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441274 | Westland Sea King | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Westland%20Sea%20King | Westland Sea King
as well as better onboard safety equipment, and recommended changes to procedure regarding the use of radar at night.
In July 2006, Sea King HC.4 helicopters based at RNAS Yeovilton were temporarily deployed to Cyprus to assist in Operation Highbrow, the evacuation of British citizens from Lebanon.
In October 2011, following several years of service in Afghanistan as troop transports for the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) forces stationed there, the Sea King HC.4s returned to the UK; their replacement is the AgustaWestland AW101 Merlin. Between April 2009 and July 2011, the Royal Navy's Sea Kings stationed at Camp Bastion conducted over 1000 operational missions. The initial | 6,129,000 |
441274 | Westland Sea King | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Westland%20Sea%20King | Westland Sea King
Afghan deployment had been criticised as the Sea Kings had not been fitted with protective Kevlar armour.
## Australia.
In 1974, Australia purchased 12 Westland Sea King Mk 50s as the Royal Australian Navy's new ASW helicopter; the Sea Kings replaced the aircraft carrier 's complement of Westland Wessex HAS31 in the following year. Early operations were troubled by a series of accidents. Between October 1975 to May 1979, four aircraft were lost in accidents, the primary causes were the loss of oil from the main gearbox.
The Australian Sea Kings had similar avionics to that of the Sea King HAS.1, with the same ARI 5995 search radar in a dorsal radome, but had American Bendix AN/ASQ-13A dipping | 6,129,001 |
441274 | Westland Sea King | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Westland%20Sea%20King | Westland Sea King
sonar instead of the Plessey sonar of the Royal Navy Sea Kings. They also had more powerful engines giving improved high temperature hover performance. Australia's Sea Kings were flown by 817 Squadron RAN from HMAS "Melbourne" until the carrier was retired from service, without replacement. As the Sea King was too large to operate from the s, 817 Squadron was then forced to operate from land bases, in both ASW and utility roles, with the Sea King relinquishing the anti-submarine mission in 1990.
During the 2003 Iraq War, Sea Kings were heavily used in logistical roles, such as the first delivery of humanitarian aid to the Iraqi capital, Baghdad. In the aftermath of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake | 6,129,002 |
441274 | Westland Sea King | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Westland%20Sea%20King | Westland Sea King
and tsunami, Australian Sea Kings played a major role in disaster relief efforts in Indonesia's Aceh province, delivering medical teams and supplies from Royal Australian Navy ships. Prior to retirement, the last major missions were flown during the 2010–11 Queensland floods, in which Sea Kings provided SAR coverage of the region and delivered aid relief to citizens in the flooded areas.
The replacement of the Fleet Air Arm's Sea King fleet commenced faster than initially planned following the loss of a Sea King during a humanitarian aid mission in Indonesia in April 2005, resulting in nine deaths. Investigators uncovered serious faults in the condition of the Sea King's mechanical flight control | 6,129,003 |
441274 | Westland Sea King | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Westland%20Sea%20King | Westland Sea King
system, resulting from maintenance deficiencies. In May 2007, the six remaining Sea Kings were grounded for two months following the discovery of a number of missing parts.
On 1 September 2011, the Australian Minister for Defence Materiel, Jason Clare, announced that the Sea Kings would be withdrawn from service in December 2011; having flown in excess of 60,000 hours in operations in Australia and overseas in that time. The farewell flight was conducted on 15 December 2011, three Sea Kings flew over Sydney Harbour and across to Canberra, passing Lake Burley Griffin and the Australian War Memorial before landing at Nowra. On 16 December 2011, the Chief of Navy presided over the ceremonial decommissioning | 6,129,004 |
441274 | Westland Sea King | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Westland%20Sea%20King | Westland Sea King
of 817 Squadron RAN at NAS Nowra. Five of the withdrawn helicopters have been made available for sale. The replacement for the Sea King is the MRH 90.
## India.
Following the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, Pakistan invested heavily in modern submarines and long-range torpedoes. In response, India opted to procure six Westland Sea Kings from Britain in 1969, for ASW duties, designated as Mk42. The purchase also included the provision of air-droppable homing torpedoes for use against submarines. The delivery of the aircraft began a few months before the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. Due to training shortfalls on the new helicopters, Sea King operations were considerably restricted during the 1971 | 6,129,005 |
441274 | Westland Sea King | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Westland%20Sea%20King | Westland Sea King
war; by November 1971, increased aircrew experience had enabled offensive anti-submarine operations to be conducted. The "Majestic"-class aircraft carrier was also refitted in 1972–1974 to enable extensive Sea King operations, becoming the carrier's primary anti-submarine aircraft.
During the early 1960s, India and Britain agreed upon the domestic production of the . The initial helicopter deployed aboard India's "Leander"s, known as the , was the Aérospatiale Alouette III, however, this offered much less capability in the anti-submarine role compared with the Sea King and the need for design changes was realised to allow the Sea King to be deployed upon the flight deck of the "Nilgiri" class, | 6,129,006 |
441274 | Westland Sea King | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Westland%20Sea%20King | Westland Sea King
a practice pioneered by the Royal Canadian Navy using their Sikorsky CH-124 Sea Kings on similar-sized frigates. It proved unfeasible to operate the Sea King from the unmodified "Nilgiri" class, with the last two ships of the class being fitted with an enlarged flight deck and hangar. This required removal of the ship's Limbo anti-submarine mortar. Beyond the original 1971 procurement, India chose to acquire a further six Mk42s in 1974, and three more in 1980; these three had been specifically modified to operate from the flight deck of the last two "Nilgiri"s and designated as Mk42A.
As a follow-on to the "Nilgiri"s, India commenced development of a new frigate, based on the "Leander"/"Nilgiri", | 6,129,007 |
441274 | Westland Sea King | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Westland%20Sea%20King | Westland Sea King
but larger. The resultant , also known as Project 16, could operate two Sea Kings simultaneously.
In 1982, India signed a contract to purchase several Mk42B Sea Kings, an upgraded variant to perform dual-purpose: anti-shipping and anti-submarine missions, following a competition for the order against the Aérospatiale Super Puma. These helicopters would operate from the "Godavari"-class frigates as well as replace the existing Sea Kings. A team of Indian engineers was sent to Britain to help develop the Mk42B's avionics, especially the onboard software. Changes from the older Sea Kings included a brand new avionics suite, the use of composite materials throughout the fuselage and in the rotor | 6,129,008 |
441274 | Westland Sea King | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Westland%20Sea%20King | Westland Sea King
blades, as well as the integration of the Sea Eagle missile, which had been procured from Britain in 1983. Between 1988 and 1992, a total of 20 Mk42B Sea Kings were delivered to the Indian Navy.
Six Sea Kings in troop-carrying capacity, designated Mk42C, were also procured in 1987. Although the Indian Navy considered the AEW Sea King, expected to be designated as Mk42D, it was judged to be too expensive, consequently, in 2003, the Russian Kamov Ka-31 was procured instead. The indigenous HAL Dhruv was the intended replacement for the Sea King in the ASW role, however, in 2000, it was deemed unsuited, as the Indian Navy were dissatisfied with the design's folding blade mechanism and by the Dhruv's | 6,129,009 |
441274 | Westland Sea King | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Westland%20Sea%20King | Westland Sea King
maintenance record.
In May 1998, the United States enacted sanctions upon India as a part of the international response to a series of nuclear weapons tests by India. , these sanctions effectively grounded India's Sea Kings because India could not purchase any US-supplied spare parts for the fleet. Westland also complied with the sanctions by refusing to maintain any US-made components. A limited number of Sea Kings were kept operational by cannibalising other aircraft and the manufacture of some components by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL). In December 2000, President Bill Clinton permitted a relaxation of the sanctions. In the late 2000s, HAL and AgustaWestland signed an agreement to | 6,129,010 |
441274 | Westland Sea King | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Westland%20Sea%20King | Westland Sea King
jointly maintain and perform upgrades to India's fleet of Sea Kings.
## Norway.
The Norwegian Ministry of Justice owns 12 Mk43B Sea Kings which are operated by the Royal Norwegian Air Forces's 330 Squadron. The aircraft are used for SAR and air ambulance missions and are under the command of the Joint Rescue Coordination Centre of Southern Norway and Northern Norway. Introduced in May 1973, they were originally stationed at Bodø Main Air Station, Ørland Main Air Station, Sola Air Station and Station Group Banak. In 1997, the squadron conducted 237 SAR and 747 air ambulance missions. From 1995 to 1998, one helicopter was stationed at Ålesund Airport, Vigra, and since 1999, one has been stationed | 6,129,011 |
441274 | Westland Sea King | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Westland%20Sea%20King | Westland Sea King
at Rygge Air Station. Florø Airport became a station for one helicopter from 2009.
The helicopters are to be replaced by AgustaWestland AW101 Merlin under the Norwegian All-Weather Search and Rescue Helicopter (NAWSARH) programme. The candidates for the NAWSARH contract of 10–12 helicopters was the AgustaWestland AW101 Merlin, NHIndustries NH-90, Eurocopter EC225 and Sikorsky S-92.
