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750506 | Lauchlin Currie | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lauchlin%20Currie | Lauchlin Currie
of the American Economic Association. At Harvard, he earned his Ph.D. in 1931 for a dissertation on banking theory.
# Early professional life.
Currie remained at Harvard until 1934 as a lecturer and assistant to, successively, Ralph Hawtrey, John H. Williams, and Joseph Schumpeter. Paul Sweezy was one of his students in money and banking at Harvard.
In 1934, Currie constructed the first money supply and income velocity series for the United States. He blamed the government's "commercial loan theory" of banking for monetary tightening in mid-1929, when the economy was already declining, and then for its passivity during the next four years in the face of mass liquidations and bank failures. | 16,400 |
750506 | Lauchlin Currie | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lauchlin%20Currie | Lauchlin Currie
Instead, he advocated control of the money supply to stabilize income and expenditures. In a January, 1932 Harvard memorandum on antidepression policy, Currie and fellow instructors Harry Dexter White and Paul T. Ellsworth urged large fiscal deficits coupled with open market operations to expand bank reserves, as well as the lifting of tariffs and the relief of interallied debts.
# New Deal.
## Freshman brain trust.
In 1934, Currie became a naturalized United States citizen and joined Jacob Viner's "freshman brain trust" at the U.S. Treasury where he outlined an ideal monetary system for the United States which included a 100-percent reserve banking plan to strengthen central bank control | 16,401 |
750506 | Lauchlin Currie | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lauchlin%20Currie | Lauchlin Currie
and prevent bank panics in the future by preventing member banks from lending out their demand deposit liabilities, while removing reserve requirements on savings deposits with low turnover. Later that year, Marriner Eccles moved from the Treasury to become governor of the Federal Reserve Board. He took Currie with him as his personal assistant. Harry Dexter White, another "freshman brain trust" recruit, became a top adviser to Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau, and for some years White and Currie worked closely in their respective roles at the Treasury and the Federal Reserve.
Soon afterwards, Currie drafted the "Banking Act of 1935" which reorganized the Federal Reserve and strengthened | 16,402 |
750506 | Lauchlin Currie | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lauchlin%20Currie | Lauchlin Currie
its powers. He also constructed a "net federal income-creating expenditure series" to show the strategic role of fiscal policy in complementing monetary policy to revive an economy in exceptionally acute, persisting depression. Currie's preferred 100-percent reserve banking idea, however, was not one of the reforms implemented. Alan Meltzer wrote in his history of the Federal Reserve that "Lauchlin Currie wrote a remarkable memo for a Treasury committee in 1934 emphasizing the role of money in cyclical fluctuations, at a time when virtually no one thought that money mattered." After four years of recovery, the economy declined sharply in 1937. In a four-hour interview with President Roosevelt, | 16,403 |
750506 | Lauchlin Currie | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lauchlin%20Currie | Lauchlin Currie
he was able to explain that the declared aim of balancing the budget "to restore business confidence" had damaged the economy. This was part of the "struggle for the soul of FDR" between the cautious Morgenthau and the expansionist Eccles. In April 1938, the president asked Congress for major appropriations for spending on relief and public works. In May 1939, the rationale was explained in theoretical and statistical detail by Currie ("Mr. Inside") and by Harvard's Alvin Hansen ("Mr. Outside") in testimony before the Temporary National Economic Committee to highlight the role of government deficits in the recovery process.
## White House.
Named FDR's White House economist in July 1939, Currie | 16,404 |
750506 | Lauchlin Currie | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lauchlin%20Currie | Lauchlin Currie
advised on taxation, social security, and the speeding up of peacetime and wartime production plans. In January 1941, he was sent on a mission to China for discussions with Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek and Chou En-lai, the Communist representative in the Chinese wartime capital of Chungking. On his return in March, he recommended that China be added to the lend-lease program. He was put in charge of its administration under the overall direction of FDR's special assistant Harry Hopkins.
Currie was also assigned to expedite the American Volunteer Group (Flying Tigers), which consisted largely of U.S. military pilots released for combat on behalf of China against Japan and technically part of | 16,405 |
750506 | Lauchlin Currie | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lauchlin%20Currie | Lauchlin Currie
the Chinese Air Force under the command of Claire Chennault. Currie also organized a large training program in the United States for Chinese pilots. In May 1941, he presented a paper on Chinese aircraft requirements to General George C. Marshall and the Joint War Board. The document, accepted by the Board, stressed the role of an air force in China could play in defending Singapore, the Burma Road, and the Philippines against Japanese attack. It pointed to its potential for strategic bombing of targets in Japan itself. These activities, together with Currie's work in helping to tighten sanctions against Japan, are said to have played a part in provoking Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor.
Currie | 16,406 |
750506 | Lauchlin Currie | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lauchlin%20Currie | Lauchlin Currie
returned to Chungking in July 1942 to try to patch up the strained relations between Chiang and General Joseph W. Stilwell, commander of U.S. forces in China. Currie was one of several of FDR's envoys who recommended Stilwell's recall and reassignment. Back in Washington, Roosevelt asked Currie to put his case to General Marshall, but the General dismissed the idea. Only much later did Marshall concede that his protégé's continued presence in China was indeed a mistake. Stilwell was recalled in October 1944.
From 1943-44, Currie served as Deputy Administrator for the Foreign Economic Administration where he played a major role in recruiting or recommending economists and others throughout the | 16,407 |
750506 | Lauchlin Currie | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lauchlin%20Currie | Lauchlin Currie
Washington administration. Prominent examples are John Kenneth Galbraith, Richard Gilbert, Adlai Stevenson, and William O'Dwyer. While at the FEA, Currie became a founding member of the War Agencies Employees Protective Association, an organization created to help civilian Federal employees acquire life insurance while serving in war zones. Currie served as WAEPA's first president from May 1943 until his retirement in June 1945. In 1944-1945, he was involved in loan negotiations between the United States, British and Soviet allies, and in preparations for the 1944 Bretton Woods conference (staged mainly by Harry Dexter White), which led to the creation of the International Monetary Fund and | 16,408 |
750506 | Lauchlin Currie | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lauchlin%20Currie | Lauchlin Currie
the World Bank. In early 1945, Currie headed a tripartite (U.S., British, and French) mission to Bern to persuade the Swiss to freeze Nazi bank balances and stop further shipments of German supplies through Switzerland to the Italian front.
# Soviet agent.
After the war, Currie was one of those blamed for losing China to the control of Communists. As far back as 1939, Currie had been identified by Communist defector Whittaker Chambers in a meeting with Roosevelt security chief Adolf Berle, as a Soviet agent. Elizabeth Bentley, like Chambers, a former Soviet espionage agent, later claimed in Congressional testimony in 1948 that Currie and Harry Dexter White had been part of the Silvermaster | 16,409 |
750506 | Lauchlin Currie | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lauchlin%20Currie | Lauchlin Currie
ring. Though she had never met Currie and White personally, Bentley testified to receiving information through cutouts (couriers) who were other Washington economists (later determined to be Soviet agents). White and Currie appeared before the House Committee on Un-American Activities in August 1948 to rebut her charges. White, who was also implicated as a source of Soviet intelligence (later confirmed in Venona intercepts and review of Soviet KGB notes of NKVD official Gaik Ovakimian) had a serious heart problem, and died three days after his appearance at the hearings.
Currie was not prosecuted and in 1949 he was appointed to head the first of the World Bank's comprehensive country surveys | 16,410 |
750506 | Lauchlin Currie | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lauchlin%20Currie | Lauchlin Currie
in Colombia. After his report was published in Washington in September 1950, he was invited by the Colombian government to return to Bogotá as adviser to a commission established to implement the report's recommendations. In December 1952, Currie gave evidence in New York to a grand jury investigating Owen Lattimore's role in the publication of secret State Department documents in "Amerasia" magazine.
However, when Currie, as a U.S. citizen, tried to renew his passport in 1954, he was refused, ostensibly on the grounds that he was now residing abroad and married to a Colombian. However, he may have in fact been identified with the then-secret Venona project, which had decrypted wartime Soviet | 16,411 |
750506 | Lauchlin Currie | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lauchlin%20Currie | Lauchlin Currie
cables where Currie was identified as a source of Soviet intelligence.
He appears in the Venona cables under the cover name 'PAGE', and in Soviet intelligence archives as 'VIM' and as a source for the Golos and Bentley spy networks.
According to John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, evidence that Currie cooperated with Soviet espionage is convincing and substantial.
Historians Allen Weinstein and Christopher Andrew also conclude Currie was a Soviet asset.
# Colombia.
After a military coup in Colombia in 1953, Currie retired from economic advisory work and devoted himself to raising Holstein cattle on a farm outside Bogotá, and developed the highest-yielding dairy herd in the country. With | 16,412 |
750506 | Lauchlin Currie | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lauchlin%20Currie | Lauchlin Currie
the return of civilian government in 1958, President Alberto Lleras personally conferred Colombian citizenship upon him and Currie returned to advisory work for a succession of Colombian presidents. Between 1966 and 1971, he went abroad as a visiting professor in North American and British universities: Michigan State (1966), Simon Fraser (1967–1968 and 1969–1971), Glasgow (1968–1969) and Oxford (1969). He returned permanently to Colombia in May 1971 at the behest of President Misael Pastrana Borrero to be the architect of a new "Plan of the Four Strategies", with focus on urban housing and export diversification. The plan was implemented, with new institutions playing a major role in accelerating | 16,413 |
750506 | Lauchlin Currie | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lauchlin%20Currie | Lauchlin Currie
Colombia's urbanization.
