wikipedia_id stringlengths 2 8 | wikipedia_title stringlengths 1 243 | url stringlengths 44 370 | contents stringlengths 53 2.22k | id int64 0 6.14M |
|---|---|---|---|---|
270014 | Corpus callosum | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Corpus%20callosum | Corpus callosum
brain size to compensate for the increased distance to travel for neural impulse transmission. This allows the brain to coordinate sensory and motor impulses. However, the scaling of overall brain size and increased myelination have not occurred between chimpanzees and humans. This has resulted in the human corpus callosum's requiring double the time for interhemispheric communication as a macaque's. The fibrous bundle at which the corpus callosum appears, can and does increase to such an extent in humans that it encroaches upon and wedges apart the hippocampal structures.
# External links.
- at
- NIF Search – Corpus callosum via the Neuroscience Information Framework
- National Organization | 24,000 |
270014 | Corpus callosum | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Corpus%20callosum | Corpus callosum
mpulse transmission. This allows the brain to coordinate sensory and motor impulses. However, the scaling of overall brain size and increased myelination have not occurred between chimpanzees and humans. This has resulted in the human corpus callosum's requiring double the time for interhemispheric communication as a macaque's. The fibrous bundle at which the corpus callosum appears, can and does increase to such an extent in humans that it encroaches upon and wedges apart the hippocampal structures.
# External links.
- at
- NIF Search – Corpus callosum via the Neuroscience Information Framework
- National Organization for Disorders of the Corpus Callosum
- A 3D model of corpus callosum | 24,001 |
270016 | Angiotensin | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Angiotensin | Angiotensin
Angiotensin
Angiotensin is a peptide hormone that causes vasoconstriction and an increase in blood pressure. It is part of the renin–angiotensin system, which regulates blood pressure. Angiotensin also stimulates the release of aldosterone from the adrenal cortex to promote sodium retention by the kidneys.
An oligopeptide, angiotensin is a hormone and a dipsogen. It is derived from the precursor molecule angiotensinogen, a serum globulin produced in the liver. Angiotensin was isolated in the late 1930s (first named 'angiotonin' or 'hypertensin') and subsequently characterized and synthesized by groups at the Cleveland Clinic and Ciba laboratories.
# Precursor and types.
## Angiotensinogen.
Angiotensinogen | 24,002 |
270016 | Angiotensin | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Angiotensin | Angiotensin
is an α-2-globulin produced constitutively and released into the circulation mainly by the liver. It is a member of the serpin family, although it is not known to inhibit other enzymes, unlike most serpins. Plasma angiotensinogen levels are increased by plasma corticosteroid, estrogen, thyroid hormone, and angiotensin II levels.
Angiotensinogen is also known as renin substrate. Human angiotensinogen is 452 amino acids long, but other species have angiotensinogen of varying sizes. The first 12 amino acids are the most important for activity.
## Angiotensin I.
Angiotensin I (CAS# 11128-99-7), officially called proangiotensin, is formed by the action of renin on angiotensinogen. Renin cleaves | 24,003 |
270016 | Angiotensin | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Angiotensin | Angiotensin
the peptide bond between the leucine (Leu) and valine (Val) residues on angiotensinogen, creating the decapeptide (ten amino acid) (des-Asp) angiotensin I. Renin is produced in the kidneys in response to renal sympathetic activity, decreased intrarenal blood pressure (<90mmHg systolic blood pressure ) at the juxtaglomerular cells, or decreased delivery of Na+ and Cl- to the macula densa. If a reduced NaCl concentration in the distal tubule is sensed by the macula densa, renin release by juxtaglomerular cells is increased. This sensing mechanism for macula densa-mediated renin secretion appears to have a specific dependency on chloride ions rather than sodium ions. Studies using isolated preparations | 24,004 |
270016 | Angiotensin | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Angiotensin | Angiotensin
of thick ascending limb with glomerulus attached in low NaCl perfusate were unable to inhibit renin secretion when various sodium salts were added but could inhibit renin secretion with the addition of chloride salts. This, and similar findings obtained in vivo, has led some to believe that perhaps "the initiating signal for MD control of renin secretion is a change in the rate of NaCl uptake predominantly via a luminal Na,K,2Cl co-transporter whose physiological activity is determined by a change in luminal Cl concentration."
Angiotensin I appears to have no direct biological activity and exists solely as a precursor to angiotensin II.
## Angiotensin II.
Angiotensin I is converted to angiotensin | 24,005 |
270016 | Angiotensin | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Angiotensin | Angiotensin
II (AII) through removal of two C-terminal residues by the enzyme "angiotensin-converting enzyme" (ACE), primarily through ACE within the lung (but also present in endothelial cells, kidney epithelial cells, and the brain). Angiotensin II acts on the CNS to increase vasopressin production, and also acts on venous and arterial smooth muscle to cause vasoconstriction. Angiotensin II also increases aldosterone secretion, therefore, it acts as an endocrine, autocrine/paracrine, and intracrine hormone.
ACE is a target of ACE inhibitor drugs, which decrease the rate of angiotensin II production. Angiotensin II increases blood pressure by stimulating the Gq protein in vascular smooth muscle cells | 24,006 |
270016 | Angiotensin | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Angiotensin | Angiotensin
(which in turn activates an IP3-dependent mechanism leading to a rise in intracellular calcium levels and ultimately causing contraction). In addition, angiotensin II acts at the Na/H exchanger in the proximal tubules of the kidney to stimulate Na reabsorption and H excretion which is coupled to bicarbonate reabsorption. This ultimately results in an increase in blood volume, pressure, and pH. Hence, ACE inhibitors are major anti-hypertensive drugs.
Other cleavage products of ACE, seven or 9 amino acids long, are also known; they have differential affinity for angiotensin receptors, although their exact role is still unclear. The action of AII itself is targeted by angiotensin II receptor antagonists, | 24,007 |
270016 | Angiotensin | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Angiotensin | Angiotensin
which directly block angiotensin II AT receptors.
Angiotensin II is degraded to angiotensin III by angiotensinases located in red blood cells and the vascular beds of most tissues. It has a half-life in circulation of around 30 seconds, whereas, in tissue, it may be as long as 15–30 minutes.
Angiotensin II results in increased inotropy, chronotropy, catecholamine (norepinephrine) release, catecholamine sensitivity, aldosterone levels, vasopressin levels, and cardiac remodeling and vasoconstriction through AT1 receptors on peripheral vessels (conversely, AT2 receptors impair cardiac remodeling). This is why ACE inhibitors and ARBs help to prevent remodeling that occurs secondary to angiotensin | 24,008 |
270016 | Angiotensin | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Angiotensin | Angiotensin
II and are beneficial in CHF.
## Angiotensin III.
Angiotensin III has 40% of the pressor activity of angiotensin II, but 100% of the aldosterone-producing activity.
Increases mean arterial pressure. It is a peptide that is formed by removing an amino acid from angiotensin II by aminopeptidase A
## Angiotensin IV.
Angiotensin IV is a hexapeptide that, like angiotensin III, has some lesser activity. Angiotensin IV has a wide range of activities in the central nervous system.
The exact identity of AT4 receptors has not been established. There is evidence that the AT4 receptor is insulin-regulated aminopeptidase (IRAP). There is also evidence that angiotensin IV interacts with the HGF system | 24,009 |
270016 | Angiotensin | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Angiotensin | Angiotensin
through the c-Met receptor.
Synthetic small molecule analogues of angiotensin IV with the ability to penetrate through blood brain barrier have been developed.
The AT4 site may be involved in memory acquisition and recall, as well as blood flow regulation.
# Effects.
Angiotensins II, III and IV have a number of effects throughout the body:
## Adipic.
Angiotensins "modulate fat mass expansion through upregulation of adipose tissue lipogenesis ... and downregulation of lipolysis "
## Cardiovascular.
They are potent direct vasoconstrictors, constricting arteries and veins and increasing blood pressure. This effect is achieved through activation of the GPCR AT1, which signals through a Gq | 24,010 |
270016 | Angiotensin | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Angiotensin | Angiotensin
protein to activate Phospholipase C, and subsequently increase intracellular calcium.
Angiotensin II has prothrombotic potential through adhesion and aggregation of platelets and stimulation of PAI-1 and PAI-2.
When cardiac cell growth is stimulated, a local (autocrine-paracrine) renin–angiotensin system is activated in the cardiac myocyte, which stimulates cardiac cell growth through protein kinase C. The same system can be activated in smooth muscle cells in conditions of hypertension, atherosclerosis, or endothelial damage. Angiotensin II is the most important Gq stimulator of the heart during hypertrophy, compared to endothelin-1 and α1 adrenoreceptors.
## Neural.
Angiotensin II increases | 24,011 |
270016 | Angiotensin | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Angiotensin | Angiotensin
thirst sensation (dipsogen) through the area postrema and subfornical organ of the brain, decreases the response of the baroreceptor reflex, increases the desire for salt, increases secretion of ADH from the posterior pituitary, and increases secretion of ACTH from the anterior pituitary. It also potentiates the release of norepinephrine by direct action on postganglionic sympathetic fibers.
