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Neanderthal	trinkaus concluded neanderthals instead injured way contemporary humans interpersonal violence.study looking neanderthal specimens argued high trauma rates instead caused animal attacks found sample victims bear attacks big cat attacks wolf attacks totalling positive cases .cases hyaena attacks although hyaenas still nonetheless probably attacked neanderthals least opportunistically.intense predation probably stemmed common confrontations due competition food cave space neanderthals hunting carnivores.low population caused low genetic diversity probably inbreeding reduced populations ability filter harmful mutations inbreeding depression.however unknown affected single neanderthals genetic burden thus caused higher rate birth defects modern humans.
Neanderthal	known however inhabitants sidrón cave collectively exhibited different birth defects likely due inbreeding recessive disorders.likely due advanced age la chapelleauxsaints signs baastrups disease affecting spine osteoarthritis.shanidar likely died diagnosed ancient case diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis dish degenerative disease restrict movement correct would indicate moderately high incident rate older neanderthals.neanderthals likely subject several infectious diseases parasites.modern humans likely transmitted diseases one possible candidate stomach bacteria helicobacter pylori.modern human papillomavirus variant may descend neanderthal introgression.
Neanderthal	neanderthal cueva del sidrón spain shows evidence gastrointestinal enterocytozoon bieneusi infection.leg bones french la ferrassie feature lesions consistent periostitis—inflammation tissue enveloping bone—likely result hypertrophic osteoarthropathy primarily caused chest infection lung cancer.neanderthals lower cavity rate modern humans despite populations consuming typically cavitycausing foods great quantity could indicate lack cavitycausing oral bacteria namely streptococcus mutans.two yearold neanderthal children payré france present earliest known cases lead exposure hominin.exposed two distinct occasions either eating drinking contaminated food water inhaling leadlaced smoke fire.two lead mines within km mi site.
Neanderthal	culture social structure group dynamics neanderthals likely lived sparsely distributed groups contemporary modern humans group size thought averaged individuals similar modern huntergatherers.reliable evidence neanderthal group composition comes cueva del sidrón spain footprints le rozel france former shows adults adolescents juveniles infant whereas latter based footprint size shows group members juveniles adolescents made .a neanderthal childs teeth analysed showed weaned .years similar modern hunter gatherers born spring consistent modern humans mammals whose birth cycles coincide environmental cycles.indicated various ailments resulting high stress low age stunted growth british archaeologist paul pettitt hypothesised children sexes put work directly weaning trinkaus said upon reaching adolescence individual may expected join hunting large dangerous game.however bone trauma comparable modern inuit could suggest similar childhood neanderthals contemporary modern humans.
Neanderthal	stunting may also resulted harsh winters bouts low food resources.sites showing evidence three individuals may represented nuclear families temporary camping sites special task groups hunting party.bands likely moved certain caves depending season indicated remains seasonal materials certain foods returned locations generation generation.sites may used years.cave bears may greatly competed neanderthals cave space decline cave bear populations starting years ago onwards although extinction occurred well neanderthals died out.although neanderthals generally considered cave dwellers home base cave openair settlements near contemporaneously inhabited cave systems levant could indicate mobility cave openair bases area.
Neanderthal	evidence longterm openair settlements known ein qashish site israel moldova ukraine.although neanderthals appear ability inhabit range environments—including plains plateaux—openair neanderthals sites generally interpreted used slaughtering butchering grounds rather living spaces.intergroup relations canadian ethnoarchaeologist brian hayden calculated selfsustaining population avoids inbreeding consist – individuals would necessitate bands interact – bands likely conservative estimate given low population density.analysis mtdna neanderthals cueva del sidrón spain showed three adult men belonged maternal lineage three adult women belonged different ones.suggests patrilocal residence woman moved group live husband.
Neanderthal	however dna neanderthal denisova cave russia shows inbreeding coefficient ⁄ parents either halfsiblings common mother double first cousins uncle niece aunt nephew grandfather granddaughter grandmother grandson inhabitants cueva del sidrón show several defects may caused inbreeding recessive disorders.considering neanderthal artefacts sourced km .mi main settlement hayden considered unlikely bands interacted often mapping neanderthal brain small group size population density could indicate reduced ability intergroup interaction trade.however neanderthal artefacts settlement could originated km ..mi away.
Neanderthal	based hayden also speculated macrobands formed functioned much like lowdensity huntergatherer societies western desert australia.macrobands collectively encompass km sq mi band claiming – km – sq mi maintaining strong alliances mating networks cope leaner times enemies.similarly british anthropologist eiluned pearce cypriot archaeologist theodora moutsiou speculated neanderthals possibly capable forming geographically expansive ethnolinguistic tribes encompassing upwards people based transport obsidian km mi source compared trends seen obsidian transfer distance tribe size modern huntergatherers.however likely due significantly lower population model also reported neanderthals would efficient maintaining longdistance networks contemporary humans.hayden noted apparent cemetery six seven individuals la ferrassie france modern humans typically used evidence corporate group maintained distinct social identity controlled resource trading manufacturing on.
Neanderthal	la ferrassie also located one richest animalmigration routes pleistocene europe.genetic analysis indicates least distinct geographical groups—western europe mediterranean coast east caucasus—with migration among regions.posteemian western european mousterian lithics also broadly grouped distinct macroregions acheuleantradition mousterian southwest micoquien northeast mousterian bifacial tools mbt former two.mbt may actually represent interactions fusion two different cultures.southern neanderthals exhibit regional anatomical differences northern counterparts less protrusive jaw shorter gap behind molars vertically higher jawbone.instead suggest neanderthal communities regularly interacted neighbouring communities within region often beyond.nonetheless long periods time evidence largescale crosscontinental migration.
Neanderthal	early specimens mezmaiskaya cave caucasus denisova cave siberian altai mountains differ genetically found western europe whereas later specimens caves genetic profiles similar western european neanderthal specimens earlier specimens locations suggesting longrange migration population replacement time.similarly artefacts dna chagyrskaya okladnikov caves also altai mountains resemble eastern european neanderthal sites – km – mi away artefacts dna older neanderthals denisova cave suggesting two distinct migration events siberia.neanderthals seem suffered major population decline mis – thousand years ago distribution micoquian tradition could indicate central europe caucasus repopulated communities refuge zone either eastern france hungary fringes micoquian tradition dispersed along rivers prut dniester.there also evidence intergroup conflict skeleton la roche à pierrot france showing healed fracture top skull apparently caused deep blade wound another shanadir cave iraq found rib lesion characteristic projectile weapon injuries.social hierarchy sometimes suggested since hunters challenging big game lived small groups sexual division labour seen modern huntergatherer societies.men women children involved hunting instead men hunting women children foraging.
Neanderthal	however modern huntergatherers higher meat dependency higher division labour.toothwearing patterns neanderthal men women suggest commonly used teeth carrying items men exhibit wearing upper teeth women lower suggesting cultural differences tasks.it controversially proposed neanderthals wore decorative clothing jewellery—such leopard skin raptor feathers—to display elevated status group.hayden postulated small number neanderthal graves found highranking members would receive elaborate burial case modern huntergatherers.trinkaus suggested elderly neanderthals given special burial rites lasting long given high mortality rates.alternatively many neanderthals may received burials graves infiltrated destroyed bears.