Currie was chief economist at the Colombian National Planning Department from 1971 to 1981, followed by twelve years at the Colombian Institute of Savings and Housing until his death in 1993. There he doggedly defended the unique housing finance system (based on "units of constant purchasing power" for both savers and borrowers) established in 1972. The system significantly boosted Colombia's growth. He also advised on urban planning and played a major part in the first United Nations Habitat conference in Vancouver in 1976. His "cities-within-the-city" urban design and financing proposals (including the public recapture of land's socially created "valorización" or | 16,414 |
750506 | Lauchlin Currie | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lauchlin%20Currie | Lauchlin Currie
"unearned land value increments" as cities grow) were explained in "Taming the Megalopolis" published in 1976. He was also a professor at the National University of Colombia, the Javeriana University, and the University of the Andes. His writings were heavily influenced by his Harvard mentor Allyn Young. An important paper on Youngian endogenous growth theory was published posthumously in "History of Political Economy "(1997). On the day before he died, President César Gaviria awarded him Colombia's highest honor, the Order of Boyaca, for services to his adopted country.
# Death.
He died on December 23, 1993 of a heart attack in Bogota, Colombia.
# Publications.
- "The Supply and Control | 16,415 |
750506 | Lauchlin Currie | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lauchlin%20Currie | Lauchlin Currie
of Money in the United States". 1934. Harvard Univ. Press. His influential early work on monetary theory and policy.
- "History of Political Economy 32". 2002. His 1932 Harvard memorandum on antidepression policy. With a foreword by David Laidler and Roger Sandilands explaining its influence on the Chicago School monetary tradition.
## Currie's papers.
- General: Duke University's Special Collections Library.
- China: Hoover Institution, Stanford University.
# Sources.
## Biography.
- Roger Sandilands, 1990. "The Life and Political Economy of Lauchlin Currie: New Dealer, Presidential Adviser, and Development Economist". Duke University Press. .
- "The New York Times" 30 December 1993;
- | 16,416 |
750506 | Lauchlin Currie | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lauchlin%20Currie | Lauchlin Currie
"The Times" of London, 10 January 1994.
## On Currie and the New Deal.
- Herbert Stein, 1969. "The Fiscal Revolution in America".
- Ronnie J. Phillips, 1995. "The Chicago Plan and New Deal Banking Reform".
- 2004. Special issue of the "Journal of Economic Studies 31". Contains some of his hitherto unpublished FRB and White House memoranda.
## In Defense of Currie.
- Roger Sandilands, 2000, "Guilt by Association? Lauchlin Currie's Alleged Involvement with Washington Economists in Soviet Espionage," "History of Political Economy 32":
- James Boughton and Roger Sandilands, 2003, "Politics and the Attack on FDR's Economists: From Grand Alliance to Cold War," "Intelligence and National Security | 16,417 |
750506 | Lauchlin Currie | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lauchlin%20Currie | Lauchlin Currie
17".
## On allegation that Currie was a Soviet spy.
- John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, 1999. "Venona: Soviet Espionage in America in the Stalin Era".
# Further reading.
- Haynes, John E. and Klehr, Harvey, 2000. "Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America". Yale University Press.
- Haynes, John E. and Klehr, Harvey, 2003. "In Denial: Historians, Communism, & Espionage". Encounter Press.
- Schecter, Jerrold and Leona, 2002. "Sacred Secrets: How Soviet Intelligence Operations Changed American History". Potomac Press.
- Weinstein, Allen, and Vassiliev, Alexander, 2000. "The Haunted Wood: Soviet Espionage in America—The Stalin Era". Modern Library Press.
- Alexander Vassiliev, "Notes | 16,418 |
750506 | Lauchlin Currie | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lauchlin%20Currie | Lauchlin Currie
on Soviet SVR archives."
- Robert J. Hanyok, "Eavesdropping on Hell: Historical Guide to Western Communications Intelligence and the Holocaust, 1939–1945. Ft. Meade, MD: National Security Agency, Center for Cryptologic History, 2005; "Currie, known as PAZh (Page) and White, whose cover names were YuRIST (Jurist) and changed later to LAJER (Lawyer), had been used as sources of information by Soviet agents since the 1930s, though there has been much dispute as to whether their involvement was witting or otherwise. They had been identified as Soviet sources in Venona translations and by other agents turned witnesses or informants for the FBI and Justice Department. From the Venona translations, | 16,419 |
750506 | Lauchlin Currie | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lauchlin%20Currie | Lauchlin Currie
both were known to have been sources of information for their so-called "handlers", notably the Silvermaster network."
- United States. National Counterintelligence Center. "A Counterintelligence Reader". NACIC, no date. vol. 3, chap. 1, pg. 31.
- File card of Patterson contacts in regard Silvermaster, box 203, Robert P. Patterson papers, Library of Congress
- General Bissell to General Strong, 3 June 1942, Silvermaster reply to Bissell memo, 9 June 1942, Robert P. Patterson to Milo Perkins of Board of Economic Warfare, 3 July 1942, all reprinted in "Interlocking Subversion in Government Departments," 30 August 1955, 84th Cong., 1st sess., part 30, 2562–2567.
- Lauchlin Currie testimony, | 16,420 |
750506 | Lauchlin Currie | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lauchlin%20Currie | Lauchlin Currie
13 August 1948, U.S. Congress, House of Representatives, Committee on Un-American Activities, 80th Cong., 2d sess., 851–877.
- "Underground Soviet Espionage Organization (NKVD) in Agencies of the United States Government," 21 February 1946, FBI Silvermaster file, serial 573.
- Report on Currie interview, 31 July 1947, FBI Silvermaster file, serial 2794.
- Michael Warner and Robert Louis Benson, "Venona and Beyond: Thoughts on Work Undone," Intelligence and National Security 12, no. 3 (July 1997), 10–11.
- Anonymous Russian letter to Hoover, 7 August 1943, reproduced in Robert Louis Benson and Michael Warner, eds., "Venona: Soviet Espionage and the American Response, 1939–1957" (Washington, | 16,421 |
750506 | Lauchlin Currie | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lauchlin%20Currie | Lauchlin Currie
12, no. 3 (July 1997), 10–11.
- Anonymous Russian letter to Hoover, 7 August 1943, reproduced in Robert Louis Benson and Michael Warner, eds., "Venona: Soviet Espionage and the American Response, 1939–1957" (Washington, D.C.: National Security Agency, Central Intelligence Agency, 1996), 51–54.
# External links.
- Venona: Soviet Espionage and the American Response, 1939–1957
- Politics and the Attack on FDR's Economists
- Annals of the Flying Tigers
- Lauchlin Bernard Currie Papers, 1931–1994 and undated (bulk 1950–1990) Rubenstein Library, Duke University
- FBI file on Currie in four parts, released under the Freedom of Information Act
- Collection of various works by Lauchlin Currie | 16,422 |
750570 | Dorchester on Thames | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dorchester%20on%20Thames | Dorchester on Thames
Dorchester on Thames
Dorchester on Thames (or Dorchester-on-Thames) is a village and civil parish in Oxfordshire, about northwest of Wallingford and southeast of Oxford. The town is a few hundred yards from confluence of the River Thames and River Thame.
Historically the Thames was only so named downstream of the village; upstream it is named the Isis, and Ordnance Survey maps continue to label the river as "River Thames or Isis" above Dorchester. In practice, however, this distinction is rarely made outside the city of Oxford.
# History.
The area has been inhabited since at least the Neolithic. In the north of the parish there was a Neolithic sacred site, now largely destroyed by gravel | 16,423 |
750570 | Dorchester on Thames | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dorchester%20on%20Thames | Dorchester on Thames
pits. On one of the Sinodun Hills on the opposite side of the Thames, a ramparted settlement was inhabited during the Bronze Age and Iron Age. Two of the Sinodun Hills bear distinctive landmarks of mature trees called Wittenham Clumps. Adjacent to the village is Dyke Hills which is the remains of an Iron Age hill fort.
Dorchester's position close to the navigable Thames and bounded on three sides by water made it strategic for both communications and defence. The Romans built a "vicus" here, with a road linking the settlement to a military camp at Alchester, 16 miles (25 km) to the north. The settlement's Roman name is unclear; back-formations from Bede's "Dorcic" are unsupported.
In 634 Pope | 16,424 |
750570 | Dorchester on Thames | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dorchester%20on%20Thames | Dorchester on Thames
Honorius I sent a bishop called Birinus to convert the Saxons of the Thames Valley to Christianity. King Cynegils of Wessex gave Dorchester to Birinus as the seat of a new Diocese of Dorchester under a Bishop of Dorchester; the diocese was extremely large, and covered most of Wessex and Mercia. The settled nature of the bishopric made Dorchester in a sense the "de facto" capital of Wessex, which was later to become the dominant kingdom in England; eventually Winchester displaced it, with the bishopric being transferred there in 660. Briefly in the late 670s Dorchester was once more a bishop's seat under Mercian control.
Dorchester again became the seat of a bishop in around 875, when the Mercian | 16,425 |
750570 | Dorchester on Thames | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dorchester%20on%20Thames | Dorchester on Thames
Bishop of Leicester transferred his seat there. The diocese merged with that of Lindsey in 971; the bishop's seat was moved to Lincoln in 1072.
