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Libor	libor moved involved could net couple million dollars.on june barclays bank fined commodity futures trading commission united states department justice £.m financial services authority attempted manipulation libor euribor rates.united states department justice barclays officially agreed manipulation submissions affected fixed rates occasions.july marcus agius chairman barclays resigned position following interest rate rigging scandal.bob diamond chief executive officer barclays resigned july .marcus agius fill post replacement found.
Libor	jerry del missier chief operating officer barclays also resigned.del missier subsequently admitted instructed subordinates submit falsified libors british bankers association.by july breadth scandal evident became topic analysis news financial programs attempted explain importance scandal.july announced uk serious fraud office also opened criminal investigation attempted manipulation interest rates.on october republican us senators chuck grassley mark kirk announced investigating treasury secretary timothy geithner complicity rate manipulation scandal.accused geithner knowledge ratefixing inaction contributed litigation threatens clog courts multibillion dollar class action lawsuits alleging manipulated rates harmed state municipal local governments.senators said americanbased interest rate index better alternative would take steps towards creating.
Libor	aftermath early estimates rate manipulation scandal cost us states counties local governments least billion fraudulent interest payments billion state local governments already spend unwind positions exposed rate manipulation.reforms administration libor become regulated activity overseen uks financial conduct authority.furthermore knowingly deliberately making false misleading statements relation benchmarksetting made criminal offence uk law financial services act .the danish swedish canadian australian new zealand libor rates terminated.from end july five currencies seven maturities quoted every day rates reduced different libor rates – maturities ten currencies making likely rates submitted underpinned real trades.since beginning july individual submission comes banks embargoed three months reduce motivation submit false rate portray flattering picture creditworthiness.a new code conduct introduced new interim oversight committee builds outlining systems controls firms need place around libor.example bank must named person responsible libor accountable wrongdoing.banks must keep records audited regulators necessary.in early nyse euronext took administration libor british bankers association.
Libor	new administrator nyse euronext rates administration limited londonbased uk registered company regulated uks financial conduct authority.on november intercontinental exchange ice group announced successful completion acquisition nyse euronext.result acquisition nyse euronext rate administration limited renamed ice benchmark administration limited.appointment new administrator major step forward reform libor.the scandal also led european commission proposal euwide benchmark regulation may affect libor well.libor cessation alternatives available due multiple factors including libor scandal concerns rates accuracy changes banks business decision made phase libor.libor settings stop issued become unrepresentative end certain u.s. dollar settings continue provided end june .
Libor	financial conduct authority may continue publish certain synthetic rates dates loans cannot easily transitioned.according march estimate major banks spend us million transitioning away libor.january lending rate cannot used reference rate new derivatives contracts loans credit card offers.a variety replacements libor offered.cases banks allow customers choose rate track.alternatives usd libor alternative reference rates committee u.s. federal reserve board federal reserve bank new york announced creation alternative rates reference committee arrc assess viable alternatives libor.in arrc released first report possible indices could serve replacement libor.on march arrc announced committee reconstituted following groups participating.the arrc comprise following institutionsaxabank americablackrockcitigroupcme groupdeutsche bankfederal national mortgage associationfederal home loan mortgage corporationge capitalgoldman sachsgovernment finance officers associationhsbcintercontinental exchangeinternational swaps derivatives associationjp morgan chase co.lch clearnetmetlifemorgan stanleynational association corporate treasurerspacific investment management companytd bankthe federal home loan bank new yorkthe independent community bankers americathe loan syndications trading associationthe securities industry financial markets associationwells fargoworld bank groupin addition following agencies serve ex officio members arrcboard governors federal reserve systemconsumer financial protection bureaufederal deposit insurance corporationfederal housing finance agencyfederal reserve bank new yorkoffice financial researchoffice comptroller currencyu.s.commodity futures trading commissionu.s.
Libor	securities exchange commissionu.s.treasury department secured overnight financing rate june arrc announced broad treasury repo financing rate sofr recommended alternative usd libor.justification choice arrc saidsofr fully transactions based rate widest coverage treasury repo rate available published daily basis federal reserve bank new york beginning april .range coverage sofr good representation general funding conditions overnight treasury repo market.reflect economic cost lending borrowing relevant wide array market participants active markets including broker dealers money market funds asset managers insurance companies securities lenders pension funds.
Libor	ameribor ameribor benchmark interest rate created american financial exchange.ameribor reflects actual borrowing costs thousands small medium regional banks across america also useful larger banks financial institutions business banks well small middle market companies.ameribor traded billion since inception .addition afx launched ameribor futures august .u.s. dollar ice bank yield index u.s. dollar ice bank yield index index proposed intercontinental exchange benchmark administration iba january measure yields investors willing lend u.s. dollar funds large internationally active banks wholesale unsecured basis onemonth threemonth sixmonth periods.
Libor	usage intended similar libor currently used.alternatives yen libor tokyo overnight average rate tonar.see also interbank lending marketlibor scandaleuriborjibarlibidliborois spreadshiborsoniasofrted spreadtiborsiborhiborlibor market model reading carrick mollenkamp mark whitehouse study casts doubt key rate wsj analysis suggests banks may reported flawed interest data libor wall street journal thursday may p. .donald mackenzie whats number london review books september pp.–.matt taibbi everything rigged biggest pricefixing scandal ever rolling stone april nguyen lananh smialek jeanna january .libor long important number finance dies .
History of Russia	new york times.issn .references external links year libor rate moneycafe.com historical data graphthe wheatley review libor final reportfinancial times article listtraditional startdate specifically russian history establishment rus state north ruled varangians.staraya ladoga novgorod became first major cities new union immigrants scandinavia slavs finns.prince oleg novgorod seized kiev thereby uniting northern southern lands eastern slavs one authority.state adopted christianity byzantine empire beginning synthesis byzantine slavic cultures defined russian culture next millennium.kievan rus ultimately disintegrated state due mongol invasions – along resulting deaths significant numbers population.after th century moscow became political cultural center.
History of Russia	moscow become center unification russian lands.end th century moscow united northeastern northwestern russian principalities finally overthrew mongol yoke.territories grand duchy moscow became tsardom russia .tsar peter great renamed state russian empire hoping associate historical cultural achievements ancient rus – contrast policies oriented towards western europe.state extended eastern borders polish–lithuanian commonwealth pacific ocean.
