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Action is a play by Sam Shepard.
Production history
Action was first performed at the Royal Court Theatre Upstairs, London, in October 1974. The original cast was as follows:
Shooter - Steven Moore
Jeep - Steven Rea
Liza -
Lupe - Jennifer Stoller
Directed by Nancy Meckler
Plot summary
References
1975 plays
Plays by Sam Shepard | wiki |
Penicillium viticola is a species of fungus in the genus Penicillium which was isolated from grapes in Yamanashi Prefecture in Japan. Penicillium viticola produces calcium malate
References
Further reading
viticola
Fungi described in 2011 | wiki |
Components of an electrical circuit are electrically connected if an electric current can run between them through an electrical conductor. An electrical connector is an electromechanical device used to create an electrical connection between parts of an electrical circuit, or between different electrical circuits, thereby joining them into a larger circuit. Most electrical connectors have a genderi.e. the male component, called a plug, connects to the female component, or socket. The connection may be removable (as for portable equipment), require a tool for assembly and removal, or serve as a permanent electrical joint between two points. An adapter can be used to join dissimilar connectors.
Thousands of configurations of connectors are manufactured for power, data, and audiovisual applications. Electrical connectors can be divided into four basic categories, differentiated by their function:
inline or cable connectors permanently attached to a cable, so it can be plugged into another terminal (either a stationary instrument or another cable)
Chassis or panel connectors permanently attached to a piece of equipment so users can connect a cable to a stationary device
PCB mount connectors soldered to a printed circuit board, providing a point for cable or wire attachment. (e.g. pin headers, screw terminals, board-to-board connectors)
Splice or butt connectors (primarily insulation displacement connectors) that permanently join two lengths of wire or cable
In computing, electrical connectors are considered a physical interface and constitute part of the physical layer in the OSI model of networking.
Physical construction
In addition to the classes mentioned above, connectors are characterised by their pinout, method of connection, materials, size, contact resistance, insulation, mechanical durability, ingress protection, lifetime (number of cycles), and ease of use.
It is usually desirable for a connector to be easy to identify visually, rapid to assemble, inexpensive, and require only simple tooling. In some cases an equipment manufacturer might choose a connector specifically because it is not compatible with those from other sources, allowing control of what may be connected. No single connector has all the ideal properties for every application; the proliferation of types is a result of the diverse yet specific requirements of manufacturers.
Materials
Electrical connectors essentially consist of two classes of materials: conductors and insulators. Properties important to conductor materials are contact resistance, conductivity, mechanical strength, formability, and resilience. Insulators must have a high electrical resistance, withstand high temperatures, and be easy to manufacture for a precise fit.
Electrodes in connectors are usually made of copper alloys, due to their good conductivity and malleability. Alternatives include brass, phosphor bronze, and beryllium copper. The base electrode metal is often coated with another inert metal such as gold, nickel, or tin. The use of a coating material with good conductivity, mechanical robustness and corrosion resistance helps to reduce the influence of passivating oxide layers and surface adsorbates, which limit metal-to-metal contact patches and contribute to contact resistance. For example, copper alloys have favorable mechanical properties for electrodes, but are hard to solder and prone to corrosion. Thus, copper pins are usually coated with gold to alleviate these pitfalls, especially for analog signals and high reliability applications.
Contact carriers that hold the parts of a connector together are usually made of plastic, due to its insulating properties. Housings or backshells can be made of molded plastic and metal. Connector bodies for high-temperature use, such as thermocouples or associated with large incandescent lamps, may be made of fired ceramic material.
Failure modes
The majority of connector failures result in intermittent connections or open contacts:
Connectors are purely passive componentsthat is, they do not enhance the function of a circuitso connectors should affect the function of a circuit as little as possible. Insecure mounting of connectors (primarily chassis-mounted) can contribute significantly to the risk of failure, especially when subjected to extreme shock or vibration. Other causes of failure are connectors inadequately rated for the applied current and voltage, connectors with inadequate ingress protection, and threaded backshells that are worn or damaged.
High temperatures can also cause failure in connectors, resulting in an "avalanche" of failuresambient temperature increases, leading to a decrease in insulation resistance and increase in conductor resistance; this increase generates more heat, and the cycle repeats.
Fretting (so-called dynamic corrosion) is a common failure mode in electrical connectors that have not been specifically designed to prevent it, especially in those that are frequently mated and de-mated. Surface corrosion is a risk for many metal parts in connectors, and can cause contacts to form a thin surface layer that increases resistance, thus contributing to heat buildup and intermittent connections. However, remating or reseating a connector can alleviate the issue of surface corrosion, since each cycle scrapes a microscopic layer off the surface of the contact(s), exposing a fresh, unoxidised surface.
Circular connectors
Many connectors used for industrial and high-reliability applications are circular in cross section, with a cylindrical housing and circular contact interface geometries. This is in contrast to the rectangular design of some connectors, e.g. USB or blade connectors. They are commonly used for easier engagement and disengagement, tight environmental sealing, and rugged mechanical performance. They are widely used in military, aerospace, industrial machinery, and rail, where MIL-DTL-5015 and MIL-DTL-38999 are commonly specified. Fields such as sound engineering and radio communication also use circular connectors, such as XLR and BNC. AC power plugs are also commonly circular, for example, Schuko plugs and IEC 60309.
The M12 connector, specified in IEC 61076-2-101, is a circular electrical plug/receptacle pair with 12mm OD mating threads, used in NMEA 2000, DeviceNet, IO-Link, some kinds of Industrial Ethernet, etc.
A disadvantage of the circular design is its inefficient use of panel space when used in arrays, when compared to rectangular connectors.
Circular connectors commonly use backshells, which provide physical and electromagnetic protection, whilst sometimes also providing a method for locking the connector into a receptacle. In some cases, this backshell provides a hermetic seal, or some degree of ingress protection, through the use of grommets, O-rings, or potting.
Hybrid connectors
Hybrid connectors allow the intermixing of many connector types, usually by way of a housing with inserts. These housings may also allow intermixing of electrical and non-electrical interfaces, examples of the latter being pneumatic line connectors, and optical fiber connectors. Because hybrid connectors are modular in nature, they tend to simplify assembly, repair, and future modifications. They also allow the creation of composite cable assemblies that can reduce equipment installation time by reducing the number of individual cable and connector assemblies.
Mechanical features
Pin sequence
Some connectors are designed such that certain pins make contact before others when inserted, and break first on disconnection. This is often used in power connectors to protect equipment, e.g. connecting safety ground first. It is also employed for digital signals, as a method to sequence connections properly in hot swapping.
Keying
Many connectors are keyed with some mechanical component (sometimes called a keyway), which prevents mating in an incorrect orientation. This can be used to prevent mechanical damage to connectors, from being jammed in at the wrong angle or into the wrong connector, or to prevent incompatible or dangerous electrical connections, such as plugging an audio cable into a power outlet. Keying also prevents otherwise symmetrical connectors from being connected in the wrong orientation or polarity. Keying is particularly important for situations where there are many similar connectors, such as in signal electronics. For instance, XLR connectors have a notch to ensure proper orientation, while Mini-DIN plugs have a plastic projection that fits into a corresponding hole in the socket (they also have a notched metal skirt to provide secondary keying).
Locking mechanisms
Some connector housings are designed with locking mechanisms to prevent inadvertent disconnection or poor environmental sealing. Locking mechanism designs include locking levers of various sorts, jackscrews, screw-in shells, push-pull connector, and toggle or bayonet systems. Some connectors, particularly those with large numbers of contacts, require high forces to connect and disconnect. Locking levers and jackscrews and screw-in shells for such connectors frequently serve both to retain the connector when connected and to provide the force needed for connection and disconnection. Depending on application requirements, housings with locking mechanisms may be tested under various environmental simulations that include physical shock and vibration, water spray, dust, etc. to ensure the integrity of the electrical connection and housing seals.
Backshells
Backshells are a common accessory for industrial and high-reliability connectors, especially circular connectors. Backshells typically protect the connector and/or cable from environmental or mechanical stress, or shield it from electromagnetic interference. Many types of backshells are available for different purposes, including various sizes, shapes, materials, and levels of protection. Backshells usually lock onto the cable with a clamp or moulded boot, and may be threaded for attachment to a mating receptacle. Backshells for military and aerospace use are regulated by SAE AS85049 within the USA.
Hyperboloid contacts
To deliver ensured signal stability in extreme environments, traditional pin and socket design may become inadequate. Hyperboloid contacts are designed to withstand more extreme physical demands, such as vibration and shock. They also require around 40% less insertion force as low as per contact,which extends the lifespan, and in some cases offers an alternative to zero insertion force connectors.
In a connector with hyperboloid contacts, each female contact has several equally spaced longitudinal wires twisted into a hyperbolic shape. These wires are highly resilient to strain, but still somewhat elastic, hence they essentially function as linear springs. As the male pin is inserted, axial wires in the socket half are deflected, wrapping themselves around the pin to provide a number of contact points. The internal wires that form the hyperboloid structure are usually anchored at each end by bending the tip into a groove or notch in the housing.
Whilst hyperboloid contacts may be the only option to make a reliable connection in some circumstances, they have the disadvantage of taking up greater volume in a connector, which can cause problems for high-density connectors. They are also significantly more expensive than traditional pin and socket contacts, which has limited their uptake since their invention in the 1920s by Wilhelm Harold Frederick. In the 1950s, Francois Bonhomme popularised hyperboloid contacts with his "Hypertac" connector, which was later acquired by Smiths Group. During the following decades, the connectors steadily gained popularity, and are still used for medical, industrial, military, aerospace, and rail applications (particularly trains in Europe).
Pogo pins
Pogo pin or spring loaded connectors are commonly used in consumer and industrial products, where mechanical resilience and ease of use are priorities. The connector consists of a barrel, a spring, and a plunger. They are in applications such as the MagSafe connector where a quick disconnect is desired for safety. Because they rely on spring pressure, not friction, they can be more durable and less damaging than traditional pin and socket design, leading to their use in in-circuit testing.
Crown spring connectors
Crown spring connectors are commonly used for higher current flows and industrial applications. They have a high number of contact points, which provides a more electrically reliable connection than traditional pin and socket connectors.
Methods of connection
Whilst technically inaccurate, electrical connectors can be viewed as a type of adapter to convert between two connection methods, which are permanently connected at one end and (usually) detachable at the other end. By definition, each end of this "adapter" has a different connection methode.g. the solder tabs on a male phone connector, and the male phone connector itself. In this example, the solder tabs connected to the cable represent the permanent connection, whilst the male connector portion interfaces with a female socket forming a detachable connection.
There are many ways of applying a connector to a cable or device. Some of these methods can be accomplished without specialized tools. Other methods, while requiring a special tool, can assemble connectors much faster and more reliably, and make repairs easier.
The number of times a connector can connect and disconnect with its counterpart while meeting all its specifications is termed as mating cycles and is an indirect measure of connector lifespan. The material used for connector contact, plating type and thickness is a major factor that determines the mating cycles.
Plug and socket connectors
Plug and socket connectors are usually made up of a male plug (typically pin contacts) and a female socket (typically receptacle contacts). Often, but not always, sockets are permanently fixed to a device as in a chassis connector , and plugs are attached to a cable.
Plugs generally have one or more pins or prongs that are inserted into openings in the mating socket. The connection between the mating metal parts must be sufficiently tight to make a good electrical connection and complete the circuit. An alternative type of plug and socket connection uses hyperboloid contacts, which makes a more reliable electrical connection. When working with multi-pin connectors, it is helpful to have a pinout diagram to identify the wire or circuit node connected to each pin.
Some connector styles may combine pin and socket connection types in a single unit, referred to as a hermaphroditic connector. These connectors includes mating with both male and female aspects, involving complementary paired identical parts each containing both protrusions and indentations. These mating surfaces are mounted into identical fittings that freely mate with any other, without regard for gender (provided that the size and type match).
Sometimes both ends of a cable are terminated with the same gender of connector, as in many Ethernet patch cables. In other applications the two ends are terminated differently, either with male and female of the same connector (as in an extension cord), or with incompatible connectors, which is sometimes called an adapter cable.
Plugs and sockets are widely used in various connector systems including blade connectors, breadboards, XLR connectors, car power outlets, banana connectors, and phone connectors.
Jacks and plugs
A jack is a connector that installs on the surface of a bulkhead or enclosure, and mates with its reciprocal, the plug. According to the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, the stationary (more fixed) connector of a pair is classified as a jack (denoted J), usually attached to a piece of equipment as in a chassis-mount or panel-mount connector. The movable (less fixed) connector is classified as a plug (denoted P), designed to attach to a wire, cable or removable electrical assembly. This convention is currently defined in ASME Y14.44-2008, which supersedes IEEE 200-1975, which in turn derives from the long-withdrawn MIL-STD-16 (from the 1950s), highlighting the heritage of this connector naming convention. IEEE 315-1975 works alongside ASME Y14.44-2008 to define jacks and plugs.
The term jack occurs in several related terms:
The registered jack or modular jack in RJ11, RJ45 and other similar connectors used for telecommunication and computer networking
The telephone jack of manual telephone switchboards, which is the socket fitting the original telephone plug
The phone jack common to many electronic applications in various configurations, sometimes referred to as a headphone jack
The RCA jack, also known as a phono jack, common to consumer audiovisual electronics
The EIAJ jack for consumer appliances requiring a power supply of less than 18.0 volts
Crimp-on connectors
Crimped connectors are a type of solderless connection, using mechanical friction and uniform deformation to secure a connector to a pre-stripped wire (usually stranded). Crimping is used in splice connectors, crimped multipin plugs and sockets, and crimped coaxial connectors. Crimping usually requires a specialised crimping tool, but the connectors are quick and easy to install and are a common alternative to solder connections or insulation displacement connectors. Effective crimp connections deform the metal of the connector past its yield point so that the compressed wire causes tension in the surrounding connector, and these forces counter each other to create a high degree of static friction. Due to the elastic element in crimped connections, they are highly resistant to vibration and thermal shock.
Crimped contacts are permanent (i.e. the connectors and wire ends cannot be reused).
Crimped plug-and-socket connectors can be classified as rear release or front release. This relates to the side of the connector where the pins are anchored:
Front release contacts are released from the front (contact side) of the connector, and removed from the rear. The removal tool engages with the front portion of the contact and pushes it through to the back of the connector.
Rear release contacts are released and removed from the rear (wire side) of the connector. The removal tool releases the contacts from the rear and pulls the contact out of the retainer.
Soldered connectors
Many plug and socket connectors are attached to a wire or cable by soldering conductors to electrodes on the back of the connector. Soldered joints in connectors are robust and reliable if executed correctly, but are usually slower to make than crimped connections. When wires are to be soldered to the back of a connector, a backshell is often used to protect the connection and add strain relief. Metal solder buckets or solder cups are provided, which consist of a cylindrical cavity that an installer fills with solder before inserting the wire.
When creating soldered connections, it is possible to melt the dielectric between pins or wires. This can cause problems because the thermal conductivity of metals causes heat to quickly distribute through the cable and connector, and when this heat melts plastic dielectric, it can cause short circuits or "flared" (conical) insulation. Solder joints are also more prone to mechanical failure than crimped joints when subjected to vibration and compression.
Insulation-displacement connectors
Since stripping insulation from wires is time-consuming, many connectors intended for rapid assembly use insulation-displacement connectors which cut the insulation as the wire is inserted. These generally take the form of a fork-shaped opening in the terminal, into which the insulated wire is pressed, which cut through the insulation to contact the conductor. To make these connections reliably on a production line, special tools accurately control the forces applied during assembly. On small scales, these tools tend to cost more than tools for crimped connections.
Insulation displacement connectors are usually used with small conductors for signal purposes and at low voltage. Power conductors carrying more than a few amperes are more reliably terminated with other means, though "hot tap" press-on connectors find some use in automotive applications for additions to existing wiring.
A common example is the multi-conductor flat ribbon cable used in computer disk drives; to terminate each of the many (approximately 40) wires individually would be slow and error-prone, but an insulation displacement connector can terminate all the wires in a single action. Another very common use is so-called punch-down blocks used for terminating unshielded twisted pair wiring.
Binding posts
Binding posts are a single-wire connection method, where stripped wire is screwed or clamped to a metal electrode. Such connectors are frequently used in electronic test equipment and audio. Many binding posts also accept a banana plug.
Screw terminals
Screw connections are frequently used for semi-permanent wiring and connections inside devices, due to their simple but reliable construction. The basic principle of all screw terminals involves the tip of a bolt clamping onto a stripped conductor. They can be used to join multiple conductors, to connect wires to a printed circuit board, or to terminate a cable into a plug or socket. The clamping screw may act in the longitudinal axis (parallel to the wire) or the transverse axis (perpendicular to the wire), or both. Some disadvantages are that connecting wires is more difficult than simply plugging in a cable, and screw terminals are generally not very well protected from contact with persons or foreign conducting materials.
Terminal blocks (also called terminal boards or strips) provide a convenient means of connecting individual electrical wires without a splice or physically joining the ends. Since terminal blocks are readily available for a wide range of wire sizes and terminal quantity, they are one of the most flexible types of electrical connector available. One type of terminal block accepts wires that are prepared only by stripping a short length of insulation from the end. Another type, often called barrier strips, accepts wires that have ring or spade terminal lugs crimped onto the wires.
Printed circuit board (PCB) mounted screw terminals let individual wires connect to a PCB through leads soldered to the board.
Ring and spade connectors
The connectors in the top row of the image are known as ring terminals and spade terminals (sometimes called fork or split ring terminals). Electrical contact is made by the flat surface of the ring or spade, while mechanically they are attached by passing a screw or bolt through them. The spade terminal form factor facilitates connections since the screw or bolt can be left partially screwed in as the spade terminal is removed or attached. Their sizes can be determined by the gauge of the conducting wire, and the interior and exterior diameters.
In the case of insulated crimp connectors, the crimped area lies under an insulating sleeve through which the pressing force acts. During crimping, the extended end of this insulating sleeve is simultaneously pressed around the insulated area of the cable, creating strain relief. The insulating sleeve of insulated connectors has a color that indicates the wire's cross-section area. Colors are standardized according to DIN 46245:
Red for cross-section areas from 0.5 to 1 mm²
Blue for cross-section areas from 1.5 to 2.5 mm²
Yellow for cross-section areas over 4 to 6 mm²
Blade connectors
A blade connector is a type of single wire, plug-and-socket connection device using a flat conductive blade (plug) that is inserted into a receptacle. Wires are typically attached to male or female blade connector terminals by either crimping or soldering. Insulated and uninsulated varieties are available. In some cases the blade is an integral manufactured part of a component (such as a switch or a speaker unit), and the reciprocal connector terminal is pushed onto the device's connector terminal.
Other connection methods
Crocodile (alligator) clips – conductive clamps used for temporary connections, e.g. jumper cables
Board to board connectors – e.g. card-edge connectors or FPGA mezzanine connectors
Twist-on wire connectors (e.g. wire nuts) – used in low-voltage power circuits for wires up to about 10 AWG
Wire wrapping – used in older circuit boards
See also
Adapter
Bent pin analysis
Cable gland
Electrical contacts
Electrical network
Electrical splice
Electrical termination
Gender of connectors and fasteners
InCa3D
Lightbulb socket
Pothead for a termination on a high voltage electric power cable
Tee connector
Tube socket
Wire nut
Connectors
AC power plugs and sockets
Audio and video connector
Banana connector
Battery holder
Battery terminals
Coaxial power connector
Computer port (hardware)
Crocodile clip
DC connector
DIN connector
Dock connector
D-sub connectors
Edge connector
Elastomeric connector
IEC appliance couplers (IEC 60320)
JST connector
Mini-DIN connector
Optical fiber connector
Phone connector (audio)
Pin header
RCA connector
RJ-XX connector
Flexible electronics
References
General
Foreman, Chris, "Sound System Design", Handbook for Sound Engineers, Third Edition, Glen M. Ballou, Ed., Elsevier Inc., 2002, pp. 1171–72.
External links | wiki |
Transmetal may refer to:
Transition metals, a group of elements in the periodic table
Transmetal (band), a Mexican extreme metal band
Transmetals, a type of Transformer technology in the fictional Transformers universe
Transmetal (company), a Mauritian steel trading company | wiki |
El laberinto may refer to:
El laberinto (novel)
El laberinto (TV series)
See also
Laberinto, a music album
Labyrinth, an elaborate maze in Greek mythology | wiki |
The IEEE Haraden Pratt Award was established by the IEEE Board of Directors in 1971. This award is presented to recognize individuals who have rendered outstanding service to the IEEE.
This award is presented to an IEEE Senior Member or Fellow.
Following people received the IEEE Haraden Pratt Award:
Recipients
References
IEEE awards
Awards established in 1971
Haraden Pratt Award | wiki |
Mission College may refer to:
Asia-Pacific International University, formerly known as Mission College
Mission College (California), a two-year community college in Santa Clara, California
Los Angeles Mission College, a two-year community college in the Sylmar district of Los Angeles, California
The College of Missions (), a defunct Danish government agency that funded and directed Lutheran missions
Mission College Preparatory High School, in San Luis Obispo, California | wiki |
Divine puede referirse a:
Divine, actor y transformista estadounidense.
Divine, discoteca chilena famosa por su incendio en 1993.
Divine, radioemisora chilena que toma nombre de la mítica discoteca anterior. | wiki |
AGW may refer to:
Anthropogenic global warming, overall warming of Earth's climate caused or produced by humans
Actual gold weight, a measure used in gold bullion, coin or bar
Agnew Airport (IATA: AGW), Queensland, Australia
Access gateway, shorthand for multi-service access gateway (MSAG), a device used in telecommunications
Argentine Great Western Railway
Art Gallery of Windsor, Ontario, Canada
Attorney General of Washington
Attorney General of Wisconsin
Attorney General of Wyoming
Auditor General for Wales
Avia Airlines (ICAO: AGW), a former airline Johannesburg, South Africa
Kahua language (ISO 639-3: agw) | wiki |
The chief justice of Liberia is the head of the judicial branch of the Government of the Republic of Liberia and the chief judge of the Supreme Court of Liberia.
Appointment and term
Article 54(c) of the Constitution stipulates that the chief justice is appointed by the president of Liberia and confirmed by the Senate. Per Article 68, eligibility for the position of chief justice requires that the candidate:
be a citizen of Liberia;
be of good moral character;
have been a counselor of the Supreme Court Bar for at least five years.
Article 71 states that the chief justice "shall hold their offices during good behavior." According to Article 72(b), the chief justice must retire from office upon reaching the age of 70, though he may remain on the Court long enough to render judgment or perform any judicial duties regarding matters he began addressing before reaching that age.
Duties
In addition to acting as head judge on the Supreme Court and managing all subordinate courts, the Constitution provides several duties to the chief justice. In the case of impeachment of the president or vice president, Article 43 mandates that the chief justice preside over the trial in the Senate. Additionally, Article 53(a) requires the chief justice to swear in the president in front of a joint session of the Legislature.
Removal from office
The chief justice may be removed from office upon impeachment by the House of Representatives and conviction by the Senate. Article 71 of the Constitution stipulates that the chief justice may only be removed in the event of "misconduct, gross breach of duty, inability to perform the functions of their office, or conviction in a court of law for treason, bribery or other infamous crimes." In the event of an impeachment trial of the chief justice in the Senate, the president of the Senate presides over the proceedings.
Only one chief justice, Chea Cheapoo, has been removed in this manner.
List of chief justices
Source:
Status
Notes
References
Dossen, J. J., Supreme Court reports: Cases argued and determined in the Supreme Judicial Court of the Republic of Liberia, January, 1861-January, 1907, Volume 1.
External links
Text of the 1986 Constitution
Presidents
1847 establishments in Liberia | wiki |
Splinters is a 1929 British musical comedy based on the stage revue Splinters. It was British & Dominions Film Corporation's first all-talking release filmed entirely in the UK. The revue tells the story of the origin of the concert party Splinters created by UK soldiers in France in 1915. The film was followed by two sequels, Splinters in the Navy (1931) and Splinters in the Air (1937).
Cast
Nelson Keys
Sydney Howard as Doleful Soldier
Lew Lake as Nobbler
Hal Jones as Sergeant
Reg Stone as Drag Artist
Wilfred Temple
Carroll Gibbons as Himself, leading the HMV Orchestra
Gus Aubrey as Drag Act
George Baker
Walter Glynne
Sidney Grantham
Clifford Heatherley as Sergeant Miller
References
External links
Splinters (1929) at BFI Database
1929 films
British musical comedy films
British black-and-white films
1929 musical comedy films
1920s English-language films
Films directed by Jack Raymond
Films shot at Rock Studios
Films set in England
British and Dominions Studios films
Films shot at Imperial Studios, Elstree
1920s British films | wiki |
Japanobotrychum is a genus of ferns in the family Ophioglossaceae with the sole species Japanobotrychum lanuginosum. The genus is accepted in the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group classification of 2016 (PPG I) (under the name "Japanobotrychium"), but not by some other sources.