In the 12th century the church was enlarged to serve a community of Augustinian canons. King Henry VIII dissolved this Catholic Abbey in 1536, leaving a small village with a huge new Church of England parish church.
# Amenities.
Dorchester Abbey is both the village's Church of England parish church and its main tourist attraction. The Abbey has a museum.
Of the ten original coaching inns, two remain: The George and The White Hart. The George has a galleried yard dating back to 1495 and it used to serve coaches on the Gloucester-Oxford-London route. | 16,426 |
750570 | Dorchester on Thames | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dorchester%20on%20Thames | Dorchester on Thames
The George was used as a filming location for ITV's "Agatha Christie's Poirot" in the episode "Taken at the Flood" in 2006.
# Festivals and events.
Dorchester on Thames is the home of a number of annual events:
- The biennial Dorchester on Thames Festival, a 10-day fundraising event held every other May
- The English Music Festival
Nearby is Day's Lock on the Thames, where an annual "World Poohsticks Championship" is held.
# Notable people from Dorchester.
- Jonty Hearnden - auctioneer, antiques expert and television presenter
- Mark Wright - footballer and former England captain
- Tom Penny - professional skateboarder
# External links.
- Virtual tour of Dorchester Abbey via Google | 16,427 |
750570 | Dorchester on Thames | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dorchester%20on%20Thames | Dorchester on Thames
s used as a filming location for ITV's "Agatha Christie's Poirot" in the episode "Taken at the Flood" in 2006.
# Festivals and events.
Dorchester on Thames is the home of a number of annual events:
- The biennial Dorchester on Thames Festival, a 10-day fundraising event held every other May
- The English Music Festival
Nearby is Day's Lock on the Thames, where an annual "World Poohsticks Championship" is held.
# Notable people from Dorchester.
- Jonty Hearnden - auctioneer, antiques expert and television presenter
- Mark Wright - footballer and former England captain
- Tom Penny - professional skateboarder
# External links.
- Virtual tour of Dorchester Abbey via Google Street View | 16,428 |
750597 | 1733 in music | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1733%20in%20music | 1733 in music
1733 in music
This is a list of notable events in music that took place in the year 1733.
# Events.
- July 2 – Johann Sebastian Bach performs a revised version of his Magnificat in D major, BWV 243, ending the mourning period for Augustus II the Strong, Elector of Saxony and King of Poland.
- July 10 – George Frideric Handel premieres his English-language oratorio "Athalia" at the University of Oxford's Sheldonian Theatre.
- First opera staged at the Nobile Teatro di San Giacomo di Corfù, Aurelio Aureli’s (librettist) "Gerone, tiranno di Siracusa", probably the version with music by Johann Adolph Hasse, premiered in Naples in 1727.
- Wilhelm Friedemann Bach is appointed organist of the | 16,429 |
750597 | 1733 in music | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1733%20in%20music | 1733 in music
Sophienkirche, Dresden.
- Beginning date of the William Dixon manuscript of music for the Border pipes, the oldest known surviving manuscript of pipe music from the British Isles.
- Jean-Marie Leclair becomes musical director to King Louis XV of France.
- Charles Theodore Pachelbel settles in Boston, Massachusetts.
- After 1733 – Johann Sebastian Bach makes the Leipzig premiere of the Passion cantata "Ein Lämmlein geht und trägt die Schuld" by Carl Heinrich Graun.
# Publications.
- Paolo Benedetto Bellinzani – "Madrigali a due, a tre, quattro, e cinque voci", Op. 6
- Joseph Bodin de Boismortier – 6 Flute Sonatas, Op. 44
- Michel Corrette – 6 Concertos Comiques, Op. 8
- Pierre Dandrieu | 16,430 |
750597 | 1733 in music | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1733%20in%20music | 1733 in music
– "Noëls, O filii, chansons de Saint-Jacques, Stabat mater, et carillons"
- Willem de Fesch
- 10 Trio Sonatas, Op. 7
- 6 Cello Sonatas, Op. 8b
- François Francœur – 12 Violin Sonatas
- Francesco Geminiani – "Concerti grossi", Op. 3
- George Frideric Handel
- "Suites de Pièces", HWV 434–442
- Trio Sonatas, Op. 2 HWV 386–394
- "Water Music", HWV 348–350 (composed c.1717)
- Georg Friedrich Kauffmann – "Harmonische Seelenlust" (first volumes, not completed until 1736)
- Pietro Locatelli – "L'arte del violino: XII concerti, cioè violino solo, con XXIV capricci ad libitum", Op. 3 (Amsterdam: Le Cene)
- Georg Philipp Telemann
- "12 fantaisies à traversière sans basse", TWV 40:2–13 (Hamburg: | 16,431 |
750597 | 1733 in music | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1733%20in%20music | 1733 in music
[Telemann])
- "6 Quatuors ou Trios" (Hamburg: [Telemann])
- "Musique de table" (Hamburg: [Telemann])
- "Singe-, Spiel- und Generalbassübungen", TWV 25:39–85 (Hamburg: [Telemann])
- Alexandre de Villeneuve
- "Conversations en manière de sonates", solo sonatas, Op. 1 (Paris)
- "Conversations en manière de sonates", trio sonatas, Op. 2 (Paris)
# Published popular music.
- "Orpheus caledonius: or, A collection of Scots songs" – William Thomson
# Classical music.
- Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach – Harpsichord Concerto in A minor, H.403
- Johann Sebastian Bach
- Missa in B minor for the Dresden court (Kyrie and Gloria), later part of the Mass in B minor
- "Ouverture nach Französischer Art", | 16,432 |
750597 | 1733 in music | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1733%20in%20music | 1733 in music
BWV 831
- Jean-Baptiste Barrière – 6 Cello Sonatas, Book 1
- Joseph Bodin de Boismortier – "Ixion" (secular cantata)
- Johann Ernst Galliard – 6 Bassoon Sonatas
- Christoph Graupner – "Lass dein Ohr auf Weisheit", GWV 1138/33
- Maurice Greene – Lesson in D major
- George Frideric Handel
- "Deborah", HWV 51 (oratorio)
- "Athalia", HWV 52 (oratorio)
- Benedetto Marcello – "Il pianto e il riso delle quattro stagioni" (oratorio)
- Georg Philipp Telemann
- "Ach wie nichtig ach wie flüchtig", TWV 4:6
- Jan Dismas Zelenka
- Requiem, ZWV 46 (for Elector Friedrich August II)
- "Barbara dira effera", ZWV 164
- 8 Italian Arias, ZWV 176
# Opera.
- Francisco António de Almeida – "La pazienza | 16,433 |
750597 | 1733 in music | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1733%20in%20music | 1733 in music
di Socrate"
- Thomas Arne – "Rosamund", with the composer's sister, Susannah Maria, performing.
- Giovanni Battista Bononcini – "Griselda"
- Antonio Caldara
- "Demofoonte"
- "L'Olimpiade"
- "Sancio Pansa, governatore dell'isola Barattaria"
- Geminiano Giacomelli – "Adriano in Siria"
- George Frideric Handel – "Orlando"
- Johann Adolf Hasse – "Siroe"
- John Frederick Lampe – "Dione"
- Giovanni Battista Pergolesi
- "Il prigionier superbo"
- "La serva padrona" (intermezzo)
- Nicola Antonio Porpora – "Arianna in Nasso"
- Jean-Philippe Rameau – "Hippolyte et Aricie"
- Antonio Vivaldi – "Montezuma"
# Methods and Theory Writings.
- Alexandre de Villeneuve – "Nouvelle méthode pour | 16,434 |
750597 | 1733 in music | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1733%20in%20music | 1733 in music
apprendre la musique"
# Births.
- January 3 – Josina van Aerssen (died 1797)
- January 17 – Thomas Linley the elder (died 1795)
- September 5 – Christoph Martin Wieland, poet and librettist (died 1813)
- September 22 – Johann Anton Filtz (died 1760)
- October 28 – Franz Ignaz von Beecke (died 1803)
- October 29 – Gottfried van Swieten, collaborator of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven
- Date Unknown
- Pierre Nicolas Brunet, playwright and librettist (died 1771)
- Johann Christian Fischer, composer (died 1800)
# Deaths.
- February 26 – Johann Adam Birkenstock, violinist and composer (born 1687)
- May 18 – Georg Böhm, organist (born 1661)
- July 2 – Christian Petzold, organist and composer | 16,435 |
750597 | 1733 in music | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1733%20in%20music | 1733 in music
Wieland, poet and librettist (died 1813)
- September 22 – Johann Anton Filtz (died 1760)
- October 28 – Franz Ignaz von Beecke (died 1803)
- October 29 – Gottfried van Swieten, collaborator of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven
- Date Unknown
- Pierre Nicolas Brunet, playwright and librettist (died 1771)
- Johann Christian Fischer, composer (died 1800)
# Deaths.
- February 26 – Johann Adam Birkenstock, violinist and composer (born 1687)
- May 18 – Georg Böhm, organist (born 1661)
- July 2 – Christian Petzold, organist and composer (born 1677)
- September 12 – François Couperin (born 1668)
- October 14 – Pietro Pariati, librettist (born 1665)
- October 26 – Antonio Veracini (born 1659) | 16,436 |
750588 | Annie Keary | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Annie%20Keary | Annie Keary
Annie Keary
Anna Maria (Annie) Keary (3 March 18253 March 1879) was an English novelist and poet, and an innovative children's writer.
