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Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic	example zaporozhian cossacks called hetmanate ukraine.within polish–lithuanian commonwealth name carried unofficial status larger part kiev voivodeship.the ukraine used usual form english despite ukrainian definite article.since declaration independence ukraine form become less common englishspeaking world styleguides warn use professional writing.according u.s. ambassador william taylor ukraine implies disregard countrys sovereignty.ukrainian position usage ukraine incorrect grammatically politically.history abdication tsar start process destruction russian empire many people ukraine wished establish ukrainian republic.
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic	period civil war many factions claiming governments newly born republic formed supporters opponents.two prominent government kiev called ukrainian peoples republic unr government kharkov called ukrainian soviet republic usr.kievbased unr internationally recognized supported central powers following treaty brestlitovsk whereas kharkovbased usr solely supported soviet russian forces neither unr usr supported white russian forces remained.the conflict two competing governments known ukrainian–soviet war part ongoing russian civil war well struggle national independence ended territory proindependence ukrainian peoples republic annexed new ukrainian socialist soviet republic western ukraine annexed second polish republic newly stable ukraine becoming founding member soviet union.the government ukrainian soviet republic founded – december .publications named either republic soviets workers soldiers peasants deputies ukrainian peoples republic soviets.republic recognised another nonrecognised country russian soviet federative socialist republic.
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic	signing brestlitovsk treaty ultimately defeated mid eventually dissolved.last session government took place city taganrog.in july former members government formed communist party bolsheviks ukraine constituent assembly took place moscow.defeat central powers world war bolshevik russia resumed hostilities towards ukrainian peoples republic fighting ukrainian independence organised another soviet government kursk russia.march according rd congress soviets ukraine conducted – march name state changed ukrainian socialist soviet republic.founding – russian revolution several factions sought create independent ukrainian state alternately cooperating struggling other.
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic	numerous less socialistoriented factions participated formation ukrainian peoples republic among bolsheviks mensheviks socialistsrevolutionaries many others.popular faction initially local socialist revolutionary party composed local government together federalists mensheviks.immediately october revolution petrograd bolsheviks instigated kiev bolshevik uprising support revolution secure kiev.due lack adequate support local population antirevolutionary central rada however kiev bolshevik group split.moved kharkov received support eastern ukrainian cities industrial centers.later move regarded mistake peoples commissars yevgenia bosch.
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic	issued ultimatum central rada december recognise soviet government rada critical.bolsheviks convened separate congress declared first soviet republic ukraine december claiming central rada supporters outlaws need eradicated.warfare ensued ukrainian peoples republic installation soviet regime country direct support soviet russia ukrainian national forces practically overran.government ukraine appealed foreign capitalists finding support face central powers others refused recognise it.treaty brestlitovsk russian sfsr yielded captured ukrainian territory bolsheviks forced ukraine.
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic	government soviet ukraine dissolved last session november .after retaking kharkov february second soviet ukrainian government formed.government enforced russian policies adhere local needs.group three thousand workers dispatched russia take grain local farms feed russian cities met resistance.ukrainian language also censured administrative educational use.eventually fighting white forces east republic forces west lenin ordered liquidation second soviet ukrainian government august .eventually creation communist party bolshevik ukraine moscow third ukrainian soviet government formed december initiated new hostilities ukrainian nationalists lost military support defeated central powers.
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic	eventually red army ended controlling much ukrainian territory polishsoviet peace riga.december along russian byelorussian transcaucasian republics ukrainian ssr one founding members union soviet socialist republics ussr.interwar years – policy socalled ukrainization pursued ukrainian ssr part general soviet korenization policy involved promoting use social status ukrainian language elevation ethnic ukrainians leadership positions see ukrainization early years soviet ukraine details.aggressive agricultural policies joseph stalins totalitarian regime resulted one largest national catastrophes modern history ukrainian nation.famine known holodomor caused direct loss human life estimated .
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic	million million.scholars international commission inquiry – famine ukraine state act genocide scholars state catastrophe caused gross mismanagement failure collectivise voluntary basis.. general assembly un stopped shy recognizing holodomor genocide calling great tragedy compromise tense positions united kingdom united states russia ukraine matter many nations went individually accepted such.world war ii – september soviet union invaded poland occupied galician lands inhabited ukrainians poles jews adding territory ukrainian ssr.soviet union occupied bessarabia northern bukovina hertsa region lands inhabited romanians ukrainians russians jews bulgarians gagauz adding territory ukrainian ssr newly formed moldavian ssr.lands permanently annexed transcarpathia region added well treaty postwar administration czechoslovakia.
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic	following eastward soviet retreat ufa became wartime seat soviet ukrainian government.postwar years – world war ii called great patriotic war soviet government end may germans driven ukraine february october .first task soviet authorities reestablish political control republic entirely lost war.immense task considering widespread human material losses.world war ii soviet union lost .
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic	million combatants around million civilians .million ukrainian civilians military personnel.also estimated .million ukrainians evacuated russian soviet federative socialist republic war .million ukrainians sent forced labour camps germans.the material devastation huge adolf hitlers orders create zone annihilation coupled soviet militarys scorchedearth policy meant ukraine lay ruins.
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic	two policies led destruction thousand villages cities towns.percent kievs city centre destroyed percent city centre secondlargest city ukraine kharkov.million people left homeless war.republics industrial base much else destroyed.soviet government managed evacuate industrial enterprises july november rapid german advance led destruction partial destruction enterprises.
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic	thousand collective farms machine tractor stations state farms destroyed germans.while war brought ukraine enormous physical destruction victory also led territorial expansion.victor soviet union gained new prestige land.ukrainian border expanded curzon line.ukraine also expanded southwards near area izmail previously part romania.agreement signed soviet union czechoslovakia whereby carpathian ruthenia handed ukraine.
