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Great Leap Forward	barely left enough grain peasants areas starvation set in.drought flooding yellow river year also contributed famine.during – china continued substantial net exporter grain despite widespread famine experienced countryside mao sought maintain face convince outside world success plans.foreign aid refused.japanese foreign minister told chinese counterpart chen yi offer tonnes wheat going shipped away public view rebuffed.john f. kennedy also aware chinese exporting food africa cuba famine said weve indication chinese communists would welcome offer food.with dramatically reduced yields even urban areas received greatly reduced rations however mass starvation largely confined countryside result drastically inflated production statistics little grain left peasants eat.
Great Leap Forward	food shortages bad throughout country however provinces adopted maos reforms vigor anhui gansu henan tended suffer disproportionately.sichuan one chinas populous provinces known china heavens granary fertility thought suffered highest number deaths starvation due vigor provincial leader li jingquan undertook maos reforms.great leap forward cases cannibalism also occurred parts china severely affected famine.great suffering experienced even survived famine.author yan lianke endured great leap growing henan taught recognize edible kinds bark clay mother.trees stripped clay learned lumps coal could appease devil stomach least little while.the agricultural policies great leap forward associated famine continued january ninth plenum th central committee chinese communist party restoration agricultural production reversal great leap policies started.
Great Leap Forward	grain exports stopped imports canada australia reduced impact food shortages least coastal cities.famine deaths exact number famine deaths difficult determine estimates range upwards million million people.uncertainties involved estimating famine deaths caused great leap forward famine difficult compare severity different famines.however estimate million deaths accepted great leap forward deadliest famine history china history world.partly due chinas large population.
Great Leap Forward	put things absolute relative numerical perspective great irish famine approximately million population million people died .. great chinese famine approximately million population million people died percentage would .. hence famine great leap forward probably highest absolute death toll though highest relative percentage one.the great leap forward reversed downward trend mortality occurred since though even leap mortality may reached pre levels.famine deaths reduction number births caused population china drop .third time years population china decreased.great leap forward mortality rates decreased preleap levels downward trend begun continued.the severity famine varied region region.correlating increase death rates different provinces peng xizhe found gansu sichuan guizhou hunan guangxi anhui hardesthit regions heilongjiang inner mongolia xinjiang tianjin shanghai lowest increase death rates great leap forward data tibet.
Great Leap Forward	peng also noted increase death rates urban areas half increase death rates rural areas.fuyang region anhui population million death rate rivaled cambodia khmer rouge according chinese government reports fuyang party history research office years .million people fuyang died famine.hand gao village jiangxi province famine one actually died starvation.methods estimating death toll sources error outlier estimates include million utsa patnaik indian marxist economist .
Great Leap Forward	million sun jingxian 孙经先 chinese mathematician .– million yang songlin 杨松林 chinese historian political economist.the number famine deaths great leap forward estimated different methods.banister coale ashton et al.compare age cohorts censuses yearly birth death records results fertility survey.calculate excess deaths death rate interpolated pre postleap death rates.involve corrections perceived errors inherent different data sets.
Great Leap Forward	peng uses reported deaths vital statistics provinces adjusts reporting expands result cover china assuming similar mortality rates provinces.uses death rates baseline death rate rather interpolation pre postglf death rates.houser sands xiao research study using provinciallevel demographic panel data bayesian empirical approach effort distinguish relative importance weather national policy china’s great demographic disaster conclude aggregate china suffered .million excess deaths..million seem attributable effects stemming national policies.
Great Leap Forward	cao uses information local annals determine locality expected population increase normal births deaths population increase due migration loss population .adds three figures determine number excess deaths period –.chang halliday use death rates determined chinese demographers years – subtract average preand postleap death rates death rates years – multiply yearly excess death rate years population determine excess deaths.chen part large investigation system reform institute think tank tigaisuo visited every province examined internal party documents records.becker rummel dikötter yang compare several earlier estimates.becker considers banisters estimate million excess deaths reliable estimate have.rummel initially took coales million likely figure accepted later estimate million chang halliday published.
Great Leap Forward	dikötter judged chens estimate million likelihood reliable estimate.also claimed least .million deaths caused beatings tortures summary executions.hand daniel vukovich asserts claim coming problematic unverified reference chen simply threw number estimate interview chen hasnt published scholarly work subject.yang takes caos wang weizhis jin huis estimates ranging .
Great Leap Forward	million excess deaths period – adds estimates .million .million based official figures reported provinces get million chooses million number approaches reality still low.estimates contain several sources error.national census data accurate even total population china time known within million million people.statistical reporting system taken party cadre statisticians making political considerations important accuracy resulting complete breakdown statistical reporting system.
Great Leap Forward	population figures routinely inflated local level often order obtain increased rations goods.cultural revolution great deal material state statistical bureau burned.according jasper becker underreporting deaths also problem.death registration system inadequate famine completely overwhelmed large number deaths famine.addition claims many deaths went unreported family members deceased could continue draw deceaseds food ration counting number children born died censuses problematic.however ashton et al.
Great Leap Forward	believe reported number births glf seems accurate reported number deaths accurate well.massive internal migration made population counts registering deaths problematic though yang believes degree unofficial internal migration small caos estimate takes internal migration account.coales banisters ashton et al.s pengs figures include adjustments demographic reporting errors though dikötter book maos great famine argues results well chang hallidays yangs caos still underestimates.system reform institutes chens estimate published therefore cannot verified.causes famine responsibility policies great leap forward failure government respond quickly effectively famine conditions well maos insistence maintaining high grain export quotas face clear evidence poor crop output responsible famine.disagreement much weather conditions contributed famine.yang jisheng former communist party member former reporter official chinese news agency xinhua puts blame squarely maoist policies political system totalitarianism diverting agricultural workers steel production instead growing crops exporting grain time.