# Life.
Born at the rectory in Bilton, now Bilton-in-Ainsty, Yorkshire, Annie was the daughter of a former army chaplain, William Keary, who came from County Galway in Ireland, and his wife, Lucy Plumer, of Bilton Hall. She was educated at home. She suffered from poor health and slight deafness.
Her father later became incumbent of Sculcoates, near Hull, and simultaneously of Nunnington in North Yorkshire, where the family moved. Then, when Annie was twenty, came another move to Clifton near Bristol, due to her father's declining health. Their relationship | 16,437 |
750588 | Annie Keary | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Annie%20Keary | Annie Keary
was close, and her father gave her much of the information about Ireland that she would later incorporate into her novels. Keary moved in 1848 to keep house for a widowed brother in Staffordshire, who had three children. Six happy years came to an end when her brother remarried. Soon after, she lost two other beloved brothers, and a long engagement was broken off.
Annie's sister Eliza (see section below) wrote a memoir of Annie after her death in Eastbourne in 1879.
The memoir relates how Eliza accompanied the frail Annie to Egypt and to Cannes to do research for her books. The sisters also helped to run a home for unemployed servant girls in Pimlico. They were befriended by the novelist Charles | 16,438 |
750588 | Annie Keary | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Annie%20Keary | Annie Keary
Kingsley and his family. The dominant considerations in her life were family ties. She nursed her mother in her last illness in 1869 and later looked after four young cousins whose parents were in India.
# Works.
Annie Keary's first children's book appeared in 1856, the year after her father died. Her third, "The Heroes of Asgard" (1857), was the first of three on which she collaborated with her sister Eliza. "The Rival Kings" (1858) broke new ground for a children's book in featuring rival children's gangs and their hatred for each other.
She continued to write children's and educational books, for instance "Early Egyptian History" (1861) and "The Nation Around" (1870), but she branched | 16,439 |
750588 | Annie Keary | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Annie%20Keary | Annie Keary
out in 1859 into adult fiction with "Through the Shadows" (1859), although a measure of fame had to wait until "Castle Daly: The Story of an Irish Home Thirty Years Ago" (1875), which was reprinted several times up to the end of the 1880s. It portrays the Great Famine and the Young Irelanders’ Uprising, and was serialized initially in "Macmillan’s Magazine". "Oldbury" (1869) is set in the little town in which she was raised. She collaborated with her sisters Eliza and Maud on "Enchanted Tulips and Other Verses for Children", but this does not seem to have been published until 1914.
Her final novel, "A Doubting Heart" (1879) was completed by a friend, Mrs K. Macquoid. Like her earlier work for | 16,440 |
750588 | Annie Keary | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Annie%20Keary | Annie Keary
earlier work for adults, it shows signs of being stretched to fill the three volumes required by the publishing trade in those days, although the characterizations and sense of place are strong. A facsimile of the 1886 edition of "Castle Daly..." appeared in Volume 5 of "Irish Women's Writing, 1838-1888".
# Eliza Harriett Keary (1827–1918).
Apart from her collaborations with Annie Keary and her memoir of her, Eliza wrote poetry, which was published at the time, and has received some recent attention from feminist scholars. She died in Torquay in 1918. Her nephew Charles Francis Keary (1848–1917), also an author, publishing a novel entitled Bloomsbury, and numismatic studies and catalogues. | 16,441 |
750580 | Violet (Peanuts) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Violet%20(Peanuts) | Violet (Peanuts)
Violet (Peanuts)
Violet Gray is a fictional character featured in the long-running syndicated daily and Sunday comic strip "Peanuts", created by Charles M. Schulz. She was initially a major character, until she began to fade into the background.
Violet is best known as a jealous girl who likes bragging and, along with her friends Patty (her best friend) and Lucy (the ringleader of the trio), often teases and torments Charlie Brown.
In addition to the comic strip, Violet has appeared alongside other "Peanuts" characters in numerous "Peanuts" television specials, cinematic movies, theatrical plays, and video games.
# History.
Violet was first featured in the February 7, 1951 "Peanuts" strip. | 16,442 |
750580 | Violet (Peanuts) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Violet%20(Peanuts) | Violet (Peanuts)
From there on, Violet's character changed and developed until she began to become less prominent than the other major characters, with her forthcoming appearances reduced to mere cameos. Her last comic strip appearance, discounting the reruns of the strip, was on the November 27, 1997 "Peanuts" strip.
# Appearance.
As Violet's character developed over the years, her appearance changed as well. In the early strips, Violet has her shoulder-length dark hair kept in either pigtails, a bun, or, sometimes, a ponytail. Later on, Schulz dropped the braids and kept Violet's hair only in ponytails. Violet also wears front bangs and often wears dresses which are originally depicted as purple; later they | 16,443 |
750580 | Violet (Peanuts) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Violet%20(Peanuts) | Violet (Peanuts)
were depicted as green, as well as black Mary Janes shoes. Violet wears her classic purple dress in "The Peanuts Movie".
# Personality.
Violet is smart, popular, and a snob. She makes her opinions known to everyone, and her haughtiness causes her to often torment other people, whom she views as beneath her.
Violet is supposedly of upper-class upbringing, and she likes to brag about how her father possessing something her friends' fathers don't; it is also implied, however, that Violet's father is largely absent from her life, which her peers use against her when she gets too obnoxious. For example, in a Father's Day strip, her boasts are quelled by Charlie Brown when he takes her to his dad's | 16,444 |
750580 | Violet (Peanuts) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Violet%20(Peanuts) | Violet (Peanuts)
barber shop. After telling her about how his dad would always smile at him no matter how bad a workday he was having, a humbled Violet walked away, but not before quietly wishing Charlie Brown a Happy Father's Day. In another example, a character named "5" fired back at her with ""My" dad goes to PTA meetings!" Charlie Brown once deflated her with the comeback: ""My" dad has a "son"."
In the early strips, Violet often acted like a preschool-age Suzy Homemaker: making mud pies, playing "house," and being linked to romantic scenarios involving Charlie Brown. She also collects stamps as a hobby. On some occasions, Violet was shown walking and keeping company with Shermy.
Her surname (Gray) was | 16,445 |
750580 | Violet (Peanuts) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Violet%20(Peanuts) | Violet (Peanuts)
mentioned only once, on April 4, 1953.
Violet's personality was much more forceful and recognizable compared to the more generic early "Peanuts" characters like Patty and Shermy, which allowed her to survive slightly longer than those founding characters when a new wave of characters; Linus, Lucy and Schroeder; were introduced (as an example, Violet has key roles in the TV specials "A Charlie Brown Christmas" and "It's the Great Pumpkin, Charlie Brown"). By the 1960s, however, Violet, too, was largely phased out with the introduction of the next wave of characters (Peppermint Patty, Marcie, Franklin and such). Schulz admitted in a 1988 interview that Violet's pure vindictiveness had made it | 16,446 |
750580 | Violet (Peanuts) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Violet%20(Peanuts) | Violet (Peanuts)
difficult to give her punch lines. Speaking of her, Patty and Shermy: "Some characters just don't seem to have enough personality to carry out ideas. They're just almost born straight men." Violet's appearances were eventually reduced to mere cameos in the background.
# Relationship with other "Peanuts "characters.
## Interactions with Charlie Brown.
Violet often teased Charlie Brown (often adding a series of Nyah's), who often makes comebacks. In an example of such, Violet once said to him, "It simply goes without saying that you are an inferior human being." His adroit reply to this was, "If it goes without saying, why did "you" have to say it?" She, along with Patty, do not invite him | 16,447 |
750580 | Violet (Peanuts) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Violet%20(Peanuts) | Violet (Peanuts)
to their parties and enjoyed tormenting him with this. Charlie Brown is usually depressed by this, but sometimes he decides to turn the tables on the two girls. For example:
- "November 23, 1951": When they mentioned excluding Charlie Brown from their party, he let it roll off his back saying he did not want to go to their "dumb ol' party" anyway. After he left, they pondered whether he meant it. Violet was convinced he did, so Patty suggested "In that case, maybe we'd better invite him."
- "January 29, 1954": Charlie Brown replied to them saying if they did not like him they were better off not inviting him. Stunned to silence, the girls just walked away, with Charlie Brown smiling after | 16,448 |
750580 | Violet (Peanuts) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Violet%20(Peanuts) | Violet (Peanuts)
them.
- "September 1, 1954": Charlie Brown uncharacteristically threatened to strafe, then bomb their house if he was not invited, to which both girls replied, "Okay, you're invited."
In early strips, she was linked to romantic scenarios involving Charlie Brown. She also feels bad for him when he doesn't get a Valentine's Day card in "Be My Valentine, Charlie Brown", which hints that she cares about him deep down (this caring is inconsistent; when he doesn't receive a Christmas card in "A Charlie Brown Christmas", Violet responds in her usual mocking tone).
Although Charlie Brown was the usual recipient of Violet's cruelty, he was not the only one. One memorable Sunday strip of September | 16,449 |
750580 | Violet (Peanuts) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Violet%20(Peanuts) | Violet (Peanuts)
20, 1959, featured her hurling a series of virulent insults at Lucy (so venomous that Charlie Brown remarked that he was glad she wasn't yelling at "him", because he wouldn't have been able to take it), although ultimately Lucy won this battle by unleashing her own string of rapid-fire insults at Violet, causing Violet to walk away in shock. Nor was Linus immune - one 1961 strip involved her and Patty mocking Linus for carrying a blanket (to which Linus responded by wrapping himself in his blanket and doing an impression of Count Dracula, leading both girls to flee in terror).
