title stringlengths 1 105 | content stringlengths 5 58.1k |
|---|---|
History of Russia | nkvd leadership stalins commissar nikolai yezhov carried series massive repressive operations kulaks various national minorities ussr.great purges – people executed.penalties introduced many citizens prosecuted fictitious crimes sabotage espionage.labor provided convicts working labor camps gulag system became important component industrialization effort especially siberia.estimated million people passed gulag system perhaps another million experience form forced labor.after partition poland nkvd executed captured polish officers katyn massacre.late first half stalinist government carried massive deportations various nationalities. |
History of Russia | number ethnic groups deported settlement central asia.soviet union international stage soviet union viewed accession fervently anticommunist hitlers government power germany great alarm onset especially since hitler proclaimed drang nach osten one major objectives vision german strategy lebensraum.soviets supported republicans spain struggled fascist german italian troops spanish civil war.– immediately prior wwii soviet union successfully fought imperial japan soviet–japanese border conflicts russian far east led sovietjapanese neutrality tense border peace lasted august .in germany annexed austria together major western european powers signed munich agreement following germany hungary poland divided parts czechoslovakia themselves.german plans eastward expansion well lack resolve western powers oppose became apparent. |
History of Russia | despite soviet union strongly opposing munich deal repeatedly reaffirming readiness militarily back commitments given earlier czechoslovakia western betrayal led end czechoslovakia increased fears soviet union coming german attack.led soviet union rush modernization military industry carry diplomatic maneuvers.soviet union signed molotov–ribbentrop pact nonaggression pact nazi germany dividing eastern europe two separate spheres influence.following pact ussr normalized relations nazi germany resumed soviet–german trade.world war ii september sixteen days start world war ii victorious germans advanced deep polish territory red army invaded eastern poland stating justification need protect ukrainians belarusians cessation existence polish state. |
History of Russia | result belarusian ukrainian soviet republics western borders moved westward new soviet western border drawn close original curzon line.meantime negotiations finland sovietproposed land swap would redraw sovietfinnish border away leningrad failed december ussr invaded finland beginning campaign known winter war –.war took heavy death toll red army forced finland sign moscow peace treaty cede karelian isthmus ladoga karelia.summer ussr issued ultimatum romania forcing cede territories bessarabia northern bukovina.time soviet union also occupied three formerly independent baltic states estonia latvia lithuania.the peace germany tense sides preparing military conflict abruptly ended axis forces led germany swept across soviet border june . |
History of Russia | autumn german army seized ukraine laid siege leningrad threatened capture capital moscow itself.despite fact december red army threw german forces moscow successful counterattack germans retained strategic initiative approximately another year held deep offensive southeastern direction reaching volga caucasus.however two major german defeats stalingrad kursk proved decisive reversed course entire world war germans never regained strength sustain offensive operations soviet union recaptured initiative rest conflict.end red army broken german siege leningrad liberated much ukraine much western russia moved belarus.campaign red army defeated german forces series offensive campaigns known stalins ten blows. |
History of Russia | end front moved beyond soviet frontiers eastern europe.soviet forces drove eastern germany capturing berlin may .war germany thus ended triumphantly soviet union.as agreed yalta conference three months victory day europe ussr launched soviet invasion manchuria defeating japanese troops neighboring manchuria last soviet battle world war ii.although soviet union victorious world war ii war resulted around – million soviet deaths estimates vary devastated soviet economy struggle.towns settlements destroyed.occupied territories suffered ravages german occupation deportations slave labor germany. |
History of Russia | thirteen million soviet citizens became victims repressive policies germany allies occupied territories people died mass murders famine absence elementary medical aid slave labor.nazi genocide jews carried german einsatzgruppen along local collaborators resulted almost complete annihilation jewish population entire territory temporarily occupied germany allies.occupation leningrad region lost around quarter population soviet belarus lost quarter third population .million soviet prisoners war .million died german camps. |
History of Russia | cold war collaboration among major allies war supposed serve basis postwar reconstruction security.ussr became one founders un permanent member un security council.however conflict soviet u.s. national interests known cold war came dominate international stage postwar period.the cold war emerged conflict stalin u.s. president harry truman future eastern europe potsdam conference summer .russia suffered three devastating western onslaughts previous years napoleonic wars first world war second world war stalins goal establish buffer zone states germany soviet union.truman charged stalin betrayed yalta agreement. |
History of Russia | eastern europe red army occupation stalin also biding time atomic bomb project steadily secretly progressing.in april united states sponsored north atlantic treaty organization nato mutual defense pact western nations pledged treat armed attack one nation assault all.soviet union established eastern counterpart nato dubbed warsaw pact.division europe western soviet blocks later took global character especially u.s. nuclear monopoly ended testing soviet bomb communist takeover china.the foremost objectives soviet foreign policy maintenance enhancement national security maintenance hegemony eastern europe.soviet union maintained dominance warsaw pact crushing hungarian revolution suppressing prague spring czechoslovakia supporting suppression solidarity movement poland early s. soviet union opposed united states number proxy conflicts world including korean war vietnam war.as soviet union continued maintain tight control sphere influence eastern europe cold war gave way détente complicated pattern international relations world longer clearly split two clearly opposed blocs.nuclear race continued number nuclear weapons hands ussr united states reached menacing scale giving ability destroy planet multiple times. |
History of Russia | less powerful countries room assert independence two superpowers partially able recognize common interest trying check spread proliferation nuclear weapons treaties salt salt ii antiballistic missile treaty.u.s.–soviet relations deteriorated following beginning nineyear soviet–afghan war election ronald reagan staunch anticommunist improved communist bloc started unravel late s. collapse soviet union russia lost superpower status second world war.destalinization era stagnation nikita khrushchev solidified position speech twentieth congress communist party detailing stalins atrocities.in khrushchev impeached communist partys central committee charging host errors included soviet setbacks cuban missile crisis.period collective leadership led leonid brezhnev alexei kosygin nikolai podgorny veteran bureaucrat brezhnev took khrushchevs place soviet leader.brezhnev emphasized heavy industry instituted soviet economic reform also attempted ease relationships united states.ussr became leading producer exporter petroleum natural gas. |