Great Leap Forward	course research yang uncovered million tons grain held public granaries height famine reports starvation went bureaucracy ignored top officials authorities ordered statistics destroyed regions population decline became evident.economist steven rosefielde argues yangs account shows maos slaughter caused considerable part terrorstarvation voluntary manslaughter perhaps murder rather innocuous famine.yang claims local party officials indifferent large number people dying around primary concern delivery grain mao wanted use pay back debts ussr totaling .billion yuan.xinyang people died starvation doors grain warehouses.mao refused open state granaries dismissed reports food shortages accused rightists kulaks conspiring hide grain.from research records talks experts meteorological bureau yang concludes weather great leap forward unusual compared periods factor.
Great Leap Forward	yang also believes sinosoviet split factor happen famine well way.chang halliday argue mao actually allowed many deaths.although slaughter purpose leap ready myriad deaths result hinted top echelon shocked happened.democide historian r.j. rummel originally classified famine deaths unintentional.light evidence provided chang hallidays book believes mass human deaths associated great leap forward constitute democide.hand scholars gregor benton lin chun critical response chang halliday state proof mao intended let people die indifferent deaths.according frank dikötter mao communist party knew policies contributing starvation.
Great Leap Forward	foreign minister chen yi said early human losses november casualties indeed appeared among workers enough stop us tracks.price pay nothing afraid of.knows many people sacrificed battlefields prisons revolutionary cause cases illness death nothingmaos efforts cool leal late met resistance within party mao proposed scaling steel targets many people wouldnt change wouldnt accept it.thus according historian tao kai leap wasnt problem single person many people ideological problems.tao also pointed everyone together antirightist campaign minority didnt approve great leaps policies put forth different opinions.
Great Leap Forward	jeanlouis margolin suggests actions chinese communist party mao face widespread famine imitated policies soviet communist party joseph stalin mao greatly admired nearly three decades earlier soviet famine .time u.s.s.r. exported grain international propaganda purposes despite millions dying starvation across southern areas soviet unionnet grain exports principally u.s.s.r. rose .million tons .million fell level..
Great Leap Forward	million tons actually imported still little feed starving.aid united states refused political reasons.rest world could responded easily remained ignorant scale catastrophe.aid needy countryside totaled less million yuan per annum .yuan per person time one kilo rice free market worth yuan.
Great Leap Forward	chinese communism boasted could move mountains tame nature left faithful die.during secret meeting shanghai mao demanded state procurement onethird grain feed cities satisfy foreign clients noted dont go third people wont rebel.context discussing industrial enterprises mao also stated meetingwhen enough eat people starve death.better let half people die half eat fill.however anthony garnaut clarifies dikötters interpretation maos quotation better let half people die half eat fill.ignores substantial commentary conference scholars several key participants defies plain wording archival document possession hangs case.benjamin valentino writes like ussr famine – peasants confined starving villages system household registration worst effects famine directed enemies regime.labeled black elements religious leaders rightists rich peasants etc.
Great Leap Forward	previous campaign given lowest priority allocation food therefore died greatest numbers.drawing jasper beckers book hungry ghosts genocide scholar adam jones states group suffered tibetans .ashton et al.write policies leading food shortages natural disasters slow response initial indications food shortages blame famine.policies leading food shortages included implementation commune system emphasis nonagricultural activities backyard steel production.natural disasters included drought flood typhoon plant disease insect pest.
Great Leap Forward	slow response part due lack objective reporting agricultural situation including nearly complete breakdown agricultural reporting system.this partly caused strong incentives officials overreport crop yields.unwillingness central government seek international aid major factor chinas net grain exports would enough feed million people calories per day.ashton et al.conclude would inaccurate say million people died prematurely result errors internal policy flawed international relations.mobo gao suggested great leap forwards terrible effects came malignant intent part chinese leadership time instead related structural nature rule vastness china country.gao says terrible lesson learnt china huge uniformly ruled follies wrong policies grave implications tremendous magnitude.the prc governments official web portal places responsibility serious losses country people – without mentioning famine mainly great leap forward antirightist struggle lists weather cancellation contracts soviet union contributing factors.
Great Leap Forward	deaths violence deaths great leap starvation.frank dikötter book maos great famine estimates least .million people beaten tortured death one million three million committed suicide.provided illustrative examples claimed xinyang million died – around beaten death militias.daoxian county died buried alive clubbed death otherwise killed party members militia.
Great Leap Forward	shimen county around died beaten driven deaths.dikötters claims controversial disputed scholars felix wemheur.accounts documented yang jisheng people beaten killed rebelling government reporting real harvest numbers sounding alarm refusing hand little food left trying flee famine area begging food little stealing scraps angering officials.impact economy negative according frank dikotter great leap led greatest destruction real estate human history outstripping bombing campaigns world war ii.approximately houses turned rubble.
Great Leap Forward	frank dikötter states homes pulled make fertilizer build canteens relocate villagers straighten roads make place better future punish owners.in agrarian policy failures food supply great leap met gradual decollectivization foreshadowed decollectivization deng xiaoping.political scientist meredith jungen woo argues unquestionably regime failed respond time save lives millions peasants respond ultimately transformed livelihoods several hundred million peasants modestly early permanently deng xiaopings reforms subsequent .despite risks careers communist party members openly laid blame disaster feet party leadership took proof china must rely education acquiring technical expertise applying bourgeois methods developing economy.liu shaoqi made speech seven thousand cadres conference criticizing economic disaster fault nature human error.a paper two peking university economists found strong evidence unrealistic yield targets led excessive death tolls analysis shows yield targets induced inflation grain output figures excessive procurement.also find maos radical policy caused serious deterioration human capital accumulation slower economic development policyaffected regions decades death mao.a dramatic decline grain output continued several years involving drop output percent.causes drop found natural disaster government policy.