Neanderthal	given graves neanderthals aged found—over third known graves—deceased children may received greater care burial age demographics.looking neanderthal skeletons recovered several natural rock shelters trinkaus said although neanderthals recorded bearing several traumarelated injuries none significant trauma legs would debilitate movement.suggested self worth neanderthal culture derived contributing food group debilitating injury would remove selfworth result nearimmediate death individuals could keep group moving cave cave left behind.however examples individuals highly debilitating injuries nursed several years caring vulnerable within community dates even back h. heidelbergensis.especially given high trauma rates possible altruistic strategy ensured survival species long.food hunting gathering neanderthals thought scavengers considered apex predators.
Neanderthal	hypothesised two piles mammoth skulls la cotte de st brelade jersey base gulley evidence mammoth drive hunting causing stampede ledge contested.living forested environment neanderthals likely ambush hunters getting close attacking target—a prime adult—in short burst speed thrusting spear close quarters.younger wounded animals may hunted using traps projectiles pursuit.nonetheless able adapt variety habitats.appear eaten predominantly abundant within immediate surroundings steppedwelling communities generally outside mediterranean subsisting almost entirely meat large game forestdwelling communities consuming wide array plants smaller animals waterside communities gathering aquatic resources.
Neanderthal	contemporary humans contrast seem used complex food extraction strategies generally diverse diet.nonetheless neanderthals still would eaten varied enough diet prevent nutrient deficiencies protein poisoning especially winter presumably ate mostly lean meat.food high contents essential nutrients provided lean meat would vital components diet fatrich brains carbohydraterich abundant underground storage organs including roots tubers like modern inuit stomach contents herbivorous prey items.for meat appear fed predominantly hoofed mammals namely red deer reindeer two abundant game also pleistocene megafauna ibex wild boar aurochs mammoth straighttusked elephant woolly rhinoceros on.evidence directed cave brown bear hunting hibernation well butchering.analysis neanderthal bone collagen vindija cave croatia shows nearly protein needs derived animal meat.
Neanderthal	caves show evidence regular rabbit tortoise consumption.gibraltar sites remains different bird species many grounddwelling common quail corn crake woodlark crested lark.neanderthals also exploited marine resources iberian italian peloponnesian peninsulas waded dived shellfish early years ago cueva bajondillo spain similar fishing record modern humans.vanguard cave gibraltar inhabitants consumed mediterranean monk seal shortbeaked common dolphin common bottlenose dolphin atlantic bluefin tuna sea bream purple sea urchin gruta da figueira brava portugal evidence largescale harvest shellfish crabs fish.evidence freshwater fishing found grotte di castelcivita italy trout chub eel abri du maras france chub european perch payré france kudaro cave russia black sea salmon.edible plant mushroom remains recorded several caves.
Neanderthal	neanderthals cueva del sidrón spain based dental tartar likely meatless diet mushrooms pine nuts moss indicating forest foragers.remnants amud cave israel indicates diet figs palm tree fruits various cereals edible grasses.several bone traumas leg joints could possibly suggest habitual squatting case likely done gathering food.dental tartar grotte de spy belgium indicates inhabitants meatheavy diet including woolly rhinoceros mouflon sheep also regularly consuming mushrooms.neanderthal faecal matter el salt spain dated years ago—the oldest human faecal matter remains recorded—show diet mainly meat significant component plants.
Neanderthal	evidence cooked plant foods—mainly legumes far lesser extent acorns—was discovered kebara cave israel inhabitants possibly gathering plants spring fall hunting seasons except fall although cave probably abandoned late summer early fall.shanidar cave iraq neanderthals collected plants various harvest seasons indicating scheduled returns area harvest certain plants complex foodgathering behaviours meat plants.food preparation neanderthals probably could employ wide range cooking techniques roasting may able heat boil soup stew animal stock.abundance animal bone fragments settlements may indicate making fat stocks boiling bone marrow possibly taken animals already died starvation.methods would substantially increased fat consumption major nutritional requirement communities low carbohydrate high protein intake.
Neanderthal	neanderthal tooth size decreasing trend years ago could indicate increased dependence cooking advent boiling technique would softened food.at cueva del sidrón spain neanderthals likely cooked possibly smoked food well used certain plants—such yarrow camomile—as flavouring although plants may instead used medicinal properties.gorhams cave gibraltar neanderthals may roasting pinecones access pine nuts.at grotte du lazaret france total red deer ibexes aurochs roe deer appear hunted single autumn hunting season strong male female deer herds would group together rut.entire carcasses seem transported cave butchered.large amount food consume spoilage possible neanderthals curing preserving winter set in.years old oldest potential evidence food storage.
Neanderthal	great quantities meat fat could gathered general typical prey items namely mammoths could also indicate food storage capability.shellfish neanderthals needed eat cook manner preserve soon collection shellfish spoils quickly.cueva de los aviones spain remains edible algae eating shellfish associated alga jania rubens could indicate like modern hunter gatherer societies harvested shellfish held watersoaked algae keep alive fresh consumption.competition competition large ice age predators rather high.cave lions likely targeted horses large deer wild cattle leopards primarily reindeer roe deer heavily overlapped neanderthal diet.
Neanderthal	defend kill ferocious predators neanderthals may engaged group display yelling arm waving stone throwing quickly gathered meat abandoned kill.however grotte de spy belgium remains wolves cave lions cave bears—which major predators time—indicate neanderthals hunted competitors extent.neanderthals cave hyaenas may exemplified niche differentiation actively avoided competing other.although mainly targeted groups creatures—deer horses cattle—neanderthals mainly hunted former cave hyaenas latter two.animal remains neanderthal caves indicate preferred hunt prime individuals whereas cave hyaenas hunted weaker younger prey cave hyaena caves higher abundance carnivore remains.nonetheless evidence cave hyaenas stole food leftovers neanderthal campsites scavenged dead neanderthal bodies.
Neanderthal	cannibalism several instances neanderthals practising cannibalism across range.first example came krapina croatia examples found cueva del sidrón zafarraya spain french grotte de moulaguercy les pradelles la quina.five cannibalised neanderthals grottes de goyet belgium evidence upper limbs disarticulated lower limbs defleshed also smashed likely extract bone marrow chest cavity disemboweled jaw dismembered.also evidence butchers used bones retouch tools.processing neanderthal meat grottes de goyet similar processed horse reindeer.
Neanderthal	neanderthals marillaclefranc france show clear signs butchery presence digested teeth indicates bodies abandoned eaten scavengers likely hyaenas.these cannibalistic tendencies explained either ritual defleshing preburial defleshing prevent scavengers foul smell act war simply food.due small number cases higher number cut marks seen cannibalised individuals animals indicating inexperience cannibalism probably common practice may done times extreme food shortages cases recorded human history.art personal adornment neanderthal used ochre clay earth pigment.ochre welldocumented thousand years ago neanderthal sites earliest example dating – thousand years ago maastrichtbelvédère netherlands similar timespan ochre record h. sapiens.hypothesised functioned body paint analyses pigments pech de l’azé france indicates applied soft materials hide human skin.
