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Intelligence-led policing | ...strategy essence manage risk terms three variables – threat vulnerability consequence.seek prioritize according variables fashion series preventive protective steps increase security multiple levels.in mark riebling center policing terrorism published doctrine intelligenceled policing. |
Intelligence-led policing | rieblings model leverages israeli counterterrorist tactics nypds broken windows policing theories.among broken windows mechanisms rieblings doctrine blends problem solving environmental design community policing publicprivate partnerships.analyzing operations israeli national police tel aviv riebling notes approvingly investigation incident even traffic accident secondary number one goal—which gathering intelligence.instance raided bordello patrons primarily arabs different parts region israeli police less concerned criminal activity preparing intelligence reports people got israel.in current conceptualization intelligenceled policing envisioned tool information sharing within law enforcement agencies participants community private sector intelligence community public government.concept aids law enforcement agencies identifying threats developing responses prevent threats reaching fruition america’s communities. |
Intelligence-led policing | universally accepted definition ilp although components definitions least similar.the collection analysis information related crime conditions contribute crime resulting actionable intelligence product intended aid law enforcement developing tactical responses threats andor strategic planning related emerging changing threats.researchers argued british experience ilp provided important foundation u.s. initiatives important differences legacy functional responsibilities limit wholesale adoption british model united states.among limitations array post federal standards american law enforcement intelligence process including new dimension homeland security intelligence.one differences british model u.s. model balancing american constitutional rights act gathering intelligence.although implementation ilp expected difficult u.s. law enforcement agencies carter carter argue experiences foundation compstat community policing serve important springboards success.although substantive differences concepts similarities serve reliable policy experiences make implementation ilp functional reality p. canada canadian context lineage intelligenceled policing traced royal canadian mounted police’s failure prevent bombing air india flight . |
Intelligence-led policing | postevent analysis concluded rcmp better relationship sikh community vancouver might acquired actionable intelligence alerting plot extremists looking establish independent sikh state punjab region india.this impetus adoption community policing soon realized focus “community” distraction hardened targets easily penetrated better policecommunity relations rather “mode information important.” consequently rcmp developed capra model clients analysis partnerships response assessment fits recast intelligenceled policing.new zealand new zealand experimenting intelligenceled policing since implemented throughout new zealand police national police organization.intelligenceled policing encouraged throughout districts new zealand police implemented throughout country implementation intelligenceled policing throughout entire country.one results experiment little sharing information districts new zealand.new zealand study problems organizational behavioral hindered results either using information gathering information make intelligence based decisions. |
Intelligence-led policing | new zealand police implementing aspects problemoriented policing intelligenceled policing system.crime prevention implications ilp often viewed management tool instead crime reduction strategy.jerry ratcliffe claims ten benefits use intelligence led policing supportive informed command structureintelligenceled policing heart organization‐wide approachintegrated crime criminal analysisfocus prolific serious offendersanalytical executive training availableboth strategic tactical tasking meetings take placemuch routine investigation screened outdata sufficiently complete reliable available support quality products influence decision‐makingmanagement structures exist action intelligence productsappropriate use prevention disruption enforcementhe argues help prevent crime creating police force efficient resources.also growing recognition within policing external agencies may hold key longterm crime reduction.agencies local councils housing authorities health education departments believed greater potential impact wider range causal factors. |
Intelligence-led policing | agencies share information amongst larger network intelligence created proponents hope used effectively cause substantial decrease crime.issues intelligenceled policing still early stages therefore lacks universal conceptual framework applied disparate contexts policing paradigm.implementation also difficult requires police managers “have faith intelligence process judgments recommendations intelligence staff.”some also questioned whether foundational ingredient intelligence properly considered given police security professionals already contend “information overload” huge databanks built intelligence process increasing raw data generating “knowledge” actionable intelligence.as intelligenceled policing represents move towards surveillance focuses information collection analyzing data.however way data collected concern privacy advocates.united states supreme court made particular decisions relation searches deal specifically intelligenceled policing. |
Intelligence-led policing | cases cover searches mapp v. ohio terry v. ohio decided prior implementation intelligenceled policing.question arises intelligenceled policing search occurred.u.s. supreme court given two part test determine search katz v. united states .first expectation privacy second expectation privacy reasonable.issue exists type privacy expectation individual hope technology. |
Intelligence-led policing | technology given officers access information unobtainable past.finally intelligenceled policing described part larger trend blurring distinction national security domestic policing risking perils tarnished policing past political interference violating civil liberties greater potential abuse police power increased secrecy intelligence work entails.see also high policingevidencebased policingpeelian principles references flood b. strategic aspects uk national intelligence model j.h.ratcliffe ed strategic thinking criminal intelligence sydney federation press pp.‐bacon m. intelligenceled policing j. ratcliffe.howard journal criminal justice –. |
United States Cyber Command | doi .j....xbureau justice assistance.intelligenceled bureau justice assistance policing new intelligence architecture .u.s. department justice.https terrorism preparedness local police agencies impact vulnerability organizational characteristics contagion post era external links “intelligenceled policing new intelligence architecture” united states department justice“practical guide intelligenceled policing” new jersey state police“intelligenceled policing integration community policing law enforcement intelligence” office community oriented policing services united states department justice“guidance national intelligence model” association chief police officers acpo – official business model acpo based intelligenceled policing.mark riebling new paradigm merging law enforcement intelligence stratgies center policing terrorism january .i intelligenceled operations platformpolicearch icp intelligence led platformactionable intelligence guide delivering results big data fast keith b. carter published wileyunifies direction cyberspace operations strengthens dod cyberspace capabilities integrates bolsters dods cyber expertise.uscybercom created mid national security agency nsa headquarters fort george g. meade maryland.cooperates nsa networks concurrently headed director national security agency since inception.originally created defensive mission mind increasingly viewed offensive force.august announced uscybercom would elevated status full independent unified combatant command.mission statement according us department defense doduscybercom plans coordinates integrates synchronizes conducts activities direct operations defense specified department defense information networks prepare directed conduct full spectrum military cyberspace operations order enable actions domains ensure usallied freedom action cyberspace deny adversaries.the text eccaffceba located commands emblem md hash mission statement.the command charged pulling together existing cyberspace resources creating synergies synchronizing warfighting effects defend information security environment. |
