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West Germany	free preliminary investigations introduced .million children age early detection correction developmental disorders health research expanded.federal grants increased especially cancer research centre heidelberg federal institute sport science set together institute social medicine epidemiology berlin.addition funding new rehabilitation facilities increased.pensions pension reform law guaranteed retirees minimum pension regardless contributions institutionalized norm standard pension average earners forty years contributions fall current gross earnings.
West Germany	pension reforms improved eligibility conditions benefits nearly every subgroup west german population.income replacement rate employees made full contributions raised average earnings.reform also replaced mandatory retirement age retirement window ranging employees worked least thirtyfive years.employees qualified disabled worked least thirtyfive years extended generous retirement window ranged ages .women worked least fifteen years ten age age longterm unemployed also granted retirement window disabled.
West Germany	addition benefit reductions employees decided retire earlier age .legislation also changed way pensions calculated lowincome earners covered twentyfive years.pension benefit fell specified level workers allowed substitute wage figure average wage period thus creating something like minimum wage benefit.according one study pension reform enhanced reduction poverty old age.voluntary retirement deductions level benefits introduced together indexlinking war victims pensions wage increases.guaranteed minimum pension benefits west germans introduced along automatic pension increases war widows .
West Germany	fixed minimum rates women receipt low pensions also introduced together equal treatment war widows.improvements pension provision made women selfemployed new minimum pension workers least twentyfive years insurance introduced faster pension indexation implemented annual adjustment pensions brought forward six months seventh modification law linked indexation farmers pensions indexation general pension insurance scheme.a new pension severely handicapped persons introduced along occupational injury annuities special pension longstanding insurant age pension due limited earning capacity age .addition special pension benefit introduced workers aged unemployment.severely handicapped persons act april seriously disabled person could retire early old age pension age years provided complied provisions legislation pension insurance.education education brandt administration sought widen educational opportunities west germans.
West Germany	government presided increase number teachers generous public stipends introduced students cover living costs west german universities converted elite schools mass institutions.school leaving age raised spending research education increased nearly .working planning committee set joint task university development federal government started make investment costs .fees higher education abolished considerable increase number higher education institutions took place.much needed school college construction program carried together introduction postgraduate support highly qualified graduates providing opportunity earn doctorates undertake research studies.
West Germany	law individual promotion vocational training came force october provided financial grants attendance general technical teaching establishments second year studies higher technical schools academies higher education establishments training centres second degree certain courses television teaching.grants also made certain cases attendance training centres located outside federal republic.the education budget doubled expansion secondary education took place.number university students went places created schools additional million marks allocated new school buildings.addition provision scholarships expanded programme providing words one observer new scholarships graduates double number awarded three years later.grants introduced pupils lower income groups stay school together grants going kind higher education.
West Germany	increases also made educational allowances well spending science.government allocated .million dm grants promote marriage family education.approbationsordnung medical education profession act subject psychosomatic medicine psychotherapy german universities became compulsory subject medical students year education clinical biomedical engineers introduced.brandt administration also introduced enabling legislation introduction comprehensives left lander introduce discretion.
West Germany	leftwing lander rapidly began lander found sorts pretexts delaying scheme.mids berlin comprehensives bavaria lander comprehensives still viewed merely experimental.housing field housing various measures carried benefit householders improving rights tenants increasing rental assistance.according rent subsidies act wohngeldgesetz lowincome tenants owners accommodations supported rents burdens subsidies.determination income families taken consideration housing allowances simplified increased levels protection support lowincome tenants householders introduced led drop number eviction notices.
West Germany	three times much paid rent subsidies nearly one half million households received rental assistance.increases made public housing subsidies characterised increase social housing budget introduction programme construction public housing units ..increase building permits social housing units made.reforms aimed improving tenants rights included protection conversion rental housing condominiums prohibition misappropriation living space new regulation apartment broker system fee scale engineers architects.
West Germany	addition income limits eligibility social housing raised adapted order general income trends.a loose form rent regulation introduced name vergleichmieten comparable rents together provision familyfriendly housing freight rent subsidies owners apartments houses whose ceiling adapted increased expenses incomes .addition law creation property workers passed married worker would normally keep pay graded tax remission married wageearners applied wage marks indicated economic prosperity west germany time.town planning act encouraged preservation historical heritage helped open way future many german cities urban renewal act helped states restore inner cities develop new neighbourhoods.addition guidelines december usage federal funds assisting social housing construction laid certain standard needed observed building homes severely handicapped persons.the second housing allowance law december simplified administration housing allowances extended entitlements increased income limit dm per year plus dm family member raised general deduction income determine reckonable income allowance rates listed tables replacing complicated calculation procedure based bearable rent burdens.housing construction modification law increased incomelimit access low rent apartments social housing programme dm dm per annum plus dm instead family member.
West Germany	law also introduced special subsidies reduce debt burden builders surpassing regular incomelimit .law limits increased dm plus dm dm additional family members.rent improvement law strengthened position tenants.legislation notice ruled illegal appropriate substitute accommodation available landlords obliged specify reasons notice whilst eviction protection law established tenant protection rent rises notice.notice lawful justified interest landlord.
West Germany	law higher rents recognised justified interest.second eviction protection law made tenant protection introduced eviction protection law permanent.new law notice lawful landlord proved justified personal interest apartment.addition rent increases lawful normal comparable rents area.directives housing foreign workers came force april .directives imposed certain requirements space hygiene safety amenities accommodation offered employers.
West Germany	year federal government granted sum million dm länder improvement modernization housing built june .addition according regulation board federal labour office construction workers hostels qualified government financial support certain conditions.german council town development set virtue article law foster urban building partly aimed planning favourable environment families provision playgrounds.federal labour office made available dm million form loans provide beds hostels.year later federal government bund lander federal labour office promoted construction dwellings migrant workers.
