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Pinkerton (detective agency)	ensuing battle pinkerton agents striking workers led deaths three pinkerton agents nine steelworkers.pinkertons also used guards coal iron lumber disputes illinois michigan new york pennsylvania west virginia well great railroad strike battle blair mountain .the company continued exist various forms present day division swedish security company securitas ab operating pinkerton consulting investigations inc. d.b.a.pinkerton corporate risk management.former government services division pgs operates securitas critical infrastructure services inc.. origins allan pinkerton scottish detective spy met chicago attorney edward rucker local masonic hall formed northwestern police agency later known pinkerton agency.historian frank morn writes mids businessmen saw need greater control employees solution sponsor private detective system.february allan pinkerton consulting six midwestern railroads created agency chicago.among businesss early operations safely deliver newly elected president united states abraham lincoln washington d.c. light assassination threat.
Pinkerton (detective agency)	pinkerton detective kate warne assigned successfully delivered lincoln u.s. capital city series disguises related tactics required stay awake throughout entire long journey.result public notoriety success business adapted open eye logo slogan never sleep.government work congress appropriated equivalent new department justice form suborganization devoted detection prosecution guilty violating federal law.amount insufficient fashion internal investigating unit contracted services pinkerton national detective agency.however since passage antipinkerton act federal law stated individual employed pinkerton detective agency similar organization may employed government united states government district columbia.chicago special officers watchmen july j. j. white hired special officer strike shot killed.july hans rassmuson special officer shot killed.march frank miller pinkerton watchman shot killed.
Pinkerton (detective agency)	molly maguires franklin b. gowen president philadelphia reading railroad hired agency investigate labor unions companys mines.pinkerton agent james mcparland using alias james mckenna infiltrated molly maguires thcentury secret society mainly irishamerican coal miners leading downfall labor organization.the incident inspired arthur conan doyles sherlock holmes novel valley fear –.pinkerton agent also appears small role adventure red circle holmes story.film molly maguires loosely based upon incident well.homestead strike july homestead strike pinkerton detectives new york chicago called carnegie steels henry clay frick protect pittsburgharea mill strikebreakers.
Pinkerton (detective agency)	resulted firefight siege men killed others wounded.restore order two brigades pennsylvania militia called governor.as legacy pinkertons involvement bridge connecting nearby pittsburgh suburbs munhall rankin named pinkertons landing bridge.steunenberg murder trial harry orchard arrested idaho police confessed pinkerton agent james mcparland assassinated former governor frank steunenberg idaho .orchard testified unsuccessfully threat hanging western federation miners president big bill haywood naming hired hit.stirring defense clarence darrow haywood defendants wfm acquitted nationally publicized trial.
Pinkerton (detective agency)	orchard received death sentence commuted.outlaws competition pinkerton agents hired track western outlaws jesse james reno gang wild bunch including butch cassidy sundance kid.march two pinkerton detectives deputy sheriff edwin p. daniels encountered younger brothers associates james–younger gang daniels john younger one pinkerton agent killed.union missouri bank robbed george collins aka fred lewis bill randolph pinkerton detective chas schumacher trailed killed.collins hanged march randolph hanged may union.
Pinkerton (detective agency)	pinkertons also hired transporting money highquality merchandise cities towns made vulnerable outlaws.pinkerton agents usually well paid well armed.g.h.thiel former pinkerton employee established thiel detective service company st. louis missouri competitor pinkerton agency.thiel company operated u.s. canada mexico.modern era due conflicts labor unions word pinkerton continues associated labor organizers union members strikebreaking.
Pinkerton (detective agency)	pinkertons diversified labor spying following revelations publicized la follette committee hearings firms criminal detection work also suffered police modernization movement saw rise federal bureau investigation bolstering detective branches resources public police.less labor criminal investigation work pinkertons thrived decades company became increasingly involved protection services even word detective disappeared agencys letterhead.company focuses threat intelligence risk management executive protection active shooter response.in company bought securitas ab swedish security company million followed acquisition william j. burns detective agency founded longtime pinkerton rival create division parent securitas security services usa.today companys headquarters located ann arbor michigan.appearance popular media books sherlock holmes novel valley fear birdy edwards pinkerton agent.
Pinkerton (detective agency)	another pinkerton agent leverton makes appearance short story adventure red circle.dashiell hammetts continental op detective stories based experiences working pinkerton agency several periods –.baltimore branch hammett first worked housed continental trust building pinkerton agency named.hammett also worked san francisco office thus many op stories set city.published black mask magazine .several continental op book collections.
Pinkerton (detective agency)	four stories combined form hammetts first novel red harvest.many louis lamour books contain references pinkertons including milo talonauthor beverly jenkins makes reference pinkerton agents many novels including vivid dawn.in laird barrons short story bulldozer pinkerton protagonist jonah koenig hunts wanted criminal also happens dabble profane occult rituals.maria belle boyd lead character cherie priests steampunk novel fiddlehead works pinkerton detective agency.clive cussler often reputed base isaac bell series van dorn detective agency upon pinkerton detective agency.often disputed however books often portray pinkerton agency negative light even appearing major antagonist prequel novel.in doctor book shakedown novelization shakedown return sontarans doctors companions chris roz pretend agents galactic offshoot pinkertons planet megerra .in james bond novels felix leiter becomes pinkerton detective live let die diamonds forever.cia agent retired losing arm leg former novel.in romance series novellas pinkerton matchmaker written many different authors.former pinkerton agent charlie siringo published exposé methods used pinkertons book two evilisms pinkertonism anarchism.agency soon suppressed publication book made request governor new mexico william c. mcdonald arrest siringo criminal libel extradite chicago.governor mcdonald denied request agency successful obtaining court order impound existing copies book.author ray celestin makes reference pinkerton agents city blues quartet book series.lucky luke counters pinkerton agents album lucky luke contre pinkerton lucky luke versus pinkertons daniel pennac tonino benacquista.
Pinkerton (detective agency)	film allan pinkerton several agents play vital role film american outlaws starring colin farrell gabriel macht jesse frank james.pinkerton detectives hired owner fictional rock northern rail road track jesse james gang following series robberies aimed company.the pinkertons featured movie long riders pinkerton agents depicted investigating criminal activities james brothers.pinkerton detectives featured yuma remake featuring russell crowe christian bale appearing start film defending stagecoach bandits.killed except one byron mcelroy peter fonda later killed crowes character.in western film bad girls three main characters tracked two pinkerton agents committing murder.in james cameron film titanic spicer lovejoy caledon hockleys valet bodyguard expinkerton detective.in film legend zorro pair pinkerton agents sees zorros face recognise him.following day pinkertons confront wife elena blackmail divorcing order get close main antagonist armand learn plans without aid zorro dislike zorro vigilante ways.in remake magnificent seven agents fictional blackstone detective agency modeled pinkertons appear antagonists.in kenneth branagh film murder orient express cyrus bethman hardman revealed undercover pinkerton detective.in western film badland protagonist pinkerton detective new mexico authorized president directed black senator track hang confederate war criminals.music song ballad wellknown gun elton john album tumbleweed connection references pinkertons pinkertons pulled bags asked name.the song book saddle go clutch album earth rocker references pinkerton man pinkerton man murdering bastard i’m gonna get even get even get even you.the song diamond mind solomon burke album dont give references pinkerton raid said lost right arm blown pinkerton raid.