United States Cyber Command | uscybercom tasked centralizing command cyberspace operations strengthening dod cyberspace capabilities integrating bolstering dods cyber expertise.organization uscybercom armed forces unified command department defense dod.service components u.s. cyber command composed several service components units military services provide joint services cyber command.army cyber command armyarmy network enterprise technology command th army signal command netcomthscacyber protection brigadeunited states army intelligence security command operational control arcyber cyberrelated actions.st information operations command landth military intelligence brigade cyberfleet cyber commandtenth fleet navynaval network warfare commandnavy cyber defense operations commandnaval information operation commandscombined task forcesth air force air forceth cyberspace wingth intelligence surveillance reconnaissance wingth cyberspace wingth operations centermarine corps cyberspace command marine corps cyber teams since u.s. cyber command added new cyber teams.breakdown thirteen national mission teams defend broad cyberattackssixtyeight cyber protection teams defend priority dod networks systems priority threatstwentyseven combat mission teams provide integrated cyberspace attacks support operational plans contingency operationstwentyfive cyber support teams provide analytic planning support national mission combat mission teams.background intention u.s. air force create cyber command announced october . |
United States Cyber Command | air force cyber command created provisional status november .however october announced command would brought permanent activation.on june secretary defense directed commander u.s. strategic command usstratcom establish uscybercom.may general keith alexander outlined views report united states house committee armed services subcommitteemy view way counteract criminal espionage activity online proactive.u.s. taking formal approach good thing.chinese viewed source great many attacks western infrastructure recently u.s. electrical grid. |
United States Cyber Command | determined organized attack would want go take source attacks.problem internet nature borders u.s. takes mantle worlds police might go well.initial operational capability attained may .general alexander promoted fourstar rank becoming one u.s. generals took charge u.s. cyber command ceremony fort meade attended commander u.s. central command gen david petraeus secretary defense robert m. gates.uscybercom reached full operational capability october .the command assumed responsibility several existing organizations.joint task force global network operations jtfgno joint functional component command network warfare jfccnw absorbed command.defense information systems agency jtfgno operated provides technical assistance network information assurance uscybercom moving headquarters fort meade.president obama signed law december national defense authorization act ndaa fiscal year fy elevated uscybercom unified combatant command. |
United States Cyber Command | fy ndaa also specified dualhatted arrangement commander uscybercom terminated secretary defense chairman joint chiefs staff jointly certify ending arrangement pose risks military effectiveness cybercom unacceptable national security interests united states.concerns concerns pentagon nsa overshadow civilian cyber defense efforts.also concerns whether command assist civilian cyber defense efforts.according deputy secretary defense william j. lynn command lead daytoday defense protection dod networks.responsible dods networks – dotmil world. |
United States Cyber Command | responsibility federal civilian networks – dotgov – stays department homeland security thats exactly be.alexander notes however faced cyber hostilities executive order could expand cyber commands spectrum operations include instance assisting department homeland security defense networks.some military leaders claim existing cultures army navy air force fundamentally incompatible cyber warfare.major robert costa usaf even suggested sixth branch military information cyber service title responsibilities analogous sister services noting one instrument national power operates vacuum... information increasingly underpins three diplomatic economic military yet proven vulnerable even us society becomes dependent peace conflict war.attack centers gravity adversary use weakest decisive point ... information iop.addition iops benefit unity effortconstitutional balances power ensure diplomatic military iops exercised president concert congress focused economic iop achieves unity action international market controls international body law. |
United States Cyber Command | information iop however rudderless lacking unity action unity command.others also discussed creation cyberwarfare branch.lieutenant colonel gregory conti colonel john buck surdu chief staff united states army research development engineering command stated three major services properly positioned fight kinetic wars value skills marksmanship physical strength ability leap airplanes lead combat units enemy fire.conti surdu reasoned adding efficient effective cyber branch alongside army navy air force would provide nation capability defend technological infrastructure conduct offensive operations.perhaps important existence capability would serve strong deterrent nations enemies.in response concerns militarys right respond cyber attacks general alexander stated u.s. must fire back cyber attacks swiftly strongly act counter disable threat even identity attacker unknown prior confirmation hearings united states congress.came response incidents operation take governmentrun extremist honeypot saudi arabia.elite u.s. military computer specialists objections cia mounted cyberattack dismantled online forum.the new u.s. cyber command needs strike balance protecting military assets personal privacy. |
United States Cyber Command | stated alexander defense department release.confirmed alexander said main focus building capacity capability secure networks educating public commands intent.this command effort militarize cyber space said.rather safeguarding military assets.in july deputy defense secretary william lynn announced conference within cyber command full spectrum capabilities thrust strategy defensive.strategy rests five pillars said treat cyber domain employ active defenses support department homeland security protecting critical infrastructure networks practice collective defense allies international partners reduce advantages attackers internet.in uscybercom held classified exercise reserve officers extensive experience civilian cybersecurity work easily defeated active duty cyber warriors.eric rosenbach principal cyber adviser defense secretary ash carter said dod looking alternatives staffing activeduty military. |
United States Cyber Command | beginning year uscybercom added teams staffing people intent least personnel would reserve cyber operations airmen.new teams achieved initial operating capability ioc october .officials noted ioc combat readiness first step direction.president barack obamas commission enhancing national cybersecurity formed develop plan protecting cyberspace.commission released report december .report made major recommendations regarding intertwining roles military government administration private sector providing cyber security.president trump indicated wanted full review cyber command bid presidency. |
United States Cyber Command | presidency trump administration made cyber command unified combatant command took measures attempting deter cyber attacks.however fbi reported logged record number complaints economic losses cybercrime continued grow.international effects reactions creation u.s. cyber command appears motivated countries arena.december south korea announced creation cyber warfare command.reportedly response north koreas creation cyber warfare unit. |
United States Cyber Command | addition british gchq begun preparing cyber force.furthermore shift military interest cyber warfare motivated creation first u.s. cyber warfare intelligence center.china introduced department dedicated defensive cyber war information security response creation uscybercom.operations june russia conceded possible electrical grid cyberattack united states.new york times reported hackers u.s. cyber command planted malware potentially capable disrupting russian electrical grid.cyber command using exercise cyber flag improve teams tactics. |
Le Beck International | list commanders see also list cyber warfare forcesunited states strategic commandjoint task forceglobal network operationsunited states national security agency nsaunited states department homeland securityinformation assurance vulnerability alertcooperative cyber defence centre excellence natonational cyberdefence centre germanycyberwarfarecyberwarfare united statesdefense information systems agency cyberattack united states united states federal government data breach references external links u.s. cyber command websitensa chief may lose us cyber command role.retrieved november .but nsa cyber command stay one chief.retrieved december .us cyber command fact sheetus cyber command fact sheet powerpointfact sheet imposing costs harmful foreign activities russian governmenthistory current ceo anthony tesar founded company august .originally headquartered riyadh saudi arabia based kingdom bahrain.january company employs individuals across several continents.services company provides security threat vulnerability mitigation services companies wide range sectors.le beck operates commercially registered entity saudi arabia approval countrys high commission industrial security hcis body oversees critical sectors kingdom. |
