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This is a list of roads designated B1. Roads entries are sorted in the countries alphabetical order.
B1 road (Croatia), the designation of an expressway route in Croatia
B1 road (Cyprus), a road in Cyprus
B1 highway (Germany), a German road
B1 road (Kenya), a road connected to the A1 road
B1 road (Namibia), an important North-South road
B1 road (Sri Lanka), a road connecting Akkaraipattu and Warapathanchenai
B1 road (United Kingdom) may refer to:
B1 road (Northern Ireland), a road connecting Downpatrick and Ardglass
B1 road (United States of America) may refer to:
B-1 corridor (Appalachian Development Highway System)
See also
List of highways numbered 1, a disambiguation page
List of A1 roads, a disambiguation page | wiki |
The Universal Magazine may refer to:
The Universal Magazine of Knowledge and Pleasure (1747–1814), published in London
The Universal Magazine (1900 monthly) (1900–1902), published in London
See also
List of 18th-century British periodicals | wiki |
Israeli pita, also known as pitot, Israeli pitta, or simply pita, is the Israeli version of pita flatbread that is commonly served with hummus and other dips, or as a sandwich bread stuffed with sabich, falafel, chicken schnitzel, shawarma, or other fillings. Israeli pita is commonly found in Israel, as well as in the United States, and at restaurants offering Jewish and Israeli cuisine worldwide.
Overview
Israeli pita is different from other flatbread and pitas in several ways. Israeli pita is generally softer, thicker and doughier than other flatbreads, and it always contains a pocket. Israeli pita is generally thicker than other pitas. Many Arab and Greek pitas are not as soft as Israeli pita, and are typically thinner or do not contain a pocket. The pocket of the pita has “thick walls”, which are unique to Israeli pita, and help Israeli pita be sturdy enough for its signature fillings such as sabich, falafel, shawarma and chicken schnitzel, among others.
Serving and use
Israeli pita has a soft, fluffy, texture that has been described as pillowy and is traditionally served fresh from the oven (typically a wood-fired oven similar to a pizza oven). It is best either soon after baking or on the same day, and is served warm.
It is used in a variety of sandwiches, such as falafel, sabich, chicken schnitzel, shawarma, brik, and many more, as well as with a wide array of dips such as hummus, baba ghanoush, muhammara, zhoug, salat turki, ikra or just with olive oil. It is also traditionally served in Israel as part of an Israeli breakfast, as well as with shakshouka or menemen. It is commonly served with eggs for breakfast. It is also sometimes served with cottage cheese.
Popularity
Israeli pita is one of, if not the most, popular breads in Israel. It is an essential part of Israeli cuisine, and can be served for any meal and any occasion, and can be found on the menu at most restaurants, bakeries, market stalls, and food trucks across Israel. As it contains no animal products, it is inherently pareve and can be served with fleishig or milchig meals to comply with kashrut.
In popular culture
In the Israeli comedy series Beauty and the Baker, main character Amos Dahari (played by Aviv Alush) works at his family's Israeli pita bakery in a working-class city outside of Tel Aviv, when he falls in love with celebrity heiress, actress and socialist Noa Hollander (played by Rotem Sela).
Israeli pita is featured prominently in the American documentary film “In Search of Israeli Cuisine on PBS.
Israeli pita is referred to in the name of the 1974 album by the Israeli rock band Kaveret, Poogy in a Pita.
References
See also
Israeli cuisine
Shakshouka
Hummus
Sabich
Falafel
Laffa
Shawarma
Challah
Israeli cuisine
Jewish breads
Jewish cuisine
Flatbreads | wiki |
Medical respite care, also referred to as recuperative care, is acute and post-acute medical care for homeless persons who are too ill or frail to recover from a physical illness or injury on the streets but are not ill enough to be in a hospital.
Unlike “respite” for caregivers, “medical respite” is short-term residential care that allows homeless individuals the opportunity to rest in a safe environment while accessing medical care and other supportive services. Medical respite programs provide hospitals with an alternative to discharging homeless patients to the streets or to unequipped shelters when patients would otherwise be discharged to their homes for self-care and recuperation. In addition to providing post-acute care and clinical oversight, medical respite programs seek to improve transitional care for this population and end the cycle of homelessness by supporting patients in access benefits and housing.
As of 2014, over 70 medical respite programs have been established across the United States and a number are in development. Medical respite programs are housed in a number of different facility types including homeless shelters, motel rooms, nursing facilities, assisted living facilities and stand-alone facilities. The largest facility is based out of Boston, Massachusetts (United States), called the Barbara McIinnis House, which has 104 beds for men and women in need of a safe place to recuperate after leaving a hospital. The national average length of stay in medical respite programs is 40 days (30 days median).
Studies and discussion about medical respite care include works on an individual and program level. A study out of Chicago looking at the impact of medical respite care on future hospitalizations found that patients who accessed medical respite care required fewer hospital stays (3.7 vs. 8.3 days) in the 12-months after program participation than those discharged from the hospital to the street or shelter. Another study out of Boston found similar results with homeless patients requiring 50% fewer hospital readmissions in the 90-days following medical respite program participation than those released to their own care (the street or shelter). Medical respite care has been discussed in the American Medical New Ethics Forum.
Medical respite care is listed as a strategy in the federal plan to prevent and end homelessness. The Center for Medicare and Medicaid Innovation is currently conducting a national demonstration program to assess the impact of medical respite care. The demonstration is supported by the Affordable Care Act as an effort to improve health outcomes and health care quality while reducing health care spending for this population.
The National Health Care for the Homeless Council maintains a Respite Care Providers' Network of over 700 providers, consumers, and advocates who seek to improve access to medical respite care for homeless individuals across the country.
References
Types of health care facilities | wiki |
The following marks are the A and B qualification standards for the 2009 World Championships in Athletics. Each country may send a maximum of four athletes who have attained the A qualification mark in each specific event. A maximum of three athletes can compete in that event, with the sole exception of the relays, in which four of a possible six athletes may compete. In the case that no athlete of that nationality has achieved the A standard in an event, a country may send two athletes with the B qualification times, of which only one may compete at the Championships.
Area Champions (i.e. athletes who have won an event at their continental level championships) are granted automatic entrance, irrespective of whether they have achieved the qualification times. The reigning World Champion in each event is also granted a bye into the competition, and does not count as part of their country's quota of athletes in that event. Furthermore, host countries may enter one unqualified athlete if no one of the respective nationality has achieved the required mark.
Qualification standards
References
Qualification Standards from IAAF
External links
Competition website
Qualification standards
World Championships In Athletics Qualification Standards, 2009 | wiki |
A squint is the action of tightening of the muscles around the eye.
Squint may also refer to:
Squint, a term for strabismus (crossed eyes)
Squint (album), a 1993 album by Steve Taylor
Squint (antenna), an angle of transmission offset
Squint (opening) (hagioscope), an opening through the wall of a church in an oblique direction
Squint Entertainment, a record label
Squint Lake, a lake in Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
Squint Phares (1915–1974), American basketball player
Squint Hunter, coach for the Saint Louis Billikens men's basketball team, 1926–1927 | wiki |
Samsung Cup may refer to:
Samsung Fire Cup, international Go competition
Samsung Hauzen Cup South Korean football competition
Samsung Securities Cup, professional tennis tournament | wiki |
The wild duck is the non-domesticated ancestor of the domestic duck.
Wild duck may refer to:
Mallard
Muscovy duck
Birds by common name | wiki |
"Pretty in Blue" is the eighth episode of the seventh season and the 141st episode overall of the American fantasy-drama series Once Upon a Time. Written by Dana Horgan & Leah Fong and directed by Ralph Hemecker, it premiered on ABC in the United States on November 17, 2017.
In the episode, which serves as part two of a two-hour episode Cinderella learns about what happened to her mother after she and Henry chased Alice in New Wonderland in the past, while in the present day Henry finds himself dealing with a lawyer who is helping Jacinda regain custody of Lucy, Regina tries to convince Weaver that he is Rumpelstiltskin and Ivy and Gothel seeks out Anastasia's coffin while Victoria is behind bars.
Plot
Opening sequence
New Wonderland's mushrooms is featured in the background.
In the Characters' Past
In the past, Regina tells Hook about the crumbled tower that she had come across while training Drizella in magic. He is distraught but is then suddenly reunited with his daughter, Alice, who has found him in the New Enchanted Forest. He warns her to not touch him due to their curse, however, Alice claims that she had found a sorceress who cured them. They move to embrace but it only throws Hook backwards as they realize their curse hasn't actually been broken. Alice runs away in fear and Henry and Ella chase her through a portal to New Wonderland.
When Henry and Ella arrive in New Wonderland, Ella reveals that her choice to come to the realm was a personal one and that she intends to find out what happened to her mother, Cecilia, who had left her and her father behind many years ago. Ella points to what happened to her parents as the reason why she doesn't believe in true love. When they come across a single shrinking potion, Ella takes it and leaves Henry to enter the Infinite Maze, the place her mother had run into. When Ella eventually finds Alice, she notices that the other half of her mother's necklace is on a table at Alice's tea party. Alice then reveals that she had met Cecilia before and that the woman had died after a battle in which Alice was the only survivor. She also tells Ella that Cecilia had been inflicted with the same Curse of the Poisoned Heart that forced her to leave her loved ones for their own safety.
Meanwhile, Drizella is also in New Wonderland, scouring it for magical items. It is revealed that she was the one who had tricked Alice into believing her curse was broken. Drizella comes across Henry, who she intends to also give the Curse of the Poisoned Heart to but Ella and Alice are able to save him just in time. Drizella is sent away through a magic mirror. With the knowledge that her mother didn't run away because she stopped loving Ella's father, Ella decides to open herself up to a relationship with Henry and the two share their first kiss.
Henry and Ella make their way back to Hook and Regina without Alice, who has chosen to stay away for the time being. Alice had given Ella the knight chess piece to give to Hook, as she no longer needed a reminder that they'd be together once again. Later, a man wanders into their camp and is revealed to be Jack, a friend of Henry's whom he had met during his early years of traveling the realms. Henry introduces him to Ella.
In Seattle
In the present day, Jacinda is trying to regain custody of Lucy after Victoria was taken to jail for the kidnapping of Eloise Gardener. She contacts Nick, a lawyer whom she has been cursed to believe is Lucy's biological father. He agrees to help her and they end up going out to dinner. Sabine warns Jacinda against exploring feelings for Nick again, which Jacinda isn't sure she does or doesn't have. Henry is disappointed by the turn of events, while Lucy explains that the situation is simply playing out like the David, Mary Margaret, and Kathryn Nolan love triangle from the first curse. She insists that he is her real father and encourages him to fight for Jacinda. Henry tries impressing her by doing some more work on her food truck but when Jacinda brings Nick by, he wonders if he should stop pursuing her.
Meanwhile, Regina is warning Drizella to stay away from Henry but with Victoria in jail, she and Gothel already have other plans. Drizella now wants to revive Anastasia for her own purposes. Gothel is now out and about in Hyperion Heights as Eloise Gardener. Drizella is able to locate Anastasia's coffin at Victoria's lakehouse and brings it back to Gothel, however, when they open up the coffin, they find that her body is missing, suggesting that Victoria had taken extra precautions to hide it.
Now that Roni has regained her memories as Regina, she confronts Weaver to find out if he also has his memories but he refuses to confirm to her that he has woken up from the curse. Realizing that he'll be of no help, she later tells Henry that she's heading down to San Francisco to find someone who had been pushed out of town by Victoria. Henry, who has been heavily drinking to get over Jacinda, agrees to accompany her on the trip. Jacinda drops by the bar later to look for Henry but is informed by Remy, the temporary barkeep, that Regina and Henry had already left town. Despite Jacinda having signed away her rights to Lucy many years ago, Nick is able to come through with the legal help and Jacinda and Lucy are reunited. Lucy is then formally introduced to Nick.
Casting
Gabrielle Anwar was credited in this episode, but does not appear.
Notes
New Wonderland, a realm featured in this episode, is not the same realm as Wonderland, which was featured during the first six seasons of the series and heavily featured in the spin-off.
Reception
Reviews
The episode received positive reviews from critics.
Paul Dailly of TV Fanatic gave it a 3.5 out of 5 stars.
Entertainment Weekly's Justin Kirkland gave it a B.
References
2017 American television episodes
Once Upon a Time (season 7) episodes | wiki |
Big Red may refer to:
Entertainment
Big Red (book), a book featuring the crew of the USS Nebraska
Big Red (film), a 1962 Walt Disney film based on the novel by Jim Kjelgaard
Big Red (sculpture), a 1974 sculpture in Eugene, Oregon, United States
The Big Red, a 2012 album by John Williamson
Big Red, a 2000 album by Hugh Blumenfeld
Big Red, a 1945 novel by Jim Kjelgaard
Products
Big Red (drink), a brand of citrus-flavored cream soda
Big Red (gum), a cinnamon-flavored gum made by Wrigley's
Big Red (motorcycle), a land speed record streamliner
Sports
Horses
Secretariat (horse)
Man o' War
Phar Lap
Bonecrusher (horse)
Team mascots
Big Red (University of Arkansas), University of Arkansas
Big Red (Cardinals mascot), Arizona Cardinals
Big Red (Lamar University), Lamar Cardinals
Big Red (Western Kentucky University), Western Kentucky University
Touchdown (mascot) (aka Big Red Bear), Cornell University
Denison University
Lawrenceville School (New Jersey)
Plymouth High School
Sacred Heart University
Shippensburg University of Pennsylvania
Steubenville High School (Ohio)
Wayland Academy, Wisconsin
Players and coaches nicknames
Seth McClung
Andy Reid
Team nicknames
Arizona Cardinals of the National Football League
Cornell Big Red, Cornell University
Glen Cove High School
Indiana Hoosiers, at Indiana University
Nebraska Cornhuskers, at the University of Nebraska
Oklahoma Sooners, at the University of Oklahoma
Phillips Exeter Academy
Other uses
Big Red (Chicago building) or CNA Center
Big red or Tiburonia granrojo, a species of jellyfish
Gyromitra caroliniana or big red, a species of mushroom
Holland Harbor Light or Big Red, the lighthouse at the entrance of a channel connecting Lake Michigan with Lake Macatawa
Big Red or Nappanerica, a sand dune in the Simpson Desert, Australia
Big Red, a set of subway cars on Boston's Red Line
Big Red, a nickname for seven in the casino game of craps
Big Red, a former professional wrestler with the Continental Wrestling Association
See also
Great Red Spot | wiki |
Крылья ангела:
Крылья ангела (Pholadidae) — семейство двустворчатых моллюсков из отряда Myoida;
Крылья ангела — фильм Мирослава Малича.
Примечания | wiki |
Stepney – distretto del London Borough of Tower Hamlets
Alex Stepney – calciatore inglese
Nigel Thomas Stepney – meccanico di Formula 1 britannico | wiki |
I Like to Hurt People is a 1985 wrestling documentary film directed by Donald G. Jackson.
Synopsis
After aspirations to film a horror movie were dropped, a mockumentary cobbled together from ringside footage follows popular wrestlers of the eighties.
Cast
Abdullah the Butcher (as self)
Andre the Giant (as self)
Ox Baker (as self)
Heather Feather
References
External links
Wrestling films
American mockumentary films
1985 films
American sports comedy films
1980s American films | wiki |
Multifuel, sometimes spelled multi-fuel, is any type of engine, boiler, or heater or other fuel-burning device which is designed to burn multiple types of fuels in its operation. One common application of multifuel technology is in military settings, where the normally-used diesel or gas turbine fuel might not be available during combat operations for vehicles or heating units. Multifuel engines and boilers have a long history, but the growing need to establish fuel sources other than petroleum for transportation, heating, and other uses has led to increased development of multifuel technology for non-military use as well, leading to many flexible-fuel vehicle designs in recent decades.
A multifuel engine is constructed so that its compression ratio permits firing the lowest octane fuel of the various accepted alternative fuels. A strengthening of the engine is necessary in order to meet these higher demands. Multifuel engines sometimes have switch settings that are set manually to take different octanes, or types, of fuel.
Types
Multifuel systems can be classified by the fuel-burning appliance it is based on. For internal combustion engines there are:
Multifuel diesel engines.
Multifuel gas turbines.
Flexible-fuel petrol engines. Limited to fuels that can be spark-ignited.
Military multifuel engines
One common use of this technology is in military vehicles, so that they may run a wide range of alternative fuels such as gasoline or jet fuel. This is seen as desirable in a military setting as enemy action or unit isolation may limit the available fuel supply, and conversely enemy fuel sources, or civilian sources, may become available for usage.
One large use of a military multi-fuel engine was the LD series used in the US M35 -ton and M54 5-ton trucks built between 1963 and 1970. A military standard design using M.A.N. technology, it was able to use different fuels without preparation. Its primary fuel was Diesel #1, #2, or AP, but 70% to 90% of other fuels could be mixed with diesel, depending on how smooth the engine would run. Low octane commercial and aviation gasoline could be used if engine oil was added, jet fuel Jet A, B, JP-4, 5, 7, and 8 could be used, as well as fuel oil #1 and #2. In practice, they only used diesel fuel, their tactical advantage was never needed, and in time they were replaced with commercial diesel engines. Another use of multifuel engines is the American M1 Abrams Main battle tank, which uses a multifuel gas turbine engine.
Currently, a wide range of Russian military vehicles employ multifuel engines, such as the T-72 tank (multifuel diesel) and the T-80 (multifuel gas turbine).
Non-military usage
Many other types of engines and other heat-generating machinery are designed to burn more than one type of fuel. For instance, some heaters and boilers designed for home use can burn wood, pellets, and other fuel sources. These offer fuel flexibility and security, but are more expensive than are standard single fuel engines. Portable stoves are sometimes designed with multifuel functionality, in order to burn whatever fuel is found during an outing.
The movement to establish alternatives to automobiles running solely on gasoline has greatly increased the number of automobiles available which use multifuel engines, such vehicles generally being termed a bi-fuel vehicle or flexible-fuel vehicle.
Underperformance issues
Multifuel engines are not necessarily underpowered, but in practice some engines have had issues with power due to design compromises necessary to burn multiple types of fuel in the same engine. Perhaps the most notorious example from a military perspective is the L60 engine used by the British Chieftain Main Battle Tank, which resulted in a very sluggish performance -- in fact, the Mark I Chieftain (used only for training and similar activities) was so underpowered that some were incapable of mounting a tank transporter. An equally serious issue was that changing from one fuel to another often required hours of preparation.
The US LD series had a power output comparable to commercial diesels of the time. It was underpowered for the 5-ton trucks, but that was due the engine size itself; the replacement diesel was much larger and more powerful. The LD engines did burn diesel fuel poorly and were very smokey. The final LDT-465 model received a turbocharger largely to clean up the exhaust, there was little power increase.
See also
Flexible-fuel vehicle
Multi-fuel stove
Footnotes
References
Dunstan, Simon. Chieftain Main Battle Tank 1965-2003. Osprey Publishing, 2003.
Jacobson, Cliff. Expedition Canoeing: A Guide To Canoeing Wild Rivers In North America. Globe Pequot, 2005.
Pahl, Greg. Natural Home Heating: The Complete Guide to Renewable Energy. Chelsea Green Publishing, 2003.
Taylor, Charles Fayette. The Internal-combustion Engine in Theory and Practice. MIT Press, 1985.
Engines
Fuel technology
Energy development | wiki |
Green tea is tea is made from the leaves of Camellia sinensis
Green Tea may also refer to:
Green Tea (film), a 2003 Chinese film
Green Tea (radio show), a program on RTÉ Radio 1
Green Tea and Other Ghost Stories, a 1945 collection of short stories
Tomohiro Tatejima, a Japanese Tetris player | wiki |
Circa is a word of Latin origin meaning 'approximately'.
Circa or CIRCA may also refer to:
CIRCA (art platform), art platform based in London
Circa (band), a progressive rock supergroup
Circa (company), an American skateboard footwear company
Circa (contemporary circus), an Australian contemporary circus company
Circa District, Abancay Province, Peru
Circa, a disc-binding notebook system
Circa Theatre, in Wellington, New Zealand
Clandestine Insurgent Rebel Clown Army, a UK activist group
Circa News, an online news and entertainment service
Circa Complex, twin skyscrapers in Los Angeles, California
Circa (album), an album by Michael Cain
Circa Resort & Casino, a hotel in downtown Las Vegas | wiki |
Hoto may refer to:
Head of the Ohio, a rowing race in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Hōtō, a noodle soup and regional dish originating from Yamanashi, Japan
Hōtō (pagoda), a form of Japanese pagoda
HOTO Tower, a business building in Zagreb, Croatia
Cocoa Hoto, the main character of the manga series Is the Order a Rabbit? | wiki |
A polyglot is someone who speaks multiple languages.
Polyglot may also refer to:
Polyglot (book), a book that contains the same text in more than one language
Polyglot (computing), a computer program that is valid in more than one programming language
Polyglot (webzine), a biweekly game industry webzine published by Polymancer Studios
Polyglot markup, HTML markup that conforms to both the HTML and XHTML specifications
Polyglot Petition, a global call for a common cause, such as prohibitionism
The Polyglots, a 1925 novel by Anglo-Russian William Gerhardie
See also
List of polyglots
Multilingualism, the use of multiple languages, either by an individual or by a community
Pidgin, a language that develops between groups who do not share a common language
Mixed language
pt:Poliglota | wiki |
Oral sex, sometimes referred to as oral intercourse, is sexual activity involving the stimulation of the genitalia of a person by another person using the mouth (including the lips, tongue, or teeth) and the throat. Cunnilingus is oral sex performed on the vulva or vagina, while fellatio is oral sex performed on the penis. Anilingus, another form of oral sex, is oral stimulation of the anus.
Oral sex may be performed as foreplay to incite sexual arousal before other sexual activities (such as vaginal or anal intercourse), or as an erotic and physically intimate act in its own right. Like most forms of sexual activity, oral sex can pose a risk for contracting sexually transmitted infections (STIs/STDs). However, the transmission risk for oral sex, especially HIV transmission, is significantly lower than for vaginal or anal sex.
Oral sex is often regarded as taboo, but most countries do not have laws which ban the practice. Commonly, people do not regard oral sex as affecting the virginity of either partner, though opinions on the matter vary. People may also have negative feelings or sexual inhibitions about giving or receiving oral sex, or may flatly refuse to engage in the practice.
Practice
Oral sex may be practiced by people of any sexual orientation.
Forms
Oral sex is sexual activity involving the stimulation of the genitalia of a person by another person using the mouth or throat, and may take various forms. During facesitting the receiver sits on the giver's face and pushes into it with his or her genitals. Oral sex can also be performed by both partners at the same time in the so-called "sixty-nine" position. Spitting and/or swallowing of the ejaculatory fluids or giving a pearl necklace may cause different sexual stimulations. Autofellatio is a possible but rare variant; autocunnilingus may also be possible for women with extremely flexible spines. Irrumation is a forced form of fellatio where the fellated one actively forces his penis into the fellator's mouth.
An act of group sex restricted to one woman giving oral sex to several men is referred to as a gangsuck, blowbang or lineup, all derivatives of the slang term gang bang for group sex. Bukkake and gokkun may also involve oral sex.
Preserving virginity
Oral sex may be practised to preserve virginity, especially among heterosexual pairings; this is sometimes termed technical virginity (which may include anal sex, mutual masturbation and other non-penetrative sex acts, but excludes penile-vaginal sex). The concept of "technical virginity" or sexual abstinence through oral sex is popular among teenagers.
Gay males who regard oral sex as a way of maintaining their virginities view penile-anal penetration as resulting in virginity loss, while other gay males may define oral sex as their main form of sexual activity. By contrast, lesbian pairings commonly view oral sex or fingering as resulting in virginity loss, though definitions of virginity loss vary among lesbians as well.
Contraception and safe sex
Oral sex alone does not result in pregnancy and heterosexual couples may engage in oral sex for contraception reasons. For conception to take place, sperm from the penis must enter the uterus and fallopian tubes and fertilize the female's egg. In humans, there is no connection between the gastrointestinal system and the reproductive system, and sperm ingested by the woman would be killed and broken down by acids in her stomach and proteins in the small intestine. The breakdown products are then absorbed as a negligible quantity of nutrients. However, there is a potential risk of pregnancy if semen comes in contact with the vaginal area in some way, such as semen in the ejaculate finding its way onto fingers, hands, or other body parts, which then comes in contact with the vaginal area.
Oral sex is not necessarily an effective method of preventing sexually transmitted infections (STIs), although some forms of STIs are believed to be less commonly spread in this way, and oral sex has been recommended as a form of safe sex. In the United States, no barrier methods for use during oral sex have been evaluated as effective by the Food and Drug Administration. However, a barrier protection like a condom for fellatio or dental dam for cunnilingus can offer some protection from contact when practicing oral sex.
Oral sex should be limited to the protected areas. A makeshift dental dam can be made out of a condom or a latex or nitrile glove, but using a real dental dam is seen as preferable; this is because real dental dams cover a larger area, avoid accidents caused by "slipping" outside the covered area, and avoid the risk that makeshift versions may be accidentally damaged or poked with the scissors during the cutting procedure. Plastic wrap may also be used as a barrier during oral sex, but there exists no conclusive scientific research regarding how effective it may or may not be at preventing disease transmission. Certain kinds of plastic wrap are manufactured to be microwaveable and are designed to have pores that open when heated, but there also exists no scientific research on what effect, if any, this has on disease transmission when used during oral sex. Some people complain that the thickness of the plastic dulls sensation.
Prevalence
A report issued by the National Center for Health Statistics in 2005 was the basis of an article in the 26 September 2005 issue of Time magazine. The report comes from the results of a computer-administered survey of over 12,000 Americans between the ages of 15 and 44, and states that over half the teenagers questioned have had oral sex. While some headlines have interpreted this as evidence that oral sex among teenagers is "on the rise", this was the first comprehensive study of its kind to examine the matter. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) stated in 2009: "Studies indicate that oral sex is commonly practiced by sexually active male-female and same-gender couples of various ages, including adolescents." Research also indicates that "males are more likely than females to have received oral sex, whereas equal proportions of men and women have given oral sex."
Health risks and other studies
Sexually transmitted infections
Some sexually transmitted infections (STIs), such as Chlamydia and human papillomavirus (HPV), can be transmitted through oral sex. Any sexual exchange of bodily fluids with a person infected with HIV, the virus that causes AIDS, poses a risk of infection. Risk of STI infection, however, is generally considered significantly lower for oral sex than for vaginal or anal sex, with HIV transmission considered the lowest risk with regard to oral sex.
There is an increased risk of STI transmission if the receiving partner has wounds on his or her genitals, or if the giving partner has wounds or open sores on or in his or her mouth, or bleeding gums. Brushing the teeth, flossing, undergoing dental work soon before or after performing oral sex can also increase the risk of transmission, because all of these activities can cause small scratches in the lining of the mouth. These wounds, even when they are microscopic, increase the chances of contracting STIs that can be transmitted orally under these conditions. Such contact can also lead to more mundane infections from common bacteria and viruses found in, around and secreted from the genital regions. Because of the aforementioned factors, medical sources advise the use of condoms or other effective barrier methods when performing or receiving oral sex with a partner whose STI status is unknown.
HPV and oral cancer link
Links have been reported between oral sex and oral cancer with human papillomavirus (HPV)-infected people. In 2005, a research study at Malmö University's Faculty of Odontology suggested that performing unprotected oral sex on a person infected with HPV might increase the risk of oral cancer. The study found that 36 percent of the cancer patients had HPV compared to only 1 percent of the healthy control group.
Another study in The New England Journal of Medicine suggests a correlation between oral sex and throat cancer. It is believed that this is due to the transmission of HPV, a virus that has been implicated in the majority of cervical cancers and which has been detected in throat cancer tissue in numerous studies. The study concludes that people who had one to five oral sex partners in their lifetime had approximately a doubled risk of throat cancer compared with those who never engaged in this activity and those with more than five oral sex partners had a 250 percent increased risk.
Miscarriage reduction
Fellatio may reduce the risk of miscarriages by inducing immunological tolerance in the woman by exposure to the proteins in her partner's semen, a process known as paternal tolerance. While any exposure to a partner's semen appears to decrease a woman's chances for the various immunological disorders that can occur during pregnancy, immunological tolerance could be most quickly established through the oral introduction and gastrointestinal absorption of semen. Recognizing that some of the studies potentially included the presence of confounding factors, such as the possibility that women who regularly perform fellatio and swallow semen also engage in more frequent intercourse, the researchers also noted that, either way, "the data still overwhelmingly supports the main theory" behind all their studies—that repeated exposure to semen establishes the maternal immunological tolerance necessary for a safe and successful pregnancy.
Cultural views
Cultural views on oral sex range from aversion to high regard. It, especially fellatio, has been considered taboo, or at least discouraged, in many cultures and parts of the world. Laws of some jurisdictions regard oral sex as penetrative sex for the purposes of sexual offenses with regard to the act, but most countries do not have laws which ban the practice itself, in contrast to anal sex or extramarital sex.
In Ancient Rome, fellatio was considered profoundly taboo. Sexual acts were generally seen through the prism of submission and control. This is apparent in the two Latin words for the act: irrumare (to penetrate orally), and fellare (to be penetrated orally). Under this system, it was considered to be abhorrent for a male to perform fellatio, since that would mean that he was penetrated (controlled), whereas receiving fellatio from a woman or another man of lower social status (such as a slave or debtor) was not humiliating. The Romans regarded oral sex as being far more shameful than, for example, anal sex – known practitioners were supposed to have foul breath and were often unwelcome as guests at a dinner table. This was highlighted in Roman attitudes towards irrumation, in which it was strictly considered a form of oral rape, and any man who irrumated another person was considered to be extremely virile. Irrumatio was so degrading in Roman society in fact that it was often used as a method of punishment.
In contrast to historical views on fellatio, cunnilingus is revered as a spiritually fulfilling practice in Chinese Taoism, which regards it as having the ability to enhance longevity. In modern Western culture, oral sex is widely practiced among adolescents and adults.
People give various reasons for their dislike of oral sex. Some state that since it does not result in reproduction, it is therefore unnatural. Others find it less intimate because it is not a face-to-face practice, or believe that it is a humiliating or unclean practice; that it is humiliating or unclean are opinions that are, at least in some cases, connected with the symbolism attached to different parts of the body. Opposite these views, people also believe that oral sex "is one of the most intimate behaviors that a couple can engage in because it requires total trust and vulnerability."
While commonly believed that lesbian sexual practices involve cunnilingus for all women who have sex with women (WSW), some have an aversion to cunnilingus due to not liking the experience or psychological or social factors, such as finding it unclean. Other WSW believe that it is a necessity or largely defines lesbian sexual activity. Lesbian couples are more likely to consider a woman's dislike of cunnilingus as a problem than heterosexual couples are, and it is common for them to seek therapy to overcome inhibitions regarding it.
Terminology and slang
There are many words which refer to oral sex, including euphemisms and sexual slang. Like all aspects of sexuality, there exists a large number of variations on a theme, a few common ones being:
Giving head – A common American slang term for giving oral sex to either a man or woman is giving head, from the term head job (in contrast to hand job, manual stimulation). A play on the slang term head resulted in the slang term brains, or brain salad surgery, domes or getting domes.
Plate – A once common British rhyming slang for fellate that arose in the gay slang language of Polari that spread in the 1960s. The term is less common today.
Cunnilingus is also sometimes referred to as muff diving, eating out or poon-job, a slang term and a cunnilingus variant of blow job, where poon is short for poontang or punani.
Additionally, in lesbian culture, several common slang terms used are carpet munching, giving lip, lip service or tipping the velvet (a faux-Victorian expression invented by novelist Sarah Waters).
Other slang terms for oral sex include going down on (male or female), licking out and muff diving (female), blow job (male), dome (male or female), sucking off (male), playing the skin flute (male recipient), rolling cigars (male recipient), lolly-gagging (gay male-on-male), gaining knowledge (male recipient) and bust down (male). Forced fellatio is often called Egyptian rape or simply Egyptian; this goes back to the time of the Crusades when Mamluks were alleged to force their Christian captives to do this.
Other animals
Oral sex has been observed in the animal kingdom among many species. It has been suggested that there is an evolutionary advantage due to the tendency of primates, non-primates and humans to have oral sex. Fellatio occurs with the fruit bat (Cynopterus sphinx); it has been observed when the bats are mating. These bat pairs spend more time copulating if the female licks the male than if she does not.
Unlike many other animals, fish from the genus Corydoras reproduce orally. The male faces perpendicularly to the female so that she may be able to attach to his reproductive apparatus. He then releases sperm into the mouth of the female, crossing her digestive system and fertilising her eggs.
See also
Erogenous zone
Eroto-comatose lucidity
Mammary intercourse
Nipple stimulation
Sex magic
Sexuality in Islam
Teabagging
Venus Butterfly
References
Explanatory notes
Citations
Bibliography
Adams, James N., The Latin Sexual Vocabulary (Johns Hopkins, 1990)
Franklin, Jacqueline, The Ultimate Kiss: Oral Lovemaking, A Sensual Guide for Couples (Los Angeles: Media Press, 2001)
External links
Oral sex and HIV (from CDC)
Oral eroticism
Sexual acts
Articles containing video clips | wiki |
The Intel Ultra Path Interconnect (UPI) is a point-to-point processor interconnect developed by Intel which replaced the Intel QuickPath Interconnect (QPI) in Xeon Skylake-SP platforms starting in 2017.
Interconnect
UPI is a low-latency coherent interconnect for scalable multiprocessor systems with a shared address space. It uses a directory-based home snoop coherency protocol with a transfer speed of up to 10.4 GT/s. Supporting processors typically have two or three UPI links.
Comparing to QPI, it improves power efficiency with a new low-power state, improves transfer efficiency with a new packetization format, and improves scalability with protocol layer that does not require preallocation of resources.
UPI only supports directory-based coherency, unlike previous QPI processors which supported multiple snoop modes (no snoop, early snoop, home snoop, and directory).
A combined caching and home agent (CHA) handles resolution of coherency across multiple processors, as well as snoop requests from processor cores and local and remote agents. Separate physical CHAs are placed within each processor core and last level cache (LLC) bank to improve scalability according to the number of cores, memory controllers, or the sub-NUMA clustering mode. The address space is interleaved across different CHAs, which act like a single logical agent.
See also
HyperTransport
Front-side bus
References
External links
Intel® Xeon® Processor Scalable Family Technical Overview
Computer buses
UltraPath Interconnect
Serial buses | wiki |
The Federal Acquisition Streamlining Act of 1994 (; ) is a United States law that was enacted in 1994 with the goal of lowering procurement barriers. This Act enables Simplified Acquisition Procedures where the procurement is limited, facilitates reliance of Commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) technology, and promotes the use of fixed-price Performance Based Contracting.
The law alters the United States government procurement strategy from lowest bid to best value. The Federal Acquisition Streamlining Act and the Federal Acquisition Reform Act of 1996 removed the traditional oversight mechanisms that had been in place for decades and paved the way for a new method of awarding federal government contracts. Contracts must meet 90% of their performance goals or face termination.
See also
Nunn–McCurdy Amendment
External links
Department of Labor FASA
S 1587 The Federal Acquisitions Streamlining Act
GAO The Federal Acquisition Streamlining Act of 1994
103rd United States Congress
United States federal government administration legislation
Government procurement in the United States | wiki |
The Gathering 2009 was a two-day weekend event, celebrating Scottish culture, held between 25 and 26 July 2009, as part of Homecoming 2009. The event was held at Holyrood Park, Scotland, and attracted around 47,000 people from all over the world. Over 125 Scottish clans were represented in what was described as the largest Highland Games in Scotland's history. A clan convention also took place, also the largest recorded meeting of chiefs.
However, despite being initially hailed as a success, subsequent revelations that the organisers had overseen a £600,000 loss lead to the event's finances being described as a fiasco in the Scottish Press.
Festivities
The Gathering took place at Holyrood Park between 25 and 26 July. On the evening of 25 July, about 20,000 people lined the Royal Mile and watched the parade of about 8,000 clan members and pipe bands march from the Palace of Holyroodhouse to Edinburgh Castle Esplanade. The Duke of Rothesay officially opened the weekend event, which attracted over 47,000 people from at least 40 different countries. 125 Scottish clans were represented and 85 clan chiefs were also present. Visitors enjoyed traditional Highland Games, piping, dancing, live music performances, and sampled Scottish food, drink, as well as crafts and textiles. The majority of the weekend visitors attended the festivities on the 25th, with about 30,000 enjoying the sunshine, while rain the next day dampened the mood of some attendees.
The event was reported to have been the world's largest Highland Games and clan meeting. It was not, however, a sell out. The day before the festivities, 7,400 out of 8,100 tickets that guaranteed access to the parade and esplanade had been sold. The cost of such tickets was £95 a piece. Also, only 12,000 tickets out of 30,000 had been sold for the event held in Holyrood Park.
Clan convention
A Clan Convention was held on 24 July 2009, located at the Scottish Parliament. The convention was made up of more than 100 clan chiefs and about 300 other people. The meeting of chiefs was the first of such scale in recorded history. One of the points discussed at the convention was the use of social networking to reach young people. About 40 clan chiefs were not present for the convention; and it was noted that a minority of chiefs refuse to participate in clan functions.
Financial losses
Poor advance ticket sales and a failure to keep costs down led to the event making a £600,000 loss. The organisers failed to pay Historic Scotland £73,000 for the use of Edinburgh Castle and Holyrood Park. Debts of £27,200 owed to the police and £12,000 to the ambulance service were unpaid, as was £24,000 to Edinburgh City Council to facilitate the closing of the Royal Mile for the clan parade. £300,000 of debts owed to various contractors, suppliers and performers were also unmet.
The Scottish Government, which gave The Gathering £280,000 from its own budget and those of EventScotland and Homecoming, was also forced to write off a £180,000 loan agreed just weeks before the event to ensure it went ahead as planned.