Pinkerton (detective agency)	television television series damnation creeley turner one two lead characters pinkerton agent sent iowa powerful industrialist stop farmer strike.on valentines day episode golden girls drugstore banter rose dorothy regarding purchasing protection trip condoms promoting desire safe sex.rose asks kind protection need dorothy quips “two armed pinkerton guards rose”in false colours eighth episode first series tv show young riders detective named pinkerton working security gold shipment.in fourthseries episode havre de grace boardwalk empire character roy phillips revealed detective working agency.the character captain homer jackson bbc series ripper street also revealed expinkerton agent series one.three pinkerton agents featured firstseason episode husbands fathers bbc america show copper.in irwin allen series time tunnel episode death trap mr. pinkerton help two main characters saved president lincoln.in penny dreadful series episode grand guignol ethan chandler confronted pinkerton agents bar past catches him.pinkerton agents appeared first episode hatfields mccoys miniseries.the pinkertons scripted onehour syndicated starring angus macfadyen allan pinkerton debuted .cole hauser plays charlie siringo pinkerton investigating lizzie borden miniseries lizzie borden chronicles.in canadianamerican television drama calls heart pinkerton security officers employed mining company managed henry gowen martin cumminsmichael dorn played mr. eastman detective sent pinkerton detective agency investigate kidnapping wealthy mans wife tenth episode second season tv series dead mans gun titled pinkerton originally aired october .allan pinkerton portrayed charlie day secondseries episode drunk history entitled baltimore.episode relays story allan pinkerton successfully protecting abraham lincoln portrayed martin starr assassination.bloody battles second episode miniseries men built america focuses relationship andrew carnegie henry clay frick damaged homestead strike frick hires pinkertons.mentioned six episodes let loose dogs werewolves “au naturel” summer manual murder bad pennies –present canadian tv series murdoch mysteries.in television series deadwood pinkertons prominently featured mercenaries paid george hearst final seasons antagonist.in television miniseries north south book iii based heaven hell john jakes george hazard hires pinkerton detective track elkana bent suspected murder wife constance hazard.in czechoslovak–west german television show dobrodružství kriminalistiky adventure criminalistics criminal story pinkerton detective agency .in television series shea brennan played sam elliot thomas played lamonica garrett pinkerton agents.video games protagonist video game bioshock infinite booker dewitt expinkerton former member goon squads used agency suppress strikes.one games trophies awarded completing highest difficulty titled stone cold pinkerton.in online game poptropica pinkertons services used catch thief mystery train island.
Pinkerton (detective agency)	also revealed protecting president grover cleveland.pinkerton detectives appear antagonists red dead redemption .appear primarily mercenaries investigators employed track van der linde gang.taketwo interactive parent company game publisher rockstar games received cease desist notice securitas ab asserting red dead redemption use pinkerton name badge imagery trademark marks demanded royalties copy game sold would take legal action.taketwo filed complaint securitas january asserting pinkerton name strongly associated wild west use term infringe pinkerton trademark.taketwo sought summary judgment declare use pinkerton game allowed fair use.
Pinkerton (detective agency)	april securitas withdrew claims taketwo moved withdraw complaint.see also antiunion organizations united statesantiunion violencebaldwin–felts detective agencybattle blair mountaincoal iron police pinkertonsupervised private police force pennsylvaniacolorado labor warsgeorge samuel dougherty leading private detective pinkerton national detective agency morris friedman author pinkerton labor spydashiell hammett author former pinkerton operativeindustrial workers worldlabor spying united statesfrank little american labor leader lynched allegedly pinkerton agentslist worker deaths united states labor disputestimothy webster references reading jonathan obert..pinkertons police antebellum chicago.sixshooter state public private violence american politics.
List of threatened sharks	cambridge university press.external links official websiteradio programme ward churchillinternational union conservation nature iucn worlds oldest global environmental organization.evaluates threatened species treats threatened species single category group three categories depending degree threatened vulnerable species endangered species critically endangered speciesthe term threatened strictly refers three categories critically endangered endangered vulnerable vulnerable used refer least risk categories.terms used somewhat interchangeably vulnerable species threatened endangered species vulnerable threatened critically endangered species endangered vulnerable threatened.threatened species also referred redlisted species listed iucn red list threatened species.shark species increasingly becoming threatened commercial recreational fishing pressures impact nonshark fisheries seabed shark prey species habitat alterations damage loss coastal development marine pollution.rising demands shark products increased pressure shark fisheries little monitoring management occurs fisheries.
List of threatened sharks	major declines shark stocks recorded past decades species declined population declines unusual .particular harvesting young sharks reproduce severely impacts future populations.sharks generally reach sexual maturity many years produce offspring comparison fish species.conservationists estimate million sharks killed commercial recreational fishing every year.sharks often killed shark fin soup asian countries regard status symbol.fishermen capture live sharks fin dump finless animal back water die suffocation predators.
List of threatened sharks	sharks also killed flesh europe elsewhere.film sharkwater documents ways sharks hunted extinction.iucn shark specialist group reported conservation status pelagic open water sharks rays.found half pelagic sharks targeted highseas fisheries threatened extinction.in convention international trade endangered species cites rejected proposals united states palau would required countries strictly regulate trade several species hammerhead oceanic whitetip dogfish sharks.majority required twothirds voting delegates approved proposal.
List of threatened sharks	china far worlds largest shark consumer japan battles attempts extend conventions protections marine species led opposition.in cites member nations overcame continued opposition led china japan reversed course.cites called milestone oceanic whitetip porbeagle three species hammerheads join great white basking whale shark cites appendix ii effective september .international trade species thus prohibited without cites permits ... evidence provided harvested sustainably legally.in state government western australia led premier colin barnett implemented policy killing large sharks.policy intended protect users marine environment shark attack following deaths seven people western australian coastline years .baited drum lines deployed near popular beaches using hooks designed catch vulnerable great white shark well bull tiger sharks.
List of threatened sharks	large sharks found hooked still alive shot bodies discarded sea.government claims culling sharks using targeted localised hazard mitigation strategy.barnett described opposition killing sharks ludicrous extreme said nothing change mind.according study published journal nature relative fishing pressure oceans increased factor since .overfishing resulted number oceanic sharks rays declining globally increased global extinction risk point threequarters species threatened extinction.precautionary sciencebased catch limits strict prohibitions needed urgently population collapse avoided disruption ecological functions averted start made rebuilding global fisheries.
