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420387 | Japan Airlines Flight 123 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japan%20Airlines%20Flight%20123 | Japan Airlines Flight 123
Japan Self-Defense Forces' decision to wait until the next day to go to the crash site, after declining an offer from a nearby United States Air Force base to start an immediate rescue operation. It is the deadliest single-aircraft accident in aviation history.
# Aircraft and crew.
The accident aircraft was registered JA8119 and was a Boeing 747-146SR (Short Range). Its first flight was on January 28, 1974. It had more than 25,000 airframe hours and more than 18,800 cycles (one cycle equals one takeoff and landing).
At the time of the accident the aircraft was on the fifth of its six planned flights of the day. There were fifteen crew members, including three cockpit crew and 12 flight attendants.
The | 19,900 |
420387 | Japan Airlines Flight 123 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japan%20Airlines%20Flight%20123 | Japan Airlines Flight 123
cockpit crew consisted of the following:
- Captain from Akita, Japan, served as a training instructor for First Officer Yutaka Sasaki on the flight, supervising him while handling the radio communications. A veteran pilot, having logged approximately 12,400 total flight hours, roughly 4,850 of which were accumulated flying 747s, Masami Takahama was aged 49 at the time of the accident.
- First Officer from Kobe was in line for promotion to the rank of Captain and flew Flight 123 as one of his training flights. Sasaki, who was 39 years old at the time of the incident, had approximately 4,000 total flight hours to his credit and he had logged roughly 2,650 hours in the 747.
- Flight Engineer | 19,901 |
420387 | Japan Airlines Flight 123 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japan%20Airlines%20Flight%20123 | Japan Airlines Flight 123
from Kyoto, the 46-year-old veteran flight engineer of the flight who had approximately 9,800 total flight hours, of which roughly 3,850 were accrued flying 747s.
# Passengers.
The flight was around the Obon holiday period in Japan, when many Japanese people make yearly trips to their home towns or resorts. Around twenty-one non-Japanese boarded the flight. By August 13, 1985, Geoffrey Tudor, a spokesman for Japan Airlines, stated that the list included four residents of Hong Kong, two each from Italy and the United States, and one each from West Germany and the United Kingdom. Some foreigners had dual nationalities, and some of them were residents of Japan.
The four survivors, all female, | 19,902 |
420387 | Japan Airlines Flight 123 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japan%20Airlines%20Flight%20123 | Japan Airlines Flight 123
were seated on the left side and toward the middle of seat rows 54–60, in the rear of the aircraft. The four survivors were:
- , a 26-year-old off-duty JAL flight attendant who was jammed between seats;
- , a 34-year-old woman;
- , Hiroko's 8-year-old daughter—Hiroko and Mikiko were both trapped in an intact section of the fuselage; and
- , a 12-year-old girl who was rescued from under the wreckage. "Air Disaster Volume 2" stated that she was wedged between branches in a tree. Kawakami's parents and younger sister died in the crash, and she was the last survivor to be released from the hospital. She was treated at the Matsue Red Cross Hospital in Matsue, Shimane Prefecture before her release | 19,903 |
420387 | Japan Airlines Flight 123 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japan%20Airlines%20Flight%20123 | Japan Airlines Flight 123
on Friday, November 22, 1985.
Among the dead was singer Kyu Sakamoto, who was famous for the hit song known in the United States under the title "Sukiyaki."
# Sequence of events.
The aircraft landed at Haneda from New Chitose Airport at 4:50PM as JL514. After more than an hour on the ramp, Flight 123 pushed back from gate 18 at 6:04 p.m. and took off from Runway 15L at Haneda Airport in Ōta, Tokyo, Japan, at 6:12 p.m., twelve minutes behind schedule. About 12 minutes after takeoff, at near cruising altitude over Sagami Bay, the aircraft had a rapid decompression bringing down the ceiling around the rear lavatories, damaging the unpressurized fuselage aft of the plane, unseating the vertical | 19,904 |
420387 | Japan Airlines Flight 123 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japan%20Airlines%20Flight%20123 | Japan Airlines Flight 123
stabilizer, and severing all four hydraulic lines. A photograph taken from the ground confirmed that the vertical stabilizer was missing.
The pilots set their transponder to broadcast a distress signal. Afterwards, Captain Takahama contacted Tokyo Area Control Center to declare an emergency, and to request to return to Haneda Airport, descending and following emergency landing vectors to Oshima. Tokyo Control approved a right-hand turn to a heading of 90° east back towards Oshima, but the plane did not follow the directions and continued to fly a westerly course. It was at this point that the pilots became aware that the aircraft had become uncontrollable, and the flight engineer reported that | 19,905 |
420387 | Japan Airlines Flight 123 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japan%20Airlines%20Flight%20123 | Japan Airlines Flight 123
the hydraulic pressure was dropping. Seeing that the aircraft was still flying west away from Haneda, Tokyo Control contacted the aircraft again. After confirming that the pilots were declaring an emergency, the controller requested as to the nature of the emergency, which the pilots did not respond to. Only after Tokyo Control repeated the direction to descend and turn to a 90° heading to Oshima did the Captain report that the aircraft had become uncontrollable. Heading over the Izu Peninsula, the pilots managed to turn towards the Pacific Ocean, then back towards the shore; Captain Takahama declined Tokyo Control's suggestion to divert to Nagoya Airport 72 miles away, instead preferring to | 19,906 |
420387 | Japan Airlines Flight 123 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japan%20Airlines%20Flight%20123 | Japan Airlines Flight 123
land at Haneda.
Hydraulic fluid completely drained away through the rupture. With total loss of hydraulic control and non-functional control surfaces, the aircraft began up and down oscillations in phugoid cycles lasting about 90 seconds each. The lack of stabilizing influence from the vertical stabilizer and the rudder removed the only means to dampen yaw. Consequently, the aircraft also began to exhibit Dutch roll, simultaneously yawing right and banking right, before yawing back left and banking left, with the banks in large arcs of approximately 50° back and forth in cycles of 12 seconds. In response, the pilots exerted efforts to establish stability using differential engine thrust, and | 19,907 |
420387 | Japan Airlines Flight 123 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japan%20Airlines%20Flight%20123 | Japan Airlines Flight 123
they managed to slowly turn the plane back towards Haneda. The plane rose and fell in an altitude range of for 15 minutes, with the pilots seemingly unable to figure out how to descend without flight controls. This is possibly due to the effects of hypoxia at such altitudes, as the pilots seemed to have difficulty comprehending their situation as the plane pitched and rolled uncontrollably. The flight engineer did say they should put on their oxygen masks when word reached the cockpit that the rear-most passenger masks had stopped working, however, none of the pilots did put on their oxygen masks, possibly out of indecision, or hypoxia impairing their judgement. Their voices can be heard relatively | 19,908 |
420387 | Japan Airlines Flight 123 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japan%20Airlines%20Flight%20123 | Japan Airlines Flight 123
clearly on the cockpit area microphone for the entire duration up until the crash which is proof that they likely did not do so at any point in the flight. Eventually, the pilots discovered that they could achieve limited control of the airplane by adjusting the power of the 747's wing-mounted engines. By increasing power when the plane is descending, they can make the plane climb; by reducing power, they could make the plane descend. In doing so, they were able to dampen the phugoid cycle and somewhat stabilize their altitude. Suppressing the dutch roll was another matter, as the engines cannot respond fast enough to counter the dutch roll. According to the accident report, "Suppressing of | 19,909 |
420387 | Japan Airlines Flight 123 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japan%20Airlines%20Flight%20123 | Japan Airlines Flight 123
dutch roll mode by use of the differential thrust between the right and left engines is estimated practically impossible for a pilot."
Shortly after 6:40 PM, the landing gear was lowered in an attempt to dampen the phugoid cycles and Dutch rolls. This was somewhat successful, as the phugoid cycles were dampened, but lowering the gear also decreased the directional control the pilots were getting by applying power to one side of the aircraft, and the aircrew's ability to control the aircraft deteriorated. Shortly after lowering the gear, the plane began a right-hand descending turn from to , then continued north while still descending. Upon descending to at 6:45 PM, the pilots again reported | 19,910 |
420387 | Japan Airlines Flight 123 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japan%20Airlines%20Flight%20123 | Japan Airlines Flight 123
an uncontrollable aircraft. Moments later, the aircraft began to turn to the left, despite efforts by the crew to get the plane to continue to turn right and avoid the mountains.
