Split (1)

train · 173k rows

title stringlengths 1 105	content stringlengths 5 58.1k
Central Asia	soon dissolution soviet union leaders four former soviet central asian republics met tashkent declared definition central asia include kazakhstan well original four included soviets.since become common definition central asia.the unesco history civilizations central asia published defines region afghanistan northeastern iran northern central pakistan northern india western china mongolia former soviet central asian republics.an alternative method define region based ethnicity particular areas populated eastern turkic eastern iranian mongolian peoples.areas include xinjiang uyghur autonomous region turkic regions southern siberia five republics afghan turkestan.afghanistan whole northern western areas pakistan kashmir valley india may also included.tibetans ladakhis also included.
Central Asia	mentioned peoples considered indigenous peoples vast region.central asia sometimes referred turkestan.geography central asia region varied geography including high passes mountains tian vast deserts kyzyl kum taklamakan especially treeless grassy steppes.vast steppe areas central asia considered together steppes eastern europe homogeneous geographical zone known eurasian steppe.much land central asia dry rugged farming.gobi desert extends foot pamirs ° e great khingan da hinggan mountains °–° e.central asia following geographic extremesthe worlds northernmost desert sand dunes buurug deliin els mongolia ° n.the northern hemispheres southernmost permafrost erdenetsogt sum mongolia ° n.the worlds shortest distance nonfrozen desert permafrost km mi.the eurasian pole inaccessibility.a majority people earn living herding livestock.
Central Asia	industrial activity centers regions cities.major rivers region include amu darya syr darya irtysh hari river murghab river.major bodies water include aral sea lake balkhash part huge westcentral asian endorheic basin also includes caspian sea.both bodies water shrunk significantly recent decades due diversion water rivers feed irrigation industrial purposes.water extremely valuable resource arid central asia lead rather significant international disputes.historical regions central asia bounded north forests siberia.northern half central asia kazakhstan middle part eurasian steppe.
Central Asia	westward kazakh steppe merges russianukrainian steppe eastward steppes deserts dzungaria mongolia.southward land becomes increasingly dry nomadic population increasingly thin.south supports areas dense population cities wherever irrigation possible.main irrigated areas along eastern mountains along oxus jaxartes rivers along north flank kopet dagh near persian border.east kopet dagh important oasis merv places afghanistan like herat balkh.
Central Asia	two projections tian create three bays along eastern mountains.largest north eastern kazakhstan traditionally called jetysu semirechye contains lake balkhash.center small denselypopulated ferghana valley.south bactria later called tocharistan bounded south hindu kush mountains afghanistan.syr darya jaxartes rises ferghana valley amu darya oxus rises bactria.
Central Asia	flow northwest aral sea.oxus meets aral sea forms large delta called khwarazm later khanate khiva.north oxus lessfamous equally important zarafshan river waters great trading cities bokhara samarkand.great commercial city tashkent northwest mouth ferghana valley.land immediately north oxus called transoxiana also sogdia especially referring sogdian merchants dominated silk road trade.to east dzungaria tarim basin united manchuchinese province xinjiang sinkiang hsinkiang .
Central Asia	caravans china usually went along north south side tarim basin joined kashgar crossing mountains northwest ferghana southwest bactria.minor branch silk road went north tian dzungaria zhetysu turning southwest near tashkent.nomadic migrations usually moved mongolia dzungaria turning southwest conquer settled lands continuing west toward europe.the kyzyl kum desert semidesert oxus jaxartes karakum desert oxus kopet dagh turkmenistan.khorasan meant approximately northeast persia northern afghanistan.margiana region around merv.
Central Asia	ustyurt plateau aral caspian seas.to southwest across kopet dagh lies persia.persian islamic civilisation penetrated central asia dominated high culture russian conquest.southeast route india.early times buddhism spread north throughout much history warrior kings tribes would move southeast establish rule northern india.nomadic conquerors entered northeast.
Central Asia	western civilisation russian soviet form penetrated northwest.names historical regions climate central asia buffered large body water temperature fluctuations often severe excluding hot sunny summer months.areas climate dry continental hot summers cool cold winters occasional snowfall.outside highelevation areas climate mostly semiarid arid.lower elevations summers hot blazing sunshine.
Central Asia	winters feature occasional rain andor snow lowpressure systems cross area mediterranean sea.average monthly precipitation extremely low july september rises autumn october november highest march april followed swift drying may june.winds strong producing dust storms sometimes especially toward end dry season september october.specific cities exemplify central asian climate patterns include tashkent samarkand uzbekistan ashgabat turkmenistan dushanbe tajikistan last representing one wettest climates central asia average annual precipitation mm inches.biogeographically central asia part palearctic realm.largest biome central asia temperate grasslands savannas shrublands biome.
Central Asia	central asia also contains montane grasslands shrublands deserts xeric shrublands temperate coniferous forests biomes.history although golden age orientalism place central asia world history marginalised contemporary historiography rediscovered centrality central asia.history central asia defined areas climate geography.aridness region made agriculture difficult distance sea cut much trade.thus major cities developed region instead area millennia dominated nomadic horse peoples steppe.relations steppe nomads settled people around central asia long marked conflict.
Central Asia	nomadic lifestyle well suited warfare steppe horse riders became militarily potent people world limited lack internal unity.internal unity achieved probably due influence silk road traveled along central asia.periodically great leaders changing conditions would organise several tribes one force create almost unstoppable power.included hun invasion europe wu hu attacks china notably mongol conquest much eurasia.during preislamic early islamic times southern central asia inhabited predominantly speakers iranian languages.among ancient sedentary iranian peoples sogdians chorasmians played important role iranian peoples scythians later alans lived nomadic seminomadic lifestyle.the main migration turkic peoples occurred th th centuries spread across central asia.
Central Asia	tang chinese expanded westwards controlled large parts central asia directly indirectly turkic vassals.tang china actively supported turkification central asia extending cultural influence.tang chinese defeated arabs battle talas marking end tang dynastys western expansion years chinese influence.tibetan empire would take chance rule portion central asia along south asia.th th centuries mongols conquered ruled largest contiguous empire recorded history.
