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621339 | Paul Hunter (snooker player) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paul%20Hunter%20(snooker%20player) | Paul Hunter (snooker player)
He would like to reassure his fans and supporters that, as with his snooker career, he is tenacious and positive in his fight against the disease." Hunter had been receiving chemotherapy for his illness.
Hunter returned to the circuit for the start of the 2005/2006 season, but lost to Rory McLeod in the first round of the Grand Prix. Hunter's next match of the season was at the UK Championship against Jamie Burnett, in which Hunter dramatically came back from 6–8 down to win the match 9–8. Despite this Hunter lost in the next round 2–9 against eventual champion Ding Junhui. On 26 December 2005, Lindsey gave birth to their first and only child, daughter Evie Rose, who weighed . He lost in the | 14,000 |
621339 | Paul Hunter (snooker player) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paul%20Hunter%20(snooker%20player) | Paul Hunter (snooker player)
first round of the 2006 World Championship 5–10 to Neil Robertson, his last ever match.
He slipped from 5th to 34th in the 2006/2007 rankings. Hunter admitted that he was worse than the previous year and confirmed that he had been in continuous pain. On 27 July 2006, the WPBSA confirmed that, following a members' vote, the organisation's rules would be changed to allow Hunter to sit out the entire 2006/2007 season with his world ranking frozen at 34. He intended to devote the year to treatment for his cancer.
# Death and legacy.
Hunter died at 8:20 pm on 9 October 2006 – just five days short of his 28th birthday – at the Kirkwood Hospice in Huddersfield. Prior to the Premier League Snooker | 14,001 |
621339 | Paul Hunter (snooker player) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paul%20Hunter%20(snooker%20player) | Paul Hunter (snooker player)
matches on 12 October 2006, players Jimmy White, Ronnie O'Sullivan, Ken Doherty and Ding Junhui, along with referee Alan Chamberlain and commentators Willie Thorne and Phil Yates, all stood for a moment of silence to remember Hunter. He left a wife, Lindsey, and one daughter.
His funeral took place on 19 October 2006 at Leeds Parish Church. Many players attended the ceremony, and his best friend, Matthew Stevens, was a pallbearer at the service.
Fellow professionals Stephen Hendry, Mark Williams, Jimmy White, Matthew Stevens and Ken Doherty led calls for The Masters trophy to be named in Hunter's memory. Instead, the non-ranking, later minor-ranking, and now full-ranking tournament, Fürth | 14,002 |
621339 | Paul Hunter (snooker player) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paul%20Hunter%20(snooker%20player) | Paul Hunter (snooker player)
German Open was renamed the Paul Hunter Classic in his honour; a tournament first won by Hunter. Also in 2007, the amateur English Open tournament was renamed the Paul Hunter English Open. On 20 April 2016, the Masters trophy was indeed renamed in Hunter's honour. World Snooker chairman Barry Hearn said that the organisation "messed up" by not doing so sooner.
In 2006, Hunter was posthumously awarded the BBC Sports Personality of the Year Helen Rollason Award – his widow Lindsey accepted the award on his behalf. The Paul Hunter Foundation was set up after his death with the "specific aim of giving disadvantaged, able bodied and disabled youngsters an opportunity to play snooker".
# External | 14,003 |
621339 | Paul Hunter (snooker player) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paul%20Hunter%20(snooker%20player) | Paul Hunter (snooker player)
pen tournament was renamed the Paul Hunter English Open. On 20 April 2016, the Masters trophy was indeed renamed in Hunter's honour. World Snooker chairman Barry Hearn said that the organisation "messed up" by not doing so sooner.
In 2006, Hunter was posthumously awarded the BBC Sports Personality of the Year Helen Rollason Award – his widow Lindsey accepted the award on his behalf. The Paul Hunter Foundation was set up after his death with the "specific aim of giving disadvantaged, able bodied and disabled youngsters an opportunity to play snooker".
# External links.
- BBC Sport profile for Paul Hunter
- Snooker Club profile for Paul Hunter
- The Paul Hunter Foundation Official Website | 14,004 |
1214581 | Bellona Foundation | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bellona%20Foundation | Bellona Foundation
Bellona Foundation
The Bellona Foundation is an international environmental NGO based in Oslo, Norway. Founded in 1986 by Frederic Hauge and Rune Haaland as a direct action protest group to curb Norway's oil and gas industry pollution, it became multi-disciplinary and international in scope and now maintains offices in Oslo, Murmansk, St. Petersburg, Brussels and Washington, D.C. To achieve its goal Bellona employs ecologists, scientists with expertise ranging from the natural to the social sciences, engineers, economists, lawyers, and journalists.
# Goals.
Through branches located in Europe and North America, Bellona works with groups of environmental activists, scientific experts, governments, | 14,005 |
1214581 | Bellona Foundation | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bellona%20Foundation | Bellona Foundation
and other NGOs to address environmental problems, find sustainable solutions and move towards the green society. These include dealing with climate change fall-out, the clean-up of the Cold War nuclear legacy in Russia, and the safety of the oil and gas extraction and processing in Norway and Europe.
In 1998, the so-called "B7" partnership program with the private sector was developed by Bellona. It specified preferential goals, individual projects and programs to deal with the environmental concerns and issues. Altogether, seven focus areas were determined: environmental rights, international environment work, environmental management, environmental economy, environmental technology, energy | 14,006 |
1214581 | Bellona Foundation | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bellona%20Foundation | Bellona Foundation
and Envirofacts.
# History.
In 1994, the Bellona Foundation's report "Sources of Radioactive Contamination in Murmansk
and Archangel Counties" raised serious concerns about the safety of the decommissioned soviet nuclear-powered submarines after the dissolution of the USSR. In February 1996, Russian FSB arrested Bellona's Russian expert Alexander Nikitin, a former Soviet naval officer, and charged him with treason through espionage for his contributions to Bellona's report on the nuclear safety within the Russian Northern Fleet. He was fully acquitted by the Russian Supreme Court in 2000.
In 2003, Bellona accessed radioactive contamination at Sellafield nuclear reprocessing facility in England.
At | 14,007 |
1214581 | Bellona Foundation | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bellona%20Foundation | Bellona Foundation
the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP15) in Copenhagen, Bellona presented "101 Solutions to Climate Change".
In 2013, Bellona Foundation filed a police report after it learned that a "disposal well in the Norwegian Sea owned by Norway’s state oil company Statoil leaked 3,428 tons of hazardous chemicals and oil based drilling fluids over six years at the Njord site".
# Strategy.
More than 100 businesses, organization and enterprises have partaken in the Bellona foundation's B7-program, since it was introduced in 1998. In 2003, among Bellona's B7 partnership program with business and industry were:
Aker Kværner, Aker RGI, Applied Plasma Physics, Bertel O. Steen, Braathens, | 14,008 |
1214581 | Bellona Foundation | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bellona%20Foundation | Bellona Foundation
Conoco Phillips Norway, Coop Norge, E-CO, Eidesvik, Eiendomsspar, Energos Energy and Industry, Eramet, Ferrolegeringens Forskningsforening, Norwegian Fishing Vessels Owners Association, Fred Olsen, Marine Harvest, Confederation of Norwegian Business and Industry (NHO), Federation of Norwegian Processing Industries (PIL), Norway Post, Select Service Partner, Water Power Industries (WPI), Uniteam, Norske Shel, Skretting, Statkraft, and Statoil.
The organization's cooperation with industry and business came about as a result of recognition by the Bellona Foundation that the environmental movement alone would not be able to impel the necessary changes in order to counter the impending threats against | 14,009 |
1214581 | Bellona Foundation | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bellona%20Foundation | Bellona Foundation
environment. Through B7 program, Bellona wanted to aid those enterprises that were willing to take the environment protection in earnest. It also wanted to offer businesses an arena on which they could take the step from being a part of the problem to becoming a part of the solution.
Bellona has also been involved in the promotion of renewable energy in Russia.
# Funding.
In 2001, the annual budget of Bellona was 25 million Norwegian kroner (NOK). Among the sources: 10 million Norwegian kroner came from selling advertising; 6 million was received from the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs for projects in Russia, and 1 million was received from the Norwegian government for general purposes; | 14,010 |
1214581 | Bellona Foundation | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bellona%20Foundation | Bellona Foundation
6 million was received from business sector to implement the B7 program; 2 million came from sales of reports, donations and gifts..
