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Risk management	risk rms titanic sinking vs. passengers meals served slightly wrong time.the probable increase cost associated risk cost variance due risk rc rc pc pcars pscarsorting value puts highest risks budget first.see concerns schedule variance function illustrated equation above.risk project process due either special cause variation common cause variation requires appropriate treatment.reiterate concern extremal cases equivalent list immediately above.enterprise security esrm security program management approach links security activities enterprises mission business goals risk management methods.security leaders role esrm manage risks harm enterprise assets partnership business leaders whose assets exposed risks.esrm involves educating business leaders realistic impacts identified risks presenting potential strategies mitigate impacts enacting option chosen business line accepted levels business risk tolerance medical devices medical devices risk management process identifying evaluating mitigating risks associated harm people damage property environment.
Risk management	risk management integral part medical device design development production processes evaluation field experience applicable types medical devices.evidence application required regulatory bodies us fda.management risks medical devices described international organization standardization iso iso medical devices—the application risk management medical devices product safety standard.standard provides process framework associated requirements management responsibilities risk analysis evaluation risk controls lifecycle risk management.guidance application standard available via isotr .the european version risk management standard updated refer medical devices directive mdd active implantable medical device directive aimdd revision well vitro medical device directive ivdd.
Risk management	requirements en nearly identical iso .differences include three informative z annexes refer new mdd aimdd ivdd.annexes indicate content deviations include requirement risks reduced far possible requirement risks mitigated design labeling medical device i.e.labeling longer used mitigate risk.typical risk analysis evaluation techniques adopted medical device industry include hazard analysis fault tree analysis fta failure mode effects analysis fmea hazard operability study hazop risk traceability analysis ensuring risk controls implemented effective i.e.tracking risks identified product requirements design specifications verification validation results etc.. fta analysis requires diagramming software.
Risk management	fmea analysis done using spreadsheet program.also integrated medical device risk management solutions.through draft guidance fda introduced another method named safety assurance case medical device safety assurance analysis.safety assurance case structured argument reasoning systems appropriate scientists engineers supported body evidence provides compelling comprehensible valid case system safe given application given environment.guidance safety assurance case expected safety critical devices e.g.infusion devices part premarket clearance submission e.g.
Risk management	k. fda introduced another draft guidance expecting medical device manufacturers submit cybersecurity risk analysis information.project management project risk management must considered different phases acquisition.beginning project advancement technical developments threats presented competitors projects may cause risk threat assessment subsequent evaluation alternatives see analysis alternatives.decision made project begun familiar project management applications usedplanning risk managed particular project.plans include risk management tasks responsibilities activities budget.assigning risk officer – team member project manager responsible foreseeing potential project problems.
Risk management	typical characteristic risk officer healthy skepticism.maintaining live project risk database.risk following attributes opening date title short description probability importance.optionally risk may assigned person responsible resolution date risk must resolved.creating anonymous risk reporting channel.team member possibility report risks heshe foresees project.preparing mitigation plans risks chosen mitigated.purpose mitigation plan describe particular risk handled – done avoid minimize consequences becomes liability.summarizing planned faced risks effectiveness mitigation activities effort spent risk management.
Risk management	megaprojects infrastructure megaprojects sometimes also called major programs largescale investment projects typically costing billion per project.megaprojects include major bridges tunnels highways railways airports seaports power plants dams wastewater projects coastal flood protection schemes oil natural gas extraction projects public buildings information technology systems aerospace projects defense systems.megaprojects shown particularly risky terms finance safety social environmental impacts.risk management therefore particularly pertinent megaprojects special methods special education developed risk management.natural disasters important assess risk regard natural disasters like floods earthquakes on.
Risk management	outcomes natural disaster risk assessment valuable considering future repair costs business interruption losses downtime effects environment insurance costs proposed costs reducing risk.sendai framework disaster risk reduction international accord set goals targets disaster risk reduction response natural disasters.regular international disaster risk conferences davos deal integral risk management.several tools used assess risk risk management natural disasters climate events including geospatial modeling key component land change science.modeling requires understanding geographic distributions people well ability calculate likelihood natural disaster occurring.wilderness management risks persons property wilderness remote natural areas developed increases outdoor recreation participation decreased social tolerance loss.
Risk management	organizations providing commercial wilderness experiences align national international consensus standards training equipment ansinasbla boating uiaa ice climbing tools european norm mountaineering equipment.association experiential education offers accreditation wilderness adventure programs.wilderness risk management conference provides access best practices specialist organizations provide wilderness risk management consulting training.in book outdoor leadership education climber outdoor educator author ari schneider notes outdoor recreation inherently risky way eliminate risk.however explains good thing outdoor education programs.according schneider optimal adventure achieved real risk managed perceived risk maintained order keep actual danger low sense adventure high.the text outdoor safety risk management outdoor leaders published new zealand mountain safety council provides view wilderness risk management new zealand perspective recognizing value national outdoor safety legislation devoting considerable attention roles judgment decisionmaking processes wilderness risk management.one popular models risk assessment risk assessment safety management rasm model developed rick curtis author backpackers field manual.
Risk management	formula rasm model risk probability accident × severity consequences.rasm model weighs negative risk—the potential loss positive risk—the potential growth.information technology risk risk related information technology.relatively new term due increasing awareness information security simply one facet multitude risks relevant real world processes supports.cybersecurity tied closely advancement technology.
Risk management	lags long enough incentives like black markets evolve new exploits discovered.end sight advancement technology expect cybersecurity.isacas risk framework ties risk enterprise risk management.duty care risk analysis docra evaluates risks safeguards considers interests parties potentially affected risks.petroleum natural gas offshore oil gas industry operational risk management regulated safety case regime many countries.hazard identification risk assessment tools techniques described international standard iso organisations iadc international association drilling contractors publish guidelines health safety environment hse case development based iso standard.diagrammatic representations hazardous events often expected governmental regulators part risk management safety case submissions known bowtie diagrams see network theory risk assessment.