Central Asia	central asia fell control chagatai khanate.the dominance nomads ended th century firearms allowed settled peoples gain control region.russia china powers expanded region captured bulk central asia end th century.russian revolution western central asian regions incorporated soviet union.eastern part central asia known east turkestan xinjiang incorporated peoples republic china previously subjugated manchu empire.mongolia regained independence remained independent became soviet satellite state dissolution soviet union.
Central Asia	afghanistan remained relatively independent major influence soviet union saur revolution .the soviet areas central asia saw much industrialisation construction infrastructure also suppression local cultures hundreds thousands deaths failed collectivisation programmes lasting legacy ethnic tensions environmental problems.soviet authorities deported millions people including entire nationalities western areas soviet union central asia siberia.according touraj atabaki sanjyot mehendale two million people various parts soviet union migrated central asia one million moved kazakhstan.with collapse soviet union five countries gained independence.nearly new states former communist party officials retained power local strongmen.none new republics could considered functional democracies early days independence although recent years kyrgyzstan kazakhstan mongolia made progress towards open societies unlike uzbekistan tajikistan turkmenistan maintained many sovietstyle repressive tactics.
Central Asia	culture arts crossroads asia shamanistic practices live alongside buddhism.thus yama lord death revered tibet spiritual guardian judge.mongolian buddhism particular influenced tibetan buddhism.qianlong emperor qing china th century tibetan buddhist would sometimes travel beijing cities personal religious worship.central asia also indigenous form improvisational oral poetry years old.principally practiced kyrgyzstan kazakhstan akyns lyrical improvisationalists.
Central Asia	engage lyrical battles aitysh alym sabak.tradition arose early bardic oral historians.usually accompanied stringed instrument—in kyrgyzstan threestringed komuz kazakhstan similar twostringed instrument dombra.photography central asia began develop russian mennonite photographer named wilhelm penner moved khanate khiva mennonite migration central asia led claas epp jr. upon arrival khanate khiva penner shared photography skills local student khudaybergen divanov later became founder uzbek photography.some also learn sing manas kyrgyzstans epic poem learn manas exclusively improvise called manaschis.soviet rule akyn performance coopted authorities subsequently declined popularity.fall soviet union enjoyed resurgence although akyns still use art campaign political candidates.
Central Asia	washington post article proposed similarity improvisational art akyns modern freestyle rap performed west.as consequence russian colonisation european fine arts – painting sculpture graphics – developed central asia.first years soviet regime saw appearance modernism took inspiration russian avantgarde movement.central asian arts developed along general tendencies soviet arts.arts region underwent significant changes.institutionally speaking fields arts regulated birth art market stayed representatives official views many sponsored international organisations.
Central Asia	years – times establishment contemporary arts.region many important international exhibitions taking place central asian art represented european american museums central asian pavilion venice biennale organised since .sports equestrian sports traditional central asia disciplines like endurance riding buzkashi dzhigit kyz kuu.the traditional game buzkashi played throughout central asian region countries sometimes organise buzkashi competition amongst other.first regional competition among central asian countries russia chinese xinjiang turkey held .first world title competition played kazakhstan.association football popular across central asia.
Central Asia	countries members central asian football association region asian football confederation.however kazakhstan member uefa.wrestling popular across central asia kazakhstan claimed olympic medals uzbekistan seven kyrgyzstan three.former soviet states central asian countries successful gymnastics.mixed martial arts one common sports central asia kyrgyz athlete valentina shevchenko holding ufc flyweight champion title.cricket popular sport afghanistan.afghanistan national cricket team first formed claimed wins bangladesh west indies zimbabwe.notable kazakh competitors include cyclists alexander vinokourov andrey kashechkin boxer vassiliy jirov gennady golovkin runner olga shishigina decathlete dmitriy karpov gymnast aliya yussupova judoka askhat zhitkeyev maxim rakov skier vladimir smirnov weightlifter ilya ilyin figure skaters denis ten elizabet tursynbaeva.notable uzbekistani competitors include cyclist djamolidine abdoujaparov boxer ruslan chagaev canoer michael kolganov gymnast oksana chusovitina tennis player denis istomin chess player rustam kasimdzhanov figure skater misha ge.economy since gaining independence early central asian republics gradually moving statecontrolled economy market economy.
Central Asia	ultimate aim emulate asian tigers becoming local equivalent central asian snow leopards.however reform deliberately gradual selective governments strive limit social cost ameliorate living standards.five countries implementing structural reforms improve competitiveness.kazakhstan cis country included iwb world competitiveness rankings.particular modernizing industrial sector fostering development service industries businessfriendly fiscal policies measures reduce share agriculture gdp.
Central Asia	share agriculture dropped tajikistan increased industry decreased.fastest growth industry observed turkmenistan whereas services sector progressed four countries.public policies pursued central asian governments focus buffering political economic spheres external shocks.includes maintaining trade balance minimizing public debt accumulating national reserves.cannot totally insulate negative exterior forces however persistently weak recovery global industrial production international trade since .notwithstanding emerged relatively unscathed global financial crisis –.
Central Asia	growth faltered briefly kazakhstan tajikistan turkmenistan uzbekistan economy grew per year average .turkmenistan achieved unusually high .growth .kyrgyzstans performance erratic phenomenon visible well .the republics fared best benefitted commodities boom first decade s. kazakhstan turkmenistan abundant oil natural gas reserves uzbekistans reserves make less selfsufficient.kyrgyzstan tajikistan uzbekistan gold reserves kazakhstan worlds largest uranium reserves.
Central Asia	fluctuating global demand cotton aluminium metals except gold recent years hit tajikistan hardest since aluminium raw cotton chief exports − tajik aluminium company countrys primary industrial asset.january minister agriculture announced governments intention reduce acreage land cultivated cotton make way crops.uzbekistan turkmenistan major cotton exporters ranking fifth ninth respectively worldwide volume .although exports imports grown significantly past decade central asian republics countries remain vulnerable economic shocks owing reliance exports raw materials restricted circle trading partners negligible manufacturing capacity.kyrgyzstan added disadvantage considered resource poor although ample water.electricity generated hydropower.the kyrgyz economy shaken series shocks .