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic	territory ukraine expanded square kilometres sq mi increased population estimated million.after world war ii amendments constitution ukrainian ssr accepted allowed act separate subject international law cases certain extent remaining part soviet union time.particular amendments allowed ukrainian ssr become one founding members united nations un together soviet union byelorussian ssr.part deal united states ensure degree balance general assembly ussr opined unbalanced favor western bloc.capacity member un ukrainian ssr elected member united nations security council – –.khrushchev brezhnev – stalin died march collective leadership khrushchev georgy malenkov vyacheslav molotov lavrentiy beria took power period destalinization began.
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic	change came early officials allowed criticise stalins policy russification.central committee communist party ukraine cpu openly criticised stalins russification policies meeting june .june oleksii kyrychenko succeeded leonid melnikov first secretary cpu significant since kyrychenko first ethnic ukrainian lead cpu since s. policy destalinization took two main features centralisation decentralisation centre.february russian soviet federative socialist republic rsfsr transferred crimea gift ukraine russians even percent crimean population ethnic ukrainian.also witnessed massive stateorganised celebration th anniversary union russia ukraine also known pereyaslav council ukrainian переяславська рада treaty brought ukraine russian rule three centuries before.
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic	event celebrated prove old brotherly love ukrainians russians proof soviet union family nations also another way legitimising marxism–leninism.june civilian oil tanker tuapse black sea shipping company based odessa hijacked fleet republic china navy high sea °′n °′e west balintang channel near philippines whereas ukrainian russian moldovan crew detained kuomintang regime various terms years captivity deaths.the thaw – policy deliberate liberalisation – characterised four points amnesty convicted state crime war immediate postwar years amnesties onethird convicted state crime stalins rule establishment first ukrainian mission united nations steady increase ukrainians rank cpu government ukrainian ssr.majority cpu central committee politburo members ethnic ukrainians threequarters highest ranking party state officials ethnic ukrainians too.policy partial ukrainisation also led cultural thaw within ukraine.in october khrushchev deposed joint central committee politburo plenum succeeded another collective leadership time led leonid brezhnev born ukraine first secretary alexei kosygin chairman council ministers.brezhnevs rule would marked social economic stagnation period often referred era stagnation.
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic	new regime introduced policy rastsvet sblizhenie sliianie flowering drawing together mergingfusion policy uniting different soviet nationalities one soviet nationality merging best elements nationality new one.policy turned fact reintroduction russification policy.reintroduction policy explained khrushchevs promise communism years unification soviet nationalities would take place according vladimir lenin soviet union reached final stage communism also final stage human development.allunion soviet officials calling abolition pseudosovereign soviet republics establishment one nationality.instead introducing ideologic concept soviet nation brezhnev th party congress talked new historical community people – soviet people introduced ideological tenant developed socialism postponed communism.
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic	brezhnev died position general secretary communist party soviet union succeeded yuri andropov died quickly taking power.andropov succeeded konstantin chernenko ruled little year.chernenko succeeded mikhail gorbachev .gorbachev dissolution – gorbachevs policies perestroika glasnost english restructuring openness failed reach ukraine early soviet republics volodymyr shcherbytsky conservative communist appointed brezhnev first secretary ukrainian communist party resigned post .chernobyl disaster russification policies apparent social economic stagnation led several ukrainians oppose soviet rule.
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic	gorbachevs policy perestroika also never introduced practice percent industry agriculture still owned soviet state .talk reform lack introducing reform practice led confusion turn evolved opposition soviet state itself.policy glasnost ended state censorship led ukrainian diaspora reconnect compatriots ukraine revitalisation religious practices destroying monopoly russian orthodox church led establishment several opposition pamphlets journals newspapers.following failed august coup moscow – august supreme soviet ukraine declared independence august renamed ukrainian soviet socialist republic ukraine.result independence referendum held december proved surprise.overwhelming majority .
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic	voted independence.referendum carried majority oblasts.notably crimea originally territory rsfsr supported referendum percent majority.percent population eastern ukraine voted independence.ukraines independence almost immediately recognized international community.
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic	ukraines newfound independence first time th century ukrainian independence attempted without either foreign intervention civil war.ukrainian presidential election percent ukrainians voted leonid kravchuk vested presidential powers since supreme soviets declaration independence.secession second powerful republic soviet union ended realistic chance soviet union staying together even limited scale.a week kravchuks victory december russian belarusian counterparts signed belovezha accords declared soviet union effectively ceased exist forming commonwealth independent states replacement.joined eight remaining republics except georgia december signing almaata protocol reiterated soviet union ceased exist.soviet union formally dissolved december.
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic	politics government ukrainian ssrs system government based oneparty communist system ruled communist party ukraine part communist party soviet union kpss.republic one constituent republics composing soviet union entry union dissolution .political power authority ussr hands communist party authorities little real power concentrated official government bodies organs.system lowerlevel authorities directly reported higher level authorities bulk power held highest echelons communist party.originally legislative authority vested central executive committee ukraine many years headed grigoriy petrovsky.soon publishing stalin constitution central executive committee transformed supreme soviet consisted deputies.
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic	supreme soviet authority enact legislation amend constitution adopt new administrative territorial boundaries adopt budget establish political economic development plans.addition parliament also authority elect republics executive branch council ministers well power appoint judges supreme court.legislative sessions short conducted weeks year.spite supreme soviet elected presidium chairman deputy chairmen secretary couple government members carry official functions duties legislative sessions.presidium powerful position republics higher echelons power could nominally considered equivalent head state although executive authority would concentrated communist partys politburo first secretary.full universal suffrage granted eligible citizens aged excluding prisoners deprived freedom.