As the aircraft continued west, they descended below , then entered a rapid climb and briefly stalled the plane at , The captain immediately ordered maximum power before returning to an unsteady climb only to make it stall again. Possibly as a measure to prevent a recurrence of stalling, however, by doing that, it made the plane repeat the up and down cycles, so they slowed the plane down using engine power, but it almost made the plane stall again. Due to the lowered air speed caused by the drag of the undercarriage, | 19,911 |
420387 | Japan Airlines Flight 123 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japan%20Airlines%20Flight%20123 | Japan Airlines Flight 123
the First officer quickly discussed lowering the flaps. Without hydraulics, the captain expressed that this wouldn't work, but the flight engineer pointed out this could be done via an alternate electrical system. At 6:51 PM, the captain lowered the flaps 5 units as an additional attempt to exert control over the stricken jet. The aircraft reached at 6:53 PM, at which point the captain reported an uncontrollable plane for the third time. At approximately 6:54 PM, the crew lowered flaps to 10 units, but this began to cause the plane to begin to bank to the right. One minute later, the flaps were extended to 25 units, which caused the aircraft to bank further to the right beyond 60°, and the nose | 19,912 |
420387 | Japan Airlines Flight 123 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japan%20Airlines%20Flight%20123 | Japan Airlines Flight 123
began to drop. Captain Takahama immediately ordered the flaps to be retracted ("Hey, halt the flap") , and was heard on the cockpit voice recorder desperately requesting for more power to be applied in a last-ditch effort to raise the nose.The plane continued to enter an uncontrollable right-hand descent into the mountains and disappearing from radar at 6:56 p.m. at . In the final moments, the planes fourth engine clipped a ridge of a mountain, then the plane flipped on its back and crashed and exploded on another ridge near Mount Takamagahara.
The aircraft's crash point, at an elevation of , is located in Sector 76, State Forest, 3577 Aza Hontani, Ouaza Narahara, Ueno Village, Tano District, | 19,913 |
420387 | Japan Airlines Flight 123 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japan%20Airlines%20Flight%20123 | Japan Airlines Flight 123
Gunma Prefecture. The east-west ridge is about north north west of Mount Mikuni. Ed Magnuson of "Time" magazine said that the area where the aircraft crashed was referred to as the "Tibet" of Gunma Prefecture. The elapsed time from the bulkhead failure to the crash was 32 minutes.
# Delayed rescue operation.
United States Air Force air traffic controllers at Yokota Air Base, situated near the flight path of JAL 123, had been monitoring the aircraft's distress calls and maintained contact with Japanese air traffic control throughout. They made the Yokota runway available to JAL 123, as did the US Atsugi Naval Base after being alerted to the situation. After losing radar contact, a U.S. Air | 19,914 |
420387 | Japan Airlines Flight 123 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japan%20Airlines%20Flight%20123 | Japan Airlines Flight 123
Force C-130 from the 345th TAS was tasked to search for the missing plane. The C-130 crew was the first to spot the crash site 20 minutes after impact, while it was still daylight. The crew radioed the location to the Japanese and Yokota Air Base and directed an Iroquois helicopter from Yokota to the crash site. Rescue teams were assembled, prepared to lower Marines from helicopters. However, American offers of assistance in mounting a search and rescue mission were declined by the Japanese government who determined that the mission would be undertaken by the Japan Self-Defense Forces (JSDF) and that outside help was not necessary. It remains unclear why the offers were declined.
A JSDF helicopter | 19,915 |
420387 | Japan Airlines Flight 123 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japan%20Airlines%20Flight%20123 | Japan Airlines Flight 123
later spotted the wreck but after nightfall. Poor visibility and the difficult mountainous terrain prevented it from landing at the site. The pilot reported from the air that there were no signs of survivors. Based on this report, JSDF personnel on the ground did not set out to the site on the night of the crash. Instead, they were dispatched to spend the night at a makeshift village erecting tents, constructing helicopter landing ramps and engaging in other preparations, from the crash site. Rescue teams did not set out for the site until the following morning. Medical staff later found bodies with injuries suggesting that individuals had survived the crash only to die from shock, exposure | 19,916 |
420387 | Japan Airlines Flight 123 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japan%20Airlines%20Flight%20123 | Japan Airlines Flight 123
overnight in the mountains, or from injuries that, if tended to earlier, would not have been fatal. One doctor said "If the discovery had come ten hours earlier, we could have found more survivors."
Off-duty flight attendant Yumi Ochiai, one of the four survivors out of 524 passengers and crew, recounted from her hospital bed that she recalled bright lights and the sound of helicopter rotors shortly after she awoke amid the wreckage, and while she could hear screaming and moaning from other survivors, these sounds gradually died away during the night.
# Cause.
The official cause of the crash according to the report published by Japan's Aircraft Accident Investigation Commission is as follows:
- | 19,917 |
420387 | Japan Airlines Flight 123 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japan%20Airlines%20Flight%20123 | Japan Airlines Flight 123
1. The aircraft was involved in a tailstrike incident at Osaka International Airport seven years earlier as JAL 115, which damaged the aircraft's rear pressure bulkhead.
- 2. The subsequent repair of the bulkhead did not conform to Boeing's approved repair methods. For reinforcing a damaged bulkhead, Boeing's repair procedure calls for one continuous splice plate with three rows of rivets. However, the Boeing technicians carrying out the repair had used two splice plates parallel to the stress crack. Cutting the plate in this manner negated the effectiveness of one of the rows of rivets, reducing the part's resistance to fatigue cracking to about 70% of that for a correct repair. During the | 19,918 |
420387 | Japan Airlines Flight 123 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japan%20Airlines%20Flight%20123 | Japan Airlines Flight 123
investigation, the Accident Investigation Commission calculated that this incorrect installation would fail after approximately 10,000 pressurization cycles; the aircraft accomplished 12,318 successful flights from the time that the faulty repair was made to when the crash happened.
- 3. Consequently, after repeated pressurization cycles during normal flight, the bulkhead gradually started to crack near one of the two rows of rivets holding it together. When it finally failed, the resulting rapid decompression ruptured the lines of all four hydraulic systems and ejected the vertical stabilizer. With many of the aircraft's flight controls disabled, the aircraft became uncontrollable.
# Aftermath | 19,919 |
420387 | Japan Airlines Flight 123 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japan%20Airlines%20Flight%20123 | Japan Airlines Flight 123
and legacy.
The Japanese public's confidence in Japan Air Lines took a dramatic downturn in the wake of the disaster, with passenger numbers on domestic routes dropping by one third. Rumors persisted that Boeing had admitted fault to cover up shortcomings in the airline's inspection procedures, thereby protecting the reputation of a major customer. In the months after the crash, domestic traffic decreased by as much as 25%. In 1986, for the first time in a decade, fewer passengers boarded JAL's overseas flights during the New Year period than the previous year. Some of them considered switching to All Nippon Airways as a safer alternative.
JAL paid ¥780 million (US$7.6 million) to the victims' | 19,920 |
420387 | Japan Airlines Flight 123 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japan%20Airlines%20Flight%20123 | Japan Airlines Flight 123
relatives in the form of "condolence money" without admitting liability. JAL president, Yasumoto Takagi (), resigned. In the aftermath of the incident, Hiroo Tominaga, a JAL maintenance manager, killed himself to atone for the incident, while Susumu Tajima, an engineer who had inspected and cleared the aircraft as flightworthy, committed suicide due to difficulties at work.
In compliance with standard procedures, Japan Air Lines dropped the flight number 123 for their Haneda-Itami routes, changing it to Flight 121 and Flight 127 on September 1, 1985. While Boeing 747s were still used on the same route operating with the new flight numbers in the years following the crash, they were replaced | 19,921 |
420387 | Japan Airlines Flight 123 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japan%20Airlines%20Flight%20123 | Japan Airlines Flight 123
by the Boeing 767 or Boeing 777 in the mid-1990s. The 747s continued serving JAL until their 2011 retirement. March 2 of the same year saw the retirement of the airline's final two 747s, which were -400 series.
In 2009, stairs with a handrail were installed to facilitate visitors' access to the crash site. Japan Transport Minister Seiji Maehara visited the site on August 12, 2010, to pray for the victims. Families of the victims, together with local volunteer groups, hold an annual memorial gathering every August 12 near the crash site in Gunma Prefecture.
The crash led to the 2006 opening of the Safety Promotion Center, which is located in the Daini Sogo Building in the grounds of Haneda | 19,922 |
420387 | Japan Airlines Flight 123 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japan%20Airlines%20Flight%20123 | Japan Airlines Flight 123
Airport. This center was created for training purposes to alert employees to the importance of airline safety and their personal responsibility to ensure safety. The center has displays regarding aviation safety, the history of the crash, and selected pieces of the aircraft and passenger effects (including handwritten farewell notes). It is open to the public by appointment made two months prior to the visit.