Lower Mainland | clients le beck international serves financial oil gas petrochemical electricity transportation industries.company also consults mega city projects highnetworth individuals hnwi.bahrain alone le beck provides consulting services several banks oil gas firms.leadership ceo anthony tesar former bomb disposal officer un weapons inspector see also control risksarmorgroupeurasia groupkrollpinkerton references external links le beck internationalhome approximately .million people canadian census lower mainland contains sixteen provinces populous municipalities approximately provinces total population.the region traditional territory stolo halkomelemspeaking people coast salish linguistic cultural grouping.boundaries term lower mainland recorded earliest period colonization british columbia never officially defined legal terms.term historically popular usage century describe region extends horseshoe bay south canada–united states border east hope eastern end fraser valley.definition makes term lower mainland almost synonymous regional districts metro vancouver fraser valley.however british columbia geographical names information system bcgnis comments residents vancouver might consider areas west mission abbotsford residents rest province consider seatosky corridor south whistler west hope. |
Lower Mainland | geography region bounded north coast mountains southeast cascade mountains traversed east west fraser river.due consistency climate flora fauna geology land use lower mainland also name ecoregion—a biogeoclimatic region—that comprises eastern part georgia depression extends powell river sunshine coast hope eastern end fraser valley.climate one mildest climates canada region mean annual temperature °c °f summer mean °c °f winter mean .°c .°f. |
Lower Mainland | annual precipitation ranges annual mean millimetres west end millimetres eastern end fraser valley higher elevations.maximum precipitation occurs rain winter.less ten percent falls snow sea level amount snowfall increases significantly elevation.demographics population census population lower mainland totals fraser valley regional district metro vancouver regional districtthese figures slightly inflated due inclusion areas within regional districts normally considered part lower mainland notably lower fraser canyon heads harrison pitt lakes within fvrd lions bay bowen island within greater vancouver regional district.ethnicity lower mainland among diverse regions canada. |
Lower Mainland | europeans form slight majority .percent followed east asians .percent south asians .percent.language religion lower mainland includes large christian irreligious sikh buddhist communities. |
Lower Mainland | sikh population numbering .percent total population significant across metro vancouver fraser valley proportionally five times national average .percent.regional districts regional districts first created across british columbia – form bodies intermunicipal coordination extend municipallevel powers areas outside existing municipalities.today lower mainland includes two regional districts metro vancouver regional district mvrd fraser valley regional district fvrd. |
Lower Mainland | regional districts however include areas outside traditional limits lower mainland.metro vancouver includes areas like surrey langley geographically fraser valley.the metro vancouver regional district made municipalities.mvrd bordered west strait georgia north squamishlillooet regional district east fraser valley regional district south whatcom county washington united states.the fraser valley regional district lies east metro vancouver regional district comprises cities abbotsford chilliwack district municipalities mission kent hope village harrison hot springs.also includes many unincorporated areas fraser valley along west side fraser canyon fraser canyon lower mainland.regional district powers limited localized provincial government services delivered regionalization systems.indigenous territories traditional territories musqueam tsleilwaututh lie completely within region southern portion squamish traditional territory also region. |
Lower Mainland | claims overlap tsleilwaututh musqueam kwikwetlem.peoples whose territories lie within region stolo chehalis katzie kwantlen tsawwassen semiahmoo many territories overlap musqueam other.many peoples georgia strait region also frequented lower fraser including vancouver island whatcom county washington.stolo traditional territory known solh temexw halkomelem less coincides traditional conception lower mainland except inclusion port douglas head harrison lake inshuckch territory lands around burrard inlet.health regions health system services governance lower mainland provided vancouver coastal health serving vancouver richmond north shore mainland coast far north central coast region fraser health serves area lower mainland east vancouver richmond.natural threats flooding lower mainland considered high vulnerability flood risk. |
Lower Mainland | two major regionwide floods associated extreme spring freshet fraser river.major floods lower mainland – including june november november – localized primarily impacting areas fraser valley like sumas prairie comparatively minor impacts metro vancouver.prior flood according fraser basin council scientists predicted oneinthree chance similarsized flood occurring next years.in second quarter lower mainland high alert flooding.higher normal snow packs british columbia interior prompted municipal governments start taking emergency measures region.dikes along fraser river regulated handle aapproximately . |
Lower Mainland | metres ft mission gauge height sea level dykes mission.warmer normal weather provinces interior region caused large amounts snow melt prematurely resulting higherthannormal water levels nevertheless remained well flood levels.flooding cover much lower mainland.cloverdale barnston island lowlying areas maple ridge areas west hope white rock richmond parts vancouver parts surrey potentially risk.lower mainland largely spared although northern regions province along skeena nechako rivers experienced floods.climate scientists predict increasing temperatures mean wetter winters snow high elevations. |
Lower Mainland | increase likelihood snowmelt floods.the provincial government maintains integrated flood hazard management program extensive flood protection infrastructure lower mainland.infrastructure consists dikes pump stations floodboxes riprap relief wells.earthquakes earthquakes common british columbia adjacent coastal waters minor energy release sufficiently remote little effect populated areas.nevertheless earthquakes magnitude .occurred within kilometres mi lower mainland.based geological evidence however stronger earthquakes appear occurred approximately year intervals. |
Lower Mainland | therefore probability major earthquake region within next years.in april united states geological survey released information concerning newly found fault south downtown abbotsford called boulder creek fault.scientists believe fault active capable producing earthquakes .magnitude range.volcanoes much lower mainland vulnerable explosive eruptions garibaldi volcanic belt.volcanoes zone capable producing large quantities volcanic ash may cause short long term water supply problems lower mainland communities. |
Lower Mainland | airports covered accompanying eruption column would closed heavy ash falls would damage electrical equipment weak structures could collapse weight ash.communities lower mainlands communities includes large cities metro vancouver smaller cities towns villages along banks fraser river.neighbourhoods within cities listed unless historically otherwise notable andor separate.many indian reserves listed.upper fraser valley central fraser valley lower fraser valley metro vancouver see also fraser lowlandlist provincial parks lower mainland references external links lower mainland travel guide wikivoyage |