## Adrenal.
Angiotensin II acts on the adrenal cortex, causing it to release aldosterone, a hormone that causes the kidneys to retain sodium and lose potassium. Elevated plasma angiotensin II levels are responsible for the elevated aldosterone levels present during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle.
## | 24,012 |
270016 | Angiotensin | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Angiotensin | Angiotensin
Renal.
Angiotensin II has a direct effect on the proximal tubules to increase Na reabsorption. It has a complex and variable effect on glomerular filtration and renal blood flow depending on the setting. Increases in systemic blood pressure will maintain renal perfusion pressure; however, constriction of the afferent and efferent glomerular arterioles will tend to restrict renal blood flow. The effect on the efferent arteriolar resistance is, however, markedly greater, in part due to its smaller basal diameter; this tends to increase glomerular capillary hydrostatic pressure and maintain glomerular filtration rate. A number of other mechanisms can affect renal blood flow and GFR. High concentrations | 24,013 |
270016 | Angiotensin | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Angiotensin | Angiotensin
of Angiotensin II can constrict the glomerular mesangium, reducing the area for glomerular filtration. Angiotensin II is a sensitizer to tubuloglomerular feedback, preventing an excessive rise in GFR. Angiotensin II causes the local release of prostaglandins, which, in turn, antagonize renal vasoconstriction. The net effect of these competing mechanisms on glomerular filtration will vary with the physiological and pharmacological environment.
# See also.
- ACE inhibitor
- Angiotensin receptor
- Angiotensin II receptor antagonist
- Captopril
- Perindopril
- Renin inhibitor
# Further reading.
- "Brenner & Rector's The Kidney", 7th ed., Saunders, 2004.
- "Mosby's Medical Dictionary", | 24,014 |
270016 | Angiotensin | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Angiotensin | Angiotensin
peting mechanisms on glomerular filtration will vary with the physiological and pharmacological environment.
# See also.
- ACE inhibitor
- Angiotensin receptor
- Angiotensin II receptor antagonist
- Captopril
- Perindopril
- Renin inhibitor
# Further reading.
- "Brenner & Rector's The Kidney", 7th ed., Saunders, 2004.
- "Mosby's Medical Dictionary", 3rd Ed., CV Mosby Company, 1990.
- "Review of Medical Physiology", 20th Ed., William F. Ganong, McGraw-Hill, 2001.
- "Clinical Physiology of Acid-Base and Electrolyte Disorders", 5th ed., Burton David Rose & Theodore W. Post McGraw-Hill, 2001
# External links.
- The MEROPS online database for peptidases and their inhibitors: I04.953 | 24,015 |
270061 | Adrenal cortex | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Adrenal%20cortex | Adrenal cortex
Adrenal cortex
Situated along the perimeter of the adrenal gland, the adrenal cortex mediates the stress response through the production of mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids, such as aldosterone and cortisol, respectively. It is also a secondary site of androgen synthesis. A 1998 study suggests that adrenocortical cells under pathological as well as under physiological conditions show neuroendocrine properties; within the normal adrenal, this neuroendocrine differentiation seems to be restricted to cells of the zona glomerulosa and might be important for an autocrine regulation of adrenocortical function.
# Layers.
The adrenal cortex comprises three main zones, or layers that are regulated | 24,016 |
270061 | Adrenal cortex | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Adrenal%20cortex | Adrenal cortex
by distinct hormones as noted below. This "anatomic zonation" can be appreciated at the microscopic level, where each zone can be recognized and distinguished from one another based on structural and anatomic characteristics.
- Zona glomerulosa
- Zona fasciculata
- Zona reticularis
# Hormone synthesis.
The precursor of steroids synthesized in the adrenal cortex is cholesterol that is stored in vesicles. Cholesterol can be synthesized de novo in the adrenal cortex. Yet, the major source of cholesterol appears to be cholesterol that is taken up with circulating lipoproteins.
The steps up to this point occur in many steroid-producing tissues. Subsequent steps to generate aldosterone and cortisol, | 24,017 |
270061 | Adrenal cortex | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Adrenal%20cortex | Adrenal cortex
however, primarily occur in the adrenal cortex:
- Progesterone → (hydroxylation at C21) → 11-Deoxycorticosterone → (two further hydroxylations at C11 and C18) → Aldosterone
- Progesterone → (hydroxylation at C17) → 17-alpha-hydroxyprogesterone → (hydroxylation at C21) → 11-Deoxycortisol → (hydroxylation at C11) → Cortisol
# Production.
The adrenal cortex produces a number of different corticosteroid hormones.
## Mineralocorticoids.
The primary mineralocorticoid, aldosterone, is produced in the adrenocortical zona glomerulosa by the action of the enzyme aldosterone synthase (also known as CYP11B2). Aldosterone is largely responsible for the long-term regulation of blood pressure. Aldosterone | 24,018 |
270061 | Adrenal cortex | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Adrenal%20cortex | Adrenal cortex
effects on the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct of the kidney where it causes increased reabsorption of sodium and increased excretion of both potassium (by principal cells) and hydrogen ions (by intercalated cells of the collecting duct). Sodium retention is also a response of the distal colon, and sweat glands to aldosterone receptor stimulation. Although sustained production of aldosterone requires persistent calcium entry through low-voltage activated Ca channels, isolated zona glomerulosa cells are considered nonexcitable, with recorded membrane voltages that are too hyperpolarized to permit Ca channels entry.
## Glucocorticoids.
Glucocorticoids are produced in the zona fasciculata. | 24,019 |
270061 | Adrenal cortex | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Adrenal%20cortex | Adrenal cortex
The primary glucocorticoid released by the adrenal gland is cortisol in humans and corticosterone in many other animals. Its secretion is regulated by the hormone ACTH from the anterior pituitary.
## Androgens.
They are produced in the zona reticularis. The most important androgens include:
- Testosterone: a hormone with a wide variety of effects, ranging from enhancing muscle mass and stimulation of cell growth to the development of the secondary sex characteristics.
- Dihydrotestosterone (DHT): a metabolite of testosterone, and a more potent androgen than testosterone in that it binds more strongly to androgen receptors.
- Androstenedione (Andro): an androgenic steroid produced by the | 24,020 |
270061 | Adrenal cortex | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Adrenal%20cortex | Adrenal cortex
uced by the testes, adrenal cortex, and ovaries. While androstenediones are converted metabolically to testosterone and other androgens, they are also the parent structure of estrone.
- Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA): It is the primary precursor of natural estrogens. DHEA is also called dehydroisoandrosterone or dehydroandrosterone. The reticularis also produces DHEA-sulfate due to the actions of a sulfotransferase, SULT2A1.
# Pathology.
- Adrenal insufficiency (e.g. due to Addison's disease)
- Cushing's syndrome
- Conn's syndrome
- Adrenocortical carcinoma
# See also.
- Adrenarche
- Adrenopause
# External links.
- – "Posterior Abdominal Wall: Blood Supply to the Suprarenal Glands" | 24,021 |
270059 | Flores Historiarum | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flores%20Historiarum | Flores Historiarum
Flores Historiarum
The Flores Historiarum (Flowers of History) is the name of two different (though related) Latin chronicles by medieval English historians that were created in the 13th century, associated originally with the Abbey of St Albans.
# Wendover's "Flores Historiarum".
The first "Flores Historiarum" was created by St Albans writer, Roger of Wendover, who carried his chronology from the creation up to 1235, the year before his death. Roger claims in his preface to have selected "from the books of catholic writers worthy of credit, just as flowers of various colours are gathered from various fields." Hence he also called his work "Flores Historiarum". However, like most chronicles, | 24,022 |
270059 | Flores Historiarum | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flores%20Historiarum | Flores Historiarum
it is now valued not so much for what was culled from previous writers, as for its full and lively narrative of contemporary events from 1215 to 1235, including the signing of Magna Carta by King John at Runnymede.
The book has survived in one thirteenth-century manuscript in the Bodleian Library (Douce manuscript 207), a mutilated 14th-century copy in the British Library (Cotton manuscript Otho B. v.), and in the version adapted by Matthew Paris which forms the first part of his "Chronica Majora" (ed. Henry Richards Luard, Rolls Series, seven volumes).
The sources brought together in the "Flores" include Bede, Geoffrey of Monmouth, Sigebert of Gembloux, Florence of Worcester, Simeon of Durham, | 24,023 |
270059 | Flores Historiarum | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flores%20Historiarum | Flores Historiarum
William of Malmesbury, Henry of Huntingdon, Robert de Monte, William of Tyre, Ralph de Diceto, Benedictus Abbas, Roger of Hoveden and Ralph of Coggeshall (to 1194). A detailed list is given by Luard, who in his running text also marks up the apparent source of each section. From 1201 and through the reign of King John it draws on a source common between it and the "Annales Sancti Edmundi" later also used by John de Taxster, and also some annals added to the St. Albans copy of Diceto.