The captain's daughter, Yoko Takahama, who was a high school student at the time of the crash, went on to become a flight attendant for Japan Air Lines.
Japanese banker Akihisa Yukawa had an undisclosed second family at the time he died in the crash. (His wife had earlier suffered severe | 19,923 |
420387 | Japan Airlines Flight 123 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japan%20Airlines%20Flight%20123 | Japan Airlines Flight 123
brain injuries.) His partner, pregnant with their second child, returned with her family to London, where she and Yukawa had met. To avoid embarrassment to Yukawa's family she accepted a settlement of £340,000 rather than claiming under the airline's compensation scheme. In 2002 the airline made an undisclosed payment enabling the two children, Cassie and Diana, to complete their education.
# In popular culture.
- The events of Flight 123 were featured in "Out of Control," a Season 3 (2005) episode of the Canadian TV series "Mayday," which is entitled "Air Emergency" and "Air Disasters" in the U.S., and "Air Crash Investigation" in the UK and elsewhere around the world. The dramatization was | 19,924 |
420387 | Japan Airlines Flight 123 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japan%20Airlines%20Flight%20123 | Japan Airlines Flight 123
broadcast with the title "" in Japan. The flight was also included in a "Mayday" Season 6 (2007) "Science of Disaster" special, entitled "Fatal Flaw," which was broadcast with the title "Fatal Fix" in the United Kingdom, Australia and Asia.
- The documentary series "Aircrash Confidential" featured the crash in a second-season episode titled "Poor Maintenance," which first aired on March 15, 2012, on the Discovery Channel in the United Kingdom.
- The National Geographic Channel's documentary series "Seconds From Disaster" featured the accident in an episode titled "Terrified over Tokyo," released in December 2012.
- "Climber's High," the best-selling novel by Hideo Yokoyama, revolves around | 19,925 |
420387 | Japan Airlines Flight 123 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japan%20Airlines%20Flight%20123 | Japan Airlines Flight 123
the reporting of the crash at the fictional newspaper "Kita-Kanto Shimbun." Yokoyama was a journalist at the "Jōmō Shimbun" at the time of the crash. A film released in 2008, and also titled "Climber's High," is based on the novel.
- In 2009, the film "Shizumanu Taiyō," starring Ken Watanabe, was released for national distribution in Japan. The film gives a semi-fictional account of the internal airline corporate disputes and politics surrounding the crash. However, the film does not mention Japanese Air Lines by name, using the name "National Airlines" instead. JAL not only refused to co-operate with the making of the film but also bitterly criticized the film, saying that it "not only damages | 19,926 |
420387 | Japan Airlines Flight 123 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japan%20Airlines%20Flight%20123 | Japan Airlines Flight 123
public trust in the company but could lead to a loss of customers." Coincidentally, the movie features music by Diana Yukawa, whose father was one of the victims of this disaster.
- The cockpit voice recording (CVR) of the incident was incorporated into the script of a 1999 play called "Charlie Victor Romeo."
- The 2004 album "Reise, Reise" by German Neue Deutsche Härte band Rammstein is loosely inspired by the crash. The final moments of the cockpit voice recording is hidden in the pregap of the first track on some CD pressings of the album.
- In 2011, British academic Christopher Hood published a book, titled "," on the crash and its effect on Japanese society.
# See also.
- China Airlines | 19,927 |
420387 | Japan Airlines Flight 123 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japan%20Airlines%20Flight%20123 | Japan Airlines Flight 123
Flight 611 – 2002
- British European Airways Flight 706 – 1971
- List of aircraft accidents and incidents resulting in at least 50 fatalities
Similar accidents involving loss of flight controls:
- United Airlines Flight 232 – caused by a catastrophic engine failure, 1989
- Baghdad DHL attempted shootdown incident – caused by a surface-to-air missile striking the left wing, 2003
- Japan Airlines Flight 115 tailstrike that caused the crash 7 years earlier
# External links.
- Aircraft Accident Report, English translation – Aircraft Accident Investigation Commission (East Asian fonts may need to be installed)
- Alternative link
- Aircraft Accident Report – Aircraft Accident Investigation | 19,928 |
420387 | Japan Airlines Flight 123 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japan%20Airlines%20Flight%20123 | Japan Airlines Flight 123
rlines Flight 115 tailstrike that caused the crash 7 years earlier
# External links.
- Aircraft Accident Report, English translation – Aircraft Accident Investigation Commission (East Asian fonts may need to be installed)
- Alternative link
- Aircraft Accident Report – Aircraft Accident Investigation Commission
- Learning from the Past Japan Air Lines
- Crash of Japan Air Lines B-747 at Mt. Osutaka
- JAL123 CVR (cockpit voice recorder) transcript
- JAL123 CVR (cockpit voice recorder) audio of the final moments of flight (Archive)
- The record of JAL123 (Japanese with English place names) (Archive)
- Planesafe.org: JAL123 (Archive)
- The New York Times: J.A.L.'s Post-Crash Troubles | 19,929 |
420402 | Ben Klassen | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ben%20Klassen | Ben Klassen
Ben Klassen
Bernhardt (or Ben) Klassen () – ) was an American politician and religious leader who described himself as a "white separatist and racial purist". He was the founder of the Church of the Creator with the publication of his book "Nature's Eternal Religion" in 1973.
At one point, Klassen was a Republican Florida state legislator, as well as a supporter of George Wallace's presidential campaign. In addition to his religious and political work, Klassen was an electrical engineer and he was also the inventor of a wall-mounted electric can-opener.
# Early life.
Klassen was born on February 20, 1918, in Rudnerweide (now "Rozivka" in Chernihivka Raion in Zaporizhia Oblast), Ukraine, to | 19,930 |
420402 | Ben Klassen | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ben%20Klassen | Ben Klassen
Bernhard and Susanna Klassen (née Friesen) a Ukrainian Mennonite Christian couple. He had two sisters and two brothers. When Klassen was nine months old, he caught typhoid fever and nearly died. His earliest memories were of the famine of 1921–22. He remembered his father rationing to him one slice of dark bread for dinner. Klassen was first introduced to religion at the age of "three or four". When he was five, the family moved to Mexico, where they lived for one year. In 1925, at age six, he moved with his family to Herschel, Saskatchewan, Canada. He attended the German-English Academy (now Rosthern Junior College).
# Entrepreneurship.
Klassen established a real estate firm in Los Angeles | 19,931 |
420402 | Ben Klassen | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ben%20Klassen | Ben Klassen
in partnership with Ben Burke. Believing that his partner was prone to drinking and gambling, Klassen eventually bought him out and became sole proprietor. He hired several salesmen, including Merle Peek, who convinced him to buy large land development projects in Nevada. Klassen and Peek started a partnership called the Silver Springs Land Company, through which they founded the town of Silver Springs, Nevada. In 1952, Klassen sold his share of the company to Phillip Hess for $150,000 and retired.
On March 26, 1956, Klassen filed an application with the U.S. Patent Office to patent a wall-mounted, electric can opener which he marketed as Canolectric. In partnership with the marketing firm | 19,932 |
420402 | Ben Klassen | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ben%20Klassen | Ben Klassen
Robbins & Myers, Klassen created Klassen Enterprises, Inc. In the face of competition from larger manufacturers that could provide similar products more cheaply, Klassen and his partners dissolved the company in 1962.
# Political career.
Klassen served Broward County in the Florida House of Representatives from November 1966 – March 1967, running on an anti-busing, anti-government platform. He campaigned for election to the Florida Senate in 1967, but was defeated. That same year, he was vice chairman of an organization in Florida which supported George Wallace for president.
Klassen was a member of the John Birch Society, at one point operating an American Opinion bookstore. But he became | 19,933 |
420402 | Ben Klassen | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ben%20Klassen | Ben Klassen
disillusioned with the Society because of what he viewed as its tolerant position towards Jews. In November 1970, Klassen, along with Austin Davis, created the Nationalist White Party. The party's platform was directed at White Christians and it was explicitly religious and racial in nature; the first sentence of the party's fourteen-point program is "We believe that the White Race was created in the Image of the Lord..." The logo of the Nationalist White Party was a "W" with a crown and a halo over it, and it would be used three years later as the logo of the Church of the Creator.
Less than a year after he created the Nationalist White Party, Klassen began expressing apprehension about Christianity | 19,934 |
420402 | Ben Klassen | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ben%20Klassen | Ben Klassen
to his connections through letters. These letters were not well received and they effectively ended the influence of the Nationalist White Party.
