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Stephanie Brown (character)	robin alias alvin draper takes stephanie lamaze classes two become even closer.robin moves keystone city last months pregnancy returns giving birth.robins help able cope placing child adoption.although painful experience feels best give daughter chance better life.soon robins father sends away boarding school couple forced long distance relationship made even complicated fact stephanie still know real name.time away robin befriends girl named star.
Stephanie Brown (character)	one night seeing go alley suspiciouslooking people robin decides follow costume.runs stephanie also patrol follows tracks star gang meeting erupts violent shootout.saves star stephanie convinced cheating refuses see afterward.shortly robin disappears gotham several days tibet secret mission.absence spoiler realizes still wants him.batman approaches spoiler order try discover tims whereabouts offers train her.
Stephanie Brown (character)	also tells robins real name betrayal batman drives wedge two.spoiler begins train batman batgirl briefly birds prey.stephanie tim knows reconcile.even batman decided crime fighter material tells hang costume birds prey stop mentoring still patrols secretly addition going occasional dates robin civilian identities.u.s. government comes stephanie mother tells cluemaster died working suicide squad stephanie shocked.temporarily cuts ties tim goes vigilante rampage hunting riddler fathers former associate try get better idea life.
Stephanie Brown (character)	eventually makes peace memory tim rekindle relationship.stephanie later injured tims battle occult hitman johnny warlock breaking leg.fit rage tim apparently beats warlock death though would later magically resurrected sends deep angry depression.refuses speak stephanie blames killing warlock.robin stephanie brown snaps tim drake depression father jack drake discovers robin.warlocks death tims father orders hang cape tim forced live normal life time.
Stephanie Brown (character)	one day school stephanie attempts surprise tim visit.arrives however catches female classmate darla aquista attempting seduce him.assuming tim unfaithful breaks ties tim angrily decides put attention elsewhere.creating homemade robin costume stephanie sneaks batcave demands batman train new robin.batman reluctantly accepts new robin puts several months intensive training makes better costume roughly design tims.
Stephanie Brown (character)	robin patrols batman thinks isnt skilled enough replace tim.batman later fires disobeys field.in effort prove worth batman stephanie steals one longterm plans dealing entirety gothams criminal underworld arranging meeting bring together.since plan predicated involvement matches malone unbeknownst persona batman uses infiltrate underworld quickly spins control.result citywide gang war stephanie captured black mask.tortured extensively black mask get information batman well learning enough information allow take control batmans plan assume command gangs himself.
Stephanie Brown (character)	although escapes makes way hospital severely injured supposedly dies hospital bed batman sits beside her.batman later finds evidence vital medical treatment could saved stephanies life denied doctor leslie thompkins.batman confronts doctor thompkins claims willfully withheld treatment send warning gothams youth intending follow stephanies example.posthumous appearances following death stephanie brown appears twice batgirl series.first time batgirl cassandra cain meets near death experience.batgirl – cassandra near death following battle mad dog stephanies ghost appears informs cassandra true parentage blüdhavens destruction.
Stephanie Brown (character)	titans east storyline glass case stephanies spoiler costume alongside cases clothing representing tim drakes parents conner kent room deathstroke uses torture robin.barbara gordon uses photos autopsy dissuade another young superheroine misfit using name batgirl.booster gold vol.rip hunters chalk board shows phrase trophy stephanie written it.gotham underground unidentified female spoiler costume later revealed stephanie shown working penguin.
Stephanie Brown (character)	spoiler returns events following resurrection ras al ghul robin follows trail female thief called violet.leads reunite friend ives social service classes st. camillus cathedral.also random encounters blonde student high school trigger memories stephanie.quest find violet followed character dressed spoiler.spoiler reveals robin trying warn violet led ambush.
Stephanie Brown (character)	believing someone else dressing spoiler robin falls violets trap spoiler addresses real name.after escaping ambush robin batman track woman bid force stop imitating stephanie.confronted removes mask reveals indeed stephanie leslie thompkins faked death.batman reveals doubts death leading erect memorial batcave.since secret identity compromised leslie faked death villains could use batman black mask done.living leslie africa alias stephanie performing volunteer work attack local witchhunting tribe prompted return crimefighting subsequently gotham.
Stephanie Brown (character)	stephanie reunites mother enrolls tims high school rejoins batfamily.before revealed robin batman stephanie works freelance penguin gets information helps gang wars.abruptly stops aiding loses advantage leaves gotham.sends penguin note apologizing leaving needed most.during batman r.i.p.storyline stephanie played role ally betrayer robin.following batmans disappearance descent madness robin attempts balance search bruce attempts maintain control gothams criminals.
Stephanie Brown (character)	tim asks stephanie help locate batman anticipated downfall batman ordered stephanie hinder investigation believing tim needs learn handle things own.tim discovers deception pulls away relationship stephanie.unbeknownst tim batman also ordered stephanie make robin stronger hero challenging stephanie hires scarab assassin encountered robin.ordering scarab use nonlethal methods also begins working tims enemy general eventually tries kill her.martial arts skills able save getting shot head—she instead shot shoulder escaping time save tims life scarab goes rogue.the general using identity anarky decides plunge gotham anarchy starting citywide gang war stephanie aids robin keeping order defeating general.
Stephanie Brown (character)	afterward robin reveals aware stephanie worked villains help become better robin batmans orders.notes actions successful methods questionable.longer love stephanie robin orders abandon spoiler identity longer trust her.in batman outsiders vol.batgirl recruits spoiler vigilante new network heroes replace batman missing batman r.i.p.storyline.
Stephanie Brown (character)	able turn completely invisible fighting vigilante though fabian nicieza current writer robin title said knew nothing it.however gotham gazette batman alive nicieza incorporates new ability robin stating stole technology make invisible.in teen titans vol.stephanie appeared one potential candidates help fill miss martians vacant seat teams roster.drawn fight bombshell mocked accused coward.end robin revealed stephanie come join titans instead help preparations leave team.in red robin series stephanie dick grayson new batman following bruce waynes apparent death become concerned tim dick transfers mantle robin tim damian wayne.
Stephanie Brown (character)	furious tim comes believe bruce still alive goes search guise red robin.cuts communication batfamily teen titans stephanie approaches tim private base.action however infuriates tim more.kicking chest sneaks reiterates cannot trust orders follow mission leading return gotham.batgirl stephanie brown graduates high school offpanel student gotham university still living mother.
Stephanie Brown (character)	cassandra cain apparently become disillusioned following bruce waynes apparent death gives stephanie batgirl costume.operating new batgirl cains costume stephanie confronted barbara gordon notified activities dick grayson.barbara tried reason stephanie get stop vigilante still saw stephanie impetuous youth remembering role causing citywide gang war neardeath experience black masks hands.however new type recreational drug hitting streets gotham known thrill discover manufactured scarecrow second black mask two women need stop drug trade.stephanie eventually confronts defeats scarecrow impressing barbara proving maturity responsibility face fears failures.
Stephanie Brown (character)	barbara decides allow stephanie continue batgirl.barbara later takes job assistant professor stephanies school order continue keep contact her.barbara also designs costume stephanie replace cassandras tattered costume incorporating various elements spoiler previous batgirl costumes.as stephanie taking steps balance doublelife college student vigilante barbara makes test run stephanies batsuit includes monitoring stephanies vital signs allowing women communicate wireless links.warmup minor criminals stephanie finds livewire causes blackout city draining power.fortunately stephanies costume insulated able overpower villainess.