Sustainable development | desired result state society living conditions resources used continue meet human needs without undermining integrity stability natural system.sustainable development defined development meets needs present without compromising ability future generations meet needs.while modern concept sustainable development derived mostly brundtland report also rooted earlier ideas sustainable forest management thcentury environmental concerns.concept sustainable development developed shifted focus towards economic development social development environmental protection future generations.the unlevel sustainable development goals address global challenges including poverty inequality climate change environmental degradation peace justice.definition sustainable development defined practice maintaining productivity replacing used resources resources equal greater value without degrading endangering natural biotic systems.sustainable development binds together concern carrying capacity natural systems social political economic challenges faced humanity. |
Sustainable development | sustainability science study concepts sustainable development environmental science.emphasis present generations responsibility regenerate maintain improve planetary resources use future generations.development concept origins sustainable development roots ideas sustainable forest management developed europe th th centuries.– response growing awareness depletion timber resources england john evelyn argued essay sylva sowing planting trees regarded national duty every landowner order stop destructive overexploitation natural resources.hans carl von carlowitz senior mining administrator service elector frederick augustus saxony published sylvicultura economics page work forestry. |
Sustainable development | building upon ideas evelyn french minister jeanbaptiste colbert von carlowitz developed concept managing forests sustained yield.work influenced others including alexander von humboldt georg ludwig hartig eventually leading development science forestry.turn influenced people like gifford pinchot first head us forest service whose approach forest management driven idea wise use resources aldo leopold whose land ethic influential development environmental movement s.following publication rachel carsons silent spring developing environmental movement drew attention relationship economic growth environmental degradation.kenneth e. boulding influential essay economics coming spaceship earth identified need economic system fit ecological system limited pools resources.another milestone article garrett hardin popularized term tragedy commons. |
Sustainable development | one first uses term sustainable contemporary sense club rome classic report limits growth written group scientists led dennis donella meadows massachusetts institute technology.describing desirable state global equilibrium authors wrote searching model output represents world system sustainable without sudden uncontrolled collapse capable satisfying basic material requirements people.year also saw publication influential blueprint survival book.following club rome report mit research group prepared ten days hearings growth implication future roundtable press us congress first hearings ever held sustainable development.international union conservation nature published world conservation strategy included one first references sustainable development global priority introduced term sustainable development.two years later united nations world charter nature raised five principles conservation human conduct affecting nature guided judged. |
Sustainable development | united nations world commission environment development released report common future commonly called brundtland report.report included one widely recognized definitions sustainable development.sustainable development development meets needs present without compromising ability future generations meet needs.contains within two key conceptsthe concept needs particular essential needs worlds poor overriding priority given andthe idea limitations imposed state technology social organization environments ability meet present future needs.since brundtland report concept sustainable development developed beyond initial intergenerational framework focus goal socially inclusive environmentally sustainable economic growth.un conference environment development published earth charter outlines building sustainable peaceful global society st century.action plan agenda sustainable development identified information integration participation key building blocks help countries achieve development recognizes interdependent pillars. |
Sustainable development | emphasises sustainable development everyone user provider information.stresses need change old sectorcentred ways business new approaches involve crosssectoral coordination integration environmental social concerns development processes.furthermore agenda emphasises broad public participation decision making fundamental prerequisite achieving sustainable development.under principles united nations charter millennium declaration identified principles treaties sustainable development including economic development social development environmental protection.broadly defined sustainable development systems approach growth development manage natural produced social capital welfare future generations.term sustainable development used united nations incorporates issues associated land development broader issues human development education public health standard living.a study concluded sustainability reporting reframed lens four interconnected domains ecology economics politics culture. |
Sustainable development | reception concept sustainable development still subject criticism including question sustained sustainable development.argued thing sustainable use nonrenewable resource since positive rate exploitation eventually lead exhaustion earths finite stock perspective renders industrial revolution whole unsustainable.f – f sustainable development debate based assumption societies need manage three types capital economic social natural may nonsubstitutable whose consumption might irreversible.leading ecological economist steadystate theorist herman daly example points fact natural capital necessarily substituted economic capital.possible find ways replace natural resources much unlikely ever able replace ecosystem services protection provided ozone layer climate stabilizing function amazonian forest. |
Sustainable development | fact natural capital social capital economic capital often complementarities.obstacle substitutability lies also multifunctionality many natural resources.forests example provide raw material paper also maintain biodiversity regulate water flow absorb co. requirements six interdependent capacities deemed necessary successful pursuit sustainable development.capacities measure progress towards sustainable development promote equity within generations adapt shocks surprises transform system onto sustainable development pathways link knowledge action sustainability devise governance arrangements allow people work together exercising capacities.dimensions sustainable development thought terms three spheres dimensions domains pillars environment economy society. |
Sustainable development | threesphere framework also worded economic environmental social ecology economy equity.expanded authors include fourth pillar culture institutions governance alternatively reconfigured four domains social – ecology economics politics culture thus bringing economics back inside social treating ecology intersection social natural.sustainable development goals pathways improving environmental aspects ecological stability human settlements part relationship humans natural social built environments.also termed human ecology broadens focus sustainable development include domain human health.fundamental human needs availability quality air water food shelter also ecological foundations sustainable development addressing public health risk investments ecosystem services powerful transformative force sustainable development sense extends species.environmental sustainability concerns natural environment endures remains diverse productive. |
Sustainable development | since natural resources derived environment state air water climate particular concern.ipcc fifth assessment report outlines current knowledge scientific technical socioeconomic information concerning climate change lists options adaptation mitigation.environmental sustainability requires society design activities meet human needs preserving life support systems planet.example entails using water sustainably using renewable energy sustainable material supplies e.g.harvesting wood forests rate maintains biomass biodiversity.an unsustainable situation occurs natural capital total natures resources used faster replenished. |
Sustainable development | sustainability requires human activity uses natures resources rate replenished naturally.concept sustainable development intertwined concept carrying capacity.theoretically longterm result environmental degradation inability sustain human life.degradation global scale imply increase human death rate population falls degraded environment support.pollution public resources different action reverse tragedy commons instead taking something something put commons.costs polluting commons calculated cost items consumed becomes natural pollute cost pollution external cost goods produced cost cleaning waste discharged exceeds cost releasing waste directly commons. |
