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157686 | Battle of Montmirail | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Montmirail | Battle of Montmirail
brigade to close up behind him, Pirch began attacking toward the Bailly and Plenois woods. Sacken ordered his two reserve heavy batteries to support the Prussian advance. At the same time, Michel's Old Guard division reached the battlefield and was committed to the fight against Yorck.
Napoleon or... | 1,300 |
157686 | Battle of Montmirail | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Montmirail | Battle of Montmirail
the Russians in Marchais continued to resist until 5:00 pm when they were forced to relinquish control of the village and pull back. When they reached the west side of the ravine, Defrance's cavalry charged into them, inflicting heavy losses on the brigades of Dietrich and Blagovenzenko. Several hu... | 1,301 |
157686 | Battle of Montmirail | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Montmirail | Battle of Montmirail
by French cavalry but fought its way clear.
Pirch attacked with the 1st East Prussian and West Prussian Grenadier Battalions and the 5th Silesian Landwehr Regiment in the first line screened by a cloud of skirmishers. The second line consisted of the Leib and Silesian Grenadier Battalions and the ... | 1,302 |
157686 | Battle of Montmirail | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Montmirail | Battle of Montmirail
the protests of his staff, Yorck went up to encourage the skirmish line, saying, "I want to die if you cannot stop the enemy."
After Michel counterattacked the Prussians with ten battalions, the Leib Grenadier Battalion and the 1/5th Silesian Landwehr met them. Two battalions of the Leib Infantry ... | 1,303 |
157686 | Battle of Montmirail | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Montmirail | Battle of Montmirail
Prussians ended the day between Fontenelle and Viffort.
By evening the Polish Lancers of the Guard fought their way as far west as Viels-Maisons. Sacken was nearly trapped, but Yorck's effort gave the Russians enough time and space to get away. With Vasilshikov's cavalry covering the withdrawal, t... | 1,304 |
157686 | Battle of Montmirail | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Montmirail | Battle of Montmirail
Results.
According to Petre, the French sustained 2,000 casualties while inflicting losses of 2,000 killed and wounded on the Russians while capturing 800 soldiers, six colors and 13 guns. The Prussians suffered an additional 900 casualties. Chandler asserted that the French lost 2,000 men while t... | 1,305 |
157686 | Battle of Montmirail | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Montmirail | Battle of Montmirail
Nansouty, Michel and Boudin de Roville wounded.
MacDonald at Meaux was unable to carry out his orders to advance because he had destroyed the Trilport bridge. His subordinate Horace François Bastien Sébastiani de La Porta was unable to move because Sacken had broken the La Ferté-sous-Jouarre bridg... | 1,306 |
157686 | Battle of Montmirail | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Montmirail | Battle of Montmirail
st de Saint-Germain to join Napoleon via Coulommiers. Napoleon again ordered MacDonald to seize Château-Thierry, so that the Allied retreat would be blocked. He was taking a gamble. Napoleon intended to pursue Sacken and Yorck with maximum forces, hoping to trap them against the Marne. He also need... | 1,307 |
157720 | The Logic of Scientific Discovery | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The%20Logic%20of%20Scientific%20Discovery | The Logic of Scientific Discovery
The Logic of Scientific Discovery
The Logic of Scientific Discovery is a 1959 book about the philosophy of science by Karl Popper. Popper rewrote his book in English from the 1934 German original, titled "Logik der Forschung. Zur Erkenntnistheorie der modernen Naturwissenschaft", whic... | 1,308 |
157720 | The Logic of Scientific Discovery | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The%20Logic%20of%20Scientific%20Discovery | The Logic of Scientific Discovery
basic statements contradicting a theory will hardly induce us to reject it as falsified. We shall take it as falsified only if we discover a reproducible effect which refutes the theory". Popper argues that science should adopt a methodology based on "an "asymmetry" between verifiabili... | 1,309 |
157720 | The Logic of Scientific Discovery | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The%20Logic%20of%20Scientific%20Discovery | The Logic of Scientific Discovery
who did not completely agree with Popper, such as Thomas Kuhn and Horace Romano Harré. Carl Jung, founder of analytical psychology, valued the work. The biographer Vincent Brome recalls Jung remarking in 1938 that it exposed "some of the shortcomings of science". The historian Peter Ga... | 1,310 |
157720 | The Logic of Scientific Discovery | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The%20Logic%20of%20Scientific%20Discovery | The Logic of Scientific Discovery
gical positivism were "devastating". In his view, Popper's most important argument against logical positivism is that, while it claimed to be a scientific theory of the world, its central tenet, the verification principle, effectively destroyed all of science. The physicists Alan Sokal... | 1,311 |
157719 | Battle of Pozzolo | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Pozzolo | Battle of Pozzolo
Battle of Pozzolo
The Battle of Pozzolo (also known as the Battle of the Mincio River, and Monzambano) was fought on 25 December 1800 and resulted the difficult victory of French under General Brune against Austrians under General Bellegarde.