The date of creation of the earliest nucleus of the compilation has been disputed. The manuscript in the Bodleian Library, written out ca. 1300, contains a marginal note against the annal for 1188 that reads "up | 24,024 |
270059 | Flores Historiarum | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flores%20Historiarum | Flores Historiarum
to here in Abbot John's chronicle book". Luard took this to mean that there had existed a core of the "Flores" going up to 1188, the creation of which had been supervised by John of Wallingford at some point during his tenure as abbot of St Albans between 1195 and 1214. On the other hand, 1188 is also when the first manuscript of Matthew Paris's "Chronica Majora" concludes, with the end of the reign of Henry II, so an alternative view is that this may have been the chronicle book referred to, which may have been in the possession of a later Abbot John at the turn of the 14th century when the manuscript was written out.
Considering the text itself, some of the earlier parts of the work draw | 24,025 |
270059 | Flores Historiarum | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flores%20Historiarum | Flores Historiarum
heavily on the "Historia scholastica" (ca. 1173) of Petrus Comestor, a copy of which was not introduced into the monastery until John of Wallingford's abbacy. (Though Luard elsewhere notes some differences between the treatment of Comestor and that of some other writers). The work of Diceto, which is used throughout the "Flores" but especially after 1066, was also not copied for the Abbey until 1204. In its final form the annal for 1179 contains a reference to the Lateran Council of 1215, and Vaughan finds that all of the extant manuscripts ultimately descend from a common ancestral exemplar that can be no earlier than 1228. However, Vaughan does not rule out the possibility that there might | 24,026 |
270059 | Flores Historiarum | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flores%20Historiarum | Flores Historiarum
have been some earlier compilation used by Wendover, and finds some evidence for such a compilation, extending perhaps to 1066.
# Paris's "Flores Historiarum", and its continuation.
The second and more widely distributed "Flores Historiarum" runs from the creation to 1326 (although some of the earlier manuscripts end at 1306). It was compiled by various persons and quickly acquired contemporary popularity, for it was continued by many hands in many manuscript traditions. Among twenty surviving manuscripts are those compiled at St Benet Holme, Norfolk, continued at Tintern Abbey (Royal Mss 14.c.6); at Norwich (Cottonian Claudius E 8); Rochester (Cottonian Nero D 2); St Paul's, London (Lambeth | 24,027 |
270059 | Flores Historiarum | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flores%20Historiarum | Flores Historiarum
Mss 1106); St Mary's, Southwark (Bodleian Library, Rawlinson Mss B 177); and at St Augustine's, Canterbury (Harleian Mss 641).
It was written originally at St Albans Abbey and later at Westminster Abbey. The earliest manuscript, the basis for all the various continuations, was conserved in Chetham's Library, Manchester. This manuscript was carried down to 1265, with brief notes and emendations in the hand of Matthew Paris. A continuation carried the chronicle down to 1306; the continuation from 1306 to 1325/26 was compiled at Westminster by Robert of Reading (d. 1325) and another Westminster monk.
The second "Flores Historiarum" was for many years attributed to a "Matthew of Westminster" who | 24,028 |
270059 | Flores Historiarum | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flores%20Historiarum | Flores Historiarum
Henry Richards Luard demonstrated was actually Matthew Paris.
The Flores Historiarum is markedly opposed to Robert the Bruce. According to the chronicle after Bruce had had himself crowned king of Scots in the spring of 1306, Lady Elisabeth Bruce tells her husband: "I reckon that you are a summer king; perhaps you won't be a winter one".
# Editions.
- Wendover's "Flores Historiarum"
- Henry Coxe (1841–44): vol 1, vol 2, vol 3, vol 4, Appendix
- John Allen Giles (1849): vol 1, vol 2
- Henry Gay Hewlett, for the Rolls series, (1886–89): vol 1, vol 2, vol 3
- 13th-14th century "Flores Historiarum"
- Matthew Parker, Archbishop of Canterbury, from a single manuscript (1567).
- Thomas Marsh, | 24,029 |
270059 | Flores Historiarum | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flores%20Historiarum | Flores Historiarum
century "Flores Historiarum"
- Matthew Parker, Archbishop of Canterbury, from a single manuscript (1567).
- Thomas Marsh, (1570): vol
- C. D. Yonge (2 vols, London, 1853): vol 1 vol 2
- Henry Richards Luard, for the Rolls series, (3 vols, London, 1890): vol 1, vol 2, vol 3
# Further reading.
- Richard Vaughan (1958), "Matthew Paris". Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; in particular pp. 92–109.
- Albert Hollaender (1944), The pictorial work in the "Flores Historiarum" of the so-called Matthew of Westminster. (Ms. Chetham 6712)
- Judith Collard (2008), "Flores Historiarum" Manuscripts: The Illumination of a Late Thirteenth-Century Chronicle Series, "Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte" | 24,030 |
270070 | 1903 in aviation | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1903%20in%20aviation | 1903 in aviation
1903 in aviation
This is a list of aviation-related events from 1903:
# Events.
## January–December.
- 1 January – Konstantin Tsiolkovski deduces the Basic Rocket Equation in his article "Explorations of outer space with the help of reaction apparatuses".
- 12 February - The worlds first successful heavier-than-air aircraft engine, which will power the Wright brothers first airplane in December 1903, runs for the first time in Dayton, Ohio.
- 16 February – Traian Vuia presents to the Académie des Sciences of Paris the possibility of flying with a heavier-than-air mechanical machine and his procedure for taking off, but is rejected for being a utopia, adding the comments: "The problem of | 24,031 |
270070 | 1903 in aviation | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1903%20in%20aviation | 1903 in aviation
flight with a machine which weighs more than air can not be solved and it is only a dream."
- 23 March – The Wright brothers file an application for a patent for an airplane based on the design of their Glider No. 3.
- 31 March – Richard Pearse is reputed to have made a powered flight in a heavier-than-air craft, a monoplane of his own construction, that crash lands on a hedge. This date is computed from evidence of eyewitnesses as the flight was not well documented at the time. The flight is claimed to have been around 150 feet (45 m) on his farm at Upper Waitohi, near Timaru in south Canterbury, New Zealand.
- 11 May – Richard Pearse is claimed to have made a flight of around 1,000 yards | 24,032 |
270070 | 1903 in aviation | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1903%20in%20aviation | 1903 in aviation
(900 m), landing in the semi-dry bed of the Opihi River.
- 27 June – 19-year-old American socialite Aida de Acosta becomes the first woman to fly a powered aircraft solo when she pilots Santos-Dumont's motorized dirigible, “No. 9”, from Paris to Château de Bagatelle in France.
- 18 August – Karl Jatho makes a flight with his motored aircraft in front of four people. . His craft flies up to 200 feet (60 m) a few feet above the ground in a powered heavier-than-air craft.
- 7 October – Samuel Langley conducts the first tests of his full-sized man-carrying version of his earlier model aerodromes. The pilot, Charles Manly, nearly drowns when the machine slides off its launch apparatus atop a houseboat | 24,033 |
270070 | 1903 in aviation | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1903%20in%20aviation | 1903 in aviation
and falls into the Potomac River.
- 12 November – The Lebaudy brothers make a controlled dirigible flight of from Moisson to Paris, France.
- 19 November – Léon Y. K. Levavasseur demonstrates his Antoinette engine, designed as a lightweight powerplant specifically for aircraft.
- 8 December – second attempt by Charles Manly to fly Langley's repaired full-sized aerodrome. As with the October 7 attempt the machine failed to fly tripping on its launch gear and somersaulting into the Potomac River nearly killing Manly. A surviving photograph captures the machine upended on its side as it falls off the houseboat. Langley himself was absent at this attempt but the machine's failure to fly ended | 24,034 |
270070 | 1903 in aviation | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1903%20in%20aviation | 1903 in aviation
ngley himself was absent at this attempt but the machine's failure to fly ended his government (i.e. U.S. Army) funded attempts at building a successful full sized man-carrying flying machine.
- 17 December – The Wright Brothers make four flights in their Flyer at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina following years of research and development. Orville Wright takes off first and flies 120 ft (37 m) in 12 seconds. This is frequently considered the first controlled, powered heavier-than-air flight and is the first such flight photographed. On the fourth effort, Wilbur flies 852 ft (260 m) in 59 seconds.
# Births.
- 9 January – Melitta Schenk Gräfin von Stauffenberg, German test pilot (shot down 1945) | 24,035 |
270063 | Kikuko Inoue | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kikuko%20Inoue | Kikuko Inoue
Kikuko Inoue
# Biography.
Inoue's vocal roles are usually female characters characterized as dignified, reserved, beautiful, kind, regal, mature or domestic. For example, Belldandy, a goddess who is kind, compassionate and skilled at domestic tasks. Kasumi Tendo is an older sister who has taken over domestic duties after the death of her mother, and who acts as a counterbalance to the more rambunctious members of her family. Notably, both Kasumi and Belldandy are almost parallels of each other due to their roles as domestics in a home which could explode into chaos at any moment. She also plays Rune Venus in "El-Hazard", a princess and leader of her country; as well as Kazami Mizuho in "Please | 24,036 |
270063 | Kikuko Inoue | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kikuko%20Inoue | Kikuko Inoue
Teacher!", a sensible, strong-hearted alien agent in charge of observing humanity that ends up falling in love with an earthling.