The Gathering 2009 Ltd also made a £38,000 loan to another firm, Panalba, partly owned by Lord Sempill and "similar people" to The Gathering 2009 Ltd which was also written off.
Conclusion
Initially The Gathering 2009 was deemed a success by both the organisers and media. Afterwards, Lord Sempill, the co-director of the event with Jennifer Gilmour, was quoted in the press as saying, "This tremendous event has not only been everything I dreamed but has exceeded my expectations. It has been wonderful to see so many local people". Subsequently, however, Lord Sempill handed over intellectual property rights to the Destination Edinburgh Marketing Alliance as part of the deal whereby Historic Scotland was forced to write off the money owed to it by The Gathering Ltd.
Initially The Gathering's apparent success led to speculation over future events, possibly in connection with the 700th anniversary of the Battle of Bannockburn in 2014. The Destination Edinburgh Marketing Alliance however has subsequently stated that they intend instead to run a tie-in with the London Olympics in 2012.
See also
Highland games
Homecoming Scotland 2009
Scottish clan
World Highland Games Championships
References
External links
Clan Gathering 2009 website
Events in the (Scottish) Parliament—Includes videos of the Clan Convention
2000s in Edinburgh
2009 in Scottish sport
2009 in sports
Culture in Edinburgh
Events in Edinburgh
Events in Scotland
Highland games in Scotland
Highland games
History of Edinburgh
Reunions
Gathering 2009
Scottish culture
Scottish diaspora
Sport in Edinburgh
Sports competitions in Scotland | wiki |
Freehand may refer to:
Freehand drawing, a drawing made without the help of devices
Freehand lace, a bobbin lace worked directly onto fabric
, drumming technique
Adobe FreeHand, software package
Free Hand, a 1975 album by Gentle Giant
Companies
Freehand Books, literary imprint
Freehand Productions, media company
See also
Free Hands
Handsfree | wiki |
A reflex camera is a camera that permits the photographer to view the image that will be seen through the lens, and therefore to see exactly what will be captured, contrary to viewfinder cameras where the image could be significantly different from what will be captured.
Variations
A single-lens reflex camera typically uses a mirror and prism system (hence "reflex", from the mirror's reflection) to accomplish this. The mirrorless interchangeable-lens camera achieves the same result by providing the photographer with a digitally captured image. The twin-lens reflex camera provides both a viewfinder image by reflecting the image onto ground glass and an image through another lens to the film. The image exposing the film is not reflected.
See also
single-lens reflex camera
Cameras by type | wiki |
For a list of high school football rivalries, see:
List of high school football rivalries more than 100 years old; or
List of high school football rivalries less than 100 years old
American football-related lists | wiki |
The Florida State University College of Education is one of sixteen colleges comprising the Florida State University (FSU). The College has roots that reach back to the West Florida Seminary and the State Normal College for Teachers. The College has a number of nationally ranked programs and is in the Top 20 nationally in terms of doctoral degrees awarded.
The College of Education has four academic departments which offer undergraduate and graduate degree programs in 27 fields of study. The academic programs prepare students for positions as leaders in the classroom and school system environment, as well as those who conduct research to improve education, instruction and policy. Five online graduate degree program areas are available through the Distance Learning Program. The College operates the Florida State University School, a charter school in southeast Tallahassee.
National rankings
U.S. News & World Report (2023 Edition)
Overall College of Education - 26th overall
Curriculum and Instruction - 23rd overall
Education Administration and Supervision - 18th overall
Higher Education Administration - 13th overall
Special Education - 16th overall
In 2015, online graduate programs were ranked 2nd in the nation among both public and private universities by U.S. News & World Report.
References
External links
Educational institutions established in 1905
Schools of education in Florida
1905 establishments in Florida | wiki |
Two referendums were held together in the Republic of Ireland on 22 May 1998, each on a proposed amendment of the Irish constitution. Both measures were approved. A referendum in Northern Ireland was also held on the same day.
Eighteenth amendment
The Eighteenth Amendment introduced two new articles into the constitution which allowed the government to ratify the Amsterdam Treaty.
Nineteenth amendment
The Nineteenth Amendment to the constitution allowed the government to ratify the Good Friday Agreement done at Belfast on 10 April 1998, which included changing articles 2 and 3 of the Irish constitution which effectively claimed Irish sovereignty over Northern Ireland. The agreement was also endorsed in the simultaneous referendum in Northern Ireland. Articles 2 and 3 were subsequently changed in December 1999, and the territorial claim was replaced with an aspiration for a united Ireland to be achieved "by peaceful means with the consent of a majority of the people, democratically expressed, in both jurisdictions in the island".
See also
Constitutional amendment
Politics of the Republic of Ireland
History of the Republic of Ireland
Politics of Northern Ireland
History of Northern Ireland
References
1998 in international relations
1998 in Irish law
1998 in Irish politics
1998 referendums
Ireland 1998
May 1998 events in Europe
Constitutional 1998 | wiki |
Acifran is a niacin receptor agonist.
References
Receptor agonists
Carboxylic acids
Enones | wiki |
Home accessories are furniture items which are easy to replace and easy to move, and include almost any items that are not strictly functionally necessary in a decorated space. These accessories include such items as curtains, sofa sets, cushions, tablecloths and decorative craft products, decorative wrought iron, and so on. These items are commonly used in indoor furnishings and layout and can include cloth items, paintings, and plants.
The first thing that matters when it comes to sofas with back support is the type of the sofa. Namely, there are plenty of different types of sofas on the market, but, not all of them are for back support. Anyway, here are some of the best sofas for back support.
Recliner sofa
Chesterfield sofa
Massage sofa
Home accessories, as movable decorations, reflect the owner's taste and create a personal atmosphere where they are placed. These items can break the boundaries of the traditional decoration industry, using handicrafts, textiles, collectibles, and things such as lamps, floral items, and plants re-combined to form a new concept. Home accessories vary according to the size and shape of the room space, the owner's living habits, hobbies, tastes, and their financial situation.
References
Interior design | wiki |
Adarotene is a bioactive retinoid.
References
Retinoids | wiki |
Agonal respiration, gasping respiration or agonal breathing is a distinct abnormal pattern of breathing and brainstem reflex characterized by gasping, labored breathing, accompanied by strange vocalizations and myoclonus. Possible causes include cerebral ischemia, extreme hypoxia (inadequate oxygen supply to tissue), or even anoxia (total depletion of oxygen). Agonal breathing is an extremely serious medical sign requiring immediate medical attention, as the condition generally progresses to complete apnea and heralds death. The duration of agonal respiration can be as brief as two breaths or last up to several hours.
The term is sometimes (inaccurately) used to refer to labored, gasping breathing patterns accompanying organ failure (e.g. liver failure and kidney failure), SIRS, septic shock, and metabolic acidosis (see Kussmaul breathing, or in general any labored breathing, including Biot's respirations and ataxic respirations). Correct usage would restrict the term to the last breaths before death.
Agonal respirations are also commonly seen in cases of cardiogenic shock or cardiac arrest, where agonal respirations may persist for several minutes after cessation of heartbeat. The presence of agonal respirations in these cases indicates a more favorable prognosis than in cases of cardiac arrest without agonal respirations. In an unresponsive, pulseless patient in cardiac arrest, agonal gasps are not effective breaths. Agonal respiration occurs in 40% of cardiac arrests experienced outside a hospital environment.
References
External links
Gasping, even the dead breathe Real footage of a person with cardiac arrest and terminal breathing (gasping)
Breathing abnormalities
Medical emergencies | wiki |
The following is a list of monastic houses in Norfolk, England.
List
See also
List of monastic houses in England
Notes
References
Citations
Bibliography
Binns, Alison (1989) Studies in the History of Medieval Religion 1: Dedications of Monastic Houses in England and Wales 1066–1216, Boydell
Cobbett, William (1868) List of Abbeys, Priories, Nunneries, Hospitals, And Other Religious Foundations in England and Wales and in Ireland, Confiscated, Seized On, or Alienated by the Protestant "Reformation" Sovereigns and Parliaments
Knowles, David & Hadcock, R. Neville (1971) Medieval Religious Houses England & Wales. Longman
Morris, Richard (1979) Cathedrals and Abbeys of England and Wales, J. M. Dent & Sons Ltd.
Thorold, Henry (1986) Collins Guide to Cathedrals, Abbeys and Priories of England and Wales, Collins
Thorold, Henry (1993) Collins Guide to the Ruined Abbeys of England, Wales and Scotland, Collins
Wright, Geoffrey N., (2004) Discovering Abbeys and Priories, Shire Publications Ltd.
English Cathedrals and Abbeys, Illustrated, Odhams Press Ltd.
Map of Monastic Britain, South Sheet, Ordnance Survey, 2nd edition, 1954
Medieval sites in England
Norfolk
Lists of buildings and structures in Norfolk
Norfolk | wiki |
San Marino Volleyball Federation or FSPAV () is the governing body of volleyball and beach volleyball in San Marino. It was formed in 1980.
It organizes the internal league and runs the San Marino national volleyball team.
The President of the federation is Gianluigi Lazzarini.
See also
San Marino men's national volleyball team
San Marino women's national volleyball team
Banca di San Marino Serie C femminile
External links
Sammarinese Volleyball Federation
San Marino
Volleyball | wiki |
The "b" word is a euphemism generally used to replace a profane word starting with the letter b. The profanity in question may be:
Bastard (disambiguation)
Bitch (slang)
Bollocks | wiki |
A bottle glorifier is a display that is designed to fit on a bottle, typically with a cut-out area to hold the bottle in position.
Bottle glorifiers can be made of acrylic, wood, stainless steel, plastic, or polyresin. New lighting technology brings LED and electroluminescent illumination options to the display. Most bottle glorifiers are illuminated with LED or fluorescent
lighting elements. The units can be powered via AC current or by using DC (batteries) although batteries have a short shelf life when illuminating bottle glorifiers. Other options such as rechargeable batteries are available.
Bottle glorifiers are used for all sorts of marketing expressions but mostly in B2C business.
Decorative arts | wiki |
Jelly roll may refer to:
Swiss roll, a cake also known as jelly roll, roll cake, cream roll, roulade, Swiss log
Entertainment
Jelly Roll (rapper) (born 1986), rapper from Nashville
Jelly Roll Morton (1890–1941), jazz musician
"Jelly Roll Blues", a 1924 jazz fox-trot composed by Jelly Roll Morton
"Jelly Roll", a song on the album Blue Murder by Blue Murder
"Jelly Roll", a composition on the album Mingus Ah Um by Charles Mingus
Jelly Roll, the pet dog on the children's television show, Jibber Jabber
Jelly Roll (poetry collection), a 2003 poetry collection by Kevin Young
Finance
Jelly roll (options), an options trading strategy
Science and technology
Jelly roll fold, a type of beta barrel protein domain structure
Jelly roll (battery), a type of battery construction | wiki |
Actagardin (INN; also known as gardimycin) is a tetracyclic peptide lantibiotic made by Actinoplanes brasiliensis. It was discovered in 1975 by Lepetit S.p.A. Its method of antibiotic activity involves the inhibition of peptidoglycan, preferentially targeting gram negative bacteria.
References
Lantibiotics
Peptides | wiki |
Kim Noller (November 28, 1945 – April 28, 2009) was the editor of the Mountain Enterprise, a weekly newspaper serving the Mountain Communities of the Tejon Pass and headquartered in Frazier Park, Kern County, California. He was born in Tampa, Florida, to Charles Noller and Jane Tebbets Noller, and died in Bethlehem, Georgia.
Noller was reared in Tujunga, Los Angeles County, California, where he was taught the sign-painting business by his father. He was married to Gretchen Noller in 1982, and in 1991 the couple moved to the Kern County community of Lebec, and he became active in the business community. In 2000 he formed a partnership with other businesspeople to purchase the Mountain Enterprise.
He was in that position until September 2004. His last year on the job was accomplished by way of the Internet from Bethlehem, where he had moved with his wife to be closer to his grandchildren.
References
1945 births
2009 deaths
Editors of California newspapers | wiki |
A wetsuit is a garment worn to provide thermal protection while wet. It is usually made of foamed neoprene, and is worn by surfers, divers, windsurfers, canoeists, and others engaged in water sports and other activities in or on water. Its purpose is to provide thermal insulation and protection from abrasion, ultraviolet exposure, and stings from marine organisms. It also contributes extra buoyancy. The insulation properties of neoprene foam depend mainly on bubbles of gas enclosed within the material, which reduce its ability to conduct heat. The bubbles also give the wetsuit a low density, providing buoyancy in water.
Hugh Bradner, a University of California, Berkeley physicist, invented the modern wetsuit in 1952. Wetsuits became available in the mid-1950s and evolved as the relatively fragile foamed neoprene was first backed, and later sandwiched, with thin sheets of tougher material such as nylon or later spandex (also known as lycra). Improvements in the way joints in the wetsuit were made by gluing, taping and blindstitching, helped the suit to remain waterproof and reduce flushing, the replacement of water trapped between suit and body by cold water from the outside. Further improvements in the seals at the neck, wrists, ankles and zippers produced a suit known as a "semi-dry".
Different types of wetsuit are made for different uses and for different temperatures. Suits range from a thin (2 mm or less) "shortie", covering just the torso, to a full 8 mm semi-dry, usually complemented by neoprene boots, gloves and hood.
The difference between a wetsuit and a dry suit is that a wetsuit allows water to enter the suit, though good fit limits water circulation inside the suit, and between the inside and outside of the suit, while dry suits are designed to prevent water from entering, thus keeping the undergarments dry and preserving their insulating effectiveness. Wetsuits can give adequate protection in warm to moderately cold waters. Dry suits are typically more expensive and more complex to use, but can be used where protection from lower temperatures or contaminated water is needed.
Uses
The primary function of a wetsuit is thermal insulation to keep the wearer warm in conditions where they would otherwise lose body heat rapidly due to heat transfer by relatively large quantities of water. Secondary, and incidental, functions are buoyancy and protection from some environmental hazards such as abrasion, sunburn, and to a lesser extent, wind chill. Wetsuits are used for thermal insulation for activities where the user is likely to be immersed in water, or frequently doused with heavy spray, often approaching from near-horizontal directions, where normal wet-weather clothing is unlikely to keep the water out.
Activities include underwater diving, sailing, sea rescue operations, surfing, river rafting, whitewater kayaking and in some circumstances, endurance swimming.
In open water swimming events the use of wetsuits is controversial, as some participants claim that wetsuits are being worn for competitive advantage and not just for warmth.
Unlike triathlons, which allow swimmers to wear wetsuits when the water is below a certain temperature (the standard is at the surface or up to for unofficial events.), most open water swim races either do not permit the use of wetsuits, (usually defined as anything covering the body above the waist or below the knees), or put wetsuit-clad swimmers in a separate category and/or make them ineligible for race awards. This varies by locales and times of the year, where water temperatures are substantially below comfortable.
Insulation
Still water (without currents or convection) conducts heat away from the body by pure thermal diffusion, approximately 20 to 25 times more efficiently than still air. Water has a thermal conductivity of 0.58 Wm−1K−1 while still air has a thermal conductivity of 0.024 Wm−1K−1, so an unprotected person can succumb to hypothermia even in warmish water on a warm day. Wetsuits are made of closed-cell foam neoprene, a synthetic rubber that contains small bubbles of nitrogen gas when made for use as wetsuit material (neoprene may also be manufactured without foaming for many other applications where insulating qualities are not important). Nitrogen, like most gases, has very low thermal conductivity compared to water or to solids, and the small and enclosed nature of the gas bubbles minimizes heat transport through the gas by convection in the same way that cloth fabrics or feathers insulate by reducing convection of enclosed air spaces. The result is that the gas-filled cavities restrict heat transfer to mostly conduction, which is partly through bubbles of entrapped gas, thereby greatly reducing heat transfer from the body (or from the layer of warmed water trapped between the body and the wetsuit) to the colder water surrounding the wetsuit.
Uncompressed foam neoprene has a typical thermal conductivity in the region of 0.054 Wm−1K−1, which produces about twice the heat loss of still air, or one-tenth the loss of water. However at a depth of about of water, the thickness of the neoprene will be halved and its conductivity will be increased by about 50%, allowing heat to be lost at three times the rate at the surface. Repeated compression and decompression of the neoprene foam will eventually lead to loss of volume, insulation, buoyancy and flexibility.
A wetsuit must have a snug fit to work efficiently when immersed; too loose a fit, particularly at the openings (wrists, ankles, neck and overlaps) will allow cold water from the outside to enter when the wearer moves. Flexible seals at the suit cuffs aid in preventing heat loss in this fashion. The elasticity of the foamed neoprene and surface textiles allow enough stretch for many people to effectively wear off-the-shelf sizes, but others have to have their suits custom fitted to get a good fit that is not too tight for comfort and safety. Places where the suit bridges a hollow tend to change volume when the wearer bends that part of the body, and the change in volume of the space under the suit works as a pump to push warm water out of the suit and suck cold water in on the opposite movement.
Buoyancy
Foamed neoprene is very buoyant, helping swimmers to stay afloat, and for this reason divers need to carry extra weight based on the volume of their suit to achieve neutral buoyancy near the surface. However, the suit loses thermal protection as the bubbles in the neoprene are compressed at depth. Buoyancy is also reduced by compression, and scuba divers can correct this by inflating the buoyancy compensator.
Measurements of volume change of neoprene foam used for wetsuits under hydrostatic compression shows that about 30% of the volume, and therefore 30% of surface buoyancy, is lost in about the first 10 m, another 30% by about 60 m, and the volume appears to stabilise at about 65% loss by about 100 m. The total buoyancy loss of a wetsuit is proportional to the initial uncompressed volume. An average person has a surface area of about 2 m2, so the uncompressed volume of a full one piece 6 mm thick wetsuit will be in the order of 1.75 x 0.006 = 0.0105 m3, or roughly 10 litres. The mass will depend on the specific formulation of the foam, but will probably be in the order of 4 kg, for a net buoyancy of about 6 kg at the surface. Depending on the overall buoyancy of the diver, this will generally require 6 kg of additional weight to bring the diver to neutral buoyancy to allow reasonably easy descent The volume lost at 10 m is about 3 litres, or 3 kg of buoyancy, rising to about 6 kg buoyancy lost at about 60 m. This could nearly double for a large person wearing a farmer-john and jacket for cold water. This loss of buoyancy must be balanced by inflating the buoyancy compensator to maintain neutral buoyancy at depth.
History
Origins
In 1952, UC Berkeley and subsequent UC San Diego SIO physicist Hugh Bradner, who is considered to be the original inventor and "father of the modern wetsuit," had the insight that a thin layer of trapped water could be tolerated between the suit fabric and the skin, so long as sufficient insulation was present in the fabric of the suit. In this case, the water would quickly reach skin temperature and gas bubbles in the fabric would continue to act as the thermal insulation to keep it that way. In the popular mind, the layer of water between skin and suit has been credited with providing the insulation, but Bradner clearly understood that the suit did not need to be wet because it was not the water that provided the insulation but rather the gas in the suit fabric. He initially sent his ideas to Lauriston C. "Larry" Marshall who was involved in a U.S. Navy/National Research Council Panel on Underwater Swimmers. However, it was Willard Bascom, an engineer at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography in La Jolla, California, who suggested foamed neoprene as a feasible material to Bradner.
Bradner and Bascom were not overly interested in profiting from their design and were unable to successfully market a version to the public. They attempted to patent their neoprene wetsuit design, but their application was rejected because the design was viewed as too similar to a flight suit. The United States Navy also turned down Bradner's and Bascom's offer to supply its swimmers and frogmen with the new wetsuits due to concerns that the gas in the neoprene component of the suits might make it easier for naval divers to be detected by underwater sonar. The first written documentation of Bradner's invention was in a letter to Marshall, dated June 21, 1951.
Jack O'Neill started using closed-cell neoprene foam which was shown to him by his bodysurfing friend, Harry Hind, who knew of it as an insulating material in his laboratory work. After experimenting with the material and finding it superior to other insulating foams, O'Neill founded the successful wetsuit manufacturing company called O'Neill in a San Francisco garage in 1952, later relocating to Santa Cruz, California in 1959 with the motto "It's Always Summer on the Inside". Bob and Bill Meistrell, from Manhattan Beach, California, also started experimenting with neoprene around 1953. They started a company which would later be named Body Glove.
Neoprene was not the only material used in early wetsuits, particularly in Europe and Australia. The Pêche-Sport "isothermic" suit invented by Georges Beuchat in 1953 and the UK-made Siebe Gorman Swimsuit were both made out of sponge rubber. The Heinke Dolphin Suit of the same period, also made in England, came in a green male and a white female version, both manufactured from natural rubber lined with stockinet. As early as July 1951, underwater hunters in Australia were experimenting with a natural rubber wetsuit "of a 'wrap on' variety, which does not set out to be 100% waterproof (but it is claimed that) the leakage of water through it is so slow that body warmth under it is maintained for hours." By May 1953, the Bondi underwater equipment manufacturer Undersee Products was already distributing this singlet-like design commercially to Australian sporting goods stores, where it was described thus: "Made from heavy sheet rubber, the Sealskin suit is most effective when worn over a football jersey. When jersey becomes wet, rubber holds it firmly against body and thus warmth is generated. Water circulation automatically stops and body warmth builds up in moisture-laden jersey. The Seaskin suit provides both underwater insulation and above-water wind protection".
Development of suit design
Originally, wetsuits were made only with sheets of foam-rubber or neoprene that did not have any backing material. This type of suit required care while pulling it on because the foam-rubber by itself is both fragile and sticky against bare skin. Stretching and pulling excessively easily caused these suits to be torn open. This was somewhat remedied by thoroughly powdering the suit and the diver's body with talc to help the rubber slide on more easily.
Backing materials first arrived in the form of nylon knit cloth applied to one side of the neoprene. This allowed a swimmer to pull on the suit relatively easily since the nylon took most of the stress of pulling on the suit, and there was less friction between the nylon and skin, but the suit still had the bare foam exposed on the outside and the nylon was relatively stiff, limiting flexibility. A small strip of neoprene reversed with the rubber against the skin could help provide a sealing surface to keep water out around the neck, wrists, and ankles.
In 1960, the British Dunlop Sports Company brought out its yellow Aquafort neoprene wetsuit, whose high visibility was intended to improve diver safety. However, the line was discontinued after a short while and wetsuits reverted to their black uniformity. The colorful wetsuits seen more recently first arrived in the 1970s when double-backed neoprene was developed. In this material the foam-rubber is sandwiched between two protective fabric outer layers, greatly increasing the tear-resistance. An external layer also meant that decorative colors, logos, and patterns could be made with panels and strips sewn into various shapes. This change from bare flat black rubber to full color took off in the 1980s with brilliant fluorescent colors common on many suits.
Improvements in suit assembly
The first suits used traditional sewing methods to simply overlap two strips of rubber and sew them together. In a rubber wetsuit this does not work well for a number of reasons, the main one being that punching holes straight through both layers of foam for the thread opens up passages for water to flow in and out of the suit. The second problem is that the stretching of the foam tended to enlarge the needle holes when the suit was worn. This meant that a wetsuit could be very cold all along the seams of the suit. And although the sewn edge did hold the two pieces together, it could also act as a perforated tear edge, making the suit easier to tear along the seams when putting it on and taking it off.
When nylon-backed neoprene appeared, the problem of the needle weakening the foam was solved, but still the needle holes leaked water along the seams.
Seam taping
To deal with all these early sewing problems, taping of seams was developed. The tape is a strong nylon cloth with a very thin but solid waterproof rubber backing. The tape is applied across the seam and bonded either with a chemical solvent or with a hot rolling heat-sealer to melt the tape into the neoprene.
With this technology, the suit could be sewn and then taped, and the tape would cover the sewing holes as well as providing some extra strength to prevent tearing along the needle holes.
When colorful double-backed designer suits started appearing, taping moved primarily to the inside of the suit because the tape was usually very wide, jagged, black, and ugly, and was hidden within the suit and out of sight.
Many 1960s and 1970s wetsuits were black with visible yellow seam taping. The yellow made the divers more easily seen in dark low-visibility water. To avoid this problem O'Neill fabricators developed a seam-tape which combined a thin nylon layer with a polyester hemming tape. Applied over the interior of the glued & sewn seam, then anneal bonded with a hand held teflon heating iron produced a seam that was both securely sealed and much stronger.
Seam gluing
Another alternative to sewing was to glue the edges of the suit together. This created a smooth, flat surface that did not necessarily need taping, but unfortunately, raw foam glued to foam is not a strong bond and still prone to tearing.
Most early wetsuits were fabricated completely by hand, which could lead to sizing errors in the cutting of the foam sheeting. If the cut edges did not align correctly or the gluing was not done well, there might still be water leakage along the seam.
Initially, suits could be found as being sewn only, glued only, taped only, then also sewn and taped, or glued and taped, or perhaps all three.
Blindstitching
Sometime after nylon-backed neoprene appeared, the blind stitch method was developed. A blindstitch sewing machine uses a curved needle, which does not go all the way through the neoprene but just shallowly dips in behind the fabric backing, crosses the glue line, and emerges from the surface on the same side of the neoprene. This is similar to the overlock stitching used for teeshirts and other garments made from knitted fabrics.
The curved needle allows the fabric backing to be sewn together without punching a hole completely through the neoprene, and thereby eliminating the water-leakage holes along the seam. Blindstitch seams also lay flat, butting up the edge of one sheet against another, allowing the material to lay flatter and closer to the skin. For these reasons blindstitching rapidly became the primary method of sewing wetsuits together, with other stitching methods now used mainly for decorative or stylistic purposes.
Further advances in suit design
Highly elastic fabrics such as spandex (also known as lycra) have mostly replaced plain nylon backing, since the nylon knit fabric cannot be stretched as much as when elasticised with lycra fibres. Incorporating lycra into the backing permits a larger amount of stretching that does not damage the suit, and allowed suits to be stretched more to fit while remaining acceptably comfortable, making the tailoring less critical.
After the development of double-backed neoprene, singled-backed neoprene still has its uses. A narrow edge strip of smooth surfaced single-backed neoprene wrapped around the leg, neck, and wrist openings of the suit creates a more effective seal against the skin than the knit fabric backing, that reduces the flushing of water in and out of the suit at these places as the person moves. Since the strip is narrow, it does not drag on the skin of the wearer much and the lining makes the suit easy to put on and remove. The strip can also be fitted with the smooth side out and folded under to form a seal with a small length of smooth surface against the skin and slightly greater contact pressure. This type of seal can also be used on neoprene dry suits as it is sufficiently watertight when properly designed.
In the early 1970s Gul Wetsuits pioneered the one-piece wetsuit named the 'steamer' because of the visible condensed water vapour given off from the suit when taken off, allowing heat and water held inside to escape. One-piece wetsuits are still sometimes referred to as 'steamers'.
As wetsuit manufacturers continued to develop suit designs, they found ways that the materials could be further optimized and customized. The O'Neill "Animal Skin" created in 1974 by then Director of Marketing, E.J. Armstrong, was one of the first designs combining a turtle-neck based on the popular Sealsuit with a flexible lightweight YKK horizontal zipper across the back shoulders similar in concept to the inflatable watertight Supersuit (developed by Jack O'Neill in the late 1960s). The "Animal Skin" eventually evolved molded rubber patterns bonded onto the exterior of the neoprene sheeting (a technique E.J. Armstrong developed for application of the moulded raised rubber Supersuit logo to replace the standard flat decals). This has been carried on as stylized reinforcing pads of rubber on the knees and elbows to protect the suit from wear, and allows logos to be directly bonded onto raw sheet rubber. Additionally, the "Animal Skin's" looser fit allowed for the use of a supplemental vest in extreme conditions.
More recently, manufacturers have experimented by combining various materials with neoprene for additional warmth or flexibility of their suits. These include, but are not limited to, spandex, and wool.
Precision computer-controlled cutting and assembly methods, such as water-jet cutting, have allowed ever greater levels of seam precision, permitting designers to use many small individual strips of different colors while still keeping the suit free of bulging and ripples from improper cutting and misaligned sewing. Further innovations in CAD (Computer Aided Design) technology allow precision cutting for custom-fit wetsuits.
Return of single-backed neoprene
As wetsuits continued to evolve, their use was explored in other sports such as open-water swimming and triathlons. Although double-backed neoprene is strong, the cloth surface is relatively rough and creates a large amount of drag in the water, slowing down the swimmer. A single-backed suit has a smoother exterior surface which causes less drag. With the advances of elastic Lycra backings and blindstitching, single-backed neoprene suits could be made that outperformed the early versions from the 1970s. Other developments in single-backed wetsuits include the suits designed for free-diving and spearfishing. Single lined neoprene is more flexible than double lined. To achieve flexibility and low bulk for a given warmth of suit, they are unlined inside, and the slightly porous raw surface of the neoprene adheres closely to the skin and reduces flushing of the suit. The lined outer surface may be printed with camouflage patterns for spearfishing and is more resistant to damage while in use.
Some triathlon wetsuits go further, and use rubber-molding and texturing methods to roughen up the surface of the suit on the forearms, to increase drag and help pull the swimmer forwards through the water. Extremely thin 1 mm neoprene is also often used in the under-arm area, to decrease stretch resistance and reduce strain on the swimmer when they extend their arms out over their head.
Wetsuits used for caving are often single-backed with a textured surface known as "sharkskin" which is a thin layer where the neoprene is less expanded. This makes it more abrasion resistant for squeezing between rocks and doesn't get torn in the way that fabric does.
Another reason to eliminate the external textile backing is to reduce water retention which can increase evaporative cooling and wind chill in suits used mainly out of the water.
Types
Configurations
Various configurations of wetsuit are available, with varied amounts of body coverage. Most can be worn alone or in combinations to suit the conditions:
A sleeveless vest, covering only the torso, provides minimal coverage. Some include an attached hood. These are not usually intended to be worn alone, but as an extra layer over or under a longer wetsuit.
A hooded tunic, covering the torso and head, with short legs and either short or no sleeves, is generally intended to be worn over a full suit, and has a zip closure. It may be fitted with pockets for transporting accessories.
A jacket covers the torso and arms, with little to no coverage for the legs. Some jackets have short legs like a shorty, others feature leg holes similar to a woman's swimsuit. A third style, the beavertail or bodysuit, has a flap which passes through the crotch and attaches at the front with clips, toggles or velcro fasteners. It is worn with (over) or without a long john or trousers. A jacket may include an integral hood, and may have a full or partial front zipper.
A spring suit covers the torso and has short or long sleeves and short legs.
Trousers cover the lower torso and legs.
A short john, shorty covers the torso and legs to the knee only; does not have sleeves and is a short legged version of the long john.
A long john, johnny, johnny suit, or farmer john/jane (depending on the gender the suit is designed for) covers the torso and legs only; it resembles a bib overall, hence the nickname.
A full suit or steamer covers the torso and the full length of the arms and legs. Some versions come with sleeves the length of a standard t-shirt and known as a short-sleeved steamer.
Some suits are arranged in two parts; the jacket and long johns can be worn separately in mild conditions or worn together to provide two layers of insulation around the torso in cold conditions. Typically, two-piece cold water wetsuits have 10 to 14 mm combined thickness of neoprene over the torso and 5 to 7 mm single thickness over the limbs.
Thickness
Wetsuits are available in different thicknesses depending on the conditions for which they are intended. The thicker the suit, the warmer it will keep the wearer, but the more it will restrict movement. Because wetsuits offer significant protection from jellyfish, coral, sunburn and other hazards, many divers opt to wear a thin suit which provides minimal insulation (often called a "bodysuit") even when the water is warm enough to comfortably forego insulating garments. A thick suit will restrict mobility, and as the thickness is increased the suit may become impractical, depending on the application. This is one reason why dry suits may be preferable for some applications. A wetsuit is normally specified in terms of its thickness and style. For instance, a wetsuit with a torso thickness of 5 mm and a limb thickness of 3 mm will be described as a "5/3". With new technologies the neoprene is getting more flexible. Modern 4/3 wetsuits, for instance, may feel as flexible as a 3/2 of only a few years ago. Some suits have extra layers added for key areas such as the lower back. Improved flexibility may come at the cost of greater compressibility, which reduces insulation at depth, but this is only important for diving.
Surface finish
Foam neoprene used for wetsuits is always closed cell, in that the gas bubbles are mostly not connected to each other inside the neoprene. This is necessary to prevent water absorption, and the gas bubbles do most of the insulation. Thick sheets of neoprene are foamed inside a mould, and the surfaces in contact with the mould take on the inverse texture of the mould surfaces. In the early days of wetsuits this was often a diamond pattern or similar, but can also be slick and smooth for low drag and quick drying. The cut surfaces of the foam have a slightly porous mat finish as the cutting process passes through a large number of bubbles, leaving what is called an open cell surface finish, but the bulk of the foam remains closed cell. The open cell finish is the most stretchy and the least tear resistant. It is relatively form fitting and comfortable on the skin, but the porosity encourages bacterial growth if not well washed after use, and the foam surface does not slide freely against skin unless lubricated.
The cut surfaces are usually bonded to a nylon knit fabric, which provides much greater tear resistance, at the expense of some loss of flexibility. This fabric can be bonded to one or both surfaces in various combinations of weight and colour, and can be thin and relatively smooth and fragile, or thicker and stronger and less stretchy. Fabric lined on one side only is more flexible than double lined.
A specialized kind of wetsuit, with a very smooth (and somewhat delicate) outer surface known as smoothskin, which is the original outer surface of the foamed neoprene block from which the sheets are cut, is used for long-distance swimming, triathlon, competitive apnoea, and bluewater spearfishing. These are designed to maximize the mobility of the limbs while providing both warmth and buoyancy, but the surface is delicate and easily damaged. The slick surface also dries quickly and is least affected by wind chill when out of the water.
Both smoothskin and fabric lined surfaces can be printed to produce colour patterns such as camouflage designs, which may give spearfishermen and combat divers an advantage.
Closures
Zippers are often used for closure or for providing a close fit at the wrists and ankles while remaining relatively easy to put on and remove, but they also provide leakage points for water A backing flap reduces leakage but can get caught in the zipper while closing.
Jackets may have a full or partial front zipper, or none at all. Full body suits may have a vertical back zipper, a cross-shoulder zipper or a vertical front zipper. Each of these arrangements has some advantages and some disadvantages:
The vertical front zipper is easy to operate, but the suit may be difficult to remove from the shoulders without assistance, and the zip is uncomfortable for lying on a surfboard. It is relatively inflexible and placed over a part of the body where a lot of flexibility is desirable. The top of the closure will leak to some extent. The top end of the zip may be easily opened for comfort when the wearer is warm, but the zip may also press into the throat, which can be uncomfortable.
Cross shoulder zipper can be made relatively watertight as it has no free ends, and is therefore used in semi-dry wetsuits. It is difficult to operate for the wearer and relatively highly stressed at the shoulders due to arm movement. The zip is also relatively vulnerable to damage from diving harnesses.
Cross chest zipper has similar advantages to cross shoulder, but is easy for the wearer to reach and operate. The zipper is subjected to sharper bends at the shoulders than other arrangements.
Vertical back zippers are possibly the most common arrangement as they can be operated with a lanyard. They are relatively comfortable for most applications, the suit is easy to remove, and they place the zipper directly over the spine, which though flexible in bending, does not change much in length. The top of the closure will leak to some extent.
Sizing and fit
Wetsuits that fit too tightly can cause difficulty breathing or even acute cardiac failure, and a loose fit allows considerable flushing which reduces effectiveness of insulation, so a proper fit is important. The quality of fit is most important for diving as this is where the thickest suits are used and the heat loss is potentially greatest. A diving wetsuit should touch the skin over as much of the body that it covers as comfortably possible, both when the wearer is relaxed and when exercising. This is difficult to achieve and the details of style and cut can affect the quality of fit. Gaps where the suit does not touch the skin will vary in volume as the diver moves and this is a major cause of flushing.
Wetsuits are made in several standard adult sizes and for children. Custom fitted suits are produced by many manufacturers to provide a better fit for people for whom a well fitting off-the shelf suit is not available.
Semi-dry suits
Semi-dry suits are effectively a wetsuit with improved seals at wrist, neck and ankles and also usually featuring a watertight zipper. Together, these features greatly reduce the amount of water moving through the suit as the wearer moves in the water. The wearer gets wet in a semi-dry suit but the water that enters is soon warmed up and is not "flushed" out by colder water entering from the outside environment, so the wearer remains warm longer. The trapped layer of water does not add significantly to the suit's insulating ability. Any residual water circulation past the seals still causes heat loss, but this loss is minimised due to the more effective seals. Though more expensive and more difficult to take on and off than a wetsuit (in most cases, a helper will be needed to close the dry-zip, which is usually located across the shoulders), semi-dry suits are cheaper and simpler than dry suits, and in the case of scuba diving, require no additional skills to use. They are usually made from thick Neoprene (typically 6 mm or more), which provides good thermal protection at shallow depth, but lose buoyancy and thermal protection as the gas bubbles in the Neoprene compress at depth, like a normal wetsuit. Early suits marketed as "Semi-dry" suits came come in various configurations including a one-piece full-body suit or two pieces, made of 'long johns' and a separate 'jacket'. Almost all modern semi-dry suits are one piece suits, with the zipper usually being across the shoulders on the back, but other arrangements have been used. Semi-dry suits do not usually incorporate boots, and most models do not include a hood, (as creating a good seal around the face is difficult) so a separate pair of wetsuit boots, hood and gloves are worn, as needed. They are most suitable for use where the water temperature is between .
Heated suits
Electrically heated wetsuits are also available on the market. These suits have special heating panels integrated in the back of the wetsuit. The power for heating comes from batteries also integrated into the wetsuit. More versatile is the heated neoprene vest that works in the same way as the heated wetsuit but can be worn under any type of wetsuit.
