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621307 | Trainz | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Trainz | Trainz
the second release targeting a regional market distributed by Anuman Interactive for sale in France, Belgium and Switzerland. There were initially two versions: the standard version which consisted of "Trainz Railroad Simulator 2006" with Service Pack 1 applied, and the "Gold" edition, which included French regional add-on items.
- TRS2008
- Halycon Media later distributed "Trainz Railroad Simulator 2007" with German region-specific content for the British, Austrian, and Swiss market. This release version of "TRS2007" was not available in American markets, though the "Gold" edition content was included in later games.
### "Trainz Classics (TC1—TC3)".
"Trainz Classics", also abbreviated as | 13,800 |
621307 | Trainz | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Trainz | Trainz
"TC" (TC1, TC2, TC3), is a series of 3 standalone "Trainz Railroad Simulator 2006" joint venture customizations put together by Auran and different professional providers of third party content. Unlike typical Trainz releases which feature a round-the-world sampling of content typical to different regions of the planet, the Trainz Classics versions feature a large railroad layout with plenty of special professionally written sessions exploiting the featured railroad. Trainz Classics 3 renewed evolution of the Trainz base technologies incorporating various changes to the older stable four-year-old data models resulting in the publication of a new .pdf file TC3 Content Creator's Guide.
TC1 focuses | 13,801 |
621307 | Trainz | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Trainz | Trainz
on the Metro-North Railroad's Harlem Line in the 2000s (due to EMD FL9 locomotives still being in service), TC2 focuses on a freelanced city called "Modula City", featuring European trams running in the city and to an island (a demo version was included with TRS2004). TC3 focuses on the famed Settle-Carlisle Line from Skipton to Carlisle in the late 1950s/early 1960s during the steam-diesel transition.
Demos of Modula City and the Settle-Carlisle line were included in "TRS2006", along with a limited amount of content in unrefined states.
The content from Trainz Classics 1 and 2 were later released as built-content for TS2009 and TS2010. Trainz Classics 3 was re-released as an expansion pack | 13,802 |
621307 | Trainz | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Trainz | Trainz
for TS2009, TS2010, and TS12.
### "Trainz – The Complete Collection".
Released June 13, 2008. This is a large compilation, containing three DVD's: "Ultimate Trainz Collection", "TRS2004", "TRS2006", "Trainz Routes" (volumes 1-4), and "Trainz PaintShed".
### iPad, Android.
To celebrate the 10th anniversary of "Trainz", N3V Games released a "Trainz" app for the iPad on December 4, 2010. Users can lay tracks, drive trains. Users have access to Driver and Surveyor and can create routes and drive trains with the help of tutorials. An Android version of the game was released on 22 July 2011 and has the same features as the iPad version. The app is a port of "Trainz Simulator 2010".
## "Trainz | 13,803 |
621307 | Trainz | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Trainz | Trainz
Simulator 12".
"Trainz Simulator 12", or "TS12", was released on April 12, 2011. Among other upgrades, this product offers a variety of new routes, doppler effect support, satellite view, and a multiplayer feature for the first time (multiplayer was publicly tested in "TS2010"). A Trainz 10th Anniversary Boxset was announced which includes the game and other extras. The game was initially released for pre-order on March 18, 2011 as part of the limited-edition "Trainz 10th Anniversary Collector's Edition". A certain amount of content from previous versions was removed from this release, making it the first release since Trainz 1.0 to feature all and only new routes and related assets. Like most | 13,804 |
621307 | Trainz | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Trainz | Trainz
Trainz releases, the package contains only content vetted for the new technology, which in TS12 needed to be updated for compatibility with 64 bit computers. However, much of the content (not all of it) from the previous versions was released on the Download station (DLC) in an updated form as of the end of 2012 under an initiative known as the "Download Station Cleanup".
## "My First Trainz Set".
"My First Trainz Set" was designed for the younger generation who do not want to worry about realism or management when playing the "Trainz" game. The game features 4 locations to lay track in that are based on rooms throughout a house, such as a bedroom or kitchen. The user has the ability to place | 13,805 |
621307 | Trainz | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Trainz | Trainz
down small toy-like objects in the replacement of buildings and scenery. However, its graphical quality of the trains, track, and objects is still very much like that of the standard "Trainz" simulator games. Controls are also far more simplified. The game was also ported to Android devices.
### Mac".
"Trainz Simulator: Mac" was a port of "Trainz Simulator: 2010 for Macintosh".
### iPhone.
"Trainz Driver" leveraged the work done porting Trainz Simulator onto iPad and brought the driving aspect of the Trainz franchise to mobile phones for the first time.
## "Trainz Simulator 2 Mac".
"Trainz Simulator 2 Mac" was released on March 27, 2014 via the Mac App Store, which amongst other things, | 13,806 |
621307 | Trainz | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Trainz | Trainz
introduced an online multiplayer feature. It is a port of "Trainz 12".
### iPhone.
"Trainz Driver 2" leveraged the iPad updates and introduced the powerful route editing tools to the phone.
### A New Era".
"Trainz: A New Era" is, as noted in the new naming convention, a new beginning for the Trainz franchise. In November 2013, a Kickstarter campaign for the game was launched to help fund the game and the new purpose-built game engine. The campaign reached its target funding level a month later. Contributors were awarded prizes ranging from desktop wallpapers, First Class Tickets for the Download Station, full copies of the game, and various additional content depending on the amount pledged.
- | 13,807 |
621307 | Trainz | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Trainz | Trainz
The game utilizes a new custom designed 64 bit game engine, which features far more realistic (lifelike) graphics, slightly improved train physics, and various other new features and improvements led by a top ten hit-list drawn up by the user community on the forums between September and November 2013.
- Subsequently, a download only release, "the 'TANE Community Edition' "was released in mid-December 2014. The new game was officially released as a retail version for wide distribution on May 15, 2015, though it was rather bare bones, lacking many normal User Interface features such as Content Manager hotkeys, a working minimap and like UX multiplier factors.
- A whole series of bug fixing | 13,808 |
621307 | Trainz | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Trainz | Trainz
hotfix software updates were forthcoming throughout the year, and often these would incrementally improve UI lacks and so gradually raise the UX. A long delayed Service Pack 1 finally passed a succession of hurdles which had new BETA Candidate Replacements updating the last until finally six-to-seven weeks late, a SP1 release build heralded a new stage of stability and capability in Mid-January, January, 12th, 2016 instead of Halloween. Major Kickstarter contributors also could participate in Beta testing in addition to a dedicated in-house employee team testing new code; so hundreds participated in moving the new technology into matured stability. Two hotfixes followed after just a month and | 13,809 |
621307 | Trainz | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Trainz | Trainz
a half, one after the other a week apart on March 11, 2016 (build 81190) and March 18, 2016 (build 81296), but normal UI to recapture UX operations of earlier Trainz aside from Driver, are still lacking in hotfix2. Several of the CM hotkeys were reinstated with the second hotfix, and N3V has announced that Service Pack 2 beta candidate builds will be forthcoming soon, implying the rapid rebuilding of the Trainz customary UX may not be far behind.
## "Trainz Railroad Simulator 2019".
On May 11, 2018, N3V Games announced a new version of Trainz featuring better graphics, Physically-Based Rendering, Parallax Occlusion Mapping and more content than ever before. Early Access will be available in | 13,810 |
621307 | Trainz | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Trainz | Trainz
July 2018 and the game will officially launch in Q4, 2018. It is also the first entry in the series since TRS2006 to feature the "Trainz Railroad Simulator" moniker. The game uses whole-game DRM in all versions, whereas certain versions of "Trainz: A New Era" could be purchased and run offline. This requires that the game be able to connect to the internet at least once a month in order for the game and content to continue functioning. TRS19 is primarily being offered as subscription model, although a one-time purchase (but with the monthly DRM check still required) is also planned. It also has the ability to download content from the Download Station (DLS) while in the game. It was later fully | 13,811 |
621307 | Trainz | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Trainz | Trainz
least once a month in order for the game and content to continue functioning. TRS19 is primarily being offered as subscription model, although a one-time purchase (but with the monthly DRM check still required) is also planned. It also has the ability to download content from the Download Station (DLS) while in the game. It was later fully released later in 2018.