Risk management	technique also used organisations regulators mining aviation health defence industrial finance.pharmaceutical sector principles tools quality risk management increasingly applied different aspects pharmaceutical quality systems.aspects include development manufacturing distribution inspection submissionreview processes throughout lifecycle drug substances drug products biological biotechnological products including use raw materials solvents excipients packaging labeling materials drug products biological biotechnological products.risk management also applied assessment microbiological contamination relation pharmaceutical products cleanroom manufacturing environments.risk communication see also references external links dod risk issue opportunity management guide defense acquisition programs archived wayback machine dod risk management guide defense acquisition programs media related risk management wikimedia commons
Holy Roman Empire	andrew holt characterizes perhaps powerful european state middle age.centralized control dwindled around s.on december pope leo iii crowned frankish king charlemagne emperor reviving title western europe three centuries fall earlier ancient western roman empire .theory diplomacy emperors considered primus inter pares regarded first among equals amongst catholic monarchs across europe.title continued carolingian family contested rulers italy series civil wars death last italian claimant berengar .title revived otto king germany crowned emperor fashioning successor charlemagne beginning continuous existence empire eight centuries.
Holy Roman Empire	historians refer coronation charlemagne origin empire others prefer coronation otto beginning.scholars generally concur however relating evolution institutions principles constituting empire describing gradual assumption imperial title role.the exact term holy roman empire used th century emperors legitimacy always rested concept translatio imperii held supreme power inherited ancient emperors rome.imperial office traditionally elective mostly german princeelectors.during final phase reign emperor frederick iii ruled – imperial reform began.reform would largely materialized maximilian rule king romans sole ruler holy roman emperor death .empire transformed holy roman empire german nation.
Holy Roman Empire	time empire gained institutions endured final demise nineteenth century.thomas brady jr. opines imperial reform successful although perhaps expense reform church partly maximilian really serious religious matter.according brady jr. empire imperial reform political body remarkable longevity stability resembled respects monarchical polities europe’s western tier others loosely integrated elective polities east central europe.new corporate german nation instead simply obeying emperor negotiated him.august emperor francis ii dissolved empire following creation confederation rhine french emperor napoleon month before.name general perception empire considered roman catholic church legal successor roman empire middle ages early modern period.
Holy Roman Empire	since charlemagne realm merely referred roman empire.term sacrum holy sense consecrated connection medieval roman empire used beginning frederick barbarossa holy empire term added reflect fredericks ambition dominate italy papacy.form holy roman empire attested onward.the exact term holy roman empire used th century empire referred variously universum regnum whole kingdom opposed regional kingdoms imperium christianum christian empire romanum imperium roman empire emperors legitimacy always rested concept translatio imperii held supreme power inherited ancient emperors rome.in decree following diet cologne name changed holy roman empire german nation german heiliges römisches reich deutscher nation latin sacrum imperium romanum nationis germanicæ form first used document .new title adopted partly empire lost territories italy burgundy south west late th century also emphasize new importance german imperial estates ruling empire due imperial reform.by end th century term holy roman empire german nation fell official use.contradicting traditional view concerning designation hermann weisert argued study imperial titulature despite claims many textbooks name holy roman empire german nation never official status points documents thirty times likely omit national suffix include it.in famous assessment name political philosopher voltaire remarked sardonically body called still calls holy roman empire way holy roman empire.in modern period empire often informally called german empire deutsches reich romangerman empire römischdeutsches reich.
Holy Roman Empire	dissolution end german empire often called old empire das alte reich.beginning early twentiethcentury german nationalists nazi party propaganda would identify holy roman empire first reich erstes reich reich meaning empire german empire second reich would eventually become nazi germany third reich.until end th century empire theory composed three major blocks – italy germany burgundy.later territorially kingdom germany bohemia remained burgundian territories lost france.although italian territories formally part empire territories ignored imperial reform splintered numerous de facto independent territorial entities.status italy particular varied throughout th th centuries.
Holy Roman Empire	territories like piedmontsavoy became increasingly independent others became dependent due extinction ruling noble houses causing territories often fall dominions habsburgs cadet branches.barring loss franchecomté external borders empire change noticeably peace westphalia – acknowledged exclusion switzerland northern netherlands french protectorate alsace – dissolution empire.conclusion napoleonic wars holy roman empire included german confederation main exceptions italian states.history early middle ages carolingian period roman power gaul declined th century local germanic tribes assumed control.late th early th centuries merovingians clovis successors consolidated frankish tribes extended hegemony others gain control northern gaul middle rhine river valley region.
Holy Roman Empire	middle th century however merovingians reduced figureheads carolingians led charles martel became de facto rulers.martels son pepin became king franks later gained sanction pope.carolingians would maintain close alliance papacy.in pepins son charlemagne became king franks began extensive expansion realm.eventually incorporated territories presentday france germany northern italy low countries beyond linking frankish kingdom papal lands.although antagonism expense byzantine domination long persisted within italy political rupture set motion earnest iconoclasm emperor leo iii isaurian pope gregory ii saw latest series imperial heresies.eastern roman emperor constantine vi removed throne mother irene declared empress.
Holy Roman Empire	latin church regarded male roman emperor head christendom pope leo iii sought new candidate dignity excluding consultation patriarch constantinople.charlemagnes good service church defense papal possessions lombards made ideal candidate.christmas day pope leo iii crowned charlemagne emperor restoring title west first time three centuries.seen symbolic papacy turning away declining byzantine empire towards new power carolingian francia.charlemagne adopted formula renovatio imperii romanorum renewal roman empire.irene overthrown exiled nikephoros henceforth two roman emperors.after charlemagne died imperial crown passed son louis pious.
Holy Roman Empire	upon louis death passed son lothair coruler.point territory charlemagne divided several territories cf.treaty verdun treaty prüm treaty meerssen treaty ribemont course later ninth century title emperor disputed carolingian rulers western francia eastern francia first western king charles bald eastern charles fat briefly reunited empire attaining prize.ninth century charlemagne successors promoted intellectual revival known carolingian renaissance.like mortimer chambers opines carolingian renaissance made possible subsequent renaissances even though early tenth century revival already diminished.after death charles fat carolingian empire broke apart never restored.
Holy Roman Empire	according regino prüm parts realm spewed forth kinglets part elected kinglet bowels.death charles fat crowned emperor pope controlled territories italy.last emperor berengar italy died .formation holy roman empire around autonomous stem duchies franconia bavaria swabia saxony lotharingia reemerged east francia.carolingian king louis child died without issue east francia turn carolingian ruler west francia take realm instead elected one dukes conrad franconia rex francorum orientalium.