# Church of the Creator.
In 1973 Klassen founded the Church of the Creator (COTC) with the publication of "Nature's Eternal Religion". Individual church members are called Creators, and the religion they practice is called Creativity.
In 1982, Klassen established the headquarters of his church in Otto, North Carolina. Klassen wrote that he established a school for boys. The original curriculum was a two-week summer program that included activities such as "hiking, camping, training in handling of firearms, archery, tennis, white water rafting and | 19,935 |
420402 | Ben Klassen | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ben%20Klassen | Ben Klassen
other healthy outdoor activities", as well as instruction on "the goals and doctrines of Creativity and how they could best serve their own race in various capacities of leadership."
In July 1992 George Loeb, a minister of the church, was convicted of murdering a black sailor in Jacksonville Florida. Fearing that a conviction might mean the loss of 20 acres of land worth about $400,000 in Franklin, North Carolina belonging to the church, Klassen sold it to another white supremacist, William Luther Pierce, author of the "Turner Diaries", for $100,000.
Klassen was Pontifex Maximus of the church until January 25, 1993, when he transferred the title to Dr. Rick McCarty.
## Racial holy war.
Ben | 19,936 |
420402 | Ben Klassen | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ben%20Klassen | Ben Klassen
Klassen first popularized the term "Racial Holy War" (RaHoWa) within the white nationalist movement. He also consistently called black people "niggers" in public discourse as well as in the literature of the COTC, as opposed to many white nationalist leaders who use relatively more polite terms in public. Klassen wrote, "Furthermore, in looking up the word in Webster's dictionary I found the term 'nigger' very descriptive: 'a vulgar, offensive term of hostility and contempt for the black man'. I can't think of anything that defines better and more accurately what our position... should be... If we are going to be for racial integrity and racial purity... we must take a hostile position toward | 19,937 |
420402 | Ben Klassen | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ben%20Klassen | Ben Klassen
sition toward the nigger. We must give him nothing but contempt."
In his 1987 book "Rahowa – This Planet Is All Ours" he claims that Jews created Christianity in order to make white people weaker, and he said that the first priority should be to "smash the Jewish Behemoth".
# Death.
Possibly depressed after the death of his wife, the failure of his church and a diagnosis of cancer and considering suicide a suitable way to end his life, Klassen took an overdose of sleeping pills either late on August 6 or early on August 7, 1993. Klassen was buried on his North Carolina property in an area which he had previously designated "Ben Klassen Memorial Park".
# See also.
- William Luther Pierce | 19,938 |
420361 | Radioactive tracer | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radioactive%20tracer | Radioactive tracer
Radioactive tracer
A radioactive tracer, radiotracer, or radioactive label, is a chemical compound in which one or more atoms have been replaced by a radionuclide so by virtue of its radioactive decay it can be used to explore the mechanism of chemical reactions by tracing the path that the radioisotope follows from reactants to products. Radiolabeling or radiotracing is thus the radioactive form of isotopic labeling.
Radioisotopes of hydrogen, carbon, phosphorus, sulfur, and iodine have been used extensively to trace the path of biochemical reactions. A radioactive tracer can also be used to track the distribution of a substance within a natural system such as a cell or tissue, or as a flow | 19,939 |
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tracer to track fluid flow. Radioactive tracers are also used to determine the location of fractures created by hydraulic fracturing in natural gas production. Radioactive tracers form the basis of a variety of imaging systems, such as, PET scans, SPECT scans and technetium scans. Radiocarbon dating uses the naturally occurring carbon-14 isotope as an isotopic label.
# Methodology.
Isotopes of a chemical element differ only in the mass number. For example, the isotopes of hydrogen can be written as H, H and H, with the mass number superscripted to the left. When the atomic nucleus of an isotope is unstable, compounds containing this isotope are radioactive. Tritium is an example of a radioactive | 19,940 |
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isotope.
The principle behind the use of radioactive tracers is that an atom in a chemical compound is replaced by another atom, of the same chemical element. The substituting atom, however, is a radioactive isotope. This process is often called radioactive labeling. The power of the technique is due to the fact that radioactive decay is much more energetic than chemical reactions. Therefore, the radioactive isotope can be present in low concentration and its presence detected by sensitive radiation detectors such as Geiger counters and scintillation counters. George de Hevesy won the 1943 Nobel Prize for Chemistry "for his work on the use of isotopes as tracers in the study of chemical processes".
There | 19,941 |
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are two main ways in which radioactive tracers are used
- 1. When a labeled chemical compound undergoes chemical reactions one or more of the products will contain the radioactive label. Analysis of what happens to the radioactive isotope provides detailed information on the mechanism of the chemical reaction.
- 2. A radioactive compound is introduced into a living organism and the radio-isotope provides a means to construct an image showing the way in which that compound and its reaction products are distributed around the organism.
# Production.
The commonly used radioisotopes have short half lives and so do not occur in nature. They are produced by nuclear reactions. One of the most important | 19,942 |
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processes is absorption of a neutron by an atomic nucleus, in which the mass number of the element concerned increases by 1 for each neutron absorbed. For example,
In this case the atomic mass increases, but the element is unchanged. In other cases the product nucleus is unstable and decays, typically emitting protons, electrons (beta particle) or alpha particles. When a nucleus loses a proton the atomic number decreases by 1. For example,
Neutron irradiation is performed in a nuclear reactor. The other main method used to synthesize radioisotopes is proton bombardment. The proton are accelerated to high energy either in a cyclotron or a linear accelerator.
# Tracer Isotopes.
## Hydrogen.
Tritium | 19,943 |
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is produced by neutron irradiation of Li
Tritium has a half-life 4,500±8 days (approximately 12.32 years), and it decays by beta decay. The electrons produced have an average energy of 5.7 keV. Because the emitted electrons have relatively low energy, the detection efficiency by scintillation counting is rather low. However, hydrogen atoms are present in all organic compounds, so tritium is frequently used as a tracer in biochemical studies.
## Carbon.
C decays by positron emission with a half-life of ca. 20 min. C is one of the isotopes often used in positron emission tomography.
C decays by beta-decay, with a half-life of 5730 y. It is continuously produced in the upper atmosphere of the | 19,944 |
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earth so it occurs at a trace level in the environment. However, it is not practical to use naturally-occurring C for tracer studies. Instead it is made by neutron irradiation of the isotope C which occurs naturally in carbon at about the 1.1% level. C has been used extensively to trace the progress of organic molecules through metabolic pathways.
## Nitrogen.
N decays by positron emission with a half-life of 9.97 min. It is produced by the nuclear reaction
N is used in positron emission tomography (PET scan).
## Oxygen.
O decays by positron emission with a half-life of 122 sec. It is used in positron emission tomography
## Fluorine.
F decays by emission with a half-life of 109 min. It | 19,945 |
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is made by proton bombardment of O in a cyclotron or linear particle accelerator. It is an important isotope in the radiopharmaceutical industry. It is used to make labeled fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) for application in PET scans.
## Phosphorus.
P is made by neutron bombardment of S
It decays by beta decay with a half-life of 14.29 days. It is commonly used to study protein phosphorylation by kinases in biochemistry.
P is made in relatively low yield by neutron bombardment of P. It is also a beta-emitter, with a half-life of 25.4 days. Though more expensive than P, the emitted electrons are less energetic, permitting better resolution in, for example, DNA sequencing.
Both isotopes are useful | 19,946 |
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for labeling nucleotides and other species that contain a phosphate group.
## Sulfur.
S is made by neutron bombardment of Cl
It decays by beta-decay with a half-life of 87.51 days. It is used to label the sulfur-containing amino-acids methionine and cysteine. When a sulfur atom replaces an oxygen atom in a phosphate group on a nucleotide a thiophosphate is produced, so S can also be used to trace a phosphate group.
## Technetium.
Tc is a very versatile radioisotope, and is the most commonly used radioisotope tracer in medicine. It is easy to produce in a technetium-99m generator, by decay of Mo.
The molybdenum isotope has a half-life of approximately 66 hours (2.75 days), so the generator | 19,947 |
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has a useful life of about two weeks. Most commercial Tc generators use column chromatography, in which Mo in the form of molybdate, MoO is adsorbed onto acid alumina (AlO). When the Mo decays it forms pertechnetate TcO, which because of its single charge is less tightly bound to the alumina. Pulling normal saline solution through the column of immobilized Mo elutes the soluble Tc, resulting in a saline solution containing the Tc as the dissolved sodium salt of the pertechnetate. The pertechnetate is treated with a reducing agent such as Sn and a ligand. Different ligands form coordination complexes which give the technetium enhanced affinity for particular sites in the human body.