Following the armistice agreed after the Battle of Mareng... | 1,312 |
157719 | Battle of Pozzolo | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Pozzolo | Battle of Pozzolo
ttle of Pozzolo (also known as the Battle of the Mincio River, and Monzambano) was fought on 25 December 1800 and resulted the difficult victory of French under General Brune against Austrians under General Bellegarde.
Following the armistice agreed after the Battle of Marengo the Austrians had held ... | 1,313 |
157689 | Battle of Mormant | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Mormant | Battle of Mormant
Battle of Mormant
The Battle of Mormant (17 February 1814) was fought during the War of the Sixth Coalition between an Imperial French army under Emperor Napoleon I and a division of Russians under Count Peter Petrovich Pahlen. Enveloped by cavalry led by François Étienne de Kellermann and Édouard Je... | 1,314 |
157689 | Battle of Mormant | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Mormant | Battle of Mormant
Allied force was mauled before it withdrew behind the Seine River. The Mormant-Valjouan actions and the Battle of Montereau the following day marked the start of a French counteroffensive intended to drive back Karl Philipp, Prince of Schwarzenberg's Allied Army of Bohemia. The town of Mormant is loca... | 1,315 |
157689 | Battle of Mormant | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Mormant | Battle of Mormant
took a more northerly route along the Marne River toward Meaux. When Napoleon realized that Blücher represented the more serious threat on 6 February, he began to shift his strength northward in order to deal with the Prussian field marshal. Leaving Marshals Victor and Nicolas Oudinot with 34,000 men ... | 1,316 |
157689 | Battle of Mormant | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Mormant | Battle of Mormant
French made Olsufiev a prisoner. The next day, Napoleon defeated Fabian Gottlieb von Osten-Sacken's Russians and Ludwig Yorck von Wartenburg's Prussians in the Battle of Montmirail. For the loss of 2,000 killed and wounded, the French inflicted a loss of 3,700 men and 13 guns on the Allies. On 12 Febr... | 1,317 |
157689 | Battle of Mormant | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Mormant | Battle of Mormant
during the week while Napoleon's losses added up to only 4,000.
While Napoleon was drubbing Blücher, Schwarzenberg's main army pushed back the forces of Marshals Victor and Oudinot. On the Allied right wing, Peter Wittgenstein's Russian corps advanced toward Nogent-sur-Seine while Karl Philipp von Wr... | 1,318 |
157689 | Battle of Mormant | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Mormant | Battle of Mormant
the French to abandon Nogent to Wittgenstein. Victor and Oudinot retreated behind the Yerres stream, dangerously close to Paris. When the marshals called for help, Napoleon sent Marshal Jacques MacDonald to Guignes where he arrived on 14 February with a corps that was rebuilt by replacements from Pari... | 1,319 |
157689 | Battle of Mormant | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Mormant | Battle of Mormant
found the army of Victor and Oudinot in good order and prepared to go over to the offensive.