Taxonomy
The genus Japanobotrychum was first described in 1931 by the Japanese botanist Genkei Masamune, with the only species being Japanobotrychum arisanense. This is now considered to be a synonym of Botrychium lanuginosum Wall. ex Hook. & Grev., first described in 1828, so the epithet lanuginosum has priority over arisanense. The Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group classification of 2016 (PPG I) accepts the genus (with the spelling "Japanobotrychium"), with one species, as did the Checklist of Ferns and Lycophytes of the World , whereas Plants of the World Online subsumed the genus into Botrychium.
Distribution
Japanobotrychum lanuginosum is widely distributed, mainly in tropical Asia, being found from West Himalaya and India through southern China and Mainland Southeast Asia to New Guinea.
References
Ophioglossaceae
Monotypic fern genera | wiki |
An escape clause is part of a contract that allows a party to avoid having to perform the contract.
"Escape clause" may also refer to:
"Escape Clause", a 1959 episode of The Twilight Zone
"Escape Claus" (That's So Raven episode), 2003
Escape Clause (film), a 1996 made-for-TV film directed by Brian Trenchard-Smith
The Santa Clause 3: The Escape Clause, a 2006 Tim Allen movie | wiki |
Lexington Street may refer to:
Lexington Street, Baltimore, Maryland, USA, a street in downtown Baltimore
Lexington Street, Waltham, Massachusetts, USA, containing the North Lexington Street Historic District
Lexington Street, Soho, London, England, UK, a famous street in the Soho district
See also
Lexington Avenue (disambiguation)
Lexington (disambiguation) | wiki |
Yana Ivanovna Tyshchenko (; born 1 August 2000) is a Russian track cyclist.
She won a medal at the 2021 UCI Track Cycling World Championships.
References
External links
2000 births
Living people
Russian female cyclists
Russian track cyclists | wiki |
IEEE Honorary Membership is an honorary type of membership of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), that is given for life to an individual. It is awarded by the board of directors of IEEE to people 'who have rendered meritorious service to humanity in [the] IEEE's designated fields of interest' while not being members of IEEE.
This membership provides all the rights and privileges of a normal IEEE membership, except the right to hold an IEEE office.
The recipients of this grade will receive a certificate, an 'Honorary Member' pin and a crystal sculpture.
In a given year, if the IEEE Medal of Honor recipient is not an IEEE member, he/she will be automatically recommended to the IEEE Board of Directors for IEEE Honorary Membership.
Recipients
The following people received the IEEE Honorary Membership:
References
Honorary Membership
H | wiki |
Blue parrot or Blue Parrot may refer to:
Bird:
Blue-backed parrot, a parrot endemic to the Philippines, Sulawesi and nearby islands in Indonesia
Blue-bellied parrot, a species of parrot from southeastern Brazil
Blue-cheeked parrot, a species of parrot found in northeast South America
Blue-collared parrot, a species of parrot found in the higher elevations of New Guinea.
Blue-fronted parrot, a South American species of parrot
Blue-headed parrot, a Central and South American species of parrot
Blue-naped parrot, a parrot from the Philippines and Borneo
Blue-rumped parrot, a small parrot from south-east Asia
Blue-winged parrot, a small parrot from Tasmania and south-east mainland Australia
Blue-and-yellow macaw, a species of parrot resident in tropical South America and Miami-Dade County, Florida
Anodorhynchus, a genus of large blue macaws from South America genus of large blue macaws from South America
Glaucous macaw, an all-blue macaw believed to be extinct
Hyacinth macaw, a blue macaw that is the longest and largest flying parrot
Lear's macaw, an all-blue Brazilian parrot
Other uses:
The Blue Parrot, a 1953 film
The Blue Parrot (book), a book by John Moore
Blue Parrot, the AIRPASS II radar system | wiki |
Chlorodihydrocodide is an opioid.
References
Opioids | wiki |
ProcDump is a command-line application used for monitoring an application for CPU spikes and creating crash dumps during a spike. The crash dumps can then be used by an administrator or software developer to determine the cause of the spike. ProcDump supports monitoring of hung windows and unhandled exceptions. It can also create dumps based on the values of system performance counters.
Overview
Initially, ProcDump was only available for Microsoft Windows. In November 2018, Microsoft confirmed it is porting Sysinternals tools, including ProcDump and ProcMon, to Linux. The software is open source. It is licensed under MIT License and the source code is available on GitHub.
The Linux version requires Linux kernels version 3.5+ and runs on Red Hat Enterprise Linux / CentOS 7,
Fedora 26, Mageia 6, Ubuntu 14.04 LTS. It currently does not have full feature parity with the Windows version (e.g. custom performance counters).
Example
Create 5 core dumps 10 seconds apart of the target process with process identifier (pid) == 1234
$ sudo procdump -n 5 -p 1234
See also
WinDbg
Dr. Watson (debugger)
kdump (Linux)
ktrace
Process Explorer
References
External links
ProcDump - Windows Sysinternals | Microsoft Docs
GitHub - microsoft/ProcDump-for-Linux: A Linux version of the ProcDump Sysinternals tool
Command-line software
Free software programmed in C
Microsoft free software
Software using the MIT license
Unix programming tools
Windows administration | wiki |
Arthrostylidium farctum is a species of Arthrostylidium bamboo in the grass family. The species are native to Central America, the West Indies, northern South America, and southern Mexico.
References
farctum | wiki |
Arthrostylidium fimbriatum is a species of Arthrostylidium bamboo in the grass family. The species are native to Central America, the West Indies, northern South America, and southern Mexico.
References
fimbriatum | wiki |
Andantino may refer to:
Andantino (music), an Italian tempo marking meaning a tempo that is slightly faster than Andante (78–83 BPM)
Andantino (ballet), a Jerome Robbins ballet
Andantino (game), a two-player board game | wiki |
A development chef is a trained chef specialising in the development of new dishes or food products.
With food companies, this type of chef is often responsible for the creating of new pre-prepared meals and food products. Within health care, the chef is often responsible for the development of variations on mainstream meals, to fit different types of diets while still having an appetizing meal. Individual restaurants seldom have development chefs but restaurant chains often do. Here the chef is typically responsible for designing dishes and ensuring that the local kitchen staff can create/prepare them to an exact standard.
Training
Development chefs need sufficient training in Culinary arts, experimental food methods and food science plus sufficient experience in the actual preparation of dishes. In practice, this means most development chefs will have a background as a professional chef.
Sources
What does a development chef do
Chefs | wiki |
Sitting Bull ( ; December 15, 1890) was a Hunkpapa Lakota leader who led his people during years of resistance against United States government policies. He was killed by Indian agency police on the Standing Rock Indian Reservation during an attempt to arrest him, at a time when authorities feared that he would join the Ghost Dance movement.
Before the Battle of the Little Bighorn, Sitting Bull had a vision in which he saw many soldiers, "as thick as grasshoppers", falling upside down into the Lakota camp, which his people took as a foreshadowing of a major victory in which many soldiers would be killed. About three weeks later, the confederated Lakota tribes with the Northern Cheyenne defeated the 7th Cavalry under Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer on June 25, 1876, annihilating Custer's battalion and seeming to fulfill Sitting Bull's prophetic vision. Sitting Bull's leadership inspired his people to a major victory. In response, the U.S. government sent thousands more soldiers to the area, forcing many of the Lakota to surrender over the next year. Sitting Bull refused to surrender, and in May 1877, he led his band north to Wood Mountain, North-West Territories (now Saskatchewan). He remained there until 1881, when he and most of his band returned to U.S. territory and surrendered to U.S. forces.
After working as a performer with Buffalo Bill's Wild West show, Sitting Bull returned to the Standing Rock Agency in South Dakota. Because of fears that Sitting Bull would use his influence to support the Ghost Dance movement, Indian Service agent James McLaughlin at Fort Yates ordered his arrest. During an ensuing struggle between Sitting Bull's followers and the agency police, Sitting Bull was shot in the side and head by Standing Rock policemen Lieutenant Bull Head (Tatankapah, ) and Red Tomahawk (Marcelus Chankpidutah, ), after the police were fired upon by Sitting Bull's supporters. His body was taken to nearby Fort Yates for burial. In 1953, his Lakota family exhumed what were believed to be his remains, reburying them near Mobridge, South Dakota, near his birthplace.
Early life
Sitting Bull was born on land later included in the Dakota Territory. In 2007, Sitting Bull's great-grandson asserted from family oral tradition that Sitting Bull was born along the Yellowstone River, south of present-day Miles City, Montana. He was named Ȟoká Psíče (Jumping Badger) at birth, and nicknamed Húŋkešni or "Slow" said to describe his careful and unhurried nature. When he was 14 years old, he accompanied a group of Lakota warriors (which included his father and his uncle Four Horns) in a raiding party to take horses from a camp of Crow warriors. He displayed bravery by riding forward and counting coup on one of the surprised Crow, which was witnessed by the other mounted Lakota. Upon returning to camp, his father gave a celebratory feast at which he conferred his own name upon his son. While the name, Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotake, in the Lakota language roughly translates to "Buffalo Who Sits Down", Americans came to commonly refer to him as "Sitting Bull". Thereafter, Sitting Bull's father was known as Jumping Bull. At this ceremony before the entire band, Sitting Bull's father presented his son with an eagle feather to wear in his hair, a warrior's horse and a hardened buffalo hide shield to mark his son's passage into manhood as a Lakota warrior.
During the Dakota War of 1862, in which Sitting Bull's people were not involved, several bands of eastern Dakota people killed an estimated 300 to 800 settlers and soldiers in south-central Minnesota in response to poor treatment by the government and in an effort to drive the whites away. Despite being embroiled in the American Civil War, the United States Army retaliated in 1863 and 1864, even against bands that had not been involved in the hostilities. In 1864, two brigades of about 2200 soldiers under Brigadier General Alfred Sully attacked a village. The defenders were led by Sitting Bull, Gall and Inkpaduta. The Lakota and Dakota were driven out, but skirmishing continued into August at the Battle of the Badlands.
In September, Sitting Bull and about one hundred Hunkpapa Lakota encountered a small party near what is now Marmarth, North Dakota. They had been left behind by a wagon train commanded by Captain James L. Fisk to effect some repairs to an overturned wagon. When he led an attack, Sitting Bull was shot in the left hip by a soldier. The bullet exited through the small of his back, and the wound was not serious.
Red Cloud's War
From 1866 to 1868, Red Cloud, a leader of the Oglala Lakota, fought against U.S. forces, attacking their forts in an effort to keep control of the Powder River Country of Montana. In support of Red Cloud, Sitting Bull led numerous war parties against Fort Berthold, Fort Stevenson and Fort Buford and their environs from 1865 through 1868. The uprising has come to be known as Red Cloud's War.
By early 1868, the U.S. government desired a peaceful settlement to the conflict. It agreed to Red Cloud's demands that the U.S. abandon Forts Phil Kearny and C.F. Smith. Gall of the Hunkpapa (among other representatives of the Hunkpapa, Blackfeet and Yankton Dakota) signed a form of the Treaty of Fort Laramie on July 2, 1868 at Fort Rice (near Bismarck, North Dakota). Sitting Bull did not agree to the treaty. He told the Jesuit missionary Pierre Jean De Smet, who sought him on behalf of the government: "I wish all to know that I do not propose to sell any part of my country." He continued his hit-and-run attacks on forts in the upper Missouri area throughout the late 1860s and early 1870s.
The events of 1866–1868 mark a historically debated period of Sitting Bull's life. According to historian Stanley Vestal, who conducted interviews with surviving Hunkpapa in 1930, Sitting Bull was made "Supreme Chief of the whole Sioux Nation" at this time. Later historians and ethnologists have refuted this concept of authority, as the Lakota society was highly decentralized. Lakota bands and their elders made individual decisions, including whether to wage war.
Great Sioux War of 1876
Sitting Bull's band of Hunkpapa continued to attack migrating parties and forts in the late 1860s. When in 1871 the Northern Pacific Railway conducted a survey for a route across the northern plains directly through Hunkpapa lands, it encountered stiff Lakota resistance. The same railway people returned the following year accompanied by federal troops. Sitting Bull and the Hunkpapa attacked the survey party, which was forced to turn back. In 1873, the military accompaniment for the surveyors was increased again, but Sitting Bull's forces resisted the survey "most vigorously." The Panic of 1873 forced the Northern Pacific Railway's backers (such as Jay Cooke) into bankruptcy. This halted construction of the railroad through Lakota, Dakota and Nakota territory.
After the 1848 discovery of gold in the Sierra Nevada and dramatic gains in new wealth from it, other men became interested in the potential for gold mining in the Black Hills. In 1874, Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer led a military expedition from Fort Abraham Lincoln near Bismarck to explore the Black Hills for gold and to determine a suitable location for a military fort in the Hills. Custer's announcement of gold in the Black Hills triggered the Black Hills Gold Rush. Tensions increased between the Lakota and European Americans seeking to move into the Black Hills.
Although Sitting Bull did not attack Custer's expedition in 1874, the U.S. government was increasingly pressured by citizens to open the Black Hills to mining and settlement. Failing in an attempt to negotiate a purchase or lease of the Hills, the government in Washington had to find a way around the promise to protect the Sioux in their land, as specified in the 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie. It was alarmed at reports of Sioux depredations, some of which were encouraged by Sitting Bull. In November 1875, President Grant ordered all Sioux bands outside the Great Sioux Reservation to move onto the reservation, knowing full well that not all would comply. As of February 1, 1876, the Interior Department certified as "hostile" those bands who continued to live off the reservation. This certification allowed the military to pursue Sitting Bull and other Lakota bands as "hostiles".
Based on tribal oral histories, historian Margot Liberty theorizes that many Lakota bands allied with the Cheyenne during the Plains Wars because they thought the other nation was under attack by the U.S. Given this connection, she suggests the major war should have been called "The Great Cheyenne War". Since 1860, the Northern Cheyenne had led several battles among the Plains Indians. Before 1876, the U.S. Army had destroyed seven Cheyenne camps, more than those of any other nation.
Other historians, such as Robert M. Utley and Jerome Greene, also use Lakota oral testimony, but they have concluded that the Lakota coalition, of which Sitting Bull was the ostensible head, was the primary target of the federal government's pacification campaign.
During the period 1868–1876, Sitting Bull developed into one of the most important Native American political leaders. After the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868) and the creation of the Great Sioux Reservation, many traditional Sioux warriors, such as Red Cloud of the Oglala and Spotted Tail of the Brulé, moved to reside permanently on the reservations. They were largely dependent for subsistence on the U.S. Indian agencies. Many other chiefs, including members of Sitting Bull's Hunkpapa band such as Gall, at times, lived temporarily at the agencies. They needed the supplies at a time when white encroachment and the depletion of buffalo herds reduced their resources and challenged Native American independence.
In 1875, the Northern Cheyenne, Hunkpapa, Oglala, Sans Arc, and Minneconjou camped together for a Sun Dance, with both the Cheyenne medicine man White Bull or Ice and Sitting Bull in association. This ceremonial alliance preceded their fighting together in 1876. Sitting Bull had a major revelation.
At the climactic moment, "Sitting Bull intoned, 'The Great Spirit has given our enemies to us. We are to destroy them. We do not know who they are. They may be soldiers.' Ice too observed, 'No one then knew who the enemy were – of what tribe.'...They were soon to find out."
— Utley 1992: 122–24
Sitting Bull's refusal to adopt any dependence on the U.S. government meant that at times he and his small band of warriors lived isolated on the Plains. When Native Americans were threatened by the United States, numerous members from various Sioux bands and other tribes, such as the Northern Cheyenne, came to Sitting Bull's camp. His reputation for "strong medicine" developed as he continued to evade the European Americans.
After the ultimatum on January 1, 1876, when the U.S. Army began to track down as hostiles those Sioux and others living off the reservation, Native Americans gathered at Sitting Bull's camp. He took an active role in encouraging this "unity camp". He sent scouts to the reservations to recruit warriors and told the Hunkpapa to share supplies with those Native Americans who joined them. An example of his generosity was Sitting Bull's provision for Wooden Leg's Northern Cheyenne tribe. They had been impoverished by Captain Reynolds' March 17, 1876 attack and fled to Sitting Bull's camp for safety.
Over the course of the first half of 1876, Sitting Bull's camp continually expanded as natives joined him for safety in numbers. His leadership had attracted warriors and families, creating an extensive village estimated at more than 10,000 people. Lt. Col. Custer came across this large camp on June 25, 1876. Sitting Bull did not take a direct military role in the ensuing battle; instead, he acted as a spiritual leader. A week prior to the attack, he had performed the Sun Dance, in which he fasted and sacrificed over 100 pieces of flesh from his arms.
Battle of the Little Bighorn
On June 25, 1876, Custer's scouts discovered Sitting Bull's camp along the Little Big Horn River (known as the Greasy Grass River to the Lakota).
After being ordered to attack, Custer's 7th Cavalry's troops lost ground quickly and were forced to retreat. Sitting Bull's followers, led into battle by Crazy Horse, counterattacked and ultimately defeated Custer while surrounding and laying siege to the other two battalions led by Reno and Benteen.
Aftermath of the Battle of the Little Bighorn
The Native Americans' victory celebrations were short-lived. Public shock and outrage at Custer's defeat and death, as well as the government's understanding of the military capability of the remaining Sioux, led the War Department to assign thousands more soldiers to the area. Over the next year, the new American military forces pursued the Lakota, forcing many of the Native Americans to surrender. Sitting Bull refused to do so and in May 1877 led his band across the border into the North-West Territories, Canada. He remained in exile for four years near Wood Mountain, refusing a pardon and the chance to return. When crossing the border into Canadian territory, Sitting Bull was met by the Mounties of the region. During this meeting, James Morrow Walsh, commander of the North-West Mounted Police, explained to Sitting Bull that the Lakota were now on British soil and must obey British law. Walsh emphasized that he enforced the law equally and that every person in the territory had a right to justice. Walsh became an advocate for Sitting Bull and the two became good friends for the remainder of their lives.
While in Canada, Sitting Bull also met with Crowfoot, who was a leader of the Blackfeet, long-time powerful enemies of the Lakota and Cheyenne. Sitting Bull wished to make peace with the Blackfeet Nation and Crowfoot. As an advocate for peace himself, Crowfoot eagerly accepted the tobacco peace offering. Sitting Bull was so impressed by Crowfoot that he named one of his sons after him.
Sitting Bull and his people stayed in Canada for four years. Due to the smaller size of the buffalo herds in Canada, Sitting Bull and his men found it difficult to find enough food to feed their starving people. Sitting Bull's presence in the country led to increased tensions between the Canadian and the United States governments. Before Sitting Bull left Canada, he may have visited Walsh for a final time and left a ceremonial headdress as a memento.
Surrender
Hunger and desperation eventually forced Sitting Bull and 186 of his family and followers to return to the United States and surrender on July 19, 1881. Sitting Bull had his young son Crow Foot surrender his Winchester lever-action carbine to major David H. Brotherton, commanding officer of Fort Buford. Sitting Bull said to Brotherton, "I wish it to be remembered that I was the last man of my tribe to surrender my rifle". In the parlor of the Commanding Officer's Quarters in a ceremony the next day, he told the four soldiers, 20 warriors and other guests in the small room that he wished to regard the soldiers and the white race as friends but he wanted to know who would teach his son the new ways of the world. Two weeks later, after waiting in vain for other members of his tribe to follow him from Canada, Sitting Bull and his band were transferred to Fort Yates, the military post located adjacent to the Standing Rock Agency. This reservation straddles the present-day boundary between North and South Dakota.
Sitting Bull and his band of 186 people were kept separate from the other Hunkpapa gathered at the agency. Army officials were concerned that he would stir up trouble among the recently surrendered northern bands. On August 26, 1881, he was visited by census taker William T. Selwyn, who counted twelve people in the Hunkpapa leader's immediate family. Forty-one families, totaling 195 people, were recorded in Sitting Bull's band.
The military decided to transfer Sitting Bull and his band to Fort Randall to be held as prisoners of war. Loaded onto a steamboat, the band of 172 people was sent down the Missouri River to Fort Randall (near present-day Pickstown, South Dakota) on the southern border of the state. There they spent the next 20 months. They were allowed to return north to the Standing Rock Agency in May 1883.
In 1883, The New York Times reported that Sitting Bull had been baptized into the Catholic Church. James McLaughlin, Indian agent at Standing Rock Agency, dismissed these reports, saying: "The reported baptism of Sitting-Bull is erroneous. There is no immediate prospect of such ceremony so far as I am aware."
Annie Oakley
In 1884 show promoter Alvaren Allen asked Agent James McLaughlin to allow Sitting Bull to tour parts of Canada and the northern United States. The show was called the "Sitting Bull Connection." It was during this tour that Sitting Bull met Annie Oakley in Minnesota. He was so impressed with Oakley's skills with firearms that he offered $65 (equal to $ today) for a photographer to take a photo of the two together. The admiration and respect was mutual. Oakley stated that Sitting Bull made a "great pet" of her. In observing Oakley, Sitting Bull's respect for the young sharpshooter grew. Oakley was quite modest in her attire, deeply respectful of others, and had a remarkable stage persona despite being a woman who stood only five feet in height. Sitting Bull felt that she was "gifted" by supernatural means in order to shoot so accurately with both hands. As a result of his esteem, he symbolically "adopted" her as a daughter in 1884. He named her "Little Sure Shot" – a name that Oakley used throughout her career.
Wild West show
In 1885, Sitting Bull was allowed to leave the reservation to go Wild Westing with Buffalo Bill Cody's Buffalo Bill's Wild West. He earned about $50 a week (equal to $ today) for riding once around the arena, where he was a popular attraction. Although it is rumored that he cursed his audiences in his native tongue during the show, the historian Utley contends that he did not. Historians have reported that Sitting Bull gave speeches about his desire for education for the young, and reconciling relations between the Sioux and whites.
The historian Edward Lazarus wrote that Sitting Bull reportedly cursed his audience in Lakota in 1884, during an opening address celebrating the completion of the Northern Pacific Railway. According to Michael Hiltzik, "...Sitting Bull declared in Lakota, 'I hate all White people.' ... 'You are thieves and liars. You have taken away our land and made us outcasts.'" The translator, however, read the original address which had been written as a 'gracious act of amity', and the audience, including President Grant, was left none the wiser.
Sitting Bull stayed with the show for four months before returning home. During that time, audiences considered him a celebrity and romanticized him as a warrior. He earned a small fortune by charging for his autograph and picture, although he often gave his money away to the homeless and beggars.
Ghost Dance movement
Sitting Bull returned to the Standing Rock Agency after working in Buffalo Bill's Wild West show. The tension between Sitting Bull and Agent McLaughlin increased and each became warier of the other over several issues including division and sale of parts of the Great Sioux Reservation.
During that period, in 1889 Indian Rights Activist Caroline Weldon from Brooklyn, New York, a member of the National Indian Defense Association "NIDA", reached out to Sitting Bull, acting to be his voice, secretary, interpreter and advocate. She joined him, together with her young son Christy, at his compound on the Grand River, sharing with him and his family home and hearth.
In 1889, during a time of harsh winters and long droughts impacting the Sioux Reservation, a Paiute Indian named Wovoka spread a religious movement from Nevada eastward to the Plains that preached a resurrection of the Native. It was known as the "Ghost Dance movement" because it called on the Indians to dance and chant for the rising up of deceased relatives and the return of the buffalo. The dance included shirts that were said to stop bullets. When the movement reached Standing Rock, Sitting Bull allowed the dancers to gather at his camp. Although he did not appear to participate in the dancing, he was viewed as a key instigator. Alarm spread to nearby white settlements.
Death and burial
In 1890, James McLaughlin, the U.S. Indian agent at Fort Yates on Standing Rock Agency, feared that the Lakota leader was about to flee the reservation with the Ghost Dancers, so he ordered the police to arrest him. On December 14, 1890, McLaughlin drafted a letter to Lieutenant Henry Bullhead (noted as Bull Head in lead), an Indian agency policeman, that included instructions and a plan to capture Sitting Bull. The plan called for the arrest to take place at dawn on December 15 and advised the use of a light spring wagon to facilitate removal before his followers could rally. Bullhead decided against using the wagon. He intended to have the police officers force Sitting Bull to mount a horse immediately after the arrest.
Around 5:30 a.m. on December 15, 39 police officers and four volunteers approached Sitting Bull's house. They surrounded the house, knocked and entered. Bullhead told Sitting Bull that he was under arrest and led him outside. Sitting Bull and his wife noisily stalled for time, and the camp awakened and men converged at the house. As Bullhead ordered Sitting Bull to mount a horse, he said that the Indian Affairs agent wanted to see the chief, and that Sitting Bull could then return to his house. When Sitting Bull refused to comply, the police used force on him. The Sioux in the village were enraged. Catch-the-Bear, a Lakota, shouldered his rifle and shot Bullhead, who reacted by firing his revolver into the chest of Sitting Bull. Another police officer, Red Tomahawk, shot Sitting Bull in the head, and Sitting Bull dropped to the ground. Sitting Bull died between 12 and 1 p.m.