History of Russia | soviet science industry peaked khrushchev brezhnev years.worlds first nuclear power plant established obninsk baikal amur mainline built.addition moscow hosted summer olympic games.while modernized economies rapidly moving computerization ussr fell behind.moscows decision copy ibm proved decisive mistake locked scientists antiquated system unable improve.enormous difficulties manufacturing necessary chips reliably quantity programming workable efficient programs coordinating entirely separate operations providing support computer users.one greatest strengths soviet economy vast supplies oil gas world oil prices quadrupled – rose – making energy sector chief driver soviet economy used cover multiple weaknesses. |
History of Russia | one point soviet premier alexei kosygin told head oil gas production things bad bread.give million tons oil plan.former prime minister yegor gaidar economist looking back three decades wrotethe hard currency oil exports stopped growing food supply crisis increased import equipment consumer goods ensured financial base arms race achievement nuclear parity united states permitted realization risky foreignpolicy actions war afghanistan.soviet space program soviet space program founded sergey korolev especially successful.october soviet union launched first satellite sputnik. |
History of Russia | april yuri gagarin became first human travel space soviet spaceship vostok .achievements russian space program include first photo far side moon exploration venus first spacewalk alexei leonov first female spaceflight valentina tereshkova.worlds first planetary rovers sent moon successfully worked lunokhod lunokhod .recently soviet union produced worlds first space station salyut replaced mir first consistently inhabited longterm space station served .perestroika breakup union two developments dominated decade followed increasingly apparent crumbling soviet unions economic political structures patchwork attempts reforms reverse process. |
History of Russia | rapid succession former kgb chief yuri andropov konstantin chernenko transitional figures deep roots brezhnevite tradition mikhail gorbachev implemented perestroika attempt modernize soviet communism made significant changes party leadership.however gorbachevs social reforms led unintended consequences.policy glasnost facilitated public access information decades government repression social problems received wider public attention undermining communist partys authority.glasnost allowed ethnic nationalist disaffection reach surface many constituent republics especially baltic republics georgian ssr moldavian ssr sought greater autonomy moscow unwilling provide.revolutions ussr lost allies eastern europe. |
History of Russia | gorbachevs attempts economic reform sufficient soviet government left intact fundamental elements communist economy.suffering low pricing petroleum natural gas ongoing war afghanistan outdated industry pervasive corruption soviet planned economy proved ineffective soviet government lost control economic conditions.due price control shortages almost products reaching peak end people stand long lines lucky buy even essentials.control constituent republics also relaxed began assert national sovereignty moscow.the tension soviet union russian sfsr authorities came personified bitter power struggle gorbachev boris yeltsin.squeezed union politics gorbachev yeltsin represented committed democrat presented significant opposition gorbachevs authority. |
History of Russia | remarkable reversal fortunes gained election chairman russian republics new supreme soviet may .following month secured legislation giving russian laws priority soviet laws withholding twothirds budget.first russian presidential election yeltsin became president russian sfsr.at last gorbachev attempted restructure soviet union less centralized state.however august coup gorbachev conspired senior soviet officials attempted.coup faced wide popular opposition collapsed three days disintegration union became imminent. |
History of Russia | russian government took soviet union government institutions territory.dominant position russians soviet union gave little thought distinction russia soviet union late s. soviet union russian sfsr lacked even paltry instruments statehood republics possessed republiclevel communist party branch trade union councils academy sciences like.communist party soviet union banned russia – although lustration ever taken place many members became top russian officials.however soviet government still opposed market reforms economic situation continued deteriorate.december shortages resulted introduction food rationing moscow saint petersburg first time since world war ii. |
History of Russia | russia received humanitarian food aid abroad.belavezha accords supreme soviet russia withdrew russia soviet union december.soviet union officially ended december russian federation formerly russian soviet federative socialist republic took power december.russian government lifted price control january .prices rose dramatically shortages disappeared. |
History of Russia | russian federation –present liberal reforms although yeltsin came power wave optimism never recovered popularity endorsing yegor gaidars shock therapy ending sovietera price controls drastic cuts state spending open foreign trade regime early see russian economic reform s. reforms immediately devastated living standards much population.russia suffered economic downturn ways severe united states germany undergone six decades earlier great depression.hyperinflation hit ruble due monetary overhang days planned economy.meanwhile profusion small parties aversion coherent alliances left legislature chaotic.yeltsins rift parliamentary leadership led september–october constitutional crisis.crisis climaxed october yeltsin chose radical solution settle dispute parliament called tanks shell russian white house blasting opponents. |
History of Russia | yeltsin taking unconstitutional step dissolving legislature russia came close serious civil conflict.yeltsin free impose current russian constitution strong presidential powers approved referendum december .cohesion russian federation also threatened republic chechnya attempted break away leading first second chechen wars.economic reforms also consolidated semicriminal oligarchy roots old soviet system.advised western governments world bank international monetary fund russia embarked largest fastest privatization world ever seen order reform fully nationalized soviet economy.middecade retail trade services small industry private hands. |
History of Russia | big enterprises acquired old managers engendering new rich russian tycoons league criminal mafias western investors.corporate raiders andrei volgin engaged hostile takeovers corrupt corporations mids.by mids russia system multiparty electoral politics.harder establish representative government two structural problems—the struggle president parliament anarchic party system.meanwhile central government lost control localities bureaucracy economic fiefdoms tax revenues collapsed.still deep depression russias economy hit financial crash .crisis yeltsin end political career. |
History of Russia | hours first day yeltsin made surprise announcement resignation leaving government hands littleknown prime minister vladimir putin former kgb official head fsb kgbs postsoviet successor agency.era putin new acting president defeated opponents presidential election march landslide four years later.second chechen war ended victory russia time september terrorist attacks rapprochement russia united states.putin created system guided democracy russia subjugating parliament suppressing independent media placing major oil gas companies state control.international observers alarmed moves late tighten presidencys control parliament civil society regional officeholders.dmitri medvedev former gazprom chairman putins head staff elected new president russia. |
