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Industrial Revolution	paper machine known fourdrinier financiers brothers sealy henry fourdrinier stationers london.although greatly improved many variations fourdrinier machine predominant means paper production today.the method continuous production demonstrated paper machine influenced development continuous rolling iron later steel continuous production processes.agriculture british agricultural revolution considered one causes industrial revolution improved agricultural productivity freed workers work sectors economy.contrast percapita food supply europe stagnant declining improve parts europe late th century.industrial technologies affected farming included seed drill dutch plough contained iron parts threshing machine.the english lawyer jethro tull invented improved seed drill .mechanical seeder distributed seeds evenly across plot land planted correct depth.
Industrial Revolution	important yield seeds harvested seeds planted time around four five.tulls seed drill expensive reliable therefore much effect.good quality seed drills produced mid th century.joseph foljambes rotherham plough first commercially successful iron plough.threshing machine invented scottish engineer andrew meikle displaced hand threshing flail laborious job took onequarter agricultural labour.
Industrial Revolution	took several decades diffuse final straw many farm labourers faced near starvation leading agricultural rebellion swing riots.machine tools metalworking techniques developed industrial revolution eventually resulted precision manufacturing techniques late th century massproducing agricultural equipment reapers binders combine harvesters.mining coal mining britain particularly south wales started early.steam engine pits often shallow bell pits following seam coal along surface abandoned coal extracted.cases geology favourable coal mined means adit drift mine driven side hill.shaft mining done areas limiting factor problem removing water.
Industrial Revolution	could done hauling buckets water shaft sough tunnel driven hill drain mine.either case water discharged stream ditch level could flow away gravity.the introduction steam pump thomas savery newcomen steam engine greatly facilitated removal water enabled shafts made deeper enabling coal extracted.developments begun industrial revolution adoption john smeatons improvements newcomen engine followed james watts efficient steam engines reduced fuel costs engines making mines profitable.cornish engine developed much efficient watt steam engine.coal mining dangerous owing presence firedamp many coal seams.degree safety provided safety lamp invented sir humphry davy independently george stephenson.
Industrial Revolution	however lamps proved false dawn became unsafe quickly provided weak light.firedamp explosions continued often setting coal dust explosions casualties grew entire th century.conditions work poor high casualty rate rock falls.transportation beginning industrial revolution inland transport navigable rivers roads coastal vessels employed move heavy goods sea.wagonways used conveying coal rivers shipment canals yet widely constructed.
Industrial Revolution	animals supplied motive power land sails providing motive power sea.first horse railways introduced toward end th century steam locomotives introduced early decades th century.improving sailing technologies boosted average sailing speed .the industrial revolution improved britains transport infrastructure turnpike road network canal waterway network railway network.raw materials finished products could moved quickly cheaply before.improved transportation also allowed new ideas spread quickly.
Industrial Revolution	canals improved waterways industrial revolution navigation several british rivers improved removing obstructions straightening curves widening deepening building navigation locks.britain kilometres mi navigable rivers streams .canals waterways allowed bulk materials economically transported long distances inland.horse could pull barge load dozens times larger load could drawn cart.in uk canals began built late th century link major manufacturing centres across country.known huge commercial success bridgewater canal north west england opened mostly funded rd duke bridgewater.
Industrial Revolution	worsley rapidly growing town manchester construction cost £ £ advantages land river transport meant within year opening price coal manchester fell half.success helped inspire period intense canal building known canal mania.new canals hastily built aim replicating commercial success bridgewater canal notable leeds liverpool canal thames severn canal opened respectively.by national network existence.canal construction served model organisation methods later used construct railways.eventually largely superseded profitable commercial enterprises spread railways on.
Industrial Revolution	last major canal built united kingdom manchester ship canal upon opening largest ship canal world opened manchester port.however never achieved commercial success sponsors hoped signalled canals dying mode transport age dominated railways quicker often cheaper.britains canal network together surviving mill buildings one enduring features early industrial revolution seen britain.roads france known excellent system roads time industrial revolution however roads european continent u.k. bad condition dangerously rutted.much original british road system poorly maintained thousands local parishes occasionally earlier turnpike trusts set charge tolls maintain roads.increasing numbers main roads turnpiked extent almost every main road england wales responsibility turnpike trust.new engineered roads built john metcalf thomas telford notably john mcadam first macadamised stretch road marsh road ashton gate bristol .
Industrial Revolution	first macadamised road u.s. boonsborough turnpike road hagerstown boonsboro maryland .the major turnpikes radiated london means royal mail able reach rest country.heavy goods transport roads means slow broad wheeled carts hauled teams horses.lighter goods conveyed smaller carts teams pack horse.stagecoaches carried rich less wealthy could pay ride carriers carts.productivity road transport increased greatly industrial revolution cost travel fell dramatically.productivity almost tripled longdistance carrying increased fourfold stage coaching.
Industrial Revolution	railways reducing friction one major reasons success railroads compared wagons.demonstrated iron platecovered wooden tramway croydon england.a good horse ordinary turnpike road draw two thousand pounds one ton.party gentlemen invited witness experiment superiority new road might established ocular demonstration.twelve wagons loaded stones till wagon weighed three tons wagons fastened together.horse attached drew wagons ease six miles km two hours stopped four times order show power starting well drawing great load.railways made practical widespread introduction inexpensive puddled iron rolling mill making rails development highpressure steam engine also around .wagonways moving coal mining areas started th century often associated canal river systems movement coal.
Industrial Revolution	horsedrawn relied gravity stationary steam engine haul wagons back top incline.first applications steam locomotive wagon plate ways often called castiron plates used.horsedrawn public railways begin early years th century improvements pig wrought iron production lowering costs.steam locomotives began built introduction highpressure steam engines expiration boulton watt patent .highpressure engines exhausted used steam atmosphere away condenser cooling water.also much lighter weight smaller size given horsepower stationary condensing engines.
Industrial Revolution	early locomotives used mines.steamhauled public railways began stockton darlington railway .the rapid introduction railways followed rainhill trials demonstrated robert stephensons successful locomotive design development hot blast dramatically reduced fuel consumption making iron increased capacity blast furnace.on september liverpool manchester railway first intercity railway world opened attended prime minister duke wellington.railway engineered joseph locke george stephenson linked rapidly expanding industrial town manchester port town liverpool.opening marred problems due primitive nature technology employed however problems gradually ironed railway became highly successful transporting passengers freight.success intercity railway particularly transport freight commodities led railway mania.construction major railways connecting larger cities towns began gained momentum end first industrial revolution.