West Germany	set aside million dm purpose allowed financing family dwellings year.development measures begun federal financial aid granted lander improvement measures relating towns villages budget dm million earmarked i.e.third total cost schemes.council urban development formed may purpose promoting future work measures field urban renovation.government provided assistance dm million modernisation old dwellings.new rules introduced regarding improvements law relating rented property control rise rents protection cancellation leases also safeguarded rights migrant workers sphere housing.
West Germany	law july fixed fundamental minimum requirements regarding workers dwellings mainly concerning space ventilation lighting protection damp heat noise power heating facilities sanitary installations.civil rights animal protection regards civil rights brandt administration introduced broad range socially liberal reforms aimed making west germany open society.greater legal rights women introduced exemplified standardisation pensions divorce laws regulations governing use surnames introduction measures bring women politics.voting age lowered age eligibility political office lowered age majority lowered march .third law liberalization penal code liberalised right political demonstration equal rights granted illegitimate children year.
West Germany	amendment federal civil service reform bill enabled fathers apply parttime civil service work.corporal punishment banned schools year new highway code introduced.measure introduced facilitated adoption young children reducing minimum age adoptive parents .a womens policy machinery national level established amnesty guaranteed minor offences connected demonstrations.onwards parents well landlords longer legally prohibited give rent rooms flats unmarried couples allow stay overnight.october legal aid system improved compensation paid private lawyers legal services poor increased.
West Germany	bausparkassen act placed bausparkassen january onwards supervision federal banking supervisory office confined bausparkassen contract saving business related activities.animal protection act passed introduced various safeguards animals permitting causing pain injury suffering animal without justification limiting experiments minimum number animals necessary.rules introduced making possible former guestworkers receive unlimited residence permit fiveyear stay.armed forces number reforms also carried armed forces characterised reduction basic military training months reorganisation education training personnel procurement procedures.education troops improved personnel reshuffle top management bundeswehr carried academic education mandated officers beyond basic military training new recruiting policy bundeswehr personnel introduced intention building army reflected west germanys pluralistic society.
West Germany	defense minister helmut schmidt led development first joint service regulation zdv assistance innere fuehrung classified restricted revitalized concept innere fuehrung also affirming value citizen uniform.according one study result reform strong civil mindset displaced formerly dominant military mindset forced bundeswehrs elder generation accept new type soldier envisioned schmidt.addition federal cost moving act increased relocation allowance effect november basic allowances raised dm dm respectively extra allowances families raised uniform amount dm.in armed forces vocational schools vocational advancement organization extended services first time conscripts far military duty permitted.new enlistment bonuses authorized previous bonus schemes improved new pay regulations introduced improved financial situation military personnel civil servants.july rd amendment civilian service act came force prerequisite creation additional civilian service places recognized conscientious objectors.
West Germany	amendment provided men recognized conscientious objectors performing military service immediately transferred civilian service assignment.maximum amount servicemen enlisting least years increased dm dm october onwards longterm personnel paid grants towards cost attending educational institutes second educational route participating staterecognized general education courses provided private correspondence schools television college.two bundeswehr universities established reform according one historian fought closed nature military guaranteed officers would better able successfully interact civilian world.april general maintenance payments law amending maintenance security act workplace protection act increased increases also made special allowance christmas bonus conscripts together dismissal allowance.expense allowance troops dutyrelated absence place employment improved together travel subsidies provisions military service damaged soldiers families.
West Germany	addition position noncommissioned officers improved.safety crime legislation aimed safeguarding consumers also implemented brandt administration.consumers right withdrawal case hire purchase strengthened march fixed prices branded products abolished law january year meant manufacturers recommended prices binding retailers.addition progressive anticartel law passed.law explosive materials supplemented two orders first made november establishing committee experts explosive materials second order made following month included details implementation law explosive materials.
West Germany	act december peaceful use nuclear energy protection dangers amended act june established tax levied costs permissions surveillance measures.law compensation measures criminal prosecution penalties passed march provided standardized compensation certain situations.addition budget communications increased.federal crimefighting apparatus also modernised foreign tax act passed limited possibility tax evasion.a law explosives sprengstoffgesetz subject two application ordinances november august general regulatory provision may covered respectively application law nationals ec member states duty employers notify time inspection authorities detonation plans interpretation purpose field application law authorizations transport explosives control recognition training courses work explosives.taking account enormous high peaks air traffic noise concentration limited number airports law protection aircraft noise sought balance two conflicting demands first legitimate demand industry business public efficient airtrafficsystem secondly understandable means less legitimate claims affected people protection compensation.
West Germany	legislation regulated establishment socalled lärmschutzzonen protection areas aircraft noise international airports military airports used jet air craft law also authorised federal department interior decree protection areas mentioned airports approval bundesrat representation german federal states.workers rights terms working conditions number reforms introduced aimed strengthening rights workers home workplace.sickness act provided equal treatment workers employees event incapacity work maternity leave increased.legislation introduced ensured continued payment wages workers disabled illness.employees unit work exception women receipt maternity benefits temporarily inconsiderably employed persons provided unconditional legal claim employer continued payment gross wage period weeks also case spa treatment approved insurance fund fund bearing full cost thereof.
West Germany	previously payment employers supplement sick pay made day doctor certified unfitness work.act agency work passed sought prevent works agencies providing job placement services aimed provide job minimum protection employees agency work.law hiring manpower passed october contained provisions stipulate prior authorization hiring manpower draw distinction system governing workers hired placing workers regulate improve rights hired workers pertaining working conditions social insurance provide severe penalties fines imposed offenders.improvements also made income work conditions home workers accident insurance extended nonworking adults border zone assistance act increased levels assistance declining zonal peripheral area.occupational safety act required employers provide company doctors safety experts.directive protection noise place work adopted november .
West Germany	measurements showed reason assume noise level guide value db may exceeded place work authority instruct employer arrange checkups employees concerned employees use personal noise protection devices.matching fund program million employees also introduced stimulated accumulate capital.a ministerial order january extended protection cases partial unemployment home workers ordinance august fixed conditions health necessary service merchant navy.general provision october determined detail circumstances competent authority must take action basis act technical means work.requirement also stipulated extent technical standards established national international organisations regarded rules art.directive november minister labour social affairs recommended higher authorities work protection lander bring directive published agreement ministry labour german engineers association evaluation work station noise relation loss hearing order improve safeguards workers noises question.