Wetsuits heated by a flow of hot water piped from the surface are standard equipment for commercial diving in cold water, particularly where the heat loss from the diver is increased by use of helium based breathing gases. Hot water suits are a loose fit as there is a constant supply of heated water piped into the suit which must escape to allow even flow distribution. Flushing with cold water is prevented by the constant outflow of heating water.
Accessories
Usually a wetsuit has no covering for the feet, hands or head, and the diver must wear separate neoprene boots, gloves and hood for additional insulation and environmental protection. Other accessories to the basic suit include pockets for holding small items and equipment, and knee-pads, to protect the knee area from abrasion and tearing, usually used by working divers. Suits may have abrasion protection pads in other areas depending on the application.
Hoods
Using hoods: in the thermal balance of the human body, the heat loss over the head is at least 20% of the whole balance. Thus, for the sake of thermal protection of the diver, wearing a well-fitting hood is useful, even at fairly moderate water temperatures. Hoods have been reported to cause claustrophobia in a minority of users, sometimes due to poor fit. The hood should not fit too tightly round the neck. Flushing in the neck area can be reduced by using a hood attached to the top part of the suit, or by having sufficient overlap between the hood and the top part of the suit to constrain flow between the two parts. This can be achieved by tucking a circular flap at the base of the neck of the hood under the top of the suit before closing the zip, or by having a high neck on the suit.
Boots
Wetsuit boots are worn for various purposes, and may be worn with or without a wetsuit.
Thermal protection
In many water sports such as scuba diving, surfing, kayaking, windsurfing, sailing and even fishing, bootees may be worn to keep the feet warm in the same way that a wetsuit would. Insulation is proportional to thickness and thus to how cold the water which the user can tolerate; it may be above or below the standard of 5–6 mm of neoprene. In warmer climates where the thermal qualities of the bootee are not so important, a bootee with a thickness of 2–3.5 mm is common. The leg of the bootee may have a zipper down one side or may be tightened with a velcro strap. Where boots are worn with a wetsuit they are usually tucked under the leg of the suit for streamlining, to help hold the zip closed, and to keep foreign objects out.
Foot protection
A bootee usually has a reinforced sole for walking. Typically, this is a solid rubber compound that is thicker and tougher than the neoprene used for the upper part of the bootee but is still flexible. The reinforced sole provides the wearer with some protection and grip when walking across shingle, coral and other rough surfaces.
For scuba diving
For scuba diving the sole of the bootee should not be so thick that the diver cannot get a fin on over it. Divers wearing bootees use fins with a foot pocket larger than needed with bare feet. Divers in warm water who do not wear a diving suit sometimes wear bootees so they can wear bigger fins. Diving bootees are typically intended for wear with open-heeled fins, held on by a strap, and usually do not fit into full-footed fins. Neoprene socks may be used with full-footed fins, either to prevent chafing and blisters, or for warmth.. Suit compression with depth also affects fin fit, as thicker neoprene compresses more with depth, and needs more stretch from the fin strap to compensate.
For surfing
For surfing, windsurfing, kitesurfing and similar sports, bootees are typically worn where the weather is so cold that the surfer would lose some degree of functionality in the feet. The bootee should not restrict the ability of a surfer to grip the board with the toes in the desired manner. Split-toe bootees allow for some improvement in this functionality. Reef walkers are small bootees that are only as high as the ankle and generally only 2 to 3.5mm thick. They are designed to allow surfers to get out to waves that break at coral reefs or at rocky beaches.
For kayaking
Several styles of wetsuit boots are commonly used for kayaking. Short-cut boots are frequently used in warmer conditions where the boots help give grip and foot protection while launching and portaging. In cold conditions longer wetsuit boots may be used with a drysuit where they are worn over the rubber drysuit socks.
Gloves
Wetsuit gloves are worn to keep the hands warm and to protect the skin while working. They are available in a range of thicknesses. Thicker gloves reduce manual dexterity and limit feel. Wetsuit gloves are also commonly worn with dry suits. Some divers cut the fingertips of the gloves off on the fingers most used for delicate work like operating the controls on a camera housing. If this is done, the fingertips are exposed to cold and possible injury, so thin work-gloves may be worn under the insulating gloves.
For cold water use, thicker mittens with a single space for the middle, ring and fifth fingers are available and can provide more warmth at the cost of reducing dexterity.
See also
Glossary of surfing
Notes
References
Diving environmental protection equipment
Caving equipment
Windsurfing equipment
Surfing equipment
Fishing equipment
Environmental suits
Sportswear
Suits (clothing)
de:Tauchanzug#Nassanzug oder Feuchtanzug
fr:Combinaison de plongée#Combinaison humide
he:חליפת צלילה | wiki |
The following is a list of notable current and former hotels in Washington, D.C..
Entries in bold are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
Current hotels
Former hotels
This includes buildings that no longer exist as a whole or no longer operate with or as a hotel.
Notes
References | wiki |
Jeff Who? - een IJslandse band
Jeff Bezos - Jeff who(?) is op sociale media een aanduiding voor Jeff Bezos, bedacht door Elon Musk. | wiki |
St. Paul's Protestant Episcopal Church may refer to:
in the United States
(by state)
St. Paul's Episcopal Church (Georgetown, Delaware), listed on the NRHP in Delaware
St. Paul's Protestant Episcopal Church (Baltimore, Maryland), listed on the NRHP in Maryland
St. Paul's by-the-sea Protestant Episcopal Church, Ocean City, Worcester County, Maryland, listed on the NRHP in Maryland
St. Paul's Protestant Episcopal Church (Tulls Corner, Maryland), listed on the NRHP in Maryland
St. Paul's Church (Carroll Gardens, Brooklyn), New York, listed on the NRHP in New York
See also
St. Paul's Church (disambiguation)
St. Paul's Episcopal Church (disambiguation) | wiki |
Jim and Jean est un duo américain de musique folk composé de Jim Glover et Jean Ray.
Histoire du groupe
Discographie
Liens externes
Duo musical américain
Groupe américain de musique folk
Groupe musical américain des années 1960 | wiki |
Rhetorical figure may refer to:
Figure of speech
Rhetorical device
Literary trope | wiki |
Stylistics is the study of language and its context. Stylistics may also refer to:
The Stylistics, a Philadelphia soul group
The Stylistics (album), a 1971 album by the group | wiki |
Backside may refer to:
Frontside and backside, terms in action sports for whether the athlete faces toward or away from an obstacle
Backside, a term for the buttocks
Backside, a term in horse racing for the area behind a racetrack
See also
Back Sides, a 2006 album by Lazlo Bane | wiki |
Goodbye Baby may refer to:
"Goodbye Baby" (Jack Scott song), a 1958 song by Jack Scott
"Goodbye Baby", a 1964 song by Long John Baldry, B-side of "I'm On To You Baby"
"Goodbye Baby", a 1967 song by Van Morrison, B-side to "Brown Eyed Girl"
"Goodbye Baby", a song by Boyce and Hart
"Goodbye Baby", a 2003 song by Fleetwood Mac from the album Say You Will
"Good Bye Baby", a 2006 song, A-side of Big Bang Third Single Album by Big Bang
"Good Bye Baby" (Miss A song), 2011
"Goodbye Baby", a 2005 song by Status Quo from the album The Party Ain't Over Yet
See also
"Goodbye Babe", 1965 song by The Castaways | wiki |
A Raschen bag is a bag of ballast that is placed underneath the baseplate of a mortar to improve its accuracy when used on snow or other soft ground conditions. Raschen bags are named after Colonel Dan Raschen, Royal Engineers, who invented but did not name them.
References
Mortars | wiki |
A sheep dog or sheepdog is generally a dog or breed of dogs historically used in connection with the raising of sheep. These include livestock guardian dogs used to guard sheep and other livestock and herding dogs used to move, manage and control sheep and other livestock.
Herding breeds
Australian Cattle Dog
Australian Kelpie
Australian Shepherd
Basque Shepherd Dog
Beauceron
Belgian Shepherds
Groenendael
Laekenois
Malinois
Tervuren
Bergamasco Shepherd
Berger Blanc Suisse
Bouvier des Flandres
Bohemian shepherd
Briard
Can de Chira
Caucasian Shepherd
Can de Palleiro
Cão da Serra de Aires
Carea Castellano Manchego
Carea Leonés
Canaan Dog
Catahoula Leopard Dog
Catalan Sheepdog
Chiribaya Dog
Collies
Bearded Collie
Border Collie
Rough Collie
Scotch Collie
Smooth Collie
Welsh Sheepdog
Croatian Sheepdog
Cumberland Sheepdog
Dutch Shepherd
English Shepherd
Finnish Lapphund
Garafian Shepherd
German Shepherd
Gaucho sheepdog
Huntaway
Icelandic Sheepdog
Koolie
Komondor
Lancashire Heeler
Lapponian Herder
Magellan sheep dog
McNab
Miniature American Shepherd
Mudi
New Zealand Heading Dog
Norwegian Buhund
Old English Sheepdog
Pastore della Lessinia e del Lagorai
Picardy Shepherd
Polish Lowland Sheepdog
Polish Tatra Sheepdog
Portuguese Sheepdog
Puli dog
Pumi
Pyrenean Shepherd
Rottweiler
Slovak Cuvac
Tornjak
Schapendoes
Schipperke
Shetland Sheepdog
Smithfield
Swedish Lapphund
Swedish Vallhund
Welsh Corgis:
Cardigan Welsh Corgi
Pembroke Welsh Corgi
Livestock guardian dog breeds
Aidi
Akbash dog
Aksaray Malaklisi
Armenian Gampr
Ashayeri Dog
Azerbaijani Shepherd Dog
Bakharwal dog
Bucovina Shepherd
Buryat-Mongolian Wolfhound
Cane di Mannara
Cão de Castro Laboreiro
Cão de Gado Transmontano
Carpathian Shepherd Dog
Caucasian Shepherd Dog
Central Asian Shepherd Dog
Estrela Mountain Dog
Georgian Shepherd
Ghadrejani dog
Great Pyrenees
Greek Shepherd
Himalayan Sheepdog
Kangal Shepherd
Karakachan
Kars
Karst Shepherd
Komondor
Koyun dog
Kuchi
Kuvasz
Maremmano-Abruzzese Sheepdog
Mazandrani dog
Mioritic Shepherd
Mongolian banhar
Mucuchies
Persian Mastiff
Polish Tatra Sheepdog
Pshdar dog
Pyrenean Mastiff
Rafeiro do Alentejo
Romanian Raven Shepherd Dog
Sardinian Shepherd Dog
Šarplaninac
Shirak Sheepdog
Slovak Cuvac
Spanish Mastiff
Tibetan kyi apso
Tibetan Mastiff
Tobet
Torkuz
Tornjak
Vikhan Sheepdog
See also
Droving
Guard llama
Livestock guardian dog
Sheepdog trial
Dogs portal
References
Dog roles
Human–animal communication
Working dogs
Sheep farming | wiki |
Peggy Pearce (born Velma Pearce; June 4, 1894 – February 26, 1975) was an American film actress of the silent era. She worked primarily in short subjects at the L-KO Kompany and Keystone Studios. She appeared alongside stars including Charles Chaplin, Roscoe Arbuckle, Billie Ritchie, Slim Summerville, Ford Sterling, and Mabel Normand.
Selected filmography
The Sea Wolf (1920 film)
A Tokyo Siren (1920)
A Good Loser (1920)
False Evidence (1919)
Ace of the Saddle (1919)
Sex (1920)
Love Madness (1920)
The Red-Haired Cupid (1918)
The Golden Fleece (1918)
His Favorite Pastime (1914)
Tango Tangles (1914)
A Film Johnnie (1914)
Between Showers (1914)
Peeping Pete (1913)
Some Nerve (1913)
The Gusher (1913)
Fatty at San Diego (1913)
A Quiet Little Wedding (1913)
References
External links
1894 births
1975 deaths
American film actresses
American silent film actresses
20th-century American actresses
Actresses from Long Beach, California | wiki |
Tianma (天馬; ) is the Chinese mythological version of the pegasus.
Tianma may also refer to:
Tianma Tea House, Datong, Taipei, Taiwan
Shanghai Tianma Circuit, the Tianma motor racing circuit of Shanghai, China
Gansu Tianma, the Tianma soccer club from Gansu, China
Tianma Wan (), a traditional Chinese medicine
Sky Horse (), a Taiwanese ballistic missile
Baolong Pegasus (), a Chinese MPV-minivan
See also
Tianma chafang (disambiguation)
Tian (disambiguation)
Ma (disambiguation) | wiki |
The following Diagram is provided as an overview of and topical guide to the human nervous system:
Human nervous system – the part of the human body that coordinates a person's voluntary and involuntary actions and transmits signals between different parts of the body. The human nervous system consists of two main parts: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS contains the brain and spinal cord. The PNS consists mainly of nerves, which are long fibers that connect the CNS to every other part of the body. The PNS includes motor neurons, mediating voluntary movement; the autonomic nervous system, comprising the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system and regulating involuntary functions; and the enteric nervous system, a semi-independent part of the nervous system whose function is to control the gastrointestinal system.
Evolution of the human nervous system
Evolution of nervous systems
Evolution of human intelligence
Evolution of the human brain
Paleoneurology
Some branches of science that study the human nervous system
Neuroscience
Neurology
Paleoneurology
Central nervous system
The central nervous system (CNS) is the largest part of the nervous system and includes the brain and spinal cord.
Spinal cord
Brain
Brain – center of the nervous system.
Outline of the human brain
List of regions of the human brain
Principal regions of the vertebrate brain:
Peripheral nervous system
Peripheral nervous system (PNS) – nervous system structures that do not lie within the CNS.
Sensory system
A sensory system is a part of the nervous system responsible for processing sensory information. A sensory system consists of sensory receptors, neural pathways, and parts of the brain involved in sensory perception.
List of sensory systems
Sensory neuron
Perception
Visual system
Auditory system
Somatosensory system
Vestibular system
Olfactory system
Taste
Pain
Components of the nervous system
Neuron
Interneuron
Ganglion (PNS) vs Nucleus (neuroanatomy) (CNS) except basal ganglia (CNS)
Nerve(PNS) vs Tract (neuroanatomy) (CNS)
White matter (more myelinated) vs Grey matter
Glial cells
Glial cells, commonly called neuroglia or glia, are supportive cells that maintain homeostasis, form myelin, and provide support and protection for the brain's neurons.
Microglia
Astrocyte
Oligodendrocyte (CNS) vs Schwann cell (PNS)
Neuron
A neuron (also known as a neurone or nerve cell) is an excitable cell in the nervous system that processes and transmits information by electrochemical signaling. Neurons are the core components of the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves.
Soma
Axon
Myelin
Dendrite
Dendritic spine
Action potential
An action potential (or nerve impulse) is a transient alteration of the transmembrane voltage (or membrane potential) across the membrane in an excitable cell generated by the activity of voltage-gated ion channels embedded in the membrane. The best known action potentials are pulse-like waves that travel along the axons of neurons.
Membrane potential
Ion channel
Voltage-gated ion channels
Synapse
Synapses are specialized junctions through which neurons signal to each other and to non-neuronal cells such as those in muscles or glands.
Chemical synapse
Gap junction
Synaptic plasticity
Long-term potentiation
Neurotransmitter
Neurotransmitter – endogenous chemical that relays, amplifies, and modulates signals between neurons and other cells to which they are synaptically connected.
List of neurotransmitters
Neuromodulator
Monoamine neurotransmitter
Neuropeptide
Neurotransmitter receptor
Neurotransmitter receptor – membrane receptor that can be activated by a neurotransmitter. Interactions between neurotransmitters and neurotransmitter receptors can evoke a wide range of differing responses from the cell receiving the signal, including excitation, inhibition, and various types of modulation.
:Category:Receptors
Biological neural network
Biological neural network – population of physically interconnected neurons that act cooperatively to form a functional circuit. Computer scientists and engineers also study artificial neural networks formed by simplified mathematical abstractions of the signaling properties of biological neurons.
Central pattern generator
Reflex arc
Neural oscillations
Neural network
Neural development
Neural development – comprises the processes that generate, shape, and reshape the nervous system, from the earliest stages of embryogenesis to the final years of life.
Neural plasticity
Neurogenesis
Neuroregeneration
Prenatal development of the nervous system
Neurogenesis
General neural development
Neurulation
Neurula
Notochord
Neuroectoderm
Neural plate
Neural fold
Neural groove
Neuropoiesis
Neural crest
Cranial neural crest
Cardiac neural crest complex
Truncal neural crest
Neural tube
Rostral neuropore
Neuromere/Rhombomere
Cephalic flexure
Pontine flexure
Alar plate
sensory
Basal plate
motor
Glioblast
Neuroblast
Germinal matrix
Eye development
Eye development
Neural tube: Optic vesicle
Optic stalk
Optic cup
Surface ectoderm: Lens placode
Auditory development
Otic placode
Otic pit
Otic vesicle
Motor control
Motor control – comprises the activities carried out by the nervous system that organize the musculoskeletal system to create coordinated movements and skilled actions.
Motor system
Motor vortex
cerebrum
Basal ganglia
Reflex
Learning and memory
Memory – organism's ability to store, retain, and recall information. "Learning" means acquiring new knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, preferences or understanding, and may involve synthesizing different types of information.
Amnesia
Synaptic plasticity
Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
Imprinting (psychology)
Cognition
Cognition – activities involved in processing information, applying knowledge, and changing preferences. Cognition, or cognitive processes, can be natural or artificial, conscious or unconscious.
Mind
Consciousness
Neural correlates of consciousness
Attention
Emotion
Intelligence
Decision-making
Executive function
Arousal
Arousal – physiological and psychological state of being awake or reactive to stimuli.
Sleep
Anesthesia
Coma
Reticular formation
Anatomical structures of the human nervous system by subsystem
Central nervous system
Central nervous system
General terms
Meninges
Spinal cord
Gray columns
White substance
Brain
Brainstem
Cerebellum
Diencephalon
Telencephalon
Cerebral hemisphere
Peripheral nervous system
Peripheral nervous system
General termsi
Cranial nerves
Olfactory nerve
Optic nerve
Oculomotor nerve
Trochlear nerve
Trigeminal nerve
Sensory root
Trigeminal ganglion
Ophthalmic nerve
Lacrimal nerve
Frontal nerve
Supra-orbital nerve
Supratrochlear nerve
Nasociliary nerve
Posterior ethmoidal nerve
Anterior ethmoidal nerve
External nasal nerve
Infratrochlear nerve
Maxillary nerve
Nasopalatine nerve
Pharyngeal nerve
Greater palatine nerve
Lesser palatine nerves
Superior alveolar nerves
Zygomatic nerve
Infra-orbital nerve
Mandibular nerve
Masseteric nerve
Deep temporal nerves
Buccal nerve
Auriculotemporal nerve
Lingual nerve
Chorda tympani
Sublingual nerve
Inferior alveolar nerve
Nerve to mylohyoid
Mental nerve
Abducent nerve
Facial nerve
Posterior auricular nerve
Intermediate nerve
Greater petrosal nerve
Chorda tympani (also in trigeminal? redundancy?)
Vestibulocochlear nerve
Vestibular nerve
Cochlear nerve
Glossopharyngeal nerve
Tympanic nerve
Tympanic plexus
Lesser petrosal nerve
Vagus nerve
Superior laryngeal nerve
Recurrent laryngeal nerve
Accessory nerve
Hypoglossal nerve
Spinal nerves
Cervical nerves
Suboccipital nerve
Greater occipital nerve
Third occipital nerve
Cervical plexus
Ansa cervicalis
Lesser occipital nerve
Great auricular nerve
Transverse cervical nerve
Supraclavicular nerves
Phrenic nerve
Brachial plexus
Supraclavicular part
Dorsal scapular nerve
Long thoracic nerve
Subclavian nerve
Suprascapular nerve
Subscapular nerves
Lower subscapular nerve
Upper subscapular nerve
Thoracodorsal nerve
Medial pectoral nerve
Lateral pectoral nerve
Infraclavicular part
Musculocutaneous nerve
Medial cutaneous nerve of arm
Medial cutaneous nerve of forearm
Median nerve
Ulnar nerve
Radial nerve
Axillary nerve
Thoracic nerves
Lumbar nerves
Medial clunial nerves
Sacral nerves and coccygeal nerve
Lumbar plexus
Iliohypogastric nerve
Ilio-inguinal nerve
Anterior labial nerves
Anterior scrotal nerves
Genitofemoral nerve
Lateral cutaneous nerve of thigh
Obturator nerve
Accessory obturator nerve
Femoral nerve
Saphenous nerve
Medial cutaneous nerve of leg
Lumbosacral trunk
Sacral plexus
Nerve to obturator internus
Nerve to piriformis
Nerve to quadratus femoris
Superior gluteal nerve
Inferior gluteal nerve
Posterior cutaneous nerve of thigh
Inferior clunial nerves
Perforating cutaneous nerve
Pudendal nerve
Inferior anal nerves
Perineal nerves
Posterior labial nerves
Posterior scrotal nerves
Dorsal nerve of clitoris
Dorsal nerve of penis
Coccygeal nerve
Anococcygeal nerve
Sciatic nerve
Common fibular nerve
Lateral sural cutaneous nerve
Superficial fibular nerve
Deep fibular nerve
Tibial nerve
Interosseous nerve of leg
Medial sural cutaneous nerve
Sural nerve
Medial plantar nerve
Lateral plantar nerve
Autonomic division (Autonomic nervous system)
Sympathetic part
Sympathetic trunk
Rami communicantes
Superior cervical ganglion
Middle cervical ganglion
Cervicothoracic ganglion (Stellate - should prob. include inferior cerv. ganglion)
Thoracic ganglia
Greater splanchnic nerve
Lesser splanchnic nerve
Least splanchnic nerve
Lumbar ganglia
Lumbar splanchnic nerves
Sacral ganglia
Sacral splanchnic nerves
Ganglion impar
Parasympathetic part
Cranial part
Ciliary ganglion
Short ciliary nerves
Pterygopalatine ganglion
Nerve of pterygoid canal
Submandibular ganglion
Sublingual ganglion
Otic ganglion
Pelvic part
Pelvic ganglia
Parasympathetic root of pelvic ganglia = Pelvic splanchnic nerves
Peripheral autonomic plexuses and ganglia
Craniocervical part
Internal carotid plexus
Thoracic part
Cardiac plexus
Esophageal plexus
Pulmonary plexus
Abdominal part
Celiac plexus
Aorticorenal ganglia
Superior mesenteric plexus
Inferior mesenteric plexus
Pelvic part
Superior hypogastric plexus
Inferior hypogastric plexus
See also
List of regions in the human brain
List of nerves of the human body
Outline of human anatomy
Outline of neuroscience
External links
nervous system
nervous system
+nerv | wiki |
Michael Bublé's Christmas in the City is an American television special, which aired on NBC on December 6, 2021. Hosted by Michael Bublé, the program featured musical performances of songs from Bublé's 2011 album Christmas to celebrate its tenth anniversary.
Performances
Appearances
Jimmy Fallon
Leon Bridges
Broadcast
to be added
References
External links
2021 television specials
Christmas television specials
Michael Bublé television specials
NBC television specials | wiki |
Iko or IKO may refer to:
Iko (band), an English rock band
Iko language, of Nigeria
IK Oskarshamn, an ice hockey club from Oskarshamn, Sweden
Nikolski Air Station (IATA code), Alaska, US
International Karate Organization Kyokushin-kaikan - shortened IKO - one of sports organizations for Kyokushin Karate
People
Iko Carreira (1933–2000), the first Defense Minister of Angola from 1975 to 1980
Iko Maran (1915–1999), Estonian playwright and children's book author
Iko Mirković, Montenegrin politician and historian
Iko Uwais (born 1983), Indonesian actor
See also
"Iko Iko", a 1953 song by James "Sugar Boy" Crawford
Ico (disambiguation) | wiki |
David Lynn Harris was an American orthodontist who owned a chain of offices along with his wife, Clara Suarez Harris. The chain was particularly successful, and the couple was able to afford an upscale home and lifestyle in Friendswood, Texas. On July 24, 2002, Clara Harris confronted her husband in a hotel parking lot over an extramarital affair, then struck and ran over him with her Mercedes-Benz sedan, killing him in an act of mariticide. She was convicted of sudden passion and sentenced to 20 years in prison.
Marriage
Clara Suarez, a Colombian immigrant, was named "Mrs Colombia Houston" and worked as a dentist. She married David Harris on February 14, 1992, at the Nassau Bay Hilton, and raised three children: twin sons Brian and Bradley, born in 1998, and David's daughter Lindsey from a previous marriage. During his marriage to Clara, David began to have an affair with his former receptionist, Gail Bridges. Suspicious, Clara hired a private detective agency to monitor David, and on July 24, 2002, the agency notified her that he was at a hotel with his mistress.
Murder and trial
That evening, Clara went to the Hilton Hotel in Nassau Bay, Texas, to confront her husband and reportedly attacked Bridges in the lobby. Hotel employees escorted Clara to her Mercedes-Benz sedan. When David and Bridges came out of the hotel, Clara struck down her husband in the parking lot as her teenaged stepdaughter Lindsey sat in the passenger seat. According to the medical examiner's office, they could only be certain there was one tire mark on the body, but Lindsey and eyewitnesses assert Clara ran over David three times. David was dead at the scene, and Clara was charged with murder.
Clara's trial began the following February. Lindsey testified against her stepmother, claiming she told her to stop the vehicle. The prosecution claimed Clara's actions were more than a crime of passion, but that she "wanted to hurt" David, as she was heard saying in a police interview. Also introduced at her trial was a videotape of the crime, recorded by the detective agency Clara had hired when she suspected David of the affair. The video was especially damning, as it showed her circling her Mercedes around the parking lot three times, although David is not clearly seen in the video. Clara then parks her car next to his body.
The defense's attempts to prove that Clara ran over David only once crumbled when the judge ruled their re-creation of the crime by a private consultant inadmissible in court. Her attorney explained what was in the report, using the consultant as an expert witness on the stand. They argued that Clara could only have run over David once, and that the turning radius of her Mercedes would not have allowed for her to sharply turn and run over him a second time. The prosecution admitted that it was a good argument, but countered by bringing in a police officer who had been present at the scene who pointed out another tire track on the pavement shown in a police photograph, the angle of which went directly to where David's body had been.
Clara was advised not to take the stand. However, after watching days of testimony, she decided she had to speak. Taking the stand allowed parts of Clara's original interview, which her attorneys had previously gotten ruled inadmissible, to come into question. Only part of the interview was played; the jury heard Clara state that she "wanted to hurt" her husband, but not the portion where she said later in the interview, "I didn't want to kill him." This caused her attorney to collapse from the stress, causing the court to go to recess as he was taken to the hospital and later released. Clara contends that she did not see David when she ran into him with her car. Despite the medical examiner's report, the defense was unable to prove that she did not in fact run over him multiple times.
Clara was found guilty of murdering her husband. On February 14, 2003, she was sentenced to twenty years in prison – the maximum sentence allowed by the jury's "sudden passion" finding – and fined $10,000. She was incarcerated at the Mountain View Unit in Gatesville, Texas, where she converted school textbooks to Braille for blind students. Clara's sons, who are in the custody of family friends, were said to visit about once a month. She was denied parole in her first attempt on April 11, 2013, by the Texas Board of Pardons and Paroles. Her second parole request was denied in September 2016. However, she was granted parole in November 2017.
Aftermath
Harris was released on parole on May 11, 2018, and was released from parole in February of 2023.
In popular culture
A book titled Out of Control was written by Steven Long about the case. Published in 2004 by St. Martin's Paperbacks, the book follows the story of the murder and the reasons behind it. This story was the inspiration for the completion of a chapter in the Mexican series Mujeres Asesinas "Killer Women." The chapter title is Luz, overwhelming (Luz, arrolladora).
The case was profiled on the Oxygen Network series Snapped in 2004, on ABC News's 20/20 in 2006, and on Investigation Discovery's Deadly Women in 2010. It was also the topic of Suburban Madness, a Lifetime Original movie, starring Elizabeth Peña and Brett Cullen.
See also
Crime in Houston
References
2002 in Texas
2002 murders in the United States
Deaths by person in Texas
Harris County, Texas
July 2002 events in the United States
Mariticides
Murder in Texas | wiki |
A tea doll is a traditional Innu doll that served both as a children's toy and as a cache of tea. Known as Innikueu in Innu, the dolls were stuffed with tea that could be recovered and used by hunters in times of need. The dolls were carried by the children of hunters, to save weight on the hunt. Once the tea had been consumed, the doll was re-stuffed with grass or leaves.
References
Traditional dolls
Innu culture | wiki |
Roger Williams Ballpark is a baseball venue located in Weatherford, TX. It was the home of the TCL Weatherford Wranglers from 2004 to 2007. The field is also the home of the Weatherford College Coyotes baseball team.
References
Baseball venues in Texas
Weatherford College | wiki |
Action & Action is the second single from The Get Up Kids' album Something to Write Home About. The single was only released in Europe, and is the first Get Up Kids single released on CD on March 24, 2000 in North America and November 24 elsewhere. A music video for the song was released earlier in December 1999.
Track listing
Additional releases
"Action & Action" was also released on the band's live album Live! @ The Granada Theater.
"Close to Me" was released on the band's rarities and B-sides collection Eudora.
A special version of "I'm a Loner Dottie, a Rebel" was released on the band's rarities and B-sides collection Eudora.
Personnel
Matt Pryor - vocals, guitar
Jim Suptic - guitar, backing vocals
Rob Pope - bass
Ryan Pope - drums
James Dewees - keyboards
Notes
2000 singles
The Get Up Kids songs
1999 songs
Epitaph Records singles | wiki |
"Give Me You" is a song by American singer Mary J. Blige. It was written by Diane Warren for Blige's fourth studio album, Mary (1999), while production was helmed by Manuel Seal, featuring co-production from Nate-Love Clemons. The song was released as the third single from the album, outperforming both previous singles, "All That I Can Say" and "Deep Inside." The second-highest-charting single Mary, "Give Me You" peaked at number 19 on the UK Singles Chart, while reaching number 21 on the US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs and number 68 on the Billboard Hot 100.
In the United Kingdom, the Niño remix was the main radio version. The Mary album was then re-released there with the Niño remix added to the track listing. NBA legend Michael Jordan makes a cameo in the music video.
Track listings
Credits and personnel
Credits are adapted from the Mary liner notes.
La Tonya Blige da Costa – associate executive producer
Mary J. Blige – executive producer, vocals
Kirk Burrowes – executive producer
Eric Clapton – lead guitar
Michael Clemons – drums
Nate-Love Clemons – bass synthesizer, co-producer
Paul Pesco – guitar
Paul Riser – strings arrangement
Manuel Seal – producer
Hank Shocklee – associate executive producer
Diane Warren – writer
Charts
Release history
References
1999 songs
2000 singles
Mary J. Blige songs
Songs written by Diane Warren
MCA Records singles
Contemporary R&B ballads
1990s ballads
Soul ballads | wiki |
In electrical engineering, transposed excitation of a dipole array means that adjacent dipoles in the array are excited in opposite directions.
Dipole arrays with transposed excitation are used as antennas; they are closely related to self-complementary antenna.
References
Antennas | wiki |
AM General is an American heavy vehicle and contract automotive manufacturer based in South Bend, Indiana. It is best known for the civilian Hummer and the military Humvee that are assembled in Mishawaka, Indiana. For a relatively brief period, 1974–1979, the company also manufactured transit buses, making more than 5,400 of them.
Corporate history
AM General traces its roots to the Standard Wheel Company of Terre Haute, Indiana, which expanded in 1903 to include the Overland Automotive Division. In 1908, John North Willys purchased the Overland company, then based in Indianapolis, Indiana, and renamed it Willys-Overland Motors. In the 1940s, as Willys, it collaborated with Ford to develop a vehicle to US Army specifications. It then mass-produced that vehicle as "America's first four-wheel-drive, one-fourth-ton, tactical utility truck"—the Jeep of World War II fame. In 1953, Kaiser Motors purchased Willys-Overland, changing its name first to Kaiser-Willys Motor Company, and in 1963, to Kaiser-Jeep Corporation. In 1970, it was purchased by American Motors Corporation (AMC). In July 2020, KPS Capital Partners acquired the company.
Defense and Government Products Division
In 1964, Kaiser-Jeep purchased the Studebaker facilities on Chippewa Avenue in South Bend, Indiana, which included Studebaker's "General Products Division", along with its substantial defense contracts.
At the time, Kaiser had been awarded a US$87 million Army truck contract, and under government pressure, agreed to perform the work at the South Bend plant it had recently acquired from Studebaker.
American Motors
American Motors Corporation (AMC) purchased the Jeep Corporation from Kaiser in 1970 when Kaiser decided to leave the auto business.
In 1971, AMC made the General Products Division of Jeep (producing military trucks as well as contract and non-commercial vehicles) a wholly owned subsidiary and renamed it AM General Corporation.
American Motors ceased to function as an independent automaker in 1982 when a controlling interest was purchased by Renault.
US government regulations at that time forbade ownership of defense contractors by foreign governments—and Renault was partially owned by the French government.
LTV Corporation
In 1983, LTV Corporation bought AM General and established it as a wholly owned subsidiary. In 1984, its headquarters moved from the American Motors AMTEK Building in Detroit, Michigan, to Livonia, Michigan, and two years later to South Bend, Indiana, where primary manufacturing operations were located.
Renco Group
In 1992, AM General was sold to Renco Group, which in 2002 converted it to a limited liability company.
Hummer brand
In 1984 AM General built a separate factory at 13200 McKinley Hwy in Mishawaka for HMMWV production.
In 1992 AM General began marketing the HMMWV to the civilian market under the Hummer brand. In 1999, GM acquired the rights to the brand and continued production of the original civilian Hummer as the H1 until June 2006.
The Hummer H2 went on the market in 2002, and was produced until January 2009. It was designed and marketed by GM, but manufactured by AM General at the Mishawaka plant. AM General did not build the H3 model.
GM was sued early in 2003 by DaimlerChrysler, owners of the Jeep brand, for the resemblance of the Hummer's seven-slot grille to Jeep's. The lawsuit was dismissed after acknowledgment of the shared corporate history of AMC and Jeep. GM in turn sued boutique automaker Avanti Motor Corporation of Cancun, Mexico after it introduced the Studebaker XUV at the Chicago Auto show in 2002. GM said Avanti infringed on the Hummer looks by planning a vehicle that closely resembled the Hummer. It seemed the AM General Hummer line had gone full circle back to the original Studebaker General Products Division which was responsible for all military contracts.
2004–present
On August 20, 2004, it was announced that Ronald Perelman's MacAndrews & Forbes company would form a joint venture with AM General's then-owner, Renco Group, to give Perelman 70% ownership. The deal reportedly cost close to US$1 billion.
In 2008, AM General and the Vehicle Production Group (VPG), of Troy, Michigan, announced that contracts had been signed for AM General to begin producing purpose-built taxi-cabs in 2009. Actual production would not begin until October 2011. The first vehicle off the line was presented to Marc Buoniconti, a former linebacker for The Citadel who was partially paralyzed in 1985.
In May 2010, Azure Dynamics announced it had chosen AM General to assemble its electric drivetrain for Ford Transit Connect vehicles for the North American market at its Livonia, Michigan, factory.
In September 2013, AM General reached an agreement to purchase the United States Department of Energy's secured loan to the Vehicle Production Group (VPG). Prior to this, AM General acted as the sole vehicle assembler for VPG. As a result of this transaction, AM General created a wholly owned company, Mobility Ventures LLC, to operate the Mobility Vehicle-1 (MV-1) business and receive all VPG assets.
In 2015, production of the Mercedes-Benz R-Class began at the Mishawaka assembly plant. Without this deal, "the German automaker would likely have had to shut down production of the vehicle, currently only sold in China." Production ended in October 2017.
AM General submitted a prototype to become the United States Postal Service's Next Generation Delivery Vehicle, but their entry was not chosen.
Jeep Dispatcher 100
Another familiar product from the AM General line was the Jeep DJ-5 series—a purpose-built "Dispatch Jeep" 2-wheel drive (RWD) version of the Jeep CJ-5—used in huge numbers as a right-hand drive mail delivery vehicle by the United States Postal Service.
Buses
The AM General Metropolitan buses were manufactured for city transit use from 1974 until 1979, producing a total of 5,431 buses (including 219 electric trolley buses). The Metropolitan was built under a 1971 agreement with Flyer Industries of Winnipeg, Manitoba; AM General licensed the rights to build and market the Western Flyer D700 for the US market. The D700 itself was similar in design to the contemporaneous GM New Look buses. The front end of the D700 was restyled and thus the resulting Metropolitan was not simply a Flyer design built under license but rather a jointly designed vehicle. Flyer later adopted the design changes for its own line as the models D800 and E800. Buses were built in lengths of either or , and widths of or . The model numbers reflected the chosen dimensions; for example, model "10240" indicated a 102-inch wide, 40-foot long bus. Suffixes "A" or "B" were used for later models to indicate certain options. In total, 3,571 40-foot diesel buses and 1,641 35-foot diesel buses were produced.
Articulated buses
In 1977–1979, AM General also worked under a partnership with MAN of Germany to build SG 220 articulated buses for US transit systems. MAN fabricated the bodyshells in Germany and shipped them to the US for AM General for final assembly. Two different lengths were offered, and ; 93 buses were built to the shorter length while the rest were 60 feet long. By October 1978, the company discontinued bus production with the last unit completed in March 1979. The total number built was just under 400 (392 or 399), the largest group by far being 150 for Seattle's Metro Transit. MAN subsequently set up its own factory for US production in Cleveland, North Carolina.