Stephanie Brown (character)	stephanie also develops attraction gotham pds newest young recruit transferred coast city pd detective nicholas st. nick gage also attracted batgirl.however budding romance complicated commissioner gordon trying set young detective blind date barbara.commissioner finds mutual attraction unsettling despite fact batgirls identity yet unknown gordon knows superheroine still teenager.activities also led barbara conflict new dynamic duo batman dick grayson robin damian wayne.however even though stephanie damian initially get along intrigued motivations vigilante.while meeting classmate francisco stephanie left unconscious shot trying protect group kidnappers.
Stephanie Brown (character)	stephanie survives gunshot wound later revealed franciscos real name fernando garcia son real estate mogul whose fathers unethical business practices led becoming target.garcias abduction stephanie barbara join forces batman robin gotham rogues involved crime including roulette.rescue garcia dick seeing stephanies fight roxy rocket although still completely approving batgirl realizes reminds barbara role allows barbara continue training stephanie.stephanie also receives new stateoftheart transportation known ricochet based batmans batcycle designs barbara.stephanie later asked barbara shut vigilante operations john raymond wealthy young superhero giving powerful exosuits number people hopes creating nationwide army crimefighters dubbed web hosts.convinced john could keep web hosts line stephanie barbara agreed allow continue vigilante actions also upgrade equipment using.in first part red robinbatgirl crossover story collision tim drake returns gotham proof bruce wayne still alive also lost time.
Stephanie Brown (character)	time immortal terrorist ras al ghul begins attack destroy everything wayne family built response tim crippling league assassins organization quest.tim returns batcave seek current batmans aid find stephanie batgirl.confrontation stephanie tim reluctantly work together protect ras al ghuls possible targets.saving leslie thompkins league tim attempts rekindle stephanies old romance.rejects advances prudence another member ras al ghuls men interrupts assignment target new batgirl.
Stephanie Brown (character)	stephanie however bested assassin combat.prudence subsequently reveals true allegiance tim apparently overcomes supposed loyalty demons head.narrowly escaping tims safehouse league assassins boobytrapped three arrived encounter members another organization assassins council spiders.league assassins eventually defeated tim thwarts ras al ghuls plan strategically bruce waynes made disappearance.stephanie would also show mentors nemesis calculator daughter wendy harris rescue barbara gotham villain injects nanites citizens heroes city controls them.in another storyline stephanie made cameo appearance member assault team led dick grayson go new black mask.she later appears alongside batwoman fellow teen superheroines stargirl supergirl lightning part allfemale team created wonder woman repel professor ivos fauxalien invasion washington d.c.after bruce waynes return revealed true reason cassandra cain handed batgirl mantle stephanie acting mentors order event death disappearance.around time lesson arc stephanie forced deal mysterious group known order scythe briefly framed murdering student campus.final adventure batgirl stephanie confronts father ensnared sample black mercy.
Stephanie Brown (character)	stephanie experiences number future events including timetravelling adventure cassandra barbara royal flush gang attacking college graduation eventually training new batgirl girl named nell.ultimately breaks free black mercy confides barbara despite wonderful things experienced fantasy world preferred live now.during convergence storyline stephanie still uses batgirl title chosen champion version gotham city must fight citys champions survive.new new reboot dc universe stephanie browns history completely removed continuity.makes first appearance new mainstream continuity spoiler batman vol.april sneak peek future batman eternal series seen tied vault selina kyle kyle stating one knows stop coming next gotham.
Stephanie Brown (character)	batman eternal july stephanie purpleclad teen stumbles meeting father cluemaster criminal associates.manages escape murderous plot course series works spoil fathers plans becoming vigilante calling spoiler.first merely attempts spread news cluemasters plans internet works actively costumed crimefighter capture foil him.following batman eternal storyline brown spoiler helped teens fight jokers chaos detective comics endgame sought training selina kyle eiko hasigawa catwoman.aftermath gang war title barbara gordon took stephanie wing time.
Stephanie Brown (character)	stephanie also appeared spoiler fighting supervillain mother alongside robins batman robin eternal.dc rebirth dc rebirth relaunch dc comics stephanie recruited batmans emergency response team headed batwoman along red robin orphan cassandra cain clayface.red robin killed jacob kanes colony drones stephanie becomes depressed questions purpose world wants live victim syndicate storyline.story ends challenging rest team threatening expose secret identities dont give vigilantism.disarming refusing offer leaves team tells batman gives cowl shell standing way.
Stephanie Brown (character)	stephanie actively opposes batman allies field still fighting criminals like wrath.also appears falling influence anarky attempting build literally underground society people impacted batmans activities.eventually stephanie sees anarkys lies helps batman apprehend him.however walks away batman tell tim drake still alive.after discovering tim alive briefly rejoins team help stop victim syndicate leaves death clayface breaks tim since consistently dishonest intent remain red robin instead attending ivy university.ulysses hadrian armstrong general infects tim omac nanites threatens control gotham batman cassandra ask stephanie help reluctantly agrees.
Stephanie Brown (character)	using drones leads infiltration generals belfry .stronghold hacks system shut down.evil ai brother eye confronts images past alternate timeline batman tim drake future appeared mocking lesser timeline robin batgirl.instead cast steph laughs cracks timeline history brother eye general using manipulate tim showing truth convincing destroy omacs himself.dust settles tim decides investigate divergence timelines steph discovered joins quest.
Stephanie Brown (character)	batman joker war zone joker war stephanie cassandra fight hench master bludhaven.end story stephanie reclaim bat symbol.stephanie also receives new costume amalgamation spoiler outfit previous batgirl suit.infinite frontier barbara gordon – primarily operating oracle – explains huntress stephanie cassandra share batgirl title reserves right occasionally suit batgirl future.powers abilities like batman family stephanie brown superhuman powers.
Stephanie Brown (character)	trained extensively batgirl batman birds prey martial arts acrobatics strength training interrogation detective skills.carries belt similar used gotham vigilantes containing grappling hook tracking devices various crimefighting paraphernalia.gotham underground penguin gave unknown device allowed become completely invisible.according tim drake ability achieved stolen technology.according batgirl writer bryan q. miller ability become invisible incorporated stephanies batgirl costume.after stephanie took batgirl identity barbara gordon designed new costume stephanie line rest batfamilys.
Stephanie Brown (character)	equipped kevlar carbon fiberreinforced polymer protect ballistic flame electrical attacks.stephanies batsuit also carries wireless relay within cowl permitting remain contact barbara.suit also allows barbara monitor stephanies vital signs.stephanie also uses collapsible bo staff similar one tim drake uses.implied trained cassandra cain using assuming batgirl mantle.
Stephanie Brown (character)	versions alternate world without young justice timeline stephanie robin instead tim drake.a toddler version stephanie appears tiny titans.close friend cassandra cain barbara gordon.stephanie appears issue allnew batman brave bold phantom stranger summons robins including dick grayson tim drake jason todd damian wayne carrie kelley save batman.issue tim briefly puts hand shoulder comfort nod comic relationship.nightwing notes shes headstrong believes tim balance out.end comic madame xanadu shows stranger similar team batgirls eras including stephanie cassandra barbara bette kane.as part new futures end september tiein event stephanie along cassandra cain tiffany fox serves part league batgirls leadership barbara gordon going bete noir new futures end batgirl .
Stephanie Brown (character)	speaks quippy dialogue seen batgirl title uses gooperang one trademark weapons run.in final issue alternate universe series dc bombshells united catwoman tells bruce wayne girl purple spoils best laid plans crooks villains gotham.wonder comics young justice introduces earththree version stephanie brown serves worlds batwoman.despite generally reversed moralities earththree stephanie appears hero.media television stephanie brown made animated debut young justice invasion voiced mae whitman.episode dawn civilian abducted tigress reach rescued team aboard ship.stephanie brown later appears spoiler young justice outsiders season become member team seasons year timeskip.