Holy Roman Empire	deathbed conrad yielded crown main rival henry fowler saxony r. – elected king diet fritzlar .henry reached truce raiding magyars first victory battle riade.henry died descendants liudolfing ottonian dynasty would continue rule eastern kingdom roughly century.upon henry fowlers death otto son designated successor elected king aachen .overcame series revolts younger brother several dukes.king managed control appointment dukes often also employed bishops administrative affairs.
Holy Roman Empire	replaced leaders major east frankish duchies relatives.time careful prevent member family making infringements royal prerogatives.in otto came aid adelaide widowed queen italy defeating enemies marrying taking control italy.otto decisive victory magyars battle lechfeld.otto crowned emperor pope john xii thus intertwining affairs german kingdom italy papacy.ottos coronation emperor marked german kings successors empire charlemagne concept translatio imperii also made consider successors ancient rome.
Holy Roman Empire	flowering arts beginning otto greats reign known ottonian renaissance centered germany also happening northern italy france.in otto deposed current pope john xii chose pope leo viii new pope although john xii leo viii claimed papacy john xii died.also renewed conflict eastern emperor constantinople especially ottos son otto ii r. – adopted designation imperator romanorum.still otto ii formed marital ties east married byzantine princess theophanu.son otto iii came throne three years old subjected power struggle series regencies age majority .time remained germany deposed duke crescentius ii ruled rome part italy ostensibly stead.in otto iii appointed cousin gregory v first german pope.
Holy Roman Empire	foreign pope foreign papal officers seen suspicion roman nobles led crescentius ii revolt.otto iiis former mentor antipope john xvi briefly held rome holy roman emperor seized city.otto died young succeeded cousin henry ii focused germany.henry ii died conrad ii first salian dynasty elected king debate among dukes nobles.group eventually developed college electors.the holy roman empire eventually came composed four kingdoms.kingdoms werekingdom germany part empire since kingdom italy kingdom bohemia duchy bohemia raised kingdom kingdom burgundy .high middle ages investiture controversy kings often employed bishops administrative affairs often determined would appointed ecclesiastical offices.
Holy Roman Empire	wake cluniac reforms involvement increasingly seen inappropriate papacy.reformminded pope gregory vii determined oppose practices led investiture controversy henry iv r. – king romans holy roman emperor.henry iv repudiated popes interference persuaded bishops excommunicate pope famously addressed born name hildebrand rather regnal name pope gregory vii.pope turn excommunicated king declared deposed dissolved oaths loyalty made henry.king found almost political support forced make famous walk canossa achieved lifting excommunication price humiliation.meanwhile german princes elected another king rudolf swabia.henry managed defeat rudolf subsequently confronted uprisings renewed excommunication even rebellion sons.
Holy Roman Empire	death second son henry v reached agreement pope bishops concordat worms.political power empire maintained conflict demonstrated limits rulers power especially regard church robbed king sacral status previously enjoyed.pope german princes surfaced major players political system empire.ostsiedlung result ostsiedlung lesspopulated regions central europe i.e.sparsely populated border areas presentday poland czech republic received significant number german speakers.
Holy Roman Empire	silesia became part holy roman empire result local piast dukes push autonomy polish crown.late th century duchy pomerania suzerainty holy roman empire conquests teutonic order made region germanspeaking.hohenstaufen dynasty salian dynasty ended henry vs death princes chose elect next kin rather lothair moderately powerful already old duke saxony.died princes aimed check royal power accordingly elect lothairs favoured heir soninlaw henry proud welf family conrad iii hohenstaufen family grandson emperor henry iv thus nephew emperor henry v. led century strife two houses.conrad ousted welfs possessions death nephew frederick barbarossa succeeded made peace welfs restoring cousin henry lion – albeit diminished – possessions.the hohenstaufen rulers increasingly lent land ministerialia formerly nonfree servicemen frederick hoped would reliable dukes.
Holy Roman Empire	initially used mainly war services new class people would form basis later knights another basis imperial power.important constitutional move roncaglia establishment new peace mechanism entire empire landfrieden first imperial one issued henry iv mainz.this attempt abolish private feuds many dukes people tie emperors subordinates legal system jurisdiction public prosecution criminal acts – predecessor modern concept rule law.another new concept time systematic founding new cities emperor local dukes.partly result explosion population also concentrated economic power strategic locations.cities existed form old roman foundations older bishoprics.
Holy Roman Empire	cities founded th century include freiburg possibly economic model many later cities munich.frederick also called frederick barbarossa crowned emperor .emphasized romanness empire partly attempt justify power emperor independent strengthened pope.imperial assembly fields roncaglia reclaimed imperial rights reference justinian corpus juris civilis.imperial rights referred regalia since investiture controversy enumerated first time roncaglia.comprehensive list included public roads tariffs coining collecting punitive fees seating unseating officeholders.
Holy Roman Empire	rights explicitly rooted roman law farreaching constitutional act.fredericks policies primarily directed italy clashed increasingly wealthy freeminded cities north especially milan.also embroiled another conflict papacy supporting candidate elected minority pope alexander iii –.frederick supported succession antipopes finally making peace alexander .germany emperor repeatedly protected henry lion complaints rival princes cities especially cases munich lübeck.henry gave lackluster support fredericks policies critical situation italian wars henry refused emperors plea military support.
Holy Roman Empire	returning germany embittered frederick opened proceedings duke resulting public ban confiscation henrys territories.frederick participated third crusade dying armenian kingdom cilicia.during hohenstaufen period german princes facilitated successful peaceful eastward settlement lands uninhabited inhabited sparsely west slavs.germanspeaking farmers traders craftsmen western part empire christians jews moved areas.gradual germanization lands complex phenomenon interpreted biased terms thcentury nationalism.eastward settlement expanded influence empire include pomerania silesia intermarriage local still mostly slavic rulers german spouses.
Holy Roman Empire	teutonic knights invited prussia duke konrad masovia christianize prussians .monastic state teutonic order german deutschordensstaat later german successor state prussia never part holy roman empire.under son successor frederick barbarossa henry vi hohenstaufen dynasty reached apex.henry added norman kingdom sicily domains held english king richard lionheart captive aimed establish hereditary monarchy died .son frederick ii though already elected king still small child living sicily german princes chose elect adult king resulting dual election frederick barbarossas youngest son philip swabia henry lions son otto brunswick competed crown.otto prevailed philip murdered private squabble began also claim sicily.pope innocent iii feared threat posed union empire sicily supported frederick ii marched germany defeated otto.