# Battle.
## Armies.
Schwarzenberg had over 100,000 soldiers in his main army. A week later, on 23 February, the army counted Moritz von Liechtenstein's 2nd Light Division (4,000), Bianchi's I Corps (13,000... | 1,320 |
157689 | Battle of Mormant | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Mormant | Battle of Mormant
Instead of obeying, Wittgenstein aggressively pushed his corps west beyond Provins toward Nangis while his advanced guard under Pahlen reached Mormant. On 16 February, Wrede's corps was near Donnemarie-Dontilly except for Anton von Hardegg's division which was in Nangis. Württemberg's corps was near M... | 1,321 |
157689 | Battle of Mormant | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Mormant | Battle of Mormant
The Imperial Guard forces included Louis Friant's Old Guard division (4,500), Marshal Michel Ney's Young Guard divisions (3,000) and Guard cavalry under Louis Marie Laferrière-Levesque, Rémi Joseph Isidore Exelmans and Louis Michel Pac (3,000 total). The line troops consisted of Victor's II Corps (6,5... | 1,322 |
157689 | Battle of Mormant | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Mormant | Battle of Mormant
(3,500), Michel-Marie Pacthod's National Guards division (5,000) and Pierre Claude Pajol's cavalry division (1,400). On the march to Guignes were Jean François Leval's division (4,500), Joseph Boyer de Rébeval's Young Guard division (3,300) and Antoine-Louis Decrest de Saint-Germain's division (1,300)... | 1,323 |
157689 | Battle of Mormant | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Mormant | Battle of Mormant
Wittgenstein received positive orders to withdraw so he marched his corps east toward Provins at dawn. He forwarded the orders to Pahlen but they came too late. At daybreak, Pahlen saw that he faced an overwhelming force and began to retreat. The Russian commanded 2,000–2,500-foot soldiers and 1,500–1... | 1,324 |
157689 | Battle of Mormant | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Mormant | Battle of Mormant
Another source stated that the Grodno rather than the Olviopol Hussars were engaged, that the 20th and 21st Jägers were involved and that the Russians had 12 field pieces.
At 5:00 a.m. the French infantry advanced with Guillaume Philibert Duhesme's II Corps division on the left, Gérard's Paris Reserv... | 1,325 |
157689 | Battle of Mormant | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Mormant | Battle of Mormant
temporarily assigned to Kellermann. Milhaud commanded the left wing cavalry with Piré's horsemen deployed on Duhesme's left and Briche's troopers echeloned to Piré's left rear. Kellermann commanded the right wing cavalry with Trelliard's dragoons on Huguet-Château's right and Lhéritier's troopers eche... | 1,326 |
157689 | Battle of Mormant | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Mormant | Battle of Mormant
the French at all cost in order to allow the rest of his command to escape. Four Cossack regiments opposed Kellermann's corps while Rüdiger's regular cavalry faced Milhaud's corps. Jacques Gervais, baron Subervie's brigade of Pire's division turned half-right and swooped down on the Russian skirmisher... | 1,327 |
157689 | Battle of Mormant | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Mormant | Battle of Mormant
the first two Cossack regiments. When the Illowaiski and Rebrikov Cossacks tried to intervene they were swept away by Lhéritier's second brigade led by Jean Antoine de Collaert. As Lhéritier's horsemen galloped after the routed Cossacks, the 16th Dragoons of Trelliard's division charged and broke a Ru... | 1,328 |
157689 | Battle of Mormant | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Mormant | Battle of Mormant
off the battlefield with the French light cavalry in pursuit. Milhaud directed Montelégier to deal with the Russian infantry while sending Ludot on a sweep to block Pahlen's escape route. Without its supporting cavalry, Pahlen's infantry battalions were compelled to form into a square formation to def... | 1,329 |
157689 | Battle of Mormant | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Mormant | Battle of Mormant
and two cavalry regiments in Bailly. The Austrian division commander declined to assist his ally and ordered an immediate retreat. However, before they could get away, the two Austrian cavalry regiments were disordered by the fleeing Cossacks and then scattered by Piré's and August Lamotte's horsemen.... | 1,330 |
157689 | Battle of Mormant | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Mormant | Battle of Mormant
of Ludot and Ismert.
