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621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
Of these 397 were transferred to the French Army.
Early 1917 one vehicle had been delivered to Italy. The tank had been ordered by the Italians after Captain Alfredo Bennicelli had observed the first French Army testing in September 1916; the single vehicle was in 1917 tested and deployed on the Kras front. It made a favourable impression and in the Autumn of 1917 the Italian High Command desired either the purchase of twenty Schneiders or the tooling capable of producing them. This plan was abandoned after the heavy defeat of the Italian Army at the Battle of Caporetto. Its High Command now envisaged the equipment with a far larger number of tanks, demanding the import or manufacture of about | 14,100 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
1500 Schneiders. After it had become clear that the French industry did not have the spare capacity to meet those demands and that they far out-reached the possibilities of domestic production, it was decided to produce the cheaper and more modern FIAT 3000 instead, a copy of the Renault FT, three of which had been received in May 1918.
# Improvements.
During production, the type was gradually improved, which caused further delays. From the 245th vehicle onwards an automatic starter was installed, engaged by a handle, as the original manual system did not allow for a sufficiently quick response to a changing battlefield situation. Also it was decided the design was too poorly protected. In | 14,101 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
response to the first use of British Mark I tanks on 15 September 1916, the Germans had begun to introduce anti-tank weapons and tactics. One of the measures taken by them was the issuing of the "Kerngeschoss" or "K-bullet", a hardened steel core round capable of piercing the thin armour of tanks. To defeat it, from the 210th vehicle onwards the Schneider tank was fitted with extra 5.4 mm thick armour plates on the sides and front with a space of four centimetres between the main armour and these appliqué plates. Even without the spaced armour, the front plates would have been immune against K-bullet fire from a distance of two hundred metres, because they were angled at 60°, providing an effective | 14,102 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
line-of-sight thickness of . During the spring of 1917 existing vehicles were uparmoured (creating a "surblindé" version) by the army workshop at Champlieu. Some of these, such as a vehicle with series number 61213, were fitted with additional armour plates on the vertical front surfaces, including an extra rectangular shield around the gun barrel. On 1 April 1917 of the 208 tanks available only about a hundred had been retrofitted. None of the older tanks had at this point yet received the new starter engine, this part of the improvement process would take until the end of the summer.
The first combat actions showed that the fuel reservoirs were prone to explode when the vehicle was hit by | 14,103 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
an artillery round. To remedy this the reservoirs were replaced by fuel tanks with a double wall, using a felt filler layer to absorb gasoline leakages. Furthermore, these fuel tanks, each containing , were moved to a safer position under armour though still outside the hull, in vertical rectangular steel boxes to the left and right of the rear door. This necessitated the construction of an additional safer exit, at the left side of the vehicle. On 8 September 1917 only twelve tanks had been changed to this new configuration. As of 21 March 1918 about 245 vehicles featured all three of these major improvements.
Numerous smaller modifications were introduced during the testing phase and the | 14,104 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
production run. The first included an improved cooling system and better ventilation to prevent and remove carbon monoxide fumes which otherwise threatened to asphyxiate the crew within an hour. To prevent dirt entering the chassis near the crank, at the bottom of the vehicle an armour plate was added. Later additions were a periscope sight, an exhaust pipe, and speaking tubes for internal communications. In 1917, to provide some modicum of communication with higher command levels and accompanying tanks or infantry, a hinged metal shield was attached to the rear of the hull skylight roof. Its back was painted in a conspicuous horizontal tricolour red-white-red scheme. When lifted by means of | 14,105 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
a steel cable operable from the inside via a grooved small vertical plate located on the front of the skylight roof, it indicated the position of the tank to friendly observers from behind. Several versions of this system existed, differing in the precise location of the shield and its shape. It was especially intended to signal to the infantry that it was safe to advance after the tank had neutralised all enemy machine-gun positions.
Some improvements were studied but not applied. Simple ones included the introduction of track shoes with a chevron profile to improve grip. Also it was originally considered to use blocks of sodium peroxide ("oxylithe") to remove the carbon monoxide, but this | 14,106 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
was rejected in view of the fire hazard. The first testing to equip a French tank with a radio set was carried out in the summer of 1917 with a Schneider CA, using a twelve-metre wire antenna with a range of . A second test with a fourteen-metre antenna on 18 August 1917 established that contact could be made with an aircraft within a distance of two kilometres provided that the tank was not moving, and it was decided to equip the command tanks of two units, AS 11 and AS 12, with an "Émitteur 10"ter radio set.
Much more far-reaching were early proposals to fundamentally change the design, to be implemented during the production run. These were inspired by the awkward layout; in order to limit | 14,107 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
the width of the tank, the main armament had been placed in an inconvenient position. On 1 December 1916 a certain Lieutenant Saar submitted drawings showing a vehicle on which the 75 mm cannon had been replaced by a 47 mm gun turret, the number of machine guns was raised to six, the number of vision slits to eleven and the engine was located in the middle of the hull. On 28 and 29 December 1916 the Schneider company considered moving the 75 mm gun to the nose of the vehicle and give it a 120° traverse.
# Operational history.
## Training.
To deploy tanks, it was first needed to train crews and create tank units. On 14 July 1916 Estienne started to set up a training base at the "Fort du Trou-d'Enfer", | 14,108 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
a fortress at Marly-le-Roi, west of Paris. For reasons of secrecy this location was officially attached to the 81st Heavy Artillery Regiment, a depot unit. On 15 August the camp was formally established and quickly filled with recruits, most of them young volunteers from various French armies. At Marly the crews received their first instruction consisting of the basics of maintenance and a lot of driver training with an emphasis on crossing trenches, avoiding shell craters and running down trees and walls. Because no actual Schneider vehicles were available at first, Holt tractors were used instead; later boiler plate training chassis were employed with the superstructure removed and replaced | 14,109 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
by a protective wooden frame. From the spring of 1917 onwards about seven vehicles were used for this goal. For unit training and live fire exercises, which required much larger manoeuvre grounds, on 30 August 1916 a camp was established at Cercottes. It received its first training vehicles on 17 November 1916. To get better acquainted with the mechanical side of the tanks, most crew members left Cercottes for a month to work as a trainee at the SOMUA factory. New vehicles would normally be first delivered at Cercottes. In 1917 the Cercottes base grew to a strength of about five thousand men, many of them sent there from units trying to get rid of undesirable elements, forcing the base command | 14,110 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
to reduce manpower by again removing them. On 28 September 1916 a large instruction centre was established at Champlieu, south of Compiègne. This location, close to the frontline and officially part of the warzone, could serve for final training and sending out battle-ready units to those armies needing them. The tank workshops were also located there, repairing and updating existing vehicles. The bases at Cercottes and Champlieu used about sixty-four tanks purely for training purposes, to limit the wear on the combat vehicles.
## Unit formation.
The French Army did not intend to create an independent tank force; the tank units would be part of the Artillery Arm, which was reflected in the | 14,111 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
organisational terminology. The basic units were officially called "Groupes", but had the designation "AS", for "Artillerie Spéciale". Each group consisted of four batteries, each battery again of four tanks. This would have resulted in a total of sixteen tanks and indeed this was the official organic strength of an AS, but the fourth battery was normally a depot unit, intended to provide replacement vehicles and crews for the other three batteries. It had an official allotment of three tanks and the total matériel strength of an AS was thus fifteen. Actual operational strength varied wildly, due to frequent breakdowns. The personnel strength consisted of twelve officers — each commanding a | 14,112 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
tank of the three regular batteries — sixteen NCOs and 110 men of lower rank. In practice often four batteries of three tanks were fielded, to allow for a greater tactical flexibility. The first Schneider CA units were formed from 17 November 1916 onwards. Six AS were raised until the end of January 1917, three more in February and March each and again two in April and May each for a total of seventeen operational "Groupes", numbered AS 1–17. Three more had been created by 2 June 1917, AS 18, 19 and 20, but were almost immediately dissolved, their personnel retrained to form Saint Chamond units. Between 1 March and 1 May 1917 the AS were combined into five larger units, called "Groupements", | 14,113 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
with a variable strength. In May 1918, three of the surviving four "Groupements", I, II and IV, were each attached to three light tank Renault FT battalions to form larger "Régiments de Artillerie Spéciale", the "501e, 502e" and "504e RAS" respectively.