Neanderthal	however modern hunter gatherers addition body paint also use ochre medicine tanning hides food preservative insect repellent use decorative paint neanderthals speculative.containers apparently used mixing ochre pigments found peștera cioarei romania could indicate modification ochre solely aesthetic purposes.neanderthals collected uniquely shaped objects suggested modified pendants fossil aspa marginata sea snail shell possibly painted red grotta di fumane italy transported km mi site years ago shells dated – thousand years ago perforated umbo belonging rough cockle glycymeris insubrica spondylus gaederopus cueva de los aviones spain former two associated red yellow pigments latter redtoblack mix hematite pyrite king scallop shell traces orange mix goethite hematite cueva antón spain.discoverers latter two claim pigment applied exterior make match naturally vibrant inside colouration.excavated french grotte du renne châtelperronian beads made animal teeth shells ivory found associated neanderthal bones dating uncertain châtelperronian artefacts may actually crafted modern humans simply redeposited neanderthal remains.gibraltarian palaeoanthropologists clive geraldine finlayson suggested neanderthals used various bird parts artistic mediums specifically black feathers.finlaysons colleagues examined sites across eurasia argued raptors corvids species typically consumed human species overrepresented show processing wing bones instead fleshier torso thus evidence feather plucking specifically large flight feathers use personal adornment.
Neanderthal	specifically noted cinereous vulture redbilled chough kestrel lesser kestrel alpine chough rook jackdaw white tailed eagle middle palaeolithic sites.birds claimed present evidence modifications neanderthals golden eagle rock pigeon common raven bearded vulture.earliest claim bird bone jewellery number year old white tailed eagle talons found cache near krapina croatia speculated necklace.similar yearold spanish imperial eagle talon necklace reported cova foradà spain though contentious châtelperronian layer.incisiondecorated raven bones zaskalnaya vi rock shelter ukraine dated – thousand years ago reported.
Neanderthal	notches moreorless equidistant first modified bird bones cannot explained simple butchery argument design intent based direct evidence.discovered socalled mask la rochecotard mostly flat piece flint bone pushed hole midsection—dated thousand years ago—has purported resemble upper half face bone representing eyes.contested whether represents face even counts art.american archaeologist alexander marshack speculated neanderthal grotte de lhortus france wore leopard pelt personal adornment indicate elevated status group based recovered leopard skull phalanges tail vertebrae.abstraction purported engravings reported different european middle eastern lowertomiddle palaeolithic sites flint cortexes sites slabs sites pebbles sites.debated whether made symbolic intent.
Neanderthal	deep scratches floor gorhams cave gibraltar discovered dated older years ago discoverers interpreted neanderthal abstract art.scratches could also produced bear.irish elk phalanx five engraved offset chevrons stacked discovered entrance einhornhöhle cave germany dating years ago.in redpainted dots disks lines hand stencils cave walls spanish la pasiega maltravieso doña trinidad dated older years ago least years prior arrival modern humans western europe.would indicate neanderthal authorship similar iconography recorded western european sites—such les merveilles france cueva del castillo spain—could potentially also neanderthal origins.however dating spanish caves thus attribution neanderthals contested.neanderthals known collected variety unusual objects—such crystals fossils—without real functional purpose indication damage caused use.
Neanderthal	unclear objects simply picked aesthetic qualities symbolic significance applied them.items mainly quartz crystals also minerals cerussite iron pyrite calcite galena.findings feature modifications mammoth tooth incision fossil nummulite shell cross etched tata hungary large slab cupstones hollowed grave la ferrassie france geode peștera cioarei romania coated red ochre.number fossil shells also known french neanderthals sites rhynchonellid taraebratulina combe grenal belemnite beak grottes des canalettes polyp grotte de lhyène sea urchin la gonterieboulouneix rhynchonella feather star belemnite beak contentious châtelperronian layer grotte du renne.music purported neanderthal bone flute fragments made bear long bones reported potočka zijalka slovenia istállóskőibarlang hungary mokriška jama slovenia attributed modern human activities.
Neanderthal	thousand year old divje babe flute slovenia attributed researchers neanderthals canadian musicologist robert fink said original flute either diatonic pentatonic musical scale.however date also overlaps modern human immigration europe means also possible manufactured neanderthals.zoologist cajus diedrich argued flute holes made scavenging hyaena lack cut marks stemming whittling slovenian archaeologist matija turk colleagues countered highly unlikely punctures made teeth cut marks always present bone flutes.technology despite apparent thousand year stagnation neanderthal lithic innovation evidence neanderthal technology sophisticated previously thought.however high frequency potentially debilitating injuries could prevented complex technologies emerging major injury would impeded experts ability effectively teach novice.
Neanderthal	stone tools neanderthals made stone tools associated mousterian industry.mousterian also associated north african h. sapiens early years ago found northern china – thousand years ago.evolved around years ago levallois technique developed directly preceding acheulean industry invented h. erectus .mya.levallois made easier control flake shape size difficulttolearn unintuitive process levallois technique may directly taught generation generation rather via purely observational learning.there distinct regional variants mousterian industry quina la ferrassie subtypes charentian industry southwestern france acheuleantradition mousterian subtypes b along atlantic northwestern european coasts micoquien industry central eastern europe related sibiryachikha variant siberian altai mountains denticulate mousterian industry western europe racloir industry around zagros mountains flake cleaver industry cantabria spain sides pyrenees.
Neanderthal	midth century french archaeologist françois bordes debated american archaeologist lewis binford explain diversity bordes–binford debate bordes arguing represent unique ethnic traditions binford caused varying environments essentially form vs. function.latter sentiment would indicate lower degree inventiveness compared modern humans adapting tools different environments rather creating new technologies.continuous sequence occupation welldocumented grotte du renne france lithic tradition divided levallois–charentian discoid–denticulate .±.–.±.thousand years ago levallois mousterian .±.–.±.thousand years ago châtelperronian .±.–.±.
Neanderthal	thousand years ago.there debate neanderthals longranged weapons.wound neck african wild ass umm el tlel syria likely inflicted heavy levalloispoint javelin bone trauma consistent habitual throwing reported neanderthals.spear tips abri du maras france may fragile used thrusting spears possibly suggesting use darts.organic tools châtelperronian central france northern spain distinct industry mousterian controversially hypothesised represent culture neanderthals borrowing process acculturation toolmaking techniques immigrating modern humans crafting bone tools ornaments.frame makers would transitional culture neanderthal mousterian modern human aurignacian.
Neanderthal	opposing viewpoint châtelperronian manufactured modern humans instead.abrupt transitions similar mousterianchâtelperronian could also simply represent natural innovation like la quina–neronian transition years ago featuring technologies generally associated modern humans bladelets microliths.ambiguous transitional cultures include italian uluzzian industry balkan szeletian industry.before immigration evidence neanderthal bone tools animal rib lissoirs — rubbed hide make supple waterproof — although could also evidence modern humans immigrating earlier expected.two .–.thousand year old deer rib lissoirs reported pechdel’azé nearby abri peyrony france.
Neanderthal	lissoirs made aurochs bison ribs reported abri peyrony one dating years ago four .–.thousand years ago.indicates technology use region long time.since reindeer remains abundant use less abundant bovine ribs may indicate specific preference bovine ribs.potential lissoirs also reported grosse grotte germany made mammoth grottes des canalettes france red deer.the neanderthals coastal sites italy namely grotta del cavallo grotta dei moscerini kalamakia cave greece known crafted scrapers using smooth clam shells possibly hafted wooden handle.
Neanderthal	probably chose clam species durable shell.grotta dei moscerini shells gathered alive seafloor meaning neanderthals wade dive shallow waters collect them.grotta di santa lucia italy campanian volcanic arc neanderthals collected porous volcanic pumice contemporary humans probably used polishing points needles.pumices associated shell tools.at abri du maras france twisted fibres ply innerbarkfibre cord fragment associated neanderthals show produced string cordage unclear widespread technology materials used make animal hair hide sinew plant fibres biodegradable preserve poorly.technology could indicate least basic knowledge weaving knotting would made possible production nets containers packaging baskets carrying devices ties straps harnesses clothes shoes beds bedding mats flooring roofing walls snares would important hafting fishing seafaring.
