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ISO/IEC 27002	control objectives necessarily relevant every organization instance hence entire categories control may deemed necessary.standards also open ended sense information security controls suggested leaving door open users adopt alternative controls wish long key control objectives relating mitigation information security risks satisfied.helps keep standard relevant despite evolving nature information security threats vulnerabilities impacts trends use certain information security controls.it practically impossible list conceivable controls general purpose standard.industryspecific implementation guidelines isoiec isoiec offer advice tailored organizations telecomms industry see isoiec healthcare see iso .most organizations implement wide range information securityrelated controls many recommended general terms isoiec .structuring information security controls infrastructure accordance isoiec may advantageous since itis associated wellrespected international standardhelps avoid coverage gaps overlapsis likely recognized familiar isoiec standard implementation example isoiec examples typical information security policies controls relating three parts isoiec .
ISO/IEC 27002	note merely illustration.list example controls incomplete universally applicable.physical environmental security physical access premises support infrastructure communications power air conditioning etc.must monitored restricted prevent detect minimize effects unauthorized inappropriate access tampering vandalism criminal damage theft etc.the list people authorized access secure areas must reviewed approved periodically least year administration physical security department crosschecked departmental managers.photography video recording forbidden inside restricted areas without prior permission designated authority.suitable video surveillance cameras must located entrances exits premises strategic points restricted areas recorded stored least one month monitored around clock trained personnel.access cards permitting timelimited access general andor specific areas may provided trainees vendors consultants third parties personnel identified authenticated authorized access areas.other public areas reception foyer private areas rest rooms visitors escorted times employee premises.the date time entry departure visitors along purpose visits must recorded register maintained controlled site security reception.everyone site employees visitors must wear display valid issued pass times must present pass inspection request manager security guard concerned employee.access control systems must adequately secured unauthorizedinappropriate access compromises.fireevacuation drills must conducted periodically least year.smoking forbidden inside premises designated smoking zones.human resource security employees must screened prior employment including identity verification using passport similar photo id least two satisfactory professional references.
ISO/IEC 27002	additional checks required employees taking trusted positions.all employees must formally accept binding confidentiality nondisclosure agreement concerning personal proprietary information provided generated course employment.human resources department must inform administration finance operations employee taken transferred resigns suspended released longterm leave employment terminated.upon receiving notification hr employees status changed administration must update physical access rights security administration must update logical access rights accordingly.an employees manager must ensure access cards keys equipment storage media valuable corporate assets returned employee last day employment.access control user access corporate systems networks applications information must controlled accordance access requirements specified relevant information asset owners normally according users role.generic test ids must created enabled production systems unless specifically authorized relevant information asset owners.after predefined number unsuccessful logon attempts security log entries appropriate security alerts must generated user accounts must locked required relevant information asset owners.passwords pass phrases must lengthy complex consisting mix letters numerals special characters would difficult guess.passwords pass phrases must written stored readable format.authentication information passwords security logs security configurations forth must adequately secured unauthorized inappropriate access modification corruption loss.privileged access rights typically required administer configure manage secure monitor systems must reviewed periodically least twice year information security crosschecked appropriate departmental managers.users must either log passwordlock sessions leaving unattended.passwordprotected screensavers inactivity timeout minutes must enabled workstationspcs.write access removable media usb drives cddvd writers etc.must disabled desktops unless specifically authorized legitimate business reasons.history national equivalent standards isoiec directly equivalent national standards several countries.translation local publication often results several months delay main isoiec standard revised released national standard bodies go great lengths ensure translated content accurately completely reflects isoiec .
ISO/IEC 27002	certification isoiec advisory standard meant interpreted applied types sizes organization according particular information security risks face.practice flexibility gives users lot latitude adopt information security controls make sense makes unsuitable relatively straightforward compliance testing implicit formal certification schemes.isoiec information technology – security techniques – information security management systems – requirements widely recognized certifiable standard.isoiec specifies number firm requirements establishing implementing maintaining improving isms annex suite information security controls organizations encouraged adopt appropriate within isms.controls annex derived aligned isoiec .ongoing development isoiec isoiec revised isoiec jtcsc every years order keep current relevant.
ISO/IEC 27002	revision involves instance incorporating references issued security standards isoiec isoiec isoiec various good security practices emerged field since last published.due significant installed base organizations already using isoiec particularly relation information security controls supporting isms complies isoiec changes justified wherever possible evolutionary rather revolutionary nature.see also bs original british standard isoiec isoiec derivedisoiec seriesit baseline protectionit risk managementlist iso standardssarbanes–oxley actstandard good practice published information security forumisoiec jtc sc – security techniquesnist cybersecurity frameworkcyber risk quantification references external links iso newsletterisoiecisoiec standard revised renumbered isoiec align isoiec series standards.revised .later isoiec created standard order suggest additional security controls cloud completely defined isoiec .isoiec provides best practice recommendations information security controls use responsible initiating implementing maintaining information security management systems isms.information security defined within standard context cia triadthe preservation confidentiality ensuring information accessible authorized access integrity safeguarding accuracy completeness information processing methods availability ensuring authorized users access information associated assets required.outline outline isoiec standard starts introductory chapters introduction scope normative references terms definitionsstructure standardthese followed main chapters information security policies organization information security human resource security asset management access control cryptography physical environmental security operation security procedures responsibilities protection malware backup logging monitoring control operational software technical vulnerability management information systems audit coordination communication security network security management information transfer system acquisition development maintenance security requirements information systems security development support processes test data supplier relationships information security supplier relationships supplier service delivery management information security incident management management information security incidents improvements information security aspects business continuity management information security continuity redundancies compliance compliance legal contractual requirements information security reviewswithin chapter information security controls objectives specified outlined.
ISO/IEC 27002	information security controls generally regarded best practice means achieving objectives.controls implementation guidance provided.specific controls mandated sinceeach organization expected undertake structured information security risk assessment process determine specific requirements selecting controls appropriate particular circumstances.introduction section outlines risk assessment process although specific standards covering area isoiec .use information security risk analysis drive selection implementation information security controls important feature isoiec series standards means generic good practice advice standard gets tailored specific context user organization rather applied rote.
ISO/IEC 27002	control objectives necessarily relevant every organization instance hence entire categories control may deemed necessary.standards also open ended sense information security controls suggested leaving door open users adopt alternative controls wish long key control objectives relating mitigation information security risks satisfied.helps keep standard relevant despite evolving nature information security threats vulnerabilities impacts trends use certain information security controls.it practically impossible list conceivable controls general purpose standard.industryspecific implementation guidelines isoiec isoiec offer advice tailored organizations telecomms industry see isoiec healthcare see iso .most organizations implement wide range information securityrelated controls many recommended general terms isoiec .structuring information security controls infrastructure accordance isoiec may advantageous since itis associated wellrespected international standardhelps avoid coverage gaps overlapsis likely recognized familiar isoiec standard implementation example isoiec examples typical information security policies controls relating three parts isoiec .