## Actions.
### Berry-au-Bac.
Estienne had hoped to create a powerful and large striking force before committing his tanks to battle. He had strongly disapproved of the, in his eyes premature, British use of tanks in September 1916, just two months after first deliveries of the Mark I. However, political circumstances would compel him to deploy the "Artillerie Spéciale" before it was at full strength or adequately trained. In December 1916 | 14,114 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
Robert Nivelle had been appointed supreme French commander on the promise that his tactical innovation of the "rolling barrage" would ensure a quick collapse of the German front. Not favourably inclined towards the independent mass deployment of armour, Nivelle hoped that the tanks produced could be made of some use by letting them assist his planned offensive. Ultimately, the Germans learned of the French intentions so that strategic surprise was lost, allowing them to reinforce the threatened front sectors; nor was there a tactical surprise, as it had become known that French tanks existed and were about to be introduced. Three AS first assembled at the frontline near Beuvraignes in late March | 14,115 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
1917, hoping to exploit a possible success in an offensive by the Third Army, that however had to be cancelled because of the strategic German retreat to the Hindenburg Line. Eventually, the tank units were to support the attack by the Fifth Army at the Aisne and were concentrated in a nine kilometres wide sector south of Juvincourt-et-Damary, chosen for its firm ground. The Germans had created a strong defensive belt in this area, held by four divisions of the Bavarian Army, with a depth of nine kilometres and divided into four main trench systems. The plan was for the French infantry to take the first and second trench within about four hours, advancing behind the "creeping barrage", after | 14,116 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
which the tanks would immediately exploit this success and maintain the momentum of the offensive by quickly progressing towards the third trench, directly followed by the infantry; together they would conquer the third and fourth trenches. The "strategic rupture" resulting from this and many adjoining attacks was to be exploited through deep penetrations by large reserve infantry armies, outflanking the Hindenburg Line from the south.
Three "Groupements" were committed to the offensive. Two of these, named after their commanders Louis Bossut and Louis Léonard Chaubès, were attached to the 32nd and 5th Army Corps respectively and would engage on the first day. "Groupement Bossut" consisted | 14,117 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
of five "groupes": AS 2, 4, 5, 6 and 9, thus fielding eighty tanks, as the AS in this phase of the war operated at full strength with four batteries of four tanks. "Groupement Chaubès", created on 8 March, included AS 3, 7 and 8, with about forty-eight tanks. Each "Groupement" was reinforced by a supply and recovery unit or "Section de Réparations et de Ravitaillement" which besides two unarmed Saint-Chamonds and some Baby Holt tractors was equipped with two unarmed Schneider CA tanks, towing "Troy" trailers with fuel, bringing the total at 132 Schneider vehicles, at that date the largest tank force ever deployed. On 13 April the tank units concentrated behind the frontline. There they were | 14,118 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
joined by supporting infantry companies: five from the "154e R.I." of the "165e D.I." for "Groupement Bossut" and three of the "76e R.I." of the "125e D.I." for "Groupement Chaubès".
During the early morning of 16 April 1917 the Nivelle Offensive was launched. In the sector where the tanks operated the initial waves of French infantry succeeded in taking the first and second German trenches as planned, but with very heavy losses. The French artillery was insufficient in number to simultaneously sustain the creeping barrage and suppress the numerous German artillery batteries. This was aggravated by the German air superiority which allowed artillery observation planes to precisely direct German | 14,119 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
interdiction fire on the advancing French columns. "Groupement Chaubès" suffered many losses before it was even able to leave the French lines. When arriving at the frontline in the early afternoon, it had to assist the infantry in clearing the second trench of the last German remnants. These did not panic at the sight of the French tanks but had been trained to hide from them, leaving their cover to engage the French infantry when the armoured vehicles had moved on. At the end of the day, the French infantry proved unable to continue the offensive and the last surviving French tanks had to be withdrawn. More to the east, north of Berry-au-Bac after which village later the entire tank action | 14,120 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
would be named, "Groupement Bossut" proved more successful. It managed to cross the various trench lines losing only a few vehicles and in the late morning concentrated to carry on the offensive. However, around 11:00 the tank of Bossut, "Trompe-la-Mort" ("Dare-devil") leading the advance, carrying a tricolour fanion blessed in the Sacré-Cœur at Montmartre, received a direct heavy artillery hit, incinerating most of the crew and blowing Bossut himself from the rear entrance from which he had been directing the battle, killed by a shell splinter through the heart. Nevertheless, the Schneiders continued their progress, advancing several miles in a narrow penetration through a shallow valley towards | 14,121 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
the third German trench. The weakened infantry though, was unable to follow, forcing the tanks to wait for the arrival of reserve units. For several hours the tanks moved up and down the conquered terrain to avoid presenting static targets for the German artillery. Despite this many vehicles were hit, as they were in plain sight of German batteries on the surrounding hills. Flank assaults by Bavarian stormtroopers were repulsed. In the early evening, fresh infantry units together with the tanks conquered a sector of the third trench, marking the high tide of the French progress during the entire Second Battle of the Aisne. The Schneiders then withdrew, again suffering losses by artillery fire.
The | 14,122 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
Nivelle Offensive was a grave disappointment, demoralising the French troops and leading to the French Army Mutinies. The sense of failure extended to the Schneider tanks. Their losses had indeed been heavy: 76 of the 128 combat tanks engaged had been lost. Many of these had burnt: 57 in total, 31 with "Groupement Bossut" and 26 with "Groupement Chaubès". Most had been set on fire by German artillery: twenty-three vehicles of "Groupement Chaubès" had been hit by indirect fire and fifteen of "Groupement Bossut"; this latter unit had fourteen tanks hit by direct fire. Investigations showed that most vehicles had carried additional fire-hazards: to compensate the limited range two fifty litre cans | 14,123 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
of petrol had been attached to the rear and some crews had even stowed a third one inside; sometimes explosive charges had been stowed outside; each tank had a bottle of ether to mix with the petrol to boost the engine and to enhance the fighting spirit three litres of strong liquor had been provided at the start of the battle. Also the personnel losses had been high: 180 of the 720 crew members, and 40% of the supporting infantry had become casualties. On a positive note, twenty broken-down tanks had been salvaged from the battlefield, all enemy infantry assaults had failed, and the spaced armour proved to be very resistant, beyond expectations, against small-arms fire and shell splinters. | 14,124 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
The main technical complaint was that visibility from within the vehicle was poor for the driver as well as the gunners. Tactical lessons drawn were that tanks should spread out more to avoid artillery fire and had to cooperate more closely with the infantry.
"Groupement III", commanded by Captain Henri Lefebvre, was intended to assist an attack by the Fourth Army on 17 April at Moronvilliers. It consisted of two Schneider groups, AS 1 and AS 10, reinforced by some Saint-Chamond tanks. When the initial infantry attacks largely failed, the tank attack was cancelled, also in view of the events the previous day.
### Moulin-de-Laffaux.
Despite the general failure of the Nivelle Offensive and | 14,125 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
the ensuing mutinies, French High Command in May 1917 tried to make use of the force concentration at the Aisne by at least conquering the notorious Chemin-des-Dames positions. Part of the plan was a limited but strategically important objective: the German saillant east of Laffaux where the Hindenburg Line hinged on the Chemin-des-Dames, named after the hillock of the Moulin-de-Laffaux. This attack was to be supported by "Groupement Lefebvre". To improve the cooperation with the infantry, the "Groupement" was reinforced by an infantry battalion specially trained in combined arms tactics, the "17e Bataillon de Chasseurs à Pied". Coordination with the artillery was improved by attaching a special | 14,126 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
observation plane, protected by six SPAD VII fighters, that had to identify German antitank-batteries and have them destroyed by counterbattery fire; it also had to report the position of the tanks to higher command levels.