# Criticism.
In Norway, the Bellona Foundation was criticized for "publicity seeking", and in Russia — for accepting funds from the Norwegian government. Some maintain that Bellona damaged its environmental credibility by "cooperating with market agents", transforming it into more of a consultancy for private companies than an environmental NGO.
# See also.
- CC9
# Further reading.
- Galina Stolyarova. Ecologists: 10,000 Tons Of Waste Headed for City, "The St.Petersburg Times", September 26, 2008 (Issue # 1411)
# External links.
- Bellona Foundation, "Official | 14,011 |
1214581 | Bellona Foundation | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bellona%20Foundation | Bellona Foundation
llion came from sales of reports, donations and gifts..
# Criticism.
In Norway, the Bellona Foundation was criticized for "publicity seeking", and in Russia — for accepting funds from the Norwegian government. Some maintain that Bellona damaged its environmental credibility by "cooperating with market agents", transforming it into more of a consultancy for private companies than an environmental NGO.
# See also.
- CC9
# Further reading.
- Galina Stolyarova. Ecologists: 10,000 Tons Of Waste Headed for City, "The St.Petersburg Times", September 26, 2008 (Issue # 1411)
# External links.
- Bellona Foundation, "Official website in English, Norwegian and Russian"
- Bellona, "Nuclear-News" | 14,012 |
1214579 | Threshold limit value | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Threshold%20limit%20value | Threshold limit value
Threshold limit value
The threshold limit value (TLV) of a chemical substance is believed to be a level to which a worker can be exposed day after day for a working lifetime without adverse effects. Strictly speaking, TLV is a reserved term of the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH). TLVs issued by the ACGIH are the most widely accepted occupational exposure limits both in the United States and most other countries. However, it is sometimes loosely used to refer to other similar concepts used in occupational health and toxicology, such as acceptable daily intake (ADI) and tolerable daily intake (TDI). Concepts such as TLV, ADI, and TDI can be compared to the no-observed-adverse-effect | 14,013 |
1214579 | Threshold limit value | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Threshold%20limit%20value | Threshold limit value
level (NOAEL) in animal testing, but whereas a NOAEL can be established experimentally during a short period, TLV, ADI, and TDI apply to human beings over a lifetime and thus are harder to test empirically and are usually set at lower levels. TLVs, along with biological exposure indices (BEIs), are published annually by the ACGIH.
The TLV is an estimate based on the known toxicity in humans or animals of a given chemical substance, and the reliability and accuracy of the latest sampling and analytical methods. It is not a static definition since new research can often modify the risk assessment of substances and new laboratory or instrumental analysis methods can improve analytical detection | 14,014 |
1214579 | Threshold limit value | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Threshold%20limit%20value | Threshold limit value
limits. The TLV is a recommendation by ACGIH, with only a guideline status. As such, it should not be confused with exposure limits having a regulatory status, like those published and enforced by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). The OSHA regulatory exposure limits permissible exposure limits (PELs) published in 29CFR 1910.1000 Table Z1 are based on recommendations made by the ACGIH in 1968, although other exposure limits were adopted more recently. Many OSHA exposure limits are not considered by the industrial hygiene community to be sufficiently protective levels since the toxicological basis for most limits have not been updated since the 1960s. The National Institute | 14,015 |
1214579 | Threshold limit value | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Threshold%20limit%20value | Threshold limit value
for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) publishes recommended exposure limits (RELs) which OSHA takes into consideration when promulgating new regulatory exposure limits.
# Definitions.
The TLV for chemical substances is defined as a concentration in air, typically for inhalation or skin exposure. Its units are in parts per million (ppm) for gases and in milligrams per cubic meter (mg/m) for particulates such as dust, smoke and mist. The basic formula for converting between ppm and mg/m for gases is ppm = (mg/m^3) * 24.45 / molecular weight. This formula is not applicable to airborne particles.
Three types of TLVs for chemical substances are defined:
- 1. Threshold limit value − time-weighted | 14,016 |
1214579 | Threshold limit value | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Threshold%20limit%20value | Threshold limit value
average (TLV-TWA): average exposure on the basis of a 8h/day, 40h/week work schedule
- 2. Threshold limit value − short-term exposure limit (TLV-STEL): spot exposure for a duration of 15 minutes, that cannot be repeated more than 4 times per day with at least 60 minutes between exposure periods
- 3. Threshold limit value − ceiling limit (TLV-C): absolute exposure limit that should not be exceeded at any time
There are TLVs for physical agents as well as chemical substances. TLVs for physical agents include those for noise exposure, vibration, ionizing and non-ionizing radiation exposure and heat and cold stress.
# Defining acceptable exposure.
The TLV and most other occupational exposure | 14,017 |
1214579 | Threshold limit value | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Threshold%20limit%20value | Threshold limit value
limits are based on available toxicology and epidemiology data to protect nearly all workers over a working lifetime. Exposure assessments in occupational settings are most often performed by Occupational / Industrial Hygiene (OH/IH) professionals who gather "Basic Characterization" consisting of all relevant information and data related to workers, agents of concern, materials, equipment and available exposure controls. The exposure assessment is initiated by selecting the appropriate exposure limit averaging time and "decision statistic" for the agent. Typically the statistic for deciding acceptable exposure is chosen to be the majority (90%, 95% or 99%) of all exposures to be below the selected | 14,018 |
1214579 | Threshold limit value | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Threshold%20limit%20value | Threshold limit value
occupational exposure limit. For retrospective exposure assessments performed in occupational environments, the "decision statistic" is typically a central tendency such as the mean or geometric mean or median for each worker or group of workers. Methods for performing occupational exposure assessments can be found in "A Strategy for Assessing and Managing Occupational Exposures, Third Edition Edited by Joselito S. Ignacio and William H. Bullock".
# Similar concepts.
The TLV is equivalent in spirit to various occupational exposure limits developed by organizations around the world; however, the materials covered, values recommended, and definitions used can differ amongst organizations. These | 14,019 |
1214579 | Threshold limit value | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Threshold%20limit%20value | Threshold limit value
occupational exposure limits include:
## United States.
- WEEL (Workplace Environmental Exposure Level), formerly created by a committee of the American Industrial Hygiene Association; as of January 1, 2012, new WEELs are created by a committee of volunteers that is supported by the Occupational Alliance for Risk Science.
## Other countries.
- Australia
- OES Occupational exposure standard
- Austria
- TRK (" trans. Technical Approximate Concentration ")
- MAK (" trans. Maximum Workplace Concentration")
- Brazil
- LT ("")
- France
- VME ("")
- VLE ("")
- Germany
- AGW (" trans. Workplace Limit Value")
- MAK (" trans. Maximum Workplace Concentration")
- Indonesia
- NAB ("Nilai | 14,020 |
1214579 | Threshold limit value | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Threshold%20limit%20value | Threshold limit value
LE ("")
- Germany
- AGW (" trans. Workplace Limit Value")
- MAK (" trans. Maximum Workplace Concentration")
- Indonesia
- NAB ("Nilai ambang batas")
- Malaysia
- PEL ("Permissible exposure limit")
- Netherlands
- MAC (" trans. Maximum Acceptable Concentration")
- New Zealand
- WES ("Workplace Exposure Standards")
- Poland
- NDN ("")
- Russia
- ПДК ("")
- UK
- WEL ("Workplace Exposure Limit")
- Ukrainian
- ГДК ("")
# Antonymic concepts.
The opposite of "safe enough for any length of time" is "not safe for any length of time", and IDLH values are defined for concentrations of substances that are immediately dangerous to life or health.
# References.
- Exposure Assessment | 14,021 |
1214586 | TLV | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=TLV | TLV
TLV
TLV may refer to:
- Tel Aviv, Israel
- Ben Gurion Airport, near Tel Aviv, Israel, IATA code
- Banca Transilvania, Romania, BVB stock exchange symbol
- Threshold limit value for a chemical substance
- TLV mirror, Han dynasty, China
- Type-length-value, data communications encoding
- Total liquid ventilation
- The Swedish Dental and Pharmaceutical Benefits Agency, government agency
- Tree of Life Version, a Jewish Messianic version of the Bible (OT and NT) | 14,022 |
1214539 | Feathered dinosaur | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Feathered%20dinosaur | Feathered dinosaur
Feathered dinosaur
Since scientific research began on dinosaurs in the early 1800s, they were generally believed to be closely related to modern reptiles, such as lizards. The word "dinosaur" itself, coined in 1842 by paleontologist Richard Owen, comes from the Greek for "fearsome lizard". This view began to shift during the so-called dinosaur renaissance in scientific research in the late 1960s, and by the mid-1990s significant evidence had emerged that dinosaurs were much more closely related to birds, which descended directly from the theropod group of dinosaurs and are themselves a subgroup within the Dinosauria.