The Russians probably lost one-third of their cavalry and admitted the loss of 2,114-foot soldiers. The French claimed 9–12 guns and 40 caissons captured while the Russians said they saved two cannons. The French cavalry commanders reported losing 150 horsemen and Gérard reported... | 1,331 |
157689 | Battle of Mormant | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Mormant | Battle of Mormant
included the II Corps, Paris Reserve, Lhéritier's dragoons and Bordesoulle's recruits. The left-most column under Oudinot, with the VII Corps and Trelliard's dragoons, followed Wittgenstein's retreat east toward Provins. MacDonald's center column consisted of the XI Corps, Piré light horsemen and Bric... | 1,332 |
157689 | Battle of Mormant | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Mormant | Battle of Mormant
on the Valjouan heights, blocking the road. Lamotte posted the 11th Bavarian Line Infantry in an advanced position at Villeneuve and Grand-Maison farm; his cavalry covered both flanks. The divisions of Hardegg and Splény were behind Lamotte; they began withdrawing as soon as the French appeared. The S... | 1,333 |
157689 | Battle of Mormant | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Mormant | Battle of Mormant
La Hamelinaye's brigade stormed Villeneuve and Grand-Maison at 3:30 p.m. Gérard held Georges Joseph Dufour's brigade in reserve. As the Bavarian foot soldiers bolted from both positions, they were set upon by Bordesoulle's cavalrymen. When some Allied cavalry tried to rescue the Bavarians, the French ... | 1,334 |
157689 | Battle of Mormant | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Mormant | Battle of Mormant
and began to retreat, followed by Bordesoulle. At some point during the withdrawal, the two Austrian mounted regiments were attacked by a large force of French cavalry and suffered 200 casualties in the melee. After Lamotte marched about toward Donnemarie, Gérard's infantry burst out of the woods and ... | 1,335 |
157689 | Battle of Mormant | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Mormant | Battle of Mormant
Melun, driving Ignaz von Hardegg's division (Bianchi's I Corps) from Fontainebleau. Pajol and Pacthod left Saint-Germain-Laxis and headed southeast toward Montereau. They skirmished with Prince Adam of Württemberg's 1,000 infantry and cavalry during the day.
# Result.
The Allies had become overexten... | 1,336 |
157689 | Battle of Mormant | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Mormant | Battle of Mormant
h and 3,114 Allied, with the French seizing nine guns and 40 caissons. Pahlen was credited with 2,500 infantry and 1,800 cavalry of which 1,250 were Russian and 550 were Austrian. Though the author listed the Valjouan action, he did not list Bavarian numbers. The French brought 18,000–20,000 men to th... | 1,337 |
157717 | Siege of Pavia (773–74) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siege%20of%20Pavia%20(773–74) | Siege of Pavia (773–74)
Siege of Pavia (773–74)
The Siege or Battle of Pavia was fought in 773–774 in northern Italy, near Ticinum (modern Pavia), and resulted in the victory of the Franks under Charlemagne against the Lombards under king Desiderius.
# Background.
Charlemagne, "rex Francorum", had succeeded to the t... | 1,338 |
157717 | Siege of Pavia (773–74) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siege%20of%20Pavia%20(773–74) | Siege of Pavia (773–74)
for assistance.
Charles had produced an alliance with the Lombards by marrying one of Desiderius' daughters, Desiderata; within a year, however, he had changed his mind about the marriage and alliance, and divorced his wife, sending her back to her father. This was taken as an insult by the Lom... | 1,339 |
157717 | Siege of Pavia (773–74) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siege%20of%20Pavia%20(773–74) | Siege of Pavia (773–74)
of the Franks. The relationship between Frank and Lombard now broke down completely and the pope took full advantage. His embassy landed at Marseilles and travelled to Thionville, where they delivered this message:
Charlemagne ascertained the truth of Desiderius' aggressions and the threat he p... | 1,340 |
157717 | Siege of Pavia (773–74) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siege%20of%20Pavia%20(773–74) | Siege of Pavia (773–74)
Charles' army met the fortifications of Desiderius, but scouting forces found an alternate route. A cavalcade was sent to attack the defenders from the flank and, with Bernard's forces approaching from the east, the Lombards fled to fortified Pavia. The Frankish troops then marched on to begin t... | 1,341 |
157717 | Siege of Pavia (773–74) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siege%20of%20Pavia%20(773–74) | Siege of Pavia (773–74)
over the family of Carloman. Charles led a small force to besiege Verona. Adelchis fled in fear to Constantinople and the city and Carloman's family were taken.
Charles then began to subdue the whole region around Pavia in the early months of 774. Charles even visited the pope in Rome at Easter... | 1,342 |
157717 | Siege of Pavia (773–74) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siege%20of%20Pavia%20(773–74) | Siege of Pavia (773–74)
Republic of Genoa was born later.
# Legacy.
After the victory, Charlemagne had himself declared "rex Langobardorum", and from that time onwards he was to be called King of the Franks "and" Lombards. This was unique in the history of the Germanic kingdoms of the Dark Ages: a ruler taking the ti... | 1,343 |
157717 | Siege of Pavia (773–74) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siege%20of%20Pavia%20(773–74) | Siege of Pavia (773–74)
ly be called an "empire". He was also allying himself very closely with the church as its protector. His recognition of temporal papal authority in central Italy laid the foundation for mediaeval Papal power.