She occasionally takes on roles which are more sultry, such as Corvette in "Idol Project", a curvaceous dancer who flirts quite intensely with Mimu, the young heroine. In the hentai OVA "Ogenki Clinic" she provides the voice of a sex-crazed nurse. Also, as Lust in "Fullmetal Alchemist: Brotherhood", she was an antagonist the main characters have to contend with more than once. On very rare occasions she takes male roles, such as Tsubasa Oozora from "Captain Tsubasa ROAD to 2002", as she has stated that these roles allow her to shout, which she finds "liberating".
She | 24,037 |
270063 | Kikuko Inoue | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kikuko%20Inoue | Kikuko Inoue
is referred to as "Onee-chan" ("big sister" in Japanese) and stayed with the title on her official site and a few albums because of her role as Kasumi Tendo in "Ranma ½"; this is confirmed in her online profile. She believes that in her past life she was a fish and therefore uses fish as her trademark. She made a guest appearance at the 2007 Animazement anime convention in Durham, North Carolina for an autograph and Q&A session. When asked her age, she often responds that she is only 17, which has become a running gag at events as well as anime shows. At an Otakon 2009 panel, she explained that the number 17 was an aesthetic choice. After voice acting Belldandy from the "Ah! My Goddess" anime, | 24,038 |
270063 | Kikuko Inoue | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kikuko%20Inoue | Kikuko Inoue
subsequent chapters of the manga used Inoue's distinctive style as the basis for Belldandy's character.
She won Best Supporting Voice Actress in the 4th Seiyu Awards. In 2016, at the 10th Seiyu Awards, she won the Kazue Takahashi Award for "the female performer who broadens the profession of voice acting in every form of media."
Inoue is married, and has a daughter named Honoka. Honoka uses Inoue as her stage "family" name and she is also a voice actress and singer. She's best friends with fellow voice actress Atsuko Tanaka.
# Live appearances.
- "TV Champion" (TV Tokyo, September 15, 2005)
# Stage appearances.
- "Densha Otoko" (Erumesu)
- "Sakura Taisen Paris Mini-Live" 2001 Tokyo (Lobelia | 24,039 |
270063 | Kikuko Inoue | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kikuko%20Inoue | Kikuko Inoue
Carlini)
- "Sakura Taisen Paris no Christmas, Joyeux Noël!" 2001 Dinner Show, Tokyo (Lobelia Carlini)
# Discography.
## Albums.
- "Bokura no Best da, Onee-chan"
- "Funwari, Nobi Nobi Perfect Solo Collection" (LD + 2-CD set)
- "Fushigi na Omajinai: Tadaima 2"
- "Hidamari"
- "merry fish: sound & photo book"
- "Mizuumi"
- "Shiawase Tambourine"
- "Sora Iro no Ehon" (2-CD set)
- "Tadaima"
- "Tanoshii Koto"
- "Yūbi na Osakana"
- Outside Japan
- "Anime Toonz Presents Kikuko Inoue" (Jellybean, 2001)
## Singles.
- "Dōzo Yoroshiku ne."
- "Okaerinasai"
## Talk.
- "Inoue Kikuko no Gekkan Onee-chan to Issho" monthly series (1997)
- "Manbow Hōsōkyoku" ()
- "Ruri Iro Aquarium: Manbow | 24,040 |
270063 | Kikuko Inoue | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kikuko%20Inoue | Kikuko Inoue
Hōsōkyoku 2" ()
- "Ruri Iro Aquarium Special: Manbow Hōsōkyoku 3" ()
- "Ruri Iro Aquarium Selection" ()
- "Shin Onee-chan to Issho" seasonal series (1999)
## Collaboration.
- "Lu · puty · La · puty" ("Shiawase Kurowassan", Kikuko Inoue and Maria Yamamoto)
- "Osakana Penguin no Theme" ("Osakana Penguin", Kikuko Inoue and Junko Iwao)
- "Osakana Penguin CD" ("Osakana Penguin", Kikuko Inoue and Junko Iwao)
- "Shiawase-san" ("Shiawase Kurowassan", Kikuko Inoue and Maria Yamamoto)
## Soundtracks.
- "Anata no Birthday" (as Belldandy)
- "Aria Drama CD I" (Alicia Florence and Hime M. Granchester from "Aria")
- "Aria Drama CD II" (Alicia Florence and Hime M. Granchester from "Aria")
- "E-yume, | 24,041 |
270063 | Kikuko Inoue | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kikuko%20Inoue | Kikuko Inoue
Miyou!" (Meimi and Seira from "Saint Tail")
- "Gimme Love" (from "Voogie's Angel")
- "Girl Friends" (from "Voogie's Angel")
- "Oh My Goddess! Mikami Debut Pack" (as Belldandy from "Oh My Goddess!")
- "Shin Megami Tensei Devil Children Character File 3" (as Cool from "Shin Megami Tensei Devil Children")
# Radio.
Listed in broadcast order.
## AM radio.
- "Inoue Kikuko no Twilight Syndrome" (April–September 1995)
- "Inoue Kikuko no Ruri Iro Aquarium" (October 1995–March 1996)
- "Kakikuke Kikuko no Sashisuse Sonata" (October 1998–March 1999)
- "Hexamoon Guardians Kikuko Maria no Otsuki-sama ni Onegai" (April 1999–March 2000)
- "It's on!" (October 2001–March 2003)
- "Onegai Teacher: | 24,042 |
270063 | Kikuko Inoue | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kikuko%20Inoue | Kikuko Inoue
Mizuho-sensei no Hachimitsu Jugyō" (January–October 2002)
- "Inoue Kikuko no Caramel Heights" (October 2002–March 2005)
- "Onegai Teacher: Hachimitsu Jugyō♥Ho · Shu · U" (October 2002–March 2003)
- "Onegai Teacher: Hachimitsu Jugyō Shingakki" (April–June 2003)
- "Onegai Twins: Mizuho-sensei to Hachimitsu Twins" (July 2003–March 2004)
- "Hāi Inoue Shōten Desu yo!" (April 2005–current)
## Satellite digital radio.
- "Inoue Kikuko no Osakana Radio" (November 2000–March 2002)
- "Inoue Kikuko no Shiitake Radio" (April 2002–March 2003)
- "Inoue Kikuko no Caramel Town" (March 2003–current)
## Internet radio.
- "Onegai Hour: Mizuho-sensei no Kojin Jugyō" (May 2004–March 2005)
- "Onee-chan | 24,043 |
270063 | Kikuko Inoue | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kikuko%20Inoue | Kikuko Inoue
r: Hachimitsu Jugyō Shingakki" (April–June 2003)
- "Onegai Twins: Mizuho-sensei to Hachimitsu Twins" (July 2003–March 2004)
- "Hāi Inoue Shōten Desu yo!" (April 2005–current)
## Satellite digital radio.
- "Inoue Kikuko no Osakana Radio" (November 2000–March 2002)
- "Inoue Kikuko no Shiitake Radio" (April 2002–March 2003)
- "Inoue Kikuko no Caramel Town" (March 2003–current)
## Internet radio.
- "Onegai Hour: Mizuho-sensei no Kojin Jugyō" (May 2004–March 2005)
- "Onee-chan ha Mahō Shōjo?" (June 2005–current)
# Other products.
- "Coco Macne (white) and Coco Macne (black)" from the Macne series
- "Haruno Sora", a Vocaloid for VOCALOID 5.
# External links.
- Official agency profile | 24,044 |
270068 | Marina District Development | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marina%20District%20Development | Marina District Development
Marina District Development
The Marina District Development Company, LLC was a joint venture of Boyd Gaming Corporation and MGM Resorts International that was established to develop and operate the Borgata Hotel Casino and Spa in Atlantic City, New Jersey.
# History.
After a competitive process, MGM Mirage was selected as the lead developer of government-owned vacant property in the "H-Tract" area, later renamed Renaissance Pointe. MGM Mirage sought the participation of Boyd Gaming, which became the operating partner of the Borgata.
Three casino-hotels were planned for Renaissance Pointe but only the Borgata has been built.
In early 2010, following the conclusion of an investigation by the | 24,045 |
270068 | Marina District Development | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marina%20District%20Development | Marina District Development
New Jersey Casino Control Commission and the Division of Gaming Enforcement into the company's suitability as a casino licensee, executives at MGM announced that they would place their shares in MDDC into a special trust until they find a suitable buyer. In their investigation, the NJCCC and DGE alleged that Macau businesswoman Pansy Ho and her father Stanley have deep ties to criminal elements in Macau and mainland China, and therefore would not be suitable for licensing in New Jersey. The NJCCC gave MGM a choice of ending their relationship with Ho by selling their interest in the MGM Grand Macau, or facing revocation of their New Jersey casino license. On October 14, the New Jersey Casino | 24,046 |
270068 | Marina District Development | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marina%20District%20Development | Marina District Development
nse. On October 14, the New Jersey Casino Control Commission approved the $73 million sale of land underneath the Borgata to Vornado Realty Trust and Geyser Holdings as part of its exit strategy from Atlantic City. On September 10, 2014 the New Jersey Casino Control Commission approved MGM Resorts International's licensure to resume its 50 percent ownership stake in the partnership.