ISO/IEC 27002	note merely illustration.list example controls incomplete universally applicable.physical environmental security physical access premises support infrastructure communications power air conditioning etc.must monitored restricted prevent detect minimize effects unauthorized inappropriate access tampering vandalism criminal damage theft etc.the list people authorized access secure areas must reviewed approved periodically least year administration physical security department crosschecked departmental managers.photography video recording forbidden inside restricted areas without prior permission designated authority.suitable video surveillance cameras must located entrances exits premises strategic points restricted areas recorded stored least one month monitored around clock trained personnel.access cards permitting timelimited access general andor specific areas may provided trainees vendors consultants third parties personnel identified authenticated authorized access areas.other public areas reception foyer private areas rest rooms visitors escorted times employee premises.the date time entry departure visitors along purpose visits must recorded register maintained controlled site security reception.everyone site employees visitors must wear display valid issued pass times must present pass inspection request manager security guard concerned employee.access control systems must adequately secured unauthorizedinappropriate access compromises.fireevacuation drills must conducted periodically least year.smoking forbidden inside premises designated smoking zones.human resource security employees must screened prior employment including identity verification using passport similar photo id least two satisfactory professional references.
ISO/IEC 27002	additional checks required employees taking trusted positions.all employees must formally accept binding confidentiality nondisclosure agreement concerning personal proprietary information provided generated course employment.human resources department must inform administration finance operations employee taken transferred resigns suspended released longterm leave employment terminated.upon receiving notification hr employees status changed administration must update physical access rights security administration must update logical access rights accordingly.an employees manager must ensure access cards keys equipment storage media valuable corporate assets returned employee last day employment.access control user access corporate systems networks applications information must controlled accordance access requirements specified relevant information asset owners normally according users role.generic test ids must created enabled production systems unless specifically authorized relevant information asset owners.after predefined number unsuccessful logon attempts security log entries appropriate security alerts must generated user accounts must locked required relevant information asset owners.passwords pass phrases must lengthy complex consisting mix letters numerals special characters would difficult guess.passwords pass phrases must written stored readable format.authentication information passwords security logs security configurations forth must adequately secured unauthorized inappropriate access modification corruption loss.privileged access rights typically required administer configure manage secure monitor systems must reviewed periodically least twice year information security crosschecked appropriate departmental managers.users must either log passwordlock sessions leaving unattended.passwordprotected screensavers inactivity timeout minutes must enabled workstationspcs.write access removable media usb drives cddvd writers etc.must disabled desktops unless specifically authorized legitimate business reasons.history national equivalent standards isoiec directly equivalent national standards several countries.translation local publication often results several months delay main isoiec standard revised released national standard bodies go great lengths ensure translated content accurately completely reflects isoiec .
ISO/IEC 27002	certification isoiec advisory standard meant interpreted applied types sizes organization according particular information security risks face.practice flexibility gives users lot latitude adopt information security controls make sense makes unsuitable relatively straightforward compliance testing implicit formal certification schemes.isoiec information technology – security techniques – information security management systems – requirements widely recognized certifiable standard.isoiec specifies number firm requirements establishing implementing maintaining improving isms annex suite information security controls organizations encouraged adopt appropriate within isms.controls annex derived aligned isoiec .ongoing development isoiec isoiec revised isoiec jtcsc every years order keep current relevant.
Food dehydrator	revision involves instance incorporating references issued security standards isoiec isoiec isoiec various good security practices emerged field since last published.due significant installed base organizations already using isoiec particularly relation information security controls supporting isms complies isoiec changes justified wherever possible evolutionary rather revolutionary nature.see also bs original british standard isoiec isoiec derivedisoiec seriesit baseline protectionit risk managementlist iso standardssarbanes–oxley actstandard good practice published information security forumisoiec jtc sc – security techniquesnist cybersecurity frameworkcyber risk quantification references external links iso newsletterisoiecfood drying method preserving fruit vegetables meats practiced since antiquity.design modern food dehydrators lowpower convection ovens uses heated air flow reduce water content foods.water content food usually high typically – various fruits vegetables – various meats.removing moisture food restrains various bacteria growing spoiling food.removing moisture food dramatically reduces weight often volume food making easier storage.
Food dehydrator	thus food dehydrators used preserve extend shelf life various foods.food dehydrators require heat sources solar energy electric power biofuel vary form largescale dehydration projects doityourself projects commercially sold appliances domestic use.commercial food dehydrators basic parts usually consist heating element electric fan air vents allow air circulation food trays lay food upon.dehydrators heating element fans vents simultaneously work direct hot air food accelerate surface evaporation warm food causing moisture also released interior.process continues food dried substantially lower water content usually less .most foods dehydrated °f °c although meats made jerky dehydrated higher temperature °f °c — preheated temperature — guard pathogens may already meat.key successful food dehydration application constant temperature adequate air flow.
Food dehydrator	high temperature cause hardened foods food hard dry outside moist therefore vulnerable spoiling inside.variants solar food dehydrators solar food drying involves use solar dryer designed built specifically purpose.solar drying distinctly different openair sun drying simple technique used thousands years.good solar food dryer may dry food much faster air driers.solar driers achieve higher food drying temperatures air driers.
Food dehydrator	however direct sun drying chemically alter foods making less appetizing.food drying excellent solar energy application since food drying primarily requires heat solar radiation easily converted heat.clear translucent glazing allows sunlight enter enclosed chamber converted heat strikes dark interior surface.airflow typically achieved natural convection warm air rises.adjustable venting allows regulation airflow temperature.solar food drying effective practical populated places world.general rule grow successful vegetable garden enough solar energy dry food produce overcast northern maritime climates exception.some solar food dryer designs employ separate solar collector generate heated air directed food chamber cabinet.
Food dehydrator	type solar food dehydrator called indirect solar dryer.designs combine collector food cabinet allow direct heating food called direct solar dryers.said indirect dryers allow much better drying downside larger size.backup electric heating incorporated solar food dehydrators provide alternative heat source weather changes.solar food dehydrators often cited viable tools search agricultural sustainability food security.see also list dried foods references
Insteon	employs dualmesh networking topology devices peers device independently transmits receives confirm repeats messages.like home automation systems associated internet things.corporate history insteonbased products launched smartlabs company holds trademark insteon.smartlabs subsidiary also named insteon created market technology.smartlabs insteon trademark acquired richmond capital partners.
Insteon	protocol every message received insteon compatible device undergoes error detection correction retransmitted improve reliability.devices retransmit message simultaneously message transmissions synchronous powerline frequency thus preserving integrity message strengthening signal powerline reducing rf dead zones.insteon powerline messaging uses phaseshift keying.insteon rf messaging uses frequencyshift keying.each message contains twobit hops field initialized originating node decremented time node network repeats message.individual insteon messages also carry bytes arbitrary user data custom applications.