Neanderthal	dating – thousand years ago cord fragment oldest direct evidence fibre technology although yearold perforated shell beads cueva antón possibly strung together make necklace oldest indirect evidence.british archaeologist rebecca wragg sykes expressed cautious support genuineness find pointed string would weak would limited functions.one possibility thread attaching stringing small objects.the archaeological record shows neanderthals commonly used animal hide birch bark may used make cooking containers although based largely circumstantial evidence neither fossilize well.possible neanderthals kebara cave israel used shells spurthighed tortoise containers.at italian poggetti vecchi site evidence used fire process boxwood branches make digging sticks common implement huntergatherer societies.fire construction many mousterian sites evidence fire extended periods time though unclear capable starting fire simply scavenged naturally occurring wildfires.
Neanderthal	indirect evidence fire starting ability includes pyrite residue couple dozen bifaces late mousterian c. years ago northwestern france could indicate used percussion fire starters collection manganese dioxide late neanderthals lower combustion temperature wood.also capable zoning areas specific activities knapping butchering hearths wood storage.many neanderthal sites lack evidence activity perhaps due natural degradation area tens thousands years bear infiltration abandonment settlement.in number caves evidence hearths detected.neanderthals likely considered air circulation making hearths lack proper ventilation single hearth render cave uninhabitable several minutes.abric romaní rock shelter spain indicates eight evenly spaced hearths lined rock wall likely used stay warm sleeping one person sleeping either side fire.
Neanderthal	cueva de bolomor spain hearths lined wall smoke flowed upwards ceiling led outside cave.grotte du lazaret france smoke probably naturally ventilated winter interior cave temperature greater outside temperature likewise cave likely inhabited winter.in two year old ring structures made broken stalagmite pieces several metres wide discovered large chamber ft entrance within grotte de bruniquel france.one ring .× .ft × ft stalagmite pieces averaging .
Neanderthal	cm .length .× ..ft × .
Neanderthal	ft pieces averaging .cm .in.also piles stalagmite pieces total ft ..
Neanderthal	short tons worth stalagmite pieces.evidence use fire burnt bones also suggest human activity.team neanderthals likely necessary construct structure chambers actual purpose uncertain.building complex structures deep cave unprecedented archaeological record indicates sophisticated lighting construction technology great familiarity subterranean environments.the year old moldova openair site ukraine shows evidence × ft × ft ringshaped dwelling made mammoth bones meant longterm habitation several neanderthals would taken long time build.appears contained hearths cooking areas flint workshop traces woodworking.
Neanderthal	upper palaeolithic modern humans russian plains thought also made housing structures mammoth bones.bark tar neanderthal produced adhesive birch bark tar perhaps using plantbased resins hafting.long believed birch bark tar required complex recipe followed thus showed complex cognitive skills cultural transmission.however study showed made simply burning birch bark smooth vertical surfaces flat inclined rock.clothes neanderthals likely able survive similar range temperatures modern humans sleeping °c °f naked open windspeed .
Neanderthal	kmh .mph – °c – °f naked enclosed space.since ambient temperatures markedly lower this—averaging eemian interglacial .°c .°f july °c °f january dropping low − °c − °f coldest days—danish physicist bent sørensen hypothesised neanderthals required tailored clothing capable preventing airflow skin.
Neanderthal	especially extended periods travelling hunting trip tailored footwear completely enwrapping feet may necessary.nonetheless opposed bone sewingneedles stitching awls assumed use contemporary modern humans known neanderthal tools could used fashion clothes hide scrapers could made items similar blankets ponchos direct evidence could produce fitted clothes.indirect evidence tailoring neanderthals includes ability manufacture string could indicate weaving ability naturallypointed horse metatarsal bone cueva de los aviones spain speculated used awl perforating dyed hides based presence orange pigments.whatever case neanderthals would needed cover body contemporary humans would covered –.since humanneanderthal admixture known occurred middle east modern body louse species descends neanderthal counterparts body lice inhabit clothed individuals possible neanderthals andor humans hotter climates wear clothes neanderthal lice highly specialised.seafaring remains middle palaeolithic stone tools greek islands indicate early seafaring neanderthals ionian sea possibly starting far back – thousand years ago.oldest stone artefacts crete date – thousand years ago cephalonia thousand years ago zakynthos – thousand years ago.
Neanderthal	makers artefacts likely employed simple reed boats made oneday crossings back forth.mediterranean islands remains include sardinia melos alonnisos naxos although naxos may connected land possible crossed strait gibraltar.interpretation correct neanderthals ability engineer boats navigate open waters would speak advanced cognitive technical skills.medicine given dangerous hunting extensive skeletal evidence healing neanderthals appear lived lives frequent traumatic injury recovery.wellhealed fractures many bones indicate setting splints.
Neanderthal	individuals severe head rib traumas would caused massive blood loss indicate manner dressing major wounds bandages made animal skin.byandlarge appear avoided severe infections indicating good longterm treatment wounds.their knowledge medicinal plants comparable contemporary humans.individual cueva del sidrón spain seems medicating dental abscess using poplar—which contains salicylic acid active ingredient aspirin—and also traces antibioticproducing penicillium chrysogenum.may also used yarrow camomile bitter taste—which act deterrent could indicate poison—means likely deliberate act.kebara cave israel plant remains historically used medicinal properties found including common grape vine pistachios persian turpentine tree ervil seeds oak acorns.
Neanderthal	language degree language complexity difficult establish given neanderthals achieved technical cultural complexity interbred humans reasonable assume least fairly articulate comparable modern humans.somewhat complex language—possibly using syntax—was likely necessary survive harsh environment neanderthals needing communicate topics locations hunting gathering toolmaking techniques.foxp gene modern humans associated speech language development.foxp present neanderthals genes modern human variant.neurologically neanderthals expanded brocas area—operating formulation sentences speech comprehension group genes believed affect neural substrate language different methylation patterns neanderthals modern humans.
Neanderthal	could indicate stronger ability modern humans neanderthals express language.in cognitive scientist philip lieberman attempted reconstruct neanderthal vocal tract concluded similar newborn incapable producing nasal sounds due large size mouth thus need descended larynx fit entire tongue inside mouth.claimed anatomically unable produce sounds u ɔ g k thus lacked capacity articulate speech though still able speak level higher nonhuman primates.however lack descended larynx necessarily equate reduced vowel capacity.discovery neanderthal hyoid bone—used speech production humans—in kebara almost identical humans suggests neanderthals capable speech ancestral sima de los huesos hominins humanlike hyoid ear bones could suggest early evolution modern human vocal apparatus.however hyoid definitively provide insight vocal tract anatomy.
Neanderthal	subsequent studies reconstruct neanderthal vocal apparatus comparable modern humans similar vocal repertoire.lieberman hypothesized neanderthals capable syntactical language although nonetheless incapable mastering human dialect.it debated behavioural modernity recent uniquely modern human innovation neanderthals also possessed it.religion funerals claims neanderthals held funerals dead symbolic meaning heavily contested speculative.although neanderthals bury dead least occasionally—which may explain abundance fossil remains— indicative religious belief life death burial could also nonsymbolic motivations great emotion prevent scavenging.the debate neanderthal funerals active since discovery la chapelleauxsaints small artificial hole cave southwestern france controversially postulated buried symbolic fashion.another grave shanidar cave iraq associated pollen several flowers may bloom time deposition—yarrow centaury ragwort grape hyacinth joint pine hollyhock.