Great Leap Forward	positive according joseph ball writing monthly review good argument suggest policies great leap forward lot sustain chinas overall economic growth initial period disruption.official chinese statistics show end leap industrial output value doubled gross value agricultural products increased percent steel production .million tons million tons investment capital construction rose percent percent first fiveyear plan period investment capital construction doubled average income workers farmers increased percent.additionally significant capital construction especially iron steel mining textile enterprises ultimately contributed greatly chinas industrialization.great leap forward period also marked initiation chinas rapid growth tractor production.
Great Leap Forward	resistance various forms resistance consequences great leap forward.several provinces saw armed rebellion though rebellions never posed serious threat central government.rebellions documented occurred henan shandong qinghai gansu sichuan fujian yunnan provinces tibetan autonomous region.henan shandong qinghai gansu sichuan rebellions lasted year spirit soldier rebellion one largerscale uprisings.also occasional violence cadre members.
Great Leap Forward	raids granaries arson vandalism train robberies raids neighboring villages counties common.according ralph thaxton professor politics brandeis university villagers turned ccp great leap seeing autocratic brutal corrupt meanspirited.according thaxton ccps policies included plunder forced labor starvation led villagers think relationship communist party ways bode well continuity socialist rule.often villagers composed doggerel show defiance regime perhaps remain sane.great leap one jingle ran flatter shamelessly—eat delicacies.... dont flatter—starve death sure.impact government officials prosecuted exaggerating production figures although punishments varied.one case provincial party secretary dismissed prohibited holding higher office.
Great Leap Forward	number countylevel officials publicly tried executed.mao stepped state chairman prc april remained ccp chairman.liu shaoqi new prc chairman reformist deng xiaoping ccp general secretary left charge change policy bring economic recovery.maos great leap forward policy openly criticized lushan party conference.criticism led minister national defense peng dehuai initially troubled potentially adverse effect great leap modernization armed forces also admonished unnamed party members trying jump communism one step.lushan showdown mao replaced peng lin biao.however clear party changed away extremist ideology led great leap.
Great Leap Forward	party held number conferences rehabilitated deposed comrades criticized mao aftermath great leap.event discussed much selfcriticism contemporary government called serious loss country people blamed cult personality mao.in particular seven thousand cadres conference january – february mao made selfcriticism reaffirmed commitment democratic centralism.years followed mao mostly abstained operations government making policy largely domain liu shaoqi deng xiaoping.maoist ideology took back seat communist party mao launched cultural revolution marked maos political comeback.see also list campaigns chinese communist partythe black book communismmass killings landlords mao zedongmass killings communist regimesryazan miraclevirgin lands campaign contemporary program soviet union references article incorporates public domain text united states library congress country studies.
Great Leap Forward	– china bibliography reading ashton hill piazza zeitz .famine china –.population development review volume number dec. pp.–.bachman david .bureaucracy economy leadership china institutional origins great leap forward.
Great Leap Forward	new york cambridge university press.bao sansan bette bao lord .eighth moon true story young girls life communist china new york harper row.chen lingchei letty .great leap backward forgetting representing mao years.new york cambria press.scholarly studies memory writings documentaries mao years victimhood narratives perpetrator studies ethics bearing witness atrocities.courtois stephane andzej paczkowski nicholas werth .
Great Leap Forward	black book communism.cambridge harvard university press.pp.–.isbn becker jasper .
Great Leap Forward	hungry ghosts maos secret famine.holt paperbacks.isbn jung chang jon halliday.mao unknown story knopf.isbn dikötter frank maos great famine history chinas devastating catastrophe – walker isbn gao.
Great Leap Forward	mobo .gao village rural life modern china.university hawaii press.isbn gao.mobo .
Great Leap Forward	battle chinas past.pluto press.isbn kim seonghoon belton fleisher jessica ya sun.long‐term health effects fetal malnutrition evidence – china great leap forward famine.health economics .
Great Leap Forward	–.nlineli.minqi .rise china demise capitalist world economy.monthly review press.
Great Leap Forward	isbn li wei tao yang dennis .great leap forward anatomy central planning disaster pdf.journal political economy.–.doi.. scid .
Great Leap Forward	archived original pdf .li zhisui .private life chairman mao.arrow books ltd.macfarquhar roderick .origins cultural revolution vol .oxford oxford university press.peng xizhe.
Great Leap Forward	demographic consequences great leap forward china’s provinces.population development review .–.onlineshen zhihua yafeng xia.great leap forward peoples commune sinosoviet split.
Great Leap Forward	journal contemporary china .–.smith s.a. .redemptive religious societies communist state s. jeremy brown matthew d. johnson eds.. maoism grassroots everyday life chinas era high socialism.cambridge massachusetts harvard university press.pp.
Great Leap Forward	–.isbn .short philip .mao life.owl books.isbn tao yang dennis.
Great Leap Forward	chinas agricultural crisis famine – survey comparison soviet famines.palgrave macmillan comparative economic studies pp.–.thaxton.ralph a. jr .catastrophe contention rural china maos great leap forward famine origins righteous resistance da fo village.
Great Leap Forward	cambridge university press.isbn wertheim wim f .third world whence whither protective state versus aggressive market.amsterdam het spinhuis.pp.
Great Leap Forward	isbn e. l wheelwright bruce mcfarlane joan robinson foreword chinese road socialism economics cultural revolution.yang dali .calamity reform china state rural society institutional change since great leap famine.stanford university press.yang jisheng .tombstone mu bei – zhong guo liu shi nian dai da ji huang ji shi.cosmos books tian di tu shu hong kong.yang jisheng .
Great Leap Forward	fatal politics prcs great leap famine preface tombstone.journal contemporary china.–.doi.... scid .vukovich daniel .china orientalism western knowledge production prc.
Great Leap Forward	routledge.isbn .sun jingxian .population change chinas three years hardship pdf.contemporary chinese political economy strategic relations.–.yang songlin .
Great Leap Forward	telling truth china’s great leap forward household registration famine death tally.singapore springer publishing.doi.. isbn .external links media related great leap forward wikimedia commonsball joseph.mao really kill millions great leap forward.