Understanding of the origin of feathers developed both as new fossils were | 14,023 |
1214539 | Feathered dinosaur | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Feathered%20dinosaur | Feathered dinosaur
discovered throughout the 2000s and 2010s and as technology has enabled scientists to study fossils more closely. Among non-avian dinosaurs, feathers or feather-like integument have been discovered in dozens of genera via direct and indirect fossil evidence. Although the vast majority of feather discoveries have been in coelurosaurian theropods, feather-like integument has also been discovered in at least three ornithischians, suggesting that feathers may have been present on the last common ancestor of the Ornithoscelida, a dinosaur group including both theropods and ornithischians. It is possible that feathers first developed in even earlier archosaurs, in light of the discovery of highly | 14,024 |
1214539 | Feathered dinosaur | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Feathered%20dinosaur | Feathered dinosaur
feather-like pycnofibers in pterosaurs. Crocodilians also possess beta keratin similar to those of birds, which suggests that they evolved from common ancestral genes.
# History of research.
## Early.
Shortly after the 1859 publication of Charles Darwin's "On the Origin of Species", British biologist Thomas Henry Huxley proposed that birds were descendants of dinosaurs. He compared the skeletal structure of "Compsognathus", a small theropod dinosaur, and the 'first bird' "Archaeopteryx lithographica" (both of which were found in the Upper Jurassic Bavarian limestone of Solnhofen). He showed that, apart from its hands and feathers, "Archaeopteryx" was quite similar to "Compsognathus". Thus | 14,025 |
1214539 | Feathered dinosaur | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Feathered%20dinosaur | Feathered dinosaur
"Archaeopteryx" represents a transitional fossil. In 1868 he published "On the Animals which are most nearly intermediate between Birds and Reptiles", making the case. The first restoration of a feathered dinosaur was Thomas Henry Huxley's depiction in 1876 of a feathered "Compsognathus" to accompany a lecture on the evolution of birds he delivered in New York in which he speculated that the aforementioned dinosaur might have been in possession of feathers. The leading dinosaur expert of the time, Richard Owen, disagreed, claiming "Archaeopteryx" as the first bird outside dinosaur lineage. For the next century, claims that birds were dinosaur descendants faded, with more popular bird-ancestry | 14,026 |
1214539 | Feathered dinosaur | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Feathered%20dinosaur | Feathered dinosaur
hypotheses including 'crocodylomorph' and 'thecodont' ancestors, rather than dinosaurs or other archosaurs.
## 'Dinosaur renaissance'.
In 1969, John Ostrom described "Deinonychus antirrhopus", a theropod that he had discovered in Montana in 1964 and whose skeletal resemblance to birds seemed unmistakable. Ostrom became a leading proponent of the theory that birds are direct descendants of dinosaurs. Further comparisons of bird and dinosaur skeletons, as well as cladistic analysis strengthened the case for the link, particularly for a branch of theropods called maniraptors. Skeletal similarities include the neck, the pubis, the wrists (semi-lunate carpal), the 'arms' and pectoral girdle, the | 14,027 |
1214539 | Feathered dinosaur | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Feathered%20dinosaur | Feathered dinosaur
shoulder blade, the clavicle and the breast bone. In all, over a hundred distinct anatomical features are shared by birds and theropod dinosaurs. Other researchers drew on these shared features and other aspects of dinosaur biology and began to suggest that at least some theropod dinosaurs were feathered.
At the same time, paleoartists began to create modern restorations of highly active dinosaurs. In 1969, Robert T. Bakker drew a running "Deinonychus". His student Gregory S. Paul depicted non-avian maniraptoran dinosaurs with feathers and protofeathers, starting in the late 1970s. In 1975, Eleanor M. Kish began to paint accurate images of dinosaurs, her "Hypacrosaurus" being the first one | 14,028 |
1214539 | Feathered dinosaur | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Feathered%20dinosaur | Feathered dinosaur
shown with its camouflage.
Before the discovery of feathered dinosaur fossils, the evidence was limited to Huxley and Ostrom's comparative anatomy. Some mainstream ornithologists, including Smithsonian Institution curator Storrs L. Olson, disputed the links, specifically citing the lack of fossil evidence for feathered dinosaurs. By the 1990s, however, most paleontologists considered birds to be surviving dinosaurs and referred to 'non-avian dinosaurs' (all extinct), to distinguish them from birds (Avialae).
## Fossil discoveries.
One of the earliest discoveries of possible feather impressions by non-avian dinosaurs is an ichnofossil ("Fulicopus lyellii") of the 195-199 million year old Portland | 14,029 |
1214539 | Feathered dinosaur | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Feathered%20dinosaur | Feathered dinosaur
Formation in the northeastern United States. Gierlinski (1996, 1997, 1998) and Kondrat (2004) have interpreted traces between two footprints in this fossil as feather impressions from the belly of a squatting dilophosaurid. Although some reviewers have raised questions about the naming and interpretation of this fossil, if correct, this early Jurassic fossil is the oldest known evidence of feathers, almost 30 million years older than the next-oldest-known evidence.
After a century of hypotheses without conclusive evidence, well-preserved fossils of feathered dinosaurs were discovered during the 1990s, and more continue to be found. The fossils were preserved in a Lagerstätte—a sedimentary deposit | 14,030 |
1214539 | Feathered dinosaur | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Feathered%20dinosaur | Feathered dinosaur
exhibiting remarkable richness and completeness in its fossils—in Liaoning, China. The area had repeatedly been smothered in volcanic ash produced by eruptions in Inner Mongolia 124 million years ago, during the Early Cretaceous epoch. The fine-grained ash preserved the living organisms that it buried in fine detail. The area was teeming with life, with millions of leaves, angiosperms (the oldest known), insects, fish, frogs, salamanders, mammals, turtles, and lizards discovered to date.
The most important discoveries at Liaoning have been a host of feathered dinosaur fossils, with a steady stream of new finds filling in the picture of the dinosaur–bird connection and adding more to theories | 14,031 |
1214539 | Feathered dinosaur | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Feathered%20dinosaur | Feathered dinosaur
of the evolutionary development of feathers and flight. Turner "et al". (2007) reported quill knobs from an ulna of "Velociraptor mongoliensis", and these are strongly correlated with large and well-developed secondary feathers.
Behavioural evidence, in the form of an oviraptorosaur on its nest, showed another link with birds. Its forearms were folded, like those of a bird. Although no feathers were preserved, it is likely that these would have been present to insulate eggs and juveniles.
Not all of the Chinese fossil discoveries proved valid however. In 1999, a supposed fossil of an apparently feathered dinosaur named "Archaeoraptor liaoningensis", found in Liaoning Province, northeastern | 14,032 |
1214539 | Feathered dinosaur | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Feathered%20dinosaur | Feathered dinosaur
China, turned out to be a forgery. Comparing the photograph of the specimen with another find, Chinese paleontologist Xu Xing came to the conclusion that it was composed of two portions of different fossil animals. His claim made "National Geographic" review their research and they too came to the same conclusion. The bottom portion of the ""Archaeoraptor"" composite came from a legitimate feathered dromaeosaurid now known as "Microraptor", and the upper portion from a previously known primitive bird called "Yanornis".
In 2011, samples of amber were discovered to contain preserved feathers from 75 to 80 million years ago during the Cretaceous era, with evidence that they were from both dinosaurs | 14,033 |
1214539 | Feathered dinosaur | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Feathered%20dinosaur | Feathered dinosaur
and birds. Initial analysis suggests that some of the feathers were used for insulation, and not flight. More complex feathers were revealed to have variations in coloration similar to modern birds, while simpler protofeathers were predominantly dark. Only 11 specimens are currently known. The specimens are too rare to be broken open to study their melanosomes, but there are plans for using non-destructive high-resolution X-ray imaging.
In 2016, the discovery was announced of a feathered dinosaur tail preserved in amber that is estimated to be 99 million years old. Lida Xing, a researcher from the China University of Geosciences in Beijing, found the specimen at an amber market in Myanmar. | 14,034 |
1214539 | Feathered dinosaur | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Feathered%20dinosaur | Feathered dinosaur
It is the first definitive discovery of dinosaur material in amber.
In March 2018, scientists reported that "Archaeopteryx" was likely capable of flight, but in a manner substantially different from that of modern birds.
