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▁involved ▁in ▁the ▁production ▁of ▁Australia ' s ▁first ▁Christmas ▁cards ▁in ▁ 1 8 7 9 . ▁ ▁Hel ena ▁died ▁in ▁Harris ▁Park ▁in ▁ 1 9 1 0 ▁leaving ▁no ▁descend ants . ▁ ▁Professional ▁ill ust rat ors ▁ ▁By ▁ 1 8 6 4 , ▁a ▁large ▁number ▁of ▁pl ates ▁of ▁moth s ▁and ▁but ter f lies ▁had ▁been ▁completed , ▁ready ▁for ▁the ▁publication ▁of ▁the ▁first ▁volume ▁of ▁their ▁father ' s ▁Australian ▁Le pid optera ▁and ▁Their ▁Trans form ations . ▁A ▁number ▁of ▁illustr ating ▁comm issions ▁spr ang ▁from ▁this ▁work , ▁some ▁from ▁their ▁father ' s ▁contacts ▁as ▁trust ee ▁of ▁the ▁Australian ▁Museum . ▁They ▁provided ▁the ▁illustr ations ▁for ▁James ▁Charles ▁C ox ' s ▁Mon ograph ▁of ▁Australian ▁Land ▁Sh ells ▁( 1 8 6 8 ), ▁and ▁for ▁Ger ard ▁Kre ff t ' s ▁Sn akes ▁of ▁Australia ▁( 1 8 6 9 ) ▁and ▁M amm als ▁of ▁Australia ▁( 1 8 7 1 ) ▁– ▁the ▁art work ▁from ▁these ▁publications ▁was ▁sing led ▁out ▁for ▁pra ise ▁at ▁the ▁Sydney ▁Inter colon ial ▁Ex hib ition ▁in ▁ 1 8 7 0 . ▁ ▁When ▁the ▁prominent ▁natural ▁historian ▁William ▁Sw ain son ▁exam ined ▁the ▁growing ▁number ▁of ▁paint ings ▁a ▁de cade ▁earlier , ▁he ▁wrote ▁in ▁the ▁Sydney ▁Mor ning ▁Her ald , ▁ ▁The ▁brilliant ▁colours ▁and ▁pain st aking ▁detail , ▁a ▁t ribute ▁to ▁the |
▁sister s ' ▁patient ▁observation ▁and ▁labour , ▁are ▁just ▁as ▁ple asing ▁ 1 5 0 ▁years ▁later . ▁The ▁museum ▁purchased ▁the ▁ 1 0 0 ▁completed ▁pl ates ▁for ▁£ 2 0 0 ▁in ▁ 1 8 8 4 . ▁The ▁standard ▁of ▁their ▁work ▁led ▁to ▁their ▁being ▁elected ▁honor ary ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁Ent om ological ▁Society ▁– ▁a ▁signal ▁honour ▁for ▁women ▁in ▁that ▁period ▁of ▁history . ▁ ▁The ▁Australian ▁Museum ▁were ▁persu aded ▁to ▁publish ▁the ▁remainder ▁of ▁the ▁Le pid optera ▁material , ▁which ▁they ▁had ▁purchased ▁in ▁ 1 8 8 4 , ▁together ▁with ▁the ▁sister s ' ▁draw ings , ▁di aries ▁and ▁notes . ▁Under ▁Hel ena ' s ▁super vision , ▁and ▁working ▁with ▁museum ▁ent om ologist ▁Arthur ▁Sid ney ▁O ll iff , ▁the ▁second ▁volume ▁of ▁the ▁Le pid optera ▁was ▁published ▁in ▁five ▁parts ▁between ▁ 1 8 9 0 ▁and ▁ 1 8 9 8 . ▁The ▁two ▁sister s ▁did ▁most ▁of ▁the ▁l ith ography ▁for ▁this ▁volume , ▁which ▁was ▁then ▁printed ▁by ▁the ▁Australian ▁Museum , ▁and ▁sent ▁to ▁England ▁to ▁be ▁hand ▁col oured , ▁using ▁the ▁sister s ' ▁paint ings ▁as ▁colour ▁benchmark . ▁ ▁Hel ena , ▁with ▁her ▁sister ▁Har ri et , ▁were ▁largely ▁forgotten ▁until ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 1 ▁exhibition ▁Beaut y ▁from ▁Nature : ▁Art ▁of ▁the ▁Scott ▁Sister s ▁at ▁the ▁Australian ▁Museum ▁in ▁Sydney . ▁ ▁Plant ▁collections |
▁Both ▁Hel ena ▁and ▁her ▁sister ▁collected ▁for ▁Ferdinand ▁von ▁Mu eller , ▁receiving ▁in ▁response , ▁names ▁for ▁the ▁plants ▁they ▁drew . ▁Her ▁collections ▁include ▁type ▁spec im ens ▁for ▁Koch ia ▁sed ifolia , ▁Dios py ros ▁pent am era ▁( as ▁C arg ill ia ▁pent am era ), ▁At ri plex ▁st ip it ata , ▁and ▁Po a ▁for de ana . ▁ ▁Gallery ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Further ▁reading ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁Australian ▁Museum ▁Gallery ▁Other ▁scientific ▁illustr ations ▁Australian ▁Museum ▁Hel ena ▁Scott ▁D AA O ▁ ▁The ▁Scott ▁Sister s ▁ ▁Category : 1 8 3 2 ▁birth s ▁Category : 1 9 1 0 ▁death s ▁Category : Austral ian ▁ill ust rat ors ▁Category : Austral ian ▁women ▁ill ust rat ors ▁Category : Austral ian ▁women ▁artists ▁Category : Austral ian ▁le pid opter ists ▁Category : B ot an ical ▁ill ust rat ors ▁Category : B ot an ical ▁collect ors ▁active ▁in ▁Australia ▁Category : 1 9 th - century ▁Australian ▁women ▁Category : 2 0 th - century ▁Australian ▁women <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁Armen ian ▁national ▁aw ak ening ▁res emb les ▁that ▁of ▁other ▁non - T urk ish ▁eth nic ▁groups ▁during ▁the ▁rise ▁of ▁national ism ▁under ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁Empire ▁in ▁development ▁of ▁ideas ▁of ▁national ism , ▁salv ation ▁and ▁independence ▁in ▁Armen ia , ▁as ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁Empire ▁tried ▁to ▁cover ▁the ▁social ▁needs ▁by ▁creating ▁the ▁T anz imat |
▁era , ▁the ▁development ▁of ▁Ott oman ism ▁and ▁First ▁Constitution al ▁Era . ▁However , ▁the ▁co ex istence ▁of ▁the ▁communities ▁( including ▁Armen ians ) ▁under ▁Ott oman ism ▁proved ▁to ▁be ▁a ▁d ys function al ▁solution ▁as ▁did ▁the ▁Second ▁Constitution al ▁Era ▁which ▁also ▁ign ited ▁the ▁dissol ution ▁of ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁Empire . ▁ ▁During ▁the ▁Armen ian ▁national ▁aw ak ening , ▁" Ar men ian ▁National ▁Assembly " ▁took ▁over ▁some ▁of ▁the ▁reg ulations ▁of ▁temporal ▁matters ▁of ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁Armen ian ▁Community ▁from ▁the ▁Armen ian ▁Patri arch ate . ▁Among ▁the ▁Armen ian ▁el ite , ▁the ▁idea ▁of ▁republic an ism ▁replaced ▁the ▁absolute ▁mon archy ▁of ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁D ynast y , ▁and ▁establishment ▁of ▁the ▁Armen ian ▁National ▁Assembly ▁in ▁ 1 8 6 3 ▁replaced ▁the ▁membership ▁of ▁the ▁mil let ▁system . ▁While ▁it ▁took ▁World ▁War ▁I ▁for ▁the ▁establishment ▁of ▁the ▁First ▁Armen ian ▁Republic , ▁the ▁Armen ians ▁had ▁oscill ated ▁between ▁the ▁ideas ▁of ▁having ▁an ▁Armen ian ▁republic ▁or ▁an ▁autonom ous ▁region ▁within ▁the ▁emp ire ▁during ▁the ▁history ▁of ▁Ott oman ▁dem ocracy , ▁with ▁organizations ▁like ▁the ▁Social ▁Dem ocrat ▁H unch ak ian ▁Party ▁and ▁Armen ian ▁Democratic ▁Liberal ▁Party ▁( R am g av ar ▁Party ▁or ▁Armen ak an ). ▁ ▁Orig ins ▁ ▁Pre histor ic - H istor ic ▁Era ▁ ▁The ▁discovery ▁of ▁Ur art u ▁has ▁come ▁to |
▁play ▁a ▁significant ▁role ▁in ▁ 1 9 th ▁and ▁ 2 0 th - century ▁Armen ian ▁national ism . ▁ ▁Bey ond ▁the ▁mostly ▁accepted ▁terms ▁of ▁the ▁Armen ian ▁national ism ▁as ▁given ▁in ▁the ▁above ▁paragraph s , ▁the ▁concept ▁has ▁come ▁to ▁include ▁a ▁range ▁of ▁interpret ations ▁of ▁Pre histor ic ▁Armen ia , ▁including ▁the ▁link ▁to ▁the ▁Iron ▁Age ▁kingdom ▁of ▁Ur art u . ▁The ▁Armen ians ▁are ▁the ▁original ▁inhabitants ▁of ▁the ▁territory ▁of ▁what ▁is ▁named ▁as ▁historic ▁Armen ia . ▁Ident ification ▁with ▁the ▁distant ▁gl ories ▁of ▁Ur art u ▁and ▁its ▁pre histor ic ▁for er unn ers , ▁together ▁with ▁Mount ▁Ar ar at ▁has ▁come ▁to ▁be ▁a ▁powerful ▁symbol ▁of ▁Armen ian ▁eth nic ity ▁especially ▁among ▁the ▁di as por a . ▁ ▁The ▁idea ▁which ▁claims ▁people ▁living ▁under ▁Ur art u ▁were ▁cons ci ously ▁Armen ian , ▁essential ist ▁interpret ations ▁of ▁Armen ian ▁eth nic ity ▁over ▁the ▁ages ▁ab ound ▁in ▁Armen ian ▁histor i ography , ▁and ▁fl our ished ▁particularly ▁during ▁the ▁Soviet ▁era , ▁with ▁examples ▁such ▁as ▁S . ▁A . ▁S ard arian ' s ▁Per v ob yt no ye ▁ob sh ch est vo ▁v ▁A men ii ▁of ▁ 1 9 6 7 ▁which ▁besides ▁" numer ous ▁pl ag iar isms ▁and ▁mistakes " ▁goes ▁as ▁far ▁as ▁to ▁post ulate ▁a ▁separate ▁Armen ian ▁race ▁native ▁to ▁the ▁Armen ian |
▁plate au , ▁and ▁attributes ▁the ▁in vention ▁of ▁met all ur gy ▁to ▁the ▁Armen ians ▁( K ohl ▁and ▁ ▁T set sk hl ad ze ▁ 1 9 9 5 ). ▁He av ily ▁sl anted ▁dep ict ions ▁of ▁Ur art u ▁are ▁common ▁in ▁this ▁literature . ▁Armen ian ▁historical ▁view ▁must ▁explain ▁why ▁Ur art ian ▁ep ig raph y ▁is ▁in ▁the ▁non - Ind o - Europe an ▁Ur art ian ▁language . ▁While ▁there ▁are ▁reasonable ▁scholar ly ▁scenarios ▁that ▁there ▁was ▁a ▁Pro to - Ar men ian ▁component ▁in ▁Ur art u , ▁and ▁that ▁the ▁early ▁Armen ians ▁were ▁the ▁b ona ▁f ide ▁cultural ▁he irs ▁to ▁Ur art u , ▁but ▁the ▁essential ist ▁view ▁of ▁Armen ian ▁nation hood ▁that ▁simply ▁equ ates ▁Ur art u ▁with ▁Armen ia ▁cannot ▁be ▁sust ained ▁( K ohl ▁and ▁ ▁T set sk hl ad ze ▁ 1 9 9 5 ). ▁ ▁Armen ian ▁Classic ▁Era ▁In ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁Empire , ▁the ▁social ▁structure ▁of ▁ ▁" Ar men ians " ▁before ▁the ▁▁ 1 8 th ▁century ▁was ▁based ▁on ▁the ▁system ▁of ▁" M illet ." ▁ ▁The ▁Armen ian ▁mil let ▁was ▁a ▁conf essional ▁community ▁in ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁Empire . ▁Conf essional ▁communities ▁on ▁local ▁issues ▁were ▁function ing ▁like ▁the ▁autonom ous ▁territ ories . ▁The ▁Ott oman ▁mil let ▁specifically ▁referred ▁to ▁the ▁separate ▁legal ▁courts ▁per tain ing ▁to ▁personal |
▁law ▁under ▁which ▁sections ▁of ▁the ▁society ▁were ▁allowed ▁to ▁rule ▁themselves ▁with ▁fairly ▁little ▁inter ference ▁from ▁the ▁central ▁system . ▁Each ▁mil let ▁was ▁under ▁the ▁super vision ▁of ▁an ▁Eth n arch ▁(' n ational ' ▁leader ), ▁most ▁often ▁a ▁religious ▁hier arch . ▁Armen ian ▁mil let ▁was ▁under ▁the ▁Armen ian ▁Apost ol ic ▁Church . ▁The ▁Mil lets ▁had ▁a ▁great ▁deal ▁of ▁power ▁- ▁they ▁set ▁their ▁own ▁laws ▁and ▁collected ▁and ▁distributed ▁their ▁own ▁tax es . ▁As ▁the ▁people ▁of ▁" The ▁Book " ▁Armen ians ▁were ▁able ▁to ▁maintain ▁their ▁houses ▁of ▁worship , ▁obtain ▁religious ▁literature , ▁and ▁employ ▁cler gy ▁of ▁their ▁faith ▁for ▁their ▁con greg ations . ▁These ▁were ▁rights ▁given ▁in ▁the ▁local ▁level . ▁These ▁rights ▁become ▁limited ▁with ▁the ▁economic ▁and ▁techn ological ▁develop ments ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 8 th ▁century . ▁The ▁Ott oman ▁citizens ▁wanted ▁representation ▁in ▁national ▁level . ▁They ▁wanted ▁to ▁have ▁participation ▁more ▁than ▁local ▁level . ▁ ▁Armen ian ▁Renaissance ▁▁ ▁En light en ment ▁among ▁Armen ians , ▁sometimes ▁called ▁as ▁r ena issance ▁of ▁the ▁Armen ian ▁people , ▁came ▁from ▁two ▁sources ; ▁First ▁one ▁was ▁the ▁Armen ian ▁mon ks ▁belonging ▁to ▁the ▁M ek h itar ist ▁Order . ▁Second ▁one ▁was ▁the ▁so cio - polit ical ▁develop ments ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 9 th ▁century , ▁mainly ▁" F rench ▁Revolution " ▁and ▁establishment ▁of ▁" Russ ian ▁revolution ary ▁thought |
." ▁ ▁The ▁ 1 8 th ▁century ▁generated ▁new ▁schools ▁and ▁libraries ▁and ▁chance ▁to ▁study ▁in ▁the ▁univers ities ▁of ▁Western ▁Europe ▁for ▁different ▁el astic ities ▁of ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁Empire . ▁The ▁initial ▁aim ▁of ▁Protest ant ▁mission aries ▁ ▁were ▁the ▁conversion ▁of ▁the ▁Muslim s ▁and ▁Jews , ▁they ▁soon ▁became ▁involved ▁with ▁Protest ant ▁re formation ▁of ▁the ▁Orth odox ▁Armen ians . ▁From ▁the ▁first ▁day ▁when ▁Rev . ▁William ▁Good ell ▁settled ▁in ▁Constantin ople ▁in ▁ 1 8 3 1 ▁to ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁World ▁War ▁I , ▁the ▁mission aries ▁made ▁considerable ▁contributions ▁to ▁the ▁education ▁of ▁Armen ians . ▁They ▁not ▁only ▁str essed ▁elementary ▁education , ▁but ▁established ▁colleg es ▁and ▁other ▁institutions ▁of ▁learning . ▁The ▁notable ▁institutions ▁were ▁( 1 ) The ▁Central ▁College ▁of ▁An te p ; ▁( 2 ) ▁Eu phr ates ▁College ▁of ▁Har p out ; ▁( 3 ) ▁An atol ia ▁College ▁at ▁Mar so van ; ▁( 4 ) ▁Central ▁Girls ' ▁College ▁at ▁Mar as ; ▁( 5 ) ▁St . ▁Paul ' s ▁Institute ▁at ▁T ars us . ▁There ▁were ▁colleg es , ▁such ▁as ▁International ▁College ▁at ▁S my r na ; ▁American ▁College ▁for ▁Girls , ▁Sy rian ▁Protest ant ▁College ▁at ▁Be ir ut ▁and ▁Robert ▁College , ▁in ▁which ▁institutions ▁many ▁Armen ian ▁students ▁received ▁their ▁education . ▁Here ▁they ▁came ▁into ▁contact ▁with ▁the ▁radical ▁ideas ▁of ▁the ▁Age ▁of ▁En light en |
ment ▁and ▁the ▁French ▁Revolution . ▁Edu c ated ▁and ▁influ ential ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁large ▁di as por a ▁tried ▁to ▁transmit ▁these ▁ideas ▁back ▁to ▁their ▁own , ▁with ▁the ▁double ▁aim ▁of ▁raising ▁their ▁educational ▁level ▁and ▁simultaneously ▁strength ening ▁their ▁national ▁identity . ▁The ▁European ▁intellectual ▁curr ents ▁such ▁as ▁ideas ▁of ▁French ▁revolution ▁were ▁transm itted ▁through ▁the ▁ 2 3 , 0 0 0 ▁Armen ian ▁students ▁within ▁ 1 2 7 ▁Protest ant ▁con greg ations ▁with ▁ 1 3 , 0 0 0 ▁communic ants , ▁and ▁ 4 0 0 ▁schools . ▁ ▁M ek h itar ist ▁Order ▁had ▁exclusive ▁dev otion ▁to ▁persons ▁and ▁things ▁Armen ian . ▁M ek h itar , ▁was ▁born ▁at ▁Sebast ia ▁in ▁Ott oman ▁Empire ▁in ▁ 1 6 7 6 . ▁He ▁entered ▁a ▁monaster y , ▁but ▁was ▁concerned ▁about ▁the ▁level ▁of ▁culture ▁and ▁education ▁in ▁Armen ia ▁at ▁that ▁period , ▁and ▁sought ▁to ▁do ▁something ▁about ▁it . ▁Contact s ▁with ▁Western ▁mission aries ▁led ▁him ▁to ▁become ▁interested ▁in ▁transl ating ▁material ▁from ▁the ▁West ▁into ▁Armen ian ▁and ▁setting ▁up ▁an ▁order ▁to ▁facil itate ▁education . ▁Among st ▁their ▁coun tr ymen ▁the ▁influence ▁of ▁the ▁M ek h itar ist ▁Order ▁has ▁been ▁not ▁only ▁directive ▁in ▁the ▁way ▁of ▁hol iness ▁and ▁true ▁service ▁to ▁God ▁and ▁the ▁Church , ▁but ▁cre ative ▁of ▁a ▁wh oles ome ▁national ▁amb ition ▁and ▁self - res |
pect . ▁Apost les ▁of ▁culture ▁and ▁progress , ▁they ▁may ▁be ▁said , ▁with ▁strict ▁justice , ▁to ▁have ▁preserved ▁from ▁de grad ation ▁and ▁neglect ▁the ▁language ▁and ▁literature ▁of ▁their ▁country , ▁and ▁in ▁so ▁doing , ▁have ▁been ▁the ▁sav iors ▁of ▁the ▁Armen ian ▁race . ▁Father ▁G he v ont ▁Al ish an ▁was ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁M kh itar ist ▁Cong reg ation ▁in ▁Ven ice . ▁In ▁ 1 8 8 5 , ▁ ▁Armen ian ▁Patri otic ▁Society ▁of ▁Europe ▁appe aled ▁to ▁him ▁to ▁create ▁the ▁first ▁modern ▁Armen ian ▁flag . ▁ ▁Al ish an ▁designed ▁a ▁flag ▁inspired ▁by ▁the ▁national ▁Flag ▁of ▁France , ▁identified ▁today ▁as ▁the ▁" National ist ▁Armen ian ▁Flag ." ▁ ▁Its ▁colors ▁were ▁red , ▁green , ▁and ▁blue ▁respectively , ▁representing ▁the ▁band ▁of ▁colors ▁that ▁No ah ▁saw ▁after ▁landing ▁on ▁Mount ▁Ar ar at . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 8 6 3 , ▁Ott oman ▁Armen ians ▁were ▁introduced ▁to ▁major ▁re forms ▁as ▁an ▁extension ▁of ▁T anz imat . ▁ ▁Att empt ing ▁to ▁stem ▁the ▁t ide ▁of ▁national ist ▁movements ▁within ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁Empire , ▁T anz im ât ▁period ▁emer ged ▁from ▁the ▁minds ▁of ▁reform ist ▁s ult ans ▁like ▁Mah m ud ▁II ▁and ▁Abd ül m ec id ▁I ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁prominent ▁reform ers ▁who ▁were ▁European - ed uc ated ▁b ureau cr ats . ▁ ▁The ▁Armen ian |
▁National ▁Constitution ▁( 1 5 0 ▁articles ▁draft ed ▁by ▁N ah abet ▁Rus in ian , ▁Serv ichen , ▁N ig og hos ▁Bal ian , ▁K rik or ▁Od ian ▁and ▁K rik or ▁Marg os ian ) ▁defined ▁the ▁condition ▁of ▁Armen ians ▁in ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁Empire , ▁but ▁also ▁introduced ▁ ▁reg ulations ▁defining ▁the ▁authority ▁of ▁the ▁Patri arch . ▁The ▁" Ar men ian ▁Constitution " ▁and ▁Armen ian ▁National ▁Assembly ▁was ▁seen ▁as ▁a ▁mil estone ▁by ▁progress ive ▁Armen ians . ▁ ▁K hr im ian ▁Hay rik ▁worked ▁to ▁increase ▁the ▁influence ▁of ▁sub - c oun c ils ▁of ▁Armen ian ▁National ▁Assembly . ▁The ▁Armen ian ▁National ▁Assembly ▁had ▁a ▁main ▁council ▁in ▁Constantin ople ▁and ▁sub - c oun c ils ▁in ▁the ▁provincial ▁cent ers . ▁Main ▁assembly ▁consisted ▁of ▁ 1 2 0 ▁Armen ian ▁Nob les ▁and ▁ 2 0 ▁ecc les iast ical ▁members . ▁The ▁Assembly ▁in ▁capital ▁meet ▁very ▁s eld om . ▁Local ▁assemb lies ▁were ▁de af ▁to ▁the ▁compla ints ▁of ▁the ▁poor er ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁community . ▁In ▁ 1 8 8 0 ▁the ▁wealth y ▁and ▁influ ential ▁Armen ians ▁had ▁no ▁sympathy ▁with ▁the ▁ideas ▁of ▁national ▁independence ▁or ▁aut onomy . ▁They ▁even ▁signed ▁an ▁address ▁of ▁loyal ty ▁and ▁dev otion ▁to ▁the ▁Sultan ▁condem ning ▁the ▁national ist ▁ag itation ▁as ▁the ▁work ▁of ▁mis gu ided ▁persons ▁who ▁have ▁no ▁authority ▁or ▁influence |
. ▁This ▁al ien ation ▁from ▁the ▁center ▁was ▁highlight ed ▁by ▁the ▁work ▁of ▁bishop ▁M k rt ich ▁K hr im ian . ▁He ▁worked ▁to ▁increase ▁the ▁influence ▁of ▁sub - c oun c ils ▁of ▁the ▁towns ▁of ▁eastern ▁An atol ia ▁in ▁the ▁capital . ▁Armen ian ▁National ▁Assembly ' s ▁policies ▁aligned ▁with ▁the ▁An atol ia ▁with ▁the ▁increased ▁influence ▁of ▁sub - c oun c ils . ▁ 1 8 9 2 ▁K hr im yan ▁Hay rik ▁was ▁un anim ously ▁elected ▁C athol icos ▁of ▁All ▁Armen ians . ▁These ▁two ▁Ott oman ▁re forms , ▁which ▁were ▁theoret ically ▁perfect ▁ ▁examples ▁of ▁social ▁change ▁by ▁law , ▁brought ▁serious ▁stress ▁over ▁Ott oman ▁political ▁and ▁administrative ▁structure . ▁Armen ian ▁Nob les ▁( A mi ra ) ▁were ▁not ▁happy , ▁and ▁they ▁were ▁the ▁own ers ▁of ▁the ▁economic ▁system . ▁ ▁National ▁Rev ival ▁▁ ▁The ▁Armen ian ▁national ▁ide ology ▁developed ▁long ▁after ▁the ▁Greek ▁movement , ▁however ▁the ▁factors ▁contrib uting ▁to ▁the ▁emer gence ▁of ▁Armen ian ▁national ism ▁made ▁the ▁movement ▁far ▁more ▁similar ▁to ▁that ▁of ▁the ▁Gree ks ▁than ▁those ▁of ▁other ▁eth nic ▁groups . ▁Un resol ved ▁social ▁problems ▁in ▁the ▁Empire ▁began ▁to ▁feed ▁Armen ian ▁national ▁politics , ▁along ▁the ▁other ▁eth nic ▁groups . ▁As ▁the ▁Mil let ▁( O tt oman ▁Empire ) ▁structure ▁de grad ed , ▁Armen ians ▁begin ▁to ▁re th ink ▁their ▁position |