Central Asia	april president kurmanbek bakiyev deposed popular uprising former minister foreign affairs roza otunbayeva assuring interim presidency election almazbek atambayev november .food prices rose two years row production major kumtor gold mine fell site perturbed geological movements.according world bank .population living absolute poverty .year later.despite high rates economic growth recent years gdp per capita central asia higher average developing countries kazakhstan ppp turkmenistan ppp .
Central Asia	dropped ppp uzbekistan home regions population even lower kyrgyzstan tajikistan.kazakhstan leads central asian region terms foreign direct investments.kazakh economy accounts investment attracted central asia.in terms economic influence big powers china viewed one key economic players central asia especially beijing launched grand development strategy known belt road initiative bri .the central asian countries attracted .billion foreign direct investment fdi .kazakhstan accounted .total fdi directed region.
Central Asia	kazakhstan also largest country central asia accounting percent regions gross domestic product gdp.education science technology modernisation research infrastructure bolstered strong economic growth kyrgyzstan national development strategies fostering new hightech industries pooling resources orienting economy towards export markets.many national research institutions established soviet era since become obsolete development new technologies changing national priorities.led countries reduce number national research institutions since grouping existing institutions create research hubs.several turkmen academy sciences institutes merged institute botany merged institute medicinal plants become institute biology medicinal plants sun institute merged institute physics mathematics become institute solar energy institute seismology merged state service seismology become institute seismology atmospheric physics.
Central Asia	uzbekistan institutions academy sciences reorganised following issuance decree cabinet ministers february .aim orient academic research towards problemsolving ensure continuity basic applied research.example mathematics information technology research institute subsumed national university uzbekistan institute comprehensive research regional problems samarkand transformed problemsolving laboratory environmental issues within samarkand state university.research institutions remained attached uzbek academy sciences centre genomics bioinformatics.kazakhstan turkmenistan also building technology parks part drive modernise infrastructure.construction began technopark village bikrova near ashgabat turkmen capital.
Central Asia	combine research education industrial facilities business incubators exhibition centres.technopark house research alternative energy sources sun wind assimilation nanotechnologies.technological parks set east south north kazakhstan oblasts administrative units capital nursultan.centre metallurgy also established east kazakhstan oblast well centre oil gas technologies part planned caspian energy hub.addition centre technology commercialisation set kazakhstan part parasat national scientific technological holding joint stock company established stateowned.
Central Asia	centre supports research projects technology marketing intellectual property protection technology licensing contracts startups.centre plans conduct technology audit kazakhstan review legal framework regulating commercialisation research results technology.countries seeking augment efficiency traditional extractive sectors also make greater use information communication technologies modern technologies solar energy develop business sector education research.march two research institutes created presidential decree foster development alternative energy sources uzbekistan funding asian development bank institutions spu physical−technical institute physics sun institute international solar energy institute.three universities set since foster competence strategic economic areas nazarbayev university kazakhstan first intake international research university inha university uzbekistan first intake specializing information communication technologies international oil gas university turkmenistan founded .kazakhstan uzbekistan generalizing teaching foreign languages school order facilitate international ties.
Central Asia	kazakhstan uzbekistan adopted threetier bachelors masters phd degree system respectively gradually replacing soviet system candidates doctors science.kazakhstan became central asian member bologna process seeks harmonise higher education systems order create european higher education area.financial investment research central asian republics ambition developing business sector education research hampered chronic low investment research development.decade regions investment research development hovered around .–.gdp.
Central Asia	uzbekistan broke trend raising research intensity .gdp.kazakhstan country business enterprise private nonprofit sectors make significant contribution research development – research intensity overall low kazakhstan .gdp .moreover industrial enterprises conduct research kazakhstan.one eight .
Central Asia	countrys manufacturing firms active innovation according survey unesco institute statistics.enterprises prefer purchase technological solutions already embodied imported machinery equipment.firms purchase license patents come technology.nevertheless appears growing demand products research since enterprises spent .times scientific technological services .
Central Asia	trends researchers kazakhstan uzbekistan count highest researcher density central asia.number researchers per million population close world average kazakhstan higher world average uzbekistan .kazakhstan central asian country business enterprise private nonprofit sectors make significant contribution research development.uzbekistan particularly vulnerable position heavy reliance higher education threequarters researchers employed university sector business enterprise sector.uzbek university researchers nearing retirement imbalance imperils uzbekistans research future.almost holders candidate science doctor science phd years old half aged one three researchers .
Central Asia	holds phd degree equivalent remainder holding bachelors masters degree.kazakhstan kyrgyzstan uzbekistan maintained share women researchers since fall soviet union.kazakhstan even achieved gender parity kazakh women dominating medical health research representing – engineering technology researchers .tajikistan however one three scientists woman .although policies place give tajik women equal rights opportunities underfunded poorly understood.turkmenistan offered state guarantee equality women since law adopted lack available data makes impossible draw conclusions laws impact research.
Central Asia	turkmenistan make data available higher education research expenditure researchers.table phds obtained science engineering central asia closest yearsource unesco science report towards table .note phd graduates science cover life sciences physical sciences mathematics statistics computing phds engineering also cover manufacturing construction.central asia generic term phd also encompasses candidate science doctor science degrees.data unavailable turkmenistan.table central asian researchers field science gender closest yearsource unesco science report towards table .research output number scientific papers published central asia grew almost driven kazakhstan overtook uzbekistan period become regions prolific scientific publisher according thomson reuters web science science citation index expanded.kazakhstans share scientific papers region grew .
Central Asia	although twothirds papers region foreign coauthor main partners tend come beyond central asia namely russian federation usa german united kingdom japan.five kazakh patents registered us patent trademark office compared three uzbek inventors none three central asian republics kyrgyzstan tajikistan turkmenistan.kazakhstan central asias main trader hightech products.kazakh imports nearly doubled us.billion us.billion.surge imports computers electronics telecommunications products represented investment us million us.
Central Asia	billion five years later.growth exports gradual – us.billion us.billion – dominated chemical products pharmaceuticals represented twothirds exports us.billion us.