# Current knowledge.
## Non-avian dinosaur species preserved with evidence of feathers.
Several non-avian dinosaurs are now known to have been feathered. Direct evidence of feathers exists for several species. In all examples, the evidence described consists of feather impressions, except those genera inferred to have had feathers based on skeletal or chemical evidence, such as the presence of quill knobs (the anchor points for wing feathers on the forelimb) or a pygostyle | 14,035 |
1214539 | Feathered dinosaur | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Feathered%20dinosaur | Feathered dinosaur
(the fused vertebrae at the tail tip which often supports large feathers).
## Primitive feather types.
Integumentary structures that gave rise to the feathers of birds are seen in the dorsal spines of reptiles and fish. A similar stage in their evolution to the complex coats of birds and mammals can be observed in living reptiles such as iguanas and "Gonocephalus" agamids. Feather structures are thought to have proceeded from simple hollow filaments through several stages of increasing complexity, ending with the large, deeply rooted feathers with strong pens (rachis), barbs and barbules that birds display today.
According to Prum's (1999) proposed model, at stage I, the follicle originates | 14,036 |
1214539 | Feathered dinosaur | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Feathered%20dinosaur | Feathered dinosaur
with a cylindrical epidermal depression around the base of the feather papilla. The first feather resulted when undifferentiated tubular follicle collar developed out of the old keratinocytes being pushed out. At stage II, the inner, basilar layer of the follicle collar differentiated into longitudinal barb ridges with unbranched keratin filaments, while the thin peripheral layer of the collar became the deciduous sheath, forming a tuft of unbranched barbs with a basal calamus. Stage III consists of two developmental novelties, IIIa and IIIb, as either could have occurred first. Stage IIIa involves helical displacement of barb ridges arising within the collar. The barb ridges on the anterior | 14,037 |
1214539 | Feathered dinosaur | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Feathered%20dinosaur | Feathered dinosaur
midline of the follicle fuse together, forming the rachis. The creation of a posterior barb locus follows, giving an indeterminate number of barbs. This resulted in a feather with a symmetrical, primarily branched structure with a rachis and unbranched barbs. In stage IIIb, barbules paired within the peripheral barbule plates of the barb ridges, create branched barbs with rami and barbules. This resulting feather is one with a tuft of branched barbs without a rachis. At stage IV, differentiated distal and proximal barbules produce a closed, pennaceous vane. A closed vane develops when pennulae on the distal barbules form a hooked shape to attach to the simpler proximal barbules of the adjacent | 14,038 |
1214539 | Feathered dinosaur | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Feathered%20dinosaur | Feathered dinosaur
barb. Stage V developmental novelties gave rise to additional structural diversity in the closed pennaceous feather. Here, asymmetrical flight feathers, bipinnate plumulaceous feathers, filoplumes, powder down, and bristles evolved.
Some evidence suggests that the original function of simple feathers was insulation. In particular, preserved patches of skin in large, derived, tyrannosauroids show scutes, while those in smaller, more primitive, forms show feathers. This may indicate that the larger forms had complex skins, with both scutes and filaments, or that tyrannosauroids may be like rhinos and elephants, having filaments at birth and then losing them as they developed to maturity. An adult | 14,039 |
1214539 | Feathered dinosaur | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Feathered%20dinosaur | Feathered dinosaur
"Tyrannosaurus rex" weighed about as much as an African elephant. If large tyrannosauroids were endotherms, they would have needed to radiate heat efficiently. However, due to the different structural properties of feathers compared to fur, as well as a larger surface area per cubic square meter, it is extremely unlikely even the largest theropods would suffer overheating issues from an extensive feather coat.
There is an increasing body of evidence that supports the display hypothesis, which states that early feathers were colored and increased reproductive success. Coloration could have provided the original adaptation of feathers, implying that all later functions of feathers, such as thermoregulation | 14,040 |
1214539 | Feathered dinosaur | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Feathered%20dinosaur | Feathered dinosaur
and flight, were ed. This hypothesis has been supported by the discovery of pigmented feathers in multiple species. Supporting the display hypothesis is the fact that fossil feathers have been observed in a ground-dwelling herbivorous dinosaur clade, making it unlikely that feathers functioned as predatory tools or as a means of flight. Additionally, some specimens have iridescent feathers. Pigmented and iridescent feathers may have provided greater attractiveness to mates, providing enhanced reproductive success when compared to non-colored feathers. Current research shows that it is plausible that theropods would have had the visual acuity necessary to see the displays. In a study by Stevens | 14,041 |
1214539 | Feathered dinosaur | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Feathered%20dinosaur | Feathered dinosaur
(2006), the binocular field of view for "Velociraptor" has been estimated to be 55 to 60 degrees, which is about that of modern owls. Visual acuity for "Tyrannosaurus" has been predicted to be anywhere from about that of humans to 13 times that of humans. However, as both "Velociraptor" and "Tyrannosaurus" have a rather extended evolutionary relationship with the more basal theropods, it is unclear how much of this visual acuity data can be extrapolated.
The idea that precursors of feathers appeared before they were co-opted for insulation is already stated in Gould and Vrba, 1982. The original benefit might have been metabolic. Feathers are largely made of the keratin protein complex, which | 14,042 |
1214539 | Feathered dinosaur | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Feathered%20dinosaur | Feathered dinosaur
has disulfide bonds between amino acids that give it stability and elasticity. The metabolism of amino acids containing sulfur can be toxic; however, if the sulfur amino acids are not catabolized at the final products of urea or uric acid but used for the synthesis of keratin instead, the release of hydrogen sulfide is extremely reduced or avoided. For an organism whose metabolism works at high internal temperatures of 40 °C or greater, it can be extremely important to prevent the excess production of hydrogen sulfide. This hypothesis could be consistent with the need for high metabolic rate of theropod dinosaurs.
It is not known with certainty at what point in archosaur phylogeny the earliest | 14,043 |
1214539 | Feathered dinosaur | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Feathered%20dinosaur | Feathered dinosaur
simple "protofeathers" arose, or whether they arose once or independently multiple times. Filamentous structures are clearly present in pterosaurs, and long, hollow quills have been reported in specimens of the ornithischian dinosaurs "Psittacosaurus" and "Tianyulong". In 2009, Xu et al. noted that the hollow, unbranched, stiff integumentary structures found on a specimen of "Beipiaosaurus" were strikingly similar to the integumentary structures of "Psittacosaurus" and pterosaurs. They suggested that all of these structures may have been inherited from a common ancestor much earlier in the evolution of archosaurs, possibly in an ornithodire from the Middle Triassic or earlier. More recently, | 14,044 |
1214539 | Feathered dinosaur | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Feathered%20dinosaur | Feathered dinosaur
findings in Russia of the basal neornithischian "Kulindadromeus" report that although the lower leg and tail seemed to be scaled, "varied integumentary structures were found directly associated with skeletal elements, supporting the hypothesis that simple filamentous feathers, as well as compound feather-like structures comparable to those in theropods, were widespread amongst the whole dinosaur clade."
Display feathers are also known from dinosaurs that are very primitive members of the bird lineage, or Avialae. The most primitive example is "Epidexipteryx", which had a short tail with extremely long, ribbon-like feathers. Oddly enough, the fossil does not preserve wing feathers, suggesting | 14,045 |
1214539 | Feathered dinosaur | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Feathered%20dinosaur | Feathered dinosaur
that "Epidexipteryx" was either secondarily flightless, or that display feathers evolved before flight feathers in the bird lineage. Plumaceous feathers are found in nearly all lineages of Theropoda common in the northern hemisphere, and pennaceous feathers are attested as far down the tree as the Ornithomimosauria. The fact that only adult "Ornithomimus" had wing-like structures suggests that pennaceous feathers evolved for mating displays.
# Phylogeny and the inference of feathers in other dinosaurs.
Fossil feather impressions are extremely rare and they require exceptional preservation conditions to form. Therefore, only a few non-avian feathered dinosaur genera have been identified. All | 14,046 |
1214539 | Feathered dinosaur | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Feathered%20dinosaur | Feathered dinosaur
fossil feather specimens have been found to show certain similarities. Due to these similarities and through developmental research, many scientists believe that feathers have only evolved once in dinosaurs. Feathers would then have been passed down to all later, more derived species, unless some lineages lost feathers secondarily. If a dinosaur falls at a point on an evolutionary tree within the known feather-bearing lineages, then its ancestors had feathers, and it is quite possible that it did as well. This technique, called phylogenetic bracketing, can also be used to infer the type of feathers a species may have had, since the developmental history of feathers is now reasonably well-known. | 14,047 |
1214539 | Feathered dinosaur | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Feathered%20dinosaur | Feathered dinosaur
used to infer the type of feathers a species may have had, since the developmental history of feathers is now reasonably well-known. All feathered species had filamentaceous or plumaceous (downy) feathers, with pennaceous feathers found among the more bird-like groups. The following cladogram is adapted from Godefroit "et al.", 2013.