A close-quarters fight erupted, and within minutes, several men were dead. The Lakota killed six policemen immediately, while two more died shortly after the fight, including Bullhead. The police killed Sitting Bull and seven of his supporters at the site, along with two horses.
Sitting Bull's body was taken to Fort Yates, where it was placed in a coffin (made by the Army carpenter) and buried. A monument was installed to mark his burial site after his remains were reportedly taken to South Dakota.
In 1953, Lakota family members exhumed what they believed to be Sitting Bull's remains, transporting them for reinterment near Mobridge, South Dakota, his birthplace. A monument to him was erected there.
Legacy
Following Sitting Bull's death, his cabin on the Grand River was taken to Chicago for use as an exhibit at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition. Native American dancers also performed at the exposition.
On September 14, 1989, the United States Postal Service released a Great Americans series 28¢ postage stamp featuring a likeness of Sitting Bull.
On March 6, 1996, Standing Rock College was renamed Sitting Bull College in his honor. Sitting Bull College serves as an institution of higher education on Sitting Bull's home of Standing Rock in North Dakota and South Dakota.
The American historian Gary Clayton Anderson of the University of Oklahoma published Sitting Bull and the Paradox of Lakota Nationhood (2010), a revisionist examination of the Lakota medicine man. Anderson analyzes the Battle of the Little Bighorn in light of past successes of the Lakota Nation and the merits of Sitting Bull himself, rather than as a simple mistake by Custer.
In August 2010, a research team led by Eske Willerslev, an ancient DNA expert at the University of Copenhagen, announced its intention to sequence the genome of Sitting Bull, with the approval of his descendants, using a hair sample obtained during his lifetime. In October 2021, Willerslev's research confirmed Lakota writer and activist Ernie Lapointe (who had previously proclaimed himself to be Sitting Bull's great-grandson) and his three sisters to be Sitting Bull's biological great-grandchildren.
Representation in popular culture
Sitting Bull was the subject of, or a featured character in, several Hollywood motion pictures and documentaries, which have reflected changing ideas about him and Lakota culture in relation to the United States. Among them are:
Sitting Bull: The Hostile Sioux Indian Chief (1914)
Sitting Bull at the Spirit Lake Massacre (1927), with Chief Yowlachie in the title role
Annie Oakley (1935), played by Chief Thunderbird
Annie Get Your Gun (1950), played by J. Carrol Naish
Sitting Bull (1954), with J. Carrol Naish again in the title role
Cheyenne (1957), with Frank DeKova as Sitting Bull
Buffalo Bill and the Indians, or Sitting Bull's History Lesson (1976), played by Frank Kaquitts
Buffalo Girls (1995 miniseries), played by Russell Means
Into the West (2005 miniseries), played by Eric Schweig
Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee (2007), played by August Schellenberg
Sitting Bull: A Stone in My Heart (2008), documentary
Woman Walks Ahead (2017), played by Michael Greyeyes
As time passed, Sitting Bull has become a symbol and archetype of Native American resistance movements as well as a figure celebrated by descendants of his former enemies:
Legoland Billund, in Billund, Denmark, the first Legoland park, contains a 36-foot-tall Lego sculpture of Sitting Bull.
Sitting Bull is featured as the leader for the Native American Civilization in the computer game Civilization IV.
Sitting Bull is listed as one of 13 great Americans in President Barack Obama's children's book, Of Thee I Sing: A Letter to My Daughters.
See also
Crazy Horse
Black Elk
Henry Mabb
Footnotes
References
Documentary: Sitting Bull: A Stone in My Heart , 82 minutes
Greene, Jerome A., ed. Lakota and Cheyenne: Indian Views of the Great Sioux War, 1876–1877. Norman, Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press, 1994.
Matteoni, Norman E. Prairie Man: The Struggle between Sitting Bull and Indian Agent James McLaughlin. Guilford, Conn., 2015
McLaughlin, James. Account of the Death of Sitting Bull and of the Circumstances Attending It . Philadelphia, 1891.
"Sitting Bull Rises Again – Two Indians Deny Bones of Chief Were Taken to South Dakota. " The New York Times. December 19, 1953.
Further reading
Nelson, Paul D., A shady Pair' and an 'attempt on his life' – Sitting Bull and His 1884 visit to St. Paul", Ramsey County History Quarterly V38 #1, Ramsey County Historical Society, St Paul, MN, 2003.
Adams, Alexander B. Sitting Bull: An Epic of the Plains. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1973.
Brown, Dee. Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee: An Indian History of the American West. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970.
DeWall, Robb. The Saga of Sitting Bull's Bones: The Unusual Story Behind Sculptor Korczak Ziolkowski's Memorial to Chief Sitting Bull. Crazy Horse, S.D.: Korczak's Heritage, 1984.
Manzione, Joseph. "I Am Looking to the North for My Life": Sitting Bull: 1876–1881. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1991.
Newson, Thomas McLean. Thrilling scenes among the Indians, with a graphic description of Custer's last fight with Sitting Bull . Chicago: Belford, Clarke and Co., 1884.
"Confirmation of the Disaster ." The New York Times. July 7, 1876.
"The Death of Sitting Bull ." The New York Times. December 17, 1890.
"The Last of Sitting Bull ." The New York Times. December 16, 1890.
Reno, Marcus Albert. The official record of a court of inquiry convened at Chicago, Illinois, January 13, 1879, by the President of the United States upon the request of Major Marcus A. Reno, 7th U.S. Cavalry, to investigate his conduct at the Battle of the Little Big Horn, June 25–26, 1876 . (Reprint online) Pacific Palisades, Calif.: 1951.
Sifakis, Stewart. Who's Who In The Civil War. New York: Facts on File Publishing, 1988.
Urwin, Gregory. Custer Victorious: The Civil War Battles of General George Armstrong Custer. Lincoln, Neb.: Univ. of Nebraska Press, 1990.
Utley, Robert M. The Last Days of the Sioux Nation. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1963.
Utley, Robert M. Sitting Bull: The Life and Times of an American Patriot
Yenne, Bill. "Sitting Bull." Yardley, PA: Westholme, 2008.
Vestal, Stanley. Sitting Bull: Champion of the Sioux, a Biography. New York: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1932.
External links
Sitting Bull's ledger drawings , Smithsonian Institution
Sitting Bull's Winchester, Catalogue No. E384119, Department of Anthropology, NMNH, Smithsonian Institution
"Sitting Bull", The West, PBS
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Wild West show performers | wiki |
Arthrostylidium punctulatum is a species of Arthrostylidium bamboo in the grass family.
Distribution
Arthrostylidium punctulatum is endemic to Colombia.
Description
Arthrostylidium punctulatum grows up to a height of 400–700 mm.
References
punctulatum | wiki |
Debt is an obligation that requires one party, the debtor, to pay money or other agreed-upon value to another party, the creditor. Debt is a deferred payment, or series of payments, which differentiates it from an immediate purchase. The debt may be owed by sovereign state or country, local government, company, or an individual. Commercial debt is generally subject to contractual terms regarding the amount and timing of repayments of principal and interest. Loans, bonds, notes, and mortgages are all types of debt. In financial accounting, debt is a type of financial transaction, as distinct from equity.
The term can also be used metaphorically to cover moral obligations and other interactions not based on a monetary value. For example, in Western cultures, a person who has been helped by a second person is sometimes said to owe a "debt of gratitude" to the second person.
Etymology
The English term "debt" was first used in the late 13th century. The term "debt" comes from "dette, from Old French dete, from Latin debitum "thing owed," neuter past participle of debere "to owe," originally, "keep something away from someone," from de- "away" (see de-) + habere "to have" (see habit (n.)). Restored spelling [was used] after c. 1400. The related term "debtor" was first used in English also in the early 13th century; the terms "dettur, dettour, [came] from Old French detour, from Latin debitor "a debter," from past participle stem of debere;...The -b- was restored in later French, and in English c. 1560-c. 1660." In the King James Bible, only one spelling, "debtor", is used.
Principal
Principal is the amount of money originally invested or loaned, on which basis interest and returns are calculated.
Repayment
There are three main ways repayment may be structured: the entire principal balance may be due at the maturity of the loan; the entire principal balance may be amortized over the term of the loan; or the loan may be partially amortized during its term, with the remaining principal due as a "balloon payment" at maturity. Amortization structures are common in mortgages and credit cards.
Default provisions
Debtors of every type default on their debt from time to time, with various consequences depending on the terms of the debt and the law governing default in the relevant jurisdiction.
If the debt was secured by specific collateral, such as a car or home, the creditor may seek to repossess the collateral. In more serious circumstances, individuals and companies may go into bankruptcy.
Types of giving finance
Individuals
Common types of debt owed by individuals and households include mortgage loans, car loans, credit card debt, and income taxes. For individuals, debt is a means of using anticipated income and future purchasing power in the present before it has actually been earned. Commonly, people in industrialized nations use consumer debt to purchase houses, cars and other things too expensive to buy with cash on hand.
People are more likely to spend more and get into debt when they use credit cards vs. cash for buying products and services. This is primarily because of the transparency effect and consumer's "pain of paying." The transparency effect refers to the fact that the further you are from cash (as in a credit card or another form of payment), the less transparent it is and the less you remember how much you spent. The less transparent or further away from cash, the form of payment employed is, the less an individual feels the “pain of paying” and thus is likely to spend more. Furthermore, the differing physical appearance/form that credit cards have from cash may cause them to be viewed as “monopoly” money vs. real money, luring individuals to spend more money than they would if they only had cash available.
Besides these more formal debts, private individuals also lend informally to other people, mostly relatives or friends. One reason for such informal debts is that many people, in particular those who are poor, have no access to affordable credit. Such debts can cause problems when they are not paid back according to expectations of the lending household. In 2011, 8 percent of people in the European Union reported their households has been in arrears, that is, unable to pay as scheduled "payments related to informal loans from friends or relatives not living in your household".
Businesses
A company may use various kinds of debt to finance its operations as a part of its overall corporate finance strategy.
A term loan is the simplest form of corporate debt. It consists of an agreement to lend a fixed amount of money, called the principal sum or principal, for a fixed period of time, with this amount to be repaid by a certain date. In commercial loans interest, calculated as a percentage of the principal sum per year, will also have to be paid by that date, or may be paid periodically in the interval, such as annually or monthly. Such loans are also colloquially called "bullet loans", particularly if there is only a single payment at the end – the "bullet" – without a "stream" of interest payments during the life of the loan.
A revenue-based financing loan comes with a fixed repayment target that is reached over a period of several years. This type of loan generally comes with a repayment amount of 1.5 to 2.5 times the principle loan. Repayment periods are flexible; businesses can pay back the agreed-upon amount sooner, if possible, or later. In addition, business owners do not sell equity or relinquish control when using revenue-based financing. Lenders that provide revenue-based financing work more closely with businesses than bank lenders, but take a more hands-off approach than private equity investors.
A syndicated loan is a loan that is granted to companies that wish to borrow more money than any single lender is prepared to risk in a single loan. A syndicated loan is provided by a group of lenders and is structured, arranged, and administered by one or several commercial banks or investment banks known as arrangers. Loan syndication is a risk management tool that allows the lead banks underwriting the debt to reduce their risk and free up lending capacity.
A company may also issue bonds, which are debt securities. Bonds have a fixed lifetime, usually a number of years; with long-term bonds, lasting over 30 years, being less common. At the end of the bond's life the money should be repaid in full. Interest may be added to the end payment, or can be paid in regular installments (known as coupons) during the life of the bond.
A letter of credit or LC can also be the source of payment for a transaction, meaning that redeeming the letter of credit will pay an exporter. Letters of credit are used primarily in international trade transactions of significant value, for deals between a supplier in one country and a customer in another. They are also used in the land development process to ensure that approved public facilities (streets, sidewalks, stormwater ponds, etc.) will be built. The parties to a letter of credit are usually a beneficiary who is to receive the money, the issuing bank of whom the applicant is a client, and the advising bank of whom the beneficiary is a client. Almost all letters of credit are irrevocable, i.e., cannot be amended or canceled without prior agreement of the beneficiary, the issuing bank and the confirming bank, if any. In executing a transaction, letters of credit incorporate functions common to giros and traveler's cheque. Typically, the documents a beneficiary has to present in order to receive payment include a commercial invoice, bill of lading, and a document proving the shipment was insured against loss or damage in transit. However, the list and form of documents is open to imagination and negotiation and might contain requirements to present documents issued by a neutral third party evidencing the quality of the goods shipped, or their place of origin.
Companies also use debt in many ways for capital expenditures and other business investments made in their assets, "leveraging" the return on their equity. This leverage, the proportion of debt to equity, is considered important in determining the riskiness of an investment; the more debt per equity, the riskier.
Governments
Governments issue debt to pay for ongoing expenses as well as major capital projects. Government debt may be issued by sovereign states as well as by local governments, sometimes known as municipalities.
Debt issued by the government of the United States, called Treasuries, serves as a reference point for all other debt. There are deep, transparent, liquid, and open capital markets for Treasuries. Furthermore, Treasuries are issued in a wide variety of maturities, from one day to thirty years, which facilitates comparing the interest rates on other debt to a security of comparable maturity. In finance, the theoretical "risk-free interest rate" is often approximated by practitioners by using the current yield a Treasury of the same duration.
The overall level of indebtedness by a government is typically shown as a ratio of debt-to-GDP. This ratio helps to assess the speed of changes in government indebtedness and the size of the debt due.
The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 17, an integral part of the 2030 Agenda has a target to address the external debt of highly indebted poor countries to reduce debt distress.
Municipalities
Municipal bonds (or muni bonds) are typical debt obligations, for which the conditions are defined unilaterally by the issuing municipality (local government), but it is a slower process to accumulate the necessary amount. Usually, debt or bond financing will not be used to finance current operating expenditures, the purposes of these amounts are local developments, capital investments, constructions, own contribution to other credits or grants.
Assessments of creditworthiness
Income metrics
The debt service coverage ratio is the ratio of income available to the amount of debt service due (including both interest and principal amortization, if any). The higher the debt service coverage ratio, the more income is available to pay debt service, and the easier and lower-cost it will be for a borrower to obtain financing.
Different debt markets have somewhat different conventions in terminology and calculations for income-related metrics. For example, in mortgage lending in the United States, a debt-to-income ratio typically includes the cost of mortgage payments as well as insurance and property tax, divided by a consumer's monthly income. A "front-end ratio" of 28% or below, together with a "back-end ratio" (including required payments on non-housing debt as well) of 36% or below is also required to be eligible for a conforming loan.
Value metrics
The loan-to-value ratio is the ratio of the total amount of the loan to the total value of the collateral securing the loan.
For example, in mortgage lending in the United States, the loan-to-value concept is most commonly expressed as a "down payment." A 20% down payment is equivalent to an 80% loan to value. With home purchases, value may be assessed using the agreed-upon purchase price, and/or an appraisal.
Collateral and recourse
A debt obligation is considered secured if creditors have recourse to specific collateral. Collateral may include claims on tax receipts (in the case of a government), specific assets (in the case of a company) or a home (in the case of a consumer). Unsecured debt comprises financial obligations for which creditors do not have recourse to the assets of the borrower to satisfy their claims.
Role of rating agencies
Credit bureaus collect information about the borrowing and repayment history of consumers. Lenders, such as banks and credit card companies, use credit scores to evaluate the potential risk posed by lending money to consumers. In the United States, the primary credit bureaus are Equifax, Experian, and TransUnion.
Debts owed by governments and private corporations may be rated by rating agencies, such as Moody's, Standard & Poor's, Fitch Ratings, and A. M. Best. The government or company itself will also be given its own separate rating. These agencies assess the ability of the debtor to honor his obligations and accordingly give him or her a credit rating. Moody's uses the letters Aaa Aa A Baa Ba B Caa Ca C, where ratings Aa-Caa are qualified by numbers 1-3. S&P and other rating agencies have slightly different systems using capital letters and +/- qualifiers. Thus a government or corporation with a high rating would have Aaa rating.
A change in ratings can strongly affect a company, since its cost of refinancing depends on its creditworthiness. Bonds below Baa/BBB (Moody's/S&P) are considered junk or high-risk bonds. Their high risk of default (approximately 1.6 percent for Ba) is compensated by higher interest payments. Bad Debt is a loan that can not (partially or fully) be repaid by the debtor. The debtor is said to default on their debt. These types of debt are frequently repackaged and sold below face value. Buying junk bonds is seen as a risky but potentially profitable investment.
Debt markets
Market interest rates
Loans versus bonds
Bonds are debt securities, tradeable on a bond market. A country's regulatory structure determines what qualifies as a security. For example, in North America, each security is uniquely identified by a CUSIP for trading and settlement purposes. In contrast, loans are not securities and do not have CUSIPs (or the equivalent). Loans may be sold or acquired in certain circumstances, as when a bank syndicates a loan.
Loans can be turned into securities through the securitization process. In a securitization, a company sells a pool of assets to a securitization trust, and the securitization trust finances its purchase of the assets by selling securities to the market. For example, a trust may own a pool of home mortgages, and be financed by residential mortgage-backed securities. In this case, the asset-backed trust is a debt issuer of residential mortgage-backed securities.
Role of central banks
Central banks, such as the U.S. Federal Reserve System, play a key role in the debt markets. Debt is normally denominated in a particular currency, and so changes in the valuation of that currency can change the effective size of the debt. This can happen due to inflation or deflation, so it can happen even though the borrower and the lender are using the same currency.
Criticisms
Some argue against debt as an instrument and institution, on a personal, family, social, corporate and governmental level. Some Islamic banking forbids lending with interest even today. In hard times, the cost of servicing debt can grow beyond the debtor's ability to pay, due to either external events (income loss) or internal difficulties (poor management of resources).
Debt with an associated interest rate will increase through time if it is not repaid faster than it grows through interest. This effect may be termed usury, while the term "usury" in other contexts refers only to an excessive rate of interest, in excess of a reasonable profit for the risk accepted.
In international legal thought, odious debt is debt that is incurred by a regime for purposes that do not serve the interest of the state. Such debts are thus considered by this doctrine to be personal debts of the regime that incurred them and not debts of the state. International Third World debt has reached the scale that many economists are convinced that debt relief or debt cancellation is the only way to restore global equity in relations with the developing nations.
Excessive debt accumulation has been blamed for exacerbating economic problems. For example, before the Great Depression, the debt-to-GDP ratio was very high. Economic agents were heavily indebted. This excess of debt, equivalent to excessive expectations on future returns, accompanied asset bubbles on the stock markets. When expectations corrected, deflation and a credit crunch followed. Deflation effectively made debt more expensive and, as Fisher explained, this reinforced deflation again, because, in order to reduce their debt level, economic agents reduced their consumption and investment. The reduction in demand reduced business activity and caused further unemployment. In a more direct sense, more bankruptcies also occurred due both to increased debt cost caused by deflation and the reduced demand.
At the household level, debts can also have detrimental effects — particularly when households make spending decisions assuming income will increase, or remain stable, in years to come. When households take on credit based on this assumption, life events can easily change indebtedness into over-indebtedness. Such life events include unexpected unemployment, relationship break-up, leaving the parental home, business failure, illness, or home repairs. Over-indebtedness has severe social consequences, such as financial hardship, poor physical and mental health, family stress, stigma, difficulty obtaining employment, exclusion from basic financial services (European Commission, 2009), work accidents and industrial disease, a strain on social relations (Carpentier and Van den Bosch, 2008), absenteeism at work and lack of organisational commitment (Kim et al., 2003), feeling of insecurity, and relational tensions.
Levels and flows
Global debt underwriting grew 4.3 percent year-over-year to during 2004.
History
According to historian Paul Johnson, the lending of "food money" was commonplace in Middle Eastern civilizations as early as 5000 BC.
Religions like Judaism and Christianity for example, demand that debt be forgiven on a regular basis, in order to prevent systemic inequities between groups in society, or anyone becoming a specialist in holding debt and coercing repayment. An example is the Biblical Jubilee year, described in the Book of Leviticus. Similarly, in Deuteronomy chapter 15 and verse 1 states that debts be forgiven after seven years. This is because biblically debt is seen as the responsibility of both the creditor and the debtor. Traditional Christian teaching holds that a lifestyle of debt should not be normative; the Emmanuel Association, a Methodist denomination in the conservative holiness movement, for example, teaches: "We are to refrain from entering into debt when we have no reasonable plan to pay. We are to be careful to meet all financial engagements promptly when due, if at all possible, remembering that we are to 'Provide things honest in the sight of all men' and to 'owe no man any thing, but to love one another' (Romans 12:17; 13:8)."
Further reading
World Bank, 2019. Global Waves of Debt: Causes and Consequences. Edited by M. Ayhan Kose, Peter Nagle, Franziska Ohnsorge, and Naotaka Sugawara.
See also
Debt theory of money
Debt deflation
World debt
References
Credit
Personal financial problems
Financial law | wiki |
Arthrostylidium longiflorum is a species of Arthrostylidium bamboo in the grass family.
Distribution
Arthrostylidium longiflorum is native to Venezuela in South America
References
longiflorum
Flora of Venezuela | wiki |
Arthrostylidium judziewiczii is a species of Arthrostylidium bamboo in the grass family. The species is native to Central America, the West Indies, northern South America, and southern Mexico.
References
judziewiczii | wiki |
Moretum is a herb cheese spread that the Ancient Romans ate with bread. A typical moretum was made of herbs, fresh cheese, salt, oil and some vinegar. Optionally, different kinds of nuts could be added. The contents were crushed together in a mortar, hence the name.
Recipes
A recipe can be found in the poem of the same name in the Appendix Vergiliana. De re rustica, book XII of Columella contains further recipes for moretum. The variant with pine nuts is considered to be a precursor of pesto.
See also
Ancient Roman cuisine
List of cheese dishes
List of spreads
References
External links
Appendix Vergiliana in Latin
Columella at The Latin Library
Columella Books I–IV in English translation at LacusCurtius
Roman cuisine
Spreads (food)
Cheese dishes
Ancient dishes | wiki |
Arthrostylidium simpliciusculum is a species of Arthrostylidium bamboo in the grass family.
Distribution
The species is native to Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru.
Description
Arthrostylidium simpliciusculum is a tufted perennial with short rhizomes. It grows to between 1 m and 1.2 m in height.
References
External links
Specimens in United States National Herbarium
simpliciusculum | wiki |
Jeera Aloo is a typical vegetarian Indian dish which is often served as a side dish and normally goes well with hot puris, chapatti, roti or dal. Its main ingredients are potatoes (aloo), cumin seeds (jeera) and Indian spices. Other ingredients are red chili powder, ginger, coriander powder, curry leaves, vegetable oil and salt. In its traditional form the dish is not hot, but it could be spiced up by adding powdered cayenne pepper. Other variations of the dish make use of sweet potatoes instead of regular ones.
See also
List of Indian dishes
List of potato dishes
References
External links
Jeera Aloo Recipe. India Times.
Jeera Aloo Recipe At Home Easy Way . Cookmint
Potato dishes
Indian vegetable dishes
Punjabi cuisine
Vegetarian dishes of India | wiki |
In mathematics, Arf semigroups are certain subsets of the non-negative integers closed under addition, that were studied by . They appeared as the semigroups of values of Arf rings.
A subset of the integers forms a monoid if it includes zero, and if every two elements in the subset have a sum that also belongs to the subset. In this case, it is called a "numerical semigroup".
A numerical semigroup is called an Arf semigroup if, for every three elements x, y, and z with z = min(x, y, and z), the semigroup also contains the element .
For instance, the set containing zero and all even numbers greater than 10 is an Arf semigroup.
References
.
Semigroup theory | wiki |
Boxing training is the training method that boxers use in order to get more fit for their sport.
Training
A boxer's training depends largely on the point in their career at which they are situated. If the boxer is just a beginner, a minimal training routine might consist of learning how to hit a heavy bag, a speed bag, or a double end bag (a small bag with a cord on top and bottom connecting it to the floor and ceiling) as well as doing shadowboxing in front of a mirror, skipping rope, calisthenics and jogging every day, as well as an occasional practice bout inside the ring (sparring). Most beginning boxers will spend most of their early careers conditioning and establishing the fundamentals. For the amateur or professional boxer preparing for a competition or bout, however, training is much more stringent. Boxing is widely considered one of the most physically demanding sports in the world.
Weight
Boxing, like several other fighting sports, categorizes its competitors into weight classes. Some fighters try to take advantage of this by dieting before weigh-in so that they can be bumped down a weight class. In extreme cases, a fighter may forgo solid food before the official weigh-in ceremony, and eat a lot afterward to compensate. In some very extreme cases, boxers have been forced to stop eating solid food up to three days before the weigh-in ceremony, in order to make weight for the fight. Sometimes, if a boxer doesn't make the weight agreed for on the first weight-in, they might go to a sauna or to jog with a jacket to sweat and lose the extra pounds, however this is mainly water that the body holds. After weigh-ins, competitors will in general add on weight before the fight, resulting in them weighing anywhere from 5 to 25 lbs above the weight class.
