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Sorrentinos are a type of Argentine ravioli, but larger, more circular and originally wraped without fluted edge. The dough is made with flour and eggs, and the filling of the original recipe consists of ham and mozzarela.
History
Italian-Argentine chef Donato Di Santis says that sorrentinos are not an Italian pasta, and almost certainly have their origins in the Rio de La Plata region. It is believed that sorrentinos are a local derivation of the Italian ravioli capresi, whose dough is instead elaborated with flour, water and olive oil, while the filling is made with caciotta cheese, flavoured with oregano.
Most sources point to an Italian immigrant from Sorrento, Rosalía Pérsico or his son Cayetano Pérsico, who created this pasta while working in a famous trattoria of Mar del Plata, while other sources state that they originated in another restaurant in Mar del Plata called Sorrento. There is a slightly different version of the later story, in which a chef from Mar del Plata made the first sorrentinos in a Buenos Aires' restaurant whose name is also Sorrento. Argentino "Chiche" Véspoli, another immigrant from Sorrento was the owner of the first restaurant to serve up the dish, and recognized as such by Sorrento's authorities and the Sorrento's chapter of Lions Club.
Ingredients
The dough is made with flour and eggs, and they have a variety of fillings that can combine mozzarela, ricotta, ham, spinach, pumpkin, chard, caramelized onions or nuts. There are variants that add fish, herbs and olives to the filling, like salmon mixed with rosemary or tuna with parsley and olives. The use of poultry is not unusual. In the original recipe, the pasta was shaped with the border of a cup. There are gluten-free and vegan recipes, with the dough made of rice flour, water and oil. The sauce for Sorrentinos in the original recipe is the "Véspoli's sauce", a mix of melted cheese, spinach and basil.
See also
Argentine cuisine
References
Types of pasta
Dumplings
Argentine cuisine | wiki |
Dr. James Emery served as a missionary in Guatemala with the Presbyterian Church, and was co-founder of the Theological Education by Extension movement there, and then taught at Missionary Internship (MI and CO) until his death in 1999.
Notes
Year of birth missing
1999 deaths
American Presbyterian missionaries
Presbyterian missionaries in Guatemala
American expatriates in Guatemala | wiki |
The following is a list of Egyptian hieroglyphs with triconsonantal phonetic value.
See also
Transliteration of ancient Egyptian
Egyptian uniliteral signs
Egyptian biliteral signs
List of hieroglyphs
References
James P. Allen, Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs, Cambridge University Press, 15 Apr 2010 29ff.
External links
omniglot.com | wiki |
Solar boat may refer to:
solar barge, also known as a "solar bark", "solar barque", "solar boat", or "sun boat", the mythical boat used by the sun gods of various polytheistic religions.
An electric boat powered by direct solar energy. | wiki |
Emotional disturbance may refer to:
Emotional and behavioral disorders, most frequently used in an educational context
Mental disorders, especially those involving emotions or emotional disorders
Emotional trauma
Emotional distress
Mania and depression
Anxiety, fear, extreme sadness or anger, and other emotions that may disturb the mental state of an individual | wiki |
A hope chest, also called dowry chest, cedar chest, trousseau chest, or glory box is a piece of furniture traditionally used by unmarried young women to collect items, such as clothing and household linen, in anticipation of married life.
The term "hope chest" or "cedar chest" is used in the Midwest or South of the United States; in the United Kingdom, the term is "bottom drawer"; while both terms, and "glory box" are used by women in Australia.
Social context
Using her own needlework skills to construct a trousseau and stock her glory-box "was for the working girl the equivalent of planning and saving for marriage on the part of the provident and ambitious young man."
The collection of a trousseau was a common coming-of-age rite until approximately the 1950s; it was typically a step on the road to marriage between courting a man and engagement. It wasn't always collected in a special chest, hence the alternative UK term bottom drawer, which refers to putting aside one drawer in a chest of drawers for collecting the trousseau undisturbed, but such a chest was an acceptable gift for a girl approaching a marriageable age.
Contents of a "hope chest" or "glory box" included typical dowry items such as clothing (especially a special dress), table linens, towels, bed linens, quilts and occasionally dishware. As a bride would typically leave home on marriage, hope chests were sometimes made with an eye to portability, albeit infrequently. Examples of hand-made items made between 1916 and 1918 for a trousseau by a prospective bride are on display in the National Museum of Australia. In this case, the trousseau—never used because its creator's fiancé was killed in World War I before the marriage took place—was stored in calico bags rather than in a chest.
The hope chest was often used for the firstborn girl of a family. Instead of just having sheets and household linen in the bottom drawer, this box would transport these goods and dowries and then later be used as a standard piece of furniture for the lady of the house to use. This dowry chest was often richly decorated, however over time dowry chests gradually became smaller, with jewelry boxes emerging instead of large dowry boxes.
By contrast, a "bridal chest" was given to a bride at her wedding, by her husband, and so is not a "hope chest" in this sense.
Historical origins
Cassone of renaissance Italy
Large decorated and showy chests, forming part of dynastic marriages in 15th and 16th century Italy. These were prized displays of wealth, of even more value than their contents.
Dutch kast or German Schrank
These are tall wardrobe-like chests with double doors. These are larger than most hope chests, intended for regular service in the home after marriage, and so were constructed as to partially dismantle for transport.
American settlers
The peak of the hope chest as folk art came with the waves of European immigrants to America. Many of these, from Scandinavia to the Northern Midwest and Germans in Pennsylvania (Amish, had long traditions of plainly constructed chests with extensive painted decoration.
Arabic origins
These chests were also known as "dower chests" in the Middle East. "The more than 300,000 surviving documents in the Cairo Genizah are one of our richest sources of insight into daily life in Egypt from the ninth to the 19th centuries. Among them are numerous marriage contracts, and almost all refer to a dower chest. For it, we see two names used: The muqaddimah was specifically for the bride’s personal possessions; sunduq, which normally came in matching pairs, were for other goods. They were not usually elaborately decorated, except in the case of the ruling class."
Suffocation hazard to children
There have been several instances of child deaths due to suffocation inside hope chests, due to the piece's traditional design which can trap children under a heavy and sometimes self-locking lid. In 1996, following reports of at least six child suffocation deaths, the manufacturer Lane Furniture recalled 12 million hope chests, the lids of which latched shut automatically, and could not be opened from the inside. Specifically, the recall applied to the locks of all "Lane" and "Virginia Maid" cedar chests manufactured between 1912 and 1987. As part of the recall, they provide new lock latch configuration replacement parts. However, they estimated that 6 million chests still used the recalled lock latch. As of 2021, Lane Furniture still offered replacement locks through their website.
Styles
The typical hope chest is of lidded blanket chest form. In some traditions, there may also be one or two side-by-side drawers beneath. As with blanket chests, a small till may also be found inside for small items. As the contents of such a chest would primarily be linens, construction in moth-repellent cedar, or at least a cedar lining, was popular, leading to the name "cedar chest". The Eastern Redcedar (Juniperus virginiana) is the "cedar" typically used.
Lane Company chests
The Lane Company of Altavista, Virginia (active 1912-2001) was a notable maker of cedar chests. After developing production-line techniques for making ammunition boxes during World War I, they turned these production techniques (and a patented locking-mitre corner joint) into vast numbers of chests. This was aided by strong advertising, using a teenaged Shirley Temple as a model, in a campaign targeted at GIs and absentee sweethearts of World War II. They were particularly well known for their practice (since 1930) of distributing miniature (9" long) cedar chests to girls graduating from high-school as advertising gifts.
Decoration
Decoration is not an intrinsic part of the hope chest, but often appears.
Carving
Carving was notable in the 17th and 18th century joined oak chests. The Hadley chests of Massachusetts are covered by extensive surface carving in the typical low-relief style of the period.
Engraving
Engraving is one way of decorating hope chests or cedar chests. It is common to add engravings to personalize your chests or make them unique in the Amish communities.
Painting
This is typically seen in the Scandinavian and German immigrant traditions and follows traditional styles. In many Arab countries, they are still referred to as "sanduq ‘arus", or “wedding box,” although modern trends have them made of metal rather than wood, and looking more like a footlocker. They are elaborately painted, often with a mosque dome or architectural design on the lid, with the color red predominating.
Gesso
The elaborate gilded gesso of the cassoni was produced by skilled and expensive craftsmen. This work has not been seen since and doesn't form part of the folk tradition.
Sulfur inlay
Sulfur inlay is a rare technique in furniture and for chests it is only known for a short period. Between 1765 and around 1820, German immigrant cabinetmakers in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, used it to decorate the surface of chests. The Deitrich chest of 1783 is now in the Smithsonian.
In popular culture
In the 1920s, 'hope chest' was slang for a pack of cigarettes.
"Glory Box" is also the title of a song from the band Portishead. The song is about a woman who is giving up her time as a temptress to commit to a settled life with a man, asking him to take a look from her side every now and then.
In the 1985 movie Back to the Future, the 1955 version of the character Lorraine McFly (maiden name Baines) refers to having placed Marty McFly's pants "over there...on my hope chest" after he had been knocked unconscious. The joke implies her romantic interest in Marty when, unbeknownst to Lorraine, Marty is her son from the future.
In Glee, Kurt Hummel has claimed to own a hope chest. This is an ironic inversion of the hope chest's usual role for a prospective bride, as Kurt is a gay teenage boy.
In the 2012 film The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey, Bilbo Baggins asks Kili to "please not do that" on his mother's glory box, when the dwarf cleans his boots on the chest. This suggests that in Middle Earth women (possibly from the high society) also used hope chests, at least in Hobbiton.
In Me and You and Everyone We Know, Peter and Robbies' neighbor has a hope chest, which is a part of the climax of the film.
In The New Yankee Workshop, Norm Abram demonstrates how to build and paint a Pennsylvania Dutch-style hope chest (called a dower chest in the episode) modeled on one on display at the Winterthur Museum in Delaware.
See also
Bride price
Dower
Dowry
References
External links
Chests (furniture)
Marriage | wiki |
An ice pack or gel pack is a portable bag filled with water, refrigerant gel, or liquid, meant to provide cooling. They can be divided into the reusable type, which works as a thermal mass and requires freezing, or the instant type, which cools itself down using chemicals but can only be used once. The instant type is generally limited to medical use as a cold compress to alleviate the pain of minor injuries, while the reusable type is both used as a cold compress and to keep food cool in portable coolers or in insulated shipping containers to keep products cool during transport.
Reusable packs
To be prepared for use, the pack is first placed in a freezer. Both ice and other non-toxic refrigerants (mostly water) can absorb a considerable amount of heat before they warm above .`
Ice packs are used in coolers to keep perishable foods (especially meats, dairy products, eggs, etc.) below the danger zone when outside a refrigerator or freezer, and to keep drinks pleasantly cool. The amount of ice needed varies with the amount of food, its initial temperature, the thermal insulation of the cooler, and the ambient temperature and exposure to direct sunlight. Ice initially well below freezing temperature will last a little longer.
Water has a much higher latent heat of fusion than most substances, and a melting temperature which is convenient and easily attained with, for example, a household freezer. Additives to improve the properties of water are often used. For example, substances can be added to prevent bacterial growth in the pack, or to prevent the water from solidifying so it remains a thick gel throughout use.
Gel packs are often made of non-toxic materials that will remain a slow-flowing gel, and therefore will not spill easily or cause contamination if the container breaks. Gel packs may be made by adding hydroxyethyl cellulose, sodium polyacrylate, or vinyl-coated silica gel.
Hot-or-cold packs
Hot-or-cold packs are ice packs that are rated for high temperature use. They can be used as a normal reusable ice pack by storing in a freezer, but they can also be heated in water or a microwave oven to reach the desired temperature. The first hot and cold pack was introduced in 1948 with the name Hot-R-Cold-Pak and could be chilled in a refrigerator or heated in hot water. The first reusable hot cold pack that could be heated in boiling water or a microwave oven was first patented in 1973.
Instant ice packs
An instant cold pack is a single-use device that consists of two bags; one containing water, inside a bag containing ammonium nitrate, calcium ammonium nitrate or urea. When the inner bag of water is broken by squeezing the package, it dissolves the solid in an endothermic process. This process absorbs heat from the surroundings, quickly lowering the pack's temperature.
Instant cold packs are a convenient replacement for crushed ice used as first aid on sport injuries or heat illness, and can be carried as first aid to remote or wilderness areas where ice is unavailable. However, they do not provide as much or as long-lasting cooling as ice.
Safety concerns
Gel packs have been made with diethylene glycol and ethylene glycol. Both can cause illness if ingested in large amounts, making them unsuitable for use with food. The US Consumer Product Safety Commission recalled such packs.
See also
Cryotherapy
Hot pack
Hand warmer
Hilotherapy
Phase-change material
Enthalpy of fusion
References
Medical treatments
Cooling technology
Food preservation
Medical equipment
Cryotherapy
Packaging | wiki |
A heat pack is designed to warm up one's body to prevent swelling of injuries. A heat pack can be:
an ice pack that is heated (containing a liquid or a gel with high specific heat)
a heating pad that heats when you start the crystallisation process | wiki |
Inveraldie is a village in Angus, Scotland. It lies on the north-bound side of the A90 road, two miles north of Dundee.
References
Villages in Angus, Scotland | wiki |
The Great Western Trail is a hiking trail in the western United States that extends from Canada to Mexico.
Great Western Trail may also refer to:
Great Western Trail (Illinois)
Great Western Trail (Iowa)
Great Western Trail (board game)
Great Western Cattle Trail | wiki |
This is a list of chicken breeds usually considered to be of German origin. Some may have complex or obscure histories, so inclusion here does not necessarily imply that a breed is predominantly or exclusively from Germany.
References
Chicken | wiki |
The Vampire Diaries is an American supernatural horror romance television series created by Kevin Williamson based on the novels of the same name by author L. J. Smith. It was officially picked up for the 2009–10 season on May 19, 2009. It premiered on September 10, 2009, on The CW and received the highest ratings for a series premiere in the network's history at that point, scoring 4.91million live viewers.
The series focuses on the fictional town of Mystic Falls, Virginia, that is charged with supernatural history. It follows Elena Gilbert portrayed by Nina Dobrev as she begins to get over her parents' death, when two vampires pull her into a world she didn't know before, Stefan and Damon Salvatore, portrayed by Paul Wesley and Ian Somerhalder, respectively. Kayla Ewell portrayed Vicki Donovan for the first seven episodes until her character was killed off. Matt Davis was later cast as a history teacher in a recurring role to fill the void. He was later upgraded to series regular status. The season concluded on May 13, 2010, and consisted of 22 episodes.
Cast
Starring
Nina Dobrev as Elena Gilbert / Katherine Pierce
Paul Wesley as Stefan Salvatore
Ian Somerhalder as Damon Salvatore
Steven R. McQueen as Jeremy Gilbert
Sara Canning as Jenna Sommers
Kat Graham as Bonnie Bennett
Candice Accola as Caroline Forbes
Zach Roerig as Matt Donovan
Kayla Ewell as Vicki Donovan
Michael Trevino as Tyler Lockwood
Matt Davis as Alaric Saltzman
Recurring
Malese Jow as Anna
Marguerite MacIntyre as Liz Forbes
Robert Pralgo as Richard Lockwood
Kelly Hu as Pearl
Susan Walters as Carol Lockwood
Chris Johnson as Logan Fell
Jasmine Guy as Sheila Bennett
David Anders as John Gilbert
Sterling Sulieman as Harper
Chris William Martin as Zach Salvatore
Bianca Lawson as Emily Bennett
Melinda Clarke as Kelly Donovan
Mia Kirshner as Isobel Flemming
Guest
Benjamin Ayres as William Tanner
Sean Faris as Ben McKittrick
Stephen Martines as Frederick
James Remar as Giuseppe Salvatore
Arielle Kebbel as Lexi Branson
Gina Torres as Bree
Brandon Quinn as Lee
Dillon Casey as Noah
Amanda Detmer as Trudie Peterson
Spencer Locke as Amber Bradley
Mike Erwin as Charlie
David Anders as John Gilbert
Cindy Busby as Brooke Fenton
Notes
Episodes
Production
On February 6, 2009, Variety announced that The CW had greenlit the pilot for The Vampire Diaries with Kevin Williamson and Julie Plec set as the head writers and executive producers. On May 19, 2009, the series was officially ordered for the 2009–2010 season.
The pilot was filmed in Vancouver, but the rest of the episodes have been filmed in Covington, Georgia (which doubles as the fictional small town of Mystic Falls, Virginia) and various other communities around Greater Atlanta. The series was given a full, 22-episode order on October 31, 2009, after strong ratings for the first half of the season.
Storylines
The season begins after the deaths of Elena and Jeremy Gilbert's parents. Both are put in their Aunt Jenna's custody. Jeremy has become a loner and Elena starts dating a boy named Stefan Salvatore. It is soon revealed that Stefan is a vampire and his brother Damon shows up in Mystic Falls and kills people at random.
Another supernatural revelation occurs when Elena's friend Bonnie Bennett discovers she is born into a line of witches and is a witch herself. She gets help from her grandmother to use her powers. Elena's friends and acquaintances also become involved such as Tyler Lockwood, son of the mayor, and Matt Donovan, Elena's ex-boyfriend and Caroline Forbes, daughter of the sheriff. It also turns out that Elena is the doppelganger of Katherine Pierce, a woman who, centuries ago, seduced the Salvatore brothers and turned them into vampires, turning their vampire hunting father against them, though Stefan ends up killing him. Katherine was presumably trapped in a tomb beneath the church and Damon is planning on releasing her. Lexi, a friend of Stefan's shows up and befriends Elena, but is killed by Damon, driving a wedge between brothers.
Jeremy falls in love with Vicki Donovan, Matt's sister, who uses drugs like him, but she was dating Tyler and starts a rivalry between the boys. Vicki breaks up with Tyler for Jeremy. She is later turned into a vampire by Damon, but her bloodlust was out of control and she is killed by Stefan. Jeremy witnesses this and Elena asks Damon to make Jeremy forget this to spare him the pain. Matt on the other hand is devastated.
After the history teacher is killed, a man named Alaric is hired to take his place. Alaric came to town to kill Damon, believing him to have killed his wife, Isobel. Damon tries to kill him in self-defense, but Alaric wears a ring that keeps him from dying at supernatural hands. It is revealed Damon didn't kill Isobel, but turned her into a vampire on her own account. Later, Alaric and Damon become friends.
At one point, Damon finds the tomb under the church, and has Bonnie and her grandmother help open it to find Katherine. During the search, a number of vampires escape, and it is discovered Katherine already escaped long ago. The tomb vampires are led by a female vampire named Pearl and her daughter Anna. Bonnie's grand mother dies and Bonnie begins to resent vampires. It also turns out a group called the Founder's Council know of the vampires and wish to kill them. The council is led by Tyler's abusive father, Richard Lockwood. Caroline's mother, Sheriff Elizabeth Forbes is also a member, despite being friends with Damon, unknown that he is a vampire. Anna also starts a relationship with Jeremy. Jenna also starts dating a man named Logan, who cheated on her in the past. Soon, Logan is turned into a vampire by Anna, and is killed by Alaric, who tells her he left town. From that point Jenna starts dating Alaric.
It is not long before Elena and Jeremy's uncle John, who they grew up hating shows up. John is working for the council. The Council wish to use the Gilbert device to kill all vampires in Mystic Falls. Damon tries to kill John, but he is wearing a ring similar to Alaric's. It is revealed that John and Isobel, Alaric's vampire wife, are Elena's biological parents, they had Elena adopted by John's brother for her protection. It turns out they are also working for Katherine, and are using Mayor Lockwood and the others as pawns, although Isobel tells Elena their unofficial goal is to protect her.
In the seasons climax, during Founders day, Richard and John execute their plan to kill the vampires, both willing to use innocent people as collateral damage. Sheriff Forbes tries to oppose their plan, but is knocked out by John and chained up. John uses the local police who are in on the scheme as foot soldiers. The device is activated and the vampires are neutralized and taken away to be burnt in a basement, but Tyler is affected by the device as he had supernatural genes himself (later revealed to be werewolf); since Richard has these genes, the deputies think he is a vampire and lock him in the basement where he is burnt alive and killed by the vampires. Richard's wife, Carol goes to the station to rescue the sheriff but they are unable to save Richard. John also kills Anna, so Jeremy, not wanting to deal with the pain tries to become a vampire via Anna's blood. During the fiasco, Caroline is in a car accident, Elena also confronts John with the knowledge that he's her father and Bonnie rescues the Salvatore brothers, letting them off with a warning so Damon doesn't kill anyone innocent.
Sheriff Forbes finds her daughter has been injured and goes to the hospital where she is comforted by Damon. John heads home and finds Katherine, who is posing as Elena. Katherine stabs John several times and severs his ring finger and leaves him to die. As Katherine leaves, Elena comes in and finds her father injured.
Reception
Critical response
Based on 28 reviews, the 1st season currently holds a 71% on Rotten Tomatoes with an average rating of 6.91 out of 10. The site's critics consensus reads, "It's not particularly innovative and there's a lot of angsty brooding going on, but there's a self-referential cheekiness in The Vampire Diaries that will appeal directly to its target audience."
The initial reception of the show was mixed, Entertainment Weekly gave the pilot a B+, stating that the show "signals a welcome return to form for writer-producer Kevin Williamson". They end by saying that "Diaries promises us a season of sharp-tongued amusement." Metacritic gave the show a score of 50/100 based on 22 critical reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews".
Many critics felt that the series improved with each episode. Sarah Hughes of The Independent says The Vampire Diaries turns into "a well-crafted, interestingly developed series" despite a poor opening episode. The New York Post also praised the portrayal of Elena, finding the character to be a strong-minded woman who doesn't allow her feelings for her boyfriend to control her. The San Diego Union-Tribune said: "The supernatural drama is a first-class production, featuring an insanely gorgeous cast, sharp scripts and a brooding vibe that is hard for even the most levelheaded adult to resist." Mike Hale of The New York Times gave the series an honorable mention on his list of the top TV shows of 2009.
The Vampire Diaries premiered on September 10, 2009, and gave The CW its biggest series premiere ratings in its network history scoring 4.9 million viewers. Adding in DVR numbers, the ratings for the premiere increased to 5.7 million viewers. Although ratings decreased as the season went on, it reached a series high in adults 18–34 (2.3/7) on October 29, with the broadcast of its Halloween episode. Including DVR ratings the second episode brought in 4.7 million viewers, the third 4.6 million, the fourth 4.3 million, the fifth 4.4 million, the sixth 4.6 million, the ninth 4.9 million, and 4.3 million viewers for the fifteenth episode.
Vampire Diaries Season 1 aired in Urdu Language in Pakistan on FILMAX. The series was the No. 1 show on The CW for the 2009–10 season averaging 3.60 million viewers weekly, thus becoming the first show to overtake America's Next Top Model which had been The CW's No. 1 show since the network began in 2006.
Ratings
Accolades
For its first season The Vampire Diaries won seven Teen Choice Awards and one People's Choice Award.
Home media releases
Season one was released on DVD in Regions 1, 2 and 4 and on Blu-ray in Regions A and B. Both United States versions include commentary by cast and crew members on selected episodes, deleted scenes, behind-the-scenes featurettes, webisodes, and a downloadable audiobook of L.J. Smith's The Vampire Diaries: The Awakening. It was released on DVD in Region 2 on August 23, 2010. Following that release, Region 1 began selling DVDs on August 31, 2010, and Region 4 on September 1, 2010. In Region A, it was released on Blu-ray on August 31, 2010. Region B's releases varied; United Kingdom on August 23, 2010, Brazil on August 26, 2010, and Australia on September 1, 2010.
References
1
2009 American television seasons
2010 American television seasons | wiki |
4-Hydroxy-3-methoxymethamphetamine (HMMA) is an active metabolite of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). It is a slightly more potent stimulant than MDMA.
References
Methamphetamines
Human drug metabolites | wiki |
Nastagio degli Onesti is the protagonist in one of the one hundred short stories contained in The Decameron by Giovanni Boccaccio. The eighth story of the fifth day, it tells of the unrequited love of the nobleman Nastagio for a girl who will eventually be induced to accept Nastagio's affection by the appearance of a rejected lover and her beloved.
Plot
Nastagio degli Onesti is a noble in Ravenna, made rich after the death of his father and uncle. He falls in love with a girl of a noble family, the daughter of Paul Traversari. To get her attention, Nastagio begins to squander his money on banquets and parties organized only for her (a reference to the economy that links this story to that of ); The girl, however, does not return the love of Nastagio; indeed she takes pleasure in refusing it. Nastagio tries to forget the noble girl. Failing this he starts to hate her. This drives him to attempt suicide several times with no success.
Seeing Nastagio's despair, his friends and relatives advise him to go to Ravenna, in order to forget his unfulfilled love. The young man, unable to continue ignoring this advice, moves to Classe, not far from his hometown.
One Friday in early May, Nastagio walks through a pine forest at dusk, where he sees a girl running naked in tears, being chased by two dogs trying to bite her and a Knight with a black sword intending to kill her. Nastagio tries to defend her, but the knight presents himself as Guido of Anastagi and tells of how he had once loved this woman, but because she did not love him, he had himself committed suicide. When the girl died without any regrets for the misery she had inflicted on her admirer, she was sentenced to the cruel punishment of being hunted. Every Friday, the girl would have to undergo the killing and subsequent restoration of their bodies for as many years as it had been months that she had rejected her wooer.
Nastagio understands the events to be of divine will and resigns himself to being an onlooker. He witnesses the agony inflicted on the young girl by the rider, after which the two are forced to start the chase again and disappear from Nastagio's sight. The young man decides to take advantage of the situation and prepares a lavish banquet in the same place of the forest on the following Friday, inviting the relatives of his beloved together with his parents. As Nastagio predicted, at the end of the dinner the horrifying scene is repeated with the same harrowing and pitiful consequences. With this he gets the desired effect: after the hunter once again explains the reasons for the girl's fate to all of those present at the dinner, the girl loved by Nastagio realizes she had stepped on the love felt by Nastagio and, for fear of suffering the same fate of the victim before her, she changes her mind and immediately agrees to the marriage, transforming his hate into love. So the Sunday after they marry, and all the women of Ravenna learn to be more kind to their love.
Art
Sandro Botticelli made a series of four panels that illustrate many episodes of the story Boccaccio, thought to have been commissioned by Lorenzo the Magnificent in 1483 as a gift to Giannozzo Pucci at his marriage to Lucrezia Bini of that year. Originally stored in Palazzo Pucci, Florence, in the second half of the nineteenth century they were dispersed: three are now in the Prado, and only one, the last, has returned to its original location after being, among other things, in the Collection Watney of Charlbury at London.
Style and interpretations
Two characters of the novel, the black knight and the woman on the run, are damned in hell. There has been no sign of repentance for their sins, and that is suicide for him and the refusal of love for her. By Boccaccio, then, love, even in its component hedonistic, receives a positive evaluation: everyone has the right to love and be loved in return, so the woman was guilty for not having loved.
Even the scene of the "infernal hunt", already present in Divine Comedy, the singing of Pietro della Vigna, is inserted by Boccaccio in a setting very different from natural to Dante, a locus amoenus in which assumes traits much less gruesome and more like those of a sacred representation.
In the novel appear many words belonging to the language of courtly love. The lady is arrogant, disdainful, and haughty, though in this case, these negative qualities are in the very structure of the story, as it will give women an example of how they should not behave. Eventually the lady is promoted for her sincere love, not for fear of punishment which would have incurred, and in the end she falls for Nastagio.
References
Characters in The Decameron
Male characters in literature
Fictional nobility | wiki |
Coelogyne viscosa is a species of orchid.
viscosa | wiki |
The Wright Liberator was a low-floor single-deck bus body built on Volvo B10L chassis by Wrightbus between 1996 and 1999.
Of the 146 built, 103 were purchased by National Express' Travel Dundee and Travel West Midlands subsidiaries. Eleven were purchased by Bus Éireann in Ireland.
The Liberator was succeeded in 1999 by the Renown on the Volvo B10BLE chassis.
References
External links
Low-floor buses
Vehicles introduced in 1996
Liberator | wiki |
Heat pad may refer to:
A pad used with surface-mounted components as a heat sink
Heating pad used to heat parts of the body | wiki |
Hope chest can refer to:
Hope chest, a box containing items stored for a future marriage
Hope Chest: The Fredonia Recordings 1982-1983, an album by 10,000 Maniacs
The Hope Chest, a 1918 American film
HopeChest, an American Christian young women's magazine
Hopechest, a 1996 album by Stephanie Bentley
Hope Chest, an American shoegaze / dream pop band from California formed in 1992 | wiki |
The Defense Health Agency (DHA) is a joint, integrated combat support agency that enables the U.S. Army, U.S. Navy, U.S. Air Force, and U.S. Space Force medical services to provide a medically ready force and ready medical force to Combatant Commands in both peacetime and wartime. The DHA supports the delivery of integrated and affordable health services to MHS beneficiaries and is responsible for integrating clinical and business processes across the MHS.
The DHA’s global workforce of almost 140,000 civilians and military personnel provides medical services to tricare beneficiaries and their dependents.
Lead Health Care Markets to manage military hospitals and clinics
Provide Combat Support to Combatant Commands
Deliver the TRICARE Health Plan to 9.6 million beneficiaries worldwide
Deploy MHS GENESIS, the new electronic health record, to military hospitals and clinics
Offer Education and Training to MHS providers to ensure a medically ready force
History
The United States Department of Defense established the DHA as part of a larger effort meant to reorganize its health care programs and services. The reorganization was based in part on the recommendations of a task force that issued a report on the management of U.S. military health care in 2011. Under the old system, many aspects of military health care were managed by the individual armed services (Army, Navy, and Air Force).
Structure
The DHA operates under the authority and oversight of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Health Affairs. Assistant Secretary Jonathan Woodson, M.D., established the DHA's organizational structure, including six directorates (see organization chart, right).
National Capital Region Medical Directorate
The National Capital Region Medical Directorate is a medical directorate within the DHA.
Education & Training Directorate
Medical Education and Training Campus
''See:
List of directors
See also
Assistant Secretary of Defense for Health Affairs
Military Health System
Military medicine
Surgeon General of the United States Army
Surgeon General of the United States Navy
Surgeon General of the United States Air Force
TRICARE
Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences
US Family Health Plan
References
External links
Health.mil, official website of the Military Health System
Defense Health Program account on USAspending.gov
Military medical organizations of the United States
United States Department of Defense agencies
Government agencies established in 2013
2013 establishments in the United States | wiki |
Marilee may refer to
Marilee, Texas, an unincorporated community in the United States
Murder of Marilee Bruszer in 1978 in the U.S.
Marilee Jones (born 1951), dean of admissions at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, U.S.
Marilee Lindemann, Professor of English at the University of Maryland, U.S.
Marilee Stepan (born 1935), American swimmer | wiki |
Cold Spring station may refer to the following rail stations in the United States:
Cold Spring station (Metro-North), a commuter rail stop on the Metro-North Railroad's Hudson Line
Cold Springs Station Site, a historic stagecoach station site west of Austin, Nevada
Cold Spring Lane station, a light rail station in Baltimore, Maryland
West Cold Spring station, a Metro subway station in Baltimore, Maryland | wiki |
The Census (Return Particulars and Removal of Penalties) Act 2019 (c. 28) is an act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. The act removed penalties for people not responding to new census questions on sexual orientation, gender identity (including transgender status).
Provisions
The provisions of the act include:
Amending the Census Act 1920 to add questions on sexual orientation and gender identity to the census.
Amending the Census Act (Northern Ireland) 1969 to add questions on sexual orientation and gender identity to the census.
Making it voluntary to answer any such questions.
See also
2021 United Kingdom census
Census (Amendment) (Scotland) Act 2019
References
United Kingdom Acts of Parliament 2019
2019 in British law
2019 in British politics
Transgender law in the United Kingdom
2021 United Kingdom census
2019 in LGBT history | wiki |
Bevu Bella may refer to:
Bevu Bella (1963 film), an Indian Kannada film
Bevu Bella (1993 film), an Indian Kannada film | wiki |
Karash double loop is a common name for a knot forming two loops. This knot has been a known variant of the Bowline on a bight per the International Guild of Knot Tyers, referred to as bowline twist or twisted collar bowline on a bight. The knot is also referred to as nœud de fusion in French references and sometimes called Fusion knot in English.