Holy Roman Empire	victory frederick act upon promise keep two realms separate.though made son henry king sicily marching germany still reserved real political power himself.continued frederick crowned emperor .fearing fredericks concentration power pope finally excommunicated him.another point contention crusade frederick promised repeatedly postponed.
Holy Roman Empire	although excommunicated frederick led sixth crusade ended negotiations temporary restoration kingdom jerusalem.despite imperial claims fredericks rule major turning point towards disintegration central rule empire.concentrated establishing modern centralized state sicily mostly absent germany issued farreaching privileges germanys secular ecclesiastical princes confoederatio cum principibus ecclesiasticis frederick gave number regalia favour bishops among tariffs coining fortification.statutum favorem principum mostly extended privileges secular territories.although many privileges existed earlier granted globally allow german princes maintain order north alps frederick concentrated italy.document marked first time german dukes called domini terræ owners lands remarkable change terminology well.
Holy Roman Empire	kingdom bohemia kingdom bohemia significant regional power middle ages.king ottokar bearing title king since extracted golden bull sicily formal edict emperor frederick ii confirming royal title ottokar descendants duchy bohemia raised kingdom.bohemian kings would exempt future obligations holy roman empire except participation imperial councils.charles iv set prague seat holy roman emperor.interregnum death frederick ii german kingdom divided son conrad iv died antiking william holland died .
Holy Roman Empire	conrads death followed interregnum king could achieve universal recognition allowing princes consolidate holdings become even independent rulers.crown contested richard cornwall supported guelph party alfonso x castile recognized hohenstaufen party never set foot german soil.richards death rudolf germany minor prohohenstaufen count elected.first habsburgs hold royal title never crowned emperor.rudolfs death adolf albert two weak kings never crowned emperor.albert assassinated .
Holy Roman Empire	almost immediately king philip iv france began aggressively seeking support brother charles valois elected next king romans.philip thought backing french popeclement v established avignon prospects bringing empire orbit french royal house good.lavishly spread french money hope bribing german electors.although charles valois backing henry archbishop cologne french supporter many keen see expansion french power least clement v. principal rival charles appeared rudolf count palatine.instead henry vii house luxembourg elected six votes frankfurt november .given background although vassal king philip henry bound national ties aspect suitability compromise candidate among electors great territorial magnates lived without crowned emperor decades unhappy charles rudolf.
Holy Roman Empire	henry colognes brother baldwin archbishop trier number electors including henry exchange substantial concessions.henry vii crowned king aachen january emperor pope clement v june rome ending interregnum.changes political structure th century general structural change land administered prepared shift political power towards rising bourgeoisie expense aristocratic feudalism would characterize late middle ages.rise cities emergence new burgher class eroded societal legal economic order feudalism.instead personal duties money increasingly became common means represent economic value agriculture.peasants increasingly required pay tribute landlords.
Holy Roman Empire	concept property began replace ancient forms jurisdiction although still much tied together.territories level empire power became increasingly bundled whoever owned land jurisdiction powers derived.however jurisdiction time include legislation virtually nonexistent well th century.court practice heavily relied traditional customs rules described customary.during time territories began transform predecessors modern states.process varied greatly among various lands advanced territories almost identical lands old germanic tribes e.g.
Holy Roman Empire	bavaria.slower scattered territories founded imperial privileges.in th century hanseatic league established commercial defensive alliance merchant guilds towns cities empire northern central europe.dominated marine trade baltic sea north sea along connected navigable rivers.affiliated cities retained legal system sovereign exception free imperial cities limited degree political autonomy.late th century powerful league enforced interests military means necessary.
Holy Roman Empire	culminated war sovereign kingdom denmark .league declined .late middle ages rise territories hohenstaufens difficulties electing king eventually led emergence fixed college princeelectors kurfürsten whose composition procedures set forth golden bull issued charles iv reigned – king romans since remained valid .development probably best symbolizes emerging duality emperor realm kaiser und reich longer considered identical.golden bull also set forth system election holy roman emperor.
Holy Roman Empire	emperor elected majority rather consent seven electors.electors title became hereditary given right mint coins exercise jurisdiction.also recommended sons learn imperial languages – german latin italian czech.decision charles iv subject debates one hand helped restore peace lands empire engulfed civil conflicts end hohenstaufen era hand blow central authority unmistakable.thomas brady jr. opines charles ivs intention end contested royal elections luxembourghs perspective also advantage king bohemia permanent preeminent status one electors himself.
Holy Roman Empire	time built bohemia luxembourghs core land empire dynastic base.reign bohemia often considered lands golden age.according brady jr. though glitter one problem arose government showed inability deal german immigrant waves bohemia thus leading religious tensions persecutions.imperial project luxembourgh halted charless son wenceslaus reigned – king bohemia – king romans also faced opposition local baronial families.the shift power away emperor also revealed way posthohenstaufen kings attempted sustain power.earlier empires strength finances greatly relied empires lands socalled reichsgut always belonged king day included many imperial cities.
Holy Roman Empire	th century relevance reichsgut faded even though parts remain empires end .instead reichsgut increasingly pawned local dukes sometimes raise money empire frequently reward faithful duty attempt establish control dukes.direct governance reichsgut longer matched needs either king dukes.the kings beginning rudolf germany increasingly relied lands respective dynasties support power.contrast reichsgut mostly scattered difficult administer territories relatively compact thus easier control.rudolf thus lent austria styria sons.
Holy Roman Empire	henry vii house luxembourg crowned first holy roman emperor since frederick ii.kings emperors relied lands family hausmacht louis iv wittelsbach king emperor – relied lands bavaria charles iv luxembourg grandson henry vii drew strength lands bohemia.thus increasingly kings interest strengthen power territories since king profited benefit lands well.imperial reform constitution empire still remained largely unsettled beginning th century.feuds often happened local rulers.