Sustainable development | one ways mitigate problem protecting ecology commons making taxes fines costly release waste directly commons would cost cleaning waste discharge.land use changes agriculture food alterations relative proportions land dedicated urbanization agriculture forest woodland grassland pasture marked effect global water carbon nitrogen biogeochemical cycles impact negatively natural human systems.– local human scale major sustainability benefits accrue sustainable parks gardens green cities.feeding almost eight billion human bodies takes heavy toll earths resources.begins appropriation earths land surface net primary productivity.added resourcehungry activities industrial agribusiness—everything crop need irrigation water synthetic fertilizers pesticides resource costs food packaging transport major part global trade retail. |
Sustainable development | environmental problems associated industrial agriculture agribusiness addressed movements sustainable agriculture organic farming sustainable business practices.costeffective mitigation options include afforestation sustainable forest management reducing deforestation.the environmental effects different dietary patterns depend many factors including proportion animal plant foods consumed method food production.global level environmental impact agribusiness addressed sustainable agriculture organic farming.local level various movements working towards sustainable food systems may include local food production slow food sustainable gardening organic gardening.materials waste global population affluence increased use various materials increased volume diversity distance transported. |
Sustainable development | included raw materials minerals synthetic chemicals including hazardous substances manufactured products food living organisms waste.humanity could consume estimated billion tons minerals ores fossil fuels biomass per year three times current amount unless economic growth rate decoupled rate natural resource consumption.developed countries citizens consume average tons four key resources per capita per year ranging tons per person developed countries resource consumption levels far beyond likely sustainable.comparison average person india today consumes four tons per year.sustainable use materials targeted idea dematerialization converting linear path materials extraction use disposal landfill circular material flow reuses materials much possible much like cycling reuse waste nature.dematerialization encouraged ideas industrial ecology eco design ecolabelling. |
Sustainable development | use sustainable biomaterials come renewable sources recycled preferred use nonrenewables life cycle standpoint.this way thinking expressed concept circular economy employs reuse sharing repair refurbishment remanufacturing recycling create closedloop system minimizing use resource inputs creation waste pollution carbon emissions.european commission adopted ambitious circular economy action plan aims making sustainable products norm eu.improving economic social aspects suggested rural poverty overexploitation environmental resources treated important economic assets called natural capital.economic development traditionally required growth gross domestic product.model unlimited personal gdp growth may over. |
Sustainable development | sustainable development may involve improvements quality life many may necessitate decrease resource consumption.according ecological economist malte faber ecological economics defined focus nature justice time.issues intergenerational equity irreversibility environmental change uncertainty longterm outcomes sustainable development guide ecological economic analysis valuation.as early concept sustainability used describe economy equilibrium basic ecological support systems.scientists many fields highlighted limits growth economists presented alternatives example steadystate economy address concerns impacts expanding human development planet.economist edward barbier published study concept sustainable economic development recognised goals environmental conservation economic development conflicting reinforcing other.a world bank study concluded based theory genuine savings policymakers many possible interventions increase sustainability macroeconomics purely environmental.several studies noted efficient policies renewable energy pollution compatible increasing human welfare eventually reaching goldenrule steady state.however gilbert rist says world bank twisted notion sustainable development prove economic development need deterred interest preserving ecosystem. |
Sustainable development | writes angle sustainable development looks like coverup operation.... thing meant sustained really development tolerance capacity ecosystem human societies.the world bank leading producer environmental knowledge continues advocate winwin prospects economic growth ecological stability even economists express doubts.herman daly economist bank writeswhen authors wdr highly influential world development report featured environment drafting report called asking examples winwin strategies work.could say none exists pure form tradeoffs winwins.want see world winwins based articles faith fact. |
Sustainable development | wanted contribute wdrs important bank task managers read find philosophical justification latest round projects.want hear things really find work...a meta review looked environmental economic valuations found lack sustainability policies.study asked humans consume much.study concluded knowledge manufactured human capital health education compensated degradation natural capital many parts world.suggested intergenerational equity incorporated sustainable development decision making become common economic valuations climate economics. |
Sustainable development | meta review identified conditions strong case act climate change called work fully account relevant economics affects human welfare.according john baden freemarket environmentalist improvement environment quality depends market economy existence legitimate protected property rights.enable effective practice personal responsibility development mechanisms protect environment.state context create conditions encourage people save environment.environmental economics total environment includes biosphere earth air water also human interactions things nature humans created surroundings.as countries around world continue advance economically put strain ability natural environment absorb high level pollutants created part economic growth. |
Sustainable development | therefore solutions need found economies world continue grow expense public good.world economics amount environmental quality must considered limited supply therefore treated scarce resource.resource protected.one common way analyze possible outcomes policy decisions scarce resource costbenefit analysis.type analysis contrasts different options resource allocation based evaluation expected courses action consequences actions optimal way light different policy goals elicited.further complicating analysis interrelationships various parts environment might impacted chosen course action. |
Sustainable development | sometimes almost impossible predict various outcomes course action due unexpected consequences number unknowns accounted benefitcost analysis.management human consumption impacts environmental impact community humankind whole depends population impact per person turn depends complex ways resources used whether resources renewable scale human activity relative carrying capacity ecosystems involved.careful resource management applied many scales economic sectors like agriculture manufacturing industry work organizations consumption patterns households individuals resource demands individual goods services.the underlying driver direct human impacts environment human consumption.impact reduced consuming less also making full cycle production use disposal sustainable.consumption goods services analyzed managed scales chain consumption starting effects individual lifestyle choices spending patterns resource demands specific goods services impacts economic sectors national economies global economy. |
Sustainable development | analysis consumption patterns relates resource use environmental social economic impacts scale context investigation.ideas embodied resource use total resources needed produce product service resource intensity resource productivity important tools understanding impacts consumption.key resource categories relating human needs food energy raw materials water.in international resource panel published first global scientific assessment impacts consumption production.study found critical impacts related ecosystem health human health resource depletion.production perspective found fossilfuel combustion processes agriculture fisheries important impacts. |