Central Asia	billion .international cooperation five central asian republics belong several international bodies including organization security cooperation europe economic cooperation organization shanghai cooperation organisation.also members central asia regional economic cooperation carec programme also includes afghanistan azerbaijan china mongolia pakistan.november member countries adopted carec strategy blueprint furthering regional cooperation.decade us billion invested priority projects transport trade energy improve members competitiveness.
Central Asia	landlocked central asian republics conscious need cooperate order maintain develop transport networks energy communication irrigation systems.kazakhstan azerbaijan turkmenistan border caspian sea none republics direct access ocean complicating transportation hydrocarbons particular world markets.kazakhstan also one three founding members eurasian economic union along belarus russian federation.armenia kyrgyzstan since joined body.cooperation among member states science technology already considerable wellcodified legal texts eurasian economic union expected limited additional impact cooperation among public laboratories academia encourage business ties scientific mobility since includes provision free circulation labour unified patent regulations.kazakhstan tajikistan participated innovative biotechnologies programme – launched eurasian economic community predecessor eurasian economic union programme also involved belarus russian federation.within programme prizes awarded annual bioindustry exhibition conference.
Central Asia	russian organisations participated plus three belarus one kazakhstan three tajikistan well two scientific research groups germany.time vladimir debabov scientific director genetika state research institute genetics selection industrial microorganisms russian federation stressed paramount importance developing bioindustry.world today strong tendency switch petrochemicals renewable biological sources said.biotechnology developing two three times faster chemicals.kazakhstan also participated second project eurasian economic community establishment centre innovative technologies april signing agreement russian venture company government fund funds kazakh jsc national agency belarusian innovative foundation.selected projects entitled funding us– million implemented within public–private partnership.
Central Asia	first approved projects focused supercomputers space technologies medicine petroleum recycling nanotechnologies ecological use natural resources.initial projects spawned viable commercial products venture company plans reinvest profits new projects.venture company purely economic structure also designed promote common economic space among three participating countries.kazakhstan recognises role civil society initiatives address consequences covid crisis.four five central asian republics also involved project launched european union september inconet ca.aim project encourage central asian countries participate research projects within horizon european unions eighth research innovation funding programme.
Central Asia	focus research projects three societal challenges considered mutual interest european union central asia namely climate change energy health.inconet ca builds experience earlier projects involved regions eastern europe south caucasus western balkans.inconet ca focuses twinning research facilities central asia europe.involves consortium partner institutions austria czech republic estonia germany hungary kazakhstan kyrgyzstan poland portugal tajikistan turkey uzbekistan.may european union launched month call project applications twinned institutions – universities companies research institutes – funding € enable visit one anothers facilities discuss project ideas prepare joint events like workshops.the international science technology center istc established european union japan russian federation us engage weapons scientists civilian research projects foster technology transfer.
Central Asia	istc branches set following countries party agreement armenia belarus georgia kazakhstan kyrgyzstan tajikistan.headquarters istc moved nazarbayev university kazakhstan june three years russian federation announced withdrawal centre.kyrgyzstan tajikistan kazakhstan members world trade organization since respectively.territorial regional data demographics broad definition including mongolia afghanistan million people live central asia asias total population.regions asia north asia fewer people.population density people per km vastly less .
Central Asia	people per km continent whole.languages russian well spoken around six million ethnic russians ukrainians central asia de facto lingua franca throughout former soviet central asian republics.mandarin chinese equally dominant presence inner mongolia qinghai xinjiang.the languages majority inhabitants former soviet central asian republics belong turkic language group.turkmen mainly spoken turkmenistan minority language afghanistan russia iran turkey.kazakh kyrgyz related languages kypchak group turkic languages spoken throughout kazakhstan kyrgyzstan minority language tajikistan afghanistan xinjiang.
Central Asia	uzbek uyghur spoken uzbekistan tajikistan kyrgyzstan afghanistan xinjiang.the turkic languages may belong larger controversial altaic language family includes mongolian.mongolian spoken throughout mongolia buryatia kalmyk inner mongolia xinjiang.middle iranian languages spoken throughout central asia prominent sogdian khwarezmian bactrian scythian extinct belonged eastern iranian family.eastern iranian pashto language still spoken afghanistan northwestern pakistan.minor eastern iranian languages shughni munji ishkashimi sarikoli wakhi yaghnobi ossetic also spoken various places central asia.varieties persian also spoken major language region locally known dari afghanistan tajik tajikistan uzbekistan bukhori bukharan jews central asia.tocharian another indoeuropean language group predominant oases northern edge tarim basin xinjiang extinct.other language groups include tibetic languages spoken around six million people across tibetan plateau qinghai sichuan szechwan ladakh baltistan nuristani languages northeastern afghanistan.
Central Asia	dardic languages shina kashmiri pashayi khowar also spoken eastern afghanistan gilgitbaltistan khyber pakhtunkhwa pakistan disputed territory kashmir.korean spoken koryosaram minority mainly kazakhstan uzbekistan.religions islam religion common central asian republics afghanistan xinjiang peripheral western regions bashkortostan.central asian muslims sunni although sizable shia minorities afghanistan tajikistan.buddhism zoroastrianism major faiths central asia prior arrival islam.zoroastrian influence still felt today celebrations nowruz held five central asian states.
Central Asia	transmission buddhism along silk road eventually brought religion china.amongst turkic peoples tengrism leading religion islam.tibetan buddhism common tibet mongolia ladakh southern russian regions siberia.the form christianity practiced region previous centuries nestorianism largest denomination russian orthodox church many members kazakhstan population million identify christian uzbekistan kyrgyzstan.the bukharan jews sizable community uzbekistan tajikistan nearly emigrated since dissolution soviet union.in siberia shaministic practices persist including forms divination kumalak.contact migration han people china brought confucianism daoism mahayana buddhism chinese folk beliefs region.geostrategy central asia long strategic location merely proximity several great powers eurasian landmass.region never held dominant stationary population able make use natural resources.
Central Asia	thus rarely throughout history become seat power empire influential state.central asia divided redivided conquered existence fragmented time time again.central asia served battleground outside powers power right.central asia advantage disadvantage central location four historical seats power.central location access trade routes regional powers.hand continuously vulnerable attack sides throughout history resulting political fragmentation outright power vacuum successively dominated.to north steppe allowed rapid mobility first nomadic horseback warriors like huns mongols later russian traders eventually supported railroads.