Trolleybuses
Production of complete motor buses (and of any two-axle motor buses) had ended in 1978 and aside from the fitting-out of the last articulated MAN shells, the only production in 1979 was two batches of trolleybuses (and the only such vehicles ever built by the company). These were all vehicles, model 10240T: 110 trackless trolleys for the Philadelphia trolleybus system, operated by SEPTA; and 109 for the Seattle trolleybus system, operated by Metro Transit (now King County Metro). One of the latter has been preserved since its retirement in 2003 by King County Metro (see King County Metro fleet).
Development and production of the HMMWV
In 1979, AM General began preliminary design work on the M998 Series High Mobility Multi-Purpose Wheeled Vehicle (HMMWV, pronounced Humvee), a 1.25-ton truck intended to replace the M151 and other Light Utility Vehicles. The US Army awarded AM General a prototype contract in 1981 with development and operational testing conducted over a five-month period in 1982. In March 1983, AM General won an initial $1.2 billion contract to produce 55,000 Humvees to be delivered in five basic models and 15 different configurations over a five-year period.
Production began at the Mishawaka, Indiana, assembly plant in the fall of 1984 and the first deliveries were made in early 1985. The total international production by mid-1991 was more than 72,000. Since 1991, an additional 20,000 HMMWVs ordered brought total international production to 100,000 in March 1995.
Late in 2000, AM General was awarded another contract for 2,962 M998A2 series trucks. The contract contained six single-year options running to the fiscal year 2007 and continues to be renewed. Nearly 250,000 units have been produced.
Humvees feature full-time four-wheel drive, an independent suspension, steep approach and departure angles, 60-percent grade ability and of ground clearance. More recent production models include the M1151, M1152, M1165, and M1167. As of 2015, Humvees are in use by the US Army, Marine Corps, Air Force, and Navy. The combined fleet numbers 140,000. More than 50 nations have bought these vehicles.
The Humvee's replacement, a completely new Joint Light Tactical Vehicle (JLTV) design, has been in production by Oshkosh Corporation since 2016. AM General was unsuccessful in its bid for this $30-billion 25-year contract, and it is now focused on military Humvee support (they still outnumber JLTVs by three to one) and development of a new ambulance model.
Other military vehicles
AM General also acquired Department of Defense contracts for medium and heavy trucks, including the M151 series, 2 1/2 ton M35 series, and 5 ton M809 series in the 1970s then the M939 series in the 1980s.
In 2005, AM General was contracted to take over militarization, sales, and marketing of LSSV vehicles.
References
External links
AM General official site
AM General Site History Page
Defense companies of the United States
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1971
Motor vehicle manufacturers based in Indiana
Companies based in St. Joseph County, Indiana
South Bend, Indiana
Bus manufacturers of the United States
American Motors
Military vehicle manufacturers
Car manufacturers of the United States
Trolleybus manufacturers
American companies established in 1971
1971 establishments in Indiana
Contract vehicle manufacturers
Electric vehicle manufacturers of the United States | wiki |
Doc Sanchez Field is a baseball venue located in Laredo, Texas and the home of the Laredo Community College Palominos baseball team. The field was named after Crispin "Doc" Sanchez.
References
Sports venues in Laredo, Texas | wiki |
Note
Bibliografia
Daniel, Pete & Smock, Raymond (1974). A Talent for Detail: The Photographs of Miss Frances Benjamin Johnston 1889–1910. Harmony Books, New York.
Berch, Bettina (2000). The Woman Behind the Lens: Frances Benjamin Johnston, 1864–1952. University of Virginia Press.
Robinson, Edward (2006). Frances Benjamin Johnston: The Early Years, 1889–1904. Ph.D., University of Oxford, Pembroke College.
Altri progetti
Collegamenti esterni | wiki |
A heat diffuser is a cooking utensil that is placed on top of a ring on a cooktop in order to separate the pan/pot from the direct source of heat.
Food preparation utensils | wiki |
Prisoners Education Trust is a UK national charity, which provides, supports, and argues the case for better learning and educational opportunities for prisoners. The Trust does this through a grants programme which assists over 2,000 prisoners each year to study distance learning courses in subjects and levels not available in prison. The Trust provides advice and support, and trains prisoners to be peer learning mentors. The charity also works with key stakeholders to improve policy and practice regarding prisoner learning.
Prisoners Education Trust is a registered charity based in Surrey, England, and supports prisoners in England and Wales.
The current director is Susan Simmonds. Patrons include Lord Ramsbotham, Baroness Stern, and Lord Woolf.
External links
Charities based in Surrey
Prison charities based in the United Kingdom | wiki |
Patwardhan o Patvardhan fou una nissaga que va regir als estats de Miraj i Sangli. Vegeu:
Miraj Sènior
Miraj Júnior
Sangli | wiki |
Structured data analysis is the statistical data analysis of structured data. This can arise either in the form of an a priori structure such as multiple-choice questionnaires or in situations with the need to search for structure that fits the given data, either exactly or approximately. This structure can then be used for making comparisons, predictions, manipulations etc.
Types of structured data analysis
Algebraic data analysis
Bayesian analysis
Cluster analysis
Combinatorial data analysis
Formal concept analysis
Functional data analysis
Geometric data analysis
Regression analysis
Shape analysis
Topological data analysis
Tree structured data analysis
References
Further reading
Leland Wilkinson, (1992) Tree Structured Data Analysis: AID, CHAID and CART
Statistical analysis
Structure | wiki |
A wife (: wives) is a female in a marital relationship. A woman who has separated from her partner continues to be a wife until their marriage is legally dissolved with a divorce judgment. On the death of her partner, a wife is referred to as a widow. The rights and obligations of a wife in relation to her partner and her status in the community and in law vary between cultures and have varied over time.
Etymology
The word is of Germanic origin, from Proto-Germanic *wībam, "woman". In Middle English it had the form wif, and in Old English wīf, "woman or wife". It is related to Modern German Weib (woman, female), and Danish viv (wife, usually poetic); The original meaning of the phrase "wife" as simply "woman", unconnected with marriage or a husband/wife, is preserved in words such as "midwife", "goodwife", "fishwife" and "spaewife".
Summary
In many cultures, after marriage it is generally expected that a woman will take her husband's surname, though this is not universal. A married woman may indicate her marital status in a number of ways: in Western culture, a married woman would commonly wear a wedding ring, but in other cultures, other markers of marital status may be used. A married woman is commonly given the title "Mrs", but some married women prefer to be referred to as "Ms", a title which is also used by preference or when the marital status of a woman is unknown.
Related terminology
A woman on her wedding day is usually described as a bride, even after the wedding ceremony while being described as a wife is also appropriate after the wedding or after the honeymoon. If she is marrying a man, her partner is known as the bridegroom during the wedding, and within the marriage is called her husband.
In the older custom, still followed, e. g., by Roman Catholic ritual, the word bride actually means fiancée and applies up to the exchange of matrimonial consent (the actual marriage act); from then on, even while the rest of the very ceremony is ongoing, the woman is a wife, and no longer a bride, and the bridal couple is no longer referred to as such but as the newlywed couple or "newlyweds".
"Wife" refers to the institutionalized relation to the other spouse, unlike mother, a term that puts a woman into the context of her children. In some societies, especially historically, a concubine was a woman who was in an ongoing, usually matrimonially oriented relationship with a man who could not be married to her, often because of a difference in social status.
The term wife is most commonly applied to a woman in a union sanctioned by law (including religious law), not to a woman in an informal cohabitation relationship, which may be known as a girlfriend, partner, cohabitant, significant other, concubine, mistress, etc. However, a woman in a so-called common law marriage may describe herself as a common law wife, de facto wife, or simply a wife. Those seeking to advance gender neutrality may refer to both marriage partners as "spouses", and many countries and societies are rewording their statute law by replacing "wife" and "husband" with "spouse". A former wife whose spouse is deceased is a widow.
Termination of the status of a wife
The status of a wife may be terminated by divorce, annulment, or the death of a spouse. In the case of divorce, terminology such as a former wife, former-wife or ex-wife is often used. In regard to annulment, such terms are not strictly speaking correct because annulment, unlike divorce, is usually retroactive, meaning that an annulled marriage is considered to be invalid from the beginning almost as if it had never taken place. In the case of the death of the other spouse, the term used is widow. The social status of such women varies by culture, but in some places, they may be subject to potentially harmful practices, such as widow inheritance or levirate marriage; or divorced women may be socially stigmatized. In some cultures, the termination of the status of wife made life itself meaningless, as in the case of those cultures that practiced sati, a funeral ritual within some Asian communities, in which a recently widowed woman committed suicide by fire, typically on the husband's funeral pyre.
Legal rights of the wife
The legal rights of a wife have been since the 19th century, and still are, in many jurisdictions subject to debate. This subject was in particular addressed by John Stuart Mill, in The Subjection of Women (1869). Historically, many societies have given sets of rights and obligations to husbands that have been very different from the sets of rights and obligations given to wives. In particular, the control of marital property, inheritance rights, and the right to dictate the activities of children of the marriage, have typically been given to male marital partners. However, this practice was curtailed to a great deal in many countries in the twentieth century, and more modern statutes tend to define the rights and duties of a spouse without reference to gender. Among the last European countries to establish full gender equality in marriage were Switzerland, Greece, Spain, and France in the 1980s. In various marriage laws around the world, however, the husband continues to have authority; for instance, the Civil Code of Iran states at Article 1105: "In relations between husband and wife; the position of the head of the family is the exclusive right of the husband".
Exchanges of goods or money
Traditionally, and still in some parts of the world, the bride or her family bring her husband a dowry, or the husband or his family pay a bride price to the bride's family, or both are exchanged between the families; or the husband pays the wife a dower. The purpose of the dowry varies by culture and has varied historically. In some cultures, it was paid not only to support the establishment of a new family, but also served as a condition that if the husband committed grave offenses upon his wife, the dowry had to be returned to the wife or her family; but during the marriage, the dowry was often made inalienable by the husband. Today, dowries continue to be expected in parts of South Asia such as India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka, and conflicts related to their payment sometimes result in violence such as dowry deaths and bride burning.
Changing of name upon marriage
In some cultures, particularly in the Anglophone West, wives often change their surnames to that of the husband upon getting married. For some, this is a controversial practice, due to its tie to the historical doctrine of coverture and to the historically subordinated roles of wives. Others argue that today this is merely a harmless tradition that should be accepted as a free choice. Some jurisdictions consider this practice as discriminatory and contrary to women's rights, and have restricted or banned it; for example, since 1983, when Greece adopted a new marriage law which guaranteed gender equality between the spouses, women in Greece are required to keep their birth names for their whole life.
Childbearing
Traditionally, and still in many cultures, the role of a wife was closely tied to that of a mother, by a strong expectation that a wife ought to bear children, while, conversely, an unmarried woman should not have a child out of wedlock. These views have changed in many parts of the world. Children born outside marriage have become more common in many countries.
Although some wives in particular in Western countries choose not to have children, such a choice is not accepted in some parts of the world. In northern Ghana, for example, the payment of bride price signifies a woman's requirement to bear children, and women using birth control are at risk of threats and coercion. In addition, some religions are interpreted as requiring children in marriage; for instance, Pope Francis said in 2015 that choosing not to have children was "selfish".
Differences in cultures
Antiquity
Many traditions like a dower, dowry and bride price have long traditions in antiquity. The exchange of any item or value goes back to the oldest sources, and the wedding ring likewise was always used as a symbol for keeping faith to a person.
Western cultures
Historical status
In ancient Rome, The Emperor Augustus introduced marriage legislation, the Lex Papia Poppaea, which rewarded marriage and childbearing. The legislation also imposed penalties on young persons who failed to marry and on those who committed adultery. Therefore, marriage and childbearing was made law between the ages of twenty-five and sixty for men, and twenty and fifty for women. Women who were Vestals Virgins, were selected between the ages of 6 and 10 to serve as priestesses in the temple of goddess Vesta in the Roman Forum for 30 years after which time they could marry. Noble women were known to marry as young as 12 years of age, whereas women in the lower classes were more likely to marry slightly further into their teenage years. Ancient Roman law required brides to be at least 12 years old, a standard adopted by Roman Catholic canon law. In ancient Roman law, first marriages to brides aged 12–25 required the consent of the bride and her father, but by the late antique period Roman law permitted women over 25 to marry without parental consent. The father had the right and duty to seek a good and useful match for his children, and might arrange a child's betrothal long before he or she came of age. To further the interests of their birth families, daughters of the elite would marry into respectable families. If a daughter could prove the proposed husband to be of bad character, she could legitimately refuse the match. The age of lawful consent to a marriage was 12 for maidens and 14 for youths. In late antiquity, Most Roman women seem to have married in their late teens to early twenties, but noble women married younger than those of the lower classes, and an aristocratic maiden was expected to be virgin until her first marriage. In late antiquity, under Roman law, daughters inherited equally from their parents if no will was produced. In addition, Roman law recognized wives' property as legally separate from husbands's property, as did some legal systems in parts of Europe and colonial Latin America.
Christian cultures claim to be guided by the New Testament in regard to their view on the position of a wife in society as well as her marriage. The New Testament condemns divorce for both men and women (1 Cor 7:10–11) and assumes monogamy on the part of the husband: the wife is to have her "own" husband, and the husband is to have his "own" wife (1 Cor 7:2). In the medieval period, this was understood to mean that a wife should not share a husband with other wives. As a result, divorce was relatively uncommon in the pre-modern West, particularly in the medieval and early modern period, and husbands in the Roman, later medieval and early modern period did not publicly take more than one wife.
In pre-modern times, it was unusual to marry for love alone, although it became an ideal in literature by the early modern period. In the 12th century, the Roman Catholic Church drastically changed legal standards for marital consent by allowing daughters over 12 and sons over 14 to marry without their parents' approval, even if their marriage was made clandestinely. Parish studies have confirmed that late medieval women did sometimes marry against their parents' approval. The Roman Catholic Church's policy of considering clandestine marriages and marriages made without parental consent to be valid was controversial, and in the 16th century both the French monarchy and the Lutheran church sought to end these practices, with limited success.
The New Testament made no pronouncements about wives' property rights, which in practice were influenced more by secular laws than religion. Most influential in the pre-modern West was the civil law, except in English-speaking countries where English common law emerged in the High Middle Ages. In addition, local customary law influenced wives' property rights; as a result, wives' property rights in the pre-modern West varied widely from region to region. Because wives' property rights and daughters' inheritance rights varied widely from region to region due to differing legal systems, the amount of property a wife might own varied greatly. Under the English common law system, which dates to the later medieval period, daughters and younger sons were usually excluded from landed property if no will was produced. Under English common law, there was a system where a wife with a living husband ("feme couvert") could own little property in her own name. Unable to easily support herself, marriage was very important to most women's economic status. This problem has been dealt with extensively in literature, where the most important reason for women's limited power was the denial of equal education and equal property rights for females. The situation was assessed by the English conservative moralist Sir William Blackstone: "The husband and wife are one, and the husband is the one." Married women's property rights in the English-speaking world improved with the Married Women's Property Act 1882 and similar legal changes, which allowed wives with living husbands to own property in their own names. Until late in the 20th century, women could in some regions or times sue a man for wreath money when he took her virginity without taking her as his wife.
If a woman did not want to marry, another option was entering a convent as a nun. to become a "bride of Christ", a state in which her chastity and economic survival would be protected. Both a wife and a nun wore Christian headcovering, which proclaimed their state of protection by the rights of marriage. Much more significant than the option of becoming a nun, was the option of non-religious spinsterhood in the West. An unmarried woman, a feme sole, had the right to own property and make contracts in her own name. As first demonstrated quantitatively by John Hajnal, in the 19th and early 20th centuries the percentage of non-clerical Western women who never married was typically as high as 10–15%, a prevalence of female celibacy never yet documented for any other major traditional civilization. In addition, early modern Western women married at quite high ages (typically mid to late 20s) relative to other major traditional cultures. The high age at first marriage for Western women has been shown by many parish reconstruction studies to be a traditional Western marriage pattern that dates back at least as early as the mid-16th century.
Contemporary status
In the 20th century, the role of the wife in Western marriage changed in two major ways; the first was the breakthrough from an "institution to companionate marriage"; for the first time since the Middle Ages, wives became distinct legal entities, and were allowed their own property and allowed to sue. Until then, partners were a single legal entity, but only a husband was allowed to exercise this right, called coverture. The second change was the drastic alteration of middle and upper-class family life, when in the 1960s these wives began to work outside their home, and with the social acceptance of divorces the single-parent family, and stepfamily or "blended family" as a more "individualized marriage".
Today, some women may wear a wedding ring in order to show her status as a wife.
In Western countries today, married women usually have an education, a profession and they (or their husbands) can take time off from their work in a legally procured system of ante-natal care, statutory maternity leave, and they may get maternity pay or a maternity allowance. The status of marriage, as opposed to unmarried pregnant women, allows the spouse to be responsible for the child, and to speak on behalf of their wife; a partner is also responsible for the wife's child in states where they are automatically assumed to be the biological legal parent. Vice versa, a wife has more legal authority in some cases when she speaks on behalf of a spouse than she would have if they were not married, e.g. when her spouse is in a coma after an accident, a wife may have the right of advocacy. If they divorce, she also might receive—or pay—alimony (see Law and divorce around the world).
Women's income affects the dynamics of heterosexual love relationships
The effect of women's income on heterosexual relationships’ dynamics depends on several factors. If the couple has strong traditional values, the income of women will affect men's gender identity and affect their well-being. If they have strong liberal values, the income of a woman will make the woman the provider of the house and put the man in a more domestic role. However, in most cases, a couple will a mutually dependent relationship, where the woman's income is needed, but at the same time women have to do the majority of the housework.
At the beginning of the 1970s the traditional dynamic was that women performed domestic labor and that men worked for income due to the economic pressures in place. Eventually, second wave feminism challenged this dynamic. Starting in the 1980s, correlations between higher income of women and higher rates of divorce began decreasing.
The economic independence theory establishes that if one side of the couple provides more than 60% of the total income of the couple, there is a dependence effect. Therefore, in recent decades women have had a major increase in their economic independence. At the same time, women have had to wrestle with other economic decisions, such as the postponement of motherhood.
Asia cultures
Hinduism
In Indo-Aryan languages, a wife is known as Patni, which means a woman who shares everything in this world with her husband and he does the same, including their identity. Decisions are ideally made in mutual consent. A wife usually takes care of anything inside her household, including the family's health, the children's education, a parent's needs.
The majority of Hindu marriages in rural and traditional India are arranged marriages. Once they find a suitable family (family of same caste, culture and financial status), the boy and the girl see and talk to each other to decide the outcome. In recent times however the western culture has had significant influence and the new generations are more open to the idea of marrying for love.
Indian law has recognized rape, sexual, emotional or verbal abuse of a woman by her husband as crimes.
In Hinduism, a wife is known as a Patni or Ardhangini (similar to "the better half") meaning a part of the husband or his family. In Hinduism, a woman or man can get married, but only have one husband or wife respectively.
In India, women may wear vermilion powder on their foreheads, an ornament called Mangalsutra () which is a form of necklace, or rings on their toes (which are not worn by single women) to show their status as married women.
Buddhism and Chinese folk religions
China's family laws were changed by the Communist revolution; and in 1950, the People's Republic of China enacted a comprehensive marriage law including provisions giving the spouses equal rights with regard to ownership and management of marital property.
Japan
In Japan, before enactment of the Meiji Civil Code of 1898, all of the woman's property such as land or money passed to her husband except for personal clothing and a mirror stand. See Women in Japan, Law of Japan
Wife in Abrahamic religions
Wife in Christianity
Christian marriage as based on biblical teachings and conditions, is to be between one woman and one man, that God Himself joined them and that no human is to separate them, according to Christ's words (Matthew 19:4-6). The New Testament states that an unmarried Christian woman is to be celibate or is to become the Christian wife of one husband to avoid sexual immorality and for his sexual passion (1 Cor 7:1-2 & 8–9). The New Testament permits divorce of a Christian wife by a Christian husband only if she has committed adultery (Matthew 5:32). A Christian widow to (re)marry a man she chooses (1 Cor 7:39) but forbids a divorced Christian woman to remarry because she would be committing adultery if she did (Matthew 5:32). As such she is to remain unmarried and celibate or be reconciled with her husband (1 Cor 7:1-2 & 8-9 and 1 Cor 7:10-11). A Christian wife can divorce a non-Christian husband if he wants a divorce (1 Cor 7:12-16). Christian husbands are to love their Christian wives as Christ loved the Church (Ephesians 5:25) and as he loves himself (Ephesians 5:33). The Christian wife is to respect her husband (Ephesians 5:33). Christian husbands are to not be harsh with their Christian wives (Colossians 3:19) and to treat them as a delicate vessel and with honor (1 Peter 3:7).
Wife in Islam
Women in Islam have a range of rights and obligations (see main article Rights and obligations of spouses in Islam). Marriage takes place on the basis of a marriage contract. The arranged marriage is relatively common in traditionalist families, whether in Muslim countries or as first or second-generation immigrants elsewhere.
Women in general are supposed to wear specific clothes, as stated by the hadith, like the hijab, which may take different styles depending on the culture of the country, where traditions may seep in. The husband must pay a mahr to the bride.
Traditionally, the wife in Islam is seen as a protected, chaste person that manages the household and the family. She has the ever-important role of raising the children and bringing up the next generation of Muslims. In Islam, it is highly recommended that the wife remains at home although they are fully able to own property or work. The husband is obligated to spend on the wife for all of her needs while she is not obligated to spend even if she is wealthy. Muhammad is said to have commanded all Muslim men to treat their wives well. There is a hadith by Al-Tirmidhi, in which Muhammad is said to have stated "The believers who show the most perfect faith are those who have the best character and the best of you are those who are best to their wives."
Traditionally, Muslim married women are not distinguished from unmarried women by an outward symbol (such as a wedding ring). However, women's wedding rings have recently been adopted in the past thirty years from Western culture.
Wife in Judaism
Rabbinic Judaism
Women in Judaism have a range of rights and obligations ( see main article Jewish views on marriage). Marriage takes place on the basis of a Jewish marriage contract, called a Ketubah. There is a blur of arranged marriages and love marriages in traditional families.
Married women, in traditional families, wear specific clothes, like the tichel.
Hebrew Bible
Once, a man called Shechem, a Hivite, offered a dowry to get an Israelite wife, but was rejected, since he was not an Israelite himself. Genesis 34
In ancient times there were Israelite women who were Judge, Queen regnant, Queen regent, Queen mother, Queen consort, and Prophetess:
Deborah was the wife of an Israelite man whose name was Lapidoth, which means "torches." Deborah was a Judge and a Prophetess.
Esther was the Jewish wife of a Persian King named Ahasuerus. Esther was Queen consort to the King of Persia and at the same time she was Queen regnant of the Jewish people in Persia and their Prophetess.
Bathsheba was the Queen consort of King-Prophet David and then the Queen mother of King-Prophet Solomon. He rose from his throne when she entered and bowed to her and ordered that a throne be brought and he had her sit at his right hand, which is in stark contrast to when she was Queen consort and bowed to King-Prophet David when she entered. Prophet Jeremiah portrays a Queen mother as sharing in her son's rule over the kingdom in Jeremiah 13:18-20.
The wife of Prophet Isaiah was a Prophetess. Isaiah 8:3
Expectation of fidelity and violence related to adultery
There is a widely held expectation, which has existed for most of recorded history and in most cultures, that a wife is not to have sexual relations with anyone other than her legal husband. A breach of this expectation of fidelity is commonly referred to as adultery or extramarital sex. Historically, adultery has been considered to be a serious offense, sometimes a crime, and a sin. Even if that is not so, it may still have legal consequences, particularly as a ground for a divorce. Adultery may be a factor to consider in a property settlement, it may affect the status of children, the custody of children; moreover, adultery can result in social ostracism in some parts of the world. In addition, affinity rules of Catholicism, of Judaism and of Islam prohibit an ex-wife or widow from engaging in sexual relations with and from marrying a number of relatives of the former husband.
In parts of the world, adultery may result in violent acts, such as honor killings or stoning. Some jurisdictions, especially those that apply Sharia law, allow for such acts to take place legally.
As of September 2010, stoning is a legal punishment in countries such as Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Iran, Yemen, the United Arab Emirates, and some states in Nigeria as punishment for zina al-mohsena ("adultery of married persons").
See also
Bride kidnapping
Fiancée
Husband
Marriage
Personal property or movable property
Wife acceptance factor
Wife selling
References
Terms for women | wiki |
Enfermeras (hr. Medicinske sestre) je kolumbijska telenovela koju je producirala RCN Televisión. Glavne uloge su igrali Diana Hoyos i Sebastián Carvajal.
Uloge
Diana Hoyos - María Clara González
Sebastián Carvajal - Carlos Pérez
Viña Machado - Gloria Mayorga Moreno
Julián Trujillo - Álvaro Rojas
Lucho Velasco - Manuel Alberto Castro
Nina Caicedo - Sol Angie Velásquez
Federico Rivera - Héctor Rubiano "Coco"
María Manuela Gómez - Valentina Duarte González
Cristian Rojas - Camilo Duarte González
Vanjske poveznice
Službena stranica
Kolumbijske telenovele | wiki |
Bres – re dei Túatha Dé Danann
Bres Rí – re supremo d'Irlanda
Giuseppe Bres – scrittore e critico d'arte italiano
Madeleine Brès – medico e accademica francese
Pagine correlate
Saint-Brès | wiki |
Casualty may refer to:
Casualty (person), a person who is killed or rendered unfit for service in a war or natural disaster
Civilian casualty, a non-combatant killed or injured in warfare
The emergency department of a hospital, also known as a Casualty Department or Casualty Ward (chiefly in the UK and in some English-speaking Commonwealth nations)
Casualty (TV series), a long-running British emergency medical drama series
Casualty 1900s, a British medical drama, then series, including Casualty 1906, Casualty 1907, and Casualty 1909
Casualty insurance, a type of insurance
See also
Casual (disambiguation)
Causality (disambiguation) | wiki |
Vertical Love () is a 1997 Cuban comedy film directed by Arturo Sotto Díaz. The film was selected as the Cuban entry for the Best Foreign Language Film at the 70th Academy Awards, but was not accepted as a nominee.
Cast
Jorge Perugorría as Ernesto Navarro Aces
Sílvia Águila as Estela Diaz Iglesias
Susana Pérez as Lucia
Manuel Porto as Faustino
Aramís Delgado as Tio Carlos
Vicente Revuelta as Abuelo
See also
List of submissions to the 70th Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film
List of Cuban submissions for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film
References
External links
1997 films
1997 comedy films
1990s Spanish-language films
Cuban comedy films | wiki |
A dead house, deadhouse or mort house, is a structure used for the temporary storage of a human corpse before burial or transportation, usually located within or near a cemetery. Such edifices were more common before the mid-20th century in areas with cold winter climates, before which time grave excavation during the winter was either difficult or impossible.
Dead houses were common to some religious groups, such as the Moravian Church (Unitas Fratrum) The "Corpse House" still exists in the Moravian Settlement of Lititz, Pennsylvania; those in Nazareth, Bethlehem and Winston-Salem, North Carolina no longer exist. Other corpse houses exist in Moravian Congregations in Europe, in Herrnhut, Koenigsfeld, Neuwied, Zeist, Kleinwelka and Niesky. These Corpse Houses remain in use for the keeping of members' bodies until the time for burial. Like the seating in the sanctuary and the burial fields in the God's Acre, they are segregated by gender, i.e. "Brethren's Side" and "Sisters' Side". Religious and medical concerns about accurate diagnosis of death were also reasons that all burials were delayed for at least three days for Moravians, not solely cold conditions.
The octagonal deadhouses of Ontario
Unique to south-central Ontario, Canada were octagonal deadhouses built in the mid-to-late-19th century. The design of these structures is thought to be inspired by a fad in the United States, promoted by Orson Squire Fowler, of erecting octagonal buildings in the early 19th century. These deadhouses were built in areas bordering Yonge Street north of Toronto, primarily in York County (now the Regional Municipality of York). At least three are classified as heritage sites, in Aurora, King, and Richmond Hill.
See also
Mortuary
Udny Mort House
Receiving vault, typically subterranean, with a similar function
References
Burial monuments and structures
Culture of Ontario | wiki |
The term Professional student has two uses in the university setting:
In the United States and Canada, if not elsewhere, a professional student is a student majoring in what are considered the professional degrees. These include Doctor of Education (Ed.D.), Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (D.V.M.), Law (J.D. or LL.B.), Dentistry (D.D.S. or D.M.D.), Medicine (M.D. or D.O.), Doctor of Physical Therapy (DPT), Engineering, Business Administration (M.B.A.), Nursing (B.Sc.N.), and Pharmacy (Pharm.D. or B.Sc.Phm.), as well as many others.
"Professional student" is a slang term commonly used in colleges to describe a student who stays in school for many years rather than embarking on a career. To avoid these types, some four-year colleges have imposed limits on the length of time students can be enrolled in order to open up their limited slots to new students. However, those colleges allow for demonstrated exceptions (e.g., a student who holds down a full-time occupation or has a family to raise, who is clearly demonstrating progress toward a degree). See: perpetual student.
A less common meaning for "Professional student" is an individual who makes a living writing papers and doing college work in exchange for pay from other people.
Academic slang
University and college students
Student | wiki |
NGC 6355 is a globular cluster located in the constellation Ophiuchus. It is designated as GCL in the galaxy morphological classification scheme and was discovered by the German-born British astronomer William Herschel on 24 May 1784. It is at a distance of 31,000 light years away from Earth.
See also
List of NGC objects (6001–7000)
List of NGC objects
References
External links
Globular clusters
6355
Ophiuchus (constellation) | wiki |
Spanglish (a portmanteau of the words "Spanish" and "English") is any language variety (such as a contact dialect, hybrid language, pidgin, or creole language) that results from conversationally combining Spanish and English. The term is mostly used in the United States and refers to a blend of the words and grammar of the two languages. More narrowly, Spanglish can specifically mean a variety of Spanish with heavy use of English loanwords.
Since different Spanglish arises independently in different regions of varying degrees of bilingualism, it reflects the locally spoken varieties of English and Spanish. Different forms of Spanglish are not necessarily mutually intelligible.
The term Spanglish is first recorded in 1933. It corresponds to the Spanish terms Espanglish (from Español + English, introduced by the Puerto Rican poet Salvador Tió in the late 1940s), Ingléspañol (from Inglés + Español), and Inglañol (Inglés + Español). Other colloquial portmanteau words for Spanglish are Spenglish (recorded from 1967) and Spinglish (from 1970). In Mexican and Chicano Spanish the common term for "Spanglish" is "Pocho".
Definitions
There is no single, universal definition of Spanglish. The term Spanglish has been used in reference to the following phenomena, all of which are distinct from each other:
The use of integrated English loanwords in Spanish
Nonassimilated Anglicisms (i.e., with English phonetics) in Spanish
Calques and loan translations from English
Code switching, particularly intra-sentential (i.e., within the same clause) switches
Grammar mistakes in Spanish found among transitional bilingual speakers
Second-language Spanish, including poor translations.
Mock Spanish
History and distribution
In the late 1940s, the Puerto Rican journalist, poet, and essayist Salvador Tió coined the terms Espanglish for Spanish spoken with some English terms, and the less commonly used Inglañol for English spoken with some Spanish terms.
After Puerto Rico became a United States territory in 1898, Spanglish became progressively more common there as the United States Army and the early colonial administration tried to impose the English language on island residents. Between 1902 and 1948, the main language of instruction in public schools (used for all subjects except for Spanish class) was English. Currently Puerto Rico is nearly unique in having both English and Spanish as its official languages (see also New Mexico). Consequently, many American English words are now found in the vocabulary of Puerto Rican Spanish. Spanglish may also be known by different regional names.
Spanglish does not have one unified dialect—specifically, the varieties of Spanglish spoken in New York, Florida, Texas, and California differ. Monolingual speakers of standard Spanish may have difficulty in understanding it.
It is common in Panama, where the 96-year (1903–1999) U.S. control of the Panama Canal influenced much of local society, especially among the former residents of the Panama Canal Zone, the Zonians.
Many Puerto Ricans living on the island of St. Croix speak in informal situations a unique Spanglish-like combination of Puerto Rican Spanish and the local Crucian dialect of Virgin Islands Creole English, which is very different from the Spanglish spoken elsewhere. A similar situation exists in the large Puerto Rican-descended populations of New York City and Boston.
Spanglish is spoken commonly in the modern United States, reflecting the growth of the Hispanic-American population due to immigration. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the population of Hispanics grew from 35.3 million to 53 million between 2000 and 2012. Hispanics have become the largest minority ethnic group in the US. More than 60% are of Mexican descent. Mexican Americans form one of the fastest-growing groups, increasing from 20.6 million to 34.5 million between 2000 and 2012. Around 58% of this community chose California, especially Southern California, as their new home. Spanglish is widely used throughout the heavily Mexican-American and other Hispanic communities of Southern California.
The use of Spanglish has become important to Hispanic communities throughout the United States in areas such as Miami, New York City, Texas, and California. In Miami, the Afro-Cuban community makes use of a Spanglish familiarly known as "Cubonics," a portmanteau of the words Cuban and Ebonics, a slang term for African American Vernacular English that is itself a portmanteau of Ebony and phonics."
Spanglish is known as bilingualism/semi-lingualism. The acquisition of the first language is interrupted or unstructured language input follows from the second language. This can also happen in reverse.
Many Mexican-Americans (Chicanos), immigrants and bilinguals express themselves in various forms of Spanglish. For many, Spanglish serves as a basis for self-identity, but others believe that it should not exist.
Spanglish is difficult, because if the speaker learned the two languages in separate contexts, they use the conditioned system, in which the referential meanings in the two languages differ considerably. Those who were literate in their first language before learning the other, and who have support to maintain that literacy, are sometimes those least able to master their second language. Spanglish is part of receptive bilingualism. Receptive bilinguals are those who understand a second language but don't speak it. That is when they use Spanglish. Receptive bilinguals are also known as productively bilingual, since, to give an answer, the speaker exerts much more mental effort to answer in English, Spanish, or Spanglish. Without first understanding the culture and history of the region where Spanglish evolved as a practical matter an in depth familiarizing with multiple cultures. This knowledge, indeed the mere fact of one's having that knowledge, often forms an important part of both what one considers one's personal identity and what others consider one's identity.
Other places where similar mixed codes are spoken are Gibraltar (Llanito), Belize (Kitchen Spanish), Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao (along with Dutch and Papiamento).
Spanglish is also spoken among the Spanish-speaking community in Australia. It is common to hear expressions among Spanish-speaking minorities in cities like Sydney and Melbourne, like: vivo en un flat pequeño; voy a correr con mis runners; la librería de la city es grande, or words such as el rubbish bin, la vacuum cleaner, el tram, el toilet or el mobile. The same situation happens within the Spanish-speaking community of New Zealand.
Usage
Spanglish patterns
Spanglish is informal, although speakers can consistently judge the grammaticality of a phrase or sentence. From a linguistic point of view, Spanglish often is mistakenly labeled many things. Spanglish is not a creole or dialect of Spanish because, though people claim they are native Spanglish speakers, Spanglish itself is not a language on its own, but speakers speak English or Spanish with a heavy influence from the other language. The definition of Spanglish has been unclearly explained by scholars and linguists despite being noted so often. Spanglish is the fluid exchange of language between English and Spanish, present in the heavy influence in the words and phrases used by the speaker.
Spanglish is currently considered a hybrid language practice by linguists–many actually refer to Spanglish as "Spanish-English code-switching", though there is some influence of borrowing, and lexical and grammatical shifts as well.
The inception of Spanglish is due to the influx of native Spanish speaking Latin American people into North America, specifically the United States of America. As mentioned previously, the phenomenon of Spanglish can be separated into two different categories: code switching, and borrowing, lexical and grammatical shifts. Codeswitching has sparked controversy because it is seen "as a corruption of Spanish and English, a 'linguistic pollution' or 'the language of a "raced", underclass people'". For example, a fluent bilingual speaker addressing another bilingual speaker might engage in code switching with the sentence, "I'm sorry I cannot attend next week's meeting porque tengo una obligación de negocios en Boston, pero espero que I'll be back for the meeting the week after"—which means, "I'm sorry I cannot attend next week's meeting because I have a business obligation in Boston, but I hope to be back for the meeting the week after".
Calques
Calques are translations of entire words or phrases from one language into another. They represent the simplest forms of Spanglish, as they undergo no lexical or grammatical structural change. The use of calques is common throughout most languages, evident in the calques of Arabic exclamations used in Spanish.
Examples:
"to call back" → (llamar pa' atrás, llamar para atrás) ()
"It's up to you." → (Está pa' arriba de ti, Está para arriba de ti) ( (You decide))
"to be up to ..." → (estar pa' arriba de ..., estar para arriba de ...) (depender de ... or X decida (X decides))
"to run for governor" → ()
A well-known calque is or in expressions such as 'to call back'. Here, reflects the particle back in various English phrasal verbs.
Expressions with are found in every stable English-Spanish contact situation: the United States, including among the isolated Isleño and Sabine River communities, Gibraltar, and sporadically in Trinidad and along the Caribbean coast of Central America where the local English varieties are heavily creolized. Meanwhile, they're unattested in
non-contact varieties of Spanish.
expressions are unique as a calque of an English verbal particle, since other phrasal verbs and particles are almost never calqued into Spanish.
Because of this, and because they're consistent with existing Spanish grammar, argues they are likely a result of a conceptual, not linguistic loan.
That is, the notion of "backness" has been expanded in these contact varieties.
Semantic extensions
Semantic extension or reassignment refers to a phenomenon where speakers use a word of language A (typically Spanish in this case) with the meaning of its cognate in language B (typically English), rather than its standard meaning in language A. In Spanglish this usually occurs in the case of "false friends" (similar to, but technically not the same as false cognates), where words of similar form in Spanish and English are thought to have like meanings based on their cognate relationship.
