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Access control | case host pc fails events controllers retrieved functions require interaction controllers i.e.antipassback stop working.controllers however peertopeer communication option order reduce dependency host pc.. ip readers.readers connected host pc via ethernet lan wan.advantagesmost ip readers poe capable.feature makes easy provide battery backed power entire system including locks various types detectors used.ip readers eliminate need controller enclosures.there wasted capacity using ip readers e.g. |
Access control | door controller would unused capacity controlling doors.ip reader systems scale easily need install new main subcontrollers.failure one ip reader affect readers system.disadvantagesin order used highsecurity areas ip readers require special inputoutput modules eliminate possibility intrusion accessing lock andor exit button wiring.ip reader manufacturers modules available.being sophisticated basic readers ip readers also expensive sensitive therefore installed outdoors areas harsh weather conditions high probability vandalism unless specifically designed exterior installation.manufacturers make models.the advantages disadvantages ip controllers apply ip readers well.security risks common security risk intrusion access control system simply following legitimate user door referred tailgating.often legitimate user hold door intruder. |
Access control | risk minimized security awareness training user population active means turnstiles.highsecurity applications risk minimized using sally port sometimes called security vestibule mantrap operator intervention required presumably assure valid identification.the second common risk levering door open.relatively difficult properly secured doors strikes high holding force magnetic locks.fully implemented access control systems include forced door monitoring alarms.vary effectiveness usually failing high false positive alarms poor database configuration lack active intrusion monitoring. |
Access control | newer access control systems incorporate type door prop alarm inform system administrators door left open longer specified length time.the third common security risk natural disasters.order mitigate risk natural disasters structure building quality network computer equipment vital.organizational perspective leadership need adopt implement hazards plan incident response plan.highlights incident plan determined national incident management system must include preincident planning incident actions disaster recovery afteraction review.similar levering crashing cheap partition walls.shared tenant spaces divisional wall vulnerability. |
Access control | vulnerability along lines breaking sidelights.spoofing locking hardware fairly simple elegant levering.strong magnet operate solenoid controlling bolts electric locking hardware.motor locks prevalent europe us also susceptible attack using doughnutshaped magnet.also possible manipulate power lock either removing adding current although access control systems incorporate battery backup systems locks almost always located secure side door.access cards proven vulnerable sophisticated attacks.enterprising hackers built portable readers capture card number users proximity card. |
Access control | hacker simply walks user reads card presents number reader securing door.possible card numbers sent clear encryption used.counter dual authentication methods card plus pin always used.many access control credentials unique serial numbers programmed sequential order manufacturing.known sequential attack intruder credential used system simply increment decrement serial number find credential currently authorized system.ordering credentials random unique serial numbers recommended counter threat.finally electric locking hardware still mechanical keys failover. |
Access control | mechanical key locks vulnerable bumping.needtoknow principle need know principle enforced user access controls authorization procedures objective ensure authorized individuals gain access information systems necessary undertake duties.computer security computer security general access control includes authentication authorization audit.narrow definition access control would cover access approval whereby system makes decision grant reject access request already authenticated subject based subject authorized access.authentication access control often combined single operation access approved based successful authentication based anonymous access token. |
Access control | authentication methods tokens include passwords biometric analysis physical keys electronic keys devices hidden paths social barriers monitoring humans automated systems.in accesscontrol model entities perform actions system called subjects entities representing resources access may need controlled called objects see also access control matrix.subjects objects considered software entities rather human users human users effect system via software entities control.although systems equate subjects user ids processes started user default authority level control finegrained enough satisfy principle least privilege arguably responsible prevalence malware systems see computer insecurity.in models example objectcapability model software entity potentially act subject object.as accesscontrol models tend fall one two classes based capabilities based access control lists acls.in capabilitybased model holding unforgeable reference capability object provides access object roughly analogous possession ones house key grants one access ones house access conveyed another party transmitting capability secure channelin aclbased model subjects access object depends whether identity appears list associated object roughly analogous bouncer private party would check id see name appears guest list access conveyed editing list.different acl systems variety different conventions regarding responsible editing list edited.both capabilitybased aclbased models mechanisms allow access rights granted members group subjects often group modeled subject.access control systems provide essential services authorization identification authentication ia access approval accountability whereauthorization specifies subject doidentification authentication ensure legitimate subjects log systemaccess approval grants access operations association users resources allowed access based authorization policyaccountability identifies subject subjects associated user access control models access accounts enforced many types controls.attributebased access control abac access control paradigm whereby access rights granted users use policies evaluate attributes user attributes resource attributes environment conditionsdiscretionary access control dacin dac data owner determines access specific resources.example system administrator may create hierarchy files accessed based certain permissions.graphbased access control gbaccompared approaches like rbac abac main difference gbac access rights defined using organizational query language instead total enumeration.historybased access control hbacaccess granted declined based realtime evaluation history activities inquiring party e.g.behavior time requests content requests. |
Access control | example access certain service data source granted declined personal behavior e.g.request interval exceeds one query per second.historyofpresence based access control hpbacaccess control resources defined terms presence policies need satisfied presence records stored requestor.policies usually written terms frequency spread regularity.example policy would requestor made k separate visitations within last week two consecutive visitations apart hours.identitybased access control ibacusing network administrators effectively manage activity access based individual needs.latticebased access control lbaca lattice used define levels security object may subject may access to.subject allowed access object security level subject greater equal object.mandatory access control macin mac users much freedom determine access files. |