Great Leap Forward	monthly review.september chinese governments official web portal english.china country yearlong civilization.damiani matteo tragic episode cannibalism famine great leap forward.november .dikotter frank.maos great leap famine new york times.
Great Leap Forward	december .johnson ian.finding facts mao’s victims.new york review books blog december .mcgregor richard.man exposed mao’s secret famine.financial times.
Pre-packaged insolvency	june .meng qian yared institutional causes chinas great famine – pdf.wagner donald b. background great leap forward iron steel university copenhagen.august .united states prepacks often used chapter filing.united kingdom prepacks become popular since enterprise act made administration dominant insolvency procedure.arrangements also available canada companies creditors arrangements act.united kingdom term prepack sale defined association business recovery professionals arrangement sale part company’s business assets negotiated purchaser prior appointment administrator administrator effects sale immediately shortly appointment.difference prepack sale normal sale normal sale administrator markets business negotiates terms sale appointment.the reasons administrator sells prepack basis rather postappointment marketing vary case case often involve following considerations.
Pre-packaged insolvency	prepack sale avoids costs trading means creditors receive back indeed company administrator may funds trade.also avoids administrator taking risks associated trading.value business may deteriorate administration trading.there may factors prevent trading regulatory problems.the courts held administrator sell companys assets immediately upon appointment without court approval approval creditors even majority creditor objects.courts even approved transactions necessary evil made payments former management leaving little nothing unsecured creditors.in january association business recovery professionals issued statement insolvency practice require insolvency practitioners acting administrators disclose number matters creditors soon possible completion sale.done attempt provide greater transparency creditors.on november following governmentcommissioned review new statement insolvency practice introduced.
Pre-packaged insolvency	requires administrators disclose followingthe source administrator’s initial introduction date introductionthe extent administrator’s involvement prior appointmentthe alternative courses action considered administrator explanation possible financial outcomeswhether efforts made consult major creditorswhy appropriate trade business offer sale going concern administrationdetails requests made potential funders fund working capital requirementsdetails registered charges dates creationif business business assets acquired insolvency practitioner within previous months longer administrator deems relevant creditors’ understanding administrator disclose details transaction whether administrator administrator’s firm associates involvedany marketing activities conducted company andor administrator outcome activitiesthe names professional qualifications valuers confirmation confirmed independenceany valuations obtained business underlying assetsa summary basis valuation adopted administrator valuersadvisersthe rationale basis valuations obtained explanation sale assets compared valuations.valuation obtained reason done administrator satisfied value assetsthe date transactionthe identity purchaserany connection purchaser directors shareholders secured creditors company associatesthe names directors former directors company involved management ownership purchaser entity assets transferredin transactions impacting one related company e.g.group transaction administrator ensure disclosure sufficient enable transparent explanation instance allocation consideration paidwhether directors given guarantees amounts due company prior financier whether financier financing new businessdetails assets involved nature transactionthe consideration transaction terms payment condition contract could materially affect considerationsale consideration disclosed broad asset valuation categories split fixed floating charge realisationsany options buyback arrangements similar conditions attached contract saleif sale part wider transaction description aspects transaction.the main benefit prepack administration continuity business company protected court.gets rid debts contracts.get rid employees due transfer undertakings protection employment regulations tupe.
Pre-packaged insolvency	another big advantage cost process lower trading administration administrators need find funding trade business.downside prepack administration attract negative publicity former directors seen shedding liabilities.the insolvency service monitors compliance sip .reports show reported insolvency practitioners licensing bodies reported .united states united states typically term prepackaged bankruptcy used instead prepackaged insolvency.conventional bankruptcy case one debtor files chapter relief without agreed advance terms plan reorganization creditors.
Pre-packaged insolvency	course chapter case debtor debtor retain exclusive right propose plan creditor creditor group may formulate propose plan reorganization.company undergoing chapter reorganization effectively operating protection court emerges.example airline industry half industrys seating capacity airlines chapter .in prepackaged case plan proponents secured sufficient support creditors confirm plan reorganization prior filing chapter reorganization.prepackaged plans reorganization virtually always impair i.e.pay less full one classes creditors order ensure plan confirmed bankruptcy court plan proponents must secure support least twothirds amount onehalf number least one impaired class addition ensuring plan complies requirements confirmation.
Pre-packaged insolvency	two procedurally difficult aspects process announcement must structured trigger contractual termination provisions getting requisite creditor approval.in new entity completed purchase continuing operations assets trademarks general motors part prepackaged chapter reorganization.ranked total assets gms bankruptcy marks one largest corporate chapter bankruptcies us history.chapter filing fourthlargest us history following lehman brothers holdings inc. washington mutual worldcom inc. new entity backing united states treasury formed acquire profitable assets section bankruptcy code new company planning issue initial public offering ipo stock .remaining prepetition creditors claims paid former corporations assets.criticism review wolverhampton university identified several criticisms prepack sales.
Ludwig Wittgenstein	general concern prepack administrator agreeing prepack consultation company’s management team usually secured creditors favours interests managers secured creditors ahead unsecured creditors.speed secrecy transaction often lead deal executed unsecured creditors know nothing offers little return.there often suspicion consideration paid business may maximized due absence open marketing.credit may incurred inappropriately prior prepack may fully investigated.referencesconsidered one important influential philosophers modern era.from wittgenstein taught university cambridge.spite position entire life one book philosophy published relatively slim page logischphilosophische abhandlung logicalphilosophical treatise appeared together english translation latin title tractatus logicophilosophicus.published works article remarks logical form book review childrens dictionary.voluminous manuscripts edited published posthumously.first bestknown posthumous series book philosophical investigations.