Industrial Revolution	many workers completed railways return rural lifestyles instead remained cities providing additional workers factories.developments developments included efficient water wheels based experiments conducted british engineer john smeaton beginnings machine industry rediscovery concrete based hydraulic lime mortar john smeaton lost years.social effects factory system prior industrial revolution workforce employed agriculture either selfemployed farmers landowners tenants landless agricultural labourers.common families various parts world spin yarn weave cloth make clothing.households also spun wove market production.
Industrial Revolution	beginning industrial revolution india china regions iraq elsewhere asia middle east produced worlds cotton cloth europeans produced wool linen goods.in britain th century puttingout system farmers townspeople produced goods market homes often described cottage industry practised.typical puttingout system goods included spinning weaving.merchant capitalists typically provided raw materials paid workers piece responsible sale goods.embezzlement supplies workers poor quality common problems.logistical effort procuring distributing raw materials picking finished goods also limitations puttingout system.
Industrial Revolution	– early spinning weaving machinery spindle jenny six pounds affordable cottagers.later machinery spinning frames spinning mules power looms expensive especially waterpowered giving rise capitalist ownership factories.the majority textile factory workers industrial revolution unmarried women children including many orphans.typically worked hours per day sundays off.common women take factory jobs seasonally slack periods farm work.lack adequate transportation long hours poor pay made difficult recruit maintain workers.
Industrial Revolution	many workers displaced farmers agricultural workers nothing labour sell became factory workers necessity.see british agricultural revolution threshing machinethe change social relationship factory worker compared farmers cottagers viewed unfavourably karl marx however recognized increase productivity made possible technology.standards living economists robert e. lucas jr. say real effect industrial revolution first time history living standards masses ordinary people begun undergo sustained growth ... nothing remotely like economic behaviour mentioned classical economists even theoretical possibility.others however argue growth economys overall productive powers unprecedented industrial revolution living standards majority population grow meaningfully late th th centuries many ways workers living standards declined early capitalism instance studies shown real wages britain increased life expectancy britain begin dramatically increase s. similarly average height population declined industrial revolution implying nutritional status also decreasing.real wages keeping price food.during industrial revolution life expectancy children increased dramatically.
Industrial Revolution	percentage children born london died age five decreased .– .–.the effects living conditions industrial revolution controversial hotly debated economic social historians s. series essays henry phelps brown sheila v. hopkins later set academic consensus bulk population bottom social ladder suffered severe reductions living standards.– significant increase worker wages.food nutrition chronic hunger malnutrition norms majority population world including britain france late th century.
Industrial Revolution	large part due malnutrition life expectancy france years years britain.united states population time adequately fed much taller average life expectancy – years although u.s. life expectancy declined years mid th century.food consumption per capita also declined episode known antebellum puzzle.food supply great britain adversely affected corn laws –.corn laws imposed tariffs imported grain enacted keep prices high order benefit domestic producers.corn laws repealed early years great irish famine.the initial technologies industrial revolution mechanized textiles iron coal little anything lower food prices.
Industrial Revolution	britain netherlands food supply increased industrial revolution due better agricultural practices however population grew noted thomas malthus.condition called malthusian trap finally started overcome transportation improvements canals improved roads steamships.railroads steamships introduced near end industrial revolution.housing rapid population growth th century included new industrial manufacturing cities well service centers edinburgh london.critical factor financing handled building societies dealt directly large contracting firms.
Industrial Revolution	private renting housing landlords dominant tenure.p. kemp says usually advantage tenants.people moved rapidly enough capital build adequate housing everyone lowincome newcomers squeezed increasingly overcrowded slums.clean water sanitation public health facilities inadequate death rate high especially infant mortality tuberculosis among young adults.cholera polluted water typhoid endemic.
Industrial Revolution	unlike rural areas famines one devastated ireland s.a large exposé literature grew condemning unhealthy conditions.far famous publication one founders socialist movement condition working class england friedrich engels described backstreet sections manchester mill towns people lived crude shanties shacks completely enclosed dirt floors.shantytowns narrow walkways irregularly shaped lots dwellings.sanitary facilities.population density extremely high.
Industrial Revolution	however everyone lived poor conditions.industrial revolution also created middle class businessmen clerks foremen engineers lived much better conditions.conditions improved course th century due new public health acts regulating things sewage hygiene home construction.introduction edition engels notes conditions wrote greatly improved.example public health act led sanitary byelaw terraced house.sanitation condition working class england friedrich engels described untreated sewage created awful odours turned rivers green industrial cities.in john snow traced cholera outbreak soho london faecal contamination public water well home cesspit.
Industrial Revolution	snows findings cholera could spread contaminated water took years accepted work led fundamental changes design public water waste systems.water supply preindustrial water supply relied gravity systems pumping water done water wheels.pipes typically made wood.steampowered pumps iron pipes allowed widespread piping water horse watering troughs households.literacy industrialization modern industrialization began england scotland th century relatively high levels literacy among farmers especially scotland.
Industrial Revolution	permitted recruitment literate craftsmen skilled workers foremen managers supervised emerging textile factories coal mines.much labour unskilled especially textile mills children young eight proved useful handling chores adding family income.indeed children taken school work alongside parents factories.however midnineteenth century unskilled labor forces common western europe british industry moved upscale needing many engineers skilled workers could handle technical instructions handle complex situations.literacy essential hired.
Industrial Revolution	senior government official told parliament upon speedy provision elementary education depends industrial prosperity.use trying give technical teaching citizens without elementary education uneducated labourers—and many labourers utterly uneducated—are part unskilled labourers leave work–folk longer unskilled notwithstanding strong sinews determined energy become overmatched competition world.the invention paper machine application steam power industrial processes printing supported massive expansion newspaper pamphlet publishing contributed rising literacy demands mass political participation.clothing consumer goods consumers benefited falling prices clothing household articles cast iron cooking utensils following decades stoves cooking space heating.coffee tea sugar tobacco chocolate became affordable many europe.consumer revolution england early roughly seen marked increase consumption variety luxury goods products individuals different economic social backgrounds.