## Interactions with Patty.
Violet and Patty were friends, and would be seen walking about with each other, talking, | 16,450 |
750580 | Violet (Peanuts) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Violet%20(Peanuts) | Violet (Peanuts)
ing about with each other, talking, and making mud pies. Though not all there interactions were friendly, as on the 4th of April 1953 patty calls Violet a 'tattletale' and storms off.
# Voiced by.
- Sally Dryer (1963, 1965)
- Karen Mendelson (1966)
- Ann Altieri (1966-1969)
- Linda Ercoli (1972-1975, 1976)
- Lynn Mortensen (1974)
- Linda Jenner (1974)
- Roseline Rubens (1980)
- Stacy Ferguson (1985)
- Deanna Tello (1992)
- Ashley Edner (2000)
- Kaitlyn Maggio (2003)
- Jolean Wejbe (2006)
- Taya Calicetto (2008-2009)
- Blesst Bowden (2011)
- Madisyn Shipman (2015)
# External links.
- First appearance of Violet, "Peanuts", 7 February 1951
- Violet in Snoopy Street Fair Game. | 16,451 |
750560 | Battle of Pliska | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Pliska | Battle of Pliska
Battle of Pliska
The Battle of Pliska or Battle of Vărbitsa Pass was a series of battles between troops, gathered from all parts of the Byzantine Empire, led by the Emperor Nicephorus I Genik, and Bulgaria, governed by Khan Krum. The Byzantines plundered and burned the Bulgar capital Pliska which gave time for the Bulgarians to block passes in the Balkan Mountains that served as exits out of Bulgaria. The final battle took place on 26 July 811, in some of the passes in the eastern part of the Balkans, most probably the Vărbitsa Pass. There, the Bulgarians used the tactics of ambush and surprise night attacks to effectively trap and immobilize the Byzantine forces, thus annihilating almost the | 16,452 |
750560 | Battle of Pliska | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Pliska | Battle of Pliska
whole army, including the Emperor. After the battle, Krum encased Nicephorus's skull in silver, and used it as a cup for wine-drinking. This is one of the best documented instances of the custom of the skull cup.
The Battle of Pliska was one of the worst defeats in Byzantine history. It deterred Byzantine rulers from sending their troops north of the Balkans for more than 150 years afterwards, which increased the influence and spread of the Bulgarians to the west and south of the Balkan Peninsula, resulting in a great territorial enlargement of the First Bulgarian Empire.
# Initial campaigns.
When Nicephorus I became emperor in 802, he planned to reincorporate Bulgar-held territory back into | 16,453 |
750560 | Battle of Pliska | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Pliska | Battle of Pliska
the empire. In 807 he launched a campaign but only reached Odrin and achieved nothing because of a conspiracy in his capital. That attempted attack, however, gave reason for the Bulgar Khan Krum to undertake military operations against the Byzantine Empire. The main objective was an extension to the south and south-west. In the next year a Bulgar army penetrated the Struma Valley and defeated the Byzantines. The Bulgar troops captured 1,100 "litres" (roughly 332 to 348 kilograms) of gold and killed many enemy soldiers including all "strategoi" and most of the commanders. In 809 the Khan personally besieged the strong fortress of Serdica and seized the city, killing the whole garrison of 6,000.
# | 16,454 |
750560 | Battle of Pliska | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Pliska | Battle of Pliska
Preparation for an invasion.
In 811, the Byzantine Emperor organised a large campaign to conquer Bulgaria once and for all. He gathered an enormous army from the Anatolian and European "themata", and the imperial bodyguard (the "tagmata"); they were joined by a number of irregular troops who expected a swift victory and plunder. The conquest was supposed to be easy, and most of the high-ranking officials and aristocrats accompanied him, including his son Stauracius and his brother-in-law Michael I Rangabe. The whole army consisted of around 30,000 soldiers.
# Sack of Pliska.
The army gathered in May, and by 10 July had set up camp at the fortress of Marcelae (present-day Karnobat) near the | 16,455 |
750560 | Battle of Pliska | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Pliska | Battle of Pliska
Bulgarian frontier. Nicephorus intended to confuse them and over the next ten days launched several supposed attacks, which were immediately called back. Krum assessed the situation and estimated that he could not repulse the enemy and offered peace, which Nicephorus haughtily rejected. Theophanes wrote that the Emperor, "was deterred from his own ill thoughts and the suggestions of his advisors who were thinking like him". Some of his military chiefs considered the invasion of Bulgaria to be imprudent and too risky, but Nicephorus was convinced of his ultimate success.
In June he invaded the Bulgarian lands and marched through the Balkan passes towards the capital of Pliska. On 20 July Nicephorus | 16,456 |
750560 | Battle of Pliska | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Pliska | Battle of Pliska
divided the army into three columns, each marching by a different route towards Pliska. He met little resistance and after three days he reached the capital where the Byzantines met an army of 12,000 elite soldiers who guarded the stronghold. The Bulgarians were defeated and most of them perished. Another hastily assembled army of 15,000 soldiers had a similar fate. On 23 July the Byzantines quickly captured the defenseless capital. The city was sacked and the countryside destroyed. Khan Krum attempted once more to negotiate for peace. According to the historian Theophanes, Krum’s proclamation stated, "Here you are, you have won. So take what you please and go with peace." Nicephorus, overconfident | 16,457 |
750560 | Battle of Pliska | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Pliska | Battle of Pliska
from his success, ignored him. He believed that Bulgaria was thoroughly conquered.
Michael the Syrian, patriarch of the Syrian Jacobites in the twelfth century, described in his Chronicle the brutalities and atrocities of Nicephorus's troops: "Nicephorus, emperor of the Romans, walked in Bulgarians land: he was victorious and killed a great number of them. He reached their capital, took it over and devastated it. His savagery went to such a point that he ordered to bring their small children, got them tied down on earth and made thresh grain stones to smash them." The Byzantine soldiers looted and plundered; burnt down the unharvested fields, cut the tendons of the oxen, slaughtered sheep and | 16,458 |
750560 | Battle of Pliska | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Pliska | Battle of Pliska
pigs." The Emperor took over Krum's treasury, locked it and did not allow his troops to reach it.
# Battle.
While Nicephorus and his army were busy plundering the Bulgarian capital, Krum mobilized his people (including women and Avar mercenaries) to set traps and ambushes in the mountain passes. Initially Nicephorus intended to march through Moesia and reach Serdica before returning to Constantinople but the news of these preparations for a battle changed his decision and he chose the shortest way to his capital. The overconfident Emperor neglected to scout ahead. On 25 July his army entered the Varbica Pass but his cavalry told him the road was barred with thick wooden walls and Krum's detachments | 16,459 |
750560 | Battle of Pliska | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Pliska | Battle of Pliska
watched from the heights around. The Emperor became panicked by the situation and repeatedly stated to his companions "Even if we have had wings we could not have escaped from peril." Before they could retreat, the Bulgars blocked the valley entrance too.
Nicephorus, unable to face attacking one of the palisades, simply set up camp, despite his generals' misgivings. By the third night Byzantine morale was shattered, while Bulgar troops banged their shields and taunted them.
On that night the Bulgarians gathered their troops and tightened the belt around the trapped enemy. At dawn they rushed down and started to kill the panicked and totally confused Byzantines. The "tagmata" were the first | 16,460 |
750560 | Battle of Pliska | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Pliska | Battle of Pliska
to be attacked. The Byzantines fruitlessly resisted for a short time and perished. Upon seeing their comrades' fate, the next units immediately ran away.
On their way south the Byzantine forces hit a muddy river which was difficult to cross. As they could not find a ford quickly enough, many Byzantines fell into the river. The first stalled in the mud with their horses and were trampled by those who came next. The river was filled with so many dead that the chasing Bulgarians easily passed over them and continued the pursuit. Those who passed through the river reached the wooden wall which was high and thick. The Byzantines left their horses and began climbing the wall with hands and legs and | 16,461 |
750560 | Battle of Pliska | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Pliska | Battle of Pliska
hung over the other side. The Bulgarians had dug a deep moat from the inner side and when the Byzantine soldiers were getting across the ramparts, they fell from the high wall, breaking their limbs. Some of them died instantly, others hobbled some time before falling to the ground and dying from thirst and hunger. The Byzantine troops burned the wall at several places but as they were rushing to get across it, they too fell into the moat along with the burning parts of the palisade. Almost everyone perished; some were killed by the sword, others drowned in the river or were mortally injured after falling from the wall and some of them died in the fire. Among the nobles killed were the patricians | 16,462 |
750560 | Battle of Pliska | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Pliska | Battle of Pliska
Theodosios Salibaras and Sisinnios Triphyllios; the "strategos" of the Anatolics Romanos and the "strategos" of Thrace; as well as the commanders of the Excubitors and Vigla "tagmata".
Reportedly, only a few survived the defeat. The most notable person to be killed, however, was Emperor Nicephorus, who according to historians died on a dunghill on the day of the battle. Nicephorus's son, Stauracius, was carried to safety by the Imperial bodyguard after receiving a paralyzing wound to his neck. Six months later, his wounds finally killed him. According to tradition, Krum had the Emperor's head on a spike, then lined his skull with silver and used it as a drinking cup.