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic	although could considered free symbolic nature elections supreme soviet contested every five years.nominees electoral districts around republic typically consisting average inhabitants directly chosen party authorities providing little opportunity political change since political authority directly subordinate higher level it.with beginning soviet general secretary mikhail gorbachevs perestroika reforms towards midlate electoral reform laws passed liberalising nominating procedures allowing multiple candidates stand election district.accordingly first relatively free elections ukrainian ssr contested march .deputies democratic bloc loose association small proukrainian prosovereignty parties instrumental peoples movement ukraine colloquially known rukh ukrainian elected parliament.although communist party retained majority deputies large support democratic bloc demonstrated peoples distrust communist authorities would eventually boil ukrainian independence .ukraine legal successor ukrainian ssr stated fulfill rights duties pursuant international agreements union ssr contradict constitution ukraine interests republic october .
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic	ukrainian independence ukrainian ssrs parliament changed supreme soviet current name verkhovna rada verkhovna rada still ukraines parliament.ukraine also refused recognize exclusive russian claims succession soviet union claimed status ukraine well stated articles legal succession ukraine issued .following independence ukraine continued pursue claims russian federation foreign courts seeking recover share foreign property owned soviet union.also retained seat united nations held since .foreign relations international front ukrainian ssr along rest republics virtually say foreign affairs.
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic	however important note ukrainian ssr permitted establish bilateral relations countries maintain standing army.clause used permit republics membership united nations.accordingly representatives ukrainian soviet socialist republic nations founded un october .effect provided soviet union permanent security council member veto powers another vote general assembly.latter aspect clauses however never fulfilled republics defense matters managed soviet armed forces defense ministry.
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic	another right granted never used right soviet republics secede union codified soviet constitutions.accordingly article constitution ukrainian ssr stated ukrainian ssr retains right willfully secede ussr.however republics theoretical secession union virtually impossible unrealistic many ways gorbachevs perestroika reforms.the ukrainian ssr member un economic social council unicef international labour organization universal postal union world health organization unesco international telecommunication union united nations economic commission europe world intellectual property organization international atomic energy agency.separately member warsaw pact comecon world federation trade unions world federation democratic youth since international olympic committee.administrative divisions legally soviet union fifteen union republics constituted federal system country functionally highly centralised state major decisionmaking taking place kremlin capital seat government country.
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic	constituent republic essentially unitary states lower levels power directly subordinate higher ones.throughout year existence administrative divisions ukrainian ssr changed numerous times often incorporating regional reorganisation annexation part soviet authorities world war ii.the common administrative division oblast province upon republics independence soviet union .provinces subdivided raions districts numbered .rest administrative division within provinces consisted cities urbantype settlements villages.cities ukrainian ssr separate exception could either subordinate either provincial authorities district authorities administrative center.
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic	two cities capital kiev sevastopol crimea treated separately housed underground nuclear submarine base designated cities special status.meant directly subordinate central ukrainian ssr authorities provincial authorities surrounding them.historical formation however history administrative divisions republic clear cut.end world war ukraine invaded soviet russia russian puppet government ukrainian ssr without official declaration ignited ukrainian–soviet war.government ukrainian ssr beginning managed communist party ukraine created moscow originally formed bolshevik organisational centers ukraine.
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic	occupying eastern city kharkov soviet forces chose republics seat government colloquially named media kharkov – pervaya stolitsa first capital implication era soviet regime.kharkov also city first soviet ukrainian government created strong support russian sfsr authorities.however capital moved kharkov kiev remains capital ukraine today.during significant numbers ethnic minorities living within ukrainian ssr.national districts formed separate territorialadministrative units within higherlevel provincial authorities.districts established republics three largest minority groups jews russians poles.
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic	ethnic groups however allowed petition government national autonomy.territory ukrainian ssr formed moldavian autonomous soviet socialist republic.upon conquest bessarabia bukovina soviet troops moldavian assr passed newly formed moldavian soviet socialist republic budzhak bukovina secured ukrainian ssr.following creation ukrainian ssr significant numbers ethnic ukrainians found living outside ukrainian ssr.ukrainian ssr forced cede several territories russia severia sloboda ukraine azov littoral including cities like belgorod taganrog starodub.
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic	administration ukrainian ssr insisted vain reviewing border ukrainian soviet republics russian soviet republic based first allunion census soviet union showed .millions ukrainians living russian territories bordering ukraine.forced end ukrainisation southern russian soviet republic led massive decline reported ukrainians regions soviet census.upon signing molotov–ribbentrop pact nazi germany soviet union partitioned poland eastern borderlands secured soviet buffer republics ukraine securing territory eastern galicia.soviet september polish campaign soviet propaganda portrayed golden september ukrainians given unification ukrainian lands banks zbruch river border soviet union polish communities inhabited ukrainian speaking families.economy agriculture agricultural production stood percent level even though republics territorial expansion increased amount arable land.
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic	contrast remarkable growth industrial sector agriculture continued ukraine rest soviet union function economys achilles heel.despite human toll collectivisation agriculture soviet union especially ukraine soviet planners still believed effectiveness collective farming.old system reestablished numbers collective farms ukraine increased thousand thousand comprising million hectares numbers state farms barely increased standing comprising .million hectares.end fourth fiveyear plan fifth fiveyear plan agricultural output still stood far lower level.
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic	slow changes agriculture explained low productivity collective farms bad weatherconditions soviet planning system could effectively respond to.grain human consumption postwar years decreased turn led frequent severe food shortages.the increase soviet agricultural production tremendous however sovietukrainians still experienced food shortages due inefficiencies highly centralised economy.peak sovietukrainian agriculture output earlytomids human consumption ukraine rest soviet union actually experienced short intervals decrease.many reasons inefficiency origins traced back singlepurchaser producer market system set joseph stalin.khrushchev tried improve agricultural situation soviet union expanding total crop size – instance ukrainian ssr alone amount land planted corn grew percent.