Tc decays | 19,948 |
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by gamma emission, with a half-life: 6.01 hours. The short half-life ensures that the body-concentration of the radioisotope falls effectively to zero in a few days.
## Iodine.
I is produced by proton irradiation of Xe. The caesium isotope produced is unstable and decays to I. The isotope is usually supplied as the iodide and hypoiodate in dilute sodium hydroxide solution, at high isotopic purity. I has also been produced at Oak Ridge National Laboratories by proton bombardment of Te.
I decays by electron capture with a half-life of 13.22 hours. The emitted 159 keV gamma ray is used in single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT). A 127 keV gamma ray is also emitted.
I is frequently | 19,949 |
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used in radioimmunoassays because of its relatively long half-life (59 days) and ability to be detected with high sensitivity by gamma counters.
I is present in the environment as a result of the testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere. It was also produced in the Chernobyl and Fukushima disasters. I decays with a half-life of 15.7 million years, with low-energy beta and gamma emissions. It is not used as a tracer, though its presence in living organisms, including human beings, can be characterized by measurement of the gamma rays.
## Other isotopes.
Many other isotopes have been used in specialized radiopharmacological studies. The most widely used is Ga for gallium scans. Ga is used | 19,950 |
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because, like Tc, it is a gamma-ray emitter and various ligands can be attached to the Ga ion, forming a coordination complex which may have selective affinity for particular sites in the human body.
An extensive list of radioactive tracers used in hydraulic fracturing can be found below.
# Application.
In metabolism research, Tritium and C-labeled glucose are commonly used in glucose clamps to measure rates of glucose uptake, fatty acid synthesis, and other metabolic processes. While radioactive tracers are sometimes still used in human studies, stable isotope tracers such as C are more commonly used in current human clamp studies. Radioactive tracers are also used to study lipoprotein metabolism | 19,951 |
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in humans and experimental animals.
In medicine, tracers are applied in a number of tests, such as Tc in autoradiography and nuclear medicine, including single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), positron emission tomography (PET) and scintigraphy. The urea breath test for helicobacter pylori commonly used a dose of C labeled urea to detect h. pylori infection. If the labeled urea was metabolized by h. pylori in the stomach, the patient's breath would contain labeled carbon dioxide. In recent years, the use of substances enriched in the non-radioactive isotope C has become the preferred method, avoiding patient exposure to radioactivity.
In hydraulic fracturing, radioactive tracer | 19,952 |
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isotopes are injected with hydraulic fracturing fluid to determine the injection profile and location of created fractures. Tracers with different half-lives are used for each stage of hydraulic fracturing. In the United States amounts per injection of radionuclide are listed in the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) guidelines. According to the NRC, some of the most commonly used tracers include antimony-124, bromine-82, iodine-125, iodine-131, iridium-192, and scandium-46. A 2003 publication by the International Atomic Energy Agency confirms the frequent use of most of the tracers above, and says that manganese-56, sodium-24, technetium-99m, silver-110m, argon-41, and xenon-133 are also | 19,953 |
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cers include antimony-124, bromine-82, iodine-125, iodine-131, iridium-192, and scandium-46. A 2003 publication by the International Atomic Energy Agency confirms the frequent use of most of the tracers above, and says that manganese-56, sodium-24, technetium-99m, silver-110m, argon-41, and xenon-133 are also used extensively because they are easily identified and measured.
# External links.
- National Isotope Development Center U.S. Government resources for radioisotopes - production, distribution, and information
- Isotope Development & Production for Research and Applications (IDPRA) U.S. Department of Energy program sponsoring isotope production and production research and development | 19,954 |
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Jami
Nūr ad-Dīn 'Abd ar-Rahmān Jāmī (), also known as Mawlanā Nūr al-Dīn 'Abd al-Rahmān or Abd-Al-Rahmān Nur-Al-Din Muhammad Dashti, or simply as Jami or Djāmī and in Turkey as Molla Cami (7 November 1414 – 9 November 1492), was a Persian poet who is known for his achievements as a prolific scholar and writer of mystical Sufi literature. He was primarily a prominent poet-theologian of the school of Ibn Arabi and a Khwājagānī Sũfī, recognized for his eloquence and for his analysis of the metaphysics of mercy. His most famous poetic works are "Haft Awrang, Tuhfat al-Ahrar, Layla wa -Majnun, Fatihat al-Shabab, Lawa'ih, Al-Durrah al-Fakhirah."
# Biography.
Jami was born in Jam, (modern Ghor Province, | 19,955 |
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Afghanistan) in Khorasan. Previously his father Nizām al-Dīn Ahmad b. Shams al-Dīn Muhammad had come from Dasht, a small town in the district of Isfahan. A few years after his birth, his family migrated to Herat, where he was able to study Peripateticism, mathematics, Persian literature, natural sciences, Arabic language, logic, rhetoric and Islamic philosophy at the Nizamiyyah University. His father, also a Sufi, became his first teacher and mentor. While in Herat, Jami held an important position at the Timurid court, involved in the era's politics, economics, philosophy and religious life.
Because his father was from Dasht, Jami's early pen name was "Dashti," but later, he chose to use "Jami" | 19,956 |
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because of two reasons he later mentioned in a poem:
Jami was a mentor and friend of the famous Turkic poet Alisher Navoi, as evidenced by his poems:
Afterwards, he went to Samarkand, the most important center of scientific studies in the Muslim world and completed his studies there. He embarked on a pilgrimage that greatly enhanced his reputation and further solidified his importance through the Persian world. Jami had a brother called Molana Mohammad, who was, apparently a learned man and a master in music, and Jami has a poem lamenting his death. Jami fathered four sons, but three of them died before reaching their first year. The surviving son was called Zia-ol-din Yusef and Jami wrote | 19,957 |
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his Baharestan for this son.
At the end of his life he was living in Herat. His epitaph reads "When your face is hidden from me, like the moon hidden on a dark night, I shed stars of tears and yet my night remains dark in spite of all those shining stars." There is a variety of dates regarding his death, but consistently most state it was in November 1492. Although, the actual date of his death is somewhat unknown the year of his death marks an end of both his greater poetry and contribution, but also a pivotal year of political changed where Spain was no longer inhabited by the Arabs after 781 years. His funeral was conducted by the prince of Herat and attended by great numbers of people demonstrating | 19,958 |
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his profound impact.
# Teachings and Sufism.
In his role as Sufi shaykh, which began in 1453, Jami expounded a number of teachings regarding following the Sufi path. He created a distinction between two types of Sufi's, now referred to as the "prophetic" and the "mystic" spirit. Jami is known for both his extreme piety and mysticism. He remained a staunch Sunni on his path toward Sufism and developed images of earthly love and its employment to depict spiritual passion of the seeker of God. He began to take an interest in Sufism at an earlier age when he received a blessing by a principal associate Khwaja Mohammad Parsa who came through town. From there he sought guidance from Sa'd-alDin Kasgari | 19,959 |
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based on a dream where he was told to take God and become his companion. Jami followed Kasagari and the two became tied together upon Jami's marriage to Kasgari's granddaughter. He was known for his commitment to God and his desire for separation from the world to become closer to God often causing him to forget social normalities.
After his re-emergence into the social world he became involved in a broad range of social, intellectual and political actives in the cultural center of Herat. He was engaged in the school of Ibn Arabi, greatly enriching, analyzing, and also changing the school or Ibn Arabi. Jami continued to grow in further understanding of God through miraculous visions and feats, | 19,960 |
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hoping to achieve a great awareness of God in the company of one blessed by Him. He believed there were three goals to achieve "permanent presence with God" through ceaselessness and silence, being unaware of one's earthly state, and a constant state of a spiritual guide. Jami wrote about his feeling that God was everywhere and inherently in everything. He also defined key terms related to Sufism including the meaning of sainthood, the saint, the difference between the Sufi and the one still striving on the path, the seekers of blame, various levels of tawhid, and the charismatic feats of the saints. Oftentimes Jami's methodology did not follow the school of Ibn Arabi, like in the issue of mutual | 19,961 |
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dependence between God and his creatures Jami stated "We and Thou are not separate from each other, but we need Thee, whereas Thou dost not need us."