List of threatened sharks	see also list threatened rays references reading fao conservation management sharks technical guidelines responsible fisheries rome.isbn .fowler sl cavanagh rd camhi burgess gh cailliet gm fordham sv simpfendorfer ca musick ja comp.ed.sharks rays chimaeras status chondrichthyan fishes iucn shark specialist group status survey.isbn .musick john bonfil ramón management techniques elasmobranch fisheries fisheries technical paper fao rome.teutscher frans sharks chondrichthyes world markets industry selected commerciallyexploited aquatic species international conservation profile camillo catarci.
Electromagnetic pulse	fisheries circular faovannuccini stefania shark utilization marketing trade fisheries technical paper fao rome.isbn .endangered threatened species nmfs’ jurisdiction national marine fisheries service noaa.updated february .depending upon source origin emp natural artificial occur electromagnetic field electric field magnetic field conducted electric current.electromagnetic interference caused emp disrupts communications damages electronic equipment higher levels energy emp lightning strike physically damage objects buildings aircraft.management emp effects branch electromagnetic compatibility emc engineering.emp weapons designed deliver damaging effects highenergy emp disrupt unprotected infrastructure country thus employment emp weapon country scenario war likely collapse functionality electrical network country.general characteristics electromagnetic pulse short surge electromagnetic energy.short duration means spread range frequencies.
Electromagnetic pulse	pulses typically characterized bythe mode energy transfer radiated electric magnetic conducted.the range spectrum frequencies present.pulse waveform shape duration amplitude.the last two frequency spectrum pulse waveform interrelated via fourier transform describes component waveforms may sum observed frequency spectrum.types energy emp energy may transferred four formselectric fieldmagnetic fieldelectromagnetic radiationelectrical conductionaccording maxwells equations pulse electric energy always accompanied pulse magnetic energy.typical pulse either electric magnetic form dominate.in general radiation acts long distances magnetic electric fields acting short distances.exceptions solar magnetic flare.frequency ranges pulse electromagnetic energy typically comprises many frequencies low upper limit depending source.
Electromagnetic pulse	range defined emp sometimes referred dc daylight excludes highest frequencies comprising optical infrared visible ultraviolet ionizing x gamma rays ranges.some types emp events leave optical trail lightning sparks side effects current flow air part emp itself.pulse waveforms waveform pulse describes instantaneous amplitude field strength current changes time.real pulses tend quite complicated simplified models often used.model typically described either diagram mathematical equation.most electromagnetic pulses sharp leading edge building quickly maximum level.classic model doubleexponential curve climbs steeply quickly reaches peak decays slowly.
Electromagnetic pulse	however pulses controlled switching circuit often approximate form rectangular square pulse.emp events usually induce corresponding signal surrounding environment material.coupling usually occurs strongly relatively narrow frequency band leading characteristic damped sine wave.visually shown high frequency sine wave growing decaying within longerlived envelope doubleexponential curve.damped sinewave typically much lower energy narrower frequency spread original pulse due transfer characteristic coupling mode.practice emp test equipment often injects damped sinewaves directly rather attempting recreate highenergy threat pulses.in pulse train digital clock circuit waveform repeated regular intervals.
Electromagnetic pulse	single complete pulse cycle sufficient characterise regular repetitive train.types emp arises source emits shortduration pulse energy.energy usually broadband nature although often excites relatively narrowband damped sine wave response surrounding environment.types generated repetitive regular pulse trains.different types emp arise natural manmade weapons effects.types natural emp event includeslightning electromagnetic pulse lemp.discharge typically initial huge current flow least megaamps followed train pulses decreasing energy.electrostatic discharge esd result two charged objects coming close proximity even contact.meteoric emp.
Electromagnetic pulse	discharge electromagnetic energy resulting either impact meteoroid spacecraft explosive breakup meteoroid passing earths atmosphere.coronal mass ejection cme sometimes referred solar emp.burst plasma accompanying magnetic field ejected solar corona released solar wind.types civil manmade emp event includeswitching action electrical circuitry whether isolated repetitive pulse train.electric motors create train pulses internal electrical contacts make break connections armature rotates.gasoline engine ignition systems create train pulses spark plugs energized fired.continual switching actions digital electronic circuitry.power line surges.several kilovolts enough damage electronic equipment insufficiently protected.types military emp includenuclear electromagnetic pulse nemp result nuclear explosion.variant high altitude nuclear emp hemp produces secondary pulse due particle interactions earths atmosphere magnetic field.nonnuclear electromagnetic pulse nnemp weapons.lightning lightning unusual typically preliminary leader discharge low energy building main pulse turn may followed intervals several smaller bursts.
Electromagnetic pulse	electrostatic discharge esd esd events characterized high voltages many kv small currents sometimes cause visible sparks.esd treated small localized phenomenon although technically lightning flash large esd event.esd also manmade shock received van de graaff generator.an esd event damage electronic circuitry injecting highvoltage pulse besides giving people unpleasant shock.esd event also create sparks may turn ignite fires fuelvapour explosions.reason refueling aircraft exposing fuel vapor air fuel nozzle first connected aircraft safely discharge static.
Electromagnetic pulse	switching pulses switching action electrical circuit creates sharp change flow electricity.sharp change form emp.simple electrical sources include inductive loads relays solenoids brush contacts electric motors.typically send pulse electrical connections present well radiating pulse energy.amplitude usually small signal may treated noise interference.switching opening circuit causes abrupt change current flowing.
Electromagnetic pulse	turn cause large pulse electric field across open contacts causing arcing damage.often necessary incorporate design features limit effects.electronic devices vacuum tubes valves transistors diodes also switch quickly causing similar issues.oneoff pulses may caused solidstate switches devices used occasionally.however many millions transistors modern computer may switch repeatedly frequencies ghz causing interference appears continuous.nuclear electromagnetic pulse nemp nuclear electromagnetic pulse abrupt pulse electromagnetic radiation resulting nuclear explosion.
Electromagnetic pulse	resulting rapidly changing electric fields magnetic fields may couple electricalelectronic systems produce damaging current voltage surges.the intense gamma radiation emitted also ionize surrounding air creating secondary emp atoms air first lose electrons regain them.nemp weapons designed maximize emp effects primary damage mechanism capable destroying susceptible electronic equipment wide area.a highaltitude electromagnetic pulse hemp weapon nemp warhead designed detonated far earths surface.explosion releases blast gamma rays midstratosphere ionizes secondary effect resultant energetic free electrons interact earths magnetic field produce much stronger emp normally produced denser air lower altitudes.nonnuclear electromagnetic pulse nnemp nonnuclear electromagnetic pulse nnemp weapongenerated electromagnetic pulse without use nuclear technology.devices achieve objective include large lowinductance capacitor bank discharged singleloop antenna microwave generator explosively pumped flux compression generator.achieve frequency characteristics pulse needed optimal coupling target waveshaping circuits microwave generators added pulse source antenna.