Ludwig Wittgenstein	survey among american university college teachers ranked investigations important book thcentury philosophy standing one crossover masterpiece twentiethcentury philosophy appealing across diverse specializations philosophical orientations.his philosophy often divided early period exemplified tractatus later period articulated primarily philosophical investigations.early wittgenstein concerned logical relationship propositions world believed providing account logic underlying relationship solved philosophical problems.later wittgenstein however rejected many assumptions tractatus arguing meaning words best understood use within given languagegame.born vienna one europes richest families inherited fortune father .initially made donations artists writers period severe personal depression world war gave away entire fortune brothers sisters.three four older brothers died separate acts suicide.
Ludwig Wittgenstein	wittgenstein left academia several times—serving officer front line world war decorated number times courage teaching schools remote austrian villages encountered controversy use violence girls boy haidbauer incident mathematics classes working world war ii hospital porter london notably telling patients take drugs prescribed also later hospital laboratory technician royal victoria infirmary newcastle upon tyne.in words friend literary executor georg henrik von wright believed that... ideas generally misunderstood distorted even professed disciples.doubted would better understood future.said felt though writing people would think different way breathe different air life presentday men.background wittgensteins according family tree prepared jerusalem world war ii wittgensteins paternal greatgreatgrandfather moses meier jewish land agent lived wife brendel simon bad laasphe principality wittgenstein westphalia.july napoleon issued decree everyone including jews must adopt inheritable family surname meiers son also moses took name employers saynwittgensteins became moses meier wittgenstein.
Ludwig Wittgenstein	son hermann christian wittgenstein – took middle name christian distance jewish background – married fanny figdor also jewish converted protestantism married couple founded successful business trading wool leipzig.ludwigs grandmother fanny first cousin violinist joseph joachim.they children – among wittgensteins father.karl otto clemens wittgenstein – became industrial tycoon late one richest men europe effective monopoly austrias steel cartel.thanks karl wittgensteins became second wealthiest family austrohungarian empire rothschilds wealthier.karl wittgenstein viewed austrian equivalent andrew carnegie friends one wealthiest men world s. result decision invest substantially netherlands switzerland well overseas particularly us family extent shielded hyperinflation hit austria .
Ludwig Wittgenstein	however wealth diminished due post hyperinflation subsequently great depression although even late owned mansions vienna alone.early life wittgensteins mother leopoldine maria josefa kalmus known among friends poldi.father bohemian jew mother austrianslovene catholic – wittgensteins nonjewish grandparent.aunt nobel prize laureate friedrich hayek maternal side.wittgenstein born pm april villa wittgenstein today neuwaldegger straße suburban parish neuwaldegg next vienna.karl poldi nine children – four girls hermine margaret gretl helene fourth daughter dora died baby five boys johannes hans kurt rudolf rudi paul – became concert pianist despite losing arm world war – ludwig youngest family.the children baptized catholics received formal catholic instruction raised exceptionally intense environment.
Ludwig Wittgenstein	family center viennas cultural life bruno walter described life wittgensteins palace allpervading atmosphere humanity culture.karl leading patron arts commissioning works auguste rodin financing citys exhibition hall art gallery secession building.gustav klimt painted wittgensteins sister wedding portrait johannes brahms gustav mahler gave regular concerts familys numerous music rooms.for wittgenstein highly valued precision discipline contemporary music never considered acceptable all.said friend drury music came full stop brahms even brahms begin hear noise machinery.ludwig wittgenstein absolute pitch devotion music remained vitally important throughout life made frequent use musical examples metaphors philosophical writings unusually adept whistling lengthy detailed musical passages.also learnt play clarinet s. fragment music three bars composed wittgenstein discovered one notebooks michael nedo director wittgenstein institute cambridge.
Ludwig Wittgenstein	family temperament brothers suicides ray monk writes karls aim turn sons captains industry sent school lest acquire bad habits educated home prepare work karls industrial empire.three five brothers would later commit suicide.psychiatrist michael fitzgerald argues karl harsh perfectionist lacked empathy wittgensteins mother anxious insecure unable stand husband.johannes brahms said family visited regularly seemed act towards one another court.the family appeared strong streak depression running it.anthony gottlieb tells story paul practicing one pianos wittgensteins main family mansion suddenly shouted ludwig next roomi cannot play house feel scepticism seeping towards doorthe family palace housed seven grand pianos siblings pursued music enthusiasm times bordered pathological.
Ludwig Wittgenstein	eldest brother hans hailed musical prodigy.age four writes alexander waugh hans could identify doppler effect passing siren quartertone drop pitch five started crying wrong wrong two brass bands carnival played tune different keys.died mysterious circumstances may ran away america disappeared boat chesapeake bay likely committed suicide.two years later aged studying chemistry berlin academy third eldest brother rudi committed suicide berlin bar.asked pianist play thomas koschats verlassen verlassen verlassen bin ich forsaken forsaken forsaken mixing drink milk potassium cyanide.left several suicide notes one parents said grieving death friend another referred perverted disposition.
Ludwig Wittgenstein	reported time sought advice scientifichumanitarian committee organization campaigning paragraph german criminal code prohibited homosexual sex.father forbade family ever mentioning name again.the second eldest brother kurt officer company director shot october end world war austrian troops commanding refused obey orders deserted en masse.according gottlieb hermine said kurt seemed carry germ disgust life within himself.later ludwig wrote ought ... become star sky.instead remained stuck earth.
Ludwig Wittgenstein	– realschule linz realschule linz wittgenstein taught private tutors home years old.subsequently three years attended school.deaths hans rudi karl relented allowed paul ludwig sent school.waugh writes late wittgenstein pass exams academic gymnasium wiener neustadt formal schooling failed entrance exam barely managed extra tutoring pass exam technically oriented k.u.k.realschule linz small state school pupils.