The name Karash double loop was introduced by Mike Karash, who re-invented the knot to create makeshift harnesses for rescue operations and popularized it among rescue workers.
Applications
The knot is used for vertical caving using the single rope technique, particularly by French cavers. It is advertised by the French Federation of Speleology as a safe alternative to the bowline on a bight. Compared to the traditional bunnyears variant of the figure of eight, its loops remain open under load allowing to clip and unclip carabiners in the loops more easily.
The knot is also popular to create a makeshift harness in rescue operations. The two loops are used as leg loops to sit in. The knot can be further improved by adding two bowlines around a person's body to create a three-point harness.
Technique
The traditional method of tying this knot starts with a reverse loop (like the Eskimo bowline) then wraps around the standing end (AKA the "tree"), you then finish the knot the same way as the BOAB – Bowline on a bight.
An alternative way as advertised by the French Federation of Speleology and Mike Karash is starting with a figure of eight on a bight, then pulls two strands of the rope back through the bight.
References
External links
Official website
Multi-loop knots
Climbing knots | wiki |
Casual Friday (also known as dress-down Friday or casual day) is a Western dress code trend in which businesses relax their dress code on Fridays. Businesses that usually require employees to wear suits, dress shirts, neckties, and dress shoes, may allow more casual or business casual wear on such days.
In 1994, 497 of the 1000 most important companies in America organized the casual Friday, including General Motors, Ford, and IBM.
The trend originated from Hawaii's midcentury custom of Aloha Friday which slowly spread to California, continuing around the globe until the 1990s when it became known as Casual Friday. Casual Friday began in the United States in the 1950s and 1960s, when Hewlett-Packard allowed his employees to dress more casually on Friday and work on new ideas.
Today in Hawaii, "Aloha Wear" is suitable business attire any day of the week, and the term "Aloha Friday" is generally used simply to refer to the last day of the workweek.
Valerie Steele described the introduction of casual Friday as the most radical change in work fashion since the 70s, when women asked the right to wear trousers in the office.
See also
Casual wear
Business casual
Smart casual
Workwear
Sportswear
Workweek and weekend
References
Moran, Malie; Pohlmann, Attila & Reilly, Andrew (2014) Honolulu Street Style. University of Chicago Press, ISSN 2047-0568, ; p. 59.
Workwear
Friday
Casual wear | wiki |
An academic conference or scientific conference (also congress, symposium, workshop, or meeting) is an event for researchers (not necessarily academics) to present and discuss their scholarly work. Together with academic or scientific journals and Preprint archives such as arXiv, conferences provide an important channel for exchange of information between researchers. Further benefits of participating in academic conferences include learning effects in terms of presentation skills and “academic habitus”, receiving feedback from peers for one’s own research, the possibility to engage in informal communication with peers about work opportunities and collaborations, and getting an overview of current research in one or more disciplines.
Overview
Conferences usually encompass various presentations. They tend to be short and concise, with a time span of about 10 to 30 minutes; presentations are usually followed by a discussion. The work may be bundled in written form as academic papers and published as the conference proceedings.
Usually a conference will include keynote speakers (often, scholars of some standing, but sometimes individuals from outside academia). The keynote lecture is often longer, lasting sometimes up to an hour and a half, particularly if there are several keynote speakers on a panel.
In addition to presentations, conferences also feature panel discussions, round tables on various issues, poster sessions and workshops. Some conferences take more interactive formats, such as the participant driven "unconference" or various conversational formats.
Format
Academic conferences have been held in three general formats: in-person, virtual or online and hybrid (in-person and virtual). Conferences have traditionally been organized in-person. Since the COVID-19 pandemic many conferences have either temporarily or permanently switched to a virtual or hybrid format. Because virtual or hybrid events allow people from different time zones to participate simultaniously, some will have to participate during their night-time. Some virtual conferences try to mitigate this issue by alternating their schedule in a way so that everyone has the chance to participate at day time at least once.
Presentations
Prospective presenters are usually asked to submit a short abstract of their presentation, which will be reviewed before the presentation is accepted for the meeting. Some organizers therefore disciplines require presenters to submit a paper, which is peer reviewed by members of the program committee or referees chosen by them.
In some disciplines, such as English and other languages, it is common for presenters to read from a prepared script. In other disciplines such as the sciences, presenters usually base their talk around a visual presentation that displays key figures and research results.
Size
A large meeting will usually be called a conference, while a smaller is termed a workshop. They might be single track or multiple track, where the former has only one session at a time, while a multiple track meeting has several parallel sessions with speakers in separate rooms speaking at the same time. However, there are no commonly shared definitions even within disciplines for each event type. There might be no conceivable difference between a symposium, a congress or a conference.
The larger the conference, the more likely it is that academic publishing houses may set up displays. Large conferences also may have a career and job search and interview activities.
At some conferences, social or entertainment activities such as tours and receptions can be part of the program. Business meetings for learned societies or interest groups can also be part of the conference activities.
Types
Academic conferences typically fall into three categories:
the themed conference, small conferences organized around a particular topic;
the general conference, a conference with a wider focus, with sessions on a wide variety of topics. These conferences are often organized by regional, national, or international learned societies, and held annually or on some other regular basis.
the professional conference, large conferences not limited to academics but with academically related issues.
Infrastructure
Increasing numbers of amplified conferences are being provided which exploit the potential of WiFi networks and mobile devices in order to enable remote participants to contribute to discussions and listen to ideas.
Advanced technology for meeting with any yet unknown person in a conference is performed by active RFID that may indicate wilfully identified and relatively located upon approach via electronic tags.
Organization
Conferences are usually organized either by a scientific society or by a group of researchers with a common interest. Larger meetings may be handled on behalf of the scientific society by a Professional Conference Organiser or PCO.
The meeting is announced by way of a Call For Papers (CFP) or a Call For Abstracts, which is sent to prospective presenters and explains how to submit their abstracts or papers. It describes the broad theme and lists the meeting's topics and formalities such as what kind of abstract (summary) or paper has to be submitted, to whom, and by what deadline. A CFP is usually distributed using a mailing list or on specialized online services. Contributions are usually submitted using an online abstract or paper management service.
Increasingly, there has been a call for more sustainable academic conferencing, as flying to and consumption at conferences is one of the largest components of an academics environmental footprint. However, few conferences have enacted practices to reduce their environmental impact, despite guidelines being widely available. An analysis of academic conferences taking place in 2016, showed that only 4% of 116 conferences sampled offered carbon offset options and only 9% of these conferences implemented any form of action to their reduce environmental impact.
Predatory conferences
Predatory conferences or predatory meetings are meetings set up to appear as legitimate scientific conferences but which are exploitative as they do not provide proper editorial control over presentations, and advertising can include claims of involvement of prominent academics who are, in fact, uninvolved. They are an expansion of the predatory publishing business model, which involves the creation of academic publications built around an exploitative business model that generally involves charging publication fees to authors without providing the editorial and publishing services associated with legitimate journals. BIT Life Sciences and SCIgen § In conferences are some of the conferences labeled as predatory.
Environmental impact
Academic conferences are criticized for being environmentally unfriendly, due to the amount of airplane traffic generated by them. A correspondence on Nature.com points out the "paradox of needing to fly to conferences" despite increased calls for sustainability by environmental scientists. The academic community's Carbon footprint is comprised in large parts by emissions caused by air travel.
Critique of in-person conferences
In-person conferences suffer from a number of issues. Most importantly, they are fostering the existing social inequality in academia due to their inaccessibility for researchers from low income countries, researchers with care duties or researchers facing visa restrictions.
See also
References
External links | wiki |
Johnson City Independent School District is a public school district based in Johnson City, Texas (USA).
Located in Blanco County, small portions of the district extend into Hays, Llano and Travis counties.
In 2009, the school district was rated "academically acceptable" by the Texas Education Agency.
Schools
Lyndon B. Johnson High School (Grades 9-12)
Lyndon B. Johnson Middle School (Grades 5-8)
Lyndon B. Johnson Elementary School (Grades PK-4)
Notable alumni
Notable alumni of the Johnson City schools include:
Lyndon B. Johnson, 36th President of the United States
Jesse Sublett, author and musician
Sedrick Shaw, former Iowa Hawkeyes and NFL running back
Rita Benson LeBlanc, former heir-apparent of the New Orleans Saints
References
External links
Johnson City ISD
School districts in Blanco County, Texas
School districts in Hays County, Texas
School districts in Llano County, Texas
School districts in Travis County, Texas | wiki |
The following is a list of psychology and self-help podcasts that focus on popular psychology, meditation, and mindfulness.
List
See also
Self-help
Meditation
References
Psychology
Popular psychology works | wiki |
Skin lines are anatomical features which include:
Langer's lines
Blaschko's lines
Kraissl's lines | wiki |
Coronille est le nom vernaculaire de deux végétaux :
la Coronille, fruit du Goyavier du Costa Rica (Psidium friedrichsthalianum Ndz.)
le genre Coronilla | wiki |
Exceptionality may refer to:
Exceptionalism
Special education
See also
Exception (disambiguation) | wiki |
The Louis Delluc Prize ( ) is a French film award presented annually since 1937. The award is bestowed to the Best Film and Best First Film of the year on the second week of each December. The jury is composed of 20 members, consisting of a group of film critics and figures who are culturally significant. Gilles Jacob is the president. The meeting is at le Fouquet's restaurant in Champs-Élysées.
The award was created in 1937 in view of the decision of the Académie française to award its Grand Prix du Cinema to films that were created by French filmmakers. Twenty-four film critics including Maurice Bessy and Marcel Idzkowski established the prize to honor Louis Delluc (1890–1924), the first French journalist to specialize in cinema and founder of the ciné-clubs.
Notes
≠ Oscar winner
± Oscar nominee
≈ Palme d'Or winner
Winners
Louis Delluc Prize for Best Film
1930s
1940s
1950s
1960s
1970s
1980s
1990s
2000s
2010s
2020s
Louis Delluc Prize for Best First Film
1990s
2000s
2010s
2020s
Jury
1937 edition
Maurice Bessy
Pierre Bost
Georges Charensol
Nino Franck
Marcel Idzkowski
Roger Régent
References
External links
Louis Delluc Prize at AlloCiné
BBC podcast reviews of selected Louis Delluc Prize-winning films
Louis-Delluc
Awards established in 1937
1937 establishments in France | wiki |
The English disease or British disease may refer to:
The British disease, a term for the economic stagnation the nation underwent during the 1970s
Football hooliganism carried out by British fans
Sudor anglicus, also known as the sweating sickness, common in sixteenth-century Europe
Rickets
The English Disease, a novel by Joseph Skibell
Perceived trade union militancy in the 1970s–1980s, in particular the Winter of Discontent and ending with the 1984–1985 miners' strike
The English Disease (album) | wiki |
This is a list of châteaux in France, arranged by region.
The French word château (; plural: châteaux) has a wider meaning than the English castle: it includes architectural entities that are properly called palaces, mansions or vineyards in English.
List of former regions
List of châteaux in Eure-et-Loir
Châteaux of the Loire Valley
See also
List of castles
List of castles in France
Châteaux | wiki |
William Gilmour may refer to:
William Gilmour (musician) (fl. 2010s), British musician and artist
William Gilmour (writer) (fl. 1980s), writer of lost race fantasy short stories and novels
William Weir Gilmour (1905–1998), Scottish politician
See also
William Gilmer (1863–1955), U.S. Navy Captain and Naval Governor of Guam
Bill Gilmour (disambiguation)
Billy Gilmour (disambiguation) | wiki |
Free rider may refer to:
Free rider, someone who enjoys the benefits of an activity without paying for it, see free-rider problem
Free rider (Stowaway), a person who secretly boards a vehicle to travel without paying and without being detected
Free Rider and sequels, biking webgames similar to the popular web toy Line Rider, but with a controllable player
See also
Free riding
Freedom Riders
Free ride (disambiguation) | wiki |
The Call is a 1902 painting by Paul Gauguin, produced in Polynesia a year before the artist's death. It is now in the Cleveland Museum of Art.
References
Paintings in the collection of the Cleveland Museum of Art
Paintings by Paul Gauguin
1902 paintings | wiki |
Evicted may refer to eviction, the removal of a tenant from rental property.
Evicted may also refer to:
"Evicted (Flight of the Conchords)", the 2009 series finale episode of the comedy TV show, Flight of the Conchords
"Evicted!" (2010), season 1 episode 12 of the animated TV series, Adventure Time
Evicted: Poverty and Profit in the American City (2016), a non-fiction book about the poorest areas in Milwaukee | wiki |
SoundCode is an audio encoding and decoding product line developed by Neyrinck that uses audio encode and decode technologies to convert audio signals from one format to another.
The technologies used include Dolby E and Dolby Digital.
Audio format converters | wiki |
A Universidade Estadual Agrícola e Técnica da Carolina do Norte (North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University) é uma universidade localizada em Greensboro, Carolina do Norte, Estados Unidos. Ela é uma das universidades públicas mais antiga dos Estados Unidos.
Ligações externas
Official athletics website
The A&T Register-Student Newspaper
Ayantee Yearbooks at DigitalNC.org
Universidades da Carolina do Norte | wiki |
A job description or JD is a written narrative that describes the general tasks, or other related duties, and responsibilities of a position. It may specify the functionary to whom the position reports, specifications such as the qualifications or skills needed by the person in the job, information about the equipment, tools and work aids used, working conditions, physical demands, and a salary range. Job descriptions are usually narrative,
but some may comprise a simple list of competencies; for instance, strategic human resource planning methodologies may be used to develop a competency architecture for an organization, from which job descriptions are built as a shortlist of competencies.
According to Torrington, a job description is usually developed by conducting a job analysis, which includes examining the tasks and sequences of tasks necessary to perform the job. The analysis considers the areas of knowledge, skills and abilities needed to perform the job. Job analysis generally involves the following steps: collecting and recording job information; checking the job information for accuracy; writing job descriptions based on the information; using the information to determine what skills, abilities, and knowledge are required to perform the job; updating the information from time to time. A job usually includes several roles.
According to Hall, the job description might be broadened to form a person specification or may be known as "terms of reference". The person/job specification can be presented as a stand-alone document, but in practice it is usually included within the job description. A job description is often used by employers in the recruitment process.
Roles and responsibilities
A job description may include relationships with other people in the organization: Supervisory level, managerial requirements, and relationships with other colleagues.
Development goals
A job description need not be limited to explaining the current situation, or work that is currently expected; it may also set out goals for what might be achieved in the future, such as possible promotions routes and conditions.
Limitations
Prescriptive job descriptions may be seen as a hindrance in certain circumstances:
Job descriptions may not be suitable for some senior managers as they should have the freedom to take the initiative and find fruitful new directions;
Job descriptions may be too inflexible in a rapidly changing organization, for instance in an area subject to rapid technological change;
Other changes in job content may lead to the job description being out of date;
The process that an organization uses to create job descriptions may not be optimal.
Job description management
Job description management is the creation and maintenance of job descriptions within an organization. A job description is a document listing the tasks, duties, and responsibilities of a specific job. Having up-to-date, accurate and professionally written job descriptions is critical to an organization’s ability to attract qualified candidates, orient & train employees, establish job performance standards, develop compensation programs, conduct performance reviews, set goals and meet legal requirements.
Process
Prior to the development of the job description, a job analysis must be conducted. Job analysis, an integral part of HR management, is the gathering, analysis and documentation of the important facets of a job including what the employee does, the context of the job, and the requirements of the job.
Once the job analysis is complete, the job description including the job specification can be developed. A job description describes the activities to be performed and a job specification lists the knowledge, skills and abilities required to perform the job. A job description contains several sections including an identification section, a general summary, essential functions and duties, job specifications, and disclaimers and approvals.
Job descriptions are then used to develop effective EEO/ADA, HR planning, recruiting, and selection initiatives; to maintain clear continuity between compensation planning, training efforts, and performance management; and to identify job factors that may contribute to workplace safety and health and employee/labor relations.
Impact of the Internet
Job description management, as well as other facets of talent management, has been affected by the expansion of information technology. Prior to 2000, there were very few Internet-based human resource solutions available to human resource departments. HR departments often stored their printed job descriptions either in filing cabinets or Word-based job descriptions on computers or company servers. Today there are countless companies offering cloud-based talent management systems to businesses allowing HR to easily store HR information, collaborate with other departments, and access files from any device with Internet access.
Benefits
A job description is essential to ensure clarity of why the role exists. It can be used:
To provide the employee with the expectations that are required of them in the role
To provide enough detail to help the candidate assess if they are suitable for the position
To help formulate questions for the interview process
To allow the prospective employee to determine their role or standing within the structure of the organisation
To assist in forming a legally binding contract of employment
To help set goals and target for the employee upon joining
To aid in the evaluation of the employee’s job performance
To help formulate training and development plans
Legality
Well organized and up-to-date job descriptions assist in legal and regulatory compliance. In the United States, for example, the 1978 Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedure was developed in order to standardize the employee selection process and makes it clear that HR requirements must be linked with job-related factors. The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) requires organizations to identify essential job functions and document the steps taken to identify job responsibilities while Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) requires HR managers to determine if a job is to be classified as exempt or non-exempt.
Healthcare organizations not only have to comply with labor laws but also have to comply with healthcare laws and accreditation agencies. The Joint Commission (Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations) accredits and certifies thousands of healthcare organizations around the United States. Their mission is "To continuously improve health care for the public, in collaboration with other stakeholders, by evaluating health care organizations and inspiring them to excel in providing safe and effective care of the highest quality and value". To meet Joint Commission guidelines, healthcare organizations must maintain up-to-date, accurate, complete and properly written job descriptions.
The above regulations require businesses to keep clear records of their job descriptions. Having a well-organized automated system helps eliminate some of the panic associated with a compliance audit.
See also
References
Mathis, Robert L., and John H. Jackson. Human Resource Management. 11th ed. Mason: Thomson South-Western, 2006. 175-87. Print.
Guide To Writing Job Descriptions. UCLA, n.d. Web. 13 Dec. 2011. <http://www.college.ucla.edu/personnel/jobdesc/intro.asp>.
The Fair Labor Standards Act. United States Department of Labor, n.d. Web. 13 Dec. 2011. <https://web.archive.org/web/20080913163053/http://www.dol.gov/compliance/laws/comp-flsa.htm>.
About The Joint Commission. The Joint Commission, 2011. Web. 13 Dec. 2011. <http://www.jointcommission.org/about_us/about_the_joint_commission_main.aspx>.
Recruitment | wiki |
Tenofovir disoproxil (TDF), een hiv-remmer
Tenofovir alafenamide (TAF), een hiv-remmer | wiki |
Ethinylestradiol (EE) is an estrogen medication which is used widely in birth control pills in combination with progestins. In the past, EE was widely used for various indications such as the treatment of menopausal symptoms, gynecological disorders, and certain hormone-sensitive cancers. It is usually taken by mouth but is also used as a patch and vaginal ring.
The general side effects of EE include breast tenderness and enlargement, headache, fluid retention, and nausea among others. In men, EE can additionally cause breast development, feminization in general, hypogonadism, and sexual dysfunction. Rare but serious side effects include blood clots, liver damage, and cancer of the uterus.
EE is an estrogen, or an agonist of the estrogen receptors, the biological target of estrogens like estradiol. It is a synthetic derivative of estradiol, a natural estrogen, and differs from it in various ways. Compared to estradiol, EE has greatly improved bioavailability when taken by mouth, is more resistant to metabolism, and shows relatively increased effects in certain parts of the body like the liver and uterus. These differences make EE more favorable for use in birth control pills than estradiol, though also result in an increased risk of blood clots and certain other rare adverse effects.
EE was developed in the 1930s and was introduced for medical use in 1943. The medication started being used in birth control pills in the 1960s. Today, EE is found in almost all combined forms of birth control pills and is nearly the exclusive estrogen used for this purpose, making it one of if not the most widely used estrogens.
Medical uses
There are many uses for EE. It is most commonly used as contraception in combined oral contraceptives (COC), also known as birth control, to prevent pregnancy after sex. EE in its birth control formulation is not only used to prevent pregnancy, but can also be used to treat absence of menstruation, symptoms during menstruation, and acne.
EE is also used as menopausal hormone therapy. The main reason for using HRT in menopausal women is to relieve common vasomotor symptoms such as hot flashes, night sweats, and flushing. Studies have found that estrogen replacement helps improve these symptoms when compared to a placebo. Other common menopause symptoms, such as vaginal dryness (which can cause pain during sexual intercourse), vaginal itching, and depressed mood, can benefit from HRT. In addition to treatment of menopausal symptoms, EE has been used as a component of feminizing hormone therapy for transgender women. However, it is no longer commonly used nor recommended for this purpose, with estradiol having largely superseded it.
EE can also be used to treat hypogonadism in women, prevent osteoporosis in women, and has been used as palliative care for prostate cancer in men and breast cancer in women. It has also been used to reduce sex drive in sex offenders.
EE or any estrogen alone is contraindicated for women who have a uterus due to the increased risk of endometrial cancer; giving a progestogen with an estrogen mitigates the risk.
Available forms
EE is available in combination with a progestin in a vast number of COCs. It is also available in combination with progestins as a transdermal contraceptive patch and as a contraceptive vaginal ring. In addition, there is a single preparation (brand name FemHRT) containing very low doses of EE (2.5 and 5 µg) plus a progestin in an oral tablet that remains in use for menopausal hormone therapy. EE was previously available by itself under the brand name Estinyl in the form of 0.02, 0.05, and 0.5 mg (20, 50, and 500 µg) tablets.
The amount of EE in COCs has reduced over the years. Previously, COCs contained high doses of EE of as much as 100 µg/day. Doses of more than 50 µg EE are considered high-dose, doses of 30 and 35 µg EE are considered low-dose, and doses of 10 to 25 µg EE are considered very low dose. Today, COCs generally contain 10 to 50 µg EE. The higher doses of EE were discontinued due to a high risk of VTE and cardiovascular problems.
Contraindications
EE should be avoided in individuals with a history of or known susceptibility to arterial or venous thrombosis (blood clots), due to an increased risk of cardiovascular problems such as venous thromboembolism (VTE), myocardial infarction, and ischemic stroke. This includes women with:
History of deep vein thrombosis (DVT) or pulmonary embolism (PE) not receiving anticoagulants
Acute DVT/PE
Prolonged immobilization due to major surgery
Advanced diabetes mellitus with vascular disease
Migraine with aura
Hypertension ≥160/100
Vascular disease
Current and history of ischemic heart disease
Multiple risk factors for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (e.g. older age, smoking, diabetes, hypertension, low HDL, high LDL, or high triglyceride levels)
Age ≥35 and smoking ≥15 cigarettes/day
History of cerebrovascular accident
Systemic lupus erythematosus with positive (or unknown) antiphospholipid antibodies
Complicated valvular heart disease
Except when being used to treat it, EE should be avoided in women with current breast cancer due to a possible worsening of prognosis.
EE should also be avoided in breastfeeding women who are less than 21 days postpartum due to an increased risk of VTE. EE use in breastfeeding women who are at least 21 days postpartum should be discussed with a provider and include information on the advantages, disadvantages, and alternatives for using EE.
Due to risk of cholestatic hepatotoxicity, it is widely considered that COCs containing EE should be avoided in women with a history of cholestasis of pregnancy, hepatic tumors, active hepatitis, and familial defects in biliary excretion.
Side effects
The severity of side effects can vary based on the dose and administration route of EE. General side effects of EE are the same as for other estrogens and include breast tenderness, headache, fluid retention (bloating), nausea, dizziness, and weight gain. The estrogen component of oral contraceptives, which is almost always EE, can cause breast tenderness and fullness. In males, EE has additional side effects, including gynecomastia (breast development), feminization in general, hypogonadism, infertility, and sexual dysfunction (e.g., reduced libido and erectile dysfunction). In men who received high-dose estrogen therapy with 200 μg/day oral EE for more than three months, gynecomastia occurred in 98% and decreased libido occurred in 42 to 73%.
Long-term effects
Blood clots
VTE is a blood clot in a vein, and includes deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and pulmonary embolism (PE). Estrogens are known to increase the risk of VTE due to their effects on liver synthesis of coagulation factors. EE carries a greater risk of blood clot formation and VTE than does natural estradiol, which is thought to be due to structural differences between the two compounds and different susceptibilities to liver inactivation.
A 2012 meta-analysis estimated that the absolute risk of VTE is 2 per 10,000 women for non-use, 8 per 10,000 women for EE and levonorgestrel-containing birth control pills, and 10 to 15 per 10,000 women for birth control pills containing EE and a third- or fourth-generation progestin such as desogestrel or drospirenone. For comparison, the absolute risk of VTE is generally estimated as 1 to 5 per 10,000 woman–years for non-use, 5 to 20 per 10,000 woman–years for pregnancy, and 40 to 65 per 10,000 woman–years for the postpartum period. Modern COCs are associated with about a 2- to 4-fold higher risk of VTE than non-use. The route of administration of EE does not appear to influence VTE risk, as EE/progestin-containing contraceptive vaginal rings and contraceptive patches have the same or even higher risk of VTE than COCs. Pregnancy is associated with about a 4.3-fold increase in risk of VTE. It has been estimated that at least 300 to 400 healthy young women die each year in the United States due to VTE caused by EE-containing birth control pills.
Modern COCs contain 10 to 35 μg EE, but typically 20, 30, or 35 μg. The initial formulations of COCs that were introduced in the 1960s contained 100 to 150 μg EE. However, it was soon found that EE is associated with increased risk of VTE and that the risk is dose-dependent. Following these events, the dose of EE was greatly reduced, and is now always less than 50 μg. These lower doses have a significantly reduced risk of VTE with no loss of contraceptive effectiveness. Gerstman et al. (1991) found that COCs containing more than 50 μg EE had 1.7-fold and COCs containing 50 μg EE 1.5-fold the risk of VTE of COCs containing less than 50 μg. A 2014 Cochrane review found that COCs containing 50 μg EE with levonorgestrel had 2.1- to 2.3-fold the risk of COCs containing 30 μg or 20 μg EE with levonorgestrel, respectively. COCs containing 20 μg EE are likewise associated with a significantly lower risk of cardiovascular events than COCs containing 30 or 40 μg EE. However, discontinuation of COCs is more common with doses of EE from 10 to 20 μg due to problematic changes in bleeding patterns.
Women with thrombophilia have a dramatically higher risk of VTE with EE-containing contraception than women without thrombophilia. Depending on the condition, risk of VTE can be increased 5- to 50-fold relative to non-use in such women.
Sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) levels indicate hepatic estrogenic exposure and may be a surrogate marker for coagulation and VTE risk with estrogen therapy, although this topic has been debated. SHBG levels with birth control pills containing different progestins are increased by 1.5 to 2-fold with levonorgestrel, 2.5- to 4-fold with desogestrel and gestodene, 3.5- to 4-fold with drospirenone and dienogest, and 4- to 5-fold with cyproterone acetate. Contraceptive vaginal rings and contraceptive patches likewise have been found to increase SHBG levels by 2.5-fold and 3.5-fold, respectively. Birth control pills containing high doses of ethinylestradiol (>50 μg) can increase SHBG levels by 5- to 10-fold, which is similar to the increase that occurs during pregnancy. Conversely, increases in SHBG levels are much lower with estradiol, especially when used parenterally. High-dose parenteral polyestradiol phosphate therapy has been found to increase SHBG levels by about 1.5-fold.
Cardiovascular issues
When used orally at high dosages, for instance as a form of high-dose estrogen therapy in men with prostate cancer and in women with breast cancer, synthetic and non-bioidentical estrogens like EE and diethylstilbestrol are associated with fairly high rates of severe cardiovascular complications such as VTE, myocardial infarction, and stroke. Diethylstilbestrol has been associated with an up to 35% risk of cardiovascular toxicity and death and a 15% incidence of VTE in men treated with it for prostate cancer. EE has a to some degree lower risk of cardiovascular complications than does diethylstilbestrol when used in the treatment of prostate cancer in men. However, both EE and diethylstilbestrol nonetheless have highly disproportionate effects on liver protein synthesis, which is thought to be responsible for their cardiovascular toxicity.
In contrast to oral synthetic estrogens like EE and diethylstilbestrol, high-dosage polyestradiol phosphate and transdermal estradiol have not been found to increase the risk of cardiovascular mortality or thromboembolism in men with prostate cancer. However, significantly increased cardiovascular morbidity has been observed with high-dosage polyestradiol phosphate. In any case, these estrogens are considered to be much safer than oral synthetic estrogens like EE and diethylstilbestrol. In addition, ethinylestradiol sulfonate (EES), an oral but parenteral-like long-lasting prodrug of EE, is used in the treatment of prostate cancer, and is said to have a considerably better profile of cardiovascular safety than EE.
Because of its disproportionate effects on liver protein synthesis and associated cardiovascular risks, synthetic estrogens like EE and diethylstilbestrol are no longer used in menopausal hormone therapy. They are also being replaced by parenteral forms of estradiol like polyestradiol phosphate and transdermal estradiol in the treatment of prostate cancer.
Liver damage
At the lower dosages that are now used in birth control pills, EE has been associated rarely with cholestatic hepatotoxicity similarly to 17α-alkylated androgens/anabolic steroids and 17α-ethynylated 19-nortestosterone progestins. Cholestasis can manifest as pruritus and jaundice. Glucuronide metabolites of EE, via effects on the ABCB11 (BSEP) and MRP2 (ABCC2) proteins and consequent changes in bile flow and bile salt excretion, appear to be responsible for the cholestasis. Very high concentrations of estradiol, via its metabolite estradiol glucuronide, are also implicated in cholestasis, for instance in cholestasis of pregnancy. However, the incidence and severity of cholestatic hepatotoxicity appear to be much greater with EE than with estradiol, which is thought to be due to the reactive C17α ethynyl substitution in EE as well as its greatly reduced susceptibility to hepatic metabolism. Whereas abnormal liver function tests (LFTs) are normally found in about 1% of women not on birth control pills or taking lower-dose EE-containing birth control pills, this increases to more than 10% of women taking birth control pills containing 50 μg/day EE or more. With birth control pills containing 50 μg/day EE, alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels increase by 50%, hematocrit by 19%, and leukocytes by 50%, while gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT) decreases by 30%. However, the values usually remain in the normal range. In addition to abnormal LFTs, pathological changes in partial liver functions and liver morphology can be observed in half of women on birth control pills with 50 μg/day EE. EE-containing birth control pills have also been associated with a 25- to 50-fold increase in the risk of rare benign liver tumors and a 3- to 6-fold increase in the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma, as well as greater risk of other liver complications. At one time, EE-containing birth control pills were estimated to be responsible for 84% of all drug-related and histologically verified liver damage. However, these risks now are reduced with modern lower-dose EE-containing birth control pills, with contain 35 μg/day EE or less.
Uterine cancer
The high doses of EE that were used in early COCs were associated with a significantly increased risk of endometrial cancer in certain preparations, for instance those containing the progestogen dimethisterone. Unopposed estrogens like EE have carcinogenic effects in the endometrium and progestogens protect against these effects, but dimethisterone is a relatively weak progestogen and was unable to adequately antagonize the endometrial carcinogenic effects of EE, in turn resulting in the increased risk of endometrial cancer. COCs containing dimethisterone have since been discontinued (with more potent progestogens used instead) and doses of EE in COCs in general have been dramatically reduced, abrogating the risk. In turn, most studies of modern COCs have found a decreased risk of endometrial cancer.
Ecological Effects
Wastewater contains various estrogens, including EE, that are not completely broken down by wastewater treatment procedures. The input of artificial estrogens into freshwater ecosystems affects fish and amphibian populations. Chronic exposure to low levels of EE over seven years led to the collapse of fathead minnow populations in an experimental lake in Ontario, Canada. EE changed oogenesis in female fish and feminized male fish such that they produced a protein associated with egg maturation, vitellogenin, as well as early-stage eggs. In amphibians, exposure to EE can reduce hatching success and alter gonadal development. Exposure to hormones can change frogs' gonadal development even though it is encoded in their genes. A study of mink frogs found more intersex tadpoles in those experimentally exposed to EE than those not exposed to EE, and green frogs showed much lower rates of hatching success.