# Sources.
## Primary | 16,463 |
750560 | Battle of Pliska | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Pliska | Battle of Pliska
sources.
- Theophanes the Confessor, "Chronographia", Ed. Carl de Boor, vol. I, 1883, vol. II, 1885, Leipzig.
- Scriptor Incertus. Anonymous Vatican Narration (Narratio anonyma e codice Vaticano), In: Codice Vaticano graeca 2014 (XII s.) ff. 119–22; Ivan Duychev (1936) New Biographic Data on the Bulgarian Expedition of Nicephorus I in 811, Proc. Bulg. Acad. Sci. 54:147–88 (in Bulgarian); H. Grégoire (1936) Un nouveau fragment du "Scriptor incertus de Leone Armenio", Byzantion, 11:417–27; Beshevliev, V (1936) The New Source About the Defeat of Nicephorus I in Bulgaria in 811, Sofia University Annual Reviews, 33:2 (In Bulgarian).
- Mannases Chronicle, 1335–1340. Apostolic Library. The Vatican.
- | 16,464 |
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tus de Leone Armenio", Byzantion, 11:417–27; Beshevliev, V (1936) The New Source About the Defeat of Nicephorus I in Bulgaria in 811, Sofia University Annual Reviews, 33:2 (In Bulgarian).
- Mannases Chronicle, 1335–1340. Apostolic Library. The Vatican.
- Michael the Syrian, "Chronique de Michel le Syrien, Patriarche Jacobite d'Antioche (1166–1199)", published by Jean Baptiste Chabot (in French). 1st Ed. Paris : Ernest Leroux, 1899–1910, ; 2nd Ed. Bruxelles: Culture et Civilisation, 1963,
- B. Flusin (trans.), J.-C. Cheynet (ed.), "Jean Skylitzès: Empereurs de Constantinople", Ed. Lethielleux, 2004, .
- Joannes Zonaras. Epitome historiarum, ed. L. Dindorfii, 6 vol., Lipsiae (BT), 1858–75. | 16,465 |
750573 | Mercedes-Benz SL-Class | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mercedes-Benz%20SL-Class | Mercedes-Benz SL-Class
Mercedes-Benz SL-Class
The Mercedes-Benz SL-Class is a grand touring car manufactured by Mercedes since 1954. The designation "SL" derives from the German "Super-Leicht," (English: Super Light). The original idea was suggested by American importer Max Hoffman, who perceived a market for a toned-down Gran Prix car tailored to affluent performance enthusiasts in the booming post-war American market, which remains the primary market for the vehicles.
The "SL" designation was first applied to the 300 SL, often referred to as the "Gullwing" due to its "gullwing" or upward-opening doors.
The term SL refers to the marketing variations of the vehicle, including the numerous engine configurations spanning | 16,466 |
750573 | Mercedes-Benz SL-Class | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mercedes-Benz%20SL-Class | Mercedes-Benz SL-Class
six design generations.
# Super-Leicht or Sport-Leicht.
Mercedes-Benz did not announce what the abbreviation "SL" meant when the car was introduced.
Leicht is either "easy" as an adverb or "light" as an adjective in German. Defining a car it has to mean "Light".
It is often assumed that the letters stand for Sport Leicht. One car magazine in 2012 declared that the abbreviation "SL" - "securitized and personally signed by Rudolf Uhlenhaut " meant Super Leicht. This contradicts "Mercedes-Benz 300 SL" of Engelen / Riedner / Seufert, which was produced in close cooperation with Rudolf Uhlenhaut showing that the abbreviation meant Sport Leicht.
Mercedes-Benz used both forms until 2017. It was | 16,467 |
750573 | Mercedes-Benz SL-Class | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mercedes-Benz%20SL-Class | Mercedes-Benz SL-Class
even called Super Super. On the company website it was called Sport Leicht until 2017 and then changed to Super Leicht.
For a long time it was unclear what intention the company had at the time when assigning the letter combination. It was not until the beginning of 2017 that a chance finding in the corporate archive clarified that the that the abbreviation SL stood for Super-Leicht.
# W198 and W121 (1954–1963).
The 300 SL was introduced in 1954 in coupé form, featuring "gullwing" doors. The 300 SL roadster succeeded the coupé in 1957. The four-cylinder 190 SL was more widely produced with 25,881 units, starting in 1955. Cars of the open SL-Class were available as a coupe with a removable | 16,468 |
750573 | Mercedes-Benz SL-Class | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mercedes-Benz%20SL-Class | Mercedes-Benz SL-Class
hardtop or as a roadster with convertible soft top or with both tops. Production for the 190 SL and 300 SL ended in 1963.
- 300 SL ("Gullwing"): 1954–1957, 3.0 L I6,
- 300 SL (Roadster): 1957–1963 3.0 L I6,
- 190 SL: 1955–1963, 1.9 L I4,
# W113 (1963–1971).
Next came the SL-Class 230 SL, a new design with a 2.3-litre mechanically fuel injected six cylinder engine. It featured a low waistline and big curved greenhouse windows, and a Coupe Roadster with detachable hardtop, whose distinctive roofline earned the nickname "pagoda top." The design was by Paul Bracq. Around 1967, the engine received a displacement increase and the model became known as the 250 SL. Within a year the engine displacement | 16,469 |
750573 | Mercedes-Benz SL-Class | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mercedes-Benz%20SL-Class | Mercedes-Benz SL-Class
was increased for the final time and the model designation became 280 SL. Beginning with later versions of the 250 SL changes were made to dashboard padding, switches and knobs, door pockets (US models only) and steering wheel. In addition, on the 230 SL formerly separate centre hubcaps and wheel trim rings became full wheel covers.
- 230 SL: 1963–1967, 2.3 L I6,
- 250 SL: 1966–1968, 2.5 L I6,
- 280 SL: 1967–1971, 2.8 L I6,
# R107 (1971–1989).
- 350 SL: 1971–1972, 3.5 L V8
- 450 SL: 1973–1980, 4.5 L V8
- 280 SL: 1974–1985, 2.8 L I6
- 380 SL: 1980–1986, 3.8 L V8
- 500 SL: 1980–1986, 5.0 L V8
All updated 86–89 models have the advantages of the more modern 4 pot brakes, larger discs, | 16,470 |
750573 | Mercedes-Benz SL-Class | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mercedes-Benz%20SL-Class | Mercedes-Benz SL-Class
and suspension derived from the W124 sedan. The body itself is built with a modern paint system designed to improve protection from rust. However this was not effective as models still continued to rust especially around the wheel arches, sills, jacking points, floor and front wings; especially the drill holes on which the mudflaps are mounted and the sides facing the engine bay.
- 300 SL: 1986–1989
The 300 SL base model was available as standard in a 5-speed manual although very few were sold. The SOHC 6 cylinder M103 is typically considered to have handling advantages with its lighter weight engine.
- 420 SL: 1986–1989, 4.2 L V8
- 500 SL: 1986–1989, 5.0 L V8
- 560 SL: 1986–1989, 5.5 L | 16,471 |
750573 | Mercedes-Benz SL-Class | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mercedes-Benz%20SL-Class | Mercedes-Benz SL-Class
V8
The 560 SL was only sold in the United States, Canada, Japan, and Australia to compensate the reduced output of the 5.0-litres due to the stricter emission laws in these markets.
# R129 (1989–2002).
The 1989 Mercedes SL base model was the 228 hp (170 kW) 3.0-litre inline 6 300 SL version in the US. In Europe the base model was the 190 hp (140 kW) 3.0-litre inline 6 300 SL with 12 valves, and the 228 hp (170 kW) 3.0-litre inline 6 with 24 valves is known as the 300 SL 24 .
But it was the 326 hp (240 kW) 500 SL (with a 5.0 L V8 engine) which made the most headlines. The specification was high, with electric windows, mirrors, seats and roof.
The R129 model was the first convertible/roadster | 16,472 |
750573 | Mercedes-Benz SL-Class | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mercedes-Benz%20SL-Class | Mercedes-Benz SL-Class
to offer the automatic rollbar deployment in event of rollover. The motorist can also manually raise and lower the rollbar should he or she choose to. This facilitates the clean look of the R129 without compromising the occupant's safety.
1994 saw a minor facelift for the SL with changes to the taillamps and white turn signal indicators in the front, and the 300 SL was replaced in Europe by the SL 280 and SL 320 (with 2.8- and 3.2-litre I6 engines). The SL 500 continued with the same powerful engine. A 389 hp (290 kW) 6.0-litre V12 SL 600 topped the range. Introduced in 1993 as the 600 SL, it was re-badged the SL 600 in 1994. It had the same engine as the original Pagani Zonda.
The SL 320 | 16,473 |
750573 | Mercedes-Benz SL-Class | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mercedes-Benz%20SL-Class | Mercedes-Benz SL-Class
replaced the 300 SL in the United States in 1995, but the SL 280 was not offered. The six-cylinder SLs were dropped from the US line-up in 1998, leaving just the V8 and V12. The SL 500 got a new 302 hp (225 kW) 5.0-litre V8 for 1999.