Ludwig Wittgenstein	began three years formal schooling lodging nearby term time family dr. josef strigl teacher local gymnasium family giving nickname luki.on starting realschule wittgenstein moved forward year.historian brigitte hamann writes stood boys spoke unusually pure form high german stutter dressed elegantly sensitive unsociable.monk writes boys made fun singing wittgenstein wandelt wehmütig widriger winde wegen wienwärts wittgenstein wanders wistfully viennawards worsening winds.leaving certificate received top mark religious studies conduct english french geography history mathematics physics german chemistry geometry freehand drawing.particular difficulty spelling failed written german exam it.
Ludwig Wittgenstein	wrote bad spelling youth age connected whole rest character weakness study.faith wittgenstein baptized infant catholic priest received formal instruction catholic doctrine child common time.interview sister gretl stonboroughwittgenstein says grandfathers strong severe partly ascetic christianity strong influence wittgenstein children.realschule decided lacked religious faith began reading arthur schopenhauer per gretls recommendation.nevertheless believed importance idea confession.
Ludwig Wittgenstein	wrote diaries made major confession oldest sister hermine realschule monk speculates may loss faith.also discussed gretl sister directed schopenhauers world representation.teenager wittgenstein adopted schopenhauers epistemological idealism.however study philosophy mathematics abandoned epistemological idealism gottlob freges conceptual realism.later years wittgenstein highly dismissive schopenhauer describing ultimately shallow thinker schopenhauer quite crude mind ... real depth starts comes end.wittgensteins relationship christianity religion general always professed sincere devoted sympathy would change time much like philosophical ideas.
Ludwig Wittgenstein	wittgenstein wrote russell saying mozart beethoven actual sons god.however wittgenstein resisted formal religion saying hard bend knee though grandfathers beliefs continued influence wittgenstein – said cannot help seeing every problem religious point view.wittgenstein referred augustine hippo philosophical investigations.philosophically wittgensteins thought shows alignment religious discourse.example would become one centurys fiercest critics scientism.wittgensteins religious belief emerged service austrian army world war devoted reader dostoevskys tolstoys religious writings.
Ludwig Wittgenstein	viewed wartime experiences trial strived conform god journal entry april writes perhaps nearness death bring light life.may god enlighten me.worm god become man.god me.amen.
Ludwig Wittgenstein	around time wittgenstein wrote christianity indeed sure way happiness rejected idea religious belief merely thinking certain doctrine true.time wittgenstein viewed religious faith way living opposed rational argumentation proofs god.with age deepening personal spirituality led several elucidations clarifications untangled language problems religion—attacking example temptation think gods existence matter scientific evidence.finding difficult work wrotei letter old friend austria priest.says hopes work go well gods will.want gods will.
Ludwig Wittgenstein	culture value wittgenstein writesis work philosophy really worth effort yes light shines above.his close friend norman malcolm would writewittgensteins mature life strongly marked religious thought feeling.inclined think deeply religious many people correctly regard religious believers.toward end wittgenstein wrotebach wrote title page orgelbüchlein glory high god neighbour may benefited thereby.would liked say work.influence otto weininger student realschule wittgenstein influenced austrian philosopher otto weiningers book geschlecht und charakter sex character.weininger – jewish argued concepts male female exist platonic forms jews tend embody platonic femininity.whereas men basically rational women operate level emotions sexual organs.
Ludwig Wittgenstein	jews weininger argued similar saturated femininity sense right wrong soul.weininger argues man must choose masculine feminine sides consciousness unconsciousness platonic love sexuality.love sexual desire stand contradiction love woman man therefore doomed misery immorality.life worth living spiritual one – live woman jew means one right live choice genius death.weininger committed suicide shooting shortly publishing book.
Ludwig Wittgenstein	wittgenstein attended weiningers funeral.many years later professor university cambridge wittgenstein distributed copies weiningers book bemused academic colleagues.said weiningers arguments wrong way wrong interesting.letter dated august wittgenstein wrote following g. e. mooredear moorethanks letter.quite imagine dont admire weininger much beastly translation fact w. must feel foreign you.
Ludwig Wittgenstein	true fantastic great fantastic.isnt necessary rather possible agree greatness lies disagree.enormous mistake great.i.e.roughly speaking add ∼ whole book says important truth.in unusual move wittgenstein took copy weiningers work june special order books university library.
Ludwig Wittgenstein	met moore june probably gave copy moore.jewish background hitler much debate extent wittgenstein siblings jewish descent saw jews.issue arisen particular regarding wittgensteins schooldays adolf hitler school time.laurence goldstein argues overwhelmingly probable boys met hitler would disliked wittgenstein stammering precocious precious aristocratic upstart ... commentators dismissed irresponsible uninformed suggestion wittgensteins wealth unusual personality may fed hitlers antisemitism part indication hitler would seen wittgenstein jewish.wittgenstein hitler born six days apart though hitler resit mathematics exam allowed higher class wittgenstein moved forward one ended two grades apart realschule.monk estimates school – school year says evidence anything other.
Ludwig Wittgenstein	several commentators argued school photograph hitler may show wittgenstein lower left cornerin writings wittgenstein frequently referred jewish times part apparent selfflagellation.example berating reproductive opposed productive thinker attributed jewish sense identity writingthe saint jewish genius.even greatest jewish thinker talented.instance.while wittgenstein would later claim thoughts hebraic hans sluga argued selfdoubting judaism always possibility collapsing destructive selfhatred weiningers case also held immense promise innovation genius.by hebraic meant include christian tradition contradistinction greek tradition holding good evil could reconciled.– university engineering berlin manchester began studies mechanical engineering technische hochschule berlin charlottenburg berlin october lodging family professor dr. jolles.
Ludwig Wittgenstein	attended three semesters awarded diploma abgangzeugnis may .during time institute wittgenstein developed interest aeronautics.arrived victoria university manchester spring study doctorate full plans aeronautical projects including designing flying plane.conducted research behavior kites upper atmosphere experimenting meteorological observation site near glossop.specifically royal meteorological society researched investigated ionization upper atmosphere suspending instruments balloons kites.glossop wittgenstein worked professor physics sir arthur schuster.he also worked design propeller small jet engines end blades something patented earned research studentship university autumn .