The more general offensive was launched on 5 May. Whereas most infantry attacks along the Chemin-des-Dames were bloody failures that day, the tank attack on the Moulin-de-Laffaux largely attained its objectives. The Schneiders, advancing not in column but "line abreast", exploited the initial infantry conquest of the first trench by crossing the second and then assisted the foot soldiers in heavy and fluid battles with counterattacking German reserves. Eventually most tanks | 14,127 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
broke down and had to be left behind by the advancing infantry. Salvaging them proved difficult as thunderstorms made the surface of the in itself firm chalkstone of the area very slippery and the terrain was rough, dotted with ruins and intersected by ravines and quarries. The majority of the vehicles were repaired during the night, but the soil had so deteriorated that only a single battery of four was deployed on the sixth. Nevertheless, the Schneiders had made a good account of themselves. Of thirty-three tanks engaged only five had been destroyed, three of them Schneiders. Casualties among the crews numbered fifty-five, three of them fatal.
### La Malmaison.
In the wake of the mutinies | 14,128 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
Philippe Pétain was appointed supreme commander. He tried to restore confidence by abstaining from overambitious offensive plans. Only in 1918 when the influx of American troops and new armoured vehicles would tip the balance in favour of the Entente, could decisive attacks be considered. His motto was therefore: "J'attends les Américains et les chars" ("I wait for the Americans and the tanks"). However, remaining purely inactive would undermine the morale; to bolster it a series of meticulously prepared small-scale offensives were undertaken in which success was guaranteed by deploying an overwhelming numerical superiority, especially in artillery, to conquer a limited objective. On 23 October | 14,129 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
1917 Pétain in one blow took the notorious Chemin-des-Dames crest, including the fortress of La Malmaison. The attack was supported by "Groupement Chaubès", at the time consisting of AS 8, 11 and 12. Due to the losses in April, each AS now deployed twelve tanks. Including the supply vehicles the Schneider total numbered forty-one. The command vehicles of AS 11 and AS 12 were that day the first French tanks ever to use radio equipment in battle.
The tanks did not play a decisive role in this action. Because of the traffic jam, many were unable to even leave their own lines; many others broke down or got stuck in a marsh before reaching the enemy. Those that managed to engage however, effectively | 14,130 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
cooperated with the infantry. A ground fog largely hid the vehicles from enemy artillery and the spaced armour defeated German machine-gun "Kerngeschoss"-rounds. Losses were therefore low, with two tanks burnt and less than 10% personnel casualties. Six vehicles that had in May been abandoned at Moulin-de-Laffaux, could now be salvaged. Despite their modest contribution, the efficacy of the tanks seemed proven, justifying the planned expansion of the tank force. During the three 1917 battles, Schneider tanks engaged 175 enemy targets. Eighty-six vehicles were lost that year.
### The 1918 battles.
French command considered to launch large-scale summer offensives in 1918, benefiting from a grown | 14,131 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
number of AFVs. At this point of the war, less than a year after their first employment, the Schneider tanks were already considered obsolete. They nevertheless still formed an essential part of the tank force: a successor medium tank type, the Schneider Modèle 1917, had been cancelled; the light Renault FT had not been produced in sufficient numbers yet, especially the 75 mm cannon version; and the Saint-Chamond was of limited utility, so the Schneiders had to provide the necessary fire-power. Their continued importance became obvious when the French plans were on 21 March, at which date 245 Schneider tanks were operational, disrupted by the German Spring Offensive, a massive infantry onslaught | 14,132 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
made possible by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk allowing Germany to shift the bulk of its forces to the Western Front. In April there were minor counterattacks at the Somme by a small number of Schneider tanks: five vehicles on the 5th at Sauvillers-Mongival, six on the 7th at Grivesnes, and twelve on the 18th at the "Bois de Sénécat", west of Castel. On 28 May, also at the Somme, twelve vehicles (AS 5) supported an American Expeditionary Forces attack in the Battle of Cantigny, the first time in history American troops cooperated with tanks. At first the German offensive was largely directed against the British Expeditionary Force but when this ultimately failed to produce the desired decisive | 14,133 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
breakthrough, late May the Germans turned in force on the French in the Third Battle of the Aisne. The German advance threatened the Champlieu base, which was abandoned, severely disrupting repair and maintenance. Early June the offensives had created a large French salient around Compiègne and Erich Ludendorff decided to reduce it in Operation Gneisenau. Soon for the French the situation became critical as a German success would open the way to Paris. On 11 June, tanks were for the first time used in mass for a mobile counterattack in the Battle of Matz. Although most of the vehicles involved were of the Saint-Chamond type, two Schneider "Groupements" (II and III) also participated with seventy-five | 14,134 |
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tanks. The French armour concentration, hitting the flank of the enemy penetration, succeeded in halting the German advance and "Gneisenau" was cancelled. The success came at a price however: thirty-five Schneiders were lost. In the west of the salient on 9 July a small local counterattack took place named after the "Porte" and "Des Loges" farms, which was supported by about fifteen Schneider tanks of AS 16 and AS 17.
On 15 July the Germans began their last large 1918 offensive, attacking Rheims in the Second Battle of the Marne. Soon their advance faltered and they found themselves in a very vulnerable situation, with overextended supply lines and exhausted troops lacking well-entrenched positions. | 14,135 |
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On 18 July French and American divisions, cooperating with a large number of tanks, started a major offensive, the Battle of Soissons, in which for the first time since 1914 Entente forces on the Western Front succeeded in making substantial progress, reducing the entire German salient created in the Third Battle of the Aisne. In the operation three Schneider "Groupements" (I, III and IV) participated with 123 vehicles, the second largest deployment of the type during the war. The battle was a strategic disaster for the Germans, leading to the disintegration of a large part of their forces and initiating a period of almost continuous retreats. Although now at last the conditions were favourable | 14,136 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
to fulfil the offensive role for which they had been created, the Schneider tanks could not be of much assistance to the itself also decimated French infantry. By 1 August 1918 the number of operational Schneider CA tanks had dropped to fifty. As production was halted that month, losses could not be replaced, whereas the intensified fighting resulted in a much-increased wear. As a consequence, effective levels remained low: forty vehicles on 1 September, sixty on 1 October, fifty-one on 1 November. Accordingly, in subsequent operations the Schneiders never again equalled the numbers reached in July. On 16 August three groups with thirty-two tanks attacked near Tilloloy; on 20 August one group | 14,137 |
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of twelve participated in actions near Nampcel. On 12 September "Groupement IV" could muster twenty-four tanks to support the Americans in the Battle of Saint-Mihiel. From 26 September during the Meuse-Argonne Offensive "Groupement IV" continued to support the Americans with about twenty-two tanks, and "Groupements" I and III supported the French Fourth Army with thirty-four vehicles. During October most Schneider units were recuperating and German intelligence assumed the type had now been completely phased out, replaced by the newer and more effective Renault FT tanks, but in fact it was planned to again deploy about fifty Schneiders in a large offensive in Lorraine to begin on 11 November. | 14,138 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
That day however, the First World War ended as the Armistice with Germany was concluded. During the 1918 battles, Schneider tanks engaged 473 enemy targets. In the war, in total 308 Schneider tanks had been lost, 86 in 1917 and 222 in 1918: 301 by enemy artillery fire, three by mines, three by antitank rifle fire and one by unknown causes.
## the Schneider CA2, CA3 and CA4.
The first projects to create new variants were based on the original Schneider CA design. On 27 September 1916 Estienne wrote a memorandum to the General Headquarters outlining his thoughts about a possible command tank. Considering that tank units would not only attack static enemy positions but also had to manoeuvre | 14,139 |
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on the battlefield against moving hostile troops, he foresaw that their commanders would need more agile vehicles with armament and armour concentrated in the front, to lead a pursuit or cover a retreat. Therefore, a variant was needed fitted with a turret featuring a 37 mm gun and one or two machine-guns in the front instead of the sides, protected by 15 mm front armour, with a crew of four and with a top speed of at least 10 km/h. Fifty such vehicles should be constructed. On 2 October, Joffre demanded the production of fifty "voitures cuirassées de commandement". On 13 October Schneider had a paper design ready; on 17 October the order was confirmed by Mourret. Towards the end of 1916 a "mock-up" | 14,140 |
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was ready under the designation of Schneider CA2. On 26 and 27 March 1917 a prototype made of boiler-plate, perhaps identical to the "mock-up", was tested at Marly. It had the standard suspension of the Schneider CA but its hull was strongly shortened so that the overhanging nose had disappeared. The 75 mm cannon had been replaced by a cylindrical turret, intended to be armed with a 47 mm gun and a machine-gun, close to the rear of the hull. The hull was further diminished in size and weight by a considerable narrowing, and closing of the roofed skylight slit, which lowered its height. As a result, the type weighed only eight tonnes. During the testing the vehicle, though no longer getting itself | 14,141 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
stuck on an overhanging nose, still proved unable to climb out of muddy shell craters. It was concluded that the suspension should be lengthened by the equivalence of three track links, about forty centimetres, and on 13 April 1917 a quick commencement of production was envisaged. In reality Estienne had already on 22 March decided to discontinue this project in favour of a Renault FT command ("signal") version. The CA2 prototype was subsequently used as a training and test bed vehicle and the immediate need for command vehicles was met by fitting two standard Schneider CAs with radio sets. On 29 December 1916 it was proposed to develop from the Schneider CA2 two light tank prototypes.