Electromagnetic pulse	vircators vacuum tubes particularly suitable microwave conversion highenergy pulses.nnemp generators carried payload bombs cruise missiles champ missile drones diminished mechanical thermal ionizing radiation effects without consequences deploying nuclear weapons.the range nnemp weapons much less nuclear emp.nearly nnemp devices used weapons require chemical explosives initial energy source producing − one millionth energy nuclear explosives similar weight.electromagnetic pulse nnemp weapons must come within weapon nuclear weapons generate emp secondary effect.facts limit range nnemp weapons allow finer target discrimination.effect small ebombs proven sufficient certain terrorist military operations.
Electromagnetic pulse	examples operations include destruction electronic control systems critical operation many ground vehicles aircraft.the concept explosively pumped flux compression generator generating nonnuclear electromagnetic pulse conceived early andrei sakharov soviet union nations kept work nonnuclear emp classified similar ideas emerged nations.electromagnetic forming large forces generated electromagnetic pulses used shape form objects part manufacturing process.effects minor emp events especially pulse trains cause low levels electrical noise interference affect operation susceptible devices.example common problem midtwentieth century interference emitted ignition systems gasoline engines caused radio sets crackle tv sets show stripes screen.laws introduced make vehicle manufacturers fit interference suppressors.at high voltage level emp induce spark example electrostatic discharge fuelling gasolineengined vehicle.
Electromagnetic pulse	sparks known cause fuelair explosions precautions must taken prevent them.a large energetic emp induce high currents voltages victim unit temporarily disrupting function even permanently damaging it.a powerful emp also directly affect magnetic materials corrupt data stored media magnetic tape computer hard drives.hard drives usually shielded heavy metal casings.asset disposition service providers computer recyclers use controlled emp wipe magnetic media.a large emp event lightning strike also capable damaging objects trees buildings aircraft directly either heating effects disruptive effects large magnetic field generated current.indirect effect electrical fires caused heating.engineered structures systems require form protection lightning designed in.the damaging effects highenergy emp led introduction emp weapons tactical missiles small radius effect nuclear bombs designed maximum emp effect wide area.
Electromagnetic pulse	control like electromagnetic interference threat emp subject control measures.true whether threat natural manmade.therefore control measures focus susceptibility equipment emp effects hardening protecting harm.manmade sources weapons also subject control measures order limit amount pulse energy emitted.the discipline ensuring correct equipment operation presence emp rf threats known electromagnetic compatibility emc.test simulation test effects emp engineered systems equipment emp simulator may used.induced pulse simulation induced pulses much lower energy threat pulses practicable create less predictable.
Electromagnetic pulse	common test technique use current clamp reverse inject range damped sine wave signals cable connected equipment test.damped sine wave generator able reproduce range induced signals likely occur.threat pulse simulation sometimes threat pulse simulated repeatable way.pulse may reproduced low energy order characterise victims response prior damped sinewave injection high energy recreate actual threat conditions.a smallscale esd simulator may handheld.bench roomsized simulators come range designs depending type level threat generated.at top end scale large outdoor test facilities incorporating highenergy emp simulators built several countries.largest facilities able test whole vehicles including ships aircraft susceptibility emp.
Electromagnetic pulse	nearly large emp simulators used specialized version marx generator.examples include huge woodenstructured atlasi simulator also known trestle sandia national labs new mexico one time worlds largest emp simulator.papers large emp simulators used united states latter part cold war along general information electromagnetic pulses care summa foundation hosted university new mexico.us navy also large facility called electro magnetic pulse radiation environmental simulator ships empress i. safety highlevel emp signals pose threat human safety.circumstances direct contact live electrical conductor avoided.occurs touching van de graaff generator highlycharged object care must taken release object discharge body high resistance order avoid risk harmful shock pulse stepping away.very high electric field strengths cause breakdown air potentially lethal arc current similar lightning flow electric field strengths kvm regarded safe.according research edd gent report electric power research institute funded utility companies found attack would probably cause regional blackouts nationwide grid failure recovery times would similar largescale outages.it known long electrical blackouts caused emp attack would last extent damage would occur across country.according national security consultant peter vincent pry north korea detonated nuclear weapon space united states would generate emp field covering entire country canada much mexico.
Electromagnetic pulse	dr. pry states china also developed emp weapons means united states prepared that.it possible neighboring countries u.s. could also affected attack depending targeted area people.according article naureen malik north koreas increasingly successful missile warhead tests mind congress moved renew funding commission assess threat u.s. electromagnetic pulse attack part national defense authorization act.moment united states lacks preparation emp attack.according research yoshida reiji article tokyobased nonprofit organization center information security trade control onizuka warned highaltitude emp attack would damage destroy japans power communications transport systems well disable banks hospitals nuclear power plants.according research martin mathew weiss testimony congressional committee asserted prolonged collapse nations electrical grid—through starvation disease societal collapse—could result death american population.popular culture popular media often depict emp effects incorrectly causing misunderstandings among public even professionals.official efforts made u.s. disprove misconceptions.see also references citations sources external links trestle landmark cold war short documentary film summa foundation website
Elizabeth I	sometimes referred virgin queen elizabeth last five monarchs house tudor.elizabeth daughter henry viii anne boleyn second wife executed elizabeth ⁄ years old.annes marriage henry annulled elizabeth declared illegitimate.halfbrother edward vi ruled death bequeathing crown lady jane grey ignoring claims two halfsisters roman catholic mary younger elizabeth spite statute law contrary.edwards set aside mary became queen deposing lady jane grey.marys reign elizabeth imprisoned nearly year suspicion supporting protestant rebels.upon halfsisters death elizabeth succeeded throne set rule good counsel.
Elizabeth I	depended heavily group trusted advisers led william cecil much later created st baron burghley.one first actions queen establishment english protestant church became supreme governor.elizabethan religious settlement evolve church england.expected elizabeth would marry produce heir however despite numerous courtships never did.eventually succeeded first cousin twice removed james vi scotland laid foundation kingdom great britain.
Elizabeth I	earlier reluctantly responsible imprisonment execution jamess mother mary queen scots.in government elizabeth moderate father halfsiblings been.one mottoes video et taceo see keep silent.religion relatively tolerant avoided systematic persecution.pope declared illegitimate released subjects obedience several conspiracies threatened life defeated help ministers secret service run francis walsingham.elizabeth cautious foreign affairs manoeuvring major powers france spain.