Neanderthal	medicinal properties plants led american archaeologist ralph solecki claim man buried leader healer shaman association flowers neanderthals adds whole new dimension knowledge humanness indicating soul .however also possible pollen deposited small rodent mans death.the graves children infants especially associated grave goods artefacts bones.grave newborn la ferrassie france found three flint scrapers infant dederiyeh cave syria found triangular flint placed chest.monthold amud cave israel associated red deer mandible likely purposefully placed given animal remains reduced fragments.teshiktash uzbekistan associated circle ibex horns limestone slab argued supported head.
Neanderthal	child kiikkoba crimea ukraine flint flake purposeful engraving likely requiring great deal skill.nonetheless contentiously constitute evidence symbolic meaning grave goods significance worth unclear.cults argued bones cave bear particularly skull european caves arranged specific order indicating ancient bear cult killed bears ceremoniously arranged bones.would consistent bearrelated rituals modern human arctic huntergatherers alleged peculiarity arrangement could also wellexplained natural causes bias could introduced existence bear cult would conform idea totemism earliest religion leading undue extrapolation evidence.it also thought neanderthals ritually hunted killed cannibalised neanderthals used skull focus ceremony.italian palaeontologist alberto blanc believed skull grotta guattari italy evidence swift blow head—indicative ritual murder—and precise deliberate incising base access brain.
Neanderthal	compared victims headhunters malaysia borneo putting forward evidence skull cult.however thought result cave hyaena predation.although neanderthals known practiced cannibalism unsubstantial evidence suggest ritual defleshing.in gibraltarian palaeoanthropologists stewart geraldine clive finlayson spanish archaeologist francisco guzmán speculated golden eagle iconic value neanderthals exemplified modern human societies reported golden eagle bones conspicuously high rate evidence modification compared bones birds.proposed cult sun bird golden eagle symbol power.interbreeding interbreeding modern humans first neanderthal genome sequence published strongly indicated interbreeding neanderthals early modern humans.
Neanderthal	genomes nonsubsaharan populations contain neanderthal dna.various estimates exist proportion – .–.modern eurasians .–.modern europeans .–.modern east asians.
Neanderthal	preagricultural europeans appear similar percentages modern east asians numbers may decreased former due dilution group people split neanderthal introgression.typically studies reported finding significant levels neanderthal dna subsaharan africans study detected .. genomes five african sample populations likely result eurasians backmigrating interbreeding africans well humantoneanderthal gene flow dispersals homo sapiens preceding larger outofafrica migration.low percentages neanderthal dna present day populations indicate infrequent past interbreeding unless interbreeding common different population modern humans contribute present day gene pool.inherited neanderthal genome modern europeans modern east asians may related viral immunity.approximately neanderthal genome appears survived modern human gene pool.however due small population resulting reduced effectivity natural selection neanderthals accumulated several weakly harmful mutations introduced slowly selected much larger modern human population initial hybridised population may experienced reduction fitness compared contemporary humans.
Neanderthal	measure neanderthals may substantially increased fitness.study focusing archaic genes turkey found associations coeliac disease malaria severity costello syndrome.nonetheless genes may helped modern human europeans adapt environment valmet variant mcr gene may weakly associated red hair may descend neanderthals although contested variant rare neanderthals light skin modern humans become prevalent holocene.genes related immune system appear affected introgression may aided migration oas stat tlr tlr tlr several related immune response.addition neanderthal genes also implicated structure function brain keratin filaments sugar metabolism muscle contraction body fat distribution enamel thickness oocyte meiosis.
Neanderthal	nonetheless large portion surviving introgression appears noncoding junk dna biological functions.due absence neanderthalderived mtdna passed mother child modern populations suggested progeny neanderthal females mated modern human males either rare absent sterile—that say admixture stems progeny neanderthal males modern human females.due lack neanderthalderived ychromosomes modern humans passed father son also suggested hybrids contributed ancestry modern populations predominantly females neanderthal ychromosome compatible h. sapiens became extinct.according linkage disequilibrium mapping last neanderthal gene flow modern human genome occurred – thousand years ago likely – thousand years ago.thought neanderthal genes contributed present day human genome stemmed interbreeding near east rather entirety europe.however interbreeding still occurred without contributing modern genome.approximately year old modern human oase found – point estimate .
Neanderthal	neanderthal dna indicating neanderthal ancestor four six generations earlier hybrid romanian population appear made substantial contribution genomes later europeans.dna neanderthals denisova cave revealed evidence interbreeding years ago interbreeding earlier dispersal h. sapiens may occurred early years ago places levant.earliest h. sapiens remains outside africa occur misliya cave – thousand years ago skhul qafzeh – thousand years ago.qafzeh humans lived approximately time neanderthals nearby tabun cave.neanderthals german hohlensteinstadel deeply divergent mtdna compared recent neanderthals possibly due introgression human mtdna thousand years ago simply genetically isolated.
Neanderthal	whatever case first interbreeding events left trace modern human genomes.detractors interbreeding model argue genetic similarity remnant common ancestor instead interbreeding although unlikely fails explain subsaharan africans neanderthal dna.interbreeding denisovans although ndna confirms neanderthals denisovans closely related modern humans neanderthals modern humans share recent maternallytransmitted mtdna common ancestor possibly due interbreeding denisovans unknown human species.yearold neanderthallike humans sima de los huesos northern spain looking mtdna closely related denisovans neanderthals.several neanderthallike fossils eurasia similar time period often grouped h. heidelbergensis may relict populations earlier humans could interbred denisovans.also used explain approximately year old german neanderthal specimen mtdna diverged neanderthals except sima de los huesos years ago genomic dna indicated divergence less years ago.sequencing genome denisovan denisova cave shown genome derives neanderthals.
Neanderthal	neanderthal dna closely resembled yearold neanderthal bone cave neanderthals vindija cave croatia mezmaiskaya cave caucasus suggesting interbreeding local.for yearold denisova found father denisovan related recent inhabitants region mother neanderthal related recent european neanderthals vindija cave croatia.given denisovan bones known discovery firstgeneration hybrid indicates interbreeding common species neanderthal migration across eurasia likely occurred sometime years ago.extinction transition whatever cause extinction neanderthals replaced modern humans indicated near full replacement middle palaeolithic mousterian stone technology modern human upper palaeolithic aurignacian stone technology across europe middletoupper palaeolithic transition thousand years ago.however postulated iberian neanderthals persisted years ago indicated date range transitional lithic assemblages—châtelperronian uluzzian protoaurignacian early aurignacian.latter two attributed modern humans former two unconfirmed authorship potentially products neanderthalmodern human cohabitation cultural transmission.
Neanderthal	appearance aurignacian south ebro river dated roughly years ago prompted ebro frontier hypothesis states river presented geographic barrier preventing modern human immigration thus prolonging neanderthal persistence.however dating iberian transition debated contested timing –.thousand years ago cueva bajondillo spain.châtelperronian appears northeastern iberia .–.thousand years ago.some neanderthals gibraltar dated much later this—such zafarraya years ago gorhams cave years ago—which may inaccurate based ambiguous artefacts instead direct dating.