Stephanie Brown (character)	however batman green arrow quit justice league stephanie along tim arrowette leave team batman forming batman inc. stephanie joins tim arrowette orphan mission stop mad hatter.end season batman dissolves batman inc. rejoins league tim stephanie arrowette rejoining team.morgan kohan appears stephanie brown second season batwoman debut episode i’ll give clue.marks characters first liveaction appearance.version character also incorporates elements barbara gordon attended mit.five years ago stephanie sent anonymous tip thenrookie crows agent sophie moore apprehended cluemaster.
Stephanie Brown (character)	prepare one clue challenges sophie cluemaster wrote cryptograms stephanies chest shoulders arms placed box opened targets hit certain order antidote poison nearby.freed luke fox enlisted sophie moore translate cryptogram her.stephanie later knocked luke went go confront father.outside cluemasters old home stephanie admitted one tipped sophie moore years ago causing cluemaster use knockout gas her.stephanie car cluemaster started fill gas luke shows breaks window.
Stephanie Brown (character)	cluemaster loaded ambulance doctors stating make full recovery luke tells stephanie find good use talents someday.kisses luke challenges figure phone number.a photograph stephanie brown appears first episode third season titans.dick finds picture wearing karate uniform among batmans file possible candidates new robin.video games lego pieces unlocked create spoiler character creation feature lego batman videogame obtaining minikits villain chapters.spoiler appears via dlc lego batman beyond gotham.spoiler appears dlc character lego dc supervillains.collected editions stephanie brown spoilerrobinissues collected tpbhc formatdetective comics vol.
Stephanie Brown (character)	–robin vol – – – – – – – – – – – – –batgirl vol.– –young justice vol.– batman vol.nightwing vol.batman outsiders vol supergirl vol.
Art of the United Kingdom	convergence vol.convergence batgirl vol.detective comics endgame vol.stephanie brown batgirl see also character listslist batman supporting charactersconcepts themesgirl heroesgirl powerportrayal women comicswomen warriors literature culturewomen refrigerators references external links stephanie brown dc database dc comics wikispoiler comic book db archived originalrobin stephanie brown comic book db archived originalbatgirl stephanie brown comic book db archived originalgirlwonder.org host project girl wonderspoiler unofficial guide dc universeth century britain began reclaim leading place england previously played european art middle ages especially strong portraiture landscape art.increased british prosperity time led greatly increased production fine art decorative arts latter often exported.romantic period resulted diverse talents including painters william blake j. m. w. turner john constable samuel palmer.victorian period saw great diversity art far bigger quantity created before.much victorian art critical favour interest concentrated preraphaelites innovative movements end th century.the training artists long neglected began improve th century private government initiatives greatly expanded th century.public exhibitions later opening museums brought art wider public especially london.
Art of the United Kingdom	th century publicly displayed religious art became popular virtual absence since reformation countries movements preraphaelite brotherhood glasgow school contended established academic art.the british contribution early modernist art relatively small since world war ii british artists made considerable impact contemporary art especially figurative work britain remains key centre increasingly globalized art world.background oldest surviving british art includes stonehenge around bc tin gold works art produced beaker people around bc.la tène style celtic art reached british isles rather late earlier bc developed particular insular celtic style seen objects battersea shield number bronze mirrorbacks decorated intricate patterns curves spirals trumpetshapes.british isles celtic decorative style seen survived throughout roman period shown objects like staffordshire moorlands pan resurgence celtic motifs blended germanic interlace mediterranean elements christian insular art.brief spectacular flowering countries form united kingdom th th centuries works book kells book lindisfarne.
Art of the United Kingdom	insular style influential across northern europe especially later anglosaxon art although received new continental influences.the english contribution romanesque art gothic art considerable especially illuminated manuscripts monumental sculpture churches though countries essentially provincial th century britain struggled keep developments painting continent.examples topquality english painting walls panel survived including westminster retable wilton diptych survivals paintings westminster abbey palace westminster.the protestant reformations england scotland especially destructive existing religious art production new work virtually ceased.artists tudor court mostly imported europe setting pattern would continue th century.portraiture elizabeth ignored contemporary european renaissance models create iconic images border naive art.portraitists hans holbein anthony van dyck distinguished influential large number artists spent extended periods britain generally eclipsing local talents like nicolas hilliard painter portrait miniatures robert peake elder william larkin william dobson john michael wright scot mostly worked london.landscape painting yet little developed britain time union tradition marine art established father son called willem van de velde leading dutch maritime painters moved london middle third anglodutch war.
Art of the United Kingdom	early th century socalled acts union came middle long period domination london sir godfrey kneller german portraitist eventually succeeded principal court painter dutch sir peter lely whose style adopted enormous formulaic output greatly varying quality repeated army lesser painters.counterpart edinburgh sir john baptist medina born brussels spanish parents died union took place one last batch scottish knights created.medina first worked london midcareer moved less competitive environment edinburgh dominated portraiture scottish elite.however union movement direction scottish aristocrats resigned paying portraits painted london even scottish painters medinas pupil william aikman moved allan ramsay.there alternative direct tradition british portraiture lely kneller tracing back william dobson german dutch gerard soest trained john riley works firmly attributed turn trained jonathan richardson fine artist trained thomas hudson trained joshua reynolds joseph wright derby.richardson also trained notable irish portraitist period charles jervas enjoyed social financial success london despite clear limitations artist.an exception dominance lower genres painting sir james thornhill – first last significant english painter huge baroque allegorical decorative schemes first native painter knighted.
Art of the United Kingdom	bestknown work greenwich hospital blenheim palace cupola saint pauls cathedral london.drawings show taste strongly drawn realism direction soninlaw william hogarth pursue largely overridden finished works greenwich took heart careful list objections arise plain representation kings landing fact modern way dress painted conventional baroque glorification.like hogarth played nationalist card promoting eventually beat sebastiano ricci enough commissions team retreated france giovanni antonio pellegrini already left .leading foreign painters allegoric schemes antonio verrio louis laguerre died respectively thornhill field although end life commissions grand schemes dried changes taste.from new hanoverian dynasty conducted far less ostentatious court largely withdrew patronage arts necessary portraits.fortunately booming british economy able supply aristocratic mercantile wealth replace court london.william hogarth great presence second quarter century whose art successful achieving particular english character vividly moralistic scenes contemporary life full satire pathos attuned tastes prejudices protestant middleclass bought engraved versions paintings huge numbers.
Art of the United Kingdom	subjects issued prints hogarth first significant british printmaker still best known.many works series four scenes best known harlots progress rakes progress marriage àlamode mids.fact although briefly left england propaganda asserted englishness often attacked old masters background printmaking closely aware continental art british painting apparently ability quickly absorb lessons painters meant aware made use continental art contemporaries.like many later painters hogarth wanted achieve success history painting grand manner attempts successful little regarded.portraits mostly middleclass sitters shown apparent realism reflected sympathy flattery included fashionable form conversation piece recently introduced france philippe mercier remain favourite britain taken artists francis hayman though usually abandoned artist could get good single figure commissions.there recognition even rest europe given lack british artists training artists needed extended beyond workshop established masters various attempts made set academies starting kneller help pellegrini great queen street.academy taken thornhill seems become inactive time john vanderbank louis chéron set academy .