History of Russia	russia became great power dominated europe victory napoleon.peasant revolts common fiercely suppressed.emperor alexander ii abolished russian serfdom peasants fared poorly revolutionary pressures grew.following decades reform efforts stolypin reforms – constitution state duma – attempted open liberalize economy political system emperor refused relinquish autocratic rule resisted sharing power.a combination economic breakdown warweariness discontent autocratic system government triggered russian revolution .overthrow monarchy initially brought office coalition liberals moderate socialists failed policies led seizure power communist bolsheviks october november new style.
History of Russia	soviet russia along soviet ukraine soviet belarus transcaucasian sfsr signed treaty creation ussr officially merging four republics form soviet union country.history russia became essentially history soviet union effectively ideologically based state roughly conterminous russian empire treaty brestlitovsk.first years government soviet unionbased oneparty rule communists bolsheviks called beginning march .approach building socialism however varied different periods soviet history mixed economy diverse society culture command economy repressions joseph stalin era era stagnation s. period soviet union one victors world war ii recovering massive surprise invasion previously secretly cooperative partner nazi germany.became superpower competing fellow new superpower united states western countries cold war.
History of Russia	ussr successful space program launching first artificial satellite first man space.by mids weaknesses soviet economic political structures becoming acute mikhail gorbachev embarked major reforms eventually led overthrow communist party breakup ussr leaving russia marking start history postsoviet russia.russian soviet federative socialist republic renamed russian federation became one several successors soviet union.russian federation postsoviet republic assume ussrs permanent membership un security council.later russia inherited soviet unions entire nuclear arsenal signing budapest memorandum.russia retained nuclear arsenal lost superpower status.
History of Russia	scrapping socialist central planning stateownership property socialist era new leaders led president vladimir putin first became president took political economic power engaged assertive foreign policy.coupled economic growth russia since regained significant global status world power.russias annexation crimean peninsula led economic sanctions imposed united states european union.putins leadership corruption russia rated worst europe russias human rights situation increasingly criticized international observers.prehistory first human settlement territory russia dates back oldowan period early lower paleolithic.
History of Russia	million years ago representatives homo erectus migrated western asia north caucasus archaeological site kermek taman peninsula.archaeological site bogatyrisinyaya balka skull elasmotherium caucasicum lived .. million years ago stone tool found..millionyearold oldowan flint tools discovered dagestan akusha region north caucasus demonstrating presence early humans territory presentday russian federation early time.fossils denisova man date years ago.dna bone fragment found denisova cave teenage girl died years ago shows hybrid neanderthal mother denisovan father.russia also home last surviving neanderthals partial skeleton neanderthal infant mezmaiskaya mezmaiskaya cave adygea showed carbondated age years.
History of Russia	russian archaeologists institute archaeology ethnology novosibirsk working site denisova cave altai mountains siberia uncovered yearold small bone fragment fifth finger juvenile hominin dna analysis revealed previously unknown species human named denisova hominin.the first trace homo sapiens large expanse russian territory dates back years central siberia ustishim man.discovery earliest evidence presence anatomically modern humans found anywhere europe reported deepest levels kostenki archaeological site near river russia dated least years ago sungir years ago.humans reached arctic russia mamontovaya kurya years ago.during prehistoric eras vast steppes southern russia home tribes nomadic pastoralists.classical antiquity pontic steppe known scythia.remnants longgone steppe cultures discovered course th century places ipatovo sintashta arkaim pazyryk.
History of Russia	antiquity later part th century bce greek merchants brought classical civilization trade emporiums tanais phanagoria.gelonus described herodotus huge europes biggest earth woodfortified grad inhabited around bc heloni budini.bosporan kingdom incorporated part roman province moesia inferior ad emperor nero.nd century ad goths migrated black sea rd th centuries ad semilegendary gothic kingdom oium existed southern russia overrun huns.rd th centuries ad bosporan kingdom hellenistic polity succeeded greek colonies also overwhelmed successive waves nomadic invasions led warlike tribes would often move europe case huns turkish avars.in second millennium bc territories kama irtysh rivers home protouralicspeaking population contacts protoindoeuropean speakers south.
History of Russia	woodland population ancestor modern ugrian inhabitants transuralia.researchers say khanty people originated south ural steppe moved northwards current location ad.a turkic people khazars ruled lower volga basin steppes caspian black seas th century.noted laws tolerance cosmopolitanism khazars main commercial link baltic muslim abbasid empire centered baghdad.important allies byzantine empire waged series successful wars arab caliphates.th century khazars embraced judaism.
History of Russia	early history early east slavs ancestors modern russians slavic tribes whose original home thought scholars wooded areas pripet marshes.early east slavs gradually settled western russia two waves one moving kiev towards presentday suzdal murom another polotsk towards novgorod rostov.from th century onwards east slavs constituted bulk population western russia slowly peacefully assimilated native finnic tribes merya muromians meshchera.kievan rus – scandinavian norsemen known vikings western europe varangians east combined piracy trade throughout northern europe.midth century began venture along waterways eastern baltic black caspian seas.according earliest russian chronicle varangian named rurik elected ruler knyaz novgorod successors moved south extended authority kiev previously dominated khazars.
History of Russia	oleg ruriks son igor igors son sviatoslav subsequently subdued local east slavic tribes kievan rule destroyed khazar khaganate launched several military expeditions byzantium persia.thus first east slavic state rus emerged th century along dnieper river valley.coordinated group princely states common interest maintaining trade along river routes kievan rus controlled trade route furs wax slaves scandinavia byzantine empire along volkhov dnieper rivers.by end th century minority norse military aristocracy merged native slavic population also absorbed greek christian influences course multiple campaigns loot tsargrad constantinople.one campaign claimed life foremost slavic druzhina leader svyatoslav renowned crushed power khazars volga.time byzantine empire experiencing major military cultural revival despite later decline culture would continuous influence development russia formative centuries.kievan rus important introduction slavic variant eastern orthodox religion dramatically deepening synthesis byzantine slavic cultures defined russian culture next thousand years.region adopted christianity official act public baptism kiev inhabitants prince vladimir followed private conversion grandmother.