Industrial Revolution	improvements transport manufacturing technology opportunities buying selling became faster efficient previous.expanding textile trade north england meant threepiece suit became affordable masses.founded josiah wedgwood wedgwood fine china porcelain tableware starting become common feature dining tables.rising prosperity social mobility th century increased number people disposable income consumption marketing goods wedgwood pioneer individuals opposed items household started appear new status goods status symbols related changes fashion desired aesthetic appeal.with rapid growth towns cities shopping became important part everyday life.window shopping purchase goods became cultural activity right many exclusive shops opened elegant urban districts strand piccadilly london example spa towns bath harrogate.
Industrial Revolution	prosperity expansion manufacturing industries pottery metalware increased consumer choice dramatically.labourers ate metal platters wooden implements ordinary workers dined wedgwood porcelain.consumers came demand array new household goods furnishings metal knives forks example well rugs carpets mirrors cooking ranges pots pans watches clocks dizzying array furniture.age mass consumption arrived.new businesses various industries appeared towns cities throughout britain.confectionery one industry saw rapid expansion.
Industrial Revolution	according food historian polly russell chocolate biscuits became products masses thanks industrial revolution consumers created.midth century sweet biscuits affordable indulgence business booming.manufacturers huntley palmers reading carrs carlisle mcvities edinburgh transformed small familyrun businesses stateoftheart operations.frys bristol produced first chocolate bar.competitor cadbury birmingham first commercialize association confectionery romance produced heartshaped box chocolates valentines day .increased literacy rates industrialisation invention railway created new market cheap popular literature masses ability circulated large scale.
Industrial Revolution	penny dreadfuls created meet demand.guardian described penny dreadfuls britains first taste massproduced popular culture young victorian equivalent video games.one million boys periodicals sold per week.labelled authorpreneur paris review charles dickens used innovations revolution sell books powerful new printing presses enhanced advertising revenues expansion railroads.first novel pickwick papers became publishing phenomenon unprecedented success sparking numerous spinoffs merchandise ranging pickwick cigars playing cards china figurines sam weller puzzles weller boot polish joke books.
Industrial Revolution	nicholas dames atlantic writes “literature” big enough category pickwick.defined new one learned call “entertainment.”in welsh entrepreneur pryce prycejones formed first mail order business idea would change nature retail.selling welsh flannel created mail order catalogues customers able order mail first time—this following uniform penny post invention postage stamp penny black charge one penny carriage delivery two places united kingdom irrespective distance—and goods delivered throughout uk via newly created railway system.railway network expanded overseas business.population increase industrial revolution first period history simultaneous increase population per capita income.according robert hughes fatal shore population england wales remained steady six million rose dramatically .
Industrial Revolution	population england doubled .million .million nearly doubled .million.improved conditions led population britain increasing million million s. europes population increased million million .
Industrial Revolution	urbanization growth modern industry since late th century led massive urbanisation rise new great cities first europe regions new opportunities brought huge numbers migrants rural communities urban areas.worlds population lived cities compared nearly today beginning st century.manchester population burgeoned .million.effect women family life womens historians debated effect industrial revolution capitalism generally status women.
Industrial Revolution	taking pessimistic side alice clark argued capitalism arrived thcentury england lowered status women lost much economic importance.clark argues thcentury england women engaged many aspects industry agriculture.home central unit production women played vital role running farms trades landed estates.useful economic roles gave sort equality husbands.however clark argues capitalism expanded th century division labour husband taking paid labour jobs outside home wife reduced unpaid household work.
Industrial Revolution	middle upperclass women confined idle domestic existence supervising servants lowerclass women forced take poorly paid jobs.capitalism therefore negative effect powerful women.in positive interpretation ivy pinchbeck argues capitalism created conditions womens emancipation.tilly scott emphasised continuity status women finding three stages english history.preindustrial era production mostly home use women produce much needs households.second stage family wage economy early industrialisation entire family depended collective wages members including husband wife older children.
Industrial Revolution	third modern stage family consumer economy family site consumption women employed large numbers retail clerical jobs support rising standards consumption.ideas thrift hard work characterized middleclass families industrial revolution swept europe.values displayed samuel smiles book selfhelp states misery poorer classes voluntary selfimposed – results idleness thriftlessness intemperance misconduct.labour conditions social structure working conditions terms social structure industrial revolution witnessed triumph middle class industrialists businessmen landed class nobility gentry.ordinary working people found increased opportunities employment new mills factories often strict working conditions long hours labour dominated pace set machines.late year industrial workers united states still worked hour day hours steel industry yet earned less minimum deemed necessary decent life however workers textiles far leading industry terms employment women children.
Industrial Revolution	workers labouring classes industrial life stony desert make habitable efforts.also harsh working conditions prevalent long industrial revolution took place.preindustrial society static often cruel – child labour dirty living conditions long working hours prevalent industrial revolution.factories urbanisation industrialisation led creation factory.factory system contributed growth urban areas large numbers workers migrated cities search work factories.
Industrial Revolution	nowhere better illustrated mills associated industries manchester nicknamed cottonopolis worlds first industrial city.manchester experienced sixtimes increase population .bradford grew every ten years population bradford actually born there.in addition percent europes population left home pushed poverty rapidly growing population displacement peasant farming artisan manufacturing.pulled abroad enormous demand labour overseas ready availability land cheap transportation.still many find satisfactory life new homes leading million return europe.
Industrial Revolution	mass migration large demographic effects less one percent world population consisted overseas europeans descendants represented percent.americas felt brunt huge emigration largely concentrated united states.for much th century production done small mills typically waterpowered built serve local needs.later factory would steam engine chimney give efficient draft boiler.in industries transition factory production divisive.industrialists tried improve factory living conditions workers.one earliest reformers robert owen known pioneering efforts improving conditions workers new lanark mills often regarded one key thinkers early socialist movement.by integrated brass mill working warmley near bristol.
Industrial Revolution	raw material went one end smelted brass turned pans pins wire goods.housing provided workers site.josiah wedgwood matthew boulton whose soho manufactory completed prominent early industrialists employed factory system.child labour industrial revolution led population increase chances surviving childhood improve throughout industrial revolution although infant mortality rates reduced markedly.still limited opportunity education children expected work.