Overdose
Estrogens like EE are relatively safe in acute overdose.
Interactions
EE is metabolized by certain cytochrome P450 isoforms, including CYP3A4 and CYP2C9. Thus, inducers of enzymes such as CYP3A4 can decrease circulating concentrations of EE. Examples of inducers include anticonvulsants like phenytoin, primidone, ethosuximide, phenobarbital, and carbamazepine; azole antifungals like fluconazole; and rifamycin antibiotics like rifampin (rifampicin). Conversely, inhibitors of CYP3A4 and other cytochrome P450 enzymes may increase circulating levels of EE. An example is troleandomycin, which is a potent and highly selective inhibitor of CYP3A4.
Paracetamol (acetaminophen) has been found to competitively inhibit the sulfation of EE, with pretreatment of 1,000 mg of paracetamol significantly increasing the AUC levels of EE (by 22%) and decreasing the AUC levels of ethinylestradiol sulfate (EE sulfate) in women. The same has been found for ascorbic acid (vitamin C) and EE, although the significance of the interaction has been regarded as dubious.
In contrast to estradiol, it is unlikely that there is a pharmacokinetic interaction between smoking (which potently induces certain cytochrome P450 enzymes and markedly increases the 2-hydroxylation of estradiol) and EE. This suggests that estradiol and EE are metabolized by different cytochrome P450 enzymes. There is, however, an increased risk of cardiovascular complications with smoking and EE, similarly to the case of smoking and other estrogens.
EE is known to inhibit several cytochrome P450 enzymes, including CYP1A2, CYP2B6, CYP2C9, CYP2C19, and CYP3A4, and is possibly an inducer of CYP2A6. As a result, it can affect the metabolism and concentrations of many other drugs. Examples of known interactions include bupropion, caffeine, mephenytoin, midazolam, nicotine, nifedipine, omeprazole, propranolol, proguanil, selegiline, theophylline, and tizanidine. One of the most notable interactions is that EE strongly increases levels of selegiline, a substrate of CYP2B6 and CYP2C19. EE may also induce glucuronidation and possibly alter sulfation. It has been found to increase the clearance of and reduce the concentrations of a variety of drugs known to be glucuronidated. Examples include clofibrate, lamotrigine, lorazepam, oxazepam, and propranolol.
Progestins, which are often used in combination with EE, are also known to inhibit cytochrome P450 enzymes, and this may contribute to drug interactions with EE-containing contraceptives as well. Examples include gestodene, desogestrel, and etonogestrel, which are CYP3A4 and CYP2C19 inhibitors. In addition, these progestins are known to progressively inhibit the metabolism of and increase concentrations of EE itself.
Pharmacology
Pharmacodynamics
EE is an estrogen similarly to natural estrogens like estradiol and conjugated estrogens (Premarin) and synthetic estrogens like diethylstilbestrol. It binds to and activates both isoforms of the estrogen receptor, ERα and ERβ. In one study, EE was found to have 233% and 38% of the affinity of estradiol for the ERα and ERβ, respectively. In another study, it was found to possess 194% and 151% of the affinity of estradiol for the ERα and ERβ, respectively. EE also appears to act as a potent agonist of the G protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPER) (affinity unknown), a membrane estrogen receptor, similarly to estradiol. Estrogens have antigonadotropic effects through activation of the ERα. As a contraceptive, EE acts in concert with a progestin to inhibit the mid-cycle surge in luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) via its antigonadotropic effects, thereby inhibiting folliculogenesis and preventing ovulation and hence the possibility of pregnancy.
EE is a long-acting estrogen, with a nuclear retention of about 24 hours.
Orally, EE is on the order of 100 times as potent by weight as natural estrogens like micronized estradiol and conjugated estrogens, which is largely due to substantially greater resistance to first-pass metabolism. It is specifically in the range of 80 to 200 times as potent as estropipate (piperazine estrone sulfate), which has similar potency to micronized estradiol, in terms of systemic estrogenic potency. In contrast, the potencies of EE and natural estrogens are similar when they are administered intravenously, due to the bypassing of first-pass metabolism. Relative to its prodrug mestranol, EE is about 1.7 times as potent by weight orally.
Antiandrogenic and antigonadotropic effects
EE is a potent functional antiandrogen in both women and men. It mediates its antiandrogenic effects by 1) stimulating the production of sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) in the liver, which decreases free and thus bioactive concentrations of testosterone in the blood; and by 2) suppressing luteinizing hormone (LH) secretion from the pituitary gland, which decreases production of testosterone by the gonads. Birth control pills that contain EE are useful in the treatment of androgen-dependent conditions like acne and hirsutism by virtue of their antiandrogenic effects.
Birth control pills containing EE have been found to increase circulating SHBG levels by 2- to 4-fold in women and to reduce free testosterone concentrations by 40 to 80%. Birth control pills containing high doses of EE can increase SHBG levels in women by as much as 5- to 10-fold. This is similar to the 5- to 10-fold increase in SHBG levels that occurs during pregnancy. Due to the marked increase in SHBG levels, free testosterone levels become very low during treatment with EE-containing birth control pills. In men, a study found that treatment with a relatively low dosage of 20 μg/day EE for five weeks increased circulating SHBG levels by 150% and, due to the accompanying decrease in free testosterone levels, increased total circulating levels of testosterone by 50% (via upregulation of gonadal testosterone production due to reduced negative feedback by androgens on the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis). The stimulation of hepatic SHBG production by EE is far stronger than with other estrogens like estradiol, owing to the high resistance of EE to inactivation in the liver and hence its disproportionate effects in this part of the body.
Estrogens are antigonadotropins and are able to suppress the secretion of LH and FSH from the pituitary gland and by extension gonadal testosterone production. High-dose estrogen therapy, including with EE, is able to suppress testosterone levels in men by around 95%, or into the castrate/female range. The dosage of EE required for use as a component of hormone therapy for preoperative transgender women is 50 to 100 µg/day. This high dosage is associated with a high incidence of VTE, particularly in those over the age of 40 years, and it has been said that it should not be used. The dosage of EE used in the treatment of prostate cancer in men is 150 to 1,000 µg/day (0.15–1.0 mg/day). A dosage of EE of 50 μg twice daily (100 μg/day total) has been found to suppress testosterone levels in men to an equivalent extent as 3 mg/day oral diethylstilbestrol, which is the minimum dosage of diethylstilbestrol required to consistently suppress testosterone levels into the castrate range. The ovulation-inhibiting dose of EE by itself and not in combination with a progestin in women is 100 μg/day. However, it has been found to be about 75 to 90% effective at inhibiting ovulation at a dosage of 20 μg/day and about 97 or 98% effective at a dosage of 50 μg/day. In another study, ovulation occurred in 25.2% with an EE dose of 50 μg/day.
Lower dosages of EE also have significant antigonadotropic effects. A "very low" dosage of 15 µg/day EE has been described as the "borderline" amount required for suppression of LH and testosterone levels in men, and a study found that LH and testosterone levels were "reliably" suppressed in men by a dosage of 30 µg/day EE. However, other clinical studies have found that 20 µg/day EE increased testosterone levels by 50% in men (as described above) and that dosages of 32 µg/day and 42 µg/day EE suppressed FSH levels in men but did not significantly affect LH levels. A stronger suppression of testosterone levels was observed in men following daily treatment with a combined oral contraceptive containing 50 µg ethinylestradiol and 0.5 mg norgestrel for 9 days. However, investigation revealed that the progestin was the more important component responsible for the suppression in testosterone levels. In accordance, the progestin component of COCs is primarily responsible for inhibition of ovulation in women. A combination of 20 µg/day EE and 10 mg/day methyltestosterone was found to suppress FSH secretion in men to an extent sufficient to stop spermatogenesis. Studies in women have found that 50 µg/day EE suppresses LH and FSH levels both by about 70% in postmenopausal women.
In addition to its antigonadotropic effects, EE can significantly suppress androgen production by the adrenal glands at high concentrations. One study found that treatment with a high dosage of 100 µg/day EE suppressed circulating adrenal androgen levels by 27 to 48% in transgender women. This may additionally contribute to suppression of androgen levels by estrogens.
Effects on liver protein synthesis
EE has marked effects on liver protein synthesis, even at low dosages and regardless of route of administration. These effects are mediated by its estrogenic activity. The medication dose-dependently increases circulating levels of SHBG, corticosteroid-binding globulin (CBG), and thyroxine-binding globulin (TBG), and also affects a broad range of other liver proteins. EE affects triglyceride levels at a dose as low as 1 μg/day and LDL and HDL cholesterol levels at a dose as low as 2.5 μg/day. EE affects several hepatic proteins at a dosage as low as 5 µg/day. At doses above 20 µg/day, the incremental effects of EE on liver protein synthesis become continuously smaller.
EE at 5 μg/day has been found to increase SHBG levels by 100% in postmenopausal women, while a dosage of 20 µg/day EE increased them by 200%. Androgens decrease hepatic SHBG production, and have been found to oppose the effects of EE on SHBG levels. This is of particular relevance when it is considered that many progestins used in COCs have varying degrees of weak androgenic activity. A combination of 20 µg/day EE and 0.25 mg/day levonorgestrel, a progestin with relatively high androgenicity, decreases SHBG levels by 50%; 30 µg/day EE and 0.25 mg/day levonorgestrel has no effect on SHBG levels; 30 µg/day EE and 0.15 mg/day levonorgestrel increases SHBG levels by 30%; and triphasic COCs containing EE and levonorgestrel increase SHBG levels by 100 to 150%. The combination of 30 µg/day EE and 150 µg/day desogestrel, a progestin with relatively weak androgenicity than levonorgestrel, increases SHBG levels by 200%, while the combination of 35 µg/day EE and 2 mg/day cyproterone acetate, a progestin with potent antiandrogenic activity, increases SHBG levels by 400%. As such, the type and dosage of progestin contained in COCs potently moderates the effects of EE on SHBG levels.
A dosage of 10 µg/day EE has been found to increase CBG levels by 50%, while a dosage of 20 µg/day EE increased them by 100%. Progestins that are progesterone derivatives have no effect on CBG levels, while androgenic progestins like the 19-nortestosterone derivatives have only a weak effect on CBG levels. COCs may increase CBG levels by 100 to 150%. A dosage of 5 µg/day EE has been found to increase TBG levels by 40%, while a dosage of 20 µg/day EE increased them by 60%. Progestins that are progesterone derivatives do not affect TBG levels, while progestins with androgenic activity may decrease TBG levels. A combination of 30 µg/day EE and 1 mg/day norethisterone, a moderately androgenic progestin, have been found to increase TBG levels by 50 to 70%, while the combination of 30 µg/day EE and 150 µg/day desogestrel increased them by 100%.
Differences from estradiol
EE shows strong and disproportionate effects on liver protein synthesis relative to estradiol. The liver as well as the uterus express 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (17β-HSD), and this enzyme serves to inactivate estradiol and effectively suppress its potency in these tissues by reversibly converting it into the far less potent estrogen estrone (which has approximately 4% of the estrogenic activity of estradiol). In contrast to estradiol, the 17α-ethynyl group of EE prevents oxidation of the C17β position of EE by 17β-HSD, and for this reason, EE is not inactivated in these tissues and has much stronger relative estrogenic activity in them. This is the mechanism of the disproportionately strong effects of EE on hepatic protein production, which results in a greatly increased magnitude of effect on VTE and cardiovascular risks relative to estradiol.
On the other hand, due to the loss of inactivation of EE by 17β-HSD in the endometrium (uterus), EE is relatively more active than estradiol in the endometrium and, for this reason, is associated with a significantly lower incidence of vaginal bleeding and spotting in comparison. This is particularly so in the case of combined estrogen and progestogen therapy (as in COCs or menopausal HRT), as progestogens induce the expression of 17β-HSD in the endometrium. The reduced vaginal bleeding and spotting with EE is one of the main reasons that it is used in COCs instead of estradiol, in spite of its potentially inferior safety profile (related to its adverse effects on hepatic protein synthesis and VTE incidence).
EE has been found to have disproportionate effects on liver protein synthesis and VTE risk regardless of whether the route of administration is oral, transdermal, or vaginal, indicating that the use of parenteral routes over the oral route does not result in EE having proportional hepatic actions relative to non-hepatic actions. However, the potency of EE on liver protein synthesis is in any case reduced with parenteral administration. A dosage of 10 µg/day vaginal EE has been found to be equivalent to 50 µg oral EE in terms of effects on liver protein synthesis, such as stimulation of hepatic SHBG production. As such, parenteral EE, which bypasses the first pass through the liver that occurs with oral EE, has been found to have a 5-fold lower impact on liver protein synthesis by weight than oral EE. In contrast to EE as well as to oral estradiol, transdermal estradiol shows few or no effects on liver protein synthesis at typical menopausal dosages.
Pharmacokinetics
Absorption
The oral bioavailability of EE is 45% on average, with a wide range of 20% to 74% (though most commonly between 38 and 48%) that is due to high interindividual variability. Although relatively low, the oral bioavailability of EE is considerably higher than that of micronized estradiol (5%). Following a single 20 μg dose of EE in combination with 2 mg norethisterone acetate in postmenopausal women, EE concentrations have been found to reach a maximum of 50 pg/mL within an average of 1.5 hours. Following the first dose, mean levels of EE in general further increase by about 50% until steady-state concentrations are reached; steady-state is reached after one week of daily administration. For comparison, the mean peak levels of estradiol achieved with 2 mg micronized estradiol or estradiol valerate are 40 pg/mL following the first dose and 80 pg/mL after three weeks of administration. These maximal concentrations of estradiol are in the same range as the concentrations of EE that are produced by an oral dose of EE that is 100 times lower by weight, which is in accordance with the approximately 100-fold increased oral potency of EE relative to estradiol. In accordance with the high interindividual variability in the oral bioavailability of EE, there is a large degree of interindividual variation in EE levels. A dosage of EE of 50 μg/day has been found to achieve a wide range of circulating EE levels of about 100 to 2,000 pg/mL. Taking EE in combination with a high-fat meal has been found to significantly decrease its peak concentrations.
EE levels after a single 50 μg dose by intravenous injection are several times higher than levels of EE after a single 50 mg dose given orally. Besides the difference in levels, the course of elimination is similar for the two routes.
There may be gender-specific differences in the pharmacokinetics of EE, such that EE may have greater oral potency in women than in men. A study found that a combination of 60 μg/day EE and 0.25 mg/day levonorgestrel in women and men resulted in peak levels of EE of 495 pg/mL and 251 pg/mL, area-under-the-curve levels of EE of 6.216 pg/mL/hour and 2.850 pg/mL/hour, and elimination half-lives of 16.5 hours and 10.2 hours, respectively. It has been suggested that this phenomenon could represent a "protection mechanism" of males against environmental estrogen exposure.
Distribution
The plasma protein binding of EE is 97 to 98%, and it is bound almost exclusively to albumin. Unlike estradiol, which binds with high affinity to SHBG, EE has very low affinity for this protein, about 2% of that of estradiol, and hence does not bind to it importantly.
Metabolism
Due to high first-pass metabolism in the intestines and liver, only 1% of an oral dose of an EE appears in the circulation as EE itself. During first-pass metabolism, EE is extensively conjugated via glucuronidation and sulfation into the hormonally inert ethinylestradiol glucuronides and ethinylestradiol sulfate (EE sulfate), and levels of EE sulfate in circulation are between 6- and 22-fold higher than those of EE. For comparison, with oral administration of 2 mg micronized estradiol, levels of estrone and estrone sulfate are 4- to 6-fold and 200-fold higher than those of estradiol, respectively. In contrast to estradiol, EE, due to steric hindrance by its C17α ethynyl group, is not metabolized or inactivated by 17β-HSD, and this is the primary factor responsible for the dramatically increased potency of oral EE relative to oral estradiol. EE is also not metabolized into estradiol.
Aside from sulfate conjugation, EE is mainly metabolized by hydroxylation into catechol estrogens. This is mainly by 2-hydroxylation into 2-hydroxy-EE, which is catalyzed primarily by CYP3A4. Hydroxylation of EE at the C4, C6α, and C16β positions into 4-, 6α-, and 16β-hydroxy-EE has also been reported, but appears to contribute to its metabolism to only a small extent. 2- and 4-methoxy-EE are also formed via transformation by catechol O-methyltransferase of 2- and 4-hydroxy-EE. Unlike the case of estradiol, 16α-hydroxylation does not occur with EE, owing to steric hindrance by its ethynyl group at C17α. The ethynylation of EE is largely irreversible, and so EE is not metabolized into estradiol, unlike estradiol esters. A review found that the range of the reported elimination half-life of EE in the literature was 13.1 to 27.0 hours. Another review reported an elimination half-life of EE of 10 to 20 hours. However, the elimination half-life of EE has also been reported by other sources to be as short as 7 hours and as long as 36 hours.
Unlike the case of estradiol, in which there is a rapid rise in its levels and which remain elevated in a plateau-like curve for many hours, levels of EE fall rapidly after peaking. This is thought to be because estrone and estrone sulfate can be reversibly converted back into estradiol and serve as a hormonally inert reservoir for estradiol, whereas the EE sulfate reservoir for EE is much smaller in comparison. In any case, due to the formation of EE sulfate, enterohepatic recirculation is involved in the pharmacokinetics of EE similarly to estradiol, although to a lesser extent. The contribution of enterohepatic recirculation to total circulating EE levels appears to be 12 to 20% or less, and is not observed consistently. A secondary peak in EE levels 10 to 14 hours after administration can often be observed with oral EE.
EE, following oxidative formation of a very reactive metabolite, irreversibly inhibits cytochrome P450 enzymes involved in its metabolism, and this may also play a role in the increased potency of EE relative to estradiol. Indeed, EE is said to have a marked effect on hepatic metabolism, and this is one of the reasons, among others, that natural estrogens like estradiol may be preferable. A 2-fold accumulation in EE levels with an EE-containing COC has been observed following 1 year of therapy.
Elimination
EE is eliminated 62% in the feces and 38% in the urine.
Chemistry
EE, also known as 17α-ethynylestradiol or as 17α-ethynylestra-1,3,5(10)-triene-3,17β-diol, is a synthetic estrane steroid and a derivative of estradiol with an ethynyl substitution at the C17α position. The 17α-ethynylation of estradiol to create EE is analogous to the 17α-substitution of testosterone to make testosterone derivatives such as 17α-ethynylated progestins like ethisterone (17α-ethynyltestosterone) and norethisterone (17α-ethynyl-19-nortestosterone) as well as 17α-alkylated androgens/anabolic steroids like methyltestosterone (17α-methyltestosterone).
Analogues
A number of derivatives of EE exist. These include mestranol (EE 3-methyl ether), quinestrol (EE 3-cyclopentyl ether), ethinylestradiol sulfonate (EE 3-isopropylsulfonate), and moxestrol (11β-methoxy-EE). The former three are prodrugs of EE, while the latter one is not. A few analogues of EE with other substitutions at the C17α position exist. Examples include the estradiol derivatives methylestradiol (17α-methylestradiol) and ethylestradiol (17α-ethylestradiol), and the estriol derivatives ethinylestriol (17α-ethynylestriol) and nilestriol (17α-ethynylestriol 3-cyclopentyl ether). Androstane analogues of EE with significant although weak estrogenic activity include ethinylandrostenediol (17α-ethynyl-5-androstenediol), 17α-ethynyl-3β-androstanediol, 17α-ethynyl-3α-androstanediol, and methandriol (17α-methyl-5-androstenediol).
History
EE was the first orally active synthetic estrogen and was described in 1938 by Hans Herloff Inhoffen and Walter Hohlweg of Schering AG in Berlin. It was approved by the in the on June 25, 1943, and marketed by Schering under the brand name Estinyl. The FDA withdrew approval of Estinyl effective June 4, 2004 at the request of Schering, which had discontinued marketing it.
EE was never introduced for use by intramuscular injection.
EE was first used in COCs, as an alternative to mestranol, in 1964, and shortly thereafter superseded mestranol in COCs.
Early COCs contained 40 to 100 μg/day EE and 50 to 150 μg/day mestranol.
Society and culture
Generic names
Ethinylestradiol is the English generic name of the drug and its , , , and . It has also been spelled as ethynylestradiol, ethynyloestradiol, and ethinyloestradiol (all having the same pronunciation), and the latter was formerly its but was eventually changed. In addition, a space is often included in the name of EE such that it is written as ethinyl estradiol (as well as variations thereof), and this is its name. The generic name of EE in French and its are éthinylestradiol, in Spanish is etinilestradiol, in Italian and its are etinilestradiolo, and in Latin is ethinylestradiolum.
The name of the drug is often abbreviated as EE or as EE2 in the medical literature.
Brand names
EE has been marketed as a standalone oral drug under the brand names Esteed, Estinyl, Feminone, Lynoral, Menolyn, Novestrol, Palonyl, Spanestrin, and Ylestrol among others, although most or all of these formulations are now discontinued. It is marketed under a very large number of brand names throughout the world in combination with progestins for use as an oral contraceptive. In addition, EE is marketed in the in combination with norelgestromin under the brand names Ortho Evra and Xulane as a contraceptive patch, in combination with etonogestrel under the brand name NuvaRing as a contraceptive vaginal ring, and in combination with norethisterone acetate under the brand name FemHRT in oral hormone replacement therapy for the treatment of menopausal symptoms.
Availability
EE is marketed widely throughout the world. It is marketed exclusively or almost exclusively in combination with progestins.
References
Further reading
CYP1A2 inhibitors
Ethynyl compounds
Antigonadotropins
Estranes
GPER agonists
Hepatotoxins
Hormonal antineoplastic drugs
Hormonal contraception
Human drug metabolites
Prolactin releasers
Phenols
Synthetic estrogens | wiki |
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Poker gameplay and terminology | wiki |
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William Hallam (bishop)
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William Hallam (trade unionist) | wiki |
The Norton Anthology of Poetry is one of several literary anthologies published by W.W. Norton and Company. It is intended for classroom use, and has sold well.
The anthology appeared in 1970 and is in its sixth edition, a volume which includes 1,871 poems. The book has been seen as representing a canon. For example, the inclusion of Bob Dylan (whose "Boots of Spanish Leather" was anthologized before he won the Nobel Prize in Literature) was cited as evidence of the acceptance of his credentials as a poet.
See also
The Norton Anthology of Modern and Contemporary Poetry
References
1970 poetry books
Poetry anthologies | wiki |
The Series B banknotes () of Ireland replaced the Series A banknotes. The banknotes were issued between 1976 and 1992 by the Central Bank of Ireland, the series was replaced in 1993 by Series C banknotes.
Banknotes
The Central Bank announced its intention for the new banknotes in December 1971 and Servicon, an Irish design company, was employed to design the notes of the denominations; £1, £5, £10, £20, £50 and £100. The £100 note was never issued or circulated; this remains somewhat of an idiosyncrasy in the issue of Irish banknotes as this is the only series without a note of this denomination. The series was Legal Tender from 1976–1995, although not printed after May 1993.
The theme chosen for these notes was history of Ireland, and each note featured the portrait of a person with this theme in mind from a particular era from historic to modern and complementing visual elements. The portrait of Lady Lavery painted by Sir John Lavery was retained from Series A; contained as a watermark in the unprinted space. Each banknote has the signature of the Governor of the Central Bank of Ireland and the Secretary of the Department of Finance.
During much of the period of circulation of this series, foreign exchange controls prohibited the export of any notes larger than £20 from the Republic.
One Pound
The one pound note has a portrait of Medb, the legendary Queen of Connacht in Irish mythology. Also a pre-Christian geometric design based on those found on bone slips is used in on the note, the background is an excerpt from the Táin.
The reverse is a decorated excerpt from Lebor na hUidre, the oldest surviving Irish manuscript.
The one pound note was removed from circulation from June 1990 as it was replaced by the Irish pound coin. It was the final one pound note to be circulated and the first note of Series B to be removed from circulation.
Five Pounds
The five pound note has a portrait of Johannes Scotus Eriugena, the philosopher and theologian, of the ninth century. The letter A from the start of Psalm 17 of the Psalter of Ricemarcus is used against the Book of Durrow.
The reverse features an adaptation of animal and script extracts from the Book of Kells, an eighth century copy of the gospels.
Ten Pounds
The ten pound has a portrait of Dean Jonathan Swift the poet and satirist. The background contains a reproduction of the coat of arms of Dublin from a city council resolution against a letter by Swift from April 1735.
The reverse has a portion of a map of Dublin which was published by John Rocque in 1756. Great Abbey Street and Astons Quay - now known as Middle Abbey Street and Aston Quay respectively are shown as well as the River Liffey.
Twenty Pounds
The twenty pound note has a portrait of William Butler Yeats, the poet, dramatist, and mystic together with a representation of the mythological hero Cú Chulainn, based on the motif used by the Abbey Theatre. The background is of a Deirdre, a Yeats manuscript.
The reverse is an image of the Blasket Islands, off County Kerry with the background of An tOileánach by Tomás Ó Criomhthain.
Fifty Pounds
The fifty pound note has a portrait of Turlough O'Carolan, the blind Irish harper and composer, with the background from Timbrell.
The reverse has a design based on the wood carvings on the organ loft of St. Michan's Church, Dublin.
One Hundred Pounds
A Series B hundred pound note was never issued, the Series A £100 note remained in circulation.
A design mock up was submitted for the £100 denomination in August 1979. After some years of development, a decision was made to not proceed with production of the note, primarily because it was decided that the denomination was not required. The development of the note proceeded through several proof stages before being cancelled in early 1987.
During the late 1970s some newspapers reported that a planned £100 note would be mauve and would have Grace O'Malley on the front, and the Galtee Mountains, or a map of Ireland on the reverse, and the dimensions of the notes in size would be 188 x 98 mm. Detailed information about the design of the note became available with the opening of Central Bank of Ireland Archives to the public in 2017.
The face of the banknote design features a portrait of Grace O'Malley, the Pirate Queen, with one of her ships looming large in the centre and a second ship in the distance. The predominant colours are red for the portrait and mauve for the ship and background elements.
The reverse of the banknote design is predominantly beige. It features a genealogical map of Ireland, based on the 1567 map of "Hibernia: Insula non procul ab Anglia vulgare Hirlandia vocata" by John Goghe.
References
Series B (1976/82 - 1989/93) Irish Writers, Philosophers and Artists banknotes
Ireland B
Currencies of the Republic of Ireland | wiki |
Dummy rummy is a variation of rummy for two to four players. It is played with two standard decks of cards, including four jokers, for a total of 108 cards. The jokers and twos are wild. It appears to be of American origin and may be copyrighted.
Description
Each player is dealt thirteen cards. During each hand, the object is to complete the appointed run and kinds, and get rid of as many cards as possible. When one player gets rid of all of their cards, the cards remaining in the rest of the players hands score penalty points. The player who completes all twelve hands with the fewest points wins.
Rules
Hands
As in most rummy games, melds consist of either sets of equal cards, or runs of consecutive cards. Wild cards may be substituted for any number of cards in a set or run. There are twelve meld sets each player must complete as follows:
2- 3 of a kind
3 a kind, and 1- run of four
2-4 of a kind
2- runs of 4
1- 4 of a kind, and 1- run of 4
2- 3 of a kind, and 1- run of 4
1- 3 of a kind, and 1- run of 7
3- 3 of a kind
2- 5 of a kind
2- runs of 5
8 of a kind
run of 10
If a player is unable to complete the appointed hand, they must try again on the next hand.
Sets
A set consists of cards of equal rank – for example three threes or five queens. In this variation, sets may contain two cards of the same suit; i.e., two 9 of hearts.
Runs
A run consists of cards in sequence, the cards do not have to be in the same suit, such as 2-3-4-5 of hearts. Aces can be high (J-Q-K-A) or low (A-2-3-4) but not both (K-A-2-3).
Wild cards
Twos and jokers are wild and can be used to represent any desired card.
Gameplay
The player to the left of the dealer begins, and the turn to play continues clockwise. A turn consists of drawing, melding and discarding.
Cut-ins
This is an optional rule. When a player sees a card he or she likes then they can ask to cut in and take the card along with three additional cards from the top of the deck. It is up to the player whose turn it is, to allow this or to take the card themselves. That player must also check if any others want it left of the one whose turn it is until no players want it that will go before them. Any player may cut in at any time between a meld and the next players draw up to two times. If they lose count none=11 cards; one=14 cards; and 2 cut ins=17 cards.
Drawing
There are two options:
If you want the top card of the discard pile, take it and add it to your hand.
If you do not want the top card of the discard pile, take a face down card from the top of the undealt stock cards.
If the player has already played their meld set, they must draw from the undealt stock cards.
Melding
Once the player has drawn, they may place their meld set down if they are able. On subsequent turns, players may only add to existing melds, as melds outside of the prescribed meld sets are not allowed. They can, however, add to another players' melds.
Discarding
The final part of each player's turn is to discard one card from their hand face up onto the discard pile.
The objective is to meld or discard all of one's cards, and the play continues until one player manages to go out by getting rid of all the cards from their hand. They must always end their turn by discarding.
When discarding, a player may not discard a card if it creates a meld, (run or a set). If an opponent notices the error prior to the next player picking up, that player is permitted to remove the set from the pile and place it with their other melds.
Scoring
As soon as a player goes out, the hand is scored. The player who went out counts nothing for this hand. The opponents count the total value of the cards remaining in their hand. The value of the individual cards is a follows:
The value of their hand is added to their running total. The player that completes all twelve meld sets with the lowest score wins.
See also
Three thirteen
Ten pennies
References
Rummy
French deck card games
American card games | wiki |
Class 16 may refer to:
British Rail Class 16
DRG Class 16, a class of German six-coupled, express train, steam locomotives operated by the Deutsche Reichsbahn which included the:
Class 16.0: the Oldenburg S 10
Class 16.0II: the BBÖ 310, PKP Class Pn12 and PKP Class Pn11 | wiki |
William Kincaid may refer to:
William Kincaid (artist), American costume designer and artist
William Kincaid (flutist), American flutist and teacher
William W. Kincaid, American entrepreneur and inventor
Woody Kincaid (William Kincaid), American long-distance runner
Bill Kincaid (William S. Kincaid), American computer engineer and entrepreneur
Billy Kincaid, a fictional supervillain in the Spawn comic book series
William Bradley Kincaid, American folk singer and radio entertainer | wiki |
The following is a list of film and television podcasts.
List
References
Lists of podcasts
Film and television podcasts
Film-related lists
Television lists | wiki |
Cinq comtés des États-Unis portent le nom de comté de Sheridan () :
le comté de Sheridan, situé dans l'État du Dakota du Nord ;
le comté de Sheridan, situé dans l'État du Kansas ;
le comté de Sheridan, situé dans l'État du Montana ;
le comté de Sheridan, situé dans l'État du Nebraska ;
le comté de Sheridan, situé dans l'État du Wyoming. | wiki |
Gary Cameron (born 14 June 1966) is a former Australian rules footballer who played with Geelong in the Victorian (VFL) and Australian Football Leagues.
Cameron, a Katamatite recruit, who won the Tungamah Football League best and fairest award, the Lawless Medal in 1986, played eight games for Geelong in each of his first two seasons, 1987 and 1988. He appeared in the final five rounds of the 1989 VFL season, but didn't take part in the Geelong's finals series. After another five games in 1990, Cameron left to play for South Adelaide Football Club in the South Australian National Football League (SANFL).
Cameron was captain / coach of Wangaratta in the Ovens & Murray Football League in 1998 and 1999.
In 2007, Cameron briefly served as caretaker coach of South Adelaide, when coach Robert Pyman was sacked. Cameron was coach for four rounds.
References
1966 births
Australian rules footballers from Victoria (Australia)
Geelong Football Club players
South Adelaide Football Club players
South Adelaide Football Club coaches
Living people | wiki |
The discography of Fight Like Apes, an Irish alternative rock band, consists of three studio albums, three extended plays and several singles.