July 2013, AgustaWestland (AW101 Merlin) and Eurocopter (EC225) was short-listed to conduct further discussions for the NAWSARH programme for up to 16 helicopters.
## Germany.
The German Navy placed an order for 22 Sea King Mk.41s on 20 June 1969 as a replacement for the Grumman Albatross flying boat in the Search | 6,129,012 |
441274 | Westland Sea King | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Westland%20Sea%20King | Westland Sea King
and Rescue Role. This was the first export sale for the Westland Sea King, and was the first dedicated Search and Rescue Sea King variant, with an enlarged cabin and more fuel. The German Sea Kings had similar radar and navigation equipment to the HAS.1, but was not fitted with sonar. The 22 Sea Kings were delivered between April 1973 and September 1974, equipping "Marinefliegergeschwader" 5 (MFG 5) (Naval Air Wing 5). An additional Sea King was delivered in April 1975 to replace one destroyed in a gale. The surviving Sea Kings were upgraded between 1986 and 1988, adding the capability to carry Sea Skua anti-ship missiles, which required the addition of a Ferranti Seaspray radar in a nose radome.
The | 6,129,013 |
441274 | Westland Sea King | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Westland%20Sea%20King | Westland Sea King
21 remaining Sea Kings are tasked to a variety of roles including SAR, transport, disaster relief, tactical land–sea transport, evacuation, surveillance, reconnaissance and naval support. The main base is Nordholz, although units are always stationed at Heligoland Airport and Warnemünde, and sometimes at Borkum Airfield. The helicopters are scheduled to be replaced by the NH-90.
## Others.
Egypt is a prolific operator of the Sea King, using many different variants for a wide variety of purposes. In addition to operating ASW Sea Kings for coastal patrols, Egypt procured a land-based transport adapted from the basic Sea King, marketed by Westland as the Commando, including a VIP subvariant. | 6,129,014 |
441274 | Westland Sea King | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Westland%20Sea%20King | Westland Sea King
An electronic warfare version was also deployed by the Egyptian Air Force, featuring sophisticated onboard jamming systems. As of 2011, 23 Sea Kings/Commandos remain in service with Egypt.
The Qatar Emiri Air Force also operates Westland's Commando variant, as a standard utility transport for ground forces, a single one was also equipped specially to perform VIP transport duties. A few Qatari Sea Kings serve in an anti-shipping capacity and have been outfitted to carry, and deploy if required, two Exocet anti-ship missiles.
Pakistan's Navy took delivery of six "Mk.45" Sea Kings, a variant based on the Royal Navy's Sea King HAS.1 from 1975. It served in an combined anti-submarine and anti-ship | 6,129,015 |
441274 | Westland Sea King | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Westland%20Sea%20King | Westland Sea King
role, carrying the Exocet missile as an alternative to the normal anti-submarine weapon load of four Mark 44 or Mark 46 torpedoes. One of Pakistan's Sea Kings was lost in an accident in February 1986, and was replaced by an ex-Royal Navy HAS.5, redesignated Mk.45C, in January 1989.
The Belgian Air Force ordered five Sea King Mk.48s to perform Search and Rescue missions in 1974, which entered service in 1976. They were upgraded with new rotor blades in 1987–1988, and with revised avionics, including new radar and provision of a FLIR turret under the nose from 1995. In 2007 Belgium ordered eight NH90 helicopters in 2007, of which four were navalised NFH helicopters intended to replace the Sea | 6,129,016 |
441274 | Westland Sea King | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Westland%20Sea%20King | Westland Sea King
Kings in the SAR role. Delays in delivery of Belgium's NH90s, together with an increased demand for the NH90s to operate from the Belgian Navy's frigates, resulted in the retirement date for the Sea Kings being pushed back to 2018. Three Sea Kings remained operational in 2017. Belgian Sea Kings had been carried out over 3300 SAR sorties by the end of 2016, with over 1750 lives saved. Belgium retired its Sea Kings in December 2018, with a final flypast on 19 December. Their SAR role was taken on by two NHIndustries NH90 NATO Frigate Helicopters (NFHs) flying out of Koksijde Air Base near the coast of Flanders.
# Variants.
- Sea King HAS.1
- Sea King HAS.2
- Sea King AEW.2
- Sea King HAR.3
- | 6,129,017 |
441274 | Westland Sea King | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Westland%20Sea%20King | Westland Sea King
Sea King HAR.3A
- Sea King HC.4 / Westland Commando
- Sea King HC.4X
- Sea King Mk.4X
- Sea King HAS.5
- Sea King HAR.5
- Sea King AEW.5
- Sea King HU.5
- Sea King HAS.6
- Sea King HAS.6(CR)
- Sea King ASaC7
- Sea King Mk.41
- Sea King Mk.42
- Sea King Mk.42A
- Sea King Mk.42B
- Sea King Mk.42C
- Sea King Mk.43
- Sea King Mk.43A
- Sea King Mk.43B
- Sea King Mk.45
- Sea King Mk.45A
- Sea King Mk.47
- Sea King Mk.48
- Sea King Mk.50
- Sea King Mk.50A
- Sea King Mk.50B
- Commando Mk.1
- Commando Mk.2
- Commando Mk.2A
- Commando Mk.2B
- Commando Mk.2C
- Commando Mk.2E
- Commando Mk.3
# Operators.
- Egyptian Air Force
- German Navy
- Indian Naval Air Arm
- Royal | 6,129,018 |
441274 | Westland Sea King | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Westland%20Sea%20King | Westland Sea King
Norwegian Air Force
- Pakistan Naval Air Arm
- Qatar Emiri Air Force
- HeliOperations - Two operating for the training of Federal German Navy crews
## Former Operators.
- Royal Australian Navy
- Belgian Air Component - retired December 2018
- Royal Air Force - retired 2015
- Royal Navy - retired September 2018
# Aircraft on display.
- Australia
- N16-118 – Sea King Mk 50 on static display at the Fleet Air Arm Museum near Nowra, New South Wales.
- Belgium
- RS01 – Sea King Mk 48 on static display at the Royal Museum of the Armed Forces and Military History in Brussels.
- India
- IN504 – Sea King Mk 42 on static display at the HAL Aerospace Museum in Bangalore, Karnataka.
- IN505 | 6,129,019 |
441274 | Westland Sea King | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Westland%20Sea%20King | Westland Sea King
– Sea King Mk 42 on static display at the Naval Aviation Museum in Dabolim, Goa.
- United Kingdom
- XV677 – Sea King HAS.6 on static display at the South Yorkshire Aircraft Museum in Doncaster, South Yorkshire.
- XV712 – Sea King HAS.6 on static display at the Imperial War Museum Duxford in Duxford, Cambridgeshire.
- XZ574 – Sea King HAS.5 on static display at the Fleet Air Arm Museum in Yeovilton, Somerset. The aircraft was delivered to the Royal Navy in 1976 and was operated from HMS "Invincible" during Operation Corporate. During the rescue of the crew from ditched Sea King HC.4 "ZA311" on 23 April 1982, the helicopter was flown by HRH Prince Andrew.
- XZ592 – Sea King HAR.3 is on static | 6,129,020 |
441274 | Westland Sea King | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Westland%20Sea%20King | Westland Sea King
display at Morayvia in Kinloss, Moray.
- XZ593 – Sea King HAR.3 in storage at the Falkland Islands Museum and National Trust in Stanley, Falkland Islands. The aircraft was donated to the people of the Islands in 2016 after being retired. It will eventually go on display in a new museum annex.
- ZA298 – Sea King HC.4 on static display at the Fleet Air Arm Museum in Yeovilton, Somerset. Nicknamed the "King of the Junglies" it is notorious for having survived multiple times heavy combat damage without any fatalities. First in the Falkland War where it was hit by gunfire from an Argentinian A-4 Skyhawk, then during the Bosnian War where it was showered by small-arms fire and finally during the | 6,129,021 |
441274 | Westland Sea King | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Westland%20Sea%20King | Westland Sea King
war in Afghanistan where it suffered a direct hit by an anti-tank RPG.
- ZD477 - Sea King HC.4 on static display at East Midlands Aeropark.
# References.
## Bibliography.
- Allen, Patrick. "Sea King". London: Airlife, 1993. .
- Armistead, Leigh and Edwin Armistead. "Awacs and Hawkeyes: The Complete History of Airborne Early Warning Aircraft". St Paul, Minnesota: Zenith Imprint, 2002. .
- Baker, A.D. "The Naval Institute Guide to Combat Fleets of the World 1998–1999". Annapolis, Maryland, US: Naval Institute Press, 1998. .
- Bilgrami, S. J. R. "Dynamics of Sanctions in World Affairs". Bourne, Lincolnshire, UK: Atlantic Publishers, 2004. .
- Bud, Robert and Philip Gummett. "Cold War, Hot | 6,129,022 |
441274 | Westland Sea King | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Westland%20Sea%20King | Westland Sea King
Science: Applied Research in Britain's Defence Laboratories, 1945–1990". London: NMSI Trading, 2002. .