West Germany	september ordinance published concerning dangerous working materials safeguarding persons using materials dangers involved.august law came force directed reducing atmospheric pollution lead compounds fourstroke engine fuels.safeguard radiation decree system authorisations medicaments treated ionizing radiation containing radioactive substances version august remodelled new decree may added radionuclides list medicaments doctors private practice authorized use.by decree federal minister labour social order federal institute industrial protection became federal agency industrial protection accident research.amongst designated tasks included promotion industrial protection accident prevention journey work accident prevention home leisure activities encouragement training advanced training area industrial protection promote coordinate accident research.regulation issued permitted first time employment women drivers trams omnibuses lorries regulations laid new provisions lifts work compressed air.
West Germany	factory constitution law strengthened rights individual employees informed heard matters concerning place work.works council provided greater authority trade unions given right entry factory provided informed employer intention law passed encourage wider share ownership workers rankandfile employees.industrial relations law personnel representation act broadened rights employees matters immediately affected places work also improving possibilities codetermination operations committees together access trade unions companies.the works constitution act required cases collective dismissal establishment normally employing twenty employees management works council must negotiate social plan stipulates compensation workers lose jobs.cases two parties could agree social plan law provided binding arbitration.rights works councils information management strengthened works councils also provided full codetermination rights issues working time arrangements plant setting piece rates plant wage systems establishment vacation times work breaks overtime shorttime work.
West Germany	legislation passed acknowledged first time presence trade unions workplace expanded means action works councils improved work basics well youth councils.a law january organization labour enterprises significantly extended works councils right cooperation comanagement matter vocational training.year safety institute federal republic germany transformed public federal agency bundesanstalt significantly enlarged powers context special emphasis would placed new task promoting coordinating research area accident prevention.new provisions introduced rehabilitation severely disabled people schwerbehinderte accident victims.severely disabled persons act april obliged employers fifteen employees ensure workforce consisted people officially recognised severely handicapped.employers failed assessed dm per month every job falling required quota.
West Germany	compensatory payments used subsidise adaptation workplaces requirements severely handicapped.a law passed january designed protect members supervisory boards companies undergoing training aimed ensuring representatives young workers youthful members works councils still undergoing training could perform duties greater independence without fear disadvantageous consequences future careers.request workers representatives completion training courses employment relationship unlimited duration.field transport municipal transportation finance law established federal guidelines subsidies municipal governments federal transport plan provided framework transport including public transport.addition severely handicapped persons act april extended welfare promotional obligations employer provided right extra holiday consisting six working days.environmental protection federal environmental programme established laws passed regulate garbage elimination air pollution via emission.
West Germany	matching grants covering infrastructure development allocated local communities led dramatic increase number public swimming pools facilities consumptive infrastructure throughout west germany.addition efforts made improve railways motorways.law passed setting maximum lead content .grams per liter gasoline ddt banned.federal immissions control law passed march provided protection noxious gases noise airborne particulate matter.
West Germany	economy brandt administration west germany attained lower rate inflation industrialised countries time rise standard living took place helped floating revaluation mark.characterised real incomes employees increasing sharply incomes entrepreneurial work proportion employees incomes overall national income rising proportion income entrepreneurial work property fell period .addition percentage west germans living poverty based various definitions fell .according one estimate percentage west germans living poverty fell ..
West Germany	..according another estimate.according another estimate percentage west germans living poverty period fell ... helmut schmidt finance minister helmut schmidt spd formed coalition served chancellor .
West Germany	hansdietrich genscher leading fdp official became vice chancellor foreign minister.schmidt strong supporter european community ec atlantic alliance emphasized commitment political unification europe partnership usa.mounting external problems forced schmidt concentrate foreign policy limited domestic reforms could carry out.ussr upgraded intermediaterange missiles schmidt complained unacceptable threat balance nuclear power increased likelihood political coercion required western response.nato respond form twintrack policy.
West Germany	domestic reverberations serious inside sdp undermined coalition fdp.one major successes collaboration french president valéry giscard destaing launching european monetary system ems april .helmut kohl october spd–fdp coalition fell apart fdp joined forces cducsu elect cdu chairman helmut kohl chancellor constructive vote confidence.following national elections march kohl emerged firm control government cdu.cducsu fell short absolute majority due entry bundestag greens received .
West Germany	vote.in january kohl–genscher government returned office fdp greens gained expense larger parties.kohls cdu bavarian sister party csu slipped .vote .. spd fell longtime spd chairman brandt subsequently resigned april succeeded hansjochen vogel.fdps share rose .best showing since .
West Germany	greens share rose .share .. reunification collapse eastern bloc symbolised opening berlin wall rapid move towards german reunification final settlement postwar special status germany.following democratic elections east germany declared accession federal republic subject terms unification treaty two states west germany east germany radically amended respective constitutions accordance treatys provisions.east germany dissolved five postwar states länder reconstituted along reunited berlin ended special status formed additional land.formally joined federal republic october raising number states ending division germany.
West Germany	expanded federal republic retained west germanys political culture continued existing memberships international organisations well western foreign policy alignment affiliation western alliances like nato european union.the official german reunification ceremony october held reichstag building including chancellor helmut kohl president richard von weizsäcker former chancellor willy brandt many others.one day later parliament united germany would assemble act symbolism reichstag building.however time role berlin yet decided upon.fierce debate considered many one memorable sessions parliament bundestag concluded june quite slim majority government parliament move berlin bonn.economic miracle west german wirtschaftswunder economic miracle coined times began .improvement sustained currency reform replaced reichsmark deutsche mark halted rampant inflation.