History of Russia | putin medvedev switched places putin became president prompting massive protests moscow –.russias longterm problems include shrinking workforce rampant corruption underinvestment infrastructure.nevertheless reversion socialist command economy seemed almost impossible.economic problems aggravated massive capital outflows well extremely difficult conditions business due pressure security forces siloviki government agencies.due high oil prices russias gdp ppp doubled.although high oil prices relatively cheap ruble initially drove growth since consumer demand recently investment played significant role.russia well ahead resourcerich countries economic development long tradition education science industry. |
History of Russia | economic recovery allowed russia obtain right host winter olympic games sochi.in following controversial referendum separation favored large majority voters russian leadership announced accession crimea russian federation.following russias annexation crimea alleged russian interference war eastern ukraine western sanctions imposed russia.since russia conducting military intervention syria support bashar alassad regime isis syrian opposition.in fifa world cup held russia.vladimir putin reelected fourth presidential term.historiography historians see also references reading atlases geography blinnikov mikhail s. geography russia neighbors guilford press barnes ian.restless empire historical atlas russia copies historic mapscatchpole brian. |
History of Russia | map history russia heinemann educational publishers new topical maps.channon john robert hudson.penguin historical atlas russia viking new topical maps.chew allen f. atlas russian history eleven centuries changing borders yale new topical maps.gilbert martin.routledge atlas russian history th ed.excerpt text search onlinehenry laura a. red green environmental activism postsoviet russia kaiser robert j. geography nationalism russia ussr .medvedev andrei.economic geography russian federation parker william henry. |
History of Russia | historical geography russia university london press shaw denis j.b. russia modern world new geography blackwell finland.historiography baron samuel h. nancy w. heer.soviet union historiography since stalin.georg g. iggers harold talbot parker eds.international handbook historical studies contemporary research theory taylor francis . |
History of Russia | pp.–.boyd kelly ed..encyclopedia historians historical writing vol .taylor francis. |
History of Russia | pp.–.isbn .confino michael .new russian historiography old—some considerations.history memory. |
History of Russia | –.doi.his..... jstor .his..... scid – via muse.cox terry .new history russian peasantry.journal agrarian change.–. |
History of Russia | doi...davidfox michael et al.eds.fall essays russian soviet historiography bloomington slavica publishers dmytryshyn basil .russian expansion pacific – historiographical review pdf.slavic studies. |
History of Russia | –.firestone thomas.four sovietologists primer.national interest no.winter – pp.– ideas zbigniew brzezinski stephen f. cohen jerry f. hough richard pipes.fitzpatrick sheila. |
History of Russia | revisionism soviet history history theory pp.– online covers scholarship three major schools totalitarianism revisionism postrevisionism.martin russell e .petrine divide periodization early modern russian history.slavic review.–. |
History of Russia | doi.s.jstor .scid .orlovsky daniel .new soviet history.journal modern history. |
History of Russia | –.doi.. jstor .scid .sanders thomas ed.historiography imperial russia profession writing history multinational state .suny ronald grigor.rehabilitating tsarism imperial russian state historians. |
History of Russia | review article comparative studies society history pp.– onlinetopolski jerzy.soviet studies social history georg g. iggers harold talbot parker eds.international handbook historical studies contemporary research theory taylor francis .pp. |
History of Russia | –.winkler martina .rulers ruled –.kritika explorations russian eurasian history.–.doi.kri... scid . |
History of Russia | primary sources kaiser daniel h. gary marker eds.reinterpreting russian history readings pages excerpt text search primary documents excerpts historiansvernadsky george et al.eds.source book russian history early times vol seventeen moments soviet history online archive primary source materials soviet history.external links guides sources russian history historiographyhistory russia primary documentsдневник истории россии historic project supported ministry culture russian federation. |
Material passport | consist set data describing defined characteristics materials products give value recovery recycling reuse.the core idea behind concept material passport contribute circular economy materials recovered recycled andor reused open traded material market.concept material passport’ currently developed multiple parties mainly european countries.possible secondhand material market materialbank could become reality future.similar concepts developed several parties.names material passport arecircularity passport cradletocradle passport product passport material passport needed according united nations estimates construction accounts percent raw material consumption europe percent waste assuming earth closed system situation objectively untenable.urgent need go raw materials intelligent way. |
Material passport | shift building sector would greatly benefit situation towards needing less material using material effectively e.g.ensuring much longer useful life cycle.proponents material passport argue step towards direction.the material passport gives material identity.acknowledging exists given form specific building ensures material receives keeps value e.g.possible reuse deconstruction example building.like personal passport material passport allows material ‘travel’ identifies useful future destination served building.could another building another product altogether.by recognizing individual materials buildings new ownership structures could facilitated would enable functions offered service. |
Material passport | lighting service could functions shelter elements service instead owning roof.in general material passports create incentives suppliers produce developers managers renovators choose healthy sustainable circular materialsbuilding products.fit broader growing movement aims developing circular building business models.applicability material passport applied every product construction.different levels productconstruct discomposedproduct levelcomponent levelmaterial levelfor building material passport could complete description products staircase window furnace ... components iron beam glass panel ... raw materials wood steel ...that present building.ideally database created construction subsequently continuously kept date. |
Material passport | case existing building yet material passport created various methods e.g.plan analysis digital scanning.a material passport allows owner productconstruct know exactly made of.importance end useful life enable effective reuse materials.allows owner view productconstruct depot inventory valuable materials.furthermore process creating material passport also shapes design building.easier materials extracted reused better. |