Elizabeth I	halfheartedly supported number ineffective poorly resourced military campaigns netherlands france ireland.mids england could longer avoid war spain.as grew older elizabeth became celebrated virginity.cult personality grew around celebrated portraits pageants literature day.elizabeths reign became known elizabethan era.period famous flourishing english drama led playwrights william shakespeare christopher marlowe prowess english maritime adventurers francis drake walter raleigh.
Elizabeth I	historians depict elizabeth shorttempered sometimes indecisive ruler enjoyed fair share luck.towards end reign series economic military problems weakened popularity.however elizabeth acknowledged charismatic performer dogged survivor era government ramshackle limited monarchs neighbouring countries faced internal problems jeopardised thrones.short reigns halfsiblings years throne provided welcome stability kingdom helped forge sense national identity.early life elizabeth born greenwich palace september named grandmothers elizabeth york lady elizabeth howard.
Elizabeth I	second child henry viii england born wedlock survive infancy.mother henrys second wife anne boleyn.birth elizabeth heir presumptive english throne.elder halfsister mary lost position legitimate heir henry annulled marriage marys mother catherine aragon marry anne intent sire male heir ensure tudor succession.baptised september godparents thomas cranmer archbishop canterbury henry courtenay st marquess exeter elizabeth stafford duchess norfolk margaret wotton dowager marchioness dorset.
Elizabeth I	canopy carried ceremony infant uncle george boleyn viscount rochford john hussey st baron hussey sleaford lord thomas howard william howard st baron howard effingham.elizabeth two years eight months old mother beheaded may four months catherine aragons death natural causes.elizabeth declared illegitimate deprived place royal succession.eleven days anne boleyns execution henry married jane seymour.queen jane died next year shortly birth son edward undisputed heir apparent throne.elizabeth placed halfbrothers household carried chrisom baptismal cloth christening.elizabeths first governess margaret bryan wrote toward child gentle conditions ever knew life.
Elizabeth I	catherine champernowne better known later married name catherine kat ashley appointed elizabeths governess remained elizabeths friend death .champernowne taught elizabeth four languages french dutch italian spanish.time william grindal became tutor elizabeth could write english latin italian.grindal talented skilful tutor also progressed french greek.age able translate stepmother catherine parrs religious work prayers meditations english italian latin french presented father new years gift.
Elizabeth I	teenage years throughout life translated works latin greek numerous classical authors including pro marcello cicero de consolatione philosophiae boethius treatise plutarch annals tacitus.translation tacitus lambeth palace library one four surviving english translations early modern era confirmed elizabeths detailed analysis handwriting paper undertaken.after grindal died elizabeth received education brother edwards tutor roger ascham sympathetic teacher believed learning engaging.current knowledge elizabeths schooling precocity comes largely aschams memoirs.time formal education ended elizabeth one best educated women generation.end life believed speak welsh cornish scottish irish languages addition mentioned above.
Elizabeth I	venetian ambassador stated possessed languages thoroughly appeared native tongue.historian mark stoyle suggests probably taught cornish william killigrew groom privy chamber later chamberlain exchequer.thomas seymour henry viii died elizabeths halfbrother edward vi became king age nine.catherine parr henrys widow soon married thomas seymour st baron seymour sudeley edward vis uncle brother lord protector edward seymour st duke somerset.couple took elizabeth household chelsea.
Elizabeth I	elizabeth experienced emotional crisis historians believe affected rest life.thomas seymour engaged romps horseplay yearold elizabeth including entering bedroom nightgown tickling slapping buttocks.elizabeth rose early surrounded maids avoid unwelcome morning visits.parr rather confront husband inappropriate activities joined in.twice accompanied tickling elizabeth held cut black gown thousand pieces.
Elizabeth I	however parr discovered pair embrace ended state affairs.may elizabeth sent away.thomas seymour nevertheless continued scheming control royal family tried appointed governor kings person.parr died childbirth september renewed attentions towards elizabeth intent marrying her.governess kat ashley fond seymour sought convince elizabeth take husband.tried convince elizabeth write seymour comfort sorrow elizabeth claimed thomas saddened stepmothers death need comfort.in january seymour arrested imprisoned tower suspicion conspiring depose brother somerset protector marry lady jane grey king edward vi take elizabeth wife.
Elizabeth I	elizabeth living hatfield house would admit nothing.stubbornness exasperated interrogator sir robert tyrwhitt reported see face guilty.seymour beheaded march .mary reign edward vi died july aged .ignored succession crown act excluded mary elizabeth succession instead declared heir lady jane grey granddaughter henry viiis younger sister mary.
Elizabeth I	jane proclaimed queen privy council support quickly crumbled deposed nine days.august mary rode triumphantly london elizabeth side.the show solidarity sisters last long.mary devout catholic determined crush protestant faith elizabeth educated ordered everyone attend catholic mass elizabeth outwardly conform.marys initial popularity ebbed away announced plans marry philip spain son holy roman emperor charles v active catholic.discontent spread rapidly country many looked elizabeth focus opposition marys religious policies.in january february wyatts rebellion broke soon suppressed.
Elizabeth I	elizabeth brought court interrogated regarding role march imprisoned tower london.elizabeth fervently protested innocence.though unlikely plotted rebels known approached her.marys closest confidant charles vs ambassador simon renard argued throne would never safe elizabeth lived lord chancellor stephen gardiner worked elizabeth put trial.elizabeths supporters government including william paget st baron paget convinced mary spare sister absence hard evidence her.
Elizabeth I	instead may elizabeth moved tower woodstock spend almost year house arrest charge sir henry bedingfeld.crowds cheered along way.on april elizabeth recalled court attend final stages marys apparent pregnancy.mary child died elizabeth would become queen mary gave birth healthy child elizabeths chances becoming queen would recede sharply.became clear mary pregnant one believed longer could child.elizabeths succession seemed assured.king philip ascended spanish throne acknowledged new political reality cultivated sisterinlaw.
Elizabeth I	better ally chief alternative mary queen scots grown france betrothed dauphin france.wife fell ill king philip sent count feria consult elizabeth.interview conducted hatfield house returned live october .october elizabeth already making plans government.mary recognised elizabeth heir november elizabeth became queen mary died november.
Elizabeth I	accession elizabeth became queen age declared intentions council peers come hatfield swear allegiance.speech contains first record adoption medieval political theology sovereigns two bodies body natural body politicmy lords law nature moves sorrow sister burden fallen upon makes amazed yet considering gods creature ordained obey appointment thereto yield desiring bottom heart may assistance grace minister heavenly office committed me.one body naturally considered though permission body politic govern shall desire ... assistant ruling service may make good account almighty god leave comfort posterity earth.mean direct actions good advice counsel.as triumphal progress wound city eve coronation ceremony welcomed wholeheartedly citizens greeted orations pageants strong protestant flavour.elizabeths open gracious responses endeared spectators wonderfully ravished.