Albums
Studio albums
Live albums
Extended plays
Compilation albums
Singles
Music videos
References
Discographies of Irish artists
Rock music group discographies | wiki |
Authorization or authorisation (see spelling differences) is the function of specifying access rights/privileges to resources, which is related to general information security and computer security, and to access control in particular. More formally, "to authorize" is to define an access policy. For example, human resources staff are normally authorized to access employee records and this policy is often formalized as access control rules in a computer system. During operation, the system uses the access control rules to decide whether access requests from (authenticated) consumers shall be approved (granted) or disapproved (rejected). Resources include individual files or an item's data, computer programs, computer devices and functionality provided by computer applications. Examples of consumers are computer users, computer software and other hardware on the computer.
Overview
Access control in computer systems and networks rely on access policies. The access control process can be divided into the following phases: policy definition phase where access is authorized, and policy enforcement phase where access requests are approved or disapproved. Authorization is the function of the policy definition phase which precedes the policy enforcement phase where access requests are approved or disapproved based on the previously defined authorizations.
Most modern, multi-user operating systems include role-based access control (RBAC) and thereby rely on authorization. Access control also uses authentication to verify the identity of consumers. When a consumer tries to access a resource, the access control process checks that the consumer has been authorized to use that resource. Authorization is the responsibility of an authority, such as a department manager, within the application domain, but is often delegated to a custodian such as a system administrator. Authorizations are expressed as access policies in some types of "policy definition application", e.g. in the form of an access control list or a capability, or a policy administration point e.g. XACML. On the basis of the "principle of least privilege": consumers should only be authorized to access whatever they need to do their jobs. Older and single user operating systems often had weak or non-existent authentication and access control systems.
"Anonymous consumers" or "guests", are consumers that have not been required to authenticate. They often have limited authorization. On a distributed system, it is often desirable to grant access without requiring a unique identity. Familiar examples of access tokens include keys, certificates and tickets: they grant access without proving identity.
Trusted consumers are often authorized for unrestricted access to resources on a system, but must be verified so that the access control system can make the access approval decision. "Partially trusted" and guests will often have restricted authorization in order to protect resources against improper access and usage. The access policy in some operating systems, by default, grant all consumers full access to all resources. Others do the opposite, insisting that the administrator explicitly authorizes a consumer to use each resource.
Even when access is controlled through a combination of authentication and access control lists, the problems of maintaining the authorization data is not trivial, and often represents as much administrative burden as managing authentication credentials. It is often necessary to change or remove a user's authorization: this is done by changing or deleting the corresponding access rules on the system. Using atomic authorization is an alternative to per-system authorization management, where a trusted third party securely distributes authorization information.
Related interpretations
Public policy
In public policy, authorization is a feature of trusted systems used for security or social control.
Banking
In banking, an authorization is a hold placed on a customer's account when a purchase is made using a debit card or credit card.
Publishing
In publishing, sometimes public lectures and other freely available texts are published without the approval of the author. These are called unauthorized texts. An example is the 2002 'The Theory of Everything: The Origin and Fate of the Universe' , which was collected from Stephen Hawking's lectures and published without his permission as per copyright law.
See also
Access control
Authorization hold
Authorization OSID
Kerberos (protocol)
Multi-party authorization
OpenID Connect
OpenID
Usability of web authentication systems
WebFinger
WebID
XACML
References
Computer access control
Access control
Authority | wiki |
Miss World is the oldest surviving major international beauty pageant.
Miss World may also refer to:
"Miss World" (song), a song by Hole
Miss World (EP), an EP by Flunk | wiki |
Giant tortoises are any of various large land tortoises
Giant tortoise or giant tortoises may also refer to:
Galápagos giant tortoise, Chelonoidis nigra are a complex of the largest living species of tortoise.
Pinta giant tortoise or Pinta Island tortoise, Chelonoidis abingdonii, is a species of Galápagos tortoise native to Ecuador's Pinta Island that is most likely extinct since the death of Lonesome George
Volcán Wolf giant tortoise, Chelonoidis becki, is a species of Galápagos tortoise native to the north side of Ecuador's Isabela Island
Narborough Island giant tortoise or Fernandina Island tortoise Chelonoidis phantasticus, is a species of Galápagos tortoise that was last seen in 1906, until a single female individual was rediscovered living on Fernandina Island in February 2019.
Aldabrachelys, a genus of giant tortoises of the Seychelles and Madagascan radiations
†A. abrupta - Abrupt giant tortoise
†A. grandidieri - Grandidier's giant tortoise
Aldabra giant tortoise, A. gigantea with recognised subspecies:
A. g. arnoldi – Arnold's giant tortoise
†A. g. daudinii – Daudin's giant tortoise
A. g. gigantea – Aldabra giant tortoise
A. g. hololissa – Seychelles giant tortoise, the individual Jonathan being the oldest known living terrestrial animal in the world
†Cylindraspis an extinct genus of tortoise with the following species:
†C. indica, Réunion giant tortoise, from Réunion
†C. inepta, Saddle-backed Mauritius giant tortoise, from Mauritius
†C. peltastes, Domed Rodrigues giant tortoise, from Rodrigues
†C. triserrata, Domed Mauritius giant tortoise, from Mauritius
†C. vosmaeri, Saddle-backed Rodrigues giant tortoise, from Rodrigues
†Tenerife giant tortoise, Centrochelys burchardi, a species of tortoise endemic to the island of Tenerife, in the Canary Islands
†Gran Canaria giant tortoise, Centrochelys vulcanica, a species of tortoise endemic to the island of Gran Canaria, in the Canary Islands
†Megalochelys atlas, an extinct species of giant tortoise, the largest known tortoise in the fossil record
Yellow-footed tortoise (Chelonoidis denticulatus), also known as the Brazilian giant tortoise
Bolson tortoise, (Gopherus flavomarginatus), also known as the Mexican giant tortoise
Key: † indicates extinct.
See also
†Archelon, the largest turtle ever to have been documented
Largest prehistoric animals - turtles and tortoises section
Largest reptiles - turtle section
Large tortoiseshell, a species of butterfly | wiki |
An Impound race (known as parc fermé in other motorsport) is a race where the crew members are not allowed to make any adjustments to the car after qualifying and before the race.
History
The first impound races in NASCAR were implemented during the 2005 season. The concept of the impound race was designed to limit the costs of racing, and thus make it more affordable for all teams. This was to have the effect of leveling the playing field between the small limited budget teams and well financed multi-car teams. Initially these new rules were confusing, limited schedules, and made the events hectic for the teams. Over time NASCAR adjusted, tweaked, and changed the rules so they were less imposing. In 2005 a total of 21 out of the scheduled 36 races were run as impound races. The NASCAR series (Nextel at that time) director John Darby said "Ultimately, all the teams will arrive at the track with a focus on one goal," ... "That goal will be to have the best possible race setup, and hopefully that will enhance the overall competitive element throughout the field." The displeasure of the drivers, owners, and team members forced NASCAR to back pedal from 21 impound races in 2005, to a total of 5 races in 2006.
After qualifying rules
Depending upon the layout of the track, and the resources available, how the rules are implemented may differ from track to track. They are rather defined however; once qualifying is complete, then only 2 crew members are allowed into the garage at a time, and only in the presence of NASCAR officials. The crew members inside the garage are subject to the following rules:
they may not jack up the car or lift any part of the car.
they may not add water or change the cooling system pressure.
they may not get inside the car.
they may not any adjust or change any shocks, bolts or adjust the sway bar.
they may not add fuel, oil, or brake fluid.
they may not adjust any body components including the spoilers or fenders
they may not remove air box
they may not change or add any components or spring inserts
If the crew members violate any of the rules, and/or adjust any part of the car that was not allowed by NASCAR, the car is relegated to the rear of the field at the start of the race.
What teams were allowed to do was:
Shut off electrical switches and master power switch
Remove radio
Check air pressure in tires
Cover the car
and then Crew members must exit the garage and close the garage doors. The process of selecting their pit road stalls for race day was done immediately after the last team had completed qualifying.
Race day rules
On race day NASCAR officials will escort a maximum of 2 crew members to their respective stalls. Once there, teams may perform the following tasks:
Plug in oil heater (any generators must remain outside the garage)
Open hood
Prime oil system
Back car out of garage to start
Turn master switch on
Open oil cooler bypass valve (optional)
Start engine
Close hood
Adjust tire pressure
Torque wheels
Install radio and water bottle
Change, remove, or repair tape on front of car (i.e. grille, valance, brake ducts, etc.)
Equipment batteries may be replaced, but only under NASCAR supervision.
Teams are still restricted to the same rules as qualifying day "may not" rules. The number of crew members performing fuel pump operations are limited to a maximum of three crew members per car at any time; and must be escorted by NASCAR officials.
For tracks 1 mile and under, a maximum of two gallons of fuel may be added.
For tracks 1½ miles, a maximum of three gallons of fuel may be added.
For tracks above 1½ miles, a maximum of four gallons of fuel may be added.
Height platform: A maximum of three crew members per car at any time, accompanied by NASCAR officials, may escort the respective car to the height platform.
Teams may:
Adjust front and rear wedge bolts: A maximum of one turn for front bolts. A maximum of 1½ turns for rear bolts.
Adjust track bar at frame end adjuster. No maximum on track bar adjustment.
Adjust external shock bleeds.
Teams may not:
Change any components.
Add spring inserts.
Scales: A maximum of three crew members are allowed to attend to the car at any time and must be accompanied by NASCAR officials Officials will escort team members and the respective car to the scales. Any car that does not meet required weight specifications may be subject to penalty. After completion, the generator may be reconnected to the car and pushed to pit road. Generators will be permitted out on pit road with the car.
Weekend schedule
The impound rules caused a great deal of consternation when they were first implemented. The typical schedule allowed drivers two sessions of practice time on track on Friday, and qualifying would happen the following day, Saturday. In addition, teams were usually allotted two additional practice session on Saturday.
See also
Glossary of motorsport terms#I
Glossary of terms: Parc fermé
Parc fermé
References
NASCAR terminology | wiki |
Old Age may refer to:
old age
Old Age (song), song by Hole, originally composed by Kurt Cobain of Nirvana
Old Age, a painting in the series The Voyage of Life by Thomas Cole
"Old Age", song by Louis Jordan
"Old Age", B-side to Let's Party (Rhinoceros song)
"Old Age", comedy sketch recorded by Phyllis Diller | wiki |
A refrain is a line or lines repeated in a verse or song.
Refrain may also refer to:
"Refrain" (Lys Assia song), winner of Eurovision 1956
"Refrain" (Mamoru Miyano song), 2009
Refrain (Stockhausen), a 1966 composition by Karlheinz Stockhausen
Refrain, a 2020 album by Boris and Z.O.A
"Refrain", a 1988 song by James from Strip-mine
See also | wiki |
Collarette can refer to:
A small collar
Collarette (iris), a part of the eye | wiki |
"Accommodation address" is a term used mostly in the United Kingdom to denote a location where mail can be delivered in the name of a person or business for retrieval. The service is similar to poste restante and post office boxes, but is generally supplied by a private company, or even an individual. The degree of service can range from full secretarial and telephone answering, to a simple mail drop. Small businesses use accommodation addresses when they have no fixed place of business, and do not wish to use a post office box, a proper address giving an air of respectability.
Accommodation addresses are occasionally used to have goods delivered that have been paid for through credit card fraud.
See also
Serviced office
References
Postal services | wiki |
The Esperanto language has a dedicated braille alphabet. One Esperanto braille magazine, Esperanta Ligilo, has been published since 1904, and another, Aŭroro, since 1920.
Alphabet
The basic braille alphabet is extended for the print letters with diacritics. The circumflex is marked by adding dot 6 (lower right) to the base letter: ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ. Therefore, the letter ĵ has the same form as the unused French/English Braille letter w; to write a w in a foreign name, dot 3 is added: w (see next section). Esperanto ŭ is made by reflecting u, so that dot 1 becomes dot 4: ŭ.
The alphabet is thus as follows.
Contracted braille is in limited use.
Transcribing foreign letters
Beside the basic-Latin foreign letters q, w, x, y, there are dedicated letters for the umlauted vowels that occur in print German, ä, ö, ü:
Additional accented letters in other languages are handled by separate braille cells for the diacritics. These do not have a one-to-one correspondence with print:
These conventions are used for foreign names adapted to Esperanto Braille. Unassimilated text in another braille alphabet is indicated by the code .
Punctuation
Single punctuation
The apostrophe and abbreviation point are both transcribed , which is distinct from the period/stop, .
Paired punctuation
Quotation marks in print Esperanto are highly variable, and tend to follow the conventions of the country a text is published in. This is irrelevant for printing in braille.
Numbers
The apostrophe/abbreviation point is used to group digits within numbers, like the comma in English. In both print and braille Esperanto, the comma is used as the decimal mark, so:
print English 100,000.00
= print Esperanto 100 000,00
= braille .
Formatting
Capitals are only marked for proper names. They are not used at the beginning of a sentence.
For emphasis (bold or italics in print), a simple is used to mark each of one to three words. For longer emphatic text, there are two formats: Either a colon precedes the simple emphatic sign, , and an additional sign is placed before the last emphasized word, or the sign is placed before and after the emphasized text.
In contracted (grade 2) braille, a different sign is used for capital letters, (dot 6). As in most braille orthographies, proper names are not contracted, and words preceded by this sign are not contracted in Esperanto Braille.
References
External links
Ligo internacia de blindaj esperantistoj
French-ordered braille alphabets
Esperanto | wiki |
Coney Island is a peninsular neighborhood and entertainment area in the southwestern section of the New York City borough of Brooklyn. The neighborhood is bounded by Brighton Beach and Manhattan Beach to its east, Lower New York Bay to the south and west, and Gravesend to the north and includes the subsection of Sea Gate on its west. More broadly, the Coney Island peninsula consists of Coney Island proper, Brighton Beach, and Manhattan Beach. This was formerly the westernmost of the Outer Barrier islands on the southern shore of Long Island, but in the early 20th century it became a peninsula, connected to the rest of Long Island by land fill.
The origin of Coney Island's name is disputed, but the area was originally part of the colonial town of Gravesend. By the mid-19th century it had become a seaside resort, and by the late 19th century, amusement parks had also been built at the location. The attractions reached a historical peak during the first half of the 20th century. However, they declined in popularity after World War II and, following years of neglect, several structures were torn down. Various redevelopment projects were proposed for Coney Island in the 1970s through the 2000s, though most of these were not carried out. The area was revitalized with the opening of the venue now known as Maimonides Park in 2001 and several amusement rides starting in the 2010s.
Coney Island had around 32,000 residents as of the 2010 United States Census. The neighborhood is ethnically diverse, and the neighborhood's poverty rate of 27% is slightly higher than that of the city as a whole.
Coney Island is part of Brooklyn Community District 13, and its primary ZIP Code is 11224. It is patrolled by the 60th Precinct of the New York City Police Department. Fire services are provided by the New York City Fire Department's Engine 245/Ladder 161/Battalion 43 and Engine 318/Ladder 166. Politically, Coney Island is represented by the New York City Council's 47th District. The area is well served by the New York City Subway and local bus routes, and contains several public elementary and middle schools.
Geography and climate
The Encyclopedia of New York City considers the area west of Ocean Parkway (including Sea Gate and Nortons Point Light) to be part of the Coney Island neighborhood. The neighborhood is situated on the western portion of the Coney Island peninsula, located on the western end of Long Island lying to the west of the Outer Barrier islands along Long Island's southern shore. The peninsula is about long and wide. It extends into Lower New York Bay with Sheepshead Bay to its northeast, Gravesend Bay and Coney Island Creek to its northwest, and the main part of Brooklyn to its north. At its highest it is above sea level. Coney Island was formerly an actual island, separated from greater Brooklyn by Coney Island Creek, and was the westernmost of the Outer Barrier islands. A large section of the creek was filled in the 1920s and 1930s, turning the island into a peninsula.
The perimeter of Coney Island features manmade structures designed to maintain its current shape. The beaches are currently not a natural feature; the sand that is naturally supposed to replenish Coney Island is cut off by the jetty at Breezy Point, Queens. Sand has been redeposited on the beaches via beach nourishment since the construction of Riegelmann Boardwalk in 1922–1923, and is held in place by around two dozen groynes. A large sand-replenishing project along Coney Island and Brighton Beach took place in the 1990s. Sheepshead Bay at the peninsula's northeast corner is, for the most part, enclosed in bulkheads. Two major parks, Kaiser Park and Coney Island Creek Park, are located on the northwest side of the peninsula along Coney Island Creek.
Coney Island has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa) and the hardiness zone is 7b.
Name
The original Native American inhabitants of the region, the Lenape, called this area Narrioch, possibly meaning "land without shadows or "always in light in reference to its sunlit south-facing beaches. A second possible meaning is "point or "corner of land. The "island" was originally several smaller historical islands, each being given a name by Dutch settlers, with the westernmost sand spit or point being given named Conyne Eylandt in early-17th-century Dutch maps, starting with the 1639 Manatus Map.
There is no clear historical consensus on how the island got the name "Coney Island", in regular use in the first half of the 19th century with the advent of regular ferry service to the island, but several theories have been put forward. One possible etymology is from a Native American tribe, the Konoh or Konoi (the "Bear Band"), who once inhabited the island. A second theory suggests that it was distortion of the name of Henry Hudson's second mate on the Halve Maen, John Colman, who was slain by natives on the 1609 expedition. A third posits that late 18th century Irish captain Peter O'Connor named it after Coney Island in County Sligo, Ireland. Yet other theories suggest a Dutch etymology: one theory holds that the name had come from Conyn, the surname of a family of Dutch settlers who lived there, and another suggests that it came from the Dutch word for rabbit, "konijn", derived from a purported large population of wild rabbits on the island".
There is little evidence for each origin theory, and there are conflicts between the pieces of evidence that do exist. The most popular idea is the translation of the Dutch word for "rabbit" into the English word coney, but that has its detractors and counter explanations. In 1816 politician and U.S. Founding Father Egbert Benson presented a treatise on New York place names and said it was "Conyn's Island", after the Dutch surname, and noted "there are already symptoms of the beginning of a tradition that it once abounded in Rabbits". Other historians claim that rabbits were introduced to the island only after it was settled. The 19th century also saw the heavily Irish New York Tammany Hall political machine controlling development of the island, and they may have gotten the name from the island in County Sligo rather than any tale of a rabbit population.
History
Early settlement
Giovanni da Verrazzano was the first European explorer to sight the island of Narrioch during his expeditions to the area in 1527 and 1529. He was subsequently followed by Henry Hudson. Anthony Janszoon van Salee was the first New Netherland settler to acquire land adjacent to Coney Island, in 1639. The Native American population in the area dwindled as the Dutch settlement grew and the entire southern tier of present-day Brooklyn, from Gowanus Creek to Coney Island to Gerritsen Creek, was "purchased" in 1645 from the Native Americans in exchange for goods. The goods were not recorded in the deed, but later accounts mention a gun, a blanket, and a kettle.
In 1644, a colonist named Guysbert Op Dyck was given a land patent for 88 acres of land in the town of Gravesend, on the southwestern shore of Brooklyn. The land patent included Conyne Island, an island just off the southwestern shore of the town of Gravesend, as well as Conyne Hook, a peninsula just east of the island. Both became part of Gravesend when its first town charter was granted a year later, in 1645. East of Conyne Hook was the largest section of island called Gysbert's, Guysbert's, or Guisbert's Island (also called Johnson Island), containing most of the arable land and extending east through today's Brighton Beach and Manhattan Beach. This was officially the first official real estate transaction for the island.
Op Dyck never occupied his land, and in 1661 he sold it off to Dick De Wolf. The land's new owner banned Gravesend residents from using Guisbert's Island and built a salt-works on the land, provoking outrage among Gravesend livestock herders. New Amsterdam was transferred to the English in 1664, and four years later, the English Governor created a new charter for Gravesend that excluded Coney Island. Subsequently, Guisbert's Island was divided into plots meted out to several dozen settlers. However, in 1685, the island became part of Gravesend again as a result of a new charter with the Native Americans.
At the time of European settlement, the land that makes up the present-day Coney Island was divided across several separate islands. All of these islands were part of the outer barrier on the southern shore of Long Island, and their land areas and boundaries changed frequently. Only the westernmost island was called Coney Island; it currently makes up part of Sea Gate. At the time, it was a 1.25-mile shifting sandspit with a detached island at its western end extending into Lower New York Bay. In a 1679–1680 journal, Jasper Danckaerts and Peter Sluyter noted that "Conijnen Eylandt" was fully separated from the rest of Brooklyn. The explorers observed that "Nobody lives upon it, but it is used in winter for keeping cattle, horses, oxen, hogs and others."
By the early 18th century, the town of Gravesend was periodically granting seven-year-long leases to freeholders, who would then have the exclusive use of Coney Hook and Coney Island. In 1734, a road to Coney Hook was laid out. Thomas Stillwell, a prominent Gravesend resident who was the freeholder for Coney Island and Coney Hook at the time, proposed to build a ditch through Coney Hook so it would be easier for his cattle to graze. He convinced several friends in the nearby town of Jamaica to help him in this effort, telling them that the creation of such a ditch would allow them to ship goods from Jamaica Bay to New York Harbor without having to venture out into the ocean. In 1750, the "Jamaica Ditch" was dug through Coney Hook from Brown's Creek in the west to Hubbard's Creek in the east. The creation of the canal turned Coney Hook into a detached island called Pine Island, so named due to the woods on it.
Each island was separated by an inlet that could only be crossed at low tide. By the end of the 18th century, the ongoing shifting of sand along the barrier islands had closed up the inlets to the point that residents began filling them in and joining them as one island. Development of Coney Island was slow until the 19th century due to land disputes, the American Revolutionary War, and the War of 1812. Coney Island was so remote that Herman Melville wrote Moby-Dick on the island in 1849, and Henry Clay and Daniel Webster discussed the Missouri Compromise at the island the next year.
Resort development
In 1824, the Gravesend and Coney Island Road and Bridge Company built the first bridge across Jamaica Ditch (by now known as Coney Island Creek), connecting the island with the mainland. The company also built a shell road across the island to the beaches. In 1829, the company also built the first hotel on the island: the Coney Island House, near present-day Sea Gate.
Due to Coney Island's proximity to Manhattan and other boroughs, and its simultaneous relative distance from the city of Brooklyn to provide the illusion of a proper vacation, it began attracting vacationers in the 1830s and 1840s, assisted by carriage roads and steamship service that reduced travel time from a formerly half-day journey to two hours. Most of the vacationers were wealthy and went by carriage. Inventor Samuel Colt built an observation tower on the peninsula in 1845, but he abandoned the project soon after. In 1847, the middle class started going to Coney Island upon the introduction of a ferry line to Norton's Point—named during the mid-1870s after hotel owner Michael Norton—at the western portion of the peninsula. Gang activity started as well, with one 1870s writer noting that going to Coney Island could result in losing money and even lives. The Brooklyn, Bath and Coney Island Railroad became the first railroad to reach Coney Island when it opened in 1864, and it was completed in 1867. Over the next 13 years, four more railroads were built specifically to transport visitors to Coney Island; this was part of a larger national trend toward trolley park development.
In 1868, William A. Engeman built a resort in the area. The resort was given the name "Brighton Beach" in 1878 by Henry C. Murphy and a group of businessmen, who chose the name as an allusion to the English resort city of Brighton. With the help of Gravesend's surveyor William Stillwell, Engeman acquired all 39 lots for the relatively low cost of $20,000. This hotel, with rooms for up to 5,000 people nightly and meals for up to 20,000 people daily, was close to the then-rundown western Coney Island, so it was mostly the upper middle class that went to this hotel. The , double-decker Brighton Beach Bathing Pavilion was also built nearby and opened in 1878, with the capacity for 1,200 bathers. Hotel Brighton, also known as the Brighton Beach Hotel, was situated on the beach at what is now the foot of Coney Island Avenue. The Brooklyn, Flatbush, and Coney Island Railway, the predecessor to the New York City Subway's present-day Brighton Line, opened on July 2, 1878, and provided access to the hotel.
Simultaneously, wealthy banker Austin Corbin was developing adjacent Manhattan Beach after being interested in the area during a trip to the beach to heal his sick son. Corbin, who worked on Wall Street and had many railroad investments, built the New York and Manhattan Beach Railway for his two luxury shoreline hotels. These hotels were used by the wealthy upper class, who would not go to Brighton Beach because of its proximity to Coney Island. The 150-room Manhattan Beach Hotel—which was designed by J. Pickering Putnam and contained restaurants, ballrooms, and shops—was opened for business in July 1877 at a ceremony presided over by President Ulysses S. Grant. The similarly prodigal Oriental Hotel, which hosted rooms for wealthy families staying for extended periods, was opened in August 1880.
Andrew R. Culver, president of the Prospect Park and Coney Island Railroad, had built the Culver Line steam railway to West Brighton in 1875, before Corbin and Engeman had even built their railroads. For 35 cents, one could ride the Prospect Park & Coney Island Railroad to the Culver Depot terminal at Surf Avenue. Across the street from the terminal, the Iron Tower (also known as the Centennial Observatory), bought from the 1876 Philadelphia Exposition, provided patrons with a bird's-eye view of the coast. The nearby "Camera Obscura" similarly used mirrors and lens to provide a panoramic view of the area. Coney Island became a major resort destination after the Civil War as excursion railroads and the Coney Island & Brooklyn Railroad streetcar line reached the area in the 1860s and 1870s, followed by the Iron Steamboat Company ferry to Manhattan in 1881.
The 150-suite Cable Hotel was built nearby in 1875. Next to it, on a piece of land leased by James Voorhies, maitre d' Paul Bauer built the western peninsula's largest hotel, which opened in 1876. By the turn of the century, Victorian hotels, private bathhouses, and vaudeville theaters were a common sight on Coney island. The three resort areas—Brighton Beach, Manhattan Beach and West Brighton—competed with each other for clientele. By the early 1900s, West Brighton had gradually become the most popular destination, and as such, became associated with the lively amusement area of Coney Island.
In the 1890s, Norton's Point on the western side of Coney Island was developed into Sea Gate, a gated summer community that catered mainly to the wealthy. A private yacht carried visitors directly from the Battery at the southern tip of Manhattan Island. Notable tenants within the community included the Atlantic Yacht Club, which built a colonial style house along the waterfront.
Amusement park era
Between about 1880 and World War II, Coney Island was the largest amusement area in the United States, attracting several million visitors per year. Its development as an amusement area was concurrent with the erection of urban amusement parks elsewhere in the United States, which changed amusement from a passive to an active concept. Of these amusement areas, Coney Island was the largest. At its height, it contained three competing major amusement parks—Luna Park, Dreamland, and Steeplechase Park—as well as many independent amusements. The area was also the center of new technological events and innovations including electric lights, roller coasters, and baby incubators. By the first decade of the 20th century, Coney Island was seen as a top getaway and "a symbol of Americans' increasing pride".
19th century
By the late 1870s, Coney Island's hotels had drawn people from many different social classes, and attractions were being built. When the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company electrified the steam railroads and connected Brooklyn to Manhattan via the Brooklyn Bridge at the beginning of the 20th century, Coney Island turned rapidly from a resort to an accessible location for day-trippers seeking to escape the summer heat in New York City's tenements. Charles I. D. Looff, a Danish woodcarver, built the first carousel and amusement ride at Coney Island in 1876, at Lucy Vandeveer's bath-house complex at West 6th Street and Surf Avenue. Looff personally hand-carved the designs into the carousel. Looff subsequently commissioned another carousel at Feltman's Ocean Pavilion in 1880. Another early attraction was the Seaside Aquarium, which operated from 1877 to 1887 and included aquatic exhibits, aviaries, zoo attractions, and various sideshows. The earliest rides, including Looff's first carousel and the Seaside Aquarium, were located at the Centennial Observatory's site. The first sideshows and fireworks displays came to Coney Island in 1883, and combined with constant musical performances, brought increased excitement to the area.
The very first roller coaster at Coney Island was the Switchback Railway, a gravity coaster installed by LaMarcus Adna Thompson at West 10th Street in 1884. Nearby was the Elephantine Colossus, a seven-story building (including a brothel) in the shape of an elephant, which opened the following year. Until its demolition in 1896, the elephant was the first sight to greet immigrants arriving in New York, who would see it before they saw the Statue of Liberty. Next to be developed were horse-racing tracks, and by 1890, Coney Island had three tracks: Sheepshead Bay Race Track, Brighton Beach Race Course, and Gravesend Race Track. Julian Ralph described Coney Island in 1896 as "the first made-to-order resort in America", with many businesses having "leaped from nothing into full fledged perfection". However, crime and corruption in Coney Island were prevalent. The main leader of this corruption was John Y. McKane, who ran prizefighting rings behind the elephant until he was arrested and sentenced in 1894.
The development of amusement rides in Coney Island intensified in the 1890s with the opening of amusement parks. The first such park was Sea Lion Park, which operated from 1895 to 1902 and was the first amusement park to charge entry fees. Sea Lion Park's opening spurred the construction of George C. Tilyou's Steeplechase Park, which opened in 1897. The Coney Island "Funny Face" logo, which is still extant, dates to the early days of Steeplechase Park.
Early 20th century
The first decade of the 20th century saw two more large amusement parks. Luna Park opened in 1903 on the site of Sea Lion Park, which had closed the previous year. The park contained a variety of attractions and exotic landscaping, lit by electricity at night; its flagship ride was A Trip to the Moon, an attraction based on Jules Verne's novel From the Earth to the Moon. The following year saw the opening of Dreamland, which reproduced many attractions at Luna Park, but at a grander scale, with a large central tower and lagoon, a sunken plaza, and one million electric lights. Additionally, the City of New York made efforts to condemn all buildings and piers built south of Surf Avenue in an effort to reclaim the beach and create a boardwalk, though the local amusement community opposed the move. Eventually, the city government and the community reached an agreement mandating that the beach did not begin until south of Surf Avenue and that the territory would be marked by a city-owned boardwalk. In return, the city would demolish any structures built upon public streets to reclaim beach access.
The original resorts lost patronage after horse racing in New York state was outlawed in 1909, but the amusement areas still saw significant patronage. In 1915, the Sea Beach Line was upgraded to a subway line, followed by the other former excursion roads, and the opening of the Stillwell Avenue station in 1919 ushered in Coney Island's busiest era. On the busiest summer days, over a million people would travel to Coney Island. This created tensions between longtime New York City residents and more recent immigrants who liked to patronize Coney Island. One of the entrepreneurs who took advantage of the increased visitor counts was Nathan Handwerker, who in 1916 started selling hot dogs at Coney Island for a nickel each, and eventually expanded his enterprise into the Nathan's Famous hot dog chain.
Coney Island's development as an amusement area continued through the end of World War II. The opening of the Wonder Wheel in 1920; the Riegelmann Boardwalk in 1923; the Shore Theater in 1925; several roller coasters in the 1920s including the Tornado, Thunderbolt, and Coney Island Cyclone; and the Parachute Jump in 1941 contributed to the area's quality as an amusement destination. In particular, the Riegelmann Boardwalk enabled the crowds to be dispersed away from Surf Avenue, the main west–east avenue in the area. Despite staff shortages during World War II, Coney Island retained its popularity and was frequented by military personnel.
The era was also marked by frequent fires, and those at the beginning of the 20th century were particularly destructive. A 1907 fire at Steeplechase Park resulted in the park having to be completely rebuilt. Dreamland burned down in 1911 and was never rebuilt. One of the largest conflagrations at Coney Island, which occurred in 1932, left at least a thousand people homeless.
The early 20th century additionally saw the infilling of a portion of the Coney Island Creek, thereby connecting Coney Island to the rest of Brooklyn. In the previous decades, there had been plans to dredge and straighten the creek as a ship canal, which were later abandoned. By 1924, local landowners and the city had filled a portion of the creek. A major section of the creek was further filled in to allow construction of the Belt Parkway in the 1930s, and the western and eastern ends of the island became peninsulas. More fill was added in 1962 during the construction of the Verrazzano-Narrows Bridge.