## AMG.
The extremely rare SL 73 AMG was sold through AMG in 1995, and at at 5,500 rpm and at 4,000 rpm of torque it offered the most powerful V12 engine ever put into an SL up to that time. After a brief gap, the SL 73 was offered again from 1998 to 2001, although the engine was slightly updated to be more reliable. The same V12 was later used by Pagani in the Zonda S 7.3. A total of 85 SL 73 AMG roadsters were built. The SL 73 was briefly reintroduced in September | 16,474 |
750573 | Mercedes-Benz SL-Class | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mercedes-Benz%20SL-Class | Mercedes-Benz SL-Class
1999 following the SL's end-of-life facelift and a limited number were produced up until December 2001. The facelifted SL 73 is the car that appears in the picture (left).
Even rarer is the SL 70 AMG which was powered by a 7.0-litre V12 engine.
The SL 60 AMG was also extremely rare. Sold through MB from 1996 to 1998, it used a 6.0 litre V8 engine producing between and . AMG claimed a 0–100 km/h (62 km/h) time of 5.6 seconds. Its top speed was limited to , but with the limiter removed, it was capable of approximately . AMG later unofficially admitted that 0–100 km/h was very close to 5.0 seconds and the engine produced between 405–410 bhp.
The SL 55 AMG was sold through AMG in the R129 body | 16,475 |
750573 | Mercedes-Benz SL-Class | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mercedes-Benz%20SL-Class | Mercedes-Benz SL-Class
style from 1998 to 2002 in limited quantity. It was the predecessor of the production R230 SL 55 AMG sold from 2003 to 2008.
Only about 300 cars in the SL-class were customised by AMG prior to 2002.
# R230 (2001–2011).
The fifth generation SL was in production between 2001 and 2008. The all-new SL (initially just a 5.0-litre SL 500 version) featured a retractable hardtop (marketed as the Vario Roof) available on the SLK since 1997. This featured a 5.0-litre 302 hp (225 kW) V8, with a 5.4-litre AMG Supercharged V8 appearing in 2002's SL 55 AMG. V12 engines were available in the SL 600 and the limited-production SL 65 AMG. The SL 350 3.7-litre (3724 cc) 18-valve V6 245 hp was only available | 16,476 |
750573 | Mercedes-Benz SL-Class | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mercedes-Benz%20SL-Class | Mercedes-Benz SL-Class
in some markets. The R230 also features the ABC (active body control) which offers the balance of comfort and handling; this complex system uses accumulators and hydraulic fluids to regulate the firmness and heights of the suspension. Newer model years (2004+) feature the 7 speed transmission, which is superior to the previous 5 speed transmission.
## Facelift (2008–2011).
The R230 SL underwent a significant facelift in 2008 featuring new and revised engines and a new front end that evokes the classic 300 SL with a large grille featuring a prominent 3-pointed star and twin "power domes" on the bonnet, the car also features new headlights with an optional "Intelligent Light System" and a new | 16,477 |
750573 | Mercedes-Benz SL-Class | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mercedes-Benz%20SL-Class | Mercedes-Benz SL-Class
speed sensitive steering system. The SL 63 AMG replaced the SL 55 AMG.
# R231 (2012–present).
In December 2011, Mercedes-Benz announced the all new SL-Class and was formally launched at the North American International Auto Show in January 2012. The new SL (R231) has been produced for the first time almost entirely from aluminium. The new aluminium body shell weighs around 110 kilograms less than it would using the steel technology from the predecessor. Although the Mercedes-Benz SL-Class has more assistance systems on-board than its predecessor and therefore does actually sacrifice some of the weight saved through the aluminium body shell, the scales show some better figures: the SL 500 (1,785 kg) | 16,478 |
750573 | Mercedes-Benz SL-Class | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mercedes-Benz%20SL-Class | Mercedes-Benz SL-Class
weighs around less and the SL 350 (1,685 kg) is lighter than its predecessor.
New features include the unique FrontBass system (it uses the free spaces in the aluminium structures in front of the footwell as resonance spaces for the bass loudspeakers) and adaptive windscreen wipe/wash system MAGIC VISION CONTROL, which supplies water from the wiper blade as required and depending on the direction of wipe. The R231 is also available with two different suspension systems: semi-active adjustable damping as standard. The optional active suspension system ABC (Active Body Control) is available as an alternative. Both suspension variants are combined with a new electromechanical Direct-Steer system | 16,479 |
750573 | Mercedes-Benz SL-Class | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mercedes-Benz%20SL-Class | Mercedes-Benz SL-Class
featuring speed-sensitive power steering and a ratio that can be varied across the steering wheel angle and it also reduces the amount of steering required when parking and manoeuvring.
Contrasted with its predecessor, the new generation of the SL is longer and wider. Shoulder room is increased by ) and elbow room .
## Facelift (2016– ).
A mid-cycle facelift was introduced in 2016 for the 2017 model year. Launched early 2016 in California, the revised SL400 (renamed SL450 in the US) featured a 3-litre 362 hp (367 PS) biturbo V6 mated, for the first time in the SL, to Mercedes' own 9G-Tronic PLUS 9-speed automatic transmission.
An SL500 (US SL550), with a 4.7-litre biturbo V8 producing 449 hp | 16,480 |
750573 | Mercedes-Benz SL-Class | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mercedes-Benz%20SL-Class | Mercedes-Benz SL-Class
(455 PS), was likewise paired with the 9G-tronic PLUS transmission. The Mercedes-AMG SL63 (577 hp/585PS) and SL65 (621 hp/630PS) variants continued with virtually unchanged powertrains, paired with AMG's SPEEDSHIFT MCT 7-speed sports transmission with claimed improved shift times.
Cosmetically, every SL received a revised front end, front grille treatment and larger non-functional side 'vents' behind the front wheels. All variants also received adaptive LED front headlights with integrated daytime running lights and turn signals, leaving the below-bumper intake area free from lighting. The LED tail lights received single-colour red or red-and-amber lenses instead of the red and white of the | 16,481 |
750573 | Mercedes-Benz SL-Class | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mercedes-Benz%20SL-Class | Mercedes-Benz SL-Class
pre-facelift models.
Front and rear bumper assemblies were redesigned to align more closely with recent models introduced by Mercedes, while selected convenience and driver assistance technologies, introduced earlier on various other Mercedes models, were made optionally available, including revised Active Body Control (ABC), now with the "Curve Tilting" function from the S-Class Coupe. Externally, the SL63 and SL65 were distinguishable from the non-AMG variants by embellishments to their bumper assemblies and side sills in gloss black or polished aluminium, respectively. The SL63 and SL65 also featured trademark AMG 'twin lamella' front grilles and dual twin tailpipe exhaust trims as well | 16,482 |
750573 | Mercedes-Benz SL-Class | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mercedes-Benz%20SL-Class | Mercedes-Benz SL-Class
lla' front grilles and dual twin tailpipe exhaust trims as well as a carbon fibre composite trunk lid.
A slight revision to the folding 'Vario-roof' hardtop operation meant it would continue to deploy at speeds up to 25 mph (40kph) once initiated and the luggage compartment partition, required to prevent the hardtop components, when folded, and any luggage compartment contents coming into contact with each other, no longer had to be deployed in a separate manual operation.
Interiors continued virtually unchanged for MY2017 with the exception of slightly revised minor switchgear and a redesigned steering wheel.
# See also.
Lexus LC br
BMW 8 Series
# External links.
- Mercedes-AMG SL 63 | 16,483 |
750577 | Muramasa | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Muramasa | Muramasa
Muramasa
, commonly known as , was a famous swordsmith who founded the Muramasa school and lived during the Muromachi period (14th to 16th centuries) in Kuwana, Ise Province, Japan (current Kuwana, Mie).
In spite of its original reputation as fine blades favored by the shōgun Tokugawa Ieyasu and his vassals, the katana swords gradually became a symbol of the anti-Tokugawa movement.
Furthermore, in lore and popular culture from the 18th century, the swords have been regarded as .
# Work.
## Style.
Much like his unique reputation, Muramasa is known for some fairly unusual features in his work. These attributes are often called by terms prefixed with "Muramasa."
- —The first particular characteristic | 16,484 |
750577 | Muramasa | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Muramasa | Muramasa
of his is the frequent use of a wave-shaped hamon. The "hamon" of Muramasa is categorized as "gunome-midare", that is, it forms randomized wave-like shapes. In particular, Muramasa's "gunome-midare" has very long, shallow valleys between a cluster of "gunome" shapes. Furtheremore, the front pattern and the back one often coincide well.
- —The other easily identifiable feature one will see on Muramasa blades is the fish-belly (tanagobara) shape of the nakago. in the 19th century often simulated this style.
## Notable works.
Although the school of Muramasa is extremely famous in popular culture, none of their swords is designated as a National Treasure or an Important Cultural Property.
Uchigatana, | 16,485 |
750577 | Muramasa | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Muramasa | Muramasa
length 66.4cm, curvature 1.5cm, bottom width 2.8cm, shinogi-zukuri, iori-mune, and chū-kissaki nobi (see also Glossary of Japanese swords).
The front side contains a sign of Muramasa and a mantra sign (a mantra from Namu Myōhō Renge Kyō or the Lotus Sutra of Nichiren Buddhism).
The back side contains an year sign 永正十年葵酉十月十三日 (13th day of the 10th month of Eishō 10, that is, November 10, 1513). It is highly probable that the date was chosen because the high priest Nichiren died on the 13th day of the 10th month of Kōan 5 (1282).
Both sides contain beautiful engravings of Kurikara (Fudō Myō-ō's mythological sword empowered by a burning dragon).
The style of the engravings is similar to those | 16,486 |
750577 | Muramasa | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Muramasa | Muramasa
of the swordsmith Heianjō Nagayoshi, so some scholars suggest Muramasa studied under Nagayoshi.