- Burden, Rodney A., Michael A. Draper, Douglas A. Rough, Colin A. Smith and David Wilton. "Falklands: The Air War". Twickenham, UK: British Aviation Research Group, 1986. .
- Byers, R.B. "The Denuclearisation of the Oceans". London: Taylor & Francis, 1986. .
- Carrara, Dino. "Sea Kings to the Rescue". "Air International", Vol. 77, No. 6, December 2009, pp. 78–82. .
- Chant, Christopher. "Air War in the Falklands 1982". Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2001. .
- Chant, Christopher. "A Compendium of Armaments and Military Hardware." London: Routledge, 1988. .
- Chartres, John. "Westland | 6,129,023 |
441274 | Westland Sea King | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Westland%20Sea%20King | Westland Sea King
Sea King: Modern Combat Aircraft 18". Surrey, UK: Ian Allan, 1984. .
- Chesneau, Roger. "Aeroguide 10: Westland Sea King HAR Mk 3". Essex, UK: Linewrights, 1985. .
- Donald, David., Christopher Chant. "Air War in the Gulf 1991". Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2001. .
- Ellis, Ken. "Wrecks & Relics" 22nd edition. Manchester, UK: Crecy Publishing, 2010. .
- Freedman, Lawrence. "The Official History of the Falklands Campaign: War and diplomacy". London: Routledge, 2005. .
- Fricker, John. "Pakistan's Naval Air Power". "Air International", Vol. 40 No. 6. June 1991. pp. 297–301. .
- Gibbings, David. "Sea King: 21 years Service with the Royal Navy". Yeovilton, Somerset, UK: Society of Friends | 6,129,024 |
441274 | Westland Sea King | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Westland%20Sea%20King | Westland Sea King
of the Fleet Air Arm Museum, 1990. .
- Gillett, Ross. "Australia's Armed Forces of the Eighties". Brookvale, New South Wales, Australia: Child & Henry, 1986. .
- Harding, Ian. "Going Strong at 40". "Air International", Vol. 92, No. 3, March 2017. pp. 84–87. .
- Hewish, Mark. "Air Forces of the World: An Illustrated Directory of All the World's Military Air Powers". New York: Simon & Schuster, 1979. .
- Hiranandani, G.M. "Transition to Eminence: The Indian Navy 1976–1990". New Delhi, India: Lancer Publishers, 2005. .
- Hiranandani, G.M. "Transition to Guardianship: Indian Navy 1991–2000". New Delhi, India: Lancer Publishers, 2012. .
- Hoyle, Craig. "World Air Forces Directory". "Flight | 6,129,025 |
441274 | Westland Sea King | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Westland%20Sea%20King | Westland Sea King
International", Vol 180 no. 5321, 13–19 December 2011. pp. 26–52. .
- Howard, Lee, Mick Burrow and Eric Myall. "Fleet Air Arm Helicopters since 1943". Staplefield, Sussex, UK: Air-Britain, 2011. .
- James, Derek N. "Westland Aircraft since 1915". London: Putnam, 1991. .
- Lake, Jon. "Westland Sea King: Variant Briefing". "World Airpower Journal", Volume 25, Summer 1996, pp. 110–135. London: Aerospace Publishing. . .
- McGowen, Stanley S. "Helicopters: An Illustrated History of their Impact". Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 2005. .
- Ripley, Tim. "Conflict in the Balkans, 1991–2000". Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2001. .
- "The Royal Air Force Handbook: The Definitive MoD Guide." | 6,129,026 |
441274 | Westland Sea King | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Westland%20Sea%20King | Westland Sea King
London: Conway, 2006. .
- Singh, Pushpindar. "Sealand to Bear-Foxtrot...The History of India's Naval Air Arm: Part Two". "Air International", Vol. 40 No. 1, January 1991. pp. 34–44. .
- Thorn, Jim and Gerard Frawley. "International Directory of Military Aircraft 1996–1997." Fyshwick, Australian Capital Territory, Australia: Aerospace Publications, 1996. .
- Uttley, Matthew. "Westland and the British Helicopter Industry, 1945–1960: Licensed Production versus Indigenous Innovation". London: Routledge, 2001. .
- "Westland's Multi-role Helicopter Family: Omnifarious Sea King". "Air International", Vol. 20, No. 5, May 1981, pp. 215–221, 251–252. .
# External links.
- helis.com Section on the | 6,129,027 |
441274 | Westland Sea King | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Westland%20Sea%20King | Westland Sea King
national", Vol. 40 No. 1, January 1991. pp. 34–44. .
- Thorn, Jim and Gerard Frawley. "International Directory of Military Aircraft 1996–1997." Fyshwick, Australian Capital Territory, Australia: Aerospace Publications, 1996. .
- Uttley, Matthew. "Westland and the British Helicopter Industry, 1945–1960: Licensed Production versus Indigenous Innovation". London: Routledge, 2001. .
- "Westland's Multi-role Helicopter Family: Omnifarious Sea King". "Air International", Vol. 20, No. 5, May 1981, pp. 215–221, 251–252. .
# External links.
- helis.com Section on the Westland Sea King
- Royal Australian Navy Sea King
- Sea King Mk7 Airborne Surveillance and Control
- Royal Air Force Sea Kings | 6,129,028 |
441362 | Thomas Chittenden | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thomas%20Chittenden | Thomas Chittenden
Thomas Chittenden
Thomas Chittenden (January 6, 1730August 25, 1797) was a major figure in the early history of Vermont, and was leader of the territory for nearly two decades. Chittenden was the first and third president of the state of Vermont, serving from 1778 to 1789, when Vermont was a largely unrecognized independent state, called the Vermont Republic, and again after a year out of office, from 1790 until his death. During his first term after his return to office, Vermont was admitted to the Union as the 14th state.
# Early life.
Chittenden was born in East Guilford in the Colony of Connecticut on January 6, 1730. He married Elizabeth Meigs on October 4, 1749, in Salisbury, Connecticut. | 6,129,029 |
441362 | Thomas Chittenden | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thomas%20Chittenden | Thomas Chittenden
The couple had four sons and six daughters while they were living in Connecticut. All the children survived to adulthood. He was a justice of the peace in Salisbury and a member of the Colonial Assembly from 1765 to 1769. He served in Connecticut's 14th Regiment from 1767 to 1773,
rising to the rank of Colonel.
# Career.
Chittenden moved to the New Hampshire Grants, now Vermont, in 1774, where he was the first settler in the town of Williston. In 1777, a convention was held in Windsor, which drafted Vermont's first constitution, establishing Vermont as an independent republic. During the American Revolution, Chittenden was a member of a committee empowered to negotiate with the Continental | 6,129,030 |
441362 | Thomas Chittenden | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thomas%20Chittenden | Thomas Chittenden
Congress to allow Vermont to join the Union. The Congress deferred the matter in order to not antagonize the states of New York and New Hampshire, which had competing claims against Vermont. During the period of the Vermont Republic, Chittenden served as governor from 1778 to 1789 and 1790 to 1791, and was one of the participants in a series of delicate negotiations with British authorities in Quebec over the possibility of establishing Vermont as a British province.
After Vermont entered the federal Union in 1791 as the fourteenth state, Chittenden continued to serve as governor until his death in 1797.
# Death.
Chittenden died in Williston on August 25, 1797 and is interred at Thomas Chittenden | 6,129,031 |
441362 | Thomas Chittenden | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thomas%20Chittenden | Thomas Chittenden
Cemetery, Williston, Chittenden County, Vermont. Citing Vermont's tumultuous founding, his epitaph reads "Out of storm and manifold perils rose an enduring state, the home of freedom and unity."
# Legacy and honors.
An engraved portrait of Chittenden can be found just outside the entrance to the Executive Chamber, the ceremonial office of the governor, at the Vermont State House at Montpelier. A bronze sculpture of Chittenden can also be found on the grounds of the Vermont State House near the building's west entrance. In the 1990s a statue of him was erected in front of the Williston Central School. The town of Chittenden in Rutland County is named for him.
# See also.
- Vermont Republic
- | 6,129,032 |
441362 | Thomas Chittenden | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thomas%20Chittenden | Thomas Chittenden
the entrance to the Executive Chamber, the ceremonial office of the governor, at the Vermont State House at Montpelier. A bronze sculpture of Chittenden can also be found on the grounds of the Vermont State House near the building's west entrance. In the 1990s a statue of him was erected in front of the Williston Central School. The town of Chittenden in Rutland County is named for him.
# See also.
- Vermont Republic
- Constitution of Vermont
- List of Governors of Vermont
# Further reading.
- Frank Smallwood, "Thomas Chittenden: Vermont's First Statesman", The New England Press : 1997, 304 pages,
# External links.
- Vermont Governor Thomas Chittenden – National Governors Association | 6,129,033 |
441346 | Ben Shahn | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ben%20Shahn | Ben Shahn
Ben Shahn
Ben Shahn (September 12, 1898 – March 14, 1969) was a Lithuanian-born American artist. He is best known for his works of social realism, his left-wing political views, and his series of lectures published as "The Shape of Content".