A boxer will generally try to have the maximum weight possible within the Boxing weight classes they are fighting in, as a good boxer will be able to use their weight to their advantage.
Sparring
Sparring is "practice fighting" with the aim of training skills and fitness, not to determine a winner. Sparring should always involve use of a mouth-guard, head-guard and groin-guard. Sparring gloves are often more padded than gloves used in actual bouts. Sparring partners sometimes agree to practice particular types of punches or defense moves to focus their training.
Equipment
Basic boxing training equipment includes:
Safety Equipment
Hand wraps: Protect the knuckles and wrists when training and sparring.
Speed Bag Gloves: Created to prevent the hands from getting hurt while hitting the speed bag, these gloves are the lightest gloves, yet offer more protection than hand wraps alone.
Heavy Bag Gloves: Created to prevent the hands from getting hurt while hitting the heavy bag, and are insulated for your knuckles to reducing the risk of wrist, hand, and knuckle injury while hitting the Heavy bag. Normally bag gloves weigh anywhere from , but some prefer to train in both the varieties.
Sparring Gloves: Contrary to popular belief, these gloves were designed to protect the boxer's hands, not the opponent's head. Generally weigh much more than professional fight gloves (16 oz.) in order to cushion blows and accustom boxers to added weights.
Headgear: Used to protect boxers from soft tissue damage, (bruises, cuts, etc.), during sparring - also used in competition in amateur boxing. Headgear offers no protection from the effects of hard punches (stunning, knockdowns, KOs). It is important that boxers are aware of this otherwise headgear can produce a false sense of security leading a boxer to take punches rather than defend themselves.
Groin Guard (or No-Foul Protector): Protects the groin against low punches, offers more comprehensive protection than a simple 'cup' guard.
Mouthpiece: (Sometimes known as gumshield, mouthguard). Used to protect the inside of the mouth and lips from getting cut by the teeth when a hard punch to the face is received. The mouthguard also helps to lock the top and bottom jaws together preventing painful damage to the jaw joint capsule when a boxer is struck by a hook. Important that it is worn in both sparring and its tough competition.
Training Equipment
Jump Rope: It is used to improve footwork and agility, and for aerobic fitness. also helps maintain stamina
Focus mitts: Padded targets worn on the trainer's hands for the boxer to strike and practice combinations.
The Heavy Bag: Used to teach young boxers where exactly to hit an opponent and for all kinds of boxers to practice their combinations.
The Speed Bag: Used to improve hand speed, hand-eye coordination and shoulder endurance.
The Double End Bag: Also known as the floor-ceiling bag, crazy bag, or the reflex bag, the double end bag is hooked up by two thin elastic ropes to the gym's ceiling and floor, and because of that, it moves around easily, giving the boxer good equipment for target practice and timing.
The Maize Bag: Used to practice head movement and close-range combinations, such as uppercut/hook combinations.
The Slam Man: Used to practice combinations of punches on a human shaped bag
Medicine Ball: Used for plyometric training - often used when training in pairs (quick throwing/passing of the ball) or with a trainer.
Mirror: Used by boxers to do shadow boxing.
Boxing Ring: When boxers are training, used to stage practice or competition bouts.
Automated Boxing Scoring System: The first use of technology in boxing for training purposes. Monitors the boxers in real-time recording information on each blow.
See also
Boxercise
Sports training
Aliveness (martial arts)
Combat sport
Punching bag
References
External links
Boxing Speed Training & Fitness Written for Pride Of The Warrior
The Inhuman 40 Round Floyd Mayweather Training Routine
Boxing
Combat sports
Sports education and training | wiki |
A preferred partner agreement normally refers to an agreement between a vendor (service provider) and those who are allowed to on-sell its products. In line with this agreement there are normally some prerequisites that the partner must meet to become a preferred partner. These prerequisites may include things like:
Training and certification
Minimum sales volume and/or value
Being a preferred partner provides pre-determined discounts, advantages and privileges from the vendor to the partner.
References
Business terms | wiki |
Ganson Purcell served as chairman of the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission between 1942 and 1946 and also served as a member from 1941 to 1946. He graduated from Williams College in 1927.
Members of the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission
Williams College alumni
Franklin D. Roosevelt administration personnel
Truman administration personnel
Year of birth missing
Year of death missing | wiki |
The IBM ThinkPad T43 is a laptop from the ThinkPad line that was manufactured by IBM and Lenovo.
References
External links
Thinkwiki.de - T43
ThinkPad T43 recovery discs
IBM laptops
ThinkPad | wiki |
Youth ministry, also commonly referred to as youth group, is an age-specific religious ministry of faith groups or other religious organizations, usually from ages 12 to 30, whose mission is to involve and engage with young people who attend their places of worship, or who live in their community. Christian youth ministry usually encompasses one or more of the following:
encouraging young people (whether they have professed a faith or not) to learn more about a given faith and to become more involved in spiritual life
providing open youth clubs or other activities for the common good of the young people, sometimes without an overtly religious agenda
The doctrine of Sunday Sabbatarianism held by many Christian denominations encourages practices such as Sunday School attendance as it teaches that the entirety of the Lord's Day should be devoted to God; as such many children and teenagers often return to church in the late afternoon for youth group before attending an evening service of worship.
Youth ministry often consists of students in sixth grade though twelfth grade and adult leaders. Every youth ministry is structured differently and the culture will vary among youth ministries depending on how the ministry cultivates culture. Some youth ministries are also student led where students take on the responsibility of planning services.
Christianity
Protestantism
In Protestant churches, the term "ministry" often implies the service of an ordained minister or pastor. In youth ministry, however, this is not always the case — a youth ministry leader may be an ordained member of the clergy, an employed lay person, or a volunteer. Titles applied to youth ministry leaders vary widely as well, even within denominations, using terms such as "Youth Minister", "Youth Pastor", or simply "Youth Worker".
Catholicism
Catholic youth work covers a worldwide range of activities carried out with young people, usually in the name of the Catholic Church and with the intention of imparting the Catholic faith to them and inviting them to practice and live out the faith in their lives. Activities in the field range from small scale youth groups attached to parishes or Catholic schools, to large international gatherings, such as World Youth Day. It is a field which has evolved much over recent decades, especially in comparison to more formal methods of education or catechesis within the church. Nearly all dioceses and a great deal of parishes have some form of youth provision running, although a great deal of areas particularly in the developed world are finding youth work both more difficult and rare as the numbers of young people regularly practicing the Catholic faith continue to decline. In contrast, though, the new and exciting developments of recent decades and particularly the influence of the new movements within the church are ensuring that youth work continues to be an active and fruitful field.
Catholic young people
Unlike the case in some Protestant churches, a youth minister in the Roman Catholic Church is not a member of the clergy. Ministry, including youth ministry, is considered one of the functions within the Church because most believe that people should start learning about God at a young age so they have more time to grow spiritually through adulthood. Therefore, it is more likely for a Catholic youth minister or youth ministry leader to be a lay person, rather than an ordained priest.
Unitarian Universalism
There are organizations within the Unitarian Universalist Association (the primary organization of Unitarian Universalist congregations in the United States), as well as within the Canadian Unitarian Council (the national body for Unitarian Universalist congregations in Canada), which minister to and with youth, of which Young Religious Unitarian Universalists (YRUU) is the largest and most apparent. YRUU strongly emphasizes youth empowerment, along with youth-adult partnership. There are also specific youth-oriented programs, such as Coming of Age, and Our Whole Lives, a lifespan sexuality education program with a youth age group.
Education and career path
Youth ministers may be trained in an education specifically to work with youth. Many Bible and Christian universities and colleges now offer undergraduate and graduate degrees in youth ministry. While youth ministry was previously considered a stepping stone on the way to becoming priests, nuns and other important vocations, the trend is currently moving toward treating it as its own vocation. Most congregations or places of worship have a strict vetting process for their youth ministers, including but not limited to background checks, educational requirements and previous relevant experience.
See also
Adolescence
Christianity in the United States#Youth programs
List of youth organizations
Youth development
Youth program
Youth subculture
References
Youth work
People who work with children
Christianity and children | wiki |
The Staircase Murders is a 2007 Lifetime television film directed by Tom McLoughlin and starring Treat Williams, Samaire Armstrong, and Kevin Pollak.
It tells the story of Michael Peterson, who was convicted in 2003 of killing his wife by beating her over the head. During the trial it was revealed that many years previously a friend of Peterson's, whose children he would later adopt, died under seemingly similar circumstances.
References
External links
Lifetime (TV network) films
American films based on actual events
2007 television films
2007 films
Films directed by Tom McLoughlin
American courtroom films
Films about murder
2000s English-language films
2000s American films | wiki |
In-target probe, or ITP is a device used in computer hardware and microprocessor design, to control a target microprocessor or similar ASIC at the register level. It generally allows full control of the target device and allows the computer engineer access to individual processor registers, program counter, and instructions within the device. It allows the processor to be single-stepped or for breakpoints to be set. Unlike an in-circuit emulator (ICE), an In-Target Probe uses the target device to execute, rather than substituting for the target device.
See also
Hardware-assisted virtualization
In-circuit emulator
Joint Test Action Group
External links
ITP700 Debug Port Design Guide - Intel
Embedded systems
Debugging | wiki |
FTX:
FTX — криптовалютная биржа Самуэля Бэнкмана.
FTX-арена — спортивный комплекс в Майами (штат Флорида, США). | wiki |
The Fallen Worker Memorial is a memorial commemorating workers killed on the job, installed outside the state Labor and Industries building near the Oregon State Capitol in Salem, Oregon, United States. The memorial, which was proposed by Oregon AFL–CIO, approved by the Oregon Parks and Recreation Department, and dedicated in April 2009, features a bronze plaque and benches, cheery trees, and additional landscaping adjacent to the Labor and Industries Building. Construction cost approximately $20,000 and was funded by donations. The site has hosted services in observance of Workers' Memorial Day.
See also
Workers' Memorial Sculpture (1995), Indianapolis
References
External links
2009 establishments in Oregon
Labor monuments and memorials in the United States
Monuments and memorials in Salem, Oregon | wiki |
Plasteel may refer to:
Plasteel, composite of fiberglass and steel patented by automobile manufacturer Gurgel and first used in 1973
Plasteel (Dune), a durable tough form of steel mentioned by Frank Herbert in his 1965 science fiction novel Dune and its sequels
Plasteel, a metal manufacturing and machining services company; see Boxer (armoured fighting vehicle) | wiki |
The Portuguese man o' war (Physalia physalis), also known as the man-of-war, is a marine hydrozoan found in the Atlantic Ocean and the Indian Ocean. It is considered to be the same species as the Pacific man o' war or blue bottle, which is found mainly in the Pacific Ocean. The Portuguese man o' war is the only species in the genus Physalia, which in turn is the only genus in the family Physaliidae.
The Portuguese man o' war is a conspicuous member of the neuston, the community of organisms that live at the ocean surface. It has numerous venomous microscopic nematocysts which deliver a painful sting powerful enough to kill fish, and has been known to occasionally kill humans. Although it superficially resembles a jellyfish, the Portuguese man o' war is in fact a siphonophore. Like all siphonophores, it is a colonial organism, made up of many smaller units called zooids. All zooids in a colony are genetically identical, but fulfill specialized functions such as feeding and reproduction, and together allow the colony to operate as a single individual.
Taxonomy
The blue bottle, Pacific man o' war or Indo-Pacific Portuguese man o' war, distinguished by a smaller float and a single long fishing tentacle, was originally considered a separate species in the same genus (P. utriculus). The name was synonymized with P. physalis in 2007, and it is now considered a regional form of the same species.
Etymology
The name man o' war comes from the man-of-war, a sailing warship, and the animal's resemblance to the Portuguese version (the caravel) at full sail.
Overview
The siphonophore Physalia physalis, commonly known as the Portuguese man o' war, is one of the most conspicuous, but poorly understood, members of the neuston. The neuston is the floating community of ocean organisms that live at the interface between water and air. This community is exposed to a unique set of environmental conditions including prolonged exposure to intense ultraviolet light, desiccation risk, and rough sea and wave conditions. Despite their tolerance for extreme environmental conditions and the very large size of this habitat, which makes up 71% of the Earth's surface and is nearly three times the area of all terrestrial habitats, very little is known about the organisms that make up this highly specialized polyphyletic community.
The Portuguese man o' war is aptly named after a warship: it uses part of an enlarged float filled with carbon monoxide and air as a sail to travel by wind for thousands of miles, dragging behind long tentacles that deliver a deadly venomous sting to fish. This sailing ability, combined with a painful sting and a life cycle with seasonal blooms, results in periodic mass beach strandings and occasional human envenomations, making P. physalis the most infamous siphonophore.
The development, morphology, and colony organization of P. physalis is very different from all other siphonophores. Siphonophores are a relatively understudied group of colonial hydrozoans. Colonies are composed of functionally specialized bodies (termed zooids) that are homologous to free living individuals. Most species are planktonic and are found at most depths from the deep sea to the surface of the ocean. They are fragile and difficult to collect intact, and must be collected by submersible, remotely operated vehicle, by hand while blue-water diving, or in regions with localized upwellings. However, Physalia physalis is the most accessible, conspicuous, and robust siphonophore, and as such, much has been written about this species, including the chemical composition of its float, venom (especially envenomations), occurrence, and distribution. Fewer studies, however, have taken a detailed look at P. physalis structure, including development, histology of major zooids, and broader descriptions of colony arrangement. These studies provide an important foundation for understanding the morphology, cellular anatomy, and development of this neustonis species. It can be difficult to understand the morphology, growth, and development of P. physalis within the context of siphonophore diversity, as the colony consists of highly 3-dimensional branching structures and develops very different from all other siphonophores.
The bluebottle resembles a jellyfish but is actually a siphonophore, a colonial organism composed of small individual animals called zooids. There are four zooids depending on each other for survival and performing different functions, such as digestion (gastrozooids), reproduction (gonozooids) and hunting (dactylozooids). The last zooid, the pneumatophore, is a gas-filled float or sac that supports the other zooids and acts like a sail so the bluebottle is constrained to the ocean surface, moving at the mercy of the wind, waves and marine currents. The bluebottle's long tentacles hang below the float as they drift, fishing for prey to sting and drag up to their digestive zooids.
The species is found throughout the world's oceans, in tropical, subtropical and (occasionally) temperate regions.
Anatomy and physiology
Like all siphonophores, the Portuguese man o' war is colonial: each man o' war is composed of many smaller units (zooids) that hang in clusters from under a large, gas-filled structure called the pneumatophore. New zooids are added by budding as the colony grows. As many as seven different kinds of zooids have been described in the man o' war: three of the medusoid type (gonophores, nectophores, and vestigial nectophores) and four of the polypoid type (free gastrozooids, tentacle-bearing zooids, gonozooids and gonopalpons). However, naming and categorization of zooids varies between authors, and much of the embryonic and evolutionary relationships of zooids remains unclear.
The pneumatophore, or bladder, is the most conspicuous part of the man o' war. It is translucent and tinged blue, purple, pink, or mauve, and may be long and rise as high as above the water. The pneumatophore functions as both a flotation device and a sail for the colony, allowing the colony to move with the prevailing wind. The gas in the pneumatophore is part carbon monoxide (0.5–13%), which is actively produced by the animal, and part atmospheric gases (nitrogen, oxygen and noble gases) that diffuse in from the surrounding air. In the event of a surface attack, the pneumatophore can be deflated, allowing the colony to temporarily submerge.
The colony hunts and feeds through the cooperation of two types of zooid: gastrozooids and tentacle-bearing zooids known as dactylozooids or tentacular palpons. The dactylozooids are equipped with tentacles, which are typically about in length but can reach over . Each tentacle bears tiny, coiled, thread-like structures called nematocysts. Nematocysts trigger and inject venom on contact, stinging, paralyzing, and killing adult or larval squids and fishes. Large groups of Portuguese man o' war, sometimes over 1,000 individuals, may deplete fisheries. Contraction of tentacles drags the prey upward, into range of the gastrozooids, the digestive zooids. The gastrozooids surround and digest the food by secreting enzymes. P. physalis typically has multiple stinging tentacles, but a regional form (previously known as a separate species, P. utriculus) has only a single stinging tentacle.
The main reproductive zooids, the gonophores, are situated on branching structures called gonodendra. Gonophores produce sperm or eggs (see life cycle). Besides gonophores, each gonodendron also contains several other types of specialized zooids: gonozooids (which are accessory gastrozooids), nectophores (which have been speculated to allow detached gonodendra to swim), and vestigial nectophores (also called jelly polyps; the function of these is unclear).
Coloniality
The man o' war is described as a colonial organism because the individual zooids in a colony are evolutionarily derived from either polyps or medusae, i.e. the two basic body plans of cnidarians. Both of these body plans comprise entire individuals in non-colonial cnidarians (for example, a jellyfish is a medusa; a sea anemone is a polyp). All zooids in a man o' war develop from the same single fertilized egg and are therefore genetically identical; they remain physiologically connected throughout life, and essentially function as organs in a shared body. Hence, a Portuguese man o' war constitutes a single individual from an ecological perspective, but is made up of many individuals from an embryological perspective.
Distribution
Found mostly in tropical and subtropical waters, the Portuguese man-o-war lives at the surface of the ocean. The gas-filled bladder, or pneumatophore, remains at the surface, while the remainder is submerged. Portuguese man-o-war have no means of propulsion, and move passively, driven by the winds, currents, and tides.
Winds can drive them into bays or onto beaches. Often, finding a single Portuguese man o' war is followed by finding many others in the vicinity. The Portuguese man o' war is well known to beachgoers for the painful stings delivered by its tentacles. Because they can sting while beached, the discovery of a man o' war washed up on a beach may lead to the closure of the beach.
Drifting dynamics
Despite being a common occurrence, the origin of the man o' war or bluebottle before reaching the coastline is not well understood, and neither is the way it drifts at the surface of the ocean.
Left- and right-handedness
For each man o' war or bluebottle, the float can be oriented towards the left or the right (dimorphism), believed to be an adaptation that prevents the entire population from being washed on shore to die. The "left-handed" bluebottles sail to the right of the wind, while the "right-handed" bluebottles sail to the left. The wind will always push the two types of bluebottles in different directions, so at most half the population will be pushed towards the coast. Regional populations of Portuguese man o' war can have substantial differences in float size and the number of long tentacles used for hunting. The regional form previously known as P. utriculus, the bluebottle, has a float rarely exceeding 10 cm in length and has one long hunting tentacle that is less than 3 m long. In comparison, the typical man o' war has a float of around 15 cm, reported up to 30 cm, and several hunting tentacles that can reach 30 m in mature colonies when fully extended.
A Portuguese man o' war is somewhat asymmetrically shaped: the zooids of the colony hang down not quite from the midline of the pneumatophore, but offset to either the right or left side of the midline. When combined with the trailing action of the tentacles (which function as a sea anchor), this left- or right-handedness makes the colony sail sideways relative to the wind, by about 45° in either direction. Colony handedness has therefore been theorized to affect man o' war migration, with left-handed or right-handed colonies potentially being more likely to drift down particular respective sea routes. While previously believed to develop as a result of what winds a colony experienced, handedness in fact emerges early in the colony's life, while it is still living below the surface of the sea.
Mathematical modelling
Since they cannot swim, the movement of the man o' war or bluebottle can be modelled mathematically by calculating the forces acting on it, or by advecting virtual particles in ocean and atmospheric circulation models. Earlier studies modelled the movement of the man o' war with Lagrangian particle tracking to explain major beaching events. In 2017, Ferrer and Pastor were able to estimate the region of origin of a significant beaching event on the Basque coast. They ran a Lagrangian model backwards in time, using wind velocity and a wind drag coefficient as drivers of the man o' war motion. They found that the region of origin was the North Atlantic subtropical gyre. In 2015 Prieto et al. included both the effect of the surface currents and wind to predict the initial colony position prior to major beaching events in the Mediterranean. This model assumed the man o' war was advected by the surface currents, with the effect of the wind being added with a much higher wind drag coefficient of 10 percent. Similarly, in 2020 Headlam et al. used beaching and offshore observations to identify a region of origin, using the joint effects of surface currents and wind drag, for the largest mass man o' war beaching on the Irish coastline in over 150 years. These earlier studies used numerical models in combination with simple assumptions to calculate the drift of this species, excluding complex drifting dynamics. In 2021, Lee et al. provide a parameterisation for Lagrangian modelling of the bluebottle by considering the similarities between the bluebottle and a sailboat. This allowed them to compute the hydrodynamic and aerodynamic forces acting on the bluebottle and use an equilibrium condition to create a generalised model for calculating the drifting speed and course of the bluebottle under any wind and ocean current conditions.
Ecology
Predators and prey
The Portuguese man o' war is a carnivore. Using its venomous tentacles, a man o' war traps and paralyzes its prey while "reeling" it inwards to the digestive polyps. It typically feeds on small adult fish and fish fry (young fish), and sometimes zooplankton, shrimp and other small crustaceans.
The organism has few predators of its own; one example is the loggerhead turtle, which feeds on the Portuguese man o' war as a common part of its diet. The turtle's skin, including that of its tongue and throat, is too thick for the stings to penetrate. Also, the blue sea slug Glaucus atlanticus specializes in feeding on the Portuguese man o' war, as does the violet snail Janthina janthina. The ocean sunfish's diet, once thought to consist mainly of jellyfish, has been found to include many species, the Portuguese man o' war being one such example.
The blanket octopus is immune to the venom of the Portuguese man o' war; young individuals have been observed to carry broken man o' war tentacles, which males and immature females rip off and use for offensive and defensive purposes.
The man-of-war fish, Nomeus gronovii, is a driftfish native to the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. It is notable for its ability to live within the deadly tentacles of the Portuguese man o' war, upon whose tentacles and gonads it feeds. Rather than using mucus to prevent nematocysts from firing, as is seen in some of the clownfish sheltering among sea anemones, the fish appears to use highly agile swimming to physically avoid tentacles. The fish has a very high number of vertebrae (41), which may add to its agility and primarily uses its pectoral fins for swimming—a feature of fish that specialize in maneuvering tight spaces. It also has a complex skin design and at least one antigen to the man o' war's toxin. Although the fish seems to be 10 times more resistant to the toxin than other fish, it can be stung by the dactylozooides (large tentacles), which it actively avoids. The smaller gonozooids do not seem to sting the fish and the fish is reported to frequently "nibble" on these tentacles.
Commensalism and symbiosis
The Portuguese man o' war is often found with a variety of other marine fish, including yellow jack. These fish benefit from the shelter from predators provided by the stinging tentacles, and for the Portuguese , the presence of these species may attract other fish to eat.
Life cycle
Man o' war individuals are dioecious, meaning each colony is either male or female. Gonophores producing either sperm or eggs (depending on the sex of the colony) sit on a tree-like structure called a gonodendron, which is believed to drop off from the colony during reproduction. Mating takes place primarily in the autumn, when eggs and sperm are shed from gonophores into the water. As neither fertilization nor early development have been directly observed in the wild, it is not yet known at what depth they occur.
A fertilized man o' war egg develops into a larva that buds off new zooids as it grows, gradually forming a new colony. This development initially occurs under the water, and has been reconstructed by comparing different stages of larvae collected at sea. The first two structures to emerge are the pneumatophore (sail) and a single, early feeding zooid called a protozooid; later, gastrozooids and tentacle-bearing zooids are added. Eventually, the growing pneumatophore becomes buoyant enough to carry the immature colony on the surface of the water.
Venom
The stinging, venom-filled nematocysts in the tentacles of the Portuguese man o' war can paralyze small fish and other prey. Detached tentacles and dead specimens (including those that wash up on shore) can sting just as painfully as those of the live organism in the water and may remain potent for hours or even days after the death of the organism or the detachment of the tentacle.
Stings usually cause severe pain to humans, leaving whip-like red welts on the skin that normally last two or three days after the initial sting. The pain normally subsides after about one to three hours (depending on the victim's biology). However, the venom can travel to the lymph nodes and may cause symptoms that mimic an allergic reaction, including swelling of the larynx, airway blockage, cardiac distress and an inability to breathe. Other symptoms may include fever and shock and, in some extreme cases, even death, although this is extremely rare. Medical attention for those exposed to large numbers of tentacles may become necessary to relieve pain or open airways if the pain becomes excruciating or lasts for more than three hours, or if breathing becomes difficult. Instances in which the stings completely surround the trunk of a young child are among those that may be fatal.
The species is responsible for up to 10,000 human stings in Australia each summer, particularly on the east coast, with some others occurring off the coast of South Australia and Western Australia.
Treatment of stings
Stings from a Portuguese man o' war can result in severe dermatitis characterized by long, thin, open wounds that resemble those caused by a whip. These are not caused by any impact or cutting action, but by irritating urticariogenic substances in the tentacles.