On August 1, 2016 MGM Resorts International completed the purchase of Boyd Gaming's 50 percent in Marina District Development and The Borgata for $900 million. On that day MDDC ceased to exist and a new company Borgata Hotel Casino & Spa, LLC. was formed as a wholly owned subsidiary of MGM Resorts International. | 24,047 |
270062 | Operational semantics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Operational%20semantics | Operational semantics
Operational semantics
Operational semantics is a category of formal programming language semantics in which certain desired properties of a program, such as correctness, safety or security, are verified by constructing proofs from logical statements about its execution and procedures, rather than by attaching mathematical meanings to its terms (denotational semantics). Operational semantics are classified in two categories: structural operational semantics (or small-step semantics) formally describe how the "individual steps" of a computation take place in a computer-based system; by opposition natural semantics (or big-step semantics) describe how the "overall results" of the executions are | 24,048 |
270062 | Operational semantics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Operational%20semantics | Operational semantics
obtained. Other approaches to providing a formal semantics of programming languages include axiomatic semantics and denotational semantics.
The operational semantics for a programming language describes how a valid program is interpreted as sequences of computational steps.
These sequences then "are" the meaning of the program.
In the context of functional programs, the final step in a terminating
sequence returns the value of the program. (In general there can be many return values for a single program,
because the program could be nondeterministic, and even for a deterministic program there can be many computation sequences since the semantics may not specify exactly what sequence of | 24,049 |
270062 | Operational semantics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Operational%20semantics | Operational semantics
operations arrives at that value.)
Perhaps the first formal incarnation of operational semantics was the use of the lambda calculus to define the semantics of LISP. Abstract machines in the tradition of the SECD machine are also closely related.
# History.
The concept of operational semantics was used for the first time in defining the semantics of Algol 68.
The following statement is a quote from the revised ALGOL 68 report:
The meaning of a program in the strict language is explained in terms of a hypothetical computer
which performs the set of actions which constitute the elaboration of that program. (Algol68, Section 2)
The first use of the term "operational semantics" in its present | 24,050 |
270062 | Operational semantics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Operational%20semantics | Operational semantics
meaning is attributed to
Dana Scott (Plotkin04).
What follows is a quote from Scott's seminal paper on formal semantics,
in which he mentions the "operational" aspects of semantics.
It is all very well to aim for a more ‘abstract’ and a ‘cleaner’ approach to
semantics, but if the plan is to be any good, the operational aspects cannot
be completely ignored. (Scott70)
# Approaches.
Gordon Plotkin introduced the structural operational semantics, Robert Hieb and Matthias Felleisen the reduction contexts, and Gilles Kahn the natural semantics.
## Small-step semantics.
### Structural operational semantics.
Structural operational semantics (also called structured operational semantics or | 24,051 |
270062 | Operational semantics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Operational%20semantics | Operational semantics
small-step semantics) was introduced by Gordon Plotkin in (Plotkin81) as a logical means to define operational semantics. The basic idea behind SOS is to define the behavior of a program in terms of the behavior of its parts, thus providing a structural, i.e., syntax-oriented and inductive, view on operational semantics. An SOS specification defines the behavior of a program in terms of a (set of) transition relation(s). SOS specifications take the form of a set of inference rules that define the valid transitions of a composite piece of syntax in terms of the transitions of its components.
For a simple example, we consider part of the semantics of a simple programming language; proper illustrations | 24,052 |
270062 | Operational semantics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Operational%20semantics | Operational semantics
are given in Plotkin81 and Hennessy90, and other textbooks. Let formula_1 range over programs of the language, and let formula_2 range over states (e.g. functions from memory locations to values). If we have expressions (ranged over by formula_3), values and locations (formula_4), then a memory update command would have semantics:
formula_5
Informally, the rule says that "if the expression formula_3 in state formula_2 reduces to value formula_8, then the program formula_9 will update the state formula_2 with the assignment formula_11".
The semantics of sequencing can be given by the following three rules:
formula_12
Informally, the first rule says that,
if program formula_13 in state formula_2 | 24,053 |
270062 | Operational semantics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Operational%20semantics | Operational semantics
finishes in state formula_15, then the program formula_16 in state formula_2 will reduce to the program formula_18 in state formula_15.
(You can think of this as formalizing "You can run formula_13, and then run formula_18
using the resulting memory store.)
The second rule says that
if the program formula_13 in state formula_2 can reduce to the program formula_24 with state formula_15, then the program formula_16 in state formula_2 will reduce to the program formula_28 in state formula_15.
(You can think of this as formalizing the principle for an optimizing compiler:
"You are allowed to transform formula_13 as if it were stand-alone, even if it is just the
first part of a program.")
The | 24,054 |
270062 | Operational semantics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Operational%20semantics | Operational semantics
semantics is structural, because the meaning of the sequential program formula_16, is defined by the meaning of formula_13 and the meaning of formula_18.
If we also have Boolean expressions over the state, ranged over by formula_34, then we can define the semantics of the while command:
formula_35
Such a definition allows formal analysis of the behavior of programs, permitting the study of relations between programs. Important relations include simulation preorders and bisimulation.
These are especially useful in the context of concurrency theory.
Thanks to its intuitive look and easy-to-follow structure,
SOS has gained great popularity and has become a de facto standard in defining
operational | 24,055 |
270062 | Operational semantics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Operational%20semantics | Operational semantics
semantics. As a sign of success, the original report (so-called Aarhus
report) on SOS (Plotkin81) has attracted more than 1000 citations according to the CiteSeer ,
making it one of the most cited technical reports in Computer Science.
### Reduction semantics.
Reduction semantics are an alternative presentation of operational semantics using so-called reduction contexts. The method was introduced by Robert Hieb and Matthias Felleisen in 1992 as a technique for formalizing an equational theory for control and state. For example, the grammar of a simple call-by-value lambda calculus and its contexts can be given as:
formula_36
The contexts formula_37 include a hole formula_38 where a term | 24,056 |
270062 | Operational semantics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Operational%20semantics | Operational semantics
can be plugged in.
The shape of the contexts indicate where reduction can occur (i.e., a term can be plugged into a term).
To describe a semantics for this language, axioms or reduction rules are provided:
formula_39
This single axiom is the beta rule from the lambda calculus. The reduction contexts show how this rule composes
with more complicated terms. In particular, this rule can trigger for the argument position of an
application like formula_40 because there is a context formula_41
that matches the term. In this case, the contexts uniquely decompose terms so that only one reduction is possible
at any given step. Extending the axiom to match the reduction contexts gives the "compatible | 24,057 |
270062 | Operational semantics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Operational%20semantics | Operational semantics
closure". Taking the
reflexive, transitive closure of this relation gives the "reduction relation" for this language.
The technique is useful for the ease in which reduction contexts can model state or control constructs (e.g., continuations). In addition, reduction semantics have been used to model object-oriented languages, contract systems, and other language features.
## Big-step semantics.
### Natural semantics.
Big-step structural operational semantics is also known under the names natural semantics, relational semantics and evaluation semantics. Big-step operational semantics was introduced under the name "natural semantics" by Gilles Kahn when presenting Mini-ML, a pure dialect | 24,058 |
270062 | Operational semantics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Operational%20semantics | Operational semantics
of the ML language.
One can view big-step definitions as definitions of functions, or more generally of relations, interpreting each language construct in an appropriate domain. Its intuitiveness makes it a popular choice for semantics specification in programming languages, but it has some drawbacks that make it inconvenient or impossible to use in many situations, such as languages with control-intensive features or concurrency.
A big-step semantics describes in a divide-and-conquer manner how final evaluation results of language constructs can be obtained by combining the evaluation results of their syntactic counterparts (subexpressions, substatements, etc.).
# Comparison.
There are | 24,059 |
270062 | Operational semantics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Operational%20semantics | Operational semantics
a number of distinctions between small-step and big-step semantics that influence whether one or the other forms a more suitable basis for specifying the semantics of a programming language.
Big-step semantics have the advantage of often being simpler (needing fewer inference rules) and often directly correspond to an efficient implementation of an interpreter for the language (hence Kahn calling them "natural".) Both can lead to simpler proofs, for example when proving the preservation of correctness under some program transformation.
The main disadvantage of big-step semantics is that non-terminating (diverging) computations do not have an inference tree, making it impossible to state and | 24,060 |
270062 | Operational semantics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Operational%20semantics | Operational semantics
prove properties about such computations.
Small-step semantics give more control of the details and order of evaluation. In the case of instrumented operational semantics, this allows the operational semantics to track and the semanticist to state and prove more accurate theorems about the run-time behaviour of the language. These properties make small-step semantics more convenient when proving type soundness of a type system against an operational semantics.
# See also.
- Algebraic semantics
- Axiomatic semantics
- Denotational semantics
- Formal semantics of programming languages
# References.
- Gilles Kahn. "Natural Semantics". "Proceedings of the 4th Annual Symposium on Theoretical | 24,061 |
270062 | Operational semantics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Operational%20semantics | Operational semantics
Aspects of Computer Science". Springer-Verlag. London. 1987.