Art of the United Kingdom	last long thornhill tried house little success.hogarth inherited equipment used start st. martins lane academy enduring eventually absorbed royal academy .hogarth also helped solve problem lack exhibition venues london arranging shows foundling hospital .the scottish portraitist allan ramsay worked edinburgh moving london .made visits three years italy beginning end career anticipated joshua reynolds bringing relaxed version grand manner british portraiture combined sensitive handling best work generally agreed female sitters.main london rival midcentury reynolds made reputation reynolds master stodgy thomas hudson.john wootton active death leading sporting painter day based capital english horse racing newmarket producing large numbers portraits horses also battle scenes conversation pieces hunting riding setting.
Art of the United Kingdom	begun life page family dukes beaufort sent rome acquired classicising landscape style based gaspard dughet claude used pure landscape paintings well views country houses equine subjects.introduced alternative various dutch flemish artists previously set prevailing landscape style britain intermediary artists george lambert first british painter base career landscape subjects greatly influence british artists gainsborough.samuel scott best native marine townscape artists though latter specialization could match visiting canaletto england nine years whose venetian views favourite souvenir grand tour.antiquary engraver george vertue figure london art scene period copious notebooks adapted published horace walpole anecdotes painting england remains principal source period.from arrival london flemish sculptor john michael rysbrack leader field arrival louisfrançois roubiliac rococo style highly effective busts small figures though following decade also commissioned larger works.also produced models chelsea porcelain factory founded private enterprise sought compete continental factories mostly established rulers.
Art of the United Kingdom	roubiliacs style formed leading native sculptor sir henry cheere brother john specialized statues gardens.the strong london silversmithing trade dominated descendants huguenot refugees like paul de lamerie paul crespin nicholas sprimont courtauld family well georges wickes.orders received far away courts russia portugal though english styles still led paris.manufacture silk spitalfields london also traditional huguenot business late silk design dominated surprising figure anna maria garthwaite parsons daughter lincolnshire emerged age designer largely floral patterns rococo styles.unlike france germany english adoption rococo style patchy rather wholehearted resistance nationalist grounds led richard boyle rd earl burlington william kent promoted styles interior design furniture match palladianism architecture produced together also beginning influential british tradition landscape garden according nikolaus pevsner influential english innovations art.frenchborn engraver hubertfrançois gravelot london key figure importing rococo taste book illustrations ornament prints craftsmen follow.late th century modern popular mind english art – — today referred classical age english painting — dominated sir joshua reynolds – george stubbs – thomas gainsborough – joseph wright derby –.
Art of the United Kingdom	time reynolds considered dominant figure gainsborough highly reputed stubbs seen mere painter animals viewed far less significant figure many painters today littleknown forgotten.period saw continued rising prosperity britain british artists english painters among wealthiest men country names familiar newspaper readers quarrels cabals talk town subjects known everyone displays printshop windows according gerald reitlinger.reynolds returned long visit italy quickly established reputation fashionable london portraitist long formidable figure society public leader arts britain.studied classical modern italian art compositions discreetly reuse models seen travels.could convey wide range moods emotions whether heroic military men young women often unite background figure dramatic way.the society encouragement arts manufactures commerce founded principally provide location exhibitions.reynolds leader founding rival society artists great britain artists control.
Art of the United Kingdom	continued despite founding royal academy arts immediately became important exhibiting organization important school london.reynolds first president holding office death .published discourses first delivered students regarded first major writing art english set aspiration style match classical grandeur classical sculpture high renaissance painting.after academy established reynolds portraits became overly classicizing often distant late returned intimate style perhaps influenced success thomas gainsborough settled london working ipswich bath.reynolds practice aristocratic portraits seem exactly matched talents gainsborough forced follow market work might well developed pure landscape painter portraitist informal style many portraits family.continued paint pure landscapes largely pleasure later years full recognition landscapes came th century.
Art of the United Kingdom	main influences french portraits dutch landscapes rather italian famous brilliant light touch brushwork.george romney also became prominent active though fallingoff last years.portraits mostly characterful flattering images dignified society figures developed obsession flighty young emma hamilton painting sixty times extravagant poses.work especially soughtafter american collectors early th century many american museums.end period generation succeeded younger portraitists including john hoppner sir william beechey young gilbert stuart realized mature style returned america.the welsh painter richard wilson returned london seven years italy next two decades developed sublime landscape style adapting francoitalian tradition claude gaspard dughet british subjects.
Art of the United Kingdom	though much admired like gainsborough landscapes hard sell sometimes resorted reynolds complained common strategem turning history paintings adding small figures doubled price £.continued paint scenes set italy well england wales death came large numbers artists began travel wales later lake district scotland search mountainous views oil paintings watercolours starting long period popularity britain professionals amateurs.paul sandby francis towne john warwick smith john robert cozens among leading specialist painters clergyman amateur artist william gilpin important writer stimulated popularity amateur painting picturesque works alexander cozens recommended forming random ink blots landscape compositions—even constable tried technique.history painting grand manner continued prestigious form art though easiest sell reynolds made several attempts unsuccessful hogarths.unheroic nature modern dress seen major obstacle depiction contemporary scenes scottish gentlemanartist art dealer gavin hamilton preferred classical scenes well painting based eastern travels european figures bypassed problem wearing arab dress.spent adult life based rome least much influence neoclassicism europe britain.
Art of the United Kingdom	irishman james barry influence blake difficult career spent years cycle progress human culture great room royal society arts.successful history painters afraid buttons wigs americans settled london benjamin west john singleton copley though one successful works watson shark able mostly avoid showing rescue drowning.smaller scale subjects literature also popular pioneered francis hayman one first paint scenes shakespeare joseph highmore series illustrating novel pamela.end period boydell shakespeare gallery ambitious project paintings prints illustrating bard become exposing limitations contemporary english history painting.joseph wright derby mainly portrait painter also one first artists depict industrial revolution well developing cross conversation piece history painting works like experiment bird air pump philosopher lecturing orrery c. like many works lit candlelight giving strong chiaroscuro effect.paintings recording scenes theatre another subgenre painted german johann zoffany among others.
Art of the United Kingdom	zoffany painted portraits conversation pieces also spent two years india painting english nabobs local scenes expanding british empire played increasing role british art.training art considered useful skill military sketch maps plans many british officers made first western images often watercolour scenes places around world.india company style developed hybrid form western indian art produced indians british market.thomas rowlandson produced watercolours prints satirizing british life mostly avoided politics.master political caricature sold individually print shops often acting publishers also either handcoloured plain james gillray.emphasis portraitpainting british art entirely due vanity sitters.
Art of the United Kingdom	large collectors market portrait prints mostly reproductions paintings often mounted albums.midcentury great growth expensive effective reproductions mezzotint portraits paintings special demand collectors early proof states letter inscriptions added printmakers obligingly printed growing numbers.this period marked one high points british decorative arts.around midcentury many porcelain factories opened including bow london provinces lowestoft worcester royal crown derby liverpool wedgwood spode following .started small concerns lasting decades others still survive today.end period british porcelain services commissioned foreign royalty british manufacturers especially adept pursuing rapidly expanding international middleclass market developing bone china transferprinted wares well handpainted true porcelain.the three leading furniture makers thomas chippendale – thomas sheraton – george hepplewhite – varied styles achieved lasting fame mainly authors pattern books used makers britain abroad.
Art of the United Kingdom	fact far clear last two named ever ran actual workshops though chippendale certainly successful call interior design unlike france britain abandoned guild system chippendale able employ specialists crafts needed complete redecoration.period rococo chinoiserie gave way neoclassicism scottish architect interior designer robert adam – leading new style.th century romantics late th century early th century characterized romantic movement british art includes joseph wright derby james ward samuel palmer richard parkes bonington john martin perhaps radical period british art also producing william blake – john constable – j.m.w.turner – later two arguably internationally influential british artists.turners style based italianate tradition although never saw italy forties passed considerable changes final wild almost abstract landscapes explored effects light profound influence impressionists later movements.