The decline of the Lombard state had been swift and the changes wrought in Italy by th... | 1,344 |
573 | Alchemy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alchemy | Alchemy
Alchemy
Alchemy (from Arabic: "al-kīmiyā") was an ancient branch of natural philosophy, a philosophical and protoscientific tradition practised throughout Europe, Africa, and Asia, originating in Greco-Roman Egypt in the first few centuries .
Alchemists attempted to purify, mature, and perfect certain materia... | 1,345 |
573 | Alchemy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alchemy | Alchemy
the Hellenistic and Western mystery tradition, the achievement of gnosis. In Europe, the creation of a philosopher's stone was variously connected with all of these projects.
In English, the term is often limited to descriptions of European alchemy, but similar practices existed in the Far East, the Indian sub... | 1,346 |
573 | Alchemy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alchemy | Alchemy
terminology, and experimental method, some of which are still in use today. However, they continued antiquity's belief in four elements and guarded their work in secrecy including cyphers and cryptic symbolism. Their work was guided by Hermetic principles related to magic, mythology, and religion.
Modern discu... | 1,347 |
573 | Alchemy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alchemy | Alchemy
the philosophical and religious contexts in which these events occurred. The latter interests historians of esotericism, psychologists, and some philosophers and spiritualists. The subject has also made an ongoing impact on literature and the arts. Despite this split, which von Franz believes has existed since ... | 1,348 |
573 | Alchemy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alchemy | Alchemy
that recent historical research has revealed that medieval and early modern alchemy embraced a much more varied set of ideas, goals, techniques, and practices:
Most readers probably are aware of several common claims about alchemy—for example, ... that it is akin to magic, or that its practice then or now is e... | 1,349 |
573 | Alchemy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alchemy | Alchemy
word "al-kīmiyā" ( or ) composed of two parts: the Late Greek term "khēmeía" (χημεία), "khēmía" (χημία), meaning 'to fuse or cast a metal', and the Arabic definite article "al-" (), meaning 'The'. Together this association can be interpreted as 'the process of transmutation by which to fuse or reunite with the ... | 1,350 |
573 | Alchemy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alchemy | Alchemy
(or its equivalent in the Mediaeval Bohairic dialect of Coptic, "khēme"). This Coptic word derives from Demotic "kmỉ", itself from ancient Egyptian "kmt". The ancient Egyptian word referred to both the country and the colour "black" (Egypt was the "Black Land", by contrast with the "Red Land", the surrounding d... | 1,351 |
573 | Alchemy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alchemy | Alchemy
Egypt. A decree of Diocletian, written about 300 AD in Greek, speaks against "the ancient writings of the Egyptians, which treat of the "khēmia" transmutation of gold and silver".
The Medieval Latin form was influenced by Greek "chymeia" (χυμεία) meaning 'mixture' and referring to pharmaceutical chemistry.
# ... | 1,352 |
573 | Alchemy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alchemy | Alchemy
centered in China and its zone of cultural influence; Indian alchemy, centered on the Indian subcontinent; and Western alchemy, which occurred around the Mediterranean and whose center has shifted over the millennia from Greco-Roman Egypt, to the Islamic world, and finally medieval Europe. Chinese alchemy was c... | 1,353 |
573 | Alchemy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alchemy | Alchemy
may generally be traced to ancient and Hellenistic Egypt, where the city of Alexandria was a center of alchemical knowledge, and retained its pre-eminence through most of the Greek and Roman periods. Here, elements of technology, religion, mythology, and Hellenistic philosophy, each with their own much longer h... | 1,354 |
573 | Alchemy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alchemy | Alchemy
of the priestly class, though there is little to no evidence for his assertion. Alchemical writers used Classical figures from Greek, Roman, and Egyptian mythology to illuminate their works and allegorize alchemical transmutation. These included the pantheon of gods related to the Classical planets, Isis, Osiri... | 1,355 |
573 | Alchemy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alchemy | Alchemy
of knowledge. The "Hermetica" of Thrice-Great Hermes is generally understood to form the basis for Western alchemical philosophy and practice, called the hermetic philosophy by its early practitioners. These writings were collected in the first centuries of the common era.