# Special hardware support.
The desktop cab controller RailDriver was first supported for use in Service Pack 1 for the "Ultimate Trainz Collection", and is also supported by all subsequent "Trainz" releases.
# External links.
- "Trainz Simulator" official website
- Auran official website
- Official 3rd party content providers | 13,812 |
621321 | Chamber (firearms) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chamber%20(firearms) | Chamber (firearms)
Chamber (firearms)
In firearms, the chamber is the portion of the barrel or firing cylinder in which the cartridge is inserted before being fired. Rifles and pistols generally have a single chamber in their barrel, but revolvers have multiple chambers in their cylinder, and no chamber in their barrel. Thus rifles and pistols can usually be fired with a detached magazine, while a revolver cannot be fired with its cylinder swung out.
The act of "chambering" a cartridge means the insertion of a round into the chamber, either manually or through the action of the weapon, e.g., pump-action, lever-action, bolt action, or automatic action generally in anticipation of firing the weapon, without need | 13,813 |
621321 | Chamber (firearms) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chamber%20(firearms) | Chamber (firearms)
a revolver cannot be fired with its cylinder swung out.
The act of "chambering" a cartridge means the insertion of a round into the chamber, either manually or through the action of the weapon, e.g., pump-action, lever-action, bolt action, or automatic action generally in anticipation of firing the weapon, without need to 'load' the weapon upon decision to use it (reducing the number of "actions" needed to discharge).
In firearms design or modification, "chambering" is fitting a weapon for a particular caliber or round, so a Colt Model 1911 is "chambered" for .45 ACP or .38 Super, or "re-chambered" for .38/.45 Clerke.
# See also.
- Glossary of firearms terms
# External links.
- Chamber | 13,814 |
1214548 | British Rail Class 403 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=British%20Rail%20Class%20403 | British Rail Class 403
British Rail Class 403
The Southern Railway (SR) gave the designation 5-BEL to the five-car all-Pullman electric multiple units which worked the prestigious Brighton Belle trains between London Victoria and Brighton. These units survived long enough in British Rail ownership to be allocated TOPS Class 403. Between 1933 and 1935 the units were designated 5-PUL (the 'PUL' code was then used for the 6-PUL units).
# Construction.
The SR electrified the London Victoria to Brighton line in the early 1930s, and full electric services commenced over the route from 1 January 1933. For the high-profile "Southern Belle" Pullman train three five-car units, consisting entirely of Pullman cars, were built. | 13,815 |
1214548 | British Rail Class 403 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=British%20Rail%20Class%20403 | British Rail Class 403
All 15 cars were built by Metropolitan Cammell. In June 1934 the Southern Railway renamed the "Southern Belle" as the "Brighton Belle".
As they were Pullman cars, owned by the independent Pullman Car Company, the individual carriages were numbered in its series, taking numbers 279 to 293, and the first class cars were given women's names while the third (from June 1956, second) class cars carried less-inspiring "Car No xx" designations, derived from the second and third digits of the Pullman Car Company's number. However, the units together were allocated numbers in the SR series, originally taking 2051-2053, which was revised in January 1937 to 3051-3053.
# Formations.
Three different car | 13,816 |
1214548 | British Rail Class 403 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=British%20Rail%20Class%20403 | British Rail Class 403
types were built - Driving Motor Brake Parlour Third (DMBPT), Trailer Parlour First with Kitchen (TPFK), and Trailer Parlour Third (TPT). Initial formations of these units were as follows:
# Withdrawal and preservation.
The last "Brighton Belle" train ran on 30 April 1972, and the three 5BEL units were withdrawn. However all 15 cars were sold into private ownership, though no unit was kept together as a single entity. Instead they were split up and each vehicle was initially used as an individual Pullman car, the majority not in railway use. A number have been returned to service on the main line with the Belmond British Pullman (previously the Venice Simplon Orient Express or VSOE), as hauled | 13,817 |
1214548 | British Rail Class 403 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=British%20Rail%20Class%20403 | British Rail Class 403
jority not in railway use. A number have been returned to service on the main line with the Belmond British Pullman (previously the Venice Simplon Orient Express or VSOE), as hauled cars forming part of the British Pullman charter train. A campaign to return the Brighton Belle to mainline service was launched by the 5BEL Trust in 2008. By 2009, the trust had assembled a four-car set, having acquired cars from the North Norfolk Railway and VSOE. A fifth car, No.282 'Doris', was acquired from the Bluebell Railway in 2011 and a sixth, No.279 'Hazel' in 2012. After restoration, the Brighton Belle is expected to enter testing in Autumn/Winter 2018.
The table below sets out the current position: | 13,818 |
621311 | Train simulator | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Train%20simulator | Train simulator
Train simulator
A train simulator (also railroad simulator or railway simulator) is a computer based simulation of rail transport operations. They are generally large complicated software packages modeling a 3D virtual reality world implemented both as commercial trainers, and consumer computer game software with 'play modes' which lets the user interact by stepping inside the virtual world. Because of the near view modeling, often at speed, train simulator software is generally far more complicated and difficult software to write and implement than flight simulator programs.
While commercial trainers on mini-computer systems had a longer history, the first two mass-market English 'computer | 13,819 |
621311 | Train simulator | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Train%20simulator | Train simulator
game' railway simulators, MSTS and Trainz, arrived within a few months of one another in 2001 and could run (poorly) on Intel 80386 microprocessor based systems. Some, like the first wide-market release, Microsoft Train Simulator (MSTS), are written and modeled for the user mainly interested in driving. Others, like MSTS's principle rival, Trainz, were aimed initially primarily at the rail enthusiast-hobbyist markets, supporting features making it possible to build a virtual railroad of one's dreams. Accordingly, for four years Trainz releases bundled a free copy of gmax digital model building software on each CDROM, hosted an asset swap website (Trainz Exchange, later the Trainz Download Station), | 13,820 |
621311 | Train simulator | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Train%20simulator | Train simulator
encouraged user participation and dialog with an active forum, and took pains to publish in-depth how-to model guidelines and specifications with its releases.
Several other later challengers as well as Trainz (with a series of upgrades) soon matched or eclipsed MSTS's driving experiences one way or another. Railsim, actually a successor using the MSTS game engine upped the challenge to the aging MSTS by adding much improved graphics, so Trainz did as well, but also added interactive industries and dynamic driving features such as product loading and unloading, load-sensitive physics modeling affecting driving and operating and user interface changes to improve User eXperiences (UX), such as | 13,821 |
621311 | Train simulator | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Train%20simulator | Train simulator
a free camera mode allowing roaming away from the train cars, free and clear of the Train being operated-while still controlling it. This latter makes particular sense given the dearth of an assistant on a walkie-talky while operating a train during coupling operations or other position sensitive tasks such as loading and unloading. Railsim and a couple of others came and went out of business, and Railsim was reorganized as Rail Simulator with the software company that wrote MSTS as its core, while MSTS aged and never did get upgraded as Microsoft had once begun and announced. In the last few years, Rail Simulator has changed its name to "Train Simulator 2016."
As the world market has shaken | 13,822 |
621311 | Train simulator | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Train%20simulator | Train simulator
out, Australian Trainz in 2014-2015 upgraded itself with , still servicing the wider route builder and driving markets, but now matching the 64bit computing and graphics of Train Simulator 2013, 2015, and Train Simulator 2016. In the same five-year period, Train simulators have moved to pad computer and phone platforms.
# Industrial train simulations.
Like flight simulators, train simulators have been produced for railway training purposes. Driver simulators include those produced by:
- Ongakukan in Japan
- EADS in Germany
- Bentley Systems in the UK
- Lander Simulation & Training Solutions, Spain
- Transurb Simulation in Belgium
- CORYS , a French company with offices in Grenoble, France | 13,823 |
621311 | Train simulator | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Train%20simulator | Train simulator
and Jacksonville, FL, USA
- Krauss-Maffei Wegmann GmbH & Co KG (KMW) http://www.kmweg.de/, a German company based in Munich
- Oktal Sydac in Australia, France, India and the UK
- SMART Simulation - part of the Neokon Baltija group from Lithuania with offices in the UK and Russia.