# Biography.
Shahn was born in Kaunas, Lithuania, then part of the Russian Empire, to Jewish parents Joshua Hessel and Gittel (Lieberman) Shahn. His father was exiled to Siberia for possible revolutionary activities in 1902, at which point Shahn, his mother, and two younger siblings moved to Vilkomir (Ukmergė). In 1906, the family immigrated to the United States where they rejoined Hessel, who had fled Siberia. They settled in the Williamsburg section | 6,129,034 |
441346 | Ben Shahn | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ben%20Shahn | Ben Shahn
of Brooklyn, New York, where two more siblings were born. His younger brother drowned at age 17. Shahn began his path to becoming an artist in New York, where he was first trained as a lithographer. Shahn's early experiences with lithography and graphic design is apparent in his later prints and paintings which often include the combination of text and image. Shahn's primary medium was egg tempera, popular among social realists.
Although Shahn attended New York University as a biology student in 1919, he went on to pursue art at City College in 1921 and then at the National Academy of Design. After his marriage to Tillie Goldstein in 1924, the two traveled through North Africa and then to Europe, | 6,129,035 |
441346 | Ben Shahn | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ben%20Shahn | Ben Shahn
where he made "the traditional artist pilgrimage." There he studied great European artists such as Henri Matisse, Raoul Dufy, Georges Rouault, Pablo Picasso and Paul Klee. Contemporaries who would make a profound impact on Shahn's work and career include artists Walker Evans, Diego Rivera and Jean Charlot.
Shahn was dissatisfied with the work inspired by his travels, claiming that the pieces were unoriginal. Shahn eventually outgrew his pursuit of European modern art, and redirected his efforts toward a realist style which he used to contribute to social dialogue.
The twenty-three gouache paintings of the trials of Sacco and Vanzetti communicated the political concerns of his time, rejecting | 6,129,036 |
441346 | Ben Shahn | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ben%20Shahn | Ben Shahn
academic prescriptions for subject matter. "The Passion of Sacco and Vanzetti" was exhibited in 1932 and received acclaim from both the public and critics. This series gave Shahn the confidence to cultivate his personal style, regardless of society’s art standards.
# Work during the Great Depression.
Shahn's subsequent series of California labor leader Tom Mooney won him the recognition of Diego Rivera. In May and June 1933, he served as an assistant to Diego Rivera while Rivera executed the Rockefeller Center mural. Shahn had a role in fanning the controversy, by circulating a petition among the workers. Also during this period, Shahn met photojournalist Bernarda Bryson, who would later become | 6,129,037 |
441346 | Ben Shahn | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ben%20Shahn | Ben Shahn
his second wife. Although this marriage was successful, the mural, his 1934 project for the Public Works of Art Projects and proposal for the Municipal Art Commission were all failures. Fortunately, in 1935, Shahn was recommended by Walker Evans, a friend and former roommate, to Roy Stryker to join the photographic group at the Resettlement Administration (RA). As a member of the group, Shahn roamed and documented the American south together with his colleagues Walker Evans and Dorothea Lange. Like his earlier photography of New York City, Shahn's photography for the RA and its successor, the Farm Security Administration, can be viewed as social-documentary. Similarly, Shahn’s New Deal art for | 6,129,038 |
441346 | Ben Shahn | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ben%20Shahn | Ben Shahn
the RA and FSA exposed American living and working conditions. He also worked for these agencies as a graphic artist and painter. Shahn's fresco mural for the school of Jersey Homesteads is among his most famous works, but the government also hired Shahn to execute the Bronx Central Annex Post Office and Social Security murals. In 1939, Shahn and his wife produced a set of 13 murals inspired by Walt Whitman's poem "I See America Working" and installed at the United States Post Office-Bronx Central Annex. Curator Susan Edwards recognizes the influence of this art on the public consciousness, writing, "The Roosevelt administration believed [such] images were useful for persuading not only voters | 6,129,039 |
441346 | Ben Shahn | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ben%20Shahn | Ben Shahn
but members of Congress to support federal relief and recovery programs … The art he made for the federal government affirms both his own legacy and that of the New Deal."
# World War II and beyond.
During the war years of 1942–43, Shahn worked for the Office of War Information (OWI), but his pieces lacked the preferred patriotism of the day and only two of his posters were published. His art's anti-war sentiment found other forms of expression in a series of paintings from 1944–45, such as "Death on the Beach", which depicts the desolation and loneliness of war. In 1945 he painted "Liberation" about the Liberation of Paris which depicts children playing in the rubble.
He also did a series, | 6,129,040 |
441346 | Ben Shahn | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ben%20Shahn | Ben Shahn
called "Lucky Dragon", about the Daigo Fukuryū Maru (literally, "Lucky Dragon No. 5"), the Japanese fishing boat caught in the Bikini Atoll hydrogen bomb blast. As of 2012, an important part of this series is in the collections of Fukushima Prefectural Museum of Art.
In 1947 he directed a summer session of the School of the Museum of Fine Arts at the Berkshire Museum in Pittsfield, Massachusetts.
Edward Steichen selected Shahn's work, including his October 1935 photograph "The family of a Resettlement Administration client in the doorway of their home, Boone County, Arkansas", for MoMA's world-touring The Family of Man which was seen by 9 million visitors. Only the huddled figure of the woman | 6,129,041 |
441346 | Ben Shahn | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ben%20Shahn | Ben Shahn
on the right hand half of Shahn's 35mm frame was blown up for the display.
From 1961 to 1967, Shahn worked on the stained glass at Temple Beth Zion, a Buffalo, NY synagogue designed by Harrison & Abramovitz.
Shahn also began to act as a commercial artist for CBS, "Time", "Fortune" and "Harper's". His well-known 1965 portrait of Martin Luther King, Jr. appeared on the cover of "Time". Despite Shahn's growing popularity, he only accepted commissions which he felt were of personal or social value. By the mid-1950s, Shahn's accomplishments had reached such a height that he was sent, along with Willem de Kooning, to represent the United States at the 1954 Venice Biennale. He was also elected to | 6,129,042 |
441346 | Ben Shahn | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ben%20Shahn | Ben Shahn
the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the National Institute of Arts and Letters and the Academia dell' Arte e del Disegno in Florence. The Art Directors Club Hall of Fame recognizes him as "one of the greatest masters of the twentieth century. Honors, books, and gallery retrospectives continue to rekindle interest in his work...years after his death."
The artist was especially active as an academic in the last two decades of his life. He received honorary doctorates from Princeton University and Harvard University, and joined Harvard as a Charles Eliot Norton professor in 1956. His published writings, including "The Biography of Painting" (1956) and "The Shape of Content" (1960), became | 6,129,043 |
441346 | Ben Shahn | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ben%20Shahn | Ben Shahn
influential works in the art world.
After his death, William Schuman composed "In Praise of Shahn", a modern canticle for orchestra, first performed January 29, 1970, by the New York Philharmonic, Leonard Bernstein conducting.
# Themes.
Ben Shahn’s social-realist vision informed his approach to art. Shahn’s examination of the status quo inspired his creative process. Although he often explored polemic themes of modern urban life, organized labor, immigration and injustice, he did so while maintaining a compassionate tone. Shahn identified himself as a communicative artist. He challenged the esoteric pretensions of art, which he believed disconnect artists and their work from the public. As | 6,129,044 |
441346 | Ben Shahn | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ben%20Shahn | Ben Shahn
an alternative, he proposed an intimate and mutually beneficial relationship between artist and audience.
Shahn defended his choice to employ pictorial realities, rather than abstract forms. According to Shahn, known forms allow the artist "to discover new truths about man and to reaffirm that his life is significant." References to allegory, the Torah, humanistic content, childhood, science, music and the commonplace are other motifs Shahn draws upon to make the universal personal for his viewers. Wit, candor and sentimentality give his images poignancy. By evoking dynamism, Shahn intended to inspire social change. Shahn stressed that in art, as in life, the combination of opposing orders | 6,129,045 |
441346 | Ben Shahn | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ben%20Shahn | Ben Shahn
is vital for progress. His hope for a unity among the diverse peoples of the United States relates to his interest in fusing different visual vocabularies.
# Style.
Shahn mixed different genres of art. His body of art is distinctive for its lack of traditional landscapes, still lifes, and portraits. Shahn used both expressive and precise visual languages, which he united through the consistency of his authoritative line. His background in lithography contributed to his devotion to detail Shahn is also noted for his use of unique symbolism, which is often compared to the imagery in Paul Klee's drawings. While Shahn's "love for exactitude" is apparent in his graphics, so too is his creativity. | 6,129,046 |
441346 | Ben Shahn | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ben%20Shahn | Ben Shahn
In fact, many of his paintings are inventive adaptations of his photography.