Central Asia	russian empire expanded east would also push central asia towards sea search warm water ports.soviet bloc would reinforce dominance north attempt project power far south afghanistan.to east demographic cultural weight chinese empires continually pushed outward central asia since silk road period han dynasty.however sinosoviet split collapse soviet union china would project soft power central asia notably case afghanistan counter russian dominance region.to southeast demographic cultural influence india felt central asia notably tibet hindu kush slightly beyond.base india british empire competed russian empire influence region th th centuries.to southwest western asian powers expanded southern areas central asia usually uzbekistan afghanistan turkmenistan.several persian empires would conquer reconquer parts central asia alexander greats hellenic empire would extend central asia two islamic empires would exert substantial influence throughout region modern state iran projected influence throughout region well.
Central Asia	turkey common turkic nation identity gradually increased ties influence well region.furthermore since uzbekistan announced intention join april turkey central asian turkicspeaking states except turkmenistan together part turkic council.in post–cold war era central asia ethnic cauldron prone instability conflicts without sense national identity rather mess historical cultural influences tribal clan loyalties religious fervor.projecting influence area longer russia also turkey iran china pakistan india united statesrussia continues dominate political decisionmaking throughout former ssrs although countries move area russias influence begun wane though russia still maintains military bases kyrgyzstan tajikistan.the united states military involvement region oil diplomacy also significantly involved regions politics.united states nato members main contributors international security assistance force afghanistan also exert considerable influence central asian nations.china security ties central asian states shanghai cooperation organisation conducts energy trade bilaterally.india geographic proximity central asian region addition enjoys considerable influence afghanistan.india maintains military base farkhor tajikistan also extensive military relations kazakhstan uzbekistan.turkey also exerts considerable influence region account ethnic linguistic ties turkic peoples central asia involvement bakutbilisiceyhan oil pipeline.
Central Asia	political economic relations growing rapidly e.g.turkey recently eliminated visa requirements citizens central asian turkic republics.iran seat historical empires controlled parts central asia historical cultural links region vying construct oil pipeline caspian sea persian gulf.pakistan nucleararmed islamic state history political relations neighbouring afghanistan termed capable exercising influence.central asian nations shortest route ocean lies pakistan.pakistan seeks natural gas central asia supports development pipelines countries.according independent study turkmenistan supposed fifth largest natural gas field world.
Central Asia	mountain ranges areas northern pakistan lie fringes greater central asia gilgit–baltistan region pakistan lies adjacent tajikistan separated narrow afghan wakhan corridor.located northwest south asia area forming modernday pakistan maintained extensive historical cultural links central asian region.japan important growing influence central asia master plan capital city nursultan kazakhstan designed japanese architect kisho kurokawa central asia plus japan initiative designed strengthen ties promote development stability region.russian historian lev gumilev wrote xiongnu mongols mongol empire zunghar khanate turkic peoples first turkic khaganate uyghur khaganate played role stop chinese aggression north.turkic khaganate special policy chinese assimilation policy.another interesting theoretical analysis historicalgeopolitics central asia made reinterpretation orkhun inscripts.the region along russia also part great pivot per heartland theory halford mackinder says power controls central asia—richly endowed natural resources—shall ultimately empire world.war terror context united states war terror central asia become center geostrategic calculations.
Central Asia	pakistans status upgraded u.s. government major nonnato ally central role serving staging point invasion afghanistan providing intelligence alqaeda operations region leading hunt osama bin laden.afghanistan served source support alqaeda protection mullah omar taliban target u.s. invasion ongoing reconstruction drugeradication efforts.u.s. military bases also established uzbekistan kyrgyzstan causing russia peoples republic china voice concern permanent u.s. military presence region.western governments accused russia china former soviet republics justifying suppression separatist movements associated ethnics religion war terror.major cultural scientific economic centres cities central asia see also chinese central asia western regionscentral asian football federationcentral asian gamescentral asia regional economic cooperation programcentral asian studiescentral asian unionmountains central asiacentral asians ancient indian literaturecontinental pole inaccessibilityeconomic cooperation organizationhindutashinner asiarussian turkestansoviet central asia references citations sources reading blank stephen j. .central asia .isbn .chow edward.
Central Asia	central asias pipelines field dreams reality pipeline politics asia intersection demand energy markets supply routes.national bureau asian research .farah paolo davide energy security water resources economic development central asia world scientific reference globalisation eurasia pacific rim imperial college press london uk world scientific publishing november .available ssrn httpssrn.comabstractdani a.h. v.m.masson eds.history civilizations central asia.
Central Asia	paris unesco .gorshunova.olga v. svjashennye derevja khodzhi barora... sacred trees khodzhi baror phytolatry cult female deity central asia etnoragraficheskoe obozrenie n° pp.–.issn .
Central Asia	russian.klein i. gessner u. kuenzer .regional land cover mapping change detection central asia using modis timeseries.applied geography.– –.doi.j.apgeog....luong pauline jones .
Central Asia	transformation central asia states societies soviet rule independence.cornell university press.isbn .mandelbaum michael ed.central asia world kazakhstan uzbekistan tajikistan kyrgyzstan turkmenistan.new york council foreign relations press .marcinkowski m. ismail.
Central Asia	persian historiography geography bertold spuler major works produced iran caucasus central asia pakistan early ottoman turkey.singapore pustaka nasional .olcott martha brill.central asias new states independence foreign policy regional security.washington d.c. united states institute peace press .phillips andrew james paul .national identity tradition reflexive modernisation contradictions central asia.
Central Asia	national identities.–.doi.. scid .hasan bulent paksoy.alpamysh central asian identity russian rule.hartford aacar .
Central Asia	httpvlib.iue.itcarrietextscarriebookspaksoysoucek svatopluk.history inner asia.cambridge cambridge university press .rall ted.silk road ruin central asia new middle east new york nbm publishing .stone l.a. international politics central eurasia pp.central eurasian studies line accessible via web page international eurasian institute economic political research httpsweb.archive.orgwebhttp alexei slade gavin caron jeanfrançois ed.