West Germany	allied dismantling west german coal steel industry finally ended .as demand consumer goods increased world war ii resulting shortage helped overcome lingering resistance purchase german products.time germany large pool skilled cheap labour partly result flight expulsion germans central eastern europe affected .million germans.helped germany double value exports war.apart factors hard work long hours full capacity among population late extra labour supplied thousands gastarbeiter guest workers provided vital base economic upturn.
West Germany	would implications later successive german governments tried assimilate group workers.with dropping allied reparations freeing german intellectual property impact marshall plan stimulus west germany developed one strongest economies world almost strong second world war.east german economy showed certain growth much west germany partly continued reparations ussr.in west germany became part european coal steel community would later evolve european union.may west germany declared authority sovereign state.british french u.s. militaries remained country soviet army remained east germany.four days obtaining authority sovereign state west germany joined nato.
West Germany	uk usa retained especially strong presence west germany acting deterrent case soviet invasion.west germany became one founding nations group six g. west germany—home roughly .worlds population—featured worlds fourth largest gdp billion .world total.frg held .
West Germany	share total world production.demographics population vital statistics total population west germany collected statistisches bundesamt.religion religious affiliation west germany decreased onward.religious affiliation declined faster among protestants among catholics causing roman catholic church overtake ekd largest denomination country s. position towards east germany official position west germany concerning east germany outset west german government democratically elected therefore legitimate representative german people.according hallstein doctrine country exception ussr recognised authorities german democratic republic would diplomatic relations west germany.in early willy brandts policy neue ostpolitik led form mutual recognition east west germany.
West Germany	treaty moscow august treaty warsaw december four power agreement berlin september transit agreement may basic treaty december helped normalise relations east west germany led german states joining united nations.hallstein doctrine relinquished west germany ceased claim exclusive mandate germany whole.following ostpolitik west german view east germany de facto government within single german nation de jure state organisation parts germany outside federal republic.federal republic continued maintain could within structures recognise gdr de jure sovereign state international law time acknowledging within structures international law gdr independent sovereign state.distinction west germany viewed within boundaries de facto de jure government also sole de jure legitimate representative dormant germany whole.two germanies relinquished claim represent internationally acknowledged necessarily implying mutual recognition capable representing populations de jure participating international bodies agreements united nations helsinki final act.this assessment basic treaty confirmed decision federal constitutional court ... german democratic republic internationallaw sense state subject international law.
West Germany	finding independent recognition international law german democratic republic federal republic germany.recognition never formally pronounced federal republic germany contrary repeatedly explicitly rejected.conduct federal republic germany towards german democratic republic assessed light détente policy particular conclusion treaty de facto recognition understood de facto recognition special kind.special feature treaty bilateral treaty two states rules international law apply like international treaty possesses validity two states parts still existing albeit incapable action reorganized comprehensive state whole germany single body politic.the west german constitution grundgesetz basic law provided two articles unification parts germanyarticle provided possibility parts germany join federal republic constitution federal republic germany.article provided possibility unification parts germany new constitution.after peaceful revolution east germany volkskammer gdr august declared accession east germany federal republic article basic law initiated process reunification come effect october .nevertheless act reunification many specific terms conditions including fundamental amendments west german basic law achieved constitutionally subsequent unification treaty august binding agreement former gdr federal republic recognising another separate sovereign states international law.
West Germany	treaty voted effect september volkskammer bundestag constitutionally required twothirds majorities effecting one hand extinction gdr reestablishment länder territory east germany agreed amendments basic law federal republic.amongst amendments repeal article respect gdr nominally declared postdated accession federal republic.the two german states entered currency customs union july october german democratic republic dissolved reestablished five east german länder well unified berlin joined federal republic germany bringing end east–west divide.politics political life west germany remarkably stable orderly.adenauer era – followed brief period ludwig erhard – turn replaced kurt georg kiesinger –.governments formed united caucus christiandemocratic union cdu christian social union csu either alone coalition smaller free democratic party fdp rightwing parties.kiesingers – grand coalition west germanys two largest parties cducsu social democratic party spd.
West Germany	important introduction new emergency acts—the grand coalition gave ruling parties twothirds majority votes required see in.controversial acts allowed basic constitutional rights freedom movement limited case state emergency.leading passing laws fierce opposition fdp rising german student movement group calling notstand der demokratie democracy state emergency labour unions.demonstrations protests grew number student benno ohnesorg shot head policeman.press especially tabloid bildzeitung newspaper launched campaign protesters.by stronger desire confront nazi past come being.environmentalism antinationalism became fundamental values among leftwing germans.
West Germany	result greens able reach minimum required obtain parliamentary seats free hanseatic city bremen state election foundation national party developed one politically successful green movements world.another result unrest founding red army faction raf.raf active carrying succession terrorist attacks west germany s. even attacks still committed name raf.last action took place group announced ceasing activities.in election spd gained enough votes form coalition government fdp.spd leader chancellor willy brandt remained head government may resigned guillaume affair senior member staff uncovered spy east german intelligence service stasi.however affair widely considered merely trigger brandts resignation fundamental cause.
West Germany	instead brandt dogged scandal relating alcohol depression well economic fallout oil crisis almost seems simply enough.brandt later said exhausted reasons nothing process going time.finance minister helmut schmidt spd formed government continuing spd–fdp coalition.served chancellor .hansdietrich genscher leading fdp official vice chancellor foreign minister years.schmidt strong supporter european community ec atlantic alliance emphasized commitment political unification europe partnership usa.the goals spd fdp however drifted apart late early s. october fdp joined forces cducsu elect cdu chairman helmut kohl chancellor constructive vote confidence.
West Germany	following national elections march kohl emerged firm control government cdu.cducsu fell short absolute majority entry bundestag greens received .vote.in january kohl–genscher government returned office fdp greens gained expense larger parties.social democrats concluded greens unlikely form coalition also coalition would far majority.neither condition changed .