Sustainable development | meanwhile final consumption perspective found household consumption related mobility shelter food energyusing products causes majority lifecycle impacts consumption.according ipcc fifth assessment report human consumption current policy year seven times bigger year .biodiversity ecosystem services summary policymakers largest comprehensive study date biodiversity ecosystem services published intergovernmental sciencepolicy platform biodiversity ecosystem services.recommended human civilization need transformative change including sustainable agriculture reductions consumption waste fishing quotas collaborative water management.technology one core concepts sustainable development technology used assist people meet developmental needs.technology meet sustainable development needs often referred appropriate technology ideological movement manifestations originally articulated intermediate technology economist e. f. schumacher influential work small beautiful covers wide range technologies. |
Sustainable development | schumacher many modernday proponents appropriate technology also emphasise technology peoplecentered.today appropriate technology often developed using open source principles led opensource appropriate technology osat thus many plans technology freely found internet.osat proposed new model enabling innovation sustainable development.business broadly accepted criterion corporate sustainability constitutes firms efficient use natural capital.ecoefficiency usually calculated economic value added firm relation aggregated ecological impact. |
Sustainable development | idea popularised world business council sustainable development wbcsd following definition ecoefficiency achieved delivery competitively priced goods services satisfy human needs bring quality life progressively reducing ecological impacts resource intensity throughout lifecycle level least line earths carrying capacity desimone popoff .similar ecoefficiency concept far less explored second criterion corporate sustainability.socioefficiency describes relation firms value added social impact.whereas assumed corporate impacts environment negative apart rare exceptions planting trees true social impacts.either positive e.g.corporate giving creation employment negative e.g. |
Sustainable development | work accidents human rights abuses.ecoefficiency socioefficiency concerned primarily increasing economic sustainability.process instrumentalise natural social capital aiming benefit winwin situations.point towards ecoeffectiveness socioeffectiveness sufficiency ecoequity four criteria need met sustainable development reached.architecture construction sustainable architecture recent movements new urbanism new classical architecture promote sustainable approach towards construction appreciates develops smart growth architectural tradition classical design. |
Sustainable development | contrast modernist international style architecture well opposing solitary housing estates suburban sprawl long commuting distances large ecological footprints.the global design construction industry responsible approximately percent greenhouse gas emissions.green building practices avoid emissions capture carbon already present environment allow reduced footprint construction industry example use hempcrete cellulose fiber insulation landscaping.research integral elements sustainable development research innovation activities.example european environmental research innovation policy aims defining implementing transformative agenda greening economy society whole achieve sustainable development.research innovation europe financially supported programme horizon also open participation worldwide. |
Sustainable development | promising direction towards sustainable development design systems flexible reversible.see also references external links sustainable development knowledge platform united nations platform sustainable development.uk sustainable development commissionsustainable development solutions network.sustainable development solutions network.april .retrieved june .world bank website sustainable development. |
Flood risk management | flood risk management analyzes relationships physical systems socioeconomic environments flood risk assessment tries create understanding action risks posed flooding.relationships cover wide range topics drivers natural processes models socioeconomic consequences.this relationship examines management methods includes wide range flood management methods including limited flood mapping physical implication measures.frm looks reduce flood risk appropriately manage risks associated flooding.flood risk management includes mitigating preparing flooding disasters analyzing risk providing risk analysis system mitigate negative impacts caused flooding.flooding flood risk especially important extreme weather sea level rise caused climate change areas effected flood risk.flood risk numerous flood incidents around world caused devastating damage infrastructure natural environment human life. |
Flood risk management | flood risks defined risk floods pose individuals property natural landscape based specific hazards vulnerability.extent flood risks impact types mitigation strategies required implemented.floods devastating impacts human societies.flooding events worldwide increasing frequency severity leading increasing costs societies.economical social natural environmental damages common factors impacted flooding events impacts flooding areas catastrophic.as mentioned economic impacts caused flooding severe.large amount world’s population lives close proximity major coastlines many major cities agricultural areas located near floodplains. |
Flood risk management | significant risk increased coastal fluvial flooding due changing climatic conditions.every year flooding causes countries billions dollars worth damage threatens livelihood individuals.result also significant socioeconomic threats vulnerable populations around world flooding.management methods flood risk management methods help reduce risk human socioeconomic losses caused flooding spans many different disciplines.management risks associated flooding decrease costs incurred governmental bodies marginalized communities individuals property.flood risk management strategy diversification needed ensure management strategies cover several different scenarios ensure best practices. |
Flood risk management | diversification flood risk management baseline framework used help guide governing bodies make decisions based expert advice based common terms ensure strategies understood across multiple disciplines.flood risk management helps decrease negative economic social physical consequences flooding events.frm involves several steps occur prior flooding events.frm examines five stages prevent floods best defenses flooding best way mitigate negative consequences flooding prepare flooding events recover flooding event.examining five different factors governing agencies able evaluate risk management different stages flooding events.flood mapping flood mapping tool used governments policy makers delineate borders potential flooding events allowing educated decisions prevent extreme flooding events. |
Flood risk management | flood maps form risk maps useful create documentation allows policy makers make informed decisions flood hazards.flood mapping also provides conceptual models public private sectors information flooding hazards.flood mapping criticized many areas around world due absence public accessibility technical writing data lack easytounderstand information.however revived attention towards flood mapping due increased interest renewed interest enhancing current flood mapping use flood risk management method.flood modelling flood modelling tool used model flood risks effects humans physical environment. |
Flood risk management | flood modelling takes consideration flood hazards external internal processes factors main drivers floods interact other.flood modelling combines factors including terrain hydrology urban topography risk factors produce model demonstrates different levels flooding risks.flood modelling helpful determining building development practices hazard mitigation methods reduce risks associated flooding.stakeholder engagement stakeholder engagement useful tool flood risk management allows enhanced public engagement agreements reached policy discussions.different management considerations taken account including emergency management disaster risk reduction goals interactions landuse planning integration flood risks required policies. |
Flood risk management | flood management stakeholder engagement seen important way achieve greater cohesion consensus.integrating stakeholder engagement flood management often provides complex analysis situation generally adds demand determining collective solutions increases time takes determine solutions.implementation measures flood risk management includes implementation flood mitigation measures reduce physical impacts floods.measures exist precautionary measures based assessment flood risk measures implemented prior flooding events measures implemented flooding event.precautionary measures include implementation flood water barriers regulations building flood prone areas flood warning systems etc.measures implementation dikes constructed netherlands following extreme flooding risk due countrys lowlying landscapes. |