Material passport | lead increase ‘recoverable’ ‘reversible’ buildings buildings disassembled easily assembled.another possibility material passport enables owner get better overview value productconstruct.besides value location space also improve valuation materials used.higher accurate valuation productconstruct made possible.advantages disadvantages advantages material passport one anticipate deconstruction properties ensure highest possible usefulness materials used vacated premises.another way conscious footprint limiting negative impact environment.a granular understanding construction building might enable novel forms financing support suppliers provide service rather sell product.by reviewing buildings valued new financing products financing policies e.g. |
Material passport | higher collateral value developed better reflect financial value buildings.the recovery collateral case default might improve sale parts instead building whole.disadvantages passport needs kept date maintained throughout buildings life.known yet work intensive remain relevant changes building happened passport created need logged.potentially value work apparent end useful life building might several decades away.the market second hand materials still infancy currently able support optimal reuse materials building.also much standardization least level components needed increase reuse materials building.there standardization material passports yet. |
Material passport | passports might therefore prove limited usefulness ultimately needed due evolving requirements require additional investments life building keep market standard.legislation needs put place support sustainable building enable development services instead ownership ... support broad deployment material passports.the infrastructure mainly support material passports still needs created.the first scientific publication material passport written maayke damen called resources passport circular economy.provides comprehensive overview advantages disadvantages material passport every actor supply chain.includes outline content material passport.projects nl turntoo consultancy firm established thomas rau offers services concepts optimising continuity life earth.development material passports product one them. |
Material passport | thomas raus system called madaster.cofa nederland initiative fbbasic a. van liempd demolition contractors develop circular way demolition reuse materials.concept house village rdm eu bamb buildings material banks eu funded project bringing together european parties universities building companies consultants policy makers.partners brussels environment epea nederland vrije universiteit brussel bre zuyd hogeschool ibm sundahus ronneby kommun technical university munich universiteit twente universidade minho sarajevo green design foundation drees sommer vito bam construct uk aurubis.epea also partner bamb internationally active scientific research consultancy institute works actors companies economy politics science support introduction circular processes using cradletocradle design approach.maersk line seavessels worlds largest container shipping company.focus vessel recycling reuse.actnow businessdriven nonprofit partnership consisting businesses ngos municipalities.act nows agenda focuses enhancing implementation existing energyefficient solutions products now.see also digital product passport external links bamb material passports references |
French Third Republic | harsh reparations exacted prussians war resulted loss french regions alsace keeping territoire de belfort lorraine northeastern part i.e.presentday department moselle social upheaval establishment paris commune.early governments third republic considered reestablishing monarchy disagreement nature monarchy rightful occupant throne could resolved.consequently third republic originally envisioned provisional government instead became permanent form government france.the french constitutional laws defined composition third republic.consisted chamber deputies senate form legislative branch government president serve head state. |
French Third Republic | calls reestablishment monarchy dominated tenures first two presidents adolphe thiers patrice de macmahon growing support republican form government among french populace series republican presidents gradually quashed prospects monarchical restoration.the third republic established many french colonial possessions including french indochina french madagascar french polynesia large territories west africa scramble africa acquired last two decades th century.early years th century dominated democratic republican alliance originally conceived centreleft political alliance time became main centreright party.period start world war late featured sharply polarized politics democratic republican alliance radicals.government fell less year outbreak world war ii nazi forces occupied much france replaced rival governments charles de gaulles free france la france libre philippe pétains french state létat français.during th th centuries french colonial empire second largest colonial empire world behind british empire extended km sq mi land height s. terms population however eve world war ii france colonial possessions totaled million inhabitants compared million british india alone.adolphe thiers called republicanism form government divides france least however politics third republic sharply polarized.left stood reformist france heir french revolution. |
French Third Republic | right stood conservative france rooted peasantry roman catholic church army.spite frances sharply divided electorate persistent attempts overthrow third republic endured seventy years makes longest lasting system government france since collapse ancien régime current fifth republic would overtake record august .politics francoprussian war – resulted defeat france overthrow emperor napoleon iii second french empire.napoleons capture prussians battle sedan september parisian deputies led léon gambetta established government national defence provisional government september .deputies selected general louisjules trochu serve president. |
French Third Republic | first government third republic ruled siege paris september – january .paris cut rest unoccupied france minister war léon gambetta succeeded leaving paris hot air balloon established headquarters provisional republican government city tours loire river.after french surrender january provisional government national defence disbanded national elections called aim creating new french government.french territories occupied prussia time participate.resulting conservative national assembly elected adolphe thiers head provisional government nominally head executive branch republic pending decision institutions france.due revolutionary leftwing political climate prevailed parisian population rightwing government chose royal palace versailles headquarters.the new government negotiated peace settlement newly proclaimed german empire treaty frankfurt signed may . |
French Third Republic | prompt prussians leave france government passed variety financial laws controversial law maturities pay reparations.paris resentment government built late march – may paris workers national guards revolted established paris commune maintained radical leftwing regime two months bloody suppression thiers government may .following repression communards would disastrous consequences labour movement.parliamentary monarchy french legislative election held aftermath collapse regime napoleon iii resulted monarchist majority french national assembly favourable making peace agreement prussia.legitimists national assembly supported candidacy descendant king charles x last monarch senior line bourbon dynasty assume french throne grandson henri comte de chambord alias henry v. orléanists supported descendant king louis philippe replaced cousin charles x french monarch grandson louisphilippe comte de paris. |