Holy Roman Empire	robber baron raubritter became social factor.simultaneously catholic church experienced crises widereaching effects empire.conflict several papal claimants two antipopes legitimate pope ended council constance – papacy directed much energy suppressing hussites.medieval idea unifying christendom single political entity church empire leading institutions began decline.with drastic changes much discussion emerged th century empire itself.rules past longer adequately described structure time reinforcement earlier landfrieden urgently needed.the vision simultaneous reform empire church central level began sigismund reigned – king romans since according historian thomas brady jr. possessed breadth vision sense grandeur unseen german monarch since thirteenth century.external difficulties selfinflicted mistakes extinction luxembourg male line made vision unfulfilled.frederick iii careful regarding reform movement empire.
Holy Roman Empire	reign considered reform threat imperial prerogatives.avoided direct confrontations might lead humiliation princes refused give way.reform empire church sustained led local regional powers particularly territorial princes.last years however pressure taking action higher level.berthold von henneberg archbishop mainz spoke behalf reformminded princes wanted reform empire without strengthening imperial hand capitalized fredericks desire secure imperial election maximilian.
Holy Roman Empire	thus last years presided initial phase imperial reform would mainly unfold son maximilian.maximilian open reform although naturally also wanted preserve enhance imperial prerogatives.frederick retired linz compromise maximilian acted mediator princes father.attained sole rule fredericks death would continue policy brokerage acting impartial judge options suggested princes.creation institutions major measures reform launched reichstag worms.a new organ introduced reichskammergericht largely independent emperor.
Holy Roman Empire	new tax launched finance gemeine pfennig although would collected charles v ferdinand fully.to create rival reichskammergericht maximilian establish reichshofrat seat vienna.maximilians reign council popular though.long run two courts functioned parallel sometimes overlapping.in maximilian agreed establish organ called reichsregiment central imperial government consisting twenty members including electors emperor representative chairman first organized nuremberg.maximilian resented new organization estates failed support it.new organ proved politically weak power returned maximilian .the important governmental changes targeted heart regime chancery.
Holy Roman Empire	early maximilians reign court chancery innsbruck competed imperial chancery electorarchbishop mainz senior imperial chancellor.referring political matters tyrol austria well imperial problems court chancery maximilian gradually centralized authority.two chanceries became combined .emperor created general treasury hofkammer innsbruck became responsible hereditary lands.chamber accounts raitkammer vienna made subordinate body.
Holy Roman Empire	paul von liechtenstein hofkammer entrusted hereditary lands affairs maximilians affairs german king too.reception roman law diet worms reception roman law accelerated formalized.roman law made binding german courts except case contrary local statutes.practice became basic law throughout germany displacing germanic local law large extent although germanic law still operative lower courts.desire achieve legal unity factors adoption also highlighted continuity ancient roman empire holy roman empire.
Holy Roman Empire	realize resolve reform unify legal system emperor frequently intervened personally matters local legal matters overriding local charters customs.practice often met irony scorn local councils wanted protect local codes.the legal reform seriously weakened ancient vehmic court vehmgericht secret tribunal westphalia traditionally held instituted charlemagne theory considered unlikely.although would abolished completely abolished order jérôme bonaparte.national political culture maximilian charles v despite fact emperors internationalists personally first mobilized rhetoric nation firmly identified reich contemporary humanists.encouragement maximilian humanists iconic spiritual figures reintroduced became notable.
Holy Roman Empire	humanists rediscovered work germania written tacitus.according peter h. wilson female figure germania reinvented emperor virtuous pacific mother holy roman empire german nation.whaley suggests despite later religious divide patriotic motifs developed maximilians reign maximilian humanist writers responded formed core national political culture.maximilians reign also witnessed gradual emergence german common language notable roles imperial chancery chancery wettin elector frederick wise.development printing industry together emergence postal system first modern one world initiated maximilian contribution frederick iii charles bold led revolution communication allowed ideas spread.unlike situation centralized countries decentralized nature empire made censorship difficult.terence mcintosh comments expansionist aggressive policy pursued maximilian charles v inception early modern german nation although aims specific german nation per se relying german manpower well utilizing fearsome landsknechte mercenaries would affect way neighbours viewed german polity although longue durée germany tended peace.
Holy Roman Empire	imperial power maximilian first holy roman emperor years ruled well reigned.early true master empire although power weakened last decade death.whaley notes despite struggles emerged end maximilians rule strengthened monarchy oligarchy princes.benjamin curtis opines maximilian able fully create common government lands although chancellery court council able coordinate affairs across realms strengthened key administrative functions austria created central offices deal financial political judicial matters – offices replaced feudal system became representative modern system administered professionalized officials.two decades reforms emperor retained position first among equals empire gained common institutions emperor shared power estates.by early sixteenth century habsburg rulers become powerful europe strength relied composite monarchy whole holy roman empire see also empire charles v. maximilian seriously considered combining burgundian lands inherited wife mary burgundy austrian lands form powerful core also extending towards east.
Holy Roman Empire	unexpected addition spain habsburg empire one point intended leave austria raised kingdom younger grandson ferdinand.charles v later gave burgundian lands spanish branch.protestant reformation renaissance ferdinand ii aragon grandfather future holy roman emperor charles v died.charles initiated reign castile aragon union evolved spain conjunction mother joanna castile.in already reigning carlos spain charles took imperial title karl v. holy roman empire would end going junior branch habsburgs person charless brother ferdinand senior branch continued rule spain burgundian inheritance person charless son philip ii spain.many factors contribute result.
Holy Roman Empire	james d.tracy polycentric character european civilization made hard maintain dynasty whose territories bestrode continent low countries sicily spain hungary—not mention spains overseas possessions.others point religious tensions fiscal problems obstruction external forces including france ottomans.personal level charles failed persuade german princes support son philip whose awkward withdrawn character lack german language skills doomed enterprise failure.before charless reign holy roman empire began martin luther launched would later known reformation.empire became divided along religious lines north east many major cities – strasbourg frankfurt nuremberg – becoming protestant southern western regions largely remained catholic.at beginning charless reign another reichsregiment set although charles declared would tolerate absence chairman representative his.charles v absent germany .