Elizabeth I	following day january date chosen astrologer john dee elizabeth crowned anointed owen oglethorpe catholic bishop carlisle westminster abbey.presented peoples acceptance amidst deafening noise organs fifes trumpets drums bells.although elizabeth welcomed queen england country still state anxiety perceived catholic threat home overseas well choice would marry.church settlement elizabeths personal religious convictions much debated scholars.protestant kept catholic symbols crucifix downplayed role sermons defiance key protestant belief.elizabeth advisers perceived threat catholic crusade heretical england.
Elizabeth I	queen therefore sought protestant solution would offend catholics greatly addressing desires english protestants would tolerate puritans pushing farreaching reforms.result parliament started legislate church based protestant settlement edward vi monarch head many catholic elements vestments.the house commons backed proposals strongly bill supremacy met opposition house lords particularly bishops.elizabeth fortunate many bishoprics vacant time including archbishopric canterbury.enabled supporters amongst peers outvote bishops conservative peers.nevertheless elizabeth forced accept title supreme governor church england rather contentious title supreme head many thought unacceptable woman bear.
Elizabeth I	new act supremacy became law may .public officials swear oath loyalty monarch supreme governor risk disqualification office heresy laws repealed avoid repeat persecution dissenters practised mary.time new act uniformity passed made attendance church use adapted version book common prayer compulsory though penalties recusancy failure attend conform extreme.marriage question start elizabeths reign expected would marry question arose whom.although received many offers never married remained childless reasons clear.
Elizabeth I	historians speculated thomas seymour put sexual relationships.considered several suitors fifty.last courtship francis duke anjou years junior.risking possible loss power like sister played hands king philip ii spain marriage offered chance heir.however choice husband might also provoke political instability even insurrection.
Elizabeth I	robert dudley spring became evident elizabeth love childhood friend robert dudley.said amy robsart wife suffering malady one breasts queen would like marry dudley wife die.autumn several foreign suitors vying elizabeths hand impatient envoys engaged ever scandalous talk reported marriage favourite welcome england man cry indignation ... marry none favoured robert.amy dudley died september fall flight stairs despite coroners inquest finding accident many people suspected husband arranged death could marry queen.elizabeth seriously considered marrying dudley time.
Elizabeth I	however william cecil nicholas throckmorton conservative peers made disapproval unmistakably clear.even rumours nobility would rise marriage took place.among marriage candidates considered queen robert dudley continued regarded possible candidate nearly another decade.elizabeth extremely jealous affections even longer meant marry herself.raised dudley peerage earl leicester.finally remarried queen reacted repeated scenes displeasure lifelong hatred towards wife lettice knollys.
Elizabeth I	still dudley always remained centre elizabeths emotional life historian susan doran described situation.died shortly defeat spanish armada .elizabeths death note found among personal belongings marked last letter handwriting.foreign candidates marriage negotiations constituted key element elizabeths foreign policy.turned hand philip halfsisters widower early several years entertained proposal king eric xiv sweden.
Elizabeth I	earlier elizabeths life danish match discussed henry viii proposed one danish prince adolf duke holsteingottorp edward seymour duke somerset suggested marriage prince frederick later frederick ii several years later negotiations abated .years around danoenglish protestant alliance considered counter swedens proposal king frederick ii proposed elizabeth late .for several years also seriously negotiated marry philips cousin charles ii archduke austria.relations habsburgs deteriorated.elizabeth considered marriage two french valois princes turn first henry duke anjou brother francis duke anjou formerly duke alençon.last proposal tied planned alliance spanish control southern netherlands.
Elizabeth I	elizabeth seems taken courtship seriously time wore frogshaped earring francis sent her.in elizabeth told imperial envoy follow inclination nature beggarwoman single far rather queen married.later year following elizabeths illness smallpox succession question became heated issue parliament.members urged queen marry nominate heir prevent civil war upon death.refused either.april prorogued parliament reconvene needed support raise taxes .having previously promised marry told unruly housei never break word prince spoken public place honours sake.
Elizabeth I	therefore say marry soon conveniently god take away mind marry else great let happen.by senior figures government privately accepted elizabeth would never marry name successor.william cecil already seeking solutions succession problem.failure marry elizabeth often accused irresponsibility.silence however strengthened political security knew named heir throne would vulnerable coup remembered way second person used focus plots predecessor.virginity elizabeths unmarried status inspired cult virginity related virgin mary.
Elizabeth I	poetry portraiture depicted virgin goddess normal woman.first elizabeth made virtue ostensible virginity told commons end shall sufficient marble stone shall declare queen reigned time lived died virgin.later poets writers took theme developed iconography exalted elizabeth.public tributes virgin acted coded assertion opposition queens marriage negotiations duke alençon.ultimately elizabeth would insist married kingdom subjects divine protection.
Elizabeth I	spoke husbands good people.this claim virginity universally accepted.catholics accused elizabeth engaging filthy lust symbolically defiled nation along body.henry iv france said one great questions europe whether queen elizabeth maid no.a central issue comes question elizabeths virginity whether queen ever consummated love affair robert dudley.dudleys bedchambers moved next apartments.mysteriously bedridden illness caused body swell.in young man calling arthur dudley arrested coast spain suspicion spy.
Elizabeth I	man claimed illegitimate son elizabeth robert dudley age consistent birth illness.taken madrid investigation examined francis englefield catholic aristocrat exiled spain secretary king philip ii.three letters exist today describing interview detailing arthur proclaimed story life birth royal palace time arrival spain.however failed convince spanish englefield admitted king philip arthurs claim present amounts nothing suggested allowed get away ... kept secure.king agreed arthur never heard again.
Elizabeth I	modern scholarship dismisses storys basic premise impossible asserts elizabeths life closely observed contemporaries could hidden pregnancy.mary queen scots elizabeths first policy toward scotland oppose french presence there.feared french planned invade england put catholic cousin mary queen scots throne.mary considered many heir english crown granddaughter henry viiis elder sister margaret.mary boasted nearest kinswoman hath.
Elizabeth I	elizabeth persuaded send force scotland aid protestant rebels though campaign inept resulting treaty edinburgh july removed french threat north.mary returned scotland take reins power country established protestant church run council protestant nobles supported elizabeth.mary refused ratify treaty.in elizabeth proposed suitor robert dudley husband mary without asking either two people concerned.proved unenthusiastic mary married henry stuart lord darnley carried claim english throne.marriage first series errors judgement mary handed victory scottish protestants elizabeth.