- New York Air Brake, an American company based in Watertown, NY.
- PS Technology, an American company based in Boulder, CO.
Signaller training simulators have been developed by Funkwerk in Germany, The Railway Engineering Company (TRE) in the UK, OpenTrack Railway Technology in Switzerland, and PS Technology in the US.
# Consumer train simulation.
There are two broad categories of train simulation video games: | 13,824 |
621311 | Train simulator | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Train%20simulator | Train simulator
driving simulation and strategy simulation.
## Driving simulation.
Train driving simulation games usually allow a user to have a "driver's view" from the locomotive's cab and operate realistic cab controls such as throttle, brake valve, sand, horn and whistle, lights etc.
One of the first commercially available train simulators was "Southern Belle", released in 1985. The game simulated a journey of the "Southern Belle" steam passenger train from London Victoria to Brighton, while at the same time the player must comply with speed limits, not to go too fast on curves and keep to the schedule. It was followed with "Evening Star" in 1987.
Other train driving simulation software includes:
- | 13,825 |
621311 | Train simulator | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Train%20simulator | Train simulator
"BVE Trainsim" (originally "Boso View Express") is a Japanese three-dimensional computer-based train simulator. It is notable for focusing on providing an accurate driving experience as viewed from inside the cab, rather than creating a network of other trains—There are no outside views, drivers can only look directly ahead, and other trains passed along the route are only displayed as stationary objects.
- "Trainz", an extensively expandable and user extendable (by scripts) simulator with intuitive GUI world modeling and asset creation facilities, an extensive freeware library of over 250,000 assets, and an attention to Train physics. The simulator offers 4 viewing modes, and for beginning | 13,826 |
621311 | Train simulator | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Train%20simulator | Train simulator
drivers or learning a route, a control mode similar to that of a H.O. scale model train set.
- "Densha de Go!", a Japanese (only) train simulation game series focused on driving.
- "Microsoft Train Simulator" ("MSTS"), with limited route building and difficult expansion capabilities.
- "Rail Simulator", another extensively expandable and user orientated creation simulator with intuitive driving modes and editing tools. The main focus is on driving a train from the cab while performing a series of pre-determined tasks. Additional modes allow differing levels of control and interaction. Built by the company behind the original "Microsoft Train Simulator" software, and published by Electronic | 13,827 |
621311 | Train simulator | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Train%20simulator | Train simulator
Arts.
- "Train Simulator" (originally "RailWorks"), successor to "Rail Simulator", the software was subject to a management buy out. Operating as Rail Simulator Developments Ltd, the software was rebranded, improved and adapted for the Steam online distribution system. Expanding on the capabilities of the original version, "RailWorks" went on to develop the concept of Downloadable Content (DLC) addons providing users with optional additional purchases. While the majority of DLC is sold as payware through Steam, many of the "Microsoft Train Simulator" developers also provide routes, trains and scenarios as freeware and payware. The software entered its current incarnation in 2012 when the company | 13,828 |
621311 | Train simulator | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Train%20simulator | Train simulator
behind its development rebranded as Dovetail Games, and put the simulator through a similar program of reinvention. Continuing to be sold primarily though Steam, boxed versions are released annually each September, incrementing the title (TS2013 / TS2014 / TS2015). Each annual release encompasses a range of global enhancements that are distributed free to all users, and a range of purchasable routes and trains that make use of the new features as a demo to prospective customers.
- "Train Simulator" series (a.k.a. "Railfan")
- "Train Sim World"
The PC game "3D Ultra Lionel Traintown," amongst some others, give a different experience to driving, by being in a 3rd person omniscient perspective, | 13,829 |
621311 | Train simulator | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Train%20simulator | Train simulator
controlling the trains from a bird's eye view.
Peripherals specifically designed for use with driving simulations include RailDriver by US manufacturer P.I. Engineering. RailDriver is a programmable desktop cab controller with throttle, brake lever and switches designed to work with "Trainz", "TrainMaster", "Microsoft Train Simulator" and "Rail Simulator".
## Strategy simulation.
Railroad-themed strategy simulation video games are focused mostly on the economic part of the railroad industry rather than on technical detail. The "A-Train" series (1985 to present) is an early example. Chris Sawyer's "Transport Tycoon" (1994) was an influential game in this genre, spawning remakes such as "Simutrans" | 13,830 |
621311 | Train simulator | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Train%20simulator | Train simulator
(1999 to present), "OpenTTD" (2004 to present) and Sawyer's own "Locomotion" (2004). Sid Meier designed two railroad simulations: "Railroad Tycoon" (1990) and "Railroads!" (2006). The "Railroad Tycoon" series itself inspired other rail games such as "Rails Across America" (2001).
## Other genres.
Some rail simulation games focus on railway signalling rather than economics. Examples include "The Train Game" (1983), "SimSig" (donationware) and "Train Dispatcher
JBSS BAHN (shareware) focuses on simulating a complex railroad lay out.
PC-Rail Software have nearly 90 different signalling simulations, mostly based on UK locations.
# See also.
- Flight simulator – contains reference to flight | 13,831 |
621311 | Train simulator | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Train%20simulator | Train simulator
e) and "Train Dispatcher
JBSS BAHN (shareware) focuses on simulating a complex railroad lay out.
PC-Rail Software have nearly 90 different signalling simulations, mostly based on UK locations.
# See also.
- Flight simulator – contains reference to flight simulators
- Strategy computer game
# External links.
- 2TRAIN Benchmarking Report on computer-based Railway Training in Europe
- RailServe.com (Directory of train simulator sites)
- Railpage Train Simulator Support Forums(Online Support Forum and Add-on downloads)
- VR Reading Room: Hundreds of articles covering all train simulators
- Train Simulation
- Metro Simulation
- pagina Viajeros al Tren Add-on Soporte y foro en Español | 13,832 |
621280 | Peter Ebdon | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peter%20Ebdon | Peter Ebdon
Peter Ebdon
Peter David Ebdon (born 27 August 1970) is an English professional snooker player. He was World Champion in 2002, beating Stephen Hendry 18–17 in the final, and won the UK Championship in 2006 and seven other ranking events between 1993 and 2012. He was also a losing finalist in the World Championship in 1996 and 2006. Ebdon turned professional in 1991 and soon made an impact by beating six-time world champion Steve Davis 10–4 in the first round of the 1992 World Championship and reaching the quarter-final stage.
# Career.
## Early years.
Ebdon turned professional in 1991, sporting a ponytail, he made an impact by beating Steve Davis 10–4 in the first round of the 1992 World Championship; | 13,833 |
621280 | Peter Ebdon | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peter%20Ebdon | Peter Ebdon
he went on to reach the quarter-finals of the event, losing 7–13 to a resurgent Terry Griffiths. However, it was a run which earned him the WPBSA Young Player of the Year award as a result. His first ranking title was the 1993 Grand Prix. He climbed the rankings rapidly to reach a career-highest position of number three in 1996; he again reached world number three status at the close of the 2002 season.
## 2002–2010.
Ebdon's greatest achievement, thus far, was his 18–17 defeat of Stephen Hendry in the 2002 World Championship final, having started the tournament at odds of 33–1. He had previously reached the final of the tournament in 1996, which he lost 12–18 to Hendry, and was also runner-up | 13,834 |
621280 | Peter Ebdon | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peter%20Ebdon | Peter Ebdon
at the 2006 event to Graeme Dott in which, at 7–15 down coming into the final session, Ebdon won six successive frames before Dott prevailed 18–14. In the semi-final before the final he led Marco Fu 15–9 before being pegged back to 16–16 before Ebdon took the decider, at the end of which he shed tears of relief.
Ebdon is a remarkably focused and determined player. Until recently, his shot times had slowed down considerably; this attracted some criticism – particularly, in his match against Ronnie O'Sullivan in the 2005 World Championship. Resuming at 6–10 down, Ebdon won the first six frames of the evening session, at one stage taking three minutes over a shot, and five minutes to compile a | 13,835 |
621280 | Peter Ebdon | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peter%20Ebdon | Peter Ebdon
break of 12. Ebdon nevertheless won the match 13–11. Such performances, though lacking fluency, often appear to break his opponent mentally. Ebdon stated after his victory over O'Sullivan, "When I'm trying my hardest I seem to go slow. I don't do it intentionally". When "The Times" described his slow play as 'cheating', he attempted to sue them for libel and lost.