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic	height policy onethird ukrainian arable land grew crop.policy decreased total production wheat rye khrushchev anticipated production wheat rye moved soviet central asia part virgin lands campaign.khrushchevs agricultural policy failed soviet union import food abroad.total level agricultural productivity ukraine decreased sharply period recovered leonid brezhnevs rule.industry postwar years ukraines industrial productivity doubled prewar level.
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic	industrial output totalled percent level.soviet union introduced fourth fiveyear plan .fourth fiveyear plan would prove remarkable success likened wonders west german japanese reconstruction without foreign capital soviet reconstruction historically impressive achievement.industrial gross output already surpassed levels.soviet régime still emphasised heavy industry light industry lightindustry sector also grew.
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic	increase capital investment expansion labour force also benefited ukraines economic recovery.prewar years .percent soviet budget went ukraine fourth fiveyear plan increased .percent.workforce increased .
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic	million .million increase .percent level.end result remarkable growth ukraine producing .times republic become one leading producers certain commodities europe.
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic	ukraine largest percapita producer europe pig iron sugar secondlargest percapita producer steel iron ore third largest percapita producer coal europe.from dissolution soviet union industrial growth ukraine decreased started stagnate.significant economic decline become apparent s. fifth fiveyear plan – industrial development ukraine grew .percent eleventh fiveyear plan – industry grew modest .percent.doubledigit growth seen branches economy postwar years disappeared entirely replaced low growthfigures.
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic	ongoing problem throughout republics existence planners emphasis heavy industry consumer goods.the urbanisation ukrainian society postwar years led increase energy consumption.meet increasing demand government built five water reservoirs along dnieper river.aside improving sovietukrainian water transport reservoirs became sites new power stations hydroelectric energy flourished ukraine consequence.naturalgas industry flourished well ukraine became site first postwar production gas soviet union ukraines biggest gas field producing percent ussrs total gas production.government able meet peoples everincreasing demand energy consumption soviet government conceived intensive nuclear power program.
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic	according eleventh fiveyear plan soviet government would build nuclear power plants ukraine .result efforts ukraine became highly diversified energy consumption.religion many churches synagogues destroyed existence ukrainian ssr.urbanization urbanisation poststalin ukraine grew quickly cities ukraine populations one hundred thousand number grown .period growth cities population one million increased one five kiev alone nearly doubled population .
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic	million .million .proved turning point ukrainian society first time ukraines history majority ethnic ukrainians lived urban areas percent ethnic ukrainian population .majority worked nonagricultural sector percent ukrainians engaged agriculture contrast percent ukrainians industrial workers whitecollar staff.percent ukrainians lived urban areas proportion increased percent.
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic	notes references citations sources external links governments ukrainian soviet socialist republic.government portal.retrieved june .constitution ukrainian soviet socialist republic.verkhovna rada ukraine ukrainian..
Industrial Revolution	retrieved june .transition included going hand production methods machines new chemical manufacturing iron production processes increasing use steam power water power development machine tools rise mechanized factory system.industrial revolution also led unprecedented rise rate population growth.textiles dominant industry industrial revolution terms employment value output capital invested.textile industry also first use modern production methods.industrial revolution began great britain many technological architectural innovations british origin.midth century britain worlds leading commercial nation controlling global trading empire colonies north america caribbean major military political hegemony indian subcontinent particularly protoindustrialised mughal bengal activities east india company.
Industrial Revolution	development trade rise business among major causes industrial revolution.industrial revolution marks major turning point history almost every aspect daily life influenced way.particular average income population began exhibit unprecedented sustained growth.economists said important effect industrial revolution standard living general population western world began increase consistently first time history although others said begin meaningfully improve late th th centuries.gdp per capita broadly stable industrial revolution emergence modern capitalist economy industrial revolution began era percapita economic growth capitalist economies.economic historians agreement onset industrial revolution important event history humanity since domestication animals plants.the precise start end industrial revolution still debated among historians pace economic social changes.
Industrial Revolution	eric hobsbawm held industrial revolution began britain fully felt t. s. ashton held occurred roughly .rapid industrialization first began britain starting mechanized spinning high rates growth steam power iron production occurring .mechanized textile production spread great britain continental europe united states early th century important centres textiles iron coal emerging belgium united states later textiles france.an economic recession occurred late early adoption industrial revolutions early innovations mechanized spinning weaving slowed markets matured.innovations developed late period increasing adoption locomotives steamboats steamships hot blast iron smelting new technologies electrical telegraph widely introduced powerful enough drive high rates growth.rapid economic growth began occur springing new group innovations called second industrial revolution.
Industrial Revolution	innovations included new steel making processes massproduction assembly lines electrical grid systems largescale manufacture machine tools use increasingly advanced machinery steampowered factories.etymology earliest recorded use term industrial revolution appears letter july written french envoy louisguillaume otto announcing france entered race industrialise.book keywords vocabulary culture society raymond williams states entry industry idea new social order based major industrial change clear southey owen implicit early blake early wordsworth turn th century.term industrial revolution applied technological change becoming common late jérômeadolphe blanquis description la révolution industrielle.friedrich engels condition working class england spoke industrial revolution revolution time changed whole civil society.however although engels wrote book translated english late expression enter everyday language then.
Industrial Revolution	credit popularising term may given arnold toynbee whose lectures gave detailed account term.economic historians authors mendels pomeranz kridte argue protoindustrialization parts europe islamic world mughal india china created social economic conditions led industrial revolution thus causing great divergence.some historians john clapham nicholas crafts argued economic social changes occurred gradually term revolution misnomer.still subject debate among historians.requirements six factors facilitated industrialization high levels agricultural productivity provide excess manpower food pool managerial entrepreneurial skills available ports rivers canals roads cheaply move raw materials outputs natural resources coal iron waterfalls political stability legal system supported business financial capital available invest.industrialization began great britain new factors added eagerness british entrepreneurs export industrial expertise willingness import process.britain met criteria industrialized starting th century.
