contradictions and paradoxes are generally assumed to be artifacts of error and inc... | 0.786708 | 0.972122 | 0.764775 |
KT (energy) | kT (also written as kBT) is the product of the Boltzmann constant, k (or kB), and the temperature, T. This product is used in physics as a scale factor for energy values in molecular-scale systems (sometimes it is used as a unit of energy), as the rates and frequencies of many processes and phenomena depend not on thei... | 0.770243 | 0.992899 | 0.764773 |
Hypertonia | Hypertonia is a term sometimes used synonymously with spasticity and rigidity in the literature surrounding damage to the central nervous system, namely upper motor neuron lesions. Impaired ability of damaged motor neurons to regulate descending pathways gives rise to disordered spinal reflexes, increased excitability ... | 0.766681 | 0.997501 | 0.764765 |
Spiral Dynamics | Spiral Dynamics (SD) is a model of the evolutionary development of individuals, organizations, and societies. It was initially developed by Don Edward Beck and Christopher Cowan based on the emergent cyclical theory of Clare W. Graves, combined with memetics. A later collaboration between Beck and Ken Wilber produced S... | 0.770273 | 0.992838 | 0.764756 |
Zitterbewegung | In physics, the zitterbewegung (, ) is the theoretical prediction of a rapid oscillatory motion of elementary particles that obey relativistic wave equations. This prediction was first discussed by Gregory Breit in 1928 and later by Erwin Schrödinger in 1930 as a result of analysis of the wave packet solutions of the ... | 0.780331 | 0.979995 | 0.764721 |
Arrhenius equation | In physical chemistry, the Arrhenius equation is a formula for the temperature dependence of reaction rates. The equation was proposed by Svante Arrhenius in 1889, based on the work of Dutch chemist Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff who had noted in 1884 that the van 't Hoff equation for the temperature dependence of equili... | 0.766102 | 0.998176 | 0.764705 |
Orgone | Orgone is a pseudoscientific concept variously described as an esoteric energy or hypothetical universal life force. Originally proposed in the 1930s by Wilhelm Reich, and developed by Reich's student Charles Kelley after Reich's death in 1957, orgone was conceived as the anti-entropic principle of the universe, a crea... | 0.766258 | 0.997971 | 0.764703 |
Cursorial | A cursorial organism is one that is adapted specifically to run. An animal can be considered cursorial if it has the ability to run fast (e.g. cheetah) or if it can keep a constant speed for a long distance (high endurance). "Cursorial" is often used to categorize a certain locomotor mode, which is helpful for biologis... | 0.775344 | 0.986266 | 0.764696 |
Fine-tuned universe | The characterization of the universe as finely tuned intends to explain why the known constants of nature, such as the electron charge, the gravitational constant, and the like, have their measured values rather than some other arbitrary values. According to the "fine-tuned universe" hypothesis, if these constants' val... | 0.767724 | 0.996037 | 0.764681 |
Entropy and life | Research concerning the relationship between the thermodynamic quantity entropy and both the origin and evolution of life began around the turn of the 20th century. In 1910 American historian Henry Adams printed and distributed to university libraries and history professors the small volume A Letter to American Teacher... | 0.77081 | 0.992039 | 0.764674 |
Modern searches for Lorentz violation | Modern searches for Lorentz violation are scientific studies that look for deviations from Lorentz invariance or symmetry, a set of fundamental frameworks that underpin modern science and fundamental physics in particular. These studies try to determine whether violations or exceptions might exist for well-known physi... | 0.788663 | 0.969578 | 0.76467 |
Thermalisation | In physics, thermalisation (or thermalization) is the process of physical bodies reaching thermal equilibrium through mutual interaction. In general, the natural tendency of a system is towards a state of equipartition of energy and uniform temperature that maximizes the system's entropy. Thermalisation, thermal equil... | 0.790196 | 0.967694 | 0.764668 |
Gibbs free energy | In thermodynamics, the Gibbs free energy (or Gibbs energy as the recommended name; symbol ) is a thermodynamic potential that can be used to calculate the maximum amount of work, other than pressure-volume work, that may be performed by a thermodynamically closed system at constant temperature and pressure. It also pro... | 0.765548 | 0.998835 | 0.764656 |
Hodgkin–Huxley model | The Hodgkin–Huxley model, or conductance-based model, is a mathematical model that describes how action potentials in neurons are initiated and propagated. It is a set of nonlinear differential equations that approximates the electrical engineering characteristics of excitable cells such as neurons and muscle cells. It... | 0.768519 | 0.99494 | 0.76463 |
Eight disciplines problem solving | Eight Disciplines Methodology (8D) is a method or model developed at Ford Motor Company used to approach and to resolve problems, typically employed by quality engineers or other professionals. Focused on product and process improvement, its purpose is to identify, correct, and eliminate recurring problems. It establis... | 0.76952 | 0.993578 | 0.764578 |
Inexact differential | An inexact differential or imperfect differential is a differential whose integral is path dependent. It is most often used in thermodynamics to express changes in path dependent quantities such as heat and work, but is defined more generally within mathematics as a type of differential form. In contrast, an integral o... | 0.780406 | 0.979708 | 0.764569 |
Proportional navigation | Proportional navigation (also known as PN or Pro-Nav) is a guidance law (analogous to proportional control) used in some form or another by most homing air target missiles. It is based on the fact that two vehicles are on a collision course when their direct line-of-sight does not change direction as the range closes. ... | 0.774193 | 0.987561 | 0.764563 |
Spontaneous process | In thermodynamics, a spontaneous process is a process which occurs without any external input to the system. A more technical definition is the time-evolution of a system in which it releases free energy and it moves to a lower, more thermodynamically stable energy state (closer to thermodynamic equilibrium). The sign ... | 0.774522 | 0.987111 | 0.764539 |
Traction (mechanics) | Traction, traction force or tractive force is a force used to generate motion between a body and a tangential surface, through the use of either dry friction or shear force.
It has important applications in vehicles, as in tractive effort.
Traction can also refer to the maximum tractive force between a body and a sur... | 0.77574 | 0.985556 | 0.764535 |
Compton scattering | Compton scattering (or the Compton effect) is the quantum theory of high frequency photons scattering following an interaction with a charged particle, usually an electron. Specifically, when the photon hits electrons, it releases loosely bound electrons from the outer valence shells of atoms or molecules.
The effect ... | 0.766159 | 0.997865 | 0.764523 |
John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh | John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh, (; 12 November 1842 – 30 June 1919) was an English mathematician and physicist who made extensive contributions to science. He spent all of his academic career at the University of Cambridge. Among many honours, he received the 1904 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his investigation... | 0.771839 | 0.990517 | 0.764519 |
Corpuscularianism | Corpuscularianism, also known as corpuscularism, is a set of theories that explain natural transformations as a result of the interaction of particles (minima naturalia, partes exiles, partes parvae, particulae, and semina). It differs from atomism in that corpuscles are usually endowed with a property of their own and... | 0.779632 | 0.98061 | 0.764515 |
OpenAI o1 | OpenAI o1 is a generative pre-trained transformer released by OpenAI in September 2024. o1 spends time "thinking" before it answers, making it more efficient in complex reasoning tasks, science and programming.
History
Background
According to leaked information, o1 was formerly known within OpenAI as "Q*", and later ... | 0.769816 | 0.99307 | 0.764481 |
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