▁in ▁the ▁world . ▁The ▁Armen ian ▁subjects ▁of ▁the ▁Empire ▁influenced ▁by ▁the ▁Armen ian ▁D ias por a ▁and ▁the ▁network ▁of ▁con greg ations ▁and ▁schools ▁of ▁the ▁Protest ant ▁mission aries ▁throughout ▁the ▁Empire . ▁After ▁inter vention ▁in ▁Russia ▁in ▁ 1 8 7 7 - 1 8 7 8 , ▁Russian - O tt oman ▁border ▁brought ▁new ▁the ▁political ▁and ▁military ▁structure . ▁The ▁numbers ▁of ▁Circ ass ians ▁and ▁Laz ▁from ▁the ▁Russian ▁Empire ▁force fully ▁deport ed ▁to ▁Ott oman ▁Empire . ▁These ▁em igr ations ▁brought ▁t ensions ▁and ▁changed ▁the ▁population ▁distribution ▁and ▁balance ▁of ▁power ▁within ▁the ▁local ▁communities ▁in ▁eastern ▁An atol ia . ▁Russia ▁became ▁prote ctor ate ▁of ▁Christian ▁Armen ians ▁and ▁this ▁created ▁a ▁relatively ▁more ▁host ile ▁environment ▁to ▁the ▁Muslim s ▁( K ur ds ) ▁who ▁were ▁left ▁under ▁Russian ▁control . ▁Kur d ish - Ar men ian ▁relations ▁come ▁to ▁another ▁turn . ▁The ▁newly ▁established ▁relations ▁were ▁complex . ▁The ▁change ▁did ▁not ▁only ▁effect ed ▁the ▁Armen ian ▁Mil let ▁but ▁also ▁the ▁local ▁non - t rib al ▁Kur ds ▁as ▁well . ▁The ▁Kur d ish ▁trib al ▁leaders ▁that ▁fled ▁during ▁the ▁war ▁began ▁to ▁express ▁their ▁power ▁along ▁the ▁coun tr ys ide . ▁The ▁region ' s ▁social ▁structure , ▁co ex istence ▁of ▁the ▁communities ▁was ▁broken . ▁The ▁broken ▁social ▁structure ▁required ▁implementation ▁of ▁new ▁re forms . ▁ ▁K ag ik ▁O |
z any an ▁claims ▁that ▁T anz imat ▁reg ulations , ▁helped ▁the ▁formation ▁of ▁an ▁Armen ian ▁political ▁str ata ▁and ▁inc ited ▁the ▁Armen ian ▁national ▁spirit , ▁which ▁was ▁aligned ▁with ▁the ▁nation ▁building ▁through ▁revolution ▁aligned ▁with ▁the ▁French ▁Revolution ▁perspective . ▁General ▁May ew ski , ▁who ▁was ▁the ▁Russian ▁Cons ul ▁General ▁to ▁Ott oman ▁Empire ▁recorded ▁the ▁following ▁ ▁Civil ization ▁Pers pective ▁▁ ▁According ▁to ▁one ▁position ▁the ▁break down ▁of ▁the ▁" co ex istence ▁of ▁the ▁communities ▁within ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁Empire " ▁was ▁a ▁direct ▁result ▁of ▁the ▁Christian ▁Armen ians ▁and ▁Muslim s ▁( T ur ks ▁and ▁Kur ds ) ▁in ability ▁of ▁living ▁together . ▁Armen ian ▁Patri arch ▁N ers es ▁Var j ab edy an ▁express es ▁his ▁position ▁to ▁British ▁Minister ▁of ▁Foreign ▁Affairs , ▁Lord ▁Sal is bury ▁on ▁April ▁ 1 3 , ▁ 1 8 7 8 . ▁ ▁Most ▁of ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁sources ▁do ▁not ▁give ▁credit ▁to ▁these ▁claims . ▁They ▁present ▁the ▁argument ▁that ▁the ▁system ▁of ▁" M illet " ▁and ▁State ▁and ▁Religion ▁preserved ▁the ▁Empire ▁for ▁centuries . ▁A ▁strong ▁argument ▁behind ▁reject ing ▁the ▁" cl ash ▁of ▁civil izations " ▁origin ated ▁from ▁the ▁analysis ▁of ▁the ▁activity ▁tim et able . ▁The ▁cl ash es ▁collected ▁in ▁distinct ▁events . ▁Each ▁event ▁had ▁high ▁density ▁with ▁distinct ▁beginning ▁and ▁an ▁end . ▁There ▁was ▁no ▁single ▁period ▁that ▁a ▁thousand ▁death s ▁were |
▁spread ▁over ▁a ▁long ▁period ▁of ▁time . ▁This ▁fact ▁supports ▁the ▁" re volution ary ▁view " ▁instead ▁of ▁cl ash ▁of ▁civil izations , ▁which ▁showed ▁the ▁European ▁powers ▁the ▁true ▁nature ▁of ▁Ott oman ▁rule . ▁European ▁powers ▁needed ▁to ▁do ▁something ▁about ▁these ▁events ▁through ▁the ▁international ▁agre ements . ▁Ass ured ly ▁Europe ▁would ▁do ▁nothing ▁if ▁those ▁thousand ▁death s ▁were ▁spread ▁over ▁years . ▁ ▁Armen ian ▁Question ▁Pers pective ▁▁ ▁The ▁Gree ks ▁were ▁thus ▁the ▁first ▁of ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁Empire ' s ▁subject ▁pe op les ▁to ▁secure ▁recognition ▁as ▁an ▁independent ▁so ver eign ▁power . ▁After ▁a ▁long ▁and ▁blo ody ▁struggle , ▁and ▁with ▁the ▁aid ▁of ▁the ▁Great ▁Pow ers , ▁the ▁Greek ▁Revolution ▁win ▁independence ▁for ▁Greece ▁from ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁Empire ▁granted ▁by ▁the ▁Tre aty ▁of ▁Constantin ople ▁in ▁July ▁ 1 8 3 2 . ▁National ▁aw ak ening ▁of ▁Bulg aria ▁ ▁and ▁consequ ently ▁liber ation ▁of ▁Bulg aria ▁origin ate ▁after ▁the ▁events ▁of ▁the ▁Rus so - T urk ish ▁War ▁of ▁ 1 8 7 7 - 7 8 ▁that ▁led ▁to ▁the ▁re - est ab lish ment ▁of ▁Bulgar ian ▁S over eign ▁state ▁with ▁the ▁Tre aty ▁of ▁San ▁Stef ano . ▁There ▁had ▁been ▁no ▁considerable ▁movement ▁in ▁beh alf ▁of ▁Armen ian ▁independence ▁before ▁Abd ul ▁Ham id ' s ▁time . ▁There ▁had ▁been ▁no ▁Armen ian ▁political ▁problem ▁before ▁the ▁Tre aty ▁of |
▁Berlin , ▁ 1 8 7 8 . ▁ 1 8 7 8 ▁was ▁marked ▁for ▁the ▁down ▁turn ▁of ▁relations ▁between ▁Armen ians ▁and ▁Ott oman ▁Empire . ▁ ▁The ▁st ip ulation ▁in ▁favor ▁of ▁Armen ian ▁aut onomy ▁in ▁the ▁treat y ▁of ▁Berlin ▁produced ▁an ▁immediate ▁change . ▁Unfortunately ▁there ▁were ▁special ▁difficulties ▁for ▁the ▁real ization ▁of ▁the ▁so - called ▁Ott oman ▁liberal ▁political ▁program ▁that ▁could ▁end ▁with ▁what ▁article ▁st ip ulated . ▁For ▁one ▁thing ▁not ▁all ▁the ▁Armen ians ▁were ▁under ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁Empire . ▁As ▁the ▁population ▁considered , ▁there ▁was ▁Armen ians ▁in ▁the ▁Russian ▁Empire ▁approaching ▁to ▁ 9 0 0 , 0 0 0 ▁at ▁the ▁nin ete enth ▁century . ▁Ott oman ▁subjects ▁amount ing ▁perhaps ▁to ▁ 1 , 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 , ▁were ▁distributed ▁through ▁the ▁six ▁vil ay ets ▁of ▁S ivas , ▁Bit lis , ▁Er zer um , ▁Har put , ▁Di ab ek ir , ▁and ▁Van . ▁In ▁some ▁of ▁these ▁districts , ▁they ▁had ▁the ▁highest ▁eth nic ▁minor ity , ▁among ▁the ▁Tur ks , ▁Gree ks , ▁Ass y ri ans , ▁Jews , ▁and ▁Kur ds ▁but ▁Armen ians ▁failed ▁to ▁represent ▁more ▁than ▁% 5 0 ▁percent , ▁a ▁clear ▁majority , ▁in ▁any ▁district ▁with ▁which ▁they ▁were ▁associated . ▁Besides ▁other ▁difficulties , ▁Armen ians ▁perce ived ▁the ▁conditions ▁of ▁treat y ▁( Art icle ▁L X I ) |
▁of ▁Berlin ▁as ▁an ▁early ▁real ization ▁of ▁their ▁aut onomy , ▁if ▁the ▁powers ▁should ▁have ▁proceeded ▁straight way ▁to ▁en force ▁the ▁Armen ian ▁provision . ▁The ▁rational ization ▁of ▁human itar ian ▁inter vention ▁dep ended ▁also ▁to ▁the ▁Cy pr us ▁Convention ▁besides ▁the ▁Tre aty ▁of ▁Berlin , ▁ 1 8 7 8 . ▁In ▁ 1 8 7 9 , ▁one ▁year ▁of ▁after ▁the ▁agre ements , ▁the ▁only ▁thing ▁missing ▁was ▁the ▁practical ▁events ▁to ▁enable ▁the ▁articles ▁for ▁the ▁demand ▁of ▁an ▁Armen ian ▁state . ▁ ▁After ▁the ▁Armen ian ▁Mass ac res ▁of ▁ 1 8 9 4 - 1 8 9 6 ▁the ▁Armen ian ▁population ▁in ▁the ▁six ▁vil ay ets , ▁which ▁were ▁also ▁the ▁Kur d ish ▁regions , ▁had ▁a ▁sharp ▁decl ine ▁somewhere ▁between ▁ 8 0 , 0 0 0 ▁and ▁ 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 ▁ ▁and ▁Armen ian ▁population ▁in ▁the ▁conflict ▁region ▁drop ▁to ▁ 9 0 0 , 0 0 0 ▁from ▁ 1 , 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 ▁before ▁ 1 8 7 8 . ▁These ▁mass ac res ▁perpet u ated ▁by ▁the ▁Ham id ie h ▁soldier ▁and ▁European ▁powers ▁were ▁asked ▁to ▁interven e . ▁Instead ▁of ▁Armen ian ▁aut onomy ▁in ▁these ▁regions , ▁Kur ds ▁( K urd ish ▁trib al ▁chief s ) ▁retained ▁much ▁of ▁their ▁aut onomy ▁and ▁power . ▁The ▁Abd ul ham id ▁made |
▁little ▁attempt ▁to ▁alter ▁the ▁traditional ▁power ▁structure ▁of ▁“ segment ed , ▁agr arian ▁Kur ish ▁soci eties ” ▁– ▁ag ha , ▁sh ay k , ▁and ▁trib al ▁chief . ▁Because ▁of ▁their ▁ge ographical ▁position ▁at ▁the ▁southern ▁and ▁eastern ▁fr inge ▁of ▁the ▁emp ire ▁and ▁mountain ous ▁top ography , ▁and ▁limited ▁transport ation ▁and ▁communication ▁system . ▁The ▁state ▁had ▁little ▁access ▁to ▁these ▁provinces ▁and ▁were ▁forced ▁to ▁make ▁inform al ▁agre ements ▁with ▁trib al ▁chief s , ▁for ▁instance ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁q adi ▁and ▁mu ft i ▁did ▁not ▁have ▁juris diction ▁over ▁religious ▁law ▁which ▁bol ster ed ▁Kur d ish ▁authority ▁and ▁aut onomy . ▁The ▁Armen ian ▁national ▁movement ▁had ▁discovered ▁through ▁their ▁revolution ary ▁movement ▁that ▁neither ▁Ts ar ▁Alexander ▁II ▁with ▁his ▁ideal ism ▁nor ▁Glad stone ' s ▁Liberal ism ▁was ▁a ▁depend able ▁hope . ▁ ▁The ▁first ▁effective ▁inter vention ▁had ▁come ▁by ▁the ▁Wood row ▁Wilson ▁who ▁agreed ▁to ▁transfer ▁what ▁will ▁be ▁named ▁as ▁" Wil son ian ▁Armen ia " ▁back ▁to ▁the ▁Armen ians ▁in ▁the ▁Tre aty ▁of ▁S è v res . ▁ ▁Revolution ▁Pers pective ▁ ▁Ott oman ▁Armen ians ▁educated ▁with ▁the ▁European ▁Way ▁began ▁to ▁make ▁attempts ▁in ▁forming ▁organizations ▁– ▁secret ▁soci eties , ▁local ▁groups , ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁' Pro te ctors ▁of ▁the ▁Father land ' ▁( 1 8 8 1 ) ▁which ▁was ▁established ▁in ▁Erz ur um . ▁Prote |
ctors ▁of ▁the ▁Father land ▁was ▁almost ▁certainly ▁ ▁affected ▁by ▁the ▁ideas ▁of ▁French ▁revolution ▁and ▁Greek ▁Revolution ▁as ▁' Fre edom ▁or ▁Death ' ▁was ▁their ▁mot to . ▁ ▁The ▁Armen ian ▁national ▁liber ation ▁movement ▁gathered ▁momentum ▁with ▁the ▁establishment ▁of ▁Armen ian ▁Revolution ary ▁Federation , ▁Social ▁Dem ocrat ▁H unch ak ian ▁Party ▁and ▁Armen ak an ▁( l ater ▁named ▁as ▁Ram g av ar ). ▁The ▁Social ▁Dem ocrat ▁H unch ak ian ▁Party ▁( H ent ch aks ) ▁had ▁the ▁goal ▁to ▁gain ▁Armen ia ' s ▁independence ▁from ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁Empire . ▁The ▁Armen ian ▁Revolution ary ▁Federation ▁( AR F ) ▁originally ▁aim ed ▁for ▁aut onomy ▁of ▁the ▁Armen ian - pop ulated ▁areas , ▁which ▁changed ▁to ▁establishment ▁of ▁Armen ian ▁state ▁with ▁the ▁coming ▁years . ▁AR F ▁adopted ▁a ▁decent ral ized ▁mod us ▁oper and i ▁according ▁to ▁which ▁the ▁various ▁chap ters ▁in ▁different ▁countries ▁were ▁allowed ▁to ▁plan ▁and ▁implement ▁policies ▁in ▁t une ▁with ▁their ▁local ▁political ▁atmosphere . ▁ ▁During ▁ 1 8 8 0 - 1 8 9 0 ▁the ▁local ▁communication ▁channels ▁were ▁developed . ▁The ▁organizations ▁were ▁fully ▁functional ▁under ▁An k ara , ▁Am as ya , ▁ Ç orum , ▁Di yar b ak ı r , ▁Y oz gat , ▁and ▁Tok at . ▁In ▁ 1 8 9 3 ▁they ▁began ▁to ▁use ▁wall ▁newsp apers ▁( new sp apers ▁like ▁bill boards ) |
▁directed ▁toward ▁the ▁non ▁Armen ian ▁subjects . ▁ ▁The ▁main ▁theme ▁of ▁these ▁materials ▁were ▁people ▁should ▁take ▁control ▁of ▁their ▁own ▁life ▁against ▁the ▁opp ress ors . ▁These ▁ide ological ▁communic ants ▁did ▁not ▁have ▁any ▁effect ▁on ▁the ▁Muslim s . ▁These ▁activities ▁ended ▁with ▁cl ash es ▁between ▁revolution aries ▁and ▁Ott oman ▁police . ▁Gener ally ▁resulted ▁with ▁the ▁j ail ▁time . ▁Every ▁j ail ▁time ▁ended ▁with ▁official ▁ex changes ▁between ▁Ott oman ▁Empire ▁and ▁Britain , ▁as ▁it ▁was ▁the ▁prote ctor ate ▁of ▁the ▁Edu c ated ▁revolution aries ▁who ▁can ▁print ▁papers . ▁It ▁was ▁more ▁than ▁probable ' ▁that ▁Armen ian ▁revolution aries ▁were ▁responsible ▁parties ▁in ▁this ▁conflict , ▁Britain ▁concluded . ▁Sultan ▁pan icked , ▁and ▁local ▁authorities ▁act ▁against ▁them ▁as ▁they ▁were ▁cutting ▁te legraph ▁w ires , ▁bomb ing ▁the ▁odd ▁government ▁buildings . ▁Britain ▁or ▁European ▁powers ▁concluded ▁that ▁however ▁if ▁there ▁would ▁be ▁more ▁inter ference ▁these ▁would ▁end ▁with ▁religious ▁fan atic ism , ▁and ▁a ▁civil ▁war ▁( mass ac res ) ▁would ▁occur . ▁ ▁Armen ians ▁mainly ▁lived ▁in ▁the ▁intersection ▁of ▁three ▁emp ires , ▁Ott oman ▁Empire , ▁Russian ▁Empire ▁and ▁Pers ian ▁Empire . ▁The ▁Armen ian ▁di as por a , ▁which ▁lived ▁in ▁Europe ▁mainly , ▁was ▁composed ▁of ▁the ▁el ite ▁whom ▁were ▁being ▁educated ▁in ▁European ▁Univers ities ▁or ▁performing ▁the ▁trade . ▁It ▁was ▁expected ▁that ▁revolution ary ▁thinking ▁would ▁cover ▁the |
▁three ▁emp ires , ▁not ▁only ▁inside ▁( local ▁forms ▁such ▁as ▁" Pro te ctors ▁of ▁the ▁Father land ") ▁but ▁also ▁in ▁Europe , ▁such ▁as ▁Gene va . ▁The ▁Armen ians ▁in ▁Europe ▁( Ar men ian ▁di as por a ) ▁began ▁to ▁hold ▁meet ings ▁about ▁their ▁opp ress ed ▁status ▁leading ▁to ▁the ▁foundation ▁of ▁parties ▁that ▁would ▁formal ize ▁" n ational ▁politics " ▁under ▁Armen ak ans , ▁H n ch ak ians , ▁and ▁Armen ian ▁Revolution ary ▁Federation ▁with ▁the ▁coming ▁years . ▁These ▁secret ▁soci eties ▁( or ▁parties ▁for ▁some ) ▁which ▁developed ▁the ▁" National ▁Polit ics " ▁stated ▁goals ▁as ▁" free ing ▁the ▁Armen ians ▁from ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁Empire ▁by ▁any ▁means ▁possible ". ▁ ▁H . ▁K . ▁V art an ian ▁wrote ▁that ▁the ▁Armen ian ▁revolution ary ▁movement ▁was ▁a ▁direct ▁and ▁necessary ▁response ▁to ▁the ▁increasing ly ▁int ol er able ▁social , ▁economic ▁and ▁political ▁conditions ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 9 th ▁century ▁decay ing ▁and ▁decl ining ▁Ott oman ▁Empire . ▁ ▁Armen ian ▁national ▁movement ▁was ▁clearly ▁an ▁international ▁movement . ▁However , ▁practical ▁center ▁for ▁Armen ian ▁revolution aries ▁was ▁the ▁Armen ians ▁in ▁the ▁Russian ▁Empire , ▁where ▁Armen ians ▁could ▁meet , ▁organ ize ▁funds , ▁move ▁the ▁sources ▁and ▁materials ▁to ▁Ott oman ▁Empire ▁easily . ▁The ▁organization ▁that ▁was ▁founded ▁in ▁Gene va ▁( Europe ), ▁mostly ▁by ▁active ▁Russian ▁Armen ians , ▁took ▁the |
▁idea ▁of ▁national ism ▁and ▁gave ▁it ▁a ▁clear ▁im print ▁of ▁C au cas ian ▁revolution ary ▁thought ▁in ▁ 1 8 8 7 . ▁C au cas ian ▁revolution ary ▁thought ▁was ▁directed ▁at ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁Empire , ▁which ▁the ▁di as por a ▁saw ▁as ▁its ▁hom eland . ▁Young ▁Armen ia ▁Society ▁founded ▁in ▁ 1 8 8 9 ▁by ▁Krist apor ▁Mik ay elian ▁within ▁C au cas us ▁become ▁bigger ▁with ▁time . ▁Young ▁Armen ia ▁Society ▁organized ▁Fed ay ee ▁campaign s ▁into ▁Ott oman ▁territory . ▁ ▁The ▁ts ar ist ▁regime ▁crack ed ▁down ▁on ▁any ▁attempt ▁by ▁Russian ▁Armen ians ▁to ▁eng age ▁in ▁action ▁across ▁the ▁border , ▁a ▁leading ▁example ▁being ▁the ▁G ug un ian ▁Ex ped ition ▁of ▁ 1 8 9 0 . ▁ ▁The ▁Bash k ale h ▁Res istance ▁was ▁the ▁first ▁recorded ▁blo ody ▁encounter ▁between ▁the ▁Armen ians ▁and ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁Empire ▁in ▁May ▁ 1 8 8 9 . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁R ise ▁of ▁national ism ▁under ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁Empire ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁James ▁J . ▁Re id . ▁" Total ▁War , ▁the ▁An nih ilation ▁Eth ic , ▁and ▁the ▁Armen ian ▁Gen o cide , ▁ 1 8 7 0 - 1 9 1 8 " ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : Ar men ian ▁national ism ▁Category : 1 9 th ▁century ▁in ▁Armen ia ▁Category : 1 9 th ▁century ▁in ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁Empire |
<0x0A> </s> ▁D oro ț ca ia ▁is ▁a ▁village ▁in ▁the ▁Dub ă s ari ▁District , ▁Republic ▁of ▁Mold ova , ▁situated ▁on ▁the ▁eastern ▁bank ▁of ▁the ▁River ▁D ni ester . ▁ ▁The ▁village ▁was ▁a ▁place ▁of ▁fighting ▁during ▁ 1 9 9 2 ▁War ▁of ▁Trans n ist ria . ▁It ▁is ▁now ▁under ▁the ▁control ▁of ▁the ▁central ▁authorities ▁from ▁Chi ș in ă u . ▁ ▁The ▁Gr ig ori opol ▁Roman ian - language ▁school ▁which ▁was ▁not ▁allowed ▁to ▁function ▁by ▁the ▁authorities ▁of ▁Trans n ist ria ▁was ▁moved ▁to ▁the ▁village ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 2 . ▁ ▁According ▁to ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 4 ▁Mold ovan ▁Census , ▁the ▁village ▁had ▁a ▁population ▁of ▁ 3 , 0 3 8 , ▁of ▁whom ▁ 2 , 9 7 6 ▁were ▁eth nic ▁Mold ov ans , ▁ 4 4 ▁were ▁from ▁eth nic ▁minor ities , ▁and ▁ 1 8 ▁were ▁und ec la red . ▁ ▁Political ▁problems ▁On ▁the ▁eastern ▁edge ▁of ▁D oro ț ca ia ▁passes ▁the ▁strateg ic ▁road ▁linking ▁T iras pol ▁and ▁R î b ni ța , ▁and ▁separ at ist ▁authorities ▁from ▁T iras pol ▁want ▁to ▁control ▁this ▁road . ▁ 8 5 % ▁of ▁D oro ț ca ia ' s ▁far ml and ▁is ▁across ▁the ▁road . ▁From ▁ 2 0 0 3 ▁Trans n ist rian ▁authorities ▁tried ▁to ▁prevent ▁far mers ▁from ▁accessing |
▁their ▁land . ▁Unable ▁to ▁har vest ▁their ▁cro ps , ▁the ▁far mers ▁suffered ▁serious ▁losses . ▁ ▁This ▁situation ▁lead ▁to ▁an ▁es cal ation ▁of ▁conflict ▁between ▁far mers ▁and ▁Trans n ist rian ▁gu ards . ▁An ▁Organ ization ▁for ▁Security ▁and ▁Co - operation ▁in ▁Europe ▁mission ▁was ▁formed ▁to ▁find ▁a ▁temporary ▁solution ▁that ▁allows ▁far mers ▁to ▁access ▁their ▁land . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : V ill ages ▁of ▁Dub ă s ari ▁District <0x0A> </s> ▁William ▁Rol fe ▁may ▁refer ▁to : ▁ ▁William ▁James ▁Rol fe ▁( 1 8 2 7 – 1 9 1 0 ), ▁American ▁educ ator ▁William ▁Rol fe ▁( MP ) ▁for ▁Hey tes bury ▁( UK ▁Parliament ▁constitu ency ) <0x0A> </s> ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia , ▁officially ▁the ▁Kingdom ▁of ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia , ▁is ▁a ▁country ▁in ▁Western ▁Asia ▁const itut ing ▁the ▁bulk ▁of ▁the ▁Arab ian ▁Pen ins ula . ▁With ▁a ▁land ▁area ▁of ▁approximately ▁, ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁is ▁ge ograph ically ▁the ▁largest ▁so ver eign ▁state ▁in ▁Western ▁Asia , ▁the ▁second - larg est ▁in ▁the ▁Arab ▁world ▁( after ▁Al ger ia ), ▁the ▁fifth - larg est ▁in ▁Asia , ▁and ▁the ▁ 1 2 th - larg est ▁in ▁the ▁world . ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁is ▁border ed ▁by ▁Jordan ▁and ▁Ira q ▁to ▁the ▁north , ▁K uw ait ▁to ▁the ▁n ortheast , ▁Q atar , ▁Bah rain , ▁and |
▁the ▁United ▁Arab ▁Em ir ates ▁to ▁the ▁east , ▁O man ▁to ▁the ▁sout heast ▁and ▁Y emen ▁to ▁the ▁south ; ▁it ▁is ▁separated ▁from ▁Egypt ▁and ▁Israel ▁by ▁the ▁G ulf ▁of ▁A q aba . ▁It ▁is ▁the ▁only ▁country ▁with ▁both ▁a ▁Red ▁Sea ▁coast ▁and ▁a ▁Pers ian ▁G ulf ▁coast , ▁and ▁most ▁of ▁its ▁terrain ▁consists ▁of ▁ar id ▁desert , ▁low land ▁and ▁mountains . ▁As ▁of ▁October ▁ 2 0 1 8 , ▁the ▁Sa udi ▁economy ▁was ▁the ▁largest ▁in ▁the ▁Middle ▁East ▁and ▁the ▁ 1 8 th ▁largest ▁in ▁the ▁world . ▁ ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁also ▁has ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁world ' s ▁young est ▁populations : ▁ 5 0 ▁percent ▁of ▁its ▁ 3 3 . 4 ▁million ▁people ▁are ▁under ▁ 2 5 ▁years ▁old . ▁ ▁The ▁territory ▁that ▁now ▁constit utes ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁was ▁the ▁site ▁of ▁several ▁ancient ▁cult ures ▁and ▁civil izations . ▁The ▁pre history ▁of ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁shows ▁some ▁of ▁the ▁earliest ▁traces ▁of ▁human ▁activity ▁in ▁the ▁world . ▁The ▁world ' s ▁second - larg est ▁religion , ▁Islam , ▁emer ged ▁in ▁modern - day ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia . ▁In ▁the ▁early ▁ 7 th ▁century , ▁the ▁Islam ic ▁proph et ▁Muhammad ▁un ited ▁the ▁population ▁of ▁Arab ia ▁and ▁created ▁a ▁single ▁Islam ic ▁religious ▁polity . ▁Following ▁his ▁death ▁in ▁ 6 3 2 , ▁his ▁follow ers ▁rapidly |