Neanderthal	claim neanderthals surviving polar refuge ural mountains loosely supported mousterian stone tools dating – thousand years ago northern siberian byzovaya site time modern humans may yet colonised northern reaches europe however modern human remains known nearby mamontovaya kurya site dating years ago.indirect dating neanderthals remains mezmaiskaya cave reported date years ago direct dating instead yielded .±.thousand years ago line trends exhibited rest europe.the earliest indication upper palaeolithic modern human immigration europe balkan bohunician industry beginning years ago likely deriving levantine emiran industry earliest bones europe date roughly – thousand years ago bulgaria italy britain.wave modern humans replaced neanderthals.however neanderthals h. sapiens much longer contact history.
Neanderthal	dna evidence indicates h. sapiens contact neanderthals admixture early – thousand years ago.reanalysis year old skull fragments greek apidima cave assumed belonged neanderthal concluded belonged modern human neanderthal skull dating years ago cave indicates h. sapiens replaced neanderthals returning years ago.identification refuted study.archaeological evidence suggests neanderthals displaced modern humans near east around years ago – thousand years ago.cause modern humans historically modern human technology viewed vastly superior neanderthals efficient weaponry subsistence strategies neanderthals simply went extinct could compete.the discovery neanderthalmodern human introgression caused resurgence multiregional hypothesis wherein present day genetic makeup humans end result complex genetic contact among several different populations humans dispersed across world.
Neanderthal	model neanderthals recent archaic humans simply assimilated modern human genome – effectively bred extinction.climate change ultimate extinction coincides heinrich event period intense seasonality later heinrich events also associated massive cultural turnovers european human populations collapsed.climate change may depopulated several regions neanderthals like previous cold spikes areas instead repopulated immigrating humans leading neanderthal extinction.it also proposed climate change primary driver low population left vulnerable environmental change even small drop survival fertility rates possibly quickly leading extinction.however neanderthals ancestors survived several glacial periods hundreds thousands years european habitation.also proposed around years ago neanderthal populations may already dwindling factors campanian ignimbrite eruption italy could led final demise produced – °c cooling year acid rain several years.
Neanderthal	disease modern humans may introduced african diseases neanderthals contributing extinction.lack immunity compounded already low population potentially devastating neanderthal population low genetic diversity could also rendered fewer neanderthals naturally immune new diseases differential pathogen resistance hypothesis.however compared modern humans neanderthals similar higher genetic diversity major histocompatibility complex mhc genes associated adaptive immune system casting doubt model.low population inbreeding depression may caused maladaptive birth defects could contributed decline mutational meltdown.in latethcentury new guinea due cannibalistic funerary practices fore people decimated transmissible spongiform encephalopathies specifically kuru highly virulent disease spread ingestion prions found brain tissue.however individuals variant prnp gene naturally immune prions.studying gene led discovery variant widespread among modern humans could indicate widespread cannibalism point human prehistory.
Neanderthal	neanderthals known practised cannibalism extent coexisted modern humans british palaeoanthropologist simon underdown speculated modern humans transmitted kurulike spongiform disease neanderthals variant appears absent neanderthals quickly killed off.popular culture neanderthals portrayed popular culture including appearances literature visual media comedy.caveman archetype often mocks neanderthals depicts primitive hunchbacked knuckledragging clubwielding grunting nonsocial characters driven solely animal instinct.neanderthal also used insult.in literature sometimes depicted brutish monstrous h. g. wells grisly folk elizabeth marshall thomas animal wife sometimes civilised unfamiliar culture william goldings inheritors björn kurténs dance tiger jean m. auels clan cave bear earths children series.see also denisovan – asian archaic humanearly human migrationseuropean early modern humanshomo floresiensis – archaic human flores indonesiahomo luzonensis – archaic human luzon philippineshomo naledi – smallbrained south african archaic humanhuman timeline – hominin events last million years explanatory notes citations general bibliography brown k. fa d. a. finlayson g. finlayson c. .
Neanderthal	small game marine resource exploitation neanderthals evidence gibraltar.trekking shore changing coastlines antiquity coastal settlement.interdisciplinary contributions archaeology.springer.isbn .finlayson c. .
Neanderthal	smart neanderthal bird catching cave art cognitive revolution.oxford university press.isbn .papagianni d. morse m. a. .still us.neanderthals rediscovered modern science rewriting story.
Neanderthal	thames hudson.isbn .reich d. .encounters neanderthals.got ancient dna new science human past.oxford university press.
Neanderthal	isbn .shipman p. .humans dogs drove neanderthals extinction.invaders humans dogs drove neanderthals extinction.harvard university press.isbn .
Neanderthal	jstor j.ctvjfzbs.stringer c. gamble c. .search neanderthals.thames hudson.isbn .sykes rebecca wragg .kindred neanderthal life love death art.
Neanderthal	london uk bloomsbury sigma.isbn .tattersall i. .neanderthals dna creativity.strange case rickety cossack cautionary tales human evolution.st. martins publishing group.
Neanderthal	isbn .external links homo neanderthalensis.smithsonian institution.february .human timeline interactive – smithsonian national museum natural history august .neanderthal dna.international society genetic genealogy.
September 11 attacks	archived original june .includes neanderthal mtdna sequencesgenbank records h. s. neanderthalensis maintained national center biotechnology information ncbimorning four commercial airliners traveling northeastern u.s. california hijacked midflight alqaeda terrorists.hijackers organized three groups five members one group four.group one hijacker received flight training took control aircraft.explicit goal crash plane prominent american building causing mass casualties partial complete destruction targeted buildings.two planes hit twin towers world trade center third hit west side pentagon.
September 11 attacks	fourth plane intended crash target washington d.c. instead crashed field near shanksville pennsylvania following passenger revolt.the first plane hit target american airlines flight .flown north tower world trade center complex lower manhattan am.seventeen minutes later world trade centers south tower hit united airlines flight .story towers collapsed within hour fortytwo minutes leading collapse world trade center structures including world trade center significantly damaging surrounding buildings.third hijacked flight american airlines flight crashed west side pentagon headquarters american military arlington county virginia causing partial collapse buildings side.
September 11 attacks	fourth final flight united airlines flight flown direction washington d.c. planes passengers attempted regain control aircraft away hijackers ultimately diverted flight intended target crashed field near shanksville pennsylvania am.investigators determined flight target either u.s. capitol white house.in immediate aftermath attacks suspicion quickly fell onto alqaeda.united states government george w. bush administration formally responded launching war terror invading afghanistan depose taliban complied u.s. demands expel alqaeda afghanistan extradite alqaeda leader osama bin laden.bin laden fled white mountains came attack u.s.led forces managed escape.although bin laden initially denied involvement formally claimed responsibility attacks.
September 11 attacks	alqaeda bin laden cited u.s. support israel presence u.s. troops saudi arabia sanctions iraq motives.evading capture almost decade bin laden located hideout abbottabad pakistan subsequently killed u.s. military may .the destruction world trade center nearby infrastructure seriously harmed economy new york city created global economic recession.many countries strengthened antiterrorism legislation expanded powers law enforcement intelligence agencies prevent terrorist attacks.u.s. canadian civilian airspaces closed september wall street trading closed september .many closings evacuations cancellations followed respect fear attacks.