In 2017, vinegar (acetic acid, 5% acidity) rinsing (irreversibly inhibiting cnidae discharge), then applying heat, water or hot pack, at 45 °C (113 °F), for 45 minutes, was found to be the most effective treatment, while rinsing with seawater, cold packs, urine, baking soda, shaving cream, soap, lemon juice, alcohol, rubbing alcohol, and cola will trigger the release of more venom.
In 2009, isolated studies had suggested that in some individuals vinegar dousing may increase toxin delivery and worsen symptoms. In 1988, vinegar was claimed to provoke hemorrhaging when used on the less severe stings of cnidocytes of smaller species.
Gallery
See also
Chondrophores (porpitids), a different hydrozoan colonial organism
Velella, a smaller hydrozoa which has a similar shape and colouration.
Porpita porpita
Siphonophorae
References
Further reading
External links
Siphonophores.org General information
Portuguese Man-of-War National Geographic
Blue bottle Life In The Fast Lane
PortugueseManOfWar.com
Physalia physalis discussed on RNZ Critter of the Week, 24 December 2021.
Cystonectae
Cnidarians of the Atlantic Ocean
Cnidarians of the Indian Ocean
Cnidarians of the Pacific Ocean
Cnidarians of the Caribbean Sea
Animals described in 1758
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
Venomous animals | wiki |
The 12415 / 12416 Indore – New Delhi Intercity Express is a daily superfast train service which runs between Indore, the largest city and commercial hub of Central Indian state Madhya Pradesh and New Delhi, the capital city of India.
This train is the only lengthy train from Indore, having a total of 22 Coaches and is the most preferable choice of the Indore people to reach Delhi. This train is the only ISO Certified train of Indore.
Coach Composition
The train consists of 22 coaches :
1 AC First Class
1 AC II Tier
3 AC III Tier
12 Sleepar Class
3 General Unreserved
2 End On Generator
Service
The 12415/Indore - New Delhi Intercity Express has an average speed of 61 km/hr and covers 826 km in 13 hrs 35 mins.
The 12416/New Delhi - Indore Intercity Express has an average speed of 60 km/hr and covers 826 km in 13 hrs 40 mins.
Route & Halts
The important halts of the train are :
Schedule
Direction Reversal
Train reverses its direction at:
Traction
Both trains are hauled by a Tughlakabad based WAP 7 electric locomotive from end to end.
See also
Malwa Express
References
Transport in Indore
Transport in Delhi
Intercity Express (Indian Railways) trains
Rail transport in Uttar Pradesh
Rail transport in Madhya Pradesh
Rail transport in Haryana
Rail transport in Rajasthan
Rail transport in Delhi
Railway services introduced in 1992 | wiki |
Rocky Mount may refer to:
Rocky Mount, Alabama, a place in Chilton County, Alabama
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Rocky Mount, Morgan County, Missouri
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Rocky Mount (Amtrak station)
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Events
Rocky Mount Fire of 2016, a forest fire in Shenandoah National Park | wiki |
Odour activity value (OAV) is a measure of importance of a specific compound to the odour of a sample (e.g. food). It is calculated as the ratio between the concentration of individual substance in a sample and the threshold concentration of this substance (odour threshold value, the minimal concentration that can be detected by human nose).
References
Olfaction
Flavors | wiki |
The Mercedes-AMG C-Coupé DTM is a silhouette racing car designed by Mercedes-Benz for the Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters championship. Mercedes-Benz chose the IAA International Motor Show in Frankfurt to present the new 2012 DTM AMG Mercedes C-Coupé. It is the successor to the AMG-Mercedes C-Klasse race car which was permanently retired after the 2011 season. Since 2015 the car has been renamed Mercedes-AMG C63 DTM. The C-Coupé DTM was initially based on the C204 Mercedes-Benz C-Coupé; for the 2016 season it was updated to reflect the new C205 Mercedes-Benz C-Coupé body style.
History
HWA AG began development, design and construction of the DTM AMG Mercedes C-Coupé in June 2010. The first chassis was assembled in June 2011, with the first vehicle completed in August. At the end of the 2018 season, Mercedes-Benz left the DTM after 19 years as they will be switching to Formula E from the 2019–20 season; this will be the last Mercedes vehicle in the DTM to date.
Characteristics
The DTM AMG-Mercedes C-Coupé was designed to meet the new and improved safety concept for 2012, which includes a state-of-the-art carbon fibre monocoque and a roll cage made of high strength steel. In order to improve driver protection in the event of an accident, all safety-related components such as the fire extinguishing system and fuel tank have been incorporated into the monocoque. Furthermore, each vehicle is equipped with six crash structures to give the driver additional protection to the front, rear and sides. These carbon fibre crash structures are designed to gradually absorb impact energy, so that the driver is not exposed to high deceleration forces.
The new safety concept was developed jointly by rights holder and promoter ITR e.V., the DMSB and the three manufacturers – Audi, BMW and Mercedes-Benz. In order to verify the performance of the DTM safety concept, the DMSB developed a test programme, which was carried out and analyzed by DEKRA, the independent testing organization. All tests were completed without any problems.
The new DTM AMG-Mercedes C-Coupé is based on the latest Mercedes-Benz C-Class Coupé, which celebrated its world premiere in autumn 2011.
Chassis
The Mercedes-Benz C-Coupé DTM was built to supersede the Mercedes-Benz C-Class race car, a chassis was made directly connected to the carbon fibre monocoque is a roll cage of high-strength steel; CFRP crash elements on the side, front and rear.
Weight
At the beginning of the 2012 season, homologation rules for DTM cars were changed, an increase in minimum weight from 1,050 kg to 1,110 kg was mandated.
Engines
The Mercedes-AMG C-Coupé DTM car was powered by a Mercedes-Benz AMG naturally-aspirated DOHC engine that carried over from previous Mercedes-Benz AMG W204 C-Class DTM, W203 C-Class DTM and CLK DTM cars. The engine was a 4.0-litre 90 degree V8 with four valves per cylinder, indirect fuel injection, air restricted to 2 x 28 mm by regulations. The power output is approximately with a torque of .
Achievements
As of August 2017, Mercedes-AMG C63 Class Coupé DTM scored 19 victories, 17 poles, 20 fastest laps and 2 driver titles.
References
External links
Mercedes-Benz C-Coupé DTM Car Specifications
DTM
Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters cars | wiki |
The Starless World is a science fiction novel by American writer Gordon Eklund, set in the Star Trek universe and involving a Dyson Sphere. It contains the canonical character James T. Kirk. It was originally published by Bantam Books in 1978.
Plot summary
The Enterprise is sent to investigate Klingon activity in the galactic core. They encounter a shuttlecraft piloted by Thomas Clayton, from the long-lost ship, the USS Rickover. Clayton is also an old friend of Kirk's, a former roommate from his time at Starfleet Academy.
Kirk is prepared to dismiss his unfortunate friend as a madman until a mysterious force seizes control of the ship. Clayton declares the Enterprise is now going to meet his new god.
References
External links
1978 American novels
1978 science fiction novels
American science fiction novels
Bantam Books books
Novels based on Star Trek: The Original Series | wiki |
This is a list of teen magazines.
Magazines
See also
Teen magazine
Lists of magazines
References
List
Works about adolescence
Adolescence-related lists
Teen | wiki |
The 13 lane Business Bay Crossing (In Arabic: معبر الخليج التجاري; also known as the Ras Al Khor Bridge (جسر راس الخور)) is one of the most recent bridges across Dubai Creek and was opened to traffic in June 2007. Six lanes travel from Deira to Bur Dubai while seven go from Bur Dubai to Deira.
The Business Bay Crossing is located some 1.5 km South of Al Garhoud Bridge near Dubai Festival City and provides a new road corridor to motorists travelling between Bur Dubai and Deira and to Sharjah, in addition to Emirates Road and Sheikh Zayed Road.
The bridge cost 800 million dirhams and has a capacity of 26,000 vehicles per hour. The bridge is long, and has a maritime channel with a width of and a height of .
The bridge was built by BESIX, a company which made some major bridges in Dubai.
Photo gallery
Construction Photos on 31 January 2007
Construction Photos on 7 March 2007
Construction Photos from the air on 1 May 2007
Construction Photo on 31 May 2007
References
External links
More information on the Business Bay Crossing
Bridges in the United Arab Emirates
Bridges completed in 2007
Transport in Dubai | wiki |
The 2005 West Asian Women's Football Championship took place in Amman, Jordan. It was the first West Asian Football Federation Women's championship. Five teams participated and the hosts won.
Results
References
2005
WAFF
2005–06 in Jordanian football
2005 | wiki |
A kimchi burger is a hamburger that includes kimchi in its preparation. Several restaurants serve kimchi burgers as part of their fare, including restaurants in South Korea, England and the United States. McDonald's restaurants in South Korea serve kimchi burgers. In addition to kimchi burgers being prepared using ground beef, they may be prepared using seafood, such as salmon. Kimchi burgers are sometimes topped with an egg, and may include additional ingredients such as mayonnaise, barbecue sauce and cilantro, among others.
History
The kimchi burger is a relatively newer, modern style of hamburger. It has been stated that Uncle Joe's Hamburger of Seoul, South Korea, was the inventor of the kimchi burger.
See also
List of hamburgers
References
Hamburgers (food)
Kimchi dishes
Korean fusion cuisine | wiki |
Plaster casting may refer to:
Plaster cast
Plaster mold casting, a metalworking process that uses plaster as the mold material | wiki |
The second Las Vegas Quicksilvers were a soccer club that competed in the USISL.
Year-by-year
Sports teams in Las Vegas
Defunct soccer clubs in Nevada
Soccer clubs in Nevada
1994 establishments in Nevada
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Association football clubs established in 1994
Association football clubs disestablished in 1995 | wiki |
Second Amendment may refer to:
Second Amendment to the United States Constitution, part of the United States Bill of Rights, protecting the right of the people to keep and bear arms
1992 Colorado Amendment 2
Florida Amendment 2 (2008), an amendment to the Constitution of Florida that prohibited same-sex marriage.
Second Amendment of the Constitution of India
Second Amendment of the Constitution of Ireland, an omnibus amendment
Second Amendment of the Constitution of South Africa, which made various technical changes
Australian referendum, 1910 (State Debts), the second amendment to the Constitution of Australia
Second Amendments, an American country-rock band that consisted of 5 members of the U.S. House of Representatives | wiki |
Straight may refer to:
Slang
Straight, slang for heterosexual
Straight-acting, an LGBT person who does not exhibit the appearance or mannerisms of the gay stereotype
Straight, a member of the straight edge subculture
Sport and games
Straight, an alternative name for the cross, a type of punch in boxing
Straight, a hand ranking in the card game of poker
Places
Straight, Oklahoma, an unincorporated community in Texas County, Oklahoma
Media
Straight (Tobias Regner album), the first album by German singer Tobias Regner
Straight (2007 film), a German film by Nicolas Flessa
Straight (2009 film), a Bollywood film starring Vinay Pathak and Gul Panag
"Straight", a song by T-Pain on the 2017 Oblivion (T-Pain album)
"Straight", a song by A Place to Bury Strangers on the 2015 album Transfixiation
Straight Records, a record label formed in 1969
The Georgia Straight (straight.com), a Canadian weekly newspaper published in Vancouver, British Columbia
Straight, the second autobiography by British artist Boy George
Other
Straight, Inc., former name of a US drug rehabilitation program for adolescents
Straight whiskey, pure whiskey distilled at no higher than 80% alcohol content that has been aged at least two years
Straightedge, a drawing or cutting tool
Straight (racing), a section of a race track
Straight (surname)
Straight man, a stock character
Straight line, having zero curvature
See also
Strait, a body of water | wiki |
Abijah is a person named in the Old Testament. She was the daughter of a Zechariah, possibly Zechariah the son of Jeberechiah (2 Chronicles 29:1; compare Book of Isaiah 8:2), and afterwards the wife of King Ahaz (reigned c. 732 - 716 BCE) and mother of King Hezekiah (reigned c. 715-686 BCE). She is also called Abi (2 Kings 18:2).
Some writers consider Abijah to be the almah or "young woman" (at the time of the prophecy) in the Immanuel prophecy in Isaiah 7:14, and that the child who will be an infant when Rezin and Pekah are defeated by Tiglath-Pileser III (reigned 745–727 BCE) may be the future heir, Hezekiah.
References
8th-century BCE Hebrew people
8th-century BC women
Davidic line
Jewish royalty
Queen mothers
Women in the Hebrew Bible
Queens consort of Israel and Judah
Books of Chronicles people
Book of Isaiah people
House of Pekah | wiki |
The brant or brent goose (Branta bernicla) is a small goose of the genus Branta. There are three subspecies, all of which winter along temperate-zone sea-coasts and breed on the high-Arctic tundra.
The Brent oilfield was named after the species.
Description
The brant is a small goose with a short, stubby bill. It measures long, across the wings and weighs . The under-tail is pure white, and the tail black and very short (the shortest of any goose).
The species is divided into three subspecies:
Dark-bellied brant goose B. b. bernicla (Linnaeus, 1758)
Pale-bellied brant goose B. b. hrota (Müller, 1776) (also known as light-bellied brent goose in Europe, and Atlantic brant in North America)
Black brant goose B. b. nigricans (Lawrence, 1846) (sometimes also known as the Pacific brant in North America)
Some DNA evidence suggests that these forms are genetically distinct; while a split into three separate species has been proposed, it is not widely accepted, with other evidence upholding their maintenance as a single species.
The body of the dark-bellied form B. b. bernicla is fairly uniformly dark grey-brown all over, the flanks and belly not significantly paler than the back. The head and neck are black, with a small white patch on either side of the neck. With a population of about 250000, it breeds on the Arctic coasts of central and western Siberia and winters in western Europe, with over half the population in southern England, the rest between northern Germany and north-western France.
The pale-bellied brant B. b. hrota appears blackish-brown and light grey in colour. The body is different shades of grey-brown all over, the flanks and belly are significantly paler than the back and present a marked contrast. The head and neck are black, with a small white patch on either side of the neck. The total population is about 250000, with the main population breeding in northeastern Canada and wintering along the Atlantic coast of the U.S. from Maine to Georgia, and two smaller populations, one breeding in Franz Josef Land, Svalbard, and northeastern Greenland and wintering in Denmark, northeast England, and Scotland, and the other breeding in the far-northeastern Canadian islands and wintering in Ireland, southwest England, and in a small but significant area, le Havre de Regnéville, centered on the Sienne Estuary in Manche (Northern France). In Ireland it is recorded in winter from a number of areas including Lough Foyle, Strangford Lough, Tralee Bay and Castlemaine Harbour.
The black brant B. b. nigricans appears blackish-brown and white in colour. This form is a very contrastingly black and white bird, with a uniformly dark sooty-brown back, similarly coloured underparts (with the dark colour extending furthest back of the three forms) and a prominent white flank patch; it also has larger white neck patches, forming a near-complete collar. The population of about 125000 breeds in northwestern Canada, Alaska and eastern Siberia, and winters mostly on the west coast of North America from southern Alaska to California, but also some in east Asia, mainly Japan, also Korea and China. The population has been as high as 200,000 in 1981, and as low as 100,000 in 1987.
The Asian populations of the black brant populations had previously been regarded as a separate subspecies B. b. orientalis based on purported paler upperparts coloration; however, it is generally now believed that this is not correct, and they are assigned to B. b. nigricans.
A fourth form (known variously as gray brant, intermediate brant, or grey-bellied brent goose) has been proposed, although no formal subspecies description has been made as yet, for a population of birds breeding in central Arctic Canada (mainly Melville Island), and wintering on Puget Sound on the American west coast around the U.S./Canada border. These birds are intermediate in appearance between black brant and pale-bellied brant, having brown upperparts and grey underparts which give less of a contrast with the white flank patch. It has also been proposed that, rather than being a separate subspecies, it is actually a result of interbreeding between these two forms, given that this population exhibits mixed characters.
Individual birds when wintering generally remain in loose family-groups, together with others of the same sub-species, but there is overlap in some areas (for example Western Europe, see above); and this is also true in the breeding colonies. Outside the breeding season, individuals with characteristics of any subspecies may occasionally turn up with regular migrants, and there has been debate as to whether this is related to migration routing accidents, or to breeding range overlap, or even interbreeding.
Habitat
The brant goose was strictly coastal bird in winter, rarely leaving tidal estuaries, where it feeds on eelgrass (Zostera marina) and the seaweed, sea lettuce (Ulva). On the east coast of North America, the inclusion of sea lettuce is a recent change to their diet, brought about by a blight on eelgrass in 1931. This resulted in the near-extirpation of the brant. The few that survived changed their diet to include sea lettuce until the eelgrass eventually began to return. Brants have maintained this diet ever since as a survival strategy. A similar collapse in eelgrass in Ireland in the 1930s also negatively impacted the population. In recent decades, it has started using agricultural land a short distance inland, feeding extensively on grass and winter-sown cereals. It has been suggested that they learnt this behaviour by following other species of geese. Food resource pressure may also be important in forcing this change, as the world population increased over 10-fold to 400,000-500,000 by the mid-1980s, possibly reaching the carrying capacity of the estuaries. In the breeding season, it uses low-lying wet coastal tundra for both breeding and feeding. The nest is bowl-shaped, lined with grass and down, in an elevated location, often near a small pond.
The brant goose is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds applies.
Etymology
Branta is a Latinised form of Old Norse brandgás, "burnt (black) goose", and bernicla is the medieval Latin name for the barnacle.
The brant and the similar barnacle goose were previously considered one species, formerly believed to be the same creature as the crustacean. That myth can be dated back to at least the 12th century. Gerald of Wales claimed to have seen these birds hanging down from pieces of timber, William Turner accepted the theory, and John Gerard claimed to have seen the birds emerging from their shells. This myth arose because in the 1100s the migration of birds was unknown, but it was known that none of these birds was ever seen nesting, nor were eggs found, nor were goslings seen.
The legend persisted until the end of the 18th century. In County Kerry, until relatively recently, Catholics could eat this bird on a Friday because it counted as fish.
References
Further reading
Millington, Richard (1997). Separation of Black Brant, Dark-bellied Brent Goose and Pale-bellied Brent Goose Birding World 10(1):11–15; an identification paper
(this paper presented claims that Black Brant and Dark-bellied Brent Goose were interbreeding extensively in the Russian Arctic)
Sangster, George (2000). Taxonomic status of bernicla and nigricans Brent Goose British Birds 91(12):565–572 (a critical re-evaluation of the claims made in the above paper by Syroechkovski et al.)
External links
BirdGuides Brent Goose Page
Brent Goose at RSPB: Birds by Name
BBC Nature - Brent Goose
Stamps from Canada, Germany, and Jersey at bird-stamps.org (the Brent goose has also featured on stamps from Eire, Finland, and Oman; these can easily be found via any internet search-engine).
Brant Goose, B.C. Outdoor Wilderness Guide
Branta
Geese
Birds of the Arctic
Natural monuments of Japan
Native birds of Alaska
Birds described in 1758
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
Holarctic birds | wiki |
An aedeagus (plural aedeagi) is a reproductive organ of male arthropods through which they secrete sperm from the testes during copulation with a female. It can be thought of as the insect equivalent of a mammal's penis, though the comparison is fairly loose given the greater complexity of insect reproduction. The term is derived from Ancient Greek αἰδοῖα (aidoia, "private parts") and ἀγός (agos, "leader"). It is pronounced or .
The aedeagus is part of the male's abdomen, which is the hindmost of the three major body sections of an insect. The pair of testes of the insect are connected to the aedeagus through the genital ducts. The aedeagus is part of the male insect's phallus, a complex and often species-specific arrangement of more or less sclerotized (hardened) flaps and hooks which also includes in some species the valvae (clasper), which are paired organs which help the male hold on to the female during copulation. During copulation, the aedeagus connects with the ovipore of a female. The aedeagus can be quite pronounced or de minimis.
The base of the aedeagus may be the partially sclerotized phallotheca, also called the
phallosoma or theca. In some species the phallotheca contains a space, called the endosoma (internal holding pouch), into which the tip end of the aedeagus may be withdrawn (retracted). The vas deferens is sometimes drawn into (folded into) the phallotheca together with a seminal vesicle.
The sperm of arthropods is not passed to the female as liquid with free-swimming spermatozoa, but as capsules called spermatophores in which the actual spermatozoa are enclosed. In addition to the spermatophores, in some species the aedeagus also discharges a spermatophylax, a ball of nutritious secretions, as a nuptial gift to aid the female in producing offspring.
In males of most species of Lepidoptera, the aedeagus has a sheath which is supported by an organ called the juxta, which is located between the aforementioned valvae.
See also
Pedipalp#Spider pedipalps for spermatophore transfer in arachnids
References
Animal reproductive system
Sex organs
Insect anatomy | wiki |
Island of the Mad is a 2018 mystery novel by American author Laurie R. King. Fifteenth in the Mary Russell series, the story features married detectives Mary Russell and Sherlock Holmes. The events of the novel follow shortly after that of The Murder of Mary Russell.
The book was published by Bantam Books on June 12, 2018. The audiobook published by Recorded Books is narrated by Jenny Sterlin.
References
Mary Russell (book series)
Sherlock Holmes pastiches
Fiction set in 1925
2018 American novels
Bantam Books books
Novels set in Venice | wiki |
The Juris Doctor (J.D. or JD), also known as Doctor of Jurisprudence (J.D., JD, D.Jur., or DJur), is a graduate-entry professional degree in law and one of several Doctor of Law degrees. The J.D. is the standard degree obtained to practice law in the United States; unlike in some other jurisdictions, there is no undergraduate law degree in the United States. In the United States, along with Australia, Canada, and some other common law countries, the J.D. is earned by completing law school.
It has the academic standing of a professional doctorate (in contrast to a research doctorate) in the United States, where the National Center for Education Statistics discontinued the use of the term "first professional degree" as of its 2010–2011 data collection and now uses the term "doctor's degree – professional practice". It has the academic standing of a master's degree (extended) in Australia, granted an exception to use "doctor" in the qualification name, and a second-entry baccalaureate degree in Canada.
The degree was first awarded in the United States in the early 20th-century and was created as a modern version of the old European doctor of law degrees, such as the Dottore in Giurisprudenza in Italy, and the Juris Utriusque Doctor in Germany and central Europe. The modern J.D. originates from the 19th-century Harvard movement for the scientific study of law, where it was first denominated an LL.B. In the late 20th century, the awarding of the LL.B. degree was phased out in favour of awarding the J.D. It traditionally involves a three-year program, although some U.S. law schools offer accelerated programs between 2 and 2.5 years. ABA Rules do not allow an accredited J.D. to be obtained in less than 2 years.
To be fully authorized to practice law in the courts of a given state in the United States, the majority of individuals holding a J.D. degree must pass a bar examination. The state of Wisconsin, however, permits the graduates of its two law schools to practice law in that state, and in its state courts, without having to take its bar exam – a practice called "diploma privilege" – provided they complete all courses required for the diploma. Passing an additional bar exam is not required of lawyers authorized to practice in at least one state in the United States, to practice in some (but not all) of the "federal courts". Lawyers must, however, be admitted to the bar of the federal court before they are authorized to practice in that court. Admission to the bar of a federal district court includes admission to the bar of its associated bankruptcy court. Patent courts however require a specialized "Patent Bar" which require applicants to hold an additional degree specialized in certain scientific fields alongside their J.D.
Etymology and abbreviations
In the United States, the professional doctorate in law may be conferred in Latin or in English as Juris Doctor (sometimes shown on Latin diplomas in the accusative form Juris Doctorem) and at some law schools Doctor of Law (J.D. or JD), or Doctor of Jurisprudence (also abbreviated JD or J.D.). "Juris Doctor" literally means "teacher of law", while the Latin for "Doctor of Jurisprudence" – Jurisprudentiae Doctor – literally means "teacher of legal knowledge".
The J.D. is not to be confused with Doctor of Laws or Legum Doctor (LLD or LL.D.). In institutions where the latter can be earned, e.g., Cambridge University (where it is titled "Doctor of Law", though still retaining the abbreviation LL.D.) and many other British institutions, it is a higher research doctorate, representing a substantial contribution to the field over many years – a standard of professional experience beyond that required for a Ph.D. and academic accomplishment well beyond a professional degree such as the J.D. In the United States, the LL.D. is invariably an honorary degree.
Historical context
Origins of the law degree
The first university in Europe, the University of Bologna, was founded as a school of law by four famous legal scholars in the 11th century who were students of the glossator school in that city. This served as the model for other law schools of the Middle Ages, and other early universities such as the University of Padua. The first academic degrees may have been doctorates in civil law (doctores legum) followed by canon law (doctores decretorum); these were not professional degrees but rather indicated that their holders had been approved to teach at the universities. While Bologna granted only doctorates, preparatory degrees (bachelor's and licences) were introduced in Paris and then in the English universities.