Examples:
An example of this lexical phenomenon in Spanglish is the emergence of new verbs when the productive Spanish verb-making suffix -ear is attached to an English verb. For example, the Spanish verb for "to eat lunch" (almorzar in standard Spanish) becomes lonchear (occasionally lunchear). The same process produces watchear, parquear, emailear, twittear, etc.
Loan words
Loan words occur in any language due to the presence of items or ideas not present in the culture before, such as modern technology. The increasing rate of technological growth requires the use of loan words from the donor language due to the lack of its definition in the lexicon of the main language. This partially deals with the "prestige" of the donor language, which either forms a dissimilar or more similar word from the loan word. The growth of modern technology can be seen in the expressions: "hacer click" (to click), "mandar un e-mail" (to send an e-mail), "faxear" (to fax), "textear" (to text-message), or "hackear" (to hack). Some words borrowed from the donor languages are adapted to the language, while others remain unassimilated (e. g. "sandwich", "jeans" or "laptop"). The items most associated with Spanglish refer to words assimilated into the main morphology. Borrowing words from English and "Spanishizing" them has typically occurred through immigrants. This method makes new words by pronouncing an English word "Spanish style", thus dropping final consonants, softening others, and replacing certain consonants (e.g. V's with B's and M's with N's).
Examples:
"Aseguranza" (insurance)
"Biles" (bills)
"Chorcha" (church)
"Ganga" (gang)
"Líder" (leader) – considered an established Anglicism
"Lonchear/Lonchar" (to have lunch)
"Marqueta" (market)
"Taipear/Tipear" (to type)
"Troca" (truck) – Widely used in most of northern Mexico as well
”Mitin” (meeting) – An outdoors gathering of people mostly for political purposes.
”Checar” (to check)
”Escanear” (to scan) – To digitalize (e.g. a document).
”Chatear” (to chat)
“Desorden” (disorder) – incorrectly used as “disease”.
”Condición” (condition) – incorrectly used as “sickness”.
So-insertion
Within the US, the English word so is often inserted into Spanish discourse. This use of so is found in conversations that otherwise take place entirely in Spanish. Its users run the gamut from Spanish-dominant immigrants to native, balanced bilinguals to English-dominant semi-speakers and second-language speakers of Spanish, and even people who reject the use of Anglicisms have been found using so in Spanish.
Whether so is a simple loanword, or part of some deeper form of language mixing, is disputed. Many consider so to simply be a loanword, although borrowing short function words is quite abnormal.
In stressed positions, so is usually pronounced with English phonetics, and speakers typically identify it as an English word and not an established English loan such as . This is unusual, since code-switched or lexically inserted words typically aren't as common and recurring as so is.
So is always used as a coordinating conjunction in Spanish. It can be used phrase-internally, or at the beginning or end of a sentence. In Spanish discourse, so is never used to mean "in order that" as it often is in English. As a sociolinguistic phenomenon, speakers who subconsciously insert so into their Spanish usually spend most of their time speaking English. This and other facts suggest that the insertion of so and similar items such as you know and I mean are the result of a kind of "metalinguistic bracketing". That is, discourse in Spanish is circumscribed by English and by a small group of English functional words. These terms can act as punctuation for Spanish dialogue within an English-dominant environment.
Fromlostiano
Fromlostiano is a type of artificial and humorous wordplay that translates Spanish idioms word-for-word into English. The name fromlostiano comes from the expression From Lost to the River, which is a word-for-word translation of de perdidos al río; an idiom that means that one is prone to choose a particularly risky action in a desperate situation (this is somewhat comparable to the English idiom in for a penny, in for a pound).
The humor comes from the fact that while the expression is completely grammatical in English, it makes no sense to a native English speaker. Hence it is necessary to understand both languages to appreciate the humor.
This phenomenon was first noted in the book From Lost to the River in 1995. The book describes six types of fromlostiano:
Translations of Spanish idioms into English: With you bread and onion (Contigo pan y cebolla), Nobody gave you a candle in this burial (Nadie te ha dado vela en este entierro), To good hours, green sleeves (A buenas horas mangas verdes).
Translations of American and British celebrities' names into Spanish: Vanesa Tumbarroja (Vanessa Redgrave).
Translations of American and British street names into Spanish: Calle del Panadero (Baker Street).
Translations of Spanish street names into English: Shell Thorn Street (Calle de Concha Espina).
Translations of multinational corporations' names into Spanish: Ordenadores Manzana (Apple Computers).
Translations of Spanish minced oaths into English: Tu-tut that I saw you (Tararí que te vi).
The use of Spanglish has evolved over time. It has emerged as a way of conceptualizing one's thoughts whether it be in speech or on paper.
Identity
The use of Spanglish is often associated with the speaker's expression of identity (in terms of language learning) and reflects how many minority-American cultures feel toward their heritage. Commonly in ethnic communities within the United States, the knowledge of one's heritage language tends to assumably signify if one is truly of a member of their culture. Just as Spanish helps individuals identify with their Spanish identity, Individuals of Hispanic descent living in America face living in two very different worlds and "This synergy of cultures and struggle with identity is reflected in language use and results in the mixing of Spanish and English." Spanglish is used to facilitate communication with others in both worlds. While some individuals believe that Spanglish should not be considered a language, it is a language that has evolved and is continuing to grow and affect the way new generations are educated, culture change, and the production of media. Living within the United States creates a synergy of culture and struggles for many Mexican-Americans. The hope to retain their cultural heritage/language and their dual-identity in American society is one of the major factors that lead to the creation of Spanglish.
Arts and culture
Literature
There is a vast body of Latino literature in the United States that features dialogue and descriptions in Spanglish, especially in Chicano, Nuyorican, and Puerto Rican literature. Books that feature Spanglish in a significant way include the following.
Giannina Braschi's Yo-Yo Boing! (1998) is the first Spanglish novel.
Guillermo Gómez-Peña uses Spanglish in his performances.
Matt de la Peña's novel Mexican WhiteBoy (2008) features flourishes of Spanglish.
Junot Díaz's The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao also uses Spanglish words and phrases.
Pedro Pietri wrote the poem El Spanglish National Anthem. (1993)
Ilan Stavans Spanglish: The Making of a New American Language. (2004)
Piri Thomas wrote the autobiography Down These Mean Streets (1967) using Spanglish phrases.
Yoss' science fiction novel Super Extra Grande (2009) is set in a future where Latin Americans have colonized the galaxy and Spanglish is the lingua franca among the galaxy's sentient species.
H. G. Wells's future history The Shape of Things to Come (1933) predicted that in the 21st century English and Spanish would "become interchangeable languages".
Germán Valdés, a Mexican comedian, (known as Tin Tan) made heavy use of Spanglish. He dressed as a pachuco.
Music
Overview
The use of Spanglish by incorporating English and Spanish lyrics into music has risen in the United States over time. In the 1980s 1.2% of songs in the Billboard Top 100 contained Spanglish lyrics, eventually growing to 6.2% in the 2000s. The lyrical emergence of Spanglish by way of Latin American musicians has grown tremendously, reflective of the growing Hispanic population within the United States.
Mexican rock band Molotov, whose members use Spanglish in their lyrics.
American progressive rock band The Mars Volta, whose song lyrics frequently switch back and forth between English and Spanish.
Ska punk pioneers Sublime, whose singer Bradley Nowell grew up in a Spanish-speaking community, released several songs in Spanglish.
American nu metal band Ill Niño frequently mix Spanish and English lyrics in their songs.
Shakira (born Shakira Isabel Mebarak Ripoll), a Colombian singer-songwriter, musician and model.
Sean Paul (born Sean Paul Ryan Francis Henriques), a Jamaican singer and songwriter.
Ricky Martin (born Enrique Martín Morales), a Puerto Rican pop musician, actor and author.
Pitbull (born Armando Christian Pérez), a successful Cuban-American rapper, producer and Latin Grammy Award-winning artist from Miami, Florida that has brought Spanglish into mainstream music through his multiple hit songs.
Enrique Iglesias, a Spanish singer-songwriter with songs in English, Spanish and Spanglish; Spanglish songs include Bailamos and Bailando.
Rapper Silento, famous for his song "Watch Me (Whip/Nae Nae)", recorded a version in Spanglish
History
The rise of Spanglish in music within the United States also creates new classifications of Latin(o) music, as well as the wider Latin(o) music genre. In some growing music scenes, it is noted that for artists go beyond music and bring in political inclinations as a way to make wider commentary. Although Los Angeles Chicano bands from the 1960s and 1970s are often remembered as part of the Chicano-movement as agents for social chance, Latin(o) music has long been a way for artists to exercise political agency, including the post-World War II jazz scene, the New York City salsa of the 1970s, and the hip-hop movement of the 80s. Some of the topics addressed in these movements include: redlining and housing policies; immigration; discrimination; and transnationalism.
Commercialization
Over time, however, this more explicit show of political nature might have been lessened due to the desire to compete in the music business of the English speaking world. This however, did not stop the a change in U.S. music, where English-speaking musicians have moved towards collaborative music, and bilingual duets are growing in popularity, indicating an audience demand for multi-language entertainment, as well as a space for traditional Latino artists to enter the mainstream and find chart success beyond the Spanish-speaking world. This is despite the slower-growing opportunities for Latino musicians to occupy higher-up positions such as promoters, business owners, and producers.
Present-day
With this growing demand for Spanglish duets, there has also been a rise in indie Latino artists who incorporate Spanglish lyrics in their music. One such artist is Omar Apollo, who combines Spanglish lyrics with music influenced by traditional corridos. Other up and coming Latino artists, such as Kali Uchis, Empress Of, and Ambar Lucid, have also led to a greater prominence of Hispanic performers and lyricism in the contemporary top charts. These types of artists, also being second-generation Spanish speakers, suggest that there is less fear or feelings of intimidation of using Spanish in public spaces. Moreover, this lack of negative connotation with public use of Spanglish and heritage-language language tools point to a subconscious desire to challenge negative rhetoric, as well as the racism that may go along with it. Given the fact that Spanglish has been the language of communication for a growing Hispanic-American population in the United States, its growing presence in Latino music is considered, by some scholars, a persistent and easily identifiable marker of an increasingly intersectional Latino identity.
See also
American literature in Spanish
Nuyorican
Caló (Chicano) a Mexican-American argot, similar to Spanglish
Chicano English
Code-switching
Dog Latin
Dunglish
Franglais
Hispanicisms in English
Languages in the United States
List of English words of Spanish origin
Llanito (an Andalusian vernacular unique to Gibraltar)
Portuñol, the unsystematic mixture of Portuguese with Spanish
Spanish language in the United States
Spanish dialects and varieties
Categories
:Category:Forms of English
:Category:Spanglish songs
Notes
References
Aldama, Frederick Luis (2020), Poets, Philosophers, Lovers: On the Writings of Giannina Braschi. U Pittsburgh, 2020.
Betti, Silvia. "La imagen de los hispanos en la publicidad de los Estados Unidos", Informes del Observatorio, 2015. 009-03/2015SP
Silvia Betti y Daniel Jorques, eds. Visiones europeas del spanglish, Valencia, Uno y Cero, 2015.
Silvia Betti: "La definición del Spanglish en la última edición del Diccionario de la Real Academia (2014)", Revista GLOSAS (de la ANLE), 2015.
Betti, Silvia y Enric Serra Alegre, eds. Una investigación polifónica. Nuevas voces sobre el spanglish, New York, Valencia, Academia Norteamericana de la Lengua Española (ANLE) y Universitat de València-Estudi General (UVEG), 2016.
Guzman, B. "The Hispanic Population." US Census 22.2 (2000): 1. US Census Bureau. Web.
United States Census Bureau. Hispanic Origin. US Census Bureau, n.d. Web. August 11, 2014.
External links
Current TV video "Nuyorican Power " on Spanglish as the Nuyorican language; featuring Daddy Yankee, Giannina Braschi, Rita Moreno, and other Nuyorican icons.
Spanglish – the Language of Chicanos , University of California
What is Spanglish? Texas State University
Macaronic forms of English
Spanish language in the United States
1940s neologisms
Code-switching | wiki |
Cretonne was originally a strong, white fabric with a hempen warp and linen weft.
The word is sometimes said to be derived from Creton, a village in Normandy where the manufacture of linen was carried on; some other serious sources mention that the cretonne was invented by Paul Creton, an inhabitant of Vimoutiers in the Pays d'Auge, Lower Normandy, France, a village very active in the textile industry in the past centuries.
The word is now applied to a strong, printed cotton cloth, which is stouter than chintz but used for very much the same purposes. It is usually unglazed and may be printed on both sides and even with different patterns. Frequently cretonne has a fancy woven pattern of some kind which is modified by the printed design. It is sometimes made with a weft of cotton waste.
References
External links
The cretonne and its origin
Woven fabrics
Printed fabrics | wiki |
Crime statistics refer to systematic, quantitative results about crime, as opposed to crime news or anecdotes. Notably, crime statistics can be the result of two rather different processes:
scientific research, such as criminological studies, victimisation surveys;
official figures, such as published by the police, prosecution, courts, and prisons.
However, in their research, criminologists often draw on official figures as well.
Methods
There are several methods for the measuring of crime. Public surveys are occasionally conducted to estimate the amount of crime that has not been reported to police. Such surveys are usually more reliable for assessing trends. However, they also have their limitations and generally don't procure statistics useful for local crime prevention, often ignore offenses against children and do not count offenders brought before the criminal justice system.
Law enforcement agencies in some countries offer compilations of statistics for various types of crime.
Two major methods for collecting crime data are law enforcement reports, which only reflect crimes that are reported, recorded, and not subsequently canceled; and victim study (victimization statistical surveys), which rely on individual memory and honesty. For less frequent crimes such as intentional homicide and armed robbery, reported incidences are generally more reliable, but suffer from under-recording; for example, no criming in the United Kingdom sees over one third of reported violent crimes being not recorded by the police. Because laws and practices vary between jurisdictions, comparing crime statistics between and even within countries can be difficult: typically only violent deaths (homicide or manslaughter) can reliably be compared, due to consistent and high reporting and relative clear definition.
The U.S. has two major data collection programs, the Uniform Crime Reports from the FBI and the National Crime Victimization Survey from the Bureau of Justice Statistics. However, the U.S. has no comprehensive infrastructure to monitor crime trends and report the information to related parties such as law enforcement.
Research using a series of victim surveys in 18 countries of the European Union, funded by the European Commission, has reported (2005) that the level of crime in Europe has fallen back to the levels of 1990, and notes that levels of common crime have shown declining trends in the U.S., Canada, Australia and other industrialized countries as well. The European researchers say a general consensus identifies demographic change as the leading cause for this international trend. Although homicide and robbery rates rose in the U.S. in the 1980s, by the end of the century they had declined by 40%.
However, the European research suggests that "increased use of crime prevention measures may indeed be the common factor behind the near universal decrease in overall levels of crime in the Western world", since decreases have been most pronounced in property crime and less so, if at all, in contact crimes.
Counting rules
Relatively few standards exist and none that permit international comparability beyond a very limited range of offences. However, many jurisdictions accept the following:
There must be a prima facie case that an offence has been committed before it is recorded. That is either police find evidence of an offence or receive a believable allegation of an offense being committed. Some jurisdictions count offending only when certain processes happen, such as an arrest is made, ticket issued, charges laid in Court or only upon securing a conviction.
Multiple reports of the same offence usually count as one offence. Some jurisdictions count each report separately, others count each victim of offending separately.
Where several offences are committed at the same time, in one act of offending, only the most serious offense is counted. Some jurisdictions record and count each and every offense separately, others count cases, or offenders, that can be prosecuted.
Where multiple offenders are involved in the same act of offending only one act is counted when counting offenses but each offender is counted when apprehended.
Offending is counted at the time it comes to the attention of a law enforcement officer. Some jurisdictions record and count offending at the time it occurs.
As "only causing pain" is counted as assault in some countries, it let higher assault rates except in Austria, Finland, Germany, the Netherlands, Portugal and Sweden. But there are exceptions, like Czech Republic and Latvia. France was the contrasting exception having a high assault ratio without counting minor assaults.
Offending that is a breach of the law but for which no punishment exists is often not counted. For example: Suicide, which is technically illegal in most countries, may not be counted as a crime, although attempted suicide and assisting suicide are.
Also traffic offending and other minor offending that might be dealt with by using fines rather than imprisonment, is often not counted as crime. However separate statistics may be kept for this sort of offending.
Surveys
Because of the difficulties in quantifying how much crime actually occurs, researchers generally take two approaches to gathering statistics about crime.
However, as officers can only record crime that comes to their attention and might not record a matter as a crime if the matter is considered minor and is not perceived as a crime by the officer concerned.
For example, when faced with a domestic violence dispute between a couple, a law enforcement officer may decide it is far less trouble to arrest the male party to the dispute, because the female may have children to care for, despite both parties being equally culpable for the dispute. This sort of pragmatic decisionmaking asked if they are victims of crime, without needing to provide any supporting evidence. In these surveys it is the participant's perception, or opinion, that a crime occurred, or even their understanding about what constitutes a crime that is being measured.
As a consequence differing methodologies may make comparisons with other surveys difficult.
One way in which, while other types of crime are under reported. These surveys also give insights as to why crime is reported, or not. The surveys show that the need to make an insurance claim, seek medical assistance, and the seriousness of an offence tend to increase the level of reporting, while the inconvenience of reporting, the involvement of intimate partners and the nature of the offending tend to decrease reporting.
This allows degrees of confidence to be assigned to various crime statistics. For example: Motor vehicle thefts are generally well reported because the victim may need to make the report for an insurance claim, while domestic violence, domestic child abuse and sexual offences are frequently significantly under-reported because of the intimate relationships involved, embarrassment and other factors that make it difficult for the victim to make a report.
Attempts to use victimisation surveys from different countries for international comparison had failed in the past. A standardised survey project called the International Crime Victims Survey Results from this project have been briefly discussed earlier in this article.
Classification
While most jurisdictions could probably agree about what constitutes a murder, what constitutes a homicide may be more problematic, while a crime against the person could vary widely. Legislation differences often means the ingredients of offences vary between jurisdictions.
The International Crime victims Survey has been done in over 70 countries to date and has been a 'de facto' standard for defining common crimes. Complete list of countries participating and the 11 defined crimes can be found at the project web site.
In March 2015 the UNODC published the first version of the International Classification of Crime for Statistical Purposes (ICCS).
Measures
More complex measures involve measuring the numbers of discrete victims and offenders as well as repeat victimisation rates and recidivism. Repeat victimisation involves measuring how often the same victim is subjected to a repeat occurrence of an offence, often by the same offender. Repetition rate measures are often used to assess the effectiveness of interventions.
See also
Crime in the United States
Crime science
Crime statistics in the United Kingdom
Dark figure of crime
List of countries by intentional homicide rate
List of countries by incarceration rate
List of countries by execution rate
Moral statistics
Questionnaire
Self report study
Statistical correlations of criminal behaviour
The International Crime Victims Survey
United States cities by crime rate
Victim study
Victimology
Notes
Further reading
External links
crime-statistics.co.uk, UK Crime Statistics and Crime Statistic Comparisons
A Continent of Broken Windows – Alexander, Gerard The Weekly Standard (Volume 11, Issue 10, 21 November 2005)
United States: Uniform Crime Report -- State Statistics from 1960 - 2005
Experience and Communication as explanations for Criminal Risk Perception
Regional crime rates 2011
Crime statistics for 2013 released, FBI
Law enforcement | wiki |
Burial, also known as interment or inhumation, is a method of final disposition whereby a dead body is placed into the ground, sometimes with objects. This is usually accomplished by excavating a pit or trench, placing the deceased and objects in it, and covering it over. A funeral is a ceremony that accompanies the final disposition. Humans have been burying their dead since shortly after the origin of the species. Burial is often seen as indicating respect for the dead. It has been used to prevent the odor of decay, to give family members closure and prevent them from witnessing the decomposition of their loved ones, and in many cultures it has been seen as a necessary step for the deceased to enter the afterlife or to give back to the cycle of life.
Methods of burial may be heavily ritualized and can include natural burial (sometimes called "green burial"); embalming or mummification; and the use of containers for the dead, such as shrouds, coffins, grave liners, and burial vaults, all of which can retard decomposition of the body. Sometimes objects or grave goods are buried with the body, which may be dressed in fancy or ceremonial garb. Depending on the culture, the way the body is positioned may have great significance.
The location of the burial may be determined by taking into account concerns surrounding health and sanitation, religious concerns, and cultural practices. Some cultures keep the dead close to provide guidance to the living, while others "banish" them by locating burial grounds at a distance from inhabited areas. Some religions consecrate special ground to bury the dead, and some families build private family cemeteries. Most modern cultures document the location of graves with headstones, which may be inscribed with information and tributes to the deceased. However, some people are buried in anonymous or secret graves for various reasons. Sometimes multiple bodies are buried in a single grave either by choice (as in the case of married couples), due to space concerns, or in the case of mass graves as a way to deal with many bodies at once.
Alternatives to burial include cremation (and subsequent interment), burial at sea and cryopreservation. Some human cultures may bury the remains of beloved animals. Humans are not the only species to bury their dead; the practice has been observed in chimpanzees, elephants, and possibly dogs.
History
Intentional burial, particularly with grave goods, may be one of the earliest detectable forms of religious practice since, as Philip Lieberman suggests, it may signify a "concern for the dead that transcends daily life." Evidence suggests that the Neanderthals were the first human species to practice burial behavior and intentionally bury their dead, doing so in shallow graves along with stone tools and animal bones. Exemplary sites include Shanidar in Iraq, Kebara Cave in Israel and Krapina in Croatia. Some scholars, however, argue that these bodies may have been disposed of for secular reasons.
Though there is ongoing debate regarding the reliability of the dating method, some scholars believe the earliest human burial dates back 100,000 years. Human skeletal remains stained with red ochre were discovered in the Skhul cave at Qafzeh, Israel. A variety of grave goods were present at the site, including the mandible of a wild boar in the arms of one of the skeletons.
In ancient Egypt, customs developed during the Predynastic period. Round graves with one pot were used in the Badarian Period (4400-3800 B.C.E.), continuing the tradition of Omari and Maadi cultures.
Prehistoric cemeteries are referred to by the more neutral term grave field. They are one of the chief sources of information on prehistoric cultures, and numerous archaeological cultures are defined by their burial customs, such as the Urnfield culture of the European Bronze Age.
During the Early Middle Ages, the reopening of graves and manipulation of the corpses or artifacts contained within them was a widespread phenomenon and a common part of the life course of early medieval cemeteries across Western and Central Europe. The reopening of furnished or recent burials occurred over the broad zone of European row-grave-style furnished inhumation burial, especially from the 5th to the 8th centuries CE, which comprised the regions of Romania, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Switzerland, Austria, Germany, the Low Countries, France, and South-eastern England.
Reasons for human burial
After death, a body will decay. Burial is not necessarily a public health requirement. Contrary to conventional wisdom, the WHO advises that only corpses carrying an infectious disease strictly require burial.
Human burial practices are the manifestation of the human desire to demonstrate "respect for the dead". Cultures vary in their mode of respect.
Some reasons follow:
Respect for the physical remains. If left lying on top of the ground, scavengers may eat the corpse, considered disrespectful to the deceased in many (but not all) cultures. In Tibet, sky burials deliberately encourage scavenging of human remains in the interest of returning them to nature, just as within Zoroastrianism, where burial and cremation were often seen as impure (as human remains are polluted, while the earth and fire are sacred).
Burial can be seen as an attempt to bring closure to the deceased's family and friends. Psychologists in some Western Judeo-Christian quarters, as well as the US funeral industry, claim that by interring a body away from plain view the pain of losing a loved one can be lessened.
Many cultures believe in an afterlife. Burial is sometimes believed to be a necessary step for an individual to reach the afterlife.
Many religions prescribe a particular way to live, which includes customs relating to disposal of the dead.
A decomposing body releases unpleasant gases related to decomposition. As such, burial is seen as a means of preventing smells from expanding into open air.
Burial methods
In many cultures, human corpses were usually buried in soil. The roots of burial as a practice reach back into the Middle Palaeolithic and coincide with the appearance of Homo neanderthalensis and Homo sapiens, in Europe and Africa respectively. As a result, burial grounds are found throughout the world. Through time, mounds of earth, temples, and caverns were used to store the dead bodies of ancestors. In modern times, the custom of burying dead people below ground, with a stone marker to indicate the burial place, is used in most cultures; although other means such as cremation are becoming more popular in the West (cremation is the norm in India and mandatory in big metropolitan areas of Japan).
Some burial practices are heavily ritualized; others are simply practical.
Burial depth
It is a common misconception that graves must be dug to a depth of six feet (1.8 metres). This is reflected in the common euphemism for death of six feet under. In fact, graves are rarely dug to this depth except when it is intended to later bury a further coffin or coffins on top of the first one. In such cases, more than six feet may be dug, to provide the required depth of soil above the top coffin.
In the United States, there is no nationwide regulation of burial depth. Each local authority is free to determine its own rules. Requirements for depth can vary according to soil type and by method of burial. California, for instance, requires only 19 inches of soil above the top of the coffin, but more commonly 30 to 36 inches are required in other places. In some areas, such as central Appalachia, graves were indeed once dug to a depth of six feet to prevent the body being disturbed by burrowing animals. However, this was unnecessary once metal caskets and concrete vaults started to be used.
In the United Kingdom, soil is required to be to a depth of three feet above the highest point of the coffin, unless the burial authority consider the soil to be suitable for a depth of only two feet.
The earliest known reference to a requirement for a six-foot burial occurred in 1665 during the Great Plague of London. John Lawrence, the Lord Mayor of London, ordered that the bodies of plague victims "...shall be at least six foot deep." The city officials apparently believed this would inhibit the spread of the disease, not realising that the true vector was fleas living on rats in the streets. In the event, there were so many victims that very few were buried in individual graves. Most were placed in massive plague pits so it is unlikely that this event alone gave rise to the "six feet" tradition.
Natural burial
Natural burial—also called "green burial"—is the process by which a body is returned to the earth to decompose naturally in soil, and in some cases even protect native and endangered wildlife. Natural burial became popularized in the United Kingdom in the early 1990s by Ken West, a professional cremator operator for the city of Carlisle, responding to the U.K's call for changes in government that aligned with the United Nations' Environmental Program Local Agenda 21. In addition, there are multiple green burial sites in the United States. Green burials are developing in Canada (Victoria, BC, and Cobourg, Ontario), as well as in Australia and Ireland.
The increase in popularity of alternative burials can be seen as a direct choice of the individual's want to distance themselves from religious practices and spiritual locations as well as an opportunity to exercise their act of choice. The desire to live through nature as well as concern for the environment have been the backbone of the green burial movement. The use of coffins made from alternative materials such as wicker and biodegradable materials as well as trees and other flora are being used in place of headstones. Both practices provide sustainable alternatives to traditional burial practices.
Natural burials have been attracting people for reasons outside of environmental and sustainability factors as well. With the expansion of urban centres, ecological corridors gradually disappear. Cemeteries for burial plots preclude alternative uses of the land for a long time. By combining these two aspects (need for connectivity and land take imposed by cemeteries), two positive results can be achieved: protecting memories of the past and connecting ecosystems with multiple-use corridors. Green burials appeal to people for economic reasons. Traditional burial practices can be a financial burden causing some to turn to green burials as a cheaper alternative. Some people view green burials as more meaningful, especially for those who have a connection to a piece of land, such as current residence or other places that hold meaning for them.
Types of natural burial
Conservation burial
Conservation burial is a type of burial where burial fees fund the acquisition and management of new land to benefit native habitat, ecosystems and species. This usually involves a legal document such as a conservation easement. Such burials go beyond other forms of natural burial, which aim to prevent environmental damage caused by conventional burial techniques, by actually increasing benefits for the environment. The idea is for the burial process to be a net positive for the earth rather than just neutral. Scientists have argued that such burials could potentially generate enough funds to save every endangered species on the planet. The Green Burial Council certifies natural and conservation burial grounds in the United States and Canada.
Memorial reef
The memorial reef is a natural, alternative approach to burial. The cremated remains of a person are mixed in with concrete and then placed into a mold to make the memorial reef or eternal reef. After the concrete sets, family members are allowed to customize the reef with writing, hand prints and chalk drawings. After this, the eco-friendly reefs are placed into the ocean among other coral reefs where they help to repair damage to the reefs while also providing new habitats for fish and other sea communities. It has become a new way to memorialize the passing person while also protecting the marine environment. The high cost of the memorial reefs has caused this alternative form of burial to remain minimal and uncommon. This kind of natural burial is practiced in permitted oceans in the United States specifically in locations around Florida, South Carolina, North Carolina, Maryland, New Jersey, Texas and Virginia.
Alkaline hydrolysis
Alkaline hydrolysis, also referred to as resomation, is another approach to natural burial. It uses high temperature water mixed with potassium hydroxide to dissolve human remains. During this process, the body is put into an enclosed, stainless steel chamber. The chamber fills with the chemical and water solution and is then lightly circulated. After a couple of hours, the body is worn down and bone is the only thing that remains. The bones are then pressed down into a powder and returned to the associated family. The outcome is comparable to cremation but results in an environmentally friendly process that does not release chemical emissions and greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, as was confirmed after a review by the Health Council of the Netherlands. After this process, the water used goes to a regular water treatment facility where it is filtered and cleaned and returned to the water cycle. At this time, resomation is permitted for commercial use in areas throughout the United States. However, several other countries, including the United Kingdom are considering using this technology within their medical schools and universities.
Mushroom burial
Mushroom burial has been developed by Jae Rhim Lee and her colleagues to address the impact traditional burial approaches have on the environment. It is an eco-friendly process which consists of dressing the cadaver in a bodysuit with mushroom spores woven into it, nicknamed the Infinity Burial Suit. Rhim developed her own mushrooms by feeding them her hair, skin, and nails to create a mushroom variety that will best decompose human remains. As the mushrooms grow, they consume the remains within the suit as well as the toxins that are being released by the body. Rhim and her colleagues created this suit as a symbol of a new way for people to think about the relationship between their body after death and the environment.
Tree pod burials
Another method of natural burial is being developed to plant the human body in fetal position inside an egg shaped pod. The pod containing the body will form a biodegradable capsule that will not harm the surrounding earth. The biodegradable capsule doubles as a seed which can be customized to grow into either a birch, maple, or eucalyptus tree. The goal of this method is to create parks full of trees that loved ones can walk through and mourn, as opposed to a graveyard full of tombstones. This method aims to return the body to the earth in the most environmentally friendly way possible.
The tree pod method originated in the United Kingdom but is now becoming a more popular method of burial. The definition of natural burial grounds suggests that people are being buried without any kind of formaldehyde-based embalming fluid or synthetic ingredients, and that the bodies that are being returned to the earth will also be returning nutrients to the environment, in a way that is less expensive than other available burial methods. Not only are tree pods a more cost effective and environmentally friendly way to memorialize loved ones, this method also offers emotional support. The memories of loved ones will be immortalized through the concept of a deceased person having a medium (trees) that will continue to live and grow.
Prevention of decay
Embalming is the practice of preserving a body against decay and is used in many cultures. Mummification is a more extensive method of embalming, further delaying the decay process.
Bodies are often buried wrapped in a shroud or placed in a coffin (or in some cases, a casket). A larger container may be used, such as a ship. In the United States, coffins are usually covered by a grave liner or a burial vault, which prevents the coffin from collapsing under the weight of the earth or floating away during a flood.
These containers slow the decomposition process by (partially) physically blocking decomposing bacteria and other organisms from accessing the corpse. An additional benefit of using containers to hold the body is that if the soil covering the corpse is washed away by a flood or some other natural process then the corpse will still not be exposed to open air.
Inclusion of clothing and personal effects
The body may be dressed in fancy and/or ceremonial clothes. Personal objects of the deceased, such as a favorite piece of jewelry or photograph, may be included with the body. This practice, also known as the inclusion of grave goods, serves several purposes:
In funeral services, the body is often put on display. Many cultures feel that the deceased should be presented looking his or her finest. Others dress the deceased in burial shrouds, which range from very simple to elaborate depending on the culture.
The inclusion of ceremonial garb and sacred objects is sometimes viewed as necessary for reaching the afterlife.
The inclusion of personal effects may be motivated by the beliefs that in the afterlife people will wish to have with them what was important to them on earth. Alternatively, in some cultures, it is felt that, when a person dies, their possessions (and sometimes people connected to them such as wives) should go with them out of loyalty or ownership.
Although not generally a motivation for the inclusion of grave goods with a corpse, it is worth considering that future archaeologists may find the remains (compare time capsule). Artifacts such as clothing and objects provide insight into how the individual lived. This provides a form of immortality for the deceased. In general, however, clothing buried with a body decays more rapidly than the same buried alone.
Traditions
Body positioning
Burials may be placed in a number of different positions. Bodies with the arms crossed date back to ancient cultures such as Chaldea in the 10th century BC, where the "X" symbolized their sky god. Later ancient Egyptian gods and royalty, from approximately 3500 B.C. are shown with crossed arms, such as the god Osiris, the Lord of the Dead, or mummified royalty with crossed arms in high and low body positions, depending upon the dynasty. The burial of bodies in the extended position, i.e., lying flat with arms and legs straight, or with the arms folded upon the chest, and with the eyes and mouth closed. Extended burials may be supine (lying on the back) or prone (lying on the front). However, in some cultures, being buried face down shows marked disrespect like in the case of the Sioux. Other ritual practices place the body in a flexed position with the legs bent or crouched with the legs folded up to the chest. Warriors in some ancient societies were buried in an upright position. In Islam, the body is placed in supine position, hands along the sides and the head is turned to its right with the face towards the Qibla. Many cultures treat placement of dead people in an appropriate position to be a sign of respect even when burial is impossible.
In nonstandard burial practices, such as mass burial, the body may be positioned arbitrarily. This can be a sign of disrespect to the deceased, or at least nonchalance on the part of the inhumer, or due to considerations of time and space.
Orientation
Most often, a burial will be oriented to a specific direction for religious purposes, as are the case for persons of the Abrahamic faiths. Standard Jewish burials are made supine east-west, with the head at the western end of the grave, in order to face Jerusalem. In other cases, the body may be buried on a north-south axis, or, simply facing towards the exit of the cemetery or burial grounds. This is done in order to facilitate the return to Israel foretold of all those who are resurrected at the end of time following the coming of the Messiah. Historically, Christian burials followed similar principles, where the body was placed east-west, to mirror the layout of Christian churches, which were themselves oriented as such for much the same reason; to view the coming of Christ on Judgment day (Eschaton). In many Christian traditions, ordained clergy are traditionally buried in the opposite orientation, and their coffins carried likewise, so that at the General Resurrection they may rise facing, and ready to minister to, their people.
In an Islamic funeral, the grave should be aligned perpendicular to the Qibla (the direction to the Kaaba in Mecca) with the face turned to the right along the Qibla.
Inverted burial
For humans, maintaining an upside down position, with the head vertically below the feet, is highly uncomfortable for any extended period of time, and consequently burial in that attitude (as opposed to attitudes of rest or watchfulness, as above) is highly unusual and generally symbolic. Occasionally suicides and assassins were buried upside down, as a post-mortem punishment and (as with burial at cross-roads) to inhibit the activities of the resulting undead.
In Gulliver's Travels, the Lilliputians buried their dead upside down:
Swift's notion of inverted burial might seem the highest flight of fancy, but it appears that among English millenarians the idea that the world would be "turned upside down" at the Apocalypse enjoyed some currency. There is at least one attested case of a person being buried upside down by instruction; a Major Peter Labilliere of Dorking (d. 4 June 1800) lies thus upon the summit of Box Hill. Similar stories have attached themselves to other noted eccentrics, particularly in southern England, but not always with a foundation in truth.
Burial traditions throughout the world
South Korea
South Korea's funeral arrangements have drastically changed in the course of only two decades according to Chang-Won Park. Park states that around the 1980s at home funeral ceremonies were the general norm, straying away from anywhere that was not a family home. Dying close to home, with friends and family, was considered a 'good death', while dying away from home was considered a 'bad death'. This gradually changed as the upper and middle class started holding funerals in the mortuaries of hospitals. This posed an issue for hospitals because of the rapid increase in funerals being held and maxing occupancy. This resolved when a law was passed to allow the civilian population to hold funerals in the mortuaries of hospitals. The lower class then followed suit, copying the newly set traditions of the upper classes. With this change, the practice of cremation became viewed more as an alternative to traditional burials. Cremation was first introduced by Buddhism, but was banned in 1470. It wasn't until the Japanese colonization period that cremation was re-introduced in 1945 and later lifted the ban. It took until 1998 for cremation to rapidly grow in popularity.
Tana Toraja
A Ted Talk done by Kelli Swazey discusses how Tana Toraja, a Sulawesi province in Eastern Indonesia, experiences death as a process, rather than an event. The culture of Tana Toraja views funerals as the most important event in a person's life. Because of this importance placed on death, Tana Toraja landscape is covered in the rituals and events transpired after death. The hierarchy of an individual's life is based on the sacrifices of animals made after their death. Funerals tend to be celebrated by Tana Toraja people, typically lasting days to even weeks long. Death is seen as a transformation, rather than a private loss. A Torajan is not considered 'dead' until their family members are able to collect the resources necessary to hold a funeral that expresses the status of the deceased. Until these funerals are upheld the deceased are held in Tongkonan, built to house corpses that are not considered 'dead'. The deceased can be held in Tongkonan for years, waiting for their families to collect the necessary resources to hold a funeral. The Tongkonan represents both the identity of the family and the process of birth and death. The process of birth and death is shown by having the houses that individuals are born in be the same structure as the Tongkonan, houses that individuals die in. Up until the funeral the deceased being housed in the Tongkonan are symbolically treated as members of the family, still being cared for by family members.