September 11 attacks	cleanup world trade center site took eight months completed may pentagon repaired within year.design replacement world trade center complex took several years many stakeholders involved.work new iconic building site one world trade center began november opened november several construction delays.the attacks resulted fatalities injuries substantial longterm health consequences addition least billion infrastructure property damage.remains deadliest terrorist attack human history single deadliest incident firefighters law enforcement officers history united states killed respectively.numerous memorials constructed including national september memorial museum new york city pentagon memorial arlington county virginia flight national memorial pennsylvania crash site.
September 11 attacks	background alqaeda origins alqaeda traced soviet union invaded afghanistan.osama bin laden traveled central asian country volunteer viewing war holy cause help fellow muslims afghanistan defeat communist invaders soviets.organized fellow arab mujahideen afghan arabs resist soviets countrys exit afghanistan .guidance ayman alzawahiri bin laden became radical.in bin laden issued first fatwā calling american soldiers leave saudi arabia.second fatwā bin laden outlined objections american foreign policy respect israel well continued presence american troops saudi arabia gulf war.
September 11 attacks	bin laden used islamic texts exhort muslims attack americans stated grievances reversed.muslim legal scholars throughout islamic history unanimously agreed jihad individual duty enemy destroys muslim countries according bin laden.osama bin laden bin laden orchestrated attacks.initially denied involvement later recanted false statements.al jazeera broadcast statement september stress carried act appears carried individuals motivation.
September 11 attacks	november u.s. forces recovered videotape destroyed house jalalabad afghanistan.video bin laden seen talking khaled alharbi admits foreknowledge attacks.december second bin laden video released.video saidit become clear west general america particular unspeakable hatred islam.... hatred crusaders.
September 11 attacks	terrorism america deserves praised response injustice aimed forcing america stop support israel kills people.... say end united states imminent whether bin laden followers alive dead awakening muslim ummah sic nation occurred.... important hit economy united states base military power...if economy hit become reoccupied.but stopped short admitting responsibility attacks.shortly u.s. presidential election bin laden used taped statement publicly acknowledge alqaedas involvement attacks united states.admitted direct link attacks said carried ...we free ... want regain freedom nation.undermine security undermine yours.
September 11 attacks	bin laden said personally directed followers attack world trade center pentagon.another video obtained al jazeera september shows bin laden one attacks chief planners ramzi bin alshibh well two hijackers hamza alghamdi wail alshehri made preparations attacks.u.s. never formally indicted bin laden attacks fbis wanted list bombings u.s. embassies dar es salaam tanzania nairobi kenya.year manhunt u.s. president barack obama announced bin laden killed american special forces compound abbottabad pakistan may .khalid sheikh mohammed journalist yosri fouda arabic television channel al jazeera reported april alqaeda member khalid sheikh mohammed admitted involvement attacks along ramzi bin alshibh.
September 11 attacks	commission report determined animosity towards united states felt mohammed principal architect attacks stemmed violent disagreement u.s. foreign policy favoring israel.mohammed also adviser financier world trade center bombing uncle ramzi yousef lead bomber attack.mohammed arrested march rawalpindi pakistan pakistani security officials working cia.held multiple cia secret prisons guantanamo bay interrogated tortured methods including waterboarding.u.s. hearings guantanamo bay march mohammed confessed responsibility attacks stating responsible operation z statement made duress.a letter presented mohammeds lawyers u.s. district court manhattan july indicated interested testifying saudi arabia’s role attacks helping victims families victims exchange united states seeking death penalty him.james kreindler one lawyers victims raised question usefulness testimony.
September 11 attacks	alqaeda members substitution testimony khalid sheikh mohammed trial zacarias moussaoui five people identified completely aware operations details.bin laden khalid sheikh mohammed ramzi bin alshibh abu turab alurduni mohammed atef.date peripheral figures tried convicted attacks.on september spanish high court sentenced abu dahdah years prison conspiracy attacks member terrorist organization alqaeda.time another alqaeda members sentenced penalties years.february spanish supreme court reduced abu dahdah’s penalty years considered participation conspiracy proven.also moussaoui originally suspected might assigned twentieth hijacker convicted lesser role conspiracy commit acts terrorism air piracy.
September 11 attacks	sentenced life prison without parole united states.mounir elmotassadeq associate hamburgbased hijackers served years germany role helping hijackers prepare attacks.released october deported morocco.the hamburg cell germany included radical islamists eventually came key operatives attacks.mohamed atta marwan alshehhi ziad jarrah ramzi bin alshibh said bahaji members alqaedas hamburg cell.motives osama bin ladens declaration holy war united states fatwā signed bin laden others calling killing americans seen investigators evidence motivation.in bin ladens november letter america explicitly stated alqaedas motives attacks includeu.s.
September 11 attacks	support israelsupport attacks muslims somaliasupport philippines muslims moro conflictsupport israeli aggression muslims lebanonsupport russian atrocities muslims chechnyaproamerican governments middle east act agents muslim interestssupport indian oppression muslims kashmirthe presence u.s. troops saudi arabiathe sanctions iraqafter attacks bin laden alzawahiri released additional videotapes audio recordings repeated reasons attacks.two particularly important publications bin ladens letter america videotape bin laden.bin laden interpreted muhammad banned permanent presence infidels arabia.bin laden issued fatwā calling american troops leave saudi arabia.alqaeda wrote seven years united states occupying lands islam holiest places arabian peninsula plundering riches dictating rulers humiliating people terrorizing neighbors turning bases peninsula spearhead fight neighboring muslim peoples.in december interview bin laden said felt americans near mecca considered provocation entire muslim world.one analysis suicide terrorism suggested without u.s. troops saudi arabia alqaeda likely would able get people commit suicide missions.in fatwā alqaeda identified iraq sanctions reason kill americans condemning protracted blockade among actions constitute declaration war allah messenger muslims.
September 11 attacks	fatwā declared ruling kill americans allies – civilians military – individual duty every muslim country possible order liberate alaqsa mosque holy mosque mecca grip order americans armies move lands islam defeated unable threaten muslim.in bin laden claimed idea destroying towers first occurred witnessed israels bombardment highrise apartment buildings lebanon war.analysts including mearsheimer walt also claimed u.s. support israel one motive attacks.bin laden connected september attacks u.s. support israel although letter expressed bin ladens disdain president bush bin ladens hope destroy bankrupt u.s.other motives suggested addition stated bin laden alqaeda.authors suggested humiliation resulted islamic world falling behind western world – discrepancy rendered especially visible globalization desire provoke u.s. broader war islamic world hope motivating allies support alqaeda.similarly others argued strategic move objective provoking america war would incite panislamic revolution.
September 11 attacks	planning attacks conceived khalid sheikh mohammed first presented osama bin laden .time bin laden alqaeda period transition relocated back afghanistan sudan.african embassy bombings bin ladens february fatwā marked turning point alqaedas terrorist operation bin laden became intent attacking united states.in late early bin laden gave approval mohammed go forward organizing plot.mohammed bin laden bin ladens deputy mohammed atef held series meetings early .atef provided operational support including target selections helping arrange travel hijackers.
September 11 attacks	bin laden overruled mohammed rejecting potential targets u.s. bank tower los angeles lack time.bin laden provided leadership financial support involved selecting participants.initially selected nawaf alhazmi khalid almihdhar experienced jihadists fought bosnia.hazmi mihdhar arrived united states midjanuary .early hazmi mihdhar took flying lessons san diego california spoke little english performed poorly flying lessons eventually served secondary muscle hijackers.in late group men hamburg germany arrived afghanistan.group included mohamed atta marwan alshehhi ziad jarrah ramzi bin alshibh.