Insteon	network topology insteon integrated dualmesh formerly referred dualband network combines wireless radio frequency rf buildings existing electrical wiring.electrical wiring becomes backup transmission medium event rfwireless interference.conversely rfwireless becomes backup transmission medium event powerline interference.peertopeer network devices require network supervision thus allowing optional operation without central controllers routing tables.insteon devices function without central controller.additionally may managed central controller implement functions control via smartphones tablets control scheduling event handling problem reporting via email text messaging.
Insteon	computer used central controller connecting insteon usbserial powerlinc modem serves communication bridge computer insteon device network.security insteon network security maintained via linking control ensure users cannot create links would allow control neighbors’ insteon devices via encryption within extended insteon messages applications door locks security applications applications choose implement encryption.insteon enforces linking control requiring users physical possession devices knowledge unique insteon ids order create links.firmware insteon devices prohibits identifying devices unless user either physically presses button device installation process explicitly addresses device via central controller.linking device sending insteon messages e.g.
Insteon	central controller requires knowledge address target insteon device.addresses unique device assigned factory displayed printed label attached device users must physical access device read device address label manually enter prompted installation.the security insteon rf devices criticized def con presentation .installation insteon devices configured applying sequence taps button presses pushbutton device establish direct devicetodevice links.alternatively central controller may used configure devices.each insteon device unique identifier code similar mac address technology allows directly linked devices manage identifiers.compatibility older insteon chip sets manufactured smartlabs transmit receive respond repeat x power line messages thus enabling x networks interoperate insteon.in insteon released home automation system compatible touchenabled metro interface devices appearing live tiles later added voice control via microsoft cortana.in voice control added via compatibility amazon echo.
MySQL Cluster	year logitech announced remote harmony hub smart home hub would support insteon devices deployed insteon hub.also insteon announced initiative integrate googleowned nest learning thermostat insteon hub.insteon one two launch partners apples homekit platform homekitenabled insteon hub pro.insteon announced support apple watch allowing watch owners control home insteon hub.references external links official websiteopen source insteon usb device driver linuxdesigned provide high availability high throughput low latency allowing near linear scalability.mysql cluster implemented ndb ndbcluster storage engine mysql ndb stands network database.architecture mysql cluster designed around distributed multimaster acid compliant architecture single point failure.mysql cluster uses automatic sharding partitioning scale read write operations commodity hardware accessed via sql nonsql nosql apis replication internally mysql cluster uses synchronous replication twophase commit mechanism order guarantee data written multiple nodes upon committing data.contrast usually referred mysql replication asynchronous.
MySQL Cluster	two copies known replicas data required guarantee availability.mysql cluster automatically creates “node groups” number replicas data nodes specified user.updates synchronously replicated members node group protect data loss support fast failover nodes.it also possible replicate asynchronously clusters sometimes referred mysql cluster replication geographical replication.typically used replicate clusters data centers disaster recovery reduce effects network latency locating data physically closer set users.unlike standard mysql replication mysql clusters geographic replication uses optimistic concurrency control concept epochs provide mechanism conflict detection resolution enabling activeactive clustering data centers.starting mysql cluster .
MySQL Cluster	support synchronous replication data centers supported multisite clustering feature.horizontal data partitioning autosharding mysql cluster implemented fully distributed multimaster database ensuring updates made application sql node instantly available nodes accessing cluster data node accept write operations.data within mysql cluster ndb tables automatically partitioned across data nodes system.done based hashing algorithm based primary key table transparent end application.clients connect node cluster queries automatically access correct shards needed satisfy query commit transaction.mysql cluster able support crossshard queries transactions.users define partitioning schemes.
MySQL Cluster	allows developers add “distribution awareness” applications partitioning based subkey common rows accessed high running transactions.ensures data used complete transactions localized shard thereby reducing network hops.hybrid storage mysql cluster allows datasets larger capacity single machine stored accessed across multiple machines.mysql cluster maintains indexed columns distributed memory.nonindexed columns also maintained distributed memory maintained disk inmemory page cache.storing nonindexed columns disk allows mysql cluster store datasets larger aggregate memory clustered machines.mysql cluster writes redo logs disk data changes well check pointing data disk regularly.
MySQL Cluster	allows cluster consistently recover disk full cluster outage.redo logs written asynchronously respect transaction commit small number transactions lost full cluster fails however mitigated using geographic replication multisite cluster discussed above.current default asynchronous write delay seconds configurable.normal single point failure scenarios result data loss due synchronous data replication within cluster.when mysql cluster table maintained memory cluster access disk storage write redo records checkpoints.writes sequential limited random access patterns involved mysql cluster achieve higher write throughput rates limited disk hardware compared traditional diskbased caching rdbms.
MySQL Cluster	checkpointing disk inmemory table data disabled pertable basis diskbased persistence isnt needed.shared nothing mysql cluster designed single point failure.provided cluster set correctly single node system piece hardware fail without entire cluster failing.shared disk san required.interconnects nodes standard ethernet gigabit ethernet infiniband sci interconnects.
MySQL Cluster	sql nosql apis mysql cluster stores tables data nodes rather mysql server multiple interfaces available access databasesql access via mysql servernosql apis mysql cluster libraries embedded application provide direct access data nodes without passing sql layer.includememcachednode.js javascriptjava jpahttp restndb api c mysql cluster manager part commercial mysql cluster cge mysql cluster manager tool designed simplify creation administration mysql cluster cge database automating common management tasks including online scaling upgrades backuprestore reconfiguration.mysql cluster manager also monitors automatically recovers mysql server application nodes management nodes well mysql cluster data nodes.implementation mysql cluster uses three different types nodes processes data node ndbdndbmtd process nodes store data.tables automatically sharded across data nodes also transparently handle load balancing replication failover selfhealing.management node ndbmgmd process used configuration monitoring cluster.
MySQL Cluster	required start restart cluster node.also configured arbitrators mandatory mysql servers configured arbitrators instead.application node sql node mysqld process mysql server mysqld connects data nodes order perform data storage retrieval.node type optional possible query data nodes directly via ndb api either natively using c api one additional nosql apis described above.generally expected node run separate physical host vm cloud instance although common colocate management nodes mysql servers.best practice recommended colocate nodes within node group single physical host would represent single point failure.versions .
MySQL Cluster	release onwards mysql cluster based directly corresponding .releases mysql server.previously mysql cluster version numbers decoupled mysql server example mysql cluster .based oncontained server component mysql .. higher versions mysql cluster include features lower versions plus new features.older versions longer developmentndb included mysql ..x source treemysql cluster .based mysql ..afirst telco carrier grade edition release.