Early | 14,142 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
1917 it was suggested to construct some vehicles as flamethrower tanks by installing a flamethrowing device in two armoured turrets, one at the left front corner and the other at the right rear corner, each having a field of fire of about 180°. The fuel reservoirs would be inside the hull. No production resulted. In February 1917, Schneider proposed to build a variant with a thirty-two centimetres wider hull fitted in the front with a 47 mm gun and two machine-gun turrets placed diagonally behind the driver position, while the engine was relocated to the rear of the vehicle. On 2 April 1917 the Ministry of Armament asked Schneider to design two improved versions of the Schneider CA: one with | 14,143 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
a gun turret, the calibre not surpassing 47 mm if it were a long gun; the other with a long 75 mm gun in the front of the hull.
After the failure of the Nivelle Offensive, Schneider understood that more capable designs had to be manufactured if the tank were to remain a viable weapon system. On 1 May 1917 it discussed a range of possible options, numbered one to five. All had in common that basically the same mechanical components were used as with the Schneider CA, though often improved, and that the suspension was only partially changed: elongated by the addition of an eighth road wheel and using thirty-five instead of thirty-three wider, forty-five centimetres broad, track links. However, | 14,144 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
all were also strongly modernised: the hull overhang had disappeared, the hull front formed as a sloped wedge, and the inner space was compartmentalised, with an engine room, protruding behind the sprocket, at the back and the driver in front. The armour base was about sixteen to twenty millimetres. The first two proposals were probably identical to the April 1917 projects and discarded by the company as inferior. The last three, favoured by Schneider itself, were all turreted vehicles: design No 3 had a 47 mm gun in the hull and a single machine-gun turret; No 4 differed in having two machine-gun turrets and No 5 in having the gun moved to a turret. During discussions about these proposals, | 14,145 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
Estienne pointed out that the intended long 47 mm gun had not entered production yet and that no high performance explosive charge was available to give it a sufficient effect on soft targets. Therefore, he insisted on fitting the standard 75 mm field gun, even if this would raise weight to 14.5 tonnes. A week later Schneider presented proposal No 6, which envisaged a vehicle weighing fourteen tonnes and having a shortened 75 mm gun in the turret. On 5 July 1917 drawings were ready of the type, which was now called the Schneider CA3. However, these included an alternative version with a shortened 75 mm gun in the hull. Estienne had misgivings about this project, questioning its trench-crossing | 14,146 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
capacity and predicting engine power would be insufficient, given a weight that had by now reached 16.6 tonnes. Also he demanded a gun sight allowing some fire-on-the-move capability. Nevertheless, on 24 July the Consultative Committee of the "Artillerie Spéciale" decided that the four hundred vehicles of the Schneider Modèle 1917 ordered on 10 May 1917, were to be of the CA3 type. These had to be delivered from May 1918 onwards. A prototype was ordered of each version — the mechanical parts in May and the armour hulls in July — but the company itself limited its construction activities to the one with the gun in the hull, probably because a cannon turret was judged to be "absurd" given the | 14,147 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
lack of enemy tanks and a machine gun turret was seen as necessary for close defence against infantry assault. Later that year, in an official answer to an inquiry by parliamentarian Paul Doumer regarding the progress achieved within French tank development, the designation "Schneider CA4" is used to indicate a design studied within the context of a larger order for two prototypes, weighing twenty tonnes and fitted with a cannon turret armed with the shortened 75 mm gun, and of which Schneider is unable to predict when the single prototype to be constructed would be finished, though deliveries could start in April 1918. A mock-up was built of the Schneider CA3, and on 24 October the chassis | 14,148 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
was tested at SOMUA. During the summer however, Estienne and Pétain had become worried that the medium tank production might become an obstacle to the planned light tank mass production of the Renault FT. On 27 October the committee advised that the construction of the Schneider CA3 would be suspended in favour of light tank production. It argued that the type could probably not be delivered before August 1918 anyway, too late for the summer offensives of that year, and that an improved medium tank design should be taken into development instead. The ultimate decision not to produce the Schneider CA3 was only taken in February 1918. On 19 January 1918 it was proposed that the preproduced CA3 | 14,149 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
components would be used to construct a further two hundred Schneider artillery tractors. On 3 November 1917 the order for the Schneider CA4 prototype was annulled. The new medium tank project had already been started on 15 August 1917 and strived for a technically advanced seventeen tonne vehicle armed with a shortened 75 mm gun and benefiting from a much improved mobility. It remained a paper project.
Sometimes projects of a more general investigative nature considered to employ Schneider CA hulls. In January 1917, engineer Louis Boirault proposed an articulated tank, a vehicle that would be long enough to cross wide trenches and yet sufficiently flexible to maintain mobility. Older literature | 14,150 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
sometimes suggested that he actually coupled two Schneiders rear to rear to research this concept. In fact, this was on 8 May 1917 merely advised by the committee judging the merits of the proposal, as a lighter alternative for Boirault's original plans which envisaged three hulls of a completely new design. The Schneider company would subsequently refuse to make any vehicles available and the project was continued based on the Saint-Chamond hull.
# Aftermath.
## France.
Even before the end of the war, on 6 October 1918 Estienne had proposed to phase out all Schneider tanks from operational units, remove their armament and deploy them as instruction and recovery vehicles. These should be | 14,151 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
distinguished from those vehicles that from the very beginning had been used as supply tanks, with the cannon removed and the hole plated over. Indeed, by the end of 1918, all surviving Schneider tanks had been given the destination of utility vehicles, although it is unknown to what extent and at what rate any rebuilding took place. On 1 December 1918 "Groupements" I and IV fused with Renault FT units and "Groupement" II and III, together with AS 9 from "Groupement I", reformed into three new "Groupements Lourds" (I, II and III) equipped with the British Mark V* type. Some of the still serviceable Schneiders were rebuilt as recovery vehicles and tank transporters serving with Renault FT units. | 14,152 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
In 1928 a project was presented for a Schneider CA Modèle 1928 recovery tank with the upper hull replaced by a motorised crane, that could be stabilised by a large jack at the rear of the vehicle.
### Last surviving Schneider CA.
The only surviving exemplar of the Schneider CA, at the Musée des Blindés in Saumur, is also the world's oldest tank in full running condition. It was donated at the end of the war by the French government to the United States of America, was preserved in the Aberdeen Proving Ground Ordnance Museum in Maryland, USA and in 1985 again donated to France for restoration. The tank's original four cylinder Schneider gasoline engine and the original transmissions were fully | 14,153 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
restored to original working condition by the repair teams at the "Musée des Blindés". This particular vehicle had been fitted with later upgrades, such as the fuel reservoirs located at its rear.
## Italy.
Italy in the summer of 1918 formed its first tank unit, the "Reparto speciale di marcia carri d'assalto", with one Schneider and three Renault FT tanks; the Schneider tank was replaced in November 1918 with a FIAT 2000.