Holy Roman Empire	similar one set early reichsregiment failed create federal authority independent emperor due unsteady participation differences princes.charles v defeated protestant princes schmalkaldic war momentum lost protestant estates able survive politically despite military defeat.peace augsburg charles v brother ferdinand officially recognized right rulers choose catholicism lutheranism zwinglians calvinists radicals included.paul iv elected pope took side france whereupon exhausted charles finally gave hopes world christian empire.baroque period germany would enjoy relative peace next six decades.
Holy Roman Empire	eastern front turks continued loom large threat although war would mean compromises protestant princes emperor sought avoid it.west rhineland increasingly fell french influence.dutch revolt spain erupted empire remained neutral de facto allowing netherlands depart empire secession acknowledged .side effect cologne war ravaged much upper rhine.after ferdinand died son maximilian ii became emperor like father accepted existence protestantism need occasional compromise it.maximilian succeeded rudolf ii preferred classical greek philosophy christianity lived isolated existence bohemia.
Holy Roman Empire	became afraid act catholic church forcibly reasserting control austria hungary protestant princes became upset this.imperial power sharply deteriorated time rudolfs death .bohemians rebelled emperor immediate result series conflicts known thirty years war – devastated empire.foreign powers including france sweden intervened conflict strengthened fighting imperial power also seized considerable territory themselves.long conflict bled empire never recovered strength.the actual end empire came several steps.peace westphalia ended thirty years war gave territories almost complete independence.
Holy Roman Empire	calvinism allowed anabaptists arminians protestant communities would still lack support continue persecuted well end empire.swiss confederation already established quasiindependence well northern netherlands left empire.habsburg emperors focused consolidating estates austria elsewhere.at battle vienna army holy roman empire led polish king john iii sobieski decisively defeated large turkish army stopping western ottoman advance leading eventual dismemberment ottoman empire europe.army one third forces polish–lithuanian commonwealth two thirds forces holy roman empire.modern period prussia austria rise louis xiv habsburgs chiefly dependent hereditary lands counter rise prussia possessed territories inside empire.
Holy Roman Empire	throughout th century habsburgs embroiled various european conflicts war spanish succession – war polish succession – war austrian succession –.german dualism austria prussia dominated empires history .french revolutionary wars final dissolution onwards revolutionary france war various parts empire intermittently.the german mediatization series mediatizations secularizations occurred latter part era french revolution napoleonic era.mediatization process annexing lands one imperial estate another often leaving annexed rights.example estates imperial knights formally mediatized de facto seized great territorial states socalled rittersturm.
Holy Roman Empire	secularization abolition temporal power ecclesiastical ruler bishop abbot annexation secularized territory secular territory.the empire dissolved august last holy roman emperor francis ii emperor francis austria abdicated following military defeat french napoleon austerlitz see treaty pressburg.napoleon reorganized much empire confederation rhine french satellite.francis house habsburglorraine survived demise empire continuing reign emperors austria kings hungary habsburg empires final dissolution aftermath world war i.the napoleonic confederation rhine replaced new union german confederation following end napoleonic wars.lasted prussia founded north german confederation forerunner german empire united germanspeaking territories outside austria switzerland prussian leadership .state developed modern germany.the princely member states holy roman empire preserved status monarchies today grand duchy luxembourg principality liechtenstein.
Holy Roman Empire	free imperial cities still existing states within germany hamburg bremen.historic member states holy roman empire either dissolved adopted republican systems government.institutions holy roman empire neither centralized state nationstate.instead divided dozens – eventually hundreds – individual entities governed kings dukes counts bishops abbots rulers collectively known princes.also areas ruled directly emperor.from high middle ages onwards holy roman empire marked uneasy coexistence princes local territories struggling take power away it.
Holy Roman Empire	greater extent medieval kingdoms france england emperors unable gain much control lands formally owned.instead secure position threat deposed emperors forced grant autonomy local rulers nobles bishops.process began th century investiture controversy less concluded peace westphalia.several emperors attempted reverse steady dilution authority thwarted papacy princes empire.imperial estates number territories represented imperial diet considerable numbering time peace westphalia.
Holy Roman Empire	many kleinstaaten little states covered square miles andor included several noncontiguous pieces empire often called flickenteppich patchwork carpet.an entity considered reichsstand imperial estate according feudal law authority except holy roman emperor himself.imperial estates comprisedterritories ruled hereditary nobleman prince archduke duke count.territories secular authority held ecclesiastical dignitary archbishop bishop abbot.ecclesiastic churchman prince church.common case princebishop temporal territory called princebishopric frequently overlapped often larger ecclesiastical diocese giving bishop civil ecclesiastical powers.examples princearchbishoprics cologne trier mainz.free imperial cities imperial villages subject jurisdiction emperor.the scattered estates free imperial knights imperial counts immediate subject emperor unrepresented imperial diet.a sum total imperial estates reckoned.
Holy Roman Empire	list reichsstände see list imperial diet participants .the powerful lords later empire austrian habsburgs ruled km sq mi land within empire first half th century mostly modernday austria czechia.time lands ruled electors saxony bavaria brandenburg prior acquisition prussia close km sq mi duke brunswicklüneburg later elector hanover territory around size.largest german realms.elector palatinate significantly less km sq mi ecclesiastical electorates mainz cologne trier much smaller around km sq mi.larger roughly – km – sq mi duchy württemberg landgraviate hessenkassel duchy mecklenburgschwerin.
Holy Roman Empire	roughly matched size princebishoprics salzburg münster.majority german territories including princebishoprics km sq mi smallest imperial knights around knights consisted families ruling total km sq mi collectively.imperial italy centralized c. divided savoy savoy piedmont nice aosta grand duchy tuscany tuscany bar lucca republic genoa liguria corisca duchies modenareggio parmapiacenza emilia spanish duchy milan lombardy half million one half million people.low countries also coherent germany entirely dominion spanish netherlands part burgundian circle least nominally.king romans prospective emperor first elected king romans latin rex romanorum german römischer könig.
Holy Roman Empire	german kings elected since th century point chosen leaders five important tribes salian franks lorraine ripuarian franks franconia saxons bavarians swabians.holy roman empire main dukes bishops kingdom elected king romans.the imperial throne transferred election emperors often ensured sons elected lifetimes enabling keep crown families.changed end salian dynasty th century.in emperor charles iv issued golden bull limited electors seven king bohemia count palatine rhine duke saxony margrave brandenburg archbishops cologne mainz trier.thirty years war duke bavaria given right vote eighth elector duke brunswicklüneburg colloquially hanover granted ninth electorate additionally napoleonic wars resulted several electorates reallocated new electors never voted empires dissolution.candidate election would expected offer concessions land money electors order secure vote.after elected king romans could theoretically claim title emperor crowned pope.