Industrial Revolution	employers could pay child less adult even though productivity comparable need strength operate industrial machine since industrial system completely new experienced adult labourers.made child labour labour choice manufacturing early phases industrial revolution th th centuries.england scotland twothirds workers waterpowered cotton mills described children.child labour existed industrial revolution increase population education became visible.many children forced work relatively bad conditions much lower pay elders – adult males wage.reports written detailing abuses particularly coal mines textile factories helped popularise childrens plight.public outcry especially among upper middle classes helped stir change young workers welfare.politicians government tried limit child labour law factory owners resisted felt aiding poor giving children money buy food avoid starvation others simply welcomed cheap labour.
Industrial Revolution	first general laws child labour factory acts passed britain children younger nine allowed work children permitted work night workday youth age limited twelve hours.factory inspectors supervised execution law however scarcity made enforcement difficult.ten years later employment children women mining forbidden.although laws decreased number child labourers child labour remained significantly present europe united states th century.organisation labour industrial revolution concentrated labour mills factories mines thus facilitating organisation combinations trade unions help advance interests working people.
Industrial Revolution	power union could demand better terms withdrawing labour causing consequent cessation production.employers decide giving union demands cost suffering cost lost production.skilled workers hard replace first groups successfully advance conditions kind bargaining.the main method unions used effect change strike action.many strikes painful events sides unions management.britain combination act forbade workers form kind trade union repeal .
Industrial Revolution	even unions still severely restricted.one british newspaper described unions dangerous institutions ever permitted take root shelter law country...in reform act extended vote britain grant universal suffrage.year six men tolpuddle dorset founded friendly society agricultural labourers protest gradual lowering wages s. refused work less ten shillings week although time wages reduced seven shillings week due reduced six.james frampton local landowner wrote prime minister lord melbourne complain union invoking obscure law prohibiting people swearing oaths members friendly society done.james brine james hammett george loveless georges brother james loveless georges brotherinlaw thomas standfield thomass son john standfield arrested found guilty transported australia.
Industrial Revolution	became known tolpuddle martyrs.chartist movement first largescale organised workingclass political movement campaigned political equality social justice.charter reforms received three million signatures rejected parliament without consideration.working people also formed friendly societies cooperative societies mutual support groups times economic hardship.enlightened industrialists robert owen also supported organisations improve conditions working class.unions slowly overcame legal restrictions right strike.general strike involving cotton workers colliers organised chartist movement stopped production across great britain.eventually effective political organisation working people achieved trades unions extensions franchise began support socialist political parties later merged become british labour party.
Industrial Revolution	luddites rapid industrialisation english economy cost many craft workers jobs.movement started first lace hosiery workers near nottingham spread areas textile industry owing early industrialisation.many weavers also found suddenly unemployed since could longer compete machines required relatively limited unskilled labour produce cloth single weaver.many unemployed workers weavers others turned animosity towards machines taken jobs began destroying factories machinery.attackers became known luddites supposedly followers ned ludd folklore figure.
Industrial Revolution	first attacks luddite movement began .luddites rapidly gained popularity british government took drastic measures using militia army protect industry.rioters caught tried hanged transported life.unrest continued sectors industrialised agricultural labourers large parts southern britain affected captain swing disturbances.threshing machines particular target hayrick burning popular activity.however riots led first formation trade unions pressure reform.
Industrial Revolution	shift productions center gravity traditional centers hand textile production india parts middle east later china could withstand competition machinemade textiles period decades destroyed hand made textile industries left millions people without work many starved.the industrial revolution also generated enormous unprecedented economic division world measured share manufacturing output.cotton expansion slavery cheap cotton textiles increased demand raw cotton previously primarily consumed subtropical regions grown little raw cotton available export.consequently prices raw cotton rose.british production grew million pounds million pounds million .invention cotton gin american eli whitney decisive event.
Industrial Revolution	allowed greenseeded cotton become profitable leading widespread growth large slave plantation united states brazil west indies.american cotton production million pounds soaring million half exported.americas cotton plantations highly efficient profitable able keep demand.u.s. civil war created cotton famine led increased production areas world including european colonies africa.effect environment origins environmental movement lay response increasing levels smoke pollution atmosphere industrial revolution.
Industrial Revolution	emergence great factories concomitant immense growth coal consumption gave rise unprecedented level air pollution industrial centers large volume industrial chemical discharges added growing load untreated human waste.first largescale modern environmental laws came form britains alkali acts passed regulate deleterious air pollution gaseous hydrochloric acid given leblanc process used produce soda ash.alkali inspector four subinspectors appointed curb pollution.responsibilities inspectorate gradually expanded culminating alkali order placed major heavy industries emitted smoke grit dust fumes supervision.the manufactured gas industry began british cities –.technique used produced highly toxic effluent dumped sewers rivers.
Industrial Revolution	gas companies repeatedly sued nuisance lawsuits.usually lost modified worst practices.city london repeatedly indicted gas companies polluting thames poisoning fish.finally parliament wrote company charters regulate toxicity.industry reached us around causing pollution lawsuits.in industrial cities local experts reformers especially took lead identifying environmental degradation pollution initiating grassroots movements demand achieve reforms.
Industrial Revolution	typically highest priority went water air pollution.coal smoke abatement society formed britain making one oldest environmental ngos.founded artist sir william blake richmond frustrated pall cast coal smoke.although earlier pieces legislation public health act required furnaces fireplaces consume smoke.also provided sanctions factories emitted large amounts black smoke.
Industrial Revolution	provisions law extended smoke abatement act include emissions soot ash gritty particles empower local authorities impose regulations.nations nationalism book nations nationalism philosopher ernest gellner argues industrial revolution economic modernization spurred creation nations.industrialisation beyond great britain continental europe industrial revolution continental europe came later great britain.started belgium france spread german states middle th century.many industries involved application technology developed britain new places.
Industrial Revolution	typically technology purchased britain british engineers entrepreneurs moved abroad search new opportunities.part ruhr valley westphalia called miniature england similarities industrial areas britain.european governments provided state funding new industries.cases iron different availability resources locally meant aspects british technology adopted.austriahungary habsburg realms became austriahungary included million inhabitants growing million .
Industrial Revolution	nationally per capita rate industrial growth averaged .however strong regional differences.railway system built period.arrived transportation slow expensive.alpine bohemian modernday czech republic regions protoindustrialization began became center first phases industrial revolution .
Industrial Revolution	textile industry main factor utilizing mechanization steam engines factory system.czech lands first mechanical loom followed varnsdorf first steam engines appearing bohemia moravia years later.textile production flourished particularly prague brno german brünn considered moravian manchester.czech lands especially bohemia became center industrialization due natural human resources.iron industry developed alpine regions smaller centers bohemia moravia.