Central Asia	trials tribulations kazakhstans criminal justice reforms kazakhstan soviet legacy singapore springer singapore pp.– isbn retrieved december .vakulchuk roman kazakhstans emerging economy state market peter lang frankfurtmain.available david.teaching inner asia bloomington indiana eric clearinghouse social studies .yellinek roie impact chinas belt road initiative central asia south caucasus einternational relations february .external links central asia encyclopædia iranicacentral asia ethnicity languages religious composition maps columbia universitygeneral map central asia – world digital library historic map
West Germany	cold war period western portion germany west berlin parts western bloc.west germany formed political entity allied occupation germany world war ii established eleven states formed three allied zones occupation held united states united kingdom france.provisional capital city bonn west germany retrospectively designated bonn republic.at onset cold war europe divided western eastern blocs.germany de facto divided two countries two special territories saarland divided berlin.initially west germany claimed exclusive mandate germany identifying sole democratically reorganised continuation – german reich.
West Germany	three southwestern states west germany merged form badenwürttemberg saarland joined west germany .addition resulting ten states west berlin considered unofficial de facto eleventh state.legally part west germany berlin control allied control council west berlin politically aligned west germany directly indirectly represented federal institutions.the foundation influential position held germany today laid economic miracle wirtschaftswunder west germany rose enormous destruction wrought world war ii become worlds thirdlargest economy.first chancellor konrad adenauer remained office worked full alignment nato rather neutrality secured membership military alliance.adenauer also proponent agreements developed presentday european union.
West Germany	g established serious debate whether west germany would become member.following collapse eastern bloc symbolised opening berlin wall territories took action achieve german reunification.east germany voted dissolve accede federal republic germany .five postwar states länder reconstituted along reunited berlin ended special status formed additional land.formally joined federal republic october raising total number states ten sixteen ending division germany.reunited germany direct continuation state previously informally called west germany new state process essentially voluntary act accession federal republic germany enlarged include additional six states former german democratic republic.
West Germany	expanded federal republic retained west germanys political culture continued existing memberships international organisations well western foreign policy alignment affiliation western alliances united nations nato oecd european economic community.naming conventions official name west germany adopted unchanged since bundesrepublik deutschland federal republic germany.in east germany terms westdeutschland west germany westdeutsche bundesrepublik west german federal republic preferred s. changed constitution idea single german nation abandoned east germany.result officially considered west germans west berliners foreigners.initialism brd frg english began prevail east german usage early beginning newspaper neues deutschland.eastern bloc nations soon followed suit.in west german federal minister allgerman affairs erich mende issued directives appellation germany recommending avoiding initialism brd.
West Germany	may heads west german federal state governments recommended always using full name official publications.west german sources avoided abbreviated form exception leftleaning organizations embraced it.november federal government informed bundestag west german public broadcasters ard zdf agreed refuse use initialism.the iso alpha country code west germany de deutschland germany remained country code germany reunification.iso alpha codes widely used country codes de code notably used country identifier extending postal code internets country code toplevel domain .de.less widely used iso alpha country code west germany deu remained country code reunified germany.
West Germany	deleted codes east germany hand dd iso alpha ddr iso alpha.the colloquial term west germany equivalent used many languages.westdeutschland also widespread colloquial form used germanspeaking countries usually without political overtones.history – february leaders united states united kingdom soviet union held yalta conference future arrangements regarding postwar europe allied strategy japan pacific negotiated.agreed boundaries germany december would chosen demarcating german national territory germanoccupied territory german annexations automatically null.subsequently west german state maintain boundaries continued valid international law although allies already agreed amongst east prussia silesia must transferred poland soviet union peace agreement.
West Germany	conference agreed postwar germany minus transfers would divided four occupation zones french zone far west british zone northwest american zone south soviet zone east.berlin separately divided four zones.divisions intended dismember germany designate zones administration.by subsequent potsdam agreement four allied powers asserted joint sovereignty germany whole defined totality territory within occupation zones.former german areas east rivers oder neisse outside germany whole separated german sovereignty july transferred soviet military occupation polish soviet case territory kaliningrad civil administration polish soviet status confirmed final peace treaty.following wartime commitments allies governmentsinexile czechoslovakia poland potsdam protocols also agreed orderly humane transfer germany whole ethnic german populations poland czechoslovakia hungary.
West Germany	eight million german expellees refugees eventually settled west germany.three occupation zones began merge.first british american zones combined quasistate bizonia.soon afterwards french zone included trizonia.conversely soviet zone became east germany.
West Germany	time new federal states länder formed allied zones replacing geography prenazi german states free state prussia republic baden derived ultimately former independent german kingdoms principalities.in dominant postwar narrative west germany nazi regime characterised criminal state illegal illegitimate outset weimar republic characterised failed state whose inherent institutional constitutional flaws exploited hitler illegal seizure dictatorial powers.consequently following death hitler subsequent capitulation german armed forces national political judicial administrative constitutional instruments nazi germany weimar republic understood entirely defunct new west germany could established condition constitutional nullity.nevertheless new west germany asserted fundamental continuity overall german state held embodied unified german people since frankfurt parliament represented within german reich albeit overall state become effectively dormant long may .in continuation aggravation cold war witness berlin airlift – two german states originated western allied soviet zones became known internationally west germany east germany.commonly known english east germany former soviet occupation zone eventually became german democratic republic gdr.west germany east germany jointly signed treaty final settlement respect germany also known twoplusfour agreement transitional status germany following world war ii definitively ended four allied powers relinquished joint residual sovereign authority germany whole including area west berlin officially remained allied occupation purposes international gdr law status western countries applied berlin whole despite soviets declaring end occupation east berlin unilaterally many decades before.
West Germany	twoplusfour agreement also saw two parts germany confirm postwar external boundaries final irreversible including transfer former german lands east oder–neisse line allied powers confirmed consent german reunification.october reformation gdrs länder east german states joined federal republic.nato membership territories frontiers coincided largely ones old middle ages east francia thcentury napoleonic confederation rhine federal republic germany founded may terms bonn–paris conventions obtained full authority sovereign state may although full sovereignty obtained two plus four agreement .former occupying western troops remained ground part north atlantic treaty organization nato west germany joined may promising rearm soon.west germany became focus cold war juxtaposition east germany member subsequently founded warsaw pact.former capital berlin divided four sectors western allies joining sectors form west berlin soviets held east berlin.