Australian Aboriginals (Northern Territory)
Northern Territory Australian Aboriginals have unique traditions associated with a loved one's death. The death of a loved one sparks a series of events such as smoking out the spirit, a feast, and leaving out the body to decompose. Immediately after death, a smoking ceremony is held in the deceased's home. The smoking ceremonies purpose is to expel the spirit of the deceased from their living quarters. A feast is held where mourners are covered in ochre, an earthy pigment associated with clay, while they eat and dance. The traditional corpse disposal of the Aboriginals includes covering the corpse in leaves on a platform. The corpse is then left to decompose.
Burial among African-American slaves
In the African-American slave community, slaves quickly familiarized themselves with funeral procedures and the location of gravesites of family and friends. Specific slaves were assigned to prepare dead bodies, build coffins, dig graves, and construct headstones. Slave funerals were typically at night when the workday was over, with the master present to view all the ceremonial procedures. Slaves from nearby plantations were regularly in attendance.
At death, a slave's body was wrapped in cloth. The hands were placed across the chest, and a metal plate was placed on top of their hands. The reasoning for the plate was to hinder their return home by suppressing any spirits in the coffin. Often, personal property was buried with slaves to appease spirits. The coffins were nailed shut once the body was inside, and carried by hand or wagon, depending on the property designated for slave burial site.
Slaves were buried oriented East to West, with feet at the Eastern end (head at the Western end, thus raising facing East). According to Christian doctrine, this orientation permitted rising to face the return of Christ without having to turn around upon the call of Gabriel's trumpet. Gabriel's trumpet would be blown near the Eastern sunrise.
Burial in the Baháʼí Faith
In the Baháʼí Faith, burial law prescribes both the location of burial and burial practices and precludes cremation of the dead. It is forbidden to carry the body for more than one hour's journey from the place of death. Before interment the body should be wrapped in a shroud of silk or cotton, and a ring should be placed on its finger bearing the inscription "I came forth from God, and return unto Him, detached from all save Him, holding fast to His Name, the Merciful, the Compassionate". The coffin should be of crystal, stone or hard fine wood. Also, before interment, a specific Prayer for the Dead is ordained. The body should be placed with the feet facing the Qiblih. The formal prayer and the ring are meant to be used for those who have reached fifteen years of age.
Locations
Where to bury
Apart from sanitary and other practical considerations, the site of burial can be determined by religious and socio-cultural considerations.
Thus in some traditions, especially with an animistic logic, the remains of the dead are "banished" for fear their spirits would harm the living if too close; others keep remains close to help surviving generations.
Religious rules may prescribe a specific zone, e.g. some Christian traditions hold that Christians must be buried in consecrated ground, usually a cemetery; an earlier practice, burial in or very near the church (hence the word churchyard), was generally abandoned with individual exceptions as a high posthumous honour; also many existing funeral monuments and crypts remain in use.
Royalty and high nobility often have one or more "traditional" sites of burial, generally monumental, often in a palatial chapel or cathedral.
In North America, private family cemeteries were common among wealthy landowners during the 18th and 19th centuries. Many prominent people were buried in private cemeteries on their respective properties, sometimes in lead-lined coffins. Many of these family cemeteries were not documented and were therefore lost to time and abandon; their grave markers having long since been pilfered by vandals or covered by forest growth. Their locations are occasionally discovered during construction projects.
Marking the location of the burial
Most modern cultures mark the location of the body with a headstone. This serves two purposes. First, the grave will not accidentally be exhumed. Second, headstones often contain information or tributes to deceased. This is a form of remembrance for loved ones; it can also be viewed as a form of immortality, especially in cases of famous people's graves. Such monumental inscriptions may subsequently be useful to genealogists and family historians.
In many cultures graves will be grouped, so the monuments make up a necropolis, a "city of the dead" paralleling the community of the living.
Unmarked grave
In many cultures graves are marked with durable markers, or monuments, intended to help remind people of the buried person. An unmarked grave is a grave with no such memorial marker.
Anonymous burial
Another sort of unmarked grave is a burial site with an anonymous marker, such as a simple cross; boots, rifle and helmet; a sword and shield; a cairn of stones; or even a monument. This may occur when identification of the deceased is impossible. Although many unidentified deceased are buried in potter's fields, some are memorialized, especially in smaller communities or in the case of deaths publicized by local media. Anonymous burials also happen in poorer or disadvantaged populations' communities in countries such as South Africa, where in the past the Non-white population was simply too poor to afford headstones. At the cemetery in a small rural town of Harding, KwaZulu-Natal, many grave sites have no identification, and just have a border of stones which mark out the dimensions of the grave site itself.
Many countries have buried an unidentified soldier (or other member of the military) in a prominent location as a form of respect for all unidentified war dead. The United Kingdom's Tomb of the Unknown Warrior is in Westminster Abbey, France's is buried underneath the Arc de Triomphe, Italy's is buried in the Monumento al Milite Ignoto in Rome, Canada's is buried at the National War Memorial in Ottawa, Australia's Tomb of the Unknown Soldier is located at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra, New Zealand's Tomb of the Unknown Warrior is in Wellington, the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Russia is in Alexander Garden in Moscow and the United States' Tomb of the Unknown Soldier is located at Arlington National Cemetery.
Many cultures practice anonymous burial as a norm, not an exception. For instance, in 2002 a survey for the Federal Guild of German Stonemasons found that, depending on the location within Germany, from 0% to 43% of burials were anonymous. According to Christian Century magazine, the perspective of the Roman Catholic Church is that anonymous burials reflect a dwindling belief in God. Others claim that this trend is mainly driven by secularism and the high costs of traditional burials.
Secret burial
In rare cases, a known person may be buried without identification, perhaps to avoid desecration of the corpse, grave robbing, or vandalism of the burial site. This may be particularly the case with infamous or notorious figures. In other cases, it may be to prevent the grave from becoming a tourist attraction or a destination of pilgrimage. Survivors may cause the deceased to be buried in a secret location or other unpublished place, or in a grave with a false name (or no name at all) on the marker.
When Walt Disney was cremated his ashes were buried in a secret location in Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery, California. Some burial sites at Forest Lawn, such as those of Humphrey Bogart, Mary Pickford and Michael Jackson, are secluded in private gated gardens or mausoleums with no public access. A number of tombs are also kept from the public eye. Forest Lawn's Court of Honor indicates that some of its crypts have plots which are reserved for individuals who may be "voted in" as "Immortals"; no amount of money can purchase a place. Photographs taken at Forest Lawn are not permitted to be published, and their information office usually refuses to reveal exactly where the remains of famous people are buried.
Multiple bodies per grave
Some couples or groups of people (such as a married couple or other family members) may wish to be buried in the same plot. In some cases, the coffins (or urns) may simply be buried side by side. In others, one casket may be interred above another. If this is planned for in advance, the first casket may be buried more deeply than is the usual practice so that the second casket may be placed over it without disturbing the first. In many states in Australia all graves are designated two or three depth (depending on the water table) for multiple burials, at the discretion of the burial rights holder, with each new interment atop the previous coffin separated by a thin layer of earth. As such all graves are dug to greater depth for the initial burial than the traditional six feet to facilitate this practice.
Mass burial is the practice of burying multiple bodies in one location. Civilizations attempting genocide often employ mass burial for victims. However, mass burial may in many cases be the only practical means of dealing with an overwhelming number of human remains, such as those resulting from a natural disaster, an act of terrorism, an epidemic, or an accident. This practice has become less common in the developed world with the advent of genetic testing, but even in the 21st century remains which are unidentifiable by current methods may be buried in a mass grave.
Individuals who are buried at the expense of the local authorities and buried in potter's fields may be buried in mass graves. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was once believed to have been buried in such a manner, but today it is known that such burials were never allowed in Mozart's Vienna whose Magistrate refused to agree to the burial regulations decreed by Joseph II. In some cases, the remains of unidentified individuals may be buried in mass graves in potter's fields, making exhumation and future identification troublesome for law enforcement.
Naval ships sunk in combat are also considered mass graves by many countries. For example, U.S. Navy policy declares such wrecks a mass grave (such as the USS Arizona Memorial) and forbids the recovery of remains. In lieu of recovery, divers or submersibles may leave a plaque dedicated to the memory of the ship or boat and its crew, and family members are invited to attend the ceremony.
Sites of large former battlefields may also contain one or more mass graves. Douaumont ossuary is one such mass grave, and it contains the remains of 130,000 soldiers from both sides of the Battle of Verdun.
Catacombs also constitute a form of mass grave. Some catacombs, for example those in Rome, were designated as a communal burial place. Some, such as the catacombs of Paris, only became a mass grave when individual burials were relocated from cemeteries marked for demolition.
Judaism does not generally allow multiple bodies in a grave. An exception to this is a grave in the military cemetery in Jerusalem, where there is a kever achim (Hebrew, "grave of brothers") where two soldiers were killed together in a tank and are buried in one grave. As the bodies were so fused together with the metal of the tank that they could not be separately identified, they were buried in one grave (along with parts of the tank).
Cremation
There are several common alternatives to burial. In cremation the body of the deceased is burned in a special oven. Most of the body is burnt during the cremation process, leaving only a few pounds of bone fragments. Bodies of small children and infants often produce very little in the way of "ashes", as ashes are composed of bone, and young people have softer bones, largely cartilage. Often these fragments are processed (ground) into a fine powder, which has led to cremated remains being called ashes. In recent times, cremation has become a popular option in the western world.
There is far greater flexibility in dealing with the remains in cremation as opposed to the traditional burial. Some of the options include scattering the ashes at a place that was loved by the deceased or keeping the ashes at home. Ashes can also be buried underground or in a columbarium niche.
A method with similar benefits is freeze-drying the corpse.
Live burial
Sometimes people are buried alive. Having no way of escaping interment, they die in place, typically by asphyxiation, dehydration, starvation, or exposure to climate. People may come to be buried alive in a number of different ways;
Intentional: buried alive as a method of execution or murder, called immurement when the person is entombed within walls. In ancient Rome, Vestal Virgins who broke their vows were punished in this way.
Accidental: A person or group of people in a cave, mine, or other underground area may be sealed underground by an earthquake, cave in, avalanche or other natural disaster or accident.
Inadvertent: People have been buried alive because they were mistakenly pronounced dead by a coroner or other official.
Edgar Allan Poe wrote a number of stories and poems about premature burial, including a story called "The Premature Burial". These works inspired a widespread popular fear of this appalling but unlikely event. Various expedients have been devised to prevent it, including burying telephones or sensors in graves.
Burial at cross-roads
Historically, burial at cross-roads was the method of disposing of executed criminals and suicides. In Great Britain this tradition was altered by the Burial of Suicide Act 1823, which abolished the legal requirements of burying suicides and other people at crossroads. Cross-roads form a crude cross shape and this may have given rise to the belief that these spots were selected as the next best burying-places to consecrated ground. Another possible explanation is that the ancient Teutonic (Germanic) ethnic groups often built their altars at the cross-roads, and since human sacrifices, especially of criminals, formed part of the ritual, these spots came to be regarded as execution grounds. Hence after the introduction of Christianity, criminals and suicides were buried at the cross-roads during the night, to assimilate as far as possible their funeral to that of the pagans. An example of a cross-road execution-ground was the famous Tyburn in London, which stood on the spot where the Roman road to Edgware and beyond met the Roman road heading west out of London.
Superstition also played a part in the selection of crossroads in the burial of suicides. Folk belief often held such individuals could rise as some form of undead (such as a vampire) and burying them at crossroads would inhibit their ability to find and wreak havoc on their living relations and former associates.
Burial of animals
By humans
In addition to burying human remains, many human cultures also regularly bury animal remains.
Pets and other animals of emotional significance are often ceremonially buried. Most families bury deceased pets on their own properties, mainly in a yard, with a shoe box or any other type of container served as a coffin. The ancient Egyptians are known to have mummified and buried cats, which they considered deities.
By other animals
Humans are not always the only species to bury their dead. Chimpanzees and elephants are known to throw leaves and branches over fallen members of their family groups. In a particularly odd case, an elephant which trampled a human mother and child buried its victims under a pile of leaves before disappearing into the bushes. In 2013, a viral video caught a dog burying a dead puppy by pushing sand with its own nose. It is presumed, however, that since dogs retain the instinct to bury food, this is what is being depicted in the video. In social insects, ants and termites also bury their dead nestmates depending on the properties of the corpse and the social context.
Exhumation
Exhumation, or disinterment, is the act of digging up, especially a corpse. This is most often done to relocate a body to a different burial spot. Families may make this decision to locate the deceased in a more pertinent or convenient place. In shared family burial sites (e.g. a married couple), if the previously deceased person has been buried for an insufficient period of time the second body may be buried elsewhere until it is safe to relocate it to the requested grave. In most jurisdictions a legal exhumation usually requires a court order or permission by the next of kin of the deceased. Also in many countries permits are required by some governing agency to legally conduct a disinterment.
Exhumation of human remains occur for a number of reasons unrelated to the burial location, including identification of the deceased or as part of a criminal investigation. If an individual dies in suspicious circumstances, the police may request exhumation to determine the cause of death. Exhumations may also occur as part of grave robbing, or as an act of desecration to show disrespect. In rare, historical cases (e.g. Pope Formosus or Oliver Cromwell), a body may be exhumed for posthumous execution, dissection, or gibbeting. Notable individuals may be exhumed to answer historical questions. Many Ancient Egyptian mummies have been removed for study and public display. Exhumation enables archaeologists to search the remains to better understand human culture.
In folklore and mythology, exhumation has also been frequently associated with the performance of rites to banish undead manifestations. An example is the Mercy Brown Vampire Incident of Rhode Island, which occurred in 1892.
Changing burial location
Remains may be exhumed for reinterment at a more appropriate location for various reasons.
The passing of time may mean political situations change and a burial can take place in different circumstances. Roger Casement was executed at Pentonville Prison in London on 3 August 1916 and buried in the prison grounds but his body was exhumed and given a state funeral in Dublin on 1 March 1965.
Deceased individuals who were either not identified or misidentified at the time of burial may be reburied if survivors so wish. For example, when the remains of MIA soldiers are discovered, or the case of Nicholas II of Russia and his family, who were exhumed from unmarked graves near Yekaterinburg to be reinterred in the Peter and Paul Fortress in St. Petersburg.
Cemeteries sometimes have a limited number of plots in which to bury the dead. Once all plots are full, older remains may be moved to an ossuary to accommodate more bodies, in accordance with burial contracts, religious and local burial laws. In Hong Kong where real estate is at a premium, burials in government-run cemeteries are disinterred after six years under exhumation order. Remains are either collected privately for cremation or reburied in an urn or niche. Unclaimed burials are exhumed and cremated by the government. Permanent burial in privately run cemeteries is allowed. In Singapore, cremation is preferred by most Singaporeans because burials in Singapore is limited to 15 years. After 15 years, Singaporean graves will be exhumed and the remains will either be cremated or re-interred.
Remains may be exhumed and reburied en masse when a cemetery is relocated, once local planning and religious requirements are met. It also enables construction agencies to clear the way for new constructions. One example of this is cemeteries in Chicago next to O'Hare International Airport to expand the runways. The remains of the Venerable or the Blessed are sometimes exhumed to ensure their bodies lie in their correctly marked graves, as their gravesites usually become places for devotees to gather, and also to collect relics. The bodies may also be transferred to a more dignified place. It also serves the purpose to see if they are supernaturally Incorrupt. An incorrupt corpse is no longer considered miraculous, but it is a characteristic of several known saints. Exhumation is no longer a requirement in the beatification process, but still may be carried out.
For ethical and cultural reasons, repatriation and reburial of human remains may be carried out when museums and academic institutions return remains to their place of origin.
Cultural aspects of exhumation
Frequently, cultures have different sets of exhumation taboos. Occasionally these differences result in conflict, especially in cases where a culture with more lenient exhumation rules wishes to operate on the territory of a different culture. For example, United States construction companies have run into conflict with Native American groups that have wanted to preserve their burial grounds from disturbance.
In Southern Chinese culture, graves are opened after a period of years. The bones are removed, cleaned, dried, and placed in a ceramic pot for reburial (in Taiwan), or in a smaller coffin and to be reburied in another location (in Vietnam). The practice is called jiǎngǔ(撿骨) in Taiwan, or Bốc mộ(卜墓) in Vietnam "digging up bones" and is an important ritual in the posthumous "care" of children for their deceased parents and ancestors.
Jewish law forbids the exhumation of a corpse.
In England and Wales once the top of a coffin has been lowered below ground level in a burial if it is raised again, say for example the grave sides are protruding and need further work, this is considered an exhumation and the Home Office are required to be notified and a full investigation undertaken. Therefore, grave diggers in England and Wales are particularly careful to ensure that grave sites are dug with plenty of room for the coffin to pass.
Reinterment
Reinterment refers to the reburial of a corpse.
Secondary burial
Secondary burial is a burial, cremation, or inhumation that is dug into a pre-existing barrow or grave any time after its initial construction. It is often associated with the belief that there is a liminal phase between the time that a person dies and finally decays.
Alternatives to burial
Alternatives to burial variously show respect for the dead, accelerate decomposition and disposal, or prolong display of the remains.
Burial at sea is the practice of depositing the body or scattering its ashes in an ocean or other large body of water instead of soil. The body may be disposed in a coffin, or without one.
Funerary cannibalism is the practice of eating the remains. This may be done for many reasons: for example to partake of their strength, to spiritually "close the circle" by reabsorbing their life into the family or clan, to annihilate an enemy, or due to pathological mental conditions. The Yanomami have the practice of cremating the remains and then eating the ashes with banana paste.
Cremation is the incineration of the remains. This practice is common amongst Hindus and is becoming increasingly common in other cultures as well. If a family member wishes, the ashes can now be turned into a gem, similar to creating synthetic diamonds.
Whether cryonics constitutes a method of interment, rather than a form of medical treatment, remains under debate. See also information-theoretic death and clinical death.
Excarnation is the practice of removing the flesh from the corpse without interment. The Zoroastrians have traditionally left their dead on Towers of Silence, where the flesh of the corpses is left to be devoured by vultures and other carrion-eating birds. Alternatively, it can also mean butchering the corpse by hand to remove the flesh (also referred to as "defleshing").
Gibbeting was the semi-ancient practice of publicly displaying remains of criminals.
Hanging coffins are coffins placed on cliffs, found in various locations, including China and the Philippines.
Ossuaries were used for interring human skeletal remains by Second Temple Jews and early Christians.
Promession is a method of freeze drying human remains before burial to increase the rate of decomposition.
Resomation accelerates disposal through the process of alkaline hydrolysis.
Sky burial places the body on a mountaintop, where it decomposes in the elements or is scavenged by carrion eaters, particularly vultures.
Adapting traditions
Burial
As the human population progresses, cultures and traditions change with it. Evolution is generally slow, sometimes more rapid. South Korea's funeral arrangements have drastically changed in the course of only two decades according to Chang-Won Park. Around the 1980s at home funeral ceremonies were the general norm, straying away from anywhere that was not a family home. Dying close to home, with friends and family, was considered a ‘good death’, while dying away from home was considered a ‘bad death’. This gradually changed as the upper and middle class started holding funerals in the mortuaries of hospitals. This posed an issue for hospitals because of the rapid increase in funerals being held and maxing occupancy. This quickly resolved when a law was passed to allow the civilian population holding funerals in the mortuaries of hospitals. The lower class quickly followed suit, copying the newly set traditions of the upper classes. With this change, cremation also practice more as an alternative to traditional burials. Cremation was first introduced by Buddhism, and was quickly banned in 1470. It wasn't until the Japanese colonization period that cremation was re-introduced in 1945 and later on lifted the ban. It took until 1998 for cremation to rapidly grow in popularity.
Funeral ceremonies
According to Margaret Holloway, funerals are believed to be driven by the consumer's choice, personalisation, secularization, and stories that place individual traditional meta-narratives. It has been studied that funeral homes in the United Kingdom are most concerned with comforting the grieving, rather than focusing on the departed. This study found that modern day funerals focus on the psycho-social-spiritual event. Modern day funerals also help the transition of the recently passed transitioning to the social status of 'the deceased'. The article found that funeral homes do not adhere to traditional religious beliefs, but do follow religious traditions.
See also
Bed burial
Burial Act 1857 (A United Kingdom law about exhumation)
Burial mound
Cremation
Corpse road
Funeral
Green burial
Health risks from dead bodies
Museum of Funeral Customs
State funeral
Superburial
Thanatology
Tower of Silence
Sky burial
Premature burial
Immurement
Notes and references
External links
Video depicting the exhumation of missing German soldiers killed in 1944 from a mass grave
Death customs
Archaeological features
th:งานศพ | wiki |
Raymond E. Curtis Field is a baseball park located in Weatherford, TX. It is the home of the Weatherford High School Kangaroos baseball team.
References
External links
Weatherford ISD
Baseball venues in Texas | wiki |
Umm an Nasan island () is the fifth largest island in Bahrain.
It is west of the capital, Manama, on Bahrain Island.
Description
Umm an Nasan is privately owned by Prime Minister Khalifa bin Salman Al Khalifa, and is off limits to ordinary citizens.
There is little development on the island other than three palaces for the King and some gardens. There is also a small population of black buck introduced to the island.
The small Umm an Nasan village is located on the west coast, and has some nomadic families which care for the deer and gazelles of the island.
Geography
Umm an Nasan lies in the Gulf of Bahrain in Persian Gulf to the west of Bahrain Island, and to the east of the Saudi coastal city of Khobar.
Administration
The island belongs to Northern Governorate.
North Palace
Southwest Palace
Palace at the Sea
Umm an Nasan village
Security village
Transportation
Umm an Nasan is connected to Bahrain Island and to Khobar, Saudi Arabia through the King Fahd Causeway.
Umm an Nasan is connected to Jidda Island through the Jidda Causeway.
Image gallery
References
Article about politics of the island, Abbas al Murshid
Populated places in the Northern Governorate, Bahrain
Islands of Bahrain
Islands of the Persian Gulf | wiki |
Alliance település az Amerikai Egyesült Államok Nebraska államában, .
Népesség
A település népességének változása:
További információk
Jegyzetek
Nebraska megyeszékhelyei | wiki |
Produktionsbolag kan syfta på:
TV-produktionsbolag – ett bolag inriktat på att producera TV-program, inslag, musikvideor och annat material för television
Filmproduktionsbolag – ett bolag som att framställa spel- eller animerad film | wiki |
This is a list of personal air vehicles.
PAVs competing in PAV Challenge
Other PAVs
References
Comparison
Personal air vehicle comparison
Aviation-related lists
Ultralight aircraft
Ultralight aviation | wiki |
Company of Heroes 2 is a real-time strategy video game developed by Relic Entertainment and published by Sega for Microsoft Windows, OS X, and Linux. It is the sequel to the 2006 game Company of Heroes. As with the original Company of Heroes, the game is set in World War II but with the focus on the Eastern Front, with players primarily controlling the side of the Soviet Red Army during various stages of the Eastern Front, from Operation Barbarossa to the Battle of Berlin. Company of Heroes 2 runs on Relic Entertainment's proprietary Essence 3.0 game engine.
In January 2013, Sega acquired Relic Entertainment and along with it the Company of Heroes intellectual property from THQ. The game was released on June 25 in North America and Europe.
A sequel, Company of Heroes 3, was released in February 2023.
Gameplay
Resources
The resource-generation system from the first game has been modified. Players will still capture specific flagged points all over the map to collect munitions and fuel credits, which will be invested in assembling their units. Most armies can construct caches to increase the fuel or munitions income from these points, though some points produce a higher income of one material but cannot have caches built on them. Instead of the soldier units actually gathering at the flagged point itself, capturing the point is possible if the player's units are inside a specific zone with no enemy units in the same zone. The accumulation of these resources and the size of the player's army can be much faster if players capture various flagged points all over the map. In order for a player to receive the benefits of a captured flagged point, it must be part of a continuous area of captured territory, thus allowing an unbroken chain ("supply line") connected to the headquarters. Thus, the resource intake will be curtailed if the opposing side captures territory that isolates ("cuts off") owned points from other allied sections in the map. Manpower is used to build common units, and the amount will decrease the larger a player's army grows.
Buildings
Units can occupy a civilian building and use it as a temporary strongpoint. However, the occupants can be flushed out through attacks by artillery or soldiers using flamethrowers and grenades. The building-damage system from Company of Heroes is retained and enhanced; wooden buildings set afire will continue burning until they are reduced to cinders. Furthermore, buildings can be damaged by tanks and light vehicles driving into them.
The Soviets' main structure is the Regimental Field Headquarters, which is used to produce conscripts and field engineers. The Special Rifle Command, Support Weapon Kampaneya, Mechanized Armor Kampaneya, and the Tankoviy Battalion Command are the respective Soviet equivalents of the original game's barracks, weapons support center, vehicle center, and tank hall. A field hospital can help treat seriously injured soldiers. The Wehrmacht's main structure is the Kampfgruppe Headquarters, which is used to produce pioneers and MG42 Heavy Machine Gun teams and to upgrade battle phases to allow for more advanced units and structures.
Combat mechanics
Combat includes controllable units that are recruited and ordered directly by the player (through the user interface at player-controlled buildings, or through a doctrine ability), as well as activated support actions, such as artillery bombardment or air cover suppression. Every controllable unit type, whether infantry or vehicle, has an associated construction cost and recruitment time, as well as a range of fighting abilities. Vehicles and infantry can eventually be upgraded by purchasing specific capabilities.
Upgrades generally improve the unit's effectiveness. Some upgrades are global, granting immediate benefits to all deployed units, while others must be purchased on a unit-by-unit basis.
Most combat takes place through direct, line-of-sight engagements. As with the original Company of Heroes, colored dots will show locations that provide varying degrees of cover for soldiers and support units. Soldiers can also climb over low terrain obstacles such as fences and walls while vehicles, depending on their type, can simply smash through obstacles. Occasionally if a vehicle takes too much damage, it will be abandoned rather than destroyed; the crew is killed but the vehicle remains mostly intact. Abandoned vehicles can be repaired by engineer units and recovered or captured by sending an infantry squad of sufficient size to crew it, or they could be destroyed by collateral fire to deny them to the enemy.
The game also offers the player a chance to complete side quests in a mission, which are denoted by an inverted triangle icon.
TrueSight
The game's Essence 3.0 engine introduces a new line-of-sight feature called the TrueSight system, which aims to better emulate troop visibility in real combat. In contrast to overhead visibility seen in other strategy games, TrueSight more accurately represents a unit's visibility range based on environmental conditions and type of unit.
Weather
Weather conditions are a major factor in Company of Heroes 2s gameplay, under the new ColdTech weather-simulation system. Since many battles in the Eastern Front occurred in winter weather, troops can die of frostbite if caught in the outside during severe weather, especially when pinned by enemy fire; a thermometer-shaped bar to the left side of the unit icon denotes a soldier's body temperature. The soldiers can recover their body heat if they are close to a bonfire or have found a building to shelter in, though soldiers in cover outside will not lose or gain body heat. Players moving through deep snow will move at a reduced speed unless they are on a road; their footprints are also visible to the enemy. Certain maps have frozen bodies of water, allowing for more movement options. However, players face the danger of being attacked from the other side; as a result, the ice can buckle under the weight of the units in movement or shattered by explosions.
Theatre of War
The game introduces the "Theatre of War", a series of single-player and cooperative missions detailing various aspects of the Eastern Front campaign from both German and Soviet sides. Eighteen missions set in 1941 will be part of the game upon release with the missions from 1942 onward available as downloadable content. The first of these offerings is Case Blue, a package only free to pre-ordered copies and Red Star editions of the game, featuring the Axis forces during the Fall Blau campaign on the Eastern Front. Later releases include Victory at Stalingrad, taking place around the city of Stalingrad during 1942, and Southern Fronts, focusing on events surrounding the spring rasputitsa in 1943.
Order 227
Company of Heroes 2s campaign attempts to tackle Joseph Stalin's Order No. 227, which prohibits retreating except under the direction of senior officers. Starting from the fifth mission set in Stalingrad, Order 227 will be in effect if the player deploys Fresh Conscripts, Frontovik Squads, or Penal Battalions. A time bar appears on the left side of the map display; for that duration, players must not have their soldiers go into full retreat back to headquarters or else said soldiers will be executed for doing so.
Plot
In a Siberian gulag in 1952, NKVD Colonel Churkin interrogates his former subordinate officer, Lieutenant Lev Abramovich Isakovich, about his journal detailing his experiences during the Great Patriotic War. Throughout, Churkin questions Isakovich's commitment to the Soviet cause, while Isakovich bemoans Churkin's ease with sacrificing Soviet lives.
Isakovich recalls his first meeting with Churkin at the outset of Operation Barbarossa, employing scorched earth tactics to hold back the German advance on Moscow, leading a counterattack at Mtsensk and skirmishing with German troops through the harsh winter. Isakovich's unit is redeployed to Stalingrad, where he holds that the only thing driving the Soviets was Order 227. Near the end of the battle, his men abandon the line to rescue Isakovich after he is trapped in a collapsed building. As punishment, the men are executed and Isakovich is reassigned as a war correspondent.
While recuperating from his injuries, Isakovich hears the story of the Siege of Leningrad and relief efforts in Operation Iskra. He then embeds with Soviet troops assaulting Orsha and Lublin, undercovering the Majdanek concentration camp. After reporting on the execution of Home Army partisans considered a threat to future Soviet rule in Poland, Isakovich is embedded to a penal battalion by Churkin. There, he witnesses the Battle of Poznań, the destruction of the German Ninth Army at the Battle of Halbe and ultimately the final Battle of Berlin.
Isakovich tries to defect to show the world the true nature of the Eastern Front but is captured and sent to the gulag. Having concluded the interrogation, Churkin kills a guard and allows Isakovich to escape with the journal; Churkin had discovered he was not to survive Joseph Stalin's next purge. As Isakovich escapes, Churkin commits suicide.
Development
THQ first announced the sequel to the acclaimed Company of Heroes in May 2012. THQ executive vice president of core games Danny Bilson noted that the publisher will continue working on Company of Heroes 2 following its launch next year.
On December 19, publisher THQ filed for bankruptcy just after postponing the release date of the video game. The following month, on January 23, THQ had sold Relic Entertainment to Sega for as part of an auction of the company's properties in result of the bankruptcy.
Company of Heroes 2 takes advantage of DirectX 11 but also supports DirectX 10. The game also utilizes Valve's Steamworks technology with matchmaking and achievements.
Company of Heroes 2 was released in North America and Europe on June 25, 2013.
Downloadable content
Relic has released downloadable content for the game after its release:
Commanders: This adds new abilities and units to a player's arsenal, which are available in skirmish and multiplayer matches. A player can choose up to 3 commanders of which he can choose one during a skirmish. This commander will then give access to 5 unique units/abilities. Some commanders have been given away for free at certain events by Relic.
Cosmetic Items: Vehicle skins allow to alter the camouflage pattern of certain vehicles and tanks and are a purely cosmetic change. Faceplates are another cosmetic change only visible in the main menu or loading screen when joining a multiplayer match.
Content Packs: With the release of the Western Front Armies DLC, the playable factions of the U.S Forces (USF) and Oberkommando West (OKW) are available. Relic had released The Western Front Armies and Ardennes Assault DLCs. Ardennes Assault added a new, non-linear campaign taking place in Belgium as the USF, pitting three playable companies against the OKW in various scenarios and skirmish maps with unique conditions. That expansion was praised for its new layer of strategy and uncompromising difficulty. The third expansion of the game, titled The British Forces, was released, adding the British as a playable faction in skirmish and multiplayer.
Reception
PC World gave the game three and a half out of five. PC Gamer rated the game at 80 concluding: "Company of Heroes 2 is the USSR of real-time strategy games: huge, powerful and just a little bit broken". IGN gave the game an 8.4: "More sequel-sized expansion than true successor, Company of Heroes 2 repeats many of the original Company of Heroes feats".
As of March 31, 2014, the game has sold 680,000 copies in Europe and North America.
Controversy
Relic has been criticized by critics and historians about accuracy of its portrayal of the Eastern Front in World War II. An article written for video game website Polygon by Colin Campbell reflecting on the subject stated that the "comments on forums and on Metacritic are testament to the strong feelings that the war still generates". In the same article, it cites the game's director Quinn Duffy who in regard to the creative direction of the first and second game felt that "the second game is painted on a broader canvas", whereas "in contrast, the first game focused on a small group of soldiers and did not seek to take a wider view".
Reception and criticism in Russia
In Russia and Post-Soviet states the game was found offensive by many users and critics for portraying the Red Army commanders as cruel, using their own soldiers in a cold-blooded way, exaggerating brutal war tactics. After the video made by the Russian blogger BadComedian (real name - Evgeny Bazhenov), thousands of people signed a Change.org petition demanding Steam to block the game in CIS countries.
Russian game publisher 1C-Softclub stopped distribution of the game on 26 July 2013 due to the strong negative feedback (notably a petition to stop the sale that was filed by the game players). Following the news, the game's publisher SEGA released a statement that they were "taking this issue very seriously and are investigating these concerns thoroughly with all relevant partners".
References
External links
2013 video games
Company of Heroes
Linux games
MacOS games
Multiplayer and single-player video games
Real-time strategy video games
Relic Entertainment games
Sega video games
Video games with Steam Workshop support
Video game sequels
Video games scored by Cris Velasco
Video games developed in Canada
Video games set in Belarus
Video games set in Belgium
Video games set in Berlin
Video games set in France
Video games set in Germany
Video games set in Poland
Video games set in Russia
Video games set in the Soviet Union
Video games set in Ukraine
Video games set in 1941
Video games set in 1942
Video games set in 1943
Video games set in 1944
Video games set in 1945
Video games set in 1952
Windows games
World War II video games
Feral Interactive games | wiki |
On February 1, 2003, Space Shuttle Columbia disintegrated as it reentered the atmosphere over Texas and Louisiana, killing all seven astronauts on board. It was the second Space Shuttle mission to end in disaster, after the loss of Challenger and crew in 1986.
The mission, designated STS-107, was the twenty-eighth flight for the orbiter, the 113th flight of the Space Shuttle fleet and the 88th after the Challenger disaster. It was dedicated to research in various fields, mainly on board a module inside the shuttle. During launch, a piece of the insulating foam broke off from the Space Shuttle external tank and struck the thermal protection system tiles on the orbiter's left wing. Similar foam shedding had occurred during previous Space Shuttle launches, causing damage that ranged from minor to near-catastrophic, but some engineers suspected that the damage to Columbia was more serious. Before reentry, NASA managers had limited the investigation, reasoning that the crew could not have fixed the problem if it had been confirmed. When Columbia reentered the atmosphere of Earth, the damage allowed hot atmospheric gases to penetrate the heat shield and destroy the internal wing structure, which caused the orbiter to become unstable and break apart.
After the disaster, Space Shuttle flight operations were suspended for more than two years, as they had been after the Challenger disaster. Construction of the International Space Station (ISS) was paused until flights resumed in July2005 with STS-114. NASA made several technical and organizational changes to subsequent missions, including adding an on-orbit inspection to determine how well the orbiter's thermal protection system (TPS) had endured the ascent, and keeping designated rescue missions ready in case irreparable damage was found. Except for one mission to repair the Hubble Space Telescope, subsequent Space Shuttle missions were flown only to the ISS to allow the crew to use it as a haven if damage to the orbiter prevented safe reentry; the remaining orbiters were retired after the ISS was finished.
Background
Space Shuttle
The Space Shuttle was a partially reusable spacecraft operated by the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). It flew in space for the first time in April1981, and was used to conduct in-orbit research, and deploy commercial, military, and scientific payloads. At launch, it consisted of the orbiter, which contained the crew and payload, the external tank (ET), and the two solid rocket boosters (SRBs). The orbiter was a reusable, winged vehicle that launched vertically and landed as a glider. Five operational orbiters were built during the Space Shuttle program. was the first space-rated orbiter constructed, following atmospheric test vehicle . The orbiter contained the crew compartment, where the crew predominantly lived and worked throughout a mission. Three Space Shuttle main engines (SSMEs) were mounted at the aft end of the orbiter and provided thrust during launch. Once in space, the crew maneuvered using the two smaller, aft-mounted Orbital Maneuvering System (OMS) engines.
The orbiter was protected from heat during reentry by the thermal protection system (TPS), a thermal soaking protective layer around the orbiter. In contrast with previous US spacecraft, which had used ablative heat shields, the reusability of the orbiter required a multi-use heat shield. During reentry, the TPS experienced temperatures up to , but had to keep the orbiter vehicle's aluminum skin temperature below . The TPS primarily consisted of four sub-systems. The nose cone and leading edges of the wings experienced temperatures above , and were protected by reinforced carbon-carbon material (RCC). Thicker RCC was developed and installed in 1998 to prevent damage from micrometeoroid and orbital debris. The entire underside of the orbiter vehicle, as well as the other hottest surfaces, were protected with black high-temperature reusable surface insulation. Areas on the upper parts of the orbiter vehicle were covered with white low-temperature reusable surface insulation, which provided protection at temperatures below . The payload bay doors and parts of the upper wing surfaces were covered with reusable felt surface insulation, as the temperature there remained below .
Two solid rocket boosters (SRBs) were connected to the ET, and burned for the first two minutes of flight. The SRBs separated from the ET once they had expended their fuel and fell into the Atlantic Ocean under a parachute. NASA retrieval teams recovered the SRBs and returned them to the Kennedy Space Center, where they were disassembled and their components were reused on future flights.
When the Space Shuttle launched, the orbiter and SRBs were connected to the ET, which held the fuel for the SSMEs. The ET consisted of a tank for liquid hydrogen (LH2), stored at and a smaller tank for liquid oxygen (LOX), stored at . It was covered in insulating foam to keep the liquids cold and prevent ice forming on the tank's exterior. The orbiter connected to the ET via two umbilicals near its bottom and a bipod near its top section.
After its fuel had been expended, the ET separated from the orbiter and reentered the atmosphere, where it would break apart during reentry and its pieces would land in the Indian or Pacific Ocean.