Industrial Revolution	hungary—the eastern half dual monarchy heavily rural little industry .in prague organized first worlds fairlist worlds fairs bohemia modernday czech republic.first industrial exhibition occasion coronation leopold ii king bohemia took place clementinum therefore celebrated considerable sophistication manufacturing methods czech lands time period.technological change accelerated industrialization urbanization.gnp per capita grew roughly .per year .level growth compared favorably european nations britain france .
Industrial Revolution	germany .. however comparison germany britain austrohungarian economy whole still lagged considerably sustained modernization begun much later.belgium belgium second country industrial revolution took place first continental europe wallonia frenchspeaking southern belgium took lead.starting middle especially belgium became independent nation numerous works comprising coke blast furnaces well puddling rolling mills built coal mining areas around liège charleroi.leader transplanted englishman john cockerill.factories seraing integrated stages production engineering supply raw materials early .wallonia exemplified radical evolution industrial expansion.
Industrial Revolution	thanks coal french word houille coined wallonia region geared become nd industrial power world britain.also pointed many researchers sillon industriel especially haine sambre meuse valleys borinage liège...there huge industrial development based coalmining ironmaking.... philippe raxhon wrote period propaganda reality walloon regions becoming second industrial power world britain.sole industrial centre outside collieries blast furnaces walloon old clothmaking town ghent.professor michel de coster stated historians economists say belgium second industrial power world proportion population territory ... rank one wallonia coalmines blast furnaces iron zinc factories wool industry glass industry weapons industry... concentrated.many thcentury coal mines wallonia protected world heritage siteswallonia also birthplace strong socialist party strong trade unions particular sociological landscape.
Industrial Revolution	left sillon industriel runs mons west verviers east except part north flanders another period industrial revolution .even belgium second industrial country britain effect industrial revolution different.breaking stereotypes muriel neven isabelle devious saythe industrial revolution changed mainly rural society urban one strong contrast northern southern belgium.middle ages early modern period flanders characterised presence large urban centres ... beginning nineteenth century region flanders urbanisation degree percent remained one urbanised world.comparison proportion reached percent wallonia barely percent west european countries percent france percent britain.
Industrial Revolution	nineteenthcentury industrialisation affect traditional urban infrastructure except ghent...also wallonia traditional urban network largely unaffected industrialisation process even though proportion citydwellers rose percent .especially haine sambre meuse valleys borinage liège huge industrial development based coalmining ironmaking urbanisation fast.eighty years number municipalities inhabitants increased one hundred concentrating nearly half walloon population region.nevertheless industrialisation remained quite traditional sense lead growth modern large urban centres conurbation industrial villages towns developed around coal mine factory.communication routes small centres became populated later created much less dense urban morphology instance area around liège old town direct migratory flows.
Industrial Revolution	france industrial revolution france followed particular course correspond main model followed countries.notably french historians argue france go clear takeoff.instead frances economic growth industrialisation process slow steady th th centuries.however stages identified maurice lévyleboyerfrench revolution napoleonic wars –industrialisation along britain –economic slowdown –renewal growth .germany based leadership chemical research universities industrial laboratories germany unified became dominant worlds chemical industry late th century.
Industrial Revolution	first production dyes based aniline critical.germanys political disunity—with three dozen states—and pervasive conservatism made difficult build railways s. however trunk lines linked major cities german state responsible lines within borders.lacking technological base first germans imported engineering hardware britain quickly learned skills needed operate expand railways.many cities new railway shops centres technological awareness training germany selfsufficient meeting demands railroad construction railways major impetus growth new steel industry.observers found even late engineering inferior britains.however german unification stimulated consolidation nationalisation stateowned companies rapid growth.
Industrial Revolution	unlike situation france goal support industrialisation heavy lines crisscrossed ruhr industrial districts provided good connections major ports hamburg bremen.germany locomotives pulling passengers tons freight pulled ahead france.sweden period – sweden experienced two parallel economic movements agricultural revolution larger agricultural estates new crops farming tools commercialisation farming proto industrialisation small industries established countryside workers switching agricultural work summer industrial production winter.led economic growth benefiting large sections population leading consumption revolution starting s. protoindustries developed specialised larger industries.period witnessed increasing regional specialisation mining bergslagen textile mills sjuhäradsbygden forestry norrland.
Industrial Revolution	several important institutional changes took place period free mandatory schooling introduced first country world abolition national monopoly trade handicrafts stock company law .from sweden experienced first industrial revolution veritable explosion export dominated crops wood steel.sweden abolished tariffs barriers free trade joined gold standard .large infrastructural investments made period mainly expanding railroad network financed part government part private enterprises.new industries developed focus domestic market mechanical engineering power utilities papermaking textile.japan industrial revolution began meiji period leaders decided catch west.
Industrial Revolution	government built railroads improved roads inaugurated land reform program prepare country development.inaugurated new westernbased education system young people sent thousands students united states europe hired westerners teach modern science mathematics technology foreign languages japan foreign government advisors meiji japan.in group japanese politicians known iwakura mission toured europe united states learn western ways.result deliberate stateled industrialisation policy enable japan quickly catch up.bank japan founded used taxes fund model steel textile factories.education expanded japanese students sent study west.modern industry first appeared textiles including cotton especially silk based home workshops rural areas.
Industrial Revolution	united states late th early th centuries uk parts western europe began industrialise us primarily agricultural natural resource producing processing economy.building roads canals introduction steamboats building railroads important handling agricultural natural resource products large sparsely populated country period.important american technological contributions period industrial revolution cotton gin development system making interchangeable parts latter aided development milling machine us.development machine tools system interchangeable parts basis rise us worlds leading industrial nation late th century.oliver evans invented automated flour mill mids used control mechanisms conveyors labour needed time grain loaded elevator buckets flour discharged wagon.considered first modern materials handling system important advance progress toward mass production.the united states originally used horsepowered machinery smallscale applications grain milling eventually switched water power textile factories began built s. result industrialisation concentrated new england northeastern united states fastmoving rivers.newer waterpowered production lines proved economical horsedrawn production.