West Germany	west berlin completely surrounded east german territory suffered soviet blockade – overcome berlin airlift.the outbreak korean war june led u.s. calls rearm west germany help defend western europe perceived soviet threat.germanys partners european coal steel community proposed establish european defence community edc integrated army navy air force composed armed forces member states.west german military would subject complete edc control edc member states belgium france italy luxembourg netherlands would cooperate edc maintaining independent control armed forces.though edc treaty signed may never entered force.frances gaullists rejected grounds threatened national sovereignty french national assembly refused ratify august treaty died.french gaullists communists killed french governments proposal.
West Germany	means found allow west german rearmament.response london paris conferences brussels treaty modified include west germany form western european union weu.west germany permitted rearm idea many germans rejected full sovereign control military called bundeswehr.weu however would regulate size armed forces permitted member states.also german constitution prohibited military action except case external attack germany allies bündnisfall.
West Germany	also germans could reject military service grounds conscience serve civil purposes instead.the three western allies retained occupation powers berlin certain responsibilities germany whole.new arrangements allies stationed troops within west germany nato defense pursuant stationing statusofforces agreements.exception french troops allied forces natos joint defense command.france withdrew collective military command structure nato .reforms konrad adenauer years old became chancellor reason initially reckoned caretaker.
West Germany	however stayed power years.grand old man german postwar politics dragged—almost literally—out office .in october weekly news magazine der spiegel published analysis west german military defence.conclusion several weaknesses system.ten days publication offices der spiegel hamburg raided police quantities documents seized.chancellor adenauer proclaimed bundestag article tantamount high treason authors would prosecuted.
West Germany	editorowner magazine rudolf augstein spent time jail public outcry breaking laws freedom press became loud ignored.fdp members adenauers cabinet resigned government demanding resignation franz josef strauss defence minister decidedly overstepped competence crisis.adenauer still wounded brief run president episode damaged reputation even further.announced would step fall .successor ludwig erhard.in early rate economic growth slowed significantly.
West Germany	growth rate .following year .. brief recovery growth rate slowed recession growth .a new coalition formed deal problem.erhard stepped succeeded kurt georg kiesinger.led grand coalition west germanys two largest parties cducsu social democratic party spd.important introduction new emergency acts grand coalition gave ruling parties twothirds majority votes required ratification.
West Germany	controversial acts allowed basic constitutional rights freedom movement limited case state emergency.during time leading passing laws fierce opposition free democratic party rising west german student movement group calling notstand der demokratie democracy crisis members campaign nuclear armament.key event development open democratic debate occurred shah iran mohammad reza pahlavi visited west berlin.several thousand demonstrators gathered outside opera house attend special performance.supporters shah later known jubelperser armed staves bricks attacked protesters police stood watched.demonstration centre forcibly dispersed bystander named benno ohnesorg shot head killed plainclothes policeman.
West Germany	established policeman kurras paid spy east german security forces.protest demonstrations continued calls active opposition groups students made declared press especially tabloid bildzeitung newspaper massive disruption life berlin massive campaign protesters.protests us intervention vietnam mingled anger vigour demonstrations repressed led mounting militance among students universities berlin.one prominent campaigners young man east germany called rudi dutschke also criticised forms capitalism seen west berlin.easter young man tried kill dutschke bicycled student union seriously injuring him.
West Germany	west germany thousands demonstrated springer newspapers seen prime cause violence students.trucks carrying newspapers set fire windows office buildings broken.in wakes demonstrations question americas role vietnam began play bigger role came desire among students find role parentgeneration nazi era.proceedings war crimes tribunal nuremberg widely publicised germany new generation teachers educated findings historical studies could begin reveal truth war crimes committed name german people.one courageous attorney fritz bauer patiently gathered evidence guards auschwitz concentration camp twenty put trial frankfurt .daily newspaper reports visits school classes proceedings revealed german public nature concentration camp system became evident shoah vastly greater dimensions german population believed.
West Germany	term holocaust systematic massmurder jews first came use american miniseries name shown west german television.processes set motion auschwitz trial reverberated decades later.the calling question actions policies government led new climate debate.issues emancipation colonialism environmentalism grass roots democracy discussed levels society.environmental party greens reached limit required obtain parliamentary seats free hanseatic city bremen provincial election.also great significance steady growth feminist movement women demonstrated equal rights.
West Germany	married woman permission husband wanted take job open bank account.reforms parental rights law gave equal legal rights mother father abolishing legal authority father.parallel gay movement began grow larger cities especially west berlin homosexuality widely accepted twenties weimar republic.anger treatment demonstrators following death benno ohnesorg attack rudi dutschke coupled growing frustration lack success achieving aims led growing militance among students supporters.may three young people set fire two department stores frankfurt brought trial made clear court regarded action legitimate act described struggle imperialism.student movement began split different factions ranging unattached liberals maoists supporters direct action every form—the anarchists.
West Germany	several groups set objective aim radicalising industrial workers taking example activities italy red brigades brigate rosse many students went work factories little success.notorious underground groups red army faction began making bank raids finance activities eventually went underground killed number policemen several bystanders eventually two prominent west germans taken captive order force release prisoners sympathetic ideas.attacks still committed name raf.last action took place group announced giving activities .evidence groups infiltrated german intelligence undercover agents since emerged partly insistence son one prominent victims state counsel buback.
West Germany	willy brandt election spd—headed willy brandt—gained enough votes form coalition government fdp.although chancellor four years willy brandt one popular politicians whole period.brandt gifted speaker growth social democrats small part due personality.brandt began policy rapprochement west germanys eastern neighbours policy opposed cdu.issue improving relations poland czechoslovakia east germany made increasingly aggressive tone public debates huge step forward willy brandt foreign minister walther scheel fdp negotiated agreements three countries.