History of Russia	years later first code laws russkaya pravda introduced yaroslav wise.onset kievan princes followed byzantine example kept church dependent even revenues russian church state always closely linked.by th century particularly reign yaroslav wise kievan rus displayed economy achievements architecture literature superior existed western part continent.compared languages european christendom russian language little influenced greek latin early christian writings.church slavonic used directly liturgy instead.a nomadic turkic people kipchaks also known cumans replaced earlier pechenegs dominant force south steppe regions neighbouring rus end th century founded nomadic state steppes along black sea deshtekipchak.repelling regular attacks especially kiev one days ride steppe heavy burden southern areas rus.
History of Russia	nomadic incursions caused massive influx slavs safer heavily forested regions north particularly area known zalesye.kievan rus ultimately disintegrated state infighting members princely family ruled collectively.kievs dominance waned benefit vladimirsuzdal northeast novgorod north halychvolhynia southwest.conquest mongol golden horde th century final blow.kiev destroyed.halychvolhynia would eventually absorbed polish–lithuanian commonwealth mongoldominated vladimirsuzdal independent novgorod republic two regions periphery kiev would establish basis modern russian nation.
History of Russia	mongol invasion vassalage – invading mongols accelerated fragmentation rus.disunited southern princes faced mongol raiding party kalka river soundly defeated.– mongols burnt city vladimir february major cities northeast russia routed russians sit river moved west poland hungary.conquered russian principalities.novgorod republic escaped occupation continued flourish orbit hanseatic league.the impact mongol invasion territories kievan rus uneven.
History of Russia	advanced city culture almost completely destroyed.older centers kiev vladimir never recovered devastation initial attack new cities moscow tver nizhny novgorod began compete hegemony mongoldominated russia.although russian army defeated golden horde kulikovo mongol domination russianinhabited territories along demands tribute russian princes continued .the mongols held russia volga bulgaria sway western capital sarai one largest cities medieval world.princes southern eastern russia pay tribute mongols golden horde commonly called tatars return received charters authorizing act deputies khans.general princes allowed considerable freedom rule wished russian orthodox church even experienced spiritual revival guidance metropolitan alexis sergius radonezh.the mongols left impact russians areas military tactics transportation.
History of Russia	mongol occupation russia also developed postal road network census fiscal system military organization.at time prince novgorod alexander nevsky managed repel offensive northern crusades russia west.despite becoming grand prince alexander declared vassal golden horde strength resist power.grand duchy moscow – rise moscow daniil aleksandrovich youngest son alexander nevsky founded principality moscow known muscovy english first cooperated ultimately expelled tatars russia.wellsituated central river system russia surrounded protective forests marshes moscow first vassal vladimir soon absorbed parent state.a major factor ascendancy moscow cooperation rulers mongol overlords granted title grand prince moscow made agents collecting tatar tribute russian principalities.principalitys prestige enhanced became center russian orthodox church.
History of Russia	head metropolitan fled kiev vladimir years later established permanent headquarters church moscow original title kiev metropolitan.by middle th century power mongols declining grand princes felt able openly oppose mongol yoke.battle kulikovo river mongols defeated although hardfought victory end tatar rule russia bring great fame grand prince dmitry donskoy.moscows leadership russia firmly based middle th century territory greatly expanded purchase war marriage.ivan iii great th century grand princes moscow continued consolidate russian land increase population wealth.successful practitioner process ivan iii laid foundations russian national state.
History of Russia	ivan competed powerful northwestern rival grand duchy lithuania control semiindependent upper principalities upper dnieper oka river basins.through defections princes border skirmishes long war novgorod republic ivan iii able annex novgorod tver.result grand duchy moscow tripled size rule.conflict pskov monk named filofei philotheus pskov composed letter ivan iii prophecy latters kingdom would third rome.fall constantinople death last greek orthodox christian emperor contributed new idea moscow new rome seat orthodox christianity ivans marriage byzantine princess sophia palaiologina.under ivan iii first central government bodies created russia prikaz.sudebnik adopted first set laws since th century.
History of Russia	doubleheaded eagle adopted coat arms russia symbol continuity power byzantium russia.a contemporary tudors new monarchs western europe ivan proclaimed absolute sovereignty russian princes nobles.refusing tribute tatars ivan initiated series attacks opened way complete defeat declining golden horde divided several khanates hordes.ivan successors sought protect southern boundaries domain attacks crimean tatars hordes.achieve aim sponsored construction great abatis belt granted manors nobles obliged serve military.manor system provided basis emerging cavalrybased army.in way internal consolidation accompanied outward expansion state.
History of Russia	th century rulers moscow considered entire russian territory collective property.various semiindependent princes still claimed specific territories ivan iii forced lesser princes acknowledge grand prince moscow descendants unquestioned rulers control military judicial foreign affairs.gradually russian ruler emerged powerful autocratic ruler tsar.first russian ruler officially crown tsar ivan iv.ivan iii tripled territory state ended dominance golden horde rus renovated moscow kremlin laid foundations russian state.biographer fennell concludes reign militarily glorious economically sound especially points territorial annexations centralized control local rulers.
History of Russia	however fennell leading british specialist ivan iii argues reign also period cultural depression spiritual barrenness.freedom stamped within russian lands.bigoted anticatholicism ivan brought curtain russia west.sake territorial aggrandizement deprived country fruits western learning civilization.tsardom russia – ivan iv terrible development tsars autocratic powers reached peak reign ivan iv – known ivan terrible.
History of Russia	strengthened position monarch unprecedented degree ruthlessly subordinated nobles exiling executing many slightest provocation.nevertheless ivan often seen farsighted statesman reformed russia promulgated new code laws sudebnik established first russian feudal representative body zemsky sobor curbed influence clergy introduced local selfmanagement rural regions.tsar also created first regular army russia streltsy.although long livonian war control baltic coast access sea trade ultimately proved costly failure ivan managed annex khanates kazan astrakhan siberia.conquests complicated migration aggressive nomadic hordes asia europe via volga urals.conquests russia acquired significant muslim tatar population emerged multiethnic multiconfessional state.