Debris strike concerns
During the design process of the Space Shuttle, a requirement of the ET was that it would not release any debris that could potentially damage the orbiter and its TPS. The integrity of the TPS components was necessary for the survival of the crew during reentry, and the tiles and panels were only built to withstand relatively minor impacts. On STS-1, the first flight of the Space Shuttle, the orbiter Columbia was damaged during its launch from a foam strike. Foam strikes occurred regularly during Space Shuttle launches; of the 79 missions with available imagery during launch, foam strikes occurred on 65 of them.
The bipod connected the ET near the top to the front underside of the orbiter via two struts with a ramp at the tank end of each strut; the ramps were covered in foam to prevent ice from forming that could damage the orbiter. The foam on each bipod ramp was approximately , and was carved by hand from the original foam application. Bipod ramp foam from the left strut had been observed falling off the ET on six flights prior to STS-107, and had created some of the largest foam strikes that the orbiter experienced. The first bipod ramp foam strike occurred during STS-7; the orbiter's TPS was repaired after the mission but no changes were made to address the cause of the bipod foam loss. After bipod foam loss on STS-32, NASA engineers, under the assumption that the foam loss was due to pressure buildup within the insulation, added vent holes to the foam to allow gas to escape. After a bipod foam strike damaged the TPS on STS-50, internal NASA investigations concluded it was an "accepted flight risk" and that it should not be treated as a flight safety issue. Bipod foam loss occurred on STS-52 and STS-62, but neither event was noticed until the investigation following Columbia'''s destruction.
During STS-112, which flew in October 2002, a chunk of bipod ramp foam broke away from the ET bipod ramp and hit the SRB-ET attachment ring near the bottom of the left SRB, creating a dent wide and deep. Following the mission, the Program Requirements Control Board declined to categorize the bipod ramp foam loss as an in-flight anomaly. The foam loss was briefed at the STS-113 Flight Readiness Brief, but the Program Requirements Control Board decided that the ET was safe to fly.
A debris strike from the ablative material on the right SRB caused significant damage to during the STS-27 launch on December 2, 1988. On the second day of the flight the crew inspected the damage using a camera on the remote manipulator system. The debris strike removed a tile; the exposed orbiter skin was a reinforced section, and a burn-through might have occurred had the damage been in a different location. After the mission, the NASA Program Requirements Control Board designated the issue as an in-flight anomaly that was corrected with the planned improvement for the SRB ablator.
Flight
Space Shuttle mission
For STS-107, Columbia carried the SpaceHab Research Double Module, the Orbital Acceleration Research Experiment, and an Extended Duration Orbiter pallet. The mission passed its pre-launch certifications and reviews, and began with the launch. The mission was originally scheduled to launch on January 11, 2001, but it was delayed thirteen times, until its launch on January 16, 2003.
The seven-member crew of STS-107 were selected in July 2000. The mission was commanded by Rick Husband, who was a colonel in the U.S. Air Force and a test pilot. He had previously flown on STS-96. The mission's pilot was William McCool, a U.S. Navy commander who was on his first spaceflight. The payload commander was Michael Anderson, a U.S. Air Force lieutenant colonel who had previously flown on STS-89. Kalpana Chawla served as the flight engineer; she had previously flown on STS-87. David Brown and Laurel Clark, both Navy captains, flew as the mission specialists on their first spaceflights. Ilan Ramon, a colonel in the Israeli Air Force and the first Israeli astronaut, flew as a payload specialist.
Launch and debris strike Columbia launched from the Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A (LC-39A) at 10:39:00am. At T+81.7seconds, a piece of foam approximately long and wide broke off from the left bipod on the ET. At T+81.9seconds, the foam struck the reinforced carbon-carbon (RCC) panels on Columbias left wing at relative velocity of . The foam's low ballistic coefficient caused it to lose speed immediately after separating from the ET, and the orbiter ran into the slower foam. The mission or ground crew did not notice the debris strike at the time. The SRBs separated from the ET at T+2minutes and 7seconds, followed by the ET's separation from the orbiter at T+8minutes 30seconds. The ET separation was photographed by Anderson and recorded by Brown, but they did not record the bipod with missing foam. At T+43minutes, Columbia completed its orbital insertion as planned.
Flight risk management
After Columbia entered orbit, the NASA Intercenter Photo Working Group conducted a routine review of videos of the launch. The group's analysts did not notice the debris strike until the second day of the mission. None of the cameras that recorded the launch had a clear view of the debris striking the wing, leaving the group unable to determine the level of damage sustained by the orbiter. The group's chair contacted Wayne Hale, the Shuttle Program Manager for Launch Integration, to request on-orbit pictures of Columbias wing to assess its damage. After receiving notification of the debris strike, engineers at NASA, United Space Alliance, and Boeing created the Debris Assessment Team and began working to determine the damage to the orbiter. Intercenter Photo Working Group believed that the orbiter's RCC tiles were possibly damaged; NASA program managers were less concerned over the danger caused by the debris strike.
Boeing analysts attempted to model the damage caused to the orbiter's TPS from the foam strike. The software models predicted damage that was deeper than the thickness of the TPS tiles, indicating that the orbiter's aluminum skin would be unprotected in that area. The Debris Assessment Team dismissed this conclusion as inaccurate, due to previous instances of predictions of damage greater than the actual damage. Further modeling specific to the RCC panels used software calibrated to predict damage caused by falling ice. The software predicted only one of 15 scenarios that ice would cause damage, leading the Debris Assessment Team to conclude there was minimal damage due to the lower density of foam to ice.
To assess the possible damage to Columbias wing, members of the Debris Assessment Team made multiple requests to get imagery of the orbiter from the Department of Defense (DoD). Imagery requests were channeled through both the DoD Manned Space Flight Support Office and the Johnson Space Center Engineering Directorate. Hale coordinated the request through a DoD representative at KSC. The request was relayed to the U.S. Strategic Command (USSTRATCOM), which began identifying imaging assets that could observe the orbiter. The imagery request was soon rescinded by NASA Mission Management Team Chair Linda Ham after she investigated the origin of it. She had consulted with Flight Director Phil Engelauf and members of the Mission Management Team, who stated that they did not have a requirement for imagery of Columbia. Ham did not consult with the Debris Assessment Team, and cancelled the imagery request on the basis that it had not been made through official channels. Maneuvering the orbiter to allow its left wing to be imaged would have interrupted ongoing science operations, and Ham dismissed the DoD imaging capabilities as insufficient to assess damage to the orbiter. Following the rejection of their imagery request, the Debris Assessment Team did not make further requests for the orbiter to be imaged.
Throughout the flight, members of the Mission Management Team were less concerned than the Debris Assessment Team about the potential risk of a debris strike. The loss of bipod foam on STS-107 was compared to previous foam strike events, none of which caused the loss of an orbiter or crew. Ham, scheduled to work as an integration manager for STS-114, was concerned with the potential delays from a foam loss event. Mission management also downplayed the risk of the debris strike in communications with the crew. On January 23, flight director Steve Stich sent an e-mail to Husband and McCool to tell them about the foam strike and inform them there was no cause for concern about damage to the TPS, as foam strikes had occurred on previous flights.
The crew were also sent a fifteen-second video of the debris strike in preparation for a press conference, but were reassured that there were no safety concerns.
On January 26, the Debris Assessment Team concluded that there were no safety concerns from the debris strike. The team's report was critical of the Mission Management Team for asserting that there were no safety concerns before the Debris Assessment Team's investigation had been completed. On January 29, William Readdy, the Associate Administrator for Space Flight, agreed to DoD imaging of the orbiter, but on the condition that it would not interfere with flight operations; ultimately, the orbiter was not imaged by the DoD during the flight. At a Mission Management Team on January 31, the day before Columbia reentered the atmosphere, the Launch Integration Office voiced Ham's intention to review on-board footage to view the missing foam, but concerns of crew safety were not discussed.
Reentry Columbia was scheduled to reenter the atmosphere and land on February 1, 2003. At 3:30am EST the Entry Flight Control Team started its shift at the Mission Control Center. Onboard the orbiter, the crew stowed loose items and prepared their equipment for reentry.
At 45 minutes before the deorbit burn, Husband and McCool began working through the entry checklist. At 8:10am the Capsule Communicator (CAPCOM) informed the crew that they were approved to conduct the deorbit burn. At 8:15:30the crew successfully executed the deorbit burn, which lasted 2minutes and 38seconds. At 8:44:09Columbia reentered the atmosphere at an altitude of , a point named entry interface. The damage to the TPS on the orbiter's left wing allowed for hot air to enter and begin melting the aluminum structure. Four and a half minutes after entry interface, a sensor began recording greater-than-normal amounts of strain on the left wing; the sensor's data was recorded to internal storage and not transmitted to the crew or ground controllers. The orbiter began to turn (yaw) to the left as a result of the increased drag on the left wing, but this was not noticed by the crew or mission control because of corrections from the orbiter's flight control system. This was followed by sensors in the left wheel well reporting a rise in temperature.
At 8:53:46 am, Columbia crossed over the California coast; it was traveling at Mach23 at an altitude of , and the temperature of its wings' leading edges was estimated to be . Soon after it entered California airspace, the orbiter shed several pieces of debris, events observed on the ground as sudden increases in brightness of the air around the orbiter. The MMACS officer reported that the hydraulic sensors in the left wing had readings below the sensors' minimum detection thresholds at 8:54:24am. Columbia continued its reentry and traveled over Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas, where observers would report seeing signs of debris being shed.
At 8:58:03, the orbiter's aileron trim changed from the predicted values because of the increasing drag caused by the damage to the left wing. At 8:58:21, the orbiter shed a TPS tile that would later land in Littlefield, Texas; it would become the westernmost piece of recovered debris. The crew first received an indication of a problem at 8:58:39, when the Backup Flight Software monitor began displaying fault messages for a loss of pressure in the tires of the left landing gear. The pilot and commander then received indications that the status of the left landing gear was unknown, as different sensors reported the gear was down and locked or in the stowed position. The drag of the left wing continued to yaw the orbiter to the left until it could no longer be corrected using aileron trim. The orbiter's Reaction Control System (RCS) thrusters began firing continuously to correct its orientation.
The loss of signal (LOS) from Columbia occurred at 8:59:32. Mission control stopped receiving information from the orbiter at this time, and Husband's last radio call of "Roger, uh..." was cut off mid-transmission. One of the channels in the flight control software was bypassed as the result of a failed wire, and a Master Alarm began sounding on the flight deck. Loss of control of the orbiter is estimated to have begun several seconds later with a loss of hydraulic pressure and an uncontrolled pitch-up maneuver. The orbiter began flying along a ballistic trajectory, which was significantly steeper and had more drag than the previous gliding trajectory. The orbiter, while still traveling faster than Mach 15, entered into a flat spin of 30° to 40° per second. The acceleration that the crew was experiencing increased from approximately 0.8 g to 3g, which would have likely caused dizziness and disorientation, but not incapacitation. The autopilot was switched to manual control and reset to automatic mode at 9:00:03; this would have required the input of either Husband or McCool, indicating that they were still conscious and able to perform functions at the time. All hydraulic pressure was lost, and McCool's final switch configurations indicate that he had tried to restore the hydraulic systems at some time after 9:00:05.
At 9:00:18, the orbiter began a catastrophic breakup, and all on-board data recording soon ceased. Ground observers noted a sudden increase in debris being shed, and all on-board systems lost power. By 9:00:25, the orbiter's fore and aft sections had separated from one another. The sudden jerk caused the crew compartment to collide with the interior wall of the fuselage, resulting in a depressurization of the crew compartment by 9:00:35. The pieces of the orbiter continued to break apart into smaller pieces, and within a minute after breakup were too small to be detected by ground-based videos. By 9:35, all debris and crew remains were estimated to have impacted the ground.
The loss of signal occurred at a time when the Flight Control Team expected brief communication outages as the orbiter stopped communication via the west tracking and data relay satellite (TDRS). Personnel in Mission Control were unaware of the in-flight break up, and continued to try to reestablish contact with the orbiter. At approximately 9:06, when Columbia would be conducting its final maneuvers to land, a Mission Control member received a phone call that discussed news coverage of the orbiter breaking up. This information was passed onto the Entry Flight Director, LeRoy Cain, who initiated contingency procedures. At KSC, where Columbia was expected to land at 9:16, NASA Associate Administrator and former astronaut William Readdy also began contingency procedures after the orbiter did not land as scheduled.
Crew survivability
During reentry, all seven of the STS-107 crew members were killed, but the exact time of their deaths could not be determined. The level of acceleration that they experienced during crew module breakup was not lethal. The first lethal event the crew experienced was the depressurization of the crew module. The rate and exact time of depressurization could not be determined, but occurred no later than 9:00:59. The remains of the crew members indicated they all experienced depressurization. The astronauts' helmets have a visor that, when closed, can temporarily protect the crew member from depressurization. Some of the crew members had not closed their visors, and one was not wearing a helmet; this would indicate that depressurization occurred quickly before they could take protective measures.
During and after the breakup of the crew module, the crew, either unconscious or dead, experienced rotation on all three axes. The astronauts' shoulder harnesses were unable to prevent trauma to their upper bodies, as the inertia reel system failed to retract sufficiently to secure them, leaving them only restrained by their lap belts. The helmets were not conformal to the crew members' heads, allowing head injuries to occur inside of the helmet. The neck ring of the helmet may have also acted as a fulcrum that caused spine and neck injuries. The physical trauma to the astronauts, who could not brace to prevent such injuries, could have also resulted in their deaths.
The astronauts also likely suffered from significant thermal trauma. Hot gas entered the disintegrating crew module, burning the crew members, whose bodies were still somewhat protected by their ACES suits. Once the crew module fell apart, the astronauts were violently exposed to windblast and a possible shock wave, which stripped their suits from their bodies. The crews' remains were exposed to hot gas and molten metal as they fell away from the orbiter.
After separation from the crew module, the bodies of the crew members entered an environment with almost no oxygen, very low atmospheric pressure, and both high temperatures caused by deceleration, and extremely low ambient temperatures. Ultimately, their bodies impacted the ground with lethal levels of force.
Presidential response
At 14:04 EST (19:04 UTC), President George W. Bush said in a televised address to the nation, "My fellow Americans, this day has brought terrible news, and great sadness to our country. At 9:00 a.m. this morning, Mission Control in Houston lost contact with our Space Shuttle Columbia. A short time later, debris was seen falling from the skies above Texas. The Columbia is lost; there are no survivors."
Recovery of debris
After the orbiter broke up, reports came in to eastern Texas law enforcement offices of an explosion and falling debris. Astronauts Mark Kelly and Gregory Johnson traveled on a US Coast Guard helicopter from Houston to Nacogdoches, and Jim Wetherbee drove a team of astronauts to Lufkin to assist with recovery efforts. Debris was reported from east Texas through southern Louisiana. Recovery crews and local volunteers worked to locate and identify debris.
On the first day of the disaster searchers began finding remains of the astronauts. Within three days of the crash, some remains from every crew member had been recovered. These recoveries occurred along a line south of Hemphill, Texas, and west of the Toledo Bend Reservoir. The final body of a crew member was recovered on February 11. The crew remains were transported to the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology at Dover Air Force Base.
Immediately after the disaster, the Texas Army National Guard deployed 300 members to assist with security and recovery, and the Coast Guard Gulf Strike Team was assigned to help recover hazardous debris. Over the following days, the search grew to include hundreds of individuals from the Environmental Protection Agency, US Forestry Service, and Texas and Louisiana public safety organizations, as well as local volunteers. In the months after the disaster, the largest-ever organized ground search took place. NASA officials warned of the dangers of handling debris, as it could have been contaminated by propellants.
Soon after the accident some individuals attempted to sell Columbia debris on the internet, including on the online auction website eBay. Officials at NASA were critical of these efforts, as the debris was NASA property and was needed for the investigation. A three-day amnesty period was offered for recovered orbiter debris. During this time, about 20 individuals contacted NASA to return debris, which included debris from the Challenger disaster. After the end of the amnesty period, several individuals were arrested for illegal looting and possession of debris.Columbias flight data recorder was found near Hemphill, Texas, southeast of Nacogdoches, on March 19, 2003. Columbia was the first orbiter, and it had a unique flight data OEX (Orbiter EXperiments) recorder to record vehicle performance data during the test flights. The recorder was left in Columbia after the initial Shuttle test-flights were completed, and began recording information 15 minutes prior to reentry. The tape it recorded to was broken at the time of the crash, but information from the orbiter's sensors could have been recorded beforehand. Several days later, the tape was sent to the Imation Corporation for it to be inspected and cleaned. On March 25 the OEX's tape was sent to KSC, where it was copied and analyzed.
On March 27 a Bell 407 helicopter that was being used in the debris search crashed due to mechanical failure in the Angelina National Forest. The crash killed the pilot, Jules F. Mier Jr., and a Texas Forest Service aviation specialist, Charles Krenek, and injured three other crew members.
A group of Caenorhabditis elegans worms, enclosed in aluminum canisters, survived reentry and impact with the ground and were recovered weeks after the disaster. The culture, which was part of an experiment to research their growth while consuming synthetic nutrients, was found to be alive on April 28, 2003.
NASA management selected the Reusable Launch Vehicle hangar at KSC to reconstruct recovered Columbia debris. NASA Launch Director Michael Leinbach led the reconstruction team, which was staffed by Columbia engineers and technicians. Debris was laid out on the floor of the hangar in the shape of the orbiter to allow investigators to look for patterns in the damage that indicated the cause of the disaster. Astronaut Pamela Melroy was assigned to oversee the six-person team reconstructing the crew compartment, which included fellow astronaut Marsha Ivins.
Recovered debris was shipped from the field to KSC, where it was unloaded and checked to see if it was contaminated by toxic hypergolic propellants. Each piece of debris had an identifying number and a tag indicating the coordinates where it was found. Staff attached photographed and catalogued each piece of debris. Recovered debris from inside the orbiter was placed in a separate area, as it was not considered to be a contributor to the accident. NASA conducted a fault tree analysis to determine the probable causes of the accident, and focused its investigations on the parts of the orbiter most likely to have been responsible for the in-flight breakup. Engineers in the hangar analyzed the debris to determine how the orbiter came apart. Even though the crew compartment was not considered as a likely cause of the accident, Melroy successfully argued for its analysis to learn more about how its safety systems helped, or failed to help, the crew survive. The tiles on the left wing were studied to determine the nature of the burning and melting that occurred. The damage to the debris indicated that the breach began at the wing's leading edge, allowing hot gas to get past the orbiter's thermal protection system.
The search for Columbia debris ended in May. Approximately 83,900 pieces of debris were recovered, weighing , which was about 38 per cent of the orbiter's overall weight. About 40,000 recovered pieces of debris have never been identified. All recovered non-human Columbia debris was stored in unused office space at the Vehicle Assembly Building, except for parts of the crew compartment, which were kept separate.
In July 2011, lower water levels caused by a drought revealed a piece of debris in Lake Nacogdoches. NASA identified the piece as a power reactant storage and distribution tank.
Columbia Accident Investigation Board
About ninety minutes after the disaster, NASA Administrator Sean O'Keefe called to convene the Columbia Accident Investigation Board (CAIB) to determine the cause. It was chaired by retired U.S. Navy Admiral Harold W. Gehman, Jr. and included military and civilian analysts. It initially consisted of eight members, including Gehman, but expanded to 13 members by March. The CAIB members were notified by noon on the day of the accident, and participated in a teleconference that evening. The following day, they traveled to Barksdale AFB to begin the investigation. The CAIB members first toured the debris fields, and then established their operations at JSC. The CAIB established four teams to investigate NASA management and program safety, NASA training and crew operations, the technical aspects of the disaster, and how NASA culture affected the Space Shuttle program. These groups collaborated, and hired other support staff to investigate. The CAIB worked alongside the reconstruction efforts to determine the cause of the accident, and interviewed members of the Space Shuttle program, including those who had been involved with STS-107. The CAIB conducted public hearings from March until June, and released its final report in August 2003.
Cause of the accident
After looking at sensor data, the CAIB considered damage to the left wing as a likely culprit for Columbias destruction. It investigated that recovered debris and noted the difference in heat damage between the two wings. RCC panels from the left wing were found in the western portion of the debris field, indicating that it was shed first before the rest of the orbiter disintegrated. X-ray and chemical analysis was conducted on the RCC panels, revealing the highest levels of slag deposits to be in the left wing tiles. Impact testing was conducted at the Southwest Research Institute, using a nitrogen-powered gun to fire a projectile made of the same material as the ET bipod foam. Panels taken from Enterprise, , and Atlantis were used to determine the projectiles' effect on RCC panels. A test on RCC panel8, taken from Atlantis, was the most consistent with the damage observed on Columbia, indicating it was the damaged panel that led to the in-flight breakup.
Organizational culture
The CAIB was critical of NASA organizational culture, and compared its current state to that of NASA leading up to the Challenger disaster. It concluded that NASA was experiencing budget constraints while still expecting to keep a high level of launches and operations. Program operating costs were lowered by 21% from 1991 to 1994, despite a planned increase in the yearly flight rate for assembly of the International Space Station. Despite a history of foam strike events, NASA management did not consider the potential risk to the astronauts as a safety-of-flight issue. The CAIB found that a lack of a safety program led to the lack of concern over foam strikes. The board determined that NASA lacked the appropriate communication and integration channels to allow problems to be discussed and effectively routed and addressed. This risk was further compounded by pressure to adhere to a launch schedule for construction of the ISS.
Possible emergency procedures
In its report, the CAIB discussed potential options that could have saved Columbias crew. They determined that the mission could have originally been extended for up to 30 days, after which the lithium hydroxide canisters that were used to remove carbon dioxide would have run out. On STS-107, Columbia was carrying the Extended Duration Orbiter, which increased its supply of oxygen and hydrogen. To maximize the mission duration, non-essential systems would have been powered down, and animals in the Spacehab module would have been euthanized.
When STS-107 launched, Atlantis was undergoing preparation for the STS-114 launch on March 1, 2003. Had NASA management decided to launch a rescue mission, an expedited process could have begun to launch it as a rescue vehicle. Some pre-launch tests would have been eliminated to allow it to launch on time. Atlantis would have launched with additional equipment for EVAs, and launched with a minimum required crew. It would have rendezvoused with Columbia, and the STS-107 crew would have conducted EVAs to transfer to Atlantis. Columbia would have been remotely deorbited; as Mission Control would have been unable to remotely land it, it would have been disposed of in the Pacific Ocean.
The CAIB also investigated the possibility of on-orbit repair of the left wing. Although there were no materials or adhesives onboard Columbia that could have survived reentry, the board researched the effectiveness of stuffing materials from the orbiter, crew cabin, or water into the RCC hole. They determined that the best option would have been to harvest tiles from other places on the orbiter, shape them, and then stuff them into the RCC hole. Given the difficulty of on-orbit repair and the risk of further damaging the RCC tiles, the CAIB determined that the likelihood of a successful on-orbit repair would have been low.
NASA response
Space Shuttle updates
The Space Shuttle program was suspended after the loss of Columbia. The further construction of the International Space Station (ISS) was delayed, as the Space Shuttle had been scheduled for seven missions to the ISS in 2003 and 2004 to complete its construction.
To prevent future foam strikes, the ET was redesigned to remove foam from the bipod. Instead, electric heaters were installed to prevent ice building up in the bipod due to the cold liquid oxygen in its feedlines. Additional heaters were also installed along the liquid oxygen line, which ran from the base of the tank to its interstage section. NASA also improved its ground imaging capabilities at Kennedy Space Center to better observe and monitor potential issues that occur during launch. The existing cameras at LC-39A, LC-39B, and along the coast were upgraded, and nine new camera sites were added. The camera on the belly of the orbiter was changed from a film camera to a digital camera to allow images of the ET to be viewed on the ground soon after launch. The Orbiter Boom Sensor System, a camera on the end of the Canadarm, was added to allow the crew to inspect the orbiter for any tile damage once they reached orbit. Each of the orbiter's wings was equipped with 22 temperature sensors to detect any breaches during reentry and with 66 accelerometers to detect an impact. Post-landing inspection procedures were updated to include technicians examining the RCC panels using flash thermography.
As well as the updates to the orbiter, NASA prepared contingency plans in the event that a mission would be unable to safely land. The plan involved the stranded mission docking with the ISS, on which the crew would inspect and attempt to repair the damaged orbiter. If they were unsuccessful, they would remain aboard the ISS and wait for a rescue. The rescue mission, designated STS-3xx, would be activated, and would use the next-in-line hardware for the orbiter, ET, and SRBs. The expected time to launch would be 35 days, as that was the requirement to prepare launch facilities. Before the arrival of the rescue mission, the stranded crew would power up the damaged orbiter, which would be remotely controlled as it was undocked and deorbited, and its debris would land in the Pacific Ocean. The minimal crew would launch, dock with the ISS, where it would spend a day transferring astronauts and equipment before undocking and landing.
First Return to Flight mission (STS-114)
The first Return to Flight mission, STS-114, began with the launch of Discovery on July 26, 2005, at 10:39am (EDT). Sixteen pieces of foam from the ET were dislodged during the launch that were large enough to be considered significant by NASA investigators, including one piece that was approximately . Post-launch investigations did not find any indications of damage from the foam loss, but ET video did reveal that a small piece of TPS tile from the nose landing gear fell off during launch. Upon reaching orbit the crew inspected Discovery with the Orbiter Boom Sensor System. On July 29 Discovery rendezvoused with the ISS and, before docking, performed the first rendezvous pitch maneuver to allow the crew aboard the ISS to observe and photograph the orbiter's belly. The next day, astronauts Soichi Noguchi and Stephen Robinson performed the first of three spacewalks. They tested a tile repair tool, the Emittance Wash Applicator, on intentionally damaged TPS tiles that had been brought in the payload bay. On August 3 the same astronauts performed the third EVA of the mission, during which Robinson stood on the ISS's Canadarm2 and went to Discoverys belly to remove two gap fillers between tiles that had begun to protrude. After a delay due to bad weather at KSC, the decision was made to land at Edwards AFB. Discovery successfully landed at 8:11am (EDT) on August 9. Had Discovery been unable to safely land, the crew would have remained on the ISS until Atlantis was flown to rescue them. As a result of the foam loss, NASA grounded the Space Shuttle fleet again.
Second Return to Flight mission (STS-121)
To address the problem of foam loss for the second Return to Flight mission (STS-121), NASA engineers removed the foam ramp from the protuberance air load (PAL) on the ET, which was the source of the largest piece of debris on STS-114. The launch was postponed from its scheduled launch of July 1, 2006, and again on July 2 due to inclement weather at KSC. On July 3 a piece of foam approximately and weighing broke off from the ET. The mission still launched as scheduled at 2:38pm (EDT) on July 4. After reaching orbit, Discovery performed post-launch inspections of its TPS and docked with the ISS on July 6. The orbiter carried a remote control orbiter in-flight maintenance cable that could connect the flight deck systems to the avionics system in the mid-deck; it would allow the spacecraft to be landed remotely, to include controlling the landing gear and deploying the parachute. On July 12 astronauts Piers Sellers and Michael Fossum performed an EVA to test the NonOxide Adhesive eXperiment (NOAX), which applied protective sealant to samples of damaged TPS tiles. Discovery undocked from the ISS on July 14 and safely landed at 9:14am on July 17 at KSC. Had the crew been stranded in orbit, NASA planned to launch Atlantis to rescue them from the ISS.
Program cancellation
In January 2004 President Bush announced the Vision for Space Exploration, calling for the Space Shuttle fleet to complete the ISS and be retired by 2010, to be replaced by a newly developed Crew Exploration Vehicle for travel to the Moon and Mars. In 2004, NASA Administrator Sean O'Keefe canceled a planned servicing of the Hubble Space Telescope and decided that future missions would all rendezvous with the ISS to ensure the safety of the crew. In 2006, his successor, Michael Griffin, decided to have one more servicing mission to the telescope, STS-125, which flew in May 2009. The retirement of the Space Shuttle was delayed until 2011, after which no further crewed spacecraft were launched from the United States until 2020 when SpaceX's Crew Dragon Demo-2 mission successfully carried NASA astronauts Doug Hurley and Robert Behnken to the ISS.
Legacy
On February 4, 2003, President Bush and his wife Laura led a memorial service for the astronauts' families at the Johnson Space Center. Two days later, Vice President Dick Cheney and his wife Lynne led a similar service at Washington National Cathedral. Patti LaBelle sang "Way Up There" as part of the service. A memorial service was held at KSC on February 7; Robert Crippen, the first pilot of Columbia, gave a eulogy. On October 28, 2003, the names of the astronauts were added to the Space Mirror Memorial at the KSC Visitor Complex in Merritt Island, Florida, alongside the names of 17 other astronauts and cosmonauts. On February 2, 2004, NASA Administrator O'Keefe unveiled a memorial for the STS-107 crew at Arlington National Cemetery, and it is located near the Challenger memorial. A tree for each astronaut was planted in NASA's Astronaut Memorial Grove at the Johnson Space Center, along with trees for each astronaut from the Apollo 1 and Challenger disasters. The exhibit Forever Remembered at KSC Visitor Complex features the cockpit window frames from Columbia. In 2004, Bush conferred posthumous Congressional Space Medals of Honor to all 14 crew members killed in the Challenger and Columbia accidents.
NASA named several places in honor of Columbia and the crew. Seven asteroids discovered in July 2001 were named after astronauts: 51823 Rickhusband, 51824 Mikeanderson, 51825 Davidbrown, 51826 Kalpanachawla, 51827 Laurelclark, 51828 Ilanramon, 51829 Williemccool. On Mars, the landing site of the rover Spirit was named Columbia Memorial Station, and included a memorial plaque to the Columbia crew mounted on the back of the high gain antenna. A complex of seven hills east of the Spirit landing site was dubbed the Columbia Hills; each of the seven hills was individually named for a member of the crew, and the rover explored the summit of Husband Hill in 2005. In 2006, the IAU approved naming seven lunar craters after the astronauts.
In February 2006, NASA's National Scientific Balloon Facility was renamed the Columbia Scientific Balloon Facility. A supercomputer built in 2004 at the NASA Advanced Supercomputing Division was named "Columbia". The first part of the system, named "Kalpana", was dedicated to Chawla, who had worked at the Ames Research Center before joining the Space Shuttle program. The first dedicated meteorological satellite launched by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), Metsat-1, was renamed to Kalpana-1 on February 5, 2003, after Chawla.
In 2003, the airport in Amarillo, Texas, where Husband was from, was renamed to the Rick Husband Amarillo International Airport. A mountain peak in the Sangre de Cristo Range in the Colorado Rockies was renamed Columbia Point in 2003. In October 2004, both houses of Congress passed a resolution to change the name of Downey, California's Space Science Learning Center to the Columbia Memorial Space Center, which is located at the former manufacturing site of the Space Shuttle orbiters.
On April 1, 2003, the Opening Day of baseball season, the Houston Astros honored the Columbia crew by having seven simultaneous first pitches thrown by family and friends of the crew. During the singing of the national anthem, 107 NASA personnel carried a U.S. flag onto the field. The Astros wore the mission patch on their sleeves the entire season. On February 1, 2004, the first anniversary of the Columbia disaster, Super Bowl XXXVIII held in Houston's Reliant Stadium began with a pregame tribute to the crew of the Columbia by singer Josh Groban performing "You Raise Me Up", with the crew of STS-114 in attendance.
In 2004, two space journalists, Michael Cabbage and William Harwood, released their book, Comm Check: The Final Flight of Shuttle Columbia. It discusses the history of the Space Shuttle program, and documents the post-disaster recovery and investigation efforts. Michael Leinbach, a retired Launch Director at KSC who was working on the day of the disaster, released Bringing Columbia Home: The Untold Story of a Lost Space Shuttle and Her Crew in 2018. It documents his personal experience during the disaster, and the debris and remains recovery efforts.
In 2004, the documentary Columbia: The Tragic Loss was released; it told of the life of Ilan Ramon and focused on the issues in NASA management that led to the disaster. PBS released a Nova documentary, Space Shuttle Disaster, in 2008. It featured commentary from NASA officials and space experts, and discussed historical issues with the spacecraft and NASA.
The Scottish Celtic-Rock band Runrig included a song titled "Somewhere" on their album The Story'' that ends with a recording of a radio communication from Laurel Clark. Clark, who had become a fan of the band when she lived in Scotland, had a Runrig song "Running to the Light" play as her wakeup music on January 27; her CD of Runrig music was recovered in the debris and presented to the band by Clark's husband and son.
Notes
See also
Criticism of the Space Shuttle program
Engineering disasters
Expedition 6
List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents
References
External links
NASA's Space Shuttle Columbia and her crew
Doppler radar animation of the debris after break up
President Bush's remarks at memorial service (February 4, 2003)
The CBS News Space Reporter's Handbook STS-51L/107 Supplement
The 13-min. Crew cabin video (subtitled). Ends 4-min. before the Shuttle began to disintegrate.
Photos of recovered debris stored on the 16th floor of the Vehicle Assembly Building at KSC
Articles containing video clips
Kalpana Chawla
Space accidents and incidents in the United States
Space program fatalities
Space Shuttle program
Destroyed spacecraft
Atmospheric entry
Death in Texas
2003 disasters
2003 in spaceflight
2003 in the United States
Aviation accidents and incidents in the United States in 2003
Space Shuttle Columbia disaster
2003 in Louisiana
2003 in Texas
Disasters in Louisiana
Disasters in Texas
February 2003 events in the United States
Presidency of George W. Bush | wiki |
Goat head may refer to:
Goat's head, a common name for several plants
Sigil of Baphomet, the official symbol of LaVeyan Satanism and the Church of Satan
"Goat Head", a song by Brittany Howard from the album Jaime
Official black and red logo on the jerseys worn by the Buffalo Sabres from 1996-2006
See also
Goats Head Soup, a 1973 album by The Rolling Stones | wiki |
Exin Aviation Company of Exin Air is een Poolse luchtvrachtmaatschappij met thuisbasis in Lublin.
Geschiedenis
Exin Aviation Company werd opgericht in 1991.
Vloot
De vloot van Exin Aviation Company bestaat uit: (1 september 2011)
4 Antonov AN-26B
Poolse luchtvaartmaatschappij | wiki |
Baksy may refer to:
A 2008 film by Gulshat Omarova
Slang for United States dollar | wiki |
Hydration may refer to:
Hydrate, a substance that contains water
Hydration enthalpy, energy released through hydrating a substance
Hydration reaction, a chemical addition reaction where a hydroxyl group and proton are added to a compound
Hydration shell, a type of solvation shell
Hydration system, an apparatus that helps its user drink enough liquid while engaged in physical activity
Hydration pack, a type of hydration system composed of a carry-on pack used for hydration
Mineral hydration, an inorganic chemical reaction where water is added to the crystal structure of a mineral
Drinking in general, including:
Oral rehydration therapy, hydration as a health treatment
Management of dehydration, medical hydration
Tissue hydration, the supply and retention of adequate water in biological tissues
Water of hydration, water that occurs within crystals
Hydration (web development)
See also
Dehydration (disambiguation)
Solvation | wiki |
The Shetland Sheepdog, often known as the Sheltie, is a breed of herding dog that originated in the Shetland Islands of Scotland. The original name was Shetland Collie, but this caused controversy amongst Rough Collie breeders of the time, so the breed's name was formally changed. This diligent small dog is clever, vocal, excitable and willing to please. They are incredibly trustworthy to their owners to the point where they are often referred to as "shadows" due to their attachment to family. This breed was formally recognized by The Kennel Club (UK) in 1909.
Like the Shetland pony, Shetland cattle and the Shetland sheep, the Shetland Sheepdog is a hardy but diminutive breed developed to thrive amidst the harsh and meagre conditions of its native islands. While the Sheltie still excels at herding, today it is often raised as a working dog and/or family pet.
The Sheltie's origins are obscure, but it is not a direct descendant of the Rough Collie, which it largely resembles. Rather, the Sheltie is a descendant of small specimens of the Scottish Collie and the King Charles Spaniel. They were originally a small mixed-breed dog, often only about in height at the shoulder, and it is thought that the original Shetland herding dogs were of the Spitz type, and were crossed with Collies from mainland Britain. In the early 20th century, James Loggie added a small Rough Collie to the breeding stock, and helped establish the breed that would become the modern Shetland Sheepdog.
History
Unlike many miniature breeds that resemble their larger counterparts, this breed was not developed simply by selectively breeding the Rough Collie for smaller and smaller size. The original sheepdog of Shetland was a Spitz-type dog, probably similar to the modern Icelandic Sheepdog. This dog was crossed with mainland working collies brought to the islands, and then after being brought to England, it was further extensively crossed with the Rough Collie, and other breeds including some or all of the extinct Greenland Yakki, the King Charles Spaniel (not the Cavalier), the Pomeranian, and possibly the Border Collie. The original Spitz-type working sheepdog of Shetland is now extinct, having been replaced for herding there by the Border Collie. Shelties were used for herding until commercial livestock farming required larger breeds.
When the breed was originally introduced breeders called them Shetland Collies, which upset Rough Collie breeders, so the name was changed to Shetland Sheepdog. During the early 20th century (up until the 1940s), additional crosses were made to Rough Collies to help retain the desired Rough Collie type – in fact, the first English Sheltie champion's dam, Gesta, was a rough Collie.
The year 1909 marked the initial recognition of the Sheltie by the English Kennel Club, with the first registered Sheltie being a female called Badenock Rose. The first Sheltie to be registered by the American Kennel Club was "Lord Scott" in 1911.
Description
The general appearance of the Sheltie is that of a miniature Rough Collie. They are a small, double coated, working dog, agile and sturdy. Blue merle Shelties may have blue eyes or one brown and one blue eye, but all others have dark-colored eyes. Their expression should be that of alertness with a gentle and sometimes reserved nature. They are often very good with children. They carry their tail down low, only lifted when alert and never carried over the back. They are an intensely loyal breed, sometimes reserved with strangers but should not be shy or showing timidness as per the AKC breed standard.