Technology – The dawn of Western alch... | 1,356 |
573 | Alchemy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alchemy | Alchemy
for dyeing and making artificial gemstones, cleaning and fabricating pearls, and manufacturing of imitation gold and silver.These writings lack the mystical, philosophical elements of alchemy, but do contain the works of Bolus of Mendes (or Pseudo-Democritus), which aligned these recipes with theoretical knowle... | 1,357 |
573 | Alchemy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alchemy | Alchemy
originated by Empedocles and developed by Aristotle, was that all things in the universe were formed from only four elements: earth, air, water, and fire. According to Aristotle, each element had a sphere to which it belonged and to which it would return if left undisturbed. The four elements of the Greek were ... | 1,358 |
573 | Alchemy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alchemy | Alchemy
in differentiated form." Later alchemists extensively developed the mystical aspects of this concept.
Alchemy coexisted alongside emerging Christianity. Lactantius believed Hermes Trismegistus had prophesied its birth. St Augustine later affirmed this in the 4th & 5th centuries, but also condemned Trismegistus... | 1,359 |
573 | Alchemy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alchemy | Alchemy
in commenting on the works of these predecessors. By the middle of the 7th century alchemy was almost an entirely mystical discipline. It was at that time that Khalid Ibn Yazid sparked its migration from Alexandria to the Islamic world, facilitating the translation and preservation of Greek alchemical texts in ... | 1,360 |
573 | Alchemy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alchemy | Alchemy
the invasions of Alexander the Great in 325 , and kingdoms that were culturally influenced by the Greeks like Gandhāra, although hard evidence for this is lacking.
The 11th-century Persian chemist and physician Abū Rayhān Bīrūnī, who visited Gujarat as part of the court of Mahmud of Ghazni, reported that they
... | 1,361 |
573 | Alchemy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alchemy | Alchemy
their origins in the Kaula tantric schools associated to the teachings of the personality of Matsyendranath. Other early writings are found in the Jaina medical treatise "Kalyāṇakārakam" of Ugrāditya, written in South India in the early 9th century.
Two famous early Indian alchemical authors were Nāgārjuna Sid... | 1,362 |
573 | Alchemy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alchemy | Alchemy
publication of "The Alchemical Body" by David Gordon White.
A modern bibliography on Indian alchemical studies has been written by White.
The contents of 39 Sanskrit alchemical treatises have been analysed in detail in G. Jan Meulenbeld's "History of Indian Medical Literature". The discussion of these works i... | 1,363 |
573 | Alchemy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alchemy | Alchemy
these works; in other cases references are made only to the unpublished manuscripts of these titles.
A great deal remains to be discovered about Indian alchemical literature. The content of the Sanskrit alchemical corpus has not yet (2014) been adequately integrated into the wider general history of alchemy.
... | 1,364 |
573 | Alchemy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alchemy | Alchemy
The early Islamic world was a melting pot for alchemy. Platonic and Aristotelian thought, which had already been somewhat appropriated into hermetical science, continued to be assimilated during the late 7th and early 8th centuries through Syriac translations and scholarship.
In the late 8th century, Jābir ibn... | 1,365 |
573 | Alchemy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alchemy | Alchemy
albeit others reserve that title for Robert Boyle or Antoine Lavoisier. The science historian, Paul Kraus, wrote:
Jabir himself clearly recognized and proclaimed the importance of experimentation:
Early Islamic chemists such as Jabir Ibn Hayyan, Al-Kindi ("Alkindus") and Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi ("Rasis" or... | 1,366 |
573 | Alchemy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alchemy | Alchemy
hermeticism. The most influential author in this regard was arguably Jabir. Jabir's ultimate goal was "Takwin", the artificial creation of life in the alchemical laboratory, up to, and including, human life. He analyzed each Aristotelian element in terms of four basic qualities of "hotness", "coldness", "drynes... | 1,367 |
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developed an elaborate numerology whereby the root letters of a substance's name in Arabic, when treated with various transformations, held correspondences to the element's physical properties.