It is also silver-damascened with characters , which suggests that the sword was once in possession of Nabeshima Katsushige (1580-1657), the first daimyō lord of Saga Domain.
Later this sword was given to Katsushige's son Nabeshima Motoshige, the first lord of Ogi Domain, and has been inherited by his successors.
Muramasa's students made excellent weapons too. Fujiwara Masazane, a disciple of Muramasa, forged Tonbokiri, one of the Three Great Spears of Japan.
Masazane also forged a sword called whose name came from a legend that Sakai Tadatsugu killed a wild boar with this sword when accompanying | 16,487 |
750577 | Muramasa | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Muramasa | Muramasa
Ieyasu in hunting.
# In history.
## Origin.
The exact origin of the Muramasa school is unknown.
The oldest extant sword equipped with both a name sign Muramasa and a date sign shows the year Bunki 1 (1501).
Scholars, however, assert several swords signed with Muramasa (but without year signs) are slightly older than 1501 in light of their styles.
It is generally thought that the school of Muramasa spanned at least three generations.
It is hardly clear when the school disappeared, but some Muramasa swords contain the year sign Kanbun (1661-1673).
Lores in the late Muromachi period (early 16th century–1573) stated that Muramasa I was a student of Masamune (c. 1300), the greatest swordsmith | 16,488 |
750577 | Muramasa | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Muramasa | Muramasa
in Japan's history, and the Hon'ami family (family dynasty of swordpolishers and sword connaisseurs) commented that his floruit was the Jōji era (1362–1368).
Scholars from the Azuchi–Momoyama period (1573–1600) to modern days, however, have dimissed the relationship of Masamune and Muramasa as fantasy because all of extant Muramasa swords are too new to support this theory.
Another theory states that Muramasa I was a student of Heianjō Nagayoshi, a prominent Kyoto swordsmith known for spears and engravings.
The school of , a notable branch of the Muramasa school, records Masashige I died in 1456, so Muramasa I was active before 1456 if we believe the record.
, the epithet of Muramasa, is | 16,489 |
750577 | Muramasa | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Muramasa | Muramasa
also covered with myths.
A common belief states Muramasa I was born in a place called Sengo, but there is no such a place near Kuwana in reality.
Another popular legend says the mother of Muramasa I worshipped the bodhisattva Senju Kannon and thus he was called Sengo, a shortened form of .
Kanzan Sato claims that the starting year of Muramasa I was Entoku and Meiō (1489-1501), that of Muramasa II was Tenbun (1532–1539), and that of Muramasa III was Tenshō (1573–1591).
On the other hand, Suiken Fukunaga considers the floruit of Muramasa I was around Shōchō (1428-1429) and the 1501 sword was forged by Muramasa III.
## Relationship to the Tokugawa dynasty.
Because of their exquisite sharpness, | 16,490 |
750577 | Muramasa | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Muramasa | Muramasa
Muramasa swords were favored especially by the samurai of Mikawa (led by Tokugawa Ieyasu, the founder of the Tokugawa shogunate, and his ancestors).
Naturally, when a misfortune happens in the Tokugawa clan, it is often related to Muramasa, definitely not because they are "cursed," but simply because most Mikawa samurai used these swords.
Matsudaira Kiyoyasu, a grandfather of Ieyasu, was mistakenly killed by his own vassal Abe Masatoyo with a Muramasa.
Ieyasu's father Matsudaira Hirotada was also stabbed with a Muramasa by Iwamatsu Hachiya, who lost his mind by excessive drinking.
When Ieyasu's first son Matsudaira Nobuyasu was forced to commit suicide ("seppuku"), his beheader ("kaishakunin") | 16,491 |
750577 | Muramasa | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Muramasa | Muramasa
Amagata Michitsuna used a Muramasa.
In spite of these unfortunate incidents, Tokugawa Ieyasu and his generation seemed to greatly appreciate Muramasa weapons.
Ieyasu himself owned two swords forged by Muramasa and left them to his family; as of 2013, the Owari-Tokugawa family still holds one of the two as an heirloom.
Honda Tadakatsu, one of the Four Greatest Generals under Ieyasu, wielded Tonbogiri, a legendary spear forged by Fujiwara Masazane, who studied under the Muramasa school.
Sakai Tadatsugu, another of the Four, wielded Inoshishi-giri, a sword forged by Masazane.
Later generations in the shogunate, however, gradually came to think of Muramasa as sinister items.
Arai Hakuseki, | 16,492 |
750577 | Muramasa | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Muramasa | Muramasa
the official scholar-bureaucrat of the shogunate, commented "Muramasa is associated with not a few sinister events."
Even "" (1849), the official history book published from the shogunate, cites , which tells a legend that Ieyasu regarded Muramasa as cursed items and banned them from his family, although it is clearly a fabricated story considering the heirloom of the Owari-Tokugawa family.
In the Bakumatsu period (1853–1868), Muramasa was somehow considered to be a curse bringer against the shogunate, and thus shishi (anti-Tokugawa activists) wished to acquire Muramasa blades.
Even though the school of Muramasa does not have an exalted or prestigious status to be used by the imperial family | 16,493 |
750577 | Muramasa | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Muramasa | Muramasa
in ordinary times, a Muramasa was wielded by Prince Arisugawa Taruhito, the commander-in-chief of the Imperial Army against the Tokugawa shogunate during the Boshin War (1868-1869).
To satisfy growing demand, forgeries of Muramasa blades were also often made in this period.
# Cultural significance.
In popular culture, Muramasa swords have been often depicted as cursed swords with demonic powers. Oscar Ratti and Adele Westbrook said that Muramasa "was a most skillful smith but a violent and ill-balanced mind verging on madness, that was supposed to have passed into his blades. They were popularly believed to hunger for blood and to impel their warrior to commit murder or suicide."
It has | 16,494 |
750577 | Muramasa | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Muramasa | Muramasa
also been told that once drawn, a Muramasa blade has to draw blood before it can be returned to its scabbard, even to the point of forcing its wielder to wound himself or commit suicide.
Thus, it is thought of as a demonic cursed blade that creates bloodlust in those who wield it.
These stereotyped images date back to
kabuki dramas in the 18–19th century such as
" (1860),
and " (1888).
When was driven mad because of power harassment from his superiors and killed them in Edo Castle in the 6th year of Bunsei (1823), townspeople rumored that Geki used a Muramasa, although actually the sword had no sign and there was no evidence to support the rumor.
This incident shows how great the influence | 16,495 |
750577 | Muramasa | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Muramasa | Muramasa
thought of as a demonic cursed blade that creates bloodlust in those who wield it.
These stereotyped images date back to
kabuki dramas in the 18–19th century such as
" (1860),
and " (1888).
When was driven mad because of power harassment from his superiors and killed them in Edo Castle in the 6th year of Bunsei (1823), townspeople rumored that Geki used a Muramasa, although actually the sword had no sign and there was no evidence to support the rumor.
This incident shows how great the influence of kabuki dramas upon common people was.
# See also.
- Masamune
# Bibliography.
- Sato, Kanzan (1990) (in Japanese) . Akita Shoten. .
- Fukunaga, Suiken (1993) (in Japanese) . Yūzankaku. . | 16,496 |
750587 | The Championship (TV programme) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The%20Championship%20(TV%20programme) | The Championship (TV programme)
The Championship (TV programme)
The Championship (formerly known as Championship Goals between January 2008 and May 2008) is a British football television programme featuring highlights from the Coca-Cola Football League. It was almost always shown on Sunday mornings on ITV, presented by Matt Smith. Despite its name, it also covered Football League One and Football League Two matches, albeit to a lesser extent than Championship matches.
The show included various additional features since it began in August 2004 and had its format changed due to widespread criticism of the number of commercial breaks. Link scenes usually involved Smith speaking to camera from various parts of the stadium of | 16,497 |
750587 | The Championship (TV programme) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The%20Championship%20(TV%20programme) | The Championship (TV programme)
the featured match, such as the dressing rooms, the referee's office, the boot room, the pie stand and so on.
# The Team.
## Presenter.
Matt Smith was the presenter from the start and very rarely absent. On the rare occasions he was absent, Andy Townsend, Robbie Earle, Craig Doyle and Dave Beckett deputised. Angus Scott previously had filled in before he left to work for Setanta Sports.
## Pundits.
The pundits (who often reported too) were Robbie Earle and Andy Townsend. They gave their analysis on some games but usually reported in depth on one particular game in the Football League. As of the 2007–08 season, pundits were very rarely used on the programme.
## Reporters.
The main reporters | 16,498 |
750587 | The Championship (TV programme) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The%20Championship%20(TV%20programme) | The Championship (TV programme)
were Ned Boulting, Gabriel Clarke and Dave Beckett. There were also many occasional reporters such as Richard Henwood, Tom Skippings, Mike Hall, Andy Kerr, Mick Conway and Gary Bloom.
## Commentators.
Commentators on The Championship were Peter Drury, Jon Champion, Clive Tyldesley and John Rawling. Others included Phil Duffell, Tony Jones, Bob Symonds, Martyn Dean, Trevor Harris, Donovan Blake. Angus Scott was also a regular commentator before his move to Setanta.
# End of the show.
The show came to an end in May 2009 when ITV's Football League and League Cup highlights package expired. As of the 2009–10 season, the BBC have taken over the domestic rights package, which also included live | 16,499 |
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