Among Ebdon's other career highlights was winning the UK Championship in 2006, beating Stephen Hendry 10–6 in the final – in doing so, becoming only the ninth player to have won both the World and UK Championship. Ebdon's shot times were markedly quicker, and this fluency served him well in defeating the defending champion Ding Junhui | 13,836 |
621280 | Peter Ebdon | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peter%20Ebdon | Peter Ebdon
and John Higgins en route to the final, and compiling eight century-breaks over the course of the tournament. However, he failed to reach a ranking quarter-final in 2007. His poor form continued into 2008; in the Northern Ireland Trophy he lost 0–5 to Liang Wenbo with a highest break of 32., a result which led to an investigation of suspicious betting patterns by the Gambling Commission. The WPBSA, however, did not launch an investigation. In 2009, Ebdon beat John Higgins 10–8 to win the China Open. However, in the subsequent World Championship, Ebdon lost 5–10 to Nigel Bond in the first round. A year later, after a disappointing season, Ebdon once again lost 5–10 in the World Championship, | 13,837 |
621280 | Peter Ebdon | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peter%20Ebdon | Peter Ebdon
this time to Graeme Dott. This result meant Ebdon dropped out of the top 16 in the world rankings after an uninterrupted 16-year stay.
## 2010/2011.
At the start of the season Ebdon issued a statement announcing that he would not be able to play to the best of his ability in the last round of the Shanghai Masters qualifiers.
He reached the second round of the tournament though by winning his qualifying match by 5–1 against Michael White, and then his last 32 match against Neil Robertson 5–4 before losing against Mark King 3–5. He enjoyed a good return of form in the World Open, where he beat Steve Davis 3–1, Fergal O'Brien 3–2, Liu Song 3–2, and Martin Gould 3–1 before losing against Ronnie | 13,838 |
621280 | Peter Ebdon | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peter%20Ebdon | Peter Ebdon
O'Sullivan 1–3. This was his first semi-final since the 2009 China Open and saw him retake a place in the top 16. He also reached the quarter-finals of the China Open and the last 16 of the German Masters and Welsh Open. However, he was knocked out in the first round of both the UK Championship and World Championship, but was still ranked as number 13 at the end of the season.
## 2011/2012.
Ebdon lost in the first round of the first two ranking events of the year, the Australian Goldfields Open and the Shanghai Masters, to make a low key start to the season and as a result drop out of the top 16 at the first cut-off in October, meaning he now had to win a qualifying match to reach the main | 13,839 |
621280 | Peter Ebdon | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peter%20Ebdon | Peter Ebdon
draw of the ranking events. He lost his first qualifying match in an attempt to reach the UK Championship as he was defeated 3–6 by Robert Milkins. The result meant that Ebdon would not play in the tournament since his first year as a professional in 1991. He also missed the Masters for the first time since 1992 due to being ranked outside of the top 16, but did manage to qualify for the German Masters and the Welsh Open, losing in the first round upon reaching the venue in both events.
He had a disastrous run of form in the PTC series, as he played in all 12 events but could only win 4 matches all season. He finished 98th in the Order of Merit and these results contributed to Ebdon being ranked | 13,840 |
621280 | Peter Ebdon | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peter%20Ebdon | Peter Ebdon
world number 28 in March.
Ebdon put his indifferent form behind him at the China Open where he won the ninth ranking event title of his career. He whitewashed Liang Wenbo 5–0 to qualify and once in China beat Matthew Stevens 5–3 to set up a last 16 meeting with John Higgins. He came back from 1–3 down and, despite Higgins finding a snooker he needed in the final frame, he held his nerve to take the match 5–4 and his reach his fourth successive China Open quarter-final. There he beat Neil Robertson 5–3 to play local favourite Ding Junhui in the semi-finals. Ebdon again came back from 1–3 down, this time winning five successive frames to take the match 6–3 and make it to his first ranking event | 13,841 |
621280 | Peter Ebdon | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peter%20Ebdon | Peter Ebdon
final since winning the same tournament three years earlier. In the final he played Stephen Maguire and built a 5–1 lead in the first session, which was cut by three frames due to slow play. However, Maguire won seven of the next ten frames to level the match at 8 frames apiece. The final three frames were error strewn and slow, but with the clock approaching 01:00 am Beijing time, Ebdon clinched the frame he required to win the eight-hour match 10–9. The result saw him rise seven places in the rankings to number 21 and during the final he recorded the 300th century break of his career. He made six century breaks during the tournament, the most of any player – four of which were in the final.
He | 13,842 |
621280 | Peter Ebdon | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peter%20Ebdon | Peter Ebdon
continued his recent surge of form into the World Championship by recording a 10–0 whitewash over Alfie Burden in qualifying. However, his season was ended when he drew Ronnie O'Sullivan in the first round and lost 4–10, meaning he has failed to beat "The Rocket" since their infamous 2005 quarter-final. Despite his win in China, Ebdon finished the season ranked world number 20 meaning he had dropped 7 places during the year.
## 2012/2013.
Ebdon began the season by qualifying for the Wuxi Classic and lost 4–5 to an in-form Stuart Bingham in the first round. He then played in the Australian Goldfields Open, beating Michael Holt, Ding Junhui and Shaun Murphy all by 5–4 scorelines. The match against | 13,843 |
621280 | Peter Ebdon | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peter%20Ebdon | Peter Ebdon
Ding caused a degree of controversy as Ebdon had taken an average of 32 seconds a shot in a nine frame encounter lasting almost 5 hours. In the semi-finals he defeated Marco Fu 6–2, despite his opponent having over a 90% pot success, 80% long pot success and 80% in his safety game success. He faced Barry Hawkins in the final and succumbed to a 3–9 defeat, admitting afterwards that he had struggled in every department of his game. Ebdon lost in the first round of the Shanghai Masters, but continued his good start to the season at the inaugural International Championship. He received a bye through the first round as Stephen Lee had been suspended due to match fixing allegations, and only conceded | 13,844 |
621280 | Peter Ebdon | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peter%20Ebdon | Peter Ebdon
one frame in beating Stephen Maguire and Ricky Walden to advance to the semi-finals. There he was thrashed 1–9 by Judd Trump.
During the rest of the season Ebdon lost in qualifying for three ranking events and in the first round of the World Open and the China Open. He qualified for the World Championship by coming back from 6–8 to beat Kurt Maflin 10–8 and played Graeme Dott in the first round, a repeat of the 2006 final. His place in the main draw meant Ebdon equalled Steve Davis by featuring in 22 consecutive appearances in the tournament, second only to Stephen Hendry's record of 27. His match against Dott lasted seven hours, spread over three sessions as Ebdon battled back from 2–6 to | 13,845 |
621280 | Peter Ebdon | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peter%20Ebdon | Peter Ebdon
level at 6–6, before losing the last four frames to succumb to a 6–10 defeat. Dott called for new rules to be brought in to combat slow play after the match. Ebdon fell 10 places in the end of season rankings to world number 30.
## 2013/2014.
Ebdon had a slow start to the 2013/2014 season as in the opening four ranking events he lost in the first round twice and failed to qualify for the other two. His form improved at the International Championship with victories over Jack Lisowski and Mark Joyce. Ebdon then held his nerve against Neil Robertson to win 6–5 after having led 5–3 and revealed afterwards that he was trying to speed up his game. Robertson called Ebdon an all-time great and stated | 13,846 |
621280 | Peter Ebdon | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peter%20Ebdon | Peter Ebdon
that he could beat his quarter-final opponent Ding Junhui if he could play the same again. Ding had won the previous two ranking events and, although the match lasted four hours, he beat Ebdon 6–3. He could not advance beyond the second round of a ranking event until the penultimate tournament, the China Open. Ebdon eliminated Jimmy Robertson 5–3 and won a deciding frame against Judd Trump, saying later that he proved he could still beat the best players in the game. In the third round he was defeated 3–5 by Ali Carter. Ebdon's proud 22-year playing streak in the World Championship ended this season as he lost 8–10 against Finland's Robin Hull to miss the event for the first time since turning | 13,847 |
621280 | Peter Ebdon | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peter%20Ebdon | Peter Ebdon
professional.