History of Russia	also around period mercantile stroganov family established firm foothold urals recruited russian cossacks colonise siberia.in later part reign ivan divided realm two.zone known oprichnina ivans followers carried series bloody purges feudal aristocracy suspected treachery betrayal prince kurbsky culminating massacre novgorod .combined military losses epidemics poor harvests weakened russia crimean tatars able sack central russian regions burn moscow .despite next year russians defeated crimean tatar army battle molodi.ivan abandoned oprichnina.at end ivan ivs reign polish–lithuanian swedish armies carried powerful intervention russia devastating northern northwest regions.
History of Russia	time troubles death ivans childless son feodor followed period civil wars foreign intervention known time troubles –.extremely cold summers – wrecked crops led russian famine – increased social disorganization.boris godunovs борис годунов reign ended chaos civil war combined foreign intrusion devastation many cities depopulation rural regions.country rocked internal chaos also attracted several waves interventions polish–lithuanian commonwealth.during polish–muscovite war – polish–lithuanian forces reached moscow installed impostor false dmitriy supported false dmitry ii .decisive moment came combined russianswedish army routed polish forces hetman stanisław żółkiewski battle klushino july o.s.
History of Russia	june .result battle seven boyars group russian nobles deposed tsar vasily shuysky july o.s.july recognized polish prince władysław iv vasa tsar russia september o.s.august .poles entered moscow september o.s.
History of Russia	september .moscow revolted riots brutally suppressed city set fire.the crisis provoked patriotic national uprising invasion .finally volunteer army led merchant kuzma minin prince dmitry pozharsky expelled foreign forces capital november o.s.october .the russian statehood survived time troubles rule weak corrupt tsars strength governments central bureaucracy.government functionaries continued serve regardless rulers legitimacy faction controlling throne.
History of Russia	however time troubles caused loss much territory polish–lithuanian commonwealth russopolish war well swedish empire ingrian war.accession romanovs early rule february chaos expulsion poles moscow national assembly composed representatives cities even peasants elected michael romanov young son patriarch filaret throne.romanov dynasty ruled russia .the immediate task new monarch restore peace.fortunately moscow major enemies polish–lithuanian commonwealth sweden engaged bitter conflict provided russia opportunity make peace sweden sign truce polish–lithuanian commonwealth .recovery lost territories began midth century khmelnitsky uprising – ukraine polish rule brought treaty pereyaslav russia ukrainian cossacks.treaty russia granted protection cossacks state leftbank ukraine formerly polish control.
History of Russia	triggered prolonged russopolish war ended treaty andrusovo poland accepted loss leftbank ukraine kiev smolensk.the russian conquest siberia begun end th century continued th century.end russians reached pacific ocean russian explorer semyon dezhnev discovered strait asia america.russian expansion far east faced resistance qing china.war russia china treaty nerchinsk signed delimiting territories amur region.rather risk estates civil war boyars cooperated first romanovs enabling finish work bureaucratic centralization.thus state required service old new nobility primarily military.
History of Russia	return tsars allowed boyars complete process enserfing peasants.in preceding century state gradually curtailed peasants rights move one landlord another.state fully sanctioning serfdom runaway peasants became state fugitives power landlords peasants attached land become almost complete.together state nobles placed overwhelming burden taxation peasants whose rate times greater midth century century earlier.likewise middleclass urban tradesmen craftsmen assessed taxes forbidden change residence.segments population subject military levy special taxes.riots among peasants citizens moscow time endemic included salt riot copper riot moscow uprising .
History of Russia	far greatest peasant uprising thcentury europe erupted .free settlers south russia cossacks reacted growing centralization state serfs escaped landlords joined rebels.cossack leader stenka razin led followers volga river inciting peasant uprisings replacing local governments cossack rule.tsars army finally crushed forces year later stenka captured beheaded.yet less half century later strains military expeditions produced another revolt astrakhan ultimately subdued.
History of Russia	russian empire – population much russias expansion occurred th century culminating first russian colonisation pacific midth century russopolish war – incorporated leftbank ukraine russian conquest siberia.poland divided – era much land population going russia.theth century growth came adding territory asia south siberia.peter great peter great – brought centralized autocracy russia played major role bringing country european state system.russia become largest country world stretching baltic sea pacific ocean.
History of Russia	vast majority land unoccupied travel slow.much expansion taken place th century culminating first russian settlement pacific midth century reconquest kiev pacification siberian tribes.however population million stretched across vast landscape.short growing season grain yields trailed behind west potato farming yet widespread.result great majority population workforce occupied agriculture.
History of Russia	russia remained isolated sea trade internal trade communication manufacturing seasonally dependent.peter reformed russian army created russian navy.peters first military efforts directed ottoman turks.aim establish russian foothold black sea taking town azov.attention turned north.peter still lacked secure northern seaport except archangel white sea whose harbor frozen nine months year.
History of Russia	access baltic blocked sweden whose territory enclosed three sides.peters ambitions window sea led make secret alliance polish–lithuanian commonwealth denmark sweden resulting great northern war.the war ended exhausted sweden sued peace russia.peter acquired four provinces situated south east gulf finland thus securing coveted access sea.already founded city become russias new capital saint petersburg window opened upon europe replace moscow long russias cultural center.russian intervention commonwealth marked silent sejm beginning year domination region russian empire.
History of Russia	celebration conquests peter assumed title emperor russian tsardom officially became russian empire .peter reorganized government based latest western models molding russia absolutist state.replaced old boyar duma council nobles ninemember senate effect supreme council state.countryside also divided new provinces districts.peter told senate mission collect taxes.turn tax revenues tripled course reign.administrative collegia ministries established st. petersburg replace old governmental departments.
History of Russia	peter promulgated famous table ranks.part government reform orthodox church partially incorporated countrys administrative structure effect making tool state.peter abolished patriarchate replaced collective body holy synod led lay government official.peter continued intensified predecessors requirement state service nobles.by powerful persian safavid empire south heavily declining.taking advantage peter launched russopersian war known persian expedition peter great russian histographers order first russian emperor establish russian influence caucasus caspian sea region.