Flood risk management | flood risk management strategies include floodproof buildings increased water storage capacity reservoirs construction dams embankments.flood mitigation methods also involve policy reduces amount urban structures built around floodplains.policy helps reduce amount mitigation needed protect humans buildings flooding events.following occurrence flooding events implementation measures rebuilding plans insurance structured flood risk management plans.see also flood risk assessmentflood controlfloodplainriver valley civilizationfloods netherlandshydrologygeomorphologylist floodsflood alertflood stageerosion references |
Fresh water | although term specifically excludes seawater brackish water include nonsalty mineralrich waters chalybeate springs.fresh water may encompass frozen meltwater ice sheets ice caps glaciers snowfields icebergs natural precipitations rainfall snowfall hailsleet graupel surface runoffs form inland bodies water wetlands ponds lakes rivers streams well groundwater contained aquifers subterranean rivers lakes.water critical survival living organisms.many organisms thrive salt water great majority higher plants insects amphibians reptiles mammals birds need fresh water survive.fresh water always potable water water safe drink humans.much earths fresh water surface groundwater substantial degree unsuitable human consumption without treatment.fresh water easily become polluted human activities due naturally occurring processes erosion. |
Fresh water | fresh water renewable variable finite natural resource.fresh water replenished process water cycle water seas lakes forests land rivers reservoirs evaporates forms clouds returns inland precipitation.locally however fresh water consumed human activities naturally restored may result reduced fresh water availability water scarcity surface underground sources cause serious damage surrounding associated environments.water pollution subsequent eutrophication also reduces availability fresh water.definitions numerical definition fresh water defined water less parts per million ppm dissolved salts.other sources give higher upper salinity limits fresh water e.g. |
Fresh water | ppm ppm.systems fresh water habitats classified either lentic systems stillwaters including ponds lakes swamps mires lotic runningwater systems groundwaters flow rocks aquifers.addition zone bridges groundwater lotic systems hyporheic zone underlies many larger rivers contain substantially water seen open channel.may also direct contact underlying underground water.sources original source almost fresh water precipitation atmosphere form mist rain snow. |
Fresh water | fresh water falling mist rain snow contains materials dissolved atmosphere material sea land rain bearing clouds traveled.precipitation leads eventually formation water bodies humans use sources freshwater ponds lakes rainfall rivers streams groundwater contained underground aquifers.in coastal areas fresh water may contain significant concentrations salts derived sea windy conditions lifted drops seawater rainbearing clouds.give rise elevated concentrations sodium chloride magnesium sulfate well many compounds smaller concentrations.in desert areas areas impoverished dusty soils rainbearing winds pick sand dust deposited elsewhere precipitation causing freshwater flow measurably contaminated insoluble solids also soluble components soils.significant quantities iron may transported way including welldocumented transfer ironrich rainfall falling brazil derived sandstorms sahara north africa.water distribution saline water oceans seas saline groundwater make water earth. |
Fresh water | .–.fresh water including .– frozen glaciers ice snow .–.fresh groundwater soil moisture less .surface water lakes swamps rivers.freshwater lakes contain fresh surface water including african great lakes lake baikal russia north american great lakes lakes. |
Fresh water | swamps balance small amount rivers notably amazon river.atmosphere contains .water.areas fresh water ground surface fresh water derived precipitation may lower density overlie saline ground water lenses layers.worlds fresh water frozen ice sheets. |
Fresh water | many areas little fresh water deserts.freshwater ecosystems threats challenges increase world population increase per capita water use puts increasing strains finite resources availability clean fresh water.response freshwater ecosystems changing climate described terms three interrelated components water quality water quantity volume water timing.change one often leads shifts others well.however national geographic suggests limiting water consumption combat ongoing water crisis. |
Fresh water | limited resource minimum streamflow important concern hydrological ecosystems securing minimum streamflow especially preserving restoring instream water allocations.fresh water important natural resource necessary survival ecosystems.use water humans activities irrigation industrial applications adverse impacts downstream ecosystems.fresh water withdrawal quantity water removed available sources use purpose excluding evaporation losses.water drawn necessarily entirely consumed portion may returned use downstream.water pollution global goals conservation sustainable development goals collection interlinked global goals designed blueprint achieve better sustainable future all. |
Fresh water | targets freshwater conservation included sdg clean water sanitation sdg life land.example target .formulated substantially increase wateruse efficiency across sectors ensure sustainable withdrawals supply freshwater address water scarcity substantially reduce number people suffering water scarcity.another target target .ensure conservation restoration sustainable use terrestrial inland freshwater ecosystems services particular forests wetlands mountains drylands line obligations international agreements. |
Fresh water | human uses uses water include agricultural industrial household recreational environmental activities.water used agriculture called agricultural water farm water.animals water critical issue survival living organisms.use salt water many organisms including great majority higher plants mammals must access fresh water live.terrestrial mammals especially desert rodents appear survive without drinking generate water metabolism cereal seeds also mechanisms conserve water maximum degree.see also references external links world banks work publications water resourcesu.s. |
Anthrax | geological surveyfresh water national geographicoccur four forms skin lungs intestinal injection.symptom onset occurs one day two months infection contracted.skin form presents small blister surrounding swelling often turns painless ulcer black center.inhalation form presents fever chest pain shortness breath.intestinal form presents diarrhea may contain blood abdominal pains nausea vomiting. |
Anthrax | injection form presents fever abscess site drug injection.according centers disease control first clinical descriptions cutaneous anthrax given maret fournier .anthrax described historical accounts.prussian scientist robert koch – first identify bacillus anthracis bacterium causes anthrax.anthrax spread contact bacteriums spores often appear infectious animal products.contact breathing eating area broken skin.typically spread directly people. |
Anthrax | risk factors include people work animals animal products travelers military personnel.diagnosis confirmed finding antibodies toxin blood culture sample infected site.anthrax vaccination recommended people high risk infection.immunizing animals anthrax recommended areas previous infections occurred.twomonth course antibiotics ciprofloxacin levofloxacin doxycycline exposure also prevent infection.infection occurs treatment antibiotics possibly antitoxin. |
Anthrax | type number antibiotics used depend type infection.antitoxin recommended widespread infection.a rare disease human anthrax common africa central southern asia.also occurs regularly southern europe elsewhere continent uncommon northern europe north america.globally least cases occur year two cases year united states.skin infections represent cases. |
Anthrax | without treatment risk death skin anthrax .. intestinal infection risk death respiratory anthrax mortality even treatment.th century anthrax infections killed hundreds thousands people animals year.anthrax developed weapon number countries.herbivorous animals infection occurs eat breathe spores grazing.animals may become infected eating infected animals. |