Jami created an all-embracing unity emphasized in a unity with the lover, beloved, and the love one, removing the belief that they are separated. Jami was in many ways influenced by various predecessors and current Sufi's, incorporating their ideas into his own and developing them further, creating an entirely new concept. In his view, love for the Prophet Mohammad was the fundamental stepping stone for starting on the spiritual journey. Jami served as a master to several followers and to one student who asked to be his pupil who claimed never | 19,962 |
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to have loved anyone, he said, "Go and love first, then come to me and I will show you the way." For several generations, Jami had a group of followers representing his knowledge and impact. Jami continues to be known for not only his poetry, but his learned and spiritual traditions of the Persian speaking world. In analyzing Jami's work greatest contribution may have been his analysis and discussion of God's mercy towards man, redefining the way previous texts were interpreted.
# Works.
Jami wrote approximately eighty-seven books and letters, some of which have been translated into English. His works range from prose to poetry, and from the mundane to the religious. He has also written works | 19,963 |
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of history and science. As well, he often comments on the work of previous and current theologians, philosophers and Sufi's. In Herat, his manual of irrigation design included advanced drawings and calculations and is still a key reference for the irrigation department.
His poetry has been inspired by the ghazals of Hafiz, and his famous and beautiful divan "Haft Awrang" (Seven Thrones) is, by his own admission, influenced by the works of Nizami. The Haft Awrang also known as the long masnavis or mathnawis are a collection of seven poems. Each poem discusses a different story such as the Salaman va Absal that tells the story of a carnal attraction of a prince for his wet-nurse. Throughout Jami | 19,964 |
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uses allegorical symbolism within the tale to depict the key stages of the Sufi path such as repentance and expose philosophical, religious, or ethical questions. Each of the allegorical symbols has a meaning highlighting knowledge and intellect, particularly of God. This story reflects Jamī's idea of the Sufi-king as the ideal medieval Islamic ruler to repent and embark upon the Sufi path to realize his rank as God's 'true' vicegerent and become closer to God. As well, Jami is known for his three collections of lyric poems that range from his youth towards the end of his life called the Fatihat al-shabab (The Beginning of Youth), Wasitat al-'ikd (The Central Pearl in the Necklace), and Khatimat | 19,965 |
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al-hayat (The conclusion of Life). Throughout Jami's work references to Sufism and the Sufi emerge as being key topics. One of his most profound ideas was the mystical and philosophical explanations of the nature of divine mercy, which was a result of his commentary to other works.
# Artwork.
Jami is also known for his poetry influencing and being included with Persian paintings that depict Persian history through manuscript paintings. Most of his own literature included illustrations that was not yet common for literature. The deep poetry Jami provides, is usually accompanied with enriched paintings reflecting the complexity of Jami's work and Persian culture.
# Impact of Jami's works.
Jami | 19,966 |
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worked within the Tīmūrid court of Herat helping to serve as an interpreter and communicator. His poetry reflected Persian culture and was popular through Islamic East, Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent. His poetry addressed popular ideas that led to Sufi's and non-Sufi's interest in his work. He was known not only for his poetry, but his theological works and commentary of on culture. His work was used in several schools from Samarqand to Istanbul to Khayrābād in Persia as well as in the Mughal Empire. For centuries Jami was known for his poetry and profound knowledge. In the last half-century Jami has begun to be neglected and his works forgotten, which reflects an overarching issue | 19,967 |
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in the lack of research of Islamic and Persian studies.
# Divan of Jami.
Among his works are:
- "Baharestan (Abode of Spring)" Modeled upon the "Gulestan" of Saadi
- "Diwanha-ye Sehganeh (Triplet Divans)
- "Al-Fawaed-Uz-Ziya'iya". A commentary on Ibn al-Hajib's treatise on Arab grammar "Al-Kafiya". This commentary has been a staple of Ottoman Madrasas' curricula under its author's name "Molla Cami".
- "Haft Awrang (Seven Thrones)" His major poetical work. The fifth of the seven stories is his acclaimed "Yusuf and Zulaykha", which tells the story of Joseph and Potiphar's wife based on the Quran.
- "Jame -esokanan-e Kaja Parsa
- "Lawa'ih" A treatise on Sufism (Shafts of Light)
- "Nafahat | 19,968 |
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al-Uns (Breaths of Fellowship)" Biographies of the Sufi Saints
- "Resala-ye manasek-e hajj"
- "Resala-ye musiqi"
- "Resala-ye tariq-e Kvajagan"
- "Resala-ye sarayet-e dekr"
- "Resala-ye so al o jawab-e Hendustan"
- "Sara-e hadit-e Abi Zarrin al-Aqili"
- "Sar-rešta-yetariqu-e Kājagān" (The Quintessence of the Path of the Masters)
- "Shawahidal-nubuwwa" (Distinctive Signs of Prophecy)
- "Tajnīs 'al-luġāt (Homonymy/Punning of Languages)" A lexicographical work containing homonymous Persian and Arabic lemmata.
- "Tuhfat al-ahrar" (The Gift to the Noble)
Along with his works are his contributions to previous works and works that have been created in response to his new ideas.
# See also.
- | 19,969 |
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Ghazal
- List of Persian poets and authors
- Nazar ill'al-murd
- Persian literature
# Sources.
- E.G. Browne. "Literary History of Persia". (Four volumes, 2,256 pages, and twenty-five years in the writing). 1998.
- Jan Rypka, "History of Iranian Literature". Reidel Publishing Company. 1968
- Ḥāfiż Mahmūd Shīrānī. "Dībācha-ye awwal [First Preface]". In "Ḥifż ul-Lisān [a.k.a. Ḳhāliq Bārī]", edited by Ḥāfiż Mahmūd Shīrānī. Delhi: Anjumman-e Taraqqi-e Urdū, 1944.
- Aftandil Erkinov A. "La querelle sur l`ancien et le nouveau dans les formes litteraires traditionnelles. Remarques sur les positions de Jâmi et de Navâ`i". "Annali del`Istituto Universitario Orientale. 59, (Napoli), 1999, pp. 18–37.
- | 19,970 |
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Aftandil Erkinov. "Manuscripts of the works by classical Persian authors (Hāfiz, Jāmī, Bīdil): Quantitative Analysis of 17th–19th c. Central Asian Copies". "Iran: Questions et connaissances. Actes du IVe Congrès Européen des études iraniennes organisé par la Societas Iranologica Europaea", Paris, 6–10 Septembre 1999. vol. II: Périodes médiévale et moderne. [Cahiers de Studia Iranica. 26], M.Szuppe (ed.). Association pour l`avancement des études iraniennes-Peeters Press. Paris-Leiden, 2002, pp. 213–228.
- Jami. "Flashes of Light: A Treatise on Sufism". Golden Elixir Press, 2010. (ebook)
For Further Reading:
- R. M. Chopra, "Great Poets of Classical Persian", Sparrow Publication, Kolkata, 2014, | 19,971 |
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bre 1999. vol. II: Périodes médiévale et moderne. [Cahiers de Studia Iranica. 26], M.Szuppe (ed.). Association pour l`avancement des études iraniennes-Peeters Press. Paris-Leiden, 2002, pp. 213–228.
- Jami. "Flashes of Light: A Treatise on Sufism". Golden Elixir Press, 2010. (ebook)
For Further Reading:
- R. M. Chopra, "Great Poets of Classical Persian", Sparrow Publication, Kolkata, 2014, ()
# External links.
- Jami on Iran Chamber Society Website
- Jami's Yusuf and Zulaikha: A Study in the Method of Appropriation of Sacred Text
- Jami's Salaman and Absal as Translated by Edward Fitzgerald. 1904
- Persian deewan of Jami Uploaded by Javed Hussen
- Online books by Jami – maktabah.org | 19,972 |
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Strigoi
Strigoi (English: "striga", "poltergeist") in Romanian mythology are troubled spirits that are said to have risen from the grave. They are attributed with the abilities to transform into an animal, become invisible, and to gain vitality from the blood of their victims. Bram Stoker's Dracula has become the modern interpretation of the Strigoi through their historic links with vampirism.
# Etymology.
Strigoi originated from the Latin terms "strix" and "striga", the root of which relates particularly to owls and commonly appears in related taxonomic terms for them, as well as for blood parasites such as the "Strigeidida". Cognates are found throughout the Romance languages, such as the | 19,973 |
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Italian word "strega" or the Venetian word "strìga" which mean "witch". In French, "stryge" means a bird-woman who sucks the blood of children. Jules Verne used the term "stryges" in Chapter II of his novel "The Castle of the Carpathians", published in 1892. The Greek word "Strix" and the Albanian word "shtriga" are also cognate.
In the late Roman period the word became associated with witches or a type of ill-omened nocturnal flying creature. A "strix" (Late Latin "striga", Greek στρίγξ), referred to night-time entities that craved human flesh and blood, particularly infants'.