History of Russia	considerable success capture many provinces cities caucasus northern mainland persia safavids forced hand territories russia.however years later territories ceded back persia led charismatic military genius nader shah part treaty resht treaty ganja russopersian alliance ottoman empire common neighbouring rivalling enemy.peter great died leaving unsettled succession russia become great power end reign.peter succeeded second wife catherine – merely figurehead powerful group high officials minor grandson peter ii – niece anna – daughter tsar ivan v. heir anna soon deposed coup elizabeth daughter peter ruled .reign russia took part seven years war.catherine great nearly years passed comparably ambitious ruler appeared russian throne.
History of Russia	catherine ii great r. – german princess married german heir russian crown.took weak positions catherine overthrew coup becoming queen regnant.catherine enthusiastically supported ideals enlightenment thus earning status enlightened despot.patronized arts science learning.contributed resurgence russian nobility began death peter great.
History of Russia	catherine promulgated charter gentry reaffirming rights freedoms russian nobility abolishing mandatory state service.seized control church lands drastically reduced size monasteries put surviving clergy tight budget.catherine spent heavily promote expansive foreign policy.extended russian political control polish–lithuanian commonwealth actions including support targowica confederation.cost campaigns plus oppressive social system required serfs spend almost time laboring land lords provoked major peasant uprising .inspired cossack named pugachev emphatic cry hang landlords rebels threatened take moscow catherine crushed rebellion.
History of Russia	like enlightened despots europe catherine made certain power formed alliance nobility.catherine successfully waged two wars decaying ottoman empire advanced russias southern boundary black sea.russia annexed crimea created black sea fleet.allying rulers austria prussia incorporated territories polish–lithuanian commonwealth century russian rule noncatholic mainly orthodox population prevailed partitions poland pushing russian frontier westward central europe.in accordance russias treaty georgians protect new invasion persian suzerains political aspirations catherine waged new war persia invaded georgia established rule year prior expelled newly established russian garrisons caucasus.in – russian troops participated antifrench coalition troops command alexander suvorov defeated french northern italy.ruling empire – russian emperors th century professed ideas enlightened absolutism.innovative tsars peter great catherine great brought western experts scientists philosophers engineers.
History of Russia	however westernization modernization affected upper classes russian society bulk population consisting peasants remained state serfdom.powerful russians resented privileged positions alien ideas.backlash especially severe napoleonic wars.produced powerful antiwestern campaign led wholesale purge western specialists russian followers universities schools government service.the midth century marked emergence higher education russia.first two major universities saint petersburg state university moscow state university opened capitals.
History of Russia	russian exploration siberia far east continued.great northern expedition laid foundation development alaska russians.end th century alaska became russian colony russian america.early th century alaska used base first russian circumnavigation.– russian sailors discovered antarctica antarctic expedition.russia continuous state financial crisis.
History of Russia	revenue rose million rubles million expenses grew rapidly reaching million .budget allocated military government economic activities administration imperial court st. petersburg.deficit required borrowing primarily amsterdam budget allocated debt payments.paper money issued pay expensive wars thus causing inflation.spending russia obtained large glorious army large complex bureaucracy splendid court rivaled paris london.
History of Russia	however government living far beyond means thcentury russia remained poor backward overwhelmingly agricultural illiterate country.alexander victory napoleon time death catherines expansionist policy made russia major european power.alexander continued policy wresting finland weakened kingdom sweden bessarabia ottomans .key advisor adam jerzy czartoryski.after russian armies liberated allied georgia persian occupation clashed persia control consolidation georgia well iranian territories comprise modernday azerbaijan dagestan.also became involved caucasian war caucasian imamate.
History of Russia	war persia concluded russian victory forcing qajar iran cede swaths territories caucasus russia drastically increased territory region.southwest russia tried expand expense ottoman empire using georgia base caucasus anatolian front.in european policy alexander switched russia back forth four times – neutral peacemaker antinapoleon ally napoleon winding napoleons enemy.joined britain war third coalition napoleon massive defeat battle austerlitz switched formed alliance napoleon treaty tilsit joined napoleons continental system.fought smallscale naval war britain –.napoleon could never agree especially poland alliance collapsed .russias economy hurt napoleons continental system cut trade britain.
History of Russia	esdaile notes implicit idea russian poland course war napoleon.schroeder says poland root cause conflict russias refusal support continental system also factor.the invasion russia catastrophe napoleon invasion troops.one major battle fought borodino casualties high indecisive napoleon unable engage defeat russian armies.tried force tsar terms capturing moscow onset winter even though lost men.instead russians retreated burning crops food supplies scorched earth policy multiplied napoleons logistic problems.
History of Russia	unprepared winter warfare – napoleons soldiers died disease cold starvation ambush peasant guerrillas.napoleons forces retreated russian troops pursued central western europe defeated napoleons army battle nations finally captured paris.total population around million people russia lost .million year soldiers rest peasants serfs.after final defeat napoleon alexander became known savior europe.presided redrawing map europe congress vienna – made king congress poland.
History of Russia	formed holy alliance austria prussia suppress revolutionary movements europe saw immoral threats legitimate christian monarchs.helped austrias klemens von metternich suppressing national liberal movements.although russian empire would play leading role behalf conservatism late retention serfdom precluded economic progress significant degree.west european economic growth accelerated industrial revolution sea trade colonialism begun second half th century russia began lag ever farther behind undermining ability field strong armies.nicholas decembrist revolt russias great power status obscured inefficiency government isolation people economic backwardness.following defeat napoleon alexander willing discuss constitutional reforms though introduced thoroughgoing changes attempted.the tsar succeeded younger brother nicholas – onset reign confronted uprising.
History of Russia	background revolt lay napoleonic wars number welleducated russian officers traveled europe course military campaigns exposure liberalism western europe encouraged seek change return autocratic russia.result decembrist revolt december work small circle liberal nobles army officers wanted install nicholas brother constitutional monarch.revolt easily crushed leading nicholas turn away liberal reforms champion reactionary doctrine orthodoxy autocracy nationality.in – russia fought another war persia.russia lost almost recently consolidated territories first year regained war highly favourable terms.treaty turkmenchay russia gained armenia nakhchivan nagornokarabakh azerbaijan iğdır.