Evocative juxtapositions characterize his aesthetic. He intentionally paired contrasting scales, colors, and images together to create tension. One signature example is seen in his play between industrial coolness and warm human portrayals. "Handball" demonstrates his "use of architectural settings as both psychological foil to human figures and as expressive abstract pattern," and is also an example of his use of photographs as source material. His c.1933 untitled Gelatin silver print held in the Fogg Art Museum (Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Gift of Mrs. Bernarda B. Shahn) of handball players was | 6,129,047 |
441346 | Ben Shahn | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ben%20Shahn | Ben Shahn
made around 1933 just after he took up photography and before his period as a FSA photographer. It has striking symmetry rarely achieved amongst the random events of the street. To make the painting of the scene six years later, Shahn transcribed the positions of the handball players including the photographic accident of a tensed arm and leg that appears to sprout from the bomber jacket of the man at left, but he spreads the men away from each other and expands the frame to break the symmetry and to include a brownstone building over the top of the wall, and to encompass also a billboard at left. Gestures and poses are exaggerated and a hand is added to the figure at right which is cropped | 6,129,048 |
441346 | Ben Shahn | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ben%20Shahn | Ben Shahn
in the photograph. The line markings on the wall are made to converge to further stretch the space. In a 1957 interview, Shahn described his painting as being about “social relationships”.
Shahn's art is striking but also introspective. He often captured figures engrossed in their own worlds. Many of his photographs were taken spontaneously, without the subject's notice. To achieve these candid shots Shahn often used a right-angle viewfinder on his 35mm Leica; he can be seen using it in a window reflection in an untitled picture from his 1938 series made in Circleville, Ohio. Although he used many mediums, his pieces are consistently thoughtful and playful.
# Jersey Homesteads Mural.
The | 6,129,049 |
441346 | Ben Shahn | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ben%20Shahn | Ben Shahn
Farm Security Administration commissioned Ben Shahn to paint a mural for the school of Jersey Homesteads (later renamed Roosevelt), a New Jersey town initially planned to be a community for Jewish garment workers. Shahn's move to the settlement demonstrates his dedication to the project as does his mural's compelling depiction of the town's founding.
Three panels compose the mural. According to art historian Diana L. Linden, the panels' sequence relates to that of the Haggadah, the Jewish Passover Seder text which follows a narrative of slavery, deliverance and redemption. More specifically, Shahn’s mural depicts immigrants' struggle and advancement in the United States.
The first panel shows | 6,129,050 |
441346 | Ben Shahn | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ben%20Shahn | Ben Shahn
the antisemitic and xenophobic obstacles American immigrants faced. During the global Depression, citizens of the United States struggled for their livelihoods. Because foreigners represented competition for employment, they were especially unwelcome. National immigration quotas also reflected the strained foreign relations of the United States at a time when fascism, Nazism, and communism were on the rise. To illustrate the political and social adversary, Shahn incorporated loaded iconography: Nazi soldiers, anti-Jewish signs and the executed Italian anarchists, Sacco and Vanzetti. Below, Shahn's mother and Albert Einstein lead immigrants on a gangplank situated by the Ellis Island registry | 6,129,051 |
441346 | Ben Shahn | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ben%20Shahn | Ben Shahn
center and the Statue of Liberty. This section demonstrates the immigrants' heroic emergence in the United States.
The middle panel describes the poor living conditions awaiting immigrants after their arrival. On the right, Shahn depicts the inhuman labor situation in the form of "lightless sweatshops ... tedious and backbreaking work with outmoded tools." The crowd in the center of the composition represents labor unions and workers' reform efforts. Here, a figure resembling labor leader John L. Lewis protests in front of the Triangle Shirtwaist Company, where a devastating fire occurred and the movement for the International Ladies' Garment Workers Union (ILGWU) began. The lower right passageway | 6,129,052 |
441346 | Ben Shahn | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ben%20Shahn | Ben Shahn
marked ILGWU symbolizes a new and hopeful path, in the United States, paved by unionized labor.
In the last panel, the unions and the New Deal unite to create the blueprint for the town of the Jersey Homesteads. Various figures of social progress such as Sidney Hillman and Heywood Broun gather around the drafting table. Above them are images of the purposed cooperative farm and factory along with a campaign poster of Roosevelt, after whom the town was eventually named.
The arriccio, sinopia drawings of the fresco for Ben Shahn's Jersey Homesteads Mural, was removed from its original community center location in Roosevelt, NJ and is now permanently installed in a custom-designed gallery on | 6,129,053 |
441346 | Ben Shahn | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ben%20Shahn | Ben Shahn
the second floor of the US Post Office building at 401 Market St, Camden, NJ. This gallery adjoins the neighboring Mitchell H. Cohen Building and U.S. Courthouse (4th and Cooper Streets).
Shahn’s biographer Soby notes "the composition of the mural at Roosevelt follows the undulant principle Shahn had learned from Diego Rivera: deep recession of space alternating with human and architectural details projected forward." Moreover, the montage effectively intimates the amalgamation of peoples and cultures populating the urban landscape in the early 20th century. Multiple layers and perspectives fuse together to portray a complex industrialized system. Still, the mural maintains a sense of humanity; | 6,129,054 |
441346 | Ben Shahn | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ben%20Shahn | Ben Shahn
Shahn gives his figures a monumental quality through volume and scale. The urban architecture does not dwarf the people; instead, they work with the surroundings to build their own structure. Shahn captured the urgency for activism and reform, by showing gestures and mid-steps and freezing all the subjects in motion. This pictorial incorporation of "athletic pose and evocative asymmetry of architectural detail" is a Shahn trademark. While exemplifying his visual and social concerns, the mural characterizes the general issues of Shahn's milieu.
# Selected artworks.
- "Bartolomeo Vanzetti and Nicola Sacco Their Guards,"1932, Collection of Miss Patricia Healey Yale University
- "The Passion | 6,129,055 |
441346 | Ben Shahn | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ben%20Shahn | Ben Shahn
of Sacco and Vanzetti, 1931–3", Whitney Museum
- "Untitled (Houston Street Playground, New York City)," 1932, Fogg Art Museum
- "W.C.T.U Parade," 1933-4, Museum of the City of New York
- "Jersey Homesteads Mural," 1937-38, Community Center of the Federal Housing Development, Roosevelt, New Jersey
- "Still Music," 1938, Philips Collection, Washington DC
- "Handball", 1939, The Museum of Modern Art, New York (Mrs. John D. Rockefeller, Jr., Fund)
- "The Meaning of Social Mural," 1940-2, Federal Security Building, Washington, DC
- "For Full Employment after the War, Register-Vote," 1944, The Museum of Modern Art, New York
- "Allegory," 1948, Bill Bomar Collection at The Modern
- "Age of | 6,129,056 |
441346 | Ben Shahn | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ben%20Shahn | Ben Shahn
Anxiety," 1953, The Joseph H. Hirschhorn Foundation, Inc.
# Exhibitions.
- "Ben Shahn: Paintings and Drawings," 1930, Edith Halpert's Downtown Gallery in New York, New York
- "57th Annual American Exhibition: Water Colors and Drawings," 1946, Tate Gallery in London, England
- "Ben Shahn: A Retrospective," 1947, Museum of Modern Art in New York, New York
- "Esposizione Biennale internationale D’Arte XXVII," 1954 in Venice, Italy
- "Ben Shahn," 1962, Palais des Beaux-Arts in Brussels, Belgium; Galleria Nazionale D'arte Moderna in Rome, Italy; and Albertina in Vienna, Austria.
- "The Collected Prints of Ben Shahn," 1969, Philadelphia Museum of Art in Pennsylvania.
- "Ben Shahn: A Retrospective | 6,129,057 |
441346 | Ben Shahn | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ben%20Shahn | Ben Shahn
in Pennsylvania.
- "Ben Shahn: A Retrospective Exhibition," 1969, New Jersey State Museum, Trenton, New Jersey.
- "Ben Shahn's New York: The Photography of Modern Times," 2000-2001, Fogg Art Museum, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
# Further reading.
"Ben Shahn's New Deal Murals: Jewish Identity in the American Scene" by Diana L. Linden, 2015, Wayne State University Press
# See also.
- List of AIGA medalists
# External links.
- Ben Shahn in the National Gallery of Australia's Kenneth Tyler Collection
- Columbus Museum of Art More on "Father Coughlin"
- Shahn poster
- Ben Shahn and the Great Depression by Michigan State University
- Ben Shahn works in the collection of the Jewish Museum | 6,129,058 |
441353 | Education for Death | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Education%20for%20Death | Education for Death
Education for Death
Education for Death: The Making of the Nazi is an animated propaganda short film produced by Walt Disney Productions and released on January 15, 1943, by RKO Radio Pictures, directed by Clyde Geronimi and principally animated by Ward Kimball. The short is based on the non-fiction book of the same name by American author Gregor Ziemer. The film features the story of Hans, a boy born and raised in Nazi Germany, his indoctrination in the Hitlerjugend, and his eventual march to war.
# Plot.
At the beginning of the film, a German couple proves to a Nazi supreme judge that they are of pure Aryan blood and agree to give their son, whom they name Hans at the judge's approval, into | 6,129,059 |
441353 | Education for Death | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Education%20for%20Death | Education for Death
the service of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party. They are given a copy of "Mein Kampf" by the judge as a reward for their service to Hitler; their passport contains spaces for 12 more children (a hint that the couple is expected to produce a large family for the Fatherland).