▁expanded ▁the ▁territory ▁under ▁Muslim ▁rule ▁beyond ▁Arab ia , ▁conqu ering ▁huge ▁and ▁un pre ced ented ▁sw ath es ▁of ▁territory ▁( from ▁the ▁I ber ian ▁Pen ins ula ▁in ▁the ▁West ▁to ▁modern - day ▁Pakistan ▁in ▁the ▁East ) ▁in ▁a ▁matter ▁of ▁dec ades . ▁Arab ▁dynast ies ▁origin ating ▁from ▁modern - day ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁founded ▁the ▁R ash id un ▁( 6 3 2 – 6 6 1 ), ▁Um ay y ad ▁( 6 6 1 – 7 5 0 ), ▁Abb as id ▁( 7 5 0 – 1 5 1 7 ) ▁and ▁F at im id ▁( 9 0 9 – 1 1 7 1 ) ▁cal i ph ates ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁numerous ▁other ▁dynast ies ▁in ▁Asia , ▁Africa ▁and ▁Europe . ▁ ▁The ▁area ▁of ▁modern - day ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁formerly ▁consisted ▁of ▁mainly ▁four ▁distinct ▁regions : ▁He j az , ▁Naj d ▁and ▁parts ▁of ▁Eastern ▁Arab ia ▁( Al - Ah sa ) ▁and ▁Southern ▁Arab ia ▁(' As ir ). ▁The ▁Kingdom ▁of ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁was ▁founded ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 2 ▁by ▁I bn ▁Sa ud . ▁He ▁un ited ▁the ▁four ▁regions ▁into ▁a ▁single ▁state ▁through ▁a ▁series ▁of ▁con quest s ▁beginning ▁in ▁ 1 9 0 2 ▁with ▁the ▁capture ▁of ▁R iy ad h , ▁the ▁ancest ral ▁home ▁of ▁his ▁family , ▁the ▁House ▁of ▁Sa ud . ▁Sa udi |
▁Arab ia ▁has ▁since ▁been ▁a ▁total itar ian ▁absolute ▁mon archy , ▁effectively ▁a ▁her edit ary ▁dict ator ship ▁govern ed ▁along ▁Islam ist ▁lines . ▁The ▁ult ra con serv ative ▁W ah hab i ▁religious ▁movement ▁within ▁Sun ni ▁Islam ▁has ▁been ▁called ▁" the ▁pre domin ant ▁feature ▁of ▁Sa udi ▁culture ", ▁with ▁its ▁global ▁spread ▁largely ▁fin anced ▁by ▁the ▁oil ▁and ▁gas ▁trade . ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁is ▁sometimes ▁called ▁" the ▁Land ▁of ▁the ▁Two ▁Holy ▁Mos ques " ▁in ▁reference ▁to ▁Al - M as j id ▁al - H aram ▁( in ▁Me cca ) ▁and ▁Al - M as j id ▁an - N ab aw i ▁( in ▁Med ina ), ▁the ▁two ▁h oli est ▁places ▁in ▁Islam . ▁The ▁state ' s ▁official ▁language ▁is ▁Arab ic . ▁ ▁Pet role um ▁was ▁discovered ▁on ▁ 3 ▁March ▁ 1 9 3 8 ▁and ▁followed ▁up ▁by ▁several ▁other ▁finds ▁in ▁the ▁Eastern ▁Province . ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁has ▁since ▁become ▁the ▁world ' s ▁second ▁largest ▁oil ▁producer ▁( be hind ▁the ▁US ) ▁and ▁the ▁world ' s ▁largest ▁oil ▁exp orter , ▁cont rolling ▁the ▁world ' s ▁second ▁largest ▁oil ▁res erves ▁and ▁the ▁sixth ▁largest ▁gas ▁res erves . ▁The ▁kingdom ▁is ▁categor ized ▁as ▁a ▁World ▁Bank ▁high - in come ▁economy ▁with ▁a ▁high ▁Human ▁Development ▁Index ▁and ▁is ▁the ▁only ▁Arab ▁country ▁to ▁be ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁G |
- 2 0 ▁major ▁econom ies . ▁▁▁ ▁The ▁state ▁has ▁attract ed ▁criticism ▁for ▁a ▁variety ▁of ▁reasons ▁including : ▁its ▁treatment ▁of ▁women , ▁its ▁excess ive ▁and ▁often ▁extra jud icial ▁use ▁of ▁capital ▁pun ishment , ▁state - sp ons ored ▁disc rim ination ▁against ▁religious ▁minor ities ▁and ▁at he ists , ▁its ▁role ▁in ▁the ▁Y em eni ▁Civil ▁War , ▁spons or ship ▁of ▁Islam ic ▁terror ism , ▁its ▁failure ▁to ▁take ▁ade qu ate ▁measures ▁against ▁human ▁tra ff ick ing , ▁state - san ction ed ▁rac ism ▁and ▁ant is emit ism , ▁its ▁poor ▁human ▁rights ▁record , ▁and ▁its ▁strict ▁interpretation ▁of ▁Sh aria ▁law . ▁▁ ▁The ▁kingdom ▁has ▁the ▁world ' s ▁fifth - high est ▁military ▁exp end iture ▁and , ▁according ▁to ▁S IP RI , ▁was ▁the ▁world ' s ▁second ▁largest ▁arms ▁im porter ▁from ▁ 2 0 1 0 ▁to ▁ 2 0 1 4 . ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁is ▁considered ▁a ▁regional ▁and ▁middle ▁power . ▁In ▁addition ▁to ▁the ▁G CC , ▁it ▁is ▁an ▁active ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁Organisation ▁of ▁Islam ic ▁Co operation ▁and ▁O PE C . ▁ ▁Et ym ology ▁ ▁Following ▁the ▁am alg am ation ▁of ▁the ▁Kingdom ▁of ▁He j az ▁and ▁Ne jd , ▁the ▁new ▁state ▁was ▁named ▁al - M am lak ah ▁al - ʿ A rab ī y ah ▁as - Sa ʿ ū d ī y ah |
▁( a ▁transl iter ation ▁of ▁ ▁in ▁Arab ic ) ▁by ▁royal ▁dec ree ▁on ▁ 2 3 ▁September ▁ 1 9 3 2 ▁by ▁its ▁founder , ▁Abd ul az iz ▁bin ▁Sa ud . ▁Although ▁this ▁is ▁normally ▁translated ▁as ▁" the ▁Kingdom ▁of ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia " ▁in ▁English , ▁it ▁literally ▁means ▁" the ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ▁kingdom ", ▁or ▁" the ▁Arab ▁Sa udi ▁Kingdom ". ▁ ▁The ▁word ▁" Sa udi " ▁is ▁derived ▁from ▁the ▁element ▁as - Sa ʿ ū d ī y ah ▁in ▁the ▁Arab ic ▁name ▁of ▁the ▁country , ▁which ▁is ▁a ▁type ▁of ▁ad jective ▁known ▁as ▁a ▁n is ba , ▁formed ▁from ▁the ▁d yn astic ▁name ▁of ▁the ▁Sa udi ▁royal ▁family , ▁the ▁Al ▁Sa ud ▁( ). ▁Its ▁inclusion ▁express es ▁the ▁view ▁that ▁the ▁country ▁is ▁the ▁personal ▁possession ▁of ▁the ▁royal ▁family . ▁Al ▁Sa ud ▁is ▁an ▁Arab ic ▁name ▁formed ▁by ▁adding ▁the ▁word ▁Al , ▁meaning ▁" family ▁of " ▁or ▁" H ouse ▁of ", ▁to ▁the ▁personal ▁name ▁of ▁an ▁ancest or . ▁In ▁the ▁case ▁of ▁the ▁Al ▁Sa ud , ▁this ▁is ▁Sa ud ▁ibn ▁Muhammad ▁ibn ▁Mu q rin , ▁the ▁father ▁of ▁the ▁dynast y ' s ▁ 1 8 th - century ▁founder , ▁Muhammad ▁bin ▁Sa ud . ▁ ▁History ▁ ▁Pre history ▁ ▁There ▁is ▁evidence ▁that ▁human ▁habit ation ▁in ▁the ▁Arab ian ▁Pen ins ula ▁dates ▁back |
▁to ▁about ▁ 1 2 5 , 0 0 0 ▁years ▁ago . ▁A ▁ 2 0 1 1 ▁study ▁found ▁that ▁the ▁first ▁modern ▁humans ▁to ▁spread ▁east ▁across ▁Asia ▁left ▁Africa ▁about ▁ 7 5 , 0 0 0 ▁years ▁ago ▁across ▁the ▁Bab - el - Man deb ▁connecting ▁the ▁Horn ▁of ▁Africa ▁and ▁Arab ia . ▁The ▁Arab ian ▁pen ins ula ▁is ▁regarded ▁as ▁a ▁central ▁figure ▁in ▁the ▁understanding ▁of ▁hom in in ▁evolution ▁and ▁dispers als . ▁Arab ia ▁under w ent ▁an ▁extreme ▁environmental ▁fl uct u ation ▁in ▁the ▁Qu atern ary ▁that ▁led ▁to ▁prof ound ▁evolution ary ▁and ▁dem ographic ▁changes . ▁Arab ia ▁has ▁a ▁rich ▁Lower ▁Pale ol ith ic ▁record , ▁and ▁the ▁quantity ▁of ▁Old owan - like ▁sites ▁in ▁the ▁region ▁indicate ▁a ▁significant ▁role ▁that ▁Arab ia ▁had ▁played ▁in ▁the ▁early ▁hom in in ▁colon ization ▁of ▁E uras ia . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁Ne ol ith ic ▁period , ▁prominent ▁cult ures ▁such ▁as ▁Al - Mag ar , ▁whose ▁center ▁lay ▁in ▁modern - day ▁south western ▁Naj d ▁fl our ished . ▁Al - Mag ar ▁could ▁be ▁considered ▁as ▁a ▁" Ne ol ith ic ▁Revolution " ▁in ▁human ▁knowledge ▁and ▁hand ic raft ▁skills . ▁The ▁culture ▁is ▁character ized ▁as ▁being ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁world ' s ▁first ▁to ▁involve ▁the ▁w ides p read ▁domestic ation ▁of ▁animals , ▁particularly ▁the ▁horse , ▁during ▁the ▁Ne ol ith |
ic ▁period . ▁As ide ▁from ▁horses , ▁animals ▁such ▁as ▁sheep , ▁go ats , ▁dogs , ▁in ▁particular ▁of ▁the ▁Sal uki ▁race , ▁o str ich es , ▁fal cons ▁and ▁fish ▁were ▁discovered ▁in ▁the ▁form ▁of ▁stone ▁stat ues ▁and ▁rock ▁eng rav ings . ▁Al - Mag ar ▁stat ues ▁were ▁made ▁from ▁local ▁stone , ▁and ▁it ▁seems ▁that ▁the ▁stat ues ▁were ▁fixed ▁in ▁a ▁central ▁building ▁that ▁might ▁have ▁had ▁a ▁significant ▁role ▁on ▁the ▁social ▁and ▁religious ▁life ▁of ▁the ▁inhabitants . ▁ ▁In ▁November ▁ 2 0 1 7 , ▁hunting ▁scenes ▁showing ▁images ▁of ▁most ▁likely ▁domestic ated ▁dogs , ▁res emb ling ▁the ▁C ana an ▁dog , ▁we aring ▁le ash es ▁were ▁discovered ▁in ▁Sh u way mis , ▁a ▁h illy ▁region ▁of ▁north western ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia . ▁These ▁rock ▁eng rav ings ▁date ▁back ▁more ▁than ▁ 8 , 0 0 0 ▁years , ▁making ▁them ▁the ▁earliest ▁dep ict ions ▁of ▁dogs ▁in ▁the ▁world . ▁ ▁At ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁ 4 th ▁mill en ni um ▁BC , ▁Arab ia ▁entered ▁the ▁Bron ze ▁Age ▁after ▁witness ing ▁dr astic ▁transformations ; ▁met als ▁were ▁widely ▁used , ▁and ▁the ▁period ▁was ▁character ized ▁by ▁its ▁ 2 ▁m ▁high ▁bur ial s ▁which ▁was ▁simultaneously ▁followed ▁by ▁the ▁existence ▁of ▁numerous ▁tem ples , ▁that ▁included ▁many ▁free - standing ▁sculpt ures ▁originally ▁painted ▁with ▁red ▁colours . ▁ |
▁Pre - I sl am ic ▁ ▁The ▁earliest ▁sed ent ary ▁culture ▁in ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁dates ▁back ▁to ▁the ▁U ba id ▁period , ▁upon ▁discover ing ▁various ▁pot tery ▁sh erd s ▁at ▁D os ari y ah . ▁Initial ▁analysis ▁of ▁the ▁discovery ▁concluded ▁that ▁the ▁eastern ▁province ▁of ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁was ▁the ▁hom eland ▁of ▁the ▁earliest ▁sett lers ▁of ▁Mes op ot am ia , ▁and ▁by ▁extension , ▁the ▁likely ▁origin ▁of ▁the ▁S umer ians . ▁However , ▁exper ts ▁such ▁as ▁Joan ▁O ates ▁had ▁the ▁opportunity ▁to ▁see ▁the ▁U ba id ▁period ▁sh erd s ▁in ▁eastern ▁Arab ia ▁and ▁consequ ently ▁conclude ▁that ▁the ▁sh erd s ▁dates ▁to ▁the ▁last ▁two ▁phases ▁of ▁U ba id ▁period ▁( period ▁three ▁and ▁four ), ▁while ▁hand ful ▁examples ▁could ▁be ▁class ified ▁roughly ▁as ▁either ▁U ba id ▁ 3 ▁or ▁U ba id ▁ 2 . ▁Thus ▁the ▁idea ▁that ▁colon ists ▁from ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁had ▁em igr ated ▁to ▁southern ▁Mes op ot am ia ▁and ▁founded ▁the ▁region ' s ▁first ▁sed ent ary ▁culture ▁was ▁abandoned . ▁ ▁Cl im atic ▁change ▁and ▁the ▁on set ▁of ▁ar id ity ▁may ▁have ▁brought ▁about ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁this ▁phase ▁of ▁settlement , ▁as ▁little ▁arch ae ological ▁evidence ▁exists ▁from ▁the ▁succeed ing ▁mill en ni um . ▁The ▁settlement ▁of ▁the ▁region ▁pick s ▁up ▁again ▁in ▁the ▁period ▁of ▁D |
il mun ▁in ▁the ▁early ▁ 3 rd ▁mill en ni um . ▁Kn own ▁records ▁from ▁U ru k ▁refer ▁to ▁a ▁place ▁called ▁D il mun , ▁associated ▁in ▁several ▁occasions ▁with ▁co pper ▁and ▁in ▁later ▁period ▁it ▁was ▁a ▁source ▁of ▁imported ▁woods ▁in ▁southern ▁Mes op ot am ia . ▁A ▁number ▁of ▁sch ol ars ▁have ▁suggested ▁that ▁D il mun ▁originally ▁designated ▁the ▁eastern ▁province ▁of ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia , ▁not ably ▁linked ▁with ▁the ▁major ▁D il mun ite ▁settlement s ▁of ▁U mm ▁an - N us si ▁and ▁U mm ▁ar - R am ad h ▁in ▁the ▁interior ▁and ▁Tar out ▁on ▁the ▁coast . ▁It ▁is ▁likely ▁that ▁Tar out ▁Island ▁was ▁the ▁main ▁port ▁and ▁the ▁capital ▁of ▁D il mun . ▁Mes op ot am ian ▁ins cribed ▁cl ay ▁table ts ▁suggests ▁that , ▁in ▁the ▁early ▁period ▁of ▁D il mun , ▁a ▁form ▁of ▁hier arch ical ▁organized ▁political ▁structure ▁existed . ▁In ▁ 1 9 6 6 ▁an ▁earth works ▁in ▁Tar out ▁exposed ▁ancient ▁bur ial ▁field ▁that ▁yield ed ▁a ▁large ▁impress ive ▁statue ▁d ating ▁to ▁the ▁D il mun ite ▁period ▁( mid ▁ 3 rd ▁mill en ni um ▁BC ). ▁The ▁statue ▁was ▁locally ▁made ▁under ▁strong ▁Mes op ot am ian ▁influence ▁on ▁the ▁art istic ▁principle ▁of ▁D il mun . ▁ ▁By ▁ 2 2 0 0 ▁BC , ▁the ▁centre ▁of ▁D il mun |
▁shift ed ▁for ▁unknown ▁reasons ▁from ▁Tar out ▁and ▁the ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ian ▁main land ▁to ▁the ▁island ▁of ▁Bah rain , ▁and ▁a ▁major ▁developed ▁settlement s ▁appeared ▁in ▁Bah rain ▁for ▁the ▁first ▁time , ▁where ▁a ▁labor ious ▁temple ▁complex ▁and ▁thousands ▁of ▁bur ial ▁m ounds ▁that ▁dates ▁to ▁this ▁period ▁were ▁discovered . ▁ ▁By ▁the ▁Late ▁Bron ze ▁Age , ▁a ▁histor ically ▁recorded ▁people ▁and ▁land ▁( Med ian ▁and ▁the ▁Med ian ites ) ▁in ▁the ▁north - western ▁portion ▁of ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁are ▁well - document ed ▁in ▁the ▁Bible . ▁Center ed ▁in ▁Tab ou k , ▁Med ian ▁stretch ed ▁from ▁W adi ▁Arab ah ▁in ▁the ▁north ▁to ▁the ▁area ▁of ▁al - We j h ▁in ▁the ▁south . ▁The ▁capital ▁of ▁Med ian ▁was ▁Q ur ay y ah , ▁it ▁consists ▁of ▁a ▁large ▁fort ified ▁cit adel ▁en comp ass ing ▁ 3 5 ▁hect ares ▁and ▁below ▁it ▁lies ▁a ▁w alled ▁settlement ▁of ▁ 1 5 ▁hect ares . ▁The ▁city ▁hosted ▁as ▁many ▁as ▁ 1 0 ▁to ▁ 1 2 ▁thousand ▁inhabitants . ▁The ▁Med ian ites ▁were ▁dep icted ▁in ▁two ▁major ▁events ▁in ▁the ▁Bible ▁that ▁rec ount ▁Israel ' s ▁two ▁wars ▁with ▁Med ian , ▁somewhere ▁in ▁the ▁early ▁ 1 1 th ▁century ▁BC . ▁Polit ically , ▁the ▁Med ian ite ▁were ▁described ▁as ▁having ▁decent ral ized ▁structure ▁head ed ▁by ▁five ▁k |
ings ▁( E vi , ▁Re kem , ▁T sur , ▁Hur ▁and ▁Reb a ), ▁the ▁names ▁appears ▁to ▁be ▁to pon ym s ▁of ▁important ▁Med ian ite ▁settlement s . ▁It ▁is ▁common ▁view ▁that ▁Med ian ▁designated ▁a ▁conf eder ation ▁of ▁tribes , ▁the ▁sed ent ary ▁element ▁settled ▁in ▁the ▁Hij az ▁while ▁its ▁nom adic ▁affili ates ▁past ured , ▁and ▁sometimes ▁pill aged ▁as ▁far ▁away ▁land ▁as ▁Palest ine . ▁The ▁nom adic ▁Med ian ites ▁were ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁earliest ▁explo it ers ▁of ▁the ▁domestic ation ▁of ▁cam els ▁that ▁enabled ▁them ▁to ▁navigate ▁through ▁the ▁har sh ▁terra ins ▁of ▁the ▁region . ▁ ▁At ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁ 7 th ▁century ▁BC , ▁an ▁emer ging ▁kingdom ▁appeared ▁on ▁the ▁historical ▁the ater ▁of ▁north - western ▁Arab ia . ▁It ▁started ▁as ▁a ▁She ik dom ▁of ▁D ed an , ▁which ▁developed ▁into ▁the ▁Kingdom ▁of ▁Li hy an ▁tribe . ▁The ▁earliest ▁att est ation ▁of ▁state ▁reg ality , ▁King ▁of ▁Li hy an , ▁was ▁in ▁the ▁mid - six th ▁century ▁BC . ▁The ▁second ▁stage ▁of ▁the ▁kingdom ▁saw ▁the ▁transformation ▁of ▁D ed an ▁from ▁a ▁mere ▁city - state ▁of ▁which ▁only ▁influence ▁they ▁ex ert ed ▁was ▁inside ▁their ▁city ▁walls , ▁to ▁a ▁kingdom ▁that ▁en comp ass ▁much ▁wider ▁domain ▁that ▁marked ▁the ▁p inn acle ▁of ▁Li hy an ▁civil ization . ▁The ▁third ▁state ▁occurred |
▁during ▁the ▁early ▁ 3 rd ▁century ▁BC ▁with ▁burst ing ▁economic ▁activity ▁between ▁the ▁south ▁and ▁north ▁that ▁made ▁Li hy an ▁ac quire ▁large ▁influence ▁suitable ▁to ▁its ▁strateg ic ▁position ▁on ▁the ▁car avan ▁road . ▁ ▁Li hy an ▁was ▁a ▁powerful ▁and ▁highly ▁organized ▁ancient ▁Arab ian ▁kingdom ▁that ▁played ▁a ▁vital ▁cultural ▁and ▁economic ▁role ▁in ▁the ▁north - western ▁region ▁of ▁the ▁Arab ian ▁Pen ins ula . ▁The ▁Li hy an ites ▁ruled ▁over ▁large ▁domain ▁from ▁Y ath rib ▁in ▁the ▁south ▁and ▁parts ▁of ▁the ▁Lev ant ▁in ▁the ▁north . ▁In ▁anti qu ity , ▁G ulf ▁of ▁A q aba ▁used ▁to ▁be ▁called ▁G ulf ▁of ▁Li hy an . ▁A ▁testim ony ▁to ▁the ▁extensive ▁influence ▁that ▁Li hy an ▁acquired . ▁ ▁The ▁Li hy an ites ▁fell ▁into ▁the ▁hands ▁of ▁the ▁N ab ata e ans ▁around ▁ 6 5 ▁BC ▁upon ▁their ▁se iz ure ▁of ▁H eg ra ▁then ▁march ing ▁to ▁T ay ma , ▁and ▁to ▁their ▁capital ▁D ed an ▁in ▁ 9 ▁BC . ▁The ▁N ab ata e ans ▁ruled ▁large ▁port ions ▁of ▁north ▁Arab ia ▁until ▁their ▁domain ▁was ▁an nex ed ▁by ▁the ▁Roman ▁Empire . ▁ ▁Middle ▁A ges ▁and ▁rise ▁of ▁Islam ▁ ▁Short ly ▁before ▁the ▁advent ▁of ▁Islam , ▁apart ▁from ▁urban ▁trad ing ▁settlement s ▁( such ▁as ▁Me cca ▁and ▁Med ina ), ▁much ▁of ▁what ▁was ▁to ▁become ▁Sa |
udi ▁Arab ia ▁was ▁populated ▁by ▁nom adic ▁past oral ▁trib al ▁soci eties . ▁The ▁Islam ic ▁proph et ▁Muhammad ▁was ▁born ▁in ▁Me cca ▁in ▁about ▁ 5 7 1 ▁CE . ▁In ▁the ▁early ▁ 7 th ▁century , ▁Muhammad ▁un ited ▁the ▁various ▁tribes ▁of ▁the ▁pen ins ula ▁and ▁created ▁a ▁single ▁Islam ic ▁religious ▁polity . ▁Following ▁his ▁death ▁in ▁ 6 3 2 , ▁his ▁follow ers ▁rapidly ▁expanded ▁the ▁territory ▁under ▁Muslim ▁rule ▁beyond ▁Arab ia , ▁conqu ering ▁huge ▁and ▁un pre ced ented ▁sw ath es ▁of ▁territory ▁( from ▁the ▁I ber ian ▁Pen ins ula ▁in ▁west ▁to ▁modern ▁day ▁Pakistan ▁in ▁east ) ▁in ▁a ▁matter ▁of ▁dec ades . ▁Arab ia ▁soon ▁became ▁a ▁more ▁polit ically ▁peri pher al ▁region ▁of ▁the ▁Muslim ▁world ▁as ▁the ▁focus ▁shift ed ▁to ▁the ▁vast ▁and ▁newly ▁conquer ed ▁lands . ▁ ▁Arab s ▁origin ating ▁from ▁modern - day ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia , ▁the ▁He j az ▁in ▁particular , ▁founded ▁the ▁R ash id un ▁( 6 3 2 – 6 6 1 ), ▁Um ay y ad ▁( 6 6 1 – 7 5 0 ), ▁Abb as id ▁( 7 5 0 – 1 5 1 7 ) ▁and ▁the ▁F at im id ▁( 9 0 9 – 1 1 7 1 ) ▁cal i ph ates . ▁ ▁From ▁the ▁ 1 0 th ▁century ▁to ▁the ▁early ▁ 2 0 th ▁century , |
▁Me cca ▁and ▁Med ina ▁were ▁under ▁the ▁control ▁of ▁a ▁local ▁Arab ▁r uler ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁Sh ar if ▁of ▁Me cca , ▁but ▁at ▁most ▁times ▁the ▁Sh ar if ▁ow ed ▁alleg iance ▁to ▁the ▁r uler ▁of ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁major ▁Islam ic ▁emp ires ▁based ▁in ▁Bag hd ad , ▁C airo ▁or ▁Ist an bul . ▁Most ▁of ▁the ▁remainder ▁of ▁what ▁became ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁revert ed ▁to ▁traditional ▁trib al ▁rule . ▁ ▁For ▁much ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 0 th ▁century , ▁the ▁Is ma ' ili - Sh i ' ite ▁Q arm ati ans ▁were ▁the ▁most ▁powerful ▁force ▁in ▁the ▁Pers ian ▁G ulf . ▁In ▁ 9 3 0 , ▁the ▁Q arm ati ans ▁pill aged ▁Me cca , ▁out rag ing ▁the ▁Muslim ▁world , ▁particularly ▁with ▁their ▁the ft ▁of ▁the ▁Black ▁Stone . ▁In ▁ 1 0 7 7 – 1 0 7 8 , ▁an ▁Arab ▁She ikh ▁named ▁Abd ul lah ▁bin ▁Ali ▁Al ▁U y uni ▁defeated ▁the ▁Q arm ati ans ▁in ▁Bah rain ▁and ▁al - H asa ▁with ▁the ▁help ▁of ▁the ▁Great ▁Sel ju q ▁Empire ▁and ▁founded ▁the ▁U y un id ▁dynast y . ▁The ▁U y un id ▁Em ir ate ▁later ▁under w ent ▁expansion ▁with ▁its ▁territory ▁stretch ing ▁from ▁Naj d ▁to ▁the ▁Sy rian ▁desert . ▁They ▁were ▁over th rown ▁by ▁the ▁U sf ur ids ▁in ▁ 1 |