Coat and colors
Shelties have a double coat, which means that they have two layers of fur that make up their coat. The long, rough guard hairs lie on top of a thick, soft undercoat. The guard hairs are water-repellent, while the undercoat provides relief from both high and low temperatures.
The English Kennel Club describes three different colors: "tricolor, blue merle, and sable (ranging from golden through mahogany), marked with varying amounts of white and/or tan." Essentially, however, a blue merle dog is a genetically black dog, either black, white, and tan (tricolor). In the show ring, blue merles may have blue eyes; all other colors must have brown eyes.
Basic coat colors
Sable – Sable is dominant over other colors. May be pure for sable (two sable genes) or may be tri-factored or bi-factored (carrying one sable gene and one tricolor or bicolor gene). "Tri-factored" sable and "shaded" sable are not interchangeable terms. A shaded dog (one with a lot of black overlay on a sable coat) may or may not be tri-factored or bi-factored.
Tricolor – black, white, and tan. Tricolor is dominant over bi-black, and may carry the factor for bicolor.
Bi-black – black and white. Bi-black is recessive. A bi-black Sheltie carries two bi-black genes; thus any dog with a bi-black parent is always bi-factored whatever its own coat color is.
'Modified' coat colors
Any of the above colors may also have a color modification gene. The color modification genes are merling and white factoring. Merling dilutes the base color (sable, tricolor, or bi-black) causing a black dog's coat to show a mix of black, white, and grey hairs, often with black patches.
Blue merle—blue, white and tan. A tricolor with the merling gene. May have blue eyes.
Bi-blue—blue and white. A bi-black with the merling gene. May have blue eyes.
Sable merle—faded or mottled sable and white. Often born with a mottled coat of darker brown over lighter brown, they usually present as a faded or lighter sable or can appear as a washed-out blue-merle. Sable merles are shown in the breed ring as sables; therefore, blue eyes are a major fault in AKC. Blue eyes are not faulted in sable merles in UKC.
Double merles, a product of breeding two merle Shelties together, have a very high incidence of deafness or blindness.
There have been reports of a brindle Sheltie but many Sheltie enthusiasts agree that a cross sometime in the ancestry of that specific Sheltie could have produced a brindle. Unacceptable colors in the show ring are a rustiness in a blue or black coat. Colors may not be faded, no conspicuous white spots, and the color cannot be over 50 percent white.
Height and weight
Shelties normally weigh around . In general, males are taller and heavier than females. Accepted height ranges may differ depending on country and standard used. In the US and Canada, breed standards state that males and females can be between , all other standards (Australia, New Zealand and UK) specify males: , females: except FCI which specifies females: at the shoulder (withers), however, some shelties can be found outside of these ranges but are not considered truly representative of the breed. Variation can be found within litters, and height (in the range of ) is above the breed standard in some lines.
Ears
To conform to the breed standards, the Shelties' ears should bend slightly or "tip." The ear is to have the top third to a quarter of the ear tipped. If a dog's ears are not bent (referred to as prick ears) some owners brace them into the correct position for several weeks to several months. Wide-set (too much distance between) ears are also not a desired trait, nor are ears which tip too low down (referred to as 'hound' ears). The overall expression should convey the breed's alert and intelligent disposition
Grooming
Shelties have a double coat, and often shed a lot of the time, no matter the season. The topcoat consists of long, straight, water-repellent hair, which provides protection from cold and the elements. The undercoat is short, furry and very dense and helps to keep the dog warm. Mats can be commonly found behind the ears, under the elbow on each front leg, and in the fluffy fur on the hind legs (the "skirts"), as well as around the collar (if worn). The coat is usually shed twice a year, often in spring and autumn. Females will also shed right before or right after giving birth. Male shelties technically shed less than females but fur still comes off constantly. Shaving these dogs is very bad for their skin and some do not regrow any significant amount of hair after being shaved, a condition known as alopecia. Spaying or neutering can alter coat texture, making it softer, more prone to matting and even more profuse. Shelties shed in clumps which can be pulled or brushed out of the main coat, rather than individual hair. This makes them much easier to groom and clean up after than many smooth-haired dogs, which leave loose fur in their space.
Temperament
Shelties have a high level of intelligence. According to Dr. Stanley Coren, an expert on animal intelligence, the Shetland Sheepdog is one of the brightest dogs, ranking 6th out of 138 breeds tested. His research found that an average Sheltie could understand a new command in fewer than five repetitions and would obey a command the first time it was given 95% of the time or better.
Health
For the most part, Shelties are athletic and healthy. Like the Rough Collie, there is a tendency toward inherited malformation and disease of the eyes. Each individual puppy should have its eyes examined by a qualified veterinary ophthalmologist. Some lines may be susceptible to hypothyroidism, epilepsy, hip dysplasia, or skin allergies.
Shetland Sheepdogs have four times the risk of other dogs of developing transitional cell carcinoma, a cancer of the bladder.
Dermatomyositis may occur at the age of 4 to 6 months, and is frequently misdiagnosed by general practice veterinarians as sarcoptic or demodectic mange. The disease manifests itself as alopecia on the top of the head, supra- and suborbital area and forearms as well as the tip of the tail. If the disease progresses to its more damaging form, it could affect the autonomic nervous system and the dog may have to be euthanised. This disease is genetically transmitted and recessive, with breeders having no clear methodology for screening except clear bloodline records. Deep tissue biopsies are required to definitively diagnose dermatomyositis. Lay assessment of end-stage dermatomyositis is observed difficulty or inability to swallow, even water.
Von Willebrand disease is an inherited bleeding disorder. In Shelties, affected dogs as a general rule are not viable and do not live long. The Sheltie carries type III of von Willebrands, which is the most severe of the three levels. There are DNA tests that were developed to find von Willebrands in Shelties. It can be done at any age, and it will give three results: affected, carrier or non-affected.
Although small breed dogs do not usually suffer unduly from hip dysplasia, it has been identified in Shelties. Hip dysplasia occurs when the head of the femur and the acetabulum do not fit together correctly, frequently causing pain or lameness. Hip dysplasia is thought to be genetic. Many breeders will have their dogs' hips x-rayed and certified by the Orthopedic Foundation for Animals.
Eyes
The two basic forms of inherited eye diseases/defects in Shelties are Collie eye anomaly (CEA) and progressive retinal atrophy (PRA).
Collie eye anomaly: An autosomal recessive inherited trait which results in incomplete closure of the embryonic fissure; seen almost exclusively in Collies, Border Collies and Shetland Sheepdogs. CEA can be detected in young puppies by a veterinary ophthalmologist. The disease involves the retina. It is always bilateral although the severity may be disparate (unequal) between eyes. Other accompanying defects (ophthalmic anomalies) may wrongly indicate a more severe manifestation of CEA. CEA is present at birth and although it cannot be cured, it doesn't progress. Signs of CEA in shelties are small, or deepset eyes. That is, the severity of the disease at birth will not change throughout the dog's life. CEA is scored similar to the way hips are.
CEA is genetic, inheritance is autosomal recessive, this means that even a dog that shows no phenotypic signs of the condition may be a carrier. Breeders should actively try to breed this disease out by only breeding with dogs that have "clear" eyes or very low scoring eyes. A CEA score considered too high to breed with may still be low enough not to affect the dog's life. These dogs live happy and healthy lives as pets but should be not used for breeding. The recent development of a DNA test for CEA makes control of this disease much more likely as more breeders take advantage of the test.
PRA can be detected at any time but usually does not show up until the dog is around two years old. Breeding dogs should be tested for genotype for this condition before breeding and only animals found "clear" should be used for breeding. PRA can occur in most breeds of dog including mix breeds. In most breeds it is also an autosomal recessive condition, however it has been found in other breeds to be autosomal dominant and sex-linked in others. As the name suggests, it is a progressive disease which will eventually result in total blindness. Like CEA, an affected dog should not be bred with but these dogs can live happily as pets. Currently there is no treatment for either disease, but as both diseases (CEA and PRA) are hereditary it is possible to eliminate them using selective breeding.
Breeding
As with all dogs, Shelties should be screened for inheritable genetic diseases before breeding. Both male and female should be tested for thyroid problems, Von Willebrands disease and brucellosis, as well as have hip x-rays and eyes cleared by the relevant national authorities.
Breeding colours are also a problem for many beginner breeders. Certain colour combinations can produce unwanted or potentially harmful results, such as mating blue merle to blue merle, which can produce what is called a "double merle", more likely to be deaf or blind. Mating a sable and white to a blue merle can produce a sable merle, which is undesirable for the show ring. A tri-colour to a pure-for-sable (a sable and white which can produce only other sable and whites), will produce only sable and whites, but they will be tri-factored sable and whites (which means they have the tri-gene.) There are many more examples of breeding for colour, so a good breeder will research colour genetics prior to breeding. There are many different genes contributing to the different colours of the Sheltie, including the bi gene, the merling gene, the sable gene, and the tricolour gene.
MDR1 gene mutation
According to the College of Veterinary Medicine at Washington State University, the Shetland Sheepdog, and many other herding breeds, have a risk of being born with a MDR1 Gene Mutation, with about 15 percent of individuals affected. Cross-breeds are also affected. Dogs carrying Mdr1-1 share a common ancestor that experienced remarkable evolutionary success, having contributed genetically to at least nine distinct breeds of dog. Due to this genetic mutation, affected dogs may exhibit sensitivity or adverse reactions to many drugs, including acepromazine, butorphanol, doxorubicin, erythromycin, ivermectin, loperamide, milbemycin, moxidectin, rifampin, selamectin, vinblastine, and vincristine.
Working life
As the name suggests, Shelties can and have been used as sheepdogs and still participate in sheepdog trials to this day. Herding dogs conduct livestock from one place to another by causing fear-flocking and flight behaviour. The instinct to herd is primarily a product of breeding. No amount of training can substitute this trait.
Shelties can also be great therapy dogs for those who need comfort during hard times such as natural disasters or severe illness. This breed is rarely aggressive and tends to do well with children and being handled by them.
Activities
In their size group, the breed dominates dog agility, obedience, showmanship, flyball, tracking, and herding. Herding instincts and trainability can be measured at noncompetitive herding tests. Shelties exhibiting basic herding instincts can be trained to compete in herding trials.
Famous Shetland Sheepdogs
Ch Halstor's Peter Pumpkin ROM - The Shetland sheepdog sire with the most Champions (160).
Badenock Rose - the first Shetland sheepdog registered with the English Kennel Club.
Mickey - main character of Canadian children's series Mickey's Farm
See also
Shetland animal breeds
References
FCI breeds
Herding dogs
Dog breeds originating in Scotland
Shetland animal breeds | wiki |
Buzz may refer to:
People
Buzz (nickname), a list of people
J. Buzz Von Ornsteiner (born 1967; aka Dr. Buzz), American forensic psychologist and journalist
Fictional characters
Buzz, a character in the 1987 American comedy movie Revenge of the Nerds II: Nerds in Paradise
Buzz Lightyear, from the Toy Story franchise
Buzz Buzzard, nemesis of Woody Woodpecker
Buzz Sawyer, professional wrestling persona of Bruce Woyan
Buzz (mascot), mascot of the Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets
Buzz, from the Donkey Kong video game series
Buzz Buzz, from the Super NES video game EarthBound
Buzz, a Neopet from an online virtual pet site
Buzz McCallister, from the Home Alone movie trilogy
Buzz, title character of Buzz! games
Buzz (Marvel Comics), a fictional character in the Spider-Girl comic book series
Buzz the fruit fly from Beat Bugs
Buzz, a character from Cyberchase
Buzz, a Reptool in the DreamWorks Animation TV series Dinotrux
Buzz, a character in the video game Brawl Stars
Entertainment
Music
Buzz (band), a Korean pop/punk/rock band
Buzz (Alter Natives album) (1989)
Buzz (Guardian album) (1995)
Buzz (Fifteen album) (1996)
Buzz (Keller Williams album) (1996)
Buzz (Steps album) (2000)
Buzz (Autograph album) (2003)
Da Buzz, a Swedish pop music group
Other
Buzz (DC Thomson), a British comic that ran in the 1970s
Buzz (film), a 1998 Israeli film by Eli Cohen
Buzz (TV series), a Canadian comedy television series
Buzz!, a series of quiz video games
Buzz Cola, a fictional cola drink on The Simpsons
Technology
Jeskola Buzz, a modular software music studio environment
Aeroelasticity, fluid instability, or flutter
Yahoo! Buzz, a community launched by Yahoo! that publishes user-posted news stories
Google Buzz, a social update mechanism integrated into various Google products
Other uses
Buzz (Ryanair), a Polish subsidiary of Ryanair
Buzz (airline), a discount airline formerly operating in Europe
Buzz Airways, a now-defunct virtual airline, based in Branson, Missouri
Buzz (dinghy), a sailing dinghy
Salt Lake Buzz, former name of the Salt Lake Bees minor league baseball team
Marketing buzz, a term used in word of mouth marketing
Buzz (DC), a Washington, D.C. dance party
See also
Buzz cut, American name for a type of haircut in which the hair is sheared very closely to the scalp
Buzz number, letter and number combination applied to U.S. Air Force aircraft after World War II
The Buzz (disambiguation)
Buzzer (disambiguation)
Buzzin' (disambiguation)
Bzzz (disambiguation)
Buss (disambiguation)
Bus (disambiguation) | wiki |
In American football, a smashmouth offense is an offensive system that relies on a strong running game, where most of the plays run by the offense are handoffs to the fullback or tailback. It is a more traditional style of offense that often results in a higher time of possession by running the ball heavily. So-called "smash-mouth football" is often run out of the I-formation or wishbone formation, with tight ends and receivers used as blockers. Though the offense is run-oriented, pass opportunities can develop as defenses play close to the line. Play-action can be very effective for a run-oriented team.
"Three Yards and a Cloud of Dust"
This term describes run-heavy offenses such as those used by coach Woody Hayes of Ohio State University in the 1950s and 1960s. A grind-it-out ball control offense, it relies on time of possession utilizing a high percentage of inside running plays off of handoffs by the quarterback to advance the ball down the field. Hayes relied primarily on the fullback off-tackle play. A quarterback under Hayes would often throw fewer than 10 passes a game. Hayes is credited as saying "Three things can happen when you pass the ball, and two of them are bad".
Run to Daylight
The central two plays in this philosophy are off-tackle run and the so-called Packers sweep. In both plays, the offensive line would work to seal off a running lane for the back to use, and the running back would aim for this corridor rather than a specific pre-snap hole. In the off-tackle run, the quarterback would hand off (often to the fullback) who started running to the position between the tight end and tackle, but would aim for the best hole that developed. In the sweep, the two guards would pull to form the outside wall of the running lane, while the center and run side tackle would form the inside wall of the lane. The fullback would lead the path through the lane for the half back, who received a pitch from the quarterback.
College teams that used the Smashmouth offense
Nebraska Cornhuskers
Stanford Cardinal
Fresno State Bulldogs
Wisconsin Badgers
Arkansas Razorbacks
Alabama Crimson Tide
Ohio State Buckeyes
NFL teams that used the Smashmouth offense
Notes
References
American football strategy | wiki |
De Tyneside Amateur League is een Engelse regionale voetbalcompetitie. Er zijn 2 divisies en de hoogste bevindt zich op het 14de niveau in de Engelse voetbalpiramide. De kampioen kan promoveren naar de Northern Football Alliance.
Externe links
Football Mitoo page
Engelse voetbalcompetitie | wiki |
Seafood birdsnest is a common Chinese cuisine dish found in Hong Kong, China and most overseas Chinatown restaurants. It is also found within Cantonese cuisine. It is usually classified as a mid to high-end dish depending on the seafood offered.
Basket
The edible nest holding the seafood is made entirely out of fried taro or noodles.
There are different intricate netting used in the nest making. The fried nest is usually tough and crunchy.
Fillings
Despite the name there is nothing bird-related in this dish, nor are there any dried ingredients. The most common ingredients are scallops, peapods, boneless fish fillet, celery sticks, straw mushrooms, calamari, shrimp.
See also
List of fish dishes
List of seafood dishes
References
Cantonese cuisine
Hong Kong cuisine
Seafood dishes
Fish dishes | wiki |
The Settlers of Catan series is a line of games spanning multiple media designed principally by Klaus Teuber.
Expansions and Extensions
Published by Kosmos in 1995, The Settlers of Catan is the first of the Catan game series. The original game is expanded upon by expansions and extensions: the former adds new gameplay to Settlers, while the latter adds the ability to add two more players to the game, creating a game for six players. The 5-6 player extension of the base game itself was released in 1996. , there are four expansions to Settlers, adding new gameplay to the core game, and each expansion has a matching extension. Gameplay for 5-6 players with expansions require the extensions for both the base game and the expansion(s) involved.
Catan: Seafarers
Introduced in 1997, Catan: Seafarers adds the element of sea travel to the basic Settlers game. The 5-6 player extension was released in 1999.
Catan: Cities & Knights
Released in 1999, Cities & Knights vastly changes the original design of the Catan rule mechanics to expand the role of the cities. It adds barbarian attacks, metropolises, a merchant, commodity production, and physical knights to the primary rules. The 5-6 player extension was released in 2000.
Catan: Traders & Barbarians
Although elements of Traders & Barbarians were available separately from 2004 to 2007, this pack was not released in English until 2008. It combines elements of fishing, events, expanded trading, barbarian attacks, camel trains, and much more to make a more well-rounded playing experience. It also includes rules for play with 2 people. The 5-6 player extension was also released in 2008.
Catan: Explorers & Pirates
Released in 2013, Catan: Explorers & Pirates features five scenarios and three missions based around exploring new lands and battling pirates. Some of the scenarios make use of the missions while others do not. The scenarios included are "Land Ho", "Pirate Lairs", "Fish for Catan", "Spices for Catan" and "Explorers & Pirates".
Catan: Oil Springs
Introduced in 2011, Catan: Oil Springs is an expansion of the basic Settlers game designed to draw attention to environmental issues. It is offered as a free download (requiring the pieces to be printed and cut out), or it can be purchased from the Mayfair Games website or in game stores. The scenario adds oil fields which can be used to make other resources or develop metropolises however disasters can strike if too much oil is used. Oil can also be sequestered (taken out of the game) in exchange for victory points and to prevent disasters. The expansion already includes parts and instructions for 5-6 players. The scenario was written by Erik Assadourian and Ty Hansen.
Catan: Frenemies of Catan
Frenemies of Catan is an expansion for Catan which rewards altruistic behavior: the giving away of resources, the connecting together of multiple players' roads, and neutralization of the Robber. Such behavior results in Favor Tokens, which can provide resource, developmental, trading, or Victory Point bonuses.
Catan Historical Scenarios
The Catan Historical Scenarios series (not to be confused with the Catan Histories series) is a series of otherwise independent board games that required parts from Settlers to play. As with Settlers itself, 5-6 player play in these scenarios required the use of the 5-6 player extensions.
Historical Scenarios I: Alexander & Cheops
The first scenario pack ever created for Settlers, Catan Historical Scenarios I: Alexander and Cheops, released in 1998, recreated the epic campaign of world conquest undertaken by Alexander the Great and also recreated the building of the Great Pyramids by Cheops. Scenarios such as this would later spawn the Catan Histories spin-off line of games.
Historical Scenarios II: Troy & the Great Wall
Catan Historical Scenarios II: Troy and Great Wall, released in 2001, allowed players to fight together against the city of Troy, made famous by the Iliad. It also contained a scenario involving the construction of the Great Wall of China.
Scenario Packs
Scenario packs for Settlers have been released on special occasions. Each of these requires the base game, and possibly extensions and expansions, to play.
The Settlers of Catan: The Game Book
Released in 2000 in Germany as Das Buch zum Spielen, this book provides around 20 different scenarios for use with the original game. An English translation of the scenarios was released in the United States as The Play Book and in the UK as The Game Book. Some of these scenarios were also re-released later in other scenario packs.
Atlantis: Scenarios & Variants
Following the success of the Game Book, Kosmos in Germany released this scenario pack in 2005 which included the event cards, an updated flood scenario named "Atlantis", as well as other smaller scenarios.
The Settlers of Hesse
Released in 2008 as the first in a continuing series of scenarios demonstrating the founding of Germany's principal states. It follows the rules of the basic game closely but settlements are established on real-life locations of Hessian cities.
Catan-Austria & Vienna Meets Catan
Released in limited supply at the 2004 Austrian Gamefest as a 20th anniversary gift. Both scenarios are based on tourism in Austria. Catan-Austria focuses on the entire state of Austria while Vienna focuses on its capital.
Saggsen Gaden: The Settlers of Saxony & Offensive in Chemnitz
Released in 2005 at the Germany Game Museum in Chemnitz, Germany. Only 1000 copies of this scenario were created. Saggsen Gaden focuses on building the state of Saxony but includes bridges and a king to complicate and intensify the game. Chemnitz attempts to recreate the founding and development of Chemnitz through the construction of historic buildings.
The Building of Castle Chaffenberch & Renaissance in Styria
Released at the Essen 2007 game fair. Chaffenberch focuses on knights' tournaments and castle building while Renaissance focuses on trade between Augsburg, Vienna, Budapest, and Venice.
The Gold of Ankh-Morpork & Rincewind and the Tourist
Scheduled for release at the Essen 2008 game fair, these scenarios are taken directly out of the universe of Terry Pratchett's Discworld. Ankh-Morpork focuses on guilds in the city of Ankh-Morpork and selectivity of trade. Rincewind introduces magic and dragons into a basic Settlers game.
The Settlers of the North Rhine-Westphalia
Released in December 2008 as the second in a continuing series of scenarios demonstrating the founding of Germany's principal states. It closely follows the rules of the basic game but settlements are established on real-life locations of cities in the North Rhine-Westphalia region.
Licensed adaptations
Besides the expansions and extensions, there were various licensed adaptations of Settlers, though none are compatible with any of the expansions or extensions.
The Water of Life
Das Wasser des Lebens (The Water of Life) was produced in 1997. The game is in German, despite being produced for—and distributed by—the Scottish distillery Glen Grant as a promotional item. It was the first variation or expansion of Catan published. It is set in the Scottish highlands with related thematic changes; including stills and distilleries replacing towns and cities, and the English replacing the Robber.
The Communication in Catan
Made in 2000 for the French telecommunication company Alcatel. The game was published in English but only distributed in France.
Rockman.EXE Catan
Capcom published a line of Rockman.EXE Catan games, based on their Rockman.EXE franchise and including standard and portable versions.
The Settlers of Canaan
The Settlers of Canaan, a licensed version of Settlers of Catan with additions to fit themes from the Old Testament, was released in 2002 by Cactus Game Design.
The Settlers of Zarahemla
The Settlers of Zarahemla by Inspiration Games, was released in 2003, with additions to fit themes from the Book of Mormon.
Geographic Discipline Model
Geographic Discipline Model, published by Buckland Games in 2001, is a higher-education–themed adaptation, with competing universities seeking to build new campuses (settlements/cities), connected by research grants (roads), to obtain additional students (resources).
Simply Catan
SimplyFun, a company which produces simplified versions of board games, released Simply Catan in 2006. The game replaces individual hexes with "hex strips" for faster setup, and incorporates simplified rules for playing without development cards.
The Settlers of Catan: Travel Edition
This smaller version of Settlers was released in 2002 and is identical to the base game except for its size and static number chits. The pieces and parts are not compatible with the expansions or extensions.
Catan Board Game: Gallery Edition
Gallery Edition is an abbreviated version of Settlers released in 2008, suited for the general gaming crowd. The board hexes have been simplified somewhat, with individual hexes and number tokens being replaced by a less-modular (but still piecewise) system, and with plastic pieces replacing wooden pieces.
Starfarers of Catan series
Starfarers of Catan was a reimagining of Settlers to fit a space theme. Instead of being colonists on the island of Catan, players are set in the role of space colonists from Earth mingling among alien races from the Catan star system.
Starfarers of Catan
Starfarers of Catan, released in 1999, is a science fiction spin-off set in the distant future. Instead of building roads, players maneuver colony and trade ships to establish colonies on other planets and trade routes with alien races. A 5-6 player extension was published in 2001.
Starship Catan
This game acted as a spin-off from some of the elements found in Starfarers of Catan. Two players compete as astronauts stranded in another galaxy. They have to trade and produce resources from planets, complete missions, and survive against pirates. Starship Catan produced three free printable mission packs.
Three free printable expansions are available at the Catan web site:
Starship Catan 1st Mission: The Space Amoeba - A giant space amoeba threatens the galaxy and players compete to eradicate it.
Starship Catan 2nd Mission: The Asteroid - A giant asteroid is threatening the planet Teldur. Help the Teldurians evacuate before it is too late.
Starship Catan 3rd Mission: The Diplomatic Station - A new member to the Galactic Council prompts players to compete to contribute the most to the new Diplomatic Space Station.
Starship Catan Light is a simpler, one-player variation that can be played online.
Catan: Starfarers
Catan: Starfarers, released in 2019, is a modern re-implementation of Starfarers of Catan. Catan: Starfarers is for 3 to 4 players.
Catan: Starfarers 5-6 player extension, released in 2020, allows up to two additional players to play Catan: Starfarers. Adds purple and green player pieces, and The Travelers alien civilization.
Catan Adventures
The Catan Adventures line of board games are thematically similar to Settlers but use different mechanics. Here, players take on the roles of individual colonists on the island of Catan.
Candamir: The First Settlers
Candamir: The First Settlers was released in 2004 and is an adventure board game set around the first settlement of Catan. Players control individual settlers hunting and gathering, with characteristics affecting success.
Elasund: The First City
Elasund: The First City, released in 2006, features construction within a single city, with game mechanics based on real estate pricing and eminent domain. A free printable expansion is available at the Catan web site.
Catan Histories
The Catan Histories brand was created in 2006, with the release of its second game, Struggle for Rome and was then retroactively applied to Settlers of the Stone Age, previously published in 2002. These games, like the Catan historical scenarios before them, are games where the Settlers game mechanics were applied to historical contexts. Unlike the historical scenarios, however, these games are fully independent, and do not rely on any parts from Settlers itself.
Settlers of the Stone Age
Settlers of the Stone Age was released in 2002 and is set in the Stone Age.
Struggle for Rome
Struggle for Rome was released in 2006 and set at the fall of the Roman Empire. A free printable expansion, titled Struggle for Rome: Terror of the Legions, is available at the Catan web site.
Settlers of America: Trails to Rails
Settlers of America: Trails to Rails was released in 2010 and is set in the 19th century United States as settlers expanded into the west, first by wagon and later by train, and built cities.
Merchants of Europe
Merchants of Europe was released in 2012 and features late Middle Ages Europe as a setting. Gameplay includes the strategic setting up (and protection) of trading posts, trade routes and caravans. The rules are mostly the same as in Settlers of America.
Rise of the Inkas
Catan - Rise of the Inkas was released in 2018 and features the rise and decline of civilizations in a region of coastal and mountain Peru, across three historic eras. This is a stand-alone game. A small expansion pack called 'High Priests of the Inkas' was also released in 2018. This set has 5 Priests who each offer a particular advantage described on the card.
Dawn of Humankind
Catan - Dawn of Humankind is a 2022 pre-order, it is a modern re-implementation of Settlers of the Stone Age.
Card Games
Catan Card Game
Originally released in 1996, on the heels of the board game, this card game attempts to act as a two-player version of the original game, while adding elements that were not possible in the original game. The Catan Card Game has nine expansion packs:
The Tournament Set - Released in 1997 as an additional component to the base game, this tournament set provides additional cards for a single player as well as tournament rules. All of the cards were later released in the five 1999 expansions and the rules were released in the Catan Card Game Expansions set in 2002.
Trade & Change - Released in 1999 and included in the Catan Card Game Expansions pack, this expansion focuses on enhancing trading and resource development, while decreasing the importance of knights.
Politics & Intrigue - Released in 1999 and included in the Catan Card Game Expansions pack, this expansion focuses on the interplay between the church, the state, and the military.
Knights & Merchants - Released in 1999 and included in the Catan Card Game Expansions pack, this expansion focuses on the military and its increasing involvement in the world of Catan. It also includes piracy into the game.
Science & Progress - Released in 1999 and included in the Catan Card Game Expansions pack, this expansion focuses on progressing beyond the original game and into higher technological inventions and increasing the education of Catanians.
Wizards & Dragons - Released in 1999 and included in the Catan Card Game Expansions pack, this expansion focuses on witchcraft, wizards, dragons, and magic.
Gold & Pirates - Released as a promotional 10-card pack at the 2002 GameFair in the Netherlands, this little expansion focuses on the role of pirates in Catan and also expands the functions of gold. It is advertised as a supplement to Trade & Change.
Barbarians & Traders - Released in 2003 and included in the second version of the Catan Card Game Expansions pack or as a stand-alone expansion, this expansion focuses on the influence and chaos of barbarians attacks on Catan, as well as the increased influence of traders brought in from foreign lands.
Artisans & Benefactors - Released in 2004 and available in English only as a standalone set, this expansion focuses on great works and the happiness of the people of Catan. Although the German version is called Künstler & Wohltäter (Artists and Benefactors), and although the English Catan Online World calls this expansion Artists and Benefactors, Mayfair Games chose to release the expansion as Artisans & Benefactors, which is phonetically similar to Artists in English (although the German Handwerker is clearly unrelated to Künstler).
The Rivals for Catan
Released in 2010, Rivals is an updated version of the original Catan Card Game. Its mechanics are essentially the same as the original, but its rules have been revised to make the game easier and more enjoyable for beginners. Rivals actually is several games in one: the Introductory Game; three Theme Games (The Era of Turmoil, The Era of Progress, and The Era of Gold); Duel of the Princes, which uses all three sets of themed cards; and Tournament Play, which uses custom decks of cards.
Two expansion packs for Rivals have been released:
Age of Darkness - Released in 2011, this expansion contains three sets of cards: The Era of Intrigue, The Era of Merchant Princes!, and The Era of Barbarians.
Age of Enlightenment - Released in 2012, this expansion contains three sets of cards: The Era of Explorers, The Era of Sages, and The Era of Prosperity.
Other Catan spinoffs
Beyond Settlers and the aforementioned Catan franchises, the Catan name has also spread to various board games, also designed by Teuber.
The Settlers of Nuremberg
Released in 1999 to celebrate the 950th anniversary of the city, Die Siedler von Nürnberg is a stand-alone board game set in Nuremberg. It differs from the original game in several respects. Instead of dice, there is a deck of cards with numbers and events on them; roads are pre-established; instead of cities, players build workshops inside the city to produce goods for sale.
The Kids of Catan
The Kids of Catan is a children's game played on a revolving board, published in 2003.
Settlers of Catan Junior
Settlers of Catan Junior was announced at the 2007 Nuremberg toy fair. This version has a board that is much smaller and has two sides: one for two-players and one for 3 or 4-players. The game play is shortened to about 30 minutes. Players used resources to build pirate lairs and pirate ships.
Catan: Paper & Pencil
This Catan spin-off was originally released as a promotional on boxes of pizza from Hallo Pizza in Germany. It was later released freely on Catan's German website.
Catan Dice Game
This faster adaptation of the base game plays similar to Yahtzee. Players roll dice and try to gain the right resource combination to build the next building or road in their path. The game takes around 15 minutes to play and can be played solo.
Star Trek Catan
Released in 2012, Star Trek Catan is a licensed adaptation of the original Star Trek series to the Catan board game.
Ancient Egypt Catan
Released in 2014 as a collectors edition.
A Game of Thrones Catan: Brotherhood of the Watch
Released in 2017, A Game of Thrones Catan: Brotherhood of the Watch
Other media
A novel set on the island of Catan, Die Siedler von Catan: ein Roman by Rebecca Gablé (ISBN ) was published in 2003. An English translation was published in 2011.
References
List | wiki |
Religious texts, including scripture, are texts which various religions consider to be of central importance to their religious tradition. They differ from literature by being a compilation or discussion of beliefs, mythologies, ritual practices, commandments or laws, ethical conduct, spiritual aspirations, and for creating or fostering a religious community.
Authority of religious texts
The relative authority of religious texts develops over time and is derived from the ratification, enforcement, and its use across generations. Some religious texts are accepted or categorized as canonical, some non-canonical, and others extracanonical, semi-canonical, deutero-canonical, pre-canonical or post-canonical.
"Scripture" (or "scriptures") is a subset of religious texts considered to be "especially authoritative", revered and "holy writ", "sacred, canonical", or of "supreme authority, special status" to a religious community. The terms sacred text and religious text are not necessarily interchangeable in that some religious texts are believed to be sacred because of the belief in some theistic religions such as the Abrahamic religions that the text is divinely or supernaturally revealed or divinely inspired, or in non-theistic religions such as some Indian religions they are considered to be the central tenets of their eternal Dharma. Many religious texts, in contrast, are simply narratives or discussions pertaining to the general themes, interpretations, practices, or important figures of the specific religion. In others (Christianity), the canonical texts include a particular text (Bible) but is "an unsettled question", according to Eugene Nida. In yet others (Hinduism, Buddhism), there "has never been a definitive canon". While the term scripture is derived from the Latin scriptura, meaning "writing", most sacred scriptures of the world's major religions were originally a part of their oral tradition, and were "passed down through memorization from generation to generation until they were finally committed to writing", according to the Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Religious texts also serve a ceremonial and liturgical role, particularly in relation to sacred time, the liturgical year, the divine efficacy and subsequent holy service; in a more general sense, its performance.
Etymology and nomenclature
According to Peter Beal, the term scripture – derived from "scriptura" (Latin) – meant "writings [manuscripts] in general" prior to the medieval era, then became "reserved to denote the texts of the Old and New Testaments of the Bible". Beyond Christianity, according to the Oxford World Encyclopedia, the term "scripture" has referred to a text accepted to contain the "sacred writings of a religion", while The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions states it refers to a text "having [religious] authority and often collected into an accepted canon". In modern times, this equation of the written word with religious texts is particular to the English language, and is not retained in most other languages, which usually add an adjective like "sacred" to denote religious texts.
Some religious texts are categorized as canonical, some non-canonical, and others extracanonical, semi-canonical, deutero-canonical, pre-canonical or post-canonical. The term "canon" is derived from the Greek word "κανών", "a cane used as a measuring instrument". It connotes the sense of "measure, standard, norm, rule". In the modern usage, a religious canon refers to a "catalogue of sacred scriptures" that is broadly accepted to "contain and agree with the rule or canon of a particular faith", states Juan Widow. The related terms such as "non-canonical", "extracanonical", "deuterocanonical" and others presume and are derived from "canon". These derived terms differentiate a corpus of religious texts from the "canonical" literature. At its root, this differentiation reflects the sects and conflicts that developed and branched off over time, the competitive "acceptance" of a common minimum over time and the "rejection" of interpretations, beliefs, rules or practices by one group of another related socio-religious group. The earliest reference to the term "canon" in the context of "a collection of sacred Scripture" is traceable to the 4th-century CE. The early references, such as the Synod of Laodicea, mention both the terms "canonical" and "non-canonical" in the context of religious texts.
History of religious texts
One of the oldest known religious texts is the Kesh Temple Hymn of ancient Sumer, a set of inscribed clay tablets which scholars typically date around 2600 BCE. The Epic of Gilgamesh from Sumer, although only considered by some scholars as a religious text, has origins as early as 2150 BCE, and stands as one of the earliest literary works that includes various mythological figures and themes of interaction with the divine. The Rigveda, a scripture of Hinduism, is dated 1500 BCE. It is one of the oldest known complete religious texts that has survived into the modern age.
There are many possible dates given to the first writings which can be connected to Talmudic and Biblical traditions, the earliest of which is found in scribal documentation of the 8th century BCE, followed by administrative documentation from temples of the 5th and 6th centuries BCE, with another common date being the 2nd century BCE. Although a significant text in the history of religious text because of its widespread use among religious denominations and its continued use throughout history, the texts of the Abrahamic traditions are a good example of the lack of certainty surrounding dates and definitions of religious texts.
High rates of mass production and distribution of religious texts did not begin until the invention of the printing press in 1440, before which all religious texts were hand written copies, of which there were relatively limited quantities in circulation.
See also
List of religious texts
References
Further reading
The British Library: Discovering Sacred Texts
External links
Text | wiki |
The Hart Tree is a Giant sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum) tree within the Redwood Mountain Grove, in the Sierra Nevada and Fresno County, California. The Redwood Mountain Grove is protected within Kings Canyon National Park and the Giant Sequoia National Monument. It is the 25th largest giant sequoia in the world, and could be considered the 24th largest depending on how badly Ishi Giant atrophied during the Rough Fire in 2015.
Description
It was once claimed to be the fourth largest Giant sequoia in the world, but is now considered the 24th largest. It has a volume of around . Hart is located 37 m (121 ft) north of Roosevelt, a slightly larger giant sequoia with a volume of .
The tree was named for Michael Hart, who discovered it sometime around 1880.
Redwood Mountain Grove is the largest grove of Giant sequoias in the world, and is the location of the tallest one of the species on earth at (unnamed).
Dimensions
See also
List of largest giant sequoias
List of individual trees
References
Individual giant sequoia trees
Giant Sequoia National Monument
Kings Canyon National Park
Natural history of Fresno County, California | wiki |
2005 World Junior Championships may refer to:
Figure skating: 2005 World Junior Figure Skating Championships
Ice hockey: 2005 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships
Motorcycle speedway:
2005 Individual Speedway Junior World Championship
2005 Team Speedway Junior World Championship
See also
2005 World Cup (disambiguation)
2005 Continental Championships (disambiguation)
2005 World Championships (disambiguation) | wiki |
Minsky – programma di simulazione econometrica
Hyman Minsky – economista statunitense
Marvin Minsky – informatico e scienziato statunitense
Terri Minsky – produttrice televisiva statunitense | wiki |
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