Ludwig Wittgenstein	time contemporary propeller designs advanced enough actually put wittgensteins ideas practice would years blade design could support wittgensteins innovative design created.wittgensteins design required air gas forced along propeller arms combustion chambers end blade compressed centrifugal force exerted revolving arms ignited.propellers time typically wood whereas modern blades made pressed steel laminates separate halves welded together.gives blade hollow interior therefore creates ideal pathway air gas.work jetpowered propeller proved frustrating wittgenstein little experience working machinery.jim bamber british engineer friend classmate time reported things went wrong often occurred would throw arms around stomp swear volubly german.according william eccles another friend period wittgenstein turned theoretical work focusing design propeller – problem required relatively sophisticated mathematics.it time became interested foundations mathematics particularly reading bertrand russells principles mathematics gottlob freges foundations arithmetic vol.
Ludwig Wittgenstein	vol..wittgensteins sister hermine said became obsessed mathematics result anyway losing interest aeronautics.decided instead needed study logic foundations mathematics describing constant indescribable almost pathological state agitation.summer visited frege university jena show philosophy mathematics logic written ask whether worth pursuing.
Ludwig Wittgenstein	wrote shown freges study.frege small neat man pointed beard bounced around room talked.absolutely wiped floor felt depressed end said must come cheered up.several discussions that.frege would never talk anything logic mathematics started subject would say something polite plunge back logic mathematics.
Ludwig Wittgenstein	arrival cambridge wittgenstein wanted study frege frege suggested attend university cambridge study russell october wittgenstein arrived unannounced russells rooms trinity college.russell tea c. k. ogden according russell unknown german appeared speaking little english refusing speak german.turned man learned engineering charlottenburg course acquired passion philosophy mathematics come cambridge purpose hear me.he soon attending russells lectures dominating them.lectures poorly attended russell often found lecturing c. d. broad e. h. neville h.t.j.norton.
Ludwig Wittgenstein	wittgenstein started following lectures back rooms discuss philosophy time evening meal hall.russell grew irritated wrote lover lady ottoline morrell german friend threatens infliction.russell soon came believe wittgenstein genius especially examined wittgensteins written work.wrote november first thought wittgenstein might crank soon decided genius early views made decision difficult.maintained example one time existential propositions meaningless.lecture room invited consider proposition hippopotamus room present.
Ludwig Wittgenstein	refused believe looked desks without finding one remained unconvinced.three months wittgensteins arrival russell told morrelli love feel solve problems old solve ... young man one hopes for.wittgenstein later told david pinsent russells encouragement proven salvation ended nine years loneliness suffering continually thought suicide.encouraging pursue philosophy justifying inclination abandon engineering russell quite literally saved wittgensteins life.rolereversal bertrand russell wittgenstein soon russell wrote wittgenstein criticized russells workhis wittgensteins criticism tho dont think realized time event firstrate importance life affected everything done since.
Ludwig Wittgenstein	saw right saw could hope ever fundamental work philosophy.cambridge moral sciences club apostles wittgenstein joined cambridge moral sciences club influential discussion group philosophy dons students delivering first paper november year fourminute talk defining philosophy primitive propositions assumed true without proof various sciences.he dominated society time would stop attending early complaints gave one else chance speak.the club became infamous within popular philosophy meeting october richard braithwaites rooms kings college cambridge karl popper another viennese philosopher invited guest speaker.poppers paper philosophical problems struck position wittgensteins contending problems philosophy real linguistic puzzles wittgenstein argued.accounts vary happened next wittgenstein apparently started waving hot poker demanding popper give example moral rule.popper offered one – threaten visiting speakers pokers – point russell told wittgenstein misunderstood wittgenstein left.
Ludwig Wittgenstein	popper maintained wittgenstein stormed become accepted practice leave early aforementioned ability dominate discussion.time philosophers three eminent world ever room together.minutes record meeting charged unusual degree spirit controversy.cambridge apostles economist john maynard keynes also invited join cambridge apostles elite secret society formed bertrand russell g. e. moore joined students wittgenstein greatly enjoy attended infrequently.russell worried wittgenstein would appreciate groups raucous style intellectual debate precious sense humour fact members often love one another.
Ludwig Wittgenstein	admitted resigned almost immediately could tolerate style discussion.nevertheless cambridge apostles allowed wittgenstein participate meetings returned cambridge.reportedly wittgenstein also trouble tolerating discussions cambridge moral sciences club.frustrations cambridge wittgenstein quite vocal depression years cambridge went war many occasion told russell woes.mental anguish seemed stem two sources work personal life.
Ludwig Wittgenstein	wittgenstein made numerous remarks russell logic driving mad.wittgenstein also stated russell felt curse half talent.later expresses worry tells mediocre spirits due lack progress logical work.monk writes wittgenstein lived breathed logic temporary lack inspiration plunged despair.wittgenstein tells work logic affecting mental status extreme way.
Ludwig Wittgenstein	however also tells russell another story.around christmas writes logician im human important thing coming terms also tells russell occasion russells rooms worried logic sins also upon arrival russells rooms one night wittgenstein announced russell would kill left.things wittgenstein personally told russell ludwigs temperament also recorded diary david pinsent.pinsent writes frightfully careful tolerant gets sulky fits afraid even sensitive neurotic state usual talking wittgensteins emotional fluctuations.sexual orientation relationship david pinsent wittgenstein romantic relations men women.
Ludwig Wittgenstein	generally believed fallen love least three men relationship latter two david hume pinsent francis skinner ben richards late s. later revealed teenager vienna affair woman.additionally wittgenstein fell love young swiss woman marguerite respinger sculpting bust modelled seriously considering marriage albeit condition would children decided right her.wittgensteins relationship david pinsent – occurred intellectually formative period well documented.bertrand russell introduced wittgenstein pinsent summer .pinsent mathematics undergraduate relation david hume wittgenstein soon became close.men worked together experiments psychology laboratory role rhythm appreciation music wittgenstein delivered paper subject british psychological association cambridge .