Industrial Revolution	britain exported process western europe especially belgium france german states early th century.united states copied british model early th century japan copied western european models late th century.important technological developments commencement industrial revolution closely linked small number innovations beginning second half th century.following gains made important technologiestextiles – mechanised cotton spinning powered steam water increased output worker factor around .power loom increased output worker factor .
Industrial Revolution	cotton gin increased productivity removing seed cotton factor .large gains productivity also occurred spinning weaving wool linen great cotton.steam power – efficiency steam engines increased used onefifth onetenth much fuel.adaptation stationary steam engines rotary motion made suitable industrial uses.highpressure engine high power weight ratio making suitable transportation.steam power underwent rapid expansion .iron making – substitution coke charcoal greatly lowered fuel cost pig iron wrought iron production.
Industrial Revolution	– using coke also allowed larger blast furnaces resulting economies scale.steam engine began used power blast air indirectly pumping water waterwheel mid enabling large increase iron production overcoming limitation water power.cast iron blowing cylinder first used .later improved making double acting allowed higher blast furnace temperatures.puddling process produced structural grade iron lower cost finery forge.
Industrial Revolution	rolling mill fifteen times faster hammering wrought iron.hot blast greatly increased fuel efficiency iron production following decades.invention machine tools – first machine tools invented.included screw cutting lathe cylinder boring machine milling machine.machine tools made economical manufacture precision metal parts possible although took several decades develop effective techniques.textile manufacture british textile industry statistics britain imported .
Industrial Revolution	million pounds raw cotton spun woven cottage industry lancashire.work done hand workers homes occasionally shops master weavers.raw cotton consumption million pounds cleaned carded spun machines.– british textile industry used million pounds cotton increased million pounds .the share value added cotton textile industry britain ..
Industrial Revolution	.value added british woollen industry ..cotton factories britain numbered approximately .approximately onethird cotton cloth manufactured britain exported rising twothirds .
Industrial Revolution	cotton spun amounted .million pounds increased million pounds .less .world cotton cloth produced machinery invented britain.spindles britain rising million next years.wages lancashire core region cottage industry later factory spinning weaving six times india overall productivity britain three times higher india.
Industrial Revolution	cotton parts india china central america south america middle east long history hand manufacturing cotton textiles became major industry sometime ad.tropical subtropical regions grown grown small farmers alongside food crops spun woven households largely domestic consumption.th century china began require households pay part taxes cotton cloth.th century almost chinese wore cotton clothing.almost everywhere cotton cloth could used medium exchange.
Industrial Revolution	india significant amount cotton textiles manufactured distant markets often produced professional weavers.merchants also owned small weaving workshops.india produced variety cotton cloth exceptionally fine quality.cotton difficult raw material europe obtain grown colonial plantations americas.early spanish explorers found native americans growing unknown species excellent quality cotton sea island cotton gossypium barbadense upland green seeded cotton gossypium hirsutum.sea island cotton grew tropical areas barrier islands georgia south carolina poorly inland.
Industrial Revolution	sea island cotton began exported barbados s. upland green seeded cotton grew well inland areas southern u.s. economical difficulty removing seed problem solved cotton gin.strain cotton seed brought mexico natchez mississippi became parent genetic material world cotton production today produced bolls three four times faster pick.trade textiles age discovery followed period colonialism beginning around th century.following discovery trade route india around southern africa portuguese dutch established verenigde oostindische compagnie abbr.voc dutch east india company worlds first transnational corporation first multinational enterprise issue shares stock public.
Industrial Revolution	british later founded east india company along smaller companies different nationalities established trading posts employed agents engage trade throughout indian ocean region indian ocean region north atlantic europe.one largest segments trade cotton textiles purchased india sold southeast asia including indonesian archipelago spices purchased sale southeast asia europe.mids cloth threequarters east india companys exports.indian textiles demand north atlantic region europe previously wool linen available however number cotton goods consumed western europe minor early th century.premechanized european textile production flemish refugees began weaving cotton cloth english towns cottage spinning weaving wool linen well established.left alone guilds consider cotton threat.
Industrial Revolution	earlier european attempts cotton spinning weaving thcentury italy thcentury southern germany industries eventually ended supply cotton cut off.moors spain grew spun wove cotton beginning around th century.british cloth could compete indian cloth indias labour cost approximately onefifth onesixth britains.british government passed calico acts protect domestic woollen linen industries increasing amounts cotton fabric imported india.the demand heavier fabric met domestic industry based around lancashire produced fustian cloth flax warp cotton weft.flax used warp wheelspun cotton sufficient strength resulting blend soft cotton difficult sew.on eve industrial revolution spinning weaving done households domestic consumption cottage industry puttingout system.occasionally work done workshop master weaver.
Industrial Revolution	puttingout system homebased workers produced contract merchant sellers often supplied raw materials.offseason women typically farmers wives spinning men weaving.using spinning wheel took anywhere four eight spinners supply one handloom weaver.invention textile machinery flying shuttle patented john kay number subsequent improvements including important one doubled output weaver worsening imbalance spinning weaving.became widely used around lancashire johns son robert invented dropbox facilitated changing thread colors.
Industrial Revolution	– lewis paul patented roller spinning frame flyerandbobbin system drawing wool even thickness.technology developed help john wyatt birmingham.paul wyatt opened mill birmingham used new rolling machine powered donkey.factory opened northampton spindles five paul wyatts machines.operated .
Industrial Revolution	similar mill built daniel bourn leominster burnt down.lewis paul daniel bourn patented carding machines .based two sets rollers travelled different speeds later used first cotton spinning mill.lewiss invention later developed improved richard arkwright water frame samuel crompton spinning mule.in village stanhill lancashire james hargreaves invented spinning jenny patented .first practical spinning frame multiple spindles.