Access control | example security clearance users classification data confidential secret top secret used security labels define level trust.organizationbased access control orbac orbac model allows policy designer define security policy independently implementationrolebased access control rbacrbac allows access based job title.rbac largely eliminates discretion providing access objects.example human resources specialist permissions create network accounts role reserved network administrators.rulebased access control racrac method also referred rulebased rolebased access control rbrbac largely context based.example would allowing students use labs certain time day combination students rbacbased information system access control timebased lab access rules.responsibility based access control information accessed based responsibilities assigned actor business role telecommunication telecommunication term access control defined u.s. federal standard c following meanings service feature technique used permit deny use components communication system.a technique used define restrict rights individuals application programs obtain data place data onto storage device.the definition restriction rights individuals application programs obtain data place data storage device.the process limiting access resources ais automated information system authorized users programs processes systems.that function performed resource controller allocates system resources satisfy user requests.this definition depends several technical terms federal standard c. attribute accessors special public member methods – accessors aka getters mutator methods often called setters used control changes class variables order prevent unauthorized access data corruption.public policy public policy access control restrict access systems authorization track monitor behavior within systems accountability implementation feature using trusted systems security social control. |
Access control | see also alarm device alarm management security alarmcard reader common access card magnetic stripe card proximity card smart card optical turnstile access badgecastle fortificationcomputer security logical security .htaccess wiegand effect xacml credentialdoor security lock picking lock security device electronic lock safe safecracking bank vaultfingerprint scanner photo identification biometricsidentity management identity document openid ip controller ip readerkey management key cardslock screenphysical security information managementphysical security professionalprison barbed tape mantrapsecurity security engineering security lighting security management security policy references u.s. federal cu.s.milu.s.national information systems security glossaryharris shon allinone cissp exam guide th edition mcgraw hill osborne emeryville california .integrated security systems design – butterworthheinenmann – – thomas l. norman cpppspcsc authornist.gov – computer security division – computer security resource center – attribute based access control abac – overview external links access control markup language.oasis standard languagemodel access control.also xacml. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | also able provide electronic warfare intelligence surveillance reconnaissance capabilities.lockheed martin prime f contractor principal partners northrop grumman bae systems.aircraft three main variants conventional takeoff landing ctol fa short takeoff verticallanding stovl fb carrierbased cvcatobar fc.the aircraft descends lockheed martin x beat boeing x win joint strike fighter jsf program.development principally funded united states additional funding program partner countries nato close u.s. allies including united kingdom australia canada italy norway denmark netherlands formerly turkey.several countries ordered considering ordering aircraft. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | program drawn much scrutiny criticism unprecedented size complexity ballooning costs muchdelayed deliveries numerous technical flaws still corrected.acquisition strategy concurrent production aircraft still development testing led expensive design changes retrofits.the fb entered service u.s. marine corps july followed u.s. air force fa august u.s. navy fc february .f first used combat israeli air force.u.s. plans buy fs represent bulk crewed tactical airpower u.s. air force navy marine corps several decades.aircraft projected operate . |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | development program origins f product joint strike fighter jsf program merger various combat aircraft programs s. one progenitor program defense advanced research projects agency darpa advanced short takeoffvertical landing astovl ran astovl aimed develop harrier jump jet replacement u.s. marine corps usmc u.k. royal navy.one astovls classified programs supersonic stovl fighter ssf lockheed skunk works conducted research stealthy supersonic stovl fighter intended u.s. air force usaf usmc key technology explored shaftdriven lift fan sdlf system.lockheeds concept singleengine canard delta aircraft weighing lb kg empty.astovl rechristened common affordable lightweight fighter calf involved lockheed mcdonnell douglas boeing.in joint advanced strike technology jast program emerged following cancellation usafs multirole fighter mrf u.s. navys usn advanced fighterattack afx programs.mrf program relatively affordable f replacement scaled back delayed due post–cold war defense posture easing f fleet usage thus extending service life well increasing budget pressure f program. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | afx initially known advancedattack ax began usns followon advanced tactical aircraft ata program replacement atas resulting avenger ii canceled due technical problems cost overruns .year termination naval advanced tactical fighter natf offshoot usafs advanced tactical fighter atf program replace f resulted additional fighter capability added ax renamed afx.amid increased budget pressure department defenses dod bottomup review bur september announced mrfs afxs cancellations applicable experience brought emerging jast program.jast meant develop new aircraft rather develop requirements maturing technologies demonstrating concepts advanced strike warfare.as jast progressed need concept demonstrator aircraft emerged would coincide fullscale flight demonstrator phase astovlcalf.astovlcalf concept appeared align jast charter two programs eventually merged jast name program serving usaf usmc usn. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | jast subsequently renamed joint strike fighter jsf stovl submissions mcdonnell douglas northrop grumman lockheed martin boeing.jsf expected eventually replace large numbers multirole strike fighters inventories us allies including harrier f fa f.international participation key aspect jsf program starting united kingdom participation astovl program.many international partners requiring modernization air forces interested jsf.united kingdom joined jastjsf founding member thus became tier partner jsf program italy netherlands denmark norway canada australia turkey joined program concept demonstration phase cdp italy netherlands tier partners rest tier .consequently aircraft developed cooperation international partners available export. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | jsf competition boeing lockheed martin selected early cdp concept demonstrator aircraft designated x x respectively mcdonnell douglas team eliminated northrop grumman british aerospace joined lockheed martin team.firm would produce two prototype air vehicles demonstrate conventional takeoff landing ctol carrier takeoff landing cv stovl.lockheed martins design would make use work sdlf system conducted astovlcalf program.key aspect x enabled stovl operation sdlf system consists lift fan forward center fuselage could activated engaging clutch connects driveshaft turbines thus augmenting thrust engines swivel nozzle.research prior aircraft incorporating similar systems convair model rockwell xfv yakovlev yak also taken consideration. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | contrast boeings x employed direct lift system augmented turbofan would reconfigured engaging stovl operation.lockheed martins commonality strategy replace stovl variants sdlf fuel tank aft swivel nozzle twodimensional thrust vectoring nozzle ctol variant.would enable identical aerodynamic configuration stovl ctol variants cv variant would enlarged wing order reduce landing speed carrier recovery.due aerodynamic characteristics carrier recovery requirements jast merger design configuration settled conventional tail compared canard delta design astovlcalf notably conventional tail configuration offers much lower risk carrier recovery compared astovlcalf canard configuration designed without carrier compatibility mind.enabled greater commonality three variants commonality goal important design stage.lockheed martins prototypes would consist xa demonstrating ctol converting xb stovl demonstration largerwinged xc cv compatibility demonstration.the xa first flew october conducted flight tests subsonic supersonic flying qualities handling range maneuver performance. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | flights aircraft converted xb stovl testing key changes including addition sdlf threebearing swivel module bsm rollcontrol ducts.xb would successfully demonstrate sdlf system performing stable hover vertical landing short takeoff less ft m. xc first flew december conducted field landing carrier practice tests.on october lockheed martin declared winner awarded system development demonstration sdd contract pratt whitney separately awarded development contract f engine jsf.f designation sequence standard dod numbering allegedly determined spot program manager major general mike hough came surprise even lockheed martin expected f designation jsf.design production jsf program moved system development demonstration phase x demonstrator design modified create f combat aircraft.forward fuselage lengthened inches cm make room mission avionics horizontal stabilizers moved inches . |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | cm aft retain balance control.diverterless supersonic inlet changed foursided threesided cowl shape moved inches cm aft.fuselage section fuller top surface raised inch .cm along centerline accommodate weapons bays.following designation x prototypes three variants designated fa ctol fb stovl fc cv. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | prime contractor lockheed martin performs overall systems integration final assembly checkout faco northrop grumman bae systems supply components mission systems airframe.adding systems fighter aircraft added weight.fb gained largely due decision enlarge weapons bays commonality variants total weight growth reportedly pounds kg causing stovl key performance parameter kpp thresholds missed.december stovl weight attack team swat formed reduce weight increase changes included engine thrust thinned airframe members smaller weapons bays vertical stabilizers less thrust fed rollpost outlets redesigning wingmate joint electrical elements airframe immediately aft cockpit.many changes swat effort applied three variants commonality.september efforts reduced fbs weight pounds kg fa fc reduced weight pounds kg pounds kg respectively. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | weight reduction work cost .billion caused month delay.the first fa designated aa rolled fort worth texas february first flew december .f given name lightning ii lockheed p lightning world war ii.usaf pilots nicknamed aircraft panther instead.the aircrafts software developed six releases blocks sdd.first two blocks b readied f initial pilot training multilevel security. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | block improved training capabilities b first combatready release planned usmcs initial operating capability ioc.block retains capabilities b new hardware planned usafs ioc.final release sdd block f would full flight envelope baseline combat capabilities.alongside software releases block also incorporates avionics hardware updates air vehicle improvements flight structural testing.known concurrency low rate initial production lrip aircraft lots would delivered early block configurations eventually upgraded block f development complete. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | flight test hours final flight sdd phase completed april .like f f targeted cyberattacks technology theft efforts well potential vulnerabilities integrity supply chain.testing found several major problems early fb airframes premature cracking fc arrestor hook design unreliable fuel tanks vulnerable lightning strikes helmet display problems more.software repeatedly delayed due unprecedented scope complexity.dod joint estimate team jet estimated program months behind public schedule.program rebaselined cost schedule goals changed pushing ioc planned july . |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | decision simultaneously test fix defects begin production criticized inefficient secretary defense acquisition frank kendall called acquisition malpractice.three variants shared parts far anticipated commonality .program received considerable criticism cost overruns total projected lifetime cost well quality management shortcomings contractors.the jsf program expected cost billion acquisition baseyear dollars sdd awarded .early government accountability office gao identified major program risks cost schedule.costly delays strained relationship pentagon contractors. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | delays cost overruns pushed f programs expected acquisition costs .billion total lifetime cost i.e..trillion thenyear dollars also includes operations maintenance.unit cost lrip lot fa . |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | million.delays development operational test evaluation pushed fullrate production .upgrades development first combatcapable block b configuration basic airtoair strike capabilities declared ready usmc july .block f configuration began operational test evaluation ote december completion conclude sdd.f program also conducting sustainment upgrade development early lrip aircraft gradually upgraded baseline block f standard .the f expected continually upgraded lifetime. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | first upgrade program called continuous capability development delivery cd began currently planned run .nearterm development priority cd block would integrate additional weapons including unique international customers refresh avionics improve esm capabilities add remotely operated video enhanced receiver rover support.cd also places greater emphasis agile software development enable quicker releases.air force life cycle management center aflcmc awarded contracts general electric pratt whitney develop powerful efficient adaptive cycle engines potential application f leveraging research done adaptive engine transition program aetp f adaptive engine replacement faer program launched integrate adaptive cycle engines aircraft .defense contractors offered upgrades f outside official program contracts.northrop grumman disclosed development directional infrared countermeasures suite named threat nullification defensive resource thndr. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | countermeasure system would share space distributed aperture system das sensors acts laser missile jammer protect infraredhoming missiles.israel wants access core avionics include equipment.procurement international participation united states primary customer financial backer planned procurement fas usaf fbs fcs usmc fcs usn.additionally united kingdom italy netherlands turkey australia norway denmark canada agreed contribute us.billion towards development costs united kingdom contributing planned development costs sole tier partner.initial plan u.s. eight major partner nations would acquire fs . |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | three tiers international participation generally reflect financial stake program amount technology transfer subcontracts open bid national companies order countries obtain production aircraft.alongside program partner countries israel singapore joined security cooperative participants scp.sales scp nonpartner nations including belgium japan south korea made pentagons foreign military sales program.turkey removed f program july security concerns.in december japan announced intention purchase fs replace f phantom ii assembled domestically deliveries beginning .due delays development testing many initial orders postponed. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | italy reduced order fs .australia decided buy faf super hornet eag growler interim measures.on april auditor general canada published report outlining problems canadas f procurement report states government knowingly understated final cost fs billion.following federal election canadian government liberal party decided proceed solesourced purchase launched competition choose aircraft.in january singapore announced plan buy small number fs evaluation capabilities suitability deciding replace f fleet.may poland announced plans buy fas replace sovietera jets contract signed january .june swiss government decided propose parliament buy fas . |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | billion.swiss antimilitary group gsoa supported greens social democrats intends contest purchase peoples initiative would constitutionally prohibit deal.december finland announced decision buy fas.design overview f family singleengine supersonic stealth multirole fighters.second fifth generation fighter enter us service first operational supersonic stovl stealth fighter f emphasizes low observables advanced avionics sensor fusion enable high level situational awareness long range lethality usaf considers aircraft primary strike fighter conducting suppression enemy air defense sead missions owing advanced sensors mission systems.the f wingtail configuration two vertical stabilizers canted stealth. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | flight control surfaces include leadingedge flaps flaperons rudders allmoving horizontal tails stabilators leading edge root extensions also run forwards inlets.relatively short foot wingspan fa fb set requirement fit inside usn amphibious assault ship parking areas elevators fcs larger wing fuel efficient.fixed diverterless supersonic inlets dsi use bumped compression surface forwardswept cowl shed boundary layer forebody away inlets form yduct engine.structurally f drew upon lessons f composites comprise airframe weight majority bismaleimide composite epoxy materials well carbon nanotubereinforced epoxy later production lots.f considerably heavier lightweight fighters replaces lightest variant empty weight lb kg much weight attributed internal weapons bays extensive avionics carried.while lacking raw performance larger twinengine f f kinematics competitive fourth generation fighters f fa especially ordnance mounted fs internal weapons carriage eliminates parasitic drag external stores. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | variants top speed mach .attainable full internal payload.powerful f engine gives good subsonic acceleration energy supersonic dash afterburner.large stabilitors leading edge extensions flaps canted rudders provide excellent high alpha angleofattack characteristics trimmed alpha °.relaxed stability flybywire controls provide excellent handling qualities departure resistance. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | double fs internal fuel f considerably greater combat radius stealth also enables efficient mission flight profile.sensors avionics fs mission systems among complex aspects aircraft.avionics sensor fusion designed enhance pilots situational awareness command control capabilities facilitate networkcentric warfare.key sensors include northrop grumman anapg active electronically scanned array aesa radar bae systems anasq barracuda electronic warfare system northrop grummanraytheon anaaq distributed aperture system das lockheed martin anaaq electrooptical targeting system eots northrop grumman anasq communications navigation identification cni suite.f designed sensor intercommunication provide cohesive image local battlespace availability possible use combination one another example apg radar also acts part electronic warfare system.much fs software developed c c programming languages ada code f also used block f software . |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | million lines code.green hills software integrity dob realtime operating system rtos runs integrated core processors icps data networking includes ieee b fibre channel buses.enable fleet software upgrades softwaredefined radio systems greater upgrade flexibility affordability avionics leverage commercial offtheshelf cots components practical.mission systems software particularly sensor fusion one programs difficult parts responsible substantial program delays.the apg radar uses electronic scanning rapid beam agility incorporates passive active airtoair modes strike modes synthetic aperture radar sar capability multiple target trackwhilescan ranges excess nmi km.antenna tilted backwards stealth. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | complementing radar aaq das consists six infrared sensors provide allaspect missile launch warning target tracking das acts situational awareness infrared searchandtrack sairst gives pilot spherical infrared nightvision imagery helmet visor.asq barracuda electronic warfare system ten radio frequency antennas embedded edges wing tail allaspect radar warning receiver rwr.also provides sensor fusion radio frequency infrared tracking functions geolocation threat targeting multispectral image countermeasures selfdefense missiles.electronic warfare system capable detecting jamming hostile radars.aaq eots mounted internally behind faceted lowobservable window nose performs laser targeting forwardlooking infrared flir long range irst functions. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | asq cni suite uses half dozen different physical links including multifunction advanced data link madl covert cni functions.sensor fusion information radio frequency receivers infrared sensors combined form single tactical picture pilot.allaspect target direction identification shared via madl platforms without compromising low observability link present communication legacy systems.the f designed outset incorporate improved processors sensors software enhancements lifespan.technology refresh includes new core processor new cockpit display planned lot aircraft.lockheed martin offered advanced eots block configuration improved sensor fits area baseline eots minimal changes. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | june lockheed martin picked raytheon improved das.usaf studied potential f orchestrate attacks unmanned combat aerial vehicles ucavs via sensors communications equipment.stealth signatures stealth key aspect fs design radar crosssection rcs minimized careful shaping airframe use radarabsorbent materials ram visible measures reduce rcs include alignment edges serration skin panels masking engine face turbine.additionally fs diverterless supersonic inlet dsi uses compression bump forwardswept cowl rather splitter gap bleed system divert boundary layer away inlet duct eliminating diverter cavity reducing radar signature.rcs f characterized lower metal golf ball certain frequencies angles conditions f compares favorably f stealth. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | maintainability fs stealth design took lessons learned prior stealth aircraft f fs radarabsorbent fibermat skin durable requires less maintenance older topcoats.aircraft also reduced infrared visual signatures well strict controls radio frequency emitters prevent detection.fs stealth design primarily focused highfrequency xband wavelengths lowfrequency radars spot stealthy aircraft due rayleigh scattering radars also conspicuous susceptible clutter lack precision.disguise rcs aircraft mount four luneburg lens reflectors.noise f caused concerns residential areas near potential bases aircraft residents near two bases—luke air force base arizona eglin air force base afb florida—requested environmental impact studies respectively.although noise level decibels comparable prior fighters f sound power f stronger particularly lower frequencies. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | subsequent surveys studies indicated noise f perceptibly different f faef though greater lowfrequency noise noticeable observers.cockpit glass cockpit designed give pilot good situational awareness.main display inch cm panoramic touchscreen shows flight instruments stores management cni information integrated caution warnings pilot customize arrangement information.main display smaller standby display.cockpit speechrecognition system developed adacel. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | f headup display instead flight combat information displayed visor pilots helmet helmetmounted display system hmds.onepiece tinted canopy hinged front internal frame structural strength.martinbaker use ejection seat launched twincatapult system housed side rails.righthand side stick throttle handson throttleandstick system.life support onboard oxygengeneration system obogs fitted powered integrated power package ipp auxiliary oxygen bottle backup oxygen system emergencies.the vision systems international helmet display key piece fs humanmachine interface. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | instead headup display mounted atop dashboard earlier fighters hmds puts flight combat information helmet visor allowing pilot see matter way facing.infrared night vision imagery distributed aperture system displayed directly hmds enables pilot see aircraft.hmds allows f pilot fire missiles targets even nose aircraft pointing elsewhere cuing missile seekers high angles offboresight.helmet costs .hmds weighs traditional helmets concern endanger lightweight pilots ejection.due hmdss vibration jitter nightvision sensor display problems development lockheed martin elbit issued draft specification alternative hmds based anavs night vision goggles backup bae systems chosen later year. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | cockpit redesign would needed adopt alternative hmds.following progress baseline helmet development alternative hmds halted october .gen helmet improved night vision camera new liquid crystal displays automated alignment software enhancements introduced lrip lot .armament preserve stealth shaping f two internal weapons bays four weapons stations.two outboard weapon stations carry ordnance lb kg lb kg fb two inboard stations carry airtoair missiles. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | airtosurface weapons outboard station include joint direct attack munition jdam paveway series bombs joint standoff weapon jsow cluster munitions wind corrected munitions dispenser.station also carry multiple smaller munitions gbu small diameter bombs sdb gbub sdb ii spear antitank missiles four sdbs carried per station fa fc three fb.inboard station carry aim amraam.two compartments behind weapons bays contain flares chaff towed decoys.the aircraft use six external weapons stations missions require stealth.wingtip pylons carry aimx aim asraam canted outwards reduce radar crosssection. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | additionally wing lb kg inboard station lb kg middle station lb kg fb.external wing stations carry large airtosurface weapons would fit inside weapons bays agm joint air surface standoff missile jassm cruise missile.airtoair missile load eight aims two aims possible using internal external weapons stations configuration six lb kg bombs two aims two aims also arranged.fa armed mm gaua rotary cannon mounted internally near left wing root rounds carried gun effective ground targets mm cannon carried usaf fighters.fb fc internal gun instead use terma multimission pod mmp carrying gaua rounds pod mounted centerline aircraft shaped reduce radar crosssection. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | lieu gun pod also used different equipment purposes electronic warfare aerial reconnaissance rearfacing tactical radar.lockheed martin developing weapon rack called sidekick would enable internal outboard station carry two aims thus increasing internal airtoair payload six missiles currently offered block .block also rearranged hydraulic line bracket allow fb carry four sdbs per internal outboard station integration mbda meteor also planned.usaf usn planning integrate agmg aargmer internally fa fc.norway australia funding adaptation naval strike missile nsm f designated joint strike missile jsm two missiles carried internally additional four externally.nuclear weapons delivery via internal carriage b nuclear bomb planned block b . |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | hypersonic missiles direct energy weapons solidstate laser currently considered future upgrades.lockheed martin studying integrating fiber laser uses spectral beam combining multiple individual laser modules single highpower beam scaled various levels.the usaf plans fa take close air support cas mission contested environments amid criticism well suited dedicated attack platform usaf chief staff mark welsh placed focus weapons cas sorties including guided rockets fragmentation rockets shatter individual projectiles impact compact ammunition higher capacity gun pods.fragmentary rocket warheads create greater effects cannon shells rocket creates thousandround burst delivering projectiles strafing run.engine singleengine aircraft powered pratt whitney f lowbypass augmented turbofan rated thrust lbf kn.derived pratt whitney f used f f larger fan higher bypass ratio increase subsonic fuel efficiency unlike f optimized supercruise. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | engine contributes fs stealth lowobservable augmenter afterburner incorporates fuel injectors thick curved vanes vanes covered ceramic radarabsorbent materials mask turbine.stealthy augmenter problems pressure pulsations screech low altitude high speed early development.lowobservable axisymmetric nozzle consists partially overlapping flaps create sawtooth pattern trailing edge reduces radar signature creates shed vortices reduce infrared signature exhaust plume.due engines large dimensions usn modify underway replenishment system facilitate atsea logistics support.fs integrated power package ipp performs power thermal management integrates environment control auxiliary power unit engine starting functions single system.the fpw variant fb incorporates sdlf allow stovl operations. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | designed lockheed martin developed rollsroyce sdlf also known rollsroyce liftsystem consists lift fan drive shaft two roll posts threebearing swivel module bsm.thrust vectoring bsm nozzle allows main engine exhaust deflected downward tail aircraft moved fueldraulic actuator uses pressurized fuel working fluid.unlike harriers pegasus engine entirely uses direct engine thrust lift fbs system augments swivel nozzles thrust lift fan fan powered lowpressure turbine drive shaft engaged clutch placed near front aircraft provide counterbalancing thrust.roll control slow flight achieved diverting unheated engine bypass air wingmounted thrust nozzles called roll posts.an alternative engine general electricrollsroyce f developed originally f engines lot onward competitively tendered.using technology general electric yf f claimed greater temperature margin f. f canceled december due lack funding.the f expected receive propulsion upgrades lifecycle order adapt emerging threats enable additional capabilities. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | adaptive engine transition program aetp launched develop test adaptive cycle engines one major potential application reengining f ge pw awarded contracts develop lbf kn thrust class demonstrators designations xa xa respectively.addition potential reengining pw also plans improve baseline f pw announced f growth option ..growth option .dropin power module upgrade offered – thrust improvement – fuel burn reduction growth option . |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | would adaptive cycle xa.pw shifted f upgrade plan growth options series engine enhancement packages along additional capabilities xa became separate cleansheet design.capability packages planned incorporated twoyear increments starting mids.maintenance logistics f designed require less maintenance earlier stealth aircraft.fieldreplaceable parts one deep—that nothing else need removed reach desired part instance ejection seat replaced without removing canopy. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | f fibermat radarabsorbent material ram baked skin durable easier work faster cure older ram coatings similar coatings currently considered application older stealth aircraft f. skin corrosion f led fs designers use less galvanic corrosioninducing skin gap filler use fewer gaps airframe skin needing filler better drainage.flight control system uses electrohydrostatic actuators rather traditional hydraulic systems controls powered lithiumion batteries case emergency.commonality different variants allowed usmc create first aircraft maintenance field training detachment apply usafs lessons f operations.the f intended supported computerized maintenance management system named autonomic logistics information system alis.concept aircraft serviced f maintenance facility parts globally tracked shared needed.due numerous problems unreliable diagnoses excessive connectivity requirements security vulnerabilities program officials plan replace alis cloudbased operational data integrated network odin .odin base kits obks— obks new computer hardware replace aliss standard operating unit unclassified souu server hardware. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | beginning september obks running alis software well odin software first marine corps air station mcas yuma arizona naval air station lemoore california support strike fighter squadron vfa july nellis air force base nevada support nd test evaluation squadron tes august .dozen obk server installation sites replace alis souu servers able run legacy alis software well replacement odin software.performance obk doubled far compared alis.operational history testing first fa aa conducted engine run september first flew december .unlike subsequent aircraft aa weight optimization swat consequently mainly tested subsystems common subsequent aircraft propulsion electrical system cockpit displays. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | aircraft retired flight testing december used livefire testing nas china lake.the first fb bf flew june first weightoptimized fa fc af cf flew november june respectively.fbs first hover march followed first vertical landing next day.f integrated test force itf consisted aircraft edwards air force base naval air station patuxent river.nine aircraft edwards five fas three fbs one fc performed flight sciences testing fa envelope expansion flight loads stores separation well mission systems testing.nine aircraft patuxent river five fbs four fcs responsible fb c envelope expansion stovl cv suitability testing. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | additional carrier suitability testing conducted naval air warfare center aircraft division lakehurst new jersey.two nonflying aircraft variant used test static loads fatigue.testing avionics mission systems modified boeing duplication cockpit lockheed martin catbird used.field testing fs sensors conducted exercise northern edge serving significant riskreduction steps.flight tests revealed several serious deficiencies required costly redesigns caused delays resulted several fleetwide groundings.fc failed catch arresting wire eight landing tests redesigned tail hook delivered two years later. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | june many initial flight test targets accomplished program behind schedule.software mission systems among biggest sources delays program sensor fusion proving especially challenging.fatigue testing fb suffered several premature cracks requiring redesign structure.third nonflying fb currently planned test redesigned structure.fb c also problems horizontal tails suffering heat damage prolonged afterburner use. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | early flight control laws problems wing drop also made airplane sluggish high anglesofattack tests f showing lack energy.atsea testing fb first conducted aboard uss wasp.october two fbs conducted three weeks initial sea trials called development test i. second fb sea trials development test ii began august tests including nighttime operations two aircraft completed nighttime vertical landings using das imagery.first operational testing involving six fbs done wasp may .final development test iii uss america involving operations high sea states completed late .royal navy f conducted first rolling landing board hms queen elizabeth october .after redesigned tail hook arrived fcs carrierbased development test began november aboard uss nimitz focused basic day carrier operations establishing launch recovery handling procedures. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | development test ii focused night operations weapons loading full power launches took place october .final development test iii completed august included tests asymmetric loads certifying systems landing qualifications interoperability.operational test fc began .the fs reliability availability fallen short requirements especially early years testing.alis maintenance logistics system plagued excessive connectivity requirements faulty diagnoses.late gao reported time needed repair f part averaged days twice programs objective shortage spare parts degrading readiness. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | individual f units achieved missioncapable rates target short periods deployed operations fleetwide rates remained target.fleet availability goal also met although trend shows improvement.gun accuracy fa remains unacceptable.number programs serious issues decreased half.operational test evaluation ote block f final configuration sdd began december .united states fa fb cleared basic flight training early . |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | however lack system maturity time led concerns safety well concerns director operational test evaluation dote electronic warfare testing budget concurrency operational test evaluation master plan.nevertheless september usaf began operational utility evaluation oue fa including logistical support maintenance personnel training pilot execution.oue flights began october completed november flights pilot completed six flights.november usmc received first fb mcas yuma although marine pilots several flight restrictions.low rate initial production lrip phase three u.s. military services jointly developed tactics procedures using flight simulators testing effectiveness discovering problems refining design. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | january training began eglin afb capacity pilots maintainers once.january raf lakenheath uk chosen first base europe station two usaf f squadrons aircraft adding th fighter wings existing fc fe squadrons.the usmc declared initial operational capability ioc fb block b configuration july operational trials.however limitations remained night operations communications software weapons carriage capabilities.usmc fbs participated first red flag exercise july sorties conducted.usaf fa block configuration achieved ioc usafs th fighter squadron hill air force base utah august . |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | usn achieved operational status fc block f february .usaf fas conducted first red flag exercise system maturity improved aircraft scored kill ratio f aggressor squadron highthreat environment.the fs operating cost higher older fighters.fiscal year fas cost per flight hour cpfh number reduced .comparison cpfh fc fc .lockheed martin hopes reduce performancebased logistics measures. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | usmc plans disperse fbs among forwarddeployed bases enhance survivability remaining close battlespace similar raf harrier deployment cold war relied use offbase locations offered short runways shelter concealment.known distributed stovl operations dso fbs would operate temporary bases allied territory within range hostile missiles move temporary locations inside enemys hour targeting cycle strategy accounts fbs short range shortest three variants mobile forward arming refueling points mfarps accommodating kc mv osprey aircraft rearm refuel jets well littoral areas sea links mobile distribution sites.mfarps based small airfields multilane roads damaged main bases fbs return reararea friendly bases ships scheduled maintenance.helicopterportable metal planking needed protect unprepared roads fbs exhaust usmc studying lighter heatresistant options.the first u.s. combat employment began july usmc fbs amphibious assault ship uss essex first combat strike september taliban target afghanistan.followed usaf deployment al dhafra air base uae april . |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | april usaf fas first used combat airstrike islamic state tunnel network northern iraq.on august fc embarked maiden deployment board uss carl vinson another aircraft making debut deployment cmv osprey.united kingdom united kingdoms royal air force royal navy operate fb known simply lightning british service replaced harrier gr retired tornado gr retired .f britains primary strike aircraft next three decades.one royal navys requirements fb shipborne rolling vertical landing srvl mode increase maximum landing weight using wing lift landing.july chief air staff air chief marshal sir stephen dalton announced no. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | dambusters squadron would rafs first operational f squadron.second operational squadron fleet air arms naval air squadron stand april later.no.reserve test evaluation squadron tes stoodup april operational evaluation unit lightning becoming first british squadron operate type.june raf received three fs order initially based eglin air force base.june fb undertook first launches skijump nas patuxent river. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | operating sea british fbs use skijumps fitted flight decks aircraft carriers hms queen elizabeth r hms prince wales r. italian navy use process.british fbs intended receive brimstone missile.july announced second ukbased raf squadron would no.squadron reformed august lightning operational conversion unit.no. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | squadron reformed april ceremony washington d.c. us becoming first raf frontline squadron operate type receiving first four fbs june flying mcas beaufort raf marham.no.squadron fs declared combat ready january .in april no.squadron deployed raf akrotiri cyprus types first overseas deployment.june first combat use raf fb reportedly undertaken armed reconnaissance flights searching islamic state targets iraq syria. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | october dambusters no.tes fs embarked hms queen elizabeth first time.no.squadron departed raf marham january first exercise red flag lightning.australia australia’s first f designated manufactured flight training provided international pilot training centre ptc luke air force base arizona. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | first two fs unveiled australian public march avalon airshow.royal australian air force accepted fa aircraft nine us operating squadron operational conversion unit raaf base williamtown.trained raaf pilots trained technicians maintenance fleet declared ready deploy operations.expected australia receive fs .israel israeli air force iaf declared f operationally capable december . |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | according kuwaiti newspaper al jarida july test mission least three iaf fs flew irans capital tehran back tel aviv.publicly unconfirmed regional leaders acted report irans supreme leader ali khamenei reportedly fired air force chief commander irans revolutionary guard corps mission.on may iaf chief amikam norkin said service employed fis two attacks two battle fronts marking first combat operation f country.norkin said flown middle east showed photos fi flying beirut daylight.july israel expanded strikes iranian missile shipments iaf fis allegedly struck iranian targets iraq twice.in november iaf announced delivery fi testbed aircraft amongst delivery four aircraft received august.example used test integrate israeliproduced weapons electronic systems future fs received. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | example testbed f delivered air force outside united states.on may eight iaf fis took part attack terrorist targets hamas rocket array including launch pits northern gaza strip part operation guardian walls.italy italys fas declared reached initial operational capability ioc november .time italy taken delivery fas one fb fas one fb stationed u.s. training remaining fas stationed amendola.norway november norway declared initial operational capability ioc fleet fas planned fas.january norways fas replaced fs nato quick reaction alert mission high north. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | netherlands december netherlands declared initial operational capability ioc fleet fas received date order fas.variants f designed three initial variants fa ctol landbased version fb stovl version capable use either land aircraft carriers fc catobar carrierbased version.since work design nationally specific versions israel canada well initial concept design work updated version fa would become fd.fa fa conventional takeoff landing ctol variant intended usaf air forces.smallest lightest version capable g highest variants.although fa currently conducts aerial refueling via boom receptacle method aircraft modified probeanddrogue refueling needed customer. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | drag chute pod installed fa royal norwegian air force first operator adopt it.fb fb short takeoff vertical landing stovl variant aircraft.similar size variant b sacrifices third variants fuel volume accommodate sdlf.variant limited g. unlike variants fb landing hook.stovlhook control instead engages conversion normal vertical flight. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | fb also perform vertical andor short takeoff landing vstol.fc fc variant designed catapultassisted takeoff arrested recovery operations aircraft carriers.compared fa fc features larger wings foldable wingtip sections larger control surfaces improved lowspeed control stronger landing gear stresses carrier arrested landings twinwheel nose gear stronger tailhook use carrier arrestor cables.larger wing area allows decreased landing speed increasing range payload.fc limited . |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | g. fi adir fi adir hebrew אדיר meaning awesome mighty one fa unique israeli modifications.us initially refused allow changes permitting israel integrate electronic warfare systems including sensors countermeasures.main computer plugandplay function addon systems proposals include external jamming pod new israeli airtoair missiles guided bombs internal weapon bays.senior iaf official said fs stealth may partly overcome within years despite year service life thus israels insistence using electronic warfare systems.israel aerospace industries iai considered twoseat f concept iai executive noted known demand two seats israel air forces. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | iai plans produce conformal fuel tanks.proposed variants fd study possible upgrade fa fielded target date usafs future operating concept.cf canadian cf proposed variant would differ fa addition drogue parachute may include fbcstyle refueling probe.revealed cf would employ boom refueling system fa.one alternative proposal would adoption fc probe refueling lower landing speed however parliamentary budget officers report cited fcs limited performance payload high price pay. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | following federal election liberal party whose campaign included pledge cancel f procurement formed new government commenced open competition replace existing cf hornet.new export variant december reported lockheed martin developing new variant unspecified foreign customer.department defense released us million funding work.operators australiaroyal australian air force – fa delivered november ordered.belgiumbelgian air component – fa planned. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | denmarkroyal danish air force – fa delivered planned.finlandfinnish air force – fa block selected via hx fighter program replace current fa hornets.fas order.israelisraeli air force – delivered september fi adir.includes one f testbed aircraft indigenous israeli weapons electronics structural upgrades designated as. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | total ordered planned.italyitalian air force – fas delivered may .fb delivered october point italy planned order fas fbs italian air force.italian navy – delivered october .fbs planned italian navy.japanjapan air selfdefense force – fas operational december total order including fbs. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | netherlandsroyal netherlands air force – fas delivered operational ordered norwayroyal norwegian air force – fas delivered operational norway based us training august th fas planned total.differ fa addition drogue parachute.polandpolish air force – fas order.option additional .south korearepublic korea air force – fa delivered january order.republic korea navy – fbs planned singaporerepublic singapore air force – four fbs ordered option order eight march . |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | united kingdomroyal air force royal navy owned raf jointly operated – fbs received uk loss one aircraft november three us used testing training.foc fighters training aircraft fasttracked total ordered total fbs planned ordered.united statesunited states air force – fas plannedunited states marine corps – fbs fcs plannedunited states navy – fcs planned order approval cancellations turkeyturkish air force – four fas delivered luke air force base training july .ordered total planned.future purchases banned u.s. contracts canceled early . |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | four fa withheld luke air force base sent turkey.accidents notable incidents june fas engine caught fire eglin afb.pilot escaped unharmed aircraft sustained estimated us million damage.accident caused flights halted july.fleet returned flight july flight envelope restrictions. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | june usaf air education training command aetc issued official report blamed failure third stage rotor engines fan module pieces cut fan case upper fuselage.pratt whitney applied extended rubin increase gap second stator third rotor integral arm seal well design alterations pretrench stator early .on september first crash occurred involving usmc fb near marine corps air station beaufort south carolina pilot ejected safely.crash attributed faulty fuel tube fs grounded october pending fleetwide inspection tubes.next day usaf usn fs returned flight status following inspection.on april jasdf fa attached misawa air base disappeared radar miles km east aomori prefecture training mission pacific ocean.pilot major akinori hosomi radioed intention abort drill disappearing. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | us japanese navies searched missing aircraft pilot finding debris water confirmed crash hosomis remains recovered june.response japan grounded fas.speculation china russia might attempt salvage japanese defense ministry announced reported activities either country.f reportedly send distress signal pilot attempt recovery maneuvers descended rapid rate.accident report attributed cause pilots spatial disorientation.on may usaf fa th fighter squadron crashed landing eglin afb. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | pilot ejected stable condition.accident attributed combination pilot error induced fatigue design issue oxygen system aircrafts complex nature distracting well malfunctioning headmounted display unresponsive flight control system.on september usmc fb crashed imperial county california colliding marine corps kc airtoair refuelling.fb pilot injured ejection kc crashlanded gear field.on november royal air force fb crashed routine operations mediterranean.pilot safely recovered hms queen elizabeth.early reports suggested covers engine blanks removed takeoff. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | wreckage including security sensitive equipment largely recovered assistance u.s. italian forces.on january south korean air force fa made belly landing systems failed except flight controls engine.pilot heard series bangs low altitude flight various systems stopped working.control tower suggested pilot eject managed land plane without deploying landing gear walking away uninjured.on january usn fc vfa suffered ramp strike landing uss carl vinson cvn lost overboard south china sea injuring seven crew members.pilot ejected safely recovered water.plans recover fighter underway. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | specifications fa data lockheed martin f specifications lockheed martin f weaponry lockheed martin f program status f program brief fy select acquisition report sar director operational test evaluationgeneral characteristicscrew length .ft .mwingspan ft mheight .ft .mwing area sq ft maspect ratio .empty weight lb kggross weight lb kgmax takeoff weight lb kgfuel capacity lb kg internalpowerplant × pratt whitney fpw afterburning turbofan lbf kn thrust dry lbf kn afterburnerperformancemaximum speed mach . |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | altituderange nmi mi kmcombat range nmi mi km internal fuel nmi mi km interdiction mission internal fuel internal air air configurationservice ceiling ft mg limits .wing loading .lbsq ft kgm gross weightthrustweight .gross weight .loaded weight internal fuelarmamentguns × mm .gaua barrel rotary cannon roundshardpoints × internal stations × external stations wings capacity pounds kg internal pounds kg external pounds kg total weapons payload provisions carry combinations ofmissiles airtoair missilesaim amraamaimx sidewinderaim asraammbda meteor block fb airtosurface missilesagmg aargmer block agm jassmspear block development integration contractedjoint airtoground missile jagmairtosurfaceantiship missilesjoint strike missile jsm integration progressantiship missilesagmc lrasm integratedbombs joint direct attack munition jdam seriespaveway series laserguided bombsagm jsowb mod nuclear bomb certifiedavionicsanapg aesa radaranaaq eo targeting system eotsanaaq distributed aperture system das missile warning systemanasq barracuda electronic warfare systemanasq cni suite includesharris corporation multifunction advanced data link madl communication systemlink data linksincgarsan iff interrogator transponderhave quickam vhf uhf uhf fm radioguard survival radioa radar altimeteran instrument landing systema tacan systeminstrument carrier landing systema jpalstadilj jvmfvmf differences variants appearances media see also related developmentlockheed martin x – concept demonstrator aircraft joint strike fighter programaircraft comparable role configuration erachengdu j – chinese fifthgeneration fighter aircrafthal amca – indian fifth generation fighter development hindustan aeronautics limitedkai kf boramae – advanced multirole fighter aircraft development south korea indonesialockheed martin f raptor – american fifthgeneration air superiority fightershenyang fc – fifthgeneration jet fighter development shenyang aircraft corporationsukhoi su – russian fifthgeneration fighter aircrafttai tfx – turkish fifth generation fighter development turkish aerospace industriessukhoi su checkmate – russian single engine fifthgeneration fighter development sukhoirelated listslist fighter aircraftlist active united states military aircraftlist megaprojects aerospace notes references bibliography hamstra jeffrey . |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | hamstra jeffrey w. ed.. f lightning ii concept cockpit.american institute aeronautics astronautics aiaa.doi... isbn .scid .keijsper gerald .lockheed f joint strike fighter. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | london pen sword aviation.isbn .lake jon.wests great hope.airforces monthly december .polmar norman .naval institute guide ships aircraft u.s. fleet. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | annapolis md naval institute press.isbn .reading borgu aldo .big deal australias future air combat capability.canberra australian strategic policy institute. |
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II | isbn .spick mike .illustrated directory fighters.london salamander.isbn .winchester jim .concept aircraft prototypes xplanes experimental aircraft. |
Elm | san diego ca thunder bay press.isbn .oclc .external links official jsf web site official jsf videosofficial f team web sitef page u.s. naval air systems command site archived march wayback machinef – royal air forcegenus first appeared miocene geological period million years ago originating central asia.trees flourished spread northern hemisphere inhabiting temperate tropicalmontane regions north america eurasia presently ranging southward middle east lebanon israel across equator far east indonesia.elms components many kinds natural forests.moreover th early th centuries many species cultivars also planted ornamental street garden park trees europe north america parts southern hemisphere notably australasia.individual elms reached great size age.however recent decades mature elms european north american origin died dutch elm disease caused microfungus dispersed bark beetles. |
Elm | response diseaseresistant cultivars developed capable restoring elm forestry landscaping.taxonomy species ulmus elm ambiguity number results difficulty delineating species owing ease hybridization development local seedsterile vegetatively propagated microspecies areas mainly ulmus field elm ulmus minor group.oliver rackham describes ulmus critical genus entire british flora adding species varieties distinction human mind rather measured degree genetic variation.eight species endemic north america three europe greatest diversity asia approximately two dozen species.the classification adopted list elm species varieties cultivars hybrids largely based established brummitt.large number synonyms accumulated last three centuries currently accepted names found list list elm synonyms accepted names.botanists study elms argue elm identification classification called pteleologists greek πτελέα elm.as part suborder urticalean rosids distant cousins cannabis hops nettles. |
Elm | description genus hermaphroditic apetalous perfect flowers windpollinated.elm leaves alternate simple single commonly doubly serrate margins usually asymmetric base acuminate apex.fruit round winddispersed samara flushed chlorophyll facilitating photosynthesis leaves emerge.samarae light british elms numbering around pound g. species tolerant wide range soils ph levels exceptions demand good drainage.elm tree grow great height often forked trunk creating vase profile. |
Elm | pests diseases dutch elm disease dutch elm disease ded devastated elms throughout europe much north america second half th century.derives name dutch first description disease cause dutch botanists bea schwarz christina johanna buisman.owing geographical isolation effective quarantine enforcement australia far remained unaffected dutch elm disease provinces alberta british columbia western canada.ded caused microfungus transmitted two species scolytus elmbark beetle act vectors.disease affects species elm native north america europe many asiatic species evolved antifungal genes resistant.fungal spores introduced wounds tree caused beetles invade xylem vascular system. |
Elm | tree responds producing tyloses effectively blocking flow roots leaves.woodland trees north america quite susceptible disease usually lack rootgrafting urban elms somewhat isolated other.france inoculation fungus three hundred clones european species failed find single variety possessed significant resistance.the first less aggressive strain disease fungus ophiostoma ulmi arrived europe asia accidentally introduced north america .steadily weakened viruses europe disappeared s. however disease much greater longlasting impact north america owing greater susceptibility american elm ulmus americana masked emergence second far virulent strain disease ophiostoma novoulmi.appeared united states sometime originally believed mutation o. ulmi. |
Elm | limited gene flow o. ulmi o. novoulmi probably responsible creation north american subspecies o. novoulmi subsp.americana.first recognized britain early believed introduced via cargo canadian rock elm destined boatbuilding industry rapidly eradicated mature elms western europe.second subspecies o. novoulmi subsp.novoulmi caused similar devastation eastern europe central asia. |
Elm | believed subspecies introduced north america like o. ulmi probably originated asia.two subspecies hybridized europe ranges overlapped.hypothesis o. novoulmi arose hybrid original o. ulmi another strain endemic himalaya ophiostoma himalulmi discredited.there sign current pandemic waning evidence susceptibility fungus disease caused dfactors naturally occurring viruslike agents severely debilitated original o. ulmi reduced sporulation.elm phloem necrosis elm phloem necrosis elm yellows disease elm trees spread leafhoppers root grafts.aggressive disease known cure occurs eastern united states southern ontario canada europe. |
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