Residential development and decline
Robert Moses era
In 1937, New York City parks commissioner Robert Moses published a report about the possible redevelopment of Coney Island, which would have entailed the addition of parking lots and reconstruction of part of the boardwalk. The city purchased a strip of land along the shoreline, which would allow the boardwalk to be moved inland. At this point, Coney Island was so crowded on summer weekends that, according to Moses, a coffin would provide more space per person. Though ride construction was delayed due to material shortages caused by the onset of World War II, two new rides were constructed in 1946 at the end of the war.
In August 1944, Luna Park was destroyed by a fire. Two years later, it was closed permanently and sold to a company who wanted to tear down the park's remnants and build Quonset huts for military veterans and their families. Moses asked the city to transfer Luna Park's land along the Coney Island waterfront to the Parks Department, a request that was granted in 1949. Moses then had the land rezoned for residential use, with plans to demolish "about a third" of attractions along Surf Avenue, one block north of the beach, and replace these with housing. Moses moved the boardwalk back from the beach several yards, demolishing many structures, including the city's municipal bath house, as well as several blocks of amusements. He claimed that fewer amusement-seekers were going to Coney Island every year, because they preferred places where they could bathe outdoors, such as Jones Beach State Park on Long Island, rather than the "mechanical gadget" attractions of Coney Island. Moses also announced that the Steeplechase Pier would be closed for a year so it could be renovated.
In 1953, Moses proposed that most of the peninsula be rezoned for various uses, claiming that it would be an "upgrade" over the various business and unrestricted zones that existed at the time. Steeplechase Park would be allowed to remain open, but much of the shorefront amusements and concessions would be replaced by residential developments. After many complaints from the public and from concession operators, the Estimate Board reinstated the area between West 22nd and West Eighth Streets as an amusement-only zone, with the zone extending inland from the shoreline. Moses's subsequent proposal to extend the Coney Island boardwalk east to Manhattan Beach was denied in 1955. A proposal to make the Quonset hut development into a permanent housing structure was also rejected.
A new building for the New York Aquarium was approved for construction in the neighborhood in 1953. Construction started on the aquarium in 1954. The development of the new New York Aquarium was expected to revitalize Coney Island. By 1955, the area still included four children's amusement areas, five roller coasters, several flat and dark rides, and various other attractions such as the Wonder Wheel. The New York Aquarium's new site opened in June 1957. At this point, there were still several dozen rides on Coney Island.
Fred Trump era
During the summers of 1964 and 1965, there was a large decrease in the number of visitors to Coney Island because of the 1964/1965 World's Fair at Flushing Meadows–Corona Park in Queens. Crime increases, insufficient parking facilities, bad weather, and the post-World War II automotive boom were also cited as contributing factors in the visitor decrease. During the summer of 1964, concessionaires saw their lowest profits in a quarter-century. Ride operators reported that they had 30% to 90% fewer visitors in 1964 compared to the previous year.
A small amusement park called Astroland was announced for the boardwalk in 1962, to open the following year. Steeplechase Park, the last remaining large amusement park in Coney Island, closed permanently after the 1964 season. The surrounding blocks were filled with amusement rides and concessions that were closed or about to close. The rides at Steeplechase Park were auctioned off, and the property was sold to developer Fred Trump, who in 1965 announced that he wanted to build luxury apartments on the old Steeplechase property. At the time, residential developments on Coney Island in general were being built at a rapid rate. The peninsula, which had 34,000 residents in 1961, was expected to have more than double that number by the end of 1964. Many of the new residents moved into middle-income co-operative housing developments such as Trump Village, Warbasse Houses, and Luna Park Apartments; these replaced what The New York Times described as "a rundown sprawl of rickety houses". Developers were spending millions of dollars on new housing developments, and by 1966, the peninsula housed almost 100,000 people.
During 1966, developers tried to revitalize the Coney Island boardwalk as an amusement area. Trump destroyed Steeplechase Park's Pavilion of Fun during a highly publicized ceremony that September. In its stead, Trump proposed building a enclosed dome with recreational facilities and a convention center, a plan supported by Brooklyn borough president Abe Stark. The next month, the city announced its plans to acquire the of the former Steeplechase Park, a move that many residents supported but that Trump considered to be "wasteful". In January 1968, New York City parks commissioner August Heckscher II proposed that the New York state government build an "open-space" state park on the Steeplechase site, and that May, the New York City Board of Estimate voted in favor of funding to buy the land from Trump. Condemnation of the site started in 1969. The city ultimately purchased the proposed park's site for $4 million, with a stipulation blocking Trump from developing the site as apartments.
Trump filed a series of court cases related to the proposed residential rezoning, and ultimately won a $1.3 million judgment. The Steeplechase Park site laid empty for several years. Trump started subleasing the property to Norman Kaufman, who ran a small collection of fairground amusements called "Steeplechase Park" on part of the site. The city also leased the boardwalk and parking lot sites at extremely low rates, which resulted in a $1 million loss of revenue over the following seven years. Since the city wanted to build the state park on the site of Kaufman's Steeplechase Park, it attempted to evict him by refusing to grant a lease extension.
Late-1970s attempts at restoration
The 1970s brought along further renewal plans, such as proposals to construct public housing, though the community was beset by social issues such as high crime and a drug epidemic. By 1975, the city was considering demolishing the Coney Island Cyclone in favor of an extension of the adjacent New York Aquarium. The proposed demolition was controversial, and after a refurbishment by Astroland, the Cyclone reopened for the summer 1975 season. The abandoned Parachute Jump was left in situ, and the New York City Board of Estimate planned to tear down the structure. In the meanwhile, Coney Island was still affected by a perception of crime and deterioration of old rides, but by the mid-1970s, middle-class families started returning to Coney Island following the implementation of a unified admission ticket to Coney Island's amusement areas.
The city continued to pursue litigation over the site occupied by Norman Kaufman, but for over a decade, was unsuccessful. It had no plan for the proposed state park, and in 1975 the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development nearly withdrew a proposed grant of $2 million to fund the proposed park. The city ultimately accepted the grant, though different city agencies still disagreed over whether to return the funds. Kaufman continued to operate the site until the end of summer 1980. The following June, the city paid Kaufman a million dollars for the rides, effectively evicting him, even though the amusements were estimated to be worth much less.
In 1979, the state announced that it would be conducting a report on the feasibility of legalizing gambling in New York State. Mayor Ed Koch proposed that the state open casinos in New York City to revitalize the area's economy. Residents and politicians supported the idea of building casinos at Coney Island, which they felt would alleviate its poverty, crime, and property vacancy rates. However, there was substantial controversy over the plans to place a gambling site in Coney Island. The state's interest in legalizing gambling had subsided by 1981, and the New York state legislature failed to take action on such proposal.
In an effort to reduce crime, the city also began demolishing abandoned bungalows on Coney Island. By 1982, the area was filled with vacant lots, though several residential developments were being planned for Coney Island. Having finally acquired Kaufman's rides, the New York City government began advertising for developers to redevelop the former amusement park area that November. The Mermaid-Neptune Development Corporation constructed three residential developments at the neighborhood's western edge, with a combined total of 430 units. These developments were completed through the mid-1980s. Even so, the area still suffered from drug-related killings and other crimes, especially west of West 20th Street. Former amusement structures such as the Parachute Jump lay unused, and prostitutes roamed around the neighborhood at night. Through the 1980s, prostitution and drug use in Coney Island increased, as did the area's murder and felony crime rate. By the late 1980s, deadly shootings were common, particularly in the low-income housing developments inside Coney Island. Commercial activity also decreased, and by 1990, storefronts on Mermaid Avenue had decreased by 90%, from over 400 stores before the urban renewal to 39 stores afterward.
Revival
Bullard deal, Sportsplex, and KeySpan Park
In the mid-1980s, restaurant mogul Horace Bullard proposed rebuilding Steeplechase Park. On the site bounded by West 15th and 19th Streets between Surf Avenue and the boardwalk, Bullard wanted to build a $55 million amusement park based on the originals. The city agreed, and the project was approved in 1985. Bullard planned to open the park by mid-1986 to coincide with the Statue of Liberty's centennial. However, the project was delayed while the New York City Planning Commission compiled an environmental impact report. By early 1987, the cost of the amusement park nearly doubled, to $100 million.
Concurrently, in December 1986, the New York State Urban Development Corporation formally proposed a 17,000-seat minor-league baseball stadium north of the boardwalk between West 19th and West 22nd Streets as well as 15,000-seat indoor arena north of the Abe Stark Rink. Negotiations were ongoing with the Mets and Yankees to ensure their support for the minor-league stadium. State senator Thomas Bartosiewicz attempted to block Bullard's plan, as he was part of a foundation that had promised another developer, Sportsplex, the right to build an amateur sports arena on the site. Construction was held up for another four years, and by 1989, Bullard and the city were ready to sign a contract that would allow the developer to construct a 60-ride amusement park on a waterfront strip, which would be completed by 2002. Other proposals for the area included a $7.9 million restoration of the boardwalk, as well as a new high-school and college sports stadium.
Some of Coney Island's iconic rides were designated as official city landmarks during the late 1980s. In 1988, the Cyclone roller coaster was made a New York City designated landmark. This was followed by the Parachute Jump and the Wonder Wheel in 1989. The neighborhood's high crime rate had reversed slightly by the 1990s. However, Coney Island's relative isolation from the rest of New York City, along with its ethnic diversity, deprived the area of significant political power, and to a greater extent money.
After Rudy Giuliani took office as New York City mayor in 1994, he negated the Bullard deal by approving the construction of a minor-league baseball stadium on the site allotted for Steeplechase Park. Giuliani had wanted to build Sportsplex in order to improve sports facilities in the area, and to create a professional baseball team in Brooklyn. By the late 1990s, some $67 million had been secured for the development of Sportsplex. In 1997, developer Bruce Ratner proposed constructing a $100 million entertainment complex between West 9th and West 15th Streets, with a "virtual-reality amusement park" as well as a movie theater multiplex. Concurrently, a four-phase, 873-unit housing development in Coney Island was completed in 1996.
In 1998, Giuliani canceled Sportsplex and the entertainment complex, and instead unveiled another plan where only the parking lot would be built. The Sports Foundation had prepared another proposal that would allow a scaled-down Sportsplex to be built next to the minor-league baseball stadium. The minor league team was called the Brooklyn Cyclones, though naming rights to the stadium were sold to Keyspan Energy. Bullard, now no longer rebuilding Steeplechase Park, had wanted to restore the Thunderbolt as part of a scaled-down amusement park, but it was demolished instead. In 2000, the city approved the $31 million project to construct Keyspan Park using the funds from the canceled Sportsplex, and the minor-league baseball stadium opened the following year. Other major projects at the time included the reconstruction of Coney Island's sewers and the refurbishment of the Stillwell Avenue subway station, the latter of which was completed in 2005.
Thor Equities ownership and rezoning proposals
In 2003, Mayor Michael Bloomberg took an interest in revitalizing Coney Island as a possible site for the New York City bid of the 2012 Summer Olympics. A plan was developed by the Astella Development Corporation. When the city lost the Olympic bid, the plans were passed to the Coney Island Development Corporation (CIDC), which made modified plans. Shortly before the CIDC's plans were to be publicly released, a development company named Thor Equities purchased all of Bullard's western property for $13 million, later selling the property to Taconic Investment Partners for over $90 million. Taconic now had , on which it planned to build 2,000 apartment units. Thor then went about using much of its $77 million profit to purchase property on Stillwell Avenue for well over market value, and offered to buy out every piece of property inside the traditional amusement area.
In September 2005, Thor's founder, Joe Sitt, unveiled his new plans for a large Bellagio-style hotel resort with a timeshare development, surrounded by rides and amusements. The CIDC report suggested adding year-round commercial and amusement area, and recommended that property north of Surf Avenue and west of Abe Stark Rink could be rezoned for other uses, including residential. Sitt, a resident of the area, spent more than $100 million to buy land in Coney Island. Astroland owner Carol Hill Albert, whose husband's family had owned the park since its 1962 opening, sold the site to Thor in November 2006. Two months later, Thor released renderings for a $1.5 billion amusement park, entertainment complex, and indoor water park called Coney Island Park.
In 2007, the DCP started circulating a rezoning plan that would cover of Coney Island. The city would spend $120 million to redevelop into an amusement park surrounded by around 5,000 new housing units. The Aquarium was also planning a renovation in conjunction with the rezoning. The city's and Sitt's proposals directly conflicted: Sitt wanted to build housing inside the amusement park, while the city's rezoning would create a special amusement district where residential development was forbidden. In April 2008, because of objections from land owners, residents, and developers, the city revised its rezoning proposal. Only 9 acres would be used as an amusement park, while private owners and developers could build on the rest of the land as long as they followed the DCP's general master plan. While the city negotiated with Thor, Sitt evicted several amusement operators on his land, including Astroland, in the expectation that he would soon be able to redevelop it.
The DCP certified the rezoning plan in January 2009, which allowed the city to create a amusement district. At the time, Thor Equities said it hoped to complete the project by 2011. In June 2009, the city's planning commission approved the construction of 4,500 units of housing, including 900 affordable units, and promised to preserve affordable housing already in the neighborhood. Subsequently, the city government paid Sitt $95.6 million for of land. The nonprofit civic group Municipal Art Society wanted the city-operated park to be larger, though the city was reluctant to spend so much money.
Progress on expansion
The Zipper and Spider on West 12th Street were closed permanently and dismantled in September 2007 after its owner lost his lease. The same year, plans to restore Coney Island's historic B&B Carousell were revealed. After Astroland closed in 2008, it was replaced by a new Dreamland in 2009 and by a new Luna Park in 2010. In April 2011, the first new roller coasters to be built at Coney Island in eighty years were opened as part of efforts to reverse the decline of the amusement area. The B&B Carousell reopened in 2013 at Luna Park. The Thunderbolt steel roller coaster, named after the original wooden coaster on the site, was opened in June 2014. Furthermore, a live performance venue, the Ford Amphitheater at Coney Island, opened on the boardwalk in 2016.
In 2012, Hurricane Sandy caused major damage to the Coney Island amusement parks, the Aquarium, and businesses. Despite this, the Nathan's Hot Dog Eating Contest was held the following summer, as usual. Luna Park at Coney Island reopened as scheduled on March 24, 2013. Rebuilding of the aquarium started in early 2013, and a major expansion of the aquarium opened in summer 2018.
In August 2018, the NYCEDC and NYC Parks announced that Luna Park would be expanded between West 15th and West 16th Streets, next to the Thunderbolt. There would be 3 public plazas and an amusement arcade within the newly expanded amusement area. The same month, it was also announced that a 50-room boutique hotel was being planned for Coney Island within the former Shore Theater on Surf and Stillwell Avenues. The city also expressed its intent to demolish the Abe Stark Rink and redevelop the site, as per the 2009 rezoning, though residents wanted NYC Parks to retain control over the site rather than sell it off to a private developer. Many of these construction projects were placed on hold in 2020 with the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City. That year, the businesses and amusement parks at Coney Island either operated in a sharply reduced capacity or did not open at all. The parks reopened for the 2021 season, and Luna Park's expansion commenced in October 2021.
The addition of new amusements coincided with the development of over 2,000 new residential units on empty lots, through the early 2020s. These included a 1,000-unit mega-development and a 40-story, 522-unit residential tower that would be the tallest in southern Brooklyn. In November 2022, Sitt proposed constructing a casino at Coney Island to attract tourists. This proposal followed an announcement by New York state officials in April 2022 that they would issue three casino licenses in Downstate New York.
Oral history archive
In 2004, the Coney Island History Project began collecting stories of Coney Island from longtime residents. The CIHP records, archives, and shares oral history interviews about Coney Island. The organizations conducts interviews in English, Russian, Chinese, and Spanish. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the CIHP continued to record interviews via phone or Skype. over 370 interviews were available online via the Coney Island History Project Oral History Archive.
Amusement parks and attractions
Coney Island has two amusement parks, Luna Park and Deno's Wonder Wheel Amusement Park, as well as several rides that are not incorporated into either amusement park. These are owned and managed by several different companies and operate independently of each other. Coney Island also has several other visitor attractions such as skeeball and ball tossing, as well as a sideshow, that contains shooting, throwing, and tossing skills. The area hosts renowned events as well. Coney Island's amusement area is one of a few in the United States that is not mostly owned by any one entity.
Rides
Current rides
Coney Island contains three rides with landmark status. One is a New York City designated landmark, another is listed in the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP), and a third is both a city landmark and a NRHP-listed landmark.
The Wonder Wheel, opened in 1920, is a steel Ferris wheel with both stationary cars and rocking cars that slide along a track. It holds 144 riders, stands tall, weighs over , and is located at Deno's Wonder Wheel Amusement Park. The Wonder Wheel was made a city landmark in 1989.
The B&B Carousell (as spelled by the frame's builder, William F. Mangels) is Coney Island's last traditional carousel, near the old entrance to Luna Park. The carousel was built circa 1906–1909 with a traditional roll-operated fairground organ. It was relocated multiple times, most recently to Luna Park's Steeplechase Plaza in 2013, and listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2016.
The Coney Island Cyclone, opened in 1927, is one of the United States' oldest wooden roller coasters still in operation. The Cyclone includes an , 58-degree drop. It is owned by the City of New York, and is operated by Luna Park under a franchise agreement. The Cyclone was made a city landmark in 1988 and was listed on the NRHP in 1991. The Cyclone is New York City's only remaining wooden coaster and is considered "irreplaceable", since timber-supported coasters can no longer be built under modern city building codes.
There are also multiple other rides in Coney Island. In March 2014, construction started on the new Thunderbolt, a steel roller coaster that was manufactured by Zamperla at a cost of $10 million. The ride features of track, a height of , and a top speed of , as well as four inversions. The Thunderbolt opened in June 2014.
There are also multiple bumper car rides in Coney Island, all operated separately. , these include an attraction in Deno's Wonder Wheel Park, as well as Eldorado Auto Skooter on Surf Avenue. Historically, the earliest bumper car rides were located in Coney Island. Furthermore, two traditional dark ride haunted houses operate at Coney Island: Spook-a-Rama at Deno's, and Ghost Hole on West 12th Street adjacent to Deno's.
Former rides
Coney Island has had three major amusement parks in its past—Steeplechase Park (1897–1964), Luna Park (1903–1944), and Dreamland (1904–1911)—as well as several standalone attractions. In addition, Astroland operated at the site of the current Luna Park from 1962 to 2008, while a second Dreamland operated at that site for only the 2009 season.
In addition to the rides in Coney Island's former amusement parks, there were also several dozen roller coasters that are now defunct. The Comet, next to the Cyclone's current site, was built in 1921 and destroyed in 1945. Another coaster, the Oriental Scenic Railway, was created by LaMarcus Adna Thompson in 1887, and was demolished in 1955 to be replaced with a "hot rod" amusement ride. The steeplechase roller coaster, created by Steeplechase Park operator George C. Tilyou in 1897, consisted of people riding wooden horses around the park on a steel track. The original wooden Thunderbolt coaster, located between West 15th and West 16th Streets, was constructed in 1925, closed in 1983, and torn down in 2000 during the construction of nearby Keyspan Park. Nearby was Tornado, a wooden coaster constructed in 1926, and destroyed by arson in 1977.
Coney Island also contains one defunct ride that is still standing, the Parachute Jump. Originally built as the Life Savers Parachute Jump at the 1939 New York World's Fair, this was the first ride of its kind. Patrons were hoisted in the air before being allowed to drop using guy-wired parachutes. The Parachute Jump was closed in the 1960s, but was officially preserved, having been listed on the NRHP in 1980 and made a city landmark in 1989.
Beaches
There is a broad public sand beach that starts at Sea Gate at West 37th Street, through the central Coney Island area and Brighton Beach, to the beginning of the community of Manhattan Beach, a distance of approximately . The beach is continuous and is served for its entire length by the broad Riegelmann Boardwalk. Numerous amusements, as well as the aquarium and a variety of food shops and arcades, are directly accessible from the landward side of the boardwalk. The boardwalk in Manhattan Beach, located within Manhattan Beach Park, is not connected with the Riegelmann Boardwalk.
The beaches in Coney Island used to be private until 1923 when the city bought all the land on the waterfront and created the Riegelmann Boardwalk and Beach. Today, only the sand beach inside Sea Gate is private; it is accessible solely to residents of that community.
The public beaches are maintained on a regular basis by the city. Because sand no longer naturally deposits on the beach, it is replenished in regular beach nourishment projects using dredged sand. The public beaches are open and free to use, though the boardwalk is closed during nights from 1 to 5 a.m. The beach area is divided into several sections by rock groynes that were built in the 1920s to prevent erosion.
There are several clubs that host activities on Coney Island's beach. The Coney Island Polar Bear Club consists of a group of people who swim at Coney Island throughout the winter months. Their most popular event is an annual swim on New Year's Day. The beach also serves as the training grounds for the Coney Island Brighton Beach Open Water Swimmers, a group dedicated to promoting open water swimming, which hosts several open water swim races each year.
Public parks
There are several public parks in Coney Island, operated by the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation. Parks within the main Coney Island neighborhood include:
The Abe Stark Skating Rink, located on the south side of Surf Avenue between West 19th and West 20th Streets, adjacent to the boardwalk. It opened in 1970.
Coney Island Creek Park, located along the south shore of Coney Island Creek. Opened in 1984, it is composed mostly of plants.
Leon S. Kaiser Park, located on the northern side of Neptune Avenue between West 24th and West 32nd Streets, and contains playgrounds, athletic facilities, fitness equipment, and open spaces for barbecuing.
Poseidon Playground, located along the beach between West 25th and West 27th Streets, and contains water spray showers, playgrounds, and handball courts.
Steeplechase Park, located along the beach between West 16th and West 19th Streets. It contains a public plaza with seating, as well as MCU Park, a minor league baseball stadium.
Surf Playground, located on the south side of Surf Avenue between West 25th and West 27th Streets, just north of Poseidon Playground. It contains basketball courts, playgrounds, and water spray showers.
Other attractions
The New York Aquarium opened in 1957 on the former site of the Dreamland amusement park. It is located on 602 Surf Avenue between West 5th and West 10th Streets. , the New York Aquarium consists of five exhibits: Aquatheater; Conservation Hall; Sea Cliffs; Sharks, Rays & Turtles; and Ocean Wonders: Sharks. The original Bathysphere, a deep-sea submersible that made historic journeys underwater in the 1930s, is on display at the aquarium.
Maimonides Park is located on the former site of Steeplechase Park. Opened in 2001 as KeySpan Park, it hosts the Brooklyn Cyclones minor league baseball team. In 2010, it was renamed after the Municipal Credit Union (MCU), the city's largest credit union, in an eleven-year naming rights deal which ended in 2021.
In June 2016, the Ford Amphitheater at Coney Island opened on the boardwalk to the west of Maimondies Park, hosting several live musical acts as well as other events. It was constructed at the location of the Childs Restaurant, which was originally constructed in 1923 and was renovated when the amphitheater was being constructed. The rooftop part of the restaurant reopened in July 2016.
The nonprofit organization Coney Island USA also operates the Coney Island Museum, a collection of memorabilia that chronicles the history of the neighborhood. The museum opened in 1980, and is located at 1208 Surf Avenue near the intersection with West 12th Street. It charges a $5 admission fee per adult. Another nonprofit founded in 2004, the Coney Island History Project, operates a space near the Wonder Wheel.
Events
Coney Island USA sponsors various seasonal acts every year. In April, the organization hosts the Noisefest and the Congress of Curious Peoples. This is followed in May or June by the Coney Island Mermaid Parade, which takes place on Surf Avenue and the boardwalk, and features floats and performances. During August or September, Coney Island USA produces the Beard and Moustache Competition; Tattoo and Motorcycle Festival; and Coney Island Film Festival. The organization then hosts the Creepshow at the Freakshow, an interactive Halloween-themed event, in October.
The annual Cosme 5K Charity Run/Walk, supported by the Coney Island Sports Foundation, takes place on the Riegelmann Boardwalk toward the end of June.
A major national volleyball tournament hosted by the Association of Volleyball Professionals (AVP), which is typically hosted on the West Coast of the U.S., was held in Coney Island starting in 2006. The AVP built a 4,000-seat stadium and twelve outer courts next to the boardwalk for the event. The tournament returned to Coney Island from 2007 through 2009, but was not hosted at Coney Island in 2010 due to a lack of money. When AVP tournaments resumed in Brooklyn in 2015, they were hosted at Brooklyn Bridge Park instead.
In 2009, the Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus performed in Coney Island for the first time since 1956. The event, titled The Coney Island Boom-A-Ring, was housed in tents that were located between the boardwalk and Surf Avenue. The following year, they returned to the same location with The Coney Island Illuscination.
In May 2015, Thor Equities unveiled Coney Art Walls, a public art wall project curated by former Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles director Jeffrey Deitch and Thor CEO Joe Sitt. Located at 3050 Stillwell Avenue, the project featured work from more than 30 artists. The exhibition started being held annually through at least 2019.
Demographics
Based on data from the 2010 United States Census, the combined population of Coney Island and Sea Gate was 31,965, a decrease of 2,302 (6.7%) from the 34,267 counted in 2000. Covering an area of , the neighborhood had a population density of .
The racial makeup of the neighborhood was 32.2% (10,307) African American, 30.9% (9,880) White, 8.7% (2,793) Asian, 0.2% (78) Native American, 0.0% (4) Pacific Islander, 0.2% (67) from other races, and 1.5% (467) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 26.2% (8,369) of the population. 82% of the population were high school graduates and 40% had a bachelor's degree or higher.
The entirety of Community Board 13 had 106,459 inhabitants as of NYC Health's 2018 Community Health Profile, with an average life expectancy of 80.4 years. This is lower than the median life expectancy of 81.2 for all New York City neighborhoods. Most inhabitants are adults, with 25% between the ages of 25–44, 27% between 45 and 64, and 22% who are at least 65 years old. The ratio of young and college-aged residents was lower, at 19% and 8%, respectively. Coney Island's elderly population, as a share of the area's total population, is higher than in other New York City neighborhoods.
As of 2016, the median household income in Community District 13 was $39,213. In 2018, an estimated 24% of Coney Island residents lived in poverty, compared to 21% in all of Brooklyn and 20% in all of New York City. One in eight residents (11%) were unemployed, compared to 9% in the rest of both Brooklyn and New York City. Rent burden, or the percentage of residents who have difficulty paying their rent, is 55% in Coney Island, slightly higher than the citywide and boroughwide rates of 52% and 51%, respectively. Based on this calculation, , Coney Island is not considered to be gentrifying.
According to the 2020 census data from New York City Department of City Planning, there were between 20,000 and 29,999 White residents, 10,000 to 19,999 Black residents, 5,000 to 9,999 Hispanic residents, and less than 5000 Asian residents.
Political representation
Politically, Coney Island is in New York's 8th congressional district. It is also in the New York State Senate's 23rd district, the New York State Assembly's 46th district, and the New York City Council's 47th district.
Police and crime
Coney Island is patrolled by the New York City Police Department (NYPD)'s 60th Precinct, located at 2950 West Eighth Street. Transit District 34 is located at 1243 Surf Avenue, within the Coney Island–Stillwell Avenue subway station.
The 60th Precinct ranked 34th safest out of 69 patrol areas for per-capita crime in 2010. Between 1993 and 2010, major crimes decreased by 72%, including a 76% decrease in robberies, 71% decrease in felony assaults, and 67% decrease in shootings. , with a non-fatal assault rate of 51 per 100,000 people, Coney Island's rate of violent crimes per capita is less than that of the city as a whole. The incarceration rate of 168 per 100,000 people is about the same as that of the city as a whole. The 60th Precinct has a substantially lower crime rate than in the 1990s, with crimes across all categories having decreased by 77.5% between 1990 and 2022. The precinct reported five murders, 16 rapes, 179 robberies, 373 felony assaults, 159 burglaries, 527 grand larcenies, and 121 grand larcenies auto in 2022.
Fire safety
The New York City Fire Department (FDNY) operates two firehouses in the area. Engine Company 318/Ladder Company 166 is located at 2510 Neptune Avenue. It contains the Coney Island Fire Station Pumping Station, listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Engine Company 245/Ladder Company 161/Battalion 43 is located at 2929 West 8th Street. In addition, FDNY EMS Station 43 is on the grounds of Coney Island Hospital.
Health
, preterm births and births to teenage mothers are slightly more common in Coney Island than in other places citywide. In Coney Island, there were 95 preterm births per 1,000 live births (compared to 87 per 1,000 citywide), and 20.2 births to teenage mothers per 1,000 live births (compared to 19.3 per 1,000 citywide), slightly higher than in the median neighborhood. Coney Island has a high population of residents who are uninsured, or who receive healthcare through Medicaid. In 2018, this population of uninsured residents was estimated to be 14%, which is higher than the citywide rate of 12%.
The concentration of fine particulate matter, the deadliest type of air pollutant, in Coney Island is , lower than the citywide and boroughwide averages. Nineteen percent of Coney Island residents are smokers, which is higher the city average of 14% of residents being smokers. In Coney Island, 28% of residents are obese, 15% are diabetic, and 31% have high blood pressure—higher than the citywide averages of 24%, 11%, and 28% respectively. In addition, 18% of children are obese, compared to the citywide average of 20%.
Ninety-two percent of residents eat some fruits and vegetables every day, which is slightly higher than the city's average of 87%. In 2018, 70% of residents described their health as "good," "very good," or "excellent," lower than the city's average of 78%. For every supermarket in Coney Island, there are 21 bodegas.
The primary hospital in the neighborhood is Coney Island Hospital.
Post offices and ZIP Codes
Coney Island's primary ZIP Code is 11224, though small portions located east of West 1st Street and Ocean Parkway are located in ZIP Code 11235. There are two United States Post Office branches in Coney Island. The Coney Island Station is located at 2727 Mermaid Avenue, and the Neptune Station is located at 532 Neptune Avenue.
Education
Coney Island generally has a similar ratio of college-educated residents to the rest of the city . While 45% of residents age 25 and older have a college education or higher, 18% have less than a high school education and 37% are high school graduates or have some college education. By contrast, 40% of Brooklynites and 38% of city residents have a college education or higher. The percentage of Coney Island students excelling in math has been increasing, though reading achievement has declined; math achievement rose from 53 percent in 2000 to 72 percent in 2011, but reading achievement fell from 57 to 55 percent within the same time period.
Coney Island's rate of elementary school student absenteeism is higher than the rest of New York City. In Coney Island, 26% of elementary school students missed twenty or more days per school year, compared to the citywide average of 20% of students.
Elementary, middle, and high schools
Coney Island is served by the New York City Department of Education, and students in the neighborhood are automatically "zoned" into the nearest public schools. The zoned schools for the main portion of Coney Island include:
PS 90 Edna Cohen School (grades K-5)
PS 100 Coney Island School (grades K-5)
PS 188 The Michael E. Berdy School (grades K-4)
PS/IS 288 The Shirley Tanyhill School (grades PK-8)
IS 303 Herbert S. Eisenberg (grades 6–8)
PS 329 (grades PK-5)
IS 239, the Mark Twain School for the Gifted and Talented (6–8), is a magnet school for gifted students, and it accepts students from around the city. In 2006, David Scharfenberg of The New York Times said, "Coney Island's elementary schools are a mixed lot, with only some exceeding citywide averages on the state's testing regimen."
All New York City high school students can go to any high school in the city. There are two public high schools in Coney Island: Abraham Lincoln High School and Rachel Carson High School for Coastal Studies.
Public library
The Brooklyn Public Library (BPL)'s Coney Island branch is located at 1901 Mermaid Avenue, near the intersection with West 19th Street. It opened in 1911 as an unmanned deposit station. Ten years later, it moved to the former Coney Island Times offices and became fully staffed. In 1954 another branch was built. According to BPL's website, the library was referred to as "the first-ever library built on stilts over the Atlantic Ocean." The branch was rebuilt in 2013 after being damaged in Hurricane Sandy.
Transportation
Coney Island is served by four New York City Subway stations. The Coney Island–Stillwell Avenue station, the terminal of the , is one of the largest elevated rapid transit stations in the world, with eight tracks serving four platforms. The entire station, built in 1917–1920 as a replacement for the former surface-level Culver Depot, was rebuilt in 2001–2004. The other subway stations within Coney Island are , served by the ; , served by the ; and , served by the .