The elemental system used in medieval alchemy also originated with Jabir. His original system consisted of seven elem... | 1,368 |
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of the three metallic principles: sulphur giving flammability or combustion, mercury giving volatility and stability, and salt giving solidity. The atomic theory of corpuscularianism, where all physical bodies possess an inner and outer layer of minute particles or corpuscles, also has its origins in the work o... | 1,369 |
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metals, Chinese alchemy had a more obvious connection to medicine. The philosopher's stone of European alchemists can be compared to the Grand Elixir of Immortality sought by Chinese alchemists. However, in the hermetic view, these two goals were not unconnected, and the philosopher's stone was often equated wi... | 1,370 |
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in fireworks in China by the 10th century, it was used in cannons by 1290. From China, the use of gunpowder spread to Japan, the Mongols, the Muslim world, and Europe. Gunpowder was used by the Mongols against the Hungarians in 1241, and in Europe by the 14th century.
Chinese alchemy was closely connected to T... | 1,371 |
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people to eschew this method of alchemy in favor of external sources (the aforementioned Tai Chi Chuan, mastering of the qi, etc.)
## Medieval Europe.
The introduction of alchemy to Latin Europe may be dated to 11 February 1144, with the completion of Robert of Chester's translation of the Arabic "Book of the... | 1,372 |
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time included the Turba Philosophorum, and the works of Avicenna and al-Razi. These brought with them many new words to the European vocabulary for which there was no previous Latin equivalent. Alcohol, carboy, elixir, and athanor are examples.
Meanwhile, theologian contemporaries of the translators made strid... | 1,373 |
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thought before the first works of Aristotle had reached the West. In the early 13th century, Robert Grosseteste used Abelard's methods of analysis and added the use of observation, experimentation, and conclusions when conducting scientific investigations. Grosseteste also did much work to reconcile Platonic an... | 1,374 |
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imported alchemical knowledge in Aristotelian terms. Albertus Magnus, a Dominican friar, is known to have written works such as the "Book of Minerals" where he observed and commented on the operations and theories of alchemical authorities like Hermes and Democritus and unnamed alchemists of his time. Albertus ... | 1,375 |
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Thomas Aquinas.
Roger Bacon, a Franciscan friar who wrote on a wide variety of topics including optics, comparative linguistics, and medicine, composed his "Great Work" () for as part of a project towards rebuilding the medieval university curriculum to include the new learning of his time. While alchemy was n... | 1,376 |
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with Clement highlighted this, noting the importance of alchemy to the papacy. Like the Greeks before him, Bacon acknowledged the division of alchemy into practical and theoretical spheres. He noted that the theoretical lay outside the scope of Aristotle, the natural philosophers, and all Latin writers of his t... | 1,377 |
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(sometimes identified as Paul of Taranto) appeared. His "Summa Perfectionis" remained a staple summary of alchemical practice and theory through the medieval and renaissance periods. It was notable for its inclusion of practical chemical operations alongside sulphur-mercury theory, and the unusual clarity with ... | 1,378 |
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the technique to purify the human soul). They believed in the four elements and the four qualities as described above, and they had a strong tradition of cloaking their written ideas in a labyrinth of coded jargon set with traps to mislead the uninitiated. Finally, the alchemists practiced their art: they activ... | 1,379 |
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speaking churchmen and scholars. Alchemical discourse shifted from scholarly philosophical debate to an exposed social commentary on the alchemists themselves. Dante, Piers Plowman, and Chaucer all painted unflattering pictures of alchemists as thieves and liars. Pope John XXII's 1317 edict, "Spondent quas non ... | 1,380 |
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of alchemy, which continued with an increasingly Christian tone. The 14th century saw the Christian imagery of death and resurrection employed in the alchemical texts of Petrus Bonus, John of Rupescissa, and in works written in the name of Raymond Lull and Arnold of Villanova.
Nicolas Flamel is a well-known al... | 1,381 |
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stone. His work spends a great deal of time describing the processes and reactions, but never actually gives the formula for carrying out the transmutations. Most of 'his' work was aimed at gathering alchemical knowledge that had existed before him, especially as regarded the philosopher's stone. Through the 14... | 1,382 |
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alchemy. The dawn of medical, pharmaceutical, occult, and entrepreneurial branches of alchemy followed.
In the late 15th century, Marsilo Ficino translated the Corpus Hermeticum and the works of Plato into Latin. These were previously unavailable to Europeans who for the first time had a full picture of the al... | 1,383 |
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(1486–1535), who received his Hermetic education in Italy in the schools of the humanists. In his "De Occulta Philosophia", he attempted to merge Kabbalah, Hermeticism, and alchemy. He was instrumental in spreading this new blend of Hermeticism outside the borders of Italy.