## 2014/2015.
The 2014/2015 season was the first time since 1992/1993 that Ebdon failed to play in a ranking event quarter-final, with three last 16 finishes being his deepest runs. He did have his best year so far in the minor-ranking European Tour as a quarter-final appearance at the Riga Open and a semi-final at the Bulgarian Open saw him ranked 13th on the Order of Merit, to make his debut at the Grand Final where he lost 1–4 to Anthony McGill in the first round. At the non-ranking World Grand Prix, Ebdon made a 136 total clearance in the deciding frame of his first round match against Shaun Murphy and then defeated Stephen Maguire 4–1. In the quarter-finals Ebdon was ousted | 13,848 |
621280 | Peter Ebdon | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peter%20Ebdon | Peter Ebdon
2–4 by Martin Gould. He missed out on playing in the World Championship for the second year in a row as Stuart Carrington beat him 10–7 in the second qualifying round.
## 2015/2016.
At the UK Championship, Ebdon beat Lu Chenwei 6–0, Dominic Dale 6–5 and reigning world champion Stuart Bingham 6–3 to reach the fourth round, where he lost 2–6 to David Grace. At 45, he was the oldest man in the field at the World Grand Prix, but knocked out Neil Robertson 4–3, before Ding Junhui whitewashed him 0–4 in the second round. Ebdon eliminated James Wattana 10–6 in the first round of World Championship qualifying and then incredibly came back from 3–9 behind against Gerard Greene to win 10–9 just after | 13,849 |
621280 | Peter Ebdon | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peter%20Ebdon | Peter Ebdon
2am. He qualified for the first time in three years by defeating Ian Burns 10–2 and lost 2–10 to Marco Fu in the opening round.
## 2016/2017.
Ebdon had 4–1 victories over Zhou Yuelong, Duane Jones, and Dominic Dale, to advance to the quarter-finals of the Indian Open in which he lost 3–4 to Nigel Bond. He made his 24th appearance at the World Championship after beating Michael Holt 10–9 on the final black to qualify. He recovered from a position of requiring four snookers, to win the 9th frame of his first round match against Stuart Bingham on a re-spotted black, and only trailed 4–5 overnight; however, he was ultimately defeated 5–10. Ebdon ended the season outside the top 32 in the world | 13,850 |
621280 | Peter Ebdon | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peter%20Ebdon | Peter Ebdon
rankings for the first time since 1992, as he was ranked 40th.
## 2018/2019.
Ebdon appeared in a ranking final for the 18th time in his career at the 2018 Paul Hunter Classic. He faced Kyren Wilson for the title, but lost out 2–4.
# Status.
Ebdon was only the second player to have made two competitive maximum 147 breaks in professional tournament play – these coming at the Strachan Professional and UK Championship, both in 1992. In the same year, he became the first player to make four centuries in five frames.
Ebdon is renowned for his strict fitness regime to condition himself for snooker, such as swimming one mile every day. In 2012 he adopted a high-carbohydrate, vegan diet, partly | 13,851 |
621280 | Peter Ebdon | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peter%20Ebdon | Peter Ebdon
to improve sporting performance. In his first year of following the diet he lost two and a half stone and for September aimed to eat only raw food. He is a devotee of Napoleon Hill's motivational book "Think and Grow Rich".
Ebdon has been criticised in the past by other players on the professional circuit, for his exuberant outpourings of emotion after winning important frames or matches. However, since one particular outburst after potting the match ball against Stephen Lee during their 2001 World Championship second round encounter – repeatedly punching the air and shouting "Come on!" at the top of his voice – he has toned down his celebrations significantly.
Ebdon is also colour blind. | 13,852 |
621280 | Peter Ebdon | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peter%20Ebdon | Peter Ebdon
In a frame in which the brown ball is in close proximity to a red, he usually asks the referee for help on which ball is which. During a match against Simon Bedford in the 2008 Grand Prix, Ebdon inadvertently potted the brown believing it to be a red. He made the same mistake in the final of the 2012 Australian Goldfields Open and again in the 2015 Indian Open.
During the 2012 Australian Goldfields Open world number two Judd Trump labelled Ebdon's playing style as "a joke" after his second round 5–4 win over Ding Junhui took almost 5 hours to be completed. The average time between shots was over 30 seconds and the average frame time was 32 minutes.
# Personal life.
Ebdon was born in Islington, | 13,853 |
621280 | Peter Ebdon | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peter%20Ebdon | Peter Ebdon
before moving to Wellingborough, Northamptonshire. He started his career while at Highbury Grove School, resulting in him not taking his O levels – a decision he now regrets.
In 2005, he emigrated with his wife Deborah and four children: Ruby Mae, Ethan, Tristan and Clarissa, to Dubai and lived there until 2009. On 22 January 2009 it was revealed that Ebdon had split with his wife by mutual consent. In 2010 he remarried to Nora, who is Hungarian, and has since become a vegan.
In 1996, Ebdon recorded a version of the David Cassidy song "I Am a Clown", and it was released as a single. He has also released a second single, "Fall of Paradise", with a video filmed at Burnley's Afterlife Club.
# | 13,854 |
621280 | Peter Ebdon | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peter%20Ebdon | Peter Ebdon
a decision he now regrets.
In 2005, he emigrated with his wife Deborah and four children: Ruby Mae, Ethan, Tristan and Clarissa, to Dubai and lived there until 2009. On 22 January 2009 it was revealed that Ebdon had split with his wife by mutual consent. In 2010 he remarried to Nora, who is Hungarian, and has since become a vegan.
In 1996, Ebdon recorded a version of the David Cassidy song "I Am a Clown", and it was released as a single. He has also released a second single, "Fall of Paradise", with a video filmed at Burnley's Afterlife Club.
# External links.
- Peter Ebdon at "worldsnooker.com"
- Player Profile on Pro Snooker
- Player Profile on BBC Sport
- Profile on Yahoo! Sport
- | 13,855 |
1214564 | WBGT | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=WBGT | WBGT
WBGT
WBGT may refer to:
- Wet-bulb globe temperature
- WBGT-CD, a class-A digital TV station (channel 40) licensed to Rochester, New York, United States | 13,856 |
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Christianization
Christianization (or Christianisation) is the conversion of individuals to Christianity or the conversion of entire groups at once. Various strategies and techniques were employed in Christianization campaigns from Late Antiquity and throughout the Middle Ages. Often the conversion of the ruler was followed by the compulsory baptism of his subjects. Some were evangelization by monks or priests, organic growth within an already partly Christianized society, or by campaigns against paganism such as the conversion of pagan temples into Christian churches or the condemnation of pagan gods and practices. A strategy for Christianization was "Interpretatio Christiana" – the practice | 13,857 |
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of converting native pagan practices and culture, pagan religious imagery, pagan sites and the pagan calendar to Christian uses, due to the Christian efforts at proselytism (evangelism) based on the Great Commission.
# "Interpretatio Christiana".
Reformatting native religious and cultural activities and beliefs into a Christianized form was officially sanctioned; preserved in the Venerable Bede's "Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum" is a letter from Pope Gregory I to Mellitus, arguing that conversions were easier if people were allowed to retain the outward forms of their traditions, while claiming that the traditions were in honor of the Christian God, "to the end that, whilst some gratifications | 13,858 |
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are outwardly permitted them, they may the more easily consent to the inward consolations of the grace of God". In essence, it was intended that the traditions and practices still existed, but that the reasoning behind them was altered. The existence of syncretism in Christian tradition has long been recognized by scholars. Since the 16th century and till modern days, significant scholarship was devoted to deconstruction of "interpretatio christiana", i.e., tracing the roots of some Christian practices and traditions to paganism. Early works of this type have tended to be downplayed and even dismissed as a form of Protestant apologetics aimed at "purification" of Christianity.
# Early Christianity | 13,859 |
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(Ante-Nicaean).