The name "strigoi" is related to the Romanian verb "a striga", which in Romanian means "to scream".
# Historiography.
## | 19,974 |
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Early reports.
One of the earliest mentions of a historical strigoi was Jure Grando Alilović (1579–1656) from the region of Istria (in modern-day Croatia). The villager is believed to have been the first real person described as a vampire because he was referred to as a "strigoi", "štrigon" or "štrigun" in contemporary local records. Grando is supposed to have terrorised his former village sixteen years after his death. Eventually he was decapitated by the local priest and villagers. The Carniolan scientist Janez Vajkard Valvasor wrote about Jure Grando Alilović's life and afterlife in his extensive work "The Glory of the Duchy of Carniola" when he visited Kringa during his travels. This was | 19,975 |
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the first written document on vampires. Grando was also mentioned in writings by Erasmus Francisci and Johann Joseph von Goerres ("La mystique divine, naturelle, et diabolique", Paris 1855), whose story was much more elaborate, full of fantastic details to make the story more interesting and sensational. In modern times, Croatian writer Boris Perić has researched the legend and written a book ("The Vampire") on the story.
"Striga" are mentioned by the Moldavian statesman and soldier, Dimitrie Cantemir, in his work the "" (1714–1716). He thought that the striga were mostly Moldavian and Transylvanian beliefs. However, he associated them with witches or warlocks rather than blood-drinking undead | 19,976 |
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vampires. The book ascribes dunking – a traditional test for witchcraft – as a method of identifying a striga.
## Modern writings.
An 1865 article on Transylvanian folklore by Wilhelm Schmidt describes the "strigoi" as nocturnal creatures that preyed on infants. He reports a tradition in which, upon the birth of a child, one tosses a stone behind oneself and exclaims "This into the mouth of the "strigoi"!"
In 1909, Franz Hartmann mentioned in his book "An Authenticated Vampire Story" that peasant children from a village in the Carpathian Mountains started to die mysteriously. The villagers began to suspect a recently deceased count was a vampire, dwelling in his old fortress. Frightened villagers | 19,977 |
420401 | Strigoi | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Strigoi | Strigoi
burned the castle to stop the deaths.
## Communist era.
In his book "In Search of Dracula, The History of Dracula and Vampires", Radu Florescu mentions an event in 1969 in the city of Căpăţâneni, where after the death of an old man, several family members began to die in suspicious circumstances. Unearthed, the corpse did not show signs of decomposition, his eyes were wide open, and his face was red and twisted. The corpse was burned to save his soul.
In 1970, a series of hideous crimes shocked Bucharest. The attacks took place at midnight during rainstorms. The victims were usually waitresses returning home from work. In 1971, Ion Rîmaru was arrested and identified by teeth marks on the | 19,978 |
420401 | Strigoi | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Strigoi | Strigoi
corpses. During the trial he was in a state of continual drowsiness. He was interrogated at night because he was not lucid at any other time. During daylight hours, Rîmaru was intractably lethargic. Sentenced to death, Rîmaru became violently agitated. Several policemen were needed to restrain him. After the execution, Rîmaru's father died in a suspicious accident. During the investigation of the accident, it was discovered that the father's fingerprints matched those of a serial killer active in 1944 whose crimes looked remarkably similar to those of Ion Rîmaru. The similarities included the weather conditions and similar or identical names of some of the victims. It was rumored that the accident | 19,979 |
420401 | Strigoi | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Strigoi | Strigoi
was engineered by the Securitate, who decided to eliminate the dangerous individual.
During the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the corpse of Nicolae Ceaușescu did not receive a proper burial. This made the ghost of the former dictator a threat in the minds of superstitious Romanians. Noted revolutionary Gelu Voican carpeted the apartment of the Conducător with braids of garlic. This is a traditional remedy against the strigoi.
## Post-communist era.
Before Christmas 2003, in the village of Marotinu de Sus, a 76-year-old Romanian man named Petre Toma died. In February 2004, a niece of the deceased revealed that she had been visited by her late uncle. Gheorghe Marinescu, a brother-in-law, became | 19,980 |
420401 | Strigoi | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Strigoi | Strigoi
the leader of a vampire hunting group made up of several family members. After drinking some alcohol, they dug up the coffin of Petre Toma, made an incision in his chest, and tore the heart out. After removal of the heart, the body was burned and the ashes mixed in water and drunk by the family, as is customary. However, the Romanian government, anxious to maintain a good image in preparation for the country's accession to the European Union, had banned this practice, and six family members were arrested by the police of Craiova from Dolj County for "disturbing the peace of the dead", and were imprisoned and sentenced to pay damages to the family of the deceased. The six who exhumed the body | 19,981 |
420401 | Strigoi | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Strigoi | Strigoi
were charged and sentenced to six months' time served. Since then, in the nearby village of Amărăştii de Sus, people drive a fire-hardened stake through the heart or belly of the dead as a "preventative".
# Mythology.
## Creation.
The encyclopedist Dimitrie Cantemir and the folklorist Teodor Burada in his book "Datinile Poporului român la înmormântări" published in 1882 refer to cases of strigoism. The strigoi can be a living man, born under certain conditions:
- Be the seventh child of the same sex in a family
- Lead a life of sin
- Die without being married
- Die by execution for perjury
- Die by suicide
- Die from a witches curse
## Types.
Tudor Pamfile in his book "Mitologie românească" | 19,982 |
420401 | Strigoi | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Strigoi | Strigoi
compiles all appellations of strigoi in Romania "strâgoi", "Moroi" in western Transylvania, Wallachia and Oltenia, "vidmă" in Bucovina, "vârcolacul", "Cel-rau", or vampire. The types described are:
- Strigoaică: a witch.
- Strigoi viu: a living strigoi or sorcerer.
- Strigoi mort: a dead strigoi are the most dangerous. They emerge from their graves in order to torment their families until their relatives die.
## Prevention & protection.
In 1887, French geographer Élisée Reclus details burials in Romania: "If the deceased has red hair, he is very concerned that he was back in the form of dog, frog, flea or bedbug, and that it enters into houses at night to suck the blood of beautiful young | 19,983 |
420401 | Strigoi | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Strigoi | Strigoi
girls. So it is prudent to nail the coffin heavily, or, better yet, a stake through the chest of the corpse."
Simeon Florea Marian in "Înmormântarea la români" (1892) describes another preventive method, unearthing and beheading, then re-interring the corpse and head face-down.
"The Dracula Scrapbook" by Peter Haining, published by New English Library editions in 1976, reported that the meat of a pig killed on the 17 October, the feast day of Saint Ignatius, was a good way to guard against vampire, according to Romanian legend.
There is a known method used by Romanians to get rid of a strigoi as explained on the show "Lost Tapes":
- 1. Exhume the strigoi.
- 2. Remove its heart and cut it | 19,984 |
420401 | Strigoi | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Strigoi | Strigoi
in two.
- 3. Drive a nail in its forehead.
- 4. Place a clove of garlic under its tongue.
- 5. Smear its body with fat of a pig killed on St. Ignatius' Day.
- 6. Turn its body face down so that if the strigoi were ever to wake up it would be headed to the afterlife.
# Other uses.
"Strigoiulu" (the Strigoi) was the name of a Romanian-language satirical magazine published briefly in 1862 in Pest.
# See also.
- Burial at cross-roads
- Christmas in Romania § Advent
- Folklore of Romania
- List of ghosts
- Moroi
- Shtriga
- Strzyga
- Suangi
- Vǎrkolak
# Further reading.
- citing
# External links.
- Across the Forest, a documentary that interviews Transylvanian villagers about | 19,985 |
420401 | Strigoi | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Strigoi | Strigoi
e down so that if the strigoi were ever to wake up it would be headed to the afterlife.
# Other uses.
"Strigoiulu" (the Strigoi) was the name of a Romanian-language satirical magazine published briefly in 1862 in Pest.
# See also.
- Burial at cross-roads
- Christmas in Romania § Advent
- Folklore of Romania
- List of ghosts
- Moroi
- Shtriga
- Strzyga
- Suangi
- Vǎrkolak
# Further reading.
- citing
# External links.
- Across the Forest, a documentary that interviews Transylvanian villagers about their experiences with strigoi, pricolici, and mama padurii.