Philippus Aureolus Paracelsus, (Theo... | 1,384 |
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hermetical views were that sickness and health in the body relied on the harmony of man the microcosm and Nature the macrocosm. He took an approach different from those before him, using this analogy not in the manner of soul-purification but in the manner that humans must have certain balances of minerals in t... | 1,385 |
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applications of alchemy championed by Paracelsus.
John Dee (13 July 1527 – December, 1608) followed Agrippa's occult tradition. Although better known for angel summoning, divination, and his role as astrologer, cryptographer, and consultant to Queen Elizabeth I, Dee's alchemical "Monas Hieroglyphica", written ... | 1,386 |
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of alchemy believed that the philosopher's stone might be used to summon and communicate with angels.
Entrepreneurial opportunities were common for the alchemists of Renaissance Europe. Alchemists were contracted by the elite for practical purposes related to mining, medical services, and the production of che... | 1,387 |
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Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel all contracted alchemists. John's son Arthur Dee worked as a court physician to Michael I of Russia and Charles I of England but also compiled the alchemical book "Fasciculus Chemicus".
Although most of these appointments were legitimate, the trend of pseudo-alchemical fraud continued... | 1,388 |
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were used as synonyms in the early modern period, and the differences between alchemy, chemistry and small-scale assaying and metallurgy were not as neat as in the present day. There were important overlaps between practitioners, and trying to classify them into alchemists, chemists and craftsmen is anachronist... | 1,389 |
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lab sometime around 1600. Sendivogious taught his technique to Cornelius Drebbel who, in 1621, applied this in a submarine. Isaac Newton devoted considerably more of his writing to the study of alchemy (see Isaac Newton's occult studies) than he did to either optics or physics. Other early modern alchemists who... | 1,390 |
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wisdom". Although the seeds of these events were planted as early as the 17th century, alchemy still flourished for some two hundred years, and in fact may have reached its peak in the 18th century. As late as 1781 James Price claimed to have produced a powder that could transmute mercury into silver or gold. E... | 1,391 |
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in his experiments and compiled every piece of relevant data. Boyle would note the place in which the experiment was carried out, the wind characteristics, the position of the Sun and Moon, and the barometer reading, all just in case they proved to be relevant. This approach eventually led to the founding of mo... | 1,392 |
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more than a fraud. In order to protect the developing science of modern chemistry from the negative censure of which alchemy was being subjected, academic writers during the scientific Enlightenment attempted, for the sake of survival, to divorce and separate the "new" chemistry from the "old" practices of alch... | 1,393 |
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mentioned in alchemical literature are to be interpreted in a spiritual sense, and it downplays the role of the alchemy as a practical tradition or protoscience. This interpretation further forwarded the view that alchemy is an art primarily concerned with spiritual enlightenment or illumination, as opposed to ... | 1,394 |
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a completely esoteric view of alchemy, as Atwood claimed: "No modern art or chemistry, notwithstanding all its surreptitious claims, has any thing in common with Alchemy." Atwood's work influenced subsequent authors of the occult revival including Eliphas Levi, Arthur Edward Waite, and Rudolf Steiner. Hitchcock... | 1,395 |
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research did not enter the mainstream of scientific discussion.
In 1946, Louis Cattiaux published the Message Retrouvé, a work that was at once philosophical, mystical and highly influenced by alchemy. In his lineage, many researchers, including Emmanuel and Charles d'Hooghvorst, are updating alchemical studie... | 1,396 |
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whose name we know is said to have been Mary the Jewess (c. 200 A.D.). Early sources claim that Mary (or Maria) devised a number of improvements to alchemical equipment and tools as well as novel techniques in chemistry. Her best known advances were in heating and distillation processes. The laboratory water-ba... | 1,397 |
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the process of distillation that are credited to her. The occasional claim that Mary was the first to discover hydrochloric acid is not accepted by most authorities. Although we have no writing from Mary herself, she is known from the early-fourth-century writings of Zosimos of Panopolis.
Due to the proliferat... | 1,398 |
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the Hermetic Mystery" (1850) marks their return during the nineteenth-century occult revival.
## Modern historical research.
The history of alchemy has become a significant and recognized subject of academic study. As the language of the alchemists is analyzed, historians are becoming more aware of the intell... | 1,399 |
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