Grey denotes a clade that is not known to contain any feathered specimen at the time of writing (although this does not imply that members of the clade lacked feathers).
# See also.
- Origin of birds
# External links.
- Dinosaur colour and feathers, "University of Bristol", February 12, 2019
- DinoBuzz, dinosaur-bird controversy explained, by UC Berkeley. | 14,048 |
1214575 | David Johnson (footballer, born 1951) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=David%20Johnson%20(footballer,%20born%201951) | David Johnson (footballer, born 1951)
David Johnson (footballer, born 1951)
David Edward Johnson (born 23 October 1951 in Liverpool, England) was a forward who won major trophies for Liverpool in the 1970s and 1980s. He also played for Ipswich Town, Everton and other clubs.
# Everton.
Johnson signed for Liverpool rivals Everton as a youngster and after showing his ability in early matches, Liverpool manager Bill Shankly pestered Everton counterpart Harry Catterick to sell the young striker, but was rebuffed.
Johnson made his Everton debut as a 19-year-old on 8 January 1971 in a 2–2 league draw with Burnley at Turf Moor. Later on in 1971 Johnson scored in a Merseyside derby game for Everton.
# Ipswich Town.
Johnson joined Bobby | 14,049 |
1214575 | David Johnson (footballer, born 1951) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=David%20Johnson%20(footballer,%20born%201951) | David Johnson (footballer, born 1951)
Robson's Ipswich Town in the November 1972 swapping for Ipswich's top goalscorer, Rod Belfitt and £40,000). He made his Ipswich debut on 4 November 1972 at Portman Road in a 2–2 draw with Leeds United. His first goal for the club came on 2 December the same year in the 1–1 draw with Manchester City at Maine Road. By the end of his first season Johnson had helped Ipswich to the Texaco Cup final where they met East Anglian derby rivals Norwich City. After the two legged final Ipswich emerged victorious, winning 4–2 on aggregate by winning both legs 2–1.
The following season Ipswich drew Spanish giants Real Madrid in the first round of the UEFA Cup. Ipswich beat their illustrious counterparts | 14,050 |
1214575 | David Johnson (footballer, born 1951) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=David%20Johnson%20(footballer,%20born%201951) | David Johnson (footballer, born 1951)
by a goal to nil at home and held Real to a goalless draw at the Bernabéu in front of 80,000 supporters. In the next round Italian side S.S. Lazio. 4–0 down with just 20 minutes remaining, Johnson had the ball when Giancarlo Oddi went to close him down. Oddi then put in a waist high challenge which left Johnson in a heap on the ground holding his groin. Johnson had to be stretchered off and missed the following 3 fixtures as a consequence.
Johnson returned from the injury for the return leg in Rome and took up his place on the bench. He watched as Lazio scored early and then again before half-time. A penalty was despatched by Colin Viljoen for Ipswich. Lazio then scored two more goals to put | 14,051 |
1214575 | David Johnson (footballer, born 1951) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=David%20Johnson%20(footballer,%20born%201951) | David Johnson (footballer, born 1951)
the tie back in the balance. In the 88th minute with the score 5–4 on aggregate, Robson turned to Johnson. With virtually his first touch he scored the goal that would finally settle the tie in Ipswich's favour. Ipswich beat Dutch side FC Twente in the next round but went out in the quarter finals to East German side Locomotiv Leipzig 4–3 on penalties after the sides had drawn 1–1 during normal and extra time.
He scored 35 goals in his four seasons at the club as a battling, play-linking forward forging a productive partnership with Trevor Whymark. It was during his time at Ipswich that Johnson was called up by Don Revie for his first cap for England. He made his debut in a British Home Championship | 14,052 |
1214575 | David Johnson (footballer, born 1951) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=David%20Johnson%20(footballer,%20born%201951) | David Johnson (footballer, born 1951)
match at Wembley on 21 May 1975. Wales were the visitors with the game ending 2–2 with Johnson scoring both the goals. He also scored twice in a 3–1 victory over world champions Argentina at Wembley, a game which saw the first appearance in England of Diego Maradona. Johnson was in Ron Greenwood's squad for the 1980 European Championships but found himself behind Gary Birtles and the man that replaced him at Ipswich Paul Mariner. He won eight caps scoring six times in those appearances.
In 1976 Tottenham Hotspur put in an unsuccessful bid for around £200,000 for Johnson did not want to move. However, after 137 league appearances for the Ipswich he returned to Merseyside.
# Liverpool.
Johnson | 14,053 |
1214575 | David Johnson (footballer, born 1951) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=David%20Johnson%20(footballer,%20born%201951) | David Johnson (footballer, born 1951)
signed for Liverpool. He made his debut for the club on 21 August 1976 in a 1–0 league win over Norwich at Anfield. He scored his first goal a week later on the 28th, but his goal was not enough to prevent Birmingham City beating Liverpool 2–1 at St Andrews.
In his first season, he was a frequent substitute, vying for the right to partner Kevin Keegan with both John Toshack and David Fairclough. In his debut season Liverpool were chasing an historic treble of League championship, FA Cup and European Cup as the season drew to a close.
Johnson picked up his first domestic honour with the League title and was selected as Keegan's strike partner for the 1977 FA Cup Final at Wembley, but Liverpool | 14,054 |
1214575 | David Johnson (footballer, born 1951) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=David%20Johnson%20(footballer,%20born%201951) | David Johnson (footballer, born 1951)
lost 2–1 to Manchester United. Johnson made little impact and was substituted by Ian Callaghan in the second half.
For the 1977 European Cup final against Borussia Mönchengladbach in Rome three days later, manager Bob Paisley kept the team that had ended the match at Wembley, so Callaghan started and Johnson was on the bench. He picked up a medal as Liverpool won 3–1.
In April 1978, Johnson scored for Liverpool in the Merseyside derby at Goodison Park – becoming the very first player to score for both clubs in the Merseyside derby. As of 2018, only one other player – Peter Beardsley – has achieved this feat since.
In 1979 and 1980 Johnson was a free-scoring centre forward as Liverpool regained | 14,055 |
1214575 | David Johnson (footballer, born 1951) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=David%20Johnson%20(footballer,%20born%201951) | David Johnson (footballer, born 1951)
and then retained the title, and in 1981 he played as Liverpool won their third European Cup (against Real Madrid in the final) and their first League Cup (against West Ham United). However, a sign of things to come was in that first League Cup success. After the first game at Wembley ended 1–1, Johnson was on the bench for the replay due to Paisley's decision to try out the young Ian Rush. Rush never scored but played well and the following year he was the regular partner to Kenny Dalglish with Johnson being used less frequently.
Johnson did enough to win a final league championship medal in 1982 and also won the League Cup again, after getting the substitute's jersey for the final (against | 14,056 |
1214575 | David Johnson (footballer, born 1951) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=David%20Johnson%20(footballer,%20born%201951) | David Johnson (footballer, born 1951)
Tottenham Hotspurs).
# Return to Everton and loan to Barnsley.
He returned to Everton in the August of '82 for £100,000. He did not see out his second season at Goodison after initially being loaned to Barnsley.
# Later playing career.
He ended the 83/84 season at Manchester City before spending the summer at American side Tulsa Roughnecks in the NASL. His last season of senior football was played at Preston North End. He then had a spell as player manager at Barrow AFC.
# After playing.
He currently works at Anfield, hosting in the corporate lounges. He can also be heard regularly on BBC Radio Merseyside as both a match summariser and also a regular contributor to the station's Red Alert | 14,057 |
1214575 | David Johnson (footballer, born 1951) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=David%20Johnson%20(footballer,%20born%201951) | David Johnson (footballer, born 1951)
programme aired on Friday's at 7.30pm where he provides what is known during the show as "The Doc's Diagnosis".