September 11 attacks	bin laden selected men educated could speak english experience living west.new recruits routinely screened special skills alqaeda leaders consequently discovered hani hanjour already commercial pilots license.mohammed later said helped hijackers blend teaching order food restaurants dress western clothing.hanjour arrived san diego december joining hazmi.– soon left arizona hanjour took refresher training.marwan alshehhi arrived end may atta arrived june jarrah arrived june .
September 11 attacks	bin alshibh applied several times visa united states yemeni rejected concerns would overstay visa.bin alshibh stayed hamburg providing coordination atta mohammed.three hamburg cell members took pilot training south florida huffman aviation.spring secondary hijackers began arriving united states.july atta met bin alshibh spain coordinated details plot including final target selection.
September 11 attacks	bin alshibh also passed along bin ladens wish attacks carried soon possible.hijackers received passports corrupt saudi officials family members used fraudulent passports gain entry.there theories selected hijackers date attack resemblance phone number used report emergencies united states.however lawrence wright wrote hijackers chose date john iii sobieski king poland grand duke lithuania began battle turned back ottoman empires muslim armies attempting capture vienna september .vienna seat holy roman empire habsburg monarchy major powers europe time.osama bin laden date west gained dominance islam attacking date hoped make step islam winning war worldwide power influence.
September 11 attacks	prior intelligence late alqaeda associate walid bin attash khallad contacted mihdhar telling meet kuala lumpur malaysia hazmi abu bara al yemeni would also attendance.nsa intercepted telephone call mentioning meeting mihdhar name nawaf hazmi.agency feared something nefarious might afoot took action.the cia already alerted saudi intelligence status mihdhar hazmi alqaeda members cia team broke mihdhars dubai hotel room discovered mihdhar u.s. visa.alec station alerted intelligence agencies worldwide fact share information fbi.malaysian special branch observed january meeting two alqaeda members informed cia mihdhar hazmi khallad flying bangkok cia never notified agencies ask state department put mihdhar watchlist.
September 11 attacks	fbi liaison alec station asked permission inform fbi meeting told matter fbi.by late june senior counterterrorism official richard clarke cia director george tenet convinced major series attacks come although cia believed attacks would likely occur saudi arabia israel.early july clarke put domestic agencies full alert telling something really spectacular going happen here.soon.asked fbi state department alert embassies police departments defense department go threat condition delta.clarke later wrote somewhere cia information two known al qaeda terrorists come united states.
September 11 attacks	somewhere fbi information strange things going flight schools united states ... specific information individual terrorists one could deduced happen.none information got white house.on july tom wilshire cia agent assigned fbis international terrorism division emailed superiors cias counterterrorism center ctc requesting permission inform fbi hazmi country mihdhar u.s. visa.cia never responded.the day july margarette gillespie fbi analyst working ctc told review material malaysia meeting.told participants presence u.s. cia gave gillespie surveillance photos mihdhar hazmi meeting show fbi counterterrorism tell significance.intelink database informed share intelligence material meeting criminal investigators.
September 11 attacks	shown photos fbi refused details significance given mihdhars date birth passport number.late august gillespie told ins state department customs service fbi put hazmi mihdhar watchlists fbi prohibited using criminal agents searching duo hindering efforts.also july phoenixbased fbi agent sent message fbi headquarters alec station fbi agents new york alerting possibility coordinated effort osama bin laden send students united states attend civil aviation universities colleges.agent kenneth williams suggested need interview flight school managers identify arab students seeking flight training.july jordan alerted u.s. alqaeda planning attack u.s. months later jordan notified u.s. attacks codename big wedding involved aeroplanes.on august cias presidential daily brief pdb designated president entitled bin ladin determined strike u.s. memo noted fbi information indicates patterns suspicious activity country consistent preparations hijackings types attacks.in midaugust one minnesota flight school alerted fbi zacarias moussaoui asked suspicious questions.fbi found moussaoui radical traveled pakistan ins arrested overstaying french visa.
September 11 attacks	request search laptop denied fbi headquarters due lack probable cause.the failures intelligencesharing attributed justice department policies limiting intelligence sharing combined cia nsa reluctance reveal sensitive sources methods tapped phones.testifying commission april thenattorney general john ashcroft recalled single greatest structural cause september th problem wall segregated separated criminal investigators intelligence agents.clarke also wrote were... failures get information right place right time.attacks early morning september hijackers took control four commercial airliners two boeing two boeing en route california three headed lax los angeles one sfo san francisco takeoffs logan international airport boston massachusetts newark liberty international airport newark new jersey washington dulles international airport loudoun fairfax counties virginia.large planes long coasttocoast flights selected hijacking would fuel.the four flights wereamerican airlines flight boeing aircraft departed logan airport a.m. en route los angeles crew passengers including five hijackers.
September 11 attacks	hijackers flew plane northern façade north tower world trade center new york city a.m.united airlines flight boeing aircraft departed logan airport a.m. en route los angeles crew nine passengers including five hijackers.hijackers flew plane southern façade south tower world trade center new york city a.m.american airlines flight boeing aircraft departed washington dulles international airport a.m. en route los angeles crew six passengers including five hijackers.hijackers flew plane western façade pentagon arlington county virginia a.m.united airlines flight boeing aircraft departed newark international airport a.m. en route san francisco crew seven passengers including four hijackers.passengers attempted subdue hijackers aircraft crashed field stonycreek township near shanksville pennsylvania a.m.media coverage extensive attacks aftermath beginning moments first crash world trade center.eastern daylight time utc† excluding hijackers§ including emergency workers‡ including hijackers four crashes a.m. five hijackers crashed american airlines flight northern facade world trade centers north tower wtc.
September 11 attacks	a.m. another five hijackers crashed united airlines flight south tower’s southern facade wtc.five hijackers flew american airlines flight pentagon a.m. fourth flight united airlines flight crashed near shanksville pennsylvania southeast pittsburgh a.m. passengers fought four hijackers.flight target believed either capitol white house.flight cockpit voice recorder revealed crew passengers tried seize control plane hijackers learning phone calls flights crashed buildings morning.became evident passengers might gain control hijackers rolled plane intentionally crashed it.some passengers crew members called aircraft using cabin air phone service mobile phones provided details several hijackers aboard plane used mace tear gas pepper spray overcome attendants people aboard stabbed.
September 11 attacks	reports indicated hijackers stabbed killed pilots flight attendants one passengers.according commissions final report hijackers recently purchased multifunction hand tools assorted leathermantype utility knives locking blades forbidden passengers time found among possessions left behind hijackers.flight attendant flight passenger flight passengers flight said hijackers bombs one passengers said thought bombs fake.fbi found traces explosives crash sites commission concluded bombs probably fake.three buildings world trade center collapsed due fireinduced structural failure.south tower collapsed a.m. burned minutes fire caused impact united airlines flight explosion fuel.
September 11 attacks	north tower collapsed a.m. burning minutes.north tower collapsed debris fell nearby world trade center building wtc damaging building starting fires.fires burned nearly hours compromising buildings structural integrity wtc collapsed p.m. west side pentagon sustained significant damage.at a.m. federal aviation administration faa grounded civilian aircraft within continental u.s. civilian aircraft already flight told land immediately.international civilian aircraft either turned back redirected airports canada mexico banned landing united states territory three days.attacks created widespread confusion among news organizations air traffic controllers.

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