History of legal training in England
The nature of the J.D. can be better understood by a review of the context of the history of legal education in England. The teaching of law at Cambridge and Oxford Universities was mainly for philosophical or scholarly purposes and not meant to prepare one to practice law. The universities only taught civil and canon law (used in a very few jurisdictions, such as the courts of admiralty and church courts) but not the common law that applied in most jurisdictions. Professional training for practicing common law in England was undertaken at the Inns of Court, but over time the training functions of the Inns lessened considerably and apprenticeships with individual practitioners arose as the prominent medium of preparation. However, because of the lack of standardisation of study, and of objective standards for appraisal of these apprenticeships, the role of universities became subsequently important for the education of lawyers in the English-speaking world.
In England in 1292 when Edward I first requested that lawyers be trained, students merely sat in the courts and observed, but over time the students would hire professionals to lecture them in their residences, which led to the institution of the Inns of Court system. The original method of education at the Inns of Court was a mix of moot court-like practice and lecture, as well as court proceedings observation. By the fifteenth century, the Inns functioned like a university, akin to the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge, though very specialized in purpose. With the frequent absence of parties to suits during the Crusades, the importance of the lawyer role grew tremendously, and the demand for lawyers grew.
Traditionally Oxford and Cambridge did not see common law as worthy of academic study, and included coursework in law only in the context of canon and civil law (the two "laws" in the original Bachelor of Laws, which thus became the Bachelor of Civil Law when the study of canon law was barred after the Reformation) and for the purpose of the study of philosophy or history only. As a consequence of the need for practical education in law, the apprenticeship program for solicitors emerged, structured and governed by the same rules as the apprenticeship programs for the trades. The training of solicitors by a five-year apprenticeship was formally established by the Attorneys and Solicitors Act 1728. William Blackstone became the first lecturer in English common law at the University of Oxford in 1753, but the university did not establish the program for the purpose of professional study, and the lectures were very philosophical and theoretical in nature. Blackstone insisted that the study of law should be university based, where concentration on foundational principles can be had, instead of concentration on detail and procedure provided by apprenticeship and the Inns of Court.
The 1728 act was amended in 1821 to reduce the period of the required apprenticeship to three years for graduates in either law or arts from Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin, as "the admission of such graduates should be facilitated, in consideration of the learning and abilities requisite for taking such degree". This was extended in 1837 to cover the newly established universities of Durham and London, and again in 1851 to include the new Queen's University of Ireland.
The Inns of Court continued but became less effective, and admission to the bar still did not require any significant educational activity or examination. In 1846, Parliament examined the education and training of prospective barristers and found the system to be inferior to that of Europe and the United States, as Britain did not regulate the admission of barristers. Therefore, formal schools of law were called for but were not finally established until later in the century, and even then the bar did not consider a university degree in admission decisions.
Until the mid nineteenth century, most law degrees in England (the BCL at Oxford and Durham, and the LLB at London) were postgraduate degrees, taken after an initial degree in arts. The Cambridge degree, variously referred to as a BCL, BL or LLB, was an exception: it took six years from matriculation to complete, but only three of these had to be in residence, and the BA was not required (although those not holding a BA had to produce a certificate to prove they had not only been in residence but had actually attended lectures for at least three terms). These degrees specialised in Roman civil law rather than in English common law, the latter being the domain of the Inns of Court, and thus they were more theoretical than practically useful. Cambridge reestablished its LLB degree in 1858 as an undergraduate course alongside the BA, and the London LLB, which had previously required a minimum of one year after the BA, become an undergraduate degree in 1866. The older nomenclature continues to be used for the BCL at Oxford today, which is a master's level program, while Cambridge moved its LLB back to being a postgraduate degree in 1922 but only renamed it as the LLM in 1982.
Between the 1960s and the 1990s, law schools in England took on a more central role in the preparation of lawyers and consequently improved their coverage of advanced legal topics to become more professionally relevant. Over the same period, American law schools became more scholarly and less professionally oriented, so that in 1996 Langbein could write: "That contrast between English law schools as temples of scholarship and American law schools as training centers for the profession no longer bears the remotest relation to reality".
Legal training in colonial North America and 19th-century United States
Initially there was much resistance to lawyers in colonial North America because of the role they had played in hierarchical England, but slowly the colonial governments started using the services of professionals trained in the Inns of Court in London, and by the end of the American Revolution there was a functional bar in each state. Due to an initial distrust of a profession open only to the elite in England, as institutions for training developed in what would become the United States they emerged as quite different from those in England.
Initially in the United States the legal professionals were trained and imported from England. A formal apprenticeship or clerkship program was established first in New York in 1730 — at that time a seven-year clerkship was required, and in 1756 a four-year college degree was required in addition to five years of clerking and an examination. Later the requirements were reduced to require only two years of college education. But a system like the Inns did not develop, and a college education was not required in England until the 19th century, so this system was unique.
The clerkship program required much individual study and the mentoring lawyer was expected to carefully select materials for study and guide the clerk in his study of the law and ensure that it was being absorbed. The student was supposed to compile his notes of his reading of the law into a "commonplace book", which he would try to memorize. Although those were the ideals, in reality the clerks were often overworked and rarely were able to study the law individually as expected. They were often employed to tedious tasks, such as making handwritten copies of documents. Finding sufficient legal texts was also a seriously debilitating issue, and there was no standardization in the books assigned to the clerk trainees because they were assigned by their mentor, whose opinion of the law may have differed greatly from his peers.
It was said by one famous attorney in the U.S., William Livingston, in 1745 in a New York newspaper that the clerkship program was severely flawed, and that most mentors
"have no manner of concern for their clerk's future welfare ... [T]is a monstrous absurdity to suppose, that the law is to be learnt by a perpetual copying of precedents".
There were some few mentors that were dedicated to the service, and because of their rarity, they became so sought-after that the first law schools evolved from the offices of some of these attorneys, who took on many clerks and began to spend more time training than practicing law.
In time, the apprenticeship program was not considered sufficient to produce lawyers fully capable of serving their clients' needs. The apprenticeship programs often employed the trainee with menial tasks, and while they were well trained in the day-to-day operations of a law office, they were generally unprepared practitioners or legal reasoners. The establishment of formal faculties of law in U.S. universities did not occur until the latter part of the 18th century. With the beginning of the American Revolution, the supply of lawyers from Britain ended. The first law degree granted by a U.S. university was a Bachelor of Law in 1793 by the College of William and Mary, which was abbreviated L.B.; Harvard was the first university to use the LL.B. abbreviation in the United States.
The first university law programs in the United States, such as that of the University of Maryland established in 1812, included much theoretical and philosophical study, including works such as the Bible, Cicero, Seneca, Aristotle, Adam Smith, Montesquieu and Grotius. It has been said that the early university law schools of the early 19th century seemed to be preparing students for careers as statesmen rather than as lawyers. At the LL.B. programs in the early 1900s at Stanford University and Yale continued to include "cultural study", which included courses in languages, mathematics and economics. An LL.B., or Bachelor of Laws, recognized that a prior bachelor's degree was not required to earn an LL.B.
In the 1850s there were many proprietary schools which originated from a practitioner taking on multiple apprentices and establishing a school and which provided a practical legal education, as opposed to the one offered in the universities which offered an education in the theory, history and philosophy of law. The universities assumed that the acquisition of skills would happen in practice, while the proprietary schools concentrated on the practical skills during education.
Revolutionary approach: scientific study of law
In part to compete with the small professional law schools, there began a great change in U.S. university legal education. For a short time beginning in 1826 Yale began to offer a complete "practitioners' course" which lasted two years and included practical courses, such as pleading drafting. U.S. Supreme Court justice Joseph Story started the spirit of change in legal education at Harvard, when he advocated a more "scientific study" of the law in the 19th century. At the time he was a lecturer at Harvard. Therefore, at Harvard the education was much of a trade school type of approach to legal education, contrary to the more liberal arts education advocated by Blackstone at Oxford and Jefferson at William and Mary. Nonetheless, there continued to be debate among educators over whether legal education should be more vocational, as at the private law schools, or through a rigorous scientific method, such as that developed by Story and Langdell. In the words of Dorsey Ellis, "Langdell viewed law as a science and the law library as the laboratory, with the cases providing the basis for learning those 'principles or doctrines' of which law, considered as a science, consists. Nonetheless, into the year 1900 most states did not require a university education (although an apprenticeship was often required) and most practitioners had not attended any law school or college.
Therefore, the modern legal education system in the U.S. is a combination of teaching law as a science and a practical skill, implementing elements such as clinical training, which has become an essential part of legal education in the U.S. and in the J.D. program of study.
Creation of the J.D. and major common law approaches to legal education
The J.D. originated in the United States during a movement to improve training of the professions. Prior to the origination of the J.D., law students began law school either with only a high school diploma, or less than the amount of undergraduate study required to earn a bachelor's degree. The LL.B. persisted through the middle of the 20th century, after which a completed bachelor's degree became a requirement for virtually all students entering law school. The didactic approaches that resulted were revolutionary for university education and have slowly been implemented outside the U.S., but only recently (since about 1997) and in stages. The degrees which resulted from this new approach, such as the M.D. and the J.D., are just as different from their European counterparts as the educational approaches differ.
Legal education in the United States
Professional doctorates were developed in the United States in the 19th century, the first being the Doctor of Medicine in 1807, but at the time, the legal system in the United States was still in development as the educational institutions were developing, and the status of the legal profession was at that time still ambiguous and so the professional law degree took more time to develop. Even when some universities offered training in law, they did not offer a degree. Because in the United States there were no Inns of Court, and the English academic degrees did not provide the necessary professional training, the models from England were inapplicable, and the degree program took some time to develop.
At first the degree took the form of a B.L. (such as at the College of William and Mary), but then Harvard, keen on importing legitimacy through the trappings of Oxford and Cambridge, implemented an LL.B. degree. The decision to award a bachelor's degree for law could be due to the fact that admittance to most nineteenth-century American law schools required only satisfactory completion of high school. The degree was nevertheless somewhat controversial at the time because it was a professional training without any of the cultural or classical studies required of a degree in England, where it was necessary to gain a general BA prior to an LLB or BCL until the nineteenth century. Thus, even though the name of the English LL.B. degree was implemented at Harvard, the program in the U.S. was nonetheless intended as a first degree which, unlike the English B.A., gave practical or professional training in law.
Creation of the Juris Doctor
In the mid-19th century there was much concern about the quality of legal education in the United States. C.C. Langdell served as dean of Harvard Law School from 1870 to 1895, and dedicated his life to reforming legal education in the United States. The historian Robert Stevens wrote that "it was Langdell's goal to turn the legal profession into a university educated one — and not at the undergraduate level, but through a three-year post baccalaureate degree." This graduate level study would allow the intensive legal training that Langdell had developed, known as the case method (a method of studying landmark cases) and the Socratic method (a method of examining students on the reasoning of the court in the cases studied). Therefore, a graduate, high-level law degree was proposed: the Juris Doctor, implementing the case and Socratic methods as its didactic approach. According to professor J. H. Beale, an 1882 Harvard Law graduate, one of the main arguments for the change was uniformity. Harvard's four professional schools – theology, law, medicine, and arts and sciences – were all graduate schools, and their degrees were therefore a second degree. Two of them conferred a doctorate and the other two a baccalaureate degree. The change from LL.B. to J.D. was intended to end "this discrimination, the practice of conferring what is normally a first degree upon persons who have already their primary degree". The J.D. was proposed as the equivalent of the German J.U.D., to reflect the advanced study required to be an effective lawyer.
The University of Chicago Law School was the first to offer the J.D. in 1902, when it was just one of five law schools that demanded a college degree from its applicants. While approval was still pending at Harvard, the degree was introduced at many other law schools, including at the law schools at NYU, Berkeley, Michigan, and Stanford. Because of tradition, and concerns about less prominent universities implementing a J.D. program, prominent eastern law schools like those of Harvard, Yale, and Columbia refused to implement the degree. Harvard, for example, refused to adopt the J.D. degree, even though it restricted admission to students with college degrees in 1909. Indeed, pressure from eastern law schools led almost every law school (except at the University of Chicago and other law schools in Illinois) to abandon the J.D. and re‑adopt the LL.B. as the first law degree by the 1930s. By 1962, the J.D. degree was rarely seen outside the Midwest.
After the 1930s, the LL.B. and the J.D. degrees co‑existed in some American law schools. Some law schools, especially in Illinois and the Midwest, awarded both (like Marquette University, beginning in 1926), conferring J.D. degrees only to those with a bachelor's degree (as opposed to two or three years of college before law school), and those who met a higher academic standard in undergraduate studies, finishing a thesis in their third year of law school. Because the J.D. degree was no more advantageous for bar admissions or for employment, the vast majority of Marquette students preferred to seek the LL.B. degree.
As more law students entered law schools with college degrees in the 1950s and 1960s, a number of law schools may have introduced the J.D. to encourage law students to complete their undergraduate degrees. As late as 1961, there were still 15 ABA-accredited law schools in the United States which awarded both LL.B. and J.D. degrees. Thirteen of the 15 were located in the Midwest, which may indicate regional variations in the U.S.
It was only after 1962 that a new push — this time begun at less-prominent law schools — successfully led to the universal adoption of the J.D. as the first law degree. The turning point appears to have occurred when the ABA Section of Legal Education and Admissions to the Bar unanimously adopted a resolution recommending to all approved law schools that they give favorable consideration to the conferring of the J.D. degree as the first professional degree, in 1962 and 1963. By the 1960s, most law students were college graduates, and by the end of that decade, almost all were required to be. Student and alumni support were key in the LL.B.-to-J.D. change, and even the most prominent schools were convinced to make the change: Columbia and Harvard in 1969, and Yale (last) in 1971. Nonetheless, the LL.B. at Yale retained the didactical changes of the "practitioners' courses" of 1826, and was very different from the LL.B. in common law countries, other than Canada.
Following standard modern academic practice, Harvard Law School refers to its Master of Laws and Doctor of Juridical Science degrees as its graduate level law degrees. Similarly, Columbia refers to the LL.M. and the J.S.D. as its graduate program. Yale Law School lists its LL.M., M.S.L., J.S.D., and Ph.D. as constituting graduate programs. A distinction thus remains between professional and graduate law degrees in the United States.
Major common law approaches
The English legal system is the root of the systems of other common-law countries, such as the United States. Originally, common lawyers in England were trained exclusively in the Inns of Court. Even though it took nearly 150 years since common law education began with Blackstone at Oxford for university education to be part of legal training in England and Wales, the LL.B. eventually became the degree usually taken before becoming a lawyer. In England and Wales the LL.B. is an undergraduate scholarly program and although it (assuming it is a qualifying law degree) fulfills the academic requirements for becoming a lawyer, further vocational and professional training as either a barrister (the Bar Professional Training Course followed by pupillage) or as a solicitor (the Legal Practice Course followed by a "period of recognised training") is required before becoming licensed in that jurisdiction. The qualifying law degree in most English universities is the LLB although in some, including Oxford and Cambridge, it is the BA in law. Both of these can be taken with "senior status" in two years by those already holding an undergraduate degree in another discipline. A few universities offer "exempting" degrees, usually integrated master's degrees denominated Master in Law (MLaw), that combine the qualifying law degree with the legal practice course or the bar professional training course in a four-year, undergraduate-entry program.
Legal education in Canada has unique variations from other Commonwealth countries. Even though the legal system of Canada is mostly a transplant of the English system (Quebec excepted), the Canadian system is unique in that there are no Inns of Court, the practical training occurs in the office of a barrister and solicitor with law society membership, and, since 1889, a university degree has been a prerequisite to initiating an articling clerkship. The education in law schools in Canada was similar to that in the United States at the turn of the 20th century, but with a greater concentration on statutory drafting and interpretation, and elements of a liberal education. The bar associations in Canada were influenced by the changes at Harvard, and were sometimes quicker to nationally implement the changes proposed in the United States, such as requiring previous college education before studying law.
Modern variants and curriculum
Legal education is rooted in the history and structure of the legal system of the jurisdiction where the education is given; therefore, law degrees are vastly different from country to country, making comparisons among degrees problematic. This has proven true in the context of the various forms of the J.D. which have been implemented around the world.
Until about 1997 the J.D. was unique to law schools in the U.S. But with the rise in international success of law firms from the United States, and the rise in students from outside the U.S. attending U.S. law schools, attorneys with the J.D. have become increasingly common internationally. Therefore, the prestige of the J.D. has also risen, and many universities outside the U.S. have started to offer the J.D., often for the express purpose of raising the prestige of their law school and graduates. Such institutions usually aim to appropriate the name of the degree only, and sometimes the new J.D. program of study is the same as that of their traditional law degree, which is usually more scholarly in purpose than the professional training intended with the J.D. as created in the U.S. Scholarly works are deemed only persuasive, and not binding on the courts. As such, various characteristics can therefore be seen among J.D. degrees as implemented in universities around the world.
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! Hong Kong
| No|| 2–3 || No || Yes
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! Japan
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Types and characteristics
Until very recently, only law schools in the United States offered the Juris Doctor. Starting about 1997, universities in other countries began introducing the J.D. as a first professional degree in law, with differences appropriate to the legal systems of the countries in which these law schools are situated.
Standard Juris Doctor curriculum
As stated by James Hall and Langdell, two people who were involved in the creation of the J.D., the J.D. is a professional degree like the M.D., intended to prepare practitioners through a scientific approach of analysing and teaching the law through logic and adversarial analysis (such as the casebook and Socratic methods). It has existed as-described in the United States for over 100 years, and can therefore be termed the 'standard' or 'traditional' J.D. program. The J.D. program generally requires a bachelor's degree for entry, though this requirement is sometimes waived.
The program of study for the degree has remained substantially unchanged since its creation, and is an intensive study of the substantive law and its professional applications (and therefore requires no thesis, although a lengthy writing project is sometimes required
). As a professional training, it provides sufficient training for entry into practice (no apprenticeship is necessary to sit for the bar exam). It requires at least three academic years of full-time study. While the J.D. is a doctoral degree in the US, lawyers usually use the suffix "Esq." as opposed to the prefix "Dr.", and that only in a professional context, when needed to alert others that they are a biased party – acting as an agent for their client.
Replacement for the LL.B.
An initial attempt to rename the LL.B. to the J.D. in the US in the early 20th century started with a petition at Harvard in 1902. This was rejected, but the idea took hold at the new law school established at the University of Chicago and other universities and by 1925 80% of US law schools gave the J.D. to graduate entrants, while restricting undergraduate entrants (who followed the same curriculum) to the LL.B. Yet the change was rejected by Harvard, Yale and Columbia, and by the late 1920s schools were moving away from the J.D. and once again granting only the LL.B, with only law schools in Illinois – the state where the University of Chicago is based – holding out. This changed in the 1960s, by which time almost all law school entrants were graduates. The J.D. was reintroduced in 1962 and by 1971 had replaced the LL.B., again without any change in the curriculum, with many schools going as far as to offer a J.D. to their LL.B. alumni for a small fee.
Canadian and Australian universities have law programs that are very similar to the J.D. programs in the United States. These include Queen's University, Thompson Rivers University, University of British Columbia, University of Alberta, University of Victoria, Université de Moncton, University of Calgary, University of Saskatchewan, University of Manitoba, University of Windsor, University of Ottawa, University of Western Ontario, York University and University of Toronto in Canada, RMIT and the University of Melbourne in Australia. Therefore, when the J.D. program was introduced at these institutions, it was a mere renaming of their second-entry LL.B. program, and entailed no significant substantive changes to their curricula. The reason given for doing so is because of the international popularity and recognizability of the J.D., and the need to recognise the demanding graduate characteristics of the program.
Because these programs are in institutions heavily influenced by those in Britain, the J.D. programs often have some small scholarly element (see above chart titled Comparisons of J.D. Variants). And because the legal systems are also influenced by that of the Britain, an apprenticeship is still required before being qualified to apply for a license to practice (see country sections below, under "Descriptions of the J.D. outside the U.S.").
Descriptions of the J.D. outside the United States
Australia
The traditional law degree in Australia is the undergraduate Bachelor of Laws (LLB); however, there has been a huge shift towards the JD in the 2010s, with some Australian universities now offering a JD programme, including the country's best ranked universities (e.g. the University of New South Wales, the University of Sydney, the Australian National University, the University of Melbourne and Monash University).
Generally, universities that offer the JD also offer the LLB, though at some universities, only the JD is offered and only at postgraduate levels. Due to recent changes in undergraduate degree structuring, some universities, such as the University of Melbourne, only allow law to be studied at the postgraduate level and the JD has completely replaced the LLB.
An Australian Juris Doctor consists of three years of full-time study, or the equivalent. The course varies across different universities, though all are obliged to teach the Priestley 11 subjects as per the requirements of the state admissions boards in Australia. JDs are considered equivalent to the LLBs and still need to fulfil the same requirements practical legal training for admission as a lawyer.
On the Australian Qualifications Framework, the Juris Doctor is classified as a "masters degree (extended)", with an exception having been granted to use the title Juris Doctor (other such exceptions include Doctor of Medicine, Doctor of Dentistry and Doctor of Veterinary Medicine). It may not be described as a doctoral degree and holders may not use the title "doctor". Along with other extended master's degrees, the JD takes three to four years following a minimum of a three-year bachelor's degree.
Canada
The J.D. degree is the dominant common law law degree in Canada, replacing the traditional LL.B. degree prominent in Commonwealth countries. The University of Toronto became the first to rename its law degree from LL.B. to J.D. in 2001. As with the second-entry LL.B., in order to be admitted to a Juris Doctor program, applicants must have completed a minimum of two or three years of study toward a bachelor's degree and scored high on the North American Law School Admission Test. As a practical matter, nearly all successful applicants have completed one or more degrees before admission to a Canadian common law school, although despite this it is, along with other first professional degrees, considered to be a bachelor's degree-level qualification. All Canadian Juris Doctor programs consist of three years and have similar content in their mandatory first year courses. The mandatory first year courses in Canadian law schools outside Quebec include public law (i.e. provincial law, constitutional law and administrative law), property law, tort law, contract law, criminal law and legal research and writing.
Beyond first year and other courses required for graduation, course selection is elective with various concentrations such as commercial and corporate law, taxation, international law, natural resources law, real estate transactions, employment law, criminal law and Aboriginal law. After graduation from an accredited law school, each province's or territory's law society requires completion of a bar admission course or examination and a period of supervised "articling" prior to independent practice.
Use of the "J.D." designation by Canadian law schools is not intended to indicate an emphasis on American law, but rather to distinguish Canadian law degrees from English law degrees, which do not require prior undergraduate study. The Canadian J.D. is a degree in Canadian law. Accordingly, United States jurisdictions other than New York and Massachusetts do not recognize Canadian Juris Doctor degrees automatically. This is equivalent to the manner in which United States J.D. graduates are treated in Canadian jurisdictions such as Ontario. To prepare graduates to practise in jurisdictions on both sides of the border, some pairs of law schools have developed joint Canadian-American J.D. programs. As of 2018, these include a three-year program conducted concurrently at the University of Windsor and the University of Detroit Mercy, as well as a four-year program with the University of Ottawa and either Michigan State University or American University in which students spend two years studying on each side of the border. Previously, New York University (NYU) Law School and Osgoode Hall Law School offered a similar program, but this has since been terminated.
Two notable exceptions are Université de Montréal and Université de Sherbrooke, which both offer a one-year J.D. program aimed at Quebec civil law graduates in order to practice law either elsewhere in Canada or in the state of New York.
York University offered the degree of Doctor of Jurisprudence (D.Jur.) as a research degree until 2002, when the name of the program was changed to Ph.D. in law.
China
J.D.s are not generally awarded in the People's Republic of China (P.R.C.). Instead, a J.M. (Juris Magister) is awarded as the counterpart of JD in the United States, the professional degree in law in China. The primary law degree in the P.R.C. is the bachelor of law. In the fall of 2008 the Shenzhen campus of Peking University started the School of Transnational Law, which offers a U.S.-style education and awards both a Chinese master's degree and, by special authorization of the government, a J.D.
Hong Kong
The J.D. degree is currently offered at the Chinese University of Hong Kong, The University of Hong Kong, and City University of Hong Kong. The degree is known as the 法律博士 in Chinese and in Cantonese it is pronounced Faat Leot Bok Si. The J.D. in Hong Kong is almost identical to the LL.B., and is reserved for graduates of non-law disciplines, but the J.D. is considered to be a graduate-level degree and requires a thesis or dissertation. Like the LL.B. there is much scholarly content in the required coursework. Although the universities offering the degree claim that the J.D. is a 2-year program, completing the degree in 2 years would require study during the summer term. The JD is, despite its title, considered to be a master's degree by the universities that offer it in Hong Kong, and it is positioned at master's level in the Hong Kong Qualifications Framework.
Neither the LL.B. nor the J.D. provides the education sufficient for a license to practice, as graduates of both are also required to undertake the PCLL course and a solicitor traineeship or a barrister pupillage.