Holy Roman Empire	many cases took several years king held tasks frequently first resolve conflicts rebellious northern italy quarreling pope himself.later emperors dispensed papal coronation altogether content styling emperorelect last emperor crowned pope charles v .the emperor male noble blood.law required catholic majority electors adhered faith protestant ever elected.whether degree german disputed among electors contemporary experts constitutional law public.middle ages kings emperors german origin since renaissance german heritage regarded vital candidate order eligible imperial office.
Holy Roman Empire	imperial diet reichstag imperial diet reichstag reichsversammlung legislative body understood today members envisioned like central forum important negotiate decide.diet theoretically superior emperor himself.divided three classes.first class council electors consisted electors princes could vote king romans.second class council princes consisted princes.
Holy Roman Empire	council princes divided two benches one secular rulers one ecclesiastical ones.higherranking princes individual votes lowerranking princes grouped colleges geography.college one vote.the third class council imperial cities divided two colleges swabia rhine.council imperial cities fully equal others could vote several matters admission new territories.representation free cities diet become common since late middle ages.
Holy Roman Empire	nevertheless participation formally acknowledged late peace westphalia ending thirty years war.imperial courts empire also two courts reichshofrat also known english aulic council court kingemperor reichskammergericht imperial chamber court established imperial reform maximillian i. reichskammergericht auclic council two highest judicial instances old empire.imperial chamber courts composition determined holy roman emperor subject states empire.within court emperor appointed chief justice always highborn aristocrat several divisional chief judges puisne judges.the aulic council held standing many judicial disputes state concurrence imperial chamber court exclusively own.provinces imperial chamber court extended breaches public peace cases arbitrary distraint imprisonment pleas concerned treasury violations emperors decrees laws passed imperial diet disputes property immediate tenants empire subjects different rulers finally suits immediate tenants empire exception criminal charges matters relating imperial fiefs went aulic council.
Holy Roman Empire	aulic council even allowed emperors means depose rulers live expectations.imperial circles part imperial reform six imperial circles established four established .regional groupings though various states empire purposes defense imperial taxation supervision coining peacekeeping functions public security.circle parliament known kreistag circle diet one directors coordinated affairs circle.imperial territories included within imperial circles even lands bohemian crown excluded switzerland imperial fiefs northern italy lands imperial knights certain small territories like lordship jever.
Holy Roman Empire	army army holy roman empire german reichsarmee reichsheer reichsarmatur latin exercitus imperii created result napoleonic wars came end even empire.must confused imperial army kaiserliche armee emperor.despite appearances contrary army empire constitute permanent standing army always ready fight empire.danger army empire mustered among elements constituting order conduct imperial military campaign reichsheerfahrt.practice imperial troops often local allegiances stronger loyalty emperor.administrative centres throughout first half history holy roman empire reigned travelling court.
Holy Roman Empire	kings emperors toured numerous kaiserpfalzes imperial palaces usually resided several weeks months furnished local legal matters law administration.rulers maintained one number favourites imperial palace sites would advance development spent time charlemagne aachen otto magdeburg frederick ii palermo – wittelsbacher munich – – habsburger prague – – vienna – – –.this practice eventually ended th century emperors habsburg dynasty chose vienna prague wittelsbach rulers chose munich permanent residences maximilian true home still stirrup overnight rest saddle although innsbruck probably important base charles v also nomadic emperor.vienna became imperial capital ferdinand reigned –.except period rudolf ii reigned – moved prague vienna kept primacy successors.certain sites served individual residence particular sovereign.
Holy Roman Empire	number cities held official status imperial estates would summon imperial diets deliberative assembly empire.the imperial diet reichstag resided variously paderborn bad lippspringe ingelheim rhein diedenhofen thionville aachen worms forchheim trebur fritzlar ravenna quedlinburg dortmund verona minden mainz frankfurt main merseburg goslar würzburg bamberg schwäbisch hall augsburg nuremberg quierzysuroise speyer gelnhausen erfurt eger cheb esslingen lindau freiburg cologne konstanz trier moved permanently regensburg.until th century elected emperor crowned anointed pope rome among exceptions ravenna bologna reims.since emperor maximilian imperial elections took place frankfurt main augsburg rhens cologne regensburg.in december aulic council reichshofrat established vienna.in reichskammergericht established variously resided worms augsburg nuremberg regensburg speyer esslingen moved permanently wetzlar.foreign relations habsburg royal family diplomats represent interests.larger principalities holy roman empire beginning around also same.holy roman empire dedicated ministry foreign affairs therefore imperial diet control diplomats occasionally diet criticised them.when regensburg served site diet france late russia diplomatic representatives there.
Holy Roman Empire	denmark great britain sweden land holdings germany representation diet itself.netherlands also envoys regensburg.regensburg place envoys met representatives diet could reached.demographics population overall population figures holy roman empire extremely vague vary widely.empire charlemagne may many million people.
Holy Roman Empire	given political fragmentation later empire central agencies could compile figures.nevertheless believed demographic disaster thirty years war meant population empire early th century similar early th century one estimate empire didnt exceed levels population .in early th century electors held rule following number imperial subjectshabsburg monarchy including million bohemian crown landselectorate saxony duchy bavaria later electorate bavaria electoral palatinate electorate brandenburg electorates mainz trier cologne – altogetherwhile electors spanish habsburgs second highest number subjects within empire austrian habsburgs million early th century burgundian circle duchy milan.peter wilson estimates empires population million million lived imperial italy.estimates empires population million excluding italy another .million held austrians prussians outside empire.according overgenerous contemporary estimate austrian war archives first decade th century empire—including bohemia spanish netherlands—had population close million breakdown follows ecclesiastical states percent total land area percent population dynastic principalities percent land percent population dynastic counties lordships percent land .percent population imperial towns percent land .