Elizabeth I	darnley quickly became unpopular murdered february conspirators almost certainly led james hepburn th earl bothwell.shortly afterwards may mary married bothwell arousing suspicions party murder husband.elizabeth confronted mary marriage writing herhow could worse choice made honour haste marry subject besides notorious lacks public fame charged murder late husband besides touching also part though trust behalf falsely.these events led rapidly marys defeat imprisonment loch leven castle.scottish lords forced abdicate favour son james vi born june .james taken stirling castle raised protestant.
Elizabeth I	mary escaped loch leven another defeat fled across border england assured support elizabeth.elizabeths first instinct restore fellow monarch council instead chose play safe.rather risk returning mary scotland english army sending france catholic enemies england detained england imprisoned next nineteen years.catholic cause mary soon focus rebellion.major catholic rising north goal free mary marry thomas howard th duke norfolk put english throne.
Elizabeth I	rebels defeat executed elizabeths orders.belief revolt successful pope pius v issued bull titled regnans excelsis declared elizabeth pretended queen england servant crime excommunicated heretic releasing subjects allegiance her.catholics obeyed orders threatened excommunication.papal bull provoked legislative initiatives catholics parliament however mitigated elizabeths intervention.convert english subjects catholicism intent withdraw allegiance elizabeth made treasonable offence carrying death penalty.
Elizabeth I	missionary priests continental seminaries went england secretly cause reconversion england.many suffered execution engendering cult martyrdom.regnans excelsis gave english catholics strong incentive look mary stuart legitimate sovereign england.mary may told every catholic plot put english throne ridolfi plot caused marys suitor duke norfolk lose head babington plot elizabeths spymaster sir francis walsingham royal council keenly assembled case her.first elizabeth resisted calls marys death.late persuaded sanction trial execution evidence letters written babington plot.
Elizabeth I	elizabeths proclamation sentence announced said mary pretending title crown compassed imagined within realm divers things tending hurt death destruction royal person.february mary beheaded fotheringhay castle northamptonshire.marys execution elizabeth claimed intended signed execution warrant dispatched blamed secretary william davison implementing without knowledge.sincerity elizabeths remorse whether wanted delay warrant called question contemporaries later historians.wars overseas trade elizabeths foreign policy largely defensive.
Elizabeth I	exception english occupation le havre october june ended failure elizabeths huguenot allies joined catholics retake port.elizabeths intention exchange le havre calais lost france january .activities fleets elizabeth pursue aggressive policy.paid war spain fought sea.knighted francis drake circumnavigation globe fame raids spanish ports fleets.
Elizabeth I	element piracy selfenrichment drove elizabethan seafarers queen little control.netherlands occupation loss le havre – elizabeth avoided military expeditions continent sent english army aid protestant dutch rebels philip ii.followed deaths allies william silent prince orange duke anjou surrender series dutch towns alexander farnese duke parma philips governor spanish netherlands.december alliance philip ii french catholic league joinville undermined ability anjous brother henry iii france counter spanish domination netherlands.also extended spanish influence along channel coast france catholic league strong exposed england invasion.
Elizabeth I	siege antwerp summer duke parma necessitated reaction part english dutch.outcome treaty nonsuch august elizabeth promised military support dutch.treaty marked beginning anglospanish war lasted treaty london .the expedition led former suitor earl leicester.elizabeth start really back course action.strategy support dutch surface english army beginning secret peace talks spain within days leicesters arrival holland necessarily odds leicesters wanted expected dutch fight active campaign.
Elizabeth I	elizabeth hand wanted avoid costs decisive action enemy.enraged elizabeth accepting post governorgeneral dutch states general.elizabeth saw dutch ploy force accept sovereignty netherlands far always declined.wrote leicesterwe could never imagined seen fall experience man raised ourself extraordinarily favoured us subject land would contemptible sort broken commandment cause greatly touches us honour ... therefore express pleasure commandment delays excuses laid apart presently upon duty allegiance obey fulfill whatsoever bearer hereof shall direct name.whereof fail answer contrary utmost peril.elizabeths commandment emissary read letters disapproval publicly dutch council state leicester stand nearby.
Elizabeth I	public humiliation lieutenantgeneral combined continued talks separate peace spain irreversibly undermined standing among dutch.military campaign severely hampered elizabeths repeated refusals send promised funds starving soldiers.unwillingness commit cause leicesters shortcomings political military leader factionridden chaotic situation dutch politics led failure campaign.leicester finally resigned command december .spanish armada meanwhile sir francis drake undertaken major voyage spanish ports ships caribbean .
Elizabeth I	made successful raid cádiz destroying spanish fleet war ships intended enterprise england philip ii decided take war england.on july spanish armada great fleet ships set sail channel planning ferry spanish invasion force duke parma coast southeast england netherlands.combination miscalculation misfortune attack english fire ships july gravelines dispersed spanish ships northeast defeated armada.armada straggled home spain shattered remnants disastrous losses coast ireland ships tried struggle back spain via north sea back south past west coast ireland.unaware armadas fate english militias mustered defend country earl leicesters command.invited elizabeth inspect troops tilbury essex august.
Elizabeth I	wearing silver breastplate white velvet dress addressed one famous speechesmy loving people persuaded careful safety take heed commit ourself armed multitudes fear treachery assure desire live distrust faithful loving people ... know body weak feeble woman heart stomach king king england think foul scorn parma spain prince europe dare invade borders realm.when invasion came nation rejoiced.elizabeths procession thanksgiving service st pauls cathedral rivalled coronation spectacle.defeat armada potent propaganda victory elizabeth protestant england.english took delivery symbol gods favour nations inviolability virgin queen.however victory turning point war continued often favoured spain.
Elizabeth I	spanish still controlled southern provinces netherlands threat invasion remained.sir walter raleigh claimed death elizabeths caution impeded war spainif late queen would believed men war scribes time beaten great empire pieces made kings figs oranges old times.majesty halves petty invasions taught spaniard defend see weakness.though historians criticised elizabeth similar grounds raleighs verdict often judged unfair.elizabeth good reason place much trust commanders action tended put transported haviour vainglory.in year spanish armada elizabeth sent spain english armada counter armada men ships led sir francis drake admiral sir john norreys general.english fleet suffered catastrophic defeat – killed wounded died disease ships sunk captured.
Elizabeth I	advantage england upon destruction spanish armada lost spanish victory marked revival philip iis naval power next decade.france protestant henry iv inherited french throne elizabeth sent military support.first venture france since retreat le havre .henrys succession strongly contested catholic league philip ii elizabeth feared spanish takeover channel ports.subsequent english campaigns france however disorganised ineffective.
Elizabeth I	lord willoughby largely ignoring elizabeths orders roamed northern france little effect army men.withdrew disarray december lost half troops.campaign john norreys led men brittany even disaster.expeditions elizabeth unwilling invest supplies reinforcements requested commanders.norreys left london plead person support.