The Council of Jerusalem (around 50 AD), according to , agreed that lack of circumcision could not be a basis for excluding Gentile believers from membership in the Jesus community. Rather, they instructed new believers to avoid "pollution of idols, fornication, things strangled, and blood" (KJV, Acts 15:20-21), expecting them to hear Moses read on the Sabbath days. These clarifications were put into writing, distributed (KJV, Acts 16:4-5) by messengers present at the Council, and were received as an encouragement to the growth of these gentiles' trust in the God of Israel as revealed in the Gospel. The Apostolic Decree thus helped to establish nascent Christianity as a unique | 13,860 |
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alternative among the forms of Judaism for prospective Proselytes. The Twelve Apostles and the Apostolic Fathers initiated the process of transforming the originally Jewish sect into a diaspora of communities composed of both Jews and gentiles, united by their trust in Jesus.
The Armenian, Georgian and Ethiopian churches are the only instances of imposition of Christianity by sovereign rulers predating the council of Nicaea. The initial conversion of the Roman Empire occurred mostly in urban areas of Europe, where the first conversions were sometimes among members of the Jewish population. Later conversions happened among the Grecian-Roman-Celtic populations over centuries, often initially | 13,861 |
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among its urban population, with rural conversions taking place some time later. The term "pagan" is from Latin and means ""villager, rustic, civilian."" It is derived from this historical transition. The root of that word is present in today's word "paisan" or "paisano".
# Late antiquity (4th-6th centuries).
The Christianization of the Roman Empire is typically divided into two phases, before and after the year 312, which marked the momentous conversion (sincere or not debated for centuries) of Constantine. By this date, Christianity had already converted a significant but unknown proportion of at least the urban population of the empire including a small number of the elite classes. Constantine | 13,862 |
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ended the intermittent persecution of Christianity with the Edict of Milan, in fact a quote from a letter of the emperor Licinius by Eusebius, which granted tolerance to all religions, but specifically mentions Christianity. Under Constantine's successors, Christianization of Roman society proceeded by fits and starts, as John Curran documented in detail.
Constantine's sons banned pagan state religious sacrifices in 341, but did not close the temples. Although all state temples in all cities were ordered shut in 356, there is evidence that traditional sacrifices continued. Under Julian, the temples were reopened and state religious sacrifices performed once more. When Gratian, emperor 376-383, | 13,863 |
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declined the office and title of Pontifex Maximus, his act effectively brought an end to the state religion due to the position's authority and ties within the Imperial administration. Again, however, this process ended state official practices but not private religious devotion. As Christianity spread, many of the ancient pagan temples were defiled, sacked, destroyed, or converted into Christian sites by such figures as Martin of Tours, and in the East often by militant monks. However, many temples remained open until Theodosius I's edict of Thessalonica in 381 banned haruspices and other pagan religious practices. From 389 to 393 he issued a series of decrees which led to the banning of pagan | 13,864 |
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religious rites, and the confiscation of their property and endowments. The Olympic Games were banned in 392 because of their association with the old religion. Further laws were passed against remaining pagan practices over the course of the following years. The effectiveness of these laws empire-wide is debatable. Christianization of the central Balkans is documented at the end of the 4th century, where Nicetas the Bishop of Remesiana brought the gospel to "those mountain wolves", the Bessi. Reportedly his mission was successful, and the worship of Dionysus and other Thracian gods was eventually replaced by Christianity.
A turning point came after the Battle of the Frigidus of 395, ending | 13,865 |
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the last serious attempt at a pagan revival in the now Christianized Roman Empire. After the defeat of Eugenius, the conservative pagan families of Rome gave up their resistance to Christianity and began to re-invent themselves to maintain their social leadership. By this time the Christian hierarchy had adopted classical education and culture as the marks of the civilized person, thus bringing the two social groups into alliance. Under the regency of Stilicho (395-408), some paganism was still tolerated, but later in the 5th century, legislation against pagan possessions, and other pagan practices, became increasingly strict. There appear to have been later attempts at a pagan revival, in 456 | 13,866 |
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in circles surrounding the general Marcellinus and under Anthemius (r. 467-472), but these came to nothing. Marcian in 451 put the death penalty on the practice on pagan rites, and Leo I in 472 reinforced this by penalizing anyone who was aware that pagan rites were performed on his property.
The early Christianization of the various Germanic peoples was achieved by various means, and was partly facilitated by the prestige of the Christian Roman Empire amongst European pagans. The early rise of Germanic Christianity was, thus, mainly due to voluntary conversion on a small scale. In the 4th century some Eastern Germanic tribes, notably the Goths, an East Germanic tribe, adopted Arianism. From | 13,867 |
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the 6th century, Germanic tribes were converted (and re-converted) by missionaries, firstly among the Franks, after Clovis I's conversion to Christianity in 496. Christianity at this time then constituted of a mix of Arian Christianity, Nicene Christianity, and Christianized Germanic paganism. The Lombards adopted Christianity as they entered Italy, also during the 6th century. Conversion of the West and East Germanic tribes sometimes took place "top to bottom", in the sense that missionaries sometimes aimed at converting Germanic nobility first, after which time their societies would begin a gradual process of Christianization that would generally take a matter of centuries, with some traces | 13,868 |
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of earlier beliefs remaining. The Franks were converted in the 5th century, after Clovis I's conversion to Nicene Christianity. In 498 (497 or 499 are also possible) he let himself be baptized in Rheims. With this act, the Frankish Kingdom became Christian, although it would take until the 7th century for the population to abandon some of their pagan customs. Christian beliefs and a remnant of pagan practices branded as superstitions existed side by side for many centuries.
# Christianization of Europe (7th-15th centuries).
## Great Britain and Ireland.
In most of Britain, the native Britons were already partly Christianized by the time of the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain; it is not | 13,869 |
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clear how thorough this process had been. Ireland, and parts of Scotland, had been converted by the Romano-British Christians, led by Saint Patrick. However, ecclesiastics of the time such as the British Gildas and later Anglo-Saxon Bede, criticized them for generally refusing to work at all for the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons, in fact many were absorbed into the religion and culture of the new settlers.
The conversion of the Anglo-Saxons was begun at about the same time at the far north and south of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in two unconnected initiatives. Irish missionaries led by Saint Columba based in Iona (from 563) and elsewhere, converted many Picts. The court of Anglo-Saxon Northumbria, | 13,870 |
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and the Gregorian mission, who landed in 596, did the same to the Kingdom of Kent. They had been sent by Pope Gregory I and were led by Augustine of Canterbury with a mission team from Italy. In both cases, and in other kingdoms, the conversion was generally "top down", with the royal family and nobility adopting the new religion first.
The Viking invasions of Britain and Ireland destroyed many monasteries and new Viking settlers restored paganism—though of a different variety to the Saxon or classical religions—to areas such as Northumbria and Dublin for a time before their own conversion.
## Frankish Empire.
The Germanic peoples underwent gradual Christianization in the course of the Early | 13,871 |
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Middle Ages, resulting in a unique form of Christianity known as Germanic Christianity that was frequently some blend of Arian Christianity and Germanic paganism. The Eastern and Western tribes were the first to convert through various means. However, it would not be until the 12th century that the North Germanic peoples had Christianized.
In the polytheistic Germanic tradition, it was possible to worship Jesus next to the native gods like Woden and Thor. Before a battle, a pagan military leader might pray to Jesus for victory, instead of Odin, if he expected more help from the Christian God. According to legend, Clovis had prayed thus before a battle against one of the kings of the Alemanni, | 13,872 |
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and had consequently attributed his victory to Jesus. The Christianization of the Franks laid the foundation for the further Christianization of the Germanic peoples.
The next impulse came from the edge of Europe. Although Ireland had never been part of the Roman Empire, Christianity had come there and developed, largely independently, into Celtic Christianity. The Irish monks had developed a concept of "peregrinatio". This essentially meant that a monk would leave the monastery and his Christian country to proselytize among the heathens. From 590 onwards, Irish missionaries were active in Gaul, Scotland, Wales and England. During the Saxon Wars, Charlemagne, King of the Franks, Christianized | 13,873 |
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the Saxons by way of warfare and law upon conquest.