A bus terminal beneath the Stillwell Avenue station serves the to Prospect Park, the to Sea Gate, the to Bay Ridge, and the to Starrett City. Additionally, the runs from Sea Gate to Sheepshead Bay. The provide express bus service to Manhattan.
The three main west–east arteries in the neighborhood are (from north to south) Neptune Avenue, Mermaid Avenue, and Surf Avenue. Neptune Avenue becomes Emmons Avenue at Sheepshead Bay, while Surf Avenue becomes Ocean Parkway and then runs north toward Prospect Park. The north–south cross streets in Coney Island are numbered, with "West" prepended to their numbers. The street numbers run from West 1st Street at Coney Island's eastern border to West 37th Street at the western border, adjacent to Sea Gate.
Coney Island contains several bicycle paths. The Ocean Parkway bicycle path terminates in the neighborhood, while the Shore Parkway bike path (part of the Brooklyn Waterfront Greenway) runs east along Jamaica Bay and west and north along New York Harbor. On-street bike lanes are marked in Neptune Avenue and other streets in Coney Island. In addition, the Riegelmann Boardwalk is open to cyclists during the daytime, though bicycling hours are restricted during the summer months.
In 2019, NYC Ferry announced that the western part of Coney Island would be served by the Coney Island ferry route beginning in 2021. However, , the implementation of the Coney Island route had been delayed indefinitely.
In popular culture
Coney Island has been featured in many novels, films, television shows, cartoons, and theatrical plays. This is linked to its iconic status as a vacation destination. Various slapstick comedies and films have been set at Coney Island or allude to it. There have also been several television documentaries about the area's history.
References
Notes
Sources
Rem Koolhaas, Delirious New York: A Retroactive Manifesto for Manhattan (Academy Editions, London, 1978; republished, The Monacelli Press, 1994 — a large part of the book focuses on Coney Island amusement parks)
John F. Kasson, Amusing The Million: Coney Island at the Turn of the Century (Hill and Wang, New York, 1978; Distributed in Canada by Douglas and McIntyre Ltd.)
Charles Denson, Coney Island: Lost and Found (Ten Speed Press, 2002)
Coney Island , a 1991 documentary film by Ric Burns for American Experience
Further reading
The Comprehensive History of Coney Island at Heart of Coney Island
Coney Island History Articles
Bland as Sand: Developers Stalk Coney Island, The Indypendent
Gritty and Trashy... That’s Why I Love It, The Indypendent
Bruce, Jeannette. "Where The Fun Was,"Sports Illustrated'', August 28, 1967
Coney Island History Project
External links
Coney Island History Project - Oral History Archive of Coney Island
Amusement parks in New York (state)
Articles containing video clips
Barrier islands of New York (state)
Former islands of New York City
Islands of Brooklyn
Islands of New York City
Neighborhoods in Brooklyn
Populated coastal places in New York (state)
Seaside resorts in New York (state) | wiki |
Cycas couttsiana is a species of cycad, native to Queensland.
References
couttsiana
Flora of Queensland
Plants described in 1992 | wiki |
Kodial may refer to:
Microhyla kodial, the Mangaluru narrow-mouthed frog
Mangalore, known as Kodial in Konkani language | wiki |
Mountaintop or mountain top generally refers to the summit of a mountain.
Mountaintop may also refer to:
Mountain Top, Pennsylvania
Martin Luther King Jr
"I've Been to the Mountaintop", the last speech delivered by Martin Luther King, Jr.
The Mountaintop, a 2009 play by Katori Hall about King
Music
Mountaintops (album), a 2011 album by Mates of State
"Mountaintop", song by Relient K on the album Air for Free
"Mountain Top", tune by Chick Corea from Delphi II & III
See also
The Mountain (disambiguation)
Mountaintop removal mining | wiki |
L'inventaire ci-dessous dresse la liste des villes ayant accueilli le All-Ireland Fleadh, connu également sous le nom de Fleadh Cheoil na hÉireann.
Le Fleadh Cheoil (festival de musique en gaélique irlandais) est une compétition de musique irlandaise organisée par Comhaltas Ceoltóirí Éireann (CCÉ ou plus communément Comhaltas).
Références
villes ayant accueilli le All-Ireland Fleadh | wiki |
Cycnoches stelliferum is a species of orchid.
References
stelliferum | wiki |
The 2012–2013 figure skating season begins in July 2012 and ends in June 2013. Figure skaters use music in competition.
Men
Ladies
Pairs
Ice dancing
References
Music
Music
Figure skating-related lists | wiki |
The General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) is an academic qualification in a particular subject, taken in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland. State schools in Scotland use the Scottish Qualifications Certificate instead. Private schools in Scotland may choose to use GCSEs from England.
Each GCSE qualification is offered in a specific school subject (English literature, English language, mathematics, science, history, geography, art and design, design and technology, business studies, classical civilisation, drama, music, foreign languages, etc).
The Department for Education has drawn up a list of preferred subjects known as the English Baccalaureate for England on the results in eight GCSEs including English, mathematics, the sciences (physics, chemistry, biology, computer science), history, geography, and an ancient or modern foreign language.
Studies for GCSE examinations take place over a period of two or three academic years (depending upon the subject, school, and exam board), starting in Year 9 or Year 10 for the majority of students, with examinations being sat at the end of Year 11 in England and Wales.
History
Previous qualifications
Before the introduction of GCSEs, students took CSE (Certificate of Secondary Education) or the more academically challenging O-Level (General Certificate of Education (GCE) Ordinary Level) exams, or a combination of the two, in various subjects. The CSE broadly covered GCSE grades C-G or 4–1, and the O-Level covered grades A*-C or 9–4, but the two were independent qualifications, with different grading systems. The separate qualifications were criticised for disadvantaging the bottom 42% of O-Level entrants who failed to receive a qualification, and the highest-achieving CSE entrants who had no opportunity to demonstrate higher ability.
In its later years, O-Levels were graded on a scale from A to E, with a U (ungraded) grade below that. Before 1975, the grading scheme varied between examination boards, but typically there were "pass" grades of 1 to 6 and "fail" grades of 7 to 9. However the grades were not displayed on certificates.
The CSE was graded on a numerical scale from 1 to 5, with 1 being the highest, and 5 being the lowest passing grade. Below 5 there was a U (ungraded) grade. The highest grade, 1, was considered equivalent to an O-Level C grade or above, and achievement of this grade often indicated that the student could have taken an O-Level course in the subject to achieve a higher qualification. As the two were independent qualifications with separate syllabi, a separate course of study would have to be taken to "convert" a CSE to an O-Level in order to progress to A-Level.
There was a previous attempt to unite these two disparate qualifications in the 1980s, with a trial "16+" examination in some subjects, awarding both a CSE and an O-Level certificate, before the GCSE was introduced. The final O-level/CSE examinations were sat in 1987.
Introduction of the GCSE
GCSEs were introduced in September 1986 to establish a national qualification for those who decided to leave school at 16, without pursuing further academic study towards qualifications such as A-Levels or university degrees. They replaced the former CSE and O-Level qualifications, uniting the two qualifications to allow access to the full range of grades for more students. However, the exam papers of the GCSE sometimes had a choice of questions, designed for the more able and the less able candidates.
Upon introduction, the GCSEs were graded on a letter scale, from A to G, with a C being set as roughly equivalent to an O-Level Grade C, or a CSE Grade 1, and thus achievable by roughly the top 25% of each cohort.
Changes since initial introduction
Over time, the range of subjects offered, the format of the examinations, the regulations, the content, and the grading of GCSE examinations has altered considerably. Numerous subjects have been added and changed, and various new subjects are offered in the modern languages, ancient languages, vocational fields, and expressive arts, as well as citizenship courses.
Introduction of the A* grade
In 1994, the A* grade was added above the grade A, to further differentiate attainment at the very highest end of the qualification. This remained the highest grade available until 2017. The youngest pupil to gain an A* grade was Thomas Barnes, who earned an A* in GCSE Mathematics at the age of 7.
Mathematics tiers
Initially, the mathematics papers were set in three tiers: Higher; Intermediate; and Foundation, to cover different mathematical abilities. The Higher level corresponded to grades A-C; the Intermediate level corresponded to grades C-E; and the Foundation level corresponded to grades E-G. However, it was later realised that nobody who sat the Foundation level had any chance of passing the subject at grade C, so this arrangement was replaced by a two-tier arrangement where the Intermediate and Foundation levels were merged. This brought the subject into line with other subjects that typically had foundation and higher level papers. This meant that somebody who sat the new Foundation level could now achieve a grade C, which was considered the formal pass level.
With the introduction of numbered grades, the Higher tier provides grades 9-4 and the Foundation tier provides grades 5-1.
2000s reforms
Between 2005 and 2010, a variety of reforms were made to GCSE qualifications, including increasing modularity and a change to the administration of non-examination assessment.
From the first assessment series in 2010, controlled assessment replaced coursework in various subjects, requiring more rigorous exam-like conditions for much of the non-examination assessed work, and reducing the opportunity for outside help in coursework.
2010s reforms
Under the Conservative government of David Cameron, and Education Secretary Michael Gove, various changes were made to GCSE qualifications taken in England. Before a wide range of reforms, interim changes were made to existing qualifications, removing the January series of examinations as an option in most subjects, and requiring that 100% of the assessment in subjects from the 2014 examination series is taken at the end of the course. These were a precursor to the later reforms.
From 2015, a large-scale programme of reform began in England, changing the marking criteria and syllabi for most subjects, as well as the format of qualifications, and the grading system.
Under the new scheme, all GCSE subjects were revised between 2015 and 2018, and all new awards will be on the new scheme by summer 2020. The new qualifications are designed such that most exams will be taken at the end of a full 2-year course, with no interim modular assessment, coursework, or controlled assessment, except where necessary (such as in the arts). Some subjects will retain coursework on a non-assessed basis, with the completion of certain experiments in science subjects being assumed in examinations, and teacher reporting of spoken language participation for English GCSEs as a separate report.
Other changes include the move to a numerical grading system, to differentiate the new qualifications from the old-style letter-graded GCSEs, publication of core content requirements for all subjects, and an increase in longer, essay-style questions to challenge students more. Alongside this, a variety of low-uptake qualifications and qualifications with significant overlap will cease, with their content being removed from the GCSE options, or incorporated into similar qualifications. A range of new GCSE subjects were also introduced for students to study from 2017, 2018. 2019, and 2020.
GCSE examinations in English and mathematics were reformed with the 2015 syllabus publications, with these first examinations taking places in 2017. The remainder were reformed with the 2016 and 2017 syllabus publications, leading to first awards in 2018 and 2019, respectively.
For GCSE Science, the old single-award "science" and "additional science" options are no longer available, being replaced with a double award "combined science" option (graded on the scale 9–9 to 1–1 and equivalent to 2 GCSEs). Alternatively, students can take separate qualifications in chemistry, biology, and physics. Other removed qualifications include a variety of design technology subjects, which are reformed into a single "design and technology" subject with multiple options, and various catering and nutrition qualifications, which are folded into "food technology". Finally, several "umbrella" GCSEs such as "humanities", "performing arts", and "expressive arts" are dissolved, with those wishing to study those subjects needing to take separate qualifications in the incorporated subjects.
Implications for Wales and Northern Ireland
These reforms do not directly apply in Wales and Northern Ireland, where GCSEs will continue to be available on the A*-G grading system. However, due to legislative requirements for comparability between GCSEs in the three countries, and allowances for certain subjects and qualifications to be available in Wales and Northern Ireland, some 9–1 qualifications will be available, and the other changes are mostly adopted in these countries as well.
In Northern Ireland, a decision was taken by Minister of Education, Peter Wier (DUP), in 2016 to align the A* Grade to the 9 Grade of the English reformed qualifications. The first award of the new A* grade being in 2019. A C* grade was also introduced in Northern Ireland to align to the 5 Grade in England, again with first awarding in 2019. GCSEs in Northern Ireland remain modular and science practicals can count towards the overall grade outcome. Speaking and listening also remains a component of the GCSE English Language specification.
Examination boards
Historically, there were a variety of regional examination boards, or awarding organisations (AOs), who set examinations in their area. The 5 examination boards include:
Assessment and Qualifications Alliance (AQA), which absorbed the following boards: AEB, JMB, NEAB, and SEG.
Oxford, Cambridge and RSA Examinations (OCR), which absorbed the Oxford Delegacy of Local Examinations, Cambridge Local Examinations, Oxford & Cambridge Examinations Board, MEG, and RSA exam boards.
Pearson Edexcel, which absorbed the LREB, BTEC, and ULEAC boards.
Welsh Joint Education Committee (WJEC or CBAC), the main examining board in Wales.
Council for the Curriculum, Examinations & Assessment (CCEA), the examining board and regulator in Northern Ireland.
The examination boards operate under the supervision of Ofqual (The Office of Qualifications and Examinations Regulation) in England, Qualifications Wales in Wales, and the CCEA in Northern Ireland.
In England, AQA, OCR, and Pearson operate under their respective brands. Additionally, WJEC operate the brand Eduqas, which develops qualifications in England. CCEA qualifications are not available in England.
In Wales, WJEC is the only accredited awarding body for GCSEs in the public sector, and thus no other board formally operates in Wales. However, some qualifications from the English boards are available as designated qualifications in some circumstances, due to not being available from WJEC.
In Northern Ireland, CCEA operates as both a board and a regulator. Most qualifications from the English boards are also available, with the exception of English language and the sciences, due to requirements for speaking and practical assessment, respectively.
Structure and format
Students usually take at least 5 GCSEs in Key Stage 4, in order to satisfy the long-standing headline measure of achieving 5 A*-C grades, including English, Mathematics, and Science. The exact qualifications taken by students vary from school to school and student to student, but schools are encouraged to offer at least one pathway that leads to qualification for the English Baccalaureate, requiring GCSEs in English language, English literature, mathematics, science (including computer science), a modern or ancient language, and history or geography.
Subjects
The list of currently available GCSE subjects is much shorter than before the reforms, as the new qualifications in England all have core requirements set by the regulator, Ofqual, for each subject. In addition, there are several subjects where only one board offers qualifications, including some that are only available in one country of the UK for that reason. The following lists are sourced from the exam board websites.
Core subjects
These are the requirements for achieving the English Baccalaureate headline measure in league tables, from 2017 onwards. Other subjects, especially religious studies, citizenship studies, computer science, or physical education are compulsory in majority of secondary schools as these subjects form part of the National Curriculum at Key Stage 4.
English
English Language and English Literature
Mathematics
Science
any three of Biology, Chemistry, Physics, and Computer Science; or Combined Science.
Languages: one GCSE in a modern or ancient language
Modern languages: Arabic, Bengali, Chinese (Cantonese), Chinese (Mandarin), French, German, Modern Greek, Gujarati, Modern Hebrew, Irish (only in Northern Ireland), Italian, Japanese, Punjabi, Persian, Polish, Portuguese, Russian, Spanish, Turkish, Urdu, Welsh (only in Wales)
Ancient languages: Classical Greek, Biblical Hebrew, Latin
Humanities:
History or Geography (or both)
Other subjects
Sciences and Mathematics
Astronomy
Geology
Psychology
Statistics
Sociology
Humanities and Social Sciences:
Ancient History
Citizenship Studies
Classical Civilisation
Religious Studies
Business and Enterprise:
Business Studies
Economics
Design and Technology:
Design and Technology
Electronics
Engineering
Food Preparation and Nutrition
Arts:
Art and Design
Dance
Drama
Film Studies
Media Studies
Music
Photography
Graphics
Other:
Physical Education
Northern Ireland (CCEA)
Agriculture and Land Use
Business and Communication Systems
Child Development
Construction and the Built Environment
Contemporary Crafts
Digital Technology
Further Mathematics
Government and Politics
Health and Social Care
Home Economics
Hospitality
Irish
Irish
Gaeilge
Journalism in the Media and Communications Industry
Learning for Life and Work
Leisure, Travel and Tourism
Motor Vehicle and Road User Studies
Moving Image Arts
Short Course Religious Studies
Wales (WJEC/CBAC) only:
Information and Communication Technology
Welsh (compulsory in Welsh schools):
Welsh Language (first language)
Welsh Literature (first language)
Welsh Second Language
Grades and tiering
GCSEs are awarded on a graded scale, and cross two levels of the Regulated Qualifications Framework (RQF): Level 1 and Level 2. These two levels roughly correspond, respectively, to foundation and higher tier in tiered GCSE qualifications. Level 1 qualifications constitute GCSEs at grades G, F, E, and D or 1, 2, and 3. Level 2 qualifications are those at grades C, B, A, and A* or 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9.
The tiering of qualifications allows a subset of grades to be reached in a specific tier's paper. Formerly, many subjects were tiered, but with the mid-2010s reform, the number of tiered subjects reduced dramatically, including the removal of tiering from the GCSE English specifications. Untiered papers allow any grade to be achieved. Coursework and controlled assessment tasks are always untiered.
In the past, mathematics qualifications offered a different set of tiers, with three. These were foundation tier at grades G, F, E, and D; intermediate tier at grades E, D, C, and B; and higher tier at grades C, B, A, and A*. This eventually changed to match the tiers in all other GCSE qualifications.
The evolution of grades, and a rough comparison between them is as follows:
Letter grades
When GCSEs were first introduced in 1988, they were graded on a letter scale in each subject: A, B, C, D, E, F, and G being pass grades, with a U (unclassified) grade below that which did not qualify the student for a certificate.
These grades were initially set such that a GCSE grade C was equivalent to an O-Level grade C or a CSE grade 1, though changes in marking criteria and boundaries over the years mean that this comparison is only approximate.
Infrequently, X and Q grades are awarded. X indicates that a course was not completed in full, and therefore an appropriate grade cannot be calculated. The Q (query) grade is a temporary grade that requires the school to contact the examining body. These latter two grades are both usually provisional, and are replaced with a regular grade once any issues have been resolved. X grades are also sometimes used for other purposes, on rare occasions, such as to indicate that an examiner found offensive material or hate speech within a student's responses. In some cases, this may lead to the student losing all marks for that paper or course. These grades are most common in subjects which discuss ethical issues, such as Biology, Religious Studies, and Citizenship.
In 1994, an A* grade was added above the initial A grade to indicate exceptional achievement, above the level required for the A grade.
Under the letter grade scheme, foundation tier papers assess content at grades C to G, while higher tier papers assess content at grades A* to C. In foundation tier papers, the student can obtain a maximum grade of a C, while in a higher tier paper, they can achieve a minimum grade of a D. If a higher tier candidate misses the D grade by a small margin, they are awarded an E. Otherwise, the grade below E in these papers is U. In untiered papers, students can achieve any grade in the scheme. This scheme has been phased out in England, but remains in Wales and Northern Ireland. In Northern Ireland, the A* grade has been adjusted upwards with the introduction of the numerical scheme in England, such that an A* is equivalent to a new English grade 9. Northern Ireland also added a C* grade to line up with the grade 5 in the English grading.
Numerical grades (2017 onwards)
From 2017 in England (and in Wales and Northern Ireland on qualifications from the English-based awarding bodies), most GCSEs are now assessed on a 9-point scale, using numbers from 9 to 1, and, like before, a U (unclassified) grade for achievement below the minimum pass mark. Under this system, 9 is the highest grade, and is set above the former A* classification, equivalent to the new Northern Irish A* grade. The former C grade is set at the new grade 4, now known as a "standard pass", and grade 5 being considered a "strong pass" under the new scheme.
Although fewer qualifications have tiered examinations than before, the tiering system still exists. At foundation tier, the grades 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 are available, while at higher tier, the grades 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 are targeted. Once again, if a higher-tier student misses the grade 4 mark by a small margin, they are awarded a grade 3. Controlled assessment and coursework tasks are untiered.The youngest person known to have achieved a grade 9 is Ellie Barnes who achieved the grade in Mathematics aged 8 years old.
Results
GCSE results are published by the examination board in August, for the previous exam series in April to June of the same year. They are usually released one week after the A-Level results, on the Thursday which falls between 20 August and 26 August. The examination results are released to centres (schools) prior to the release to candidates and the public. Examination results are released by the Joint Council for Qualifications (JCQ), which represents the main GCSE awarding organisations. Some boards and schools release results online, although many still require students to attend in person to collect their results from the centre they sat exams at.
In England, these results then go on to inform league tables published in the following academic year, with headline performance metrics for each school.
Due to COVID-19, students who where supposed to sit their GCSE's in the years 2020 and 2021 obtained qualifications based off predicted grades from their teachers. Traditional exams however were sat by students in the summer of 2022.
1988–2018 (England, Wales and Northern Ireland)
Source: Joint Council for General Qualifications via Brian Stubbs.
Note: In the final year DES statistics for O-Levels are available, and across all subjects, 6.8% of candidates obtained a grade A, and 39.8% achieved grades A to C.
2018–present
England
Assessment types
Modular and linear GCSEs
In the past, many GCSE qualifications used a modular system, where some assessment (up to 60% under the 'terminal rule') could be submitted prior to the final examination series. This allowed for students to take some units of a GCSE before the final examination series, and thus gave indication of progress and ability at various stages, as well as allowing for students to resit exams in which they did not score as highly, in order to boost their grade, before receiving the qualification.
Various qualifications were available as both modular and linear schemes, and schools could choose whichever fit best for them.
Under the Conservative government of David Cameron, and Education Secretary Michael Gove, reforms were initiated which converted all GCSEs from 2012 (for assessment from 2014) to de facto linear schemes, in advance of the introduction of new specifications between 2015 and 2018 (for first assessment from 2017 to 2020). These new rules required that 100% of the assessment in a GCSE be submitted in the final examination series, at the same time as applying for certification of the full qualification. The examination boards complied by modifying the syllabi of the remaining GCSE qualifications to remove modular components.
Both modular and linear assessment have been politically contentious, and the opposition Labour Party UK, and particularly the former MP Tristram Hunt stated that it was their policy that such reforms be halted and reversed, maintaining modular assessment in both GCSEs and A-Levels. The modular scheme is supported by the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge.
Coursework and controlled assessment
In some subjects, one or more controlled assessment or coursework assignments may also be completed. These may contribute either a small or large proportion of the final grade. In practical and performance subjects, they generally have a heavier weighting to reflect the difficulty and potential unfairness of conducting examinations in these areas.
In the past, these were available in a variety of subjects, including extended writing in English, the sciences, business, and foreign languages; practical assessment in the sciences and technology subjects; and speaking assessments in languages. Since the 2010s reform, the availability has been cut back, with mostly only design and technology subjects and performing arts retaining their controlled assessment contributions. In English language, the spoken language assessment has been downgraded to an endorsement which is reported separately on the English certificate, not contributing to the grade. The English spoken language assessments are set throughout the course and assessed by teachers. Students can be awarded a Pass, Merit, Distinction or Not Classified. In the sciences, practical exercises are a required part of the qualification, but are not directly assessed; they are only endorsed by a teacher's statement.
The balance between controlled assessment and examinations is contentious, with the time needing to be set aside for coursework sessions being seen as a burden on the school timetable. However, the use of controlled assessment allows for the marking of some work outside of examination season, and can ease the burden on students to perform well on the day of the examination.
Exceptional and mitigating circumstances
For pupils with learning difficulties, an injury/repetitive strain injury (RSI) or a disability, help is offered in these forms:
Extra time (the amount depends on the severity of the learning difficulty, such as dyslexia, disability, injury or learning in English as a second language provided that the pupil has been studying in the UK for no more than 2 years)
Amanuensis (somebody types or handwrites as the pupil dictates; this is normally used when the pupil cannot write due to an injury or disability)
A word processor (without any spell-checking tools) can be used by pupils who have trouble writing legibly or who are unable to write quickly enough to complete the exam
A different format exam paper (large print, Braille, printed on coloured paper, etc.)
A 'reader' (a teacher or exam invigilator can read out the words in the exam paper, but they cannot explain their meaning)
A different room (sometimes due to a disability a pupil can be placed in a room by themselves or with selected others; this also happens when an amanuensis is used, so as not to disturb the other candidates and to not give other candidates a potential answer to a question. All exam rooms are covered by separate dedicated invigilators.)
Any of the above must be approved by the examination board. Other forms of help are available with the agreement of the examination board, but the above are the most common.
If a student is ill or an unforeseen circumstance occurs that may affect their performance in an examination, they can apply for special consideration from the examination board. The procedures vary depending on how much the student has completed, but in the case of sitting an examination, they may receive a percentage increase on their grade to reflect this, or a consideration of their coursework and other assessment alongside their predicted grades, to calculate a fair grade based on their other attainment.
Progression
GCSEs, BTECs or other Level 2 qualifications are generally required in order to pursue Level 3 qualifications such as A-Levels or BTEC (Business and Technology Education Council) beyond the age of 16. The requirement of 5 or more A*–C or 9–4 grades, including English and mathematics, is often a requirement for post-16 qualifications in sixth form colleges, further education colleges and institutes of technology after leaving secondary school. Where the subject taken post-16 has also been taken at GCSE, it is often required that the student achieved a grade C, 4, or 5 as a minimum at GCSE.
Most universities, in addition to their post-16 requirements, seek that their candidates have grades of C or 4 or higher in GCSE English and mathematics. Many of those who achieve below this standard will later retake GCSE English and mathematics to improve their grade. The November examination series exists for this purpose, to allow a faster path to gain these grades than waiting until the following summer's main series. Leading universities often take into account performance at GCSE level, sometimes expecting applicants to have a high proportion of A and A* grades.
Comparison with other qualifications
Within the UK
England, Wales & Northern Ireland
GCSEs in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland are part of the Regulated Qualifications Framework. A GCSE at grades G, F, E, D, 1, 2, or 3 is a Level 1 qualification. A GCSE at C, B, A, A*, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9 is a Level 2 qualification. Qualifications are not awarded to grades U, X or Q. Level 2 qualifications are much more sought-after, and generally form minimum requirements for jobs and further study expectations.
The BTEC is another Level 1/2 qualification available in the same territories as the GCSE, and is graded at 5 levels. At Level 2, comparable to A*, A, B, and C respectively are the Distinction*, Distinction, Merit, and Pass. A BTEC at Level 1 is simply marked as "Level 1", with no subdivision. Below that level, a U is awarded, as in GCSEs. Other qualifications at this level include Cambridge Nationals, Key Skills, and Functional Skills.
Some schools in the UK choose to enter their students for IGCSE examinations.
Scotland
The comparable qualifications in Scotland are the National 4 and National 5 awards (formerly Standard Grades and/or Intermediates).
Outside the UK
The international version of the GCSE is the IGCSE, which can be taken anywhere in the world and includes additional options relating to coursework and the language the qualification is pursued in. All subjects completed in the fifth of the European Baccalaureate are generally equivalent to the GCSE subjects.
Current and Former British territories
The education systems of current and former British territories, such as Gibraltar, and Nigeria, also offer the qualification, as supplied by the same examination boards. Other former British colonies, such as Singapore and Zimbabwe, continue to use the O-Level qualification.
Ireland
In the Republic of Ireland, the Junior Certificate is a comparable qualification.
United States
In the United States, a high school diploma is required for entry into college or university. In the UK, this is considered to be at the level of the GCSE, awarded at Year 11. For college and university admissions in the UK, a high school diploma may be accepted in lieu of the GCSE if an average grade better than D+ is obtained in subjects with a GCSE counterpart.
As A-Levels are generally expected for UK university admission, a high school diploma is not considered enough for direct university entry in the UK. Advanced Placement programmes or International Baccalaureate are considered equal to the A-Level and earn points on the UCAS tariff. They may therefore be accepted in lieu of A-Levels for university entry in the UK by US students. However, entry requirements differ at each university and may take subsequent work history after high school in place of A-Levels/AP for future study applications.
The SAT Reasoning Test and SAT Subject Tests, or the ACT may also be considered in an offer for direct university entry.
US students who have studied at a university, a senior college, a community college; or graduated with a Certificate, Diploma or associate degree may have their credits and award transferred into a UK university, subject to entry requirements.
France
The Diplôme National du Brevet (previously Brevet des Collèges) is generally considered to be comparable to four GCSEs. The Brevet is usually sat in troisième (or year 10 in England and Wales).
Criticism and controversy
Grade disparity
Statistics released by London's Poverty Profile found overall GCSE attainment in London to be greater than the rest of England. 39% of pupils in Inner London and 37% in Outer London did not get five GCSEs at A* to C, compared with 42% in the rest of England. Also, according to an ITV News report, UK students tend to outperform Jersey students on GCSE examinations.
Gender bias is another area of concern. Department of Education data shows that the relative performance gap between girls and boys widened significantly under GCSEs, compared with O-Levels.
Subject decline
The declining number of pupils studying foreign languages in the UK has been a major concern of educational experts for many years. In 2015, Paul Steer, the Exam Board Chief of the British exam board OCR, expressed that "unless we act soon, even GCSE French and German could face the chop".
Grade inflation
When the GCSE system was introduced, there were comments that it was a dumbing down from the previous GCE O-Level system (as it took the focus away from the theoretical side of many subjects, and taught pupils about real-world implications and issues relating to ICT and citizenship).
In addition, the proportions of candidates awarded high grades at GCSE have been rising for many years, which critics attribute to grade inflation. By comparing pupils' scores in the YELLIS ability test with their GCSE results over a period of about 20 years, Robert Coe found a general improvement in grades awarded which ranges from 0.2 (science) to 0.8 (maths) of a GCSE grade. Only slightly more than half of pupils sitting GCSE exams achieve the 5 A* to C grades required for most forms of academic further education.
One of the important differences between previous educational qualifications (and the earlier grading of A-Levels) and the later GCSE qualifications was supposed to be a move from norm-referenced marking to criterion-referenced marking. In a norm-referenced grading system, fixed percentages of candidates achieve each grade. With criterion-referenced grades, in theory, all candidates who achieve the criteria can achieve the grade. A comparison of a clearly norm-referenced assessment, such as the NFER Cognitive Ability Test or CAT, with GCSE grading seems to show an unexpected correlation, which challenges the idea that the GCSE is a properly criterion-based assessment.
Mental health
Senior school leaders, the NSPCC, and Childline have expressed concern that GCSEs in their current exam-only format are too stressful and will lead to mental health crises. Students in 2019 were subjected to more exams and spent longer in the exam hall than their 2016 counterparts. While a GCSE student in 2016 had an average of 18 exams to prepare for, totalling 24 hours and 30 minutes, the average examinee in 2019 sat 22 exams, totalling 33 hours.
The Association of School and College Leaders (ASCL) surveyed 606 headteachers from schools that had entered pupils for exam-only GCSEs. They found reports of panic attacks, sleepless nights, depression, extreme fatigue, self-harming, and suicidal thoughts.
Even before all GCSE qualifications adopted the exam-only format, students complained about the memorization load, the need to write continuously for long hours, how their social lives have been affected and the need for sleeping pills and painkillers. They have observed younger siblings starting to panic about the exams at the beginning of the course- not just in the final year or the final few months.
Widening the social divide
The incorporation of GCSE awards into school league tables, and the setting of targets at school level at above national average levels of attainment, has been criticised. At the time of introduction, the E grade was intended to be equivalent to the CSE grade 4, and so obtainable by a candidate of average/median ability. Sir Keith Joseph set schools a target of 90% of their pupils obtaining at least a grade F (which was the "average" grade achieved in the past). This target was reached nationally about 20 years later. David Blunkett went further and set schools the goal of 50% of 16-year-olds gaining 5 GCSEs or equivalent at grade C and above, although these grades were previously only obtained by the top 30%. This was achieved with the help of equivalent and largely vocational qualifications. Labelling schools as failing if 40% of their pupils do not achieve at least 5 Cs, including English and Maths at GCSE, has also been criticised, as it essentially requires 40% of each intake to achieve the grades only obtained by the top 20% when GCSE was introduced.
In recent years, concerns about standards has led some public schools to complement GCSEs with IGCSEs within their curriculum, and to take their pupils straight to A-Level or the BTEC. Other schools, such as Manchester Grammar School, are replacing the GCSEs with IGCSEs in which there is an option to do no coursework. The new science syllabus has led to many public schools switching to the IGCSE Double Award syllabus.