Elizabeth I	absence catholic league army almost destroyed remains army craon northwest france may .july elizabeth sent another force robert devereux nd earl essex help henry iv besieging rouen.result dismal.essex accomplished nothing returned home january .henry abandoned siege april.
Elizabeth I	usual elizabeth lacked control commanders abroad.doth wrote essex ignorant.ireland although ireland one two kingdoms elizabeth faced hostile places virtually autonomous irish population adhered catholicism willing defy authority plot enemies.policy grant land courtiers prevent rebels giving spain base attack england.course series uprisings crown forces pursued scorchedearth tactics burning land slaughtering man woman child.
Elizabeth I	revolt munster led gerald fitzgerald th earl desmond estimated irish people starved death.poet colonist edmund spenser wrote victims brought wretchedness stony heart would rued same.elizabeth advised commanders irish rude barbarous nation well treated commanders showed remorse force bloodshed served authoritarian purpose.between elizabeth faced severe test ireland nine years war revolt took place height hostilities spain backed rebel leader hugh oneill earl tyrone.spring elizabeth sent robert devereux nd earl essex put revolt down.frustration made little progress returned england defiance orders.
Elizabeth I	replaced charles blount lord mountjoy took three years defeat rebels.oneill finally surrendered days elizabeths death.soon afterwards peace treaty signed england spain.russia elizabeth continued maintain diplomatic relations tsardom russia originally established halfbrother edward vi.often wrote ivan terrible amicable terms though tsar often annoyed focus commerce rather possibility military alliance.
Elizabeth I	tsar even proposed later reign asked guarantee granted asylum england rule jeopardised.english merchant explorer anthony jenkinson began career representative muscovy company became queens special ambassador court ivan terrible.upon ivans death succeeded lessambitious son feodor.unlike father feodor enthusiasm maintaining exclusive trading rights england.feodor declared kingdom open foreigners dismissed english ambassador sir jerome bowes whose pomposity tolerated ivan.elizabeth sent new ambassador dr. giles fletcher demand regent boris godunov convince tsar reconsider.
Elizabeth I	negotiations failed due fletcher addressing feodor two many titles omitted.elizabeth continued appeal feodor half appealing half reproachful letters.proposed alliance something refused offered one feodors father turned down.muslim states trade diplomatic relations developed england barbary states rule elizabeth.england established trading relationship morocco opposition spain selling armour ammunition timber metal exchange moroccan sugar spite papal ban.
Elizabeth I	abd elouahed ben messaoud principal secretary moroccan ruler mulai ahmad almansur visited england ambassador court queen elizabeth negotiate anglomoroccan alliance spain.elizabeth agreed sell munitions supplies morocco mulai ahmad almansur talked mounting joint operation spanish.discussions however remained inconclusive rulers died within two years embassy.diplomatic relations also established ottoman empire chartering levant company dispatch first english ambassador porte william harborne .first time treaty commerce signed .numerous envoys dispatched directions epistolar exchanges occurred elizabeth sultan murad iii.
Elizabeth I	one correspondence murad entertained notion islam protestantism much common either roman catholicism rejected worship idols argued alliance england ottoman empire.dismay catholic europe england exported tin lead cannoncasting ammunitions ottoman empire elizabeth seriously discussed joint military operations murad iii outbreak war spain francis walsingham lobbying direct ottoman military involvement common spanish enemy.america sir humphrey gilbert sailed west establish colony newfoundland.never returned england.gilberts relative sir walter raleigh explored atlantic coast claimed territory virginia perhaps named honour elizabeth virgin queen.
Elizabeth I	territory much larger presentday state virginia extending new england carolinas.raleigh returned virginia small group people.landed island roanoke presentday north carolina.failure first colony raleigh recruited another group put john white command.raleigh returned trace roanoke colony left first english settlement north america.
Elizabeth I	east india company east india company formed trade indian ocean region china received charter queen elizabeth december .period years company awarded monopoly english trade countries east cape good hope west straits magellan.sir james lancaster commanded first expedition .company eventually controlled half world trade substantial territory india th th centuries.later years period defeat spanish armada brought new difficulties elizabeth lasted end reign.
Elizabeth I	conflicts spain ireland dragged tax burden grew heavier economy hit poor harvests cost war.prices rose standard living fell.time repression catholics intensified elizabeth authorised commissions interrogate monitor catholic householders.maintain illusion peace prosperity increasingly relied internal spies propaganda.last years mounting criticism reflected decline publics affection her.one causes second reign elizabeth sometimes called changed character elizabeths governing body privy council s. new generation power.
Elizabeth I	exception lord burghley important politicians died around earl leicester sir francis walsingham sir christopher hatton .factional strife government existed noteworthy form became hallmark.bitter rivalry arose earl essex robert cecil son lord burghley respective adherents struggle powerful positions state marred politics.queens personal authority lessening shown affair dr. lopez trusted physician.wrongly accused earl essex treason personal pique could prevent execution although angry arrest seems believed guilt.during last years reign elizabeth came rely granting monopolies costfree system patronage rather asking parliament subsidies time war.
Elizabeth I	practice soon led pricefixing enrichment courtiers publics expense widespread resentment.culminated agitation house commons parliament .famous golden speech november whitehall palace deputation members elizabeth professed ignorance abuses members promises usual appeal emotionswho keeps sovereign lapse error ignorance intent might fallen thank deserve know though may guess.nothing dear us loving conservation subjects hearts undeserved doubt might incurred abusers liberality thrallers people wringers poor told usthis period economic political uncertainty however produced unsurpassed literary flowering england.first signs new literary movement appeared end second decade elizabeths reign john lylys euphues edmund spensers shepheardes calender .
Elizabeth I	great names english literature entered maturity including william shakespeare christopher marlowe.continuing jacobean era english theatre would reach peak.notion great elizabethan era depends largely builders dramatists poets musicians active elizabeths reign.owed little directly queen never major patron arts.as elizabeth aged image gradually changed.portrayed belphoebe astraea armada gloriana eternally youthful faerie queene edmund spensers poem.
Elizabeth I	elizabeth gave edmund spenser pension unusual indicates liked work.painted portraits became less realistic set enigmatic icons made look much younger was.fact skin scarred smallpox leaving half bald dependent wigs cosmetics.love sweets fear dentists contributed severe tooth decay loss extent foreign ambassadors hard time understanding speech.andré hurault de maisse ambassador extraordinary henry iv france reported audience queen noticed teeth yellow unequal ... left side less right.
Elizabeth I	many missing one cannot understand easily speaks quickly.yet added figure fair tall graceful whatever far may keeps dignity yet humbly graciously withal.sir walter raleigh called lady time surprised.the elizabeths beauty faded courtiers praised it.elizabeth happy play part possible last decade life began believe performance.became fond indulgent charming petulant young robert devereux earl essex leicesters stepson took liberties forgave him.

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