MySQL Cluster	supports nodes online table alter replication latency throughput enhancements etc.mysql cluster .based mysql ..bincludes compressed backup lcp circular replication support conflict detectionresolution table optimization etc.mysql cluster .based mysql ..cincludes multithreaded data nodes ndbmtd transactional ddl windows support.mysql cluster .based mysql ..dincludes clusterj clusterjpa connectorscurrently available versionsmysql cluster .based mysql .includes adaptive query localization pushes join operations data nodes memcached api simplified activeactive geographic replication multisite clustering data node scalability enhancements consolidated user privileges.mysql cluster .
MySQL Cluster	based mysql .includes support foreign key constraints node.js javascript api autoinstaller.mysql cluster .based mysql .includes enhanced conflict detection resolution improved node restart times new event api.mysql cluster .based mysql .includes support bigger datasetsmore tb per node improved read scalability read optimized tables improved sql support.mysql cluster .based mysql .improved restart recovery times reduced disk space usage improved join performance new import tool shared memory communication improved topology awareness cloud.mysql cluster .based mysql .increase max row size kb support data nodes improved distributed filtering joining support parallel outer joins semi joins improved schema acl handling online column rename simplified configuration multithreaded parallel backup restore disk data performance improvements enhanced support replica configurations support multi socket mesh networking support restore transformations improved blob write performance backup encryption support ipv threading autoconfiguration improved recovery performance improved query multithreading.
MySQL Cluster	requirements evaluation purposes possible run mysql cluster single physical server.production deployments minimum system requirements x instances hosts × data nodes × application management nodeor × data node application × management nodeconfigurations followsos linux solaris windows.macos development onlycpu intelamd xx ultrasparcmemory gbhdd gbnetwork nodes standard ethernet tcpiptips recommendations deploying highly performant production grade clusters found mysql cluster evaluation guide guide optimizing performance mysql cluster database.history mysql ab acquired technology behind mysql cluster alzato small venture company started ericsson.ndb originally designed telecom market high availability high performance requirements.mysql cluster based ndb storage engine since integrated mysql product first release mysql .. support mysql cluster licensed gplv license.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	commercial support available part mysql cluster cge also includes nonopen source addons mysql cluster manager mysql enterprise monitor addition mysql enterprise security mysql enterprise audit.see also galera cluster generic synchronous multimaster replication library transactional databases mysql mariadb.percona xtradb cluster also combination galera replication library mysql supporting multi master.references external links mysql official mysql cluster documentationmysql cluster api developers guidemysql cluster demonstrationmysql cluster datasheetmysql cluster faqmysql cluster autoinstaller tutorialmysql cluster bloggetting started mysql clustermysql cluster whitepapers guidesmysql cluster community forum design modelling parallel data server telecom applications original mysql cluster design motivation.proximate cause disaster tōhoku earthquake tsunami occurred march .it severe nuclear accident since chernobyl disaster .classified level international nuclear event scale ines initially classified level joining chernobyl accident receive classification.explosion mayak facility second worst radioactivity released ines ranks incidents impact population chernobyl people evacuated fukushima evacuated rank higher evacuated classified restricted mayak site rural southern urals.the accident triggered tōhoku earthquake tsunami friday march .detecting earthquake active reactors automatically shut normal powergenerating fission reactions.shutdowns electrical grid supply problems reactors electricity supply failed emergency diesel generators automatically started.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	critically required provide electrical power pumps circulated coolant reactors cores.continued circulation vital remove residual decay heat continues produced fission ceased.however earthquake also generated tsunami metres ft high arrived shortly afterward swept plants seawall flooded lower parts reactors –.flooding caused failure emergency generators loss power circulating pumps.resultant loss reactor core cooling led three nuclear meltdowns three hydrogen explosions release radioactive contamination units march.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	spent fuel pool previously shut reactor increased temperature march due decay heat newly added spent fuel rods boil sufficiently expose fuel.in days accident radiation released atmosphere forced government declare everlarger evacuation zone around plant culminating evacuation zone km radius.told residents evacuated communities surrounding plant due rising offsite levels ambient ionizing radiation caused airborne radioactive contamination damaged reactors.large amounts water contaminated radioactive isotopes released pacific ocean disaster.michio aoyama professor radioisotope geoscience institute environmental radioactivity estimated terabecquerel tbq radioactive caesium released pacific accident gigabecquerel gbq caesium still flowing ocean every day.plants operator since built new walls along coast created .km long ice wall frozen earth stop flow contaminated water.while ongoing controversy health effects disaster report united nations scientific committee effects atomic radiation unscear world health organization projected increase miscarriages stillbirths physical mental disorders babies born accident.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	evacuation sheltering protect public significantly reduced potential radiation exposures factor according unscear.ongoing intensive cleanup program decontaminate affected areas decommission plant take years disaster plant management estimated.on july national diet japan fukushima nuclear accident independent investigation commission naiic found causes accident foreseeable plant operator tokyo electric power company tepco failed meet basic safety requirements risk assessment preparing containing collateral damage developing evacuation plans.meeting vienna three months disaster international atomic energy agency faulted lax oversight ministry economy trade industry saying ministry faced inherent conflict interest government agency charge regulating promoting nuclear power industry.october tepco admitted first time failed take necessary measures fear inviting lawsuits protests nuclear plants.plant description fukushima daiichi nuclear power plant consisted six ge light water boiling water reactors bwrs combined power .
Fukushima nuclear disaster	gigawatts making one worlds largest nuclear power stations.first gedesigned nuclear plant constructed run entirely tokyo electric power company tepco.reactor mwe type bwr reactor constructed july commenced operation march .designed withstand earthquake peak ground acceleration .g .
Fukushima nuclear disaster	ms .fts response spectrum based kern county earthquake.reactors mwe type bwrs.reactor commenced operation july reactor march .earthquake design basis units ranged .
Fukushima nuclear disaster	g .ms .fts .g .ms .