## Spain.
On one occasion after the war phased out Schneider tanks were exported. After an urgent request by the Spanish government following serious defeats against Berber rebels in the Rif War, six were sold to Spain on 16 September 1921 within the context of a joint | 14,154 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
French–Spanish effort to subdue the newly independent Rif Republic. The vehicles were designated "Carro de Asalto Schneider M16" and modified by the addition of a driver's visor annex gun port in the front glacis plate. They reached Morocco on 28 February 1922. On 14 March 1922, as the first Spanish tanks to see combat action ever, they provided close support fire. Seen primarily as mobile artillery, they were combined into an artillery assault battery commanded by Captain Carlos Ruiz de Toledo which supported the single Renault FT company. In September 1925 they took part in the major amphibious landings in the bay of Al Hoceima. The Schneider tanks saw action until May 1926 and returned to | 14,155 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
Spain in 1929, not having lost a single vehicle. In Spain, due to their poor mechanical state, they were delegated to a reserve status and used as training and instruction vehicles. Four were part of the depot of the "Regimiento Ligero de Carros de Combate N° 1" at Madrid, a Renault FT unit, the other two were part of the depot strength of RLCC N° 2 at Zaragoza, the other Renault FT unit. At the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War, the first unit remained under Republican command, while the second took the side of the Nationalist rebels. The Madrid vehicles saw some action during the bloody attacks on the Cuartel de la Montaña, the main military barracks of the capital. Some of the tanks were | 14,156 |
621328 | Schneider CA1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schneider%20CA1 | Schneider CA1
he first unit remained under Republican command, while the second took the side of the Nationalist rebels. The Madrid vehicles saw some action during the bloody attacks on the Cuartel de la Montaña, the main military barracks of the capital. Some of the tanks were manned by militia members of the "Unión General de Trabajadores" and the "Unión de Hermanos Proletarios". Also the Zaragoza vehicles participated in the initial fighting. Probably all Schneider tanks became inoperational during 1936.
# See also.
- History of the tank
# References.
- Dutil, P.G.L., 1919, "Les chars d'assaut : leur création et leur rôle pendant la guerre 1915-1918", Berger-Levrault, 338 pp
# External links.
- . | 14,157 |
1214587 | Mediarts Records | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mediarts%20Records | Mediarts Records
Mediarts Records
Mediarts Records was a small record label founded by former Capitol Records executive Alan W. Livingston and producer Nik Venet.
The label's first release was Dory Previn with "On My Way To Where" (1970). Other artists signed on the label were Don McLean, Spencer Davis and Peter Jameson, Paul Anka, Odia Coates, Bill Conti, Hello People, and Gerry Rafferty. The most successful album on Mediarts was the comedy album "The Begatting of the President", narrated by Orson Welles.
The label was acquired by United Artists Records. The albums by McLean, Previn and Welles were reissued on UA. The acquisition was beneficial for UA as Anka, Coates, Conti and Rafferty had yet to issue albums | 14,158 |
1214587 | Mediarts Records | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mediarts%20Records | Mediarts Records
red by United Artists Records. The albums by McLean, Previn and Welles were reissued on UA. The acquisition was beneficial for UA as Anka, Coates, Conti and Rafferty had yet to issue albums for Mediarts, but would enjoy hits for UA. McLean had the megahit single and album "American Pie" for UA.
The Mediarts catalog is now owned by EMI through its purchase of United Artists Records and, going full circle, managed by Capitol Records.
The first 45rpm single released on the Mediarts record label was ME-100, "Earth Song"/"Everybody Has Been Burned" by Sioux City Zoo, a group from Fresno, California.
# External links.
- Mediarts Records story from BSN Pubs
# See also.
- List of record labels | 14,159 |
1214601 | Cognitive walkthrough | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cognitive%20walkthrough | Cognitive walkthrough
Cognitive walkthrough
The cognitive walkthrough method is a usability inspection method used to identify usability issues in interactive systems, focusing on how easy it is for new users to accomplish tasks with the system. Cognitive walkthrough is task-specific, whereas heuristic evaluation takes a holistic view to catch problems not caught by this and other usability inspection methods.
The method is rooted in the notion that users typically prefer to learn a system by using it to accomplish tasks, rather than, for example, studying a manual. The method is prized for its ability to generate results quickly with low cost, especially when compared to usability testing, as well as the ability | 14,160 |
1214601 | Cognitive walkthrough | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cognitive%20walkthrough | Cognitive walkthrough
to apply the method early in the design phases before coding even begins (a common trait with usability testing).
# Introduction.
A cognitive walkthrough starts with a task analysis that specifies the sequence of steps or actions required by a user to accomplish a task, and the system responses to those actions. The designers and developers of the software then walk through the steps as a group, asking themselves a set of questions at each step. Data is gathered during the walkthrough, and afterwards a report of potential issues is compiled. Finally the software is redesigned to address the issues identified.
The effectiveness of methods such as cognitive walkthroughs is hard to measure in | 14,161 |
1214601 | Cognitive walkthrough | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cognitive%20walkthrough | Cognitive walkthrough
applied settings, as there is very limited opportunity for controlled experiments while developing software. Typically measurements involve comparing the number of usability problems found by applying different methods. However, Gray and Salzman called into question the validity of those studies in their dramatic 1998 paper "Damaged Merchandise", demonstrating how very difficult it is to measure the effectiveness of usability inspection methods. The consensus in the usability community is that the cognitive walkthrough method works well in a variety of settings and applications.
# Walking through the tasks.
After the task analysis has been made the participants perform the walkthrough by asking | 14,162 |
1214601 | Cognitive walkthrough | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cognitive%20walkthrough | Cognitive walkthrough
themselves a set of questions for each subtask. Typically four questions are asked:
- Will the user try to achieve the effect that the subtask has? E.g. Does the user understand that this subtask is needed to reach the user's goal?
- Will the user notice that the correct action is available? E.g. is the button visible?
- Will the user understand that the wanted subtask can be achieved by the action? E.g. the right button is visible but the user does not understand the text and will therefore not click on it.
- Does the user get appropriate feedback? Will the user know that they have done the right thing after performing the action?
By answering the questions for each subtask usability problems | 14,163 |
1214601 | Cognitive walkthrough | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cognitive%20walkthrough | Cognitive walkthrough
will be noticed.
# Common shortcomings.
In teaching people to use the walkthrough method, Lewis & Rieman have found that there are two common misunderstandings:
- 1. The evaluator doesn't know how to perform the task themself, so they stumble through the interface trying to discover the correct sequence of actions—and then they evaluate the stumbling process. (The user should identify and perform the optimal action sequence.)
- 2. The walkthrough method does not test real users on the system. The walkthrough will often identify many more problems than you would find with a single, unique user in a single test session.
# History.
The method was developed in the early nineties by Wharton, | 14,164 |
1214601 | Cognitive walkthrough | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cognitive%20walkthrough | Cognitive walkthrough
et al., and reached a large usability audience when it was published as a chapter in Jakob Nielsen's seminal book on usability, "Usability Inspection Methods." The Wharton, et al. method required asking four questions at each step, along with extensive documentation of the analysis. In 2000 there was a resurgence in interest in the method in response to a CHI paper by Spencer who described modifications to the method to make it effective in a real software development setting. Spencer's streamlined method required asking only two questions at each step, and involved creating less documentation. Spencer's paper followed the example set by Rowley, et al. who described the modifications to the | 14,165 |
1214601 | Cognitive walkthrough | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cognitive%20walkthrough | Cognitive walkthrough
method that they made based on their experience applying the methods in their 1992 CHI paper "The Cognitive Jogthrough".
# See also.
- Cognitive dimensions, a framework for identifying and evaluating elements that affect the usability of an interface
- Comparison of usability evaluation methods
# Further reading.
- Blackmon, M. H. Polson, P.G. Muneo, K & Lewis, C. (2002) Cognitive Walkthrough for the Web CHI 2002 vol. 4 No. 1 pp. 463–470
- Blackmon, M. H. Polson, Kitajima, M. (2003) Repairing Usability Problems Identified by the Cognitive Walkthrough for the Web CHI 2003 pp497–504.
- Dix, A., Finlay, J., Abowd, G., D., & Beale, R. (2004). Human-computer interaction (3rd ed.). Harlow, | 14,166 |
1214601 | Cognitive walkthrough | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cognitive%20walkthrough | Cognitive walkthrough
England: Pearson Education Limited. p321.
- Gabrielli, S. Mirabella, V. Kimani, S. Catarci, T. (2005) Supporting Cognitive Walkthrough with Video Data: A Mobile Learning Evaluation Study MobileHCI ’05 pp77–82.