French Third Republic | bonapartists marginalized due defeat napoléon iii unable advance candidacy member family bonaparte family.legitimists orléanists came compromise eventually whereby childless comte de chambord would recognised king comte de paris recognised heir expected line succession comte de chambord frances traditional rule agnatic primogeniture renunciation spanish bourbons peace utrecht recognised.consequently throne offered comte de chambord.chambord believed restored monarchy eliminate traces revolution including famously tricolour flag order restore unity monarchy nation revolution sundered.compromise impossible chambord believed nation made whole again.general population however unwilling abandon tricolour flag. |
French Third Republic | monarchists therefore resigned wait death ageing childless chambord throne could offered liberal heir comte de paris.temporary republican government therefore established.chambord lived time enthusiasm monarchy faded result comte de paris never offered french throne.ordre moral government following french surrender prussia january concluding francoprussian war transitional government national defence established new seat government versailles due encirclement paris prussian forces.new representatives elected february year constituting government would come evolve third republic. |
French Third Republic | representatives – predominantly conservative republicans – enacted series legislation prompted resistance outcry radical leftist elements republican movement.paris series public altercations broke versaillesaligned parisian government citys radical socialists.radicals ultimately rejected authority versailles responding foundation paris commune march.the principles underpinning commune viewed morally degenerate french conservatives large government versailles sought maintain tenuous postwar stability established.may regular french armed forces command patrice de macmahon versailles government marched paris succeeded dismantling commune would become known bloody week.term ordre moral moral order subsequently came applied budding third republic due perceived restoration conservative policies values following suppression commune.de macmahon popularity bolstered response commune later elected president republic may would hold office january . |
French Third Republic | staunch catholic conservative legitimist sympathies noted mistrust secularists de macmahon grew increasingly odds french parliament liberal secular republicans gained legislative majority presidency.in february series parliamentary acts established constitutional laws new republic.head president republic.twochamber parliament consisting directlyelected chamber deputies indirectlyelected senate created along ministry president council prime minister nominally answerable president republic legislature.throughout issue whether monarchy replace oversee republic dominated public debate.the elections demonstrated high degree public support increasingly antimonarchist direction republican movement.decisive republican majority elected chamber deputies monarchist majority senate maintained one seat. |
French Third Republic | president de macmahon responded may attempting quell republicans rising popularity limit political influence series actions would become known france le seize mai.on may de macmahon forced resignation moderate republican prime minister jules simon appointed orléanist albert de broglie office.chamber deputies expressed outrage appointment believing transition authority illegitimate refusing cooperate either de macmahon de broglie de macmahon dissolved chamber called new general election held following october.de macmahon subsequently accused republicans republican sympathizers attempting stage constitutional coup détat claim publicly denied.the october elections brought republican majority chamber deputies affirming public opinion.republicans would go gain majority senate january establishing dominance houses effectively ending potential monarchist restoration.de macmahon resigned january succeeded moderate jules grévy. |
French Third Republic | opportunist republicans following may crisis legitimists pushed power republic finally governed republicans referred opportunist republicans support moderate social political changes order establish new regime firmly.jules ferry laws made public education free mandatory secular laїque voted one first signs expanding civic powers republic.time onward public education longer exclusive control catholic congregations.to discourage french monarchism serious political force french crown jewels broken sold .crowns precious gems replaced coloured glass kept.boulanger crisis republic rocked sudden political crisis precipitated general georges boulanger. |
French Third Republic | enormously popular general series elections would resign seat chamber deputies run another district.apogee popularity january posed threat coup détat establishment dictatorship.base support working districts paris cities plus rural traditionalist catholics royalists promoted aggressive nationalism aimed germany.elections september marked decisive defeat boulangists.defeated changes electoral laws prevented boulanger running multiple constituencies governments aggressive opposition absence general placed selfimposed exile mistress. |
French Third Republic | fall boulanger severely undermined political strength conservative royalist elements within france would recover strength .revisionist scholars argued boulangist movement often represented elements radical left rather extreme right.work part emerging consensus frances radical right formed part dreyfus era men boulangist partisans radical left decade earlier.panama scandal panama scandals involved enormous cost failed attempt build panama canal.due disease death inefficiency widespread corruption panama canal company handling massive project went bankrupt millions losses.regarded largest monetary corruption scandal th century. |
French Third Republic | close billion francs lost french government took bribes keep quiet panama canal companys financial troubles.welfare state public health state smaller role france germany first world war.french income levels higher german income levels despite france fewer natural resources taxation government spending lower france germany.france lagged behind bismarckian germany well great britain ireland developing welfare state public health unemployment insurance national old age pension plans.accident insurance law workers france created national pension plan.unlike germany britain programs much smaller – example pensions voluntary plan. |
French Third Republic | historian timothy smith finds french fears national public assistance programs grounded widespread disdain english poor law.tuberculosis dreaded disease day especially striking young people twenties.germany set vigorous measures public hygiene public sanatoria france let private physicians handle problem.french medical profession guarded prerogatives public health activists well organized influential germany britain united states.example long battle public health law began campaign reorganize nations health services require registration infectious diseases mandate quarantines improve deficient health housing legislation .however reformers met opposition bureaucrats politicians physicians. |
French Third Republic | threatening many interests proposal debated postponed years becoming law .implementation finally came government realized contagious diseases national security impact weakening military recruits keeping population growth rate well germanys.another theory put forth low rate french population growth relative germany due lower french birth rate perhaps due provision french revolutionary law land must divided among sons large compensation paid — led peasants want one son.evidence suggest french life expectancy lower germany.dreyfus affair dreyfus affair major political scandal convulsed france resolution reverberations decades more. |