Italy
In Italy the J.D. is known as Laurea Magistrale in Giurisprudenza. In the Bologna process framework, it's a master's-level degree. It comprises 5 years of coursework and a final dissertation. Graduates are awarded the title of "dottore magistrale in giurisprudenza" and are qualified to register to any Italian bar in order to fulfil the 18 months training required to sit the qualification examination.
Japan
In Japan the J.D. is known as . The program generally lasts three years. Two year J.D. programs for applicants with legal knowledge (mainly undergraduate level law degree holders) are also offered. This curriculum is professionally oriented, but does not provide the education sufficient for a license to practice as an attorney in Japan, as all candidates for a license must have 12 month practical training by the Legal Training and Research Institute after passing the bar examination. Similarly to the U.S., the Juris Doctor is classed as a in Japan, which is separate from the "academic" postgraduate sequence of master's degrees and doctorates.
Mexico
To become a licensed lawyer, a person must hold the Bachelor of Law (Licenciado en Derecho) degree obtainable by four to five years of academic study and final examination. After these undergraduate studies it is possible to obtain a Magister degree (Maestría degree), equivalent to a master's degree. This degree requires two to three years of academic studies. Finally, one can study for an additional three years to obtain the Doctor en Derecho degree, which is a research degree at doctoral level. Since most universities and law schools must have approval from the Secretariat of Public Education (Secretaría de Educación Pública) through the General Office of Professions (Dirección General de Profesiones) all of the academic programs are similar throughout the country in public and private law schools.
Philippines
In the Philippines, the J.D. exists alongside the more common LL.B. Like the standard LL.B., it requires four years of study; is considered a graduate degree and requires prior undergraduate study as a prerequisite for admission and covers the core subjects required for the bar examinations. However, the J.D. requires students to finish the core bar subjects in just 2½ years; take elective courses (such as legal theory, philosophy and sometimes even theology); undergo an apprenticeship; and write and defend a thesis.
The degree was first conferred in the Philippines by the Ateneo de Manila Law School, which first developed the model program later adopted by most schools now offering the J.D. After the Ateneo, schools such as the University of Batangas College of Law, University of St. La Salle – College of Law and the De La Salle Lipa College of Law began offering the J.D., with schools such as the Far Eastern University Institute of Law offering with De La Salle University's Ramon V. Del Rosario College of Business for the country's first J.D. – MBA program. In 2008, the University of the Philippines College of Law began conferring the J.D. on its graduates, the school choosing to rename its LL.B. program into a J.D., to accurately reflect the nature of education the university provides as "nomenclature does not accurately reflect the fact that the LL.B. is a professional as well as a post-baccalaureate degree." In 2009, the Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila (PLM) and the Silliman University College of Law also shifted their respective LL.B programs to Juris Doctor, applying the change to incoming freshmen students for School Year 2009–2010. The newly established De La Salle University College of Law is likewise offering the J.D., although it will offer the program using a trimestral calendar, unlike the model curriculum that uses a semestral calendar.
Singapore
The degree of Doctor of Jurisprudence is offered at all three law schools in Singapore, which also offer LL.B. degrees. It is treated as a qualifying law degree for the purposes of admission to the legal profession in Singapore. A graduate of these programmes is a "qualified person" under Singapore's legislation governing entry to the legal profession, and is eligible for admission to the Singapore Bar.
United Kingdom
The Quality Assurance Agency consulted in 2014 on the inclusion of "Juris Doctor" in the U.K. Framework for Higher Education Qualifications as an exception to the rule that "doctor" should only be used by doctoral degrees. It was proposed that the Juris Doctor would be an award at bachelor level, and would not confer the right to use the title "doctor". This was not incorporated into the final framework published in 2014.
The only J.D. degree currently awarded by a U.K. university is at Queen's University Belfast. This is a 3–4 year degree specified as being a professional doctorate at the doctoral qualifications level in the U.K. framework, sitting above the LL.M. and including a 30,000 word dissertation demonstrating the "creation and interpretation of new knowledge, through original research or other advanced scholarship, of a quality to satisfy peer review, extend the forefront of the discipline, and merit publication".
Joint LL.B./J.D. courses for a very limited number of students are offered by University College London, King's College London, and the London School of Economics in collaboration with Columbia University in the U.S. King's also offers a joint LLB/JD with Georgetown University. These are four-year, undergraduate courses leading to the award of both a British LL.B. and a U.S. J.D. King's College London and the University of Exeter offer joint LLB/JD degrees with the Chinese University of Hong Kong, with two years in the UK followed by two years in Hong Kong.
Harvard Law School in the US and University of Cambridge in the UK offer a J.D./LL.M. Joint Degree Program enabling Harvard J.D. candidates to earn a Cambridge LL.M. and a Harvard J.D. in 3.5 years.
The University of Southampton offers a two-year graduate-entry LL.B. described as a "J.D. pathway" degree, while the University of Law offers various "LLB Canadian JD Pathways" within its undergraduate LLB programs to prepare students for a Canadian JD. The University of Surrey previously offered a course similar to Southampton's.
The University of York offers a three-year "LL.M. Law (Juris Doctor)" degree intended for those looking at an international career in law. This is formally a Master of Laws (LL.M.) degree, but it is marketed as a J.D.
In academia
In the United States, the Juris Doctor is the degree that prepares the recipient to enter the law profession (as do the M.D. or D.O. in the medical profession and the D.D.S or D.M.D. in the dental profession). While the J.D. is the sole degree necessary to become a professor of law or to obtain a license to practice law, it (like the M.D., D.O, D.D.S, or D.M.D.) is not a "research degree".
Research degrees in the study of law include the Master of Laws (LL.M.), which ordinarily requires the J.D. as a prerequisite, and the Doctor of Juridical Science (S.J.D. / J.S.D.), which ordinarily requires the LL.M. as a prerequisite.
However, the American Bar Association, which accredits US law schools, has issued a Council Statement stating: WHEREAS, the acquisition of a Doctor of Jurisprudence degree requires from 84 to 90 semester hours of post baccalaureate study and the Doctor of Philosophy degree usually requires 60 semester hours of post baccalaureate study along with the writing of a dissertation, the two degrees shall be considered as equivalent degrees for educational employment purposes.
Accordingly, while most law professors are required to conduct original writing and research in order to be awarded tenure, the majority have a J.D. as their highest degree and are qualified to teach and supervise LL.M. and J.S.D candidates. However, research in 2015 showed an increasing trend toward hiring professors with both J.D. and Ph.D. degrees, particularly at more highly ranked schools.
Professor Kenneth K. Mwenda criticized the council's statement, pointing out that it compares the J.D. only to the taught component of the Ph.D. degree in the U.S., ignoring the research and dissertation components.
The United States Department of Education Center for Education Statistics classifies the J.D. and other professional doctorates as "doctor’s degree-professional practice." It classifies the Ph.D. and other research doctorates as "doctor’s degree-research/scholarship." Among legal degrees, it accords the latter status only to the Doctor of Juridical Science degree.
In Europe, the European Research Council follows a similar policy, stating that a professional degree carrying the title "doctor" is not considered equivalent to a research degree, such as a Ph.D. The Dutch and Portuguese National Academic Recognition Information Centres both classify the J.D. granted in the U.S. (along with other professional doctorate degrees) as equivalent to a master's degree, while the National Qualifications Authority of Ireland states with respect to U.S. practice that: "The '... professional degree' is a first degree, not a graduate degree, even though it incorporates the word 'doctor' in the title"
Commonwealth countries also often consider the J.D. granted in the U.S. equivalent to a bachelor's degree, even though the U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services has advised that "while neither degree is likely equivalent to a Ph.D., a J.D., or M.D. degree would be considered to be equivalent to, if not higher than, a masters degree".
Use of the title "doctor"
It has been contrary to custom in the United States to address holders of the J.D. as "doctor". It was noted in the 1920s, when the title was widely used by people with doctorates (even those that were undergraduate qualifications, at the time) and others, that the J.D. stood apart from other doctorates in this respect. This continues to be the case in general today.
In the late 1960s, the rising number of American law schools awarding J.D.s led to debate over whether lawyers could ethically use the title 'doctor'. Initial informal ethics opinions, based on the Canons of Professional Ethics then in force, came down against this. These were then reinforced with a full ethics opinion that maintained the ban on using the title in legal practice, as a form of self-laudation (except when dealing with countries where the use of "doctor" by lawyers was standard practice), but allowed the use of the title in academia "if the school of graduation thinks of the J.D. degree as a doctor's degree". These opinions only led to more debate.
The introduction of the 1969 Code of Professional Responsibility seemed to settle the question in favour of allowing the use of the title – in those states where the code was adopted. There was some dispute over whether only the Ph.D.-level Doctor of Juridical Science should properly be seen as granting the title, but ethics opinions made it clear that the new Code allowed J.D.-holders to be called 'doctor', while reaffirming that the older Canons did not.
As not all state bars adopted the new code, and some omitted the clause permitting the use of the title, confusion over whether lawyers could ethically use the title "doctor" continued. While many state bars now allow the use of the title, some prohibit its use where there is any chance of confusing the public about a lawyer's actual qualifications (e.g. if the public might be left with the impression that the lawyer is a doctor of medicine). There has been discussion on whether it is permissible in some other limited instances. For example, in June 2006, the Florida Bar Board of Governors ruled that a lawyer could refer to himself as a "doctor en leyes" (doctor in laws) in a Spanish-language advertisement, reversing an earlier decision. The decision was reversed again in July 2006, when the board voted to only allow the names of degrees to appear in the language used on the diploma, without translation.
The Wall Street Journal notes specifically in its stylebook that "Lawyers, despite their J.D. degrees, aren't called doctor", although the title is used (if preferred, and if appropriate in context) for "individuals who hold Ph.D.s and other doctoral degrees" and for "those who are generally called 'doctor' in their professions in the U.S." Many other newspapers reserve the title for physicians only or do not use titles at all. In 2011, Mother Jones published an article claiming that Michele Bachmann was misrepresenting her qualifications by using the "bogus" title "Dr.", based solely on her J.D. They later amended the article to note that the use of the title by lawyers "is a (begrudgingly) accepted practice in some states and not in others", although they maintained that it was rarely used as it "suggests that you're a medical doctor or a Ph.D. – and therefore conveys a false level of expertise."
See also
Bachelor of Civil Law (B.C.L., LL.B., or LL.L.)
Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.)
Doctor of Canon Law (J.C.D.)
Doctor of Juridical Science (J.S.D. or S.J.D.)
Doctor of Laws (LL.D.)
Master of Laws (LL.M.)
Legal education
Admission to practice law
Accelerated JD program
Law degree
Law school in the United States – describes general characteristics of the J.D. curriculum in the U.S.
Lawyer
Notes
References
External links
Law degrees
Law degrees | wiki |
Alexander "Alex" Satschko (Deggendorf, 12 de novembro de 1980) é um tenista profissional alemão
ATP Tour finais
Duplas: 1 (1 título)
Tenistas da Alemanha
Naturais de Deggendorf | wiki |
Idaho's Women of Influence is a database originally compiled in 2014 by researchers Annie Gaines and Mike Bullard. The women listed are considered by the university to be some of the most accomplished in Idaho's history. It is a living database continually updated by librarians, educators, museum staff, tribal authorities, women’s organizations. The database is provided by the University of Idaho Library, and is open to credibly sourced submissions from the general public.
This list is not to be confused with the East Idaho Women of Influence, sponsored by the East Idaho Business Journal and the Adams Publishing Group.
Inductees
References
External links
University of Idaho Library – Idaho's Women of Influence
Women in Idaho
Women in Idaho politics
Wikipedia missing topics | wiki |
Paul Hanley and Kevin Ullyett were the defending champions, but lost in the semifinals this year.
Mark Knowles and Daniel Nestor won the title, defeating Bob Bryan and Mike Bryan 7–6(7–4), 7–5 in the final.
Seeds
All seeds receive a bye into the second round.
Draw
Finals
Top half
Bottom half
External links
Draw
Doubles | wiki |
Monopoli is a town in Italy.
Monopoli may also refer to:
Luigi Monopoli (born 1992), Italian footballer
Monopoli, a 1984 song by Klaus Lage
S.S. Monopoli 1966, a football club from Monopoli, Italy
See also
Diocese of Monopoli
Roman Catholic Diocese of Conversano-Monopoli
Monopoly (disambiguation)
Monopol Hotel | wiki |
State violence is defined as "the use of legitimate governmental authority to cause unnecessary harm and suffering to groups, individuals, and states". It can be defined broadly or narrowly to refer to such events as genocide, state terrorism, drone attacks, police brutality, state surveillance, or juridical violence.
References
Further reading
Violence
Human rights abuses | wiki |
Lake Bryan – jednostka osadnicza w Stanach Zjednoczonych, w stanie Teksas, w hrabstwie Brazos.
CDP w stanie Teksas | wiki |
Distributed intelligence may refer to:
Group mind (science fiction)
Collective intelligence, superorganism
Distributed artificial intelligence, innovation system | wiki |
Dusk is the time of day just after sunset.
Dusk may also refer to:
Film and television
Dusk, a 1970 film featuring Peter Yang
Dusk, a 2010 film featuring Melody Klaver
Dusk, a fictional film series in the 2010 film My Babysitter's a Vampire
Dusk!, a European erotic television channel for women
Dusk (TV channel), a defunct Canadian cable channel
Literature
Darkwing (novel) or Dusk, a 2007 Silverwing novel by Kenneth Oppel
Po-on or Dusk, a 1984 novel by F. Sionil Jose
Dusk, a 2006 novel by Tim Lebbon
Dusk (comics), several Marvel Comics characters
Dusk (play), a 1941 verse drama by Paul Goodman
Nathaniel Dusk, a DC Comics character
Dusk, a character in DC Comics' The Final Night
Music
Classical and jazz compositions
Dusk, two compositions (2004, 2008) by Steven Bryant
Dusk, a 1944 choral work by Ferenc Farkas
"Dusk", a 1926 song by Roy Agnew
"Dusk", a waltz by Cecil Armstrong Gibbs
"Dusk", a c. 1940 composition by Duke Ellington; see the 1986 album The Blanton–Webster Band
Bands
Dusk, a 1970s American girl group featuring Peggy Santiglia
Albums
Dusk (Andrew Hill album) or the title song, 2000
Dusk (Badlands album), 1998
Dusk (The The album), 1993
Dusk (EP), by Mxmtoon, 2020
Dusk, by Ladyfinger (ne), 2009
Songs
“Dusk”, by Entombed from Entombed, 1997
“Dusk”, by Genesis from Trespass, 1970
Other uses
Dusk (Michelangelo), a c. 1524–1534 marble sculpture in the Medici Chapel, Florence, Italy
Dusk (video game), a 2018 first-person shooter
Dusk, West Virginia, US
Matt Dusk (born 1978), Canadian jazz vocalist
Dusk, a nightclub at Caesars Atlantic City | wiki |
Macerated oils are vegetable oils to which other matter, such as herbs, has been added. Commercially available macerated oils include all these, and others. Herbalists and aromatherapists use not only these pure macerated oils, but blends of these oils, as well, and may macerate virtually any known herb. Base oils commonly used for maceration include almond oil, sunflower oil, and olive oil as well as other food-grade triglyceride vegetable oils, but other oils undoubtedly are used as well.
References
Vegetable oils | wiki |
Ambassadors of the United States are persons nominated by the president to serve as the country's diplomatic representatives to foreign nations, international organizations, and as ambassadors-at-large. Under Article II, Section 2 of the U.S. Constitution, their appointment must be confirmed by the United States Senate; while an ambassador may be appointed during a recess, they can serve only until the end of the next session of Congress, unless subsequently confirmed.
Ambassadors are the highest-ranking diplomats of the U.S. and are usually based at the embassy in the host country. They are under the jurisdiction of the Department of State and answer directly to the secretary of state; however, ambassadors serve "at the pleasure of the President", meaning they can be dismissed at any time. Appointments change regularly for various reasons, such as reassignment or retirement.
An ambassador may be a career Foreign Service Officer (career diplomatCD) or a political appointee (PA). In most cases, career foreign service officers serve a tour of approximately three years per ambassadorship, whereas political appointees customarily tender their resignations upon the inauguration of a new president.
The State Department provides lists of ambassadors that are updated periodically; the most recent listing was published November 1, 2021. A listing by country of past chiefs of mission is maintained by the Office of the Historian of the U.S. Department of State, along with the names and appointment dates of past and present ambassadors-at-large and mission to international organizations.
Current U.S. ambassadors
Note that the information in this list is subject to change due to regular personnel changes resulting from retirements and reassignments. The State Department posts updated lists of ambassadors approximately monthly, accessible via an interactive menu-based website.<ref name="StateDept1"
Ambassadors to International Organizations
Ambassadors to the United Nations
Current ambassadors from the United States to International Organization of the United Nations:
Other international Organizations
Current ambassadors from the United States to other international organizations:
Ambassadors-at-large
Current ambassadors-at-large from the United States with worldwide responsibility:
Other chiefs of mission
Senior diplomatic representatives of the United States hosted in posts other than embassies. Unlike other consulates, these persons report directly to the Secretary of State.
Special envoys, representatives, and coordinators
These diplomatic officials report directly to the Secretary of State. Many oversee a portfolio not restricted to one nation, often an overall goal, and are not usually subject to Senate confirmation. Unlike the State Department offices and diplomats listed in other sections of this Article, the offices and special envoys/representatives/coordinators listed in this Section are created and staffed by direction of top Federal Executive administratorsprimarily U.S. Presidents and Secretaries of Statewhose political or organizational management philosophies may not be shared by their successors. As such, many of these positions may go unfilled upon assumption of office by successor Presidential Administrations, with their offices sometimes merged with or subsumed into other offices, or abolished altogether.
Nations without exchange of ambassadors
Bhutan: According to the U.S. State Department, "The United States and the Kingdom of Bhutan have not established formal diplomatic relations; however, the two governments have informal and cordial relations." Informal contact with the nation of Bhutan is maintained through the U.S. Embassy in New Delhi.
Iran: On April 7, 1980, the United States broke diplomatic relations with Iran after the 1979 Iranian Revolution. On April 24, 1981, the Swiss government assumed representation of U.S. interests in Tehran, and Algeria assumed representation of Iranian interests in the United States. Currently, Iranian interests in the United States are represented by the government of Pakistan. The U.S. Department of State named Iran a "State Sponsor of Terrorism" on January 19, 1984.
North Korea: The Democratic People's Republic of Korea is not on friendly terms with the United States, and while talks between the two countries are ongoing, there is no exchange of ambassadors. Sweden functions as Protective Power for the United States in Pyongyang and performs limited consular responsibilities for U.S. citizens in North Korea.
Taiwan: With the normalization of relations with the People's Republic of China in 1979, the United States has not maintained official diplomatic relations with Taiwan. Relations between Taiwan and the United States are maintained through an unofficial instrumentality, the Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Office, with headquarters in Taipei and field offices in Washington, D.C., and twelve other U.S. cities. The Taipei Office of the American Institute in Taiwan, a non-profit, public corporation, functions as a de facto embassy, performing most consular functions and staffed by Foreign Service Officers who are formally "on leave".
Notable past ambassadors
Many well-known individuals have served the United States as ambassadors, or in formerly analogous positions such as envoy, including several who also became President of the United States (indicated in boldface below). Some notable ambassadors have included:
Ambassadors killed in office
Eight United States Ambassadors have been killed in officesix of them by armed attack and the other two in plane crashes.
Ambassadors to past countries
Czechoslovakia
East Germany
Hawaii
Prussia
North Yemen
South Vietnam
South Yemen
Texas
Yugoslavia
See also
Chief of Protocol of the United States
List of ambassadors to the United States
List of LGBT ambassadors of the United States
List of female ambassadors of the United States
List of ambassadors appointed by Donald Trump
List of ambassadors appointed by Joe Biden
United States Foreign Service Career Ambassador
Notes and references
External links
Websites of U.S. Embassies and Consulates
Principal Officers and Chiefs of Mission
United States Department of State
United States | wiki |
Thornton Kenneth Petersen (born March 26, 1939) is a former American football player who played with the Minnesota Vikings. He played college football at the University of Utah.
References
1939 births
Living people
American football guards
Utah Utes football players
Minnesota Vikings players
Players of American football from Utah
Sportspeople from Logan, Utah | wiki |
Cuba–United Kingdom relations are the bilateral relations between Cuba and the United Kingdom.
Trade
In 1964, Cuba ordered ten diesel-electric locomotives similar to the British Rail Class 47 from a British manufacturer.
Relations
In 2019, the UK's Prince Charles paid an official visit to Cuba.
In 2021, Cuba and the UK announced intentions to strengthen their bilateral relations.
References
See also
List of ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Cuba
Cubans in the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
Cuba | wiki |
District 2 is a district on the western side of Lake Zürich in the Swiss city of Zürich.
The district comprises the quarters Wollishofen, Leimbach and Enge.
References
2 | wiki |
Intel Inspector (previously known as Intel Thread Checker) is a memory and thread checking and debugging tool to increase the reliability, security, and accuracy of C/C++ and Fortran applications.
Reliability: Find deadlocks and memory errors that cause lockups & crashes
Security: Find memory and threading vulnerabilities used by hackers
Accuracy: Identify memory corruption and race conditions to eliminate erroneous results
The nondeterministic nature of threading errors makes it hard to reproduce. Intel Inspector detects and locates threading errors that include race conditions, deadlocks, depth configurable call stack analysis, diagnostic guidance, built-in knowledge of Threading Building Blocks (TBB), OpenMP, and POSIX or Win32 threads.
Memory checking includes memory leaks, dangling pointers, uninitialized variables, use of invalid memory references, mismatched memory, allocation and deallocation, stack memory checks, and stack trace with controllable stack trace depth. Intel Inspector finds these errors and integrates with a debugger to identify the associated issues. It also diagnoses memory growth and locates the call stack causing it.
Intel Inspector has integration with debuggers (Microsoft VS debugger, GDB) so that Inspector automatically detects an error and places a debugger breakpoint at the problematic code location, allowing the user to investigate the details in a debugger.
The tool also detects persistent memory errors. 3D XPoint is a new emerging persistent memory technology for the data centers. Inspector detects persistent memory errors such as redundant cache flushes, memory fences, out-of-order persistent memory stores, incorrect undo logging etc.
Intel Inspector is available for free as a stand-alone tool, as part of Intel oneAPI HPC and IoT Toolkits. Optional paid commercial support is available for the Intel HPC and IoT Toolkits.
See also
Intel Advisor - design and analysis tool for vectorization, threading, memory usage and accelerator offloading
Intel VTune Profiler - performance profiler
Intel Developer Zone (Intel DZ; support and discussion)
oneAPI (compute acceleration)
Memory debugger
Memory leak
References
External links
Intel oneAPI HPC Toolkit - tools and libraries for HPC software development
Intel oneAPI IoT Toolkit - tools and libraries for IoT software development
Debuggers
Inspector
Memory management software | wiki |
Shirley Thomas may refer to:
Shirley Thomas (USC professor) (1920–2005), an American radio/television actress/writer/producer, advocate for United States Space Program & professor of technical writing
Shirley Thomas (athlete) (born 1963), a British women's track runner
Shirley Thomas (equestrian), see Sport in Ottawa
See also
Thomas Shirley (disambiguation) | wiki |
J.R. O'Dwyer Company is an online and print news and information publisher covering the public relations and marketing communications fields in New York City, established in 1968.
O'Dwyer's magazine
O'Dwyer's () is a monthly magazine that covers marketing communications, new media, public relations and related fields. It is edited by Jon Gingerich. Jack O'Dwyer is the Editor in Chief. It was previously titled O'Dwyer's PR Report.
Public relations rankings
The O'Dwyer company publishes rankings of the PR companies in the United States through annual directories.
According to Jack O'Dwyer, there are 12 categories of rankings. In order to be ranked, PR firms must provide financial documents, such as the top page of their latest income tax return and their W-3 form showing payroll.
Other publications
Periodicals
O'Dwyer's PR services report. Monthly, , and
O'Dwyer's Washington, D.C. public relations directory. Annual, , 1994 —
O'Dwyer's PR buyer's guide
Books
Legal dispute
O'Dwyer shared partial transcripts of a presentation from PRSA's annual conference in 1993 to criticize the speaker's ethics for promoting the use of advertising spend to influence editorial at major newspapers. The speaker sued O'Dwyer for copyright infringement and the court ruled that O'Dwyer was protected under fair use. Copyright.gov reports "The court granted defendants’ motion to dismiss, finding that defendants’ publication of articles discussing plaintiff's public speech and defendants’ distribution of the transcripts constituted fair use. The court held that defendants’ purposes were to fairly and reasonably review, comment on, and criticize plaintiff's speech."
References
External links
Publishing companies of the United States
Publishing companies established in 1968
1968 establishments in New York (state) | wiki |
Elizabeth Parr may refer to:
Elisabeth Parr, Marchioness of Northampton, née Brooke, wife of William Parr
Elizabeth Parr-Johnston, Managing Partner of Parr-Johnston Consultants | wiki |
Latour-de-Carol (în ) este o comună în departamentul Pyrénées-Orientales din sudul Franței. În 2009 avea o populație de de locuitori.