Industrial Revolution	jenny worked similar manner spinning wheel first clamping fibres drawing followed twisting.simple wooden framed machine cost £ spindle model used mainly home spinners.jenny produced lightly twisted yarn suitable weft warp.– spinning frame water frame developed richard arkwright along two partners patented .design partly based spinning machine built thomas high clockmaker john kay hired arkwright.
Industrial Revolution	– spindle water frame used series four pairs rollers operating successively higher rotating speed draw fibre twisted spindle.roller spacing slightly longer fibre length.too close spacing caused fibres break distant spacing caused uneven thread.top rollers leathercovered loading rollers applied weight.weights kept twist backing rollers.bottom rollers wood metal fluting along length.
Industrial Revolution	water frame able produce hard mediumcount thread suitable warp finally allowing cotton cloth made britain.horse powered first factory use spinning frame.arkwright partners used water power factory cromford derbyshire giving invention name.samuel cromptons spinning mule introduced .mule implies hybrid combination spinning jenny water frame spindles placed carriage went operational sequence rollers stopped carriage moved away drawing roller finish drawing fibres spindles started rotating.cromptons mule able produce finer thread hand spinning lower cost.
Industrial Revolution	mule spun thread suitable strength used warp finally allowed britain produce highly competitive yarn large quantities.realising expiration arkwright patent would greatly increase supply spun cotton lead shortage weavers edmund cartwright developed vertical power loom patented .patented twoman operated loom conventional.cartwright built two factories first burned second sabotaged workers.cartwrights loom design several flaws serious thread breakage.
Industrial Revolution	samuel horrocks patented fairly successful loom .horocks loom improved richard roberts produced large numbers roberts hill co.the demand cotton presented opportunity planters southern united states thought upland cotton would profitable crop better way could found remove seed.eli whitney responded challenge inventing inexpensive cotton gin.man using cotton gin could remove seed much upland cotton one day would previously working rate one pound cotton per day taken woman two months process.these advances capitalised entrepreneurs best known richard arkwright.credited list inventions actually developed people thomas highs john kay arkwright nurtured inventors patented ideas financed initiatives protected machines.
Industrial Revolution	created cotton mill brought production processes together factory developed use power—first horsepower water power—which made cotton manufacture mechanised industry.inventors increased efficiency individual steps spinning carding twisting spinning rolling supply yarn increased greatly.long steam power applied drive textile machinery.manchester acquired nickname cottonopolis early th century owing sprawl textile factories.although mechanization dramatically decreased cost cotton cloth midth century machinewoven cloth still could equal quality handwoven indian cloth part due fineness thread made possible type cotton used india allowed high thread counts.however high productivity british textile manufacturing allowed coarser grades british cloth undersell handspun woven fabric lowwage india eventually destroying industry.
Industrial Revolution	wool earliest european attempts mechanized spinning wool however wool spinning proved difficult mechanize cotton.productivity improvement wool spinning industrial revolution significant far less cotton.silk arguably first highly mechanised factory john lombes waterpowered silk mill derby operational .lombe learned silk thread manufacturing taking job italy acting industrial spy however italian silk industry guarded secrets closely state industry time unknown.although lombes factory technically successful supply raw silk italy cut eliminate competition.
Industrial Revolution	order promote manufacturing crown paid models lombes machinery exhibited tower london.iron industry uk iron production statistics bar iron commodity form iron used raw material making hardware goods nails wire hinges horseshoes wagon tires chains etc.well structural shapes.small amount bar iron converted steel.cast iron used pots stoves items brittleness tolerable.
Industrial Revolution	cast iron refined converted bar iron substantial losses.bar iron also made bloomery process predominant iron smelting process late th century.in uk tons cast iron produced charcoal tons coke.charcoal iron production coke iron tons.production charcoal cast iron tons coke iron production tons.charcoal cast iron production tons coke cast iron tons.
Industrial Revolution	uk imported tons bar iron either refined cast iron directly produced tons bar iron using charcoal tons using coke.uk making tons bar iron coke tons charcoal imports tons exports tons.uk import bar iron exported tons.iron process innovations major change iron industries industrial revolution replacement wood biofuels coal.given amount heat mining coal required much less labour cutting wood converting charcoal coal much abundant wood supplies becoming scarce enormous increase iron production took place late th century.
Industrial Revolution	coke generally replaced charcoal smelting copper lead widespread use glass production.smelting refining iron coal coke produced inferior iron made charcoal coals sulfur content.low sulfur coals known still contained harmful amounts.conversion coal coke slightly reduces sulfur content.– minority coals coking.another factor limiting iron industry industrial revolution scarcity water power power blast bellows.
Industrial Revolution	limitation overcome steam engine.use coal iron smelting started somewhat industrial revolution based innovations sir clement clerke others using coal reverberatory furnaces known cupolas.operated flames playing ore charcoal coke mixture reducing oxide metal.advantage impurities sulphur ash coal migrate metal.technology applied lead copper .also applied iron foundry work case reverberatory furnace known air furnace.
Industrial Revolution	foundry cupola different later innovation.by abraham darby made progress using coke fuel blast furnaces coalbrookdale.however coke pig iron made suitable making wrought iron used mostly production cast iron goods pots kettles.advantage rivals pots cast patented process thinner cheaper theirs.coke pig iron hardly used produce wrought iron – darbys son abraham darby ii built furnaces horsehay ketley low sulfur coal available far coalbrookdale.new furnaces equipped waterpowered bellows water pumped newcomen steam engines.newcomen engines attached directly blowing cylinders engines alone could produce steady air blast.
Industrial Revolution	abraham darby iii installed similar steampumped waterpowered blowing cylinders dale company took control .dale company used several newcomen engines drain mines made parts engines sold throughout country.– steam engines made use higherpressure volume blast practical however leather used bellows expensive replace.ironmaster john wilkinson patented hydraulic powered blowing engine blast furnaces.blowing cylinder blast furnaces introduced first blowing cylinder made cast iron believed one used carrington designed john smeaton.