History of Russia	– russoturkish war russia invaded northeastern anatolia occupied strategic ottoman towns erzurum gumushane posing protector saviour greek orthodox population received extensive support regions pontic greeks.brief occupation russian imperial army withdrew georgia.russia conquered persian territories major ottoman territories caucasus.in nicholas crushed november uprising poland.russian autocracy gave polish artisans gentry reason rebel assailing national core values language religion culture.resulting january uprising massive polish revolt also crushed.
History of Russia	france britain austria tried intervene crisis unable.russian patriotic press used polish uprising unify russian nation claiming russias godgiven mission save poland world.poland punished losing distinctive political judicial rights russianization imposed schools courts.russian army tsar nicholas reigned – lavished attention army.nation – million people included million men.
History of Russia	outdated equipment tactics tsar dressed like soldier surrounded officers gloried victory napoleon took pride smartness parade.cavalry horses example trained parade formations poorly battle.glitter braid masked weaknesses see.put generals charge civilian agencies regardless qualifications.army became vehicle upward social mobility noble youths nonrussian areas poland baltic finland georgia.
History of Russia	hand many miscreants petty criminals undesirables punished local officials enlisting life army.village oligarchies controlled employment conscription army local patronage blocked reforms sent unpromising peasant youth army.conscription system unpopular people practice forcing peasants house soldiers six months year.finally crimean war end reign showed world one previously realized russia militarily weak technologically backward administratively incompetent.despite ambitions toward south ottoman empire russia built railroad network direction communications poor.bureaucracy riddled graft corruption inefficiency unprepared war.
History of Russia	navy weak technologically backward army although large good parades suffered colonels pocketed mens pay poor morale even touch latest technology developed britain france.nations leaders realized reforms urgently needed.russian society first half th century st quarter th century time russian literature becomes independent striking phenomenon time laws russian literary language formed.reasons rapid development russian literature period lie intraliterary processes sociopolitical life russian society.as western europe modernized issue russia became one direction.westernizers favored imitating western europe others renounced west called return traditions past.
History of Russia	latter path championed slavophiles heaped scorn decadent west.slavophiles opponents bureaucracy preferred collectivism medieval russian mir village community individualism west.westernizers formed intellectual movement deplored backwardness russian culture looked western europe intellectual leadership.opposed slavophiles denounced west materialistic instead promoted spiritual depth russian traditionalism.forerunner movement pyotr chaadayev –.exposed cultural isolation russia perspective western europe philosophical letters .
History of Russia	cast doubt greatness russian past ridiculed orthodoxy failing provide sound spiritual basis russian mind.called russia emulate western europe especially rational logical thought progressive spirit leadership science indeed leadership path freedom.vissarion belinsky – alexander herzen – prominent westernizers.crimean war since war napoleon russia become deeply involved affairs europe part holy alliance.holy alliance formed serve policeman europe.
History of Russia	however maintain alliance required large armies.prussia austria britain france members alliance lacked large armies needed russia supply required numbers fit philosophy nicholas i. revolutions swept europe however russia quiet.tsar sent army hungary request austrian empire broke revolt preventing spread russian poland.tsar cracked signs internal unrest.russia expected exchange supplying troops policeman europe free hand dealing decaying ottoman empire—the sick man europe.russia invaded ottomancontrolled areas leading crimean war.
History of Russia	britain france came rescue ottomans.grueling war fought largely crimea high death rates disease allies won.historian orlando figes points longterm damage russia sufferedthe demilitarization black sea major blow russia longer able protect vulnerable southern coastal frontier british fleet.... destruction russian black sea fleet sevastopol naval docks humiliation.compulsory disarmament ever imposed great power previously.... allies really think dealing european power russia.regarded russia semiasiatic state....in russia crimean defeat discredited armed services highlighted need modernize countries defenses strictly military sense also building railways industrialization sound finances on....the image many russians built country – biggest richest powerful world – suddenly shattered.russias backwardness exposed....the crimean disaster exposed shortcomings every institution russia – corruption incompetence military command technological backwardness army navy inadequate roads lack railways accounted chronic problems supply poor condition illiteracy serfs made armed forces inability serf economy sustain state war industrial powers failures autocracy itself.
History of Russia	alexander ii abolition serfdom alexander ii came throne demand reform widespread.pressing problem confronting government serfdom.million serfs total population million.anticipation civil unrest could ultimately foment revolution alexander ii chose preemptively abolish serfdom emancipation reform .emancipation brought supply free labor cities stimulated industry middle class grew number influence.
History of Russia	freed peasants buy land allotted landowners state assistance.government issued special bonds landowners land lost collected special tax peasants called redemption payments rate total cost allotted land yearly.land turned peasants owned collectively mir village community divided land among peasants supervised various holdings.alexander responsible numerous reforms besides abolishing serfdom.reorganized judicial system setting elected local judges abolishing capital punishment promoting local selfgovernment zemstvo system imposing universal military service ending privileges nobility promoting universities.in foreign policy sold alaska united states fearing remote colony would fall british hands another war.modernized military command system.
History of Russia	sought peace moved away france napoleon iii fell.joined germany austria league three emperors stabilized european situation.russian empire expanded siberia caucasus made gains expense china.faced uprising poland stripped land separate constitution incorporated directly russia.counter rise revolutionary anarchistic movements sent thousands dissidents exile siberia proposing additional parliamentary reforms assassinated .in late russia ottoman empire clashed balkans.
History of Russia	russoturkish war popular among russian people supported independence fellow orthodox slavs serbs bulgarians.russias victory war allowed number balkan states gain independence romania serbia montenegro.addition bulgaria de facto also became independent years turkish rule.however war increased tension austriahungary also ambitions region.tsar disappointed results congress berlin abided agreement.during period russia expanded empire central asia conquering khanates kokand bukhara khiva well transcaspian region.
History of Russia	russias advance asia led british fears russians planned aggression british india.london worried napoleon would combine russsia one mighty campaign.london feared russia alone would step step.rudyard kipling called great game term caught on.however historians report russians never intention move india.
History of Russia	russian society second half th century movement known nihilism developed russia.term originally coined ivan turgenev novel fathers sons nihilists favoured destruction human institutions laws based assumption artificial corrupt.core russian nihilism characterized belief world lacks comprehensible meaning objective truth value.time many russian liberals dissatisfied regarded empty discussions intelligentsia.nihilists questioned old values shocked russian establishment.