- Goillau, P., Woodward, V., Kelly, C. & Banks, G. (1998) Evaluation of virtual prototypes for air traffic control - the MACAW technique. In, M. Hanson (Ed.) Contemporary Ergonomics 1998.
- Good, N. S. & Krekelberg, A. (2003) Usability and Privacy: a study of KaZaA P2P file-sharing CHI 2003 Vol.5 no.1 pp137–144.
- Gray, W. & Salzman, M. (1998). Damaged merchandise? A review of experiments that compare usability evaluation methods, "Human-Computer Interaction vol.13 no.3", 203-61.
- | 14,167 |
1214601 | Cognitive walkthrough | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cognitive%20walkthrough | Cognitive walkthrough
Gray, W.D. & Salzman, M.C. (1998) Repairing Damaged Merchandise: A rejoinder. Human-Computer Interaction vol.13 no.3 pp325–335.
- Hornbaek, K. & Frokjaer, E. (2005) Comparing Usability Problems and Redesign Proposal as Input to Practical Systems Development CHI 2005 391-400.
- Jeffries, R. Miller, J. R. Wharton, C. Uyeda, K. M. (1991) User Interface Evaluation in the Real World: A comparison of Four Techniques Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems pp 119 – 124
- Lewis, C. Polson, P, Wharton, C. & Rieman, J. (1990) Testing a Walkthrough Methodology for Theory-Based Design of Walk-Up-and-Use Interfaces Chi ’90 Proceedings pp235–242.
- Mahatody, Thomas / Sagar, Mouldi / Kolski, Christophe | 14,168 |
1214601 | Cognitive walkthrough | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cognitive%20walkthrough | Cognitive walkthrough
(2010). State of the Art on the Cognitive Walkthrough Method, Its Variants and Evolutions, International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 2, 8 741-785.
- Rowley, David E., and Rhoades, David G (1992). The Cognitive Jogthrough: A Fast-Paced User Interface Evaluation Procedure. "Proceedings of CHI '92", 389-395.
- Sears, A. (1998) The Effect of Task Description Detail on Evaluator Performance with Cognitive Walkthroughs CHI 1998 pp259–260.
- Spencer, R. (2000) The Streamlined Cognitive Walkthrough Method, Working Around Social Constraints Encountered in a Software Development Company CHI 2000 vol.2 issue 1 pp353–359.
- Wharton, C. Bradford, J. Jeffries, J. Franzke, M. Applying Cognitive | 14,169 |
1214601 | Cognitive walkthrough | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cognitive%20walkthrough | Cognitive walkthrough
-785.
- Rowley, David E., and Rhoades, David G (1992). The Cognitive Jogthrough: A Fast-Paced User Interface Evaluation Procedure. "Proceedings of CHI '92", 389-395.
- Sears, A. (1998) The Effect of Task Description Detail on Evaluator Performance with Cognitive Walkthroughs CHI 1998 pp259–260.
- Spencer, R. (2000) The Streamlined Cognitive Walkthrough Method, Working Around Social Constraints Encountered in a Software Development Company CHI 2000 vol.2 issue 1 pp353–359.
- Wharton, C. Bradford, J. Jeffries, J. Franzke, M. Applying Cognitive Walkthroughs to more Complex User Interfaces: Experiences, Issues and Recommendations CHI ’92 pp381–388.
# External links.
- Cognitive Walkthrough | 14,170 |
1214594 | Thomas Bryan (VC) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thomas%20Bryan%20(VC) | Thomas Bryan (VC)
Thomas Bryan (VC)
Thomas Bryan VC (21 January 1882 – 13 October 1945) was an English recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces.
# Early life.
Byran was born in Worcestershire, but grew up in Castleford, West Riding of Yorkshire, England. He moved as a toddler with his family who headed north to find work in the Yorkshire collieries. His father worked as a miner at the Whitwood Colliery. Byran followed his father into the mines working at Askern Colliery.
# VC action.
Bryan was 35 years old, and a lance-corporal in the 25th (Service) Battalion (2nd Tyneside Irish), Northumberland | 14,171 |
1214594 | Thomas Bryan (VC) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thomas%20Bryan%20(VC) | Thomas Bryan (VC)
Fusiliers, British Army during the First World War at the Battle of Arras when the following deed took place for which he was awarded the VC.
On 9 April 1917 near Arras, France, during an attack Lance-Corporal Bryan although wounded, went forward alone in order to silence a machine-gun which was inflicting much damage. He worked his way along the communication trench, approached the gun from behind, disabled it and killed two of the team. The results obtained by Lance-Corporal Bryan's action were very far-reaching.
# Rugby league.
Bryan played Rugby league for Castleford in the 1906-07 season, at the end of which the club withdrew from the Northern Union for financial reasons.
His VC is | 14,172 |
1214594 | Thomas Bryan (VC) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thomas%20Bryan%20(VC) | Thomas Bryan (VC)
eague.
Bryan played Rugby league for Castleford in the 1906-07 season, at the end of which the club withdrew from the Northern Union for financial reasons.
His VC is on display in the Lord Ashcroft Gallery at the Imperial War Museum, London. His grave is maintained by the Victoria Cross Trust
# References.
- Monuments to Courage (David Harvey, 1999)
- The Register of the Victoria Cross (This England, 1997)
- (Sutton, 1998)
# External links.
- (archived by web.archive.org) Castleford info
- (archived by web.archive.org) Stourbridge-born VC hero
- (archived by web.archive.org) Location of grave and VC medal "(South Yorkshire)"
- (archived by web.archive.org) VC medal auction details | 14,173 |
1214590 | Norman Douglas Holbrook | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Norman%20Douglas%20Holbrook | Norman Douglas Holbrook
Norman Douglas Holbrook
Commander Norman Douglas Holbrook VC (9 July 1888 – 3 July 1976) was a British naval recipient of the Victoria Cross (VC), the highest award of the British honours system. Holbrook was the first submariner to be awarded the VC and it was the first naval VC gazetted in the First World War.
# Early life.
Holbrook was born 9 July 1888 in Southsea, Hampshire. He was educated privately and at Portsmouth Grammar School. In 1903, he enrolled in the officer training establishment Britannia Royal Naval College and was appointed midshipman on 9 January 1905. He joined the submarine depot ship on 4 April 1911, served in submarines , and before taking command of HMS "B11" on 30 | 14,174 |
1214590 | Norman Douglas Holbrook | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Norman%20Douglas%20Holbrook | Norman Douglas Holbrook
December 1913.
# World War I.
Holbrook was 26 years old, a lieutenant in the Royal Navy during the First World War when on 13 December 1914 at the Dardanelles, Turkey, he performed a deed for which he was awarded the Victoria Cross. He was in command of the submarine , an old and obsolete craft built in 1905. Notwithstanding the difficulties of a treacherous current in the Dardanelles, he dived under five rows of mines and torpedoed and sank the , which was guarding the mine-field. In spite of being attacked by gunfire and torpedo boats, Holbrook succeeded in bringing the "B11" back to the Mediterranean, When they got back to safety the "B11" had been submerged for nine hours.
Holbrook later | 14,175 |
1214590 | Norman Douglas Holbrook | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Norman%20Douglas%20Holbrook | Norman Douglas Holbrook
achieved the rank of Commander.
# Death and legacy.
Holbrook died on 3 July 1976 at Midhurst, Sussex. He was buried at St James Old Churchyard, Stedham, West Sussex. He is probably the only VC recipient to have a town and (until May 2004) a local government area named for him. On 24 August 1915, amid a wave of anti-German feeling related to the First World War, the name of the New South Wales Eastern Riverina town of Germanton was changed to Holbrook to honour the recent VC recipient. He subsequently visited the town on three occasions. His widow, Mrs. Gundula Holbrook, donated his medal to the Council of the Shire of Holbrook in 1982. In 1995 she made a substantial donation towards the establishment | 14,176 |
1214590 | Norman Douglas Holbrook | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Norman%20Douglas%20Holbrook | Norman Douglas Holbrook
of a submariners' memorial in the town, and in 1997 visited the town to unveil it. A bronze statue of Holbrook stands in Germanton Park, Holbrook.