2 5 3 . ▁U fs ur id ▁rule ▁was ▁weak ened ▁after ▁Pers ian ▁r ul ers ▁of ▁H orm uz ▁captured ▁Bah rain ▁and ▁Q atif ▁in ▁ 1 3 2 0 . ▁The ▁v ass als ▁of ▁Or mu z , ▁the ▁Sh ia ▁Jar wan id ▁dynast y ▁came ▁to ▁rule ▁eastern ▁Arab ia ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 4 th ▁century . ▁The ▁J ab rid s ▁took ▁control ▁of ▁the ▁region ▁after ▁over throw ing ▁the ▁Jar wan ids ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 5 th ▁century ▁and ▁cl ashed ▁with ▁H orm uz ▁for ▁more ▁than ▁two ▁dec ades ▁over ▁the ▁region ▁for ▁its ▁economic ▁reven ues , ▁until ▁finally ▁agree ing ▁to ▁pay ▁t ribute ▁in ▁ 1 5 0 7 . ▁Al - M unta fi q ▁tribe ▁later ▁took ▁over ▁the ▁region ▁and ▁came ▁under ▁Ott oman ▁su zer ain ty . ▁The ▁B ani ▁K hal id ▁tribe ▁later ▁revol ted ▁against ▁them ▁in ▁ 1 7 th ▁century ▁and ▁took ▁control . ▁Their ▁rule ▁extended ▁from ▁Ira q ▁to ▁O man ▁at ▁its ▁height ▁and ▁they ▁too ▁came ▁under ▁Ott oman ▁su zer ain ty . ▁ ▁Ott oman ▁He j az ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁ 1 6 th ▁century , ▁the ▁Ott om ans ▁added ▁the ▁Red ▁Sea ▁and ▁Pers ian ▁G ulf ▁coast ▁( the ▁He j az , ▁As ir ▁and ▁Al - Ah sa ) ▁to ▁the ▁Empire ▁and ▁claimed ▁su zer ain ty ▁over ▁the ▁interior . ▁One |
▁reason ▁was ▁to ▁th wart ▁Portuguese ▁attempts ▁to ▁attack ▁the ▁Red ▁Sea ▁( h ence ▁the ▁He j az ) ▁and ▁the ▁Indian ▁Ocean . ▁Ott oman ▁degree ▁of ▁control ▁over ▁these ▁lands ▁varied ▁over ▁the ▁next ▁four ▁centuries ▁with ▁the ▁fl uct u ating ▁strength ▁or ▁weak ness ▁of ▁the ▁Empire ' s ▁central ▁authority . ▁These ▁changes ▁contributed ▁to ▁later ▁un cert aint ies , ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁dispute ▁with ▁Trans j ord an ▁over ▁the ▁inclusion ▁of ▁the ▁san jak ▁of ▁Ma ' an , ▁including ▁the ▁cities ▁of ▁Ma ' an ▁and ▁A q aba . ▁ ▁Foundation ▁of ▁the ▁Sa ud ▁dynast y ▁ ▁The ▁emer gence ▁of ▁what ▁was ▁to ▁become ▁the ▁Sa udi ▁royal ▁family , ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁Al ▁Sa ud , ▁began ▁in ▁Ne jd ▁in ▁central ▁Arab ia ▁in ▁ 1 7 4 4 , ▁when ▁Muhammad ▁bin ▁Sa ud , ▁founder ▁of ▁the ▁dynast y , ▁joined ▁forces ▁with ▁the ▁religious ▁leader ▁Muhammad ▁ibn ▁Abd ▁al - W ah hab , ▁founder ▁of ▁the ▁W ah hab i ▁movement , ▁a ▁strict ▁pur itan ical ▁form ▁of ▁Sun ni ▁Islam . ▁This ▁al liance ▁formed ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 8 th ▁century ▁provided ▁the ▁ide ological ▁imp et us ▁to ▁Sa udi ▁expansion ▁and ▁remains ▁the ▁basis ▁of ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ian ▁d yn astic ▁rule ▁today . ▁ ▁The ▁first ▁" Sa udi ▁state " ▁established ▁in ▁ 1 7 4 4 ▁in ▁the ▁area ▁around ▁R iy ad h , |
▁rapidly ▁expanded ▁and ▁briefly ▁controlled ▁most ▁of ▁the ▁present - day ▁territory ▁of ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia , ▁s ack ing ▁Kar b ala ▁in ▁ 1 8 0 2 ▁and ▁capt uring ▁Me cca ▁in ▁ 1 8 0 3 , ▁but ▁was ▁destroyed ▁by ▁ 1 8 1 8 ▁by ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁vic ero y ▁of ▁Egypt , ▁Moh ammed ▁Ali ▁P asha . ▁A ▁much ▁smaller ▁second ▁" Sa udi ▁state ", ▁located ▁mainly ▁in ▁Ne jd , ▁was ▁established ▁in ▁ 1 8 2 4 . ▁Through out ▁the ▁rest ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 9 th ▁century , ▁the ▁Al ▁Sa ud ▁cont ested ▁control ▁of ▁the ▁interior ▁of ▁what ▁was ▁to ▁become ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁with ▁another ▁Arab ian ▁r uling ▁family , ▁the ▁Al ▁R ash id , ▁who ▁ruled ▁the ▁Em ir ate ▁of ▁J ab al ▁Sh am mar . ▁By ▁ 1 8 9 1 , ▁the ▁Al ▁R ash id ▁were ▁vict orious ▁and ▁the ▁Al ▁Sa ud ▁were ▁driven ▁into ▁ex ile ▁in ▁K uw ait . ▁ ▁At ▁the ▁beginning ▁of ▁the ▁ 2 0 th ▁century , ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁Empire ▁continued ▁to ▁control ▁or ▁have ▁a ▁su zer ain ty ▁over ▁most ▁of ▁the ▁pen ins ula . ▁Sub ject ▁to ▁this ▁su zer ain ty , ▁Arab ia ▁was ▁ruled ▁by ▁a ▁patch work ▁of ▁trib al ▁r ul ers , ▁with ▁the ▁Sh ar if ▁of ▁Me cca ▁having ▁pre - em in ence ▁and |
▁r uling ▁the ▁He j az . ▁In ▁ 1 9 0 2 , ▁Abd ul ▁Rah man ' s ▁son , ▁Abd ul ▁Az iz — l ater ▁to ▁be ▁known ▁as ▁I bn ▁Sa ud — re capt ured ▁control ▁of ▁R iy ad h ▁bringing ▁the ▁Al ▁Sa ud ▁back ▁to ▁Ne jd , ▁creating ▁the ▁third ▁" Sa udi ▁state ". ▁I bn ▁Sa ud ▁gained ▁the ▁support ▁of ▁the ▁I kh wan , ▁a ▁trib al ▁army ▁inspired ▁by ▁W ah hab ism ▁and ▁led ▁by ▁F ais al ▁Al - D aw ish , ▁and ▁which ▁had ▁grown ▁quickly ▁after ▁its ▁foundation ▁in ▁ 1 9 1 2 . ▁With ▁the ▁aid ▁of ▁the ▁I kh wan , ▁I bn ▁Sa ud ▁captured ▁Al - Ah sa ▁from ▁the ▁Ott om ans ▁in ▁ 1 9 1 3 . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 1 6 , ▁with ▁the ▁encourag ement ▁and ▁support ▁of ▁Britain ▁( which ▁was ▁fighting ▁the ▁Ott om ans ▁in ▁World ▁War ▁I ), ▁the ▁Sh ar if ▁of ▁Me cca , ▁Hus sein ▁bin ▁Ali , ▁led ▁a ▁pan - A rab ▁revol t ▁against ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁Empire ▁to ▁create ▁a ▁un ited ▁Arab ▁state . ▁Although ▁the ▁Arab ▁Revol t ▁of ▁ 1 9 1 6 ▁to ▁ 1 9 1 8 ▁failed ▁in ▁its ▁objective , ▁the ▁Al lied ▁victory ▁in ▁World ▁War ▁I ▁resulted ▁in ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁Ott oman ▁su zer ain ty ▁and ▁control ▁in ▁Arab |
ia ▁and ▁Hus sein ▁bin ▁Ali ▁became ▁King ▁of ▁He j az . ▁ ▁I bn ▁Sa ud ▁avoided ▁invol vement ▁in ▁the ▁Arab ▁Revol t , ▁and ▁instead ▁continued ▁his ▁struggle ▁with ▁the ▁Al ▁R ash id . ▁Following ▁the ▁latter ' s ▁final ▁defeat , ▁he ▁took ▁the ▁title ▁Sultan ▁of ▁Ne jd ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 1 . ▁With ▁the ▁help ▁of ▁the ▁I kh wan , ▁the ▁Kingdom ▁of ▁He j az ▁was ▁conquer ed ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 4 – 2 5 ▁and ▁on ▁ 1 0 ▁January ▁ 1 9 2 6 , ▁I bn ▁Sa ud ▁declared ▁himself ▁King ▁of ▁He j az . ▁A ▁year ▁later , ▁he ▁added ▁the ▁title ▁of ▁King ▁of ▁Ne jd . ▁For ▁the ▁next ▁five ▁years , ▁he ▁admin ister ed ▁the ▁two ▁parts ▁of ▁his ▁dual ▁kingdom ▁as ▁separate ▁units . ▁ ▁After ▁the ▁con quest ▁of ▁the ▁He j az , ▁the ▁I kh wan ▁leadership ' s ▁objective ▁switched ▁to ▁expansion ▁of ▁the ▁W ah hab ist ▁real m ▁into ▁the ▁British ▁prote ctor ates ▁of ▁Trans j ord an , ▁Ira q ▁and ▁K uw ait , ▁and ▁began ▁ra iding ▁those ▁territ ories . ▁This ▁met ▁with ▁I bn ▁Sa ud ' s ▁opposition , ▁as ▁he ▁recognized ▁the ▁danger ▁of ▁a ▁direct ▁conflict ▁with ▁the ▁British . ▁At ▁the ▁same ▁time , ▁the ▁I kh wan ▁became ▁dis en ch anted ▁with ▁I bn ▁Sa ud ' s ▁domestic ▁policies ▁which |
▁appeared ▁to ▁favor ▁modern ization ▁and ▁the ▁increase ▁in ▁the ▁number ▁of ▁non - Mus lim ▁foreign ers ▁in ▁the ▁country . ▁As ▁a ▁result , ▁they ▁turned ▁against ▁I bn ▁Sa ud ▁and , ▁after ▁a ▁two - year ▁struggle , ▁were ▁defeated ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 9 ▁at ▁the ▁Battle ▁of ▁Sab illa , ▁where ▁their ▁leaders ▁were ▁mass ac red . ▁On ▁ 2 3 ▁September ▁ 1 9 3 2 , ▁the ▁two ▁kingdom s ▁of ▁the ▁He j az ▁and ▁Ne jd ▁were ▁un ited ▁as ▁the ▁Kingdom ▁of ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia , ▁and ▁that ▁date ▁is ▁now ▁a ▁national ▁hol iday ▁called ▁Sa udi ▁National ▁Day . ▁ ▁Post - un ification ▁ ▁The ▁new ▁kingdom ▁was ▁reli ant ▁on ▁limited ▁agricult ure ▁and ▁pil gr image ▁reven ues . ▁In ▁ 1 9 3 8 , ▁vast ▁res erves ▁of ▁oil ▁were ▁discovered ▁in ▁the ▁Al - Ah sa ▁region ▁along ▁the ▁coast ▁of ▁the ▁Pers ian ▁G ulf , ▁and ▁full - scale ▁development ▁of ▁the ▁oil ▁fields ▁began ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 1 ▁under ▁the ▁US - control led ▁Ar am co ▁( A rab ian ▁American ▁O il ▁Company ). ▁O il ▁provided ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁with ▁economic ▁prosper ity ▁and ▁substantial ▁political ▁le verage ▁intern ation ally . ▁ ▁Cultural ▁life ▁rapidly ▁developed , ▁primarily ▁in ▁the ▁He j az , ▁which ▁was ▁the ▁center ▁for ▁newsp apers ▁and ▁radio . ▁However , ▁the ▁large ▁infl ux ▁of |
▁foreign ▁workers ▁in ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁in ▁the ▁oil ▁industry ▁increased ▁the ▁pre - ex isting ▁prop ens ity ▁for ▁x en oph ob ia . At ▁the ▁same ▁time , ▁the ▁government ▁became ▁increasing ly ▁waste ful ▁and ▁extra v ag ant . ▁By ▁the ▁ 1 9 5 0 s ▁this ▁had ▁led ▁to ▁large ▁government al ▁def ic its ▁and ▁excess ive ▁foreign ▁borrow ing . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 5 3 , ▁Sa ud ▁of ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁succeeded ▁as ▁the ▁king ▁of ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia , ▁on ▁his ▁father ' s ▁death , ▁until ▁ 1 9 6 4 ▁when ▁he ▁was ▁de posed ▁in ▁favor ▁of ▁his ▁half ▁brother ▁F ais al ▁of ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia , ▁after ▁an ▁inten se ▁rival ry , ▁fue led ▁by ▁doub ts ▁in ▁the ▁royal ▁family ▁over ▁Sa ud ' s ▁compet ence . ▁In ▁ 1 9 7 2 , ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁gained ▁a ▁ 2 0 ▁percent ▁control ▁in ▁Ar am co , ▁thereby ▁decre asing ▁US ▁control ▁over ▁Sa udi ▁oil . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 7 3 , ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁led ▁an ▁oil ▁boy c ott ▁against ▁the ▁Western ▁countries ▁that ▁supported ▁Israel ▁in ▁the ▁Y om ▁K ipp ur ▁War ▁against ▁Egypt ▁and ▁Sy ria . ▁O il ▁prices ▁quad ru ple d . ▁In ▁ 1 9 7 5 , ▁F ais al ▁was ▁assass in ated ▁by ▁his ▁nep hew , ▁Prince ▁F |
ais al ▁bin ▁Mus a id ▁and ▁was ▁succeeded ▁by ▁his ▁half - bro ther ▁King ▁K hal id . ▁ ▁By ▁ 1 9 7 6 , ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁had ▁become ▁the ▁largest ▁oil ▁producer ▁in ▁the ▁world . ▁K hal id ' s ▁reign ▁saw ▁economic ▁and ▁social ▁development ▁progress ▁at ▁an ▁extremely ▁rapid ▁rate , ▁transform ing ▁the ▁infrastr ucture ▁and ▁educational ▁system ▁of ▁the ▁country ; ▁in ▁foreign ▁policy , ▁close ▁t ies ▁with ▁the ▁US ▁were ▁developed . ▁In ▁ 1 9 7 9 , ▁two ▁events ▁occurred ▁which ▁greatly ▁concerned ▁the ▁government , ▁and ▁had ▁a ▁long - term ▁influence ▁on ▁Sa udi ▁foreign ▁and ▁domestic ▁policy . ▁The ▁first ▁was ▁the ▁Iran ian ▁Islam ic ▁Revolution . ▁It ▁was ▁fe ared ▁that ▁the ▁country ' s ▁Sh i ' ite ▁minor ity ▁in ▁the ▁Eastern ▁Province ▁( which ▁is ▁also ▁the ▁location ▁of ▁the ▁oil ▁fields ) ▁might ▁re bel ▁under ▁the ▁influence ▁of ▁their ▁Iran ian ▁co - rel ig ion ists . ▁There ▁were ▁several ▁anti - g overn ment ▁u pr is ings ▁in ▁the ▁region ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁ 1 9 7 9 ▁Q atif ▁U pr ising . ▁ ▁The ▁second ▁event ▁was ▁the ▁Grand ▁Mos que ▁Se iz ure ▁in ▁Me cca ▁by ▁Islam ist ▁extrem ists . ▁The ▁milit ants ▁involved ▁were ▁in ▁part ▁anger ed ▁by ▁what ▁they ▁considered ▁to ▁be ▁the ▁cor ruption ▁and ▁un - I sl am ic ▁nature ▁of ▁the ▁Sa udi |
▁government . ▁The ▁government ▁reg ained ▁control ▁of ▁the ▁mos que ▁after ▁ 1 0 ▁days ▁and ▁those ▁captured ▁were ▁executed . ▁Part ▁of ▁the ▁response ▁of ▁the ▁royal ▁family ▁was ▁to ▁en force ▁a ▁much ▁str ic ter ▁observ ance ▁of ▁traditional ▁religious ▁and ▁social ▁norm s ▁in ▁the ▁country ▁( for ▁example , ▁the ▁closure ▁of ▁cin emas ) ▁and ▁to ▁give ▁the ▁U le ma ▁a ▁greater ▁role ▁in ▁government . ▁Ne ither ▁entirely ▁succeeded ▁as ▁Islam ism ▁continued ▁to ▁grow ▁in ▁strength . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 8 0 , ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁bought ▁out ▁the ▁American ▁interests ▁in ▁Ar am co . ▁ ▁King ▁K hal id ▁died ▁of ▁a ▁heart ▁attack ▁in ▁June ▁ 1 9 8 2 . ▁He ▁was ▁succeeded ▁by ▁his ▁brother , ▁King ▁F ah d , ▁who ▁added ▁the ▁title ▁" C ust od ian ▁of ▁the ▁Two ▁Holy ▁Mos ques " ▁to ▁his ▁name ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 6 ▁in ▁response ▁to ▁considerable ▁fundamental ist ▁pressure ▁to ▁avoid ▁use ▁of ▁" ma j esty " ▁in ▁association ▁with ▁anything ▁except ▁God . ▁F ah d ▁continued ▁to ▁develop ▁close ▁relations ▁with ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁and ▁increased ▁the ▁purchase ▁of ▁American ▁and ▁British ▁military ▁equipment . ▁ ▁The ▁vast ▁wealth ▁generated ▁by ▁oil ▁reven ues ▁was ▁beginning ▁to ▁have ▁an ▁even ▁greater ▁impact ▁on ▁Sa udi ▁society . ▁It ▁led ▁to ▁rapid ▁techn ological ▁( but ▁not ▁cultural ) ▁modern isation , ▁urban ization , ▁mass ▁public ▁education ▁and |
▁the ▁creation ▁of ▁new ▁media . ▁This ▁and ▁the ▁presence ▁of ▁increasing ly ▁large ▁numbers ▁of ▁foreign ▁workers ▁greatly ▁affected ▁traditional ▁Sa udi ▁norm s ▁and ▁values . ▁Although ▁there ▁was ▁dram atic ▁change ▁in ▁the ▁social ▁and ▁economic ▁life ▁of ▁the ▁country , ▁political ▁power ▁continued ▁to ▁be ▁mon opol ized ▁by ▁the ▁royal ▁family ▁leading ▁to ▁dis content ▁among ▁many ▁Sa ud is ▁who ▁began ▁to ▁look ▁for ▁wider ▁participation ▁in ▁government . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁ 1 9 8 0 s , ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁spent ▁$ 2 5 ▁billion ▁in ▁support ▁of ▁S add am ▁Hus sein ▁in ▁the ▁Iran – I ra q ▁War . ▁However , ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁condem ned ▁the ▁Ira qi ▁invasion ▁of ▁K uw ait ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 0 ▁and ▁asked ▁the ▁US ▁to ▁interven e . ▁King ▁F ah d ▁allowed ▁American ▁and ▁coal ition ▁troops ▁to ▁be ▁station ed ▁in ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia . ▁He ▁invited ▁the ▁K uw ait i ▁government ▁and ▁many ▁of ▁its ▁citizens ▁to ▁stay ▁in ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia , ▁but ▁exp elled ▁citizens ▁of ▁Y emen ▁and ▁Jordan ▁because ▁of ▁their ▁govern ments ' ▁support ▁of ▁Ira q . ▁In ▁ 1 9 9 1 , ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ian ▁forces ▁were ▁involved ▁both ▁in ▁bomb ing ▁ra ids ▁on ▁Ira q ▁and ▁in ▁the ▁land ▁invasion ▁that ▁helped ▁to ▁liber ate ▁K uw ait . ▁ ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ' s ▁relations ▁with ▁the ▁West ▁began ▁to ▁cause |
▁growing ▁concern ▁among ▁some ▁of ▁the ▁u le ma ▁and ▁students ▁of ▁sh aria ▁law ▁and ▁was ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁issues ▁that ▁led ▁to ▁an ▁increase ▁in ▁Islam ist ▁terror ism ▁in ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁Islam ist ▁terror ist ▁attacks ▁in ▁Western ▁countries ▁by ▁Sa udi ▁national s . ▁Os ama ▁bin ▁L aden ▁was ▁a ▁Sa udi ▁citiz en ▁( until ▁stri pped ▁of ▁his ▁citizens hip ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 4 ) ▁and ▁was ▁responsible ▁for ▁the ▁ 1 9 9 8 ▁U . S . ▁emb ass y ▁bomb ings ▁in ▁East ▁Africa ▁and ▁the ▁ 2 0 0 0 ▁USS ▁Cole ▁bomb ing ▁near ▁the ▁port ▁of ▁A den , ▁Y emen . ▁ 1 5 ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 9 ▁terror ists ▁involved ▁in ▁September ▁ 1 1 ▁attacks ▁in ▁New ▁York ▁City , ▁Washington , ▁D . C ., ▁and ▁near ▁Sh anks ville , ▁Pennsylvania ▁were ▁Sa udi ▁national s . ▁Many ▁Sa ud is ▁who ▁did ▁not ▁support ▁the ▁Islam ist ▁terror ists ▁were ▁never theless ▁deeply ▁unh appy ▁with ▁the ▁government ' s ▁policies . ▁ ▁Islam ism ▁was ▁not ▁the ▁only ▁source ▁of ▁host ility ▁to ▁the ▁government . ▁Although ▁now ▁extremely ▁wealth y , ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ' s ▁economy ▁was ▁near ▁st agn ant . ▁High ▁tax es ▁and ▁a ▁growth ▁in ▁un emp loyment ▁have ▁contributed ▁to ▁dis content , ▁and ▁has ▁been ▁reflected ▁in ▁a ▁rise ▁in ▁civil ▁un rest , ▁and |
▁dis content ▁with ▁the ▁royal ▁family . ▁In ▁response , ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁limited ▁" re forms " ▁were ▁initi ated ▁by ▁King ▁F ah d . ▁In ▁March ▁ 1 9 9 2 , ▁he ▁introduced ▁the ▁" Basic ▁Law ", ▁which ▁emphas ised ▁the ▁duties ▁and ▁respons ib ilities ▁of ▁a ▁r uler . ▁In ▁December ▁ 1 9 9 3 , ▁the ▁Cons ult ative ▁Council ▁was ▁inaugur ated . ▁It ▁is ▁composed ▁of ▁a ▁chairman ▁and ▁ 6 0 ▁members — all ▁chosen ▁by ▁the ▁King . ▁The ▁King ' s ▁intent ▁was ▁to ▁respond ▁to ▁diss ent ▁while ▁making ▁as ▁few ▁actual ▁changes ▁in ▁the ▁status ▁qu o ▁as ▁possible . ▁F ah d ▁made ▁it ▁clear ▁that ▁he ▁did ▁not ▁have ▁dem ocracy ▁in ▁mind : ▁" A ▁system ▁based ▁on ▁elections ▁is ▁not ▁consistent ▁with ▁our ▁Islam ic ▁cre ed , ▁which ▁[ appro ves ▁of ] ▁government ▁by ▁consult ation ▁[ sh ū r ā ] ." ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 9 5 , ▁F ah d ▁suffered ▁a ▁deb il it ating ▁stroke , ▁and ▁the ▁Crown ▁Prince , ▁Abd ul lah , ▁assumed ▁the ▁role ▁of ▁de ▁fact o ▁reg ent , ▁taking ▁on ▁the ▁day - to - day ▁running ▁of ▁the ▁country . ▁However , ▁his ▁authority ▁was ▁h inder ed ▁by ▁conflict ▁with ▁F ah d ' s ▁full ▁brothers ▁( known , ▁with ▁F ah d , ▁as ▁the ▁" S ud ai ri ▁Seven "). ▁From ▁the |
▁ 1 9 9 0 s , ▁signs ▁of ▁dis content ▁continued ▁and ▁included , ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 3 ▁and ▁ 2 0 0 4 , ▁a ▁series ▁of ▁bomb ings ▁and ▁armed ▁violence ▁in ▁R iy ad h , ▁Jed d ah , ▁Yan bu ▁and ▁Kh obar . ▁In ▁February – A pril ▁ 2 0 0 5 , ▁the ▁first - ever ▁nation wide ▁municipal ▁elections ▁were ▁held ▁in ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia . ▁Women ▁were ▁not ▁allowed ▁to ▁take ▁part ▁in ▁the ▁poll . ▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 5 , ▁King ▁F ah d ▁died ▁and ▁was ▁succeeded ▁by ▁Abd ul lah , ▁who ▁continued ▁the ▁policy ▁of ▁minimum ▁reform ▁and ▁cl amp ing ▁down ▁on ▁protest s . ▁The ▁king ▁introduced ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁economic ▁re forms ▁aim ed ▁at ▁reducing ▁the ▁country ' s ▁reli ance ▁on ▁oil ▁re venue : ▁limited ▁der eg ulation , ▁encourag ement ▁of ▁foreign ▁invest ment , ▁and ▁priv at ization . ▁In ▁February ▁ 2 0 0 9 , ▁Abd ul lah ▁announced ▁a ▁series ▁of ▁government al ▁changes ▁to ▁the ▁jud ici ary , ▁armed ▁forces , ▁and ▁various ▁minist ries ▁to ▁modern ize ▁these ▁institutions ▁including ▁the ▁replacement ▁of ▁senior ▁app o inte es ▁in ▁the ▁jud ici ary ▁and ▁the ▁M uta ween ▁( rel ig ious ▁police ) ▁with ▁more ▁moder ate ▁individuals ▁and ▁the ▁appointment ▁of ▁the ▁country ' s ▁first ▁female ▁deput y ▁minister . ▁ ▁On ▁ 2 9 |