Industrial Revolution	cast iron cylinders use piston difficult manufacture cylinders free holes machined smooth straight remove warping.james watt great difficulty trying cylinder made first steam engine.john wilkinson built cast iron blowing cylinder ironworks invented precision boring machine boring cylinders.wilkinson bored first successful cylinder boulton watt steam engine given exclusive contract providing cylinders.watt developed rotary steam engine widely applied blowing hammering rolling slitting.
Industrial Revolution	solutions sulfur problem addition sufficient limestone furnace force sulfur slag use low sulfur coal.use lime limestone required higher furnace temperatures form freeflowing slag.increased furnace temperature made possible improved blowing also increased capacity blast furnaces allowed increased furnace height.– addition lower cost greater availability coke important advantages charcoal harder made column materials iron ore fuel slag flowing blast furnace porous crush much taller furnaces late th century.as cast iron became cheaper widely available began structural material bridges buildings.famous early example iron bridge built cast iron produced abraham darby iii.
Industrial Revolution	however cast iron converted wrought iron.europe relied bloomery wrought iron largescale production cast iron.conversion cast iron done finery forge long been.improved refining process known potting stamping developed superseded henry corts puddling process.cort developed two significant iron manufacturing processes rolling puddling .puddling produced structural grade iron relatively low cost.puddling means decarburizing molten pig iron slow oxidation reverberatory furnace manually stirring long rod.
Industrial Revolution	decarburized iron higher melting point cast iron raked globs puddler.glob large enough puddler would remove it.puddling backbreaking extremely hot work.puddlers lived .puddling done reverberatory furnace coal coke could used fuel.the puddling process continued used late th century iron displaced steel.
Industrial Revolution	puddling required human skill sensing iron globs never successfully mechanised.rolling important part puddling process grooved rollers expelled molten slag consolidated mass hot wrought iron.rolling times faster trip hammer.different use rolling done lower temperatures expelling slag production iron sheets later structural shapes beams angles rails.the puddling process improved baldwyn rogers replaced sand lining reverberatory furnace bottom iron oxide.john hall patented use roasted tap cinder iron silicate furnace bottom greatly reducing loss iron increased slag caused sand lined bottom.
Industrial Revolution	tap cinder also tied phosphorus understood time.halls process also used iron scale rust reacted carbon molten iron.halls process called wet puddling reduced losses iron slag almost around .puddling became widely used .time british iron manufacturers used considerable amounts iron imported sweden russia supplement domestic supplies.
Industrial Revolution	increased british production imports began decline britain eliminated imports became net exporter bar iron.hot blast patented scottish inventor james beaumont neilson important development th century saving energy making pig iron.using preheated combustion air amount fuel make unit pig iron reduced first onethird using coke twothirds using coal however efficiency gains continued technology improved.hot blast also raised operating temperature furnaces increasing capacity.using less coal coke meant introducing fewer impurities pig iron.meant lower quality coal anthracite could used areas coking coal unavailable expensive however end th century transportation costs fell considerably.shortly industrial revolution improvement made production steel expensive commodity used iron would cutting edge tools springs.
Industrial Revolution	benjamin huntsman developed crucible steel technique s. raw material blister steel made cementation process.the supply cheaper iron steel aided number industries making nails hinges wire hardware items.development machine tools allowed better working iron causing increasingly used rapidly growing machinery engine industries.steam power development stationary steam engine important element industrial revolution however early period industrial revolution industrial power supplied water wind.britain estimated horsepower supplied steam.steam power grown hp.the first commercially successful industrial use steam power due thomas savery .
Industrial Revolution	constructed patented london lowlift combined vacuum pressure water pump generated one horsepower hp used numerous waterworks mines hence brand name miners friend.saverys pump economical small horsepower ranges prone boiler explosions larger sizes.savery pumps continued produced late th century.the first successful piston steam engine introduced thomas newcomen .number newcomen engines installed britain draining hitherto unworkable deep mines engine surface large machines requiring significant amount capital build produced upwards .kw hp.
Industrial Revolution	also used power municipal water supply pumps.extremely inefficient modern standards located coal cheap pit heads opened great expansion coal mining allowing mines go deeper.despite disadvantages newcomen engines reliable easy maintain continued used coalfields early decades th century.newcomen died engines spread first hungary germany austria sweden.total known built joint patent expired abroad.engineer john smeaton built large examples introduced number improvements.
Industrial Revolution	total engines built .a fundamental change working principles brought scotsman james watt.financial support business partner englishman matthew boulton succeeded perfecting steam engine incorporated series radical improvements notably closing upper part cylinder thereby making lowpressure steam drive top piston instead atmosphere use steam jacket celebrated separate steam condenser chamber.separate condenser away cooling water injected directly cylinder cooled cylinder wasted steam.likewise steam jacket kept steam condensing cylinder also improving efficiency.improvements increased engine efficiency boulton watts engines used – much coal per horsepowerhour newcomens.
Industrial Revolution	boulton watt opened soho foundry manufacture engines .by watt steam engine fully developed doubleacting rotative type meant could used directly drive rotary machinery factory mill.watts basic engine types commercially successful firm boulton watt constructed engines driving reciprocating pumps serving blast furnaces powering mill machinery engines generated ..kw hp.until common pattern steam engine beam engine built integral part stone brick enginehouse soon various patterns selfcontained rotative engines readily removable wheels developed table engine.around start th century time boulton watt patent expired cornish engineer richard trevithick american oliver evans began construct higherpressure noncondensing steam engines exhausting atmosphere.