This is followed by the only extended comical section of the cartoon, the tone of which is very light compared to the rest of the film. The audience is told that as Hans grows up, he hears a distorted version of "Sleeping Beauty" depicting Hitler as the knightly prince character rescuing an obese Valkyrie representing Germany, from a wicked witch representing democracy. (The narrator sarcastically comments that "the moral | 6,129,060 |
441353 | Education for Death | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Education%20for%20Death | Education for Death
of this story seems to be that Hitler got Germany on her feet, climbed onto the saddle, and took her for a ride.") Thanks to this kind of distorted children's story, Hans becomes fascinated with Hitler as he and the rest of the younger members of the Hitler Youth give the Hitler salute to a portrait of Hitler dressed as a knight.
In the following segment, the audience sees Hans sick and bedridden. His mother prays for him, knowing it will only be a matter of time before the authorities come and take him away to serve Hitler. A Nazi officer bangs on the door to take Hans away, but his mother says he is sick and needs care. The officer orders her to heal her son quickly and have him ready to | 6,129,061 |
441353 | Education for Death | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Education%20for%20Death | Education for Death
leave, implying if Hans does not get well, he will be euthanized. He orders her not to do anything more to him that will cause him to lose heart and be weak, explaining that a soldier must show no emotion, mercy, or feelings whatsoever.
Hans eventually recovers and resumes his "education" in a school classroom, where Hans and the rest of his classmates, all in Hitlerjugend uniforms, give the Hitler salute to portraits of Hitler, Hermann Göring, and Joseph Goebbels. They then watch as the teacher draws a cartoon on the blackboard of a rabbit being eaten by a fox, prompting Hans to feel sorry for the rabbit. The teacher, furious over the remark, orders Hans to sit in the corner wearing a dunce | 6,129,062 |
441353 | Education for Death | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Education%20for%20Death | Education for Death
cap. As Hans sits in the corner, he hears the rest of the classmates "correctly" interpret the cartoon as "weakness has no place in a soldier" and "the strong shall rule the weak". This causes Hans to recant his remark and agree that the weak must be destroyed.
Hans then takes part in a book-burning crusade, burning any books with ideas opposed to Hitler's (Albert Einstein, Baruch Spinoza, and Voltaire), replacing the Bible with "Mein Kampf" and the crucifix with a Nazi sword, and burning a Catholic church. Hans then spends the next several years "Marching and heiling, heiling and marching!". He reaches his teens (wearing a uniform similar to that of the Sturmabteilung) still "marching and | 6,129,063 |
441353 | Education for Death | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Education%20for%20Death | Education for Death
heiling" until he becomes an adult or "Good Nazi" (now in Wehrmacht uniform) embroiled in hatred towards anyone else who opposes Hitler. With "no seed of laughter, hope, tolerance, or mercy" planted in him, he "sees no more than the party wants him to [see], says nothing but what the party wants him to say, and he does nothing but what the party wants him to do."
In the end, Hans and the rest of the German soldiers march off to war only to fade into rows of identical graves, with nothing on them except a swastika and a helmet perched on top. Thus Hans's education is complete – "his education... for death."
# Production.
"Education for Death: The Making of the Nazi" was released when Disney | 6,129,064 |
441353 | Education for Death | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Education%20for%20Death | Education for Death
was under government contract to produce 32 animated shorts from 1941 to 1945. In 1940, Walt Disney spent four times his budget on the feature film "Fantasia" (1940) which suffered from low box office turnout. Nearing bankruptcy and with half of his employees on strike, Walt Disney was forced to look for a solution to bring money into the studio. The studio's close proximity to the military aircraft manufacturer, Lockheed, helped foster a U.S. government contract for 32 short propaganda films at $4,500 each. This saved the company from bankruptcy and allowed them to keep their employees on payroll.
The dialogue of the characters is in German, neither subtitled nor directly translated by Art | 6,129,065 |
441353 | Education for Death | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Education%20for%20Death | Education for Death
Smith's lone English language narration. A voice track of Adolf Hitler in full demagogic rant is used in a torchlight rally scene. A sequence follows in which Hans becomes a German soldier along with other Hitler Youth.
Intended as anti-Nazi propaganda during World War II, the film is rarely shown today, but it is featured on the DVD "Walt Disney Treasures: On the Front Lines", a compilation of Disney's wartime shorts released on May 18, 2004.
# Relationship to the Ziemer book.
Gregor Ziemer, an American author and educator who lived in Germany from 1928 to 1939, wrote the book "Education for Death" after fleeing Germany on the eve of World War II. The book highlights what was going on in | 6,129,066 |
441353 | Education for Death | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Education%20for%20Death | Education for Death
the Nazi schooling of the German youth.
The narrative story focuses around a group of youth that under the guidance of a Nazi storm trooper, Franzen, take a hiking trip into the woods. As night falls, Franzen "lectures the troop on their duty to preserve the purity of the human race, and proposes they symbolize this task with a solemn ritual to 'impress on us all that fire and destruction will be the end of those who do not think as we do.'" Franzen then hands out six books: the Talmud, the Koran, the works of Shakespeare, the Treaty of Versailles, a biography of Joseph Stalin, and the Bible. The books are passed around the circle and each boy spits on the books, hands them back to Franzen | 6,129,067 |
441353 | Education for Death | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Education%20for%20Death | Education for Death
who douses them with kerosene and lights them on fire. The troop then sings the "Deutschlandlied" (""Deutschland, Deutschland über alles"") and the Horst Wessel anthem around the fire.
The book inspired two different adaptations; "Education for Death" and "Hitler's Children". The former took Ziemer's conclusions very seriously, as it showed the education of Hans from an innocent, kind youth into a chained and muzzled Nazi drone. The scene of the storm trooper and the hiking trip is transplanted to a classroom where the teacher instructs the students about nature's laws about the strong fox having the right to kill the weak rabbit. When Hans does not agree with the teacher, he is punished until | 6,129,068 |
441353 | Education for Death | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Education%20for%20Death | Education for Death
s laws about the strong fox having the right to kill the weak rabbit. When Hans does not agree with the teacher, he is punished until he falls in line. The scene involving the book burning is part of the ending compilation of Nazi transformation and destruction. It shows a torch-bearing crowd setting fire to a pile of books of John Milton, Baruch Spinoza, Albert Einstein, Voltaire, and Thomas Mann. It then shows a burning of Felix Mendelssohn's wedding march, an allusion to the Nazi race laws, and the burning of a pile of art.
# See also.
- Walt Disney's World War II propaganda production
- American propaganda during World War II
- "Der Fuehrer's Face"
- List of World War II short films | 6,129,069 |
441389 | Steve Linford | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steve%20Linford | Steve Linford
Steve Linford
Stephen John "Steve" Linford (born 12 December 1956) is a British entrepreneur and anti-spam campaigner best known for founding The Spamhaus Project.
# Biography.
Linford was born in London, England, in 1956. His family moved to Rome, Italy, where Steve attended St. George's British International School. After leaving college to pursue a music career, Linford made his living writing music and playing with Italian, German and English rock groups. For a number of years he was under contract to Italy's 'GM' record label and worked on film music with composer Ennio Morricone In the early 1980s he became involved in concert production. When artists including Pink Floyd and Michael | 6,129,070 |
441389 | Steve Linford | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steve%20Linford | Steve Linford
Jackson toured Italy, Linford served as their Production Manager.
As computers began to be used in the music industry, Linford developed an interest in computer technology. In 1986 he moved to England, where he set up a software company whose flagship product was a file-searching program called UltraFind for the Apple Macintosh similar to, but predating by many years, Apple's Sherlock. With the arrival of the Internet Linford refocused the company in 1996 as an internet technologies company called Ultradesign Internet, around which he built a server hosting network called UXN.
Finding that his customers were being harassed with junk emails, he sought ways to stop the problem and in doing so | 6,129,071 |
441389 | Steve Linford | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steve%20Linford | Steve Linford
became an anti-spam campaigner. In 1998 he founded Spamhaus.
With the support of the internet's major networks, Spamhaus started a real-time spam-blacklisting database which was then used by internet service providers, governments and military networks to block billions of junk and virus emails from reaching internet users and this activity made Linford a target for cyber-criminals whose operations were crippled by Spamhaus. He received death threats from criminal spam gangs around the world, many of which were posted online.
Today his project's technologies are used by an estimated three-quarters of the world's internet networks and serve over 1.7 billion email users.
In 2005 Linford left | 6,129,072 |
441389 | Steve Linford | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steve%20Linford | Steve Linford
England to return to live by the Mediterranean and currently resides near Monaco. He is CEO of the Spamhaus organization, a group of several companies based in Geneva, Switzerland. The companies work in communications filter technology and internet security.
# Awards.
In 2003 the "New York Times" dedicated the front page of its Business section to an article about Steve Linford. Since then he has spoken on spam and security at government hearings, the European Parliament and the UN. In 2003 he was named as one of the technical industry's 'Top 50 Agenda Setters' by Silicon Magazine. In 2004 he was given the Internet Hero Award by the British ISP Association ISPA. In 2005 he was nominated for | 6,129,073 |
441389 | Steve Linford | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steve%20Linford | Steve Linford
tly resides near Monaco. He is CEO of the Spamhaus organization, a group of several companies based in Geneva, Switzerland. The companies work in communications filter technology and internet security.