French Third Republic | conduct affair become modern universal symbol injustice.remains one striking examples complex miscarriage justice central role played press public opinion.issue blatant antisemitism practiced french army defended conservatives catholic traditionalists secular centreleft left republican forces including jews.end latter triumphed.the affair began november conviction treason captain alfred dreyfus young french artillery officer alsatian jewish descent.sentenced life imprisonment communicating french military secrets german embassy paris sent penal colony devils island french guiana nicknamed la guillotine sèche dry guillotine spent almost five years.two years later evidence came light identified french army major named ferdinand walsin esterhazy real spy. |
French Third Republic | highranking military officials suppressed new evidence military court unanimously acquitted esterhazy.response army brought additional charges dreyfus based false documents.word military courts attempts frame dreyfus began spread chiefly owing polemic jaccuse vehement open letter published paris newspaper january notable writer émile zola.activists put pressure government reopen case.in dreyfus returned france another trial.intense political judicial scandal ensued divided french society supported dreyfus called dreyfusards anatole france henri poincaré georges clemenceau condemned antidreyfusards édouard drumont director publisher antisemitic newspaper la libre parole. |
French Third Republic | new trial resulted another conviction year sentence dreyfus given pardon set free.eventually accusations demonstrated baseless dreyfus exonerated reinstated major french army.from scandal divided france deeply lastingly two opposing camps proarmy antidreyfusards composed conservatives catholic traditionalists monarchists generally lost initiative anticlerical prorepublican dreyfusards strong support intellectuals teachers.embittered french politics facilitated increasing influence radical politicians sides political spectrum.social history newspapers democratic political structure supported proliferation politicized newspapers.circulation daily press paris went million million later reached million . |
French Third Republic | advertising grew rapidly providing steady financial basis publishing cover costs involved supplemented secret subsidies commercial interests wanted favourable reporting.new liberal press law abandoned restrictive practices typical century.highspeed rotary hoe presses introduced facilitated quick turnaround time cheaper publication.new types popular newspapers especially le petit journal reached audience interested diverse entertainment gossip hard news.captured quarter parisian market forced rest lower prices. |
French Third Republic | main dailies employed journalists competed news flashes.newspapers relied upon agence havas agence francepresse telegraphic news service network reporters contracts reuters provide world service.staid old papers retained loyal clientele concentration serious political issues.papers usually gave false circulation figures le petit provençal probably daily circulation le petit meridional .advertising filled pages.the roman catholic assumptionist order revolutionized pressure group media national newspaper la croix. |
French Third Republic | vigorously advocated traditional catholicism time innovating modern technology distribution systems regional editions tailored local taste.secularists republicans recognized newspaper greatest enemy especially took lead attacking dreyfus traitor stirring antisemitism.dreyfus pardoned radical government closed entire assumptionist order newspaper .banks secretly paid certain newspapers promote particular financial interests hide cover misbehaviour.also took payments favourable notices news articles commercial products.sometimes newspaper would blackmail business threatening publish unfavorable information unless business immediately started advertising paper. |
French Third Republic | foreign governments especially russia turkey secretly paid press hundreds thousands francs year guarantee favourable coverage bonds selling paris.real news bad russia revolution war japan raised ante millions.world war newspapers became propaganda agency behalf war effort avoided critical commentary.seldom reported achievements allies crediting good news french army.sentence newspapers independent champions truth secretly paid advertisements banking.the world war ended golden era press. |
French Third Republic | younger staff members drafted male replacements could found female journalists considered suitable.rail transportation rationed less paper ink came fewer copies could shipped out.inflation raised price newsprint always short supply.cover price went circulation fell many dailies published outside paris closed down.government set interministerial press commission supervise press closely. |
French Third Republic | separate agency imposed tight censorship led blank spaces news reports editorials disallowed.dailies sometimes limited two pages instead usual four leading one satirical paper try report war news spiritwar news.halfzeppelin threw half bombs halftime combatants resulting onequarter damaged.zeppelin halfwaysattacked portion halfanti aircraft guns half destroyed.regional newspapers flourished .however parisian newspapers largely stagnant war. |
French Third Republic | major postwar success story paris soir lacked political agenda dedicated providing mix sensational reporting aid circulation serious articles build prestige.circulation .million double nearest rival tabloid le petit parisien.addition daily paper paris soir sponsored highly successful womens magazine marieclaire.another magazine match modelled photojournalism american magazine life. |
French Third Republic | modernization peasants france rural nation peasant farmer typical french citizen.seminal book peasants frenchmen historian eugen weber traced modernization french villages argued rural france went backward isolated modern sense national identity late th early th centuries.emphasized roles railroads republican schools universal military conscription.based findings school records migration patterns military service documents economic trends.weber argued sense french nationhood weak provinces. |
French Third Republic | weber looked policies third republic created sense french nationality rural areas.webers scholarship widely praised criticized argued sense frenchness existed provinces .city department store aristide boucicaut founded le bon marché paris offered wide variety goods departments inside one building.goods sold fixed prices guarantees allowed exchanges refunds.end th century georges dufayel french credit merchant served three million customers affiliated la samaritaine large french department store established former bon marché executive.the french gloried national prestige brought great parisian stores. |
French Third Republic | great writer émile zola – set novel au bonheur des dames – typical department store.zola represented symbol new technology improving society devouring it.novel describes merchandising management techniques marketing consumerism.the grands magasins dufayel huge department store inexpensive prices built northern part paris reached large new customer base working class.neighbourhood public spaces provided consumer version public square.educated workers approach shopping exciting social activity routine exercise obtaining necessities bourgeoisie famous department stores central city. |
