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as an archaism
As what can divergence in the groups be shown?
as an innovative element
How does central Catalan behave with the groups?
Eastern and Western
What are the two dialectical groups of Catalan?
Catalan
What language has a lexical unity?
Literary Catalan
What can use words from different dialects?
restricted use
What kind of words are excepted from literary use?
19th century
When did the preference of use of words from northern dialects begin?
detriment of others
What affect did this favoring of northern dialects have on other dialects?
greater freedom of choice
What kind of choice is now available in word choice?
Greek and Latin
Where does Catalan get a lot of its learned words?
very early
When did the process of acquiring words from Latin and Greek begin?
Ramon Llull
In whose work can you find examples of acquired words?
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries
When did Catalan have a greater number of Greco-Latin words than other Romance languages?
Roís de Corella
Whose writings are a good example of learned words in Catalan?
agglutination
What is common in Romance languages?
morphological
What kind of derivation in Catalan is similar to other languages?
Prefixes
What word additive is usually added to verbs?
sound alternations
What other word changes can occur in derivations?
affixes
What word supplement can be put on an already existing word base?
-o
What is the usual masculine suffix?
suppletive couplets
What kind of words does Catalan have few of?
French
What languages have more couplets than Catalan?
Italian and Spanish
What languages are similar to Catalan in numbers of couplets?
French
What language is not like Catalan in suppletive couplets?
Occitan and French
What languages have a tendency to lose gender-invariable adjectives?
bullent/bullenta
What is ab example of a gender marked adjective?
bullent/bullenta
What would be the traditional form of a gender-invariable adjective?
suffix -s
What is the usual way to make a plural?
morphological alternations
What can the addition of the suffix -s produce?
gender inflection
To what are these morphological changes similar?
addition of -o-
What is an important plural alternation?
complex
What does the large number of omissions make the determinatives?
inflection of determinatives
What is much like the neighboring languages?
Spanish
What language does Catalan have more contractions than?
Italian
Catalan has less contractions than what language?
article
What type of word is added to the contraction of the preposition?
unstressed possessives
What has Central Catalan mostly abandoned?
Italian
What other language shares this type of construction?
el meu
What is an example of an article +stressed forms?
mon
What is an example of an unstressed possessive?
13 distinct forms
How many forms of personal pronouns are there in Catalan?
11
How many personal pronouns are there is Spanish?
9
What is the number of personal pronouns in Italian?
65
How many different combinations of unstressed pronouns are there?
all other Romance languages
What is this distinction similar to?
English
What modern language does not have a T-Y distinction?
formality
What does this imply the use an extra group of pronouns for?
French or Spanish
What languages use extrapositioning in sentences less than Catalan?
passive voice
What do you not need to use in Catalan?
French or English
What languages use the passive voice more than Catalan?
preposition
What method does Spanish use to identify the object?
more complex
What is Catalan verbal inflection ?
Suffixation
What plays a primary part in Catalan?
morphological alternations
What plays a secondary part in Catalan?
active
How are vowel alternances in Catalan?
Catalan verbal system
What system is common to Western Romance?
synthetic indicative perfect
What have many dialects replaced?
all Western Romance
What is the Catalan verbal system common to?
into three conjugations
How are Catalan verbs grouped?
first conjugation
Which conjugation has about 3500 verbs?
700
How many verbs are in the third conjugation?
second
Which conjugation has less than 100 verbs?
two
How many surnames does everyone in Spain have?
first
Which one of one's father's surnames is used?
joining both surnames
What is Spain thinking of doing to the two surnames?
in
What conjunction would be used to join a person's surnames?
Estonian
What is the official language of Estonia?
about 1.1 million
How many people in Estonia speak Estonian?
tens of thousands
How many people in different migrant communities speak Estonian?
Finnic
What branch of the Uralic language family does Estonian belong to?
Uralic
What language family does Estonian belong to?
Estonian
What country has Estonian as its official language?
1.1 million
In Estonia how many people speak Estonian as their native language
Uralic
Of what language family is Estonian a part of?
Finnic
On which branch of Uralic language family can Estonian be found?
tens of thousands
How many estimated non native speakers of Estonian are there in Estonia?
linguists
Who is interested in the degrees of phonemic length?
short, long, and "overlong"
What are the phonemic length's three degrees?
the underlying phonological mechanism
What is a matter of dispute among linguists regarding the distinction?
Finnic
What Uralic language branch contains Estonian?
Finnish, Karelian
What are two other languages in the Finnic branch?
Indo-European languages
What language group is Estonian not a part of?
Hungarian and to the Sami languages
What languages are related to Estonian but not closely?
Baltic Germans
Who spoke German in what came to be known as Estonia?
Middle Low German
Aside from standard German what German language influenced Estonian?
vowel
What kind of harmony has Estonian lost?
agglutinative
What language feature does Estonian, Finish and Hungarian share?
subject–verb–object
In what order are words put in sentences in the Estonian language?
two
What was the minimum number of waves through which modern Estonians migrated into Estonia?
North and South Estonian languages
What are the names of the two separate Estonian languages?
13th century to 1918
When did the Northern Crusades happen?
Denmark, Germany, Sweden, and Russia
Which countries took part in the Northern Crusades?
Estonia
Following the crusades which country was dominated?
indigenous literacy
What did the aftermath of the crusades end up delaying in Estonia?
13th century
How far back do the first written records of Estonia's Finnic languages go?
Originates Livoniae
Where can records of Estonian place names be found?
Chronicle of Henry of Livonia
Which Chronicle contains the Originates Livoniae?
words and fragments of sentences.
Aside from place names what else from the Estonian language can be found in the Originates Livoniae in Chronicle of Henry of Livonia?
a Lutheran manuscript
What was the first Estonian language book to be published?
1524 and 1528
When were the Kallamaa prayers written?