The extent of the switching away from the terminal exam only GCSE to the IGCSEs in public and private schools was revealed in answers to a parliamentary question posed by Labour MP Lucy Powell in November 2018. The option to choose to do so is no longer open to state schools since the introduction of the new GCSEs graded 1–9.
The answers showed that in 2017–18, 91% of international GCSE entries in core (EBacc) subjects were in independent schools. A student in an independent school was 136 times more likely to follow an IGCSE than one in a state-funded school. Looking at entries in non-EBacc and EBacc subjects shows that three out of every four IGCSEs were sat in private schools.
The Labour Party has argued that it is grossly unfair that private school pupils get an easier path into universities as a consequence. The shadow education secretary, Angela Rayner MP, said: "We urgently need to get to the bottom of this situation. A full, root-and-branch review of Tory reforms to qualifications and their impact on pupils is needed."
Michael Gove, the architect of these reformed examinations, said in 2009: "Denying IGCSEs in core subjects to children in state schools will only serve to increase the level of inequality in education."
Errors and mistakes
Teachers and pupils have the option to question exam results and have the scripts marked again if they feel the grade awarded does not reflect the pupil's ability and expectations; or if they review a copy of the script and notice a marking error. In recent years, there have been complaints that GCSEs and GCE A-Levels were marked unfairly. (In 2012, for the first time in the history of the exams, the proportion of all GCSEs awarded an A*-C grade fell.)
This can be seen as, in general, more appeals being submitted each year, however the appeals rarely result in any grade changes as only 182 out of 6.2 million (0.003%) grades were changed in England in 2018, with most upheld appeals ending in no change of marks.
In one incident concerning the 2016 GCSE biology exam, there were complaints about the apparent lack of biology content in the exam. One of the questions in the biology exam asked students to define an "independent company", which some students perceived to be a business studies question.
The May 2017 English literature exam (under the regulation of OCR) wrongly implied that Tybalt, a character in Romeo and Juliet was not a Capulet. This serious flaw in the question confused many of the students. OCR accepted responsibility and claimed no pupil would be disadvantaged. The question was worth 40 marks.
In 2022, advance information was given by examination boards to students, providing them with information on what topics would/ wouldn't be on the exam. However, in the Physics paper 1 exam, a topic that was stated as "Not Assessed" came up, AQA accepted the mistake and awarded all students the full (9) marks to the question. Also, in 2022, a question on one of the higher Maths papers was leaked hours before students sat them. The exam board Edexcel has since apologised and conducted a full investigation.
Cancellations
In 2020 as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, GCSE examinations, along with all other May and June exams that year were cancelled. The government announced that GCSE and A-level grades would be awarded through teachers' assessments based on mock exams, coursework and other available evidence, moderated by a statistical standardisation model developed by Ofqual. This is the first cancellation of GCSEs since they were introduced.
An algorithm for deciding grades was originally introduced by Ofqual, which got used for A-Level grades. However, this caused backlash, causing the government to ultimately replace the algorithm with Center Assessed Grades for GCSEs on 17 August.
In 2021, GCSEs, along with A-level and AS exams, were cancelled again due to the pandemic and replaced with teacher assessed grades. The grades were decided based on previous mock exams, homework, classwork, and optional examinations set by Ofqual.
Calls for reform and abolition
Support for scrapping GCSEs in England has increased because of the COVID-19 pandemic. Rethinking Assessment was established in September 2020 to call for assessment reform in secondary education, including scrapping GCSEs. Members include multi-academy trusts including the Academies Enterprise Trust and Bohunt Academy Trust, independents schools including Eton College, Bedales School and St Paul's Girls' School, and Lord Baker of Dorking, the Conservative who introduced GCSEs as education secretary in 1986.
In 2021, former Conservative prime minister John Major led calls by him and eight former education secretaries, both Conservative and Labour, for GCSEs to either be scrapped and replaced, reformed or reviewed. Former education secretaries who called for them to be scrapped included Lord Baker, Lord Blunkett and Alan Johnson, while those calling for changes, reforms or a review included Major and former education secretaries Baroness Morgan of Cotes, Justine Greening, Charles Clarke and Ruth Kelly. Former Labour schools minister David Miliband also called for them to be scrapped, as did Conservative MP Robert Halfon, who chairs the Education Select Committee in the House of Commons. Support for scrapping GCSEs also came from teaching unions, including the National Education Union which is the largest teaching union in the country, and a group of centrist one-nation Conservative MPs. Schools Minister Nick Gibb rejected the proposal, thinking that "it would be a huge mistake to abolish the tried and tested GCSEs".
In 2022, former Labour prime minister Tony Blair called for GCSEs and A-Levels to be scrapped and replaced by a new qualification and an examination based on the International Baccalaureate. Before the age of 16, pupils would be assessed through pupil assessment. From 16 to 18, they would be assessed continually on their subject knowledge and skills through multiple methods including examination, which would determine their final grade. Blair declined enacting a similar proposal when he was prime minister.
See also
International General Certificate of Secondary Education (IGCSE), which is offered internationally as well as in some schools in the UK
GCE Advanced Level; commonly referred to as "A-Levels", a set of exams that many pupils take after completing GCSEs that are more academically rigorous
Business and Technology Education Council; referred to as "BTECs", another set of exams many pupils take after completing GCSEs, often in vocational subjects
Predecessor qualifications to the GCSE:
GCE Ordinary Level (O-Levels)
Certificate of Secondary Education (CSE)
School Certificate
General Certificate of Education (GCE), which comprises O-Levels and A-Levels
Footnotes
Notes
References
The Guardian, 25 August 2005, "It really is that bad" – GCSE standards
The Guardian, 3 September 2005, "Top independent school to ditch GCSE science"
Educational qualifications in the Caribbean
Educational qualifications in England
School examinations
Secondary education in England
Secondary education in Northern Ireland
Secondary education in Wales
Secondary school qualifications
Standardised tests in the Caribbean
Standardised tests in England
Educational qualifications in Wales
Educational qualifications in Northern Ireland
Standardised tests in Wales
Standardised tests in Northern Ireland | wiki |
Humanism may refer to ethical philosophies such as
Religious humanism, an integration of humanist ethical philosophy with religious rituals and beliefs
Christian humanism, a philosophy that combines Christian ethics and humanist principles
Humanistic Judaism, a movement in Judaism that offers a nontheistic alternative in contemporary Jewish life
Secular humanism, embraces humanism while rejecting religious aspects
Humanism may also refer to:
Renaissance humanism, an intellectual movement based on reviving Greek and Roman knowledge
Classical humanism, the cultivation of Greco-Roman legacies (not limited to Renaissance times)
Civic Humanism, a form of republicanism inspired by the writings of classical antiquity
Humanism (philosophy of education), a theory based on generation of knowledge, meaning and expertise
Humanities, a group of academic disciplines and the educational philosophy associated with them
Pragmatism, in the terminology of F.S.C. Schiller
Marxist Humanism, a more liberal form of Marxism
Neohumanism, a holistic philosophical theory elaborated by Prabhat Ranjan Sarkar
New Humanism (disambiguation), a literary criticism term associated with Irving Babbitt and Paul Elmer More
See also
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References
scratchleyana
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See also
List of tallest hotels in the world
List of tallest residential buildings in the world
References
Office buildings | wiki |
The chess endgame with a king and a pawn versus a king is one of the most important and fundamental endgames, other than the basic checkmates. It is an important endgame for chess players to master, since most other endgames have the potential of reducing to this type of endgame via exchanges of pieces. Players need to be able to determine quickly whether a given position is a win or a draw, and to know the technique for playing it. The crux of this endgame is whether or not the pawn can be promoted (or queened), so checkmate can be forced.
In the first paragraph of one of his books on endgames, Peter Griffiths emphasized the importance of this endgame:
There is simply no substitute to a clear understanding of when and how these positions are won or drawn, not only so that one can play them accurately, but in order to recognize in advance what the correct result should be. If you can do that, you can exchange off quite confidently from a more complex position.
In the positions in which the pawn wins, at most nineteen moves are required to promote the pawn (with optimal play) and at most nine more moves to checkmate, assuming that the pawn was promoted to a queen.
Except for the section on defending and some actual games, it will be assumed that White has a king and pawn and Black has a lone king. In general, Black should place their king in the path of the pawn to try to prevent its promotion.
Rule of the square
The most basic rule applies when the pawn can queen unassisted by its king. The rule of the square determines if this is possible. In this position, the pawn is on the fifth square from the queening square (counting the queening square itself). A square of 5×5 squares with the queening square in one corner and the pawn in an adjacent corner can be imagined. (An easy method is to construct the square with a diagonal from the pawn to the last rank.) If the black king can move into this square, he can catch the pawn, otherwise the pawn wins the race.
In this position, if it is Black's move, he can move ...Kb4 and enter the square, catching the pawn. If it is White's move, the pawn advances, the square shrinks to 4×4, and the king cannot move into the square, so the pawn queens. (See Wikibooks – Chess/The Endgame for further discussion on the rule of the square.)
Even if the defending king can move inside the square of the pawn, the attacking king may be able to block it, as in the diagram from Fishbein.
1... Ke4
Moving into the square.
2. Kb4 Kd5 3. Kb5! Kd6 4. Kb6! Kd7 5. Kb7! Kd6 6. a5 Kc5 7. a6 Kb5 8. a7
and the pawn promotes.
Note that in some cases, the king can catch a pawn when he is outside the square by creating threats that must be parried, and gain a tempo. In the Réti endgame study (by Richard Réti, 1921), the white king is outside the square of the black pawn, two tempi short of catching the pawn. However, White can draw by "going after two birds at once".
1. Kg7! h4 2. Kf6! Kb6
If 2...h3 then 3.Ke7 or 3.Ke6 and the pawns promote together.
3. Ke5! Kxc6
If 3...h3 then 4.Kd6 h2 5.c7, draw.
4. Kf4, resulting in a draw.
Key squares
If the defending king is within the "square", then the pawn cannot queen without the help of its own king. The first concept that needs to be introduced is that of the key square, also known as a critical square. A key square is a square such that if White's king occupies it, White can force the pawn to promotion, regardless of where the black king is and regardless of which side is to move, and against any defense (assuming that the black king cannot capture the pawn). The key squares are relative to the position of the pawn. Whether or not the white king can reach a key square depends on the position of the pieces. Of course, even if the white king occupies a key square, accurate play is still required in order to promote the pawn.
Note that the key square is in front of the pawn. Endgame expert Yuri Averbakh said, just as a father leads his child across the road rather than pushing the child in front, the king should also lead the pawn to the queening square.
Rook pawn
A rook pawn (on the a- or h-file) has much less chance of promoting than other pawns. The reason is that if the opposing king can get to any square in front of the pawn, it cannot be driven away from the file, and the pawn cannot queen. Black can always draw if he can reach the c8-square for an a-pawn (pawn on the a-file), or the equivalent f8 for an h-pawn, except for the position in the next diagram, with White to move. Therefore, an advanced rook pawn generally has two key squares: b7 and b8 for an a-pawn, and g7 and g8 for an h-pawn. The key squares are indicated by the black dots in the position in the diagram.
If White's king can reach either of the two key squares, he can keep Black's king away and the pawn will promote. If the Black king can reach any of the squares marked with a dot or a cross, it stops the pawn.
The pawn can also promote in the position on the right (if White is to move), after
1. h7
However, in practice most of the time the black king can stop a rook pawn because it is usually close enough that the white king cannot prevent it from getting in front of the pawn (or capturing it).
Examples from games
The game Oscar Panno–Miguel Najdorf, Buenos Aires 1968, continued
59. Kg4 Kc7 60. Kg5
and White won because the white king can reach the key square g7. Black resigned in light of
60... Kd7 61. Kg6 Ke7
If 61...Ke6, then 62.h4; not 62.Kg7 because 62...Kf5! wins the pawn.
62. Kg7
Moving to a key square, the only move to win.
62... Ke6 63. h4 Kf5 64. h5
The only move to win. The king protects the pawn as it promotes.
If Black was to move in this position, he would draw by reaching the f8-square and preventing the white king from getting to a key square, and the pawn cannot promote.
This position from a game between Gedeon Barcza and future world champion Bobby Fischer was a draw. (White's 96.Kd2 followed by 97.Kc1 draws.)
Pawns other than rook pawns
Pawns other than rook pawns have a much better chance of promoting. If the pawn is on the second, third, or fourth rank, there are three key squares – the square two squares in front of the pawn and the squares to the left and right of that square. The key squares are indicated by the black dots, for example see the diagram on the left. If the pawn is on the fifth or sixth rank, there are six key squares: the square in front of the pawn and the squares to the left and right, as well as the square two squares in front of the pawn, and the squares to the left and right of it, see the diagram in the middle. When the pawn is on the seventh rank, the key squares are the squares on the seventh and eighth rank that touch the pawn's square (see the diagram on the right).
An easy way to remember the key squares is to note that if the pawn is not beyond the midpoint of the board, there are three key squares that are two ranks ahead. If the pawn is on the fifth or sixth rank there are six key squares on the two ranks in front of the pawn. If the pawn is on the seventh rank, the adjoining squares on the seventh and eighth ranks are key squares.
Once White's king occupies a key square he can keep the opposing king from blocking the advance of the pawn, as will be shown below.
Knight pawn exception
There is an exception to the key squares rule with a knight pawn, the black king in the corner, and Black to move. In the diagram on the right, with the white king on either the square indicated or the square marked by a cross, the position is stalemate if Black is to move. This is sometimes known as the b- (or g-) pawn trap.
In this position, the best move is 1.Kh6! If
1. Kf6 Kh7
Now if 2.g6+ then 2...Kh8! draws, or
2. Kf7 Kh8
does not work for White because 3.g6?? is stalemate. White must play
3. Kg6 Kg8
getting back to the original position, followed by 4.Kh6.
This position and sequence of moves came up in a game between Harry Golombek and Arturo Pomar. It is actually much older, having first appeared in Giambattista Lolli's 1763 book.
Any key square by any route
It is important that White wins if he gets his king to any key square and the path to a key square is not always direct. For instance, in the diagram, the key squares for White are b5, c5, and d5; however, Black can prevent the white king from reaching a key square directly. For example:
1. Kd2 Ke7 2. Kd3 Kd7 3. Kc4 Kc6
taking the opposition (see below).
However, the white king can reach a key square (b5) by going on the other side of the pawn:
1. Kc2! Ke7 2. Kb3 Kd6 3. Kb4 Kc6 4. Kc4
Opposition, and Black is in zugzwang.
4...Kd6 5. Kb5
or
4... Kb6 5. Kd5
and the white king has occupied a key square and has a winning position.
Opposition
The second concept needed is opposition – when two kings face each other with only one square in between, the side with the move may have to move the king away and allow the opposing king to advance. The other king has the opposition.
However, Averbakh pointed out that the opposition is a means to an end; the end is penetration to a key square. If you can penetrate without the opposition, then do so. In this diagram, White should seize a key square by playing:
1. Kc5
and moving to a key square on the next move (e.g. 1...Kd7 2.Kb6). Taking the opposition by 1.Ke4 draws (as do any other moves).
Rules
If the pawn is not a rook pawn some rules apply:
Rule 1: With one exception, if the black king can get to the square in front of the pawn, or the square in front of that (which are key squares), he draws.
The reason is that if the black king alternates between those two squares, he can keep the white king from getting to a key square. The exception is the position in the diagram, and only if White is to move, because of
1. d7 Ke7
Black was in zugzwang.
2. Kc7
followed by
3. d8=Q
Otherwise, if the black king stays on one of those two squares, he keeps the white king from occupying a key square.
Rule 2: White wins if at least any two of the following conditions are met:
(a) the white king is in front of the pawn
(b) white has the opposition
(c) the white king is on the sixth rank.
In positions in which fewer than two of the conditions are met, it may or may not be possible to get to a position meeting at least two of the conditions, depending on the position of the pieces and who is to move. In such positions, if the attacker can get to a position that meets two conditions, he wins. On the other hand, the defender may be able to prevent the attacker from getting to such a position (see #Defending drawn positions). Recall that rule 1 above gives a condition which draws for Black.
There are three cases to be considered. In any of these three cases, the white king is able to force his way onto a key square and thus reach a winning position. Accurate play from that position is still needed to win the game.
Case 1, conditions (b) and (c) are met
Conditions (b) and (c) are met in this diagram, if it is Black's move. Black cannot prevent the white king from reaching the key square d7.
1... Ke8 2. e7 Kf7
Black was in zugzwang.
3. Kd7 (a key square)
followed by
4. e8=Q
and White wins.
This position illustrates an important rule of thumb: If the White king is on its sixth rank, the pawn must be advanced to the seventh rank without giving check. (If White's king is on the sixth rank and the pawn checks the Black king when it advances to the seventh rank, the black king can move in front of the pawn, resulting in a draw. In that case White has to either give up the pawn or move the king behind the pawn into stalemate.)
Case 2, conditions (a) and (c) are met
Conditions (a) and (c) are met in this diagram, with either side to move.
If it is Black's move in this diagram, the game could go
1... Kg8 2. Kh6 Kh8
Black was in zugzwang.
3. g6 Kg8 4. g7 Kf7 5. Kh7
and White wins because the pawn advanced to the seventh rank without giving check, as in the position in the diagram in the previous section.
If it is White's move in this diagram,
1. Kf7 (a key square)
and Black cannot prevent the pawn from queening.
White must take a little more care with a knight pawn. If White moves 1.Kf6, Black can reply 1...Kh7 and White must back up with 2.Kf7 Kh8 and proceed as above, because 2.g6+? Kh8! 3.Kf7 is stalemate.
Case 3, conditions (a) and (b) are met
Conditions (a) and (b) are met in this diagram, if Black is to move. The game could continue
1... Kd6 2. Kf5 Kd7 3. Kf6 Kd8 4. e4 Kd7 5. e5 Ke8 6. Ke6
White takes the opposition. White's king has reached the sixth rank before the pawn; 6.e6?? Kf8 draws.
6... Kd8 7. Kf7
and White wins. There are several other variations, depending on Black's moves.
Example from Maróczy vs. Marshall
In this example from Géza Maróczy–Frank Marshall, Monte Carlo 1903, Black to move gets the king in front of the pawn with the opposition:
1... Kg4! 2. Kh2 Kf3 3. Kh3 g4+ 4. Kh2 Kf2! 5. Kh1 Kg3 6. Kg1 Kh3!
and the game could continue:
7. Kh1 g3 8. Kg1 g2 .
Case 4, all three conditions are met
Of course, the ideal situation is when all three conditions are met. In this diagram, if Black is to move all three conditions are met and White wins easily:
1... Kd8 2. Kb7
and the pawn will promote (e.g. 2...Kd7 3.c6+ followed by 4.c7 and 5.c8).
If White is to move in this position, then conditions (a) and (c) are met, so White wins:
1. Kd6 Kd8 2. c6 Kc8 3. c7 Kb7 4. Kd7
etc., as above.
This emphasizes the importance of getting the king to the sixth rank in front of the pawn. If this configuration is achieved, White wins no matter which side is to move.
Exception – rook pawn
For a rook pawn, it is possible for Black to draw even if all three conditions are met. In the diagram, all three conditions are satisfied (opposition is satisfied if it is Black's turn) but it is a draw no matter whose move it is.
If it is Black to move:
1... Kb8 2. Kb6 Ka8 3. a6 Kb8 4. a7+ Ka8
leads to either stalemate or White giving up the pawn. Or if
1... Kb8 2. Kb5 Ka8 3. Kb6 Kb8 4. a6 Ka8
leads to a draw. If it is White to move:
1. Kb6 Kb8 2. a6 Ka8 3. a7
is stalemate. Or:
1. Kb6 Kb8 2. Kb5 Ka8 3. Kb6 Kb8 4. a6 Ka8
leads to either White giving up the pawn or stalemate.
In both cases with White to move or Black to move, all Black needs to do is shuffle between a8 and b8 and White's king can never reach the key square b7 or b8.
In the second diagram, it is again a draw no matter whose turn it is.
If it is White's turn:
1. Kh8 Kf8 2. h7 Kf7
and this time it is White who is stalemated. If it is Black's turn:
1...Kf8 2. Kg6 Kg8
and the position in the previous diagram is reached which is a draw no matter who is to play.
Defending drawn positions
Now consider defending positions when only one of the conditions of Rule 2 is met, which is not sufficient to win if the defender is able to prevent the attacker from getting a position that meets at least two of the conditions.
The king is in front of the pawn
If the king is in front of the pawn and neither of the other two conditions is met, the defense is easy.
In this diagram, with White to move, Black's king is in front of the pawn, but it is not on its sixth rank and it does not have the opposition. White draws by
1. Kb2
taking the opposition and preventing the black king from getting the opposition or advancing to its sixth rank. (Indeed, this is the only move that draws. Sometimes this position is reached after Black has captured a pawn. To draw, White must be in a position to move their king to take this direct opposition.) Then if the black king steps to the side, White simply maintains the opposition:
1... Kc4 2. Kc2
If the pawn now advances, White gets to a drawn position by moving in front of the pawn. (Recall that if the opposing king is on the square in front of the pawn or the square in front of that, the position is a draw, with one exception.)
2... b4 3. Kb2 (next diagram)
Note that 3.Kb1 would lose to 3...Kb3 because Black now has satisfied all three conditions of rule 2.
Black to move cannot make any progress from this position; the white king simply stays on b2 or b3, unless Black advances the pawn again, in which case the king moves between b1 and b2. Black cannot disrupt this without stalemate, for instance 3...b3 4.Kb1 Kc3 5.Kc1 b2+ 6.Kb1 Kb3 stalemate.
The king has the opposition
In this diagram, with White to move Black's king has the opposition, but neither of the other conditions. White to move simply moves
1. Kd2
and black cannot promote the pawn, for example:
1... d3 2. Kd1
The defending king must drop back vertically.
2... Ke3 3. Ke1 d2+ 4. Kd1
and now the king must either move away from the pawn and allow it to be captured or play 4...Kd3 and deliver stalemate.
The king is on the sixth rank
In this diagram, the black king is on its sixth rank, but with Black to move it does not have the opposition. If the Black king moves, the white king simply goes to d2 (best) or d1. If the pawn advances to d2, the white king moves to d1, and a draw results as above.
A player should be familiar with both the attacking and defending roles, since a wrong move by the defender may allow the attacker to get to a winning position and a wrong move by the attacker may give up one of the conditions of rule 2, resulting in a draw.
Example from Gligorić versus Fischer
In the game Svetozar Gligorić–Bobby Fischer, Yugoslavia 1959, White can get the king in front of the pawn, but he does not have the opposition and is not on the sixth rank. Black must make sure that White does not get the opposition or get the king to the sixth rank:
1... Kb8!
Any move by Black to the seventh rank loses because White can take the opposition and reach a key square. (The move 1...Kd8 allows the white king to reach the key square a6.) After 1...Kb8, Black draws by taking the opposition if the white king advances, e.g. 2.Kc5 Kc7! draws or 2.Kb5 Kb7! draws.
Guidelines
Edmar Mednis gave these guidelines:
The rook pawn is the worst pawn to have. The defending king draws if it can get in front of the pawn or reach the square diagonally adjacent to the promotion square.
For other pawns, the position on the right is the key position. White to move draws; Black to move loses (rule 2, parts b and c above).
It is always an advantage to have the opposition.
If the attacking king is on the sixth rank in front of the pawn it always wins (rule 2, parts a and c).
It is always an advantage to have the king in front of its pawn. Otherwise, the key is whether or not the king can get in front of the pawn in an advantageous position.
If the attacking king is on the third, fourth, or fifth rank in front of the pawn he wins if he has the opposition (rule 2, parts a and b).
A king and doubled pawns (except rook pawns) win in all normal circumstances. The extra pawn is used only to make a tempo move to gain the opposition (which it can not do if the pawns are on adjacent ranks).
Examples
With Black to move, White wins by first occupying a key square and then by getting two of the conditions above:
1... Kb5 2. Kd4 (key square) 2... Kc6 3. Kc4 (opposition) 3... Kb6 4. Kd5 (turning maneuver) 4... Kc7 5. Kc5 (opposition) 5... Kd7 6. Kb6
The white king is on the sixth rank (condition c) ahead of the pawn (condition a) and White can advance the pawn.
If White is to move, Black draws:
1. Kb3 Kb5 (opposition) 2. c4+ Kc5 3. Kc3 Kc6
Alternatives 3...Kd6 and 3...Kb6 also draw.
4. Kd4 Kd6 5. c5+ Kd7 6. Kd5 Kc7 7. c6 Kc8!
If 7...Kd8 then 8.Kd6, taking the opposition, wins.
8. Kd6 Kd8!
and Black draws.
Kamsky vs. Kramnik
This position from Gata Kamsky–Vladimir Kramnik, Nice 2009, was reached after the exchange of rooks in a rook and pawn versus rook endgame. Black draws easily:
125... Ke7
Ke8 also draws.
126. Kd5 Ke8 127. Kd6 Kd8
Taking the opposition.
128. e7+ Ke8 129. Ke6 stalemate.
See also
Corresponding squares
Triangulation (chess)
References
Bibliography
External links
Interactive king and pawn versus king practice
King and pawn versus king
About chess
Video explaining how to win with king and pawn versus king
Chess endgames
Chess theory | wiki |
The word Marocain can mean:
Cinsaut, a wine grape
Carignan, another wine grape
marocain, or crêpe marocain, a ribbed crape (textile)
The French word for "Moroccan" | wiki |
Cycas ophiolitica is a species of cycad, native to Queensland.
References
ophiolitica
Flora of Queensland | wiki |
Marcelo Méndez may refer to:
Marcelo Méndez (footballer)
Marcelo Méndez (volleyball)
Marcelo Méndez (fencer) | wiki |
Deux référendums ont lieu le en Nouvelle-Zélande en même temps que les élections législatives néo-zélandaises de 2020. La population est amenée à se prononcer par deux fois :
Un référendum sur la légalisation du cannabis ;
Un référendum sur la légalisation de l'euthanasie.
2020
Nouvelle-Zélande
2020 en Nouvelle-Zélande
Politique en octobre 2020 | wiki |
The Unscarred, also known as Everybody Dies, is a 2000 British-German thriller film produced and directed by Buddy Giovinazzo.
Cast
James Russo as Mickey Vernon
Ornella Muti as Rafaella
Heino Ferch as Johann
Steven Waddington as Travis Moore
Ulrike Haase as Anke
Richard Portnow as Tommy Matolla
Naike Rivelli as Young Rafaella
References
External links
2000 films
2000 thriller films
British thriller films
German thriller films
English-language German films
2000s English-language films
2000s British films
2000s German films | wiki |
Freestyle MetalX is an extreme sports video game developed by British developer Deibus Studios and released in 2003 by Midway Games for PlayStation 2, GameCube and Xbox. It is a 3D motorcycle stunt game that rewards the player for pulling off difficult moves.
The game's soundtrack to the game consists of hard rock and metal music, including bands such as Megadeth, Mötley Crüe, Motörhead, and Grade 8.
Reception
The game received "average" reviews on all platforms according to the review aggregation website Metacritic.
References
External links
2003 video games
PlayStation 2 games
GameCube games
Xbox games
Motorcycle video games
Midway video games
Video games developed in the United Kingdom | wiki |
Boudales is an alternative name to several wine grape varieties including:
Canari noir
Cinsaut
Grolleau (grape) | wiki |
Cymbidium dayanum, the Day's cymbidium, is a species of orchid, also known as the phoenix orchid or tree orchid.
dayanum
Plants described in 1869 | wiki |
England A may refer to the following second-string England national sports teams:
England A (cricket), since 2007 called the England Lions
England A (rugby league), since 2011 superseded by the England Knights
England A (rugby union), since 2006 called the England Saxons
See also
England B national football team | wiki |
The Masses Are Asses is a quote attributed to Alexander Hamilton and may refer to:
A 1974 play by Pedro Pietri
A 1997 song by the female punk rock group L7 from the album The Beauty Process: Triple Platinum | wiki |
T-Mobile is the brand name used by some of the mobile communications subsidiaries of the German telecommunications company Deutsche Telekom AG in the Czech Republic (T-Mobile Czech Republic), Poland (T-Mobile Polska), the United States (T-Mobile US) and by the former subsidiary in the Netherlands (T-Mobile Netherlands).
The T-Mobile brand was introduced in 1996 and the name was previously used by subsidiaries in other countries, including Austria (now Magenta), Croatia (now Hrvatski Telekom), Germany (now Deutsche Telekom), Hungary (now Magyar Telekom), Montenegro (now Crnogorski Telekom), North Macedonia (now Makedonski Telekom), Romania (now Telekom România), Slovakia (now Slovak Telekom), and the United Kingdom (now EE Limited).
In 1999, Deutsche Telekom formed the holding company T-Mobile International AG for its mobile communications subsidiaries. From 2003 to 2007, T-Mobile International was one of Deutsche Telekom's services, in addition to "Broadband/Fixnet", "Business Customers" and "Group HQ and Shared Services". In 2009, Deutsche Telekom transformed its structure to adopt a regional setup (Germany, Europe, US). By combining its previously separated fixed and mobile subsidiaries to form integrated local businesses, T-Mobile International itself was merged into Deutsche Telekom AG.
When T-Mobile International AG existed, the holding company was based in Bonn, Germany, and its subsidiaries operated GSM-, UMTS- and LTE-based cellular networks in Europe, the United States, Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. The company had financial stakes in mobile operators in both Central and Eastern Europe. Globally, T-Mobile International's subsidiaries had a combined total of approximately 230 million subscribers. It was the world's thirteenth-largest mobile-phone service provider by subscribers, and the fourth-largest multinational after the UK's Vodafone, India's Airtel, and Spain's Telefónica.
History
Germany's first mobile-communications services were radiotelephone systems that were owned and operated by the state postal monopoly, Deutsche Bundespost. It launched the analog first-generation C-Netz ("C Network", marketed as C-Tel), Germany's first true mobile phone network in 1985.
On 1 July 1989, West Germany reorganized Deutsche Bundespost and consolidated telecommunications into a new unit, Deutsche Bundespost Telekom. On 1 July 1992, it began to operate Germany's first GSM network, along with the C-Netz, as its DeTeMobil subsidiary. The GSM 900 MHz frequency band was referred to as the "D-Netz", and Telekom named its service D1; the private consortium awarded the second license (now Vodafone Germany) chose the name D2. Deutsche Bundespost Telekom was renamed Deutsche Telekom AG on 1 January 1995 as part of phase two of the German communications reform. This process of deregulation continued in November 1996, when DT was privatized and had the largest European IPO at the time, with the stock abbreviation 'DT 1'.
In December 1999, T-Mobile International AG & Co. KG holding company was founded (later renamed T-Mobile International AG). In 2002, as DT consolidated its international operations, it anglicized the T-Mobil name to T-Mobile.
On 5 July 2005 Deutsche Telekom transformed its structure and adopted a regional setup (Germany, Europe, US). Where available, the local mobile businesses were combined with the respective local wireline businesses to follow the integrated business approach. In 2009 T-Mobile International AG was merged into Deutsche Telekom AG.
On 16 August 2021, T-Mobile announced that a hacker had illegally accessed more than 76 million Americans’ private data, with an American hacker named John Binns later claiming responsibility. Several class action lawsuits have been filed in relation to the data breach. In July 2022, T-mobile agreed to a $350 million settlement during the company's hearing at Missouri federal court, in relation to the data breech and subsequent class action litigation. The $350 million settlement will include $25,000 in reimbursement for the losses to organisations, compensation to the victims of the data breech of $25 per hour and to provide two-year subscriptions to identity theft services and $150 million on improving data security.
On 19 January 2023, T-Mobile said it first identified a bad actor had obtained the data of 37 million customers via an unauthorized API (starting on or around 25 November 2022). The data included the name, billing address, email, phone number, date of birth, T-Mobile account number, and information such as the number of lines on the account and plan features.
Operations
Austria
Until 2000, Magenta Telekom (known then as T-Mobile) was a shareholder of the former max.mobil. network. In April 2001, it acquired one hundred percent and subsequently introduced the T-Mobile brand in Austria by rebranding max.mobil. in April 2002 as T-Mobile Austria. It later rebranded again to Magenta Telekom on 6 May 2019, after acquiring the Austrian operations of UPC from Liberty Global in December 2017.