French Third Republic | like bourgeois stores helped transform consumption business transaction direct relationship consumer soughtafter goods.advertisements promised opportunity participate newest fashionable consumerism reasonable cost.latest technology featured cinemas exhibits inventions like xray machines could used fit shoes gramophone.increasingly stores work force became feminized opening prestigious job opportunities young women.despite low pay long hours enjoyed exciting complex interactions newest fashionable merchandise upscale customers.radicals republic important party early th century france radical party founded republican radical radicalsocialist party parti républicain radical et radicalsocialiste. |
French Third Republic | classically liberal political orientation opposed monarchists clerical elements one hand socialists other.many members recruited freemasons.radicals split activists called state intervention achieve economic social equality conservatives whose first priority stability.workers demands strikes threatened stability pushed many radicals toward conservatism.opposed womens suffrage fear women would vote opponents candidates endorsed catholic church. |
French Third Republic | favoured progressive income tax economic equality expanded educational opportunities cooperatives domestic policy.foreign policy favoured strong league nations war maintenance peace compulsory arbitration controlled disarmament economic sanctions perhaps international military force.followers léon gambetta raymond poincaré would become president council created democratic republican alliance ard became main centerright party world war i.governing coalitions collapsed regularity rarely lasting months radicals socialists liberals conservatives republicans monarchists fought control.historians argue collapses important reflected minor changes coalitions many parties routinely lost gained allies.consequently change governments could seen little series ministerial reshuffles many individuals carrying forward one government next often posts.church state throughout lifetime third republic – battles status catholic church france among republicans monarchists authoritarians napoleonists. |
French Third Republic | french clergy bishops closely associated monarchists many hierarchy noble families.republicans based anticlerical middle class saw churchs alliance monarchists political threat republicanism threat modern spirit progress.republicans detested church political class affiliations church represented ancien régime time french history republicans hoped long behind them.republicans strengthened protestant jewish support.numerous laws passed weaken catholic church. |
French Third Republic | priests excluded administrative committees hospitals boards charity new measures directed religious congregations came substitution lay women nuns many hospitals ferry school laws passed.napoleons concordat continued operation government cut salaries priests disliked.republicans feared religious orders control schools—especially jesuits assumptionists—indoctrinated antirepublicanism children.determined root republicans insisted needed control schools france achieve economic militaristic progress.republicans felt one primary reasons german victory superior education system.the early anticatholic laws largely work republican jules ferry .religious instruction schools forbidden religious orders forbidden teach them. |
French Third Republic | funds appropriated religious schools build state schools.later century laws passed ferrys successors weakened churchs position french society.civil marriage became compulsory divorce introduced chaplains removed army.when leo xiii became pope tried calm churchstate relations.told french bishops act hostile manner toward state nobilissima gallorum gens.in issued encyclical advising french catholics rally republic defend church participating republican politics au milieu des sollicitudes.liberal action founded jacques piou albert de mun former monarchists switched republicanism request pope leo xiii. |
French Third Republic | churchs perspective mission express political ideals new social doctrines embodied leos encyclical rerum novarum.action libérale parliamentary group alp political party emerged adding word populaire popular signify expansion.membership open everyone catholics.sought gather honest people melting pot sought leo xiii catholics moderate republicans would unite support policy tolerance social progress.motto summarized program liberty equality law better conditions workers.however old republicans manage regroup catholics shunned monarchists christian democrats integrists. |
French Third Republic | end recruited mostly among liberalcatholics jacques piou social catholics albert de mun.alp drawn battle beginnings first steps coincided beginning combes ministry anticlerical combat policy religious matters heart preoccupations.defended church name liberty common law.fiercely fought action française movement declined lost support rome.nevertheless alp remained important party right.the attempt improving relationship republicans failed. |
French Third Republic | deeprooted suspicions remained sides inflamed dreyfus affair –.catholics part antidreyfusard.assumptionists published antisemitic antirepublican articles journal la croix.infuriated republican politicians eager take revenge.often worked alliance masonic lodges. |
French Third Republic | waldeckrousseau ministry – combes ministry – fought vatican appointment bishops.chaplains removed naval military hospitals years soldiers ordered frequent catholic clubs .emile combes elected prime minister determined defeat catholicism thoroughly.short office closed parochial schools france.parliament reject authorization religious orders.meant fiftyfour orders france dissolved members immediately left france many spain. |
French Third Republic | émile loubet president france visited king victor emmanuel iii italy rome pope pius x protested recognition italian state.combes reacted strongly recalled ambassador holy see.law introduced abrogated napoleons concordat.church state finally separated.church property confiscated. |
French Third Republic | religious personnel longer paid state.public worship given associations catholic laymen controlled access churches.however practice masses rituals continued performed.combes vigorously opposed conservative parties saw mass closure church schools persecution religion.combs led anticlerical coalition left facing opposition primarily organized procatholic alp.alp stronger popular base better financing stronger network newspapers far fewer seats parliament.the combes government worked masonic lodges create secret surveillance army officers make sure devout catholics would promoted. |
French Third Republic | exposed affaire des fiches scandal undermined support combes government resigned.also undermined morale army officers realized hostile spies examining private lives important careers professional accomplishments.in december government maurice rouvier introduced french law separation church state.law heavily supported combes strictly enforcing voluntary association law law religious congregations freedom teaching.february chamber declared attitude vatican rendered separation church state inevitable law separation church state passed december .church badly hurt lost half priests. |
French Third Republic | long run however gained autonomy ever state longer voice choosing bishops thus gallicanism dead.foreign policy foreign policy based slow building alliances russia britain order counteract threat germany.bismarck made mistake taking alsace lorraine setting decades popular hatred germany demand revenge.bismarcks decision came response popular demand armys demand strong frontier.necessary since france much weaker militarily germany forced bismarck orient german foreign policy block france major allies. |