West Germany	denazification several laws passed ending denazification.result many people former nazi past ended political apparatus west germany.west german president walter scheel chancellor kurt georg kiesinger former members nazi party.west german ministry justices senior officials former nazi party members.konrad adenauers state secretary hans globke played major role drafting antisemitic nuremberg race laws nazi germany.
West Germany	culture many aspects german culture continued spite dictatorship wartime.old new forms coexisted next american influence already strong grew.sport th century association football became largest sport germany.germany national football team established continued tradition based federal republic germany winning fifa world cup stunning upset dubbed miracle bern.earlier german team considered part international top.
West Germany	fifa world cup held west german cities west berlin.beaten east german counterparts first round team german football association cup defeating netherlands – final.process unification full swing summer germans third world cup players capped east germany yet permitted contribute.european championships .after olympic games held germany munich selected host summer olympics.also first summer games east germans showed separate flag anthem gdr.
West Germany	since germany olympics represented united team led prewar german noc officials ioc denied east german demands separate team.the page doping germany today study details west german government helped fund widescale doping programme.west germany encouraged covered culture doping across many sports decades.as saarland acceded east german sport organisations ceased exist late subdivisions members joined western counterparts.thus present german organisations teams football olympics elsewhere identical informally called west german .differences larger membership different name used foreigners.organisations teams turn mostly continued traditions represented germany second world war even first world war thus providing centuryold continuity despite political changes.
West Germany	hand separate east german teams organisations founded episode lasting less four decades yet quite successful time.west germany played matches european championships national team.literary scene besides interest older generation writers new authors emerged background experiences war war period.wolfgang borchert former soldier died young one best known representatives trümmerliteratur.heinrich böll considered observer young federal republic caused political controversies increasingly critical view society.frankfurt book fair peace prize german book trade soon developed regarded institution.
West Germany	exemplary west germanys literature – among others – siegfried lenz german lesson günter grass tin drum flounder.geographical distribution government west germany political agencies buildings located bonn german stock market located frankfurt main became economic center.judicial branch german federal constitutional court bundesverfassungsgericht highest court appeals located karlsruhe.the west german government known much decentralised state socialist east german counterpart former federal state latter unitary one.whilst east germany divided administrative districts bezirke merely local branches national government west germany divided states länder independently elected state parliaments control bundesrat second legislative chamber federal government.present geographical political terminology today north rhinewestphalia often considered western germany geographical terms.
West Germany	distinguishing former west germany former east germany parts presentday unified germany become common refer alte bundesländer old states neue bundesländer new states although westdeutschland ostdeutschland still heard well.see also economic history german reunificationbonn–paris conventionspetersberg agreementwest berlin notes references sourcescollings justin democracys guardian history german federal constitutional court oxford oupglatzer wolfgang august .recent social trends west germany –.international research group comparative charting social change advanced industrial societies.mcgillqueens press – mqup.
West Germany	isbn – via google books.kommers donald p. constitutional jursiprudence federal republic germany duke university press reading bark dennis l. david r. gress.history west germany vol shadow substance – isbn vol democracy discontents – isbn berghahn volker rolf.modern germany society economy politics twentieth century acls ebook onlinehanrieder wolfram f. germany america europe forty years german foreign policy isbn henderson david r. german economic miracle.concise encyclopedia economics .jarausch konrad h. hitler recivilizing germans – junker detlef ed.united states germany era cold war vol short essays scholars covering –macgregor douglas sovieteast german military alliance new york cambridge university press .main steven j. soviet occupation germany.
West Germany	hunger mass violence struggle peace –.europeasia studies pp.–.maxwell john allen.social democracy divided germany kurt schumacher german question –.phd dissertation west virginia university .merkl peter h. ed.
West Germany	federal republic germany fifty mierzejewski alfred c. ludwig erhard biography onlinepruys karl hugo .kohl genius present biography helmut kohl schwarz hanspeter.konrad adenauer german politician statesman period war revolution reconstruction vol excerpt text search vol also full text vol full text vol smith gordon ed developments german politics isbn broad survey reunified nationsmith helmut walser ed.oxford handbook modern german history pp.–.weber jurgen.
Duluth, Minnesota	germany – central european university press online editionwilliams charles.adenauer father new germany online primary sources beate ruhm von oppen ed.documents germany occupation – oxford university press online external links media related west germany wikimedia commonsduluth miles south superior national forest sawtooth mountains.hub tourism cargo shipping.commodities shipped port duluth include coal iron ore grain limestone cement salt wood pulp steel coil wind turbine components.duluth population making minnesotas fifthlargest city center minnesotas second largest metropolitan area population .duluth forms metropolitan area neighboring superior wisconsin together called twin ports.city named daniel greysolon sieur du lhut areas first known european explorer.situated north shore lake superior westernmost point great lakes duluth largest metropolitan area secondlargest city firstlargest u.s. city lake accessible atlantic ocean miles km away via great lakes waterway st. lawrence seaway.
Duluth, Minnesota	port duluth worlds farthest inland port accessible oceangoing ships far largest busiest port great lakes.port ranked among top ports united states tonnage.a tourist destination midwest duluth features united states allfreshwater aquarium great lakes aquarium aerial lift bridge adjacent canal park spans duluth ship canal duluth–superior harbor minnesota point known locally park point worlds longest freshwater baymouth bar spanning miles km.city also starting point vehicle trips touring north shore lake superior toward thunder bay ontario canada.history native history ojibwe occupied historic settlement onigamiinsing little portage portage across minnesota point lake superior western st. louis bay forms duluths harbor.ojibwe dakota interaction europeans contact period revolved around fur trade related activities.according ojibwe oral history spirit island near spirit valley neighborhood sixth stopping place northern southern branches ojibwe nation came together proceeded seventh stopping place near present city la pointe wisconsin.
Duluth, Minnesota	stopping places places native americans occupied westward migration europeans overran territory.exploration fur trade several factors brought fur traders great lakes early th century.fashion beaver hats europe generated demand pelts.french trade beaver lower st. lawrence river led depletion animals region late french searched farther west new resources new routes making alliances native americans along way trap deliver furs.étienne brûlé credited european discovery lake superior .pierreesprit radisson médard des groseilliers explored duluth area fond du lac bottom lake .