# Honours.
Ipswich Town
- Texaco Cup: 1973
Liverpool
- Football League First Division: 1976–77, 1978–79, 1979–80, 1981–82
- Football League Cup: 1980–81, 1981–82
- FA Charity Shield: 1976, 1977 (shared), 1979, 1980
- European Cup: 1976–77, 1977–78, 1980–81
- UEFA Super Cup: 1977
# External links.
- Player profile at LFChistory.net
- England Record
- Everton appearances 1968/69-1972/73 & 1982/83-1983/84 at Sporting heroes.net
- Ipswich Town biography part 1 1972–74 at Sporting-heroes.net
- Ipswich Town biography part 2 1974–76 at Sporting-heroes.net
- Liverpool appearances | 14,058 |
1214575 | David Johnson (footballer, born 1951) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=David%20Johnson%20(footballer,%20born%201951) | David Johnson (footballer, born 1951)
tball League First Division: 1976–77, 1978–79, 1979–80, 1981–82
- Football League Cup: 1980–81, 1981–82
- FA Charity Shield: 1976, 1977 (shared), 1979, 1980
- European Cup: 1976–77, 1977–78, 1980–81
- UEFA Super Cup: 1977
# External links.
- Player profile at LFChistory.net
- England Record
- Everton appearances 1968/69-1972/73 & 1982/83-1983/84 at Sporting heroes.net
- Ipswich Town biography part 1 1972–74 at Sporting-heroes.net
- Ipswich Town biography part 2 1974–76 at Sporting-heroes.net
- Liverpool appearances Part 1 1976/77-1978/79 at Sporting heroes.net
- Liverpool appearances Part 1 1979/80-1981/82 at Sporting heroes.net
- England biography 1975–80 at Sporting-heroes.net | 14,059 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
Schneider CA1
The Schneider CA 1 (originally named the Schneider CA) was the first French tank, developed during the First World War.
The Schneider was inspired by the need to overcome the stalemate of trench warfare which on the Western Front prevailed during most of the Great War. It was designed specifically to open passages for the infantry through barbed wire and then to suppress German machine gun nests. After a first concept by Jacques Quellennec devised in November 1914, the type was developed from May 1915 onwards by engineer Eugène Brillié, paralleling British development of tanks the same year. Colonel Jean Baptiste Eugène Estienne in December 1915 began to urge for the formation | 14,060 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
of French armoured units, leading to an order in February 1916 for four hundred Schneider CA tanks, which were manufactured by SOMUA, a subsidiary of Schneider located in a suburb of Paris, between September 1916 and August 1918.
Like most early tanks, the Schneider was built like a simple armoured box, without compartmentalisation of the inner space. It lacked a turret, with the main armament, a short 75 mm cannon, in a sponson on the right side. By later standards it would therefore have been an assault gun instead of a tank. The vehicle was considered a very imperfect design, because of a poor layout, insufficient fire-power, a cramped interior and inferior mobility due to an overhanging | 14,061 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
nose section, which had been designed to crush through the belts of barbed wire but in practice caused the tank to get stuck. Improved designs were almost immediately initiated but the production of these, the Schneider CA 2, CA 3 and CA 4, was eventually cancelled.
The Schneider CA 1 tanks were widely used in combat during the last war years. Their first action on 16 April 1917 was largely a failure, the tank units suffering heavy losses, but later engagements were more successful. In 1918 the Schneider tanks played an important role in halting the German Spring Offensive and breaking the German front in the French summer offensives. They were active until the end of September 1918, less than | 14,062 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
two months before the Armistice of 11 November 1918, their numbers having dropped considerably due to attrition. After the war the surviving tanks were mostly rebuilt as utility vehicles but six Schneider tanks were deployed by Spain in the Rif War in Morocco and the type saw its last action in the beginning of the Spanish Civil War.
# Development.
## Armoured caterpillar tractor development.
Before the First World War, mechanic Charles Marius Fouché cooperated with engineer Édouard Quellennec and the latter's son Jacques Quellennec to adapt existing caterpillar tractors to the conditions of Egyptian and French farming, among them the Holt Model 75. In this context in 1914 contacts were made | 14,063 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
with engineer Eugène Brillié of Schneider & Co. to adapt the Castéran Flexible Track Tractor. When that year war broke out, Jacques Quellennec was drafted as an infantry sergeant, witnessed most men of his unit being slaughtered during the First Battle of the Marne and was then severely wounded at the end of October. While recovering, he devised plans for an armoured tractor armed with a machine-gun and capable of destroying German machine-gun nests. Many in this period had comparable ideas but contrary to most, Quellennec had excellent contacts. Fouché had become a second lieutenant with the "Grand Parc Automobile de Réserve" of the "Service Automobile", the Army branch responsible for motorisation, | 14,064 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
and Brillié was chief designer with one of France's main arms manufacturers. Early December, Quellennec met Fouché in Paris and both then went to Brillié to present drawings of a tracked armoured fighting vehicle. During a second visit Quellennec urged Brillié to bring over two Holt Model 75 tractors, at that time present in Tunisia, to France in order to perform the first trials. Brillié showed himself less than enthusiastic about the idea, objecting there would be not enough room on a tractor for both crew and armament. In February 1915, Quellennec was sent to an air force training base and tasked Fouché with trying to convince Brillié, without much apparent success.
Meanwhile, the Schneider | 14,065 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
company had been given the order to develop heavy artillery tractors in January 1915. On 30 January it sent out its chief designer, Brillié, to investigate tracked tractors from the American Holt Company, at that time participating in a test programme at Aldershot in England. On his return, Brillié, who had earlier been involved in designing armoured cars for Spain, apparently without mentioning being influenced in this by Quellennec, convinced the company management to initiate studies on the development of an armoured fighting vehicle, based on the "Baby Holt" chassis, two of which were ordered. The type was intended to be sold to the French Cavalry.
Experiments on the Holt caterpillar tracks | 14,066 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
started in May 1915 at the Schneider plant with a 75 hp wheel-directed model and the 45 hp integral caterpillar Baby Holt, showing the superiority of the latter. The Castéran and the Killen-Strait Tractor were also tested but rejected. Work was now begun on an "auto-mitrailleuse blindée à chenilles" ("tracked armoured self-propelled machine gun"). On 16 June, new experiments followed in front of the President of the Republic Raymond Poincaré, leading to the order of six, later expanded to ten, armoured tracked vehicles for further testing. The type was since July called a "machine offensive à chenilles" ("tracked offensive machine") and was based on the "Baby Holt" with a suspension that was | 14,067 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
to be thirty centimetres lengthened. In August drawings were made of what was now designated the "tracteur blindé et armé" ("armoured and armed tractor"). In September 1915 the Schneider programme was combined with an official one for the development of an armoured barbed wire cutter by engineer and Member of Parliament Jules-Louis Breton, the Breton-Prétot machine. Ten of the fifteen available "Baby Holt" vehicles were to be armoured and fitted with the wire cutter of which ten systems had been ordered on 7 August. This involved the "Service Automobile" in the project. On 10 September, new experiments were made for "Commandant" L. Ferrus, an officer who had been involved in the study (and ultimate | 14,068 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
rejection) of the Levavasseur tank project in 1908.
## The Souain experiment.
On 9 December 1915 in the Souain experiment, a Schneider prototype armoured tank, a Baby Holt chassis with boiler-plate armour, was demonstrated to the French Army. Among the onlookers were General Philippe Pétain, and Colonel Jean Baptiste Eugène Estienne — an artillery man and engineer held in very high regard throughout the army for his unmatched technological and tactical expertise. The results of the prototype tank were, at least according to Estienne, excellent, displaying remarkable mobility in the difficult terrain of the former battlefield of Souain. The length of the Baby Holt however appeared to be too | 14,069 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
short to bridge German trenches, justifying the development of longer caterpillar tracks for the French tank project. For Estienne the vehicle shown embodied concepts about armoured fighting vehicles which he had been advocating since August 1914. Already on 1 December Estienne had proposed to the French GHQ the use of tracked armoured tractors to move infantry, equipment and cannon over the battlefield, having performed some trials with British caterpillar tractors. On 11 December Estienne let a certain lieutenant Thibier draw a sketch of two conceptions: the one of a Baby Holt chassis fitted at the front and the back with auxiliary rollers, to improve the trench-crossing capacity; the other | 14,070 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
of an elongated suspension protected by side armour.