▁January ▁ 2 0 1 1 , ▁hundreds ▁of ▁protest ers ▁gathered ▁in ▁the ▁city ▁of ▁Jed d ah ▁in ▁a ▁rare ▁display ▁of ▁criticism ▁against ▁the ▁city ' s ▁poor ▁infrastr ucture ▁after ▁dead ly ▁flo ods ▁swe pt ▁through ▁the ▁city , ▁killing ▁ 1 1 ▁people . ▁Police ▁stopped ▁the ▁demonstr ation ▁after ▁about ▁ 1 5 ▁minutes ▁and ▁arrested ▁ 3 0 ▁to ▁ 5 0 ▁people . ▁ ▁Since ▁ 2 0 1 1 , ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁has ▁been ▁affected ▁by ▁its ▁own ▁Arab ▁Spring ▁protest s . ▁In ▁response , ▁King ▁Abd ul lah ▁announced ▁on ▁ 2 2 ▁February ▁ 2 0 1 1 ▁a ▁series ▁of ▁benefits ▁for ▁citizens ▁amount ing ▁to ▁$ 3 6 ▁billion , ▁of ▁which ▁$ 1 0 . 7 ▁billion ▁was ▁ear mark ed ▁for ▁housing . ▁No ▁political ▁re forms ▁were ▁announced ▁as ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁package , ▁though ▁some ▁prisoners ▁ind icted ▁for ▁financial ▁cr imes ▁were ▁p ardon ed . ▁On ▁ 1 8 ▁March ▁the ▁same ▁year , ▁King ▁Abd ul lah ▁announced ▁a ▁package ▁of ▁$ 9 3 ▁billion , ▁which ▁included ▁ 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 ▁new ▁homes ▁to ▁a ▁cost ▁of ▁$ 6 7 ▁billion , ▁in ▁addition ▁to ▁creating ▁ 6 0 , 0 0 0 ▁new ▁security ▁jobs . ▁ ▁Although ▁male - only ▁municipal ▁elections ▁were ▁held ▁on ▁ 2 9 ▁September ▁ 2 0 1 1 , ▁Abd ul lah ▁allowed ▁women ▁to ▁vote |
▁and ▁be ▁elected ▁in ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 5 ▁municipal ▁elections , ▁and ▁also ▁to ▁be ▁nominated ▁to ▁the ▁Sh ura ▁Council . ▁ ▁Since ▁ 2 0 0 1 , ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁has ▁engaged ▁in ▁w ides p read ▁internet ▁c ensor ship . ▁Most ▁online ▁c ensor ship ▁generally ▁falls ▁into ▁two ▁categories : ▁one ▁based ▁on ▁c ensor ing ▁" imm oral " ▁( most ly ▁por n ographic ▁and ▁L GB T - support ive ▁websites ▁along ▁with ▁websites ▁prom oting ▁any ▁religious ▁ide ology ▁other ▁than ▁Sun ni ▁Islam ) ▁and ▁one ▁based ▁on ▁a ▁black list ▁run ▁by ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ' s ▁Ministry ▁of ▁Media , ▁which ▁primarily ▁cens ors ▁websites ▁critical ▁of ▁the ▁Sa udi ▁regime ▁or ▁associated ▁with ▁parties ▁that ▁are ▁opposed ▁to ▁or ▁opposed ▁by ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia . ▁ ▁Polit ics ▁ ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁is ▁an ▁absolute ▁mon archy . ▁However , ▁according ▁to ▁the ▁Basic ▁Law ▁of ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁adopted ▁by ▁royal ▁dec ree ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 2 , ▁the ▁king ▁must ▁comp ly ▁with ▁Sh aria ▁( I sl am ic ▁law ) ▁and ▁the ▁Q ur an , ▁while ▁the ▁Q ur an ▁and ▁the ▁S unn ah ▁( the ▁trad itions ▁of ▁Muhammad ) ▁are ▁declared ▁to ▁be ▁the ▁country ' s ▁constitution . ▁No ▁political ▁parties ▁or ▁national ▁elections ▁are ▁permitted . ▁Crit ics ▁regard ▁it ▁as ▁a ▁total itar ian ▁dict ator ship . ▁The |
▁Econom ist ▁r ated ▁the ▁Sa udi ▁government ▁as ▁the ▁fifth ▁most ▁author itar ian ▁government ▁out ▁of ▁ 1 6 7 ▁r ated ▁in ▁its ▁ 2 0 1 2 ▁Dem ocracy ▁Index , ▁and ▁Fre edom ▁House ▁gave ▁it ▁its ▁lowest ▁" Not ▁Free " ▁rating , ▁ 7 . 0 ▁(" 1 = best , ▁ 7 = wor st ") ▁for ▁ 2 0 1 9 . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁absence ▁of ▁national ▁elections ▁and ▁political ▁parties , ▁politics ▁in ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁takes ▁place ▁in ▁two ▁distinct ▁aren as : ▁within ▁the ▁royal ▁family , ▁the ▁Al ▁Sa ud , ▁and ▁between ▁the ▁royal ▁family ▁and ▁the ▁rest ▁of ▁Sa udi ▁society . ▁Out side ▁of ▁the ▁Al - S aud , ▁participation ▁in ▁the ▁political ▁process ▁is ▁limited ▁to ▁a ▁relatively ▁small ▁segment ▁of ▁the ▁population ▁and ▁takes ▁the ▁form ▁of ▁the ▁royal ▁family ▁consult ing ▁with ▁the ▁u le ma , ▁trib al ▁she ik hs ▁and ▁members ▁of ▁important ▁commercial ▁families ▁on ▁major ▁dec isions . ▁This ▁process ▁is ▁not ▁reported ▁by ▁the ▁Sa udi ▁media . ▁ ▁By ▁custom , ▁all ▁males ▁of ▁full ▁age ▁have ▁a ▁right ▁to ▁pet ition ▁the ▁king ▁directly ▁through ▁the ▁traditional ▁trib al ▁meeting ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁maj lis . ▁In ▁many ▁ways ▁the ▁approach ▁to ▁government ▁diff ers ▁little ▁from ▁the ▁traditional ▁system ▁of ▁trib al ▁rule . ▁Trib al ▁identity ▁remains ▁strong ▁and , ▁outside ▁of ▁the ▁royal ▁family , ▁political ▁influence ▁is ▁frequently ▁determined |
▁by ▁trib al ▁affili ation , ▁with ▁trib al ▁she ik hs ▁maintain ing ▁a ▁considerable ▁degree ▁of ▁influence ▁over ▁local ▁and ▁national ▁events . ▁As ▁mentioned ▁earlier , ▁in ▁recent ▁years ▁there ▁have ▁been ▁limited ▁steps ▁to ▁w iden ▁political ▁participation ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁establishment ▁of ▁the ▁Cons ult ative ▁Council ▁in ▁the ▁early ▁ 1 9 9 0 s ▁and ▁the ▁National ▁Dialog ue ▁Forum ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 3 . ▁ ▁The ▁rule ▁of ▁the ▁Al ▁Sa ud ▁faces ▁political ▁opposition ▁from ▁four ▁sources : ▁Sun ni ▁Islam ist ▁activ ism ; ▁liberal ▁critics ; ▁the ▁Sh i ' ite ▁minor ity — part icular ly ▁in ▁the ▁Eastern ▁Province ; ▁and ▁long - standing ▁trib al ▁and ▁regional ist ▁particular istic ▁oppon ents ▁( for ▁example ▁in ▁the ▁He j az ). ▁Of ▁these , ▁the ▁minor ity ▁activ ists ▁have ▁been ▁the ▁most ▁prominent ▁threat ▁to ▁the ▁government ▁and ▁have ▁in ▁recent ▁years ▁perpet r ated ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁violent ▁inc idents ▁in ▁the ▁country . ▁However , ▁open ▁protest ▁against ▁the ▁government , ▁even ▁if ▁peace ful , ▁is ▁not ▁toler ated . ▁ ▁Mon archy ▁and ▁royal ▁family ▁ ▁The ▁king ▁comb ines ▁legisl ative , ▁executive , ▁and ▁jud icial ▁functions ▁and ▁royal ▁decre es ▁form ▁the ▁basis ▁of ▁the ▁country ' s ▁legisl ation . ▁The ▁king ▁is ▁also ▁the ▁prime ▁minister , ▁and ▁pres ides ▁over ▁the ▁Council ▁of ▁Minister s ▁of ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁and ▁Cons ult ative ▁Assembly ▁of |
▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia . ▁ ▁The ▁royal ▁family ▁domin ates ▁the ▁political ▁system . ▁The ▁family ' s ▁vast ▁numbers ▁allow ▁it ▁to ▁control ▁most ▁of ▁the ▁kingdom ' s ▁important ▁posts ▁and ▁to ▁have ▁an ▁invol vement ▁and ▁presence ▁at ▁all ▁levels ▁of ▁government . ▁The ▁number ▁of ▁princes ▁is ▁estimated ▁to ▁be ▁at ▁least ▁ 7 , 0 0 0 , ▁with ▁most ▁power ▁and ▁influence ▁being ▁w ield ed ▁by ▁the ▁ 2 0 0 ▁or ▁so ▁male ▁descend ants ▁of ▁I bn ▁Sa ud . ▁The ▁key ▁minist ries ▁are ▁generally ▁reserved ▁for ▁the ▁royal ▁family , ▁as ▁are ▁the ▁ 1 3 ▁regional ▁governor ships . ▁ ▁Long ▁term ▁political ▁and ▁government ▁appoint ments ▁have ▁resulted ▁in ▁the ▁creation ▁of ▁" power ▁f ief dom s " ▁for ▁senior ▁princes , ▁such ▁as ▁those ▁of ▁King ▁Abd ul lah , ▁who ▁had ▁been ▁Commander ▁of ▁the ▁National ▁Guard ▁since ▁ 1 9 6 3 ▁( until ▁ 2 0 1 0 , ▁when ▁he ▁appointed ▁his ▁son ▁to ▁replace ▁him ), ▁former ▁Crown ▁Prince ▁Sultan , ▁Minister ▁of ▁Def ence ▁and ▁A viation ▁from ▁ 1 9 6 2 ▁to ▁his ▁death ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 1 , ▁former ▁crown ▁prince ▁Prince ▁N ay ef ▁who ▁was ▁the ▁Minister ▁of ▁Inter ior ▁from ▁ 1 9 7 5 ▁to ▁his ▁death ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 2 , ▁Prince ▁Sa ud ▁who ▁had ▁been ▁Minister ▁of ▁Foreign ▁Affairs ▁since ▁ 1 9 7 5 ▁and ▁current |
▁King ▁Sal man , ▁who ▁was ▁Minister ▁of ▁Def ense ▁and ▁A viation ▁before ▁he ▁was ▁crown ▁prince ▁and ▁Governor ▁of ▁the ▁R iy ad h ▁Province ▁from ▁ 1 9 6 2 ▁to ▁ 2 0 1 1 . ▁The ▁current ▁Minister ▁of ▁Def ense ▁is ▁Prince ▁Moh amm ad ▁bin ▁Sal man , ▁the ▁son ▁of ▁King ▁Sal man ▁and ▁Crown ▁Prince . ▁ ▁The ▁royal ▁family ▁is ▁polit ically ▁divided ▁by ▁fa ctions ▁based ▁on ▁cl an ▁lo y alt ies , ▁personal ▁amb itions ▁and ▁ide ological ▁differences . ▁The ▁most ▁powerful ▁cl an ▁fa ction ▁is ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁' S ud ai ri ▁Seven ', ▁compr ising ▁the ▁late ▁King ▁F ah d ▁and ▁his ▁full ▁brothers ▁and ▁their ▁descend ants . ▁Ide ological ▁divisions ▁include ▁issues ▁over ▁the ▁speed ▁and ▁direction ▁of ▁reform , ▁and ▁whether ▁the ▁role ▁of ▁the ▁u le ma ▁should ▁be ▁increased ▁or ▁reduced . ▁There ▁were ▁divisions ▁within ▁the ▁family ▁over ▁who ▁should ▁succeed ▁to ▁the ▁throne ▁after ▁the ▁acc ession ▁or ▁earlier ▁death ▁of ▁Prince ▁Sultan . ▁When ▁prince ▁Sultan ▁died ▁before ▁asc ending ▁to ▁the ▁throne ▁on ▁ 2 1 ▁October ▁ 2 0 1 1 , ▁King ▁Abd ul lah ▁appointed ▁Prince ▁N ay ef ▁as ▁crown ▁prince . ▁The ▁following ▁year ▁Prince ▁N ay ef ▁also ▁died ▁before ▁asc ending ▁to ▁the ▁throne . ▁ ▁The ▁Sa udi ▁government ▁and ▁the ▁royal ▁family ▁have ▁often , ▁over ▁many ▁years , ▁been ▁accused ▁of ▁cor ruption . ▁In |
▁a ▁country ▁that ▁is ▁said ▁to ▁" bel ong " ▁to ▁the ▁royal ▁family ▁and ▁is ▁named ▁for ▁them , ▁the ▁lines ▁between ▁state ▁assets ▁and ▁the ▁personal ▁wealth ▁of ▁senior ▁princes ▁are ▁bl ur red . ▁The ▁extent ▁of ▁cor ruption ▁has ▁been ▁described ▁as ▁system ic ▁and ▁en demic , ▁and ▁its ▁existence ▁was ▁acknowled ged ▁and ▁def ended ▁by ▁Prince ▁Band ar ▁bin ▁Sultan ▁( a ▁senior ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁royal ▁family ) ▁in ▁an ▁interview ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 1 . ▁ ▁Although ▁cor ruption ▁alleg ations ▁have ▁often ▁been ▁limited ▁to ▁broad ▁und ocument ed ▁accus ations , ▁specific ▁alleg ations ▁were ▁made ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 7 , ▁when ▁it ▁was ▁claimed ▁that ▁the ▁British ▁defence ▁contract or ▁B AE ▁Systems ▁had ▁paid ▁Prince ▁Band ar ▁US $ 2 ▁billion ▁in ▁b rib es ▁rel ating ▁to ▁the ▁Al - Y am am ah ▁arms ▁deal . ▁Prince ▁Band ar ▁denied ▁the ▁alleg ations . ▁Investig ations ▁by ▁both ▁US ▁and ▁UK ▁authorities ▁resulted , ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 0 , ▁in ▁ple a ▁b arg ain ▁agre ements ▁with ▁the ▁company , ▁by ▁which ▁it ▁paid ▁$ 4 4 7 ▁million ▁in ▁fin es ▁but ▁did ▁not ▁admit ▁to ▁b ri ber y . ▁ ▁Trans par ency ▁International ▁in ▁its ▁annual ▁Cor ruption ▁Per ception s ▁Index ▁for ▁ 2 0 1 0 ▁gave ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁a ▁score ▁of ▁ 4 . 7 ▁( on ▁a ▁scale ▁from ▁ 0 |
▁to ▁ 1 0 ▁where ▁ 0 ▁is ▁" high ly ▁cor rupt " ▁and ▁ 1 0 ▁is ▁" high ly ▁clean "). ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁has ▁under g one ▁a ▁process ▁of ▁political ▁and ▁social ▁reform , ▁such ▁as ▁to ▁increase ▁public ▁trans par ency ▁and ▁good ▁govern ance . ▁However , ▁ne pot ism ▁and ▁patron age ▁are ▁w ides p read ▁when ▁doing ▁business ▁in ▁the ▁country . ▁The ▁enfor cement ▁of ▁the ▁anti - cor ruption ▁laws ▁is ▁select ive ▁and ▁public ▁officials ▁eng age ▁in ▁cor ruption ▁with ▁imp unity . ▁A ▁number ▁of ▁prominent ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ian ▁princes , ▁government ▁minister s , ▁and ▁business people , ▁including ▁Prince ▁Al - W ale ed ▁bin ▁Tal al , ▁were ▁arrested ▁in ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁in ▁November ▁ 2 0 1 7 . ▁ ▁There ▁has ▁been ▁mount ing ▁pressure ▁to ▁reform ▁and ▁modern ize ▁the ▁royal ▁family ' s ▁rule , ▁an ▁ag enda ▁champion ed ▁by ▁King ▁Abd ul lah ▁both ▁before ▁and ▁after ▁his ▁acc ession ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 5 . ▁The ▁creation ▁of ▁the ▁Cons ult ative ▁Council ▁in ▁the ▁early ▁ 1 9 9 0 s ▁did ▁not ▁satisfy ▁dem ands ▁for ▁political ▁participation , ▁and , ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 3 , ▁an ▁annual ▁National ▁Dialog ue ▁Forum ▁was ▁announced ▁that ▁would ▁allow ▁selected ▁profession als ▁and ▁intellect uals ▁to ▁public ly ▁debate ▁current ▁national ▁issues , ▁within ▁certain ▁pres cribed ▁parameters . ▁In ▁ |
2 0 0 5 , ▁the ▁first ▁municipal ▁elections ▁were ▁held . ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 7 , ▁the ▁Al leg iance ▁Council ▁was ▁created ▁to ▁reg ulate ▁the ▁succession . ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 9 , ▁the ▁king ▁made ▁significant ▁personnel ▁changes ▁to ▁the ▁government ▁by ▁appoint ing ▁reform ers ▁to ▁key ▁positions ▁and ▁the ▁first ▁woman ▁to ▁a ▁minister ial ▁post . ▁However , ▁these ▁changes ▁have ▁been ▁critic ized ▁as ▁being ▁too ▁slow ▁or ▁merely ▁cos met ic . ▁ ▁Al ▁ash - She ikh ▁and ▁role ▁of ▁the ▁u le ma ▁ ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁is ▁almost ▁unique ▁in ▁giving ▁the ▁u le ma ▁( the ▁body ▁of ▁Islam ic ▁religious ▁leaders ▁and ▁jur ists ) ▁a ▁direct ▁role ▁in ▁government . ▁The ▁preferred ▁u le ma ▁are ▁of ▁the ▁Sal af i ▁persu asion . ▁The ▁u le ma ▁have ▁also ▁been ▁a ▁key ▁influence ▁in ▁major ▁government ▁dec isions , ▁for ▁example ▁the ▁im position ▁of ▁the ▁oil ▁embargo ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 3 ▁and ▁the ▁inv itation ▁to ▁foreign ▁troops ▁to ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 0 . ▁In ▁addition , ▁they ▁have ▁had ▁a ▁major ▁role ▁in ▁the ▁jud icial ▁and ▁education ▁systems ▁and ▁a ▁mon opol y ▁of ▁authority ▁in ▁the ▁sphere ▁of ▁religious ▁and ▁social ▁mor als . ▁ ▁By ▁the ▁ 1 9 7 0 s , ▁as ▁a ▁result ▁of ▁oil ▁wealth ▁and ▁the ▁modern ization ▁of ▁the ▁country ▁initi ated ▁by ▁King |
▁F ais al , ▁important ▁changes ▁to ▁Sa udi ▁society ▁were ▁under ▁way ▁and ▁the ▁power ▁of ▁the ▁u le ma ▁was ▁in ▁decl ine . ▁However , ▁this ▁changed ▁following ▁the ▁se iz ure ▁of ▁the ▁Grand ▁Mos que ▁in ▁Me cca ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 9 ▁by ▁Islam ist ▁radical s . ▁The ▁government ' s ▁response ▁to ▁the ▁crisis ▁included ▁strength ening ▁the ▁u le ma ' s ▁powers ▁and ▁increasing ▁their ▁financial ▁support : ▁in ▁particular , ▁they ▁were ▁given ▁greater ▁control ▁over ▁the ▁education ▁system ▁and ▁allowed ▁to ▁en force ▁str ic ter ▁observ ance ▁of ▁W ah hab i ▁rules ▁of ▁moral ▁and ▁social ▁behaviour . ▁After ▁his ▁acc ession ▁to ▁the ▁throne ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 5 , ▁King ▁Abd ul lah ▁took ▁steps ▁to ▁reduce ▁the ▁powers ▁of ▁the ▁u le ma , ▁for ▁instance ▁transfer ring ▁control ▁over ▁girls ' ▁education ▁to ▁the ▁Ministry ▁of ▁Education . ▁ ▁The ▁u le ma ▁have ▁histor ically ▁been ▁led ▁by ▁the ▁Al ▁ash - She ikh , ▁the ▁country ' s ▁leading ▁religious ▁family . ▁The ▁Al ▁ash - She ikh ▁are ▁the ▁descend ants ▁of ▁Muhammad ▁ibn ▁Abd ▁al - W ah hab , ▁the ▁ 1 8 th - century ▁founder ▁of ▁the ▁W ah hab i ▁form ▁of ▁Sun ni ▁Islam ▁which ▁is ▁today ▁dominant ▁in ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia . ▁The ▁family ▁is ▁second ▁in ▁prest ige ▁only ▁to ▁the ▁Al ▁Sa ud ▁( the ▁royal ▁family ) ▁with ▁whom |
▁they ▁formed ▁a ▁" mut ual ▁support ▁p act " ▁and ▁power - sh aring ▁arrangement ▁nearly ▁ 3 0 0 ▁years ▁ago . ▁The ▁p act , ▁which ▁pers ists ▁to ▁this ▁day , ▁is ▁based ▁on ▁the ▁Al ▁Sa ud ▁maintain ing ▁the ▁Al ▁ash - She ikh ' s ▁authority ▁in ▁religious ▁matters ▁and ▁u ph old ing ▁and ▁propag ating ▁W ah hab i ▁doctrine . ▁In ▁return , ▁the ▁Al ▁ash - She ikh ▁support ▁the ▁Al ▁Sa ud ' s ▁political ▁authority ▁thereby ▁using ▁its ▁religious - m oral ▁authority ▁to ▁legit im ize ▁the ▁royal ▁family ' s ▁rule . ▁Although ▁the ▁Al ▁ash - She ikh ' s ▁dom ination ▁of ▁the ▁u le ma ▁has ▁dimin ished ▁in ▁recent ▁dec ades , ▁they ▁still ▁hold ▁the ▁most ▁important ▁religious ▁posts ▁and ▁are ▁closely ▁linked ▁to ▁the ▁Al ▁Sa ud ▁by ▁a ▁high ▁degree ▁of ▁inter mar riage . ▁ ▁Leg al ▁system ▁ ▁The ▁primary ▁source ▁of ▁law ▁is ▁the ▁Islam ic ▁Sh aria ▁derived ▁from ▁the ▁teach ings ▁of ▁the ▁Q ur ' an ▁and ▁the ▁S unn ah ▁( the ▁trad itions ▁of ▁the ▁Pro ph et ). ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁is ▁unique ▁among ▁modern ▁Muslim ▁states ▁in ▁that ▁Sh aria ▁is ▁not ▁cod ified ▁and ▁there ▁is ▁no ▁system ▁of ▁jud icial ▁preced ent , ▁giving ▁jud ges ▁the ▁power ▁to ▁use ▁independent ▁legal ▁reasoning ▁to ▁make ▁a ▁decision . ▁Sa udi ▁jud ges ▁tend ▁to ▁follow ▁the ▁principles ▁of |
▁the ▁Han b ali ▁school ▁of ▁juris pr ud ence ▁( or ▁fi q h ) ▁found ▁in ▁pre - mod ern ▁texts ▁and ▁noted ▁for ▁its ▁literal ist ▁interpretation ▁of ▁the ▁Q ur ' an ▁and ▁had ith . ▁ ▁Because ▁the ▁judge ▁is ▁emp ower ed ▁to ▁dis reg ard ▁previous ▁jud g ments ▁( e ither ▁his ▁own ▁or ▁of ▁other ▁jud ges ) ▁and ▁may ▁apply ▁his ▁personal ▁interpretation ▁of ▁Sh aria ▁to ▁any ▁particular ▁case , ▁diver gent ▁jud g ements ▁arise ▁even ▁in ▁apparently ▁identical ▁cases , ▁making ▁predict ability ▁of ▁legal ▁interpretation ▁difficult . ▁The ▁Sh aria ▁court ▁system ▁constit utes ▁the ▁basic ▁jud ici ary ▁of ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁and ▁its ▁jud ges ▁( q adi ) ▁and ▁law y ers ▁form ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁u le ma , ▁the ▁country ' s ▁Islam ic ▁sch ol ars . ▁ ▁Royal ▁decre es ▁are ▁the ▁other ▁main ▁source ▁of ▁law ; ▁but ▁are ▁referred ▁to ▁as ▁reg ulations ▁rather ▁than ▁laws ▁because ▁they ▁are ▁sub ordinate ▁to ▁the ▁Sh aria . ▁Royal ▁decre es ▁supp lement ▁Sh aria ▁in ▁areas ▁such ▁as ▁labor , ▁commercial ▁and ▁corpor ate ▁law . ▁Additionally , ▁traditional ▁trib al ▁law ▁and ▁custom ▁remain ▁significant . ▁Ext ra - Sh aria ▁government ▁trib un als ▁usually ▁handle ▁disput es ▁rel ating ▁to ▁specific ▁royal ▁decre es . ▁Final ▁appeal ▁from ▁both ▁Sh aria ▁courts ▁and ▁government ▁trib un als ▁is ▁to ▁the ▁King ▁and ▁all ▁courts ▁and ▁trib un |