Duluth, Minnesota	french soon established fur posts near duluth far north grand portage became major trading center.french explorer daniel greysolon sieur du lhut whose name sometimes anglicized duluth explored st. louis river .after independence united states north west company established several posts minnesota rivers lakes areas west northwest trading ojibwe dakota native tribes.first post superior wisconsin later developed.known fort st. louis post became headquarters north wests new fond du lac department.stockaded walls two houses feet shed feet large warehouse canoe yard.
Duluth, Minnesota	time indian peoples european americans settled nearby town gradually developed point.in germanborn john jacob astor organized american fur company.company began trading head lakes .erected new headquarters presentday fond du lac st. louis river.portages connected lake superior lake vermilion north mississippi river south.creating powerful monopoly astor got business trade declining.
Duluth, Minnesota	active trade carried failure fur trade s. european fashions changed many american areas getting overtrapped game declining.in henry schoolcraft visited fond du lac area wrote experiences ojibwe indians there.henry wadsworth longfellow based song hiawatha epic poem relating fictional adventures ojibwe warrior named hiawatha tragedy love minnehaha dakota woman schoolcrafts writings.natives signed two treaties fond du lac united states present neighborhood fond du lac ojibwe ceded land american government.part treaty washington lake superior band chippewa united states set aside fond du lac indian reservation upstream duluth near cloquet minnesota.permanent settlement european americans continued settle encroach ojibwe lands u.s. government made series treaties executed expropriated vast areas tribal lands use relegated native american peoples number small reservations.interest area piqued rumors copper mining.
Duluth, Minnesota	government land survey followed treaty local tribes secured wilderness goldseeking explorers sparked land rush led development iron ore mining area.ojibwe land cession treaty would force ojibwe onto known fond du lac grand portage reservations though land rights hunting fishing retained.around time newly constructed channels locks east permitted large ships access area.road connecting duluth twin cities also constructed.eleven small towns sides st. louis river formed establishing duluths roots city.by copper resources scarce areas economic focus shifted timber harvesting.nationwide financial crisis panic caused citys early pioneers leave.
Duluth, Minnesota	history duluth written relates handful remaining four men unemployed one brewer.capital idea build brewery.absence malt hops barley embarrass stouthearted settlers.water brewing obtained stream emptied lake superior came called brewery creek still known today.brewery pecuniary success decades later became fitger brewing company.the opening canal sault ste.
Duluth, Minnesota	marie contemporaneous announcement railroads approach made duluth port access atlantic pacific oceans.soon lumber industry railroads mining growing quickly influx workers could hardly keep demand storefronts popped almost overnight.business duluth booming.fourth july speech dr. thomas preston foster founder duluths first newspaper coined expression zenith city unsalted seas.in – duluth fastestgrowing city country expected surpass chicago years.jay cooke wealthy philadelphia land speculator convinced lake superior mississippi railroad create extension st. paul duluth railroad opened areas due north west lake superior iron ore mining.
Duluth, Minnesota	duluths population new years day consisted families fourth july people present celebrate.in first duluth minnesotian printed august editor placed following notice editorial pagenewcomers comprehend duluth present small place hotel boarding room accommodation extremely limited.however lumber cheap shanties built.everyone bring blankets come prepared rough first.in cookes empire crumbled stock market crashed duluth almost disappeared map.late continued boom lumber mining railroads completed duluth bloomed again.turn century almost inhabitants thriving community smallbusiness loans commerce trade flowing city.
Duluth, Minnesota	mining continued mesabi range iron shipped east mills ohio trade continuing th century.untold delights duluth early doubts duluth areas potential voiced untold delights duluth speech u.s. representative j. proctor knott kentucky gave u.s. house representatives january .speech opposing st. croix superior land grant lampooned western boosterism portraying duluth eden fantastically florid terms.speech reprinted collections folklore humorous speeches regarded classic.nearby city proctor minnesota named knott.duluths unofficial sister city duluth georgia named evan p. howell humorous reference knotts speech.
Duluth, Minnesota	originally called howells crossroads honor grandfather evan howell town railroad completed delights duluth speech still popular.proctor knott sometimes credited characterizing duluth zenith city unsalted seas honor coinage belongs journalist thomas preston foster speaking fourth july picnic .th century th century port duluth time busiest port united states surpassing even new york city gross tonnage.lake freighters carried iron ore great lakes processing plants illinois ohio.ten newspapers six banks story skyscraper torrey building founded built.duluth said home millionaires per capita united states.in u.s. steel announced would build million plant area.
Duluth, Minnesota	although steel production begin predictions held duluths population would rise –.along duluth works steel plant us steel developed morgan park company town steel workers.city neighborhood within duluth.the diamond calk horseshoe company founded later became major manufacturer exporter wrenches automotive tools.duluths huge wholesale marshall wells hardware company expanded opening branches portland oregon winnipeg manitoba company catalog totaled pages .duluth showcase company later became duluth refrigerator company coolerator company established .
Duluth, Minnesota	universal atlas cement company made cement slag byproduct steel plant began operations .immigration numerous jobs mining industry city destination large waves immigrants europe early th century.became center one largest finnish communities world outside finland.decades finnishlanguage daily newspaper päivälehti published city named former grand duchy finlands proindependence leftist paper.finnish community industrial workers world iww members published widely read labor newspaper industrialisti.
Duluth, Minnesota	finnish socialist federation iww operated work peoples college educational institution taught classes workingclass socialist perspective.immigrants sweden norway denmark germany austria czechoslovakia ireland england italy poland hungary bulgaria croatia serbia ukraine romania russia also settled duluth.one time duluth home several historic immigrant neighborhoods including little italy.today people scandinavian descent constitute strong plurality duluths population accounting one third residents identifying european ancestry.duluth lynchings september group calling knights liberty dragged finnish immigrant olli kinkkonen boarding house tarred feathered lynched him.kinkkonen want fight world war planned return finland.