Evoluția populației
Note
Vezi și
Lista comunelor din Pyrénées-Orientales
Comune din Pyrénées-Orientales | wiki |
Кетен (нем. Käthen) — многозначный термин:
Кетен — H2C=C=O, бесцветный газ с резким запахом.
Кетен (город в Германии) — коммуна в Германии, в земле Саксония-Анхальт.
См. также
Кётен (значения) | wiki |
Brazil represented by Military Sports Commission of Brazil (Portuguese: Comissão Desportiva Militar do Brasil - CDMB) part of Military Sports Department (Portuguese: Departamento de Desporto Militar - DDM) of Ministry of Defence (Portuguese: Ministério da Defesa) is member of Conseil International du Sport Militaire (CISM). In 2011, the CMDB organized the 5th CISM Military World Games in Rio de Janeiro.
Brazil has participated in all the Summer Military World Games since the beginning in 1995. Brazil is 4th on the all time medal table.
Medal table
By championships
*Red border color indicates tournament was held on home soil.
See also
Brazil at the Olympics
Brazil at the Universiade
Brazil at the Pan American Games
References
External links
International military sports council
Military World Games
Nations at the Military World Games | wiki |
Double Switch may refer to:
Double switch (baseball), a type of player substitution
Double-switch (basketball), a defensive move to counter a pick and roll by the offense
Double Switch (video game), a 1993 release by Digital Pictures for Sega CD and other platforms
Double switching, using a multipole switch to open or close both sides of an electrical circuit | wiki |
The men's pole vault event at the 2017 Summer Universiade was held on 25 and 27 August at the Taipei Stadium.
Medalists
Results
Qualification
Qualification: 5.30 m (Q) or at least 12 best (q) qualified for the final.
Final
Notes
r: retired
References
Pole
2017 | wiki |
A urethropexy is a surgical procedure where support is provided to the urethra.
One form is the "Burch urethropexy".
It is sometimes performed in the treatment of incontinence (particularly stress incontinence).
References
Urologic surgery | wiki |
International Day of Education is an annual international observance day held on January 24 and is dedicated to education. On December 3, 2018, the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution proclaiming January 24 as International Day of Education, in celebration of the role of education for bringing global peace and sustainable development.
History
January 24 was declared the international Day of Education by a resolution that was passed by the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) on 3rd December 2018. Thereafter, on 24th January 2019 the first International Day of Education was celebrated. The message by UNGA is being spread across the globe. Their sincere efforts world wide have shown promising results in the betterment of an educated individual that constitute a cultured society, which is supported with optimism and opportunities.
See also
Education
Teachers' Day
Teacher's Oath
World Teachers' Day
References
External links
United Nations - International Day of Education
UNESCO - International Day of Education
United Nations days
January observances
Education events | wiki |
A selvage (US English) or selvedge (British English) is a "self-finished" edge of a piece of fabric which keeps it from unraveling and fraying. The term "self-finished" means that the edge does not require additional finishing work, such as hem or bias tape, to prevent fraying.
In woven fabric, selvages are the edges that run parallel to the warp (the longitudinal threads that run the entire length of the fabric), and are created by the weft thread looping back at the end of each row. In knitted fabrics, selvages are the unfinished yet structurally sound edges that were neither cast on nor bound off. Historically, the term selvage applied only to loom woven fabric, though now can be applied to flat-knitted fabric.
The terms selvage and selvedge are a corruption of "self-edge", and have been in use since the 16th century.
In textiles
Definition
According to Hollen, Saddler & Langford, "A selvage is the self-edge of a fabric formed by the filling yarn when it turns to go back across the fabric." In traditional looms, the selvage on both sides of a piece of fabric were manufactured same, whereas in modern shuttleless looms these selvages are low because of cutting filling yarn and selvages looks like fringes.
Different types of selvages are as follows:
Plain selvages. These are like fabric, do not wrinkle and are used in sewing selvage in fabric construction.
Tape selvages. These are long and made by ply yarn for strength. These are broader than plain selvages and basket weave is used for flatness.
Split selvages. Narrow fabric like towel is woven from two or more sides together and then cutting is done. Later, these cut selvages are hemmed or chain stitched for finishing.
Fused selvages. These are fixed by temperature which is made of ribbons which are cut in narrow widths.
Leno selvages. These are used on some type of shuttleless looms. In this cut, selvages are locked and narrow Leno weaves are done. Loose selvages generally need tight leno weaves.
Tucked selvages. Like Leno selvages, these are done on a shuttleless loom. Machines are used to tuck the cut fabric and fix them.
In woven cloth
In textile terminology, threads that run the length of the fabric (longitudinally) are warp ends. Threads running laterally from edge to edge, that is from left side to right side of the fabric as it emerges from the loom, are weft picks. Selvages form the extreme lateral edges of the fabric and are formed during the weaving process. The weave used to construct the selvage may be the same or different from the weave of the body of the fabric cloth. Most selvages are narrow, but some may be as wide as . Descriptions woven into the selvage using special jacquards, colored or fancy threads may be incorporated for identification purposes. For many end-uses the selvage is discarded. Selvages are 'finished' and will not fray because the weft threads double back on themselves and are looped under and over the warp.
Handwoven selvages vs. industrial selvages
There is a slight difference between the selvages in handweaving and in industry, because while industrial looms originally very closely mimicked handweaving looms, modern industrial looms are very different. A loom with a shuttle, such as most hand weaving looms, will produce a very different selvage from a loom without a shuttle, like some of the modern industrial looms. Also in industry sometimes the selvage is made thicker with a binding thread.
Selvages of fabrics formed on weaving machines with shuttles, such as hand looms, are formed by the weft turning at the end of each pick (pass of the weft thread) or every second pick. To prevent fraying, various selvage motions (or "styles") are used to bind the warp into the body of the cloth. Selvages are created to protect the fabric during weaving and subsequent processing (i.e. burnishing, dyeing and washing) but ideally should not detract from the finished cloth via ripples, contractions or waviness.
In handweaving the selvage is generally the same thickness as the rest of the cloth, and the pattern may or may not continue all the way to the edge, thus the selvage may or may not be patterned. A plain weave selvage is the other option, where the last few threads on either side are woven in plain weave.
In industry the selvage may be thicker than the rest of the fabric, and is where the main weft threads are reinforced with a tight weft back binding to prevent fraying. More simply, they "finish" the left and right-hand edges of fabric as it exits the loom, especially for the ubiquitous "criss-cross" simple or tabby weave, referred to in industry as taffeta weave. Selvages on machine-woven fabric often have little holes along their length, through the thick part (see stenter pins), and can also have some fringe. The type or motion of selvage depends on the weaving technique or loom used. A water- or air-jet loom creates a fringed selvage that is the same weight as the rest of the cloth, as by the weft thread is drawn via a jet nozzle, which sends the weft threads through the shed with a pulse of water. The selvage is then created by a heat cutter which trims the thread at both ends close to the edge of the cloth, and then it is beaten into place. Thus it creates a firm selvage with the same thickness as the rest of the cloth.
Usability of the selvage
In the decorative embellishment of garments, especially in decorative pleat or ruffles, a selvage used as a ruffle is "self-finished", that is, it does not require additional finishing work such as hem or bias tape to prevent fraying.
Very often fabric near the selvage is unused and discarded, as it may have a different weave pattern, or may lack pile or prints that are present on the rest of the fabric, requiring that the selvage fabric be cut off or hidden in a hem. Since industrial loomed fabric often has selvages that are thicker than the rest of the fabric, the selvage reacts differently. It may shrink or "pucker" during laundering and cause the rest of the object made with it to pucker also.
Thicker selvages are also more difficult to sew through. Quilters especially tend to cut off the selvage right after washing the fabric and right before cutting it out and sewing it together.
For garments, however, the selvage can be used as a structural component as there is no need to turn under that edge to prevent fraying if a selvage is used instead. Using the selvage eliminates unnecessary work, thus the garment article can be made faster, the finished garment is less bulky and can be stitched entirely by machine. This is of major benefit for the mass-produced ready-to-wear clothing of modern society. However, it is less used in homemade clothes because of the tendency of the selvage to pucker.
In knitted cloth
Applying the term selvage to a hand-knitted object is still relatively new. Most books on fabric define a selvage as the edge of a woven cloth. However, the term is coming into usage for hand-knitted objects. The edges of machine-knitted fabric on the other hand are rarely if ever referred to as selvages.
Selvages in knitting can either bear a special pattern worked into the first and last stitches or simply be the edge of the fabric. The two most common selvage stitches are the chain-edge selvage and the slipped-garter edge, both of which produce a nice edge. The chain-edge selvage is made by alternating rows of slipping the first stitch knitwise and knitting the last stitch, with rows of slipping the first stitch purlwise and purling the last stitch. The slipped garter edge is made by slipping the first stitch knitwise and knitting the last in every row. Other selvages include a garter stitch border one stitch wide, or a combination of the above techniques.
Knitting selvages makes the fabric easier to sew together than it would be otherwise. It also makes it easier to pick up stitches later, and is a good basis for crocheting a further decorative edge.
In printing and philately
In the print industry, selvage is the excess area of a printed or perforated sheet of any material, such as the white border area of a sheet of stamps or the wide margins of an engraving etc.
References
Textiles
Weaving
Philatelic terminology | wiki |
William Laing may refer to:
William Laing (Medal of Honor), soldier in the Union Army and a Medal of Honor recipient
William Laing (artist), Scottish/Canadian artist
William Laing (athlete), Ghanaian athlete
William Kirby Laing, British civil engineer
William Roy Laing, Australian rules footballer
See also
Bill Laing, Canadian ice hockey player
Billy Laing, Scottish footballer | wiki |
Hydraulic hybrid vehicles (HHVs) use a pressurized fluid power source, along with a conventional internal combustion engine (ICE), to achieve better fuel economy and reductions in harmful emissions. They capture and reuse 70–80% of the vehicle's braking/decelerating energy compared to 55% for electric hybrids. For trucks and buses, this can also be less expensive than electric systems, due to the price of batteries required for the latter. Hydraulic hybrid vehicle systems can also weigh less than electric systems, due to the high weight of the batteries. This can lead to a lower impact on payload capacity, especially for heavy vehicle classes.
Principle of operation
Hydraulic hybrid vehicle systems consists of four main components: the working fluid, reservoir, pump/motor (in parallel hybrid system) or in-wheel motors and pumps (in series hybrid system), and accumulator. In some systems, a hydraulic transformer is also installed for converting output flow at any pressure with a very low power loss. In an electric hybrid system, energy is stored in the battery and is delivered to the electric motor to power the vehicle. During braking the kinetic energy of the vehicle is used to charge the battery through the regenerative braking. In hydraulic hybrid system, the pump/motor extracts the kinetic energy during braking to pump the working fluid from the reservoir to the accumulator. Working fluid is thus pressurized, which leads to energy storage. When the vehicle accelerates, this pressurized working fluid provides energy to the pump/motor to power the vehicle. For a parallel hybrid system, fuel efficiency gains and emissions reductions result from reduced mechanical load on the internal combustion engine due to the torque provided by the hybrid system.
Efficiency gains
The US EPA claims that in laboratory tests, the city fuel economy of an urban delivery truck was 60–70% increased miles per gallon versus a similar, conventionally powered internal combustion truck. The CO2 emissions of the same demonstration delivery truck were claimed to be over 40% lower, and the hydrocarbon and particulate matter production were also much lower (50% and 60% respectively).
The EPA calculated for this test vehicle, the hybrid technology added a cost of about US$7,000 over a comparable conventional truck, while the lifetime fuel savings over 20 years were estimated above $50,000.
Types of hydraulic hybrid vehicles
Like the electric hybrid system, there are several possible drivetrain architectures.
In a parallel hydraulic hybrid vehicles, the pump/motor is typically installed between the engine and gearbox, or between the gearbox and differential transmission box. The role of pump/motor is to provide assistance to the engine during acceleration and recapture energy under braking that would otherwise be lost as heat in the conventional brakes. As with electric hybrids, the pump/motor may or may not be able to drive the vehicle alone with the engine off.
In a series hydraulic hybrid vehicle, the pump/motor directly connects to the driveshaft, or the in-wheel motors provide driving torque directly to the wheel. The internal combustion engine is only connected to a pump, and is set to operate in its most efficient power range to maintain the optimal hydraulic pressure in the accumulator. The traction motor must supply all the torque required to propel the vehicle, meaning maximum acceleration performance is available with the engine running or stopped. Its main disadvantage is in steady-state cruising, where the double conversion of energy introduces additional losses.
Advantages and disadvantages
In some cases hydraulic hybrid systems may be more cost-effective than electrical hybrid systems because no complicated or expensive materials (such as those required for batteries) are used. However, in most designs the pressure tanks of accumulators are made of carbon fiber that make the pressure tanks somewhat expensive, but the price of carbon fiber has been forecasted to drop as economies of scale and manufacturing energy efficiency is reduced by 60% according to Oak Ridge National Laboratory can lower the cost of manufacturing the tanks.
Hydraulic hybrids recover, or harvest, the vehicle's kinetic energy during braking and decelerating significantly more efficiently than electric systems; hydraulic hybrids can recover up to 70–80% of the vehicle's kinetic energy compared to 55% for electric hybrids.
Reduced cost, complexity, and weight for additional power take-off devices such as water pumps, hydraulic lifts, and winches.
Technical challenges with hydraulic hybrid vehicles include noise, size, and complexity. Technical advances, such as very Large Diameter, Flat Format (LDFF) hydraulic motors which produce very high torque in limited drive line space, enable heavy vehicles like refuse trucks and city buses to be fitted with hydraulic hybrid systems. Sophisticated control software results in hydraulic hybrid vehicles which are safe, driveable, reliable and efficient.
See also
Hydraulic accumulator
Hydraulic Launch Assist (HLA)
Hybrid electric vehicle
Regenerative braking
References
External links
Fleet Test and Evaluation Project – Hydraulic Hybrid Fleet Vehicle Testing (National Renewable Energy Laboratory)
Hydraulic Hybrid Vehicles - Research, United States Environmental Protection Agency Hydraulic Hybrid Research Page
Hydraulic Hybrid Technology - A Proven Approach, United States Environmental Protection Agency, March 2004
The ERS (Energy Recovery System), Lightning Hybrids
What are mechanical batteries?, Lightning Hybrids
Emissions Testing Results: Hydraulic Hybrid Delivers Major Emissions Reductions, Lightning Hybrids
Hydraulic Launch Assist (HLA) Video, Eaton Corporation (Requires QuickTime plug-in to view)
https://www.innas.com/hydrid.html, Innas BV
EPA Innovates Hydraulic Hybrid System, autoMedia.com
Hydraulic hybrid retrofits KersTech Vehicle Systems
IFPE High Efficiency Hydraulic Hybrid Drive System, NRG Dynamix (Formerly Hybra-Drive Systems LLC), December 12, 2007
NRG Dynamix Web Site
Automotive technologies
Hybrid vehicles
Hybrid powertrain | wiki |
Route 41 is a highway in central Missouri. Its northern terminus is at U.S. Route 24 in southern Carroll County; its southern terminus is at Interstate 70/U.S. Route 40 west of Boonville, where the road continues south as Route 135.
Route 41 is one of the original state highways. Its original northern terminus was at the Missouri River and its southern terminus was in Marshall. The route east of Marshall was originally Route 20.
Major intersections
References
041
Transportation in Carroll County, Missouri
Transportation in Saline County, Missouri
Transportation in Cooper County, Missouri | wiki |
Lincoln is the name for several proposals to create a new state in the Northwest United States. The proposed State has been defined in multiple ways, but can generally be said to be coterminous with the region known as the Inland Northwest. The proposed state was named in honor of Abraham Lincoln, who was president during the American Civil War. His name had also been proposed for the states that were eventually named North Dakota and Wyoming.
Lincoln in the Northwest
The State of Lincoln has been proposed to consist of the Panhandle of Idaho and Eastern Washington (that is, east of the Cascade Mountains). Other than Lincoln, the names "Columbia" and "Eastern (or East) Washington" were proposed to be used for the state. It was first proposed by Idaho in 1865, when the capital was moved from Lewiston in December 1864 to its present-day location of Boise in January 1865, in an Idaho greatly reduced in land area. The original Idaho Territory, from a bill signed by President Lincoln in March 1863, was declared by Governor William H. Wallace in Lewiston, July 4, 1863, and included present-day Idaho, and virtually all of present-day Montana and Wyoming, making it larger in land area than Texas.
Montana was made a territory in May 1864 and the Panhandle was specifically excluded in order to prevent Lewiston, west of both the Continental Divide along the crest of the Rockies and of the Bitterroot Range, from remaining the capital. The reasoning was that Lewiston sits on the western edge, across the Snake River from Washington, whereas Montana stretches to North Dakota.
In the mid and late 1860s, there was a proposal centered on Lewiston in northern Idaho for a Columbia Territory to be formed in the Inland Northwest from parts of what is now eastern Washington, northern Idaho and western Montana. In 1901 another proposal was made, this time to combine the Idaho Panhandle with Eastern Washington to create the state of Lincoln. A third proposal was popularized in the late 1920s to consist of eastern Washington, northern Idaho and western Montana to the Continental Divide. From the Washington end, proposals have been made as recently as 1996, 1999 and 2005. Idaho saw a corresponding campaign for North Idaho, financed by the sale of T-shirts reading "North Idaho – A State of Mind".
Areas proposed for inclusion
North Idaho
While the disconnection between Western Washington and Eastern Washington is well known and documented, North Idaho has a similar dynamic in which its residents often feel disconnected from the state's political center in Boise. The Idaho Panhandle is most often considered to be the ten northernmost counties in the state—Boundary, Bonner, Benewah, Clearwater, Idaho, Kootenai, Latah, Lewis, Nez Perce, and Shoshone. These counties are separated from Southern Idaho by the Salmon River and observe Pacific Time, unlike the rest of the state, which uses Mountain Time.
Parallel suggestions of a "State of Kootenai" have been made, referring to a proposed union of the six northernmost counties of Idaho, and the six westernmost counties of Montana, creating a geographically, politically, and ecologically connected state of 524,888 residents, putting it ahead of other states such as Wyoming.
Eastern Washington and eastern Oregon
Other conceptions of a potential "State of Lincoln" have been rendered, specifically a possible combination of eastern Washington and eastern Oregon.
The people of Eastern Oregon also often express the same frustration with being coupled with Portland and the region west of the Cascades that Eastern Washingtonians do with respect to Seattle. This proposed coupling would create one of the largest states by area in the country, stretching all the way from the eastern foothills of the Cascade Mountain Range to the border with Idaho in the east.
Proposals
The state legislatures for Idaho and Washington have seen bills proposing secession or splintering. Idaho would not go along as at the time the Panhandle generated more tax revenue per capita than the south. If combined with the proposed State of Jefferson, which overlaps a proposed Oregon-Washington "State of Lincoln" in southeastern Oregon and is proposed for many of the same reasons, it would create a state that is even larger.
The Inland Northwest region roughly corresponds to the area that might comprise such a State of Lincoln. The largest city would be Spokane, Washington, which is presently Washington's second largest and the greater Spokane area is the third largest population base in the northwestern US behind Seattle and Portland.
A Spokane proposal in 1907 called for a new state "Lincoln" to be created from eastern Washington, northeastern Oregon, and northern Idaho. Oregon and Washington's eastern boundary would have been shifted westward to 120° W, aligning with California's eastern boundary. Idaho's northern boundary would have been shifted southward to 45° N, aligning with Wyoming's northern boundary.
Alternative name for current states
North Dakota
It was proposed to split Dakota Territory into northern and southern halves while being considered for statehood in the 1880s. Republicans in the Senate suggested the name "Lincoln" for the northern half, despite objections from residents from the territory, which drew strong objection from the Democrats. Ultimately the territory was admitted in 1889 as two states, North Dakota and South Dakota.
Wyoming
When the 1868 bill to form Wyoming Territory was first discussed in the U.S. Senate, an amendment was proposed that would have changed its name to Lincoln Territory after the assassinated U.S. president Abraham Lincoln. The new name was supported by the Senate Committee on Territories, however it started a debate that scrutinized both "Lincoln" and "Wyoming", with several members preferring local and Indian names. Multiple senators objected to naming a territory after a single man, acknowledging Washington Territory (named in 1853 for George Washington) as the sole exception. "Wyoming" was the simple English transliteration of the Lenape Indian tribe's word for "large plains", which was considered descriptive of the land but undesirable due to its distant origin in Pennsylvania. The bill eventually passed both houses of Congress with the name "Wyoming Territory", and the Wyoming name was retained when statehood was achieved in 1890.
See also
51st state
Cascadia (independence movement)
Jefferson (proposed Pacific state)
Lincoln (proposed Southern state)
References
External links
History of Washington (state)
Idaho in the American Civil War
Proposed states and territories of the United States | wiki |
Several battles have been fought in and around Niš, thus Battle of Niš () may refer to:
Battle of Naissus (268 or 269), fought between the Roman Empire and the Goths
Battle of Niš (1443), fought between a Christian alliance (Hungary, Poland and Serbia) against the Ottoman Empire
Battle of Niš (1689), fought between Austria and the Ottoman Empire
Battle of Niš (1878), fought between Serbia and the Ottoman Empire
Air battle over Niš, a confrontation between air forces of the Soviet Union and the United States in 1944
History of Niš | wiki |
Jo Wilkinson may refer to:
Jo Wilkinson (athlete) in 2010 European Athletics Championships – Women's Marathon
Jo Wilkinson (musician) who worked with Eligh and others
See also
Joe Wilkinson (disambiguation) | wiki |
Tense may refer to:
Biology
Tense, a state of muscle contraction
Linguistics
Grammatical tense, a property of verbs indicating chronology
Tense–aspect–mood, a wider set of verb features (colloquially "tense")
Tenseness, a constrained pronunciation, especially of vowels
Media
Tense (album), a 2014 album by TVXQ
Tense (artwork), a 1990 art installation by Anya Gallaccio
See also
Tension (disambiguation) | wiki |
In speech, phonetic pitch reset occurs at the boundaries (pausa) between prosodic units.
Over the course of such units, the median pitch of the voice declines from its initial value, sometimes reaching the lower end of the speaker's vocal range. Then, it must reset to a higher level if the person is to continue speaking. In non-tonal languages, the sudden increase in pitch is one of the principal auditory cues to the start of a new prosodic unit.
In register tone languages which experience discrete downdrift, pitch reset is required as the tones approach the lower end of the speaker's comfort range, and in those languages which experience tone terracing, it is in addition required in order to maintain the tonal distinctions of the language.
See also
Upstep
Tone (linguistics) | wiki |
Bonamia alatisemina is a herb in the family Convolvulaceae.
The creeping perennial herb typically grows to a height of . It blooms between April and May producing pink-white flowers.
It is found on sandplains in the Kimberley and Pilbara regions of Western Australia where it grows in sandy soils.
References
alatisemina
Plants described in 1987 | wiki |
Editoria
Tropic – rivista statunitense
Geografia
Tropic – area non incorporata della contea di Brevard, in Florida (Stati Uniti d'America)
Tropic – cittadina della contea di Garfield, nello Utah (Stati Uniti d'America)
Pagine correlate
Tropical | wiki |
Roger Salazar may refer to:
Roger B. Salazar, author of No Man Knows My Pastries
Roger V. Salazar, media and crisis communications consultant
Roger Salazar (golfer), winner of the South Texas Open
Roger Salazar, coach of the Arizona Sahuaros | wiki |
This list includes revolutionary organizations aimed at liberating and unifying Serb-inhabited territories into the historical national state of Serbia—it only includes organizations established after the Principality of Serbia (1815) and before the establishment of Second Yugoslavia (1945).
See also
Serbian Revolution
References
Revolutionary organizations
Revolutionary organizations
Serb organizations | wiki |
WYNY may refer to:
WYNY (AM), a radio station (1450 AM) licensed to serve Milford, Pennsylvania, United States
Former radio stations:
WXPK, a radio station (107.1 FM) licensed to Briarcliff Manor, New York, United States, which used the WYNY call sign from 1998 to 2003
New Country Y-107, the name of a quadcast of stations that included the above radio station
WKTU, a radio station (103.5 FM) licensed to Lake Success, New York, United States, which used the WYNY call sign from 1988 to 1996
WQHT, a radio station (97.1 FM) licensed to New York, New York, United States, which used the WYNY call sign from 1977 to 1988 | wiki |
Oxford Street tube station may refer to one of the following London Underground stations:
Oxford Street (LCR) tube station, an unopened station on the planned but unbuilt London Central Railway.
Tottenham Court Road tube station, the Charing Cross, Euston and Hampstead Railway (now Northern line) part of this station was named Oxford Street when opened in 1907 but renamed in 1908.
Oxford Circus tube station, a station on the Bakerloo, Central and Victoria lines. | wiki |
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