History of Russia	became involved cause reform became major political forces.path facilitated previous actions decembrists revolted financial political hardship caused crimean war caused many russians lose faith political institutions.russian nihilists created manifesto «catechism revolutionary».one leader russian nihilists sergei nechaev basis dostoevskys novel demons.after nihilists failed convert aristocracy landed gentry cause reform turned peasants.campaign became known narodnk populist movement.
History of Russia	based belief common people wisdom peaceful ability lead nation.as narodnik movement gained momentum government moved extirpate it.response growing reaction government radical branch narodniks advocated practiced terrorism.one another prominent officials shot killed bombs.represented ascendancy anarchism russia powerful revolutionary force.finally several attempts alexander ii assassinated anarchists day approved proposal call representative assembly consider new reforms addition abolition serfdom designed ameliorate revolutionary demands.the end th century beginning th century known silver age russian culture.
History of Russia	silver age dominated artistic movements russian symbolism acmeism russian futurism many poetic schools flourished including mystical anarchism tendency within symbolist movement.russian avantgarde large influential wave modern art flourished russian empire soviet union approximately —although placed beginning early end late .term covers many separate art movements era painting literature music architecture.autocracy reaction alexander iii unlike father new tsar alexander iii – throughout reign staunch reactionary revived maxim orthodoxy autocracy national character.committed slavophile alexander iii believed russia could saved chaos shutting subversive influences western europe.
History of Russia	reign russia concluded union republican france contain growing power germany completed conquest central asia exacted important territorial commercial concessions china.the tsars influential adviser konstantin pobedonostsev tutor alexander iii son nicholas procurator holy synod .taught royal pupils fear freedom speech press hate democracy constitutions parliamentary system.pobedonostsev revolutionaries hunted policy russification carried throughout empire.nicholas ii new revolutionary movement alexander succeeded son nicholas ii –.industrial revolution began exert significant influence russia meanwhile creating forces would finally overthrow tsar.
History of Russia	politically opposition forces organized three competing parties liberal elements among industrial capitalists nobility wanted peaceful social reform constitutional monarchy founded constitutional democratic party kadets .followers narodnik tradition established socialistrevolutionary party esers advocating distribution land among peasants worked it.third radical group founded russian social democratic labour party rsdlp party primary exponent marxism russia.gathering support radical intellectuals urban working class advocated complete social economic political revolution.in rsdlp split two wings radical bolsheviks led vladimir lenin relatively moderate mensheviks led yuli martov.mensheviks believed russian socialism would grow gradually peacefully tsars regime succeeded democratic republic socialists would cooperate liberal bourgeois parties.
History of Russia	bolsheviks advocated formation small elite professional revolutionaries subject strong party discipline act vanguard proletariat order seize power force.at beginning th century russia continued expansion far east chinese manchuria zone russian interests.russia took active part intervention great powers china suppress boxer rebellion.war russia occupied manchuria caused clash interests japan.russojapanese war began ended extremely unfavourably russia.revolution disastrous performance russian armed forces russojapanese war major blow russian state increased potential unrest.in january incident known bloody sunday occurred father gapon led enormous crowd winter palace saint petersburg present petition tsar.
History of Russia	procession reached palace cossacks opened fire crowd killing hundreds.russian masses aroused massacre general strike declared demanding democratic republic.marked beginning russian revolution .soviets councils workers appeared cities direct revolutionary activity.in october nicholas reluctantly issued october manifesto conceded creation national duma legislature called without delay.right vote extended law go force without confirmation duma.
History of Russia	moderate groups satisfied socialists rejected concessions insufficient tried organize new strikes.end disunity among reformers tsars position strengthened time being.world war june gavrilo princip assassinated archduke franz ferdinand austrohungary.response july austrohungary issued ultimatum serbia considered russian clientstate.russia treaty obligation serbia longterm perspective russia militarily gaining germany austrohungary incentive wait.
History of Russia	russian leaders wanted avoid war.crisis support france believed supporting serbia important russias credibility goal leadership role balkans.tsar nicholas ii mobilised russian forces july defend serbia austriahungary.christopher clark states russian general mobilisation july one momentous decisions july crisis.first general mobilisations.
History of Russia	came moment german government yet even declared state impending war.germany responded mobilisation declaration war august .opening hostilities russians took offensive germany austriahungary.the large poorly equipped russian army fought tenaciously desperately times despite lack organization weak logistics.casualties enormous.campaign russian forces defeated austrohungarian forces battle galicia.
History of Russia	success russian army forced german army withdraw troops western front russian front.however shell famine led defeat russian forces poland central powers campaign led major retreat russian army.russians dealt powerful blow austrians brusilov offensive.by morale bad getting worse.many recruits sent front unarmed told pick whatever weapons could battlefield.nevertheless russian army fought tied large numbers germans austrians.
History of Russia	homefront showed occasional surge patriotism tsar entourage failed exploit military benefit.russian army neglected rally ethnic religious minorities hostile austria poles.tsar refused cooperate national legislature duma listened less experts wife thrall chief advisor holy man grigori rasputin.two million refugees fled.repeated military failures bureaucratic ineptitude soon turned large segments population government.german ottoman fleets prevented russia importing urgently needed supplies baltic black seas.by middle impact war demoralizing.
History of Russia	food fuel short supply casualties kept occurring inflation mounting.strikes increased among lowpaid factory workers peasants wanted land reforms restless.meanwhile elite distrust regime deepened reports rasputin gaining influence assassination late ended scandal restore autocracys lost prestige.russian civil war – russian revolution late february march strike occurred factory capital petrograd new name saint petersburg.february march thousands female textile workers walked factories protesting lack food calling workers join them.
History of Russia	within days nearly workers city idle street fighting broke out.tsar ordered duma disband ordered strikers return work ordered troops shoot demonstrators streets.orders triggered february revolution especially soldiers openly sided strikers.tsar aristocracy fell march nicholas ii abdicated.to fill vacuum authority duma declared provisional government headed prince lvov collectively known russian republic.meanwhile socialists petrograd organized elections among workers soldiers form soviet council workers soldiers deputies organ popular power could pressure bourgeois provisional government.in july following series crises undermined authority public head provisional government resigned succeeded alexander kerensky progressive predecessor radical enough bolsheviks many russians discontented deepening economic crisis continuation war.