Holbrook's medal was donated to the Council of the Shire of Holbrook, New South Wales in 1982. It subsequently passed to Greater Hume Shire Council upon the amalgamation of several Riverina shires in May 2004. Holbrook’s medal group, including his Victoria Cross, went on display at the Australian War Memorial on 11 December 2009. His medals are on loan from the Greater Hume Shire Council. A replica may be seen at the Submarine Museum, Holbrook.
Holbrook Road in Portsmouth is named after him.
A plaque was erected by the Submariners Association in | 14,177 |
1214590 | Norman Douglas Holbrook | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Norman%20Douglas%20Holbrook | Norman Douglas Holbrook
2014 on the exterior wall of the Junior School facing Cambridge Junction, Portsmouth, UK.
# References.
- Monuments to Courage (David Harvey, 1999)
- The Register of the Victoria Cross (This England, 1997)
- VCs of the First World War - 1914 (Gerald Gliddon, 1994)
- VCs of the First World War - The Naval VCs (Stephen Snelling, 2002)
- Includes biographical information.
# External links.
- Holbrook and Submarines - The Connection - online version of booklet published by The Submarine Museum on Holbrook and his act of gallantry. Includes list of crew members and copious other information.
- Submarine Town - Naval Historical Society of Australia page
- Musings on Holbrook (or Germanton) | 14,178 |
1214590 | Norman Douglas Holbrook | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Norman%20Douglas%20Holbrook | Norman Douglas Holbrook
Naval VCs (Stephen Snelling, 2002)
- Includes biographical information.
# External links.
- Holbrook and Submarines - The Connection - online version of booklet published by The Submarine Museum on Holbrook and his act of gallantry. Includes list of crew members and copious other information.
- Submarine Town - Naval Historical Society of Australia page
- Musings on Holbrook (or Germanton) - Internet Family History Association of Australia page
- Location of grave and VC medal "(West Sussex)"
- Notes on the town and the several memorials with images
- ÇANAKKALE GEÇİLMEZ page(in Turkish) about the action and the battleship sunk in the action (with images)
- Greater Hume Shire Council | 14,179 |
1214603 | Wooroloo Prison Farm | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wooroloo%20Prison%20Farm | Wooroloo Prison Farm
Wooroloo Prison Farm
Wooroloo Prison Farm is an Australian minimum-security prison located in Wooroloo, Western Australia. It was established in 1972 under an arrangement that it would offer some of its amenities to the community of Wooroloo. It was previously the site of a sanatorium.
# History.
The Wooroloo Sanatorium was officially opened on 1 May 1915, designed by two Western Australian Principal Architects, Hillson Beasley and William Hardwick
The complex operated as a tuberculosis sanatorium until 1959. From 1960 to 1970, the former sanatorium operated as a geriatric and district hospital. Since 1970, the former sick staff ward has remained in use as the Wooroloo hospital. Since 1970, | 14,180 |
1214603 | Wooroloo Prison Farm | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wooroloo%20Prison%20Farm | Wooroloo Prison Farm
hospital. Since 1970, the site has operated as a minimum-security
prison for short-term offenders.
Approved prisoners are able to work under supervision in the local community and are involved in reforestation and environmental programs, training at local businesses and general community projects.
The prison's large industries complex produces goods for the prison system and for external contracts including prison food, offsetting some of the costs of prisoner management.
Prisoners are taught workshop skills and can take part in traineeships to help them find a job when they are released from prison.
# External links.
- Corrective Services - Wooroloo Prison Farm
- Wooroloo Prison Farm | 14,181 |
1214593 | Bob Dwyer | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bob%20Dwyer | Bob Dwyer
Bob Dwyer
Bob Dwyer AM (born 29 November 1940) is an Australian rugby union coach.
Educated at Sydney Boys High School, graduating in 1957, where he played 2nd XV for the school where he played alongside former Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs and Cronulla-Sutherland Sharks player George Taylforth and St. George Dragons halfback George Evans. He coached Sydney club Randwick to four Sydney championship wins before becoming Australia's national team coach. He coached Australia from 1982–83, and again from 1988. He coached Australia to victory at the 1991 Rugby World Cup.
Dwyer moved to Leicester Tigers after the game turned professional in 1996 and replaced Tony Russ. Tigers had immediate success, | 14,182 |
1214593 | Bob Dwyer | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bob%20Dwyer | Bob Dwyer
in 1997 reaching the Heineken Cup final and winning the Pilkington Cup, but finished fourth in the league. Dwyer's harsh attitude to the players led to them dubbing him 'Barb Dwyer' ('barbed wire') and a public spat with one of them, Austin Healey ensued. The club's board decided to replace Dwyer with former club captain Dean Richards.
In 1998 Dwyer was appointed head coach of recently relegated Bristol. Under him the club returned to the Premiership at the first time of asking. The next season saw Bristol finish sixth in the top flight and narrowly miss out on qualification for the Heineken Cup. In 2000, Dwyer left Bristol after changes to the club's back room staff. In his time at Bristol | 14,183 |
1214593 | Bob Dwyer | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bob%20Dwyer | Bob Dwyer
Dwyer was a forceful advocate for the club's potential to be the leading light in English rugby, "the potential here is greater than in any other rugby city in England, including Leicester".
In 2001 Dwyer returned to Australia and became coach of the New South Wales Waratahs in Super Rugby (at the time known as Super 12). He led the Waratahs to an eighth-place finish in 2001 and their first semi-final in the competition in 2002. He resigned in 2003 after a fifth-place finish but stayed with the New South Wales union as a development officer.
In 2011, he was inducted into the IRB Hall of Fame, alongside all other Rugby World Cup-winning head coaches and captains through the 2007 edition.
He | 14,184 |
1214593 | Bob Dwyer | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bob%20Dwyer | Bob Dwyer
by (at the time known as Super 12). He led the Waratahs to an eighth-place finish in 2001 and their first semi-final in the competition in 2002. He resigned in 2003 after a fifth-place finish but stayed with the New South Wales union as a development officer.
In 2011, he was inducted into the IRB Hall of Fame, alongside all other Rugby World Cup-winning head coaches and captains through the 2007 edition.
He has written two autobiographies - "The Winning Way" (1992) and "Full Time: A coach's Memoirs" (2004). He was inducted into the Sport Australia Hall of Fame in 1991 and was made a Member of the Order of Australia in 2004 for services to rugby union. Dwyer survived a heart attack in 2013. | 14,185 |
1214589 | Jet Records | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jet%20Records | Jet Records
Jet Records
Jet Records was a British record label set up by Don Arden, with artists such as Electric Light Orchestra (ELO), Roy Wood, Gary Moore, Ozzy Osbourne, Alan Price, Adrian Gurvitz, Riot and Magnum.
# History.
The first release on the Jet Records label, a UK top 10 for its singer and writer Lynsey de Paul in November 1974, followed by the Lynsey de Paul album, "Taste Me... Don't Waste Me". De Paul wrote the second single on the Jet label, a song called "My One and Only" recorded by the British female vocal group 'Bones'. The fourth single released on the label, "My Man and Me", was written and performed by de Paul and it was the second UK hit single released on Jet Records. De Paul | 14,186 |
1214589 | Jet Records | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jet%20Records | Jet Records
released a second album entitled "Love Bomb", before leaving the label in 1976 after an acrimonious split with Arden, resulting in her third Jet
album "Take Your Time" (originally entitled "Before You Go Tonight") being unreleased.
ELO were managed by Arden from the band's inception in 1972. They were initially signed to Harvest Records (a division of EMI) in the UK and United Artists Records in the US. Roy Wood left ELO in 1972 and formed his own group, Wizzard. During 1973 and 1974, ELO and Wizzard moved from the Harvest label to Warner Bros. Records in the UK. In 1975, the two bands and Wood's solo releases moved again in the UK to Jet, with their recent Warner Bros. material becoming part | 14,187 |
1214589 | Jet Records | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jet%20Records | Jet Records
of Jet's catalogue.
In the UK, Jet Records were distributed first by Island Records in 1974-75, then by Polydor Records from 1975 to 1976, then by United Artists from 1976 to 1978. In the US, a small Jet logo started appearing on the United Artists label in 1975 for releases by ELO and Wood. The Jet label was first used in the US for Jeff Lynne's solo single "Doin' That Crazy Thing" in the summer of 1977 and subsequently for the ELO album "Out of the Blue".