Fukushima nuclear disaster	fts.miyagi earthquake ground acceleration reached .g .ms .fts seconds damage critical parts reactor found.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	units – mark type light bulb torus containment structure unit mark type overunder containment structure.september reactor partially fueled mixedoxides mox.at time accident units central storage facility contained following numbers fuel assembliesthere mox fuel cooling ponds time incident.mox fuel loaded unit reactor.cooling nuclear reactors generate electricity using heat fission reaction produce steam drives turbines generate electricity.reactor stops operating radioactive decay unstable isotopes fuel continues generate heat decay heat time requires continued cooling.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	decay heat amounts approximately .amount produced fission first decreases several days reaching shutdown levels.afterwards spent fuel rods typically require several years spent fuel pool safely transferred dry cask storage vessels.decay heat unit spent fuel pool capacity boil tonnes long tons short tons water per day.in reactor core highpressure systems cycle water reactor pressure vessel heat exchangers.systems transfer heat secondary heat exchanger via essential service water system using water pumped sea onsite cooling tower.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	units steam turbinedriven emergency core cooling systems could directly operated steam produced decay heat could inject water directly reactor.electrical power needed operate valves monitoring systems.unit different entirely passive cooling system isolation condenser ic.consisted series pipes run reactor core inside large tank water.valves opened steam flowed upward ic cool water tank condenses steam back water runs gravity back reactor core.unknown reasons unit ic operated intermittently emergency.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	however march presentation tva takeyuki inagaki explained ic operated intermittently maintain reactor vessel level prevent core cooling quickly increase reactor power.tsunami engulfed station ic valves closed could reopened automatically due loss electrical power could opened manually.april tepco declared cooling systems units – beyond repair.backup generators reactor producing electricity cooling pumps powered reactor units grid diesel generators batteries.two emergency diesel generators available units – three unit .the fukushima reactors designed large tsunami reactors modified concerns raised japan iaea.in accordance ges original specifications construction plant reactors emergency diesel generators dc batteries crucial components powering cooling systems power loss located basements reactor turbine buildings.midlevel ge engineers expressed concerns relayed tepco left vulnerable flooding.in late three additional backup diesel generators units placed new buildings located higher hillside comply new regulatory requirements.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	six units given access diesel generators switching stations sent power backup generators reactors cooling systems units still located poorly protected turbine buildings.meanwhile switching station unit protected inside ge mark ii reactor building continued function.three generators added late fully operational tsunami.switching stations moved inside reactor buildings floodproof locations power would provided generators reactors cooling systems thus catastrophe would averted.meanwhile fukushima daini nuclear power plant also struck tsunami.however power plant incorporated design changes improved resistance flooding thereby reducing flood damage.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	diesel generators related electrical distribution equipment located watertight reactor building therefore equipment remained functional.midnight power electricity grid used power reactorcooling pumps.seawater pumps cooling protected flooding although initially failed restored operation.central fuel storage areas used fuel assemblies taken reactors initially stored least months pools adjacent reactors.transferred central fuel storage pond.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	fukushima storage area contains fuel assemblies.cooling fuel transferred dry cask storage shown signs abnormalities.zircaloy many internal components fuel assembly cladding made zircaloy absorb neutrons.normal operating temperatures approximately °c °f zircaloy inert.however degrees celsius °f zirconium metal react exothermically water form free hydrogen gas.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	reaction zirconium coolant produces heat accelerating reaction.addition zircaloy react uranium dioxide form zirconium dioxide uranium metal.exothermic reaction together reaction boron carbide stainless steel release additional heat energy thus contributing overheating reactor.accident background time tōhoku earthquake march reactors shut preparation refueling.however spent fuel pools still required cooling.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	initial effects earthquake .mw earthquake occurred friday march epicenter near honshu largest island japan.produced maximum ground gforces ...
Fukushima nuclear disaster	units respectively.exceeded seismic reactor design tolerances ...g continued operation seismic values within design tolerances units .when earthquake struck units operating units shut scheduled inspection.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	immediately earthquake electricityproducing reactors automatically shut sustained fission reactions inserting control rods safety procedure referred scram ends reactors normal running conditions closing fission reaction controlled manner.reactors unable generate power run coolant pumps emergency diesel generators came online designed power electronics coolant systems.operated normally tsunami destroyed generators reactors –.two generators cooling reactor undamaged sufficient pressed service cool neighboring reactor along reactor averting overheating issues reactors suffered.arrival tsunami largest tsunami wave – – feet high hit approximately minutes initial earthquake overwhelming plants ground level ft sea level.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	moment impact recorded camera.disabling emergency generators waves flooded basements power plants turbine buildings disabled emergency diesel generators approximately .tepco notified authorities firstlevel emergency.switching stations provided power three backup generators located higher hillside failed building housed flooded.ac power lost units –.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	dc power lost units due flooding dc power batteries remained available unit .steamdriven pumps provided cooling water reactors prevented fuel rods overheating rods continued generate decay heat fission ceased.eventually pumps stopped working reactors began overheat.lack cooling water eventually led meltdowns reactors .further batteries mobile generators dispatched site delayed poor road conditions first arrived march almost six hours tsunami struck.unsuccessful attempts made connect portable generating equipment power water pumps.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	failure attributed flooding connection point turbine hall basement absence suitable cables.tepco switched efforts installing new lines grid.one generator unit resumed operation march external power returned units march.hydrogen explosions workers struggled supply power reactors coolant systems restore power control rooms three hydrogenair chemical explosions occurred first unit march last unit march.estimated oxidation zirconium steam reactors – produced – kg – lb hydrogen gas each.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	pressurized gas vented reactor pressure vessel mixed ambient air eventually reached explosive concentration limits units .due piping connections units alternatively reaction occurring spent fuel pool unit unit also filled hydrogen resulting explosion.case hydrogenair explosions occurred top unit upper secondary containment buildings.drone overflights march afterwards captured clear images effects explosion outside structures view inside largely obscured shadows debris.reactors overheating caused reaction water zircaloy creating hydrogen gas.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	march leaking hydrogen mixed oxygen exploded unit destroying upper part building injuring five people.march similar explosion occurred reactor building blowing roof injuring eleven people.th explosion reactor building due shared vent pipe reactor .core meltdowns units amount damage sustained reactor cores accident location molten nuclear fuel corium within containment buildings unknown tepco revised estimates several times.march tepco estimated fuel unit melted unit unit core might also damaged.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	assumed fuel melted reactor pressure vessel rpv commonly known reactor core resting bottom primary containment vessel pcv stopped pcv concrete.july remotely controlled robot filmed first time apparently melted fuel reactor pressure vessel unit .tepco released estimates state location fuel november report.report concluded unit rpv damaged disaster significant amounts molten fuel fallen bottom pcv.erosion concrete pcv molten fuel core meltdown estimated stop approx..
Fukushima nuclear disaster	ft depth thickness containment .ft thick.gas sampling carried report detected signs ongoing reaction fuel concrete pcv fuel unit estimated well cooled including fuel dropped bottom reactor.fuel units melted however less unit fuel presumed still rpv significant amounts fuel fallen bottom pcv.report suggested range evaluation results fuel rpv none fuel fallen pcv unit unit fuel rpv fuel pcv.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	unit unit estimated fuel cooled sufficiently.according report greater damage unit compared two units due longer time cooling water injected unit .resulted much decay heat accumulating day water injection unit unit unit quarter day without water injection.in november mari yamaguchi reported associated press computer simulations suggest melted fuel unit whose core damage extensive breached bottom primary containment vessel even partially eaten concrete foundation coming within cm ft leaking ground – kyoto university nuclear engineer said regard estimates cant sure actually see inside reactors.according december report tepco estimated unit decay heat must decreased enough molten fuel assumed remain pcv primary containment vessel.in august tepco released new revised estimate reactor complete melt initial phase accident.according new estimate within first three days accident entire core content reactor melted rpv fallen bottom pcv.estimates based simulation indicated reactor melted core penetrated .