Duluth, Minnesota	body found two weeks later hanging tree duluths lester park.another lynching duluth occurred june three innocent black male circus workers elias clayton elmer jackson isaac mcghie attacked white mob hanged allegedly raping teenage white girl.duluth lynchings took place first street second avenue east.late th century journalist michael fedo wrote lynchings duluth began raise awareness event.community members many different groups began come together reflection education.mens unmarked graves located gravestones erected funding local church.
Duluth, Minnesota	vigils held intersection men lynched.grassroots committee formed began offer speakers groups schools.decided commemorate event memorial.clayton jackson mcghie memorial includes corner wall plaza dedicated .includes three foot .
Duluth, Minnesota	mtall bronze statues three men.cjmm committee continues work racial justice educational outreach community forums scholarships youth.cloquet fire cloquet fire named nearby city cloquet burned across carlton southern st. louis counties destroying dozens communities duluth area.fire worst natural disaster minnesota history terms number lives lost single day.many people died rural roads surrounding duluth area historical accounts tell victims dying trying outrun fire.
Duluth, Minnesota	news tribune reported estimated families rendered homeless saturdays fire territory known woodland district... cases families lost homes also lost furniture personal belongings limited time transportation facilities affording little opportunity saving anything human life.national guard unit based duluth mobilized heroic effort battle fire assist victims troops overwhelmed enormity fire.retired duluth news tribune columnist journalist jim heffernan writes mother recalled overnight vigil watching window small home lower piedmont avenue father younger sisters gone sleep ready evacuated waterfront need arise.fire never made far hill devastated piedmont heights course widespread area northeastern minnesota.fires aftermath tens thousands people left injured homeless many refugees fled city aid shelter.continued growth first half th century duluth industrial port boom town dominated several grain elevators cement plant nail mill wire mills duluth works plant.
Duluth, Minnesota	handling export iron ore brought mesabi range integral citys economy well steel industry midwest including manufacturing cities ohio.the aerial lift bridge earlier known aerial bridge aerial ferry bridge built time known united states first transporter bridge—only one ever constructed country.– span converted vertical lift bridge also rather uncommon.bridge added national register historic places .in europe entered great war world war shipyard constructed st. louis river.new workers neighborhood today known riverside developed around large operation.similar industrial expansions took place second world war duluths large harbor areas vast natural resources put work war effort.
Duluth, Minnesota	tankers submarine chasers usually called subchasers built riverside shipyard.population duluth continued grow postwar decade half peaking .economic decline economic decline began highgrade iron ore ran iron range north duluth ore shipments duluth harbor critical citys economy.lowgrade ore taconite shipments continued boosted new taconite pellet technology ore shipments lower overall.in united states experienced steel crisis recession global steel market like many american cities duluth entered period industrial restructuring.us steel closed duluth works plant blow citys economy whose effects included closure cement company depended steel plant raw materials slag.
Duluth, Minnesota	closures followed industries including shipbuilding heavy machinery.decades end unemployment rates hit percent.economic downturn particularly hard duluths west side ethnic eastern southern european workers lived decades.during plans underway extend interstate duluth north shore bringing new access city.original plan called interstate run along shore elevated concrete structure blocking citys access lake superior.kent worley local landscape architect wrote impassioned letter mayor ben boo asking route reconsidered.
Duluth, Minnesota	minnesota department transportation agreed take another look worley consulting.new plan called parts highway run tunnels allowed preservation fitgers brewery sir bens tavern leif erickson park duluths rose garden.rock used interstate project used create extensive new beach along lake superior along citys lakewalk built.stcentury development decline citys industrial core local economic focus gradually shifted tourism.downtown area renovated emphasize pedestrian character streets paved red brick skywalks retail shops added.
Duluth, Minnesota	city developers worked areas unique architectural character converting old warehouses along waterfront cafés shops restaurants hotels.combined new rock beach lakewalk changes developed new canal park tourismoriented district.duluths population declined since stabilized around .at beginning st century duluth become regional center banking retail shopping medical care northern minnesota northern wisconsin northwestern michigan.estimated jobs duluth directly related two hospitals.arts entertainment offerings well yearround recreation natural environment contributed expansion tourist industry.
Duluth, Minnesota	.million visitors year contribute million local economy.more recently collection likeminded businesses lincoln park old rundown bluecollar neighborhood high unemployment poverty rates cultivated group entrepreneurs begun rebuilding revitalizing area.since least commercial real estate transactions occurred businesses opened including restaurants breweries coffee shops artist studios.due neighborhoods revitalization many developers also investing housing projects anticipation growth.waterfront reclamation efforts duluths prominence port city gave economic advantage early years various industries began wane new efforts reclaim areas waterfront public use emerged.
Duluth, Minnesota	notable among reclamation st. louis river corridor runs along edge citys western neighborhoods.many sites filled legacy pollutants due previous industrial use process restored epa several developments pier b resort hotel demonstrating revitalization opportunity former industrial spaces.other efforts reclaim waterfront space duluth led duluth waterfront collective.one notable example includes highway revisited concept seeks reimagine corridor runs citys downtown.groups efforts met interest city council voting explore options corridor .while acreage land utilizing waterway portrelated purposes shifted recent years goods shipped duluthsuperior port shifted reflect changing economy.recent decades declines shipment coal iron ore met increases shipment wind turbine components multimodal shipping containers.
Duluth, Minnesota	geography according united states census bureau city total area .square miles .km .square miles .km land .
Duluth, Minnesota	square miles .km water.minnesotas secondlargest city land area surpassed hibbing.duluths canal connects lake superior duluth–superior harbor saint louis river.spanned aerial lift bridge connects canal park minnesota point park point.