Wood left Jet Records and disbanded Wizzard in 1976, after Jet refused to release Wizzard's third album "Wizzo", because it was not deemed commercial enough. His final single on the Jet label was "Any Old Time Will Do".
After Jet's UK | 14,188 |
1214589 | Jet Records | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jet%20Records | Jet Records
distribution moved to United Artists (UA) in 1976, UA were distributing Jet Records in most countries of the world. This changed after American copies of "Out of the Blue" that were deemed defective, began appearing at discounted prices in record shops in the US and Canada affecting the album's sales. Jet sued UA and abruptly switched their distribution to CBS Records worldwide early in 1978.
By this time ELO had become one of the most popular bands in the world, and Jet reissued ELO's back catalogue albums and some new singles in many different colours of vinyl. Many members of ELO also released solo albums or singles on Jet in the late 1970s. In 1980, ELO contributed half the music to the | 14,189 |
1214589 | Jet Records | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jet%20Records | Jet Records
motion picture "Xanadu", with the other half of the music being provided by the film's star Olivia Newton-John. Newton-John was signed to MCA Records whose sister company Universal was producing the movie. The "Xanadu" soundtrack and all its singles by both ELO and Newton-John were released on MCA Records in the USA and Canada, and on Jet Records elsewhere in the world.
Black Sabbath were also managed by Don Arden, but they were never signed to Jet Records. However, when their singer Ozzy Osbourne left the band, he was signed to Jet. Two studio albums and one live album by Osbourne were released on Jet. Arden's daughter Sharon, who was working for her father, started dating Osbourne and eventually | 14,190 |
1214589 | Jet Records | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jet%20Records | Jet Records
married him. Sharon took over managing Osbourne from her father, and Osbourne left Jet to go to the Epic label of Jet's distributor CBS.
Osbourne's defection along with ELO becoming less popular in the early 1980s contributed to Jet experiencing financial difficulties. Legal problems encountered by Don Arden, and his son David, further strained Jet's resources. ELO's recording contract and back catalogue were sold by Jet to CBS in 1985. Initial copies of ELO's 1986 album "Balance of Power" were pressed on the Jet label in some European countries, but this mistake was corrected by CBS, and the album was then issued throughout Europe on its Epic label. American reissues by CBS of ELO's 1972 to | 14,191 |
1214589 | Jet Records | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jet%20Records | Jet Records
1983 albums continued to show the Jet logo until 1990. ELO's back catalog is now handled by Sony's Legacy Recordings.
Jet carried on in a diminished capacity in the late 1980s. Roy Wood returned to the label in 1987 to release the single "1-2-3". Just before closure, the label released "Live at Fairfield Halls" by Bucks Fizz, a group the label had previously had no connection with.
1989 shows the final JET Release under CBS distribution, with the Dan Priest produced LP/CD "Bite the Bullet" by BTB (US CD: JET ZK 44410; UK LP: JET 465089-1).
In 1991, Bagdasarian Productions (owners of The Chipmunks) bought the production company offices and holdings from Arden, and reopened the record label | 14,192 |
1214589 | Jet Records | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jet%20Records | Jet Records
Jet Records under the new name Chipmunk Records.
In 1996, Jet released The Fall's album "The Light User Syndrome".
Some of Jet's back catalogue has appeared in reissues or compilations in the 1990s and 2000s, on labels such as Edsel Records and Sanctuary Records, including the previously unreleased third Wizzard album, retitled "Main Street". The third album that Lynsey de Paul recorded for Jet in 1976 "Take Your Time" also but was never released finally appeared on CD in Japan with the title "Before You Go Tonight" on the Vivid Sound Corporation label in 1990. De Paul finally recovered the rights to her songs recorded for Jet Records and many of them were released on her 2013 anthology albums | 14,193 |
1214589 | Jet Records | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jet%20Records | Jet Records
album "The Light User Syndrome".
Some of Jet's back catalogue has appeared in reissues or compilations in the 1990s and 2000s, on labels such as Edsel Records and Sanctuary Records, including the previously unreleased third Wizzard album, retitled "Main Street". The third album that Lynsey de Paul recorded for Jet in 1976 "Take Your Time" also but was never released finally appeared on CD in Japan with the title "Before You Go Tonight" on the Vivid Sound Corporation label in 1990. De Paul finally recovered the rights to her songs recorded for Jet Records and many of them were released on her 2013 anthology albums "Sugar and Beyond" and "Into My Music".
# See also.
- List of record labels | 14,194 |
1214606 | John Crawford Buchan | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John%20Crawford%20Buchan | John Crawford Buchan
John Crawford Buchan
John Crawford Buchan (10 October 1892 – 22 March 1918) was a Scottish recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces.
Born on 10 October 1892 in Alloa, Clackmannanshire, Scotland, he was the son of the local newspaper editor. He worked as a reporter before enlisting in the Royal Army Medical Corps in the ranks when World War I broke out. He was later commissioned into the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders.
# World War I.
Buchan was 25 years old, and a second lieutenant in the 7th Battalion, Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders (Princess Louise's), British | 14,195 |
1214606 | John Crawford Buchan | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John%20Crawford%20Buchan | John Crawford Buchan
ders (Princess Louise's), British Army, attached to 8th Battalion during the First World War, and was awarded the VC for an act he performed on 21 March 1918 east of Marteville, France. He died the following day, 22 March 1918.
## Citation.
He was buried at Roisel Communal Cemetery Extension, Roisel, Somme, France (Plot: II. I. 6)
# Medals.
His medals are in the collection of the Argyll & Sutherland Highlanders Museum, Stirling Castle, Scotland.
# References.
- Monuments to Courage (David Harvey, 1999)
- The Register of the Victoria Cross (This England, 1997)
- Scotland's Forgotten Valour (Graham Ross, 1995)
- VCs of the First World War - Spring Offensive 1918 (Gerald Gliddon, 1997) | 14,196 |
1214613 | Angus Buchanan (VC) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Angus%20Buchanan%20(VC) | Angus Buchanan (VC)
Angus Buchanan (VC)
Angus Buchanan, (11 August 1894 – 1 March 1944) was an English recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces.
# Early life.
Buchanan was the son of a doctor from Coleford, Gloucestershire. He was educated at Monmouth School, where he was head boy. In 1913 he went to Jesus College, Oxford to study Classics. One of his tutors described him as "Thoroughly Scotch and rather reserved, but a hard worker & likely to be a good influence in the Coll[ege]". He rowed for the College in 1914, played rugby and was Secretary of the Athletics Club. He then joined the | 14,197 |
1214613 | Angus Buchanan (VC) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Angus%20Buchanan%20(VC) | Angus Buchanan (VC)
army, where he served in Gallipoli and Mesopotamia. He was awarded the Military Cross in 1916, and was mentioned four times in despatches.
# Award of the Victoria Cross.
Buchanan was 21 years old, and a temporary captain in the 4th Battalion, South Wales Borderers, British Army during the First World War when the following deed took place on 5 April 1916 at Falauyah Lines, Mesopotamia, for which he was awarded the VC. The award was announced in a supplement to the "London Gazette" of 26 September 1916, and read:
A newsreel film shows him being invested with the Victoria Cross and the Military Cross at a ceremony on Durdham Downs, Bristol, by King George V on 8 November 1917. In July 1916 | 14,198 |
1214613 | Angus Buchanan (VC) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Angus%20Buchanan%20(VC) | Angus Buchanan (VC)
he was also awarded the Russian decoration of the Order of St. Vladimir 4th Class (with Swords).
# Later life.
Buchanan was shot in the head in 1917 by a sniper and blinded. He returned to Jesus College after the war and read law, rowing for the college in 1919 despite his blindness. After graduating in 1921, he worked in a solicitor's office in Oxford before returning to Coleford to work until his death in 1944. He returned to Monmouth School in 1921 for the ceremony marking the dedication of the school's war memorial. Funds were raised in Coleford to mark his bravery, which he asked to be used to give children somewhere to play. He is buried in Coleford Cemetery, next to the recreation field | 14,199 |
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