Fukushima nuclear disaster	ft pcvs concrete base came close – cm – pcvs steel wall.in february tepco started muon scanning process units .scanning setup possible determine approximate amount location remaining nuclear fuel within rpv amount resting place corium pcv.march tepco released result muon scan unit showed fuel visible rpv would suggest molten fuel dropped onto bottom pcv – change plan removal fuel unit .in february six years disaster radiation levels inside unit containment building crudely estimated svh.estimation revised later svh.readings highest recorded since disaster occurred first recorded area reactor since meltdowns.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	images showed hole metal grating beneath reactor pressure vessel suggesting melted nuclear fuel escaped vessel area.in february tepco released images taken inside reactor remotecontrolled camera show .ft wide hole metal grating pressure vessel reactors primary containment vessel could caused fuel escaping pressure vessel indicating meltdownmeltthrough occurred layer containment.ionizing radiation levels sieverts sv per hour subsequently detected inside unit containment vessel.undamaged spent fuel typically values svh ten years cold shutdown shielding.in january remotecontrolled camera confirmed nuclear fuel debris bottom unit pcv showing fuel escaped rpv.handle top nuclear fuel assembly also observed confirming considerable amount nuclear fuel melted.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	damage unit reactor operating earthquake struck.fuel rods unit transferred spent fuel pool upper floor reactor building prior tsunami.march explosion damaged fourth floor rooftop area unit creating two large holes wall outer building.reported water spent fuel pool might boiling.explosion later found caused hydrogen passing unit unit shared pipes.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	result explosion fire broke caused temperature fuel pool increase °c °f.radiation inside unit control room prevented workers staying long periods.visual inspection spent fuel pool april revealed significant damage rods.radiochemical examination pond water confirmed little fuel damaged.in october former japanese ambassador switzerland senegal mitsuhei murata said ground fukushima unit sinking structure may collapse.in november tepco began moving fuel rods unit cooling pool central pool.process completed december .
Fukushima nuclear disaster	units reactors also operating earthquake struck.unlike reactor fuel rods remained reactor.reactors closely monitored cooling processes functioning well.unit unit shared working generator switchgear emergency achieved successful cold shutdown nine days later march.plants operators release tons low levels radioactive waste accumulated subdrain pits ocean prevent equipment damaged.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	central fuel storage areas march temperatures fuel pond risen slightly °c °f water sprayed pool.power restored cooling systems march march temperatures reported °c °f.analysis response one analysis bulletin atomic scientists stated government agencies tepco unprepared cascading nuclear disaster tsunami began nuclear disaster could anticipated ambiguity roles public private institutions crisis factor poor response fukushima.march prime minister yoshihiko noda said government shared blame fukushima disaster saying officials blinded false belief countrys technological infallibility taken safety myth.noda said everybody must share pain responsibility.according naoto kan japans prime minister tsunami country unprepared disaster nuclear power plants built close ocean.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	kan acknowledged flaws authorities handling crisis including poor communication coordination nuclear regulators utility officials government.said disaster laid bare host even bigger manmade vulnerabilities japans nuclear industry regulation inadequate safety guidelines crisis management said need overhauled.physicist environmentalist amory lovins said japans rigid bureaucratic structures reluctance send bad news upwards need save face weak development policy alternatives eagerness preserve nuclear powers public acceptance politically fragile government along tepcos hierarchical management culture also contributed way accident unfolded.moreover information japanese people receive nuclear energy alternatives long tightly controlled tepco government.poor communication delays japanese government keep records key meetings crisis.data speedi network emailed prefectural government shared others.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	emails nisa fukushima covering march pm march holding vital information evacuation health advisories went unread deleted.data used disaster countermeasure office regarded data useless predicted amount released radiation unrealistic.march tepco officials instructed use phrase core meltdown press conferences.on evening march prime minister kan called seiki soramoto used design nuclear plants toshiba ask help managing escalating crisis.soramoto formed impromptu advisory group included former professor university tokyo toshiso kosako top japanese expert radiation measurement.mr. kosako studied soviet response chernobyl crisis said stunned little leaders prime ministers office knew resources available them.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	quickly advised chief cabinet secretary yukio edano use speedi used measurements radioactive releases well weather topographical data predict radioactive materials could travel released atmosphere.the investigation committee accident fukushima nuclear power stations tokyo electric power companys interim report stated japans response flawed poor communication delays releasing data dangerous radiation leaks facility.report blamed japans central government well tepco depicting scene harried officials incapable making decisions stem radiation leaks situation coastal plant worsened days weeks following disaster.report said poor planning worsened disaster response noting authorities grossly underestimated tsunami risks followed magnitude .earthquake..meter ft high tsunami struck plant double height highest wave predicted officials.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	erroneous assumption plants cooling system would function tsunami worsened disaster.plant workers clear instructions respond disaster causing miscommunication especially disaster destroyed backup generators.in february rebuild japan initiative foundation described japans response hindered loss trust major actors prime minister kan tepcos tokyo headquarters plant manager.report said conflicts produced confused flows sometimes contradictory information.according report kan delayed cooling reactors questioning choice seawater instead fresh water accusing micromanaging response efforts appointing small closed decisionmaking staff.report stated japanese government slow accept assistance u.s. nuclear experts.a report economist said operating company poorly regulated know going on.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	operators made mistakes.representatives safety inspectorate fled.equipment failed.establishment repeatedly played risks suppressed information movement radioactive plume people evacuated lightly heavily contaminated places.from march us military aircraft measured radiation within km mi radius site.data recorded microsieverts per hour radiation far km .