Duluth, Minnesota	minnesota point miles km long included adjacent wisconsin point extends miles .km city superior wisconsin largest freshwater baymouth bar world total miles km.duluths topography dominated steep hillside climbs lake superior high inland elevations.duluth called san francisco midwest alluding san franciscos similar watertohilltop topography.similarity evident world war ii duluth network streetcars inclined railroad th avenue west incline railway like san franciscos cable cars climbed steep hill.change elevation illustrated duluths two airports.
Duluth, Minnesota	weather station lakeside sky harbor airport minnesota point elevation feet duluth international airport atop hill feet higher feet m.even city grown populace tended hug lake superiors shoreline duluth primarily southwest–northeast city.considerable development hill given duluth many steep streets.neighborhoods piedmont heights bayview heights atop hill scenic views city.skyline parkway scenic roadway extends becks road gary – new duluth neighborhood near western end city lester park neighborhood east side.crosses nearly duluths entire length affords views lake superior aerial lift bridge canal park many industries inhabit largest inland port.a developing part city miller hill mall area adjacent bigbox retailer shopping strips hill along miller trunk highway corridor.
Duluth, Minnesota	– road reconstruction project duluths miller hill area improved movement u.s. highway corridor trinity road maple grove road.highway project reconstructed connector roads intersections adjacent roadways.new international airport terminal completed part federal governments stimulus reconstruction program.geological history geology duluth demonstrates midcontinent rift formed north american continent began split apart .billion years ago.
Duluth, Minnesota	earths crust thinned magma rose toward surface.intrusions formed km .mithick sill primarily gabbro known duluth complex.intrusion duluth complex seen enger tower built knob exposed gabbro.the lava flows formed conditions creation lake superior agates.lava solidified gas trapped within flows formed amygdaloidal texture literally rock filled small vesicles.
Duluth, Minnesota	later groundwater transported dissolved minerals vesicles depositing concentric bands finegrained quartz called chalcedony.color scheme caused concentration iron present groundwater time new layer deposited.process went cavity completely filled.time erosion freed agates solidified lava hard quartz.lake superior agates minnesota gemstone.the creation lake superior basin reflects erosive power continental glaciers advanced retreated minnesota several times past million years.
Duluth, Minnesota	milethick ice sheets easily eroded sandstone filled axis rift valley encountered resistance igneous rocks forming flanks rift margins lake basin.last glacier retreated meltwaters filled lake high feet current level skyline parkway roughly follows one highest levels ancient lake superior glacial lake duluth.sandstone buried igneous rocks rift exposed near fond du lac.one time large number quarries produced stone sold fond du lac lake superior brownstone.widely used duluth buildings also shipped minneapolis chicago milwaukee also used extensively.
Duluth, Minnesota	weathered sandstone forms sandy lake bottom shores park point.climate duluth humid continental climate köppen dfb slightly moderated proximity lake superior.winters long snowy cold normally seeing maximum temperatures remaining °f °c days secondmost city contiguous us behind international falls falling °f − °c – nights bringing consistent snow cover late november late march.winter storms pass south east duluth often set easterly northeasterly flow leads occasional upslope lakeeffect snow events bring foot cm snow city areas miles km inland receive considerably less.average annual snowfall .
Duluth, Minnesota	in.lake steams winter moist lakewarmed air surface rises cools losing moisturecarrying capacity.duluth called airconditioned city summertime cooling effect lake superior.using data minimum monthly temperature national oceanic atmospheric administration developed comparative climatic data report.minimum average monthly low temperature .°f −.
Duluth, Minnesota	°c maximum average monthly low temperature .°f .°c duluth found fifthcoldest city united states.summers warm though nights generally cool daytime temperatures averaging °f °c july figure °f .°c inland.temperatures reach exceed °f °c average two days per year city officially seen °f °c temperatures three days july heat wave part dust bowl years.
Duluth, Minnesota	phrase cooler lake heard often weather forecasts summer especially days easterly wind expected.great local variations also common rapid change elevation nearly foot hilltop shoreside.often variation manifests snow higher elevations rain falls near lake superior.the record low temperature duluth − °f − °c set january record high temperature °f °c set july .average first freezing temperature occurs september last may though freezing temperature occurred august average window measurable ≥..
Duluth, Minnesota	cm snowfall october april .flooding june – duluth suffered worst flood history caused nine inches mm rain throughout course thirty hours.combined rocky sediments hard soil streams creeks city could handle massive rainfall.mayor ness declared state emergency asking national assistance.minnesota governor mark dayton declared state emergency sending national guard red cross assist relief efforts.
Duluth, Minnesota	several sinkholes opened throughout city causing massive property damage.several feet standing water accumulated many city alleys parking lots.streets turned rapids many roads split apart due heavy flow water.portion west skyline parkway tumbled hill isolating neighborhood.saint louis river duluths fond du lac neighborhood flooded highway isolating neighborhood well damaging roadways bridges.the lake superior zoo flooded early hours june barnyard animals drowned turkey vulture raven snowy owl.
Duluth, Minnesota	rising waters enabled polar bear escape exhibit though quickly found zoo grounds tranquilized moved safety.two harbor seals escaped zoo grounds later found grand avenue.three animals moved como park zoo saint paul temporary indeterminate amount time.polar bear transferred kansas city zoo late part american zoological associations aza species survival program breeding recommendation.tornado tornadoes uncommon duluth considering latitude location next climatemoderating lake superior.
Duluth, Minnesota	however august around tornado touched minnesota point.originally started waterspout superior bay two miles .km sky harbor airport briefly found way onto sandbars shoreline making true tornado.quickly dissipated soon touched superiors barkers island quickly dissipated.caused serious damage tornado categorized ef enhanced fujita scale.
Duluth, Minnesota	time national weather service reported duluths first tornado.investigation showed years ago may duluth miniature tornado collapsed garage damaged two area lake cabins.lasted five minutes.newstribune reported possible twister july swirling city wings torrential rain miniature tornado struck heart garynew duluth district shortly a.m. yesterday flattening row coal sheds frame garage causing general damage trees vicinity.united states weather bureau means officially recording twister high wind limited garynew duluth district.

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