- . This section of the vampire article contains a drawing of a strigo and a discussion of the strigoi's characteristics. | 19,986 |
420424 | Dadasaheb Phalke Award | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dadasaheb%20Phalke%20Award | Dadasaheb Phalke Award
Dadasaheb Phalke Award
The Dadasaheb Phalke Award is India's highest award in cinema. It is presented annually at the National Film Awards ceremony by the Directorate of Film Festivals, an organisation set up by the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting. The recipient is honoured for their "outstanding contribution to the growth and development of Indian cinema" and is selected by a committee consisting of eminent personalities from the Indian film industry. , the award comprises a "Swarna Kamal" (Golden Lotus) medallion, a shawl, and a cash prize of .
Presented first in 1969, the award was introduced by the Government of India to commemorate Dadasaheb Phalke's contribution to Indian cinema. | 19,987 |
420424 | Dadasaheb Phalke Award | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dadasaheb%20Phalke%20Award | Dadasaheb Phalke Award
Phalke (1870–1944), who is popularly known as and often regarded as "the father of Indian cinema", was an Indian film-maker who directed India's first full-length feature film, "Raja Harishchandra" (1913).
The first recipient of the award was actress Devika Rani, who was honoured at the 17th National Film Awards. , there have been 49 awardees. Among those, actor Prithviraj Kapoor (1971) and actor Vinod Khanna (2017) are the only posthumous recipients. Kapoor's actor-filmmaker son, Raj Kapoor, accepted the award on his behalf at the 19th National Film Awards in 1971 and was himself a recipient in 1987 at the 35th National Film Awards ceremony. Bommireddy Narasimha Reddy (1974) and Bommireddy | 19,988 |
420424 | Dadasaheb Phalke Award | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dadasaheb%20Phalke%20Award | Dadasaheb Phalke Award
aj Kapoor, accepted the award on his behalf at the 19th National Film Awards in 1971 and was himself a recipient in 1987 at the 35th National Film Awards ceremony. Bommireddy Narasimha Reddy (1974) and Bommireddy Nagi Reddy (1986); Raj Kapoor (1987) and Shashi Kapoor (2014); Lata Mangeshkar (1989) and Asha Bhosle (2000) along with Baldev Raj Chopra (1998) and Yash Chopra (2001) are the siblings who have won the award. The most recent recipient of the award is actor Vinod Khanna who was honoured posthumously at the 65th National Film Awards ceremony.
# External links.
- Official Page for Directorate of Film Festivals, India
- National Film Awards Archives - 1st (1954) to 64th (2016) awards | 19,989 |
420406 | Princes Street | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Princes%20Street | Princes Street
Princes Street
Princes Street is one of the major thoroughfares in central Edinburgh, Scotland, and the main shopping street in the capital. It is the southernmost street of Edinburgh's New Town, stretching around 1 mile (1.6 km) from Lothian Road in the west, to Leith Street in the east. The street has virtually no buildings on the south side, allowing panoramic views of the Old Town, Edinburgh Castle, and the valley between. Most of the street is limited to trams, buses and taxis with only the east end open to all traffic.
# History.
## 18th Century.
The street lies on the line of a medieval country lane known as the Lang Dykes.
Princes Street was originally to have been called St Giles | 19,990 |
420406 | Princes Street | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Princes%20Street | Princes Street
Street after the patron saint of Edinburgh. However, King George III rejected the name, St Giles being also the patron saint of lepers and the name of a notorious 'rookery' of slums in London. The street is named after King George's two eldest sons, the Prince George, Duke of Rothesay (later King George IV) and the Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany.
It was laid out according to formal plans for Edinburgh's New Town, now known as the First New Town. These were devised by the architect James Craig and building began around 1770. Princes Street represented a critical part of the plan, being the outer edge, facing Edinburgh Castle and the original city:"Edinburgh Old Town". Originally all | 19,991 |
420406 | Princes Street | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Princes%20Street | Princes Street
buildings had the same format: set back from the street with stairs down to a basement and stairs up to the ground floor with two storeys and an attic above. Of this original format only one such property, no.95, remains in its original form.
## 19th Century.
Through the 19th century most buildings were redeveloped at a larger scale and the street evolved from residential to mainly retail uses.
From the 1880s the street, with its commanding views in combination with great ease of access, became a popular street upon which to locate hotels. The railway companies created huge anchor hotels at either end: the Caledonian Hotel to the west, and North British Hotel to the east. In between were | 19,992 |
420406 | Princes Street | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Princes%20Street | Princes Street
the Royal British Hotel, Old Waverley Hotel, and Mount Royal Hotel, all of which survive.
## 20th Century.
By the 1930s the architecture of Princes Street had a very mixed character. The Abercrombie Plan of 1949 proposed tighter control of design to create a more coherent appearance. This theme was taken up by the Princes Street Panel, whose 1967 report proposed comprehensive redevelopment with Modernist buildings to incorporate a first-floor level walkway, theoretically doubling the shopping frontage. The plan was partially put into operation, resulting in the demolition of seven old buildings, and the erection of seven new, before the approach was dropped in the 1970s. Two of the new buildings, | 19,993 |
420406 | Princes Street | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Princes%20Street | Princes Street
British Home Stores at no.64, and the New Club at nos.84–87, are now listed buildings.
Princes Street was the scene of rioting in 2005 related to the 31st G8 summit referred to in the press as 'The Battle of Princes Street'. Independent media claims the rioting was provoked by police
# Shopping.
Several UK high street brands such as Boots, Scotland's largest Boots city store, H&M, Debenhams, Marks & Spencer, Topman and Topshop, are just a few of the shops located along Princes Street. Jenners department store (now owned by House of Fraser) is an Edinburgh institution, surviving the disappearance of many other local department stores, such as Patrick Thompson's.
There has been controversy | 19,994 |
420406 | Princes Street | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Princes%20Street | Princes Street
over buildings from the latter half of the 20th century on Princes Street. This has prompted plans to demolish the BHS and the Marks & Spencer buildings, in an effort to improve the status of the street. Another problem has been that upper floors are often used for storage, rather than as office, retail or living space. At an early stage in post-World War II designs for the street, a "high level walkway" was planned, as a further shopping frontage for the first floor level, in lieu of the other side of the street. However the walkway as built was never more than a number of isolated balconies and in practice the Royal Bank of Scotland was the only business to maintain a frontage at this level | 19,995 |
420406 | Princes Street | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Princes%20Street | Princes Street
for any length of time; that branch of the bank closed early in the 21st century, leaving the upper walkway largely forgotten.
# Princes Street Gardens and south side.
During the construction of the New Town, the polluted waters of the Nor Loch were drained, and the area was converted into private gardens called Princes Street Gardens. This was taken over by the Edinburgh Council in the late 19th century, by which time most of the street was commercial and there was no great need for private residential gardens. The width of Princes Street was greatly increased soon after, onto what was the northern edge of the gardens. Due to the much lower position of the gardens this led to the creation | 19,996 |
420406 | Princes Street | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Princes%20Street | Princes Street
of the steep embankment on the north side, still visible today. The gardens are one of the many green spaces in the heart of Edinburgh.
The Gardens contain the Ross Bandstand (an open-air theatre), a war memorial to US soldiers of Scottish descent and a floral clock, together with other attractions. Two of the main Scottish art galleries, the Royal Scottish Academy and the National Gallery of Scotland, are located at the foot of The Mound and are served by Princes Street tram stop. Further along is the Scott Monument, a huge intricate Gothic monument dedicated to Sir Walter Scott, the author of the Waverley Novels, after which is named Waverley station, which lies at the east end of the Gardens, | 19,997 |
420406 | Princes Street | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Princes%20Street | Princes Street
its westward lines dividing them. Next to the station on its north side is the former railway hotel, previously known as the "North British Hotel", latterly renamed the Balmoral Hotel, and the North Bridge which sails at high level over the station. The hotel has a counterpart at the extreme west end of Princes Street. The Caledonian Hotel, now the Waldorf Astoria Edinburgh - The Caledonian, sits at the north end of Lothian Road. This was built by the Caledonian Railway for their Princes Street Station which closed in the 1960s along with the lines it served.
At the west end of Princes Street, St John's Episcopal Church at the corner of Lothian Road is built at street level above a basement | 19,998 |
420406 | Princes Street | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Princes%20Street | Princes Street
crypt and a small churchyard. In addition, there are several fair trade outlets in this space as part of the church, whilst St Cuthbert's Church stands just to the south of it, in a far larger and older churchyard, west of the gardens.
The floral clock dates from 1903 when it was first planted by the Park Superintendent, John McHattie. It displays a different theme every summer.
Princes Street remains popular, although it has now fallen from its status as the most expensive place to rent shop space in Britain outside London. Princes Street may be one of the few streets in the UK to have an order of Parliament placed on it to prevent any further building on the south side, so as to preserve | 19,999 |
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