## Czech lands.
Great Moravia and its successor state Duchy of Bohemia were founded by West Slavs in Central Europe in 9th century. The territory of Great Moravia was originally evangelized by missionaries coming from the Frankish Empire or Byzantine enclaves in Italy and Dalmatia since the early 8th century and sporadically earlier. The first Christian church of the Western and Eastern Slavs known to the written sources was built in 828 by Pribina, the ruler and Prince of the Principality of Nitra, although probably still a pagan himself, in his possession called Nitrava (today Nitra, Slovakia). The first Moravian ruler known by name, Mojmír | 13,874 |
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I, was baptized in 831 by Reginhar, Bishop of Passau. Despite the formal endorsement by the elites, the Great Moravian Christianity was described as containing many pagan elements as late as in 852.
The Church organization in Great Moravia was supervised by the Bavarian clergy until the arrival of the Byzantine missionaries Saints Cyril and Methodius in 863, upon Prince Rastislav's request. Cyril developed the first Slavic alphabet and translated the Gospel into the Old Church Slavonic language. Foundation of the first Slavic bishopric (870), archbishopric (880), and monastery was the politically relevant outcome of the Byzantine mission. In 880, Pope John VIII issued the bull "Industriae Tuae", | 13,875 |
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by which he set up an independent ecclesiastical province in Great Moravia with Archbishop Methodius as its head. He also named the German cleric Wiching the Bishop of Nitra, and Old Church Slavonic was recognized as the fourth liturgical language, along with Latin, Greek and Hebrew.
## Bulgaria.
After its establishment under Khan Asparukh in 681, Bulgaria retained the traditional Bulgar religion Tengriism and the pagan beliefs of the local Slavic population. In the mid-9th century, Boris I decided to establish Christianity as a state religion in Bulgaria. In 864, he was baptized in the capital Pliska by Byzantine priests. After prolonged negotiations with both Rome and Constantinople, he | 13,876 |
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managed to create an autocephalous Bulgarian Orthodox Church and used the newly created Cyrillic script to make the Bulgarian language the language of the Church.
Christianity was challenged during the rule of his first-born son, Vladimir-Rasate (889-893), who decided to return to the old Bulgarian religion. Boris I, who had previously retired to a monastery, led a rebellion against his son and defeated him. At the counsel of Preslav in 893, his third son, Simeon I who was born after the Christianization, was installed on the throne and the capital was moved from Pliska to Preslav as a symbol of the abolition of the old religion. Simeon I led a series of wars against the Byzantines to gain | 13,877 |
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official recognition of his Imperial title and the full independence of the Bulgarian Church. As a result of his victories in 927, the Byzantines finally recognized the Bulgarian Patriarchate.
## Serbia.
The Serbs were baptised during the reign of Heraclius (610–641) by "elders of Rome" according to Constantine Porphyrogenitus in his annals (r. 913–959).
In 733, Leo III attaches Illyricum to Patriarch Anastasius of Constantinople.
The establishment of Christianity as state religion dates to the time of Eastern Orthodox missionaries Saints Cyril and Methodius during Basil I (r. 867–886), who baptised the Serbs sometime before sending imperial admiral Nikita Orifas to Knez Mutimir for aid | 13,878 |
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in the war against the Saracens in 869, after acknowledging the suzerainty of the Byzantine Empire. The fleets and land forces of Zahumlje, Travunia and Konavli ("Serbian Pomorje") were sent to fight the Saracens who attacked the town of Ragusa ("Dubrovnik") in 869, on the immediate request of Basil I, who was asked by the Ragusians for help.
A Serbian bishopric (Diocese of Ras) may have been founded in Stari Ras in 871 by Serbian Knez Mutimir, confirmed by the Council of Constantinople in 879–80.
The adherence is evident in the tradition of theophoric names in the next generation of Serbian monarchs and nobles; Petar Gojniković, Stefan Mutimirović, Pavle Branović. Mutimir maintained the communion | 13,879 |
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with the Eastern Church (Constantinople) when Pope John VIII invited him to recognize the jurisdiction of the bishopric of Sirmium. The Serbs adopt the Old Slavonic liturgy instead of the Greek.
By the 870s, the Serbs were baptized and had established the Eparchy of Ras, on the order of Emperor Basil I.
## Poland.
The "Baptism of Poland" () in 966, refers to the baptism of Mieszko I, the first ruler of a future united Polish state. His baptism was followed by the building of churches and the establishment of an ecclesiastical hierarchy. Mieszko saw baptism as a way of strengthening his hold on power, with the active support he could expect from the bishops, as well as a unifying force for | 13,880 |
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the Polish people. Mieszko's action proved highly successful because by the 13th century, Roman Catholicism had become the dominant religion in Poland.
## Hungary.
In the Middle Ages, the Kingdom of Hungary (which was larger than modern day Hungary) was Christianized initially by Greek monks sent from Constantinople to convert the pagan Hungarians. In 950, the tribal chief, Gyula II of Transylvania, visited Constantinople and was baptized. Gyula also had his officers and family baptized under the Orthodox confession. The conversion of the Hungarian people was not completed until the reign of Gyula's grandson, King Stephen I of Hungary. Stephen was the son of Grand Prince Géza of Hungary and | 13,881 |
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Sarolt, the daughter of Gyula II. His authority as leader of the Hungarian tribal federation was recognized with a crown from Pope Sylvester II. King Stephen converted the nomadic barbarian tribes of the Hungarians and induced them to sedentary culture. The conversion of Hungary is said to have been completed by the time of Stephen's death in 1038.
Soon the Hungarian Kingdom counted with two archbishops and 8 bishops, a defined state structure with province governors that answered to the King. In the other hand, Saint Stephen opened the frontiers of his Kingdom in 1016 to the pilgrims that traveled by land to the Holy Land, and soon this route became extremely popular, being used later in the | 13,882 |
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Crusades. Saint Stephen was the first Hungarian monarch that was elevated to the sanctity for his Christian characteristics and not because he suffered a martyr death.
## Kievan Rus'.
Between the 8th and the 13th century, the area of what now is European Russia, Belarus and Ukraine was settled by the Kievan Rus'. An attempt to Christianize them had already been made in the 9th century, with the Christianization of the Rus' Khaganate. In the 10th century, around 980, the efforts were finally successful when Vladimir the Great was baptized at Chersonesos. To commemorate the event, Vladimir built the first stone church of Kievan Rus', called the Church of the Tithes, where his body and the body | 13,883 |
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of his new wife were to repose. Another church was built on top of the hill where pagan statues stood before.
## Scandinavia.
The Christianization of Scandinavia started in the 8th century with the arrival of missionaries in Denmark and it was at least nominally complete by the 12th century, although the Samis remained unconverted until the 18th century. In fact, although the Scandinavians became nominally Christian, it would take considerably longer for actual Christian beliefs to establish themselves among the people. The old indigenous traditions that had provided security and structure since time immemorial were challenged by ideas that were unfamiliar, such as original sin, the Immaculate | 13,884 |
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Conception, the Trinity and so forth. Archaeological excavations of burial sites on the island of Lovön near modern-day Stockholm have shown that the actual Christianization of the people was very slow and took at least 150–200 years, and this was a very central location in the Swedish kingdom. Thirteenth-century runic inscriptions from the bustling merchant town of Bergen in Norway show little Christian influence, and one of them appeals to a Valkyrie. At this time, enough knowledge of Norse mythology remained to be preserved in sources such as the Eddas in Iceland.
## Baltic.
The Northern Crusades (or "Baltic Crusades") were crusades undertaken by the Catholic kings of Denmark and Sweden, | 13,885 |
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the German Livonian and Teutonic military orders, and their allies against the pagan peoples of Northern Europe around the southern and eastern shores of the Baltic Sea. Swedish and German campaigns against Russian Eastern Orthodox Christians are also sometimes considered part of the Northern Crusades.
Some of these wars were called crusades during the Middle Ages, but others, including most of the Swedish ones, were first dubbed crusades by 19th-century romantic nationalist historians. Lithuania and Samogitia were ultimately Christianized from 1386 until 1417 by the initiative of the Grand Duke of Lithuania Jogaila and his cousin Vytautas.