French Third Republic | alsace lorraine grievance years largely faded away french realization nostalgia useful modernization.france rebuilt army emphasizing modernization features new artillery invested heavily military aircraft.important restoring prestige strong emphasis growing french empire brought prestige despite large financial costs.french families settled colonies poor natural resources trade significantly benefit overall economy.nevertheless second size british empire provided prestige world affairs gave opportunity catholics heavy attack republicans parliament devote energies spread french culture civilization worldwide. |
French Third Republic | extremely expensive investment building panama canal total failure terms money many deaths disease political scandal.bismarck fired german foreign policy confused misdirected.example berlin broke close ties st. petersburg allowing french enter heavy financial investment parisst petersburg military alliance proved essential durable.germany feuded britain encouraged london paris drop grievances egypt africa reaching compromise whereby french recognized british primacy egypt britain recognized french primacy morocco.enabled britain france move closer together finally achieving informal military relationship . |
French Third Republic | diplomats french diplomacy largely independent domestic affairs economic cultural religious interest groups paid little attention foreign affairs.permanent professional diplomats bureaucrats developed traditions operate quai dorsay foreign ministry located style changed little generation generation.diplomats came high status aristocratic families.although france one republics europe diplomats mingled smoothly aristocratic representatives royal courts.prime ministers leading politicians generally paid little attention foreign affairs allowing handful senior men control policy. |
French Third Republic | decades first world war dominated embassies major countries france ambassador elsewhere sent lowerranking ministers.included théophile delcassé foreign minister paul cambon london – jules jusserand washington camille barrère rome .terms foreign policy general agreement need high protective tariffs kept agricultural prices high.defeat germans strong widespread antigerman sentiment focused revanchism regaining alsace lorraine.empire matter great pride service administrators soldiers missionaries high status occupation.french foreign policy showed dramatic transformation humiliated power friends much empire centerpiece european alliance system flourishing colonial empire second size great britain. |
French Third Republic | although religion hotly contested matter domestic politics catholic church made missionary work church building specialty colonies.frenchmen ignored foreign policy issues low priority politics.– french foreign policy based fear germany—whose larger size fastgrowing economy could matched—combined revanchism demanded return alsace lorraine.time imperialism factor.midst scramble africa french british interest africa came conflict. |
French Third Republic | dangerous episode fashoda incident french troops tried claim area southern sudan british force purporting acting interests khedive egypt arrived.heavy pressure french withdrew securing angloegyptian control area.status quo recognised agreement two states acknowledging british control egypt france became dominant power morocco france suffered humiliating defeat overall.the suez canal initially built french became joint britishfrench project saw vital maintaining influence empires asia.ongoing civil disturbances egypt prompted britain intervene extending hand france.government allowed britain take effective control egypt.france colonies asia looked alliances found japan possible ally. |
French Third Republic | japans request paris sent military missions – – – help modernize japanese army.conflicts china indochina climaxed sinofrench war –.admiral courbet destroyed chinese fleet anchored foochow.treaty ending war put france protectorate northern central vietnam divided tonkin annam.under leadership expansionist jules ferry third republic greatly expanded french colonial empire.france acquired indochina madagascar vast territories west africa central africa much polynesia. |
French Third Republic | – effort isolate germany france went great pains woo russia great britain first means francorussian alliance entente cordiale great britain finally anglorussian entente became triple entente.alliance britain russia germany austria eventually led russia britain france enter world war allies.french foreign policy years leading first world war based largely hostility fear german power.france secured alliance russian empire diplomatic talks germany russia failed produce working agreement.francorussian alliance served cornerstone french foreign policy .link russia provided vast french investments loans . |
French Third Republic | french foreign minister théophile delcassé negotiated entente cordiale lord lansdowne british foreign secretary agreement ended long period anglofrench tensions hostility.entente cordiale functioned informal anglofrench alliance strengthened first second moroccan crises secret military naval staff talks.delcassés rapprochement britain controversial france anglophobia prominent around start th century sentiments much reinforced fashoda incident britain france almost gone war boer war french public opinion much side britains enemies.ultimately fear german power link bound britain france together.preoccupied internal problems france paid little attention foreign policy period late mid although extend military service three years two strong socialist objections .rapidly escalating balkan crisis july surprised france much attention given conditions led outbreak world war i. overseas colonies third republic line imperialistic ethos day sweeping europe developed french colonial empire. |
French Third Republic | largest important french north africa french indochina.french administrators soldiers missionaries dedicated bringing french civilization local populations colonies mission civilisatrice.french businessmen went overseas permanent settlements.catholic church became deeply involved.missionaries unattached men committed staying permanently learning local languages customs converting natives christianity.france successfully integrated colonies economic system. |
French Third Republic | one third exports went colonies paris businessmen invested heavily agriculture mining shipping.indochina new plantations opened rice natural rubber.algeria land held rich settlers rose hectares hectares combined similar operations morocco tunisia result north african agriculture became one efficient world.metropolitan france captive market large landowners could borrow large sums paris modernize agricultural techniques tractors mechanized equipment.result dramatic increase export wheat corn peaches olive oil. |
French Third Republic | french algeria became fourth important wine producer world.nickel mining new caledonia also important.opposition colonial rule led rebellions morocco syria indochina colonial army quickly suppressed.first world war entry france entered world war russia germany going war france honoured treaty obligations russia.decisions made senior officials especially president raymond poincaré premier foreign minister rené viviani ambassador russia maurice paléologue.involved decisionmaking military leaders arms manufacturers newspapers pressure groups party leaders spokesmen french nationalism.britain wanted remain neutral entered war german army invaded belgium way paris. |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.