Industrial Revolution	late th century steampowered manufacturing overtook waterpowered manufacturing allowing industry spread midwest.thomas somers cabot brothers founded beverly cotton manufactory first cotton mill america largest cotton mill era significant milestone research development cotton mills future.mill designed use horsepower operators quickly learned horsedrawn platform economically unstable economic losses years.despite losses manufactory served playground innovation turning large amount cotton also developing waterpowered milling structure used slaters mill.in samuel slater – founded slater mill pawtucket rhode island.learned new textile technologies boy apprentice derbyshire england defied laws emigration skilled workers leaving new york hoping make money knowledge.founding slaters mill went textile mills.
Industrial Revolution	daniel day established wool carding mill blackstone valley uxbridge massachusetts third woollen mill established us first hartford connecticut second watertown massachusetts.john h. chafee blackstone river valley national heritage corridor retraces history americas hardestworking river blackstone.blackstone river tributaries cover kilometres mi worcester massachusetts providence rhode island birthplace americas industrial revolution.peak mills operated valley including slaters mill earliest beginnings americas industrial technological development.merchant francis cabot lowell newburyport massachusetts memorised design textile machines tour british factories .realising war ruined import business demand domestic finished cloth emerging america return united states set boston manufacturing company.
Industrial Revolution	lowell partners built americas second cottontocloth textile mill waltham massachusetts second beverly cotton manufactory.death associates built americas first planned factory town named him.enterprise capitalised public stock offering one first uses united states.lowell massachusetts using nine kilometres ⁄ miles canals kilowatts horsepower delivered merrimack river considered major contributor success american industrial revolution.shortlived utopialike walthamlowell system formed direct response poor working conditions britain.
Industrial Revolution	however especially following great famine ireland system replaced poor immigrant labour.a major u.s. contribution industrialisation development techniques make interchangeable parts metal.precision metal machining techniques developed u.s. department war make interchangeable parts small firearms.development work took place federal arsenals springfield armory harpers ferry armory.techniques precision machining using machine tools included using fixtures hold parts proper position jigs guide cutting tools precision blocks gauges measure accuracy.milling machine fundamental machine tool believed invented eli whitney government contractor built firearms part program.
Industrial Revolution	another important invention blanchard lathe invented thomas blanchard.blanchard lathe pattern tracing lathe actually shaper could produce copies wooden gun stocks.use machinery techniques producing standardised interchangeable parts became known american system manufacturing.precision manufacturing techniques made possible build machines mechanised shoe industry watch industry.industrialisation watch industry started also waltham massachusetts waltham watch company development machine tools gauges assembling methods adapted micro precision required watches.second industrial revolution steel often cited first several new areas industrial massproduction said characterise second industrial revolution beginning around although method mass manufacture steel invented sir henry bessemer invented new furnace could convert molten pig iron steel large quantities.
Industrial Revolution	however became widely available process modified produce uniform quality.bessemer steel displaced open hearth furnace near end th century.this second industrial revolution gradually grew include chemicals mainly chemical industries petroleum refining distribution th century automotive industry marked transition technological leadership britain united states germany.the increasing availability economical petroleum products also reduced importance coal widened potential industrialisation.a new revolution began electricity electrification electrical industries.introduction hydroelectric power generation alps enabled rapid industrialisation coaldeprived northern italy beginning s.by industrialisation areas created first giant industrial corporations burgeoning global interests companies like u.s. steel general electric standard oil bayer ag joined railroad ship companies worlds stock markets.new industrialism new industrialist movement advocates increasing domestic manufacturing reducing emphasis financialbased economy relies real estate trading speculative assets.new industrialism described supplyside progressivism embracing idea building stuff.
Industrial Revolution	new industrialism developed china shock resulted lost manufacturing jobs u.s. china joined world trade organization .movement strengthened reduction manufacturing jobs great recession u.s. able manufacture enough tests facemasks covid pandemic.new industrialism calls building enough housing satisfy demand order reduce profit land speculation invest infrastructure develop advanced technology manufacture green energy world.new industrialists believe united states isn’t building enough productive capital invest economic growth.causes causes industrial revolution complicated remain topic debate.
Industrial Revolution	geographic factors include britains vast mineral resources.addition metal ores britain highest quality coal reserves known time well abundant water power highly productive agriculture numerous seaports navigable waterways.some historians believe industrial revolution outgrowth social institutional changes brought end feudalism britain english civil war th century although feudalism began break black death mid th century followed epidemics population reached low th century.created labour shortages led falling food prices peak real wages around population growth began reducing wages.inflation caused coinage debasement followed precious metals supply increasing americas caused land rents often longterm leases transferred heirs death fall real terms.the enclosure movement british agricultural revolution made food production efficient less labourintensive forcing farmers could longer selfsufficient agriculture cottage industry example weaving longer term cities newly developed factories.colonial expansion th century accompanying development international trade creation financial markets accumulation capital also cited factors scientific revolution th century.
Industrial Revolution	change marrying patterns getting married later made people able accumulate human capital youth thereby encouraging economic development.until universally believed academic historians technological innovation heart industrial revolution key enabling technology invention improvement steam engine.marketing professor ronald fullerton suggested innovative marketing techniques business practices competition also influenced changes manufacturing industry.lewis mumford proposed industrial revolution origins early middle ages much earlier estimates.explains model standardised mass production printing press archetypal model industrial era clock.also cites monastic emphasis order timekeeping well fact medieval cities centre church bell ringing regular intervals necessary precursors greater synchronisation necessary later physical manifestations steam engine.the presence large domestic market also considered important driver industrial revolution particularly explaining occurred britain.nations france markets split local regions often imposed tolls tariffs goods traded among them.
Industrial Revolution	internal tariffs abolished henry viii england survived russia france spain.governments grant limited monopolies inventors developing patent system statute monopolies considered influential factor.effects patents good ill development industrialisation clearly illustrated history steam engine key enabling technology.return publicly revealing workings invention patent system rewarded inventors james watt allowing monopolise production first steam engines thereby rewarding inventors increasing pace technological development.however monopolies bring inefficiencies may counterbalance even overbalance beneficial effects publicising ingenuity rewarding inventors.watts monopoly prevented inventors richard trevithick william murdoch jonathan hornblower boulton watt sued introducing improved steam engines thereby retarding spread steam power.