History of Russia	kerenskys government marked time socialistled soviet petrograd joined soviets formed throughout country create national movement.the german government provided million gold marks subsidize bolshevik publications activities subversive tsarist government especially focusing disgruntled soldiers workers.april germany provided special sealed train carry vladimir lenin back russia exile switzerland.many behindthescenes maneuvers soviets seized control government november drove kerensky moderate provisional government exile events would become known october revolution.when national constituent assembly elected december refused become rubber stamp bolsheviks dissolved lenins troops vestiges democracy removed.handicap moderate opposition removed lenin able free regime war problem harsh treaty brestlitovsk germany.russia lost much western borderlands.
History of Russia	however germany defeated soviet government repudiated treaty.russian civil war bolshevik grip power means secure lengthy struggle broke new regime opponents included socialist revolutionaries antibolshevik white movement large numbers peasants.time allied powers sent several expeditionary armies support anticommunist forces attempt force russia rejoin world war.bolsheviks fought forces national independence movements former russian empire.defeated internal enemies brought newly independent states control exception finland baltic states moldavian democratic republic joined romania poland fought polish–soviet war.
History of Russia	finland also annexed region pechenga russian kola peninsula soviet russia allied soviet republics conceded parts territory estonia petseri county estonian ingria latvia pytalovo turkey kars.poland incorporated contested territories western belarus western ukraine former parts russian empire except galicia east curzon line.both sides regularly committed brutal atrocities civilians.civil war era white terror russia example petlyura denikins forces massacred jews ukraine southern russia.hundreds thousands jews left homeless tens thousands became victims serious illness.estimates total number people killed red terror carried bolsheviks vary widely.one source asserts total number victims repression pacification campaigns could .
History of Russia	million whereas others give estimates ranging initial period repression estimate executions per year december february .reliable estimations total number killings put number whereas others suggest figure .the russian economy devastated war factories bridges destroyed cattle raw materials pillaged mines flooded machines damaged.droughts well famine worsened disaster still further.disease reached pandemic proportions dying typhus alone .millions also died widespread starvation.
History of Russia	least street children russia result nearly ten years devastation great war civil war.another one two million people known white émigrés fled russia many evacuated crimea far east others west newly independent baltic countries.émigrés included large percentage educated skilled population russia.soviet union – creation soviet union history russia essentially history union soviet socialist republics soviet union.ideologically based union established december leaders russian communist party roughly coterminous russia treaty brestlitovsk.
History of Russia	time new nation included four constituent republics russian sfsr ukrainian ssr belarusian ssr transcaucasian sfsr.the constitution adopted established federal system government based succession soviets set villages factories cities larger regions.pyramid soviets constituent republic culminated allunion congress soviets.however appeared congress exercised sovereign power body actually governed communist party turn controlled politburo moscow capital soviet union tsars peter great.war communism new economic policy period consolidation bolshevik revolution known period war communism.land industry small businesses nationalized money economy restricted.
History of Russia	strong opposition soon developed.peasants wanted cash payments products resented surrender surplus grain government part civil war policies.confronted peasant opposition lenin began strategic retreat war communism known new economic policy nep.peasants freed wholesale levies grain allowed sell surplus produce open market.commerce stimulated permitting private retail trading.
History of Russia	state continued responsible banking transportation heavy industry public utilities.although left opposition among communists criticized rich peasants kulaks benefited nep program proved highly beneficial economy revived.nep would later come increasing opposition within party following lenins death early .changes russian society russian empire included period region russia also todays territories ukraine belarus poland lithuania estonia latvia moldavia caucasian central asian countries possible examine firm formation process regions.one main determinants firm creation given regions russian empire might urban demand goods supply industrial organizational skill.while russian economy transformed social life people underwent equally drastic changes.family code granted women equal status men permitted couple take either husband wifes name.
History of Russia	divorce longer required court procedureand make women completely free responsibilities childbearing abortion made legal early .side effect emancipation women increased labor market.girls encouraged secure education pursue career factory office.communal nurseries set care small children efforts made shift center peoples social life home educational recreational groups soviet clubs.the soviet government pursued policy eliminating illiteracy likbez.industrialization massive urbanization began ussr.
History of Russia	field national policy korenizatsiya carried out.however mids stalinist government returned tsarist policy russification outskirts.particular languages nations ussr translated cyrillic alphabet cyrillization.industrialization collectivization years comprised tumultuous decade soviet history—a period massive industrialization internal struggles joseph stalin established near total control soviet society wielding virtually unrestrained power.following lenins death stalin wrestled gain control soviet union rival factions politburo especially leon trotskys.
History of Russia	trotskyists either exiled rendered powerless stalin ready put radical programme industrialisation action.in stalin proposed first fiveyear plan.abolishing nep first number plans aimed swift accumulation capital resources buildup heavy industry collectivization agriculture restricted manufacture consumer goods.first time history government controlled economic activity.rapid growth production capacity volume production heavy industry times great importance ensuring economic independence western countries strengthening countrys defense capability.time soviet union made transition agrarian country industrial one.as part plan government took control agriculture state collective farms kolkhozes.
History of Russia	decree february one million individual peasants kulaks forced land.many peasants strongly opposed regimentation state often slaughtering herds faced loss land.sections revolted countless peasants deemed kulaks authorities executed.combination bad weather deficiencies hastily established collective farms massive confiscation grain precipitated serious famine several million peasants died starvation mostly ukraine kazakhstan parts southwestern russia.deteriorating conditions countryside drove millions desperate peasants rapidly growing cities fueling industrialization vastly increasing russias urban population space years.the plans received remarkable results areas aside agriculture.
History of Russia	russia many measures poorest nation europe time bolshevik revolution industrialized phenomenal rate far surpassing germanys pace industrialization th century japans earlier th century.stalinist repression nkvd gathered tens thousands soviet citizens face arrest deportation execution.six original members politburo survived lenin purged stalin.old bolsheviks loyal comrades lenin high officers red army directors industry liquidated great purges.purges soviet republics also helped centralize control ussr.stalin destroyed opposition party consisting old bolsheviks moscow trials.

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