# Awards.
In 2003 the "New York Times" dedicated the front page of its Business section to an article about Steve Linford. Since then he has spoken on spam and security at government hearings, the European Parliament and the UN. In 2003 he was named as one of the technical industry's 'Top 50 Agenda Setters' by Silicon Magazine. In 2004 he was given the Internet Hero Award by the British ISP Association ISPA. In 2005 he was nominated for Outstanding Contribution to the UK Technology Industry. | 6,129,074 |
441379 | Viva La Bam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Viva%20La%20Bam | Viva La Bam
Viva La Bam
Viva La Bam is an American reality television series that starred Bam Margera and his friends and family. The show was a spin-off from MTV's "Jackass", in which Margera and most of the main cast had appeared. Each episode had a specific theme, mission, or challenge which was normally accomplished by performing pranks, skateboarding, and enlisting the help of friends, relations and experts. Although partly improvised, the show was supported by a greater degree of planning and organization.
# History.
## Production.
The cast included Ryan Dunn, Brandon DiCamillo, Raab Himself, Brandon Novak, Tim Glomb, and Rake Yohn. The show also starred Margera's parents Phil and April and his | 6,129,075 |
441379 | Viva La Bam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Viva%20La%20Bam | Viva La Bam
uncle Don Vito. The show was mostly filmed in and around West Chester, Pennsylvania and also visited Las Vegas, Atlantic City, New Orleans, Los Angeles, Minneapolis, Mexico, Brazil, and Europe. Bam and his friends also went to Miami in 2006 for "Viva La Spring Break".
The show debuted on October 26, 2003, on the MTV network in the United States and was later licensed around the world. The first episode featured Bam building a skatepark inside his house. Tony Hawk starred in this episode. Each of the five seasons consisted of eight half-hour episodes, with the fifth and final season finishing on August 14, 2005. Later that year, in December, Bam Margera addressed rumors of a sixth season on | 6,129,076 |
441379 | Viva La Bam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Viva%20La%20Bam | Viva La Bam
"Last Call with Carson Daly". His comment was that there would be no sixth season, but there would be occasional MTV specials and he and Johnny Knoxville were planning things for possible "Jackass" stunts.
## Featured music and guests.
The show also often featured music from some of Margera's favorite bands, such as HIM, CKY, The Bloodhound Gang, Cradle of Filth, Clutch, Turbonegro, Dimmu Borgir, Carnal Forge, Slayer, Gwar, Children of Bodom, The Bled, The 69 Eyes, and skate rock legends Free Beer. Many of Margera's friends also appear on the show, including Johnny Knoxville, The Dudesons, and fellow skateboarders Tony Hawk and Bob Burnquist. Actor Sean Penn and his son Hopper also made an | 6,129,077 |
441379 | Viva La Bam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Viva%20La%20Bam | Viva La Bam
atured music from some of Margera's favorite bands, such as HIM, CKY, The Bloodhound Gang, Cradle of Filth, Clutch, Turbonegro, Dimmu Borgir, Carnal Forge, Slayer, Gwar, Children of Bodom, The Bled, The 69 Eyes, and skate rock legends Free Beer. Many of Margera's friends also appear on the show, including Johnny Knoxville, The Dudesons, and fellow skateboarders Tony Hawk and Bob Burnquist. Actor Sean Penn and his son Hopper also made an appearance in one episode. Rocker Billy Idol appeared on a very special birthday episode.
# See also.
- "Viva La Bands"
- "Bam's Unholy Union"
- "Bam's World Domination"
# References.
- ""Viva la Bam"" Seasons 1-5 MTV / 18 Husky Productions, 2003 - 2005 | 6,129,078 |
441382 | Wildboyz | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wildboyz | Wildboyz
Wildboyz
Wildboyz is an American television series. It is a spin-off and follow-up to "Jackass". "Wildboyz" debuted in 2003 on MTV, and moved to MTV2 in its third season. Steve-O and Chris Pontius are the stars of the show, who perform stunts and acts with animals, often putting themselves in situations for which they are not trained. The two are both stars of the hit movies "", "Jackass Number Two" and "Jackass 3D". They travel to different parts of the globe, performing their stunts in exotic environments while educating their audience on wildlife and local culture.
# Format.
"Wildboyz" follows the antics of Chris Pontius and Steve-O, as they travel around the globe. Over the course of 4 | 6,129,079 |
441382 | Wildboyz | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wildboyz | Wildboyz
seasons, Pontius and Steve-O have traveled to 19 different locations. At each location, the pair would both interact with the wild as well as learn the culture of the natives. Some of their antics include dressing up and running with the animals they encounter, subjecting themselves to the defense mechanisms of the animals, and eating the food of the native cultures.
The dangerous nature of the stunts arguably outstrips that of either "Jackass" or another similar spin-off, "Viva La Bam". In the course of the show, Steve-O has purposely subjected himself to the relatively mild sting of the emperor scorpion on more than one occasion, and Pontius has nearly been attacked by a wild jaguar and has | 6,129,080 |
441382 | Wildboyz | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wildboyz | Wildboyz
been bitten by a black bear. One of their most dangerous stunts showed the boys attracting a great white shark while disguised as seals, then later jumping into the open water just 10m away, as well as placing dangling meat attached to a hammock to attract wild lions. In another dangerous stunt, the pair dressed up as fake zebras in the Sahara near a lion den. The supposed sport of "hyena football" also made its debut, which in its earliest form was nothing more than a game of keep-away with a pack of spotted hyenas, using smoked ham as a ball. The "sport", according to its founders, "deserves Olympic status".
Despite the crude humor, the show has educational value, as it features accurate | 6,129,081 |
441382 | Wildboyz | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wildboyz | Wildboyz
narrations of various animals and indigenous cultures. What separates Steve-O and Chris Pontius from their animal show-host colleagues is their complete fearlessness despite their lack of training. This recklessness is also seen in their willingness to interact with the various cultures that they come in contact with. Steve-O and Chris seem open to any new experience, which has given them a chance to experience rituals and partake in events that a typical visitor or tourist may not be privy to.
Several members of the "Jackass" cast and crew have contributed assistance to the show. The director of "Jackass", Jeff Tremaine, returns as director and executive producer of "Wildboyz". Cameraman Dimitry | 6,129,082 |
441382 | Wildboyz | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wildboyz | Wildboyz
Elyashkevich also serves as the Director of Photography as well as executive producer for the show. Manny Puig, a wild animal expert who appeared on "Jackass" several times, occasionally joins the Wildboyz on their adventures. Fellow "Jackass" cast members Johnny Knoxville and Wee-Man also make occasional appearances on the show.
## End.
The show ended in 2006, after four seasons. The reason for not making a fifth season came after the death of Steve Irwin, on which Pontius and Steve-O commented, saying "If this could happen to him, and he's a professional, we've got to look out for our own safety." Steve-O's memoir, "Professional Idiot", makes no reference to Steve Irwin's death as factor | 6,129,083 |
441382 | Wildboyz | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wildboyz | Wildboyz
leading to the end of "Wildboyz". Steve-O writes instead that,
In all 32 episodes were produced, more than its predecessor "Jackass".
Though no proper series finale was created, the concept of "Wildboyz" was somewhat revisited during "Jackass Number Two", which was filmed after "Wildboyz" had ended. Director Jeff Tremaine says, "We shot some of the most amazing stuff [for "Wildboyz"] we've ever made. And so one of the ideas with "Number Two" was to recreate some of the best things we ever shot for "Wildboyz". Unfortunately, it didn't always work out."
- "The Fish Hook" sketch in "Jackass Number Two" featured "Wildboyz" stars Pontius, Steve-O and frequent collaborator Manny Puig, fishing for | 6,129,084 |
441382 | Wildboyz | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wildboyz | Wildboyz
sharks in the Gulf of Mexico. The sketch involved Pontius fishing with Steve-O as his bait, and in order to attach himself to Pontius' fishing line, Steve-O put a fish hook through his cheek. The sketch ended after Steve-O kicked a mako shark in the head. During the commentary for "Jackass Number Two", "Jackass"/"Wildboyz" cameraman Dimitry Elyashkevich jokingly called the sketch ""Wildboyz: The Movie!"".
- The "How to Milk a Horse" sketch was in fact filmed for "Wildboyz", according to Jeff Tremaine in the director's commentary for the DVD release, but due to its questionable content (Steve-O, Pontius, and Knoxville obtained a sperm sample from a studded horse, which Pontius proceeded to drink), | 6,129,085 |
441382 | Wildboyz | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wildboyz | Wildboyz
Tremaine said that it would never have aired on MTV.
Additional footage captured during the filming of "Jackass Number Two" also followed a "Wildboyz"-style format. These sketches can be seen in "Jackass 2.5":
- A balloon is placed between Steve-O's butt and is popped by the bite of an eastern diamondback rattlesnake.
- Chris Pontius is bitten on the nose by a snapping turtle in a scene identical to one filmed for "Wildboyz".
- Wee Man runs through the streets of India with dozens of other short men all dressed in blue with orange wigs, chasing Preston Lacy, and vice versa.