als ▁follow ▁Sh aria ▁rules ▁of ▁evidence ▁and ▁procedure . ▁ ▁The ▁Sa udi ▁system ▁of ▁justice ▁has ▁been ▁critic ized ▁for ▁its ▁" ult ra - pur itan ical ▁jud ges ", ▁who ▁are ▁often ▁har sh ▁in ▁their ▁sent encing ▁( with ▁be head ing ▁for ▁the ▁crime ▁of ▁w itch craft ), ▁but ▁also ▁sometimes ▁over ly ▁len ient ▁( for ▁cases ▁of ▁ra pe ▁or ▁wife - be ating ) ▁and ▁slow , ▁for ▁example ▁leaving ▁thousands ▁of ▁abandoned ▁women ▁unable ▁to ▁secure ▁a ▁divor ce . ▁The ▁system ▁has ▁also ▁been ▁critic ized ▁for ▁being ▁arc ane , ▁lack ing ▁in ▁some ▁of ▁the ▁saf egu ards ▁of ▁justice , ▁and ▁unable ▁to ▁deal ▁with ▁the ▁modern ▁world . ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 7 , ▁King ▁Abd ul lah ▁issued ▁royal ▁decre es ▁reform ing ▁the ▁jud ici ary ▁and ▁creating ▁a ▁new ▁court ▁system , ▁and , ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 9 , ▁the ▁King ▁made ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁significant ▁changes ▁to ▁the ▁jud ici ary ' s ▁personnel ▁at ▁the ▁most ▁senior ▁level ▁by ▁bringing ▁in ▁a ▁younger ▁generation . ▁ ▁Capital ▁and ▁physical ▁pun ish ments ▁im posed ▁by ▁Sa udi ▁courts , ▁such ▁as ▁be head ing , ▁st oning ▁( to ▁death ), ▁am putation , ▁cru c if ix ion ▁and ▁l ash ing , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁the ▁she er ▁number ▁of ▁execution s ▁have ▁been ▁strongly ▁critic ized . ▁The ▁death ▁penalty ▁can ▁be ▁im posed ▁for ▁a |
▁wide ▁range ▁of ▁off ences ▁including ▁murder , ▁ra pe , ▁armed ▁rob ber y , ▁repeated ▁drug ▁use , ▁apost asy , ▁ad ul tery , ▁w itch craft ▁and ▁sor c ery ▁and ▁can ▁be ▁carried ▁out ▁by ▁be head ing ▁with ▁a ▁sword , ▁st oning ▁or ▁firing ▁squad , ▁followed ▁by ▁cru c if ix ion . ▁The ▁ 3 4 5 ▁reported ▁execution s ▁between ▁ 2 0 0 7 ▁and ▁ 2 0 1 0 ▁were ▁all ▁carried ▁out ▁by ▁public ▁be head ing . ▁The ▁last ▁reported ▁execution ▁for ▁sor c ery ▁took ▁place ▁in ▁September ▁ 2 0 1 4 . ▁Studies ▁have ▁shown ▁that ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁has ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁lowest ▁crime ▁rates ▁in ▁the ▁world ▁although ▁there ▁are ▁differ ing ▁views ▁as ▁to ▁whether ▁this ▁is ▁att rib utable ▁to ▁the ▁legal ▁system ▁or ▁other ▁factors ▁such ▁as ▁social ▁structures . ▁▁ ▁Although ▁repeated ▁the ft ▁can ▁be ▁pun ish able ▁by ▁am putation ▁of ▁the ▁right ▁hand , ▁only ▁one ▁instance ▁of ▁jud icial ▁am putation ▁was ▁reported ▁between ▁ 2 0 0 7 ▁and ▁ 2 0 1 0 . ▁Hom osex ual ▁acts ▁are ▁pun ish able ▁by ▁f logging ▁or ▁death . ▁In ▁April ▁ 2 0 2 0 , ▁Sa udi ▁Supreme ▁Court ▁issued ▁a ▁directive ▁to ▁eliminate ▁the ▁pun ishment ▁of ▁f logging ▁from ▁the ▁Sa udi ▁court ▁system , ▁and ▁it ▁is ▁to ▁be ▁replaced ▁by ▁imprison ment ▁or ▁fin es . ▁ ▁A |
the ism ▁or ▁" call ing ▁into ▁question ▁the ▁fund ament als ▁of ▁the ▁Islam ic ▁religion ▁on ▁which ▁this ▁country ▁is ▁based " ▁is ▁considered ▁a ▁terror ist ▁crime . ▁L ash ings ▁are ▁a ▁common ▁form ▁of ▁pun ishment ▁and ▁are ▁often ▁im posed ▁for ▁off ences ▁against ▁religion ▁and ▁public ▁mor ality ▁such ▁as ▁drink ing ▁alco hol ▁and ▁neglect ▁of ▁prayer ▁and ▁fast ing ▁oblig ations . ▁ ▁Ret ali atory ▁pun ish ments , ▁or ▁Q is as , ▁are ▁pract ised : ▁for ▁instance , ▁an ▁eye ▁can ▁be ▁surg ically ▁removed ▁at ▁the ▁ins istence ▁of ▁a ▁victim ▁who ▁lost ▁his ▁own ▁eye . ▁Famil ies ▁of ▁someone ▁un law fully ▁killed ▁can ▁choose ▁between ▁demand ing ▁the ▁death ▁penalty ▁or ▁grant ing ▁cle men cy ▁in ▁return ▁for ▁a ▁payment ▁of ▁di y ya ▁( blo od ▁money ), ▁by ▁the ▁perpet r ator . ▁ ▁Even ▁after ▁allowing ▁women ▁to ▁drive ▁and ▁work , ▁public ▁places ▁in ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁are ▁still ▁gender - se greg ated ▁and ▁the ▁kingdom ▁has ▁very ▁strict ▁laws ▁on ▁how ▁un related ▁men ▁and ▁women ▁can ▁d ine ▁together . ▁In ▁September ▁ 2 0 1 8 , ▁a ▁man ▁was ▁arrested ▁by ▁the ▁Sa udi ▁authorities ▁for ▁appearing ▁in ▁a ▁video ▁with ▁his ▁female ▁colle ague ▁while ▁having ▁breakfast ▁at ▁a ▁hotel , ▁where ▁they ▁both ▁work . ▁ ▁Foreign ▁relations ▁ ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁joined ▁the ▁UN ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 5 ▁and |
▁is ▁a ▁found ing ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁Arab ▁League , ▁G ulf ▁Co operation ▁Council , ▁Muslim ▁World ▁League , ▁and ▁the ▁Organ ization ▁of ▁the ▁Islam ic ▁Conference ▁( now ▁the ▁Organisation ▁of ▁Islam ic ▁Co operation ). ▁It ▁plays ▁a ▁prominent ▁role ▁in ▁the ▁International ▁Mon et ary ▁Fund ▁and ▁the ▁World ▁Bank , ▁and ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 5 ▁joined ▁the ▁World ▁Trade ▁Organ ization . ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁supports ▁the ▁intended ▁formation ▁of ▁the ▁Arab ▁Custom s ▁Union ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 5 ▁and ▁an ▁Arab ▁common ▁market ▁by ▁ 2 0 2 0 , ▁as ▁announced ▁at ▁the ▁ 2 0 0 9 ▁Arab ▁League ▁sum mit . ▁ ▁Since ▁ 1 9 6 0 , ▁as ▁a ▁found ing ▁member ▁of ▁O PE C , ▁its ▁oil ▁pr icing ▁policy ▁has ▁been ▁generally ▁to ▁stabil ize ▁the ▁world ▁oil ▁market ▁and ▁try ▁to ▁moder ate ▁sharp ▁price ▁movements ▁so ▁as ▁to ▁not ▁je op ard ise ▁the ▁Western ▁econom ies . ▁In ▁ 1 9 7 3 , ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁and ▁other ▁Arab ▁nations ▁im posed ▁an ▁oil ▁embargo ▁against ▁the ▁United ▁States , ▁United ▁Kingdom , ▁Japan ▁and ▁other ▁Western ▁nations ▁which ▁supported ▁Israel ▁in ▁the ▁Y om ▁K ipp ur ▁War ▁of ▁October ▁ 1 9 7 3 . ▁The ▁embargo ▁caused ▁an ▁oil ▁crisis ▁with ▁many ▁short - ▁and ▁long - term ▁effects ▁on ▁global ▁politics ▁and ▁the ▁global ▁economy . ▁ ▁Between ▁the ▁mid - 1 9 7 |
0 s ▁and ▁ 2 0 0 2 ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁exp ended ▁over ▁$ 7 0 ▁billion ▁in ▁" over se as ▁development ▁aid ". ▁However , ▁there ▁is ▁evidence ▁that ▁the ▁vast ▁majority ▁was , ▁in ▁fact , ▁spent ▁on ▁propag ating ▁and ▁extending ▁the ▁influence ▁of ▁W ah hab ism ▁at ▁the ▁exp ense ▁of ▁other ▁forms ▁of ▁Islam . ▁There ▁has ▁been ▁an ▁inten se ▁debate ▁over ▁whether ▁Sa udi ▁aid ▁and ▁W ah hab ism ▁has ▁f oment ed ▁extrem ism ▁in ▁recip ient ▁countries . ▁The ▁two ▁main ▁alleg ations ▁are ▁that , ▁by ▁its ▁nature , ▁W ah hab ism ▁encourag es ▁int ol er ance ▁and ▁prom otes ▁terror ism . ▁Count ing ▁only ▁the ▁non - Mus lim - major ity ▁countries , ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁has ▁paid ▁for ▁the ▁construction ▁of ▁ 1 3 5 9 ▁mos ques , ▁ 2 1 0 ▁Islam ic ▁cent res , ▁ 2 0 2 ▁colleg es ▁and ▁ 2 0 0 0 ▁schools . ▁ ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁and ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁are ▁strateg ic ▁al lies , ▁and ▁since ▁President ▁Bar ack ▁Ob ama ▁took ▁office ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 9 , ▁the ▁US ▁has ▁sold ▁$ 1 1 0 ▁billion ▁in ▁arms ▁to ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia . ▁However , ▁the ▁relationship ▁between ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁and ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁became ▁stra ined ▁and ▁have ▁witness ed ▁major ▁decl ine ▁during ▁the ▁last ▁years ▁of ▁the ▁Ob ama |
▁administration , ▁although ▁Ob ama ▁had ▁author ized ▁US ▁forces ▁to ▁provide ▁log ist ical ▁and ▁intelligence ▁support ▁to ▁the ▁Sa ud is ▁in ▁their ▁military ▁inter vention ▁in ▁Y emen , ▁establish ing ▁a ▁joint ▁coord ination ▁planning ▁cell ▁with ▁the ▁Sa udi ▁military ▁that ▁is ▁helping ▁manage ▁the ▁war , ▁and ▁C IA ▁used ▁Sa udi ▁bases ▁for ▁dr one ▁assass in ations ▁in ▁Y emen . ▁In ▁the ▁first ▁de cade ▁of ▁the ▁ 2 1 st ▁century ▁the ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁paid ▁approximately ▁$ 1 0 0 ▁million ▁to ▁American ▁fir ms ▁to ▁lo bb y ▁the ▁U . S . ▁government . ▁On ▁May ▁ 2 0 , ▁ 2 0 1 7 , ▁President ▁Donald ▁Trump ▁and ▁King ▁Sal man ▁signed ▁a ▁series ▁of ▁letters ▁of ▁intent ▁for ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁to ▁purchase ▁arms ▁from ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁total ing ▁US $ 1 1 0 ▁billion ▁immediately , ▁and ▁$ 3 5 0 ▁billion ▁over ▁ 1 0 ▁years . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁Arab ▁and ▁Muslim ▁world s , ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁is ▁considered ▁to ▁be ▁pro - West ern ▁and ▁pro - American , ▁and ▁it ▁is ▁certainly ▁a ▁long - term ▁al ly ▁of ▁the ▁United ▁States . ▁However , ▁this ▁and ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ' s ▁role ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 9 1 ▁Pers ian ▁G ulf ▁War , ▁particularly ▁the ▁station ing ▁of ▁US ▁troops ▁on ▁Sa udi ▁soil ▁from ▁ 1 9 9 1 , ▁prompt ed |
▁the ▁development ▁of ▁a ▁host ile ▁Islam ist ▁response ▁internally . ▁As ▁a ▁result , ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁has , ▁to ▁some ▁extent , ▁dist anced ▁itself ▁from ▁the ▁US ▁and , ▁for ▁example , ▁refused ▁to ▁support ▁or ▁to ▁particip ate ▁in ▁the ▁US - led ▁invasion ▁of ▁Ira q ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 3 . ▁ ▁China ▁and ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁are ▁major ▁al lies , ▁with ▁relationship ▁between ▁the ▁two ▁countries ▁growing ▁significantly ▁in ▁recent ▁dec ades . ▁Major ity ▁of ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ians ▁also ▁expressed ▁a ▁favor able ▁view ▁of ▁China . ▁In ▁February ▁ 2 0 1 9 , ▁Crown ▁Prince ▁Moh amm ad ▁def ended ▁China ' s ▁X in ji ang ▁re - ed uc ation ▁cam ps ▁for ▁U yg h ur ▁Muslim s , ▁saying ▁" Ch ina ▁has ▁the ▁right ▁to ▁carry ▁out ▁anti - ter ror ism ▁and ▁de - ext rem isation ▁work ▁for ▁its ▁national ▁security ." ▁In ▁July ▁ 2 0 1 9 , ▁UN ▁amb ass adors ▁of ▁ 3 7 ▁countries , ▁including ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia , ▁have ▁signed ▁a ▁joint ▁letter ▁to ▁the ▁UN H RC ▁def ending ▁China ' s ▁treatment ▁of ▁U yg h urs ▁and ▁other ▁Muslim ▁minor ity ▁groups ▁in ▁the ▁X in ji ang ▁region . ▁ ▁The ▁consequences ▁of ▁the ▁ 2 0 0 3 ▁invasion ▁and ▁the ▁Arab ▁Spring ▁led ▁to ▁increasing ▁alarm ▁within ▁the ▁Sa udi ▁mon archy ▁over ▁the ▁rise ▁of ▁Iran |
' s ▁influence ▁in ▁the ▁region . ▁These ▁fear s ▁were ▁reflected ▁in ▁comments ▁of ▁King ▁Abd ul lah , ▁who ▁priv ately ▁ur ged ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁to ▁attack ▁Iran ▁and ▁" cut ▁off ▁the ▁head ▁of ▁the ▁s nake ". ▁The ▁tent ative ▁rapp ro ch ement ▁between ▁the ▁US ▁and ▁Iran ▁that ▁began ▁in ▁secret ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 1 ▁was ▁said ▁to ▁be ▁fe ared ▁by ▁the ▁Sa ud is , ▁and , ▁during ▁the ▁run ▁up ▁to ▁the ▁widely ▁wel com ed ▁deal ▁on ▁Iran ' s ▁nuclear ▁programme ▁that ▁c apped ▁the ▁first ▁stage ▁of ▁US – I ran ian ▁dét ente , ▁Robert ▁Jordan , ▁who ▁was ▁US ▁amb assador ▁to ▁R iy ad h ▁from ▁ 2 0 0 1 ▁to ▁ 2 0 0 3 , ▁said ▁"[ t ] he ▁Sa ud is ' ▁worst ▁night m are ▁would ▁be ▁the ▁[ Ob ama ] ▁administration ▁striking ▁a ▁grand ▁b arg ain ▁with ▁Iran ." ▁A ▁trip ▁to ▁Sa udi ▁by ▁US ▁President ▁Bar ack ▁Ob ama ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 4 ▁included ▁discuss ions ▁of ▁US – I ran ▁relations , ▁though ▁these ▁failed ▁to ▁resolve ▁R iy ad h ' s ▁concerns . ▁ ▁In ▁order ▁to ▁protect ▁the ▁house ▁of ▁K hal ifa , ▁the ▁monarch s ▁of ▁Bah rain , ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁inv aded ▁Bah rain ▁by ▁sending ▁military ▁troops ▁to ▁qu ell ▁the ▁u pr ising ▁of ▁Bah ra ini ▁people ▁on ▁ 1 |
4 ▁March ▁ 2 0 1 1 . ▁The ▁Sa udi ▁government ▁considered ▁the ▁two - month ▁u pr ising ▁as ▁a ▁" security ▁threat " ▁pos ed ▁by ▁the ▁Sh ia ▁who ▁represent ▁the ▁majority ▁of ▁Bah rain ▁population . ▁ ▁On ▁ 2 5 ▁March ▁ 2 0 1 5 , ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia , ▁spe ar head ing ▁a ▁coal ition ▁of ▁Sun ni ▁Muslim ▁states , ▁started ▁a ▁military ▁inter vention ▁in ▁Y emen ▁against ▁the ▁Sh ia ▁Hou this ▁and ▁forces ▁loyal ▁to ▁former ▁President ▁Ali ▁Abd ul lah ▁S ale h , ▁who ▁was ▁de posed ▁in ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 1 ▁Arab ▁Spring ▁u pr is ings . ▁At ▁least ▁ 5 6 , 0 0 0 ▁people ▁have ▁been ▁killed ▁in ▁armed ▁violence ▁in ▁Y emen ▁between ▁January ▁ 2 0 1 6 ▁and ▁October ▁ 2 0 1 8 . ▁ ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia , ▁together ▁with ▁Q atar ▁and ▁Turkey , ▁open ly ▁supported ▁the ▁Army ▁of ▁Con quest , ▁an ▁um bre lla ▁group ▁of ▁anti - g overn ment ▁forces ▁fighting ▁in ▁the ▁Sy rian ▁Civil ▁War ▁that ▁reported ly ▁included ▁an ▁al - Q a eda ▁linked ▁al - N us ra ▁Front ▁and ▁another ▁Sal af i ▁coal ition ▁known ▁as ▁A hr ar ▁al - Sh am . ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁was ▁also ▁involved ▁in ▁the ▁C IA - led ▁Tim ber ▁Sy cam ore ▁cover t ▁operation ▁to ▁train ▁and ▁arm ▁Sy rian |
▁reb els . ▁ ▁Following ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁inc idents ▁during ▁the ▁H aj j ▁season , ▁the ▁dead liest ▁of ▁which ▁killed ▁at ▁least ▁ 2 , 0 7 0 ▁pil gr im ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 5 ▁M ina ▁stamp ede , ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁has ▁been ▁accused ▁of ▁mis management ▁and ▁foc using ▁on ▁increasing ▁money ▁reven ues ▁while ▁neglect ing ▁pil gr ims ' ▁w elf are . ▁ ▁In ▁March ▁ 2 0 1 5 , ▁Sweden ▁scra pped ▁an ▁arms ▁deal ▁with ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia , ▁mark ing ▁an ▁end ▁to ▁a ▁de cade - old ▁defense ▁agreement ▁with ▁the ▁kingdom . ▁The ▁decision ▁came ▁after ▁Swedish ▁Foreign ▁Minister ▁Mar got ▁Wall st rom ▁was ▁blocked ▁by ▁the ▁Sa ud is ▁while ▁speaking ▁about ▁dem ocracy ▁and ▁women ' s ▁rights ▁at ▁the ▁Arab ▁League ▁in ▁C airo . ▁This ▁also ▁led ▁to ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁recall ing ▁its ▁amb assador ▁to ▁Sweden . ▁ ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁has ▁been ▁seen ▁as ▁a ▁moder ating ▁influence ▁in ▁the ▁Arab – Is ra eli ▁conflict , ▁period ically ▁putting ▁forward ▁a ▁peace ▁plan ▁between ▁Israel ▁and ▁the ▁Palest ini ans ▁and ▁condem ning ▁He z bol lah . ▁Following ▁the ▁Arab ▁Spring ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁offered ▁as yl um ▁to ▁de posed ▁President ▁Z ine ▁El ▁Ab id ine ▁Ben ▁Ali ▁of ▁Tun is ia ▁and ▁King ▁Abd ul lah ▁tele phon ed ▁President ▁H os ni ▁M ub ar ak ▁of |
▁Egypt ▁( p rior ▁to ▁his ▁de position ) ▁to ▁offer ▁his ▁support . ▁In ▁early ▁ 2 0 1 4 ▁relations ▁with ▁Q atar ▁became ▁stra ined ▁over ▁its ▁support ▁for ▁the ▁Muslim ▁Bro ther hood , ▁and ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ' s ▁belief ▁that ▁Q atar ▁was ▁inter fer ing ▁in ▁its ▁affairs . ▁In ▁August ▁ 2 0 1 4 ▁both ▁countries ▁appeared ▁to ▁be ▁expl oring ▁ways ▁of ▁ending ▁the ▁r ift . ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁and ▁its ▁al lies ▁have ▁critic ized ▁Q atar - based ▁TV ▁channel ▁Al ▁J aze era ▁and ▁Q atar ' s ▁relations ▁with ▁Iran . ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 7 , ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁im posed ▁a ▁land , ▁naval ▁and ▁air ▁block ade ▁on ▁Q atar . ▁ ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁halt ed ▁new ▁trade ▁and ▁invest ment ▁deal ings ▁with ▁Canada ▁and ▁susp ended ▁diplom atic ▁t ies ▁in ▁a ▁dram atic ▁es cal ation ▁of ▁a ▁dispute ▁over ▁the ▁kingdom ’ s ▁arrest ▁of ▁women ' s ▁rights ▁activ ist ▁Sam ar ▁B ada wi ▁on ▁ 6 ▁August ▁ 2 0 1 8 . ▁ ▁T ensions ▁have ▁es cal ated ▁between ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁and ▁its ▁al lies ▁after ▁the ▁disapp earance ▁of ▁Jam al ▁K hash og gi ▁from ▁the ▁Sa udi ▁cons ulate ▁in ▁Ist an bul . ▁Turkish ▁officials ▁are ▁highly ▁ske pt ical ▁of ▁K hash og gi ▁being ▁murder ed ▁inside ▁the ▁cons ulate ; ▁this |
▁has ▁stra ined ▁the ▁already ▁suffering ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia – T ur key ▁relations . ▁As ▁stated ▁by ▁O z g ur ▁Un lu his ar ci k li , ▁director ▁of ▁the ▁German ▁Marshall ▁Fund ’ s ▁An k ara ▁office ▁" T ur key ▁is ▁maintain ing ▁a ▁very ▁del icate ▁balance ▁in ▁its ▁relations ▁with ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia . ▁The ▁relations ▁have ▁the ▁potential ▁of ▁evol ving ▁into ▁a ▁crisis ▁at ▁any ▁moment ." ▁ ▁The ▁pressure ▁on ▁Sa udi ▁to ▁reve al ▁the ▁ins ights ▁about ▁K hash og gi ’ s ▁disapp earance ▁from ▁the ▁US ▁and ▁other ▁European ▁countries ▁has ▁increased . ▁Sa udi - US ▁relations ▁took ▁an ▁ugly ▁turn ▁on ▁ 1 4 ▁October ▁ 2 0 1 8 , ▁when ▁Trump ▁promised ▁" se vere ▁pun ishment " ▁if ▁the ▁royal ▁court ▁was ▁responsible ▁for ▁K hash og g is ’ ▁death . ▁The ▁Sa udi ▁Foreign ▁Ministry ▁ret ali ated ▁with ▁an ▁equal ▁statement ▁saying , ▁" it ▁will ▁respond ▁with ▁greater ▁action ," ▁indicating ▁the ▁kingdom ’ s ▁" infl u ential ▁and ▁vital ▁role ▁in ▁the ▁global ▁economy ." ▁A ▁joint ▁statement ▁was ▁issued ▁by ▁Britain , ▁France ▁and ▁Germany ▁also ▁demand ing ▁a ▁" cred ible ▁investigation ▁to ▁establish ▁the ▁truth ▁about ▁what ▁happened , ▁and ▁— ▁if ▁relevant ▁— ▁to ▁identify ▁those ▁bearing ▁responsibility ▁for ▁the ▁disapp earance ▁of ▁Jam al ▁K hash og gi , ▁and ▁ensure ▁that ▁they ▁are ▁held ▁to ▁account ." ▁ ▁The |