## Reconquista.
Between 711–718 the Iberian peninsula | 13,886 |
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had been conquered by Muslims in the Umayyad conquest of Hispania. Between 722 (see: Battle of Covadonga) and 1492 (see: the Conquest of Granada) the Christian Kingdoms that later would become Spain and Portugal reconquered it from the Moorish states of Al-Ándalus.
The notorious Spanish Inquisition and Portuguese Inquisition were not installed until 1478 and 1536 when the Reconquista was already (mostly) completed.
# Colonial era (16th−19th centuries).
## Colonies in the Americas, Africa, Asia and Pacific.
The expansion of the Catholic Portuguese Empire and Spanish Empire with a significant role played by Catholic missionaries led to the Christianization of the indigenous populations of | 13,887 |
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the Americas such as the Aztecs and Incas. A large number of churches were built.
Later waves of colonial expansion such as the Scramble for Africa or the struggle for India, by the Netherlands, Britain, France, Germany and Russia led to Christianization of other native populations across the globe such as the Indigenous peoples of the Americas, Filipinos, Indians and Africans led to the expansion of Christianity eclipsing that of the Roman period and making it a truly global religion.
## United States.
The colonies which later became the United States were largely colonized by England, and therefore their colonists were predominantly Protestant. Even colonists with non-English backgrounds—Scots, | 13,888 |
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Scotch Irish, Germans, Dutch, French, and Swedes—were mostly from Protestant countries in Northern Europe. Thus Protestantism as a religious force shaped the mind of pre-independence colonial America.
By the 1790 Census, the total immigration over the approximately 130-year span of colonial existence of the U.S. colonies was summarized as: 3.9 million total, comprising 2.56 million British, 0.76 million African, and 0.58 million "other" who probably included a large proportion of people with poorly recorded English ancestry. It was not until the nineteenth century that Roman Catholics became a numerically significant segment of American life, mainly due to large-scale immigration from Ireland | 13,889 |
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(driven by the Great Famine from 1845 onward) and countries in Southern Europe (partly due to farming improvements which created surplus labor), and absorption of territories originally colonized or influenced by Catholic countries such as Spain.
# 20th century.
## America.
In 1908 Pope Pius X declared that the United States was no longer a missionary territory for Roman Catholicism. By this time the Roman Catholic church was well established enough to stake a place for itself in the American religious landscape. It was about 15 million strong by 1901. Thus, the church adopted a mission to Christianize other cultures. On November 16, 1908, a missionary conference was held in Chicago to mark | 13,890 |
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the transition from becoming a church that "received" missionary help to a church that "sends" it. Attendees included Boston's Archbishop William H. O'Connell and Chicago's Archbishop James Edward Quigley, who called attention to the "new era" into which the church in America now entered.
# Sacred sites.
Many Christian churches were built upon sites already consecrated as pagan temples or mithraea, the church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva (literally "Saint Mary above Minerva") in Rome being simply the most obvious example, though a period of about 350 years of abandonment intervened between temple and church in this case. Sulpicius Severus, in his "Vita" of Martin of Tours, a dedicated destroyer | 13,891 |
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of temples and sacred trees, remarks "wherever he destroyed heathen temples, there he used immediately to build either churches or monasteries", and when Benedict took possession of the site at Monte Cassino, he began by smashing the sculpture of Apollo and the altar that crowned the height.
The British Isles and other areas of northern Europe that were formerly druidic are still densely punctuated by holy wells and holy springs that are now attributed to some saint, often a highly local saint unknown elsewhere; in earlier times many of these were seen as guarded by supernatural forces such as the melusina, and many such pre-Christian holy wells appear to survive as baptistries. Not all pre-Christian | 13,892 |
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holy places were respected enough for them to survive, however, as most ancient European "sacred groves", such as the pillar Irminsul, were destroyed by Christianizing forces.
During the Reconquista and the Crusades, the cross served the symbolic function of possession that a flag would occupy today. At the siege of Lisbon in 1147, when a mixed group of Christians took the city, "What great joy and what a great abundance there was of pious tears when, to the praise and honor of God and of the most Holy Virgin Mary the saving cross was placed atop the highest tower to be seen by all as a symbol of the city's subjection."
# Myths and imagery.
The historicity of several saints has often been | 13,893 |
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treated sceptically by most academics, either because there is a paucity of historical evidence for them, or due to striking resemblances that they have to pre-Christian deities. In 1969 the Roman Catholic Church removed some Christian Saints from its universal calendar and pronounced the historicity of others to be dubious. Though highly popular in the Middle Ages, many of these saints have since been largely forgotten, and their names may now seem quite unfamiliar. The most prominent amongst these is Saint Eustace, who was extremely popular in earlier times, but whom Laura Hibberd sees as a chimera composed from details of several other Saints. Many of these figures of dubious historicity | 13,894 |
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appear to be based on figures from pre-Christian myth and legend, Saint Sarah, for example, also known as "Sarah-la-Kali", is thought by Ronald Lee to be a Christianization of Kali, a Hindu deity.
# Symbolism.
The cross is currently the most common symbol of Christianity, and has been for many centuries, coming to prominence during the 4th century (301 to 400 AD).
The predecessor of the cross as the main Christian symbol was the "labarum", a symbol formed by overlaying the first two letters of the Greek word for "Christ" in the Greek alphabet. Constantine I is widely considered to have introduced the symbol into Christianity, but the symbol itself predates this.
Although Christian tradition | 13,895 |
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argues that Constantine chose the "labarum" because he had a vision that led him to convert to Christianity, Constantine's conversion is disputed by some historians, who see Constantine's motive for choosing the "labarum" as political, with him deliberately making his banner one which could be interpreted as supporting either of the two major religions of the Roman Empire at the time.
Prior to the "labarum", the main Christian symbol, and the earliest, was a fish-like symbol now known as "Ichthys" (the Greek word for "fish"); the Greek word ιχθυς is an acronym for the phrase transliterated as "Iesou Christos Theou Yios Sotiras", that is, "Jesus Christ, God's Son, the Savior". There are several | 13,896 |
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other connections with Christian tradition relating to this choice of symbol: that it was a reference to the feeding of the multitude; that it referred to some of the apostles having previously been fishermen; or that the word "Christ" was pronounced by Jews in a similar way to the Hebrew word for "fish" (though "Nuna" is the normal Aramaic word for fish, making this seem unlikely).
# See also.
- Forcible conversion to Christianity
- Christian debate on persecution and toleration
- Conquistador
- Crusades
- European colonization of the Americas
- Goa Inquisition
- Inculturation
- Missions
- "Missionaries in India", a work of non-fiction by Indian journalist Arun Shourie that critically | 13,897 |
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analyzes the role of Christian proselytism in modern India
- Taiping Rebellion
- Christianization of Anglo-Saxon England
- Christianization of England
- Christianization of Ireland
- Christianization of the Celtic peoples
- Christianization of Roman (Southern) France
- Christianization of Bavaria
- Christianization of the Netherlands
- Christianization of the Swiss
- Christianization of Lithuania
- Christianization of the Faroe Islands
- Christianization of the Basque people
- Christianization of Iceland
- Christianization of Scandinavia
- Christianization of Finland
- Christianization of Kievan Rus'
- Christianization of the Rus' Khaganate
- Christianization of Poland
- Christianization | 13,898 |
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of Bulgaria
- Christianization of Armenia
- Christianization of Goa
- Christianization of Tonga
- In other religions
- Islamization
- Judaization
# References.
- Balmer, Randall (2001). "Religion in Twentieth Century America. ".
- Curran, John 2000. "Pagan City and Christian Capital." (Oxford) . Reviewed by Fred S. Kleiner in Bryn Mawr Classical Review 20
- Fletcher, Richard, The Conversion of Europe. From Paganism to Christianity 371-1386 AD. London 1997.
- Gaustad, Edwin Scott; Noll, Mark (2003). "A Documentary History of Religion in America Since 1877. ".
- Kaplan, Steven 1984 "Monastic Holy Man and the Christianization of Early Solomonic Ethiopia" (in series "Studien zur Kulturkunde")
- | 13,899 |
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