## Estienne's proposal.
On 12 December Estienne presented to the High Command, represented by General Maurice Janin, a plan to form an armoured force equipped with tracked vehicles. In it he formulated some specifications. The machines should be twelve tonnes in weight, protected by fifteen to twenty millimetres of armour. The dimensions of the vehicles were indicated as four metres long, 2.6 metres wide and 1.6 metres high. An engine of eighty horsepower should allow for a maximum speed of nine kilometres per hour and a low speed of three. The vehicle should be able to cross a two metres wide trench and tow a seven tonne armoured sled holding | 14,071 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
twenty men with arms and equipment. Its armament should consist of two machine guns and a 37 mm gun, able to pierce the armour shields of enemy machine guns. The crew would total four men.
On 20 December Estienne, on leave in Paris, together with Ferrus visited Louis Renault in Boulogne-Billancourt, in vain trying to convince the car producer to get involved in the production of the new weapon system. Later the same day they received Brillié who disclosed the amount of work already done by Schneider on its project. The August order of ten vehicles had been confirmed on 7 December; on the 15th the official contract was signed. On 22 December, the Schneider company began to prepare for armoured | 14,072 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
vehicle production. It indicated it had the capacity to manufacture in total three hundred to four hundred units in 1916. At this point the Schneider project envisioned a ten tonne vehicle, armed by a 75 mm gun, protected by 10 mm chrome steel and powered by a specially developed 50 HP engine allowing for a top speed of 7 km/h. On the 27th, the paper design was adapted to incorporate some of Estienne's ideas; because the original drawings have not been rediscovered, it is impossible to determine to what extent this was done. The same day new tests were held with the Baby Holt tractor at Vincennes; the next day Estienne further elaborated his proposal at the GHQ. The prototype was fitted with | 14,073 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
extensions at the front and rear end to improve its trench-crossing capacity and successfully tested on 5 January 1916.
Estienne's plan met with approbation from Commander-in-chief Joffre, who on 7 January 1916 proposed the production of an "offensive engine" to Minister of Armaments Albert Thomas. On the 18th Estienne was received by Joffre personally to clarify his ideas. In a letter to the ministry dated 31 January 1916 Joffre desired the production of four hundred tanks of the type suggested by Estienne. Although there had been a long prior development phase with the Schneider company, Estienne's decisive role in getting the Schneider vehicle produced in mass has earned him a traditional | 14,074 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
position in history as the creator of the first French tank. This is put into perspective by his limited involvement in its technical design; as early as January 1916 the actual completion was entrusted to a ministerial bureau headed by General Léon Augustin Jean Marie Mourret, director of the Army automobile service. Mourret did not closely cooperate with Estienne, who was essentially excluded from decisions of a technical nature.
In January it was decided to manufacture a longer suspension. Schneider had, already before 9 December 1915, devised a system thirty centimetres longer with seven road wheels instead of five. Mourret ordered to build an alternative system. Two "Baby Holt" tractors, | 14,075 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
part of the order of fifteen by Schneider on 21 September 1915, and property of the French State, were during two weeks from 2 February onwards in an army workshop combined into a single elongated vehicle, a "caterpillar offensif allongé", by Lieutenant Charles Fouché, assisted by a small team of mechanics. The workshop was in the Farman factory at Billancourt appropriated from the "l'Automobilette" company. It was again about a foot longer than the Schneider type, and featured three bogies with a total of eight road wheels. The new suspension system was not based on exact blueprints but improvised by private Pierre Lescudé. On 17 February the eight-wheeled system, which prototype was later | 14,076 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
designated "L'appareil n° 1 Type A" ("Device Number 1 Type A") was tested at Vincennes, easily crossing trenches up to 1.75 metres wide and overcoming barbed wire obstacles. On 21 February successful tests were held at Vincennes, the Schneider company providing a non-elongated Baby Holt chassis for comparison. From this it was concluded that the tank was sufficiently developed to justify a production order. On 25 February 1916 the War Ministry secretly ordered the production of four hundred "tracteurs-chenilles type Schneider & Cie blindés" ("tracked and armoured tractors of the Schneider type"), at a price of 56,000 French francs per vehicle. For security reasons it was pretended these were | 14,077 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
simple towing vehicles, "tracteurs Estienne". The earlier order of 15 December for ten vehicles was hereby replaced. Fouché was ordered to improve the prototype, which resulted in a slightly changed "L'appareil n° 1 Type B", tested on 2 March. Further changes, now including improvised side armour extending to the front in a bow, created the "L'appareil n° 1 Type C" or "Machine Profilée" which was tested on 17 March. On 27 February, Schneider had been asked to provide a first armoured superstructure made of boiler steel, which was late March placed on the eight-wheeled chassis. Pictures of this vehicle have often been presented in books as showing the "first Schneider CA prototype". However, | 14,078 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
this entire development line, even though its official order had been based on it, would not be ancestral to the Schneider tank. In the Spring of 1916, for reasons that are not entirely clear, there was a fundamental falling-out between the French Army and Schneider Cie. The latter company would develop and produce its Schneider tank on the basis of its seven-wheeled chassis, which had been patented on 17 January; the Army would develop the eight-wheeled system into the Saint-Chamond heavy tank.
# Designation.
Whereas the first order spoke of "tracteurs Estienne", the factory designation of the tank was "Schneider CA". The meaning of "CA" is uncertain. Later it was usually understood to mean | 14,079 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
"Char d'Assaut", literally "chariot" and today the full French word for "tank". However, the "CA" part first surfaces in a "Tracteur CA", as a next development step in 1916 after the "Tracteur A" (the lengthened Army prototype or "L'appareil n° 1 Type A"), "Tracteur B" and "Tracteur C". The term "char d'assaut" in the meaning of "tank" was first applied by Estienne in October 1916. Sometimes a reversed order was used: Schneider AC. The combination with "char" was typically in the form of "Char Schneider". A gun-towing tractor ("remorqueur"), based on the CA chassis and produced in 1918, was designated Schneider CD, and a prototype "porteur" variant of it, intended to carry a heavy artillery | 14,080 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
piece, the CD3. This would seem to indicate that the CA suffix was merely a Schneider product code similar to those used by Renault.
At the end of 1916, the type was called "Schneider CA 1" to make a distinction with a derived tank project, the "Schneider CA 2". In 1917 the Schneider CA 1 is also called the "Schneider 1916" to distinguish it from the "Schneider 1917", another name for the next tank project, the "Schneider CA 3". This had its origin in a demand by Estienne on 30 January 1917 to agree on a standardised terminology. General Mourret then proposed to use the official designations "Schneider Modèle 1916" and "Saint-Chamond Modèle 1916".
# Description.
To the modern eye, the tank | 14,081 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
is hardly recognizable as such and appears as an armoured steel box resting on top of a caterpillar tractor. It has no turret, and its inconspicuous main armament is a fortification 75 mm "Blockhaus Schneider", placed in a barbette in the right front corner of the tank. The right side had been chosen because the gunner had to stand to the left of the barrel to operate the gun. The cannon type was developed from a 75 mm trench mortar that had been adapted to fire from a fixed fortification position by adding a recoil compensator and a gun shield; in this configuration it weighed 210 kilogrammes. This short-barrelled cannon had a length of just 9.5 calibres. It fired the standard French HE Model | 14,082 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
1915 75 mm shell but with a reduced propelling charge, shortening the length of the round from 350 to 241 millimetres, allowing for a muzzle velocity of only two hundred metres per second. This limited the maximum range to 2200 metres, the practical range was six hundred metres and the tank needed to close within two hundred metres of a point target to allow for precision shooting. The gun has a traverse of 60°, a depression of -10° and an elevation of 30°. The ammunition stock is ninety vertically stowed rounds. Two 8 mm Hotchkiss Model 1914 machine guns, projecting from the flanks in large hemispherical ballmounts, and resting on pintles, complement the short 75mm gun. The right machine gun | 14,083 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
is, because of the room needed for the main gun, positioned more to the rear than the left one. The machine guns have a traverse of 106°, a depression of -45° and an elevation of 20°. To the right of the cannon there is a bin for twenty readily accessible 75 mm rounds. Three other bins are positioned respectively at the extreme right rear corner (fourteen rounds), to the left of the engine (thirty-two) and at the left rear corner (twenty-four). The latter is situated to the right of a bin, at the extreme left corner, for the stock of four thousand rounds of 8 mm ammunition. In 1918, in practice fifty belts with ninety-six rounds were carried, for a total of 4800 rounds.