Anthrax | etymology english name comes anthrax ἄνθραξ greek word coal possibly egyptian etymology characteristic black skin lesions developed victims cutaneous anthrax infection.central black eschar surrounded vivid red skin long recognised typical disease.first recorded use word anthrax english translation bartholomaeus anglicus work de proprietatibus rerum properties things .anthrax historically known wide variety names indicating symptoms location groups considered vulnerable infection.included siberian plague cumberland disease charbon splenic fever malignant edema woolsorters disease la maladie de bradford.signs symptoms skin cutaneous anthrax also known hideporters disease anthrax occurs skin. |
Anthrax | common form anthrax cases.least dangerous form low mortality treatment .mortality without.cutaneous anthrax presents boillike skin lesion eventually forms ulcer black center eschar.black eschar often shows large painless necrotic ulcer beginning irritating itchy skin lesion blister dark usually concentrated black dot somewhat resembling bread mold site infection. |
Anthrax | general cutaneous infections form within site spore penetration two five days exposure.unlike bruises lesions cutaneous anthrax infections normally cause pain.nearby lymph nodes may become infected reddened swollen painful.scab forms lesion soon falls weeks.complete recovery may take longer.cutaneous anthrax typically caused b. anthracis spores enter cuts skin. |
Anthrax | form found commonly humans handle infected animals andor animal products.injection december outbreak anthrax occurred among injecting heroin users glasgow stirling areas scotland resulting deaths.source anthrax believed dilution heroin bone meal afghanistan.injected anthrax may symptoms similar cutaneous anthrax may also cause infection deep muscle spread faster.lungs inhalation anthrax usually develops within week exposure may take months. |
Anthrax | first days illness people fever chills fatigue.symptoms may accompanied cough shortness breath chest pain nausea vomiting making inhalation anthrax difficult distinguish influenza communityacquired pneumonia.often described prodromal period.over next day shortness breath cough chest pain become common complaints involving chest nausea vomiting altered mental status sweats headache develop onethird people.upper respiratory tract symptoms occur quarter people muscle pains rare.altered mental status shortness breath generally brings people healthcare marks fulminant phase illness.it infects lymph nodes chest first rather lungs condition called hemorrhagic mediastinitis causing bloody fluid accumulate chest cavity thereby causing shortness breath. |
Anthrax | second pneumonia stage occurs infection spreads lymph nodes lungs.symptoms second stage develop suddenly within hours days first stage.symptoms include high fever extreme shortness breath shock rapid death within hours fatal cases.gastrointestinal gastrointestinal gi infection often caused consuming anthraxinfected meat characterized diarrhea potentially blood abdominal pains acute inflammation intestinal tract loss appetite.occasional vomiting blood occur. |
Anthrax | lesions found intestines mouth throat.bacterium invades gastrointestinal system spreads bloodstream throughout body continuing make toxins.cause bacteria bacillus anthracis rodshaped grampositive facultative anaerobic bacterium μm size.shown cause disease robert koch took blood sample infected cow isolated bacteria put mouse.bacterium normally rests spore form soil survive decades state. |
Anthrax | herbivores often infected grazing especially eating rough irritant spiky vegetation vegetation hypothesized cause wounds within gi tract permitting entry bacterial spores tissues though proven.ingested placed open wound bacteria begin multiplying inside animal human typically kill host within days weeks.spores germinate site entry tissues spread circulation lymphatics bacteria multiply.the production two powerful exotoxins lethal toxin bacteria causes death.veterinarians often tell possible anthraxinduced death sudden occurrence dark nonclotting blood oozes body orifices.anthrax bacteria inside body death outcompeted destroyed anaerobic bacteria within minutes hours post mortem. |
Anthrax | however anthrax vegetative bacteria escape body via oozing blood opening carcass may form hardy spores.vegetative bacteria contagious.one spore forms per one vegetative bacterium.triggers spore formation yet known though oxygen tension lack nutrients may play roles.formed spores hard eradicate.the infection herbivores occasionally humans inhalational route normally begins inhaled spores transported air passages tiny air sacs alveoli lungs. |
Anthrax | spores picked scavenger cells macrophages lungs transported small vessels lymphatics lymph nodes central chest cavity mediastinum.damage caused anthrax spores bacilli central chest cavity cause chest pain difficulty breathing.lymph nodes spores germinate active bacilli multiply eventually burst macrophages releasing many bacilli bloodstream transferred entire body.bloodstream bacilli release three proteins named lethal factor edema factor protective antigen.three toxic combination incredibly lethal humans. |
Anthrax | protective antigen combines two factors form lethal toxin edema toxin respectively.toxins primary agents tissue destruction bleeding death host.antibiotics administered late even antibiotics eradicate bacteria hosts still die toxemia toxins produced bacilli remain systems lethal dose levels.exposure spores anthrax able survive harsh conditions decades even centuries.spores found continents including antarctica. |
Anthrax | disturbed grave sites infected animals known cause infection years.historically inhalational anthrax called woolsorters disease occupational hazard people sorted wool.today form infection extremely rare advanced nations almost infected animals remain.occupational exposure infected animals products skin wool meat usual pathway exposure humans.workers exposed dead animals animal products highest risk especially countries anthrax common.anthrax livestock grazing open range mix wild animals still occasionally occurs united states elsewhere.many workers deal wool animal hides routinely exposed low levels anthrax spores exposure levels sufficient develop anthrax infections.lethal infection reported result inhalation – spores though dose varies among host species. |
Anthrax | little documented evidence available verify exact average number spores needed infection.mode infection anthrax enter human body intestines ingestion lungs inhalation skin cutaneous causes distinct clinical symptoms based site entry.general infected human quarantined.however anthrax usually spread infected human uninfected human.disease fatal persons body though mass anthrax bacilli becomes potential source infection others special precautions used prevent contamination. |
Anthrax | inhalational anthrax left untreated obvious symptoms occur usually fatal.anthrax contracted laboratory accidents handling infected animals wool hides.also used biological warfare agents terrorists intentionally infect exemplified anthrax attacks.mechanism lethality anthrax disease due bacteriums two principal virulence factors polydglutamic acid capsule protects bacterium phagocytosis host neutrophils tripartite protein toxin called anthrax toxin.anthrax components protective antigen pa edema factor ef lethal factor lf.pa plus lf produces lethal toxin pa plus ef produces edema toxin. |
Anthrax | toxins cause death tissue swelling edema respectively.to enter cells edema lethal factors use another protein produced b. anthracis called protective antigen binds two surface receptors host cell.cell protease cleaves pa two fragments pa pa. pa dissociates extracellular medium playing role toxic cycle.pa oligomerizes six pa fragments forming heptameric ringshaped structure named prepore.shape complex competitively bind three efs lfs forming resistant complex.receptormediated endocytosis occurs next providing newly formed toxic complex access interior host cell. |
Anthrax | acidified environment within endosome triggers heptamer release lf andor ef cytosol.unknown exactly complex results death cell.edema factor calmodulindependent adenylate cyclase.adenylate cyclase catalyzes conversion atp cyclic amp camp pyrophosphate.complexation adenylate cyclase calmodulin removes calmodulin stimulating calciumtriggered signaling thus inhibiting immune response.specific lf inactivates neutrophils type phagocytic cell process described cannot phagocytose bacteria. |
Anthrax | throughout history lethal factor presumed cause macrophages make tnfalpha interleukin beta ilb.tnfalpha cytokine whose primary role regulate immune cells well induce inflammation apoptosis programmed cell death.interleukin beta another cytokine also regulates inflammation apoptosis.overproduction tnfalpha ilb ultimately leads septic shock death.however recent evidence indicates anthrax also targets endothelial cells line serous cavities pericardial cavity pleural cavity peritoneal cavity lymph vessels blood vessels causing vascular leakage fluid cells ultimately hypovolemic shock septic shock. |
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