Industrial Revolution	causes europe one question active interest historians industrial revolution occurred europe parts world th century particularly china india middle east pioneered shipbuilding textile production water mills much period times like classical antiquity middle ages.recent account argued europeans characterized thousands years freedomloving culture originating aristocratic societies early indoeuropean invaders.many historians however challenged explanation eurocentric also ignoring historical context.fact industrial revolution existed something global economic parity advanced regions world economy.historians suggested number factors including education technological changes see scientific revolution europe modern government modern work attitudes ecology culture.china worlds technologically advanced country many centuries however china stagnated economically technologically surpassed western europe age discovery time china banned imports denied entry foreigners.
Industrial Revolution	china also totalitarian society.china also heavily taxed transported goods.modern estimates per capita income western europe late th century roughly dollars purchasing power parity britain per capita income nearly dollars whereas china comparison dollars.india essentially feudal politically fragmented economically advanced western europe.historians david landes sociologists max weber rodney stark credit different belief systems asia europe dictating revolution occurred.religion beliefs europe largely products judaeochristianity greek thought.
Industrial Revolution	conversely chinese society founded men like confucius mencius han feizi legalism lao tzu taoism buddha buddhism resulting different worldviews.factors include considerable distance chinas coal deposits though large cities well unnavigable yellow river connects deposits sea.regarding india marxist historian rajani palme dutt said capital finance industrial revolution india instead went financing industrial revolution britain.contrast china india split many competing kingdoms decline mughal empire major ones aftermath including marathas sikhs bengal subah kingdom mysore.addition economy highly dependent two sectors—agriculture subsistence cotton appears little technical innovation.believed vast amounts wealth largely stored away palace treasuries monarchs prior british take over.economic historian joel mokyr argued political fragmentation presence large number european states made possible heterodox ideas thrive entrepreneurs innovators ideologues heretics could easily flee neighboring state event one state would try suppress ideas activities.
Industrial Revolution	set europe apart technologically advanced large unitary empires china india providing insurance economic technological stagnation.china printing press movable type india similar levels scientific technological achievement europe yet industrial revolution would occur europe china india.europe political fragmentation coupled integrated market ideas europes intellectuals used lingua franca latin shared intellectual basis europes classical heritage paneuropean institution republic letters.in addition europes monarchs desperately needed revenue pushing alliances merchant classes.small groups merchants granted monopolies taxcollecting responsibilities exchange payments state.located region hub largest varied network exchange history europe advanced leader industrial revolution.
Industrial Revolution	americas europeans found windfall silver timber fish maize leading historian peter stearns conclude europes industrial revolution stemmed great part europes ability draw disproportionately world resources.modern capitalism originated italian citystates around end first millennium.citystates prosperous cities independent feudal lords.largely republics whose governments typically composed merchants manufacturers members guilds bankers financiers.italian citystates built network branch banks leading western european cities introduced double entry bookkeeping.italian commerce supported schools taught numeracy financial calculations abacus schools.
Industrial Revolution	causes britain great britain provided legal cultural foundations enabled entrepreneurs pioneer industrial revolution.key factors fostering environment werethe period peace stability followed unification england scotlandthere internal trade barriers including england scotland feudal tolls tariffs making britain largest coherent market europe rule law enforcing property rights respecting sanctity contractsa straightforward legal system allowed formation jointstock companies corporationsfree market capitalismgeographical natural resource advantages great britain fact extensive coastlines many navigable rivers age water easiest means transportation britain highest quality coal europe.britain also large number sites water power.there two main values drove industrial revolution britain.values selfinterest entrepreneurial spirit.interests many industrial advances made resulted huge increase personal wealth consumer revolution.
Industrial Revolution	advancements also greatly benefitted british society whole.countries around world started recognise changes advancements britain use example begin industrial revolutions.a debate sparked trinidadian politician historian eric williams work capitalism slavery concerned role slavery financing industrial revolution.williams argued european capital amassed slavery vital early years revolution contending rise industrial capitalism driving force behind abolitionism instead humanitarian motivations.arguments led significant historiographical debates among historians american historian seymour drescher critiquing williams arguments econocide .instead greater liberalisation trade large merchant base may allowed britain produce use emerging scientific technological developments effectively countries stronger monarchies particularly china russia.britain emerged napoleonic wars european nation ravaged financial plunder economic collapse merchant fleet useful size european merchant fleets destroyed war royal navy.
Industrial Revolution	britains extensive exporting cottage industries also ensured markets already available many early forms manufactured goods.conflict resulted british warfare conducted overseas reducing devastating effects territorial conquest affected much europe.aided britains geographical position—an island separated rest mainland europe.another theory britain able succeed industrial revolution due availability key resources possessed.dense population small geographical size.enclosure common land related agricultural revolution made supply labour readily available.
Industrial Revolution	also local coincidence natural resources north england english midlands south wales scottish lowlands.local supplies coal iron lead copper tin limestone water power resulted excellent conditions development expansion industry.also damp mild weather conditions north west england provided ideal conditions spinning cotton providing natural starting point birth textiles industry.the stable political situation britain around following glorious revolution british societys greater receptiveness change compared european countries also said factors favouring industrial revolution.peasant resistance industrialisation largely eliminated enclosure movement landed upper classes developed commercial interests made pioneers removing obstacles growth capitalism.point also made hilaire bellocs servile state.the french philosopher voltaire wrote capitalism religious tolerance book english society letters english noting england time prosperous comparison countrys less religiously tolerant european neighbours.
Industrial Revolution	take view royal exchange london place venerable many courts justice representatives nations meet benefit mankind.jew mahometan muslim christian transact together though professed religion give name infidel none bankrupts.presbyterian confides anabaptist churchman depends quakers word.one religion allowed england government would possibly become arbitrary two people would cut one anothers throats multitude live happy peace.britains population grew – rest western europe grew –.seventy percent european urbanisation happened britain –.
Industrial Revolution	netherlands urbanised britain.possible coal coke imported cotton brick slate replaced wood charcoal flax peat thatch.latter compete land grown feed people mined materials not.yet land would freed chemical fertilisers replaced manure horses work mechanised.workhorse needs .
Industrial Revolution	.ha acres fodder even early steam engines produced four times mechanical energy.in fivesixths coal mined worldwide britain netherlands none despite europes best transport lowest taxes urbanised wellpaid literate population failed industrialise.th century european country whose cities population shrank.without coal britain would run suitable river sites mills s. based science experimentation continent steam engine developed specifically pumping water mines many britain mined water table.although extremely inefficient economical used unsaleable coal.