Art of the United Kingdom	constable normally painted pure landscapes genre figures style based northern european traditions like turner sixfooters intended make striking impact history painting.carefully prepared using studies fullsize oil sketches whereas turner notorious finishing exhibition pieces already hanging show freely adjusting dominate surrounding works tightlypacked hangs day.blakes visionary style minority taste lifetime influenced younger group ancients samuel palmer john linnell edward calvert george richmond gathered country shoreham kent producing intense lyrical pastoral idylls conditions poverty.went conventional artistic careers palmers early work entirely forgotten early th century.blake palmer became significant influence modernist artists th century seen among others painting british artists dora carrington paul nash graham sutherland.blake also enormous influence beat poets counterculture s.thomas lawrence already leading portraitist start th century able give romantic dash portraits high society leaders europe gathered congress vienna napoleonic wars.
Art of the United Kingdom	henry raeburn significant portraitist since union remain based edinburgh throughout career indication increasing scottish prosperity.david wilkie took traditional road south achieving great success subjects country life hybrid genre history scenes chelsea pensioners reading waterloo dispatch .john flaxman thoroughgoing neoclassical english artist.beginning sculptor became best known many spare outline drawings classical scenes often illustrating literature reproduced prints.imitated effects classicalstyle reliefs also produced.germanswiss henry fuseli also produced work linear graphic style narrative scenes often english literature intensely romantic highly dramatic.
Art of the United Kingdom	victorian art preraphaelite brotherhood prb achieved considerable influence foundation paintings concentrated religious literary genre subjects executed colourful minutely detailed style rejecting loose painterly brushwork tradition represented sir sloshua reynolds.prb artists included john everett millais william holman hunt dante gabriel rossetti ford madox brown never officially member figures edward burnejones john william waterhouse later much influenced aspects ideas designer william morris.morris advocated return handcraftsmanship decorative arts industrial manufacture rapidly applied crafts.efforts make beautiful objects affordable even free everyone led wallpaper tile designs defining victorian aesthetic instigating arts crafts movement.the preraphaelites like turner supported authoritative art critic john ruskin fine amateur artist.technical innovation traditional victorian adherence history painting highest form art subject matter thoroughly tune victorian taste indeed everything publishers steel engravings welcomed enabling merge easily mainstream later careers.while preraphaelites turbulent divided reception popular expensive painters period included edwin landseer specialized sentimental animal subjects favourites queen victoria prince albert.
Art of the United Kingdom	later part century artists could earn large sums selling reproduction rights paintings print publishers works landseer especially monarch glen portrait highland stag among popular.like millais bubbles used packaging advertisements decades brands whisky soap respectively.during late victorian era britain academic paintings enormously large lord leighton dutchborn lawrence almatadema enormously popular often featuring lightly clad beauties exotic classical settings allegorical works g. f. watts matched victorian sense high purpose.classical ladies edward poynter albert moore wore clothes met rather less success.william powell frith painted highly detailed scenes social life typically including classes society include comic moral elements acknowledged debt hogarth though tellingly different work.for artists royal academy summer exhibition essential platform reviewed huge length press often alternated ridicule extravagant praise discussing works.ultimate rare accolade rail put front painting protect eager crowd happened wilkies chelsea pensioners friths derby day salon dor homburg luke fildes casual ward see below.
Art of the United Kingdom	great number artists laboured year year hope hit often working manners talent really suited trope exemplified suicide benjamin haydon friend keats dickens better writer painter leaving blood splashed unfinished king alfred first british jury.british history common subject middle ages elizabeth mary queen scots english civil war especially popular sources subjects.many painters mentioned elsewhere painted historical subjects including millais boyhood raleigh many others ford madox brown cromwell farm david wilkie watts frith west bonington turner earlier decades.londonbased irishman daniel maclise charles west cope painted scenes new palace westminster.lady jane grey like mary queen scots female whose sufferings attracted many painters though none quite matched execution lady jane grey one many british historical subjects frenchman paul delaroche.painters prided increasing accuracy period settings terms costume objects studying collections new victoria albert museum books scorning breezy approximations earlier generations artists.victorian painting developed hogarthian social subject packed moralizing detail tradition illustrating scenes literature range types genre painting many figures others large crowded scenes like friths bestknown works.
Art of the United Kingdom	holman hunts awakening conscience augustus eggs set past present first type dealing fallen women perennial victorian concern.peter conrad points paintings designed read like novels whose meaning emerged viewer done work deciphering it.anecdotal scenes lighter mood tending towards captionless punch cartoons.towards end th century problem picture left details narrative action deliberately ambiguous inviting viewer speculate using evidence front supplying final answer artists learned smile enigmatically asked.sometimes provoked discussion sensitive social issues typically involving women might hard raise directly.enormously popular newspapers ran competitions readers supply meaning painting.many artists participated revival original artistic printmaking usually known etching revival although prints many techniques also made.
Art of the United Kingdom	began continued fallout wall street crash brought collapse high prices fashionable artists achieving.british orientalism though common france period many specialists including john frederick lewis lived nine years cairo david roberts scot made lithographs travels middle east italy nonsense writer edward lear continual traveller reached far ceylon richard dadd.holman hunt also travelled palestine obtain authentic settings biblical pictures.frenchman james tissot fled london fall paris commune divided time scenes high society social events huge series biblical illustrations made watercolour reproductive publication.frederick goodall specialized scenes ancient egypt.larger paintings concerned social conditions poor tended concentrate rural scenes misery human figures least offset landscape.painters included frederick walker luke fildes although made name applicants admission casual ward see frank holl george clausen german hubert von herkomer.william bell scott friend rossettis painted historical scenes types work also one artists depict scenes heavy industry.
Art of the United Kingdom	memoirs useful source period one several artists employed period greatly expanded system government art schools driven administrator henry cole inventor christmas card employed richard redgrave edward poynter richard burchett scottish designer christopher dresser many others.burchett headmaster south kensington schools royal college art gradually replaced royal academy school leading british art school though around start th century slade school fine art produced many forwardlooking artists.the royal academy initially means conservative restrictive paris salon preraphaelites submissions exhibition accepted although like everyone else complained positions paintings given.especially welcomed liverpool academy arts one largest regional exhibiting organizations royal scottish academy founded opened grand new building s. alternative london locations like british institution conservatism royal academy gradually increased despite efforts lord leighton president new spaces opened notably grosvenor gallery bond street became home aesthetic movement.new english art club exhibited many artists impressionist tendencies initially using egyptian hall opposite royal academy also hosted many exhibitions foreign art.american portrait painter john singer sargent – spent working career europe maintained studio london died .alfred sisley french birth british nationality painted france one impressionists walter sickert philip wilson steer start careers also strongly influenced despite dealer paul durandruel bringing many exhibitions london movement made little impact england decades later.
Art of the United Kingdom	members newlyn school landscapes genre scenes adopted quasiimpressionist technique others used realist traditional levels finish.the late th century also saw decadent movement france british aesthetic movement.britishbased american painter james abbott mcneill whistler aubrey beardsley former preraphaelites dante gabriel rossetti edward burnejones associated movements late burnejones beardsley admired abroad representing nearest british approach european symbolism.james mcneill whistler sued art critic john ruskin libel critic condemned painting nocturne black gold falling rocket.ruskin accused whistler asking two hundred guineas throwing pot paint publics face.jury reached verdict favor whistler awarded single farthing nominal damages court costs split.