Another unusual feature | 14,084 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
is the slanted overhang of the frontal part of the chassis which has the form of a pointed nose, ending in a high obliquely protruding steel spur. It had been designed for cutting through and crushing down German barbed wire, thus opening passages for following French infantry, originally seen as the primary function of the system. This long overhang could cause the tank to ditch itself readily. The major dimensions of the tank are a length of , a width of and a height of . The design is of the early so-called "box tank" type, in which the crew, propulsion system and all manner of equipment are not clearly separated. As a result, there is no real fighting compartment. The room available to the | 14,085 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
crew, illuminated by three small electric lights, is entered through a double door in the back of the tank and is extremely cramped. The crew consisted of a commanding officer who was also the driver; an NCO who was the gunner, two machine gunners, a loader who assisted both the cannon and the machine guns and a mechanic who doubled as a machine gun loader. Four of these six men had, at their assigned position, to crouch inside a high space between the roof and the tank's floor. They then had to stand within two narrow troughs, one, behind the driver's seat, used by the gunner and a second square one more to the back, between the suspension elements, used by the cannon loader and the two machine | 14,086 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
gunners. Most of the space however, had a height of just three feet between the roof and the covering of transmission and suspension: if the mechanic wanted to assist the right machine gun, he had to lie on his belly to load it. Part of each Schneider tank team were also three embedded riflemen who functioned as a sort of outside crew, during battle directly accompanying the vehicle. All-around protection was provided by 11.4 mm steel plate, later improved by a spaced armour of 5.4/5.5 mm, raising the weight from 12.5 to 13.5 tonnes. The roof had 5.5 mm armour. The plates are partly riveted; the superstructure is largely bolted.
The 60 hp Schneider gasoline engine and its radiator are located | 14,087 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
in the front part of the tank, to the immediate left of the driver. The four cylinder, 135×170 9753 cc, engine is of a type specially constructed for the Schneider CA. It attains its maximum output of sixty horsepower at a thousand rpm. The three forward speeds gearbox, as well as the differentials, which can be engaged by brakes on the half shafts to steer the tank, are all located on the rear axle. They are linked to the engine in the front by a driveshaft and a primary clutch. A secondary clutch is coupled to each sprocket and can be decoupled for a tight turn. The main clutch and the main brakes can be engaged by pedals, the throttle by a handle. By means of a reverse device the three gears | 14,088 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
can also be applied to drive backwards. Steering was generally very tiring and there was a tendency to jump out of gear when the clutch was engaged too forcefully. The tank's official top speed is only 8.1 km/h. Practical terrain speed was even lower at two to four km/h. The first gear at 1000 rpm equals a speed of 2 km/h, the second of 3.95 km/h, the third of 6.75 km/h. At two kilometres per hour the vehicle can climb a slope of 55%. The capacity to overcome obstacles, limited to a parapet of about eighty centimetres, is improved by two short climbing tails, fitted to the left and right of the lower hull rear. The lower profile of the tails is curved, allowing the vehicle to gradually raise | 14,089 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
itself above a trench floor, until its centre of gravity shifts over the edge causing its hull to suddenly tumble forward. The trench-crossing capacity is about 175 centimetres. The wading capacity is eighty centimetres. Two fuel gravity-feed reservoirs placed above the engine below the right front roof and nose plate, have a total capacity of 145 litres, and allow for a practical range of about fifty kilometres, though the official range is eighty kilometres. The suspension consists of seven double road wheels attached to two bogies, the one in front carrying three, the other four. The rear bogie is sprung by two vertical coil springs, the front one larger than the rear one. The front bogies | 14,090 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
of the left and the right, each sprung by a vertical coil of narrow diameter, are connected to each other by means of a yoke-like transverse beam, itself attached to the hull bottom by two wide vertical coils springs, diminishing rolling and tilt when crossing rough terrain. Ground clearance is forty-one centimetres. There are five small return rollers. The six-spoked idler is attached to the front bogie and can thus move vertically to some degree. The sprocket, having twenty teeth, is however fixed in relation to the hull. It has a somewhat larger diameter than the idler, causing the upper track profile to slope slightly downwards to the front. The track consists of thirty-three flat links | 14,091 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
with a width of thirty-six centimetres. The ground pressure is about 0.75 kg/cm².
As the traverse of the main gun was limited, it had first to be pointed in the general direction of the target by the driver-commander swivelling the entire vehicle. To facilitate this, a small rectangular frame is fitted on the right side of the nose of the tank. Looking through it, the driver had a sightline parallel to that of the cannon in a neutral position. In practice, the commander had a too limited view of his surroundings through the small hatches to his left, front and right and had to resort to lifting his head out of his rectangular top hatch to observe the enemy. Small rectangular hatches, fitted | 14,092 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
with a vision slit, are further present to the front of each machine-gun. The main ventilation is provided by a large skylight slit running along the midline of the hull. It is doubly roofed with the lower roof having a second slit in its top, while the higher roof has open lower sides, creating oblique oblong ventilation channels through which fresh air can be sucked in from the outside. The top roof is the highest element of the vehicle. With later production vehicles, polluted air is removed through a broad ventilation grid in the nose, having a recessed armour plate below it. To the left and the right of the skylight roof rectangular escape hatches are present in the hull top.
The vehicles | 14,093 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
were delivered by the factory painted in the standard grey colour used by the Artillery Arm and other branches of the army and that was often called "artillery grey". It was a rather light pearl grey shade. At first, by the "Section Camouflage" in the field a specially designed complex striped flame pattern was added consisting of narrow vertical red brown, dark green and yellow ochre patches, delineated in black. This was intended to break the contours of the vehicles. To some observers, it made them seem strikingly colourful. The original grey paint was perhaps only partly covered, including it in the ensemble; an alternative interpretation of the lightest patches seen in black-and-white photographs | 14,094 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
is that it represents a light green hue. Later, when the appliqué armour was added a much simpler scheme was used where the same hues were shown in large irregular areas, again demarcated in black. In the first combat actions, it became clear that German machine gunners concentrated their fire on the vision slits. To confuse them, in the summer of 1917 a cross-hatched scheme of narrow vertical and horizontal dark grey stripes was applied on top of the original patches. The stripes continued over the side machine gun ball mounts but a round area remained untouched to suggest a false position. The individual Schneider CA tanks had serial numbers ranging from 61001 to 61399. The first tactical | 14,095 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
markings consisted of simple numbers, to distinguish the individual tanks within a training unit. Early 1917 the combat units used small inconspicuous playing-card symbols, each symbol indicating one of four batteries within a "groupe". These were sprayed in white on the tank side, often combined with an individual tank number, depending on the style each "groupe" preferred. The tank number could also be indicated on the tank spur, by horizontal stripes.
# Production.
In the original contract of 25 February 1916 it had been stipulated that all four hundred units would be delivered that same year: the first hundred by 25 August and the last by 25 November, completing the full order in nine | 14,096 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
months. Because Schneider had no experience in tracked armoured fighting vehicle production and a true pilot model was lacking, this was highly optimistic. Also the Schneider company had expected to be able to employ the other major French arms producer, the "Forges et Aciéries de la Marine et d'Homécourt", as a subcontractor but this rival proceeded to develop from the alternative prototype ordered by Mourret a heavier tank design, the Saint-Chamond. As a result, the first prototype could only be presented to the Ministry of Armament on 4 August. The Schneider subsidiary "Société d'outillage mécanique et d'usinage d'artillerie" or SOMUA at Saint Ouen near Paris was only on 5 September able | 14,097 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
to finish the first vehicle chassis, which would on 8 September be delivered at the training centre at Marly. The first Army tests were carried out on 12 September. On the original deadline of 25 November the total had risen to just eight vehicles; on 4 January 1917 thirty-two were present. To aggravate matters, these were training vehicles, not fitted with hardened armour but boiler plate.
Late January production picked up, attaining three or four units per day. However, it soon slowed down again because the new Commander-in-Chief, Robert Nivelle, ordered that priority should be given to the manufacture of the Schneider CD towing tractor. As a result, production fell from seventy tanks between | 14,098 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
28 January and 27 February to sixty between the latter date and 28 March and only twenty additional vehicles were manufactured until 12 April. On 15 March the total accepted by the Army had reached 150 tanks; by 1 April this number had risen to 208, by 1 June to 322. Then production almost came to a halt, both because of a loss of interest in the type and to maintain a sufficient spare parts manufacture. The total reached 340 on 30 September, 370 on 1 December and 372 on 19 December. The full order would not be completed until August 1918. The ultimate costs of the project were about fifty million French franc. Official factory deliveries were fifty in 1916, 326 in 1917 and twenty-four in 1918. | 14,099 |
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