Fukushima nuclear disaster	mi northwest plant.us provided detailed maps japanese ministry economy trade industry meti march ministry education culture sports science technology mext two days later officials act information.the data forwarded prime ministers office nuclear safety commission nsc used direct evacuation.substantial portion radioactive materials reached ground northwest residents evacuated direction unnecessarily exposed radiation.according nsc chief tetsuya yamamoto regrettable didnt share utilize information.itaru watanabe official science technology policy bureau technology ministry said appropriate united states japan release data.data dispersal radioactive materials provided u.s. forces japanese ministry science days march however data shared publicly americans published map march point japan published fallout maps compiled ground measurements speedi day.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	according watanabes testimony diet us military given access data seek support deal nuclear disaster.although speedis effectiveness limited knowing amounts released disaster thus considered unreliable still able forecast dispersal routes could used help local governments designate appropriate evacuation routes.on june science minister hirofumi hirano stated job measure radiation levels land government would study whether disclosure could helped evacuation efforts.on june nuclear industrial safety agency officials apologized mayor yuko endo kawauchi village nisa failed release americanproduced radiation maps first days meltdowns.residents village evacuated government designated noentry zone.according japanese government panel authorities shown respect lives dignity village people.one nisa official apologized failure added panel stressed importance disclosure however mayor said information would prevented evacuation highly polluted areas apologies year late meaning.in june revealed tepco officials instructed march describe reactor damage using word meltdown.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	officials time aware – fuel damaged threshold term meltdown became appropriate greatly exceeded.tepco president naomi hirose told media would say coverup... it’s extremely regrettable.”the government initially set place fourstage evacuation process prohibited access area km .mi onalert area – km .–.mi evacuation prepared area – km – mi.day one estimated people evacuated prohibited access onalert areas.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	prime minister kan instructed people within onalert area leave urged prepared area stay indoors.latter groups urged evacuate march.km mi exclusion zone guarded roadblocks ensure fewer people would affected radiation.evacuation hospitals nursing homes patients elderly people died.the earthquake tsunami damaged destroyed one million buildings leading total people needing evacuation.nuclear accident responsible evacuated.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	prior safety concerns layout emergencycooling system plant built tepco levelled sea coast make easier bring equipment.put new plant meters ft sea level rather original meters ft.on february nuclear industrial safety agency ordered tepco report reasoning changing piping layout emergency cooling system.the original plans separated piping systems two reactors isolation condenser other.however application approval construction plan showed two piping systems connected outside reactor.changes noted violation regulations.after tsunami isolation condenser taken function cooling pumps condensing steam pressure vessel water used cooling reactor.however condenser function properly tepco could confirm whether valve opened.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	backup generator reactor flooded october one two backup generators reactor failed flooding reactors basement.seawater used cooling leaked turbine building corroded pipe cubic meters per hour reported former employees december .engineer quoted saying informed superiors possibility tsunami could damage generators.tepco installed doors prevent water leaking generator rooms.the japanese nuclear safety commission stated would revise safety guidelines would require installation additional power sources.december tepco admitted facts report mentioned room flooded door holes cables power supply cut flooding reactor stopped one day.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	one two power sources completely submerged drive mechanism remained unaffected.tsunami studies ignored inhouse tepco report recommended safety measures seawater flooding based potential foot tsunami.tepco leadership said studys technological validity could verified.tsunami tepco report said risks discussed report announced announcing information uncertain risks would create anxiety.in tepco set department supervise nuclear facilities.june chairman masao yoshida fukushima daiichi chief.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	inhouse study identified immediate need better protect facility flooding seawater.study mentioned possibility tsunamiwaves .meters ft. headquarters officials insisted risk unrealistic take prediction seriously.yukinobu okamura active fault earthquake research center replaced research institute earthquake volcano geology ievg geological survey japan gsj aist urged tepco nisa revise assumptions possible tsunami heights upwards based teams findings sanriku earthquake seriously considered time.the u.s. nuclear regulatory commission warned risk losing emergency power nureg nisa referred report took action mitigate risk.warnings government committees one cabinet office tsunamis taller maximum .meters ft forecast tepco government officials possible also ignored.vulnerability earthquakes japan like rest pacific rim active seismic zone prone earthquakes.a seismologist named katsuhiko ishibashi wrote book titled seismologist warns criticizing lax building codes became best seller earthquake kobe killed thousands shortly publication.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	coined term nuclear earthquake disaster wrote article international herald tribune warning cascade events much like fukushima disaster.the international atomic energy agency iaea expressed concern ability japans nuclear plants withstand earthquakes.meeting gs nuclear safety security group tokyo iaea expert warned strong earthquake magnitude .could pose serious problem japans nuclear power stations.region experienced three earthquakes magnitude greater including sanriku earthquake sanriku earthquake sanriku earthquake.releases radioactive contamination radioactive material released containment vessels several reasons deliberate venting reduce gas pressure deliberate discharge coolant water sea uncontrolled events.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	concerns possibility large scale release led kilometer mi exclusion zone around power plant recommendations people within surrounding – km – mi zone stay indoors.later uk france countries told nationals consider leaving tokyo response fears spreading contamination.tap water contamination still higher tokyo compared cities japan.trace amounts radioactivity including iodine caesium caesium widely observed.the accident released – petabecquerels pbq iodine – pbq caesium atmosphere according estimate united nations scientific committee effects atomic radiation.percent atmospheric releases deposited ocean.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	addition – pbq iodine – pbq caesium released directly ocean.the fukushima coast worlds strongest currents transported contaminated waters far pacific ocean thus causing great dispersion radioactive elements.results measurements seawater coastal sediments led supposition consequences accident terms radioactivity would minor marine life autumn weak concentration radioactivity water limited accumulation sediments.hand significant pollution sea water along coast near nuclear plant might persist due continuing arrival radioactive material transported towards sea surface water running contaminated soil.organisms filter water fish top food chain time sensitive caesium pollution.thus justified maintain surveillance marine life fished coastal waters fukushima.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	despite caesium isotopic concentrations waters japan times normal concentrations prior accident radiation risks generally considered harmful marine animals human consumers.researchers university tokyos underwater technology research center towed detectors behind boats map hot spots ocean floor fukushima.blair thornton associate professor university said radiation levels remained hundreds times high areas sea floor suggesting ongoing contamination time plant.a monitoring system operated preparatory commission comprehensive nucleartestban treaty organization ctbto tracked spread radioactivity global scale.radioactive isotopes picked monitoring stations.on march radioactive releases first reached ctbto monitoring station takasaki japan around km mi away.radioactive isotopes appeared eastern russia march west coast united states two days later.day traces radioactivity detectable across northern hemisphere.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	within one month radioactive particles noted ctbto stations southern hemisphere.estimates radioactivity released ranged chernobyl.significantly contaminated area – chernobyl.in march japanese officials announced radioactive iodine exceeding safety limits infants detected waterpurification plants tokyo five prefectures.march first restrictions placed distribution consumption contaminated items.july japanese government unable control spread radioactive material nations food supply.radioactive material detected food produced including spinach tea leaves milk fish beef kilometres plant.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	crops show signs radioactivity contamination.cabbage rice beef showed insignificant levels radioactivity.fukushimaproduced rice market tokyo accepted consumers safe.in first half september tepco estimated radioactivity release mbq megabecquerels .millicuries per hour.approximately one fourmillionth march.according french institute radiological protection nuclear safety release fukushima represents important individual oceanic emissions artificial radioactivity ever observed.