In 2005, it acquired former competitor tele.ring from Western Wireless International. It is now used as a discount brand. tele.ring is an Austrian mobile network operator. Since it was bought by Magenta Telekom (then T-Mobile) in 2006, it is no longer a legally independent company. Tele.ring is administratively independent and now acts primarily as a discount-offer, similar to Yesss and BoB of A1. In the past, tele.ring was known for their aggressive price-politics.
Croatia
T-Mobile entered the Croatian market in October 1999 when DT initially acquired a thirty-five percent interest in Hrvatski telekom, including its cell phone service provider Cronet. Two years later, DT signed an agreement with the Croatian government to acquire the additional 16 percent needed for a majority holding. In January 2003, Hrvatski Telekom assembled all of its mobile activities under a single brand HTmobile. Finally, in October 2004, HTmobile became T-Mobile Hrvatska, or T-Mobile Croatia, thus joining the global T-Mobile family also by name. Since January 1, 2010, Hrvatski Telekom and T-Mobile Croatia merged into one company on the Croatian market under the name Hrvatski Telekom (in English: Croatian Telecom); the T-Mobile brand remained active in the mobile-business area and T-Com in the fixed-business area until 2013 when they were replaced by unified brand "Hrvatski Telekom".
Czech Republic
T-Mobile was previously known as Paegas in the Czech Republic. T-Mobile Czech Republic a.s. has been operating in the Czech market since 1996.
As of 31 December 2014, 6 million customers were using T-Mobile services.
T-Mobile Czech Republic a.s. operates a public mobile communications network on the GSM standard in the 900 and 1800 MHz bands and is also authorized to operate a UMTS network. On 19 October 2005, T-Mobile was the first operator in the Czech Republic to launch this third-generation technology under the name Internet 4G.
Germany
Germany's initial mobile communications services were radiotelephone systems that were owned and operated by the state postal monopoly, Deutsche Bundespost. These early mobile communications networks were referred to as the "A" and "B" networks.
Deutsche Bundespost Telekom built Germany's first cellular mobile network, an analog, first-generation system referred to as the "C" network or C-Netz. The network became operational in 1985 and services were marketed under the C-Tel brand. Following German reunification in 1990, the "C" network was extended to the former East Germany.
On 1 July 1992, Deutsche Bundespost Telekom's DeTeMobil subsidiary began operating Germany's first GSM 900 MHz frequency cellular network, which the organization referred to as D-Netz. Digital GSM services were marketed under the "D1" brand and DeTeMobil continued to sell analog cellular services concurrently under the existing C-Tel brand. In 1994, DeTeMobil introduced short message service (SMS) services.
In 1996, DT began to brand its subsidiaries with the T- prefix, renaming the DeTeMobil subsidiary T-Mobil and rebranding the GSM cellular network T-D1. C-Netz was renamed to T-C-Tel. The T-C-Tel / C-Netz services were fully discontinued in 2000.
D1 introduced prepaid service called Xtra in 1997.
Despite the numerous changes in subsidiary names and brands, Germans sometimes continue to use the T-D1 name within Germany and refer to T-Mobile as D1.
On 1 April 2010, after the T-Home and T-Mobile German operations merged to form Telekom Deutschland GmbH, a wholly owned DT subsidiary; the T-Mobile brand was discontinued in Germany and replaced with the Telekom brand.
Hungary
On 1 May 2004, the same day as Hungary joined the European Union, the former company, named Westel (which was owned entirely by the former Matáv) changed its name, and the entire marketing. Westel was the most popular cellphone network in Hungary at the time. The company was called T-Mobile Hungary, but after some financial decisions, as with the other T- companies, it formed to Magyar Telekom Nyrt. Mobil Szolgáltatások Üzletág (Hungarian Telekom, Mobile Services Business Unit), and its branding started to use Telekom instead of T-Mobile. T-Mobile also provides high-speed services, like EDGE, 3G, and HSDPA in Hungary's major cities.
North Macedonia
In Republic of North Macedonia, T-Mobile was previously known as Mobimak. The company has been operating in the Macedonian market since 1996. On 7 September 2006, Mobimak accepted the international T-Mobile branding. By June 2007, T-Mobile reached one million subscribers, out of which 85 percent were active and using their services. T-Mobile MK covers 98 percent of the population. It has a GSM 900 licence, offers GPRS, MMS and mobile internet services using T-Mobile HotSpots and has implemented the EDGE fast mobile internet specification. T-Mobile Macedonia applied for a UMTS licence on 1 August 2007. From 1 July T-Mobile ceased to exist as a legal entity and was replaced by the Telekom brand. The carrier name is now Telekom.mk.
The codes are 070/071/072.
Montenegro
The T-Mobile brand entered the Montenegrin market in 2006 through the acquisition of MoNet GSM mobile provider. T-Mobile Montenegro (T-Mobile Crna Gora) is fully owned by T-Crnogorski Telekom, which is itself owned by Magyar Telekom, a DT subsidiary. Although the acquisition by Magyar Telekom was done in 2005, it was not until 26 September 2006, that the MoNet GSM operator was re-branded as T-Mobile Montenegro.
MoNet GSM launched on July 1, 2000, as part of Telecom Montenegro. It became an independent incorporated limited-liability company a month later, on 1 August 2000. The company currently holds around 34 percent of the Montenegrin market and uses GSM 900, GPRS, and EDGE technologies. Since 21 June 2007, 3G/UMTS services have been available in larger cities as well as on the coast.
Netherlands
Deutsche Telekom entered the Dutch market by the acquisition of Ben on 20 September 2002. In 2007, T-Mobile Netherlands, a wholly owned subsidiary of T-Mobile International, acquired Orange Netherlands from France Télécom for EUR 1.33 billion. This makes it the third largest mobile telephone operator in the country behind KPN and Vodafone.
As part of an acquisition of Tele2 Netherlands by T-Mobile Netherlands, which was announced on December 15, 2017, the previous owner Tele2 AB became a 25% shareholder in T-Mobile Netherlands.
Poland
T-Mobile Polska serves over thirteen million customers, and owns licenses for 900, 1800, 2100 MHz bands which are used for GSM, WCDMA and LTE. Formerly Era, rebranding took place on 5 June 2011. T-Mobile Poland with Orange Polska have consolidated their infrastructure and used this opportunity to roll out 3G coverage using 900 MHz band.
Slovakia
The T-Mobile brand entered the Slovak market in May 2005, after rebranding the EuroTel network from Eurotel Bratislava to T-Mobile Slovensko nowadays Telekom. The company Eurotel Bratislava was partially owned by Slovak Telekom, an incumbent fixed-line operator, which later acquired a one hundred percent stake in Eurotel Bratislava. T-Mobile International and DT never owned T-Mobile Slovensko directly; DT is partially owner of Slovak Telekom and thus T-Mobile International has procurement managing function within T-Mobile Slovensko. On 1 July 2010, Slovak Telekom and T-Mobile Slovensko merged into one company on the Slovak market under the name Telekom; T-Mobile brand no more remains active in the mobile-business area, as well as the T-Com in the fixed-business area.
The Telekom network provides services on three networks GSM (900/1800 MHz), UMTS (2100 MHz), Flash OFDM (450 MHz). Mobile data services are provided on 4G, 3G, GSM network with EDGE extension and on UMTS with DC-HSPA+ 42 Mbit/s and HSUPA 5,8 Mbit/s. Flash OFDM is one of two commercially successfully launched solely data networks in the world. It supports upload speed up to 5.8 Mbit/s.
United Kingdom
T-Mobile UK started life as Mercury One2One, the world's first GSM 1800 mobile network. It was originally operated by the now-defunct Mercury Communications. Later known simply as one2one, it was purchased by DT in 1999 and rebranded as T-Mobile in 2002.
T-Mobile offered both pay-as-you-go and pay-monthly contract phones. T-Mobile launched their 3G UMTS services in the Autumn of 2003. T-Mobile UK's network was also used as the backbone network behind the Virgin Mobile virtual network.
In late 2007, it was confirmed that the merger of the high-speed 3G and HSDPA networks operated by T-Mobile UK and 3 (UK) was to take place starting January 2008. This left T-Mobile and 3 with the largest HSDPA mobile phone network in the country. In 2009, France Télécom's Orange and DT, T-Mobile's parent, announced they were in advanced talks to merge their UK operations to create the UK's largest mobile operator. In March 2010, the European Commission approved this merger on the condition that the combined company sell 25% of the spectrum it owns on the 1800 MHz radio band and amend a network sharing agreement with smaller rival 3. The merger was completed the following month, the new company's name later being announced as EE. Orange and T-Mobile continued as separate brands in the market until 2015, both run by the new parent company.
T-Mobile UK and Orange UK announced on 15 February 2015 the sale of EE Limited to BT Group for £12.5B and to take shares of 12% within the BT Group as part of the deal.
United States
T-Mobile US provides wireless voice, messaging, and data services in the United States mainland including Alaska, Hawaii, Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands under the T-Mobile and Metro by T-Mobile brands. The company operates the second largest wireless network in the U.S. market with over 95 million customers and annual revenues of $32 billion. Its nationwide network reaches 98 percent of Americans, through its EDGE 2G/HSPA 3G/HSPA+ 4G/4G LTE networks, as well as through roaming agreements (see section: Radio frequency spectrum chart). , J. D. Power and Associates, a global marketing-information-services firm, ranked the company highest among major wireless carriers for retail-store satisfaction four years consecutively and highest for wireless customer care two years consecutively.
The company owns licences to operate a 1900 MHz GSM PCS digital cellular network and AWS UMTS digital cellular networks using 600 MHz, 700 MHz, 850 MHz, 1700 MHz and 2100 MHz covering areas of the continental U.S., Alaska, Hawaii, Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. It provides coverage in areas where it does not own radio frequency spectrum licenses via roaming agreements with other operators of compatible networks. In addition to its cellular mobile network, T-Mobile US operates a nationwide Wi-Fi Internet-access network under the T-Mobile HotSpots brand. The T-Mobile HotSpot service offers access to a nationwide network of approximately 8,350 access points, installed in venues such as Starbucks coffeehouses, FedEx Office Office and Print Centers, Hyatt hotels and resorts, Red Roof Inns, Sofitel hotels, Novotel hotels, the airline clubs of American Airlines, Delta Air Lines, United Airlines and US Airways, and airports.
T-Mobile US, Inc. traces its roots to the 1994 establishment of VoiceStream Wireless PCS as a subsidiary of Western Wireless Corporation. Spun off from parent Western Wireless on 3 May 1999, VoiceStream Wireless Corporation was purchased by Deutsche Telekom on 31 May 2001, for $35 billion and renamed T-Mobile USA, Inc. in July 2002. This legacy is reflected in some mismatch between US and German T-Mobile service, notably the frequency mismatch making phones inoperative in the other country, and picture messaging issues (non-delivery of pictures in text messages) between those networks.
After a failed attempt by AT&T in 2011 to purchase the company in a $39 billion stock and cash offer (which was withdrawn after being faced with significant regulatory and legal hurdles, along with heavy resistance from the U.S. government and the Sprint Corporation), T-Mobile USA announced its intent to merge with MetroPCS Communications, Inc., the sixth largest carrier in the U.S., to improve its competitiveness with other national carriers; the deal was approved by the Department of Justice and Federal Communications Commission in March 2013. The merger agreement gave Deutsche Telekom the option to sell its 72% stake in the merged company, valued at around $14.2 billion, to a third-party before the end of the 18-month lock-up period. On 1 May 2013, the combined company, now known as T-Mobile US, began trading on the New York Stock Exchange as a public company.
Merger with Sprint
On 29 April 2018, T-Mobile and Sprint announced a $26 billion merger deal, with the resulting company to operate under the name T-Mobile. Federal Communications Commission Chairman Ajit Pai announced that he would back the merger. On 11 February 2020, the deal was approved by a federal judge. The merger was completed on 1 April 2020 with Deutsche Telekom holding owning 43% of the company, SoftBank at 24% and the remaining 33% to the public shareholders.
As part of the merger, T-Mobile US acquired Assurance Wireless, the service subsidized by the federal Lifeline Assistance program, a government benefit program supported by the federal Universal Service Fund.
Marketing
The five-note T-Mobile audio logo was composed by Lance Massey in 1999, and was originally part of the song ("Hello Hola" by Clan Chi) used to promote DT's Tour de France bicycle team.
Sponsorships
T-Mobile, specifically the T-Mobile US subsidiary in the United States, holds the naming rights to T-Mobile Arena on the Las Vegas Strip near Las Vegas, to T-Mobile Center in Kansas City and to T-Mobile Park in Seattle.
T-Mobile's parent company, Deutsche Telekom, has served as the kit sponsor for German Bundesliga club Bayern Munich since 2002. T-Mobile was also the official sponsor of English Football League Championship side West Bromwich Albion and previously sponsored Rotherham United as well as Scottish Premier League clubs Rangers and Celtic.
T-Mobile co-sponsored Everton with the One2One brand and they also sponsored the 2002 FA Youth Cup Final. T-Mobile was also a kit sponsor for English club Birmingham City. The phone company is also involved in sponsoring leagues such as the Austrian Football Bundesliga, which is named the T-Mobile Bundesliga. It was also the official global mobile phone carrier for the 2006 FIFA World Cup football tournament in Germany and sponsored its own cycling team, the T-Mobile Team (later Team HTC-High Road).
T-Mobile also has banner ads at some matches of Mexico's top association football league, Liga MX, despite not having a presence in that country.
Since 2016, the wireless company has sponsored the Major League Baseball Home Run Derby.
See also
Electronic Beats
Microsoft data loss 2009
Open Handset Alliance
T-Mobile Ekstraklasa
T-Mobile Team
T-Online
References
External links
Companies based in Bonn
Deutsche Telekom
German brands
Mobile phone companies of Germany
Telecommunications companies established in 1990
Wi-Fi providers | wiki |
The antessive case (abbreviated ) is used for marking the spatial relation of preceding or being before. The case is found in some Dravidian languages.
References
Grammatical cases | wiki |
Cymbidium ensifolium, the four-season orchid, is a species of orchid, also known as the golden-thread orchid, spring orchid, burned-apex orchid and rock orchid. It has a number of different cultivars of interest to orchid collectors.
References
ensifolium
Plants described in 1753
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus | wiki |
55th National Board of Review Awards
December 14, 1983
The 55th National Board of Review Awards were announced on December 14, 1983.
Top Ten Films
Betrayal, Terms of Endearment
Educating Rita
Tender Mercies
The Dresser
The Right Stuff
Testament
Local Hero
The Big Chill
Cross Creek
Yentl
Top Foreign Films
Fanny and Alexander
The Return of Martin Guerre
That Night in Varennes
La traviata
Boat People
Winners
Best Film: Betrayal, Terms of Endearment
Best Foreign Film: Fanny and Alexander
Best Actor: Tom Conti (Reuben, Reuben, Merry Christmas, Mr. Lawrence)
Best Actress: Shirley MacLaine (Terms of Endearment)
Best Supporting Actor: Jack Nicholson (Terms of Endearment)
Best Supporting Actress: Linda Hunt (The Year of Living Dangerously)
Best Director: James L. Brooks (Terms of Endearment)
Career Achievement Award: Gregory Peck
External links
National Board of Review of Motion Pictures :: Awards for 1983
1983
1983 film awards
1983 in American cinema | wiki |
Shredding, shred, shredder, or shredders may refer to:
Equipment
Industrial shredder
Paper shredder
Scrap metal shredder
Woodchipper, or tree shredder
Arts, entertainment, and media
Films
Shred (film), a 2008 film by David Mitchell
Shredder (film), a 2003 film by Craig Donald Carlson and Greg Huson
Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media
Shred guitar, a speed-based virtuoso style of electric guitar playing
Shredder (Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles), a supervillain in the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles franchise
Shredders (music group), an American hip hop group
Shredder, a 1973 album by The Wackers
"Shredder", a 1998 single by Christopher Lawrence
Computing
Shred (Unix), a Unix command for secure file deletion
Shredder (software), a chess program developed by Stefan Meyer-Kahlen
Shredding (data remanence), overwriting storage media with new data to erase it
Shredding (disassembling genomic data), in bioinformatics
Shredder, the alpha build of Mozilla Thunderbird
Sports
Shredding, the activity of street skateboarding
Shredding, an activity of skiing
Shredding, an activity of snowboarding
Shredding, an activity of mountain biking
Shredding, an activity of bodybuilding also known as cutting
Other uses
Shred Optics, a manufacturer of sunglasses, helmets, and goggles
Shredder, an inflatable whitewater craft
Shredding (tree-pruning technique)
See also
Food processor, a small appliance that can shred
Garbage disposal unit, of kitchen sinks (or its grinding component particularly)
Grater, a kitchen tool that can shred foods
Spoliation of evidence, a legal term for shredding of documents
Stracciatella (disambiguation) | wiki |
Bull Mountain – jednostka osadnicza w Stanach Zjednoczonych, w stanie Oregon, w hrabstwie Washington.
CDP w stanie Oregon | wiki |
A homograph (from the , homós, "same" and γράφω, gráphō, "write") is a word that shares the same written form as another word but has a different meaning. However, some dictionaries insist that the words must also be pronounced differently, while the Oxford English Dictionary says that the words should also be of "different origin". In this vein, The Oxford Guide to Practical Lexicography lists various types of homographs, including those in which the words are discriminated by being in a different word class, such as hit, the verb to strike, and hit, the noun a blow.
If, when spoken, the meanings may be distinguished by different pronunciations, the words are also heteronyms. Words with the same writing and pronunciation (i.e. are both homographs and homophones) are considered homonyms. However, in a broader sense the term "homonym" may be applied to words with the same writing or pronunciation. Homograph disambiguation is critically important in speech synthesis, natural language processing and other fields. Identically written different senses of what is judged to be fundamentally the same word are called polysemes; for example, wood (substance) and wood (area covered with trees).
In English
Examples:
sow (verb) – to plant seed
sow (noun) – female pig
where the two words are spelt identically but pronounced differently. Here confusion is not possible in spoken language but could occur in written language.
bear (verb) – to support or carry
bear (noun) – the animal
where the words are identical in spelling and pronunciation (), but differ in meaning and grammatical function. These are called homonyms.
More examples
In Chinese
Many Chinese varieties have homographs, called () or (), ().
Old Chinese
Modern study of Old Chinese has found patterns that suggest a system of affixes. One pattern is the addition of the prefix , which turns transitive verbs into intransitive or passives in some cases:
Another pattern is the use of a suffix, which seems to create nouns from verbs or verbs from nouns:
Middle Chinese
Many homographs in Old Chinese also exist in Middle Chinese. Examples of homographs in Middle Chinese are:
Modern Chinese
Many homographs in Old Chinese and Middle Chinese also exist in modern Chinese varieties. Homographs which did not exist in Old Chinese or Middle Chinese often come into existence due to differences between literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters. Other homographs may have been created due to merging two different characters into the same glyph during script reform (See Simplified Chinese characters and Shinjitai).
Some examples of homographs in Cantonese from Middle Chinese are:
See also
Synonym
Interlingual homograph
IDN homograph attack
Syncretism (linguistics)
False friend
References
External links
Word play
Orthography | wiki |
West Slope – jednostka osadnicza w Stanach Zjednoczonych, w stanie Oregon, w hrabstwie Washington.
CDP w stanie Oregon | wiki |
The West Virginia Mountaineers football team, representing West Virginia University (WVU), has had 198 players selected in the National Football League (NFL) since the league began holding drafts in 1936. This includes nine players selected in the first round. The Philadelphia Eagles and Detroit Lions have drafted the most Mountaineers overall, 16 and 15, respectively. The Baltimore Ravens are the only current franchise to not have drafted a player from WVU. Fifteen Mountaineer draft choices have been selected to a Pro Bowl and eleven have won a league championship.
Each NFL franchise seeks to add new players through the annual NFL Draft. The draft rules were last updated in 2009. The team with the worst record from the previous year picks first, the next-worst team second, and so on. Teams that did not make the playoffs are ordered by their regular-season record with any remaining ties broken by strength of schedule. Playoff participants are sequenced after non-playoff teams, based on their round of elimination (wild card, division, conference, and Super Bowl).
Key
National Football League Draft
Notes
References
West Virginia Mountaineers
West Virginia Mountaineers NFL Draft | wiki |
Jill Johnson (born 1973) is a Swedish singer-songwriter.
Jill Johnson may also refer to:
Jill Johnson (swimmer) (born 1969), an American former competition swimmer
Jill Johnson, a fictional character from Superhero Movie, 2008
Jill Johnson, a fictional character from When a Stranger Calls, 1979
See also
Jillette Johnson (born 1989), an American singer-songwriter
Jill Johnston (1929–2010), an American feminist author | wiki |
Las Américas puede referirse a:
América, continente.
Hacer las Américas, locución verbal utilizada antiguamente en España que significaba «enriquecerse en América»;
Las Américas - Colonia en Ecatepec, México;
Playa de Las Américas, Tenerife, Islas Canarias (España);
Estación Las Américas, estación de tren en Chile. | wiki |
Web-based VoIP is the integration of voice over IP technologies into the facilities and methodologies of the World-Wide Web. It enables digital communication sessions between Web users, or to users of traditional telecommunication services.
Instead of using dedicated, hardware-based VoIP devices, such as IP phones, analog telephone adapters, or integrated VoIP/Internet access routers, services are provided via a web page and the facilities of the user's computer or hand-held device for accessing and operating a locally attached head set, and microphone. This is assisted by various software components such as Flash, Active X, Silverlight, Java applet or browser plugins like NPAPI.
Using click-to-call, for example, a web user may click on a telephone number, or some other suitable icon, embedded in a corporate web site to initiate a web-based telephone call with a customer service representative without leaving the web site or using any other addition telephony equipment.
Applications
Retail customer service
Person-to-person VoIP calls (possibly using a lookup like ENUM, or integration with services like Skype)
Web conferences
E-learning
Social networking
Protocols
SIP
XMPP
WebRTC
Other standards based such as H.323
Proprietary such as Skype
See also
Cloud communications
References
WebRTC RFC
Voice over IP | wiki |
North American box turtles are turtles of the genus Terrapene. Although box turtles are superficially similar to tortoises in terrestrial habits and overall appearance, they are actually members of the American pond turtle family (Emydidae). The 12 taxa which are distinguished in the genus are distributed over seven species. They are largely characterized by having a domed shell which is hinged at the bottom, allowing the animal to retract its head and legs and close its shell tightly to protect itself from predators.
Taxonomy and genetics
The genus name Terrapene was coined by Blasius Merrem in 1820 as a genus separate from Emys, describing those species which had a sternum separated into two or three divisions, and which could move these parts independently. He placed in this genus, among others, Terrapene boscii (now accepted to be Kinosternon subrubrum subrubrum) and Terrapene carolina (but under the name Terrapene clausa). Also several Asian box turtles have been formerly classified within the genus Terrapene; e.g., Terrapene bicolor (now Cuora amboinensis couro) and Terrapene culturalia (now Cuora flavomarginata). Currently, six species are classified within the genus and 12 taxa are distinguished:
Common box turtle, Terrapene carolina (Linnaeus, 1758) (type species)
Florida box turtle, Terrapene carolina bauri Taylor, 1895
Eastern box turtle, Terrapene carolina carolina (Linnaeus, 1758)
Gulf Coast box turtle, Terrapene carolina major (Agassiz, 1857)
Terrapene carolina putnami O.P. Hay, 1906 (extinct)
Three-toed box turtle, Terrapene triunguis (Agassiz, 1857)
Coahuilan box turtle, Terrapene coahuila Schmidt & Owens, 1944
Mexican box turtle, Terrapene mexicana (Gray, 1849)
Spotted box turtle, Terrapene nelsoni Stejneger, 1925
Northern spotted box turtle, Terrapene nelsoni klauberi Bogert, 1943
Southern spotted box turtle, Terrapene nelsoni nelsoni Stejneger, 1925
Western box turtle, Terrapene ornata, (Agassiz, 1857)
Ornate box turtle, Terrapene ornata ornata (Agassiz, 1857)
Desert box turtle, Terrapene ornata luteola H.M. Smith & Ramsey, 1952
Yucatán box turtle, Terrapene yucatana (Boulenger, 1895)
Box turtles have diploid somatic cells with 50 chromosomes.
Ecology and behavior
Life cycle and predation
Once maturity is reached, the chance of death seems not to increase with age. The survivorship curve of box turtles is therefore probably similar to that of other long-living turtles. The average life span of adult box turtles is 50 years, while a significant portion lives over 100 years. The age of a growing box turtle in the wild cannot be accurately estimated by counting the growth rings on the scutes; Their growth is directly affected by the amount of food, types of food, water, illness, and more. Box turtle eggs are flexible, oblong and are (depending on the taxon) on average 2–4 cm long weighing 5-11 g. The normal clutch size is 1-7 eggs. In captivity and in the southern end of their range, box turtles can have more than one clutch per year, while the average clutch size is larger in more northern populations. Delayed fertility has been observed in female turtles during which a box turtle pair will mate and the female will hold onto the male’s sperm within the cloaca for a period of months or even years before fertilizing and laying a clutch of eggsTurtles can defend themselves from predation by hiding, closing their shell and biting. The risk of death is greatest in small animals due to their size and weaker carapace and plastron. While the shell of an adult box turtle is seldom fractured, the box turtle is still vulnerable to surprise attacks and persistent gnawing or pecking. Common predators are mammals like minks, skunks, raccoons, dogs and rodents, but also birds (e.g. crows, ravens) and snakes (e.g. racers, cottonmouths) are known to kill box turtles.
Diet
North American box turtles are omnivores with a varied diet, as a box turtle will "basically eat anything it can catch". Invertebrates (amongst others insects, earth worms, millipedes) form the principal component, but the diet also consists for a large part (reports range from 30 to 90%) of vegetation. The diet is amended with fruits (amongst others from cacti, apples and several species of berry) and gastropods (Heliosoma, Succinea). While reports exist that during their first five to six years, box turtles are primarily carnivorous and adults are mostly herbivorous, there is no scientific basis for such a difference.
Distribution and habitat
Box turtles are native to North America. The widest distributed species is the common box turtle which is found in the United States (subspecies carolina, major, bauri, triunguis; south-central, eastern, and southeastern parts) and Mexico (subspecies yukatana and mexicana; Yucatán peninsula and northeastern parts). The western box turtle is endemic to the south-central and southwestern parts of the U.S. (and adjacent Mexico) while the spotted box turtle is endemic to northwestern Mexico only. The Coahuilan box turtle is only found in Cuatro Ciénegas Basin (Coahuila, Mexico).
Habitat
Because box turtles occupy a wide variety of habitats (which both vary on a day-to-day, season-to-season, but also species-to-species basis), a standard box turtle habitat cannot be identified. Mesic woodlands are a habitat where box turtles are generally found. T. ornata is the only species regularly found in grasslands, but its subspecies the desert box turtle is also found in the semidesert with rainfall predominantly in summer. The single location where Coahuilan box turtles are found is a 360 km2 region characterized by marshes, permanent presence of water and several types of cacti.
Prior to hibernation, box turtles tend to move further into the woods, where they dig a chamber for overwintering. Ornate box turtles dig chambers up to 50 centimeters, while eastern box turtles hibernate at depth of about 10 centimeters. The location for overwintering can be up to 0.5 km from the summer habitat and is often in close proximity to that of the previous year. In more southern locations, turtles are active year-round, as has been observed for T. coahuila and T. c. major. Other box turtles in higher temperatures are more active (T. c. yukatana) or only active during the wet seasons.
Evolution
Box turtles appeared "abruptly in the fossil record, essentially in modern form". The absence of strong changes in their morphology might indicate that they are a generalist species. It is therefore complicated to establish how their evolution from other turtles took place. The oldest finds of fossilized box turtles were found in Nebraska (U.S.), date from about 15 million years before present (in the Miocene) and resemble the aquatic species T. coahuila most, which indicates that the common ancestor was also an aquatic species. Fossilized specimens of T. ornata and T. carolina were dated circa 5 million years before present and indicated that those main lineages also already diverged within the Miocene. The only recognized extinct subspecies (T. c. putnami) dates from the Pliocene and was, with a carapace length of , much larger than other species.
Interaction with humans
Conservation status
As the conservation status is defined for a species and not for a genus, differences exist between the different species in the genus Terrapene. Terrapene coahuila, as it is endemic only to Coahuila, is classified as endangered. While its geographic range reduced by 40% to 360 km2 in the past 40–50 years, the population of this species reduced from "well over 10,000" to "2,500" in 2002. The most widely distributed species Terrapene carolina is classified as vulnerable, while Terrapene ornata is in a lower category as near threatened.
For Terrapene nelsoni insufficient information is available for classification.
The Eastern box turtle, Terrapene carolina carolina has been declining due to anthropogenic factors and disease. Studies have documented reports of polymicrobial necrotizing bacterial infection. In Illinois, over 50 box turtles were found dead and this infection was determined to be the cause. Ranavirus may also negatively impact Eastern box turtle population. Continued investigation of Box turtle disease is important to conservation efforts.
Sniffer dogs have been trained to find and track box turtles as part of conservation efforts.
Box turtles as pets
Most turtle and tortoise societies recommend against box turtles as pets for small children. Box turtles are easily stressed by over-handling and require more care than is generally thought. Box turtles get stressed when moved into new surroundings. Some specimens will wander aimlessly until they die trying to find their original home if they are removed from the exact area that they grew up in. Three-toed box turtles are often considered the best ones to keep as pets since they are hardy and seem to suffer less from being moved into a new environment.
Box turtles can be injured by dogs and cats, so special care must be taken to protect them from household pets. Box turtles require an outdoor enclosure (although they can have indoor enclosures when necessary), consistent exposure to light and a varied diet. Without these, a turtle's growth can be stunted and its immune system weakened.
It is recommended to buy captive-bred box turtles (in areas where this is allowed) to reduce the pressure put on the wild populations. A 3-year study in Texas indicated that over 7,000 box turtles were taken from the wild for commercial trade. A similar study in Louisiana found that in a 41-month period, nearly 30,000 box turtles were taken from the wild for resale, many for export to Europe. Once captured, turtles are often kept in poor conditions where up to half of them die. Those living long enough to be sold may suffer from conditions such as malnutrition, dehydration, and infection.
Indiana, Tennessee, and other states prohibit collecting wild turtles, and many states require a permit to keep them. Breeding is prohibited in some states for fear of its possible detrimental effects upon wild populations.
Collecting box turtles from the wild may damage their populations, as these turtles have a low reproduction rate.
State reptiles
Box turtles are official state reptiles of four U.S. states. North Carolina and Tennessee honor the eastern box turtle. Missouri names the three-toed box turtle. Kansas honors the ornate box turtle.
In Pennsylvania, the eastern box turtle made it through one house of the legislature, but failed to win final naming in 2009. In Virginia, bills to honor the eastern box turtle failed in 1999 and then in 2009. In opposition one legislator had asked why Virginia would make an official emblem of an animal that retreats into its shell when frightened. What may have mattered most in Virginia, though, was the creature's close link to neighbor state North Carolina.
Photos
See also
Asian box turtle
References
Bibliography
External links
ITIS
Article on box turtle natural history and care
Webpage on box turtle care and conservation
Turtles of North America
Reptiles of Mexico
Reptiles of the United States
Species endangered by the pet trade | wiki |
Shenandoah River Raymond R. "Andy" Guest Jr. State Park, known generally as Shenandoah River State Park, is a state park near the town of Bentonville, Virginia, United States. The park was established in 1994, and covers along the South Fork Shenandoah River. It was named for Virginia Delegate Andy Guest, long a resident of the area.
See also
List of Virginia state parks
References
External links
Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation: Shenandoah River Raymond R. Andy Guest Jr. State Park
State parks of Virginia
State parks of the Appalachians
Parks in Warren County, Virginia
Protected areas established in 1994
1994 establishments in Virginia
Shenandoah River | wiki |
A root ball is the main mass of roots at the base of a plant such as a shrub or tree. It is of particular significance in horticulture when plants are repotted or planted out in the ground. The quality and preparation of the root ball will determine how well the plant will survive this transplantation and then flourish in its new situation.
References
Horticulture | wiki |
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