Industrial Revolution	iron rails developed transport coal major economic sector britain.economic historian robert allen argued high wages cheap capital cheap energy britain made ideal place industrial revolution occur.factors made vastly profitable invest research development put technology use britain societies.however two studies economic history review showed wages particularly high british spinning sector construction sector casting doubt allens explanation.transfer knowledge knowledge innovation spread several means.workers trained technique might move another employer might poached.
Industrial Revolution	common method someone make study tour gathering information could.whole industrial revolution century european countries america engaged studytouring nations like sweden france even trained civil servants technicians undertake matter state policy.countries notably britain america practice carried individual manufacturers eager improve methods.study tours common keeping travel diaries.records made industrialists technicians period incomparable source information methods.another means spread innovation network informal philosophical societies like lunar society birmingham members met discuss natural philosophy i.e.
Industrial Revolution	science often application manufacturing.lunar society flourished said like revolutionary committee far reaching eighteenthcentury revolutions industrial revolution.societies published volumes proceedings transactions.example londonbased royal society arts published illustrated volume new inventions well papers annual transactions.there publications describing technology.encyclopaedias harriss lexicon technicum abraham reess cyclopaedia – contain much value.
Industrial Revolution	cyclopaedia contains enormous amount information science technology first half industrial revolution well illustrated fine engravings.foreign printed sources descriptions des arts et métiers diderots encyclopédie explained foreign methods fine engraved plates.periodical publications manufacturing technology began appear last decade th century many regularly included notice latest patents.foreign periodicals annales des mines published accounts travels made french engineers observed british methods study tours.protestant work ethic another theory british advance due presence entrepreneurial class believed progress technology hard work.existence class often linked protestant work ethic see max weber particular status baptists dissenting protestant sects quakers presbyterians flourished english civil war.
Industrial Revolution	reinforcement confidence rule law followed establishment prototype constitutional monarchy britain glorious revolution emergence stable financial market based management national debt bank england contributed capacity interest private financial investment industrial ventures.dissenters found barred discouraged almost public offices well education englands two universities time although dissenters still free study scotlands four universities.restoration monarchy took place membership official anglican church became mandatory due test act thereupon became active banking manufacturing education.unitarians particular involved education running dissenting academies contrast universities oxford cambridge schools eton harrow much attention given mathematics sciences – areas scholarship vital development manufacturing technologies.historians sometimes consider social factor extremely important along nature national economies involved.members sects excluded certain circles government considered fellow protestants limited extent many middle class traditional financiers businessmen.given relative tolerance supply capital natural outlet enterprising members sects would seek new opportunities technologies created wake scientific revolution th century.
Industrial Revolution	criticisms industrial revolution criticised complete ecological collapse causing mental illness pollution unnatural systems organizing humanity.since start industrial revolution people criticised stating industrial revolution turned humanity nature slaves destroying world.also criticised valuing profits corporate growth life wellbeing multiple movements arose philosophically industrial revolution include groups amish primitivism.individualism humanism harsh conditions humanists individualists criticise industrial revolution mistreatiung women children turning men work machines lacked autonomy.critics industrial revolution promoted interventionist state formed new organizations promote human rights.
Industrial Revolution	primitivism primitivism argues industrial revolution created unnatural frame society world humans need adapt unnatural urban landscape humans perpetual cogs without personal autonomy.certain primitivists argue return preindustrial society others argue technology modern medicine agriculture positive humanity assuming controlled serve humanity effect natural environment.pollution ecological collapse industrial revolution criticised leading immense ecological habitat destruction certain studies state species gone extinct since humanity became dominant species earth.also led immense decrease biodiversity life earth.industrial revolution stated inherently unsustainable lead eventual collapse society mass hunger starvation resource scarcity.anthropocene anthropocene proposed epoch mass extinction coming humanity anthro greek root humanity.
Industrial Revolution	since start industrial revolution humanity permanently changed earth immense decrease biodiversity mass extinction caused industrial revolution.effects include permanent changes earths atmosphere soil forests mass destruction industrial revolution led catastrophic impacts earth.organisms unable adapt leading mass extinction remaining undergoing evolutionary rescue result industrial revolution.permanent changes distribution organisms human influence become identifiable geologic record.researchers documented movement many species regions formerly cold often rates faster initially expected.occurred part result changing climate also response farming fishing accidental introduction nonnative species new areas global travel.
Industrial Revolution	ecosystem entire black sea may changed last years result nutrient silica input eroding deforested lands along danube river.opposition romanticism industrial revolution intellectual artistic hostility towards new industrialisation developed associated romantic movement.romanticism revered traditionalism rural life recoiled upheavals caused industrialization urbanization wretchedness working classes.major exponents english included artist poet william blake poets william wordsworth samuel taylor coleridge john keats lord byron percy bysshe shelley.movement stressed importance nature art language contrast monstrous machines factories dark satanic mills blakes poem feet ancient time.
Industrial Revolution	mary shelleys frankenstein reflected concerns scientific progress might twoedged.french romanticism likewise highly critical industry.see also footnotes references reading external links industrial revolution curlieinternet modern history sourcebook industrial revolutionbbc history home page industrial revolutionnational museum science industry website machines personalitiesfactory workers industrial revolutionthe industrial revolution – articles video pictures factsthe day world took sixpart video series university cambridge tracing question industrial revolution begin did.transition included going hand production methods machines new chemical manufacturing iron production processes increasing use steam power water power development machine tools rise mechanized factory system.industrial revolution also led unprecedented rise rate population growth.textiles dominant industry industrial revolution terms employment value output capital invested.textile industry also first use modern production methods.industrial revolution began great britain many technological architectural innovations british origin.midth century britain worlds leading commercial nation controlling global trading empire colonies north america caribbean major military political hegemony indian subcontinent particularly protoindustrialised mughal bengal activities east india company.
Industrial Revolution	development trade rise business among major causes industrial revolution.industrial revolution marks major turning point history almost every aspect daily life influenced way.particular average income population began exhibit unprecedented sustained growth.economists said important effect industrial revolution standard living general population western world began increase consistently first time history although others said begin meaningfully improve late th th centuries.gdp per capita broadly stable industrial revolution emergence modern capitalist economy industrial revolution began era percapita economic growth capitalist economies.economic historians agreement onset industrial revolution important event history humanity since domestication animals plants.the precise start end industrial revolution still debated among historians pace economic social changes.

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