- Gordon D. Plotkin. A Structural Approach to Operational Semantics. (1981) Tech. Rep. DAIMI FN-19, Computer Science Department, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark. (Reprinted with corrections in J. Log. Algebr. Program. 60-61: 17-139 (2004), preprint).
- Gordon D. Plotkin. The Origins of Structural Operational Semantics. J. Log. Algebr. Program. 60-61:3-15, 2004. (preprint).
- Dana S. Scott. Outline of a Mathematical Theory of Computation, Programming Research Group, Technical Monograph PRG–2, Oxford University, 1970.
- Adriaan van Wijngaarden et al. Revised Report on the Algorithmic Language ALGOL 68. IFIP. 1968. ()
- Matthew | 24,062 |
270062 | Operational semantics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Operational%20semantics | Operational semantics
kin. A Structural Approach to Operational Semantics. (1981) Tech. Rep. DAIMI FN-19, Computer Science Department, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark. (Reprinted with corrections in J. Log. Algebr. Program. 60-61: 17-139 (2004), preprint).
- Gordon D. Plotkin. The Origins of Structural Operational Semantics. J. Log. Algebr. Program. 60-61:3-15, 2004. (preprint).
- Dana S. Scott. Outline of a Mathematical Theory of Computation, Programming Research Group, Technical Monograph PRG–2, Oxford University, 1970.
- Adriaan van Wijngaarden et al. Revised Report on the Algorithmic Language ALGOL 68. IFIP. 1968. ()
- Matthew Hennessy. Semantics of Programming Languages. Wiley, 1990. available online. | 24,063 |
270054 | Formal verification | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Formal%20verification | Formal verification
Formal verification
In the context of hardware and software systems, formal verification is the act of proving or disproving the correctness of intended algorithms underlying a system with respect to a certain formal specification or property, using formal methods of mathematics.
Formal verification can be helpful in proving the correctness of systems such as: cryptographic protocols, combinational circuits, digital circuits with internal memory, and software expressed as source code.
The verification of these systems is done by providing a formal proof on an abstract mathematical model of the system, the correspondence between the mathematical model and the nature of the system being otherwise | 24,064 |
270054 | Formal verification | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Formal%20verification | Formal verification
known by construction. Examples of mathematical objects often used to model systems are: finite state machines, labelled transition systems, Petri nets, vector addition systems, timed automata, hybrid automata, process algebra, formal semantics of programming languages such as operational semantics, denotational semantics, axiomatic semantics and Hoare logic.
# Approaches.
One approach and formation is model checking, which consists of a systematically exhaustive exploration of the mathematical model (this is possible for finite models, but also for some infinite models where infinite sets of states can be effectively represented finitely by using abstraction or taking advantage of symmetry). | 24,065 |
270054 | Formal verification | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Formal%20verification | Formal verification
Usually this consists of exploring all states and transitions in the model, by using smart and domain-specific abstraction techniques to consider whole groups of states in a single operation and reduce computing time. Implementation techniques include state space enumeration, symbolic state space enumeration, abstract interpretation, symbolic simulation, abstraction refinement. The properties to be verified are often described in temporal logics, such as linear temporal logic (LTL), Property Specification Language (PSL), SystemVerilog Assertions (SVA), or computational tree logic (CTL). The great advantage of model checking is that it is often fully automatic; its primary disadvantage is that | 24,066 |
270054 | Formal verification | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Formal%20verification | Formal verification
it does not in general scale to large systems; symbolic models are typically limited to a few hundred bits of state, while explicit state enumeration requires the state space being explored to be relatively small.
Another approach is deductive verification. It consists of generating from the system and its specifications (and possibly other annotations) a collection of mathematical "proof obligations", the truth of which imply conformance of the system to its specification, and discharging these obligations using either interactive theorem provers (such as HOL, ACL2, Isabelle, Coq or PVS), automatic theorem provers, or satisfiability modulo theories (SMT) solvers. This approach has the disadvantage | 24,067 |
270054 | Formal verification | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Formal%20verification | Formal verification
that it typically requires the user to understand in detail why the system works correctly, and to convey this information to the verification system, either in the form of a sequence of theorems to be proved or in the form of specifications of system components (e.g. functions or procedures) and perhaps subcomponents (such as loops or data structures).
## Software.
Formal verification of software programs involves proving that a program satisfies a formal specification of its behavior. Subareas of formal verification include deductive verification (see above), abstract interpretation, automated theorem proving, type systems, and lightweight formal methods. A promising type-based verification | 24,068 |
270054 | Formal verification | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Formal%20verification | Formal verification
approach is dependently typed programming, in which the types of functions include (at least part of) those functions' specifications, and type-checking the code establishes its correctness against those specifications. Fully featured dependently typed languages support deductive verification as a special case.
Another complementary approach is program derivation, in which efficient code is produced from functional specifications by a series of correctness-preserving steps. An example of this approach is the Bird–Meertens formalism, and this approach can be seen as another form of correctness by construction.
These techniques can be "sound", meaning that the verified properties can be logically | 24,069 |
270054 | Formal verification | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Formal%20verification | Formal verification
deduced from the semantics, or "unsound", meaning that there is no such guarantee. A sound technique yields a result only once it has searched the entire space of possibilities. An example of an unsound technique is one that searches only a subset of the possibilities, for instance only integers up to a certain number, and give a "good-enough" result. Techniques can also be "decidable", meaning that their algorithmic implementations are guaranteed to terminate with an answer, or undecidable, meaning that they may never terminate. Because they are bounded, unsound techniques are often more likely to be decidable than sound ones.
# Verification and validation.
Verification is one aspect of testing | 24,070 |
270054 | Formal verification | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Formal%20verification | Formal verification
a product's fitness for purpose. Validation is the complementary aspect. Often one refers to the overall checking process as V & V.
- Validation: "Are we trying to make the right thing?", i.e., is the product specified to the user's actual needs?
- Verification: "Have we made what we were trying to make?", i.e., does the product conform to the specifications?
The verification process consists of static/structural and dynamic/behavioral aspects. E.g., for a software product one can inspect the source code (static) and run against specific test cases (dynamic). Validation usually can be done only dynamically, i.e., the product is tested by putting it through typical and atypical usages ("Does | 24,071 |
270054 | Formal verification | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Formal%20verification | Formal verification
it satisfactorily meet all use cases?").
# Automated program repair.
Program repair is performed with respect to an oracle, encompassing the desired functionality of the program which is used for validation of the generated fix. A simple example is a test-suite—the input/output pairs specify the functionality of the program. A variety of techniques are employed, most notably using satisfiability modulo theories (SMT) solvers, and genetic programming, using evolutionary computing to generate and evaluate possible candidates for fixes. The former method is deterministic, while the latter is randomized.
Program repair combines techniques from formal verification and program synthesis. Fault-localization | 24,072 |
270054 | Formal verification | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Formal%20verification | Formal verification
techniques in formal verification are used to compute program points which might be possible bug-locations, which can be targeted by the synthesis modules. Repair systems often focus on a small pre-defined class of bugs in order to reduce the search space. Industrial use is limited owing to the computational cost of existing techniques.
# Industry use.
The growth in complexity of designs increases the importance of formal verification techniques in the hardware industry. At present, formal verification is used by most or all leading hardware companies, but its use in the software industry is still languishing. This could be attributed to the greater need in the hardware industry, where errors | 24,073 |
270054 | Formal verification | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Formal%20verification | Formal verification
have greater commercial significance. Because of the potential subtle interactions between components, it is increasingly difficult to exercise a realistic set of possibilities by simulation. Important aspects of hardware design are amenable to automated proof methods, making formal verification easier to introduce and more productive.
, several operating systems have been formally verified:
NICTA's Secure Embedded L4 microkernel, sold commercially as seL4 by OK Labs; OSEK/VDX based real-time operating system ORIENTAIS by East China Normal University; Green Hills Software's Integrity operating system; and SYSGO's PikeOS.
As of 2016, Yale and Columbia professors Zhong Shao and Ronghui Gu developed | 24,074 |
270054 | Formal verification | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Formal%20verification | Formal verification
a formal verification protocol for blockchain called CertiKOS. The program is the first example of formal verification in the blockchain world, and an example of formal verification being used explicitly as a security program.
As of 2017, formal verification has been applied to the design of large computer networks through a mathematical model of the network, and as part of a new network technology category, intent-based networking. Network software vendors that offer formal verification solutions include Cisco Forward Networks and Veriflow Systems.
The CompCert C compiler is a formally verified C compiler implementing the majority of ISO C.
# See also.
- Automated theorem proving
- Model | 24,075 |
270054 | Formal verification | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Formal%20verification | Formal verification
ough a mathematical model of the network, and as part of a new network technology category, intent-based networking. Network software vendors that offer formal verification solutions include Cisco Forward Networks and Veriflow Systems.
The CompCert C compiler is a formally verified C compiler implementing the majority of ISO C.