Art of the United Kingdom	cost case together huge debts building residence white house tite street chelsea designed e. w. godwin – bankrupted whistler may resulting auction work collections house.stansky notes irony fine art society london organized collection pay ruskins legal costs supported etching stones venice exhibiting series helped recoup whistlers costs.scottish art regaining adequate home market allowing develop distinctive character glasgow boys one expression straddling impressionism painting art nouveau japonism celtic revival design architect designer charles rennie mackintosh bestknown member.painters included thomas millie dow george henry joseph crawhall james guthrie.new printing technology brought great expansion book illustration illustrations childrens books providing much best remembered work period.specialized artists included randolph caldecott walter crane kate greenaway beatrix potter.the experience military political economic power rise british empire led specific drive artistic technique taste sensibility united kingdom.british people used art illustrate knowledge command natural world whilst permanent settlers british north america australasia south africa embarked upon search distinctive artistic expression appropriate sense national identity.
Art of the United Kingdom	empire centre rather margins history british art.the enormous variety massive production various forms british decorative art period complex easily summarized.victorian taste various movements last decades arts crafts generally poorly regarded today much fine work produced much money made.william burges augustus pugin architects committed gothic revival expanded designing furniture metalwork tiles objects media.enormous boom regothicising fittings medieval churches fitting new ones style especially stained glass industry revived effective extinction.revival furniture painted images particular feature top end market.from opening london department store liberty co. especially associated imported far eastern decorative items british goods new styles end th century.
Art of the United Kingdom	charles voysey architect also much design work textiles wallpaper furniture media bringing arts crafts movement art nouveau beyond continued design s. a. h. mackmurdo similar figure.th century many respects victorian era continued outbreak world war royal academy became increasingly ossified unmistakably late victorian figure frank dicksee appointed president .photography pictorialism aimed achieve artistic indeed painterly effects linked ring contained leading practitioners.american john singer sargent successful london portraitist start th century john lavery augustus john william orpen rising figures.johns sister gwen john lived france intimate portraits relatively little appreciated decades death.
Art of the United Kingdom	british attitudes modern art polarized end th century.modernist movements cherished vilified artists critics impressionism initially regarded many conservative critics subversive foreign influence became fully assimilated british art earlyth century.irish artist jack butler yeats – based dublin romantic painter symbolist expressionist.vorticism brief coming together number modernist artists years immediately members included wyndham lewis sculptor sir jacob epstein david bomberg malcolm arbuthnot lawrence atkinson american photographer alvin langdon coburn frederick etchells french sculptor henri gaudierbrzeska cuthbert hamilton christopher nevinson william roberts edward wadsworth jessica dismorr helen saunders dorothy shakespear.early th century also includes sitwells artistic circle bloomsbury group group mostly english writers intellectuals philosophers artists including painter dora carrington painter art critic roger fry art critic clive bell painter vanessa bell painter duncan grant among others.although fashionable time work visual arts looks less impressive today.
Art of the United Kingdom	british modernism remain somewhat tentative world war ii though figures ben nicholson kept touch european developments.walter sickert camden town group developed english style impressionism postimpressionism strong strand social documentary including harold gilman spencer frederick gore charles ginner robert bevan malcolm drummond lucien pissarro son french impressionist painter camille pissarro.colouring often notoriously drab scottish colourists indeed mostly used bright light colour like samuel peploe john duncan fergusson living france find suitable subjects.initially inspired sir william mctaggart – scottish landscape painter associated impressionism.the reaction horrors first world war prompted return pastoral subjects represented paul nash eric ravilious mainly printmaker.stanley spencer painted mystical works well landscapes sculptor printmaker typographer eric gill produced elegant simple forms style related art deco.euston road school group progressive realists late including influential teacher william coldstream.
Art of the United Kingdom	surrealism artists including john tunnard birmingham surrealists briefly popular influencing roland penrose henry moore.stanley william hayter british painter printmaker associated surrealism onward abstract expressionism.hayter founded legendary atelier studio paris.since death known atelier contrepoint.hayter became one influential printmakers th century.
Art of the United Kingdom	fashionable portraitists included meredith frampton hardfaced art deco classicism augustus john sir alfred munnings horses involved.munnings president royal academy – led jeering hostility modernism.photographers period include bill brandt angus mcbean diarist cecil beaton.henry moore emerged world war ii britains leading sculptor promoted alongside victor pasmore william scott barbara hepworth festival britain.london school figurative painters including francis bacon lucian freud frank auerbach leon kossoff michael andrews received widespread international recognition painters john minton john craxton characterized neoromantics.graham sutherland romantic landscapist john piper prolific popular lithographer sculptor elisabeth frink industrial townscapes l.s.
Art of the United Kingdom	lowry also contributed strong figurative presence postwar british art.according william grimes new york times lucien freud contemporaries transformed figure painting th century.paintings like girl white dog freud put pictorial language traditional european painting service antiromantic confrontational style portraiture stripped bare sitter’s social facade.ordinary people — many friends — stared wideeyed canvas vulnerable artist’s ruthless inspection.th venice biennale group young british sculptors including kenneth armitage reg butler lynn chadwick william turnbull eduardo paolozzi exhibited works demonstrated antimonumental expressionism.scottish painter alan davie created large body abstract paintings synthesize reflect interest mythology zen.
Art of the United Kingdom	abstract art became prominent ben nicholson terry frost peter lanyon patrick heron part st ives school cornwall.along kenneth armitage william hayter william scott chosen british council british pavilion xxix venice biennale.in londonbased independent group formed pop art emerged exhibition institute contemporary arts tomorrow british reaction abstract expressionism.international group topic twoday international conference tate britain march .independent group regarded precursor pop art movement britain united states.tomorrow show featured scottish artist eduardo paolozzi richard hamilton artist john mchale amongst others group included influential art critic lawrence alloway well.in sir anthony caro became leading figure british sculpture along younger generation abstract artists including isaac witkin phillip king william g. tucker.
Art of the United Kingdom	john hoyland howard hodgkin john walker ian stephenson robyn denny john plumb william tillyer british painters emerged time reflected new international style color field painting.another group british artists offered radical alternative conventional artmaking included bruce mclean barry flanagan richard long gilbert george.british pop art painters david hockney patrick caulfield derek boshier peter phillips peter blake best known coverart sgt.peppers lonely hearts club band gerald laing sculptor allen jones part sixties art scene britishbased american painter r. b. kitaj.photorealism hands malcolm morley awarded first turner prize emerged well opart bridget riley.
Art of the United Kingdom	michael craigmartin influential teacher young british artists known conceptual work oak tree .contemporary art postmodern contemporary british art particularly young british artists said characterised fundamental concern material culture ... perceived postimperial cultural anxiety.annual turner prize founded organized tate developed highly publicized showcase contemporary british art.among beneficiaries several members young british artists yba movement includes damien hirst rachel whiteread tracey emin rose prominence freeze exhibition backing charles saatchi achieved international recognition version conceptual art.often featured installations notably hirsts vitrine containing preserved shark.
Art of the United Kingdom	tate gallery eventually royal academy also gave exposure.influence saatchis generous wideranging patronage become matter controversy jay jopling influential london gallerist.the sensation exhibition works saatchi collection controversial uk us though different ways.royal academy pressgenerated controversy centred myra large image murderer myra hindley marcus harvey show travelled new york city opening brooklyn museum late met intense protest holy virgin mary chris ofili provoked reaction london.press reported piece smeared elephant dung although ofilis work fact showed carefully rendered black madonna decorated resincovered lump elephant dung.figure also surrounded small collage images female genitalia pornographic magazines seemed distance traditional cherubim.