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	fukushima coast one worlds strongest currents kuroshio current.transported contaminated waters far pacific ocean dispersing radioactivity.late measurements seawater coastal sediments suggested consequences marine life would minor.significant pollution along coast near plant might persist continuing arrival radioactive material transported sea surface water crossing contaminated soil.possible presence radioactive substances strontium plutonium sufficiently studied.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	recent measurements show persistent contamination marine species mostly fish caught along fukushima coast.migratory pelagic species highly effective rapid transporters radioactivity throughout ocean.elevated levels caesium appeared migratory species coast california seen prefukushima.scientists also discovered increased traces radioactive isotope caesium wine grown vineyard napa valley california.tracelevel radioactivity dust blown across pacific ocean.as march cases radiationrelated ailments reported.experts cautioned data insufficient allow conclusions health impacts.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	michiaki kai professor radiation protection oita university nursing health sciences stated current radiation dose estimates correct cancerrelated deaths likely wont increase.in august researchers found nearby residents exposed less millisievert radiation significantly less chernobyl residents.as october radioactivity still leaking ocean.fishing waters around site still prohibited levels radioactive cs cs fish caught lower immediately disaster.on october tepco admitted could stop radioactive material entering ocean although emission rates stabilized.undetected leaks could ruled reactor basements remained flooded.company building footlong steel concrete wall site ocean reaching meters ft ground would finished mid.around august two greenling caught close shore.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	contained becquerels .millicuries caesium per kilogram bqlb .μcilb highest measured since disaster times governments safety limit.on july revealed tepco plant continued leak radioactive water pacific ocean something long suspected local fishermen independent investigators.tepco previously denied happening.japanese prime minister shinzō abe ordered government step in.on august incident announced metric tons long tons short tons heavily contaminated water leaked storage tank approximately amount water one eighth found olympicsize swimming pool.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	metric tons long tons short tons water radioactive enough hazardous nearby staff leak assessed level international nuclear event scale.on august government took charge emergency measures prevent radioactive water leaks reflecting lack confidence tepco.as metric tons long tons short tons cooling water per day pumped reactors.another metric tons long tons short tons groundwater seeping structure.metric tons long tons short tons water per day removed treatment half reused cooling half diverted storage tanks.ultimately contaminated water treatment remove radionuclides tritium may dumped pacific.tepco decided create underground ice wall block flow groundwater reactor buildings.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	million .mw cooling facility freezes ground depth meter.contaminated water generation reduced metric tons long tons short tons per day.in february nhk reported tepco reviewing radioactivity data finding much higher levels radioactivity reported earlier.tepco says levels mbq .millicuries strontium per liter mbqimp gal mbqu.s.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	gal μciimp gal μciu.s.gal detected groundwater collected july kbq .millicuries .mbqimp gal .mbqu.s.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	gal μciimp gal μciu.s.gal initially reported.on september floodwaters driven typhoon etau prompted mass evacuations japan overwhelmed drainage pumps stricken fukushima nuclear plant.tepco spokesperson said hundreds metric tons radioactive water entered ocean result.plastic bags filled contaminated soil grass also swept away flood waters.contamination eastern pacific march numerous news sources including nbc began predicting radioactive underwater plume traveling pacific ocean would reach western seaboard continental united states.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	common story amount radioactivity would harmless temporary arrived.national oceanic atmospheric administration measured caesium points pacific ocean models cited predictions several government agencies announce radiation would health hazard north american residents.groups including beyond nuclear tillamook estuaries partnership challenged predictions basis continued isotope releases leading demand recent comprehensive measurements radioactivity made way east.measurements taken cooperative group organizations guidance marine chemist woods hole oceanographic institution revealed total radiation levels fraction bore fingerprint fukushima high enough pose direct risk human life fact far less environmental protection agency guidelines several sources radiation exposure deemed safe.integrated fukushima ocean radionuclide monitoring project inform also failed show significant amount radiation result authors received death threats supporters fukushimainduced wave cancer deaths across north america theory.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	event rating incident rated international nuclear event scale ines.scale runs indicating abnormal situation safety consequences indicating accident causing widespread contamination serious health environmental effects.prior fukushima chernobyl disaster level event record mayak explosion rated three mile island accident rated level .a analysis intermediate longlived radioactivity released found – released chernobyl disaster.approximately pbq caesium released compared approximately pbq caesium chernobyl indicating release .kilograms lb caesium.unlike chernobyl japanese reactors concrete containment vessels limited release strontium americium plutonium among radioisotopes released earlier incident.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	pbq iodine released compared approximately pbq chernobyl.iodine halflife .days decaying stable nuclide.ten half lives .days .
Fukushima nuclear disaster	decayed xenon stable isotope.aftermath deaths radiation exposure immediate aftermath incident though number around nonradiation related deaths evacuation nearby population.as september one cancer fatality subject financial settlement family former nuclear station workman.approximately people died due earthquake tsunami.maximum predicted eventual cancer mortality morbidity estimate according linear nothreshold theory respectively strongest weight evidence producing estimate much lower range hundred.addition rates psychological distress among evacuated people rose fivefold compared japanese average due experience disaster evacuation.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	increase childhood obesity area accident attributed recommendations children stay indoors instead going outside play.in world health organization indicated residents area evacuated exposed low amounts radiation radiationinduced health impacts likely low.particular report predicts evacuated infant girls .preaccident lifetime risk developing thyroid cancer calculated increased .exposed radioiodine increase slightly less males.risks number additional radiationinduced cancers also expected elevated due exposure caused low boiling point fission products released safety failures.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	single greatest increase thyroid cancer total overall higher lifetime risk developing cancers types predicted infant females risk slightly lower males making radiationsensitive groups.predicted human fetuses depending sex would elevations risk infant groups.a screening program year later found third children fukushima prefecture abnormal growths thyroid glands.august children newly diagnosed thyroid cancer cancers fukushima prefecture whole.number thyroid cancers detections developing thyroid cancers numbered .however whether incidences cancer elevated rate uncontaminated areas therefore due exposure nuclear radiation unknown stage.
Fukushima nuclear disaster	data chernobyl accident showed unmistakable rise thyroid cancer rates following disaster began cancer incubation period – years.on july japanese national dietappointed fukushima nuclear accident independent investigation commission naiic submitted inquiry report japanese diet.commission found nuclear disaster manmade direct causes accident foreseeable prior march .report also found fukushima daiichi nuclear power plant incapable withstanding earthquake tsunami.tepco regulatory bodies nisa nsc government body promoting nuclear power industry meti failed correctly develop basic safety requirements – assessing probability damage preparing containing collateral damage disaster developing evacuation plans public case serious radiation release.meanwhile governmentappointed investigation committee accident fukushima nuclear power stations tokyo electric power company submitted final report japanese government july .
Fukushima nuclear disaster	separate study stanford researchers found japanese plants operated largest utility companies particularly unprotected potential tsunami.tepco admitted first time october failed take stronger measures prevent disasters fear inviting lawsuits protests nuclear plants.clear plans decommissioning plant plant management estimate thirty forty years.in tours visit fukushima disaster area began.september great east japan earthquake nuclear disaster memorial museum opened town futaba near fukushima daiichi power plant.museum exhibits items videos earthquake nuclear accident.attract visitors abroad museum offers explanations english chinese korean.

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