# See also.
- Automated theorem proving
- Model checking
- List of model checking tools
- Formal equivalence checking
- Proof checker
- Property Specification Language
- Selected formal verification bibliography
- Static code analysis
- Temporal logic in finite-state verification
- Post-silicon validation
- Intelligent verification
- Runtime verification | 24,076 |
1599548 | List of wildfires | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List%20of%20wildfires | List of wildfires
List of wildfires
This is a list of notable wildfires.
# Asia.
## China.
- 1987 – The Black Dragon Fire burnt a total of of forest along the Amur river, with three million acres (4687.5 square miles) destroyed on the Chinese side.
## Hong Kong.
- 1996Pat Sin Leng wildfire, Tai Po, Hong Kong; 5 hikers killed (3 pupils and 2 teachers) on February 10.
## Indonesia.
- During the 1997 Indonesian forest fires of forest were destroyed, more than 2.6 gigatonnes of CO was released to the atmosphere. There are other forest fires in Java and Sulawesi on the same year.
- Huge forest fires that officials deemed as "too furious for human intervention" burned 52,000 hectares of land in Sumatra and | 24,077 |
1599548 | List of wildfires | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List%20of%20wildfires | List of wildfires
138,000 hectares in Kalimantan. The haze covered countries such as Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Singapore, Brunei, Burma, Philippines and also Vietnam. In Singapore, some of the 2015 FINA Swimming World Cup's events on 3 October 2015 were cancelled as the PSI was in the 'Unhealthy' range. In Thailand, the haze from Sumatra had turned most parts of southern Thailand such as Narathiwat, Pattani, Phuket, Satun, Songkhla, Surat Thani, Trang and Yala provinces unsightly, even reaching hazardous levels on 7 October. In Vietnam, Ho Chi Minh City and other provinces in Southern Vietnam had been enveloped in fog since 4 December
## Israel.
- 1. 1989 Mount Carmel forest fire
- 2. 1995 Jerusalem forest | 24,078 |
1599548 | List of wildfires | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List%20of%20wildfires | List of wildfires
fire
- 3. The 2010 Mount Carmel forest fire in Israel, Started on 2 December 2010 and burned 41 km of forest, killing as many as 44 people, most of them Israel Prison Service officer cadets, when a bus evacuating them was trapped in flames.
- 4. 22 November 2016 Haifa, Zikhron Ya'akov, Gilon wildfires
## Japan.
- 27 April 1971 – was lost in a forest fire at Kure, western Honshu, Japan. Construction workers were using fire in order to wither weeds when a strong wind moved through the area, fueling the fire; 18 firefighters were killed. The fire lasted for one day.
## South Korea.
- April 2000, Gangwon-do Gangneung the whole area is .
- March 2013, Gyeongsangbukdo Pohang is Wildfire.
- | 24,079 |
1599548 | List of wildfires | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List%20of%20wildfires | List of wildfires
April 2019, Gangwon Province wildfire.
## India.
- 2019 Bandipur forest fires
- 2016 Uttarakhand forest fires
# Europe.
- July 2000: Fires in Southern Europe consumed forests and buildings in southern France, parts of Iberia, Corsica, and much of Italy including the southern part: caused by the heatwave dominating southern Europe, with 40 to 45 °C temperatures
- 2009 Mediterranean wildfires in France, Greece, Italy, Spain, and Turkey in July 2009
## Croatia.
- 2007 Croatian coast fires, burning
- Summer 2017: Croatian wildfires, a series of wildfires burning in Istria all the way down to Dalmatia. One wildfire also entered eastern suburbs of Split. The fire also affected islands of | 24,080 |
1599548 | List of wildfires | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List%20of%20wildfires | List of wildfires
Vir, Pag and some other islands.
## France.
- The 1949 Landes Forest Fire burned 50.000 ha of forest land and killed 82 people.
- The 1983 Forest Fire burned 25.000 ha of forest land and killed 239 people.
## Germany.
- In the fire on the Lüneburg Heath in Lower Saxony in August 1975, of heathland burned, killing five firefighters.
## Greece.
- 2000 forest fires in Greece, a series of forest fires affected Greece including Agioi Theodoroi and eastern Corinthia at the beginning of July 2000
- 2005 East Attica Fire in Greece – Forest fires ravaged East Attica on 28 July 2005 from Agia Triada Rafinas to west of Rafina. The fires began at around 11:00 (EET/UTC+3) consuming 70 square kilometers | 24,081 |
1599548 | List of wildfires | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List%20of%20wildfires | List of wildfires
of forests, properties and farmlands. The fire spread quickly after a few hours with winds of up to 55 to 70 km/h and spread near the suburban housings of Athens near Rafina causing dense smoke. The fire reached Kallitechnio and the settlements by around 3:30 (EET) and devastated homes leaving some people homeless and evacuated people in areas around Agia Triada Rafinas, Agia Kyriaki Rafinas, Kallitechnio, Loutsa, Neos Vourtzas and the Rafina area mostly on the hillside areas. Pine trees were devastated. Firefighters didn't put out the blaze until the winds calmed down around 5:00 (EET). It took hundreds of fire trucks, firefighters, planes, 65 firefighting helicopters from all over the surrounding | 24,082 |
1599548 | List of wildfires | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List%20of%20wildfires | List of wildfires
areas and most of Greece to put out the blaze. A stretch of Marathonos Avenue became closed.
- 29 July 2005 – a day after the enormous Attica fire, another series of fires occurred throughout Greece, entirely in Preveza including Monolithi consuming properties and a campground, Ioannina and Xiromeni of Aetolia-Acarnania.
- 2007 Greek forest fires
- 2009 Greek forest fires
- 2012 Chios forest fire
- 2018 Greek wildfires
## Poland.
- 1992: Kuźnia Raciborska fire in Poland burned 90.62 km² of forest and killed two firefighters on 26 August 1992. A third casualty is often mentioned, but she did not die in the fire; she was involved in a collision with a fire engine that skidded.
- 1992: | 24,083 |
1599548 | List of wildfires | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List%20of%20wildfires | List of wildfires
Puscza nad notecią fire in Poland burned 6 k HA of forest on 10 August 1992. This wildfire damaged 6.k HA of forest in 10 hours.
## Portugal.
- August 2003 Wildfires, destroying 10% of Portuguese forests and killing 18 people
- 2016 Portugal wildfires
- June 2017 Portugal wildfires and October 2017 Portugal wildfires, catastrophic series of fires that trapped and killed more than 100 people
- 2018 - wildfires near the city of Portimao
## Russia.
- 1921 Mari wildfires
- August 1935 – Kursha-2 settlement was burned out with 1200 victims.
- 2003 Russian wildfires - more than , primarily Boreal forest, were burned in southern Siberia from 14 March-8 August. Direct carbon emissions were | 24,084 |
1599548 | List of wildfires | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List%20of%20wildfires | List of wildfires
around 400-640 TgC.
- June – August 2010 – Drought and the hottest summer since records began in 1890 caused many devastating forest fires in European Russia.
- April 2015 – A series of wildfires in Southern Siberia killed 26 people and left thousands homeless.
## Spain.
- 17 July 2005 – Guadalajara province, Spain, a 130 km forest fire and 11 dead firefighters. The fire brigade unit is not out of post because of this deadly toll. A barbecue sparked deadly blazes.
- September 2016 - the 2016 Benidorm forest fire burnt more than 800 hectares and destroyed at least twenty homes.
- June 2019 - 10,000 acres burning near Tarragona.
## Sweden.
- August 2014 – Västmanland province, Sweden, | 24,085 |
1599548 | List of wildfires | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List%20of%20wildfires | List of wildfires
a 191 km forest fire with 1 verified death.
- Summer 2018
## United Kingdom.
- May 2011 – Swinley Forest fire, Berkshire, England. Fire appliances from 12 counties attended over several days due to the large area of the fire. The fire service incident log for the call is over 500 pages long.
- 2018 United Kingdom wildfires e.g. Saddleworth Moor fire
- 2019 United Kingdom wildfires
# North America.
## Canada and the United States.
From 2007 to 2017, wildfires burned an average of 6.6 and 6.2 million acres/year in the U.S. and Canada, respectively.
† Indicates a currently burning fire
## Greenland.
Some wildfires occurred in Greenland in August 2017.