Ludwig Wittgenstein	also travelled together including iceland september —the expenses paid wittgenstein including first class travel hiring private train new clothes spending money pinsent.addition iceland wittgenstein pinsent traveled norway .determining destination wittgenstein pinsent visited tourist office search location would fulfill following criteria small village located fjord location away tourists peaceful destination allow study logic law.choosing øystese wittgenstein pinsent arrived small village september .vacation lasting almost three weeks wittgenstein able work vigorously studies.
Ludwig Wittgenstein	immense progress logic stay led wittgenstein express pinsent notion leaving cambridge returning norway continue work logic.pinsents diaries provide valuable insights wittgensteins personality sensitive nervous attuned tiniest slight change mood pinsent.pinsent also writes wittgenstein absolutely sulky snappish times well.diaries pinsent wrote shopping furniture wittgenstein cambridge latter given rooms trinity.found stores minimalist enough wittgensteins aesthetics went helped interview lot furniture various shops ... rather amusing terribly fastidious led shopman frightful dance vittgenstein sic ejaculating – beastly percent shewed archaic spelling ushe wrote may wittgenstein begun study history philosophy expresses naive surprise philosophers worshipped ignorance stupid dishonest make disgusting mistakesthe last time saw october lordswood house birmingham residence pinsent family got see ludwig off.
Ludwig Wittgenstein	go early—back cambridge—as lots there.saw house taxi —to catch train new street station.sad parting him.wittgenstein left live norway.– world war tractatus work logik karl wittgenstein died january receiving inheritance wittgenstein became one wealthiest men europe.donated money first anonymously austrian artists writers including rainer maria rilke georg trakl.
Ludwig Wittgenstein	trakl requested meet benefactor wittgenstein went visit trakl killed himself.wittgenstein came feel could get heart fundamental questions surrounded academics retreated village skjolden norway rented second floor house winter.later saw one productive periods life writing logik notes logic predecessor much tractatus.while norway wittgenstein learned norwegian converse local villagers danish read works danish philosopher søren kierkegaard.adored quiet seriousness landscape even skjolden became busy him.soon designed small wooden house erected remote rock overlooking eidsvatnet lake outside village.
Ludwig Wittgenstein	place called østerrike austria locals.lived various periods substantial parts works written there.house broken rebuilt village.local foundation collected donations bought dismantled reerected original location inauguration took place june international attendance.it time wittgenstein began addressing considered central issue notes logic general decision procedure determining truth value logical propositions would stem single primitive proposition.became convinced time propositions logic generalizations tautologies generalizations tautologies generalizations logic.
Ludwig Wittgenstein	logical propositions.based wittgenstein argued propositions logic express truth falsehood sign one need know anything constituent parts proposition determine true false.rather one simply need identify statement tautology true contradiction false neither.the problem lay forming primitive proposition encompassed would act basis logic.stated correspondence russell late big question must system signs constituted order make every tautology recognizable one way fundamental problem logicthe importance wittgenstein placed upon fundamental problem great believed solve reason right live.despite apparent lifeordeath importance wittgenstein given primitive proposition time writing tractatus.tractatus offer general process identifying propositions tautologies simpler manner every tautology shows tautology.this shift understanding tautologies mere identification recognition occurred moore called wittgenstein assist dictating notes.at wittgensteins insistence moore cambridge visited norway reluctantly wittgenstein exhausted him.
Ludwig Wittgenstein	david edmonds john eidinow write wittgenstein regarded moore internationally known philosopher example far someone could get life absolutely intelligence whatever.norway clear moore expected act wittgensteins secretary taking notes wittgenstein falling rage moore got something wrong.returned cambridge moore asked university consider accepting logik sufficient bachelors degree refused saying wasnt formatted properly footnotes preface.wittgenstein furious writing moore may worth making exception even stupid details may well go hell directly worth dont – god – might go there.moore apparently distraught wrote diary felt sick could get letter head.two speak .
Ludwig Wittgenstein	military service outbreak world war wittgenstein immediately volunteered austrohungarian army despite eligible medical exemption.served first ship artillery workshop several miles action.wounded accidental explosion hospitalised kraków.march posted fighting unit front line russian front part austrian th army unit involved heaviest fighting defending brusilov offensive.wittgenstein directed fire artillery observation post nomans land allied troops—one dangerous jobs since targeted enemy fire.
Ludwig Wittgenstein	decorated military merit swords ribbon commended army exceptionally courageous behaviour calmness sangfroid heroism total admiration troops.january sent member howitzer regiment russian front several medals bravery including silver medal valour first class.promoted lieutenant sent italian front part artillery regiment.part final austrian offensive june recommended gold medal valour one highest honours austrian army instead awarded band military service medal swords—it decided particular action although extraordinarily brave insufficiently consequential merit highest honour.throughout war kept notebooks frequently wrote philosophical reflections alongside personal remarks including contempt character soldiers.notebooks also attest philosophical spiritual reflections time experienced kind religious awakening.
Ludwig Wittgenstein	entry june wittgenstein states meaning life i.e.meaning world call god.connect comparison god father.pray think meaning life.july believe god means understand meaning life.
Ludwig Wittgenstein	believe god means see facts world end matter.believe god means see life meaning ... conscience upsets equilibrium agreement something.world certainly correct say conscience voice god.discovered leo tolstoys gospel brief bookshop tarnów carried everywhere recommending anyone distress point became known fellow soldiers man gospels.the extent gospel brief influenced wittgenstein seen tractatus unique way books number sentences.wittgenstein read dostoevskys brothers karamazov often knew whole passages heart particularly speeches elder zosima represented powerful christian ideal holy man could see directly souls people.iain king suggested wittgensteins writing changed substantially started confronting much greater dangers frontline fighting.

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