Art of the United Kingdom	among criticism new york mayor rudolph giuliani seen work catalogue show called sick stuff threatened withdraw annual million city hall grant brooklyn museum hosting show dont right government subsidy desecrating somebody elses religion.in stuckists figurative painting group includes billy childish charles thomson founded reaction ybas.walker art gallery staged stuckists punk victorian first national museum exhibition stuckist art movement.federation british artists hosts shows traditional figurative painting.jack vettriano beryl cook widespread popularity establishment recognition.banksy made reputation street graffiti highly valued mainstream artist.antony gormley produces sculptures mostly metal based human figure include metres ft high angel north near gateshead one first number large public sculptures produced another place event horizon.
Art of the United Kingdom	indianborn sculptor anish kapoor public works around world including cloud gate chicago sky mirror various locations like much work use curved mirrorlike steel surfaces.environmental sculptures british earth works artist andy goldsworthy created many locations around world.using natural found materials often ephemeral recorded photographs several collections book form published.grayson perry works various media including ceramics.whilst leading printmakers include norman ackroyd elizabeth blackadder barbara rae richard spare.
Art of the United Kingdom	see also references sources barringer t. j. quilley geoff fordham douglas art british empire manchester university press isbn egerton judy national gallery catalogues new series british school isbn fletcher pamela narrating modernity british problem picture – ashgate frayling christopher royal college art one hundred fifty years art design barrie jenkins london isbn griffiths antony ed landmarks print collecting connoisseurs donors british museum since british museum press isbn hamilton george heard painting sculpture europe pelican history art yale university press revised rd edn.isbn hughes henry meyric gijs van tuyl eds.blast freeze british art th century hatje cantz isbn mellon warner malcolm alexander julia marciari eden british paintings paul mellon collection yale yale center british artart exhibitions australia parkinson ronald victoria albert museum catalogue british oil paintings – hmso isbn pevsner nikolaus.englishness english art penguin edn.piper david painting england – penguin edn.reitlinger gerald economics taste vol rise fall picture prices barrie rockliffe london rosenthal michael british landscape painting phaidon press londonsnodin michael ed.rococo art design hogarths england trefoil booksvictoria albert museum isbn xstrong strong roy last see father victorian painter british history thames hudson isbn recreating past .... us painting past ... editionstrong strong roy spirit britain hutchison london isbn xwaterhouse ellis painting britain – th edn penguin books yale history art series isbn whittle et al.
Great Leap Forward	creative tension british art paul holberton publishing isbn wilson simon tate gallery illustrated companion tate gallery isbn andrew wilton anne lyles great age british watercolours – prestel isbn external links phryne.com guide victorian painting archived versionchairman mao zedong launched campaign reconstruct country agrarian economy communist society formation peoples communes.mao decreed efforts multiply grain yields bring industry countryside increased.local officials fearful antirightist campaigns competed fulfill overfulfill quotas based maos exaggerated claims collecting nonexistent surpluses leaving farmers starve.higher officials dare report economic disaster caused policies national officials blaming bad weather decline food output took little action.millions people died china great leap estimates ranging million making great chinese famine largest secondlargest famine human history.the major changes occurred lives rural chinese people included incremental introduction mandatory agricultural collectivization.
Great Leap Forward	private farming prohibited people engaged persecuted labeled counterrevolutionaries.restrictions rural people enforced public struggle sessions social pressure forced labor also exacted people.rural industrialization officially priority campaign saw development ... aborted mistakes great leap forward.great leap one two periods chinas economy shrank.economist dwight perkins argues enormous amounts investment produced modest increases production none all.
Great Leap Forward	... short great leap expensive disaster.in mao zedong ceded daytoday leadership pragmatic moderates like liu shaoqi deng xiaoping ccp studied damage done conferences held especially seven thousand cadres conference.mao retreat policies instead blamed problems bad implementation rightists opposed him.initiated socialist education movement cultural revolution order remove opposition reconsolidate power.addition dozens dams constructed zhumadian henan great leap forward collapsed influence typhoon nina resulted banqiao dam failure death toll ranged tens thousands .background october defeat kuomintang chinese nationalist party pinyin guomindang chinese communist party proclaimed establishment peoples republic china.
Great Leap Forward	immediately landlords wealthier farmers land holdings forcibly redistributed poorer peasants.agricultural sectors crops deemed party full evil opium destroyed replaced crops rice.within party major debates redistribution.moderate faction within party politburo member liu shaoqi argued change gradual collectivization peasantry wait industrialization could provide agricultural machinery mechanized farming.radical faction led mao zedong argued best way finance industrialization government take control agriculture thereby establishing monopoly grain distribution supply.would allow state buy low price sell much higher thus raising capital necessary industrialization country.
Great Leap Forward	agricultural collectives social changes peasants farmed small pockets land observed traditional practices—festivals banquets paying homage ancestors.realized maos policy using state monopoly agriculture finance industrialization would unpopular peasants.therefore proposed peasants brought party control establishment agricultural collectives would also facilitate sharing tools draft animals.this policy gradually pushed response immediate policy needs first establishing mutual aid teams – households elementary agricultural cooperatives – households higher cooperatives – families.onward peasants encouraged form join collectivefarming associations would supposedly increase efficiency without robbing land restricting livelihoods.by private ownership abolished households forced stateoperated communes.mao demanded communes increase grain production feed cities earn foreign exchange exports.
Great Leap Forward	reforms generally unpopular peasants usually implemented summoning meetings making stay days sometimes weeks voluntarily agreed join collective.apart progressive taxation households harvest state introduced system compulsory state purchases grain fixed prices build stockpiles faminerelief meet terms trade agreements soviet union.together taxation compulsory purchases accounted harvest leaving little surplus.rationing also introduced cities curb wasteful consumption encourage savings deposited stateowned banks thus became available investment although food could purchased stateowned retailers market price higher purchased.done name discouraging excessive consumption.besides economic changes party implemented major social changes countryside including banishing religious mystic institutions ceremonies replacing political meetings propaganda sessions.attempts made enhance rural education status women allowing initiate divorce desired ending footbinding child marriage opium addiction.
Great Leap Forward	old system internal passports hukou introduced preventing intercounty travel without appropriate authorization.highest priority given urban proletariat welfare state created.the first phase collectivization resulted modest improvements output.famine along midyangzi averted timely allocation foodaid partys response increase proportion harvest collected state insure disasters.moderates within party including zhou enlai argued reversal collectivization grounds claiming bulk harvest state made peoples foodsecurity dependent upon constant efficient transparent functioning government.hundred flowers campaign antirightist campaign mao responded tensions party promoting free speech criticism hundred flowers campaign.
Great Leap Forward	retrospect come argue ploy allow critics regime primarily intellectuals also low ranking members party critical agricultural policies identify themselves.by completion first year economic plan mao come doubt path socialism taken soviet union appropriate china.critical khrushchevs reversal stalinist policies alarmed uprisings taken place east germany poland hungary perception ussr seeking peaceful coexistence western powers.mao become convinced china follow path communism.according jonathan mirsky historian journalist specializing chinese affairs chinas isolation rest world along korean war accelerated maos attacks perceived domestic enemies.led accelerate designs develop economy regime would get maximum benefit rural taxation.