Holy Roman Empire	percent populationimperial knights territories numbering several hundreds percent land percent population.german demographic historians traditionally worked estimates population holy roman empire based assumed population within frontiers germany .recent estimates use less outdated criteria remain guesswork.one estimate based frontiers germany gives population – million around declined – million around following thirty years war.historians work estimates population early modern empire suggest population declined million – million .a credible estimate gives – million inhabitants empire point already lost remaining low countries italy left bank rhine treaty campo fornio overall breakdown follows million austrian subjects including silesia bohemia moravia million prussian subjects– million inhabitants rest empire.there also numerous estimates italian states formally part empire largest cities largest cities towns empire year regensburg people.rome .
Holy Roman Empire	mainz .speyer .cologne .trier .worms .
Holy Roman Empire	lyon .verona .florence .– prague people.cologne people.aachen people.
Holy Roman Empire	magdeburg people.nuremberg people.vienna people.danzig gdańsk people.straßburg strasbourg people.
Holy Roman Empire	lübeck people.regensburg people.prague .cologne .nuremberg .
Holy Roman Empire	augsburg .danzig gdańsk .lübeck .breslau wrocław .regensburg .
Holy Roman Empire	vienna .straßburg strasbourg .magdeburg .ulm .hamburg .
Holy Roman Empire	milan .prague .vienna .augsburg .cologne .
Holy Roman Empire	nuremberg .hamburg .magdeburg .breslau wrocław .straßburg strasbourg .
Holy Roman Empire	lübeck .ulm .regensburg .frankfurt main .munich .
Holy Roman Empire	religion catholicism constituted single official religion empire .holy roman emperor always catholic.lutheranism officially recognized peace augsburg calvinism peace westphalia .two constituted officially recognized protestant denominations various protestant confessions anabaptism arminianism etc.coexisted illegally within empire.anabaptism came variety denominations including mennonites schwarzenau brethren hutterites amish multiple groups.following peace augsburg official religion territory determined principle cuius regio eius religio according rulers religion determined subjects.
Holy Roman Empire	peace westphalia abrogated principle stipulating official religion territory january considered normal year.henceforth conversion ruler another faith entail conversion subjects.in addition protestant subjects catholic ruler vice versa guaranteed rights enjoyed date.adherents territorys official religion enjoyed right public worship others allowed right private worship chapels without either spires bells.theory one discriminated excluded commerce trade craft public burial grounds religion.first time permanent nature division christian churches empire less assumed.a jewish minority existed holy roman empire.
Holy Roman Empire	see also succession roman empirefamily tree german monarchslist state leaders thcentury holy roman empirelist state leaders thcentury holy roman empirelist state leaders thcentury holy roman empirelist state leaders thcentury holy roman empirelist state leaders thcentury holy roman empirelist state leaders thcentury holy roman empirelist state leaders thcentury holy roman empirelist state leaders thcentury holy roman empirelist state leaders thcentury holy roman empirelist state leaders thcentury holy roman empire references notes citations sources reading german heinz angermeier.das alte reich der deutschen geschichte.studien über kontinuitäten und zäsuren münchen karl otmar freiherr von aretin.das alte reich –.vols.
Holy Roman Empire	stuttgart –peter claus hartmann.kulturgeschichte des heiligen römischen reiches bis .wien georg schmidt.geschichte des alten reiches.münchen deutsche reichstagsakten external links constitutional structure reichlist wars holy roman empirebooks articles reichthe holy roman empirecomparison holy roman empire european union economist maps deutschland beim tode kaiser karls iv.
Holy Roman Empire	germany death emperor charles iv.taken meyers kleines konversationslexikon sechs bänden.bd..leipzig u. wien bibliogr.
Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act	institut map inserted page holy roman empire –the holy roman empire c. holy roman empire holy roman empire interactive mapmodernized flow healthcare information stipulates personally identifiable information maintained healthcare healthcare insurance industries protected fraud theft addressed limitations healthcare insurance coverage.generally prohibits healthcare providers healthcare businesses called covered entities disclosing protected information anyone patient patients authorized representatives without consent.limited exceptions restrict patients receiving information themselves.prohibit patients voluntarily sharing health information however choose – disclose medical information family members friends individuals part covered entity – legally require maintain confidentiality.the act consists five titles.title hipaa protects health insurance coverage workers families change lose jobs.
Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act	title ii hipaa known administrative simplification provisions requires establishment national standards electronic health care transactions national identifiers providers health insurance plans employers.title iii sets guidelines pretax medical spending accounts title iv sets guidelines group health plans title v governs companyowned life insurance policies.titles five sections act known titles.title health care access portability renewability title hipaa regulates availability breadth group health plans certain individual health insurance policies.amended employee retirement income security act public health service act internal revenue code.
Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act	furthermore title addresses issue job lock inability employee leave job would lose health coverage.combat job lock issue title protects health insurance coverage workers families lose change jobs.title requires coverage also limits restrictions group health plan place benefits preexisting conditions.group health plans may refuse provide benefits relation preexisting conditions either months following enrollment plan months case late enrollment.title allows individuals reduce exclusion period amount time creditable coverage enrolling plan significant breaks coverage.creditable coverage defined quite broadly includes nearly group individual health plans medicare medicaid.
Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act	significant break coverage defined day period without creditable coverage.along exception allowing employers tie premiums copayments tobacco use body mass index.title also requires insurers issue policies without exclusion leaving group health plans creditable coverage see exceeding months renew individual policies long offered provide alternatives discontinued plans long insurer stays market without exclusion regardless health condition.some health care plans exempted title requirements longterm health plans limitedscope plans like dental vision plans offered separately general health plan.however benefits part general health plan hipaa still applies benefits.example new plan offers dental benefits must count creditable continuous coverage old health plan towards exclusion periods dental benefits.an alternate method calculating creditable continuous coverage available health plan title i. categories health coverage considered separately including dental vision coverage.anything categories must use general calculation e.g.
Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act	beneficiary may counted months general coverage months dental coverage beneficiary general health plan covered dental months prior application date.since limitedcoverage plans exempt hipaa requirements odd case exists applicant general group health plan cannot obtain certificates creditable continuous coverage independent limitedscope plans dental apply towards exclusion periods new plan include coverages.hidden exclusion periods valid title e.g.accident covered must occurred beneficiary covered exact health insurance contract.clauses must acted upon health plan.also must rewritten comply hipaa.

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