West Germany	moscow agreement august warsaw agreement december four power agreement status west berlin agreement relations west east germany signed december .agreements basis rapid improvement relations east west led longterm dismantlement warsaw treaty soviet unions control eastern europe.chancellor brandt forced resign may günter guillaume senior member staff uncovered spy east german intelligence service stasi.brandts contributions world peace led nomination nobel peace prize .chancellor domestic reform although brandt perhaps best known achievements foreign policy government oversaw implementation broad range social reforms known kanzler der inneren reformen chancellor domestic reform.
West Germany	according historian david childs brandt anxious government reforming administration number reforms embarked upon.within years education budget rose billion billion dm one every three dm spent new government devoted welfare purposes.noted journalist historian marion dönhoffpeople seized completely new feeling life.mania large scale reforms spread like wildfire affecting schools universities administration family legislation.autumn jürgen wischnewski spd declared every week three plans reform come decision cabinet assembly.according helmut schmidt willy brandts domestic reform programme accomplished previous programme comparable period.
West Germany	levels social expenditure increased funds allocated towards housing transportation schools communication substantial federal benefits provided farmers.various measures introduced extend health care coverage federal aid sports organisations increased.number liberal social reforms instituted whilst welfare state significantly expanded total public spending social programs nearly doubling health housing social welfare legislation bringing welcome improvements end brandt chancellorship west germany one advanced systems welfare world.social security substantial increases made social security benefits injury sickness benefits pensions unemployment benefits housing allowances basic subsistence aid allowances family allowances living allowances.governments first budget sickness benefits increased .
West Germany	pensions war widows pensions war wounded retirement pensions .numerically pensions rose ....
West Germany	..adjusted changes annual price index pensions rose real terms ...
West Germany	...purchasing power pensioners increased .war pensions increased .
West Germany	war victims pensions rose .january .january .war pensions orphans parents gone around widows around .landabgaberente land transfer pension increased .
West Germany	average real standard rate income support rose prices around dm around dm.unemployment benefits rose around euros around euros per month unemployment assistance euros per month euros per month.prices average standard social assistance benefit level rose around euros per month euros per month .brandts years chancellor majority benefits increased percentage average net earnings.in seagoing pilots became retrospectively insurable gained full social security members nonmanual workers insurance institute.year special regulation came force district master chimney sweeps making fully insurable craftsmans insurance scheme.
West Germany	increase made taxfree allowances children enabled families claim allowance second child compared families previously.second modification supplementation law increased allowance third child dm dm raised incomelimit second child allowance dm dm subsequently increased dm third modification law december dm fourth modification law november dm fifth modification law december .flexible retirement age years introduced invalids handicapped persons social assistance extended previously helped relatives.special subventions provided enable young farmers quit farming facilitate entry nonagricultural pension system means back payments.the third modification law extended individual entitlements social assistance means higherincome limits compatible receipt benefits lowered age limits certain special benefits.rehabilitation measures also extended child supplements expressed percentages standard amounts thus indexed changes grandparents recipients exempted potential liability reimburse expenditure social assistance carrier.
West Germany	third social welfare amendment act brought considerable improvements handicapped need care older persons new fund million marks disabled children established.allowances retraining advanced training refugees east germany also increased together federal grants sport.addition increases made pensions .million war victims.following sudden increase price oil law passed december granting recipients social assistance housing allowances single heatingoil allowance procedure repeated winter schmidt administration.
West Germany	improvements automatic adjustments maintenance allowances participants vocational training measures also carried increased allowances provided training retraining together special allowances refugees east germany.there determined statutory regulation issued february category persons seriously disabled regard maintenance aid increased demand appropriate rate conceded within scope relief special living conditions higher rate nursing aid.retirement age miners lowered .april law providing promotion social aid services aimed remedy various beneficial measures particularly field national insurance working conditions staffshortage suffered social establishments medicosocial educational work.bill harmonize reeducation benefit another bill relating severely handicapped persons became law may september respectively.winter payments construction workers introduced.to assist family planning marriage family guidance government allocated dm payment basic training staff.
West Germany	special effort also made organize recreation handicapped persons holiday guide handicapped issued aid federal ministry family youth affairs health order help find suitable holiday accommodation families.total amount individual aids granted guarantee fund integration young immigrants increased million dm million dm.law passed april protection hitherto granted victims war industrial accidents purpose occupational social reintegration extended handicapped persons whatever cause handicap provided capacity work reduced least .health field health care various measures introduced improve quality availability health care provision.free hospital care introduced million recipients social relief contributory medical service million panel patients introduced.
West Germany	pensioners exempted paying health insurance contribution improvements health insurance provision carried characterised expanded sickness insurance scheme inclusion preventative treatment.income limit compulsory sickness insurance indexed changes wage level right medical cancer screening .million people introduced.january reduction sickness allowance case hospitalisation discontinued.year compulsory health insurance extended selfemployed.
West Germany	government included nonmedical psychotherapists psychoanalysts national health insurance program.pupils students children kindergartens incorporated accident insurance scheme benefited million children.free medical checkups introduced year farmers sickness insurance law introduced compulsory sickness insurance independent farmers family workers agriculture pensioners farmers pension scheme medical benefits covered groups cash benefits family workers compulsory coverage pension insurance.participation employers health insurance extended four million employees.development law december made possible employees voluntarily become members statutory sickness insurance.level income compulsory sickness insurance indexed respective assessment level pension insurance voluntarily insured employees granted claim allowance towards sickness insurance employer.
West Germany	law also introduced new type sickness insurance benefit namely facilities early diagnosis disease.apart discretionary service disease prevention existed since insured persons right certain circumstances medical examinations aimed early diagnosis disease.according one study marked change concept sickness insurance aimed securing good health.the hospital financing law secured supply hospitals reduced cost hospital care defined financing hospital investment public responsibility single states issue plans hospital development federal government bear cost hospital investment covered plans rates hospital care thus based running costs alone hospitals ensure public subsidies together insurance fund payments patients cover total costs.benefit improvement law made entitlement hospital care legally binding entitlements already enjoyed practice abolished time limits hospital care introduced entitlement household assistance specific conditions also introduced entitlement leave absence work cash benefits event childs illness.encourage growth registered family holiday centres federal government granted subsidies building appointing centres total cost million dm.

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.