- Steve-o drinks beer off the fingernails of Shridhar Chillal, an Indian man alleged to have the longest fingernails | 6,129,086 |
441382 | Wildboyz | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wildboyz | Wildboyz
in the world. Steve-o throws up repeatedly, upsetting the many Indian actresses on set.
- One sketch was designed to display all Indian stereotypes in one scene. After much searching for a talent to perform this skit, Ehren McGhehey agrees reluctantly. He lies on a bed of nails wearing a turban with a cobra in a basket on his chest. He is surrounded by Indian snake charmers, a painted elephant, and "Wildboyz" stars Pontius and Steve-o.
- In a sketch dubbed by director Jeff Tremaine to be "the ultimate failed bit," "Jackass" stars Chris Pontius, Steve-o, and Dave England visit the Aghori tribe of India. The tribe disturbs the actors and the sketch fails.
Other sketches in "Jackass 3.5" similar | 6,129,087 |
441382 | Wildboyz | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wildboyz | Wildboyz
to "Wildboyz" include:
- Steve-O getting bitten on the buttocks by an alligator snapping turtle. Steve-O claimed numerous times throughout "Wildboyz" his dislike for alligator snapping turtles. Once the turtle bit, it refused to let go as Steve-O screamed and writhed in pain.
- During the filming of "Jackass 3", Jeff Tremaine discussed a scene he shot for "Wildboyz", in which Steve-O and Chris Pontius wore a two-person llama costume, and an actual llama with an erection attempted to mate with the costume. Tremaine claimed that seeing Steve-O, the bottom half, being "raped" by the llama was "the funniest thing he had ever filmed." The "Jackass" crew made an unsuccessful attempt to replicate | 6,129,088 |
441382 | Wildboyz | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wildboyz | Wildboyz
e funniest thing he had ever filmed." The "Jackass" crew made an unsuccessful attempt to replicate this with a donkey and a costume of one with clearly defined orifices. Steve-O and Johnny Knoxville manned the costume. Even after coating the orifices with female donkey urine, the donkey failed to become aroused. The same donkey suit makes a cameo appearance during the end credits of the 2012 Girl & Chocolate skateboard movie "Pretty Sweet".
# Cast and crew.
## Starring.
- Chris Pontius
- Steve-O
## Guest stars.
- Manny Puig
- Johnny Knoxville
- Wee-Man
- David Hasselhoff
- Method Man
- Juvenile
- Three 6 Mafia
- Loomis Fall
- Mat Hoffman
- Tony Hawk
- Macaque
- "Black mamba" | 6,129,089 |
441357 | Somali language | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Somali%20language | Somali language
Somali language
Somali ( ) is an Afroasiatic language belonging to the Cushitic branch. It is spoken as a mother tongue by Somalis in Greater Somalia and the Somali diaspora. Somali is an official language of Somalia, a national language in Djibouti, and a working language in the Somali Region of Ethiopia. It is used as an adoptive language by a few neighboring ethnic minority groups and individuals. The Somali language is written officially with the Latin alphabet.
# Classification.
Somali is classified within the Cushitic branch of the Afroasiatic family; specifically, as Lowland East Cushitic along with Afar and Saho. Somali is the best-documented Cushitic language, with academic studies | 6,129,090 |
441357 | Somali language | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Somali%20language | Somali language
of the language dating back to the late 19th century.
# Geographic distribution.
Somali is spoken by Somalis in Somalia, Somaliland, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Yemen, Kenya, and by the Somali diaspora. It is also spoken as an adoptive language by a few ethnic minority groups and individuals in these areas.
Somali is the second most widely spoken Cushitic language after Oromo.
As of 2006, there were approximately 16.6 million speakers of Somali, of which around 8.3 million resided in Somalia. The language is spoken by an estimated 95% of the country's inhabitants, and also by a majority of the population in Djibouti.
Following the start of the Somali Civil War in the early 1990s, the Somali-speaking | 6,129,091 |
441357 | Somali language | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Somali%20language | Somali language
diaspora increased in size, with newer Somali speech communities forming in parts of the Middle East, North America and Europe.
## Official status.
Constitutionally, Somali and Arabic are the two official languages of Somalia. Somali has been an official national language since January 1973, when the Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC) declared it the Somali Democratic Republic's primary language of administration and education. Somali was thereafter established as the main language of academic instruction in forms 1 through 4, following preparatory work by the government-appointed Somali Language Committee. It later expanded to include all 12 forms in 1979. In 1972, the SRC adopted a Latin | 6,129,092 |
441357 | Somali language | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Somali%20language | Somali language
orthography as the official national alphabet over several other writing scripts that were then in use. Concurrently, the Italian-language daily newspaper "Stella d'Ottobre" ("The October Star") was nationalized, renamed to "Xiddigta Oktoobar", and began publishing in Somali. The state-run Radio Mogadishu has also broadcast in Somali since 1943. Additionally, the regional public networks the Puntland TV and Radio and Somaliland National TV, as well as Eastern Television Network and Horn Cable Television, among other private broadcasters, air programs in Somali.
Somali is recognized as an official working language in the Somali Region of Ethiopia. Although it is not an official language of Djibouti, | 6,129,093 |
441357 | Somali language | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Somali%20language | Somali language
it constitutes a major national language there. Somali is used in television and radio broadcasts, with the government-operated Radio Djibouti transmitting programs in the language from 1943 onwards.
The Somali language is regulated by the Regional Somali Language Academy, an intergovernmental institution established in June 2013 in Djibouti City by the governments of Djibouti, Somalia and Ethiopia. It is officially mandated with preserving the Somali language.
As of 2013, Somali is also one of the featured languages available on Google Translate.
# Varieties.
Somali linguistic varieties are broadly divided into three main groups: Northern, Benadir and Maay. Northern Somali (or Nsom) forms | 6,129,094 |
441357 | Somali language | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Somali%20language | Somali language
the basis for Standard Somali. It is spoken by more than 60% of the entire Somali population, with its speech area stretching from northern Somalia to parts of the eastern and southwestern sections of the country. This widespread modern distribution is a result of a long series of southward population movements over the past ten centuries from the Gulf of Aden littoral. Lamberti subdivides Northern Somali is into three dialects: Northern Somali proper (spoken in the northwest; he describes this dialect as Northern Somali in the proper sense), the Darod group (spoken in the northeast and along the eastern Ethiopia frontier; greatest number of speakers overall), and the Lower Juba group (spoken | 6,129,095 |
441357 | Somali language | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Somali%20language | Somali language
by northern Somali settlers in the southern riverine areas).
Benadir (also known as Coastal Somali) is spoken on the central Indian Ocean seaboard, including Mogadishu. It forms a relatively large group. The dialect is fairly mutually intelligible with Northern Somali.
Maay is principally spoken by the Digil and Mirifle (Rahanweyn or Sab) clans in the southern regions of Somalia. Its speech area extends from the southwestern border with Ethiopia to a region close to the coastal strip between Mogadishu and Kismayo, including the city of Baidoa. Maay is not mutually comprehensible with Northern Somali, and it differs in sentence structure and phonology. It is also not generally used in education | 6,129,096 |
441357 | Somali language | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Somali%20language | Somali language
or media. However, Maay speakers often use Standard Somali as a lingua franca, which is learned via mass communications, internal migration and urbanization.
Maay is closely related with the Jiddu, Dabarre, Garre and Tunni varieties that are also spoken by smaller Rahanweyn communities. Collectively, these languages present similarities with Oromo that are not found in mainstream Somali. Chief among these is the lack of pharyngeal sounds in the Rahanweyn/Digil and Mirifle languages, features which by contrast typify Somali. Although in the past frequently classified as dialects of Somali, more recent research by the linguist Mohamed Diriye Abdullahi has shown that these varieties, including | 6,129,097 |
441357 | Somali language | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Somali%20language | Somali language
Maay, constitute separate Cushitic languages. The degree of divergence is comparable to that between Spanish and Portuguese. Of the Digil varieties, Jiddu is the most incomprehensible to Benadir and Northern speakers. Despite these linguistic differences, Somali speakers collectively view themselves as speaking a common language.
# Phonology.
Somali has 22 consonant phonemes.
The consonants often weaken to intervocalically. The retroflex plosive may have an implosive quality for some speakers, and intervocalically it can be realized as the flap . Some speakers produce with epiglottal trilling. is often epiglottalized.
The language has five basic vowels. Each has a front and back variation | 6,129,098 |
441357 | Somali language | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Somali%20language | Somali language
as well as long or short versions. This gives a distinct 20 pure vowel sounds. It also exhibits three tones: high, low and falling. Vowels harmonize within a harmonic group, so all vowels within the group must either be front or back. The Somali orthography does not distinguish between the front and back variants of vowels, however, as there are few minimal pairs.
The syllable structure of Somali is (C)V(C). Root morphemes usually have a mono- or di-syllabic structure.
Pitch is phonemic in Somali, but it is debated whether Somali is a pitch accent or tonal language. Andrzejewski (1954) posits that Somali is a tonal language, whereas Banti (1988) suggests that it is a pitch accent language.
# | 6,129,099 |
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