▁US ▁expects ▁its ▁G ulf ▁al lies ▁involved ▁in ▁the ▁coal ition ▁in ▁Y emen ▁to ▁put ▁in ▁more ▁efforts ▁and ▁address ▁the ▁rising ▁concerns ▁about ▁the ▁millions ▁that ▁have ▁been ▁pushed ▁to ▁the ▁br ink ▁of ▁fam ine . ▁According ▁to ▁the ▁United ▁Nations , ▁the ▁Arab ian ▁pen ins ula ▁nation ▁is ▁home ▁to ▁the ▁world ’ s ▁worst ▁human itar ian ▁crisis . ▁More ▁than ▁ 5 0 , 0 0 0 ▁children ▁in ▁Y emen ▁died ▁from ▁star v ation ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 7 . ▁The ▁fam ine ▁in ▁Y emen ▁is ▁the ▁direct ▁result ▁of ▁the ▁Sa udi - led ▁inter vention ▁and ▁block ade ▁of ▁the ▁re bel - h eld ▁area . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁w ake ▁of ▁Jam al ▁K hash og gi ' s ▁murder ▁in ▁October ▁ 2 0 1 8 , ▁the ▁US ▁secretary ▁of ▁state ▁Mike ▁Pom pe o ▁and ▁the ▁US ▁defence ▁secretary ▁Jim ▁Matt is ▁have ▁called ▁for ▁a ▁ce ase fire ▁in ▁Y emen ▁within ▁ 3 0 ▁days ▁followed ▁by ▁UN - init i ated ▁peace ▁tal ks . ▁Pom pe o ▁has ▁asked ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁and ▁the ▁U AE ▁to ▁stop ▁their ▁a irst rik es ▁on ▁populated ▁areas ▁in ▁Y emen . ▁Ther esa ▁May ▁back ed ▁the ▁US ▁call ▁to ▁end ▁the ▁coal ition . ▁President ▁of ▁the ▁International ▁Res cue ▁Committee ▁David ▁Mil ib and ▁called ▁the ▁US ▁announ cement ▁as ▁" the ▁most ▁significant ▁break through ▁in ▁the |
▁war ▁in ▁Y emen ▁for ▁four ▁years ". ▁ ▁Jer emy ▁H unt , ▁the ▁UK ▁Foreign ▁Secretary , ▁on ▁his ▁visit ▁to ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁and ▁the ▁U AE ▁on ▁ 1 2 ▁November ▁ 2 0 1 8 , ▁is ▁expected ▁to ▁raise ▁the ▁need ▁for ▁a ▁ce ase fire ▁from ▁all ▁sides ▁in ▁the ▁four - year ▁long ▁Y emen ▁civil ▁war . ▁The ▁US ▁called ▁for ▁a ▁ce ase fire ▁within ▁ 3 0 ▁days . ▁Andrew ▁Smith , ▁of ▁Camp aign ▁Again st ▁Ar ms ▁Trade ▁( CA AT ), ▁said ▁that ▁H unt ▁and ▁Bor is ▁Johnson ▁" play ed ▁an ▁utter ly ▁central ▁and ▁comp licit ▁role ▁in ▁ar ming ▁and ▁supporting ▁the ▁Sa udi - led ▁destruction ▁of ▁Y emen ." ▁ ▁Al leg ations ▁of ▁spons oring ▁global ▁terror ism ▁According ▁to ▁the ▁Ira qi ▁prime ▁minister ▁N ouri ▁al - Mal iki ▁in ▁March ▁ 2 0 1 4 , ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁along ▁with ▁Q atar ▁provided ▁political , ▁financial ▁and ▁media ▁support ▁to ▁terror ists ▁against ▁the ▁Ira qi ▁government . ▁Similarly , ▁President ▁of ▁Sy ria ▁Bash ar ▁al - Ass ad ▁noted ▁that ▁the ▁sources ▁of ▁the ▁extreme ▁ide ology ▁of ▁terror ist ▁organization ▁Islam ic ▁State ▁and ▁al - Q a eda ▁affili ate ▁groups ▁are ▁the ▁W ah abb ism ▁that ▁has ▁been ▁supported ▁by ▁the ▁royal ▁family ▁of ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia . ▁ ▁The ▁relations ▁with ▁the ▁U . S . ▁became ▁stra |
ined ▁following ▁ 9 / 1 1 ▁terror ▁attacks . ▁American ▁polit icians ▁and ▁media ▁accused ▁the ▁Sa udi ▁government ▁of ▁supporting ▁terror ism ▁and ▁toler ating ▁a ▁j ih ad ist ▁culture . ▁Indeed , ▁Os ama ▁bin ▁L aden ▁and ▁ 1 5 ▁out ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 9 ▁ 9 / 1 1 ▁hij ack ers ▁were ▁from ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ; ▁in ▁I SI L - occup ied ▁Ra qq a , ▁in ▁mid - 2 0 1 4 , ▁all ▁ 1 2 ▁jud ges ▁were ▁Sa udi . ▁The ▁le aked ▁US ▁Department ▁of ▁State ▁mem o , ▁dated ▁ 1 7 ▁August ▁ 2 0 1 4 , ▁says ▁that ▁" g overn ments ▁of ▁Q atar ▁and ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ... are ▁providing ▁c land est ine ▁financial ▁and ▁log istic ▁support ▁to ▁IS IS ▁and ▁other ▁radical ▁groups ▁in ▁the ▁region ." ▁According ▁to ▁former ▁US ▁Secretary ▁of ▁State ▁Hill ary ▁Cl inton , ▁" Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁remains ▁a ▁critical ▁financial ▁support ▁base ▁for ▁al - Q a ida , ▁the ▁Tal ib an , ▁Le T ▁and ▁other ▁terror ist ▁groups ... ▁Don ors ▁in ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁const itute ▁the ▁most ▁significant ▁source ▁of ▁fund ing ▁to ▁Sun ni ▁terror ist ▁groups ▁world wide ." ▁Form er ▁C IA ▁director ▁James ▁W ool sey ▁described ▁it ▁as ▁" the ▁soil ▁in ▁which ▁Al - Q a eda ▁and ▁its ▁sister ▁terror ist ▁organizations ▁are ▁fl our ishing |
." ▁The ▁Sa udi ▁government ▁den ies ▁these ▁claims ▁or ▁that ▁it ▁exports ▁religious ▁or ▁cultural ▁extrem ism . ▁In ▁April ▁ 2 0 1 6 , ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁has ▁threatened ▁to ▁sell ▁off ▁$ 7 5 0 ▁billion ▁in ▁Tre as ury ▁se cur ities ▁and ▁other ▁US ▁assets ▁if ▁Congress ▁passes ▁a ▁bill ▁that ▁would ▁allow ▁the ▁Sa udi ▁government ▁to ▁be ▁su ed ▁over ▁ 9 / 1 1 . ▁In ▁September ▁ 2 0 1 6 , ▁the ▁Congress ▁passed ▁the ▁Justice ▁Again st ▁Sp ons ors ▁of ▁T error ism ▁Act ▁that ▁would ▁allow ▁relatives ▁of ▁vict ims ▁of ▁the ▁September ▁ 1 1 ▁attacks ▁to ▁sue ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁for ▁its ▁government ' s ▁alleg ed ▁role ▁in ▁the ▁attacks . ▁Congress ▁over wh el ming ly ▁rejected ▁President ▁Bar ack ▁Ob ama ' s ▁v eto . ▁ ▁According ▁to ▁Sir ▁William ▁P ate y , ▁former ▁British ▁amb assador ▁to ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia , ▁the ▁kingdom ▁funds ▁mos ques ▁throughout ▁Europe ▁that ▁have ▁become ▁hot bed s ▁of ▁extrem ism . ▁" They ▁are ▁not ▁fund ing ▁terror ism . ▁They ▁are ▁fund ing ▁something ▁else , ▁which ▁may ▁down ▁the ▁road ▁lead ▁to ▁individuals ▁being ▁radical ised ▁and ▁becoming ▁f od der ▁for ▁terror ism ," ▁P ate y ▁said . ▁He ▁said ▁that ▁Sa udi ▁has ▁been ▁fund ing ▁an ▁ide ology ▁that ▁leads ▁to ▁extrem ism ▁and ▁the ▁leaders ▁of ▁the ▁kingdom ▁are ▁not ▁aware ▁of ▁the ▁consequences |
. ▁ ▁Military ▁ ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁has ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁highest ▁percent ages ▁of ▁military ▁exp end iture ▁in ▁the ▁world , ▁sp ending ▁more ▁than ▁ 1 0 % ▁of ▁its ▁G DP ▁in ▁its ▁military . ▁The ▁Sa udi ▁military ▁consists ▁of ▁the ▁Royal ▁Sa udi ▁Land ▁Forces , ▁the ▁Royal ▁Sa udi ▁Air ▁Force , ▁the ▁Royal ▁Sa udi ▁Navy , ▁the ▁Royal ▁Sa udi ▁Air ▁Def ense , ▁the ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ian ▁National ▁Guard ▁( S ANG , ▁an ▁independent ▁military ▁force ), ▁and ▁par amil it ary ▁forces , ▁total ing ▁nearly ▁ 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 ▁active - d ut y ▁personnel . ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 5 ▁the ▁armed ▁forces ▁had ▁the ▁following ▁personnel : ▁the ▁army , ▁ 7 5 , 0 0 0 ; ▁the ▁air ▁force , ▁ 1 8 , 0 0 0 ; ▁air ▁defense , ▁ 1 6 , 0 0 0 ; ▁the ▁n avy , ▁ 1 5 , 5 0 0 ▁( including ▁ 3 , 0 0 0 ▁mar ines ); ▁and ▁the ▁S ANG ▁had ▁ 7 5 , 0 0 0 ▁active ▁soldiers ▁and ▁ 2 5 , 0 0 0 ▁trib al ▁lev ies . ▁In ▁addition , ▁there ▁is ▁an ▁Al ▁M uk hab ar at ▁Al ▁A ' am ah ▁military ▁intelligence ▁service . ▁ ▁The ▁kingdom ▁has ▁a ▁long - standing ▁military ▁relationship ▁with ▁Pakistan , ▁it ▁has ▁long ▁been ▁spec ulated ▁that |
▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁secret ly ▁fund ed ▁Pakistan ' s ▁atomic ▁bomb ▁programme ▁and ▁see ks ▁to ▁purchase ▁atomic ▁weapons ▁from ▁Pakistan , ▁in ▁near ▁future . ▁The ▁S ANG ▁is ▁not ▁a ▁reserve ▁but ▁a ▁fully ▁oper ational ▁front - line ▁force , ▁and ▁origin ated ▁out ▁of ▁I bn ▁Sa ud ' s ▁trib al ▁military - rel ig ious ▁force , ▁the ▁I kh wan . ▁Its ▁modern ▁existence , ▁however , ▁is ▁att rib utable ▁to ▁it ▁being ▁effectively ▁Abd ul lah ' s ▁private ▁army ▁since ▁the ▁ 1 9 6 0 s ▁and , ▁unlike ▁the ▁rest ▁of ▁the ▁armed ▁forces , ▁is ▁independent ▁of ▁the ▁Ministry ▁of ▁Def ense ▁and ▁A viation . ▁The ▁S ANG ▁has ▁been ▁a ▁counter bal ance ▁to ▁the ▁Sud ai ri ▁fa ction ▁in ▁the ▁royal ▁family : ▁The ▁late ▁prince ▁Sultan , ▁former ▁Minister ▁of ▁Def ense ▁and ▁A viation , ▁was ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁so - called ▁' S ud ai ri ▁Seven ' ▁and ▁controlled ▁the ▁remainder ▁of ▁the ▁armed ▁forces ▁until ▁his ▁death ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 1 . ▁ ▁Sp ending ▁on ▁defense ▁and ▁security ▁has ▁increased ▁significantly ▁since ▁the ▁mid - 1 9 9 0 s ▁and ▁was ▁about ▁US $ 6 3 . 7 ▁billion , ▁as ▁of ▁ 2 0 1 6 . ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁ranks ▁among ▁the ▁top ▁ 1 0 ▁in ▁the ▁world ▁in ▁government ▁sp ending ▁for ▁its ▁military , ▁representing ▁about ▁ 7 ▁percent |
▁of ▁gross ▁domestic ▁product ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 5 . ▁Its ▁modern ▁high - techn ology ▁ar sen al ▁makes ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁among ▁the ▁world ' s ▁most ▁dens ely ▁armed ▁nations , ▁with ▁its ▁military ▁equipment ▁being ▁supplied ▁primarily ▁by ▁the ▁US , ▁France ▁and ▁Britain . ▁ ▁The ▁United ▁States ▁sold ▁more ▁than ▁$ 8 0 ▁billion ▁in ▁military ▁hardware ▁between ▁ 1 9 5 1 ▁and ▁ 2 0 0 6 ▁to ▁the ▁Sa udi ▁military . ▁On ▁ 2 0 ▁October ▁ 2 0 1 0 , ▁the ▁US ▁State ▁Department ▁not ified ▁Congress ▁of ▁its ▁intention ▁to ▁make ▁the ▁biggest ▁arms ▁sale ▁in ▁American ▁history — an ▁estimated ▁$ 6 0 . 5 ▁billion ▁purchase ▁by ▁the ▁Kingdom ▁of ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia . ▁The ▁package ▁represents ▁a ▁considerable ▁improvement ▁in ▁the ▁off ensive ▁cap ability ▁of ▁the ▁Sa udi ▁armed ▁forces . ▁ 2 0 1 3 ▁saw ▁Sa udi ▁military ▁sp ending ▁clim b ▁to ▁$ 6 7 bn , ▁over t aking ▁that ▁of ▁the ▁UK , ▁France ▁and ▁Japan ▁to ▁place ▁fourth ▁glob ally . ▁ ▁The ▁United ▁Kingdom ▁has ▁also ▁been ▁a ▁major ▁supp lier ▁of ▁military ▁equipment ▁to ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁since ▁ 1 9 6 5 . ▁Since ▁ 1 9 8 5 , ▁the ▁UK ▁has ▁supplied ▁military ▁aircraft — not ably ▁the ▁T orn ado ▁and ▁Euro fig h ter ▁Ty ph oon ▁combat ▁aircraft — and ▁other ▁equipment ▁as ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁long - |
term ▁Al - Y am am ah ▁arms ▁deal ▁estimated ▁to ▁have ▁been ▁worth ▁£ 4 3 ▁billion ▁by ▁ 2 0 0 6 ▁and ▁thought ▁to ▁be ▁worth ▁a ▁further ▁£ 4 0 ▁billion . ▁In ▁May ▁ 2 0 1 2 , ▁British ▁defence ▁giant ▁B AE ▁signed ▁a ▁£ 1 . 9 bn ▁($ 3 bn ) ▁deal ▁to ▁supply ▁Haw k ▁tra iner ▁j ets ▁to ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia . ▁ ▁According ▁to ▁the ▁Stockholm ▁International ▁Peace ▁Research ▁Institute , ▁S IP RI , ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 0 – 1 4 ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁became ▁the ▁world ' s ▁second ▁largest ▁arms ▁im porter , ▁receiving ▁four ▁times ▁more ▁major ▁arms ▁than ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 5 – 2 0 0 9 . ▁Major ▁imports ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 0 – 1 4 ▁included ▁ 4 5 ▁combat ▁aircraft ▁from ▁the ▁UK , ▁ 3 8 ▁combat ▁hel ic op ters ▁from ▁the ▁US , ▁four ▁tank er ▁aircraft ▁from ▁Spain ▁and ▁over ▁ 6 0 0 ▁arm oured ▁vehicles ▁from ▁Canada . ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁has ▁a ▁long ▁list ▁of ▁out standing ▁orders ▁for ▁arms , ▁including ▁ 2 7 ▁more ▁combat ▁aircraft ▁from ▁the ▁UK , ▁ 1 5 4 ▁combat ▁aircraft ▁from ▁the ▁US ▁and ▁a ▁large ▁number ▁of ▁arm oured ▁vehicles ▁from ▁Canada . ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁received ▁ 4 1 ▁percent ▁of ▁UK ▁arms ▁exports ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 0 – 1 4 . ▁France |
▁author ized ▁$ 1 8 ▁billion ▁in ▁weapons ▁sales ▁to ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 5 ▁alone . ▁The ▁$ 1 5 ▁billion ▁arms ▁deal ▁with ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁is ▁believed ▁to ▁be ▁the ▁largest ▁arms ▁sale ▁in ▁Canadian ▁history . ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 6 , ▁the ▁European ▁Parliament ▁decided ▁to ▁tempor arily ▁imp ose ▁an ▁arms ▁embargo ▁against ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia , ▁as ▁a ▁result ▁of ▁the ▁Y emen ▁civil ian ▁population ' s ▁suffering ▁from ▁the ▁conflict ▁with ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia . ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 7 , ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁signed ▁a ▁ 1 1 0 ▁billion ▁doll ar ▁arms ▁deal ▁with ▁the ▁United ▁States . ▁ ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁is ▁Britain ’ s ▁largest ▁arms ▁customer , ▁with ▁more ▁than ▁£ 4 . 6 ▁billion ▁worth ▁of ▁arms ▁bought ▁since ▁the ▁start ▁of ▁Sa udi - led ▁coal ition ▁in ▁Y emen . ▁A ▁recent ▁poll ▁conducted ▁by ▁You G ov ▁for ▁Save ▁the ▁Children ▁and ▁A va az ▁stated ▁that ▁ 6 3 ▁percent ▁of ▁British ▁people ▁opp ose ▁the ▁sale ▁of ▁weapons ▁to ▁Sa udi . ▁ ▁Following ▁the ▁killing ▁of ▁Jam al ▁K hash og gi , ▁a ▁non binding ▁resolution ▁was ▁passed ▁in ▁the ▁European ▁Parliament ▁on ▁ 2 5 ▁October ▁ 2 0 1 8 , ▁ur ging ▁EU ▁countries ▁to ▁imp ose ▁an ▁EU - wide ▁arms ▁embargo ▁on ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia . ▁Germany ▁became ▁the ▁first ▁Western ▁government ▁to |
▁susp end ▁future ▁arms ▁deal ▁with ▁the ▁kingdom ▁after ▁Ang ela ▁Mer kel ▁stated ▁that ▁" ar ms ▁exports ▁can ' t ▁take ▁place ▁in ▁the ▁current ▁circumstances ." ▁ ▁Human ▁rights ▁ ▁Human ▁Rights ▁organizations ▁such ▁as ▁Am n esty ▁International , ▁Human ▁Rights ▁Watch ▁and ▁Fre edom ▁House ▁condem n ▁both ▁the ▁Sa udi ▁criminal ▁justice ▁system ▁and ▁its ▁severe ▁pun ish ments . ▁There ▁are ▁no ▁j ury ▁tri als ▁in ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁and ▁courts ▁observe ▁few ▁formal ities . ▁Human ▁Rights ▁Watch , ▁in ▁a ▁ 2 0 0 8 ▁report , ▁noted ▁that ▁a ▁criminal ▁procedure ▁code ▁had ▁been ▁introduced ▁for ▁the ▁first ▁time ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 2 , ▁but ▁it ▁lack ed ▁some ▁basic ▁prote ctions ▁and , ▁in ▁any ▁case , ▁had ▁been ▁rout in ely ▁ignored ▁by ▁jud ges . ▁Those ▁arrested ▁are ▁often ▁not ▁informed ▁of ▁the ▁crime ▁of ▁which ▁they ▁are ▁accused ▁or ▁given ▁access ▁to ▁a ▁lawyer ▁and ▁are ▁subject ▁to ▁ab us ive ▁treatment ▁and ▁tort ure ▁if ▁they ▁do ▁not ▁conf ess . ▁At ▁trial , ▁there ▁is ▁a ▁pres umption ▁of ▁gu ilt ▁and ▁the ▁accused ▁is ▁often ▁unable ▁to ▁examine ▁witness es ▁and ▁evidence ▁or ▁present ▁a ▁legal ▁defense . ▁Most ▁tri als ▁are ▁held ▁in ▁secret . ▁An ▁example ▁of ▁sent encing ▁is ▁that ▁of ▁UK ▁p ension er ▁and ▁cancer ▁victim ▁Karl ▁And ree , ▁aged ▁ 7 4 , ▁who ▁faced ▁ 3 6 0 ▁l ash es ▁for ▁home ▁bre |
wing ▁alco hol . ▁He ▁was ▁later ▁released ▁due ▁to ▁inter vention ▁by ▁the ▁British ▁government . ▁ ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁is ▁widely ▁accused ▁of ▁having ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁worst ▁human ▁rights ▁records ▁in ▁the ▁world . ▁Human ▁rights ▁issues ▁that ▁have ▁attract ed ▁strong ▁criticism ▁include ▁the ▁extremely ▁dis adv ant aged ▁position ▁of ▁women ▁( see ▁Women ▁below ), ▁capital ▁pun ishment ▁for ▁hom osex ual ity , ▁religious ▁disc rim ination , ▁the ▁lack ▁of ▁religious ▁freedom ▁and ▁the ▁activities ▁of ▁the ▁religious ▁police ▁( see ▁Religion ▁below ). ▁Between ▁ 1 9 9 6 ▁and ▁ 2 0 0 0 , ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁acc eded ▁to ▁four ▁UN ▁human ▁rights ▁convent ions ▁and , ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 4 , ▁the ▁government ▁approved ▁the ▁establishment ▁of ▁the ▁National ▁Society ▁for ▁Human ▁Rights ▁( NS HR ), ▁staff ed ▁by ▁government ▁employees , ▁to ▁monitor ▁their ▁implementation . ▁To ▁date , ▁the ▁activities ▁of ▁the ▁NS HR ▁have ▁been ▁limited ▁and ▁doub ts ▁remain ▁over ▁its ▁neutral ity ▁and ▁independence . ▁ ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁remains ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁very ▁few ▁countries ▁in ▁the ▁world ▁not ▁to ▁accept ▁the ▁UN ' s ▁Universal ▁Dec laration ▁of ▁Human ▁Rights . ▁In ▁response ▁to ▁the ▁continu ing ▁criticism ▁of ▁its ▁human ▁rights ▁record , ▁the ▁Sa udi ▁government ▁points ▁to ▁the ▁special ▁Islam ic ▁character ▁of ▁the ▁country , ▁and ▁as ser ts ▁that ▁this ▁just ifies ▁a ▁different ▁social ▁and ▁political ▁order . ▁The ▁United ▁States |
▁Commission ▁on ▁International ▁Relig ious ▁Fre edom ▁had ▁un success fully ▁ur ged ▁President ▁Bar ack ▁Ob ama ▁to ▁raise ▁human ▁rights ▁concerns ▁with ▁King ▁Abd ul lah ▁on ▁his ▁March ▁ 2 0 1 4 ▁visit ▁to ▁the ▁Kingdom ▁especially ▁the ▁imprison ments ▁of ▁Sultan ▁Ham id ▁Mar zo o q ▁al - E ne zi , ▁Sa ud ▁F ali h ▁A wad ▁al - E ne zi , ▁and ▁Ra if ▁B ada wi . ▁ ▁For ▁example , ▁Ali ▁Moh ammed ▁Ba q ir ▁al - N im r ▁was ▁arrested ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 2 ▁when ▁he ▁was ▁ 1 7 ▁years ▁old ▁for ▁taking ▁part ▁in ▁an ▁anti - g overn ment ▁protest s ▁in ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁during ▁the ▁Arab ▁Spring . ▁In ▁May ▁ 2 0 1 4 , ▁Ali ▁al - N im r ▁was ▁sent enced ▁to ▁be ▁public ly ▁be head ed ▁and ▁cru c ified . ▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 3 , ▁the ▁government ▁deport ed ▁thousands ▁of ▁non - S aud is , ▁many ▁of ▁them ▁who ▁were ▁working ▁il leg ally ▁in ▁the ▁country ▁or ▁had ▁over st ay ed ▁their ▁vis as . ▁Many ▁reports ▁ab ound , ▁of ▁foreign er ▁workers ▁being ▁tort ured ▁either ▁by ▁employ ers ▁or ▁others . ▁This ▁resulted ▁in ▁many ▁basic ▁services ▁suffering ▁from ▁a ▁lack ▁of ▁workers , ▁as ▁many ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ian ▁citizens ▁are ▁not ▁keen ▁on ▁working ▁in ▁blue ▁col lar ▁jobs . ▁ |
▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁has ▁a ▁" Counter - Rad ical ization ▁Program " ▁the ▁purpose ▁of ▁which ▁is ▁to ▁" com bat ▁the ▁spread ▁and ▁appeal ▁of ▁extrem ist ▁ide ologies ▁among ▁the ▁general ▁popul ous ▁( s ic )" ▁and ▁to ▁" inst ill ▁the ▁true ▁values ▁of ▁the ▁Islam ic ▁faith , ▁such ▁as ▁toler ance ▁and ▁moder ation ." ▁This ▁" tol er ance ▁and ▁moder ation " ▁has ▁been ▁called ▁into ▁question ▁by ▁the ▁Baltimore ▁Sun , ▁based ▁on ▁the ▁reports ▁from ▁Am n esty ▁International ▁regarding ▁Ra if ▁B ada wi , ▁and ▁in ▁the ▁case ▁of ▁a ▁man ▁from ▁Ha fr ▁al - B atin ▁sent enced ▁to ▁death ▁for ▁reject ing ▁Islam . ▁In ▁September ▁ 2 0 1 5 , ▁F ais al ▁bin ▁Hass an ▁Trad , ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ' s ▁amb assador ▁to ▁the ▁UN ▁in ▁Gene va , ▁has ▁been ▁elected ▁Chair ▁of ▁the ▁United ▁Nations ▁Human ▁Rights ▁Council ▁panel ▁that ▁appoint s ▁independent ▁exper ts . ▁In ▁January ▁ 2 0 1 6 , ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁executed ▁the ▁prominent ▁Sh ia ▁cler ic ▁She ikh ▁N im r ▁who ▁had ▁called ▁for ▁pro - dem ocracy ▁demonstr ations ▁and ▁for ▁free ▁elections ▁in ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia . ▁ ▁In ▁August ▁ 2 0 1 7 , ▁ten ▁Nobel ▁Peace ▁Prize ▁la ure ates , ▁including ▁Des mond ▁T ut u ▁and ▁Le ch ▁W ał ę sa , ▁ur ged ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁to |
▁stop ▁the ▁execution s ▁of ▁ 1 4 ▁young ▁people ▁for ▁particip ating ▁in ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 1 – 1 2 ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ian ▁protest s . ▁ ▁On ▁ 2 ▁October ▁ 2 0 1 8 , ▁Sa udi ▁journalist ▁and ▁Washington ▁Post ▁column ist ▁Jam al ▁K hash og gi ▁went ▁missing ▁after ▁entering ▁the ▁Sa udi ▁cons ulate ▁in ▁Ist an bul , ▁Turkey . ▁According ▁to ▁Turkish ▁government ▁sources ▁there ▁is ▁audio ▁and ▁video ▁evidence ▁for ▁him ▁having ▁been ▁murder ed ▁and ▁dis member ed ▁inside ▁the ▁cons ulate . ▁ ▁In ▁December ▁ 2 0 1 9 , ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁organized ▁a ▁big ▁budget ▁electronic ▁dance ▁music ▁festival , ▁M DL ▁Be ast ▁to ▁the ▁kingdom , ▁" the ▁region ’ s ▁biggest ▁music ▁event ". ▁However , ▁it ▁attract ed ▁a ▁lot ▁controvers y ▁when ▁lots ▁of ▁its ▁high ▁profile ▁at ten de es , ▁including ▁Arm ie ▁Ham mer , ▁Joan ▁Sm alls ▁and ▁Wil mer ▁Val der rama , ▁were ▁critic ized ▁for ▁eng aging ▁in ▁" image ▁re hab " ▁for ▁the ▁kingdom , ▁over looking ▁the ▁continued ▁human ▁rights ▁ab uses ▁in ▁the ▁country . ▁ ▁In ▁April ▁ 2 0 2 0 , ▁the ▁Sa udi ▁Supreme ▁Court ▁stated ▁under ▁a ▁royal ▁dec ree ▁by ▁King ▁Sal man ▁that ▁min ors ▁who ▁commit ▁cr imes ▁will ▁no ▁longer ▁face ▁the ▁death ▁sentence , ▁but ▁will ▁be ▁sent enced ▁to ▁a ▁maximum ▁of ▁ 1 0 ▁years ▁of |
▁imprison ment ▁in ▁a ▁ju ven ile ▁det ention ▁facility . ▁ ▁Geography ▁ ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁occup ies ▁about ▁ 8 0 ▁percent ▁of ▁the ▁Arab ian ▁Pen ins ula ▁( the ▁world ' s ▁largest ▁pen ins ula ), ▁lying ▁between ▁lat itudes ▁ 1 6 ° ▁and ▁ 3 3 ° ▁N , ▁and ▁long itudes ▁ 3 4 ° ▁and ▁ 5 6 ° ▁E . ▁Because ▁the ▁country ' s ▁southern ▁borders ▁with ▁the ▁United ▁Arab ▁Em ir ates ▁and ▁O man ▁are ▁not ▁precisely ▁marked , ▁the ▁exact ▁size ▁of ▁the ▁country ▁is ▁undefined . ▁The ▁C IA ▁World ▁Fact book ▁estimates ▁ ▁and ▁lists ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁as ▁the ▁world ' s ▁ 1 3 th ▁largest ▁state . ▁It ▁is ▁ge ograph ically ▁the ▁largest ▁country ▁in ▁the ▁Arab ian ▁Pl ate . ▁ ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ' s ▁ge ography ▁is ▁domin ated ▁by ▁the ▁Arab ian ▁Des ert , ▁associated ▁semi - des ert ▁and ▁shr ub land ▁( see ▁satellite ▁image ) ▁and ▁several ▁mountain ▁ranges ▁and ▁high lands . ▁It ▁is , ▁in ▁fact , ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁linked ▁desert s ▁and ▁includes ▁the ▁ ▁Rub ' ▁al ▁Kh ali ▁(" Empty ▁Qu arter ") ▁in ▁the ▁sout he astern ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁country , ▁the ▁world ' s ▁largest ▁cont igu ous ▁sand ▁desert . ▁Though ▁there ▁are ▁a ▁few ▁la kes ▁in ▁the ▁country , ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁is ▁the ▁largest ▁country ▁in ▁the ▁world |
▁by ▁area ▁with ▁no ▁permanent ▁rivers . ▁W ad is , ▁however , ▁are ▁very ▁numerous . ▁The ▁fert ile ▁areas ▁are ▁to ▁be ▁found ▁in ▁the ▁all uv ial ▁depos its ▁in ▁w ad is , ▁bas ins , ▁and ▁o ases . ▁The ▁main ▁top ographical ▁feature ▁is ▁the ▁central ▁plate au ▁which ▁r ises ▁ab rupt ly ▁from ▁the ▁Red ▁Sea ▁and ▁gradually ▁desc ends ▁into ▁the ▁Ne jd ▁and ▁toward ▁the ▁Pers ian ▁G ulf . ▁On ▁the ▁Red ▁Sea ▁coast , ▁there ▁is ▁a ▁narrow ▁coast al ▁plain , ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁Ti ham ah ▁parallel ▁to ▁which ▁runs ▁an ▁impos ing ▁esc arp ment . ▁The ▁south west ▁province ▁of ▁As ir ▁is ▁mountain ous , ▁and ▁contains ▁the ▁ ▁Mount ▁S aw da , ▁which ▁is ▁the ▁highest ▁point ▁in ▁the ▁country . ▁ ▁Ex cept ▁for ▁the ▁south western ▁province ▁of ▁As ir , ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁has ▁a ▁desert ▁climate ▁with ▁very ▁high ▁day - time ▁temper atures ▁and ▁a ▁sharp ▁temperature ▁drop ▁at ▁night . ▁A verage ▁summer ▁temper atures ▁are ▁around ▁, ▁but ▁can ▁be ▁as ▁high ▁as ▁. ▁In ▁the ▁winter ▁the ▁temperature ▁rarely ▁dro ps ▁below ▁. ▁In ▁the ▁spring ▁and ▁aut umn ▁the ▁heat ▁is ▁temper ate , ▁temper atures ▁average ▁around ▁. ▁Ann ual ▁ra inf all ▁is ▁extremely ▁low . ▁The ▁As ir ▁region ▁diff ers ▁in ▁that ▁it ▁is ▁influenced ▁by ▁the ▁Indian ▁Ocean ▁mon so ons , ▁usually ▁occurr ing ▁between ▁October ▁and ▁March |
. ▁An ▁average ▁of ▁ ▁of ▁ra inf all ▁occurs ▁during ▁this ▁period , ▁which ▁is ▁about ▁ 6 0 ▁percent ▁of ▁the ▁annual ▁precip itation . ▁ ▁Fa una ▁ ▁Wild life ▁includes ▁the ▁Arab ian ▁le op ard , ▁w olf , ▁strip ed ▁hy ena , ▁mongo ose , ▁b ab oon , ▁ha re , ▁sand ▁cat , ▁and ▁j er boa . ▁Anim als ▁such ▁as ▁gaz elles , ▁or y x , ▁le op ards ▁and ▁che et ah s ▁were ▁relatively ▁numerous ▁until ▁the ▁ 1 9 th ▁century , ▁when ▁extensive ▁hunting ▁reduced ▁these ▁animals ▁almost ▁to ▁ext inction . ▁Bird s ▁include ▁fal cons ▁( which ▁are ▁caught ▁and ▁trained ▁for ▁hunting ), ▁e ag les , ▁ha w ks , ▁v ult ures , ▁sand gr ouse , ▁and ▁bul b uls . ▁There ▁are ▁several ▁species ▁of ▁sn akes , ▁many ▁of ▁which ▁are ▁ven om ous . ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁is ▁home ▁to ▁a ▁rich ▁marine ▁life . ▁The ▁Red ▁Sea ▁in ▁particular ▁is ▁a ▁rich ▁and ▁diverse ▁e cos ystem . ▁More ▁than ▁ 1 2 0 0 ▁species ▁of ▁fish ▁have ▁been ▁recorded ▁in ▁the ▁Red ▁Sea , ▁and ▁around ▁ 1 0 ▁percent ▁of ▁these ▁are ▁found ▁now here ▁else . ▁This ▁also ▁includes ▁ 4 2 ▁species ▁of ▁deep water ▁fish . ▁ ▁The ▁rich ▁divers ity ▁is ▁in ▁part ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁ ▁of ▁cor al ▁re ef ▁extending ▁along ▁its ▁coast line ; ▁these |
▁fr ing ing ▁re ef s ▁are ▁ 5 0 0 0 – 7 0 0 0 ▁years ▁old ▁and ▁are ▁largely ▁formed ▁of ▁st ony ▁ac rop ora ▁and ▁por ites ▁cor als . ▁The ▁re ef s ▁form ▁platforms ▁and ▁sometimes ▁l ago ons ▁along ▁the ▁coast ▁and ▁occas ional ▁other ▁features ▁such ▁as ▁cyl ind ers ▁( such ▁as ▁the ▁Blue ▁H ole ▁( Red ▁Sea ) ▁at ▁D ah ab ). ▁These ▁coast al ▁re ef s ▁are ▁also ▁visited ▁by ▁pel ag ic ▁species ▁of ▁Red ▁Sea ▁fish , ▁including ▁some ▁of ▁the ▁ 4 4 ▁species ▁of ▁sh ark . ▁The ▁Red ▁Sea ▁also ▁contains ▁many ▁off sh ore ▁re ef s ▁including ▁several ▁true ▁at oll s . ▁Many ▁of ▁the ▁unusual ▁off sh ore ▁re ef ▁form ations ▁def y ▁classic ▁( i . e ., ▁Dar win ian ) ▁cor al ▁re ef ▁classification ▁schemes , ▁and ▁are ▁generally ▁attributed ▁to ▁the ▁high ▁levels ▁of ▁t ect onic ▁activity ▁that ▁character ize ▁the ▁area . ▁Dom estic ated ▁animals ▁include ▁the ▁legend ary ▁Arab ian ▁horse , ▁Arab ian ▁cam el , ▁sheep , ▁go ats , ▁c ows , ▁don keys , ▁ch ick ens ▁etc . ▁Ref lect ing ▁the ▁country ' s ▁dominant ▁desert ▁conditions , ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ' s ▁plant ▁life ▁mostly ▁consists ▁of ▁her bs , ▁plants ▁and ▁shr ubs ▁that ▁require ▁little ▁water . ▁The ▁date ▁pal m ▁( P ho enix ▁d act yl if |
era ) ▁is ▁w ides p read . ▁ ▁Administr ative ▁divisions ▁ ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁is ▁divided ▁into ▁ 1 3 ▁regions ▁( ; ▁man ati q ▁id ā ri y ya , ▁sing . ▁ م ن ط ق ة ▁ إ د ا ر ي ة ; ▁m inta q ah ▁id ari y ya ). ▁The ▁regions ▁are ▁further ▁divided ▁into ▁ 1 1 8 ▁governor ates ▁( ; ▁mu h af az at , ▁sing . ▁ م ح ا ف ظ ة ; ▁mu h af az ah ). ▁This ▁number ▁includes ▁the ▁ 1 3 ▁regional ▁capit als , ▁which ▁have ▁a ▁different ▁status ▁as ▁municipal ities ▁( ; ▁am an ah ) ▁head ed ▁by ▁may ors ▁( ; ▁am in ). ▁The ▁governor ates ▁are ▁further ▁sub div ided ▁into ▁sub - g overn or ates ▁( ; ▁mar ak iz , ▁sing . ▁ م ر ك ز ; ▁mark az ). ▁▁ ▁The ▁ 1 3 ▁regions ▁of ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia . ▁ ▁C ities ▁ ▁Econom y ▁ ▁As ▁of ▁October ▁ 2 0 1 8 , ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁is ▁the ▁largest ▁economy ▁in ▁the ▁Middle ▁East ▁and ▁the ▁ 1 8 th ▁largest ▁in ▁the ▁world . ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁has ▁the ▁world ' s ▁second - larg est ▁proven ▁pet role um ▁res erves ▁and ▁the ▁country ▁is ▁the ▁largest ▁exp orter ▁of ▁pet role um . ▁It ▁also ▁has ▁the ▁fifth - larg |
est ▁proven ▁natural ▁gas ▁res erves . ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁is ▁considered ▁an ▁" energy ▁super power ". ▁It ▁has ▁the ▁third ▁highest ▁total ▁estimated ▁value ▁of ▁natural ▁resources , ▁val ued ▁at ▁US $ 3 4 . 4 ▁tr ill ion ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 6 . ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ' s ▁command ▁economy ▁is ▁pet role um - based ; ▁roughly ▁ 6 3 % ▁of ▁budget ▁reven ues ▁and ▁ 6 7 % ▁of ▁export ▁ear nings ▁come ▁from ▁the ▁oil ▁industry . ▁It ▁is ▁strongly ▁dependent ▁on ▁foreign ▁workers ▁with ▁about ▁ 8 0 % ▁of ▁those ▁employed ▁in ▁the ▁private ▁sector ▁being ▁non - Sa udi . ▁Ch alleng es ▁to ▁the ▁Sa udi ▁economy ▁include ▁hal ting ▁or ▁revers ing ▁the ▁decl ine ▁in ▁per - cap ita ▁income , ▁impro ving ▁education ▁to ▁prepare ▁youth ▁for ▁the ▁work force ▁and ▁providing ▁them ▁with ▁employ ment , ▁divers ifying ▁the ▁economy , ▁stim ulating ▁the ▁private ▁sector ▁and ▁housing ▁construction , ▁and ▁dimin ishing ▁cor ruption ▁and ▁inequality . ▁ ▁The ▁oil ▁industry ▁constit utes ▁about ▁ 4 5 % ▁of ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ' s ▁nom inal ▁gross ▁domestic ▁product , ▁compared ▁with ▁ 4 0 % ▁from ▁the ▁private ▁sector ▁( see ▁below ). ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁officially ▁has ▁about ▁ ▁of ▁oil ▁res erves , ▁compr ising ▁about ▁one - fif th ▁of ▁the ▁world ' s ▁proven ▁total ▁pet role um ▁res erves . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁ |
1 9 9 0 s , ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁experienced ▁a ▁significant ▁contra ction ▁of ▁oil ▁reven ues ▁combined ▁with ▁a ▁high ▁rate ▁of ▁population ▁growth . ▁Per ▁cap ita ▁income ▁fell ▁from ▁a ▁high ▁of ▁$ 1 1 , 7 0 0 ▁at ▁the ▁height ▁of ▁the ▁oil ▁bo om ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 1 ▁to ▁$ 6 , 3 0 0 ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 8 . ▁T aking ▁into ▁account ▁the ▁impact ▁of ▁the ▁real ▁oil ▁price ▁changes ▁on ▁the ▁Kingdom ' s ▁real ▁gross ▁domestic ▁income , ▁the ▁real ▁command - bas is ▁G DP ▁was ▁computed ▁to ▁be ▁ 3 3 0 . 3 8 1 ▁billion ▁ 1 9 9 9 ▁US D ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 0 . ▁In cre ases ▁in ▁oil ▁prices ▁in ▁the ▁aug ht s ▁helped ▁boost ▁per ▁cap ita ▁G DP ▁to ▁$ 1 7 , 0 0 0 ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 7 ▁dollars ▁( about ▁$ 7 , 4 0 0 ▁adjust ed ▁for ▁infl ation ), ▁but ▁have ▁decl ined ▁since ▁oil ▁price ▁drop ▁in ▁mid - 2 0 1 4 . ▁ ▁O PE C ▁( the ▁Organ ization ▁of ▁Pet role um ▁Ex port ing ▁Count ries ) ▁limits ▁its ▁members ' ▁oil ▁production ▁based ▁on ▁their ▁" pro ven ▁res erves ." ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ' s ▁published ▁res erves ▁have ▁shown ▁little ▁change ▁since ▁ 1 9 8 0 , ▁with ▁the ▁main ▁exception ▁being ▁an ▁increase ▁of |
▁about ▁ ▁between ▁ 1 9 8 7 ▁and ▁ 1 9 8 8 . ▁Matthew ▁Sim m ons ▁has ▁suggested ▁that ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁is ▁greatly ▁ex agger ating ▁its ▁res erves ▁and ▁may ▁soon ▁show ▁production ▁decl ines ▁( see ▁peak ▁oil ). ▁ ▁From ▁ 2 0 0 3 ▁to ▁ 2 0 1 3 , ▁" se ver al ▁key ▁services " ▁were ▁priv at ized — m unicip al ▁water ▁supply , ▁electric ity , ▁tele communic ations — and ▁parts ▁of ▁education ▁and ▁health ▁care , ▁traffic ▁control ▁and ▁car ▁accident ▁reporting ▁were ▁also ▁priv at ized . ▁According ▁to ▁Arab ▁News ▁column ist ▁Ab del ▁Az iz ▁Al uw ais he g , ▁" in ▁almost ▁every ▁one ▁of ▁these ▁areas , ▁consum ers ▁have ▁raised ▁serious ▁concerns ▁about ▁the ▁performance ▁of ▁these ▁priv at ized ▁entities ." ▁The ▁T ada w ul ▁All ▁Share ▁Index ▁( T AS I ) ▁of ▁the ▁Sa udi ▁stock ▁exchange ▁pe aked ▁at ▁ 1 6 , 7 1 2 . 6 4 ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 5 , ▁and ▁closed ▁at ▁ 8 , 5 3 5 . 6 0 , ▁at ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁ 2 0 1 3 . ▁In ▁November ▁ 2 0 0 5 , ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁was ▁approved ▁as ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁World ▁Trade ▁Organ ization . ▁Neg oti ations ▁to ▁join ▁had ▁focused ▁on ▁the ▁degree ▁to ▁which ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁is ▁willing ▁to ▁increase ▁market |
▁access ▁to ▁foreign ▁goods ▁and ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 0 , ▁the ▁government ▁established ▁the ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ian ▁General ▁In vest ment ▁Author ity ▁to ▁encou rage ▁foreign ▁direct ▁invest ment ▁in ▁the ▁kingdom . ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁maintain s ▁a ▁list ▁of ▁se ctors ▁in ▁which ▁foreign ▁invest ment ▁is ▁prohib ited , ▁but ▁the ▁government ▁plans ▁to ▁open ▁some ▁closed ▁se ctors ▁such ▁as ▁tele communic ations , ▁ins urance , ▁and ▁power ▁transmission / distribution ▁over ▁time . ▁ ▁The ▁government ▁has ▁also ▁made ▁an ▁attempt ▁at ▁" S aud izing " ▁the ▁economy , ▁replacing ▁foreign ▁workers ▁with ▁Sa udi ▁national s ▁with ▁limited ▁success . ▁ ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁has ▁had ▁five - year ▁" Develop ment ▁Pl ans " ▁since ▁ 1 9 7 0 . ▁Among ▁its ▁plans ▁were ▁to ▁launch ▁" e conom ic ▁cities " ▁( e . g . ▁King ▁Abd ul lah ▁Econom ic ▁City ) ▁to ▁be ▁completed ▁by ▁ 2 0 2 0 , ▁in ▁an ▁effort ▁to ▁divers ify ▁the ▁economy ▁and ▁provide ▁jobs . ▁ ▁four ▁cities ▁were ▁planned . ▁The ▁King ▁has ▁announced ▁that ▁the ▁per ▁cap ita ▁income ▁is ▁forec ast ▁to ▁rise ▁from ▁$ 1 5 , 0 0 0 ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 6 ▁to ▁$ 3 3 , 5 0 0 ▁in ▁ 2 0 2 0 . ▁The ▁cities ▁will ▁be ▁spread ▁around ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁to ▁promote ▁divers ification ▁for ▁each ▁region ▁and ▁their ▁economy |
, ▁and ▁the ▁cities ▁are ▁project ed ▁to ▁contribute ▁$ 1 5 0 ▁billion ▁to ▁the ▁G DP . ▁ ▁In ▁addition ▁to ▁pet role um ▁and ▁gas , ▁Sa udi ▁also ▁has ▁a ▁significant ▁gold ▁min ing ▁sector ▁in ▁the ▁ancient ▁Mah d ▁ad h ▁D h ah ab ▁region ▁and ▁significant ▁other ▁min eral ▁indust ries , ▁an ▁agricult ural ▁sector ▁( es pecially ▁in ▁the ▁south west ▁but ▁not ▁only ) ▁based ▁on ▁veget ables , ▁f ruits , ▁dates ▁etc . ▁and ▁liv est ock , ▁and ▁large ▁number ▁of ▁temporary ▁jobs ▁created ▁by ▁the ▁roughly ▁two ▁million ▁annual ▁ha j j ▁pil gr ims . ▁ ▁Statistics ▁on ▁pover ty ▁in ▁the ▁kingdom ▁are ▁not ▁available ▁through ▁the ▁UN ▁resources ▁because ▁the ▁Sa udi ▁government ▁does ▁not ▁issue ▁any . ▁The ▁Sa udi ▁state ▁disc ou rages ▁calling ▁attention ▁to ▁or ▁compla ining ▁about ▁pover ty . ▁In ▁December ▁ 2 0 1 1 , ▁the ▁Sa udi ▁interior ▁min istry ▁arrested ▁three ▁rep or ters ▁and ▁held ▁them ▁for ▁almost ▁two ▁weeks ▁for ▁question ing ▁after ▁they ▁uploaded ▁a ▁video ▁on ▁the ▁topic ▁to ▁YouTube . ▁Auth ors ▁of ▁the ▁video ▁claim ▁that ▁ 2 2 ▁percent ▁of ▁Sa ud is ▁may ▁be ▁considered ▁poor ▁( 2 0 0 9 ). ▁Ob ser vers ▁research ing ▁the ▁issue ▁prefer ▁to ▁stay ▁anonymous ▁because ▁of ▁the ▁risk ▁of ▁being ▁arrested . ▁ ▁In ▁September ▁ 2 0 1 8 , ▁the ▁Public ▁In vest ment ▁Fund ▁completed ▁a |
▁deal ▁with ▁a ▁group ▁of ▁global ▁l enders ▁for ▁a ▁loan ▁of ▁$ 1 1 ▁billion . ▁The ▁deal ▁raised ▁more ▁than ▁initially ▁planned ▁and ▁was ▁the ▁first ▁time ▁the ▁P IF ▁had ▁incorpor ated ▁lo ans ▁and ▁deb t ▁instruments ▁into ▁its ▁fund ing . ▁According ▁to ▁data ▁from ▁F itch ▁Rat ings , ▁over ▁two ▁years ▁starting ▁from ▁May ▁ 2 0 1 6 ▁Sa udi ▁Arab ia ▁went ▁from ▁having ▁zero ▁deb t ▁to ▁raising ▁$ 6 8 ▁billion ▁in ▁doll ar - den omin ated ▁b onds ▁and ▁synd ic ated ▁lo ans — one ▁of ▁the ▁fast est ▁rates ▁among ▁emer ging ▁econom ies . ▁ ▁Each ▁year , ▁about ▁a ▁quarter - mill ion ▁young ▁Sa ud is ▁enter ▁the ▁job ▁market . ▁With ▁the ▁first ▁phase ▁of ▁Sa ud ization ▁into ▁effect , ▁ 7 0 % ▁of ▁sales ▁job ▁are ▁expected ▁to ▁be ▁filled ▁by ▁Sa ud is . ▁However , ▁the ▁private ▁sector ▁still ▁remains ▁h ug ely ▁domin ated ▁by ▁foreign ers . ▁The ▁rate ▁of ▁local ▁un emp loyment ▁is ▁ 1 2 . 9 %, ▁its ▁highest ▁in ▁more ▁than ▁a ▁de cade . ▁According ▁to ▁a ▁report ▁published ▁by ▁Blo om berg ▁Econom ics ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 8 , ▁the ▁government ▁needs ▁to ▁produce ▁ 7 0 0 , 0 0 0 ▁jobs ▁by ▁ 2 0 2 0 ▁to ▁meet ▁its ▁ 9 % ▁un emp loyment ▁target . ▁ ▁Agricult ure ▁▁ ▁Ser ious ▁large - |