Great Leap Forward	initial goals november party leaders communist countries gathered moscow celebrate th anniversary october revolution.soviet communist party first secretary nikita khrushchev proposed catch exceed united states industrial output next years peaceful competition.mao zedong inspired slogan china put forward objective catch surpass united kingdom years.organizational operational factors great leap forward campaign began period second five year plan scheduled run though campaign discontinued .mao unveiled great leap forward meeting january nanjing.the great leap forward grounded logical theory economic development represented unambiguous social invention.
Great Leap Forward	central idea behind great leap rapid development chinas agricultural industrial sectors take place parallel.hope industrialize making use massive supply cheap labour avoid import heavy machinery.government also sought avoid social stratification technical bottlenecks involved soviet model development sought political rather technical solutions so.distrusting technical experts mao party sought replicate strategies used regrouping yanan following long march mass mobilization social leveling attacks bureaucratism disdain material obstacles.mao advocated round collectivization modeled ussrs third period necessary countryside existing collectives would merged huge peoples communes.
Great Leap Forward	peoples communes experimental commune established chayashan henan april .first time private plots entirely abolished communal kitchens introduced.politburo meetings august decided peoples communes would become new form economic political organization throughout rural china.end year approximately communes set average households each.communes relatively selfsufficient cooperatives wages money replaced work points.based fieldwork ralph a. thaxton jr. describes peoples communes form apartheid system chinese farm households.
Great Leap Forward	commune system aimed maximizing production provisioning cities constructing offices factories schools social insurance systems urbandwelling workers cadres officials.citizens rural areas criticized system labeled dangerous.escape also difficult impossible attempted subjected partyorchestrated public struggle jeopardized survival.besides agriculture communes also incorporated light industry construction projects.industrialization mao saw grain steel production key pillars economic development.
Great Leap Forward	forecast within years start great leap chinas industrial output would surpass uk.august politburo meetings decided steel production would set double within year increase coming backyard steel furnaces.major investments larger state enterprises made medium largescale state projects started respectively year first five year plan.millions chinese became state workers consequence industrial investment million added nonagricultural state payrolls total state employment reached peak .million doubling level urban population swelled .million people.
Great Leap Forward	new workers placed major stress chinas foodrationing system led increased unsustainable demands rural food production.during rapid expansion coordination suffered material shortages frequent resulting huge rise wage bill largely construction workers corresponding increase manufactured goods.facing massive deficit government cut industrial investment ..billion yuan decrease level .billion.
Great Leap Forward	backyard furnaces personal knowledge metallurgy mao encouraged establishment small backyard steel furnaces every commune urban neighborhood.mao shown example backyard furnace hefei anhui september provincial first secretary zeng xisheng.unit claimed manufacturing high quality steel.huge efforts part illiterate peasants workers made produce steel scrap metal.fuel furnaces local environment denuded trees wood taken doors furniture peasants houses.pots pans metal artifacts requisitioned supply scrap furnaces wildly optimistic production targets could met.
Great Leap Forward	many male agricultural workers diverted harvest help iron production workers many factories schools even hospitals.although output consisted low quality lumps pig iron negligible economic worth mao deep distrust intellectuals engineers technicians could pointed instead placed faith power mass mobilization peasants.moreover experience intellectual classes following hundred flowers campaign silenced aware folly plan.according private doctor li zhisui mao entourage visited traditional steel works manchuria january found high quality steel could produced largescale factories using reliable fuel coal.however decided order halt backyard steel furnaces dampen revolutionary enthusiasm masses.program quietly abandoned much later year.
Great Leap Forward	irrigation substantial effort expended great leap forward largescale often form poorly planned capital construction projects irrigation works built without input trained engineers.mao well aware human cost water conservancy campaigns.early listening report irrigation jiangsu mentioned thatwu zhipu claims move billion cubic metres think people die.zeng xisheng said move billion cubic metres think people die.weiqing promises million cubic metres maybe nobody die.though mao criticized excessive use corvée largescale water conservancy projects late mass mobilization irrigation works continued unabated next several years claimed lives hundreds thousands exhausted starving villagers.
Great Leap Forward	inhabitants qingshui gansu referred projects killing fields.crop experiments communes number radical controversial agricultural innovations promoted behest mao.many based ideas discredited soviet agronomist trofim lysenko followers.policies included close cropping whereby seeds sown far densely normal incorrect assumption seeds class would compete other.deep plowing meters deep encouraged mistaken belief would yield plants extra large root systems.
Great Leap Forward	moderately productive land left unplanted belief concentrating manure effort fertile land would lead large peracre productivity gains.altogether untested innovations generally led decreases grain production rather increases.meanwhile local leaders pressured falsely reporting everhigher grain production figures political superiors.participants political meetings remembered production figures inflated times actual production amounts race please superiors win plaudits—like chance meet mao himself—intensified.state later able force many production groups sell grain could spare based false production figures.treatment villagers ban private holdings ruined peasant life basic level according mirsky.
Great Leap Forward	villagers unable secure enough food go living deprived commune system traditional means able rent sell use land collateral loans.one village commune operational party boss colleagues swung manic action herding villagers fields sleep work intolerable hours forcing walk starving distant additional projects.edward friedman political scientist university wisconsin paul pickowicz historian university california san diego mark selden sociologist binghamton university wrote dynamic interaction party villagersbeyond attack beyond question systemic structured dynamic socialist state intimidated impoverished millions patriotic loyal villagers.the authors present similar picture thaxton depicting communist partys destruction traditions chinese villagers.traditionally prized local customs deemed signs feudalism extinguished according mirsky.among funerals weddings local markets festivals.party thus destroyed much gave meaning chinese lives.
Great Leap Forward	private bonds social glue.mourn celebrate human.share joy grief pain humanizing.failure participate ccps political campaigns—though aims campaigns often conflicting—could result detention torture death suffering entire families.public criticism sessions often used intimidate peasants obeying local officials increased death rate famine several ways according thaxton.first case blows body caused internal injuries combination physical emaciation acute hunger could induce death.
Great Leap Forward	one case peasant stole two cabbages common fields thief publicly criticized half day.collapsed fell ill never recovered.others sent labor camps.around died great leap forward tortured death summarily killed.benjamin valentino notes communist officials sometimes tortured killed accused failing meet grain quota.however j. g. mahoney professor liberal studies east asian studies grand valley state university said much diversity dynamism country one work capture ... rural china one place.mahoney describes elderly man rural shanxi recalls mao fondly saying mao sometimes ate leaves liberation not.regardless mahoney points da fo villagers recall great leap period famine death among survived da fo precisely could digest leaves.
Great Leap Forward	lushan conference initial impact great leap forward discussed lushan conference julyaugust .although many moderate leaders reservations new policy senior leader speak openly marshal peng dehuai.mao responded pengs criticism great leap dismissing peng post defence minister denouncing peng came poor peasant family supporters bourgeois launching nationwide campaign rightist opportunism.peng replaced lin biao began systematic purge pengs supporters military.consequences failure agricultural policies movement farmers agricultural industrial work weather conditions led millions deaths severe famine.
Great Leap Forward	economy improved since end civil war devastated response severe conditions resistance among populace.the effects upper levels government response disaster complex mao purging minister national defense peng dehuai temporary promotion lin biao liu shaoqi deng xiaoping mao losing power prestige following great leap forward led launch cultural revolution .famine despite harmful agricultural innovations weather favorable harvest also good.unfortunately amount labor diverted steel production construction projects meant much harvest left rot collected areas.problem exacerbated devastating locust swarm caused natural predators killed part four pests campaign.although actual harvests reduced local officials tremendous pressure report record harvests central authorities response innovations competed announce increasingly exaggerated results.results used basis determining amount grain would taken state supplied towns cities exported.

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