# Oceania.
## Australia.
- Black | 24,086 |
1599548 | List of wildfires | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List%20of%20wildfires | List of wildfires
Thursday bushfires of 1851 (Victoria)
- Black Friday bushfires of 1939 (Victoria)
- Black Sunday bushfires of 1955 (South Australia)
- 1961 Western Australian bushfires
- Black Tuesday bushfires of 1967 (Tasmania)
- Ash Wednesday bushfires of 1980 and 1983 (Victoria and South Australia)
- 1994 Eastern seaboard fires
- Black Christmas bushfires 2001–2002
- Canberra bushfires of 2003
- Black Tuesday bushfire of 2005 (Eyre Peninsula South Australia)
- Mount Lubra bushfire of 2006
- Black Saturday bushfires of 2009 (Victoria)
- 2015 Sampson Flat bushfires of 2015 (South Australia)
- 2015 Pinery bushfire of 2015 (South Australia)
## New Zealand.
- Raetihi Forest Fire (Manawatu)
- | 24,087 |
1599548 | List of wildfires | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List%20of%20wildfires | List of wildfires
shfire of 2006
- Black Saturday bushfires of 2009 (Victoria)
- 2015 Sampson Flat bushfires of 2015 (South Australia)
- 2015 Pinery bushfire of 2015 (South Australia)
## New Zealand.
- Raetihi Forest Fire (Manawatu)
- 2017 Port Hills fires (Canterbury)
- 2019 Nelson fires
# South America.
## Bolivia.
- 2002 forest fire in Bolivia
- 2010 Bolivia forest fires
## Chile.
- 2005 Torres del Paine fire
- 2011–2012 Torres del Paine fire
- 2014 Valparaíso wildfire
- 2017 Chile wildfires – The worst in Chile's history
## Ecuador.
- 1985 Isabela Island forest fire, Galápagos Islands, Ecuador, lost in March.
# See also.
- List of historic fires
- List of deadliest wildfires/bushfires | 24,088 |
1599547 | Nina Ponomaryova | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nina%20Ponomaryova | Nina Ponomaryova
Nina Ponomaryova
Nina Apollonovna Ponomaryova (née "Romashkova"; ; 27 April 1929 – 19 August 2016) was a Russian discus thrower and the first Soviet Olympic champion.
# Career.
Ponomaryova became interested in athletics in 1947, when she entered the Physical Training Faculty of the Stavropol Pedagogical Institute. Her first official performance was in 1948 at the Stavropol Krai Championships, where she set a new regional record at 30.53 m. After just three years of training she became one of the leading Soviet athletes. In 1949 she finished third at the USSR Championships. At that time an experienced coach Dmitry Markov began to train her. In 1951 Romashkova became the Soviet champion, she | 24,089 |
1599547 | Nina Ponomaryova | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nina%20Ponomaryova | Nina Ponomaryova
repeated this success in 1952–1956, 1958 and 1959.
In 1952 she was a member of the Soviet team, which participated in the Olympic Games for the first time in history. At that time the Olympic record was held since 1936 Summer Olympics by Gisela Mauermayer at 47.63 m. Ponomaryova won the qualifying round with a throw of 45.05 m (36 m was enough to qualify). In the final, after the first try Ponomaryova was second with a throw of 45.16 m, the leader being her teammate Nina Dumbadze (45.85 m). In the second try Ponomaryova improved the Olympic record by more than 3 metres (50.84 m). After that she was the leader until the end of the competition. In the third try she set the Olympic record at 51.42 | 24,090 |
1599547 | Nina Ponomaryova | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nina%20Ponomaryova | Nina Ponomaryova
m and earned the first Olympic gold medal for the Soviet Union.
Less than a month after the 1952 Summer Olympics, on 9 August 1952 in Odessa Ponomaryova set a new world record at 53.61 m. In 1954 she won a European title, and in 1956 an Olympic bronze medal. In 1957 she was awarded the Order of the Red Banner. In 1960 Ponomaryova became an Olympic champion for the second time. In 1966 she finished her career and worked as a coach, first in Kiev, and after 1998 in Moscow.
# Personal life.
Soon after the 1952 Olympics, Ponomaryova married and gave birth to a son.
# Quote.
"Only after I had felt a heavy golden circle in my hand, I realized what happened. I am the first Soviet Olympic Champion, | 24,091 |
1599547 | Nina Ponomaryova | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nina%20Ponomaryova | Nina Ponomaryova
e birth to a son.
# Quote.
"Only after I had felt a heavy golden circle in my hand, I realized what happened. I am the first Soviet Olympic Champion, you know, the first record-holder of the 15th Olympiad...Tears were stinging my eyes. How happy I was!..". After her win at the 1952 Summer Olympics.
In Russian:"Только ощутив в руке тяжелый золотой кружок, я осознала, что произошло. Ведь я первая советская олимпийская чемпионка, первая рекордсменка XV Олимпиады... Слезы щипали глаза. Как я была счастлива!..".
# External links.
- Romashkova-Ponomaryova rzutyiskoki.pl
- Nina Ponomaryova's profile in the Modern Museum of Sports includes photos of her and some of her decorations
- Biography | 24,092 |
269979 | Roberto Cofresí | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roberto%20Cofresí | Roberto Cofresí
Roberto Cofresí
Roberto Cofresí y Ramírez de Arellano (June 17, 1791 – March 29, 1825), better known as El Pirata Cofresí, was a pirate from Puerto Rico. Despite his birth into a noble family, the political and economic difficulties faced by the island as a colony of the Spanish Empire during the late 18th and early 19th centuries meant that his household was poor. Cofresí worked at sea from an early age; although this familiarized him with the region's geography, it provided only a modest salary. He eventually decided to abandon a sailor's life, becoming a pirate. Despite previous links to land-based criminal activities, the reason for Cofresí's change of vocation is unknown; historians speculate | 24,093 |
269979 | Roberto Cofresí | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roberto%20Cofresí | Roberto Cofresí
that he may have worked as a privateer aboard "El Scipión", a ship owned by one of his cousins.
At the height of his career, he evaded capture by vessels from Spain, Gran Colombia, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, Denmark, France, and the United States. Cofresí commanded several small-draft vessels, the best known a fast six-gun sloop named "Anne", and demonstrated a preference for speed and maneuverability over firepower. He manned them with small, rotating crews, which most contemporary documents and accounts numbered at 10 to 20 in size. Cofresí preferred to outrun his pursuers but his flotilla engaged the West Indies Squadron twice, attacking the schooners USS "Grampus" | 24,094 |
269979 | Roberto Cofresí | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roberto%20Cofresí | Roberto Cofresí
and USS "Beagle". Although most crew members were recruited locally, men from the other Antilles, Central America and expatriate Europeans occasionally joined the pirates. Despite never confessing to a murder, he reportedly boasted about his crimes; the number of people who died as a result of his pillaging ranged from 300 to 400, mostly foreigners. Cofresí proved too much for local authorities who, unable to contain him themselves, accepted international help to capture the pirate; Spain created an alliance with the West Indies Squadron and the Danish government of Saint Thomas.
On March 5, 1825, the alliance set a trap which forced "Anne" into a naval battle. After 45 minutes, Cofresí abandoned | 24,095 |
269979 | Roberto Cofresí | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roberto%20Cofresí | Roberto Cofresí
his ship and escaped overland; he was recognized by a local resident, who ambushed and injured him. Cofresí was captured and imprisoned, making a last unsuccessful attempt to escape by trying to bribe an official with part of a hidden stash. The pirates were sent to San Juan, Puerto Rico, where a brief military tribunal found them guilty and sentenced them to death. On March 29, 1825, Cofresí and most of his crew were executed by firing squad. The pirate inspired stories and myths after his death, most emphasizing a Robin Hood-like "steal from the rich, give to the poor" philosophy which became associated with him. In poetry and oral tradition this portrayal has evolved into legend, commonly | 24,096 |
269979 | Roberto Cofresí | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roberto%20Cofresí | Roberto Cofresí
accepted as fact in Puerto Rico and throughout the West Indies. A subset of these claims that Cofresí became part of the Puerto Rican independence movement and other secessionist initiatives, including Simón Bolívar's campaign against Spain. Historic and mythical accounts of his life have inspired songs, poems, plays, books and films. In Puerto Rico caves, beaches and other alleged hideouts or locations of buried treasure have been named after Cofresí, and a resort town near Puerto Plata in the Dominican Republic is named for him.
# Early years.
## Lineage.
In 1945, historian Enrique Ramírez Brau speculated that Cofresí may have had Jewish ancestry. A theory, held by David Cuesta and historian | 24,097 |
269979 | Roberto Cofresí | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roberto%20Cofresí | Roberto Cofresí
Úrsula Acosta (a member of the Puerto Rican Genealogy Society), held that the name Kupferstein ("copper stone") may have been chosen by his family when the 18th-century European Jewish population adopted surnames. The theory was later discarded when their research uncovered a complete family tree prepared by Cofresí's cousin, Luigi de Jenner, indicating that their name was spelled Kupferschein (not Kupferstein). Originally from Prague, Cofresí paternal patriarch Cristoforo Kupferschein received a recognition and coat of arms from Ferdinand I of Austria in December 1549 and eventually moved to Trieste. His last name was probably adapted from the town of Kufstein. After its arrival, the family | 24,098 |
269979 | Roberto Cofresí | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roberto%20Cofresí | Roberto Cofresí
became one of Trieste's early settlers. Cristoforo's son Felice was recognized as a noble in 1620, becoming Edler von Kupferschein. The family gained prestige and became one of the city's wealthiest, with the next generation receiving the best possible education and marrying into other influential families. Cofresí's grandfather, Giovanni Stanislao Kupferschein, held several offices in the police, military and municipal administration. According to Acosta, Cofresí's father Francesco received a "lateinschule" education and left at age 19 for Frankfurt (probably in search of a university or legal practice). In Frankfurt he mingled with influential figures such as Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, returning | 24,099 |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.