Industrial Revolution	high pressure yielded engine boiler compact enough used mobile road rail locomotives steam boats.the development machine tools engine lathe planing milling shaping machines powered engines enabled metal parts engines easily accurately cut turn made possible build larger powerful engines.small industrial power requirements continued provided animal human muscle widespread electrification early th century.included crankpowered treadlepowered horsepowered workshop light industrial machinery.machine tools preindustrial machinery built various craftsmen—millwrights built water windmills carpenters made wooden framing smiths turners made metal parts.wooden components disadvantage changing dimensions temperature humidity various joints tended rack work loose time.industrial revolution progressed machines metal parts frames became common.
Industrial Revolution	important uses metal parts firearms threaded fasteners machine screws bolts nuts.also need precision making parts.precision would allow better working machinery interchangeability parts standardization threaded fasteners.the demand metal parts led development several machine tools.origins tools developed th century makers clocks watches scientific instrument makers enable batchproduce small mechanisms.before advent machine tools metal worked manually using basic hand tools hammers files scrapers saws chisels.consequently use metal machine parts kept minimum.
Industrial Revolution	hand methods production laborious costly precision difficult achieve.the first large precision machine tool cylinder boring machine invented john wilkinson .used boring largediameter cylinders early steam engines.wilkinsons boring machine differed earlier cantilevered machines used boring cannon cutting tool mounted beam ran cylinder bored supported outside ends.the planing machine milling machine shaping machine developed early decades th century.although milling machine invented time developed serious workshop tool somewhat later th century.henry maudslay trained school machine tool makers early th century mechanic superior ability employed royal arsenal woolwich.worked apprentice royal gun foundry jan verbruggen.
Industrial Revolution	jan verbruggen installed horizontal boring machine woolwich first industrial size lathe uk.maudslay hired away joseph bramah production highsecurity metal locks required precision craftsmanship.bramah patented lathe similarities slide rest lathe.– maudslay perfected slide rest lathe could cut machine screws different thread pitches using changeable gears spindle lead screw.invention screws could cut precision using various earlier lathe designs copied template.
Industrial Revolution	– slide rest lathe called one historys important inventions.although entirely maudslays idea first person build functional lathe using combination known innovations lead screw slide rest change gears.maudslay left bramahs employment set shop.engaged build machinery making ships pulley blocks royal navy portsmouth block mills.machines allmetal first machines mass production making components degree interchangeability.
Industrial Revolution	lessons maudslay learned need stability precision adapted development machine tools workshops trained generation men build work richard roberts joseph clement joseph whitworth.james fox derby healthy export trade machine tools first third century matthew murray leeds.roberts maker highquality machine tools pioneer use jigs gauges precision workshop measurement.the effect machine tools industrial revolution great firearms threaded fasteners industries massproduced metal parts.techniques make massproduced metal parts made sufficient precision interchangeable largely attributed program u.s. department war perfected interchangeable parts firearms early th century.in halfcentury following invention fundamental machine tools machine industry became largest industrial sector u.s. economy value added.chemicals largescale production chemicals important development industrial revolution.first production sulphuric acid lead chamber process invented englishman john roebuck james watts first partner .
Industrial Revolution	able greatly increase scale manufacture replacing relatively expensive glass vessels formerly used larger less expensive chambers made riveted sheets lead.instead making small amount time able make around kilograms pounds chambers least tenfold increase.the production alkali large scale became important goal well nicolas leblanc succeeded introducing method production sodium carbonate.leblanc process reaction sulfuric acid sodium chloride give sodium sulfate hydrochloric acid.sodium sulfate heated limestone calcium carbonate coal give mixture sodium carbonate calcium sulfide.adding water separated soluble sodium carbonate calcium sulfide.
Industrial Revolution	process produced large amount pollution hydrochloric acid initially vented air calcium sulfide useless waste product.nonetheless synthetic soda ash proved economical compared burning specific plants barilla kelp previously dominant sources soda ash also potash potassium carbonate produced hardwood ashes.these two chemicals important enabled introduction host inventions replacing many smallscale operations costeffective controllable processes.sodium carbonate many uses glass textile soap paper industries.early uses sulfuric acid included pickling removing rust iron steel bleaching cloth.the development bleaching powder calcium hypochlorite scottish chemist charles tennant based discoveries french chemist claude louis berthollet revolutionised bleaching processes textile industry dramatically reducing time required months days traditional process use required repeated exposure sun bleach fields soaking textiles alkali sour milk.tennants factory st rollox north glasgow became largest chemical plant world.after focus chemical innovation dyestuffs germany took world leadership building strong chemical industry.
Industrial Revolution	aspiring chemists flocked german universities – era learn latest techniques.british scientists contrast lacked research universities train advanced students instead practice hire germantrained chemists.cement joseph aspdin british bricklayer turned builder patented chemical process making portland cement important advance building trades.process involves sintering mixture clay limestone °c °f grinding fine powder mixed water sand gravel produce concrete.portland cement used famous english engineer marc isambard brunel several years later constructing thames tunnel.
Industrial Revolution	cement used large scale construction london sewerage system generation later.gas lighting another major industry later industrial revolution gas lighting.though others made similar innovation elsewhere largescale introduction work william murdoch employee boulton watt birmingham steam engine pioneers.process consisted largescale gasification coal furnaces purification gas removal sulphur ammonia heavy hydrocarbons storage distribution.first gas lighting utilities established london .
Industrial Revolution	soon became one major consumers coal uk.gas lighting affected social industrial organisation allowed factories stores remain open longer tallow candles oil.introduction allowed nightlife flourish cities towns interiors streets could lighted larger scale before.glass making glass made ancient greece rome.new method producing glass known cylinder process developed europe early th century.
Industrial Revolution	process used chance brothers create sheet glass.became leading producers window plate glass.advancement allowed larger panes glass created without interruption thus freeing space planning interiors well fenestration buildings.crystal palace supreme example use sheet glass new innovative structure.paper machine machine making continuous sheet paper loop wire fabric patented nicholas louis robert worked saintléger didot family france.

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